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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


VOL.  XIV. 
PRIOR-SHOE, 


685 


THE 


AMEKICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


OP 


GENERAL   KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


SECOND    EDITION,    REVISED, 


VOLUME  XIV. 
PRIOR-SHOE. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549  AND  651   BROADWAY. 

LONDON:  16  LITTLE  BKITAIK 

1879. 


ENTXRKD,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1862,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


t-5- 

UTf 

V.K 


Among  the  Contributors  to  the  Fourteenth  Volume  of  the  Revised  Edition  are 

the  following  : 


Prof.  CLEVELAND  ABBE,  Washington,  D.  0. 
RAIN. 
KAIN  GAUGE. 

HENEY  CAEEY  BAIED,  Philadelphia. 
SAVINGS  BANK. 

Hon.  GEOEGE  BANCROFT,  Washington,  D.  0. 

SANDYS,  Sir  EDWIN. 
SANDYS,  GEORGE. 

WILLAED  BAETLETT. 

PUNJAUB. 

SAHARA. 
SARAWAK. 

A.  M.  BELL,  M.  D.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

PUSTULE,  MALIGNANT. 
JULIUS  BING. 

RABELAIS, 

ROUSSEAU,  JEAN  JACQUES, 

SAINT  PETERSBURG, 

SCIIILLEB,  JOHANN  ClIRISTOPH  FR1EDRICH  VON, 

SERVIA, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

WILLIAM  BLAIKIE. 
ROWING. 

FRANCIS  0.  BOWMAN. 
RUBINSTEIN,  ANTON. 
SCHUBERT,  FRANZ. 
SCHUMANN,  ROBERT. 

EDWAED  L.  BUBLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

PRUSSIA  (in  part). 
PUMPELLY,  RAPHAEL. 
PYGMY. 

ROBEET  OAETEE. 

PSALMANAZAR,  GEORGE. 

PTOLEMY  I.,  II.,  III. 
RALEIGH,  Sir  WALTER. 
SEWARD,  WILLIAM  HENRY. 

JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN,  Jr. 

QUEENSLAND, 
RED  SEA, 

ElNG, 

SAMOAN  ISLANDS, 
SANTO  DOMINGO, 
SCOTLAND  (in  part\ 

and  other  articles  in  geography  and  history. 

Prof.  E.  H.  CLAEKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. 

SARSAPARILLA  (medical  part), 
SASSAFRAS  (medical  part), 
SENNA  (medical  part), 

and  other  articles  in  materia  medico. 

THEODORE  P.  COOK,  Utica,  N.  Y. 
SEYMOUR,  HORATIO. 

Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Michigan  Univer- 
sity, Ann  Arbor. 
PRIZE  (in  part), 
PRIZE  MONEY, 
RECORD  (in  part), 

and  other  legal  articles. 

JOSEPH  CROWDY,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland. 

SAINT  JOHN'S. 
Prof.  J.  C.  DALTON,  M.  D. 

PULSE, 

QUINSY, 

RESPIRATION, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

Rev.  DAVID  D.  DEMAREST,  D.  D.,  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J. 

REFORMED  (DUTCH)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 

Prof.  T.  S.  DOOLITTLE,  Rutgers  College,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J. 
RUTGERS  COLLEGE. 


M.  J.  DBENNAN. 

RENE  I. 

SCHLESWIG  and  SCULESWIG-HOLSTEIN  (history). 

SlIAMYL. 

EATON  S.  DEONE. 

PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE, 
REFORMATORIES, 

and  articles  in  American  geography. 

ROBERT  T.  EDES,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medica. 

Elder  F.  W.  EVANS,  Community  of  Shakers, 
New  Lebanon,  N.  Y. 
SHAKERS. 

W.  M.  FEEEISS. 

PROCTOR,  RICHARD  ANTHONY. 
ROIILFS,  GERHARD. 
SEASONS. 

AUSTIN  FLINT,  Jr.,  M.  D. 

PUGILISM. 

Gen.  W.  B.  FRANKLIN,  Superintendent  Colt's 
Firearms  Manufactory,  Hartford,  Conn. 

RIFLE. 

Lieutenant  Commander  HENRY  H.  GORRINGE, 
U.  S.  N.,  Washington,  D.  0. 

Rio  DE  JANEIRO. 

Rio  GRANDE  DO  NORTE. 

ROSARIO. 

Prof.  W.  E.  GRIFFIS,  late  of  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege, Tokio,  Japan. 
SAGA. 
SAGHALIEN. 

ALFRED  H.  GTTEENSEY. 

RED  RIVER  (campaign). 
RICHMOND,  Va.  (military  events). 
SHERIDAN,  PHILIP  HENRY. 
SHERMAN,  WILLIAM  TECUMSEH. 

Dr.  ERNST  HEINBICH  HAECKEL,  Professor  of 
the  University  of  Jena,  Germany. 
PROTOPLASM. 

J.  W.  HA  WES. 

PROVIDENCE,  R.  I.,  , 

QuEiiEC  (province), 
RHODE  ISLAND, 
SAINT  Louis,  Mo., 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Prof.  F.  V.  HAYDEN,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 

ANGELO  HEILPRIN. 

SEDGWICK,  ADAM. 

Louis  HEILPRIN. 

PYRENEES. 

SEVEN  YEARS'  WAB. 

M.  HEILPRIN. 

ROUMELIA. 

SAMNIUM. 

SELEUCIA. 

CHARLES  ISIDOEE  HEMANS. 

ROME  (in  part). 

JOHN  S.  HITTELL,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

SACRAMENTO  RIVER. 
SAN  FRANCISCO. 

CHAELES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

PUERPERAL  CONVULSIONS. 
PUF.RPERAL  FEVER. 
PUERPERAL  MANIA. 
SALTS. 
SAPPHIRE. 

Rev.  J.  H.  HOPKINS,  D.  D.,  Pittsburgh,  N.  Y. 

RITUALISM. 


Prof.  T.  STEREY  HUNT,  LL.  D.,  Mass.  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Boston. 

BOCKS. 
EOSSITEB  JOHNSON. 

KnBlNSON,  E/.EKIEL  GlLMAN, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y., 
HOBBLING.  JOHN  AUGUSTUS, 

and  other  articles  ID  biography  and  geography. 

Prof.  C.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 
RUBIDIUM, 
RUTHENIUM, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

Most  Rev.  FRANCIS  PATRICK  KENRIOK,  D.  D., 
late  Archbishop  of  Baltimore. 

hi >MAN  CATHOLIC  CHCBCH. 

Prof.    S.   KNEELAND,   M.   D.,   Mass.   Inst.   of 
Technology,  Boston. 

KADI  AT  A, 

REPTILES, 

SALMON, 

SEAL, 

SHARK, 

SllKKP, 

and  other  articles  In  zoology. 
CHARLES  LINDSEY,  Toronto,  Canada. 

>  UM  LAWRENCE  RIVER. 
SASKATCHEWAN. 

T.  J.  LOWRY,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

PROTRACTOR. 
SKXTANT. 

Capt.  S.  B.  LUCE,  U.  S.  N.,  U.  8.  Navy  Yard, 
Boston. 

ROPE  (In  part). 
SHIP  (In  part). 

Prof.  BENJAMIN  W.  MCCREADY,  M.  D.,  Belle- 
vue  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York. 

RHEUMATISM. 
SCROFULA. 

Prof.  ALFRED  M.  MAYER,  Stevens  Inst.  of  Tech- 
nology, Hoboken,  N.  J. 

PYROMETER. 

DAVID  J.  MILLER,  Santa  F6,  New  Mexico. 

SANTA  Ffi. 

Rev.  FRANKLIN  NOBLE. 

ROOERR,  JOHN  (sculptor), 

SCIIOOLTRAIT,  HENRY  ROWR, 

BIIEDD,  WILLIAM  GRKENOUGH  THATER, 

and  other  articles  in  blofrraphy  and  geography. 

Rev.  BERNARD  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 
QUEBEC  (dtv),  • 

RELIGIOUS  oiniKK*.  Roman  Catholic, 
SCHOOL  BROTHERS  AND  SCHOOL  SISTERS, 
and  other  articles  In  ecclesiastical  history. 

Prof.  S.  F.  PECKHAM,  University  of  Minnesota. 

RED  RIVER  or  THE  NORTH. 

RESINS. 

SALT. 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  A.M.,  London. 

SATURN, 

and  other  astronomical  articles. 

PENNOCK  PPSEY,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

SAINT  PAUL. 

A.  A.  PUTNAM,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY. 

Prof.  C.  V.  RILKY,   State  Entomologist,  Si 
Louis,  Mo. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCTTBT. 

R.  V.  ROGERS,  St.  Augustine,  Fla. 
SAINT  AUGUSTINE. 

I.  C.  ROSSE,  M.  D.,  Washington,  D.  0. 

QUARANTINE. 


Prof.  PHILIP  SCHAFF,  D.  D.,  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York. 

REFORMATION. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  (in  part). 

Prof,  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

PRUSSIA  (in  part), 

REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

RELIGIOUS  ORDERS,  Protestant, 

SECOND  ADVENTISTS, 

and  various  articles  in  geography  and  history. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 
PUEBLO  INDIANS, 
SEMINOLES, 
SEN  EC  AS, 
BHAWNEES, 

and  other  articles  on  American  Indians. 

Prof.  HENRY  B.  SMITH,  D.  D.,  Union  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  New  York. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  (in  part). 

SCHILLING,  FRIEDRICII  WILUELM  JOSEPH  VON. 

Prof.   J.   A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

RAWLINSON,  GEORGE. 
ROSE,  HUGH  JAMES. 
ROSE,  HENRY  JOHN. 
SEABURY,  SAMUEL  (two). 

W.  L.  STONE,  Editor  of  "  New  York  School 
Journal." 
1:  1  1.  JACKET. 

RIEDESEL,  Kitir.mtici!  APOLPH  VON,  Baron. 
RIEDESEL,  FRIEUEKIKK  CHARLOTTE. 
SARATOGA. 

FRANCIS  A.  TEALL. 

ROLAND  DK  LA  PI.ATIKUE.  JEAN  MARIE  and  MARIE, 

RUTLEDGE,  JOHN  and  EDWARD, 

BouraoBM, 

SEVERUS,  Lucius  SEPTIMIUS, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

N.  L.  THIEBLIN. 

RUSSIA  (in  part). 

Prof.  GEORGE  TIIURBEB. 
QUINCE, 
RHODODENDRON, 


SEQUOIA, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

Prof.  ROBERT  II.  THURSTON,  Stevens  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
ROOF. 

JOHN  F.  UIILHORN,  Sacramento,  Cal. 

SACRAMENTO. 

W.  A.  VAN  BENTHUYSEN,  Editor  of  the  "Shoe 
and  Leather  Chronicle,"  New  York. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RIIYN,  Ph.  D. 

PROVENCAL  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE, 
PYRAMID, 

Bmnfc 

SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES, 

and  other  archa-ologicaL,  oriental,  and  philological 

articles. 

J.  M.  VARNUM,  Secretary  Board  of  Trade,  St. 
Joseph,  Mo. 
SAINT  JOSEPH. 

Major  W.  T.  WALTHALL,  Mobile,  Ala. 

SELMA. 
C.  S.  WEYMAN. 

RAPHAEL. 
SCOTT,  fir  WALTER. 
SCULPTURE. 

RICHARD  GRANT  WHITE. 
SHAKESPEARE. 

Prof.  W.  D.  WHITNEY,  LL.  D.,  Yale  College, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

SANSKRIT. 
Gen.  JAMES  HARRISON  WILSON. 

RAILROAD. 
ROCKET. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA. 


PEIOK 

PRIOR,  Matthew,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Wimborne-Minster,  Dorsetshire,  July  21, 
1664,  died  at  Wimpole,  Cambridgeshire,  a  seat 
of  Lord  Oxford,  Sept.  18,  1721.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1686.  Here  he  formed  an  in- 
timacy with  Charles  Montague,  afterward  earl 
of  Halifax,  with  whom  he  wrote  "The  City 
Mouse  and  Country  Mouse  "  (1687),  in  ridicule 
of  Dryden's  "  Hind  and  Panther."  He  was 
appointed  in  1690  secretary  of  the  embassy  at 
the  Hague,  and  became  one  of  the -gentlemen 
of  the  bedchamber  to  William  III.  In  1695 
he  wrote  an  ode  on  the  death  of  Queen  Mary. 
In  1697  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  com- 
missioners who  concluded  the  treaty  of  Kys- 
wick,  and  in  1698  secretary  of  the  embassy  at 
the  court  of  France.  In  1699  he  was  made 
under  secretary  of  state,  but  losing  his  place 
shortly  after,  received  in  1700  the  appoint- 
ment of  commissioner  of  trade.  The  same 
year  he  published  his  Carmen  Seculare,  a  pan- 
egyric on  King  William.  In  1701  he  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  parliament  from  East  Grin- 
stead,  and  soon  after  he  changed  his  politics, 
becoming  a  violent  tory.  In  1711  he  was  sent 
on  a  private  mission  to  Paris  with  proposals  of 
peace.  Bolingbroke  went  to  Paris  as  ambassa- 
dor to  hasten  the  negotiations;  and  Prior,  who 
was  in  company  with  him,  after  Bolingbroke's 
return  became  the  ambassador.  When,  in 
August,  1714,  the  whigs  had  regained  office, 
Prior  was  recalled,  and  was  at  once  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  treason.  While  a  prisoner  in 
his  own  house  for  two  years  he  wrote  "  Alma, 
or  the  Progress  of  the  Mind."  After  his  re- 
lease he  published  his  poems  by  subscription, 
through  which  he  realized  4,000  guineas.  Lord 
Harley,  son  of  the  earl  of  Oxford,  added  an 
equal  sum  for  the  purchase  of  Down  hall  in 
Essex,  which  was  settled  upon  Prior  for  his 
life.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey, 
and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory, 


PRISCILLIAN 

for  which  he  left  £500  in  his  will.  The  best 
of  the  old  editions  of  his  poems  is  that  of  1791 
(2  vols.  8vo).  An  edition  with  a  life  by  Mit- 
ford  (2  vols.  12mo)  was  published  in  1835. 

I'KISCIAMS,  a  Eoman  grammarian,  who  lived 
about  A.  D.  500,  and  is  supposed  from  his  sur- 
name Caesariensis  to  have  been  born  or  edu- 
cated at  Ceesarea.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Theoc- 
tistus,  and  taught  grammar  at  Constantinople, 
was  in  receipt  of  a  salary  from  the  govern- 
ment, and  was  probably  a  Christian.  His  Com- 
mentariorum  Grammaticorum  Libri  XVIII 
contains  a  large  number  of  quotations  from 
Greek  and  Latin  writers  not  otherwise  known, 
and  a  parallel  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Grammatical 
Catechism  on  twelve  Lines  of  the  ^Eneid,"  a 
"Treatise  on  Accents,"  one  on  "The  Metres 
of  Terence,"  some  short  poems,  and  several 
translations  from  the  Greek ;  and  the  acrostics 
prefixed  to  the  plays  of  Plautus  are  ascribed 
to  him.  His  name  is  familiar  in  the  phrase 
diminuere  Prisciani  caput  (to  break  Priscian's 
head),  commonly  applied  to  those  who  use 
false  Latin. 

PRISCILLIAN,  the  founder  of  a  religious  sect 
in  Spain  and  Gaul,  born  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Cordova,  died  in  Treves  in  385.  He  was 
of  high  birth,  and  possessed  wide  learning  and 
great  rhetorical  talents.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
instructed  by  a  certain  Egyptian  called  Mark, 
and  by  Elpidius  and  Agape.  He  appeared  as 
a  religious  reformer  with  the  pretension  of 
having  been  called  to  preach  the  true  doctrine 
and  a  spiritual  asceticism,  and  to  found  within 
tjie  Catholic  church  a  special  secret  society  of 
initiated  and  saints.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  a  synod  held  at  Saragossa  about  380,  but  to 
no  effect,  as  he  was  soon  after  ordained  bishop 
of  Avila.  The  emperor  Gratian  was  thereupon 
persuaded  to  publish  an  edict  exiling  Priscillian 
and  his  friends,  but  a  revocation  of  the  edict 


c 


PRISM 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


was  obtained  by  bribing  some  of  the  court 
officials.  Another  synod,  held  at  the  instance 
of  Bishop  Ithacius  at  Bordeaux  in  384,  when 
Maximus  had  usurped  the  throne,  again  gave 
an  adverse  decision.  Priscillian  appealed  be- 
fore the  emperor,  who  sentenced  him  to  death 
and  decreed  the  confiscation  of  his  proper- 
ty. Priscillian's  execution  is  the  first  instance 
of  a  Christian  condemned  to  death  for  heresy. 
The  doctrines  held  by  the  Priscillianists  were 
a  mixture  of  Manichseism  and  Gnosticism. 

PRISM,  in  geometry,  a  solid  bounded  by  plane 
faces,  of  which  two  that  are  opposite  are  equal, 
similar,  and  parallel,  and  are  called  the  bases 
of  the  prism ;  the  other  surfaces  are  parallel- 
ograms. The  axis  is  the  line  connecting  the 
centres  of  the  bases.  The  prism  is  triangular, 
square,  pentagonal,  and  so  on,  according  as  the 
figure  of  the  bases  is  triangular,  square,  pen- 
tagonal, &c.  It  is  right  or  oblique  according 
as  the  sides  are  perpendicular  or  oblique  to  the 
bases.  A  right  prism  is  regular  when  its  bases 
have  the  figure  of  a  regular  polygon.  The 
prism  corresponds  among  bodies  with  plane 
surfaces  to  the  cylinder  among  bodies  with 
curve  surfaces. — In  optics,  a  prism  is  a  portion 
of  a  refracting  medium  bounded  by  two  plane 
surfaces  inclined  to  one  another.  The  line  in 
which  these  two  surfaces  meet,  or  would  meet 
if  produced,  is  the  edge  of  the  prism;  their 
inclination  is  called  its  refracting  angle.  The 
form  commonly  used  is  a  triangular  prism  of 
glass.  A  good  contrivance  for  delicate  experi- 
ments may  be  made  with  two  rectangular  pieces 
of  plate  glass  firmly  set  to  form  two  sides  of  a 
triangnlar  box  which  is  to  be  filled  with  water 
or  spirits  of  turpentine.  The  prism  is  essen- 
tial in  apparatus  for  decomposing  light. 

PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE.  Peniten- 
tiary science,  or  the  system  of  detaining,  pun- 
ishing, and  reforming  criminals,  is  of  modern 
origin.  The  Scriptures  contain  references  to 
prison  houses  and  to  the  punishment  of  offend- 
ers. In  Greece  and  Rome  punishments  were 
inflicted  by  loss  of  caste,  of  citizenship,  and 
of  liberty,  banishment,  and  penal  labor,  which 
was  sometimes  performed  on  public  works, 
in  quarries,  mines,  &c.  In  the  Roman  em- 
pire there  were  houses,  called  ergastula,  used 
chiefly  for  the  punishment  of  criminal  and  re- 
fractory slaves.  In  Rome  there  still  remains 
a  prison,  known  as  the  Mamertino  caves,  con- 
sisting of  several  vaults  or  apartments.  (See 
ROME,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  411.)  The  feudal  barons 
had  towers  in  their  castles  called  donjons, 
whence  is  derived  dungeon,  for  the  confine- 
ment of  their  captive  foes  or  refractory  re- 
tainers. Sometimes  the  prison  vaults  were 
out  in  the  solid  rock  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth. — A  movement  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  wretched  condition  of  English  prisons  and 
prisoners  was  begun  by  John  Howard,  whose 
investigations  led  to  the  enactment  of  two 
laws  by  parliament  in  1774,  one  abolishing 
prison  fees  (which  up  to  that  time  had  been 
exacted  from  all  prisoners)  and  the  protracted 


confinement  of  the  prisoner  until  these  were 
paid,  the  other  providing  for  an  improvement 
of  the  sanitary  condition  of  jails.  In  1777 
appeared  the  first  work  of  Howard  on  pris- 
ons, "The  State  of  the  Prisons  in  England 
and  Wales."  The  works  of  Beccaria  on  crime 
and  punishment  appeared  about  the  same  time 
on  the  continent ;  and  in  England  Sir  William 
Blackstone,  Mr.  Bentham,  and  Mr.  Eden  en- 
tered upon  the  work  of  prison  reform  in  ear- 
nest. The  prisons  were  found  to  be  in  the 
most  wretched  condition,  while  the  treatment 
to  which  the  prisoners  were  subjected  was  de- 
moralizing in  the  highest  degree.  In  1776  a 
prison  was  built  at  Horsham  by  the  duke  of 
Richmond  under  Howard's  advice  and  coupe-r- 
ation, and  was  a  marked  improvement  upon 
any  prison  then  existing.  In  1778  an  act  for 
the  establishment  of  penitentiary  houses  was 
passed  through  the  efforts  of  Howard,  Eden, 
and  Blackstone.  The  leading  principles  of  the 
new  system  were  that  "  if  any  offenders  con- 
victed of  crimes  for  which  transportation  has 
been  usually  inflicted  were  ordered  to  solitary 
imprisonment,  accompanied  by  well  regulated 
labor  and  religious  instruction,  it  might  be  the 
means  under  Providence,  not  only  of  deter- 
ring others,  but  also  of  reforming  the  individu- 
als and  turning  them  to  habits  of  industry." 
There  was  much  delay  in  carrying  out  the  pro- 
posed reforms.  In  1791  Jeremy  Bentham 
published  his  "Panopticon,  or  the  Inspection 
House,"  containing  a  plan  for  a  model  prison; 
but  it  was  not  till  1821  that  the  great  peniten- 
tiary at  Millbank  on  his  model  was  completed, 
though  it  had  been  opened  in  1817.  It  com- 
prised six  pentagonal  structures  radiating  like 
the  spokes  of  a  wheel  from  a  central  hexagon, 
from  which  all  the  cells  were  visible.  This 
prison  was  torn  down  in  1875.  In  1842  was 
opened  the  cellular  prison  at  Penton  ville.  Gov- 
ernment convict  prisons  have  also  been  estab- 
lished at  Brixton,  Portland,  Chatham,  Ports- 
mouth, Parkhurst,  Dartmoor,  and  Woking.  The 
convict  prison  at  Fulham  is  exclusively  for  fe- 
males, who  are  also  sent  to  Woking.  Early  in 
the  present  century  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Fry  com- 
menced her  mission  to  the  female  prisoners  in 
Newgate ;  and  in  1818  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  T. 
F.)  Buxton  published  an  "  Inquiry  whether 
Crime  and  Misery  are  produced  or  prevented 
by  the  present  System  of  Discipline."  From 
this  work  it  appears  that,  notwithstanding 
Howard's  exposures,  Mrs.  Fry's  revelations, 
and  the  developments  made  by  the  committee 
of  aldermen  of  London  in  1815,  the  abuses  of 
Howard's  time  still  continued,  and  had  in  many 
particulars  increased,  and  that  a  radical  and 
thorough  change  was  needed.  The  hulks  of 
men-of-war  were  for  a  time  used  as  prisons, 
but  have  been  abandoned.  In  the  United 
States,  the  work  of  reform  was  begun  in 
Philadelphia  in  1776,  and  has  been  steadily 
carried  on  by  a  large  number  of  philanthro- 
pists and  publicists.  Chief  among  these  have 
been  Louis  D wight,  Roberts  Vaux,  one  of  'he 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


founders  of  the  cellular  system,  Edward  Liv- 
ingston, Francis  Lieber,  Elam  Lynde,  the 
founder  of  the  Auburn  system,  Amos  Pilsbu- 
ry,  for  40  years  the  head  of  the  Connecticut 
state  prison  and  the  Albany  penitentiary,  and 
John  W.  Edmonds,  the  founder  of  the  New 
York  prison  association.  These  are  no  longer 
living;  but  the  work  is  still  carried  on  by  Dr. 
E.  C.  Wines,  whose  extended  labors  in  behalf 
of  prison  reform  are  well  known  throughout 
the  civilized  world,  by  Sanborn,  Brockway, 
Richard  Vaux,  and  many  qthers.  In  Europe 
.  the  subject  of  penitentiary  reform  has  been 
earnestly  discussed  in  recent  years,  and  re- 
forms have  been  urged  in  all  countries.  Prom- 
inent among  the  leaders  have  been  Sir  Walter 
Crofton  in  Ireland  ;  Mr.  Crawford,  Alexander 
Maconochie,  Gen.  Jebb,  Matthew  Davenport 
Hill,  and  Miss  Mary  Carpenter  in  England; 
Stevens  in  Belgium ;  Pols  in  Holland ;  De  Metz, 
Berenger  (de  la  Drome),  Bonneville  de  Mar- 
sangy,  and  Loyson  in  France;  Obermaier, 
Varrentrapp,  and  Holtzendorff  in  Germany; 
Guillaume  in  Switzerland ;  Count  Sollohub  in 
Russia;  and  Beltrani  Scalia  in  Italy.  Various 
prison  congresses  have  been  held  in  Europe 
since  1845,  when  the  first,  proposed  by  Ducpe- 
tiaux,  then  inspector  general  of  prisons  in  Bel- 
gium, was  convened  at  Frankfort.  The  most 
important  of  these  was  the  international  con- 
gress proposed  by  Dr.  Wines  and  held  in  Lon- 
don in  1872.  A  second  international  congress 
is  to  be  held  in  Europe  in  1877.  A  permanent 
commission  for  the  study  of  penitentiary  re- 
form, organized  by  the  congress  of  London, 
held  sessions  in  Brussels  in  1874  and  in  Bruch- 
sal  in  1875.  Commissions  for  the  revision  of 
the  penal  code  and  prison  reform  have  been  at 
work  recently  in  France,  Italy,  and  Russia. 
In  the  United  States  national  prison  congresses 
were  held  in  Cincinnati  in  1870,  Baltimore  in 
1872,  and  St.  Louis  in  1874.  The  leading  prin- 
ciples which  it  is  sought  to  introduce  into  pris- 
on management  in  all  countries  are  thus  epi- 
tomized by  Dr.  Wines :  "  Reformation  of  pris- 
oners as  a  chief  end  to  be  kept  in  view  ;  hope 
as  the  great  regenerative  force  in  prisons; 
work,  education,  and  religion  as  other  vital 
forces  to  the  same  end ;  abbreviation  of  sen- 
tence and  participation  in  earnings  as  incen- 
tives to  diligence,  good  conduct,  and  self-im- 
provement ;  the  enlisting  of  the  will  of  the 
prisoner  in  the  work  of  his  own  moral  regen- 
eration ;  the  introduction  of  variety  of  trades 
into  prisons,  and  the  mastery  by  every  convict 
of  some  handicraft  as  a  means  of  support  after 
discharge;  the  use- of  the  law  of  love  as  an 
agent  in  prison  discipline,  to  the  exclusion,  as 
far  as  may  be,  of  the  grosser  forms  of  force ; 
the  utter  worthlessness  of  short  imprison- 
ments, and  the  necessity  of  longer  terms  even 
for  minor  offences,  when  repeated ;  and  the 
intellectual,  moral,  and  industrial  education 
of  neglected,  vagrant,  and  vicious  children, 
this  last  being,  in  aim  and  essential  features, 
an  anticipation  of  the  industrial  school  and 


juvenile  reformatory  of  our  day."  The  refor- 
mation of  the  prisoner  is  sought  primarily  for 
the  protection  of  society.  A  marked  tendency 
of  advanced  American  opinion  on  the  subject 
of  penal  treatment  is  the  centralization  and 
unification  of  control  of  all  the  prisons  of  a 
state,  and  their  correlation  for  preventive  and 
reformatory  ends.  Under  the  law  of  1873,  all 
prisoners  in  Maine,  except  the  boys  in  the 
state  reformatory,  are  practically  under  one 
board  of  control.  There  is  also  a  growing  ten- 
dency toward  the  recognition  of  prenatal  in- 
fluences producing  the  criminal  impulse  and 
transmitting  it  from  one  generation  to  another, 
and  of  the  existence  of  physical  causes  of  dis- 
ease and  degeneracy.  The  prevalence  of  these 
views  frequently  induces  great  caution  in  in- 
flicting retributive  punishment.  Indeed,  in 
some  states  the  abolition  of  definite  term  sen- 
tences is  urged,  as  being  necessarily  vindictive 
in  some  degree,  and  the  substitution  of  indefi- 
nite committal  to  custody  until  such  observa- 
ble modifications  of  character  are  wrought  as 
give  good  hope  of  the  criminal's  reform. — The 
association  of  convicts  day  and  night  was  for- 
merly much  practised,  and  still  prevails  to  a 
limited  extent  in  some  prisons  of  Europe;  but 
this  plan  is  now  generally  condemned.  Three 
systems  are  in  use :  1,  the  separate  or  cellular, 
known  also  as  the  Pennsylvania  or  "  individ- 
ual treatment;"  2,  the  associate  or  congregate, 
also  called  the  Auburn;  3,  the  Irish  convict, 
or  Crofton.  Transportation  was  practised  in 
Great  Britain  as  early  as  1619,  when  100  con- 
victs were  sent  to  Virginia,  and  afterward 
small  numbers  were  occasionally  sent  out  and 
sold  to  the  planters  for  7  to  14  years,  a  prac- 
tice often  alluded  to  by  Defoe  and  other  wri- 
ters; but  the  business  was  not-conducted  sys- 
tematically till  after  1718,  when  for  a  number 
of  years  as  many  as  2,000  convicts  were  annu- 
ally transported.  In  1786  it  was  determined  to 
establish  a  penal  colony  in  Australia,  and  the 
first  cargo,  of  850  convicts,  was  sent  out  in  1787, 
to  Port  Jackson,  near  Sydney.  The  convicts 
died  by  hundreds  of  fever  on  the  passage  out ; 
or  if  they  arrived  they  were  unable  to  earn  a 
subsistence,  and  perished  of  famine,  or,  to  pre- 
serve life,  adopted  the  savage  habits  of  the 
native  bush  rangers.  At  length  the  influx  of 
free  settlers,  the  extensive  sheep  culture,  and 
the  building  up  of  large  towns,  made  their 
condition  tolerable ;  while  the  grants  of  lands 
to  the  emancipists,  as  those  who  had  served 
their  time  were  called,  and  the  plan  of  allow- 
ing tickets  of  leave,  which  in  some  cases  short- 
ened their  term  of  punishment  almost  one 
half,  soon  gave  to  the  convict  settlers  a  pre- 
dominating influence  in  the  colony.  This  led 
to  the  organization  among  the  free  settlers  of 
a  party  opposed  to  the  system,  and  in  1840 
transportation  to  South  Australia  ceased.  It 
was  maintained  in  Tasmania  till  1853.  In 
1857  an  act  was  passed  abolishing  transpor- 
tation entirely  as  a  means  of  punishment ;  but 
convicts  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  might 


8 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


still  be  sent  beyond  seas  by  order  of  the  sec- 
retary of  state.  In  1807  transportation  was 
altogether  discontinued.  Transportation  to  pe- 
nal colonies  in  Guiana  and  New  Caledonia  is 
now  a  part  of  the  penal  code  of  France,  which 
has  also  agricultural  penitentiaries  in  the  island 
of  Corsica.  Under  the  penal  laws  of  Spain  the 
punishment  of  fetters  for  life  is  undergone 
with  labor  in  designated  places  in  Africa,  in 
the  Canary  islands,  or  beyond  the  seas.  Trans- 
portation into  penal  colonies  in  Africa  was 
adopted  by  Portugal  in  1852,  and  is  still  prac- 
tised. Italy  has  agricultural  penal  colonies 
in  the  islands  of  Gorgona,  Capraiu,  and  Piano- 
sa,  in  the  Tuscan  archipelago,  and  also  in  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  The  penal  code  of  Russia 
prescribes  transportation  with  hard  labor  for 
life,  or  from  4  to  20  years,  to  Siberia,  and  be- 
yond the  Caucasus. — The  foundation  of  the 
separate  system,  as  it  is  now  practised  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe,  was  laid  in  Philadel- 
phia in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 
The  abuses  attending  the  treatment  of  prison- 
ers had  been  strongly  condemned  by  a  num- 
ber of  philanthropists  in  that  city.  Prison- 
ers were  associated  together  day  and  night, 
and  made  to  work  in  the  public  streets.  In 
1790  a  law  was  passed  by  the  legislature  to 
try  the  system  of  "solitary  confinement  to 
hard  labor,"  which  was  soon  after  adopted  in 
the  Walnut  street  jail.  In  1821  the  legisla- 
ture authorized  the  construction  of  the  east- 
ern penitentiary  there,  which  was  opened  in 
1829.  The  western  penitentiary  had  been 
opened  in  Pittsburgh  in  1827,  and  in  both  the 
separate  system  was  adopted.  It  has  been 
discontinued  in  the  western,  but  in  the  eastern 
it  is  still  maintained.  This  prison  was  visited 
by  De  Tocqueville,  Beaumont,  Demetz,  Blou- 
et,  Mr.  Crawford,  inspector  general  of  the 
prisons  of  England,  and  other  foreign  publi- 
cists, and  was  taken  as  the  model  of  the  great 
English  prison  of  Pentonville,  and  of  other 
prisons  in  Paris,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  distinguishing  features  of  the  sep- 
arate or  cellular  system  are  individual  separa- 
tion of  the  prisoners  day  and  night  during 
the  entire  term  of  their  imprisonment,  com- 
munication with  the  officials,  visits  and  cor- 
respondence with  persons  outside  under  pre- 
•cribed  restrictions,  individual  walks  in  the 
open  air,  obligatory  and  remunerated  work  for 
the  prisoners,  and  mental,  moral,  religious, 
and  technical  individual  instruction.  Not 
only  is  the  association  of  convicts  prevented, 
but  even  the  opportunity  of  seeing  one  an- 
other. Each  is  kept  in  a  separate  cell,  where 
he  eats,  sleeps,  works,  and  passes  the  entire 
term  of  his  imprisonment,  except  the  time 
spent  in  exercise  in  the  small  yard  attached 
to  his  cell.  When  he  leaves  his  cell  his  face, 
except  the  eyes,  is  covered  with  a  cap  to  pre- 
vent recognition.  When  religious  services  are 
held,  the  convicts  in  many  prisons  remain  in 
their  cells.  In  the  Belgian  prisons  they  can 


see  the  priest,  but  not  one  another;  in  the 
eastern  penitentiary  they  hear  but  do  not 
see  the  preacher.  In  the  cellular  prison  at 
Bruchsal,  Baden,  they  leave  their  cells  to  at- 
tend religious  services  and  to  receive  secular 
instruction,  but  with  their  faces  covered ; 
visitors  are  seen  in  a  room  assigned  for  that 
purpose.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this 
system  are  that  it  prevents  mutual  corruption 
and  other  evil  influences  of  the  association 
of  convicts,  promotes  the  manhood  and  self- 
respect  of  the  prisoner,  especially  after  libera- 
tion, diminishes  the  chances  of  escape,  admits 
)i  variation  of  discipline  by  affording  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  separate  study  and  treatment  of 
each  prisoner,  and  in  consequence  of  its  re- 
pressive and  reformatory  efficiency  permits  a 
diminution  of  the  period  of  imprisonment. 
Thus  by  the  Belgian  law  of  1870  a  sentence  of 
one  year,  if  to  cellular  imprisonment,  may  be 
reduced  to  9  months,  of  5  years  to  3  years  and 
5  months,  of  10  years  to  6  years  and  3  months, 
of  15  years  to  8  years  and  5  months,  and  of 
20  years  to  9  years  and  8  months.  Those 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life  can  be  com- 
pelled to  pass  only  the  first  10  years  in  separate 
confinement.  In  the  eastern  penitentiary  in 
Philadelphia  the  prisoner  is  able  by  good  con- 
duct to  reduce  his  sentence  one  month  in  each 
of  the  first  two  years,  two  months  in  each  suc- 
ceeding year  to  the  fifth,  three  months  in  each 
following  year  to  the  tenth,  and  four  months 
in  each  remaining  year  of  the  sentence.  Chief 
among  the  objections  urged  against  the  system 
are  that  it  wars  against  the  social  instinct  in 
men,  producing  a  morbid  state  of  mind  and 
increasing  the  percentage  of  insanity,  and  that 
it  is  more  costly  than  the  congregate  system. 
In  reply  it  is  maintained  that  the  first  of  these- 
objections  is  not  supported  by  statistics,  while 
the  increase  in  cost  is  balanced  by  the  decrease 
in  the  duration  of  imprisonment.  In  the  United 
States  the  separate  system  has  met  with  little 
favor  outside  of  Pennsylvania ;  in  every  other 
state  the  congregate  plan  has  been  adopted. 
In  Europe,  however,  the  former  has  many  ad- 
vocates. When  adopted,  it  is  generally  applied 
in  the  case  of  short  sentences  with  provision 
for  abbreviation.  It  has  received  its  best  de- 
velopment in  Belgium,  where  it  prevails  almost 
entirely,  having  been  first  tried  in  the  prison 
of  Ghent  in  1885.  The  penitentiary  of  Lou- 
vain,  which  has  about  600  cells,  is  regarded  as 
the  model  cellular  prison  of  Europe.  The  sys- 
tem prevails  in  a  few  of  the  French,  Prussian, 
Austrian,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Italian 
prisons.  Denmark  has  one  cellular  prison  for 
male  convicts  in  Seeland ;  no  person  can  be 
kept  in  isolation  longer  than  three  years  and  a 
half.  In  Baden  sentences  to  hard  labor  and  to 
imprisonment  are  served  in  cellular  prisons, 
but  such  confinement  cannot  be  extended  be- 
yond three  years  without  the  consent  of  the 
prisoner.  The  convict  prison  of  Bruchsal  is 
strictly  cellular.  Bavaria  has  one  cellular  pris- 
on for  convicts  and  three  for  persons  awaiting 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


trial ;  the  former  is  at  Nuremberg,  and  has  a 
capacity  for  400  men.  In  Holland  the  judge 
may  sentence  to  separate  or  associated  impris- 
onment, but  the  former  must  not  exceed  two 
years.  The  three  great  cellular  prisons  are  in 
Amsterdam,  with  208  cells,  Utrecht,  186,  and 
Rotterdam,  344.  Many  of  the  local  prisons 
are  also  on  the  separate  plan. — The  congregate 
system  was  first  adopted  in  the  United  States 
in  the  state  prison  of  New  York  at  Auburn. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  origin  of  the  sys- 
tem ;  for  it  had  been  practised  as  early  as 
1703  at  the  prison  of  San  Michele  in  Rome, 
.on  the  portals  of  which  was  inscribed:  Pa- 
rum  est  improbos  coercere  posna  nisi  probos  ef- 
ficias  diseiplina  ("It  is  useless  to  punish  the 
bad  without  improving  them  by  discipline"). 
An  excellent  prison  of  this  kind  was  also 
opened  at  Ghent  in  1775.  Industrial  labor, 
religious  and  scholastic  education,  abbreviation 
of  sentence,  participation  in  earnings,  &c., 
were  found  by  Howard  in  this  prison  when  he 
visited  it  in  1775-'6,  and  again  in  1781.  But 
soon  afterward  the  plan  of  conducting  the 
prison  was  changed  by  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.,  and  its  reputation  for  excellence  was  lost. 
The  construction  of  the  Auburn  prison  was 
begun  in  1816.  The  plan  of  idle  seclusion  in 
separate  cells  was  at  first  adopted,  and  it  was 
not  till  1824  that  the  congregate  system  was 
fully  established  by  Capt.  Elam  Lynde.  Under 
this  system  the  prisoners  labor  in  association 
during  the  day,  take  their  meals  either  togeth- 
er or  in  their  cells,  and  attend  religious  exer- 
cises in  a  body.  Strict  silence  is  enjoined  up- 
on the  convicts.  Communication  may  be  held 
with  the  officers  of  the  prison,  and  with  visit- 
ors when  permission  is  granted.  The  night  is 
passed  by  the  prisoners  in  solitary  confinement 
in  a  small  cell.  It  is  asserted  that  this  system 
is  more  economical  than  the  separate,  both  be- 
cause the  original  cost  of  construction  is  much 
less  in  consequence  of  the  cells  being  smaller, 
and  because  associated  labor  is  attended  with 
greater  profit.  It  is  also  said  to  be  better  adapt- 
ed to  the  mental  and  bodily  condition  of  the 
convict.  It  prevails  extensively  in  Europe,  and 
exclusively  in  the  United  States  except  in  Phil- 
adelphia.— The  distinguishing  features  of  the 
separate  and  congregate  systems  are  united  in 
the  Irish  convict  or  Crofton  system,  which  was 
introduced  by  Sir  "Walter  Crofton  into  Ireland 
in  1854,  where  it  has  since  prevailed  with 
the  most  successful  results ;  and  it  has  been 
accepted  by  many,  and  especially  American 
penologists,  as  the  best  penal  system  yet  de- 
vised. Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Alexander 
Maconochie,  who  had  expounded  and  advo- 
cated the  fundamental  principles  of  the  system 
before  putting  them  into  practice  in  1840  at 
the  penal  colony  under  his  charge  on  Norfolk 
island.  Maconochie  was  recalled  in  1844,  and 
the  former  system  of  cruelty  was  reestablished 
there.  M.  Bonneville  de  Marsangy  of  France 
Iso  proposed  and  published  as  early  as  1846  a 
plan  of  penitentiary  treatment  embodying  the 


main  features  of  this  system.  In  perfecting  a 
plan  of  penal  treatment,  Sir  Walter  Crofton 
had  to  deal  with  the  three  principles  of  sec- 
ondary punishment  (i.  e.,  by  terminable  im- 
prisonment) generally  recognized  by  penolo- 
gists: 1,  the  deterrent  principle,  which  by  the 
application  of  pain  is  intended  to  impress  the 
convict,  as  well  as  the  community,  with  the 
belief  that  the  profits  of  crime  are  overbal- 
anced by  its  losses,  thus  subduing  by  fear  the 
desire  of  the  criminal  to  do  wrong;  2,  the 
principle  styled  by  Bentham  that  of  "  inca- 
pacitation,"  which  is  designed  to  render  the 
culprit  incapable  of  committing  crime  by  re- 
moving him  from  society  to  the  prison ;  3, 
the  reformatory  principle,  by  which  the  desire 
of  the  convict  to  do  wrong  is  overcome.  The 
union  of  these  principles  into  one  plan  of 
treatment  in  order  to  attain  the  "twofold  end 
of  punishment,  amendment  and  example,"  is 
the  basis  of  the  Crofton  system.  The  term  of 
imprisonment  is  divided  into  three  stages,  and 
is  passed  in  three  different  prisons:  Mount- 
joy  prison  in  Dublin,  which  has  a  capacity 
for  about  500  convicts ;  Spike  island,  in  the 
harbor  of  Queenstown,  which  will  accommo- 
date 700;  and  Lusk,  about  12  m.  from  Dub- 
lin, with  accommodations  for  100.  The  first 
stage  continues  eight  or  nine  months  in  sepa- 
rate imprisonment  in  a  cellular  prison.  The 
treatment  here  is  made  penal  by  a  very  re- 
duced dietary  during  the  first  four  months, 
meat  being  entirely  withheld,  and  by  the  ab- 
sence of  interesting  employment  during  the 
first  three  months,  the  convicts  being  occupied 
chiefly  in  picking  oakum.  Much  time  is  spent 
in  receiving  religious  and  secular  instruction, 
and  each  convict  is  taught  the  entire  scope 
of  the  system  of  imprisonment  he  is  under- 
going, and  how  much  depends  upon  himself. 
The  controlling  feature  of  the  second  stage  is 
the  system  of  marks,  by  which  the  classifica- 
tion is  governed  and  the  abbreviation  of  the 
sentence  determined.  There  are  four  classes 
in  the  second  stage,  and  the  time  spent  by  a 
convict  in  each  class  is  determined,  within 
certain  limits,  by  the  number  of  marks  gained. 
The  maximum  number  to  be  attained  is  nine  a 
month,  three  each  for  good  conduct,  attention 
to  school  duties,  and  industry  at  work.  Skill 
is  not  rewarded  by  marks.  The  convict  must 
gain  18  marks  in  the  third  class  to  pass  to 
the  second,  54  in  the  second  for  promotion  to 
the  first,  and  108  in  the  first  before  entering 
the  advanced  class.  Thus,  as  he  can  acquire 
only  nine  marks  a  month,  he  must  spend  at 
least  2  months  in  the  first  class,  6  in  the  sec- 
ond, and  12  in  the  first.  The  time  passed  in 
the  advanced  class  depends  upon  the  length  of 
the  sentence.  It  must  be  at  least  13  months 
when  the  sentence  is  five  years,  53  when  it  is 
10,  and  93  when  it  is  15  years.  During  the 
second  stage  the  convicts  are  employed  in  as- 
sociation, chiefly  on  public  works.  They  do 
not  receive  any  portion  of  their  earnings,  but 
are  allowed  certain  gratuities,  which  are  re- 


10 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


ceived  on  release.  The  chief  punishments  are 
loss  of  marks,  forfeiture  of  gratuities,  with- 
drawal of  privileges,  and  remanding  to  a  lower 
class  or  to  the  cellular  prison  at  Mountjoy. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  (Jrofton 
system  is  the  third  or  "  intermediate "  stage, 
passed  at  Lusk.  Here  are  no  walls,  or  burs, 
or  police,  or  armed  watchmen.  There  is  no 
physical  restraint,  no  check  on  conversation, 
no  prison  garb.  The  prisoner  is  here  in  a  con- 
dition of  semi-freedom,  a  state  of  probation 
before  liberation.  The  convicts  are  employed 
in  groups  upon  the  farm  under  the  supervision 
of  a  half  dozen  unarmed  warders,  who  gener- 
ally work  with  them.  There  is  nothing  to 
prevent  escape  by  day  or  night ;  but  the  de- 
sire to  escape  has  been  manifested  very  rare- 
ly. The  mark  system  is  discontinued.  There 
are  no  punishments,  but  the  convict  may  be 
remanded  back  to  separate  and  solitary  con- 
finement at  Mountjoy.  The  convicts  hear  fre- 
quent lectures,  and  attend  the  parish  church  in 
a  body.  The  period  of  detention  here  varies 
with  the  length  of  the  sentence;  it  is  6  months 
on  a  sentence  of  5  years,  1 1  months  on  one  of 

10  years,  and  16  months  on  one  of  15  years. 
The  object  of  the  treatment  is  threefold :  1, 
by  exposing  the  criminal  to  the  ordinary  temp- 
tations and  trials  of  the  world,  to  test  his  re- 
form ;  2,  to  afford  a  guarantee  to  the  public 
that  the  reform  is  real,  and  that  the  convict 
may  be  trusted ;  3,  to  supplement  the  previous 
discipline  with  a  more  natural  training,  and 
so  by  partial  freedom  to  prepare  the  prisoner 
gradually  for  full  liberty.     The  same  princi- 
ples of  progressive  classification  are  applied  to 
females,  for  whom  there  is  a  separate  prison 
during  the  first  stage  at  Mountjoy,  and  pro- 
vision for  the  associated  labor  of  the  second 
stage  in  the  same  prison;  while  the  interme- 
diate or  final  stage  is  passed  in  "  refuges." 
The  amount  of   reduction   which    a   convict 
may  effect  in  the  duration  of  his  imprison- 
ment is  determined   by  his  conduct  and  in- 
dustry at  Spike  island.     Suppose  he  is  sen- 
tenced for  five  years:  what  is  the  maximum 
reduction  within  his  reach  ?    He  must  pass  8 
months  at  Mountjoy,  33  months  at  Spike  island 
(2  months  in  the  3d  class,  6  in  the  2d,  12  in 
the  1st,  and  13  in  the  advanced)  and  6  months 
at  Lusk,  making  41  months,  in  ordinary  im- 
prisonment, and  6  in  semi-confinement.     His 
period  of  detention  therefore  is  3  years  and 

1 1  months,  and  he  i»  restored  to  liberty  on  a 
ticket  of  license  IS  months  before  the  expira- 
tion of  his  sentenced  term.     In  like  manner  he 
may  reduce  a  sentence  of  10  years  to  7  years 
and  8  months,  and  one  of  15  years  to  11  years 
and  5  months.     When  the  convict  has  passed 
through  the  system  of  penal  treatment  above 
described,  and  secured  an  abbreviation  of  his 
term  of  imprisonment,  he  is  not  restored  to 
unconditional  freedom,  but  is  liberated  upon 
a  ticket  of  license.     He  is  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  constabulary,  to  whom  he  must 
report  at  regular  intervals  for  registration; 


PRISONS. 

Avmge 
number  of 

A1IMUAL 

rui-. 

COST   PER 

•  M-.I:. 

conrirti. 

Gnu. 

Hit, 

Mountjoy,  male  .  . 

151 

£54  8«.  M. 

£46  19«   Id. 

'•       female  .  .  . 

295 

82  6    8 

26  15     5 

Sntke  Island.  .  . 

i.U 

80  5    8 

14    7    11 

Lusk  

40 

68  1     9 

89    8     0 

Total  

1,180 

£86  6  11 

£22  17     4 

and  if  he  fails  to  perform  the  conditions  of 
the  license,  he  may  be  remanded  to  prison  for 
the  remainder  of  his  term  of  sentence.  The 
nearest  approach  to  the  Crofton  system  out- 
side of  Ireland  is  found  in  England,  but  with- 
out its  crowning  feature  in  the  intermediate 
stage.  It  is  regarded  with  favor  in  Switzer- 
land, where  some  of  its  features  have  already 
been  adopted.  Its  introduction  into  the  Uni- 
ted States,  with  certain  modifications,  is  rec- 
ommended by  high  authorities,  but  is  opposed 
by  others  as  not  being  adapted  to  a  govern- 
ment composed  of  separate  states.  The  num- 
ber of  inmates  in  the  Irish  convict  prisons  du- 
ring the  year  ending  March  31,  1874,  with  the 
average  cost  of  their  support,  was  as  follows : 


— In  the  United  States  there  are  as  many  sys- 
tems of  prison  management  as  there  are  states. 
There  is  no  national  institution  for  the  confine- 
ment of  offenders  against  the  national  laws, 
who  are  consequently  sentenced  to  the  prisons 
of  the  several  states.  All  places  of  confine- 
ment in  the  United  States  may  be  divided,  ac- 
cording to  their  management,  into  municipal 
(town  and  city),  county,  and  state  prisons,; 
and  according  to  the  grade  of  offence,  into 
juvenile  reformatories,  houses  of  correction, 
and  state  prisons.  In  general  each  county  has 
one,  and  some  of  them  two  or  three  jails. 
These  as  well  as  the  city  prisons  are  generally 
houses  of  detention,  though  in  some  of  the 
county  prisons  a  system  of  industrial  labor, 
instruction,  &c.,  is  established.  The  county 
prisons  are  generally  considered  unsatisfactory 
either  for  detention  before  trial  or  for  the  im- 
prisonment of  offenders  after  conviction,  and 
it  is  earnestly  sought  to  provide  something 
better  in  place  of  them.  This  want  has  given 
rise  to  the  class  of  prisons  called  houses  of 
correction,  workhouses,  and  sometimes  peni- 
tentiaries. Each  of  the  37  states  has  a  state 
prison,  except  Delaware,  which  uses  the  coun- 
ty jails  for  the  confinement  of  convicted  fel- 
ons. New  York  and  Indiana  (including  that 
for  women)  have  three  each,  and  Pennsylvania 
and  Iowa  two  cadi,  making  43  state  prisons  in 
the  United  States,  exclusive  of  the  convict  pris- 
ons in  the  territories.  The  chief  prison  offi- 
cers are  usually  appointed  by  the  governor  to 
hold  office  during  good  behavior ;  in  New  York 
they  are  appointed  by  the  elective  board  of 
three  prison  inspectors.  Most  of  the  states 
have  such  boards,  generally  appointed  by  the 
governor.  The  New  York  prison  association 
is  also  authorized  to  inspect  all  the  prisons  of 


11 


the  state.  Many  of  the  prisons  contain  from 
300  to  500  cells.  The  largest  are  in  New 
York,  that  at  Auburn  having  1,292  cells,  and 
Sing  Sing  1,200.  The  Ohio  penitentiary  at 
Columbus  has  1,110  cells,  and  that  of  Illinois 
at  Joliet  1,000.  These  institutions,  however, 
as  well  as  those  in  other  states,  frequently  re- 
ceive a  greater  number  of  convicts  than  they 
have  cells.  The  total  number  of  cells  in  all 
the  state  prisons  is  about  16,000.  Some  of 
them  are  intended  for  two  or  more  prisoners. 
Their  average  dimensions  are  8  ft.  long,  4J- 
ft.  wide,  and  7J  ft.  high,  giving  for  the  aver- 
age contents  of  each  about  240  cubic  ft.  Those 
in  the  Pennsylvania  prisons  and  the  prison  for 
women  in  Indianapolis  are  much  larger;  in 
those  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Massachusetts 
(a  portion),  New  York,  Ohio,  and  some  other 
states,  they  are  smaller.  Penal  or  "  hard " 
labor,  as  by  the  treadmill,  the  crank,  the 
shot  drill,  &c.,  which  has  been  so  common  in 
English  prisons,  hardly  exists  in  the  United 
States.  Here  the  labor  is  industrial,  of  which 
almost  every  kind  is  practised,  according  to 
the  requirements  and  opportunities  of  the  lo- 
cality. The  contract  system  of  labor  prevails 
exclusively  in  1 9  of  the  state  prisons,  the  leas- 
ing system  in  6,  state  management  exclusively 
in  9,  and  a  mixed  system  in  7.  Under  the 
contract  system  the  labor  of  the  convicts  is 
generally  let  at  a  fixed  sum  per  day,  which  is 
often  very  small.  Penologists  find  objections 
to  this  system  on  reformatory  grounds,  but  it 
is  generally  less  expensive  to  the  government 
than  the  management  of  prison  labor  by  the 
officers.  In  large  prisons  it  is  regarded  by 
many  as  indispensable ;  but  it  is  thought  that 
it  can  be  safely  dispensed  with  in  prisons  con- 
taining fewer  than  200  convicts.  According 
to  the  report  of  the  national  prison  associa- 
tion, the  total  income  of  29  convict  prisons 
in  1873  was  $1,413,073,  including  $1,328,882 
earnings  from  labor  and  $84,191  from  other 
sources,  chiefly  for  the  board  of  United  States 
prisoners.  The  average  earnings  for  each  of 
the  entire  prison  population  amounted  to  $121 ; 
for  each  engaged  in  productive  labor,  $173. 
The  average  per  capita  cost  of  the  convicts 
was  $172.  Of  the  29  states  that  reported,  12 
showed  an  excess  of  earnings  over  the  total 
current  expenses,  including  salaries,  as  follows: 


STATES. 

£g 

!l 

-   a, 

•£•3 

fii 

llfj 

H  a  "5  "C 

e 
"eJi 

ii, 

£11 
M 

Total  income. 

Maine  .... 

146 

$29  811 

$85  076 

$35  856 

New  Hampshire  

82 

13,067 

22,106 

23679 

Vermont  

80 

13,312 

14830 

14380 

Massachusetts  

878 

117,918 

131,957 

141  345 

Rhode  Island  

74 

8196 

TO  991 

11  996 

Connecticut  

180 

24.941 

25,572 

26452 

Maryland... 

587 

65,4fi6 

71,104 

71  104 

Ohio  

910 

152  164 

171,451 

174450 

Indiana  (Michigan  City).. 
"       (Jeffersonville)... 
Michigan  

854 
895 
616 

49,748 

66,806 
90276 

50.069 
65,650 

88087 

57.465 

67.088 
91  065 

Mississippi  

288 

43,355 

43830 

44230 

The  total  excess  of  earnings  over  expenditures 
in  these  states  was  $85,588  ;  total  number  en- 
gaged in  productive  labor,  6,544.  The  state 
prisons  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  and  New 
Jersey  are  also  self-sustaining.  Since  1873  the 
expenses  have  exceeded  the  earnings  in  the  Mas- 
sachusetts prison.  The  total  ordinary  expendi- 
tures of  all  the  state  prisons  were  reported 
at  $3,045,789.  The  most  economically  admin- 
istered prisons  were  those  in  North  Carolina, 
where  the  average  cost  per  capita  was  $89 ; 
Virginia,  $99  ;  and  Khode  Island,  $101.  The 
most  expensive  were  Nebraska,  $454 ;  Nevada, 
$383  ;  South  Carolina,  $376  ;  Minnesota,  $352  ; 
Wisconsin,  $313 ;  Oregon,  $312 ;  Florida,  $302 ; 
and  Arkansas,  $300.  In  Connecticut  it  was 
$128;  Indiana,  Michigan  City  $140,  Jefferson- 
ville$170;  Maine,  $200;  Massachusetts,  $193  ; 
New.  York,  Auburn  $161,  Sing  Sing  $274; 
Ohio,  $167. — Disciplinary  agencies  in  prison 
management  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
deterrent  and  reformatory,  the  former  com- 
prising punishments  and  the  latter  rewards, 
secular  and  religious  instruction,  industrial 
training,  &c.  Extreme  physical  punishments, 
by  the  lash,  rod,  strait  jacket,  stocks,  shackles, 
handcuffs,  ball  and  chain,  and  shower  bath, 
are  still  found  in  the  codes,  if  not  the  prac- 
tice, of  many  states.  These  punishments  are 
applied  only  as  a  last  resort,  and  in  many  of 
the  states  mentioned  are  rarely,  and  in  some 
perhaps  never,  put  into  practice.  In  many  of 
the  other  states  they  are  expressly  forbidden 
by  law.  Public  whipping  still  exists  in  Dela- 
ware. The  most  common  punishments  are  the 
dark  cell  with  reduced  rations,  deprivation  of 
privileges,  &c.  The  rewards  are  usually  petty 
privileges,  as  the  use  of  tobacco,  a  light  in  the 
cell,  and  better  food.  In  a  few  prisons  the 
convict  is  allowed  a  share  of  his  earnings,  and 
in  many  by  good  conduct  may  abbreviate  the 
term  of  his  imprisonment.  By  recent  laws  of 
Ohio  and  some  other  western  states,  the  con- 
vict will  be  restored  to  citizenship  if  he  passes 
the  entire  period  of  his  sentence  without  vio- 
lating the  rules  of  the  prison.  The  pardon- 
ing power  is  generally  vested  in  the  governor ; 
civil  rights  are  usually  restored  by  pardon. 
The  percentage  of  prisoners  pardoned  in  1873, 
exclusive  of  those  discharged  by  commutation, 
was  5-J-.  Most  of  the  prisons  have  chaplains ; 
in  nearly  all  weekly  religious  services  are  held, 
and  many  have  Sunday  schools  and  frequent 
prayer  meetings.  The  provisions  for  the  intel- 
lectual improvement  of  prisoners  are  very  in- 
adequate, but  have  been  considerably  enlarged 
in  recent  years.  Libraries  are  common,  33 
prisons  in  1873  reporting  50,663  volumes,  an 
average  of  1,535  to  each ;  and  in  some  prisons 
the  convicts  have  the  benefit  of  schools,  indi- 
vidual instruction  in  their  cells,  and  lectures. 
Secular  instruction  is  regularly  afforded  in  the 
prisons  of  California,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New 
Hampshire,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Isl- 
and, and  Wisconsin.  In  some  of  these  states  a 


12 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLIXE 


school  is  held  once  a  week ;  in  others  two  to  five 
evenings  a  week.  The  regulations  concerning 
correspondence  and  visits  to  prisoners  vary 
greatly  in  different  prisons.  In  some  the  fre- 
quency of  both  is  optional  with  the  warden ; 
in  others  the  convict  is  allowed  a  letter  and  a 
visit  only  once  in  three  months.  Little  has 
been  done  in  the  United  States  toward  estab- 
lishing special  prisons  for  women.  The  best 
institution  of  this  class  was  opened  in  Indian- 
apolis in  1873;  it  is  a  state  institution,  and 
has  penal  and  reformatory  departments.  New 
York  has  a  prison  for  females  at  Sing  Sing, 
under  the  same  administration  with  the  male 
prison,  and  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts 
has  authorized  the  construction  of  a  reforma- 
tory prison  for  women.  The  state  prisons  of 
the  United  States,  with  the  number  of  cells 
and  average  number  of  prisoners  in  1873,  as 
reported  by  the  national  prison  association, 
were  as  follows : 


STATE. 

Whin  rffcuud. 

N 
W  Will. 

ATMM. 

,,     ' 
prfcoOT 
In  Ign. 

Alabama  

210 

200 

Arkansas  

Little  Rock  ... 

|    • 

200 

California.  

438 

915 

Connecticut  .  .  . 

Weathersfleld 

.   j 

ISO 

Florida.  

Cbattahoocbee.  

!• 

48 

Georgia  

MilU-direviUe. 

478 

Illinois  

3    .• 

1,000 

1,438 

Indiana,  north  
"         south  

Michigan  City.  .  . 

rrtnuii-ai 

ft« 
ttt 

MB 

.    •, 

u        women's.  .  . 

\rntm  M  fe 

90 

•j.' 

Iowa  

Fort  Madison    .  . 

813 

270 

Kansas 

844 

831 

Kentucky  

Frankfort  

<T4 

,  ., 

Louisiana  
Maine  

Baton  Rouge  
Thotnaston 

l  < 
174 

m 
14-; 

Maryland  

Baltimore. 

TOO 

5r>7 

Massachusetts  

Charieatown  

<KW 

573 

Michigan  
Minnesota  
Mississippi  
MUaourT  .  

Jackson  
Stillwater.  
Jackson  
Jefferson  City 

844 
168 
800 

C16 

n 

.- 

1.082 

Nebraska 

Lincoln 

44 

Nevada. 

Carson  City 

46 

98 

New  Hampshire  ... 

Concord 

.   : 

Si 

New  Jersey    
New  York  

Trenton  
Auburn         

Mo 
UN 

545 

1.120 

Dannemora 

513 

MO 

u 

-   .  .  -    _•  •  .  . 

1/J'«I 

1,168 

u 

"       "     female  .  .  . 

103 

103 

North  Carolina.  

Mi%l 

8S 

401 

Ohio    

Columbus     .. 

1,110 

910 

Oregon  

MM 

83 

95 

Pen  ns  y  I  vania.  east'  n. 

Philadelphia  

6-->5 

**            west'n 

843 

4."-' 

Rhode  Island  

Providence.        .... 

S3 

74 

South  Carolina  
Tennea»e«  
Texaj  

Columbia.  
Nashville  
Hunts  vflle 

850 

M 

2:>0 
744 
1,150 

Vermont.        

Windsor 

104 

Virginia.   

78 

T3i 

West  Vinrtnia.  

MoundsviOe  

•  i 

98 

Wisconsin  

Wapun 

590 

130 

Total  

1  i/.'N 

1-.4-J 

— There  is  a  class  of  prisons  in  the  United  States, 
generally  called  houses  of  correction,  work- 
houses, and  sometimes  penitentiaries,  which 
hold  a  middle  place  between  the  municipal  or 
county  jail  and  the  state  prison,  and  are  in- 
tended for  the  treatment  of  those  convicted 


*  Large  dormitory. 


t  Recently  constructed. 


of  lighter  offences,  though  felons  are  some- 
times confined  in  them.  These  institutions 
form  an  important  link  in  any  true  prison 
system,  and  from  them  have  sprung  many  of 
the  practical  reforms  of  prison  administration 
wrought  in  America.  They  are  preventive  of 
crime  by  their  wise  and  thorough  treatment 
of  misdemeants  who  are  as  a  rule  developing 
into  felons.  They  are  commonly  managed  and 
maintained  by  the  county  or  city,  but  sonu-  re- 
ceive state  convicts.  Most  of  them  have  sys- 
tems of  discipline,  labor,  instruction,  &c.,  simi- 
lar and  sometimes  superior  to  those  of  higher 
prisons.  Institutions  of  this  kind  are  main- 
tained in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  N\\v 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Wiscon- 
sin, Kentucky,  Missouri,  California,  and  per- 
haps some  other  states.  New  York  has  six 
under  the  title  of  penitentiaries.  The  most 
noted  and  best  managed  of  these  institutions 
are  the  Albany  and  the  Monroe  county  peni- 
tentiaries in  New  York,  the  former  brought 
to  its  high  degree  of  excellence  by  Amos  Pils- 
bury ;  the  Detroit  (Mich.)  house  of  correction, 
organized  and  conducted  during  the  first  ten 
years  of  its  existence  by  Z.  R.  Brockway ;  and 
the  Allegheny  county  (Pa.)  workhouse  at  Clare- 
mont,  under  the  superintendence  of  Henry 
Cordier.  In  each  of  these  there  is  an  excess 
of  earnings  from  the  labor  of  the  prisoners 
over  the  expenses  of  the  institution ;  and  each 
has  excellent  schools.  The  house  of  correction 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  is  sometimes  self-sustaining. 
Another  prison  of  this  class,  called  the  .-t:.te 
house  of  correction,  is  in  process  of  construc- 
tion (1875)  at  Ionia,  Mich. ;  also  one  at  El- 
mira,  called  the  New  York  state  reformatory. 
The  Albany  penitentiary  is  one  of  the  principal 
places  of  confinement  for  United  States  prison- 
ers. For  institutions  for  the  treatment  of  ju- 
venile offenders,  see  REFORMATORIES. — The  sys- 
tem of  penal  treatment  in  England  in  many  re- 
spects is  similar  to  that  of  Ireland.  The  inter- 
mediate or  probationary  stage,  which  forms  so 
important  a  feature  in  the  Irish  system,  is  not 
found  in  the  English,  except  in  the  treatment 
of  female  convicts.  All  convicts  sentenced  to 
penal  servitude  are  required  to  pass  through 
three  principal  stages.  The  first  is  passed  at 
Pentonville,  and  continues  for  nine  months, 
during  .which  the  prisoner  spends  his  entire 
time,  excepting  that  devoted  to  prayer  and 
exercise,  alone  in  his  cell,  working  at  some 
industrial  or  remunerative  employment.  The 
treatment  here,  especially  the  diet,  is  stern- 
ly penal ;  but  the  convicts  have  the  use  of 
books,  and,  besides  receiving  religions  instruc- 
tion, are  taught  reading,  writing,  &c.  From 
here  the  prisoner  is  removed  to  one  of  the 
other  convict  prisons,  where  he  works  in  as- 
sociation, but  spends  the  rest  of  his  time  in  a 
separate  cell.  The  prisoners  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed on  public  works,  farming,  clearing  and 
reclaiming  land,  &c. ;  but  in  some  of  the  pris- 
ons boot  making,  tailoring,  and  other  indoor 
employments  are  carried  on.  The  convicts 


PRISONS  AXD  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


13 


are  divided  into  four  classes,  the  higher  class- 
es having  privileges  not  found  in  the  lower. 
Promotion  is  determined  by  marks,  which  are 
given  not  for  good  conduct,  but  for  industry 
alone.  In  addition  to  the  privileges  acquired 
by  promotion  to  a  higher  class,  the  prisoner 
may  gain  a  remission  of  about  one  fourth  of 
his  sentence,  or  if  a  female,  about  one  third. 
The  chief  advantages  offered  by  the  higher 
classes  are  more  frequent  communications  by 
visit  or  letter  with  friends,  more  freedom  for 
exercise  on  Sundays,  and  higher  gratuities  of 
money  to  be  paid  on  the  prisoner's  discharge. 
Convicts  receive  no  share  of  their  earnings, 
but  each  is  allowed  sufficient  money  on  dis- 
charge to  maintain  himself  while  seeking  em- 
ployment. There  is  no  extra  reward  for  good 
conduct ;  but  bad  conduct  is  punished  by  deg- 
radation to  a  lower  class  and  the  loss  of  priv- 
ileges gained  by  industry,  as  well  as  by  solitary 
confinement,  reduction  in  diet,  and  corporal 
punishment.  Only  the  governor  and  director 
have  the  power  to  punish,  under  limits  defined 
by  the  secretary  of  state.  Unusual  punish- 
ishments  are  prohibited ;  but  whipping  is  prac- 
tised, and  chains,  handcuffs,  or  means  of  spe- 
cial restraint  may  be  used  in  certain  defined 
circumstances  and  under  strict  regulations. 
The  privilege  of  petitioning  the  secretary  of 
state  is  given  to  every  convict.  When  the 
prisoner  has  secured  a  remission  of  a  portion 
of  his  sentence,  he  is  liberated  on  a  ticket  of 
license.  He  is  now  subject  to  police  surveil- 
lance, and  will  be  remanded  to  prison  for  a 
violation  of  the  conditions  of  the  license.  For- 
merly it  was  the  custom  to  transport  convicts 
thus  conditionally  liberated  .on  a  ticket  of 
leave ;  but  since  1867  this  practice  has  been 
discontinued.  The  same  course  of  treatment 
is  applied  to  females ;  but  they  may  earn  a 
larger  proportion  of  remission,  viz.,  one  third ; 
while  those  whose  reform  appears  to  be  com- 
plete may  pass  the  last  six  months  of  their  im- 
prisonment in  "  refuges  "  established  and  man- 
aged by  private  effort,  assisted  by  contribu- 
tions from  the  government.  Of  these  there 
are  three :  the  Carlisle  memorial  at  Winches- 
ter, the  Eagle  house  at  Hammersmith  for  Ro- 
man Catholics,  and  the  Westminster  memorial 
at  Streatham.  The  number  of  inmates  of  the 
English  convict  prisons  during  the  year  1873 
was  as  follows :  Brixton,  504 ;  Chatham,  1,682 ; 
Dartmoor,  939  ;  Fulham  (females),  277  ;  Mill- 
bank,  1,122  (908  males,  214  females);  Park- 
hurst,  552;  Pentonville,  911;  Portland,  1,586; 
Portsmouth,  1,282;  Woking,  1,390  (718  males, 
672  females)  ;  total,  10,245.  The  gross  annual 
expenses  were  £342,158,  and  the  net  earnings 
of  the  convicts  £220,490 ;  balance,  £121,668, 
making  the  net  cost  of  supporting  each  con- 
vict during  the  year  £11  14s.  Qd.  The  earn- 
ings of  the  convicts  exceeded  the  expenditures 
at  Chatham  and  Portsmouth,  and  very  nearly 
equalled  them  at  Portland.  The  extensive  gov- 
ernment works  at  these  points,  the  sea  walls, 
docks,  &c.,  including  both  the  skilled  and  un- 


skilled labor,  have  been  constructed  by  con- 
victs.— France  has  six  classes  of  prisons :  1, 
the  penal  colonies  of  Cayenne  (Guiana)  and 
New  Caledonia ;  2,  central  prisons  (maisons  de 
force  et  de  correction),  of  which  there  are  16 
for  men  and  7  for  women,  corresponding  to 
the  state  prisons  in  the  United  States ;  3,  de- 
partmental prisons,  about  400  in  number,  des- 
ignated also  as  houses  of  arrest,  of  justice,  and 
of  correction;  4,  establishments  for  the  cor- 
rectional education  of  juvenile  delinquents; 

5,  chambers  and  depots  of  safe  keeping ;  and 

6,  prisons  for  the  army  and  navy.     The  chief 
sentences,  besides  death,  are  hard  labor  for 
life  or  for  a  term  of  5  to  20  years,  reclusion 
for  5  to  10  years,  and  simple  imprisonment 
for  from  6  days  to  10  years.     Sentence  to  hard 
labor  is  attended  with  civil  degradation  and 
civil  death,  the  property  of  the  culprit  being 
under  the  control  of  a  guardian.     After  the 
expiration  of  a  sentence  to  a  limited  term  of 
hard  labor,  the  criminal  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  po- 
lice.   Except  women   and  men   60  years  of 
age  and  over,  who  undergo  imprisonment  in 
the  central  prisons,  persons  sentenced  to  hard 
labor  are  transported  to  one  of  the  penal  col- 
onies.    If  the  sentence  is  for  less  than  eight 
years,  the  convict  must  remain  in  the  colony 
after  the  expiration  of  his  punishment  during 
a  period  equal  to  the  length  of  his  sentence ; 
if  the  sentence  is  eight  years  or  more,  such 
residence  is  made  perpetual.     The  transporta- 
tion of  women  is  authorized  by  law  in  view 
of  marriages  to  be  contracted  with  the  con- 
victs in   the  colony   after    liberation ;    some 
women  have  been  thus  sent  to  Cayenne,  but 
a  majority  undergo  imprisonment  in  the  cen- 
tral prisons   of  France.     A  sentence  to  the 
punishment  of  reclnsion  deprives  the  criminal 
of  civil  rights.    Every  person  so  sentenced  is 
confined  in  a  central  prison  and  employed  in 
labor,  which  may  be  in  part  applied  to  his 
own  benefit.     Simple  imprisonment  is  a  cor- 
rectional   punishment,  which    however   may 
work  partial  or  entire  loss  of  civil  rights.     In 
case  of  relapse,  the  duration  of  the  punish- 
ment may  be  doubled.     If  the  sentence  is  for 
more  than  a  year,  the  culprit  is  sent  to  a  cen- 
tral prison ;  if  a  year  or  less,  to  a  departmental 
prison.     The  product  of  the  prisoner's  labor 
goes  partly  to  the  prison  and  partly  to  secure 
for  himself,  if  deserving,  certain  privileges,  or 
to  form  a  fund  to  be  used  when  discharged. 
Houses  of  arrest,  of  justice,  and  of  correction 
are  usually  three   departments  of  the  same 
prison.     Besides   the   punishments   here   de- 
scribed, the  penal  code  recognizes  that  of  de- 
portation, or  transportation  for  life  to  a  place 
without  the  continental  territory  of  the  repub- 
lic, upon  pain  of  sentence  to  hard  labor  if  the 
offender  return ;  and  detention  for  from  5  to 
20  years  in  one  of  the  French  continental  for- 
tresses.    The  cellular  system  does  not  prevail 
in  any  of  the  central  prisons ;  the  convicts  are 
here  employed  together  in  workshops  during 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


the  day,  with  cellular  separation  at  night.  A 
few  of  the  departmental  prisons  are  cellular, 
but  even  in  these  the  strict  separate  system  is 
not  practised.  Three  prisons  in  Paris,  how- 
ever, are  constructed  and  conducted  on  the  cel- 
lular plan :  Mazas,  a  part  of  La  Sante,  and  La 
Petite  Roquette;  the  last  named  is  a  prison 
for  persons  under  16  years  of  age  and  persons 
sentenced  to  an  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
six  months.  The  law  of  May,  1875,  provides 
that  persons  awaiting  trial  shall  be  confined 
in  separate  cells,  subjects  those  sentenced  to  12 
months'  imprisonment  or  less  to  solitary  con- 
finement, and  gives  those  with  longer  sentences 
the  privilege  of  choosing  separate  confinement. 
Penal  as  distinguished  from  industrial  labor 
does  not  exist  in  the  prisons  of  France.  In- 
dustrial labor  is  obligatory  upon  those  serving 
sentences,  and  optional  with  the  arrested  and 
the  accused.  Extensive  workshops  are  organ- 
ized in  the  central  prisons.  In  the  male  cen- 
tral prisons  about  50  or  60  industries  are  car- 
ried on,  the  principal  of  which  are  weaving, 
tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  buttons,  hosiery,  locks,  and  hardware. 
Three  of  the  central  prisons  are  "  agricultural 
penitentiaries,"  or  colonies  in  the  island  of 
Corsica  where  the  convicts  are  employed  in 
agricultural  work.  Sewing  is  the  chief  indus- 
try in  the  central  prisons  for  females.  The 
contract  system  of  labor  prevails  in  most  of 
the  prisons,  but  in  several  important  establish- 
ments the  industries  are  managed  directly  by 
the  state.  Convicts  are  allowed  a  portion  of 
their  earnings,  being  in  the  central  prisons 
from  three  tenths  to  five  tenths,  according  to 
the  grade  of  the  sentence.  A  portion  may  be 
used  by  the  convict  while  in  prison,  and  the 
balance  is  reserved  till  his  discharge.  The 
prisoners  contribute  about  50  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  of  maintenance  in  the  central,  and  about 
17  per  cent,  in  the  departmental  prisons.  A 
few  of  the  central  prisons  are  self-sustaining 
or  nearly  so.  The  more  important  prisons  are 
generally  provided  with  chaplains,  schools,  and  ; 
libraries;  but  only  about  12  to  15  per  cent,  of 
the  population  in  the  prisons  for  males,  and  5  to 
8  per  cent,  in  those  for  females,  are  admitted 
to  the  schools.  Corporal  punishment  is  pro- 
hibited in  all  prisons. — All  the  prisons  of  Bel- 
gium are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  minister 
of  justice,  and  are  subject  to  the  supervision 
and  inspection  of  commissions.  Nearly  all  are 
conducted  on  the  separate  plan.  There  are 
three  general  classes  :  houses  of  correction, 
houses  of  reclusion,  and  convict  prisons.  In 
the  first  are  confined  prisoners  sentenced  to 
simple  imprisonment  for  terms  of  8  days  to  5 
years ;  in  the  second,  those  sentenced  for  from 
5  to  10  years;  and  in  the  third,  those  sentenced 
to  hard  labor  for  life,  from  10  to  15  years, 
or  from  15  to  20  years.  Industrial  labor  pre- 
vails in  all  prisons,  penal  in  none.  The  labor 
is  directed  in  part  by  the  government,  and  in 
part  is  awarded  to  special  contractors,  pref- 
erence being  given  to  the  latter  plan.  A  sys- 


tem of  apprenticeship  prevails,  by  which  pris- 
oners are  taught  various  trades.  The  prison 
industries  are  varied  and  extensive.  The  pris- 
oners receive  a  portion  of  their  earnings,  and 
rewards  for  good  conduct,  including  reduction 
of  sentence.  Every  prison  with  50  or  more 
inmates  is  provided  with  a  school  or  a  teacher, 
and  school  attendance  is  generally  obligatory. 
Libraries  are  found  in  all  prisons.  The  three 
great  central  or  convict  prisons  of  Belgium 
are  those  of  Louvain,  Ghent,  and  Antwerp. 
— All  the  prisons  of  Prussia  are  subject  to  a 
central  authority,  the  large  penitentiary  estab- 
lishments or  central  prisons  being  under  the 
minister  of  the  interior.  There  are  29  prisons 
exclusively  for  hard  labor,  15  for  imprison- 
ment and  simple  detention,  and  11  of  a  mixed 
character.  The  capacity  of  all  is  about  26,500. 
In  47  there  is  an  aggregate  of  3,247  cells  for 
solitary  imprisonment  by  day  and  night ;  but 
in  only  one  of  these  is  the  separate  system  ex- 
clusively adopted  ;  in  the  other  46  the  cellular 
and  the  congregate  systems  both  exist.  The 
punishments  prescribed  by  the  penal  code  are 
hard  labor,  simple  imprisonment,  imprison- 
ment in  a  fortress,  and  detention  for  minor 
offences.  Sentence  to  hard  labor  may  be  for 
life  or  from  one  to  15  years.  It  subjects  the 
prisoner  to  compulsory  labor  without  restric- 
tion, both  inside  and  outside  the  prison,  and 
disqualifies  him  from  serving  in  the  army 
or  navy,  or  in  any  public  office.  The  judge 
may  add  civil  degradation.  In  simple  im- 
prisonment, limited  to  five  years,  the  convict 
cannot  be  compelled  to  work  outside  of  the 
prison,  or  at  occupations  not  in  accord  with 
his  capacity  or  previous  social  condition.  If 
the  sentence  is  for  three  months  or  more,  the 
judge  may  add  civil  degradation.  Prisoners 
sentenced  to  hard  labor  or  to  imprisonment 
may  be  liberated  provisionally  at  the  expira- 
tion of  three  fourths  of  their  sentence,  provi- 
ded they  have  been  at  least  a  year  in  confine- 
ment. Imprisonment  in  a  fortress  may  be  for 
life  or  for  a  term  of  years,  not  exceeding  15. 
The  punishment  is  simply  privation  of  liberty. 
The  chief  classification  of  prisoners  in  Prussia 
is  the  separation  of  the  young  from  the  old. 
Penal  labor  does  not  exist.  Industrial  labor 
comprises  not  less  than  50  different  trades  car- 
ried on  by  men  and  10  by  women.  The  con- 
tract system  prevails  almost  exclusively;  the 
labor  of  the  prisoners  being  let  out,  not  to  a 
few  general  contractors,  but  each  industry  to 
a  special  contractor.  Prisoners  are  allowed  a 
variable  portion,  not  exceeding  one  sixth,  of 
the  product  of  their  labor,  to  be  used  partly 
while  in  confinement  and  the  balance  after  re- 
lease. Amopg  the  punishments  permitted  is 
castigation  in  the  case  of  men,  limited  to  80 
lashes,  anil  only  when  authorized  by  the  direc- 
tor of  the  prison  at  the  request  of  the 'superior 
officers,  including  the  chaplain  and  surgeon. 
Chaplains,  all  forms  of  worship,  schools,  and 
libraries  exist  in  all  important  prisons.  About 
15  per  cent,  of  all  the  prisoners  receive  scho- 


PRISONS   AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


15 


lastic  instruction ;  those  without  trades  must 
serve  an  apprenticeship.  The  prison  libraries 
comprise  upward  of  150,000  volumes,  about 
one  half  religious. — In  Cisleithan  Austria  all 
prisons  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  min- 
istry of  justice  ;  matters  of  minor  importance, 
however,  are  intrusted  to  the  local  and  inter- 
mediate authorities.  Since  1867  there  has 
been  an  inspector  general  of  prisons.  There 
are  18  prisons  (12  for  males,  having  in  1872 
about  9,000  inmates,  and  6  for  females,  with 
1,500  inmates)  for  persons  sentenced  to  more 
than  one  year  of  imprisonment ;  62  for  those 
sentenced  to  less  than  one  year,  which  are  also 
used  for  persons  convicted  of  lighter  offences ; 
and  prisons  of  the  district  courts  for  minor 
offences.  Separate  prisons  are  used  for  men 
and  women.  Until  recently  only  the  associated 
system  of  imprisonment  existed,  and  it  now 
prevails  in  nearly  all  the  prisons.  The  con- 
victs are  classified  in  groups  of  6  to  30,  day  and 
night,  and  are  allowed  to  converse  together  ex- 
cept when  at  work.  All  prisons  constructed 
since  1867  have  been  so  arranged  that  associated 
imprisonment  may  be  combined  with  cellular. 
Provisions  for  cellular  treatment  are  found  in 
the  prisons  of  Gratz,  Stein,  Karthaus,  and 
Pilsen.  By  the  law  of  April  1,  1872,  cellular 
imprisonment  is  limited  to  three  years,  with 
the  provision  that  after  three  months  of  isola- 
tion two  days  passed  in  a  cell  are  to  be  reck- 
oned as  three  in  the  term  of  the  sentence.  In 
all  prisons  where  the  collective  system  prevails, 
a  classification  of  prisoners  is  maintained  in  the 
dormitories,  based  on  the  age,  education,  state 
of  mind,  and  former  life  of  the  convict,  and 
the  kind  of  crime  committed.  There  is  no 
way  in  which  a  convict  may  secure  an  abbrevi- 
ation of  his  sentence  except  by  being  recom- 
mended for  pardon  to  the  emperor.  Penal  la- 
bor does  not  exist ;  a  wide  range  of  industries 
are  carried  on  within,  and  some  without,  the 
prisons.  The  contract  system  is  preferred 
where  suitable  contractors  can  be  found ;  oth- 
erwise the  industries  are  managed  directly  by 
the  state.  Convicts  are  entitled  to  a  share 
of  their  earnings,  to  be  used  partly  while  in 
prison  and  partly  after  release.  If  the  prison- 
er has  property,  it  is  liable  for  the  cost  of  his 
imprisonment.  Trades  are  taught  to  the  un- 
skilled. Corporal  punishment  is  not  practised. 
The  severest  punishments  are  chains,  diminu- 
tion of  food,  hard  bed,  isolated  confinement, 
and  dark  cell.  Banishment  after  the  expira- 
tion of  the  sentence  is  recognized  by  the  pe- 
nal code.  The  prisons  are  generally  provided 
with  chaplains,  schools,  and  libraries,  though 
the  last  are  of  recent  origin.  School  atten- 
dance is  obligatory  upon  convicts  of  a  suitable 
age.  Political  prisoners  are  absolved  from 
compulsory  labor  and  from  wearing  prison 
clothes. — In  Switzerland  most  of  the  cantons 
prescribe  three  kinds  of  imprisonment:  re- 
elusion,  perpetual  or  temporary  detention  in 
a  house  of  correction,  and  simple  imprison- 
ment. Many  of  the  cantons  are  introducing 
686  VOL.  xiv.— 2 


important  reforms  into  their  prison  systems, 
including  progressive  classification  and  provi- 
sional liberation.  In  the  penitentiary  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  which  has  an  average  of  80  inmates, 
many  of  the  features  of  the  Crofton  system 
have  been  adopted.  The  excellent  system  of 
discipline,  labor,  rewards,  education,  privi- 
leges, &c.,  adopted  here  by  Dr.  Guillaume, 
the  director,  has  made  this  one  of  the  model 
prisons  of  Europe. — The  penal  system  of 
Italy  is  in  a  state  of  transition.  Thet  new 
code  retains  the  death  penalty,  and  prescribes 
as  secondary  punishments  the  bagnio  for  life 
(ergastolo),  reclusion,  and  relegation.  As  a 
general  rule  ergastolo  must  be  passed  in  one 
of  the  islands  in  continual  separation  for  the 
first  ten  years,  and  afterward  in  congregate 
imprisonment.  Sentences  to  reclusion  and  re- 
legation, which  are  penalties  of  temporary  du- 
ration, are  to  be  served  upon  the  congregate 
plan.  Not  fewer  than  3,000  convicts  are  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  work,  and  1,500  employ- 
ed by  private  contractors  or  municipal  bodies 
in  the  construction  of  ports  and  roads,  in  col- 
lecting and  transporting  salt  from  the  mines 
of  Cagliari  and  Portoferrajo,  in  working  iron 
mines,  in  masonry,  and  in  other  outdoor  occu- 
pations. At  the  penal  settlement  of  Cagliari 
much  attention  is  given  to  the  rearing  of  the 
silkworm,  and  at  Alghero  the  culture  of  to- 
bacco is  a  prominent  industry.  More  than 
1,000  prisoners  are  employed  at  the  three 
agricultural  colonies  on  the  islands  of  Pia- 
nosa,  Gorgona,  and  Capraia,  in  the  Tuscan  ar- 
chipelago, chiefly  in  the  cultivation  of  vines, 
olives,  and  cereals.  The  prisoner  is  entitled 
to  a  share  of  the  product  of  his  labor.  He 
is  required  to  attend  school,  where  among 
other  things  he  is  taught  the  science  of  agri- 
culture. The  agricultural  colonies  are  intend- 
ed for  those  convicts  who  have  been  sen- 
tenced to  reclusion,  relegation,  or  simple  im- 
prisonment, and  who  have  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  penal  establishments  by  good 
conduct. — In  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope efforts  are  made  to  aid  liberated  prison- 
ers by  securing  for  them  employment  and 
protection.  This  work  is  generally  done  by 
prisoners'  aid  or  patronage  societies,  aided 
sometimes  by  the  government.  In  some  in- 
stances direct  efforts  are  made  by  the  govern- 
ment in  behalf  of  discharged  convicts.  The 
Netherlands  society  for  the  moral  ameliora- 
tion of  prisoners,  both  before  and  after  dis- 
charge, has  its  seat  in  Amsterdam,  with  as 
many  as  40  branches  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Denmark  has  prisoners'  aid  associa- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  each  of  its  four  great 
prisons.  In  England  much  importance  is  giv- 
en to  aiding  convicts  after  discharge,  and  34 
societies  have  been  established  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  semi-official  character  is  given  to  them 
by  the  fact  that  they  hold  in  trust  the  gra- 
tuities allowed  by  law  to  discharged  convicts. 
Prisoners  are  also  placed  for  a  limited  time 
after  discharge  under  the  surveillance  of  the 


16 


PRISONS  AND  PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


police.  More  than  half  of  the  male  convicts 
discharged  in  1873  applied  to  prisoners'  aid 
societies,  and  more  than  three  fourths  of  the 
females  went  to  such  societies  or  refuges.  In 
the  United  States  the  organizations  for  aiding 
liberated  prisoners  are  few.  Massachusetts  has 
an  official  agency.  The  other  most  efficient  or- 
ganizations are  the  New  York  prison  associa- 
tion, the  Philadelphia  prison  society,  the  Mary- 
land prisoners'  aid  society,  and  the  California 
prison  commission.  The  prison  association  of 
New  York  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature 
in  1844 ;  it  is  authorized  to  visit  and  inspect 
all  the  prisons  of  the  state,  and  makes  annual 
reports  to  the  legislature.  It  has  agents  in  all 
parts  of  the  state  to  look  after  the  interests  of 
prisoners  in  confinement,  and  to  aid  them  after 
discharge  with  money,  board,  clothing,  tools, 
transportation,  employment,  &c.  About  1,500 
discharged  convicts  were  aided  by  this  associa- 
tion in  1874. — The  marked  lack  of  uniformi- 
ty in  the  returns  made  by  different  countries 
renders  their  criminal  statistics  only  approxi- 
matively  useful  for  purposes  of  comparison. 
A  computation  made  by  Beltrani  Scalia,  on 
returns  from  Belgium,  Denmark,  Holland,  Italy, 
Saxony,  and  Sweden,  shows  about  one  half  of 
the  entire  prison  population  of  those  countries 
to  bo  illiterate.  According  to  recent  returns, 
the  percentage  of  those  who  could  not  read 
on  entering  prison  was  56  in  Austria,  49  in 
Belgium,  57  in  France,  4  in  Baden,  12  in  Ba- 
varia, 17  in  Prussia,  60  to  92  in  Italy,  about  40 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  30  in  Switzerland.  In 
Ireland  22  per  cent,  both  of  males  and  females 
were  illiterate.  In  Austria  8  per  cent,  of  the 
male  and  24  per  cent,  of  the  female  convicts 
had  no  trade  on  entering  prison ;  in  Belgium 
the  percentage  for  both  sexes  was  60  to  70 ; 
in  Franco,  5  per  cent,  among  males  and  12  per 
cent,  among  females ;  Baden,  40  per  cent. ; 
Bavaria,  3  ;  Prussia,  5  ;  the  Netherlands,  25  ; 
Sweden,  90 ;  Switzerland,  50 ;  Ireland,  35.  In 
Belgium  and  England,  about  12  per  cent,  of  the 
prison  population  are  females ;  in  Baden,  15 ; 
in  Bavaria,  20;  in  France,  19  ;  in  the  Nether- 
lands, Prussia,  and  Sweden,  about  18 ;  in  Nor- 
way, 24 ;  in  Russia,  10 ;  in  Switzerland,  20. 
The  proportion  of  recidivists,  or  those  who 
after  imprisonment  relapse  into  crime  and  are 
returned  to  prison,  is  reported  at  about  59  per 
cent,  among  men  and  54  per  cent,  among  wo- 
men in  Austria,  78  per  cent,  in  Belgium,  20  in 
Baden,  30  in  Bavaria,  42i  in  France,  18  to  28 
in  Italy,  25  to  28  in  the  Netherlands,  60  to  70 
in  Prussia,  19  to  45  in  Sweden,  and  86  in  Wur- 
temberg.  More  than  18  per  cent,  of  the  sen- 
tences to  penal  servitude  in  England,  "Wales, 
and  Scotland  during  the  four  years  ending  Jan. 
1, 1874,  were  reconvictions.  It  is  stated  that 
nearly  70  per  cent,  of  the  recidivists  in  Bel- 
gium were  those  who  had  been  confined  in  the 
congregate  prisons.  Of  those  committed  to 
convict  prisons  in  the  United  States  in  1873, 
21  per  cent,  were  minors  and  67  per  cent,  under 
80  years  of  age ;  75  per  cent,  were  of  native 


and  25  of  foreign  birth.  Thus,  while  about  17 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  United 
States  are  foreigners,  not  less  than  a  fourth  of 
the  criminal  population  are  foreigners.  In  the 
northern  and  especially  the  eastern  states, whore 
there  is  a  larger  foreign  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, the  percentage  of  foreign  convicts  is  much 
larger  than  that  given  above.  Thus  in  Massa- 
chusetts it  was  55  per  cent.,  Minnesota  42, 
New  York  39'5,  California  39,  New  Jersey  37, 
Indiana  (males)  32,  and  Michigan  30.  About 
one  sixth  of  the  prison  population  are  women. 
In  the  southern  states  a  large  proportion  of  the 
convicts  are  colored ;  48  per  cent,  were  illit- 
erate, and  70  per  cent,  had  not  learned  a  trade ; 
40  per  cent,  admitted  intemperate  habits,  and 
39  per  cent,  more  claimed  to  be  moderate  drink- 
ers, but  acknowledged  occasional  intoxication, 
leaving  only  21  per  cent,  claiming  to  be  strictly 
temperate. — The  most  satisfactory  information 
on  the  penal  systems  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States  may  be  found  in  the  volume  of  transac- 
tions of  the  London  congress  (London,  1878), 
and  in  the  three  reports  of  proceedings  of  the 
three  congresses  held  by  the  national  prison 
association  of  the  United  States.  Annual  re- 
ports have  been  issued  by  the  prison  associa- 
tion of  New  York  since  1844,  and  valuable  in- 
formation and  statistics  relating  to  crime  and 
the  treatment  of  criminals  are  contained  in 
the  "  American  Journal  of  Social  Science,"  of 
which  seven  numbers  had  been  issued  in  1874; 
in  the  reports  of  state  boards  of  charities, 
which  are  organized  in  several  of  the  states ; 
and  in  the  reports  published  by  the  various 
penal  and  reformatory  institutions  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.  The  general  principles  of  penal 
treatment  and  legislation  are  expounded  in  the 
works  of  Howard,  Beccaria,  Bentham,  Edward 
Livingston,  Francis  Lieber,  and  others.  Among 
more  recent  publications  are :  "  Crime,  its 
Amount,  Causes,  and  Remedies,"  by  Frederic 
Hill  (London,  1855);  "Suggestions  for  the 
Repression  of  Crime,"  by  M.  D.  Hill  (Lon- 
don, 1857);  "On  Cellular  Separation,"  by  W. 
Parker  Foulke  (Philadelphia,  1861)  ;  "  Our 
Convicts,"  by  Mary  Carpenter  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1864) ;  De  V amelioration  de  la  loi  crimi- 
nelle,  by  Bonneville  de  Marsangy  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1864);  Kritische  Untersuchungen  fiber 
die  Orundsatze  und  Ergebnisse  dcr  irisfhen 
Gefangnisskunde,  by  Baron  von  Holtzendorff 
(Berlin,  1865) ;  De*  progrh  et  de  Tetat  actuel  de 
la  refonne  penitentiare,  et  des  institutions  pre- 
ventives aux  Stats- Unis,  en  France,  en  Suisse, 
en  Angleterre  et  en  Belgique,  by  Ducp6tiaux 
(8  vols.  18mo,  with  plates,  Paris  and  Brus- 
sels, 1867);  "History  of  the  Albany  Peniten- 
tiary," by  David  Dyer  (Albany,  1867);  Sul 
governo  e  sulla  riforma  delle  careeri  in  Ita- 
lia, by  Martino  Beltrani  Scalia  (Turin,  1867); 
"Brief  Sketch  of  the  Origin  and  History  of 
the  State  Penitentiary  for  the  Eastern  District 
of  Pennsylvania  at  Philadelphia,"  by  Richard 
Vaux  (Philadelphia,  1872);  "The  Crofton 
Prison  System,"  by  Mary  Carpenter  (Lon- 


PBISEEND 


PRIVATEER 


17 


don,  1872)  ;  La  question  penitentiaire,  by  Ro- 
bin (Paris,  1873) ;  "  Causes  of  Criminal  Re- 
committals and  their  Means  of  Prevention," 
by  Olivacroua  (Stockholm,  1873) ;  "  Peniten- 
tiary Studies,"  by  Don  P.  Armengol  y  Cornet 
(Barcelona,  1873);  "Swiss  Prison  Discipline," 
by  J.  K.  Kiihne  (St.  GaU,  1873) ;  "  Works  of 
Edward  Livingston  on  Criminal  Jurispru- 
dence" (2  vols.,  New  York,  1873);  "Report 
on  the  Working  of  the  Separate  System  of 
Imprisonment  in  Holland,"  byDeVries  (the 
Hague,  1874)  ;  "National  Education  and  Pun- 
ishments," by  C.  B.  Adderly  (London,  1874); 
Les  etablissements  penitentiaires  en  France  et 
aux  colonies,  by  Viscount  d'Haussonville  (Paris, 
1875) ;  and  "Memorials  of  Millbank  and  Chap- 
ters in  Prison  History,"  by  Arthur  Griffiths  (2 
vols.,  London,  1875).  The  Rimsta  di  disci- 
pline, edited  by  Beltrani  Scalia,  inspector  gen- 
eral of  Italian  prisons,  and  devoted  to  peniten- 
tiary science,  is  published  monthly  in  Rome. 

PRISREVD,  or  Perserin,  a  town  of  European 
Turkey,  capital  of  a  vilayet  of  the  same  name 
in  northern  Albania,  on  the  Rieka  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Drin,  75  m.  E.  of  Scutari ; 
pop.  variously  estimated  at  from  20,000  to 
48,000.  It  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain, 
which  is  commanded  by  a  castle,  where  the 
governor  resides ;  a  Greek  bishop  also  resides 
here.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  manufacture 
of  firearms  and  extensive  traffic. 

PRIVAS,  a  town  of  Languedoc,  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Ard£che,  70  m.  S.  of 
Lyons  ;  pop.  in  1872,  7,836.  It  is  situated  on 
a  steep  ridge  near  the  junction  of  the  Ouveze 
and  M6zayon,  and  contains  a  prefecture  with 
a  park,  a  small  geological  museum,  a  college 
and  primary  normal  school,  and  manufactories 
of  silk  and  other  goods.  It  was  a  stronghold 
of  the  Huguenots,  with  an  almost  exclusively 
Protestant  population.  A  synod  of  all  French 
reformed  churches  was  held  here  in  1612. 
Louis  XIII.  exterminated  the  Protestants  in 
1629,  and  razed  the  fortress  in  which  they 
had  taken  refuge. 

PRIVATEER,  an  armed  private  vessel  which 
bears  the  commission  of  a  state  to  cruise  against 
the  commerce  of  its  enemy.  When  one  sov- 
ereign has  duly  declared  war  against  another, 
all  the  subjects  of  the  former  are  enemies  of 
all  the  subjects  of  the  latter.  From  this  prin- 
ciple of  the  law  of  nations  follows  the  unques- 
tionable corollary,  that  no  citizen  of  one  of 
the  belligerent  states  can  complain  of  the  hos- 
tile acts  of  any  citizen  of  the  other.  There- 
fore, as  far  as  absolute  international  rights  are 
concerned,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  a 
depredation  or  capture  by  a  subject  of  the 
enemy  has  been  expressly  sanctioned  by  his 
sovereign.  The  universal  practice  of  nations, 
however,  condemns  all  unauthorized  hostili- 
ties ;  and  a  capture  or  other  hostile  act  with- 
out the  sanction  of  a  competent  sovereign 
power,  although,  strictly  speaking,  it  would 
not  be  piracy,  yet  would  be  so  much  like  it, 
or  so  irregular  and  odious,  that  it  would  un- 


questionably provoke  the  severest  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  an  enemy  against  those  who  en- 
gaged in  it.  Yet,  though  unauthorized  cap- 
ture of  enemy  property  is  no  offence  under 
the  law  of  nations,  it  is  an  infraction  of  the 
public  law  of  the  captor's  own  state.  For  the 
universal  rule  is  that,  except  in  self-defence, 
only  those  subjects  may  take  part  in  hostili- 
ties who  are  thereto  expressly  or  constructive- 
ly authorized  by  their  sovereign.  But  the  sov- 
ereign may,  if  he  will,  avail  himself  of  the  pri- 
vate vessels  of  his  subjects  by  commissioning 
them  to  seize  the  merchant  ships  of  the  ene- 
my. These  commissioned  private  ships  or  pri- 
vateers are  in  naval  warfare  much  the  same  as 
the  volunteer  corps  are  in  the  land  service.  In 
both  cases  the  commissions  proceeding  from 
the  sovereign  make  those  who  bear  them  the 
instruments  and  servants  of  the  state.  On  the 
sea  it  is  the  letters  of  marque  which  give  that 
interest  in  the  prize  which,  is  the  inducement 
to  engage  in  the  service.  For,  primarily,  all 
prizes  vest  in  the  state,  and  it  is  the  commis- 
sion alone  which,  under  the  municipal  regula- 
tions of  each  state,  defines  the  proportion  of 
the  captured  property  and  the  other  rewards 
which  shall  fall  to  the  privateersman.  (See 
PEIZE.)  To  guard  against  the  excesses  and 
abuses  which  are  incident  to  privateering,  it  has 
been  subjected  to  various  restrictions.  Soine 
states  have  regulated  the  composition  of  the 
crews,  and  have  forbidden  all  cruising  in  the 
rivers  or  along  the  coasts  within  the  sea  line 
of  the  enemy.  Generally  commissions  are 
granted  on  condition  that  the  rights  of  neu- 
trals shall  be  respected,  and  that  belligerent 
rights  shall  in  all  cases  be  enforced  according 
to  the  rules  of  war ;  that  prizes  shall  be  brought 
for  adjudication  before  the  proper  tribunal; 
and  that  the  whole  conduct  of  the  cruise  shall 
be  confined  to  the  instructions  of  government. 
Bonds  are  taken  for  the  due  performance  of 
these  engagements,  and  owners  and  officers 
are  subjected  to  penalties  for  the  violation  of 
them. — Privateering  may  be  regarded  in  two 
aspects,  or  rather  it  may  be  said  that  there  are 
two  kinds  of  privateering,  one  of  which  is  far 
more  legitimate  and  defensible  than  the  other. 
The  former  of  these  kinds  is  that  in  which  the 
citizens  of  one  of  the  states  at  war  sail  under 
their  own  flag  against  the  enemy.  They  find 
employment  in  this  way  for  the  ships  which 
during  war  must  almost  of  necessity  be  with- 
drawn from  trade ;  and  they  contribute  very 
materially  to  the  maritime  strength  of  their 
state.  The  other  and  more  odious  form  of 
privateering  is  that  in  which  a  neutral  accepts 
a  commission  from  one  of  two  belligerents. 
Here  the  legitimacy  of  the  practice  is  not  so 
clear,  at  least  so  far  as  affects  the  neutral.  He 
can  certainly  have  no  patriotic  motive  in  ac- 
cepting such  a  commission.  Such  a  motive  is 
rare  probably  even  when  the  privateer  sails 
under  the  flag  of  his  own  country ;  but  then 
the  country  does  really  derive  some  benefit 
from  the  service,.  In  the  case  supposed,  the 


18 


PRIVATEER 


PRIVET 


neutral  is  a  sort  of  legalized  pirate,  and  so  in- 
deed he  is  regarded  by  those  conventions  and 
treaties  which,  in  condemnation  of  this  abuse 
of  the  international  laws  of  war,  almost  all  na- 
tions have  entered  into.  Indeed,  by  such  con- 
ventions and  treaties,  and  by  the  municipal 
statutes  by  which  nations  forbid  their  subjects 
from  equipping  privateers  or  enlisting  men  for 
service  in  any  foreign  war,  this  species  of  pri- 
vateering seems  to  be  well  nigh  repressed.  Not 
so  the  other.  For  nearly  a  century  the  expe- 
diency of  its  suppression  had  been  at  intervals 
elaborately  discussed ;  yet  in  all  that  period 
but  little  advance  had  been  made  toward  the 
settlement  of  the  question.  In  1856  the  sub- 
ject was  revived  at  the  congress  which  con- 
vened at  Paris  after  the  Crimean  war,  and  the 
states  there  represented  made  mutual  engage- 
ments to  surrender  the  practice  of  privateering. 
The  United  States  had  early  made  an  effort  to 
abolish  it.  In  1785,  and  while  he  was  negotia- 
ting with  Prussia  the  treaty  which  was  after- 
ward concluded,  Dr.  Franklin  wrote :  "  The 
United  States  of  America,  though  better  situa- 
ted than  any  European  nation  to  make  profit 
by  privateering,  are,  so  far  as  in  them  lies, 
endeavoring  to  abolish  the  practice,  by  offer- 
ing in  all  their  treaties  with  other  powers  an 
article  engaging  solemnly  that  in  case  of  future 
war  no  privateer  shall  be  commissioned  on 
either  side,  and  that  unarmed  merchant  ships 
on  both  sides  shall  pursue  their  voyages  unmo- 
lested." Dr.  Franklin  procured  the  insertion 
of  both  these  propositions  in  the  treaty  with 
Prussia.  In  the  subsequent  treaty  of  1799 
with  that  power,  however,  all  provisions  of 
this  character  were  omitted.  In  1792  the  legis- 
lative assembly  of  France  proposed  that  na- 
tions should  agree  by  mutual  conventions  to 
abolish  privateering  and  the  seizure  of  private 
property  on  the  ocean.  The  proposal  met  but 
little  favor,  and  these  practices  were  perhaps 
never  more  extensively  carried  on  than  during 
the  wars  which  followed  the  French  revolu- 
tion. Again  in  1824  the  subject  was  revived, 
when,  on  our  part  again,  it  was  urged  upon 
the  attention  of  the  English  government.  But 
the  plenipotentiaries,  Messrs.  Huskisson  and 
Stratford  Canning,  declined  to  entertain  the 
propositions  of  our  minister,  Mr.  Rush,  and 
he  reported  to  government  that  in  his  opinion 
Great  Britain  was  unwilling,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, to  accede  to  the  abolition  of  pri- 
vate war  upon  the  ocean.  But  a  radical  change 
in  the  sentiments  of  English  publicists  upon 
this  question  is  indicated  by  the  language  of 
Lord  Clarendon  in  1854.  In  submitting  to 
our  ambassador,  Mr.  Buchanan,  the  declara- 
tion respecting  neutrals  which  France  and 
England  afterward  issued,  the  British  minis- 
ter advocated  the  abandonment  of  privateer- 
ing, and  expressed  his  condemnation  of  the 
practice  as  one  which  was  "  inconsistent  with 
modern  civilization."  Mr.  Buchanan  replied, 
that  under  existing  circumstances  it  did  not 
seem  possible  for  the  United  States  to  agree 


to  a  surrender  of  the  practice,  unless  the  naval 
powers  of  the  world  would  go  one  step  further 
and  consent  to  the  abolition  of  all  war  against 
private  property  upon  the  ocean,  as  was  al- 
ready agreed  upon  as  to  private  property  upon 
the  land.  In  answer  to  Mr.  Buchanan's  de- 
spatches, Secretary  Marcy  reminded  the  Brit- 
ish government  that  the  United  States  laws  go 
as  far  as  and  even  further  than  those  of  any 
other  nation  in  prohibiting  its  subjects  from 
entering  into  foreign  privateer  service ;  but  he 
added  that  the  country  would  not  enter  into 
any  convention  whereby  it  would  preclude  it- 
self from  resorting  to  its  merchantmen  in  case 
of  war.  Finally  the  submission  to  our  govern- 
ment of  the  declaration  which  was  signed  at 
Paris  in  1856,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the 
chief  states  of  Europe,  called  for  a  new  con- 
sideration of  the  question.  Besides  provisions 
affecting  the  rights  of  neutrals,  the  convention 
contained  an  article  winch  declared  that  priva- 
teering was  abolished.  The  four  points  of  the 
declaration  were  to  be  regarded  as  an  entirety ; 
they  were  to  be  binding  only  between  those 
powers  which  assented  to  them ;  and  the  states 
that  signed  the  convention  undertook  to  in- 
vite the  accession  of  those  powers  which  were 
not  represented  at  the  congress.  Most  of  the 
secondary  states  of  Europe  and  America  gave 
prompt  adhesion  to  the  articles  of  the  declara- 
tion. The  answer  of  our  government  to  the 
declaration  was,  through  Mr.  Mnrcy,  that  the 
United  States  would  accept  the  whole  of  it  "  in 
case  the  clause  abolishing  privateering  were 
amended  by  adding  that  the  private  property 
of  the  subject  or  citizen  of  a  belligerent  on 
the  high  seas  should  be  exempted  from  seizure 
by  public  armed  vessels  of  the  other  bellige- 
rent, except  it  be  contraband  of  war."  This 
was  declined,  and  there  the  matter  was  suffered 
to  rest  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
in  the  United  States  in  1861,  when  Secretary 
Seward  on  behalf  of  the  government,  in  view 
of  the  resolution  of  the  confederate  govern- 
ment to  issue  letters  of  marque  to  privateers, 
offered  to  assent  to  the  declaration  of  Paris 
without  the  Marcy  amendment ;  but  this  was 
declined  by  the  governments  of  England  and 
France  if  coupled  with  the  condition  that  it 
was  to  be  made  applicable  to  the  case  of  the 
Confederate  States. 

PRIVET  (also  called  in  England  prim  and 
primprint),  a  name  formerly  given  to  the 
primrose,  and  afterward  unaccountably  trans- 
ferred to  ligtutrurn  vulgare,  the  generic  name 
being  the  classical  Latin  one.  It  is  a  shrub 
which  has  been  so  much  cultivated  that  in 
Europe  its  limits  in  a  wild  state  are  quite  lost, 
but  it  is  thought  to  be  indigenous  in  England ; 
it  grows  6  or  8  ft.  high,  with  long  slender 
branches  and  opposite  simple  leaves,  which  in 
mild  climates  are  evergreen,  or  remain  until 
the  new  leaves  appear.  Its  small  white  flowers, 
in  compact  panicles  at  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
have  a  four-toothed  calyx  and  a  four-lobed  co- 
rolla, with  a  short  tube ;  the  fruit  ia  a  spheri- 


PKIVY  COUNCIL 


PRIZE 


19 


cal,  black  berry,  two-celled,  with  one  or  two 
seeds  in  each  cell.  It  belongs  to  the  same  fam- 
ily with  the  olive,  to  which  it  is  closely  related. 
The  privet  is  largely  used  in  Europe  for  orna- 
mental hedges,  and  was  early  in  the  century 
planted  as  a  hedge  in  this  country;  but  while 


Privet  (Ligustrum  vulgare). 

it  has  many  qualities  which  adapt  it  to  the  pur- 
pose, it  is  here  subject  to  a  sudden  blight  or  dis- 
ease which  has  caused  it  to  be  abandoned.     In 
the  older  states  it  has  become  thoroughly  natu- 
ralized through  the  agency  of  birds.     Planted 
in  a  shady  place,  it  is  a  pleasing  ornamental 
shrub,  but  if  exposed  to  the  full  sun  at  noon, 
its  flowers  wither  in  a  day;  it  grows  well  in 
the  drip  of  deciduous  trees,  and  is  especially 
useful  near  the  sea,  where  few  ornamental 
plants  flourish.     The  wood  of  the  privet  is 
hard  and  close-grained,  and  when  of  sufficient 
size  serves  for  turning.     The  leaves  and  bark 
are  bitter,  and  the  smaller  twigs  are  used  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  for  tanning  leather.    The 
young  slender  branches  and  shoots  are  em- 
ployed like  osiers  for  basket  making  and  as 
rithes.     The  berries  afford  a  rose  color  which 
used  in  tinting  maps  and  prints,  and-  dye 
reen  if  alum  is  used  as  a  mordant ;  they  are 
Iso  eaten  by  several  kinds  of  birds.     A  green- 
sh  oil  fit  for  lamps  or  to  make  soap  is  extract- 
"  from  them  by  pressure.     There  are  several 
varieties,  such  as  the  white-,  yellow-,  and  green- 
berried,  the  narrow-leaved,  and  the  variegated 
leaved.     It  is  readily  propagated  by  cuttings 
by  seeds. — The  Japan  privet  (L.  Japonicum) 
las  large,   thick,   shining,   evergreen   leaves, 
hich  are  broader  than  in  the  common  species, 
id  larger,  pure  white,  slightly  fragrant  flow- 
ers.    This  and  a  variegated  form  of  it  are 
charming  greenhouse  shrubs  in  the  northern 
states,  but  grow  in  the  open  air  at  the  south. 
PRIVY  COUNCIL.     See  COUNCIL. 
PRIZE,  any  property  captured  in  virtue  of 
the  rights  of  war.     A  difference  exists  in  prac- 
ice  between  war  on  land  and  on  the  sea  in 


respect  to  private  property.  At  sea  all  the 
property  of  every  citizen  of  a  belligerent 
country  is  liable  to  capture  ;  but  on  land  it  is 
customary  to  respect  private  property.  There 
is,  however,  no  absolute  rule  on  this  subject, 
and  in  the  late  civil  war  both  parties  passed 
acts  for  the  confiscation  of  enemy's  property 
captured  on  land.  Cotton  in  particular,  being 
the  chief  resource  of  the  Confederate  States, 
was  deemed  to  be  peculiarly  a  proper  subject 
of  capture,  and  the  acts  of  congress  providing 
therefor  were  sustained  and  enforced  by  the 
courts. — The  general  rights  of  a  belligerent 
are  to  make  captures  by  his  public  armed  ves- 
sels of  war,  to  grant  commissions  to  private 
persons  for  the  same  object,  and  to  establish 
tribunals  of  prize  for  the  purpose  of  examin- 
ing into  all  maritime  captures,  and  of  judicially 
deciding  upon  their  validity.  .By  the  declara- 
tion of  war  all  the  citizens  of  the  belligerent 
countries  respectively  become  enemies,  and  the 
citizens  of  one  country  may  seize  any  property 
of  the  other  that  they  may  meet  with  at  sea. 
Property  so  seized  belongs  to  the  sovereign 
of  the  country,  and  not  to  the  captors,  unless 
it  is  given  to  them  as  an  act  of  grace  on  the 
part  of  their  sovereign.  For  this  reason,  and 
also  that  the  government  of  the  country  may 
have  the  power  to  limit  and  control  the  ope- 
rations of  the  war,  commissions  are  usually 
granted  by  the  government  to  private  persons, 
authorizing  them  to  make  such  captures,  and 
after  adjudication  by  a  competent  tribunal 
they  are  entitled  to  the  proceeds  of  the  prizes 
thus  taken.  (See  PEIVATEEE.)  It  is  obviously 
necessary  that  when  a  capture  has  been  made 
there  should  be  some  tribunal  with  authority 
to  pass  upon  the  validity  of  the  capture,  and 
to  pronounce  a  decree  of  condemnation  or  ac- 
quittal. It  is  therefore  the  right  and  duty  of 
the  government  of  a  country,  on  the  declara- 
tion of  war,  to  establish  tribunals  of  prize ; 
and  it  is  then  responsible  to  all  foreign  nations 
for  the  correctness  of  the  decisions  therein 
made.  So  far  as  the  property  in  question  is 
concerned,  the  sentence  of  the  prize  court  is 
conclusive  upon  all  the  world.  If  the  sentence 
is  one  of  condemnation,  the  title  of  the  former 
owner  is  divested,  and  all  nations  are  bound  to 
respect  the  new  title  acquired  under  it.  But 
to  give  the  decision  of  the  court  this  effect,  it 
must  appear  conclusively  that  the  court  had 
jurisdiction  over  the  property  in  question. 
The  court  must  be  established  in  the  country 
of  the  captor,  or  in  that  of  his  ally  in  the  war, 
but  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  prize  should 
be  brought  within  a  port  of  one  of  these  coun- 
tries. It  is  the  practice  of  Great  Britain  and  of 
the  United  States  to  adjudicate  upon  captures 
which  have  been  carried  into  a  neutral  port. — 
The  next  question  to  be  considered  is:  Who 
are  enemies,  and  what  property  is  liable  to 
capture  ?  For  this  purpose  not  only  the  native- 
born  citizens  of  the  belligerent  are  considered 
as  enemies,  but  all  persons  who  have  their 
domicile  in  the  hostile  country  ;  and  the  citi- 


20 


PRIZE 


zens  of  a  country  which  is  under  the  permanent 
or  temporary  dominion  of  the  enemies  of  an- 
other country  are  considered  as  the  citizens  of 
the  latter,  and  all  trade  with  them  is  illegal, 
unless  the  government  chooses  to  recognize 
the  country  as  neutral,  in  which  case  courts  of 
justice  are  bound  hy  such  recognition.  It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  a  citizen  of  one  country 
can  expatriate  himself  on  the  breaking  out  of 
war,  in  order  to  acquire  neutral  rights  and 
privileges ;  but  it  is  certain  that  if  he  removes 
in  order  to  mask  his  mercantile  projects  under 
a  neutral  flag,  such  an  act  is  fraudulent  and  of 
no  avail.  But  if  he  has  removed  during  peace, 
and  acquired  a  domicile  in  a  foreign  country, 
he  may  engage  in  trade  with  a  country  which 
is  at  peace  with  his  adopted  country,  although 
at  war  with  that  of  his  nativity.  A  citizen  of 
one  country  residing  and  doing  business  in 
another,  resumes  his  native  character  if,  on 
war  breaking  out,  he  puts  himself  in  itinereto 
return  to  the  country  of  his  birth  or  adoption ; 
but  the  mere  intention  without  some  overt  act 
is  not  sufficient.  A  man  may  have  a  neutral 
residence,  and  yet  his  property  may  acquire  a 
hostile  character.  So,  he  may  be  a  merchant 
in  more  countries  than  one,  and  may  thus  ac- 
quire at  least  a  quasi  domicile  besides  that 
of  his  birth  and  parentage ;  and  this  would 
be  respected  by  the  law,  provided  there  was 
no  indication  of  fraudulent  intention,  that  is, 
of  giving  himself  two  national  characters,  be- 
tween which  he  could  choose  from  time  to 
time,  as  suited  the  exigencies  of  the  moment. 
The  property  of  a  house  of  trade  in  an  enemy's 
country  is  liable  to  condemnation,  whatever 
be  the  domicile  of  the  partners  who  consti- 
tute the  house.  If  some  of  the  partners  have 
a  neutral  residence,  their  separate  property 
will  not  bo  affected  by  the  fact  of  their  being 
connected  with  a  house  of  trade  in  a  hostile 
country.  And  when  a  shipment  is  made  by 
the  house  to  a  partner  in  a  neutral  country,  or 
by  a  partner  in  a  hostile  country  to  a  house 
in  a  neutral  country,  it  depends  upon  the 
question  to  whose  account  and  risk  the  goods 
are  shipped,  whether  they  are  liable  to  be 
condemned  as  prize.  Commercial  factories 
in  a  foreign  country,  which  are  free  from  the 
control  of  the  government  of  that  country,  are 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  country  by 
which  they  are  established,  and  the  nationality 
of  persons  engaged  therein  is  determined  ac- 
cordingly. But  this  exception  does  not  apply 
where  the  government  of  the  country  has  the 
control,  although  peculiar  privileges  are  grant- 
ed to  the  subjects  of  a  particular  nation.  A 
foreign  minister  does  not  lose  his  domicile  in 
his  own  country  by  residing  in  the  foreign  one 
to  which  he  is  accredited ;  but  if  he  engages  in 
trade  there,  he  is,  in  respect  to  such  trade,  con- 
sidered as  a  citizen  of  the  country  where  it  is 
carried  on. — It  sometimes  occurs  that  circum- 
stances will  not  permit  property  captured  at 
sea  to  be  sent  into  port.  The  captor  in  such 
&  case  may  destroy  it,  or  allow  the  master  or 


owner  to  ransom  it.  Such  a  contract  is  valid 
by  the  laws  of  nations,  but  it  is  prohibited  in 
England  by  statute.  By  the  ransom  bill  the 
vessel  is  protected  from  subsequent  capture  un- 
til she  reaches  her  own  country,  or  the  country 
specified  in  the  bill,  provided  there  be  no  devi- 
ation from  the  course  of  the  voyage.  G  enerally 
some  of  the  officers  and  crew  are  retained  as 
hostages,  and  if  they  die,  or  the  vessel  is  lost 
by  a  peril  of  the  sea  before  her  arrival  in  port, 
unless  it  is  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  bill,  tho 
ransom  is  nevertheless  due ;  for  the  captors  do 
not  insure  either  the  safe  arrival  of  the  ves- 
sel or  the  lives  of  the  hostages.  If  the  vessel 
deviates  and  is  afterward  captured  and  con- 
demned, the  better  opinion  seems  to  be  that 
the  price  of  the  ransom  is  to  be  deducted  from 
the  proceeds  of  the  prize  and  given  to  the  first 
captor,  and  the  residue  given  to  the  second. 
If  the  captor  himself  should  after  the  seizure 
be  taken  by  an  enemy's  cruiser,  together  with 
the  ransom  bill,  the  ransom  becomes  part  of 
the  lawful  conquest  of  tho  enemy,  and  the 
debtors  of  tho  ransom  are  consequently  dis- 
charged from  the  contract  under  tho  ransom 
bill. — Tho  right  which  a  captor  acquires  by 
the  seizure  is  an  inchoate  right  merely,  and 
is  subject  to  be  divested  before  condemnation. 
If  there  is  a  recapture,  escape,  or  voluntary 
discharge  of  the  property,  a  court  of  prize 
cannot  proceed  to  adjudication.  By  the  Ro- 
man law  of  jus  pottliminii,  persons  or  things 
taken  by  the  enemy  were  restored  to  their 
former  state  upon  coming  again  into  posses- 
sion of  the  nation  to  which  they  had  belonged. 
Formerly,  as  between  the  belligerents,  the  title 
to  property  captured  passed  after  it  had  been 
in  the  possession  of  the  captors  24  hours ;  and 
if  after  that  time  it  was  recaptured  by  third 
persons,  they  became  tho  absolute  owners  of 
it.  Now,  however,  the  property  of  the  origi- 
nal owners  is  not  divested  until  condemnation, 
and  tho  recaptors  are  merely  entitled  to  sal- 
vage, tho  amount  of  which  is  in  the  United 
States  fixed  by  statute  for  most  cases,  and 
when  not  so  fixed  is  determined  by  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  law.  There  is  some  conflict 
of  authority  whether  the  crew  of  a  vessel  who 
recapture  it  before  condemnation  are  entitled 
to  salvage.  It  would  seem  that  in  the  United 
States  they  are  not,  because  it  is  considered 
to  be  the  duty  of  the  crew  to  do  all  that  they 
can  to  save  the  vessel  until  she  is  condemned. 
If  a  treaty  of  peace  makes  no  particular  pro- 
visions relative  to  captured  property,  it  re- 
mains in  the  same  condition  in  which  the 
treaty  finds  it.  In  England,  as  between  Eng- 
lish subjects,  the  right  of  postliminy  subsists 
to  the  end  of  the  war,  and  foreign  nations 
are  treated  with  the  same  liberality  which  they 
accord  in  similar  circumstances  to  England. 
The  property  of  a  subject  or  an  ally  engaged  in 
commerce  with  the  enemy  is  liable  to  capture ; 
and  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  trade 
be  direct  or  indirect.  The  law  of  nations  per- 
mits vessels  to  sail  and  chase  under  false  colors, 


PRIZE 


21 


but  not  to  fire  a  gun  or  capture  under  them. — 
It  has  become  an  established  principle  of  the 
law  of  nations,  that  a  nation  which  takes  no 
part  in  a  war  shall  have  the  same  rights  which 
it  has  in  time  of  peace,  except  so  far  as  the  ex- 
ercise of  these  rights  would  materially  inter- 
fere with  the  permanent  rights  of  the  belliger- 
ents. Within  her  own  territory,  which  for  this 
and  for  other  purposes  extends  a  marine  league 
from  the  shore,  a  neutral  nation  is  supreme. 
No  belligerent  has  a  right  to  make  a  capture  in 
her  waters,  or  to  arm  or  equip  his  ships  of  war 
in  her  ports,  and  if  either  of  these  things  is 
done  the  neutral  is  bound  to  redress  the  injury. 
A  ship  has  no  right  to  station  itself  in  a  neu- 
tral port  and  send  out  boats  to  make  hostile 
seizures.  The  neutral  nation  may  allow  certain 
privileges  to  one  of  the  belligerents,  but  only 
such  as  she  is  willing  to  allow  to  the  other. 
She  cannot  lend  money  to  one  belligerent,  but 
if  she  is  under  a  previous  stipulation,  made  in 
time  of  peace,  to  furnish  a  given  number  of 
ships  or  troops  to  one  of  the  belligerents,  the 
contract  may  be  complied  with.  If  a  prize  is 
brought  into  a  neutral  port,  the  neutral  govern- 
ment may  exercise  jurisdiction  so  far  as  to  re- 
store the  property  of  its  own  subjects  which 
has  been  illegally  captured.  And  it  has  been 
held  in  the  United  States  that  foreign  ships 
which  offend  against  the  laws  of  that  country 
within  its  jurisdiction  may  be  seized  upon  the 
ocean,  and  brought  back  for  adjudication.  In 
1793  the  government  of  the  United  States  es- 
tablished rules  of  neutrality  which  it  required 
foreign  belligerent  powers  to  observe  in  their 
intercourse  with  this  country.  Among  others 
was  one  which  provided  that  if  an  armed  ves- 
sel of  one  nation  should  depart  from  our  juris- 
diction, no  armed  vessel  within  the  same  port 
and  belonging  to  an  adverse  belligerent  power 
should  depart  until  24  hours  after  the  former. 
It  is  now  a  universally  admitted  principle  of 
the  law  of  nations  that  a  belligerent  has  a 
right  in  time  of  war  to  visit  and  search  all 
vessels  on  the  ocean,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  they  or  their  cargoes  are  hostile  or 
neutral.  This  right  gives  also  as  a  necessary 
incident  the  right  to  seize  and  send  in  the  ves- 
sel for  adjudication,  whenever  its  real  charac- 
ter, or  that  of  its  cargo,  is  justly  open  to  sus- 
picion. The  neutral  must  submit,  and  if  her 
crew  rise  and  endeavor  to  recapture  the  ves- 
sel, it  is  a  hostile  act,  which  subjects  the  vessel 
and  cargo  to  condemnation.  Neutral  goods 
may  be  carried  in  a  belligerent  vessel  even  if 
the  latter  is  armed,  according  to  the  law  in  the 
United  States ;  and  a  neutral  ship  is  not  sub- 
ject to  seizure  if  she  has  belligerent  goods  on 
board.  Attempts  have  been  made  at  different 
times  to  engraft  on  the  law  of  nations  the 
principle  that  free  ships  make  free  goods,  but 
the  law  remains  unchanged,  except  as  it  has 
been  modified  by  treaties  between  particular 
nations.  The  question  whether  a  country, 
which  during  peace  confines  the  trade  of  its 
colonies  to  its  own  subjects,  can  during  war 


open  such  trade  to  a  neutral,  has  been  much 
discussed.  In  England  it  has  been  held  that 
it  cannot;  but  this  rule  has  been  repudiated 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States.  Neu- 
trals are  not  permitted  to  carry  goods  which 
are  contraband  of  war,  or  to  enter  a  blockaded 
port.  (See  BLOCKADE,  and  CONTRABAND.) 
Breach  of  blockade  forfeits  the  vessel,  and  in 
some  cases  the  cargo;  but  according  to  the 
modern  practice,  the  carrying  of  contraband 
goods  only  forfeits  the  goods,  and  the  owner 
of  the  vessel  loses  merely  his  freight  and  ex- 
penses, unless  the  same  person  owns  both  ship 
and  cargo,  or  some  fraud  appears  in  the  trans- 
action, in  which  cases  both  ship  and  cargo  are 
forfeited.  If  an  enemy's  cargo  is  captured  in 
a  neutral  vessel,  the  vessel  has  a  claim  on  the 
captors  for  freight.  But  this  rule  is  limited 
by  the  reason  of  it,  and  if  the  cargo  be  con- 
traband, or  the  voyage  be  quasi  contraband, 
then  the  neutral  vessel  loses  its  freight.  The 
rule  that  freight  is  not  earned  unless  the  goods 
are  carried  to  their  destination,  applies  to  cap- 
ture. But  if  the  captor  takes  the  goods  where 
they  should  have  been  carried,  and  even  if  he 
does  this  substantially  though  not  precisely, 
as  by  bringing  goods  to  Boston  which  were 
destined  to  New  York,  freight  is  due. — All 
seizures  at  sea  are  made  at  the  peril  of  the 
captors.  If,  on  being  sent  in,  the  vessel  and 
cargo  are  acquitted,  the  captors  are  responsible 
for  all  damages  and  costs,  unless  the  capture 
was  made  with  probable  cause.  What  is  prob- 
able cause  is  a  question  of  some  difficulty,  and 
depends  very  much  upon  the  facts  of  each 
particular  case.  In  general,  if  the  papers  ap- 
peared false  or  colorable,  or  were  suppressed, 
mutilated,  or  spoliated ;  if  the  voyage  were  to 
or  from  a  blockaded  port ;  or  if  other  circum- 
stances of  a  like  nature  occurred,  the  captors 
would  be  justified  in  sending  the  vessel  in  for 
adjudication.  After  the  vessel  is  captured,  the 
captors  are  responsible  for  any  loss  which  may 
occur  by  the  negligence,  fault,  or  misconduct 
of  the  prize  officers  and  crew ;  but  they  are 
not  responsible  if  a  loss  occurs  from  accident, 
stress  of  weather,  recapture,  &c. — While  a  ship 
is  forfeited  by  the  master's  disguising  belliger- 
ent property  on  board  as  neutral,  without  the 
authority,  assent,  or  knowledge  of  the  owner, 
this  act  does  not  operate  as  a  breach  of  neu- 
trality as  to  the  goods  on  board  which  are  ac- 
tually neutral  and  proved  to  be  so  by  proper 
documents,  and  belong  to  another  owner  than 
him  who  has  forfeited  the  goods.  If  neutral 
interests  or  property  are  undistinguishably 
mixed  up  with  belligerent  interests  or  proper- 
ty, they  become  liable  themselves  to  all  the 
incidents  and  effects  of  a  belligerent  charac- 
ter. A  resistance  to  search  when  rightfully 
demanded,  an  attempt  at  rescue,  and  seeking 
belligerent  protection  or  receiving  it,  are  all 
breaches  of  the  duty  of  a  neutral.  Some  ques- 
tion has  arisen  as  to  what  is  a  rescue.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  captors  to  put  on  board  persons 
competent  to  navigate  the  vessel  into  port  for 


22 


PRIZE 


PRIZE  MONEY 


adjudication,  and  her  own  master  and  crew  are 
not  bound  to  do  this.  If  the  vessel  is  given  up 
to  them,  and  they  pursue  their  original  course 
against  the  wish  of  the  captors,  this  is  not  a 
rescue.  But  if  the  neutral  crew  undertake  and 
promise  to  navigate  the  vessel  to  the  desired 
port  for  adjudication,  and  the  vessel  is  given 
up  to  them  for  this  purpose,  and  they  violate 
their  promise  and  take  the  vessel  into  their  own 
hands  for  their  own  purposes,  this  is  an  unlaw- 
ful rescue.  Generally  a  cargo  is  considered  as 
liable  to  condemnation  if  any  act  has  been 
committed  by  the  master  which  subjects  the 
ship  to  condemnation.  But  the  cargo  is  not 
liable  to  condemnation  if  it  is  the  property  of 
a  person  other  than  the  owner  of  the  ship,  and 
its  owner  was  not  cognizant  of  the  intended 
violation.  If,  however,  the  owner  of  the  car- 
go gave  the  master  discretionary  power,  he  is 
liable  for  his  acts ;  or  if  the  cargo  was  loaded 
after  notification  of  a  blockade,  the  parties 
having  full  knowledge  of  the  fact.  Resistance 
to  the  right  of  search,  the  rescue  or  recapture 
of  the  ship  by  the  master  and  crew,  and  the 
fraudulent  suppression  or  spoliation  of  papers, 
affect  the  owner  of  the  cargo  as  well  as  the 
owner  of  the  ship.  The  principal  grounds  for 
condemning  a  ship  as  prize,  where  the  ques- 
tion of  nationality  is  in  dispute,  are :  1,  the 
entire  want  of  the  necessary  papers ;  2,  their 
destruction ;  3,  their  material  alteration  or  fal- 
sification ;  4,  the  time  when  the  papers  were 
made  out,  as  whether  before  or  after  the  war, 
is  often  material ;  5,  next  in  importance  is  the 
conduct  of  the  master  and  officers;  6,  their 
prevarication  or  evident  falsehood  in  the  pre- 
liminary proof;  7,  their  refusal  or  inability  to 
give  a  good  account  of  the  ship  and  cargo  ;  8, 
the  domicile  of  the  master  and  officers.  The 
spoliation  of  papers,  by  which  is  meant,  not 
merely  their  total  destruction,  but  such  falsifi- 
cation as  makes  them  useless  or  worse  as  evi- 
dence, is  a  circumstance  of  grave  suspicion, 
though  it  is  open  to  explanation.  Possession 
by  an  enemy  is  presumptive  proof,  though  not 
conclusive,  of  hostile  character.  Ships  are  pre- 
sumed to  belong  to  the  country  under  whose 
flag  they  sail ;  and  it  has  been  thought  that  this 
presumption  should  be  conclusive  as  against 
the  person  using  the  flag.  In  joint  captures  all 
public  ships  of  war  in  sight  are  presumed  to 
assist,  and  therefore  they  are  entitled  to  share 
in  the  proceeds ;  and  this  presumption  extends 
to  all  the  ships  of  a  squadron  united  by  au- 
thority for  a  specific  purpose,  as  for  a  blockade 
for  example,  although  not  actually  in  sight ; 
but  it  does  not  apply  to  privateers,  because 
they  are  not  obliged  to  capture  all  vessels  they 
meet,  as  are  vessels  of  war.  Revenue  cutters, 
as  they  are  generally  employed  to  protect  the 
revenue,  and  have  no  special  injunction  to 
capture  enemy's  vessels,  come  under  the  same 
rule  as  privateers  in  this  respect.  Every  ship 
is  expected  to  have  on  board  the  necessary 
papers  to  establish  her  nationality ;  and  these 
are  the  papers  which  the  law  of  her  own 


country  requires  as  evidence  of  that  character. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  cargoes.  The  sale  of 
a  ship  or  cargo  under  a  decree  of  admiralty, 
founded  on  condemnation  as  prize,  is  valid  and 
binding  upon  all  courts  and  parties,  unless  it  is 
shown  to  be  vitiated  by  fraud.  But  where  an 
attempt  is  made  to  establish  a  revolutionary 
government,  which  fails,  the  adjudications  of 
its  prize  courts  and  the  sales  based  upon  them 
will  not  be  recognized,  as  was  held  in  the  case 
of  the  late  Confederate  States. 

PRIZE  MONEY.  The  distribution  of  prize 
money,  or  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  ships 
or  goods  adjudged  by  courts  of  admiralty  to  be 
good  prize,  is  carefully  regulated  by  statutes 
of  the  United  States.  The  10th  section  of  the 
act  of  June  30, 1864,  provides  as  follows :  "  The 
net  proceeds  of  all  property  condemned  as 
prize  shall,  when  the  prize  was  of  superior  or 
of  equal  force  to  the  vessel  or  vessels  making 
the  capture,  be  decreed  to  the  captors ;  and 
when  of  inferior  force,  one  half  shall  be  de- 
creed to  the  United  States  and  the  other  half 
to  the  captors :  provided  that,  in  case  of  pri- 
vateers and  letters  of  marque,  the  whole  shall 
be  decreed  to  the  captors,  unless  it  shall  be 
otherwise  provided  in  the  commissions  issued 
to  such  vessels.  All  prize  money  adjudged  to 
the  captors  shall  be  distributed  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions,  namely:  1.  To  the  command- 
ing officer  of  a  fleet  or  squadron,  one  twentieth 
part  of  all  prize  money  awarded  to  any  ves- 
sel under  his  immediate  command.  2.  To  the 
commanding  officer  of  a  division  of  a  fleet 
or  squadron,  on  duty  under  the  orders  of  the 
commander-in-chief  of  such  fleet  or  squadron, 
a  sum  equal  to  one  fiftieth  part  of  any  prize 
money  awarded  to  a  vessel  of  such  division 
for  a  capture  made  while  under  his  command, 
the  said  fiftieth  part  to  be  deducted  from 
the  moiety  due  to  the  United  States,  if  there 
bo  such  moiety,  otherwise  from  the  amount 
awarded  to  the  captors:  provided  that  such 
fiftieth  part  shall  not  be  in  addition  to  any 
share  which  may  be  due  to  the  commander 
of  the  division,  and  which  he  may  elect  to  re- 
ceive as  commander  of  a  single  ship  making  or 
assisting  in  the  capture.  3.  To  the  fleet  cap- 
tain, one  hundredth  part  of  all  prize  money 
awarded  to  any  vessel  or  vessels  of  the  fleet 
or  squadron  in  which  he  is  serving,  except  in 
case  where  the  capture  is  made  by  the  vessel 
on  board  of  which  he  is  serving  at  the  time  of 
such  capture,  and  in  such  case  he  shall  share  in 
proportion  to  his  pay  with  the  other  officers 
and  men  on  board  such  vessel,  as  is  herein- 
after provided.  4.  To  the  commander  of  a 
single  ship,  one  tenth  part  of  all  the  prize 
money  awarded  to  the  ship  under  his  com- 
mand, if  such  ship  at  the  time  of  the  capture 
was  under  the  command  of  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  fleet  or  squadron,  or  a  division,  and 
three  twentieths  if  his  ship  was  acting  inde- 
pendently of  such  superior  officer.  5.  After 
the  foregoing  deductions,  the  residue  shall  be 
distributed  and  proportioned  among  all  others 


PROBATE 


23 


doing  duty  on  board  (including  the  fleet  cap- 
tain), and  borne  upon  the  books  of  the  ship, 
in  proportion  to  their  respective  rates  of  pay 
in  the  service.  No  commanding  officer  of  a 
fleet  or  squadron  shall  be  entitled  to  receive 
any  share  of  prizes  captured  by  any  vessel  or 
vessels  not  under  his  command,  nor  of  such 
prizes  as  may  have  been  captured  by  any  ships 
or  vessels  intended  to  be  placed  under  his 
command,  before  they  have  acted  under  his 
orders ;  nor  shall  the  commanding  officer  of 
a  fleet  or  squadron,  leaving  the  station  where 
he  had  command,  have  any  share  in  the  prizes 
taken  by  ships  left  on  such  station  after  he 
has  gone  out  of  the  limits  of  his  said  com- 
mand, nor  after  he  has  transferred  his  com- 
mand to  his  successor.  No  officer  or  other  per- 
son who  shall  have  been  temporarily  absent  on 
duty  from  a  vessel  on  the  books  of  which  he 
continued  to  be  borne,  while  so  absent,  shall 
be  deprived,  in  consequence  of  such  absence,  of 
any  prize  money  to  which  he  would  otherwise 
be  entitled.  And  he  shall  continue  to  share 
in  the  captures  of  the  vessel  to  which  he  is  at- 
tached until  regularly  discharged  therefrom." 
PROBATE,  in  law,  the  proof,  before  the  com- 
petent authority,  that  an  instrument  offered 
purporting  to  be  the  last  will  and  testament 
of  a  person  deceased  is  indeed  his  lawful  act. 
Until  the  act  20  and  21  Victoria,  c.  77  (1857), 
amended  the  law  relating  to  probates  and  let- 
ters of  administration  in  England,  the  custody 
of  the  estates  of  all  deceased  persons  vested 
there  primarily  in  the  ordinaries  or  bishops  of 
dioceses,  subject  only  to  the  exceptional  rights 
of  the  crown  or  of  lords  in  respect  to  certain 
manors.  The  new  act  of  1857  abolished  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  conferred 
full  and  exclusive  authority  over  all  testamen- 
tary causes  upon  the  queen,  to  be  exercised  in 
her  name  in  a  court  to  be  called  the  court  of 
probate.  Ecclesiastical  courts  never  existed 
in  the  United  States ;  but .  from  the  very  set- 
tlement of  the  country  the  office  and  functions 
of  the  English  ordinaries  have  been  exercised 
here  by  similar  officers  under  various  titles, 
such  as  surrogate,  register  of  wills,  judge  of 
probate,  and  ordinary,  and  generally  with  larger 
powers  than  those  functionaries  possessed.  In 
some  states  the  county  courts,  and  in  others 
the  orphans'  courts,  grant  letters  of  probate. 
These  several  judicatures  have  different  pow- 
ers, some  only  concerning  themselves  with 
the  factum  of  a  will,  leaving  its  construction, 
or  the  operation  and  effect  of  its  particular 
provisions,  to  the  courts  of  law  ;  but  others  are 
vested  with  complete  jurisdiction  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  administration,  subject  to 
appeal  to  some  higher  court.  In  England  the 
rule  has  been  that  probate  was  necessary  of 
such  instruments  only  as  were  testamentary 
and  regarded  personal  property.  If  they  af- 
fected lands  alone  they  needed  not  to  be  proved 
in  the  spiritual  courts.  In  this  country  the 
general  rule  by  statute  is  that  no  will  is  effec- 
tual to  pass  either  real  or  personal  estate  unless 


it  has  been  duly  proved  and  allowed  in  the 
probate  court ;  and  so  long  as  the  probate  re- 
mains unreversed  on  appeal,  the  due  execution 
of  the  will,  the  sanity  or  capacity  of  the  testa- 
tor, and  the  attestation  of  the  witnesses,  cannot 
be  called  in  question  in  the  courts  of  common 
law.  The  same  rule  is  in  some  states  observed 
in  respect  to  wills  once  admitted  to  probate, 
though  they  were  made  and  executed  in  other 
states  according  to  forms  not  sufficient  where 
they  were  approved.  In  some  states  the  pro- 
bate of  wills  of  lands  is  prima  facie  evidence, 
but  not  conclusive,  of  the  due  execution  of 
these  instruments ;  in  others  the  probate  be- 
comes conclusive  in  these  respects  after  the 
lapse  of  a  certain  number  of  years. — In  most 
of  the  states  the  procedure  of  the  court  upon 
probate  is  fixed  by  the  legislature,  and  the 
common  law  distinction  between  probate  in 
common  form  and  in  solemn  form  has  in  great 
measure  disappeared.  A  will  is  said  to  be 
proved  in  common  form  when  the  executor 
presents  it  to  the  court,  and,  without  summon- 
ing any  of  the  parties  interested,  calls  one  or 
more  witnesses  to  prove  its  execution.  The 
objection  to  this  mode  of  proof  was,  at  common 
law,  that  at  any  time  within  30  years  the  ex- 
ecutor might  be  called  upon  by  any  party  in 
interest  to  make  proof  in  solemn  form.  Proof 
is  made  in  solemn  form,  or  by  form  of  law  or 
per  testes,  when  all  persons  whose  interests  are 
to  be  affected  by  the  will  have  been  duly  noti- 
fied to  be  present,  and  have  had  opportunity 
to  be  heard  in  the  premises.  This  is  now  the 
usual  mode  of  proof  in  the  United  States,  and 
after  the  will  is  approved  in  this  way  it  is  for 
ever  binding.  The  method  of  proof,  however, 
like  many  other  points  of  probate  practice,  is 
often  regulated  by  particular  statute  provisions. 
The  testimony  which  the  judge  calls  for  at  the 
hearing  relates  to  the  factum  of  the  will,  as 
the  phrase  is.  The  question  being  whether  the 
instrument  is  a  will  or  not,  it  is  of  the  first 
importance  to  inquire  into  the  capacity  of  the 
testator,  and  whether  he  did  in  fact  execute 
the  alleged  will  as  it  purports  to  have  been 
executed.  It  is  to  furnish  evidence  on  both 
these  points  that  disinterested  persons  are  in- 
vited to  witness  the  execution  of  a  will.  These 
attesting  witnesses  are  then  most  essential  par- 
ties in  a  question  of  probate.  Generally  all 
of  them  must  be  summoned  if  they  are  living 
within  the  process  of  the  court ;  but  if  from 
death  or  absence  from  the  country,  or  from 
incompetency  arising  since  the  attestation,  any 
witness  cannot  be  produced,  the  will  may  be 
proved  by  the  others  and  by  proof  of  the  hand- 
writing of  the  party  who  fails.  If  all  are 
dead,  or  out  of  the  court's  jurisdiction,  the 
handwriting  of  all  must  be  proved ;  and  prob- 
ably in  such  a  case  the  handwriting  of  the 
testator  also.  The  attestation  clause  is  gener- 
ally framed  with  a  regard  to  the  requirements 
which  the  statutes  of  the  state  where  it  is 
made  render  essential  to  the  valid  execution 
of  a  will.  If  the  evidence  of  the  witnesses 


PROBOSCIDIANS 


PROCESS 


shows  plainly  that  these  requirements  were 
not  followed,  the  presumption  of  a  valid  exe- 
cution furnished  by  the  recital  of  them  is  over- 
set ;  but  if  the  subscribing  witnesses  have 
lost  all  recollection  of  the  particulars  of  the 
transaction,  the  formal  execution  will  gener- 
ally be  presumed  and  the  will  admitted  to 
probate.  Failure  of  memory  on  the  part  of 
one  of  the  witnesses  may  often  be  supplied  by 
the  evidence  of  another  or  of  the  rest  of  them. 
In  affixing  his  name,  an  attesting  witness  is 
regarded  as  certifying  the  capacity  of  the 
testator.  His  subsequent  attempt  to  impeach 
the  instrument  by  declaring  that  the  testator 
did  not  execute  the  will  with  an  intelligent 
and  disposing  mind  is  justly  open  to  suspicion. 
Evidence  of  this  character  is  not  to  be  en- 
tirely rejected,  though  it  avails  little  without 
the  support  of  other  testimony.  When  30 
years  have  passed  since  the  death  of  the  testa- 
tor, a  will  is  said  to  prove  itself ;  the  subscri- 
bing witnesses  being  presumed  dead,  the  bare 
production  of  the  instrument  suffices.  The 
will  must  however  have  come  from  a  custody 
which  forbids  question  of  its  genuineness,  and 
be  in  other  respects  free  from  suspicion,  or  the 
genuineness  must  in  some  way  be  proved. — 
Wills  alleged  to  have  been  lost,  destroyed,  or 
mislaid,  may  be  admitted  to  probate  on  proof 
of  those  facts,  and  on  clear  and  satisfactory 
evidence  of  their  contents.  For  a  noted  in- 
stance of  this,  see  GAINES,  MYKA  CLARK. 

PROBOSCIDIANS,  a  division  of  the  old  order 
of  pachyderms,  elevated  by  Owen  into  an 
order  by  themselves.  They  include  the  living 
elephant  and  the  fossil  mammoth  and  masto- 
don. They  are  characterized  by  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  nose  into  a  cylindrical  trunk  or 
proboscis,  at  the  extremity  of  which  are  the 
nostrils.  The  proboscis  is  very  flexible  and 
sensitive,  terminating  in  a  finger-like  prehen- 
sile lobe.  Prof.  Cope  in  the  summer  of  1872 
discovered  in  the  eocene  of  Wyoming  several 
proboscidians,  of  the  genus  eobcuileut,  largo 
and  robust,  seeming  to  connect  the,  elephant 
with  the  rhinoceros  and  dinotherium.  (See 
"American  Naturalist"  for  December,  1872.) 

PUOKI'S,  Harms  Anrflins,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  in  Sirmium,  Pnnnonia,  about  A.  D.  280, 
assassinated  there  in  282.  While  he  was  very 
young  the  emperor  Valerian  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  tribune.  Ho  commanded  successively 
the  3d  and  10th  legions,  and  served  in  Africa 
and  Pontus,  on  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  Nile.  Under  Aurelian  he 
reconquered  Egypt,  which  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  Zenobia;  and  the  emperor  Tacitus 
made  him  commander-in-chief  in  the  eastern 
provinces.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor  in 
276  the  armies  of  the  East  forced  him  to  as- 
sume the  imperial  purple,  and  the  death  of  his 
rival  Florianns  soon  left  him  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  world.  He  recovered  70  towns  from 
the  Germans,  destroyed  400,000  of  the  invaders, 
and  drove  the  remainder  across  the  Rhine. 
Penetrating  into  Germany,  he  exacted  a  heavy 


tribute  of  grain,  cattle,  and  horses,  and  a  resti- 
tution of  the  property  carried  away  from  the 
Roman  provinces,  and  made  a  levy  of  16,000 
recruits  for  the  Roman  army.  He  built  a  stone 
wall  from  the  neighborhood  of  Neustadt  and 
Ratisbon  on  the  Danube  to  Wimpfen  on  the 
Neckar,  and  thence  to  the  Rhine,  nearly  200 
m.  He  secured  the  frontier  of  Rheetia,  crushed 
the  power  of  the  Sarmatians,  admitted  the 
Goths  to  an  alliance,  and  took  several  castles 
from  the  Isaurians.  He  suppressed  the  rebel- 
lion of  Saturninus,  the  commander  of  the  east- 
ern army,  and  the  revolt  of  Bonosus  and  Pro- 
culus  in  the  West,  and  returning  to  Rome  cele- 
brated a  triumph.  To  maintain  the  discipline 
of  his  troops,  he  constantly  employed  them  in 
active  labor,  and  the  hills  of  Gaul  and  Panno- 
nia  by  their  toil  were  enriched  with  vineyards. 
This  system  irritated  the  soldiers,  and  finally 
an  unguarded  remark,  that  the  establishment 
of  universal  peace  would  render  a  standing 
army  unnecessary,  excited  an  insurrection  in 
his  camp  near  Sirmium,  and  Probus  fled  to  a 
tower ;  but  the  troops  forced  his  retreat,  and 
put  him  to  death.  He  was  succeeded  by  Carus. 
PROCESS,  in  law,  a  term  which,  in  a  large 
sense,  signifies  the  whole  proceedings  in  any 
action,  civil  or  criminal,  real  or  personal,  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end.  In  a  narrower  and 
more  technical  sense,  the  term  is  applied  to 
different  stages  of  the  procedure ;  as  is  seen 
in  the  terms  original  process,  which  includes 
those  precepts  or  writs  by  which  one  is  called 
into  court ;  final  process,  or  the  forms  of  pro- 
cedure by  which  judgment  is  carried  into  exe- 
cution ;  and  mesne  process,  which  covers  the 
proceedings  between  the  other  two,  and  em- 
braces all  proceedings  properly  so  called,  nil 
writs  for  compelling  the  attendance  of  jurors 
or  witnesses,  and  for  other  collateral  purposes. 
Mesne  and  final  process  are  sometimes  collec- 
tively described  by  the  term  judicial  process, 
because  proceedings  in  these  stages  of  an  ac- 
tion were  authorized  immediately  by  the  courts, 
and  issued  under  the  hands  and  seals  of  their 
presiding  judges.  Original  process,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  so  called  because  it  was  found- 
ed on  the  original  writ,  which,  issuing  out  of 
chancery,  and  bearing  the  teste  of  the  sovereign, 
conferred  jurisdiction  on  the  court  to  which 
it  was  addressed,  and  founded  its  authority 
over  the  matter  in  controversy.  In  the  strict 
technical  sense,  process  is  the  means  employed 
for  bringing  the  defendant  into  court  to  answer 
to  the  action.  The  first  step  therefore  in  the 
ancient  procedure  was  to  give  the  defendant 
notice  of  the  issue  and  pendency  of  the  origi- 
nal writ.  This  notice  was  given  ordinarily  by 
summons,  which  was  a  warning  to  the  party 
to  appear  at  the  return  of  the  writ,  and  was 
served  upon  him  by  the  sheriff  or  some  of  his 
messengers.  If  the  defendant  disregarded  this 
monition,  the  next  step  was  a  writ  of  attach- 
ment, bidding  the  sheriff  to  take  certain  of  his 
goods  to  be  forfeited  if  he  failed  to  appear,  or 
to  take  the  pledges  of  certain  sureties  of  the 


PROCESS 


PKOCLUS 


25 


defendant,  who  should  be  amerced  in  case  of 
his  non-appearance.  If  the  sheriff  made  re- 
turn that  the  defendant  had  no  goods  whereby 
he  could  be  attached,  or  if  after  attachment 
he  failed  to  appear,  the  court  issued  a  writ  of 
capias  commanding  the  sheriff  to  take  the  de- 
fendant's body.  This  writ  and  all  others  sub- 
sequent to  it  were  called  judicial,  because,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  they  proceeded  imme- 
diately from  the  court,  and  not  from  chancery. 
The  proceedings  before  capias  became  in  time 
merely  formal,  and  it  was  usual  to  sue  this  out 
in  the  first  instance  upon  a  supposed  return  of 
the  sheriff.  The  old  and  somewhat  compli- 
cated and  inconvenient  process  for  the  com- 
mencement of  suits  is  now  abolished  in  Eng- 
land, and  a  simple  summons  supplies  the  place. 
— The  proceedings  in  civil  suits  vary  in  the 
different  states  of  the  Union,  and  frequently  in 
different  courts  of  the  same  state.  In  some 
states  the  old  common  law  procedure,  modified 
more  or  less  by  statute,  is  in  use,  while  in 
others  a  code  of  civil  procedure  similar  to  that 
of  New  York  has  been  adopted.  (See  CODE, 
vol.  v.,  p.  10.)  The  necessary  proceedings  in 
the  regular  course  of  a  civil  suit  in  the  New 
York  supreme  court,  to  which  a  defence  is  in- 
terposed, are  as  follows:  1.  The  service,  by 
delivering  a  copy  to  the  defendant  personally, 
of  a  summons,  which  may  or  may  not  be  ac- 
companied with  the  complaint,  and  which  re- 
quires answer  to  be  made  to  the  complaint 
within  20  days,  and  contains  a  notice,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  suit,  that  in  default 
of  answer  judgment  will  be  taken  for  a  spe- 
cified sum,  or  that  application  will  be  made 
to  the  court  for  the  relief  demanded  in  the 
complaint,  a.  The  service  within  20  days  on 
plaintiff's  attorney  by  defendant's  attorney  of 
a  notice  of  appearance  in  the  suit,  with  a  de- 
mand for  a  copy  of  the  complaint.  &.  The 
service  within  20  days  by  plaintiff's  attorney 
on  defendant's  attorney  of  a  copy  of  the  com- 
plaint, setting  forth  the  grounds  of  the  suit 
and  demanding  the  appropriate  judgment.  2. 
The  service  within  20  days  on  plaintiff's  at- 
torney by  defendant's  attorney  of  a  copy  of 
the  answer,  containing  a  denial  of  the  allega- 
tions of  the  complaint,  or  new  matter,  such  as 
payment,  constituting  a  defence  to  the  plain- 
tiff's claim,  c.  If  the  answer,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case,  contains  an  affirmative  claim  against 
the  plaintiff,  the  service  within  20  days  by 
plaintiff's  attorney  on  defendant's  attorney  of 
a  reply  interposing  a  denial  or  defence  to  such 
claim.  3.  The  service  by  the  attorney  of 
either  party  desiring  to  bring  on  the  case  for 
trial,  on  the  attorney  for  the  other  party,  of  a 
notice  of  trial  at  least  14  days  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  term  of  court  for  which  the  no- 
tice is  given.  4.  The  filing  with  the  clerk  of 
the  court,  at  least  eight  days  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  term,  by  the  attorney  giving 
notice  of  trial,  of  a  note  of  issue  containing 
certnin  particulars  to  enable  the  clerk  to 
place  the  case  on  the  calendar  of  the  court. 


5.  The  trial,  with  or  without  a  jury  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  suit,  when  the  case  is 
reached  in  its  order  on  the  calendar.  6.  The 
filing  in  the  clerk's  office  by  the  attorney  for 
the  prevailing  party  of  the  judgment  roll,  con- 
sisting of  a  certified  copy  of  the  clerk's  min- 
utes taken  on  the  trial  and  a  statement  of  the 
judgment  drawn  up  by  the  attorney,  together 
with  the  summons,  complaint,  answer,  &c. 
7.  The  issuing  by  the  attorney  for  the  prevail- 
ing party  of  an  execution  to  the  sheriff,  who 
returns  the  same  within  60  days,  satisfied  or 
unsatisfied  as  the  case  may  be.  When  the 
complaint  is  served  with  the  summons,  a  and 
5  are  not  required.  There  are  numerous  col- 
lateral and  subsidiary  proceedings  which  may, 
and  some  of  which  commonly  do  occur  in  a 
suit.  The  time  for  the  service  of  papers  may 
be  extended  by  the  court.  When  the  losing 
party  desires  to  appeal  from  the  judgment,  he 
must  upon  notice  to  the  other  party  have  a 
"  case  "  settled  by  the  judge,  which  shall  pre- 
sent the  question  to  be  considered  by  the  higher 
court.  A  notice  of  appeal  must  be  served  on 
the  prevailing  party  by  the  appellant  within 
30  days  after  he  shall  have  received  written 
notice  of  the  judgment,  and  he  must  also  serve 
on  the  prevailing  party  printed  copies  of  the 
case.  Either  party  may  serve  on  the  other  a 
notice  of  argument  and  file  a  note  of  issue, 
when  the  case  is  placed  on  the  calendar  of  the 
appellate  court  and  argument  had  and  judg- 
ment entered  in  due  course.  The  appeal  in 
the  first  instance  is  to  the  general  term  of 
three  judges,  and  from  their  decision  another 
appeal  may  be  taken  in  similar  manner  to  the 
court  of  appeals.  When  the  appellant  desires 
all  proceedings  to  enforce  the  judgment  to  be 
stayed  pending  the  appeal,  he  must  furnish  an 
undertaking  with  sureties  to  the  effect  that  he 
will  pay  the  judgment  with  costs  and  dam- 
ages if  it  be  affirmed. — In  the  criminal  law 
process  applies  in  an  extensive  sense  to  all 
those  instruments  which  are  used  by  compe- 
tent authority  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  a 
party  into  court,  or  of  executing  the  judgment 
of  the  law  upon  him. 

PROCLl'S,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school,  born  in  Constantinople  in  A. 
D.  412,  died  in  Athens  in  485.  In  his  child- 
hood he  lived  at  Xanthus  in  Lycia,  afterward 
for  several  years  in  Alexandria,  studying  un- 
der the  most  eminent  teachers,  and  before  he 
was  20  years  old  removed  to  Athens.  On 
the  death  of  Syrianus  he  succeeded  him  in 
the  school  at  Athens,  and  hence  is  sometimes 
called  Diadochus  (the  successor).  He  adopted 
the  ascetic  system  which  became  common  in 
the  later  Nee-Platonic  school,  abstained  almost 
entirely  from  animal  food,  refused  to  marry, 
spent  his  money  freely  in  acts  of  benevolence, 
and  observed  numerous  fasts  and  vigils.  He 
worshipped  the  sun  and  moon,  the  spirits  of 
heroes  and  philosophers,  and  even  the  spir- 
its of  the  whole  human  race,  and  celebrated 
all  important  religious  festivals,  no  matter  of 


26 


PROCONSUL 


what  nation.  In  addition  to  his  religious  ex- 
ercises, he  delivered  five  lectures  a  day.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  mathematician  and 
grammarian.  His  extant  works  consist  chiefly 
of  commentaries,  principally  on  Plato.  One 
of  his  original  works  is  entitled  "Twenty-two 
Arguments  against  the  Christians,"  in  which 
he  endeavored  to  maintain  the  eternity  of  the 
universe.  As  a  writer  he  is  usually  regarded 
as  one  of  the  clearest  of  his  school,  but  as 
a  philosopher  his  reputation  has  never  stood 
high.  There  is  no  complete  edition  of  his  ex- 
tant productions;  the  best  is  by  Cousin  (6 
vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1820-'27).  Translations  of 
several  of  his  works  have  been  made  into 
English  by  Thomas  Taylor. 

PROCONSUL,  a  Roman  magistrate  who  acted 
for  the  consul  in  the  government  of  a  province, 
and  was  almost  always  one  who  had  previously 
'been  consul.  The  first  proconsul  was  Q.  Pub- 
lilius  Philo,  who  in  327  B.  C.  was  at  the  head 
of  the  army  in  the  second  Samnite  war  when 
his  consular  year  closed,  and  was  then  contin- 
ued in  the  function  beyond  his  time  because 
his  recall  would  have  destroyed  the  advantages 
already  gained. 

PROCOPIUS,  a  Byzantine  historian,  born  in 
Coosarea,  Palestine,  about  A.  D.  500,  died  about 
5C5.  He  early  removed  to  Constantinople,  and 
became  distinguished  as  an  advocate.  In  527 
he  was  chosen  secretary  by  Beliaarius,  and 
accompanied  him  in  his  wars  against  the  Per- 
sians, the  Vandals  in  Africa,  and  the  Goths  in 
Italy,  where  he  had  charge  of  the  commissariat 
department,  and  was  at  the  head  of  the  fleet. 
Returning  to  Constantinople  about  542,  he  re- 
ceived from  the  emperor  Justinian  the  title  of 
illustris  and  the  position  of  senator,  and  in 
562  was  made  prefect  of  the  city.  The  most 
important  work  of  Procopius  is  his  elegant 
and  interesting  "History"  of  his  own  times 
in  eight  books.  It  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Sir  Henry  Holcroft  (fol.,  London, 
1653).  Another  work,  entitled  Anecdota, 
probably  by  Procopius,  though  the  authorship 
is  questioned,  consists  of  a  collection  of  anec- 
dotes portraying,  and  here  and  there  perhaps 
spitefully  caricaturing,  the  morals  of  the  By- 
zantine court.  An  English  translation  of  it 
was  published  anonymously  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Secret  History  of  the  Court  of  the  Em- 
peror Justinian  "  (London,  1674).  The  best 
edition  of  Procopius's  collected  works  is  by 
Dindorf  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1833-'8).— See  Proco- 
pius von  Uilsarea,  by  Dahn  (Berlin,  1865). 

PROCOPIIS.  I.  Andrew,  called  the  Great,  a 
leader  of  the  Hussites,  born  toward  the  close 
of  the  14th  century,  died  at  Bohmisch-Brod, 
Bohemia,  May  30,  1484.  He  was  adopted  and 
educated  by  his  uncle,  a  nobleman  in  Prague, 
who  travelled  with  him  through  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Holy  Land.  On  his  return  he 
received  clerical  orders,  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Hussite  war  he  joined  the  sectarians,  rose 
to  the  rank  of  a  captain,  and  relieved  the  be- 
sieged town  of  Lundenburg  in  Moravia.  In 


PROCTER 

1423  he  gained  a  victory  at  Kremsier,  and  in 
1424,  on  the  death  of  Ziska,  the  Taborites 
elected  him  their  leader.  In  conjunction  with 
other  Hussite  captains  he  devastated  Austria, 
Franconia,  Saxony,  and  Silesia.  Procopius  the 
Small  joined  him  in  1427,  and  the  concentra- 
tion against  them  of  German  forces  from  all 
sides  led  to  a  general  confederation  of  the  va- 
rious Hussite  parties  under  his  banner.  With 
this  considerable  army  he  defeated  the  Ger- 
mans, ravaged  the  whole  of  Silesia  and  Mora- 
via, and  penetrated  as  far  as  Presburg  in  Hun- 
gary. In  1429  he  turned  to  the  north  and 
pillaged  and  destroyed  everything  before  him 
in  order  to  weaken  the  power  of  the  Germans. 
In  1430  he  led  un  army  of  about  75,000  men 
into  Franconia  and  Lower  Bavaria,  burning 
about  100  towns  and  castles  and  more  than 
1,000  villages  on  his  way.  Cardinal  Julian 
finally  succeeded  in  gathering  another  army  of 
German  crusaders.  Frederick  of  Brandenburg 
took  the  command,  and  occupied  Bohemia; 
but  when  Procopins  appeared  with  his  forces, 
the  Germans  at  once  took  to  flight  (Aug.  14, 
1431).  Procopius  continued  his  devastations 
in  Silesia,  Hungary,  and  Saxony,  but  finally 
sold  a  truce  of  two  years  to  Silesia  and  Sax- 
ony for  large  sums  of  money.  In  1483  he 
attended  the  council  of  Basel,  where  he  de- 
fended with  much  spirit  the  creed  of  his  party, 
attacking  especially  the  order  of  the  monks, 
which  he  called  an  invention  of  the  devil. 
Tired  of  the  long  disputations,  he  finally  re- 
fused further  to  attend  the  council,  and  re- 
turned to  Bohemia.  Ten  theologians  and  sev- 
eral princely  legates  were  thereupon  sent  to 
Prague  to  continue  the  conference,  and  they 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  compromise  with 
the  Calixtines.  Procopius,  not  satisfied  with 
the  new  articles  of  faith,  besieged  the  city  of 
Pilsen,  and  when  the  Calixtinos  had  formally 
accepted  the  Compactata  he  turned  his  arms 
against  them.  The  decisive  battle  was  fought 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bohmisch-Brod,  E.  of 
Prague,  May  80,  1434,  where  Procopius  was 
defeated  and  killed.  (See  HUSSITES.)  II.  The 
Small,  the  leader  of  the  Hussite  party  of  Or- 
phanites,  joined  Procopius  the  Great  in  1427, 
shared  with  him  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and 
died  at  his  side. 

PROCRISTES  (Gr.  TipoKpoliarriq,  the  stretcher), 
the  surname  of  Polypemon  or  Damastes,  a 
legendary  robber  of  Attica,  who  had  an  iron 
bed  upon  which  he  placed  all  the  travellers 
who  fell  into  his  hands.  If  they  were  longer 
than  the  bed,  he  cut  enough  from  their  limbs 
to  make  them  fit;  if  they  were  shorter,  he 
stretched  them.  He  was  slain  by  Theseus  on 
Mt.  C«phissus. 

PROCTER.  I.  Bryan  Wader,  an  English  poet, 
better  known  by  his  anagrammatic  pseudonyms 
of  Barry  Cornwall,  born  in  London  about  1790, 
died  there,  Oct.  5,  1874.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  passed  some  time  in  the  office  of  a 
solicitor  in  Wiltshire,  removed  to  London,  and 
in  1831  was  called  to  the  bar  from  Gray's  Inn. 


PROCTOR 


PROKESCH-OSTEN 


27 


For  several  years  he  was  a  commissioner  in 
lunacy,  resigning  in  1 86 1 .  His  first  publication 
was  a  volume  entitled  "  Dramatic  Scenes  and 
other  Poems"  (1819),  which  was  followed  by 
"  Marcian  Colonna,  an  Italian  Tale ;  with  three 
Dramatic  Scenes,  and  other  Poems "  (1820) ; 
"  A  Sicilian  Story,  with  Diego  de  Montilla  and 
other  Poems  "  (1820) ;  "  Mirandola,  a  Tragedy" 
(1821);  "The  Flood  of  Thessaly  and  other 
Poems;"  "Poetical  Works"  (3  vols.,  1822); 
"Effigies  Poeticse"  (1824);  "English  Songs 
and  other  Small  Poems"  (1832);  "Life  of 
Edmund  Ivean"  (1835);  "Essays  and  Tales  in 
Prose  "(1851);  and  "  Charles  Lamb,  a  Memoir" 
(1866).  His  "Mirandola"  was  produced  with 
success  at  Covent  Garden  in  1821.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  songs,  some  of  which  are  singu- 
larly well  adapted  to  music,  and  are  equally 
refined  in  sentiment  and  diction.  All  his  pub- 
lications appeared  under  his  assumed  name  of 
Barry  Cornwall.  II.  Adelaide  Anne,  a  poetess, 
daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London, 
Oct.  30,  1825,  died  there,  Feb.  2,  1864.  She 
published  "  Legends  and  Lyrics,  a  Book  of 
Verse"  (1858),  and  "A  Second  Volume  of 
Legends  and  Lyrics"  (1860).  Both  series  with 
new  poems  appeared  in  one  volume  in  1865, 
with  an  introduction  by  Charles  Dickens. 

PROCTOR  (Lat.  procurator,  agent),  in  a  gen- 
eral sense,  one  who  is  commissioned  to  man- 
age the  business  of  another.  In  a  particular 
sense,  a  proctor  is  one  who  is  commissioned  to 
transact  the  business  of  his  principal  in  the 
ecclesiastical  or  admiralty  courts.  He  dis- 
charges functions  similar  to  those  of  attorneys 
and  solicitors  in  other  courts.  In  England, 
the  proctor  can  be  admitted  to  practice  only 
after  a  clerkship  of  seven  years  with  a  senior 
proctor  of  at  least  five  years'  standing,  and  he 
must  produce  a  certificate  of  considerable  pro- 
ficiency in  classical  education.  Before  the  abo- 
lition of  the  probate  and  matrimonial  courts  of 
doctors'  commons,  the  proctors  were  the  only 
persons  allowed  to  practise  in  them.  (See 
DOCTORS'  COMMONS.)  Proctors  are  known  in 
the  United  States  only  as  officers  of  the  courts 
of  admiralty,  whose  duties,  authority,  and  re- 
sponsibilities correspond  to  those  of  attorneys 
at  law. — The  name  proctor  is  also  given  in 
England,  and  in  some  American  colleges,  to 
university  officers  whose  duty  is  to  guard  mor- 
als and  order. 

PROCTOR,  Richard  Anthony,  an  English  astron- 
omer, born  in  Chelsea,  March  23,  1837.  He 
was  educated  at  home  until  his  llth  year,  and 
then  entered  an  academy  in  Milton-on-Thames, 
where  he  remained  three  years  and  became 
head  boy  of  the  institution.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1850  the  family  became  embar- 
rassed through  chancery  delays  in  a  friendly 
suit,  and  in  1854  Richard  accepted  a  clerkship 
in  a  London  bank,  devoting  all  his  spare  time 
to  the  study  of  mathematics.  In  1855,  the 
situation  of  the  family  having  been  improved, 
he  entered  King's  college,  London,  and  in  1856 
St.  John's  college,  Cambridge.  He  took  his 


degree  in  1860,  and  married  in  the  same  year. 
For  the  next  three  years  his  studies  were  mostly 
historical  and  literary.  In  1863  he  wrote  an 
essay  on  "  Double  Stars,"  which  appeared  in 
the  "Cornhill  Magazine."  In  1865  he  pub- 
lished a  monograph  on  "  Saturn,"  and  early  in 
1866  his  "Gnomonic  Star  Atlas"  and  "Hand- 
book of  the  Stars."  These  works  were  of  a 
scientific,  but  not  popular  nature.  In  1866,  by 
the  failure  of  a  bank  in  London,  he  lost  the 
whole  of  his  fortune,  and  his  scientific  work 
was  considerably  hampered  by  duties  arising 
from  this  circumstance.  In  1869  he  made 
some  suggestions  to  the  astronomer  royal,  Sir 
George  Airy,  as  to  the  best  method  of  observ- 
ing the  approaching  transit  of  Venus ;  and  at 
a  meeting  of  the  principal  astronomers  of  Eng- 
land at  the  Greenwich  observatory  in  1873  his 
views  were  unanimously  approved.  But  his 
chief  scientific  work  since  1867  has  consisted  in 
the  investigation  of  the  evidence  available  for 
determining  the  structure  of  the  stellar  and  neb- 
ular universe.  (See  STAR.)  In  1870  Mr.  Proc- 
tor published  a  work  entitled  "  Other  Worlds 
than  Ours,"  which  had  an  extraordinary  suc- 
cess and  attracted  the  general  attention  of  the 
scientific  world.  From  that  time  he  has  been 
perhaps  the  most  fertile  and  popular  writer 
upon  astronomical  subjects  of  the  present  day. 
In  1873  he  visited  the  United  States  and  de- 
livered lectures,  and  again  in  1875.  His  pub- 
lished books  besides  those  above  mentioned 
are :  "  Constellation  Seasons  "  and  "  Sun  Views 
of  the  Earth  "  (London,  1867) ;  "  Half  Hours 
with  the  Telescope  "  (1868) ;  "  Half  Hours  with 
the  Stars"  (1869);  "The  Sun,"  a  large  "Star 
Atlas,"  "Elementary  Astronomy,"  and  "Light 
Science  for  Leisure  Hours"  (1870);  "Essays 
on  Astronomy  "  and  "  Orbs  Around  Us  "  (1871) ; 
"Chart  of  324,000  Stars,"  "School  Atlas  of 
Astronomy,"  and  "Elementary  Physical  Geog- 
raphy" (1872);  "Light  Science,"  &c.,  second 
series,  "The  Moon,"  and  "Border  Land  of 
Science  "  (1873) ;  and  "  The  Universe  and  Com- 
ing Transits,"  "Transits  of  Venus,  Past,  Pres- 
ent, and  Future,"  and  "The  Expanse  of  Heav- 
en "(1874). 

PROFERT.    See  OTER. 

PROHIBITION,  a  writ  issued  by  a  superior 
court  to  restrain  the  action  of  an  inferior  tri- 
bunal which  is  assuming  to  act  in  some  matter 
not  within  its  cognizance,  or  in  disregard  of 
the  rules  which  govern  the  exercise  of  its 
jurisdiction.  It  is  an  extraordinary  remedy, 
to  which  resort  seldom  becomes  necessary.  • 

PROJECTILES.     See  GUNNERY. 

PROKESCH-OSTEN,  Anton  YOU,  baron,  a  German 
author,  born  in  Gratz,  Dec.  10,  1795.  In  early 
life  he  served  in  the  army,  taught  mathematics, 
and  was  secretary  to  Prince  Schwarzenberg, 
whose  Denkwurdigkeiten  he  edited  in  1822. 
For  his  subsequent  services  in  the  East  he  was 
ennobled  with  the  name  of  Von  Osten,  and  at 
a  later  period  was  made  privy  councillor  and 
general.  He  was  ambassador  at  Athens  1834- 
'49,  Berlin  1849-'52,  Frankfort  1853-'5,  and 


28 


PROME 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FAITH 


Constantinople  1855-'67,  and  nuncio  at  Con- 
stantinople 1867-'72.  His  celebrated  collec- 
tion of  coins  was  bought  by  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment in  1875  for  the  museum  of  Berlin,  for 
$150,000.  Among  his  works  are :  Erinner- 
ungen  aus  Aegypten  und  Kleinatien  (3  vols., 
Vienna,  1829-'31)  ;  Denkicurdigkeiten  und 
Erinnerungen  aus  dem  Orient,  edited  by  E. 
Munch  from  Prokesch's  correspondence  with 
Schneller  (3  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1836-7)  ;  Kltine 
Schriften  (7  vols.,  1842-'4) ;  and  Geschichte 
des  Alfalls  der  Griechen  vom  turkischen  Reich 
(G  vols.,  Vienna,  1867-'8). 

PROME,  a  town  of  British  Burmah,  in  Pegu, 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  166  m.  N. 
N.  "W.  of  Rangoon  ;  pop.  about  80,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  brick  wall  1J  m.  in  circum- 
ference, has  several  paper  manufactories,  and 
is  a  place  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. A  railway  is  projected  to  Rangoon. 
In  the  suburbs  are  extensive  rice  grounds. 
Prome  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1825,  and 
again  in  the  second  war  with  Burmah  in  1852. 
It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1856,  and 
in  the  same  year  suffered  seriously  from  an 
inundation  of  the  Irrawaddy. 

PROMKTIIEIS,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  son 
of  Japetus  and  Clymene,  and  brother  of  Atlas, 
Menojtius,  and  Epimetheus.  According  to 
Hesiod,  gods  and  men  were  in  a  dispute  at 
Mecone  in  regard  to  what  portion  of  the  animal 
should  bo  offered  in  sacrifice.  Prometheus,  as 
the  tutelary  representative  of  man,  divided  a 
bull  into  two  parts,  one  consisting  of  the  flesh 
and  intestines  wrapped  in  the  skin,  and  the 
other  of  the  bones  covered  up  by  the  white  fat. 
Jupiter,  having  been  asked  which  of  the  two 
he  would  choose,  decided  for  the  latter;  and 
as  the  choice  could  not  be  revoked,  those  parts 
alone  were  thereafter  offered  on  his  altar.  In- 
dignant at  the  deception,  he  withheld  fire  from 
mortals,  but  Prometheus  stole  fire  from  heaven 
in  the  hollow  of  a  tube.  Jupiter  now  sent 
Pandora  to  earth  with  her  box  of  evils,  and 
fastened  Prometheus  to  a  pillar,  where  he  re- 
mained for  many  generations,  an  eagle  every 
day  feeding  upon  his  liver,  which  every  night 
grew  again.  At  length  Hercules  was  permitted 
to  kill  the  eagle  and  free  the  prisoner.  The 
most  celebrated  drama  founded  upon  this  myth 
is  the  trilogy  of  /Eschylus,  of  which  the  "  Pro- 
metheus Bound  "  and  a  few  fragments  of  the 
"  Prometheus  Loosed  "  are  extant.  In  ^Eschy- 
lus,  Prometheus  appears  not  only  as  the  pro- 
tector of  the  human  race  against  the  superior 
might  of  the  gods,  but  as  its  teacher  and  bene- 
factor. Through  his  assistance,  Jupiter  over- 
comes the  Titans  ;  but  when  Prometheus  frus- 
trates the  design  of  destroying  mankind,  he  is 
chained  to  a  rock  in  Scythia.  There  he  is 
visited  by  the  Oceanids  and  by  lo,  to  whom  he 
foretells  her  long  wanderings.  He  is  in  posses- 
sion of  knowledge  which  it  is  essential  to  the 
safety  of  Jupiter  to  gain ;  but  he  bids  defiance 
to  his  persecutor,  and  refuses  to  make  known 
the  secret.  He  is  hurled  into  Tartarus,  and 


afterward  reappears  chained  to  Mount  Cau- 
casus, to  undergo  fresh  torments.  From  this 
condition  he  can  only  be  freed  when  some 
other  god  shall  voluntarily  descend  into  Tar- 
tarus for  him,  which  finally  happened  when 
Chiron,  wounded  by  Hercules,  sought  permis- 
sion to  go  into  Hades.  Another  account  says 
that  Jupiter  himself  delivered  Prometheus 
when  the  latter  agreed  to  reveal  the  prophecy, 
according  to  which,  if  he  were  married  to 
Thetis,  she  would  give  birth  to  a  son  greater 
than  himself. 

PROMISSORY  NOTE,  a  promise  in  writing  to 
pay  money.  "When  the  promise  is  to  pay  it 
to  the  payee  or  his  order,  or  to  the  bearer,  the 
note  is  negotiable,  and,  as  an  exceedingly  use- 
ful and  important  instrument  of  business,  it  is 
governed  by  a  system  of  law  which  is  quite 
peculiar.  When  not  payable  to  order,  or  not 
negotiable,  the  rules  of  law  applicable  to  it 
vary  but  little  from  those  which  are  in  force 
generally  in  relation  to  written  contracts.  (See 
EXCHANGE,  BILL  OF,  and  NEGOTIABLE  PAPEE.) 

PRONG  HORN.     See  ANTELOPE. 

PROPAGANDA,  or  Cougregatip  de  Propaganda  Fide 
(congregation  for  propagating  the  faith),  a 
board  of  25  cardinals  founded  at  Rome  in  1622 
by  Gregory  XV.  for  the  support  and  direction 
of  foreign  missions.  It  has  a  secretary,  who 
is  generally  a  bishop  or  archbishop,  and  priests, 
advisers,  and  under  secretaries,  who  hold  a 
consultation  weekly.  The  cardinal  prefect  of 
the  propaganda  is  the  pope's  representative  in 
all  matters  concerning  the  affairs  of  foreign 
missions,  including  the  final  appointment  of  all 
bishops  in  missionary  countries.  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  in  1627  added  to  the  congregation  a  col- 
lege for  the  education  of  missionary  priests, 
where  young  men  from  every  country  in  the 
world,  with  the  exception  of  strictly  Catholic 
countries,  were  educated,  and  ordained  for  the 
missionary  work  among  their  fellow  country- 
men. A  celebrated  polyglot  printing  estab- 
lishment was  attached  to  the  propaganda,  and 
besides  a  full  corps  of  professors,  it  possessed  a 
museum  of  antiquities  and  curiosities,  a  hand- 
some church,  and  a  large  library.  This  college 
was  suppressed  in  1873,  and  its  property  was 
sold  by  auction. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FAITH,  Society  for  the 
(la  soeiet^  pour  la  propagation  de  la  foi),  a 
Roman  Catholic  society  in  aid  of  foreign  mis- 
sions founded  at  Lyons  in  1829.  It*  plan  is  to 
raise,  through  committees  and  sub-committees, 
one  cent  a  week  from  each  subscriber,  the 
money  being  forwarded  to  the  central  com- 
mittee at  Lyons,  by  whom  the  funds  are  appor- 
tioned to  bishops  of  the  various  missionary 
countries  throughout  the  world.  The  society 
spread  rapidly  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
has  now  paying  members  in  almost  every 
country  in  the  world.  It  is  sometimes  con- 
fused with  the  Roman  propaganda,  with  which 
it  has  nothing  in  common  except  a  similar  ob- 
ject. The  central  committee  at  Lyons  pub- 
lishes six  tunes  a  year  the  Annulet  de  la  pro- 


PROPERTIUS 


PROPHECY 


29 


pagation  de  la  foi,  to  inform  the  subscribers 
of  the  use  made  of  the  funds  and  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  missionary  work. 

PROPERTIl'S,  Sextus  Aurelins,  a  Roman  poet, 
born  in  Uuibria  about  50  B.  0.  He  was  rich 
until  an  agrarian  division,  in  36  B.  C.,  reduced 
his  fortune.  He  wrote  four  books  of  elegies, 
principally  addressed  to  his  mistress.  The  text 
of  Propertius  as  we  have  it  is  exceedingly  cor- 
rupt. One  of  the  best  editions  is  that  of  Hertz- 
berg  (2  vols.  8vo,  Halle,  1843-'5).  His  elegies 
have  been  translated  into  English  verse  by 
Charles  Robert  Moore  (Oxford,  1870). 

PROPHECY  (Gr.  Trpo^reta,  from  irpotydvai,  to 
foretell),  the  prediction  of  future  events.  The 
belief  that  certain  men  or  classes  of  men  had 
the  faculty  of  prediction  can  be  traced  to  the 
remotest  antiquity ;  and  the  priesthood  in  par- 
ticular were  regarded  as  being  endowed  with 
it.  But  the  term  prophecy,  in  this  sense,  is 
generally  restricted  to  the  Old  Testament  the- 
ology. The  word  prophet  in  the  languages  of 
Christian  nations  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
Trpo^Tw,  by  which  the  Septuagint  renders  the 
Hebrew  noli.  But  the  term  of  the  Septuagint 
does  not  fully  correspond  to  the  primary  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word,  which  denotes  a  man 
speaking  by  divine  inspiration;  though  some- 
times the  word  is  used  in  a  bad  sense  of  men 
who  only  pretend  to  inspiration,  or  are  in- 
spired of  an  evil  spirit. — The  prophets  of  the 
Old  Testament  appear  as  the  privileged  organs 
of  communication  between  God  and  his  people. 
Frequently,  though  for  the  most  part  indefi- 
nitely, they  pointed  to  a  glorious  completion  of 
the  theocracy  throagh  a  great  descendant  of 
David,  the  Messiah.  They  also  acted  as  the 
interpreters  of  the  law,  and  were  guardians  of 
the  rights  of  the  oppressed.  Their  mission,  as 
a  body  of  extraordinary  teachers,  became  es- 
pecially important  in  times  when  the  ordinary 
guardians  of  the  law,  the  priests,  sided  with 
the  apostates  and  idolaters.  The  germ  of  the 
prophetic  office  is  found  in  the  Mosaic  econo- 
my, but  the  order  was  formally  developed  by 
Samuel,  when  the  moral  decline  of  the  nation 
had  made  it  necessary.  In  the  age  of  the 
judges,  prophecy,  though  existing  only  in  scat- 
tered instances,  exerted  a  powerful  influence. 
But  the  conspicuous  prophetic  agency  begins 
with  Samuel,  who  founded  schools  of  the 
prophets  at  Gibeah,  Ramah,  Bethel,  Jericho, 
and  Gilgal.  Instruction  was  given  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  divine  law,  and  in  music  and 
sacred  poetry.  Samuel,  Elijah,  and  Elisha  are 
mentioned  as  principals  of  such  institutions. 
The  pupils  are  frequently  called  the  "  sons  of 
the  prophets. "  The  prophets  wer e  m  ostly  taken 
from  these  schools,  yet  not  always ;  for  Amos 
relates  of  himself  that  he  had  been  trained  in 
no  school,  but  was  a  herdsman  when  the  Lord 
took  him  to  prophesy  unto  the  people  of  Israel. 
Sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  occurred  that  women 
came  forward  as  prophetesses.  The  golden 
era  of  the  prophets  extends  from  the  time  of 
Samuel  to  the  Babylonish  captivity,  and  hardly 


any  important  event  happened  in  which  they 
did  not  appear  as  performing  the  leading  part. 
After  the  time  of  Samuel  they  often  held 
weekly  and  monthly  meetings'  for  teaching, 
that  work  being  tacitly  transferred  from  the 
priests  to  the  prophets.  About  100  years  after 
the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity  the 
prophetic  profession  ceased,  and  Haggai,  Zech- 
ariah,  and  Malachi  are  uniformly  mentioned 
by  Jewish  tradition  as  the  last  of  the  proph- 
ets.— The  manner  of  life  of  the  prophets  was 
conspicuous  for  strictness,  austerity,  and  as- 
ceticism. Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  in 
possession  of  considerable  physical  and  medi- 
cal knowledge,  and  to  have  occasionally  made 
use  of  it.  Later  they  often  wrote  down  their 
prophecies,  and  many  others  compiled  histor- 
ical works.  Thus  Gad,  Nathan,  and  perhaps 
Samuel,  wrote  the  history  of  David ;  Nathan 
also  the  history  of  Solomon ;  Shemaiah  and 
Iddo  the  history  of  Rehoboam  ;  Jehu  the  his- 
tory of  Jehoshaphat;  and  Isaiah  the  history 
of  tlzziali  and  Hezekiah. — The  New  Testament 
mentions  the  power  of  prophecy  as  one  of 
the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  We  read  of  one 
prophet,  Agabus,  who  predicted  the  famine 
under  Claudius  and  the  imprisonment  of  Paul ; 
but  generally  a  foreknowledge  and  foretelling 
of  futurity  is  not  mentioned  as  characteristic 
of  those  men  who,  as  Barnabas,  Judas,  and 
Silas,  are  called  prophets  in  the  Acts  and  the 
Pauline  epistles.  The  object  of  the  Christian 
"prophecy"  was,  according  to  1  Cor.  xiv.  3, 
"  edification  and  exhortation  and  comfort." 
Among  the  books  of  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament  only  one,  the  Revelation,  bears  a 
prophetic  character. — The  mode  in  which  the 
divine  will  was  revealed  to  the  prophets  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  The  Bi- 
ble declares  that  sometimes  God  spoke  to  them 
in  an  audible  voice,  sometimes  in  dreams, 
sometimes  by  giving  them  an  ecstatic  eleva- 
tion in  which  they  saw  truths  ordinarily  un- 
seen, and  sometimes  by  visions.  Many  wri- 
ters, especially  since  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  have  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
Scriptures  do  not  assert  a  direct  and  miracu- 
lous supernatural  interference,  and  that  the 
prophetic  inspiration  can  be  explained  by  a 
high  degree  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  ecstasy. 
Among  these  writers  are  Eichhorn,  Die  He- 
Iraischen  PropJieten  (3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1816- 
'20)  ;  Knobel,  Der  Prophetismvs  der  Helraer 
(Breslau,  1837)  ;  Ewald,  Die  PropJteten  des 
Alien  Bundes  (Stuttgart,  1840) ;  and  Dr.  Wil- 
liams in  the  Oxford  "  Essays  and  Reviews." 
With  regard  to  the  predictions  occurring  in 
the  books  of  the  prophets,  this  class  of  wri- 
ters either  ascribe  them  (as  Bunsen  did)  to  a 
kind  of  spiritual  clairvoyance,  or  they  main- 
tain (with  Dr.  Williams)  that  few  if  any  pas- 
sages can  be  claimed  as  strictly  prophetic,  the 
prophetic  utterance  containing  only  certain 
"  deep  truths  and  great  ideas."  The  great  ma- 
jority of  Christian  theologians  maintain  that 
this  view  is  opposed  by  the  plain  intent  of  the 


30 


PEOPHETS 


PROTAGORAS 


Old  Testament,  by  the  counter  testimony  of 
Christ  and  the  apostles  in  the  New,  and  also 
by  the  concessions  of  unbelieving  interpreters, 
such  as  Strauss,  who  say  that  the  Scriptural  wri- 
ters undoubtedly  claim  prophetic  inspiration, 
but  that  the  claim  is  absurd.  Among  the  works 
written  from  this  standpoint  are  Prof.  Fair- 
bairn's  treatise  on  "Prophecy,  its  Nature  and 
Functions"  (8vo,  Edinburgh,  1856),  and  espe- 
cially Tholuck,  Die  Propheten  und  ihre  Weis- 
sagungen  (Gotha,  1860),  who  has  reviewed  the 
whole  subject  in  a  philosophical  manner,  and 
concludes  that  the  prophecies  cannot  be  in- 
terpreted "  as  the  utterance  of  subjective  reli- 
gious aspirations,"  and  that  "  the  very  course 
of  history  lias  impressed  upon  these  declara- 
tions the  stamp  and  confirmation  of  an  objec- 
tive and  supernatural  inspiration."  The  reader 
may  also  consult  various  commentaries  on  the 
books  of  the  prophets,  and  that  class  of  works 
which  limit  themselves  to  an  interpretation 
of  the  "  Messianic  prophecies "  throughout 
the  entire  Old  Testament,  among  which  Heng- 
stenberg's  Christologie  (3  vols.  8vo,  Berlin, 
1829-'35;  English  translation,  1836-'9,  and  in 
Clark's  "  Foreign  and  Theological  Library," 
1854)  is  the  best  known. — Besides  the  works 
already  named,  see  Koster,  Die  Propheten  de» 
Alten  und  Neuen  Tettament*  (Leipsic,  1838) ; 
Davison,  "  Discourses  on  Prophecy  "  (Oxford, 
1839) ;  Stuart,  "  Hints  on  the  Interpretation 
of  Prophecy"  (Andover,  1844);  Maurice, 
"Prophets  and  Kings  of  the  Old  Testament" 
(1853);  Pusey,  "The  Minor  Prophets"  (Ox- 
ford, 1801);  R.  Payne  Smith,  "Messianic  In- 
terpretation of  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah " 
(1862);  and  Stanley,  "Lectures  on  the  Jewish 
Church"  (1863). 

PROPHETS,  Books  of  the,  a  division  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  rabbis  divided  the  books  of 
the  Hebrew  canon  into  three  classes :  1.  To- 
rah,  law;  2,  Nebiim,  prophets;  8,  Kethubim, 
writings,  hagiographa.  The  second  class  was 
subdivided  by  them  into  "  former  "  and  "  lat- 
ter" prophets.  The  former  comprised  the 
books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings. 
Among  the  latter  they  again  distinguished  be- 
tween the  three  "great"  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
and  Ezekiel)  and  the  twelve  "  minor  "  proph- 
ets (Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mi- 
cah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Ilaggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi).  In  the  arrangement 
of  modern  Biblical  criticism,  Joshua,  Samuel, 
and  Kings  are  not  counted  among  the  books 
of  the  prophets,  who  are  divided  into  the  four 
great  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel) 
and  the  twelve  minor  prophets. — See  also  the 
articles  on  the  several  prophets. 

PROPOXTIS.    See  MARMOBA,  SKA  OF. 

PROSERPINE,  or  Persephone,  in  Greek  and  Ro- 
man mythology,  the  queen  of  the  infernal 
world.  She  was  the -daughter  of  Jupiter  and 
Ceres,  and  was  beloved  by  Pluto,  who  forci- 
bly carried  her  off  to  Hades.  There  she  was 
found  by  Ceres,  who  induced  Pluto  to  consent 
that  her  daughter  should  pass  six  months  of 


every  year  in  the  upper  world  with  her ;  and 
hence  Proserpine  became  a  symbol  of  vege- 
tation. The  Eleusinian  mysteries  belonged  to 
her  in  common  with  her  mother,  and  she  had 
temples  at  Corinth,  Megara,  and  Sparta,  and  at 
Locri  in  the  south  of  Italy. 

PROSPER  (AQUITANUS),  Saint,  a  church  fa- 
ther of  the  5th  century,  born  near  Bordeaux 
about  403,  died  about  464.  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  chronologist,  poet,  and  theologian, 
and  is  chiefly  known  from  the  prominent  part 
taken  by  him  in  opposing  Cassian  and  the  Semi- 
Pelagians  of  Marseilles.  Among  the  many 
works  written  by  him  against  these  and  in  de- 
fence of  St.  Augustine  is  the  Carmen  de  In- 
gratis,  considered  to  be  one  of  the  best  Latin 
poems  written  by  a  Christian  author.  It  is  as- 
serted, but  on  doubtful  authority,  that  he  be- 
came in  440  secretary  or  notariut  to  Leo  the 
Great,  and  that  he  wrote  the  letters  on  Euty- 
chianism  attributed  to  that  pope.  He  drew  up 
about  444  a  paschal  cycle  of  84  years,  whicn 
has  perished,  and  a  continuation  of  the  chroni- 
cle of  St.  Jerome,  from  A.  D.  879  to  455,  un- 
der the  title  of  Chronicon  Contulare.  Photius 
ascribes  the  final  overthrow  of  Pelagianism  to 
his  unwearied  labors.  His  feast  is  celebrated 
on  June  25.  St.  Prosper  appears  to  have  lived 
and  died  a  layman,  though  some  writers  have 
made  him  bishop  of  Riez  (Rhegium)  in  Pro- 
vence. There  are  several  complete  editions  of 
his  works,  the  best  being  those  of  Maugeant, 
with  a  history  of  his  life,  translated  from  Til- 
lemont  (fol.,  Paris,  1711),  and  Foggini  (fol., 
Rome,  1752),  reprinted  in  vol.  li.  of  Migne's 
Patrologie  latine. 

PROSTATE  GLAND  (Gr.  irpooraTltv,  to  stand 
before),  a  solid,  chestnut-shaped  glandular 
body,  rather  more  than  one  inch  in  diameter, 
situated  in  the  male  between  the  neck  of  the 
bladder  and  the  membranous  portion  of  the 
urethra ;  so  called  because  it  stands  in  front  of 
the  neck  of  the  bladder.  The  texture  of  the 
prostate  gland  consists  of  a  large  number  of 
racemose  or  compound  glandules,  surrounded 
by  and  imbedded  in  an  abundant  fibro-muscu- 
lar  tissue,  and  opening  by  several  separate  ori- 
fices into  the  first  or  prostatic  portion  of  the 
urethra,  which  canal  it  embraces  at  this  point 
for  about  an  inch.  The  prostate  is  liable  to 
become  enlarged  in  advanced  life,  when  it 
sometimes  creates  an  obstacle  to  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  urine. 

PROTAGORAS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in 
Abdera  probably  about  480  B.  C.,  died  about 
411.  The  common  story  in  regard  to  his  ori- 
gin was  that  he  was  a  porter,  and  by  the  skil- 
ful manner  in  which  he  carried  his  load  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Democritus,  who  un- 
dertook to  educate  him.  He  was  the  first  who 
assumed  the  title  of  sophist,  as  denoting  one 
who  instructed  others  in  the  art  of  becoming 
wise,  and  in  the  arts  of  eloquence  and  politics, 
and  was  also  the  first  who  received  pay  for 
his  lessons.  According  to  Plato,  ho  received 
more  money  during  the  40  years  in  which  he 


PKOTECTOE 


PROTEST 


31 


taught  than  Phidias  and  10  other  sculptors. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant.  In  his  treatise 
"  On  the  Gods,"  Protagoras  started  with  the 
following  proposition :  "  Respecting  the  gods, 
I  am  unable  to  know  whether  they  exist  or 
do  not  exist."  For  this  he  was  banished  from 
Athens,  and  his  books  were  burned. 

PROTECTOR,  in  English  history,  a  title  several 
times  conferred  by  parliament  upon  the  chief 
officer  of  the  kingdom  during  the  king's  mi- 
nority, in  place  of  that  of  regent.  The  most 
celebrated  protectors  were  John,  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, and  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  in 
the  minority  of  Henry  VI. ;  Richard,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  whose  protectorate  ended  in  his 
becoming  king  as  Richard  III.  after  the  death 
of  Edward  V. ;  and  Edward  Seymour,  duke  of 
Somerset,  in  the  minority  of  his  nephew  Ed- 
ward VI.  Oliver  Cromwell,  as  well  as  his  son 
Richard,  bore  the  title  of  lord  protector. 

PROTEIDS.     See  PKOTEINE. 

PROTEINE  (Gr.  Trpwrof,  first),  a  name  given 
by  Mulder  to  a  product  obtained  by  the  action 
of  potash  on  albuminoids,  such  as  fibrin  e,  albu- 
men, and  caseine,  of  which  he  considers  it  the 
base,  the  other  factor  being  varying  quantities  of 
sulphimide,  (NH2)aS,  and  phosphimide,  NH2P. 
It  has,  however,  never  been  procured  free  from 
sulphur,  and  Liebig  regarded  Mulder's  theory 
as  not  established,  considering  it  only  an  albu- 
minous substance  somewhat  modified.  But 
the  bodies  of  which  Mulder  considered  it  the 
base  are  commonly  called  proteine  bodies,  or 
proteids,  and  are  divided,  according  to  Hoppe- 
Seyler,  into  seven  classes,  vi?. :  1.  Albumens 
(soluble  in  water)  :  a,  serum  albumen ;  5,  egg 
albumen.  2.  Globulines  (insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  alkalies,  and 
very  dilute  solutions  of  chloride  of  sodium  and 
other  neutral  salts)  :  a,  myosine ;  ft,  globuline ; 
c,  fibrinogen;  <?,  vitelline.  3.  Derived  albu- 
men (insoluble  in  water  and  solutions  of  chlo- 
ride of  sodium,  but  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and 
alkalies) :  a,  acid  albumen ;  ft,  alkali  albumen 
or  caseine.  4.  Fibrine  (insoluble  in  water, 
sparingly  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  alkalies 
and  in  neutral  saline  solutions).  (See  FIBRINE.) 
5.  Coagulated  proteid,  formed  by  heating  neu- 
tral solutions  of  proteids,  or  by  the  action  of 
alcohol.  6.  Amyloid  substance,  or  lardaceine, 
a  substance  deposited  in  the  liver  and  other 
organs  in  certain  diseases.  7.  Peptones,  bodies 
formed  from  albuminous  substances  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  gastric  juice ;  they  are  found  only 
in  the  stomach  and  small  intestines,  disappear- 
ing as  soon  as  they  enter  the  lacteal  vessels. 

PROTESILAUS,  a  legendary  Thessalian  prince, 
the  first  Greek  slain  in  the  Trojan  war.  It 
is  said  in  the  Iliad  that  he  was  the  first  who 
leaped  from  the  ships  upon  the  Trojan  shore, 
and  according  to  the  ancient  tradition  recount- 
ed in  Lncian  he  was  killed  by  Hector.  The 
great  affection  toward  Protesilaus  of  his  wife 
Laodamia  is  celebrated  by  the  poets.  After 
his  death  she  prayed  to  be  permitted  to  con- 
verse with  him  only  for  the  space  of  three 
687  VOL.  xiv. — 3 


hours ;  the  prayer  being  granted,  Mercury  con- 
ducted Protesilaus  to  the  upper  world,  and  when 
he  died  a  second  time  his  wife  died  with  him. 
PROTEST  (Lat.  protestari,  to  testify  or  de- 
clare against),  a  term  used  in  many  ways  and 
for  many  purposes.  One  who  is  called  upon 
to  pay  an  import  duty,  a  tax,  a  subscription, 
or  the  like,  which  he  thinks  he  ought  not  to 
be  required  to  pay,  but  is  unwilling  to  encoun- 
ter the  delay  and  expense  of  a  lawsuit  at  that 
time,  pays  the  sum  demanded  under  protest ; 
that  is,  he  accompanies  the  payment  by  a  writ- 
ten and  attested  declaration  of  what  he  deems 
the  illegality  of  the  demand,  and  of  his  rights 
of  defence  and  denial.  This  protest  preserves 
all  those  rights ;  and  in  any  subsequent  suit  or 
other  effort  to  get  the  money  back,  the  pro- 
test will  prevent  him  from  being  impeded  by 
his  payment. — In  legislation,  the  members  of 
a  deliberative  body  who  dissent  from  the  views 
of  a  majority,  and  have  no  power  to  prevent 
those  views  from  going  into  effect,  sometimes 
ask  leave  to  put  on  the  record  of  the  body  a 
declaration  of  their  views,  drawn  up  and  signed 
by  them.  This  is  called  their  protest  against 
the  measure  ;  and  leave  to  record  it  is  usually 
given,  if  it  is  decent  and  temperate  in  its 
terms,  and  does  not  state  what  the  majority 
regard  as  wilfully  false  or  impertinent. — If  a 
vessel  is  wrecked,  or  meets  with  other  injury 
from  any  peril  of  the  sea,  it  is  an  ancient  and 
nearly  universal  custom  for  the  master,  on  his 
arrival  at  port  after  the  injury,  to  appear  be- 
fore a  competent  magistrate,  and  enter  his 
protest  against  the  accident  or  peril.  In  this 
protest  he  details  the  circumstances  with  suffi- 
cient fulness  to  sustain  his  declaration  that  the 
injury  occurred,  not  through  the  fault  of  the 
vessel,  but  by  reason  of  the  peril  stated.  In 
the  absence  or  disability  of  the  master,  the 
protest  is  made  by  the  officers,  or  even  by  the 
seamen ;  and  when  it  is  made  by  the  master, 
he  is  usually  accompanied  by  one  or  more  of 
the  officers,  and  by  some  of  the  seamen. — A 
very  important  use  of  protest  is  made  in  the 
case  of  dishonored  bills  of  exchange.  (See 
EXCHANGE,  BILL  OF.)  It  is  a  universal  law 
that  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange,  if  not  accepted, 
or  if  not  paid  at  maturity,  must  be  protested 
in  order  to  hold  all  the  parties  to  it.  In  this 
sense,  the  states  of  the  Union  are  foreign  to 
each  other.  Inland  (or  domestic)  bills  and 
promissory  notes  are  often  protested  in  the 
same  way ;  but  this  usage,  so  far  as  it  exists, 
has  grown  up  from  the  convenience  of  it,  and 
not  from  any  requirement  of  the  law  merchant. 
The  protest  should  be  made  by  a  notary  pub- 
lic ;  and  full  faith  is  given  in  all  countries  to 
all  the  official  acts  verified  by  his  seal,  which 
acts  are  required  by  law  merchant.  He  can- 
not properly  delegate  this  power  to  any  clerk 
or  substitute.  An  acceptance  or  payment 
supra  protest  takes  place  when,  a  bill  having 
been  protested,  a  third  person  intervenes,  and 
accepts  or  pays  the  bill  for  the  honor  of  the 
party  whose  duty  it  was  to  accept  or  pay  it ; 


PROTESTANT 


PROTEUS 


and  this  gives  him  a  right  to  indemnity  from 
the  person  for  whom  he  accepts  or  pays.  An 
acceptance  or  payment  supra  protest  is  some- 
times called  an  acceptance  or  payment  for  hon- 
or. Generally,  where  one  accepts  or  pays  for 
honor  without  designating  for  whose  honor  he 
acts,  it  will  be  deemed  that  he  acts  for  all  who 
were  bound  by  the  paper,  and  he  acquires  his 
right  of  indemnity  against  all  whom  he  thus 
protects.  But  he  may  designate,  if  he  chooses, 
the  party  for  whose  honor  he  acts,  and  then 
he  protects  only  that  party,  and  has  no  claim 
or  rights  against  any  other. 

PROTESTAXT,  a  collective  name  for  a  large 
body  of  Christian  denominations,  embracing 
in  general  all  except  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
eastern  churches.  The  name  originated  in 
1529  in  Germany,  at  the  diet  of  Spire.  The 
majority  of  the  members  of  the  diet,  in  union 
with  the  representative  of  the  emperor,  had 
passed  a  resolution  that  those  estates  which 
had  shown  themselves  favorable  to  the  refor- 
mation should  prohibit,  until  the  convocation 
of  an  oecumenical  council,  all  further  innova- 
tions in  religious  matters,  and  in  particular 
should  not  allow  any  alteration  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  supper  or  the  mass.  To 
this  resolution  the  evangelical  estates,  consist- 
ing of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  margrave  of 
Brandenburg- Anspach,  the  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Liineburg,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  prince 
of  Anhalt,  and  14  imperial  cities,  refused  to 
submit.  They  declared  their  readiness  to  obey 
the  emperor  and  the  diet  in  all  "dutiful  and 
possible  matters;"  but  against  any  order  con- 
sidered by  them  repugnant  to  "  God  and  his 
holy  Word,  to  their  souls'  salvation  and  their 
good  conscience,"  they  entered,  on  April  19,  a 
solemn  protest.  Henceforth  they  were  called 
Protestants.  The  signers  of  the  first  protest  did 
not  fully  agree  in  all  their  theological  views ; 
but  they  did  agree  in  the  protest  against  the 
authority  of  secular  or  ecclesiastical  boards  to 
compel  obedience  in  matters  of  faith,  and  the 
name  Protestant  therefore  came  early  into  use 
as  the  collective  name  for  all  the  Christian 
denominations  in  Switzerland,  France,  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  Holland,  and  other  countries 
which  proclaimed  the  Bible  to  be  the  only 
rule  of  faith.  (See  Hauff,  Die  protestantische 
Eirche  in  Deutschland,  Munich,  1861 ;  Schen- 
kel,  Das  Wesen  des  Protestantisms,  2d  ed., 
Schaffhausen,  1862;  Frank,  Ueber  die  G«- 
schichte  der  protestantischen  Theologie,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1862-'5 ;  De  Felice,  Histoire  des  pro- 
testants  de  France,  Paris,  1870;  and  Wylie, 
"  History  of  Protestantism,"  London,  1874  et 
seq.) — Protestantism  is  the  predominant  reli- 
gion in  all  the  countries  of  the  Teutonic  race, 
excepting  the  German  provinces  of  Austria; 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  the  German 
empire,  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Switzerland,  and  most  of 
the  colonial  possessions  of  these  states.  The 
aggregate  population  connected  with  or  under 
the  influence  of  Protestant  churches  at  the 


close  of  1874  is  estimated  in  Schem's  "  Statis- 
tics of  the  World  "  (3d  ed.,  1875)  as  follows  : 

DIVISIONS. 

PiotetUuU. 

Total  population. 

America  

88,000,000 
71,800,000 
1,800,000 
1,200,000 
2,200,000 

84,600,000 
801.000,000 
798,000,000 
202,600,000 
4,400,000 

Europe  

Asia  

Africa  

Australia  and  Polynesia.  . 
Total  

110,000,000 

1,891,000,000 

PROTECS  (Laurenti),  or  Hypoehthon  (Merr.),  a 
perennibranchiate  batrachian  reptile,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family  as  the  axolotl  and  the 
menobranchus.  The  skin  is  naked  and  slimy, 
the  body  elongated  and  cylindrical,  and  the 
tail  short,  broad,  and  compressed  laterally ; 
the  branchial  tufts  are  three  pairs,  and  persis- 
tent during  life;  legs  four,  rather  weak,  the 
anterior  three-toed  and  the  posterior  four- 
toed.  The  common  proteus  (P.  anguinut, 
Laur.)  is  about  a  foot  long  and  half  an  inch 
in  diameter ;  it  is  pale  flesh-colored  or  white, 
with  the  branchial  tufts  bright  crimson ;  the 
teeth  are  small  and  sharp,  in  both  jaws  and  on 
the  palate ;  the  head  triangular,  and  the  snout 
obtuse;  the  eyes  are  very  small,  and  without 
lids.  It  is  found  only  in  the  subterranean 
waters  of  some  caves  of  Europe,  as  in  Carin- 


I'rotcus  anguinua. 

thia  and  Tyrol,  and  especially  in  the  Adelsberg 
cavern  in  Carniola.  The  respiration  is  essen- 
tially aquatic  by  means  of  the  branchial  tufts, 
though  it  has  rudimentary  lungs,  rises  to  the 
surface  to  swallow  air,  and  can  live  a  short 
time  out  of  the  water,  like  the  menobranchus ; 
its  motions  by  means  of  the  legs  are  sluggish 
and  awkward,  but  it  swims  rapidly  and  with 
ease  by  lateral  undulations;  when  the  water 
of  its  subterranean  retreat  becomes  low,  it 
buries  itself  in  the  mud;  the  food  consists  of 
aquatic  worms  and  insects,  and  soft-shelled 
mollusks.  Several  local  varieties  occur,  gener- 
ally referred  to  the  same  species ;  one  of  these 
is  purplish  with  yellow  spots,  and  larger,  wide- 
ly extended,  and  coarsely  divided  gills ;  these  are 
described  as  species  of  hypochthon  by  Fitzinger 
in  the  Siteungsberichte  of  the  academy  of  Vien- 
na for  October,  1850.  (See  MKNOBEANOHTJS.) 
PROTEUS,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
a  sea  god  subject  to  Neptune,  whose  flocks  he 
tended.  At  midday  he  always  arose  from  the 
flood  and  slept  in  the  shadow  of  the  rocks  on 
the  coast,  and  those  who  desired  him  to  fore- 
tell the  future  were  obliged  to  seize  him  at 


PROTOGENES 


PROTOPLASM 


33 


that  time.  He  would  assume  various  shapes 
to  terrify  or  disgust,  and  thus  drive  away  his 
questioner ;  but  when  he  found  this  subterfuge 
of  no  avail,  he  would  yield  to  the  demand. 

PROTOGEXES,  a  Greek  painter,  nourished 
toward  the  close  of  the  4th  century  B.  C. 
He  was  born  at  Caunus  in  Caria,  and  for 
50  years  lived  unnoticed  and  poor  at  Rhodes, 
until  through  the  intervention  of  Apelles  the 
Rhodians  became  aware  of  his  merit.  When 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  besieged  the  city,  he 
was  careful  not  to  attack  the  most  defence- 
less part,  because  it  contained  the  works  of 
Protogenes.  He  spent  so  much  time  on  his 
works,  that  Apelles  said  he  never  knew  when 
to  take  his  hand  off.  The  "  lalysus  "  was  con- 
sidered his  masterpiece,  and  this  when  Pliny 
wrote  was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Peace  at 
Rome.  Protogenes  was  also  a  statuary,  and 
according  to  Suidas  wrote  on  art. 

PROTOPHYTES.    See  PEOTOZOA. 

PROTOPLASM  (Gr.  n-pwrof,  first,  and  TrAdtr^a, 
form),  &  term  applied  to  the  supposed  original 
substance  from  which  all  living  beings  are  de- 
veloped, and  which  is  the  universal  concomi- 
tant of  every  phenomenon  of  life.  All  that  is 
comprehended  for  brevity  under  the  term  life, 
whether  the  growth  of  plants,  the  flight  of 
birds,  or  a  train  of  human  thought,  is  thus 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  corporeal  organs 
which  either  themselves  consist  of  protoplasm, 
or  have  been  developed  out  of  it.  Wherever 
nutrition  and  propagation,  motion  and  sensa- 
tion exist,  there  is  as  their  material  basis  this 
substance  designated  in  a  general  sense  as  pro- 
toplasm. The  proof  of  it  is  held  to  be  fur- 
nished by  the  protozoans  called  moners,  the 
whole  completely  developed  body  of  which 
consists  solely  of  protoplasm.  They  are  not 
only  the  simplest  organisms  with  which  we 
are  acquainted,  but  also  the  simplest  living  be- 
ings we  can  conceive  of  as  capable  of  existing ; 
and  though  their  entire  body  is  but  a  single, 
formless,  small  lump  of  protoplasm,  and  (each 
molecule  of  it  being  like  the  other)  without 
any  combination  of  parts,  yet  they  perform 
all  the  functions  which  in  their  entirety  con- 
stitute in  the  most  highly  organized  animals 
and  plants  what  is  comprehended  in  the  idea 
of  life,  namely,  sensation  and  motion,  nutri- 
tion and  propagation.  By  examining  these 
moners  we  shall  gain  a  clear  conception  of 
the  nature  of  protoplasm,  and  understand  the 
important  biological  questions  connected  with 
the  theory.  Some  moners  live  in  fresh  water, 
and  others  in  the  sea.  They  are  as  a  rule  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye,  but  some  are  as  large 
as  the  head  of  a  pin  and  may  be  distinguished 
without  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  When  com- 
pletely at  rest  a  moner  commonly  assumes  the 
shape  of  a  simple  sphere.  Either  the  surface 
of  the  body  is  quite  smooth,  or  numerous  ex- 
ceedingly delicate  threads  radiate  from  it  in 
all  directions.  These  threads  are  not  perma- 
nent and  constant  organs  of  the  slime-like 
body,  but  perishable  continuations  of  it,  which 


alternately  appear  and  disappear,  and  may 
vary  every  moment  in  number,  size,  and  form. 
For  this  reason  they  are  called  false  feet  or 
pseudopodia.  Nevertheless,  by  means  of  these 
pseudopodia  the  moners  perform  all  the  func- 
tions of  the  higher  animals,  moving  them  like 
real  feet  either  to  creep,  climb,  or  swim.  By 
means  of  these  sticky  threads  they  adhere  to 
foreign  bodies  as  with  arms,  and  by  shortening 
or  elongating  them  they  drag  their  own  bodies 
after  them.  Each  thread,  like  the  whole  body, 
is  capable  of  being  contracted,  and  every  por- 
tion of  it  is  as  sensitive  and  excitable  as  the  en- 
tire form.  When  any  point  on  the  surface  of 
the  body  is  touched  with  the  point  of  a  pin, 
or  with  another  body  producing  a  chemical 
alteration,  as  for  example  a  small  drop  of  acid, 
or  when  a  current  of  electricity  is  passed 
through  it,  the  threads  are  drawn  in,  and  the 
entire  body  contracts  into  the  form  of  a  spher- 
ical lump.  The  same  threads  perform  also  the 
function  of  providing  alimentation.  When  a 
small  infusorium  or  any  other  nutritive  parti- 
cle comes  accidentally  in  contact  with  the  ex- 
tended pseudopodia,  these  run  quickly  over  it 
like  a  fluid,  wind  around  it  with  their  numer- 
ous little  branches,  fuse  into  one,  and  press  it 
into  the  interior  of  the  body,  where  all  the  nu- 
tritive portions  are  rapidly  absorbed  and  im- 
mediately assimilated,  while  all  that  is  useless 
is  quickly  ejected.  The  variations  among  the 
different  moners,  of  which  so  far  16  kinds 
have  been  described  (Haeckel's  Monographic 
der  Monereri),  consist  partly  in  the  various 
forms  of  the  pseudopodia,  but  especially,  in 
the  different  kinds  of  propagation.  Some  of 
them  merely  divide  on  reaching  a  certain  size 
into  halves ;  others  put  forth  little  buds  which 
gradually  separate  from  them ;  and  others  ex- 
perience a  sudden  division  of  the  mass  into 
numerous  small  spherical  bodies,  each  of  which 
instantly  begins  a  separate  existence  and  grad- 
ually reaches  the  size  of  the  ancestral  organ- 
ism.— The  chemical  examination  of  the  homo- 
geneous protoplasmic  body  shows  that  it  con- 
sists throughout  of  an  albuminous  or  slime-like 
mass,  hence  of  that  azotic  carbonate  of  the 
character  of  the  highly  compounded  connec- 
tive group  called  proteine,  albuminoids,  or  plas- 
son  bodies.  Like  other  chemical  compounds 
of  this  group,  protoplasm  exhibits  several  re- 
actions which  distinguish  it  from  all  others.  It 
is  easy  to  detect  it  under  the  microscope,  on 
account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  combines 
with  certain  coloring  matters,  as  carmine  and 
aniline;  it  is  colored  dark  yellow  or  yellow- 
ish brown  by  iodine  and  nitric  acid  ;  and  it  is 
coagulated  by  alcohol  and  mineral  acids,  as 
well  as  by  heat.  The  quantitative  composition 
of  protoplasm,  though  in  some  cases  greatly 
varying,  resembles  as  a  whole  that  of  other 
albuminoids,  and  hence  consists  of  from  50  to  55 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  probably  6  to  8  of  hydro- 
gen, 15  to  17  of  nitrogen,  20  to  22  of  oxygen, 
and  1  to  2  of  sulphur.  Protoplasm  possesses 
the  quality  of  absorbing  water  in  various  quan- 


PROTOPLASM 


titles,  which  renders  it  sometimes  extremely 
soft  and  nearly  liquid,  and  sometimes  hard  and 
firm  like  leather  ;  but  it  is  usually  of  a  medium 
degree  of  density.  Its  more  prominent  physi- 
cal qualities  are  excitability  and  contractility, 
which  Kuhne  and  others  have  made  a  special 
subject  of  investigation.  On  examining  the 
numerous  substances  constituting  the  various 
organs  of  the  higher  animals  with  the  micro- 
scope, it  appears  that  they  all  consist  of  a  large 
number  of  minute  elements,  known  since 
Schleiden  and  Schwann  (1838)  by  the  name  of 
cells ;  and  in  these  cells  protoplasm  is  the  old- 
est, most  primordial,  and  most  important  con- 
stituent. In  every  real  cell  there  is,  besides 
protoplasm,  and  while  still  alive  and  indepen- 
dent, a  second  important  constituent,  the  cel- 
lular germ,  so  called  (nucleus  or  cytoblast) ; 
but  even  this  germ  consists  of  an  albuminous 
chemical  compound  which  is  closely  related  to 

Srotoplasm,  and  was  originally  produced  from 
;  by  an  exceedingly  slight  chemical  alteration. 
The  germ  is  usually  a  smaller  and  firmer  forma- 
tion within  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell. — Inas- 
much as  the  idea  of  an  organic  cell,  as  now 
adopted  by  histologists,  rests  on  the  presence 
of  two  different  essential  parts  in  this  ele- 
mentary organism,  the  internal  cell  and  the 
external  protoplasm,  wo  must  distinguish  also 
two  different  kinds  of  elementary  organisms : 
gormless  cytods,  as  moners  for  example,  and 
the  real  germ-enclosing  cells,  which  originate 
from  the  former  by  secreting  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  small  mass  of  protoplasm  a  true 
germ  or  nucleus.  Cells  of  the  simplest  kind 
consist  only  of  protoplasm  with  a  nucleus, 
while  in  general  the  cells  of  animal  or  vege- 
table bodies  have  also  other  constituents,  par- 
ticularly and  frequently  an  enclosing  skin  or 
capsule  (the  cellular  membrane),  also  crystals, 
grains  of  fat,  pigments,  and  the  like,  within 
the  protoplasm.  But  all  of  these  parts  came 
into  being  only  secondarily  through  the  chem- 
ical action  of  protoplasm;  they  are  but  the 
internal  and  external  products  of  protoplasm. 
(Raeckel's  Qenerelle  Morphologic,  vol.  i.,  p. 
279.)  The  single  cell  of  the  simplest  kind  is 
able  to  exist  as  an  independent  organism. 
Many  of  the  lowest  plants  and  animals,  and 
also  many  neutral  protista  (which  are  nei- 
ther animals  nor  plants),  retain  for  life  the 
character  of  a  simple  cell.  Such  unicellular 
organisms  of  the  simplest  kinds  are  the  anufba, 
found  in  large  numbers  as  well  in  fresh  as  in 
salt  water.  Amoeba?  are  simple  naked  cells  of 
various  and  varying  forms.  The  whole  differ- 
ence between  them,  especially  protamceba,  and 
certain  moners,  is  that  they  have  a  germ.  It 
is  probable  that  this  germ  of  the  amoeba  (as 
may  be  supposed  to  be  the  case  with  many 
and  perhaps  all  other  cells)  is  only  an  organ 
of  propagation,  and  hence  of  heredity ;  while 
all  the  other  functions,  alimentation,  motion, 
and  sensation,  are  performed  by  the  proto- 
plasm. This  seems  to  indicate  that  at  the  re- 
production of  the  cells,  which  is  usually  effect- 


ed by  segmentation,  it  is  the  germ  which  first 
divides  in  two,  and  that  the  protoplasm  after- 
ward gathers  around  each  of  the  two  sister 
germs  till  it  also  falls  in  two.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  from  the  common  amoeba? 
the  cellular  ovules  of  many  of  the  inferior  ani- 
mals, as  for  example  the  sponges,  medusa?,  and 
other  plant-like  animals.  "With  these  the  eggs 
are  simple  naked  cells,  which,  with  the  spon- 
ges especially,  sometimes  crawl  about  inde- 
pendently in  the  body  of  the  animal,  giving 
rise  to  the  idea  that  they  were  a  class  of  para- 
sitic amoeba?.  But  with  other  animals  also,  and 
with  most  plants,  the  eggs  of  which  general- 
ly obtain  subsequently  special  and  often  very 
complicated  encasements  and  other  additions, 
every  egg  is  originally  a  simple  cell.  The  semi- 
nal elements  of  the  male  are  also  only  simple 
cells,  and  the  entire  mysterious  process  of  fruc- 
tification is  after  all  nothing  but  the  fusion  or 
concrescence  of  two  different  cells,  the  one  a 
female  egg  cell,  and  the  other  a  male  semen  cell. 
In  consequence  of  this  fusion  the  germs  of  the 
two  combined  cells  dissolve,  and  therewith  the 
young,  newly  generated  individual  begins  his 
existence  as  a  simple  cytod,  or  a  small  gorm- 
less ball  of  protoplasm.  But  inside  of  this 
cytod  soon  arises  a  new  germ,  which  turns 
it  again  into  a  cell,  and  this  simple  cell  forms 
by  oft  repeated  segmentation  an  accumulation 
of  cells.  Out  of  this  heap  are  produced  by 
secretion  certain  germinal  layers  or  "  germ 
leaves,"  and  out  of  these  proceed  all  the  other 
organs  of  the  complete  being.  Each  of  these 
organs  again  originally  consists  only  of  cells, 
and  in  all  of  these  cells  the  essential  constituent 
parts  are  only  the  germ  and  protoplasm :  the 
germ  as  the  elementary  organ  of  propagation 
and  heredity,  protoplasm  as  the  elementary 
organ  of  all  the  other  functions,  sensation, 
motion,  alimentation,  and  adaptation.  Cells 
and  cytods,  therefore,  are  true  elementary  or- 
ganisms, independent  minute  forms  of  life, 
which  either  in  the  lowest  existences  continue 
to  live  independently,  or  in  the  higher  or- 
ganisms combine  in  numbers  to  form  a  com- 
munity. Cells  and  cytods  are  the  veritable 
"  formers  "  of  life,  or  plastids.  The  most  an- 
cient and  primordial  forms  of  plastids  are 
cytods,  the  whole  body  of  which  consists  of 
protoplasm,  in  which  the  germs  are  internally 
produced,  and  from  which  therefore  the  cells 
proceed. — As  a  matter  of  course,  to  the  infinite 
varieties  presented  by  the  organic  forms  and 
vital  phenomena  in  the  vegetable  and  animal 
kingdom,  corresponds  an  equally  infinite  va- 
riety of  chemical  composition  in  the  proto- 
plasm. The  most  minute  homogeneous  con- 
stituents of  this  "life  substance,"  the  proto- 
plasm molecules,  or  plastidules,  as  they  are 
called  by  Elsberg,  must  in  their  chemical  com- 
position present  an  infinite  number  of  ex- 
tremely delicate  gradations  and  variations. 
The  atoms  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxy- 
gen, and  sulphur,  which  compose  each  of  the 
plastidnles,  must  enter  into  an  infinite  number 


PEOTOPLASM 


35 


of  diverse  stratifications  and  combinations. 
The  chemistry  of  to-day,  with  its  imperfect 
methods  of  investigation,  is  totally  powerless 
before  these  intricate  organic  compounds,  and 
it  is  possible  only  to  surmise,  from  the  infinitely 
varied  physiological  qualities  of  the  number- 
less kinds  of  plastids,  the  infinite  variety  of 
plastidules  out  of  which  they  are  composed. 
— According  to  the  plastid  theory  recently 
advanced,  the  great  variety  of  vital  phenom- 
ena is  the  consequence  of  the  infinitely  deli- 
cate chemical  difference  in  the  composition  of 
protoplasm,  and  it  considers  protoplasm  to  be 
the  sole  active  life  substance.  This  theory 
puts  force  and  matter  in  living  organisms  into 
the  same  causal  connection  which  has  long 
been  accepted  for  force  and  matter  in  inor- 
ganic bodies.  This  conception  has  been  rap- 
idly matured,  especially  in  the  past  20  years, 
through  the  more  exact  information  obtained 
in  regard  to  the  lowest  kinds  of  organisms. 
Yet  the  idea  had  been  grasped  more  than  half 
a  century  ago ;  for  the  "  primordial  slime " 
which  Lorenz  Oken  proclaimed  in  1809  to  be 
the  original  source  of  life,  and  the  material 
basis  of  all  living  bodies,  possessed  in  all  es- 
sentials the  same  qualities  and  the  same  im- 
portance now  ascribed  to  protoplasm ;  and  the 
sarcode  so  called,  which  in  1835  was  pointed 
out  by  the  French  zoologist  F61ix  Dujardin  as 
the  only  living  substance  in  the  body  of  rhizo- 
pods  and  other  inferior  primitive  animals,  is 
identical  with  protoplasm.  But  when  Schlei- 
den  and  Schwann,  in  1838,  developed  their  cell 
theory,  they  were  not  acquainted  with  the  fun- 
damental significance  of  protoplasm.  Even 
Hugo  Mohl,  who  in  1846  was  the  first  to  apply 
the  name  protoplasm  to  the  peculiar  serous 
and  mobile  substance  in  the  interior  of  vege- 
table cells,  and  who  perceived  its  high  impor- 
tance, was  very  far  from  understanding  its 
significance  in  relation  to  all  organisms.  Not 
until  Ferdinand  Cohn  (1850),  and  more  fully 
Franz  linger  (1855),  had  established  the  iden- 
tity of  the  animate  and  contractile  protoplasm 
in  vegetable  cells  and  the  sarcode  of  the  lower 
animals,  could  Max  Schultze  in  1858-'61  elabo- 
rate this  protoplasm  theory  of  the  sarcode,  so 
as  to  proclaim  protoplasm  to  be  the  most 
essential  and  important  constituent  of  all  or- 
ganic cells,  and  to  show  that  the  bag  or  husk 
of  the  cell,  the  cellular  membrane,  and  the  in- 
tercellular substances,  are  but  secondary  parts 
of  the  cell,  and  are  frequently  wanting.  In 
a  similar  manner  Lionel  Beale  (1862)  distin- 
guished such  primary  forming  and  secondary 
formed  substances  in  all  organic  tissues,  and 
gave  to  protoplasm,  including  the  cellular 
germ,  the  name  of  "  germinal  matter,"  and  to 
all  the  other  substances  entering  into  the  com- 
position of  tissues,  being  secondary  and  pro- 
duced, the  name  of  "formed  matter."  The 
protoplasm  theory  received  a  wide  and  thor- 
ough illustration  from  the  study  of  rhizopods 
which  Ernst  Haeckel  published  in  1862  in  his 
MonograpMe  der  Radiolarien,  and  its  complete 


application  in  the  Generelle  Morphologic  der 
Organismen  by  the  same  naturalist.  Haeckel 
distinguishes  in  these  works,  for  the  first  time, 
between  gormless  protoplasm,  consisting  only 
of  plastids  called  cytods  by  him,  and  the 
germ-containing  real  cells,  the  elementary  or- 
ganism of  which  consists  already  of  two  differ- 
ent essential  parts,  germ  and  protoplasm.  He 
conceived  the  cytods  and  cells  as  two  differ- 
ent gradations  of  plastids,  of  organic  elemen- 
tary individuals,  or  as  "  individuals  of  the  first 
order,"  and  adopted  entirely,  in  regard  to  the 
individual  independence  of  the  plastids,  the 
ideas  which  had  been  set  forth  by  Eudolf  Vir- 
chow  and  Ernst  Brucke.  Virchow,  whose  Cel- 
lular-Pathologic  contains  the  most  complete 
application  of  the  cell  theory  to  pathology, 
called  the  cells  and  the  "  cell  territories  "  be- 
longing to  them  the  individual  hearth  or  source 
of  life;  Briicke  designated  them  as  "elemen- 
tary organisms."  The  plastids  or  individuals 
of  the  first  order,  identical  with  them,  were 
determined  by  Haeckel  phylogenetically,  to 
the  effect  that  eytods  and  cells  must  be  dis- 
tinguished as  two  essentially  different  orders 
of  formation;  i.  e.,  that  cells  were  phylogenet- 
ically produced  in  a  secondary  manner  from 
homogeneous  cytods  by  means  of  the  secretion 
of  a  germ  by  the  protoplasm.  This  distinction 
is  important  for  the  reason  that  many  of  the 
lowest  orders  of  organisms  have  no  germ  in 
the  protoplasm;  such  is  the  case  especially 
with  the  moners.  These  simplest  of  organ- 
isms were  first  discovered  by  Haeckel  in  1864, 
and  described  by  him  in  1868  in  his  Monogra- 
phic der  Moneren.  Cienkowski  and  Huxley 
also  made  valuable  investigations  of  various 
moners.  The  latter  discovered  in  1868  the  fa- 
mous bachybius,  a  very  remarkable  kind  of 
moner,  which  at  immense  depths  covers  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  in  immeasurable  numbers, 
and  which  consists  of  formless  and  variable 
protoplasm  tissues  of  different  sizes.  Among 
the  moners  investigated  by  Cienkowski,  the 
most  interesting  are  the  vampire  cells,  which 
are  formless  little  bodies  of  protoplasm  that 
bore  into  vegetable  cells  by  means  of  their 
pointed  pseudopodia,  kill  them,  and  absorb  the 
protoplasm  they  find  in  them.  On  the  basis 
of  these  discoveries  Haeckel  elaborated  hia 
plastid  theory  and  carbon  theory,  which  give 
the  extremest  philosophical  consequences  of 
the  protoplasm  theory. — In  England  the  mo- 
nistic philosophy  of  protoplasm  has  received 
the  most  weighty  support  from  Huxley,  whose 
"  Protoplasm,  or  the  Physical  Basis  of  Life  " 
(1868),  put  it  in  its  true  light,  and  called  forth 
numerous  writings  for  and  against  it.  One 
of  the  most  recent  treatises  in  favor  of  it  is 
that  of  James  Ross  "On  Protoplasm"  (1874). 
Probably  the  name  of  plasson  will  be  given  to 
the  primordial,  perfectly  structureless,  and  ho- 
mogeneous protoplasm  of  the  moners  and  other 
cytods,  in  contradistinction  to  the  protoplasm 
of  germ-containing  cells,  which  are  produced 
only  subsequently,  by  the  differentiation  of  an 


36 


PROTRACTOR 


internal  nucleus  and  external  protoplasm  by 
the  plasson  bodies  of  moners.  Edouard  van 
Beneden  especially  calls  for  this  distinction  in 
his  Recherches  sur  revolution  des  gregarines ; 
and  Haeckel  has  adduced  new  facts  in  favor  of 
it  in  his  Monographic  der  Ealkschwdmme.  For 
the  theory  of  "  primordial  generation,"  the 
spontaneous  generation  of  the  first  vitality  on 
earth,  the  distinction  is  of  special  importance, 
aa  the  first  organisms  thus  produced  could  have 
been  only  structureless  specks  of  plasson,  like 
the  bathybius  and  other  moners.  The  great 
theoretical  difficulties  formerly  in  the  way  of 
the  theory  of  primordial  or  spontaneous  gener- 
ation have  been  removed  by  the  discovery  of 
the  moners  and  the  establishment  of  the  plas- 
tid  theory.  As  the  protoplasm  of  the  bathy- 
bius is  not  yet  as  much  as  individualized,  while 
in  the  case  of  other  moners  there  are  individ- 
ual lumps  of  constant  sizes,  it  follows  that  the 
moners  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  natural  bodies 
which  effect  the  transition  from  inorganic  to 
organic  nature. — The  following  list  of  publica- 
tions gives  the  literature  of  the  important  dis- 
coveries in  this  field  in  chronological  order : 
Hugo  Mohl,  Ueber  die  Saftbewegung  im  In- 
nern  der  Zellc  (in  Botanitche  Zeitung,  1846); 
Ferdinand  Cohn,  Nachtrdge  zur  Naturge- 
tchichte  des  Protococcu*  plunialis  (in  Nora  Acta 
Natures  Curiotorum,  1850);  Hugo  Mohl,  Grund- 
euge  der  Anatomic  und  Physiologic  der  tege- 
tabilwchen  Zelle  (1851) ;  Franz  Unger,  Anato- 
mic und  Physiologic  der  Pflamen  (1855) ;  Max 
Schultze,  Innere  Bewegungserscheinungen  lei 
Diatomeen  (in  Troschel's  Architftir  Naturge- 
tchichte,  18(50),  Die  Gattung  Cornuspira  unter 
den  Monothalamien,  &c.  (1860),  and  Ueber 
Muskelkorperchen  und  das  was  man  eine  Zell« 
eu  nennen  habe  (1861) ;  Ernst  BrQcke,  Elemen- 
tar-Organism  (in  Sitzungsberichte  der  Wiener 
Akademie,  1861);  Ernst  Haeckel,  Die  Sareodc 
der  Radiolarien :  Monographic  der  Radiola- 
rien  (1862);  Lionel  Beale,  "  The  Structure  of 
the  Simple  Tissues  of  the  Human  System" 
(1862);  Mai  Schultze,  Das  Protoplatma  der 
Rhizopoden  und  der  Pflamentellen  (1863); 
Haeckel,  Ueber  den  Sarcodekorper  der  Rhizo- 
poden  (Zeittchrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Zo- 
ologic,  1864);  Wilhelra  KQhne.  Untersuchun- 
gen  uoer  das  Protoplastma  und  die  Contractili- 
tdt  (1864);  Haeckel,  Oenerelle  Morphologic  der 
Organismen  (1866),  and  Monographic  der  Mo- 
neren  (in  Jena  ische  Zeitschrtftfur  Naturwissen- 
tchaft,  1867);  Huxley,  "Protoplasm,  or  the 
Physical  Basis  of  Life  "  (1868),  and  "  On  some 
Organisms  living  at  Great  Depths  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean  "  (in  "  Journal  of  Microscopical 
Science,"  1868);  Haeckel,  Beitrdge  *ur  Phtsti- 
den  Theorie  (in  Jenaiwhe  Zeitxchrift,  1870) ; 
Rudolf  Virchow,  Die  Cellularpathologie  in 
ihrer  Begrundung  auf  physiologische  und  pa- 
thologische  Gewebelehre  (4th  ed.,  1871)  ;  Edou- 
ard  van  Beneden,  Recherches  »ur  revolution  det 
gregarines  (in  Bulletin  de  Facademie  royale 
de  Belgique,  1871)  ;  Haeckel,  Monographic  der 
Ealkschw&mme  (1872) ;  James  Ross,  "  On  Pro- 


toplasm "  (London,  1874) ;  John  Drysdale,  M. 
D.,  "  The  Protoplasmic  Theory  of  Life  "  (1875) ; 
and  H.  Charlton  Bastian,  "  Evolution  and  the 
Origin  of  Life"  (1875).  "As  regards  Proto- 
plasm," by  J.  H.  Stirling  (Edinburgh,  1869),  is 
intended  as  a  refutation  of  the  theory. 

PROTOZOA  (Gr.  Trporo?,  first,  and  £«ov,  ani- 
mal), a  subdivision  of  invertebrate  animals, 
proposed  by  Siebold,  since  adopted  by  Leuck- 
art  and  Vogt,  and  now  generally  admitted  by 
naturalists.  As  they  include  the  lowest  and 
in  most  cases  the  most  microscopic  of  animals, 
the  limits  of  this  division  are  not  well  defined ; 
they  comprise  many  of  the  so-called  animal- 
cules, as  well  as  the  large  sponges.  They  are 
composed  of  a  nearly  structureless,  jelly-like 
substance,  called  protoplasm  or  sarcode,  with- 
out distinct  segments,  internal  cavity,  or  ner- 
vous system,  and  with  no  or  a  very  rudimen- 
tary digestive  apparatus.  (See  PROTOPLASM.) 
Dr.  Engelmann  has  observed  in  arcella,  a  mi- 
nute amoeba-like  protozoan,  a  periodical  devel- 
opment of  gas  in  the  granular  protoplasm,  un- 
connected with  the  contractile  vacuoles  or  the 
nuclei.  He  thinks  this  is  a  voluntary  act,  and 
that  the  bubbles  are  used  in  the  manner  of  a 
float  or  air  bladder.  Its  chemical  composition 
and  the  mechanism  of  its  production  and  ab- 
sorption were  not  determined.  The  usually 
accepted  division  is  into  the  classes  of  gregari- 
nidce,  rhitopoda  (like  amcebao,  foraminifers,  and 
sponges),  and  infusoria,  the  highest,  with  a 
mouth  and  digestive  apparatus,  like  the  bell 
animalcules  and  paramctcium.  As  these  rep- 
resent the  first  step  in  animal  organization,  so 
do  the  protophytes  tho  first  in  vegetable  life  ; 
the  former  were  called  ouzoa  by  Carus,  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  ova  or  germs  of 
higher  animals;  the  latter,  as  far  as  known, 
were  microscopic  seaweeds,  without  the  radi- 
ate structure  characteristic  of  plants,  and  are 
found  in  the  lower  Silurian  strata.  (See  ANI- 
MALCULES, BATHYBIUS,  COCCOLITHS,  FORAMI- 
NIFERA,  GLOBIOERINA,  and  GREQARINA.) — See 
Prof.  Packard  on  tho  "  Development  of  Pro- 
tozoa," in  tho  "  American  Naturalist,"  Decem- 
ber, 1874,  to  February,  1875. 

PROTRACTOR,  an  instrument  for  laying  off 
angles  in  plotting.  There  are  four  principal 
forms  of  the  protractor :  the  rectangular,  the 
semicircular,  the  circular,  and  the  reflecting. 
The  rectangular  consists  usually  of  a  thin  rec- 
tangular piece  of  ivory  or  metal,  three  edges 
of  which  are  graduated  from  0  to  180  degrees 
by  portions  of  radii  converging  to  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  edge  as  a  centre ;  it  is  used  only 
where  a  loose  approximation  to  accuracy  suf- 
fices. The  circular  and  semicircular  protractors, 
with  either  two,  one,  cr  no  arms,  are  graduated 
circular  arcs  (usually  metal),  with  or  without 
flat  straight-edged  arms,  turning  about  their 
perforated  centres,  and  carrying  verniers  for 
the  accurate  reading  of  their  arcs.  But  as  they 
are  only  capable  of  protracting  and  measuring 
single  angles  on  a  map,  they  have  not  so  wide 
a.  range  of  usefulness  in  engineering  and  sur- 


PROUDHON 


37 


veying  as  the  three-arm  protractor.  The  three- 
arm  circular  protractor  is  a  modification  of  the 
station-pointer,  differing  from  it  in  having  its 
verniers  movable  and  its  arcs  fixed,  instead 
of  the  opposite.  It  consists  of  a  graduated 
circular  arc  fixed  to  the  middle  one  of  three 
long  flat  arms  which  turn  about  its  centre,  from 
which  diverge  their  straight  fiducial  edges. 
Fixed  to  each  of  the  side  arms  is  an  index  and 
vernier,  by  means  of  which  those  arms  can  be 
set  so  as  to  make  any  required  angles  with  the 
middle  arm.  This  instrument  furnishes  the 
readiest  and  most  accurate  graphic  solution  of 
the  three-point  problem  on  which  hydrogra- 
phers  so  universally  depend  for  determining 
positions  of  the  sounding  boat.  The  reflect- 
ing protractor,  invented  in  January,  1874,  by 
T.  J.  Lowry  of  the  United  States  coast  survey, 
enables  one  observer  to  measure  at  the  same 
instant  two  adjacent  angles,  and  plot  them  with 
the  same  instrument.  It  is  obtained  by  placing 
between  the  fixed  and  each  of  the  movable 
arms  of  the  three-arm  protractor  an  index 
arm ;  and  each  of  these  is  so  connected  with 
those  by  means  of  jointed  parallelograms  that 
it  always  bisects  the  angle  contained  by  the 
fixed  arm  and  its  corresponding  movable  pro- 
tractor arm.  Each  of  these  index  arms  carries 
a  mirror  mounted  perpendicular  to  its  plane 
(and  over  its  centre)  of  motion ;  these  mirrors 
may  be  mounted  to  move  either  in  the  same 
or  in  parallel  planes.  (See  SEXTANT.)  Slightly 
forward  of  these  mirrors  on  the  line  of  sight 
is  fixed  a  horizon  glass,  half  silvered  to  admit 
of  direct  and  reflected  vision.  As  the  angular 
distance  moved  over  by  a  mirror  while  mea- 
suring an  angle  is  only  half  of  the  actual  angle 
measured,  and  as  each  of  these  movable  pro- 
tractor arms  is  driven  along  its  arc  simulta- 
neously with  and  twice  as  fast  as  its  corre- 
sponding index  arm,  the  angles  contained  by 
the  fixed  and  movable  protractor  arms  are  the 
actual  angles  measured.  When  using  the  re- 
flecting protractor  the  observer  brings  its  face 
into  the  plane  passing  through  his  eye  and 
three  objects,  and  then  sets  his  index  arm  so 
that  the  reflected  and  direct  images  of  the 
objects  (say  left-hand  and  middle)  of  one  of 
the  desired  angles  are  not  coincident,  yet  ap- 
proaching on  account  of  the  progress  of  the 
boat,  and  with  the  second  index  glass  he  makes 
the  images  of  the  right-hand  and  middle  ob- 
jects coincident,  and  keeps  them  so  with  the 
tangent  screw  till  the  first  two  objects  become 
coincident,  then  clamps,  and  the  angles  are 
measured  and  also  ready  set  off  on  the  instru- 
ment. He  now  places  the  instrument  on  the 
map  and  shifts  it  until  the  fiducial  edges  of  its 
protractor  arms  traverse  the  three  points  ob- 
served on,  and  dots  the  centre  of  the  position. 
PROIDHON,  Jean  Baptiste  Victor,  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Chanans,  Franche-Comt6,  Feb.  1, 1758, 
died  in  Dijon,  Nov.  20,  1838.  During  the 
revolution  he  was  judge  at  Pontarlier  and  as- 
sistant deputy  to  the  legislative  assembly,  and 
afterward  a  member  of  the  civil  tribunal  at 


Besan?on.  In  1802  he  delivered  free  lectures 
on  law ;  in  1806  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  civil  law  in  the  school  of  Dijon,  and  in  1809 
became  dean  of  the  faculty.  His  principal 
works  are :  Traite  sur  Vetat  des  personnel  et 
sur  le  titre  preliminaire  du  Code  civil  (1810) ; 
Traite  des  droits  d'usufruit,  &c.  (9  vols., 
1823-'6) ;  and  Traite  du  domaine  public  (5 
vols.,  1834-'5). 

PROtDHON,  Pierre  Joseph,  a  French  political 
writer,  born  in  Besancon,  July  15,  1809,  died 
at  Passy,  Paris,  Jan.  19,  1865.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  college  of  his  native  city,  became 
apprentice  to  a  printer,  and  in  1837  was  taken 
into  partnership  by  a  printing  firm  at  Besancon. 
He  published  an  edition  of  the  Bible  with  an- 
notations upon  the  principles  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  reprinted  Bergier's  Elements 
primitifs  des  langues  (1837),  with  an  anony- 
mous Essai  de  grammaire  generate,  by  himself, 
as  an  appendix.  This  essay  received  from  the 
academy  of  Besancon  a  prize  consisting  of  a 
triennial  pension  of  1,500  francs,  which  en- 
abled him  to  visit  Paris.  Here  he  became  a 
contributor  to  Parent  Desbarres's  Encyclopedic 
catholique,  and  wrote  for  the  Besangon  acad- 
emy a  prize  essay,  De  la  celebration  du  di- 
manche  (1840),  and  a  paper  entitled  Qtfest-ce  que 
la  propriete  ?  This  pamphlet,  which  opened 
with  the  afterward  celebrated  dictum,  La  pro- 
priete cjest  le  vol,  was  censured  by  the  academy, 
who  at  once  cut  short  Proudhon's  allowance  ; 
but  the  economist  Blanqui,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  examine  it,  declared  that  he  found 
nothing  objectionable  in  it.  It  was  followed 
in  1841  by  another  pamphlet  on  the  same 
question,  and  in  1842  by  an  Avertissement  aux 
proprietaires,  for  which  he  was  arraigned  be- 
fore a  jury  at  Besanc.on,  but  was  acquitted. 
In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Lyons,  and  from 
1843  to  1847  was  director  of  a  company  run- 
ning freight  boats  on  the  Sa6ne  and  Rh&ne. 
In  the  mean  time  he  continued  to  propagate 
his  opinions  in  De  la  creation  de  Vordre  dans 
Vhumanite  (1843),  presenting  the  theory  of  a 
new  political  organization,  and  Systeme  des 
contradictions  economiques  (2  vols.  8vo,  1846). 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1848,  he  was  in  Paris  engaged  in  the 
publication  of  his  Solution  du  probleme  social, 
a  plan  of  social  reform  by  means  of  a  new 
organization  of  credit  and  monetary  circula- 
tion. On  April  1  he  became  the  editor  of  Le 
representant  du  peuple,  a  daily  journal  of  radi- 
cal opinions,  suspended  in  August.  On  June 
4  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  constituent 
assembly,  and  on  July  31  he  came  forward 
to  urge  a  proposition  which  he  had  previously 
made  for  the  establishment  of  a  progressive 
income  tax,  the  design  of  which  was  the 
abolition  of  interest  on  capital,  and  eventual- 
ly the  consolidation  of  the  republican  govern- 
ment. This  was  almost  unanimously  voted 
down  "  as  an  odious  attack  upon  the  principles 
of  public  morality  and  an  appeal  to  the  worst 
passions."  He  closed  his  parliamentary  career 


38 


PROUT 


PROVENCAL  LANGUAGE,  &c. 


by  opposing  (Nov.  4)  the  adoption  of  the  con- 
stitution, which  he  looked  upon  as  "dangerous 
to  liberty."  He  next  edited  in  succession  three 
short-lived  journals,  the  last  of  which  expired 
Oct.  13,  1850.  These  papers  were  repeatedly 
condemned  by  the  courts,  but  the  fines  imposed 
upon  the  editor  were  immediately  paid  by  his 
admirers.  His  printed  speeches  and  pam- 
phlets, including  his  Droit  au  travail  (1848), 
Les  Malthusiens,  Demonstration  du  socialisme, 
and  Ideea  revolutionnaires  (1849),  found  a 
ready  sale  among  men  of  all  opinions,  and 
elicited  answers  from  the  ablest  pens  in  the 
conservative  party.  In  January,  1849,  he  had 
undertaken  to  establish  la  banque  du  peuple, 
an  institution  of  gratuitous  credit,  by  means 
of  which  he  hoped  to  bring  his  theory  into 
operation;  but  in  this  he  was  interrupted, 
March  28,  by  a  sentence  of  three  years'  impris- 
onment for  illegal  publications,  which  he  at 
first  avoided  by  flight.  After  sojourning  in 
Geneva  for  a  few  months,  ho  delivered  him- 
self up  (June  4),  and  was  incarcerated  succes- 
sively in  the  Conciergerie,  at  Doullens,  and  in 
the  prison  of  Sto.  P61agie,  where  in  1850  he 
married  a  merchant's  daughter.  During  his 
imprisonment  he  wrote  Confessions  d'un  revo- 
lutionnaire  (1849),  Actes  de  la  revolution  (1849), 
Oratuite  du  credit  (1850),  and  Larerolution  so- 
ciale  demontree  par  le  coup  d'etat  (1852),  which 
created  a  deep  sensation  and  was  looked  upon 
as  a  partial  apology  for  Napoleon's  policy.  He 
was  liberated  on  June  4,  1852 ;  in  1856  pub- 
lished a  Manuel  des  operations  de  la  bourse,  a 
satire  on  stockjobbers  and  speculators;  and 
soon  afterward  De  la  justice  dans  la  revolution 
et  dans  Teglise,  nouteaux  principes  de  philo- 
sophic pratique  (3  vols.,  1858),  which  he  ironi- 
cally dedicated  to  the  archbishop  of  Besanvon. 
This  metaphysical  work,  a  covert  attack  upon 
the  established  order  of  things,  was  seized  by 
the  police,  and  its  author  was  sentenced  to 
three  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  4,000 
francs ;  but  Proudhon  was  in  Belgium,  where 
he  remained  till  November,  1860,  when  the 
amnesty  granted  to  the  press  by  Napoleon  III. 
permitted  him  to  return  to  Paris.  His  princi- 
pal later  works  are:  La  guerre  et  la  paix  (2 
vols.,  1861) ;  Theorie  de  Vimpot  (1861) ;  La 
federation  et  Punite  en  Italic  (1862);  and  Du 
principe  federattf  et  de  la  neeessite  dereconsti- 
tuer  le  parti  de  la  revolution  (1863).  Among 
his  posthumous  work's  are  :  Les  fivanyilet  an- 
note*  (1865),  which  was  seized  and  the  editor 
was  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment ;  and 
France  et  Rhin  (1867). — See  Proudhon,  »a  vie, 
ses  ceuvres  et  sa  corrcspondance,  by  Charles 
Clement  (1872).  The  first  volume  of  his  cor- 
respondence was  published  in  1874,  and  is  to 
be  followed  by  seven  others,  besides  several 
additional  posthumous  works. 

PROrT,  Father.     See  MAHONY,  FRANCIS. 

PROUT,  Samuel,  an  English  water-color  paint- 
er, born  in  Plymouth,  Sept.  17,  1783,  died  in 
London,  Feb.  10,  1852.  Some  sketches  of  Cor- 
nish scenery  which  he  executed  for  Britton  the 


antiquary  first  brought  him  into  notice,  and  in 
1805  he  removed  to  London.  He  published  a 
series  of  studies  executed  in  lithography  (1816) ; 
"  Facsimiles  of  Sketches  made  in  Flanders  and 
Germany;"  "Sketches  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy;"  "Antiquities  of  Chester;"  "Hints 
on  Light  and  Shade,  Composition,  &c.,  as  ap- 
plicable to  Landscape  Painting;"  "Microcosm, 
the  Artist's  Sketch  Book  of  Groups  of  Figures, 
Shipping,  and  other  Picturesque  Objects;"  and 
"  Hints  for  Beginners." 

PROCT,  William,  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
1786,  died  in  London,  April  9,  1850.  He  re- 
ceived his  professional  education  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  but  passed  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  in  London.  His  researches  on  the 
application  of  chemistry  to  the  explanation  of 
the  phenomena  of  life  are  contained  in  an  im- 
portant work  "  On  the  Nature  and  Treatment 
of  Stomach  and  Renal  Diseases "  (5th  ed., 
1848).  He  also  published  "An  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Gravel "  (1821) ; 
"  Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Function 
of  Digestion,  considered  with  reference  to  Nat- 
ural theology,"  a  Bridgewater  treatise  (1834 ; 
4th  ed.,  1855) ;  and  a  number  of  papers  in  sci- 
entific magazines  and  transactions. 

PROVENCAL  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
Provencal  belongs  to  the  Romance  or  Romanic 
group  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family 
of  speech.  (See  ROMANCE  LANGUAGES.)  Its 
real  home  is  the  south  of  France,  the  boun- 
dary line  running  through  Dauphiny,  Lyou- 
nais,  Auvergne,  Limousin,  Perigord,  and  Sain- 
tongo.  It  is  spoken  also  in  the  east  of  Spain, 
Catalonia,  Valencia,  and  the  Baleares,  and  in 
Savoy  and  a  portion  of  Switzerland.  At  pres- 
ent several  dialects  may  be  distinguished  : 
New  Provencal,  Languedocian,  Limousinian, 
Auvorgnian,  Dauphinese,  Waldensian,  Gascon, 
and  Catalan.  The  Provencal  language  sepa- 
rated from  the  idiom  of  northern  France,  des- 
ignated as  la  langue  d*oil,  from  the  use  of  the 
affirmation  oil  (Lat.  illud),  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  9th  century.  Probably  there  was 
once  but  one  Romance  language  in  the  whole  of 
Gaul,  though  some  of  the  early  literary  monu- 
ments which  are  generally  produced  as  exam- 
ples of  the  original  uniform  tongue,  also  dating 
from  the  9th  century,  have  a  preponderance 
of  French  forms.  In  order  to  distinguish  the 
newly  formed  dialect  of  the  south  of  France 
from  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French,  and  to  give 
it  a  geographically  comprehensive  name,  it  was 
natural  to  select  for  it  the  name  of  the  largest 
province  within  its  territory.  Thus,  in  dis- 
tinction from  romana,  came  into  use  la  lengua 
proensal,  la  proewal,  le  proensaUs,  and  vulgar 
proensal ;  and  the  people  who  spoke  it  were 
called  Provincial**,  though  also  Francigence.  It 
received  also  the  name  of  Limousinian  (lemosi), 
after  the  province  of  Limousin,  which  was 
gradually  transferred  also  to  the  Catalonian- 
Valencian  idiom.  As  a  large  part  of  southern 
France  came  to  be  called  Languedoc  or  Llen- 
guadoch,  after  the  use  of  the  affirmation  oe 


PEOVENQAL  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUEE 


(Lat.  hoc),  which  is  the  origin  also  of  the  mid- 
dle Latin  name  Occitania  and  of  the  French 
adjective  occitanien,  later  writers  fell  into  the 
habit  of  applying  the  name  of  langue  floe  to 
the  whole  Provencal  language,  while  it  should 
be  strictly  confined  to  the  Occitanian  dialect. 
The  middle  of  the  10th  century  furnishes  the 
first  monument  of  the  Provencal  language,  but 
its  principal  development  occurred  in  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  the  flourishing  period  of 
the  peculiar  poetry  of  the  troubadours.  But 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the 
language  ceased  to  be  used  by  the  higher 
classes.  As  the  troubadours  took  particular 
pains  to  ridicule  the  clergy  and  the  practices 
of  the  church,  they  drew  upon  themselves  the 
ill  will  of  the  ecclesiastical  party,  and  in  1245 
Innocent  IV.  issued  a  bull  in  which  he  called 
Provencal  the  language  of  heretics,  and  for- 
bade its  use  by  students.  The  wars  which 
during  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century  deso- 
lated the  south  of  France  were  also  fatal  to 
the  language.  The  troubadours  sought  refuge 
at  the  court  of  Aragon  and  in  Catalonia,  and 
kept  the  language  for  a  time  from  corruption ; 
but  by  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  Pro- 
vencal generally  succumbed  in  Spain  also  to 
the  adjacent  dialects.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  preserve  the  language  by  establishing  con- 
sistories of  the  "  gay  science  "  in  Toulouse  and 
Barcelona,  but  their  success  was  short.  In 
Italy,  in  the  northwest  of  which  it  was  spoken, 
it  was  quickly  forgotten  on  the  revival  of  the 
ancient  literature,  and  was  superseded  by  Tus- 
can. The  language  thus  passed  into  dialects 
spoken  only  by  the  peasantry  in  its  former 
territory,  and  its  use  for  poetical  composition 
has  come  to  be  only  a  matter  of  caprice. — 
Provencal  is  the  earliest  Eomance  language 
which  received  grammatical  treatment ;  but 
the  object  was  only  to  check  the  carelessness 
of  expression  on  the  part  of  the  poets,  and 
thus  to  counteract  the  threatening  decadence 
of  the  language.  Provencal  scarcely  ever  de- 
veloped into  a  uniform  literary  language,  as 
the  poets  lived  at  the  various  courts.  But  the 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  troubadours  to  attain 
a  certain  elegance,  ease,  and  variety  of  diction, 
causing  them  to  reject  many  expressions  as 
inelegant  and  impure,  led  to  the  formation  of 
a  choicer  language  than  that  used  by  the 
masses,  which  was  called  lo  dreg  proensal,  or 
la  dreita  parladura ;  this  was  not  peculiar 
to  any  one  province,  though  not  without  pro- 
vincialisms. The  want  of  an  orthography,  and 
the  indefiniteness  of  the  dialectical  variations, 
render  it  very  difficult  to  determine  either 
the  pronunciation  or  the  construction  of  the 
language.  The  grammatical  treatises  of  Uk 
Faidit  and  Eaimon  Vidal  hardly  touch  upon 
these  subjects.  They  contain  discourses  on 
long  and  short  syllables,  and  there  is  an  at- 
tempt to  show  the  difference  of  pronunciation 
between  French  and  Provencal.  Only  the 
Leys  d'amors  makes  frequent  reference  to  the 
value  of  the  letters  and  to  orthography.  The 


forms  fan  and  fatz,  plai  and  plats,  faire  and 
far,  conques  and  conquis,  ditz  and  di,  and  the 
like,  are  used  for  the  same  words  by  one  poet, 
and  the  rhymes  follow  accordingly ;  yet  such 
instances  cannot  be  cited  to  prove  that  quar 
(Lat.  quare)  was  pronounced  differently  from 
car,  or  altre  otherwise  than  autre;  for  quar 
and  altre  may  have  been  written  according  to 
etymology,  while  car  and  autre  represented  the 
pronunciation.  Accordingly  but  little  is  said 
in  modern  philological  works  on  Provencal 
about  the  pronunciation  of  it.  "When  Ray- 
nouard,  the  great  student  of  the  langue  •d'oc, 
was  interrogated  in  regard  to  it,  he  replied : 
II  n*y  a  pas  de  prononciation  provencale 
("  There  is  no  Provencal  pronunciation  ") ;  and 
Diez,  who  has  given  the  fullest  treatise  on 
Provencal  vowels  and  consonants,  admits  that 
there  is  a  great  amount  of  truth  in  the  reply. 
— The  characteristics  of  the  modern  Proven- 
cal dialects  are  the  following.  In  the  New 
Provencal  many  words  ending  in  e  in  French 
have  t,  as  agi,  couragi;  au  is  generally  sound- 
ed oou ;  I  is  changed  into  u  and  II  (as  in 
fille)  into  y ;  and  c  before  a  is  sometimes 
guttural  and  sometimes  palatal.  The  Occita- 
nian dialects  of  Languedoc  resemble  New  Pro- 
vencal very  closely.  In  Toulouse  oi  is  sound- 
ed instead  of  ei ;  in  Montpellier,  io  for  ue ; 
the  letter  I  is  not  always  changed  into  u  ;  final 
n,  preserved  in  Montpellier,  is  dropped  in  Tou- 
louse ;  Latin  ct  and  di  change  into  ch,  and  « 
into  I.  The  Limousinian  dialect  may  be  di- 
vided into  Upper  and  Lower  Limousinian.  In 
the  latter  a  is  generally  sounded  as  o,  ai  as  ei, 
ieu  as  iou,  ch  as  ts,  j  and  soft  g  as  dz.  In  Au- 
vergne  ai  becomes  one  ;  oi,'eu  ;  eu  and  iu,  iau  ; 
final  I  and  n  disappear;  s,  c,  and  z  often  be- 
come palatals;  ch  is  sounded  as  in  French,  and 
final  c  as  t ;  I  often  becomes  r.  In  Dauphiny, 
especially  at  Grenoble,  the  influence  of  the 
French  pronunciation  becomes  more  apparent, 
while  the  Waldensian  dialect  has  experienced 
some  changes  through  the  influence  of  Italian. 
In  fact,  we  may  doubt  whether  the  latter  has 
been  directly  derived  from  Provencal,  though 
the  early  Waldensian  literary  monuments  be- 
token a  near  kinship  to  it.  Gascon  still  shows 
its  Provencal  origin,  but  it  has  absorbed  so 
many  foreign  elements  that  its  parentage  is 
greatly  obscured.  Prominent  among  its  pe- 
culiarities are  the  preceding  of  r  by  a,  open- 
ing II  for  I,  internal  r  for  I,  ch  for  «  and  ««, 
qua  sounded  with  an  audible  u,  5  for  «,  and  h 
for  f.  Catalan  is  properly  not  a  dialectical 
variation  of  Provencal,  but  rather  an  indepen- 
dent idiom  closely  related  to  it.  Its  peculiari- 
ties are  the  change  of  mute  e  into  a  ;  the  pres- 
ervation of  e  and  o  without  change  into  diph- 
thongs ;  the  absence  of  ie,  ue,  iei,  ieu,  and  the 
rare  use  of  other  diphthongs  and  triphthongs ; 
the  softening  of  I  into  II;  the  dropping  of 
Latin  final  n ;  the  palatal  sounds  of  g,  j,  and 
x;  ch  in  the  beginning  of  words  for  c;  the 
sound  of  e  for  c  ;  and  the  audible  u  in  qua  and 
gua.  Valencian  is  almost  the  same  as  Catalan, 


PROVENCAL  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


only  somewhat  softer  in  pronunciation. — The 
first  monument  of  the  Provencal  language  be- 
longs to  the  middle  of  the  10th  century.  It 
is  a  fragment  of  257  ten-syllable  verses  on 
Boethius,  and  has  been  preserved  in  a  manu- 
script of  the  llth  century,  which,  according 
to  Paul  Meyer,  and  as  appears  from  the  lan- 
guage and  mode  of  writing,  originated  in  Li- 
mousin or  Auvergne.  Next  in  historical  order 
come  a  few  partly  Provencal  poems,  including 
a  long  poem  on  the  passion  of  Christ,  and  the 
legend  of  St.  Leodegar,  published  in  Cham- 
pollion-Figeac's  Documents  hiatoriqv.es.  Ray- 
nouard  has  collected  several  Latin  documents 
with  sentences  of  Provencal  interspersed,  da- 
ting from  about  860  to  1080  ;  and  other  docu- 
ments in  part  or  entirely  Provencal,  of  a  later 
date,  have  been  embodied  in  Bartsch's  Chret- 
tomathie.  Several  minor  poems  on  religious 
subjects  and  several  sermons,  dating  from 
about  the  llth  century,  have  been  collected  by 
Paul  Meyer.  Of  the  same  date,  or  perhaps  of 
the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  is  a  manu- 
script recently  published  by  Konrad  Hoffmann, 
containing  a  paraphrase  of  the  discourse  of 
Christ  in  John  xiii.  The  main  feature  of  the 
flourishing  period  of  Provencal  literature  is 
the  poetry  of  the  troubadours.  According  to 
Quiraut  Riquier,  it  would  seem  that  the  trou- 
badours were  in  a  measure  the  successors  and 
disciples  of  tho  jongleurs,  who  made  a  sort 
of  trade  of  rhyming  and  singing  and  dancing. 
Some  account  of  the  art  d«  trobar  (art  of  in- 
venting) is  necessary  for  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  main  characteristic  of  Provencal  poetry. 
In  one  class  of  versification,  the  canson  (canzo, 
canzoneta),  the  rhymes,  pauses,  and  general 
manner  of  the  first  stanza  had  to  be  main- 
tained through  all  the  succeeding  stanzas,  and 
at  the  close  came  a  commiato,  or  summary 
of  the  whole,  addressed  by  the  poet  to  his 
friends,  patrons,  or  mistress.  The  sircente 
permitted  greater  ease  of  composition,  and 
while  the  canson  was  used  chiefly  for  moral 
and  amorous  effusions,  the  office  of  the  lat- 
ter poetic  form  was  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  for 
attacks  on  the  secular  and  spiritual  lords,  as 
well  as  for  love  songs  of  a  satirical  or  light 
nature.  In  the  tensons,  or  poetic  combats, 
two  or  more  persons  support  opposite  sides  on 
some  subject  of  philosophy  or  love.  Though 
these  combats  were  originally  extemporary,  in 
later  times  several  troubadours  would  choose 
a  common  subject  and  metre ;  the  first  would 
compose  a  stanza  and  transmit  it  to  another, 
who  would  compose  the  second  stanza,  and  so 
on ;  and  when  each  of  the  disputants  had 
added  his  part,  the  whole  would  be  submitted 
to  competent  judges,  forming  what  was  called 
a  "court  of  love."  There  are  also  epistolary 
treatises  on  the  subjects  of  love,  friendship, 
and  chivalry,  which  were  called  donaire,  sa- 
lutz,  and  ensenhamen.  The  plarih  is  a  kind 
of  elegy  celebrating  the  memory  of  a  fallen 
knight,  or  mourning  over  disappointments  in 
love.  Little  poems  sung  during  the  dance  were 


called  balada  and  dansa  ;  they  were  mostly  of 
a  very  simple  nature.  The  serena,  serenade 
or  evening  song,  gives  utterance  to  the  most 
passionate  love,  but  only  one  has  come  down 
to  us.  The  alba,  or  waking  song,  reminds  the 
lovers  that  it  is  dawn.  The  pastoreta  or  pas- 
torela  generally  gives  a  conversation  held  be- 
tween a  knight  and  a  shepherdess,  one  com- 
plimenting the  other,  and  always  on  the  sub- 
ject of  love. — The  earliest  troubadour  of  whom 
any  poetic  remains  have  been  preserved  ia 
William  IX.  of  Poitiers  (1071-1127).  Among 
the  most  important  Provencal  poets  subsequent 
to  him  must  be  mentioned  first  of  all  Giraud 
de  Borneil  (1170-1220),  who  in  the  opinion  of 
his  contemporaries  was  the  greatest  of  all. 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  of  England,  Alfonso 
II.  of  Aragon,  and  Robert  I.  of  Anvergne 
were  also  celebrated  troubadours.  They  were 
excelled,  however,  by  Bertrand  de  Born,  their 
contemporary,  whom  Dante  and  Uhland  would 
have  immortalized  if  his  own  fiery  and  warlike 
rhymes  had  not.  Other  famous  troubadours 
toward  the  end  of  the  12th  century  were  Mar- 
cabrnn,  Jaufre,  Randal,  Count  Rambaut  III. 
of  Orange,  Peire  of  Auvergne,  Peire  Rogier, 
Peire  Raimon  of  Toulouse,  Arnaut  de  Marueil, 
Peire  Vidal,  Rambaut  de  Vaqueiras,  Peirol,  the 
monk  of  Montauban,  and  Arnaut  Daniel.  To 
the  13th  century  belong  the  names  of  Faidit> 
Raimon  of  Miraval,  Savarik  of  Mauleon,  Uk 
of  Saint  Cyr,  Aimerik  of  Peguilain,  Peiro 
Cardinal,  Gnillem  Figueiras,  Sordel,  Bonifaci 
Calvo,  Bertolome  Zorgi,  and  Quiraut  Riquier. 
Among  the  treatises  on  the  troubadour's  art 
stands  foremost  La  dreita  maniera  de  trobar, 
"  The  Correct  Art  of  Versifying,"  by  Raimon 
Vidal,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  famous  trou- 
badour of  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 
Another,  but  more  of  a  grammatical  nature,  is 
the  Donatut  Provincialis  by  Uk  Faidit,  extant 
in  two  editions,  one  Romance,  the  other  Latin ; 
both  have  been  published  in  Guessard's  Gram- 
maires  romanes  inedites.  A  full  grammar  and 
science  of  poetry  was  published  by  the  con- 
sistory del  gay  saber  of  Toulouse,  and  edited 
by  Moulinier,  entitled  Leys  d'amors,  "  Laws  of 
Love,"  t.  «.,  of  the  poetry  of  love.  A  portion 
of  it,  Lasflors  del  gay  saber,  appeared  in  1856. 
But  by  this  time  Provencal  verse  was  almost 
extinct.  The  troubadours  had  lost  their  most 
eminent  patrons,  and  the  attempt  to  revive 
them  by  distributing  prizes  for  the  best  com- 
position in  the  floral  games  of  Toulouse  failed 
to  establish  the  name  of  any  Provencal  poet. 
Still,  there  have  always  been  some  who  used 
Provencal  for  their  poetic  compositions,  and 
in  the  19th  century  several  have  even  gained 
celebrity  as  Proven9al  poets.  Foremost  among 
these  stands  Jacques  Jasmin,  the  barber  of 
Agen  (1798-1864),  and  after  him  come  Jos6 
Roumanille,  Theodore  Aubanel,  and  the  mar- 
quis de  la  Fare-Alais.  The  most  eminent  liv- 
ing Provencal  poet  undoubtedly  is  Fr£d6rio 
Mistral,  the  pupil  of  Roumanille,  and  one  of 
the  largest  contributors  to  Li  Prouvenfalo 


PROVENCE 


PKOVERBS 


(1852),  a  collection  of  modern  Provencal  poe- 
try. His  fame  rests  principally  on  his  charm- 
ing rustic  epic  entitled  Mireio  (1859),  trans- 
lated by  himself  into  modern  French  (Mireille), 
and  set  to  music  by  Gounod,  and  of  which 
there  are  versions  in  English  by  H.  Crich- 
ton  and  by  Harriet  W.  Preston. — The  earliest 
writers  on  the  Proven9al  literature  were  Car- 
dinal Bembo  and  Jean  de  Nostre  Dame,  or 
Nostradamus,  brother  of  the  astrologer.  Nos- 
tre Dame  collected  a  large  number  of  manu- 
scripts, and  composed  a  work  on  the  lives  and 
writings  of  the  old  Provencal  poets.  Lacurne 
de  Sainte-Palaye  expended  a  vast  amount  of 
time  and  labor  in  ransacking  the  libraries  of 
France  and  Italy,  and  collecting  materials  on 
the  subject,  which  the  abb6  Millot  published 
under  the  title  of  Histoire  litteraire  des  trou- 
badours (3  vols.,  Paris,  1774;  abridged  English 
translation  by  Mary  Dobson,  London,  1779). 
But  it  is  chiefly  to  M.  Raynouard,  a  native  of 
Provence,  that  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Provencal.  In  his  Choix  des  poe- 
sies originates  des  troubadours  (6  vols.,  Paris, 
1816-'21),  he  published  vestiges  of  their  early 
poetry,  and  lives  and  extracts  from  the  wri- 
tings of  about  350  poets.  Previously  he  had 
written  a  grammar  of  the  language  (1816), 
end  to  this  he  added  a  lexicon  which  appeared 
after  his  death  (6  vols.,  1838-'44).  In  his  foot- 
steps followed  Charles  Claude  Fauriel,  whose 
Histoire  de  la  poesie  provencale  (3  vols.  8vo, 
Paris,  1846 ;  abridged  English  translation, 
New  York,  1860),  delivered  in  a  series  of  lec- 
tures as  professor  in  the  faculty  of  letters  at 
Paris,  is  the  most  elaborate  work  on  the  sub- 
ject upon  which  it  treats.  In  Germany  the 
study  of  Provencal  received  a  scientific  foun- 
dation at  the  hands  of  Friedrich  Diez,  whose 
Die  Poesie  der  Troubadours  (Zwickau,  1826) 
and  Leben  und  WirTcen  der  Troubadours  (1829) 
have  been  translated  into  French  and  English. 
See  also  Mahn,  Die  WerTce  der  Troubadours  in 
provemalischer  Sprache  (Berlin,  1846  et  seg.\ 
Die  Biographien  der  Troubadours  (1853),  and 
Gedichte  der  Troubadours  (4  vols.,  1856-'68); 
Paul  Meyer,  Anciennes  poesies  religiemes  en 
langue  d'oc  (Paris,  1860),  Cours  d'histoire  de 
la  litterature  provencale  (1865),  and  JRecueil 
d'anciens  textes  bas-latins,  provenfaux  et  fran- 
fais  (1873  et  seq.)  ;  Bohmer,  Die  provemalische 
Poesie  der  Gegenwart  (Berlin,  1870) ;  Karl 
Bartsch,  Grundriss  zur  GescJiichte  der  pro- 
tenzalischen  Liter atur  (1872),  and  Ghrestoma- 
thie  provencale  (Paris,  1875);  and  Rutherford, 
"  The  Troubadours  :  their  Loves  and  their 
Lyrics"  (London,  1873). 

PROVENCE,  an  ancient  province  of  S.  E. 
France,  bounded  N.  by  Dauphiny  and  Venais- 
sin,  E.  by  the  Alps,  S.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  "W.  by  Languedoc.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
territory  to  which  the  Romans  gave  the  name 
of  Provincia,  and  was  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Provence,  watered  by  the  Rh6ne,  Du- 
rance, and  Var,  and  celebrated  for  its  delight- 
ful climate  and  rich  fruits,  though  the  soil 


is  somewhat  arid.  Its  capital  was  Aix.  It 
now  forms  the  departments  of  Basses-Alpes, 
Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  and  Var,  and  a  part  of 
those  of  Dr6me,  Vaucluse,  and  Alpes-Mari- 
times. — This  territory  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Visigoths  in  the  5th  century,  and  of 
the  Ostrogoths  in  the  6th,  and,  after  being  for 
a  while  in  the  possession  of  Austrasia,  fell  to 
Lothaire  on  the  division  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  9th 
century  it  formed  part  of  Cisjurane  Burgundy, 
and  in  the  10th  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries,  which 
was  subsequently  united  to  Germany ;  but 
Provence  meanwhile  was  governed  by  virtual- 
ly independent  counts,  who  about  1063  became 
hereditary.  In  the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
it  passed  by  marriage  into  the  possession  of 
Charles  of  Anjou,  afterward  king  of  Naples. 
The  last  count,  Charles,  grandson  of  Ren6  the 
Good,  bequeathed  it  in  1481  to  Louis  XL,  and 
it  was  united  to  the  crown  of  France  by 
Charles  VIII.  in  1486. 

PROVERBS,  a  book  of  the  Old  Testament, 
entitled  in  the  Hebrew  original  as  well  as  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  "  The  Proverbs  of 
Solomon."  Its  real  or  final  authorship,  how- 
ever, is  not  ascribed  to  Solomon,  for  it  is  ex- 
pressly stated  at  the  opening  of  chapter  xxv. 
that  the  latter  part,  beginning  with  that  chap- 
ter, was  written  and  added  to  the  previous 
portion  by  order  of  King  Hezekiah.  More- 
over, it  is  considered  doubtful  whether  Sol- 
omon ever  made  any  collection  of  his  prov- 
erbs in  writing.  But  it  has  hardly  ever  been 
contested  that  a  large  share  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  book  may  be  ascribed  to  the  wise 
king,  who  is  said  (1  Kings  iv.  32)  to  have 
uttered  8,000  proverbs,  and  who  was  so  cele- 
brated all  over  the  eastern  world  for  his  wis- 
dom. The  ancient  writers  of  the  Greek  church 
frequently  gave  to  this  book  the  name  Sophia 
(wisdom). — The  book  is  divided  into  several 
parts,  which  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  separate  headings.  The  first  seven  verses 
of  the  first  chapter  may  be  regarded  as  a  head- 
ing for  the  entire  book.  Then  begins  the  first 
part,  closing  with  the  end  of  the  ninth  chapter. 
This  part  does  not  contain  a  collection  of 
proverbs  proper,  but  rather  a  series  of  con- 
nected admonitions  in  a  sententious  form. 
They  inculcate  the  love  of  wisdom,  and  de- 
scribe the  glorious  reward  of  wisdom  and  the 
pernicious  consequences  of  wickedness.  The 
second  part,  which  extends  from  chap.  x.  to 
xxii.  16,  contains  the  main  collection  of  prov- 
erbs and  the  chief  portion  of  the  entire  book. 
The  proverbs,  about  400  in  number,  contain 
moral  precepts  and  rules  of  life  for  every  age 
and  every  class  of  men.  Generally  one  prov- 
erb is  comprised  in  one  short  verse,  of  two 
members  or  clauses,  and  six,  seven,  or  eight 
words.  The  two  members  form  a  parallel  op- 
position, or  occasional  correspondence,  to  each 
other,  which  is  generally  carried  out  even  to 
the  single  expressions;  as  for  example  x.  1 
(rendering  the  Hebrew  literally) : 


PROVIDENCE 


A-wise  son 
A-foolish  sun 


gladdens 
(la)  the-grief 


(his)  father. 

of-hiu-inother. 


The  grouping  together  of  the  proverbs  in  this 
part  appears  to  have  been  accidental,  except  that 
occasionally  two  or  three  verses  follow  each 
other  which  have  a  characteristic  expression  in 
common.  With  xxii.  17  a  kind  of  appendix  be- 
gins. The  proverbs  of  this  section  generally 
consist  of  two  verses,  and  sometimes  of  three ; 
they  are  constructed  with  less  regularity,  some- 
times containing  more  than  two  members,  and 
often  without  any  parallelism.  Sometimes 
proverbs  of  kindred  contents  are  grouped  to- 
gether. A  second  appendix  to  the  first  collec- 
tion begins  at  xxiv.  23,  and  is  separated  from 
the  preceding  by  the  heading,  "  These  also  are 
from  wise  men  "  (in  the  common  English  ver- 
sion, "  These  things  also  belong  to  the  wise  ")• 
— The  second  main  collection  begins  with  chap- 
ter xxv.,  which  is  headed,  "These  are  also 
proverbs  of  Solomon,  which  the  men  of  Heze- 
kiah,  king  of  Judah,  copied  out."  The  prov- 
erbs, as  in  the  first  collection,  consist  generally 
of  one  verse  each,  and  each  verse  of  two  or 
more  members  with  parallel  relation  ;  yet  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule  occur  more  frequently  than 
in  the  first  collection.  The  proverbs  of  the 
second  collection  are  not  BO  plain  and  intelligi- 
ble as  those  of  the  first,  but  more  artificial  and 
frequently  even  enigmatical.  This  collection 
extends  over  five  chapters,  and  is  again  followed 
in  the  last  two  chapters  of  the  book  by  three 
different  appendices. — It  is  impossible  to  decide 
whether  the  compilation  and  arrangement  of 
the  entire  book  were  made  at  one  time  by  one 
man,  or  whether  the  addition  of  the  several 
parts  took  place  at  different  periods.  The  ad- 
vocates of  the  former  opinion  adduce  in  their 
favor,  that  the  arrangement  of  the  whole  seems 
to  rest  on  a  well  conceived  and  thoroughly  ex- 
ecuted plan.  In  either  case  it  is  considered 
probable  that  the  book  received  its  present 
form  between  the  time  of  the  death  of  King 
Hezekiah  and  the  end  of  the  7th  century  B.  C. 
— There  are  commentaries  on  this  book  by  Sala- 
zar  (1641),  Schultens  (1748),  Hodgson  (1788), 
Lawson  (1821),  Umbreit  (1826),  Ewald  (in  vol. 
iv.  of  his  Die  poetitehen  flucfier  de»  Alien  Svn- 
des)  ;  Bertheau,  Exegeti*che»  Handbueh  (1847) ; 
Hitzig,  Die  Spruehe  Salomo't  (1858);  Ward- 
law  (2  vols.,  1860-'61);  Kamphausen,  in  Bun- 
sen's  Bibelwerk  (1865);  Zockler,  in  Lange's 
Bibelicerk  (1867;  translated  for  the  American 
edition  by  Dr.  Aiken,  1870) ;  Delitzgch  (1878), 
and  others.  German  translations  are  added  to 
the  commentaries  of  Umbreit,  Ewald,  Hitzig, 
Kamphausen,  Zockler,  and  Delitzsch.  There 
is  an  English  translation,  with  Ecclesiastes  and 
Canticles,  by  Noyes  (Boston,  1846;  3d  ed., 
1867) ;  and  a  revised  version,  with  critical  and 
explanatory  notes,  by  Conant  (New  York,  1872). 
PROVIDENCE,  the  N.  county  of  Rhode  Island, 
bordered  N.  and  E.  by  Massachusetts  and  W. 
by  Connecticut,  and  drained  by  the  Blackstone 
river,  which  runs  partly  along  the  E.  border, 
and  the  Pawtuxet,  which  forms  a  portion  of 


the  S.  boundary ;  area,  380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  149,190.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and 
generally  fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  sev- 
eral railroads  centring  at  Providence.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  9,887  bushels 
of  rye,  85,114  of  Indian  corn,  15,386  of  oats, 
9,900  of  barley,  829,515  of  potatoes,  38,606 
tons  of  hay,  8,330  Ibs.  of  wool,  296,128  of 
butter,  and  80,235  of  cheese.  There  were 
8,828  horses,  8,056  milch  cows,  1,869  working 
oxen,  8,655  other  cattle,  1,667  sheep,  and  6,612 
swine.  There  are  numerous  manufactories, 
chiefly  at  Providence,  the  county  seat. 

PROVIDENCE,  a  city,  the  principal  port  of 
entry,  and  one  of  the  capitals  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and, and  the  shire  town  of  Providence  co., 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  an  arm  of  Nar- 
ragansett  bay  known  as  Providence  river,  85 
m.  from  the  ocean,  43  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Boston, 
and  160  m.  N.  E.  of  New  York;  lat.  41°  49' 
22"  N.,  Ion.  71°  24'  48"  W. ;  pop.  in  1708, 
1,446;  in  1730,  8,916;  in  1774,  4,821;  in  1790, 
6,880;  in  1800,  7,614;  in  1820,  11,745;  in 
1830,  16,836;  in  1840,  23,172;  in  1850,  41,- 
518;  in  1860,  50,666;  in  1870,  68,904,  of  whom 
17,177  were  foreign  born;  in  1874,  99,608; 
in  1875,  100,675.  Of  the  population  in  1874, 
3,557  were  colored,  48,074  males,  and  51,584 
females;  48,351  were  of  American  and  51,257 
of  foreign  parentage,  including  86,990  of 
Irish,  9,582  of  English,  Scotch,  or  Welsh,  and 
2,212  of  German  descent.  There  were  16,088 
children  between  5  and  15  years  of  age;  20,- 
934  families,  with  an  average  of  4'76  persons 
to  each  ;  and  12,188  dwelling  houses,  with  an 
average  of  8-17  to  each.  The  number  of  fam- 
ilies in  1875  was  21,578;  of  dwellings,  18,388. 
In  population  and  wealth  Providence  is  the 
second  city  in  New  England.  It  formerly 
covered  5-31  sq.  m.,  but  in  1867  3'61  sq.  m. 
were  annexed  from  Cranston,  forming  the  9th 
ward,  and  in  1874  5'84  sq.  m.  from  North 
Providence,  forming  the  10th  ward;  the  pres- 
ent area  is  therefore  14'76  sq.  m.  The  city  is 
bounded  E.  by  the  Seekonk  river,  here  crossed 
by  two  bridges,  and  lies  on  both  sides  of  Provi- 
dence river,  which  is  crossed  by  a  draw  bridge 
and  four  fixed  span  bridges.  Above  this,  and 
within  the  centre  of  the  city,  the  river  ex- 
pands into  a  beautiful  cove  nearly  a  mile  in 
circuit,  along  which  is  a  wall  surmounted  by 
an  iron  railing.  A  park  planted  with  elms, 
with  gravelled  walks,  surrounds  the  cove.  Two 
small  streams  enter  on  the  north,  the  Moos- 
hassnck  and  the  Woonasquatucket  rivers,  upon 
which  are  many  machine  shops  and  manufac- 
tories. The  land  on  which  the  city  stands  is 
very  irregular.  On  the  E.  side  a  hill  rises  to 
the  height  of  204  ft.  above  tide  water.  On 
the  west  it  is  level,  with  little  elevation  for  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  when  the  land  rises  to  the 
height  of  75  ft.  The  hillsides,  even  to  their 
summit,  are  covered  with  dwelling  houses,  in- 
terspersed with  gardens  and  ornamented  with 
trees.  The  larger  portion  of  the  dwelling 
houses  in  the  city  are  of  wood ;  the  remainder 


PROVIDENCE 


43 


are  of  brick  and  stone,  among  which  are  many 
mansions  of  great  elegance.  Several  of  the 
churches  present  fine  specimens  of  architecture. 
The  arcade,  on  the  W.  side,  is  the  finest  of  the 
kind  in  the  United  States.  It  extends  from 
Westminster  to  Weybosset  street,  225  ft.  in 
length  by  80  in  width,  a  portion  in  the  centre 
being  about  50  ft.  wider;  it  is  three  stories 
high,  has  78  shops,  and  is  devoted  chiefly  to 
the  retail  trade,  the  principal  articles  sold  be- 
ing dry  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  hats,  and  jew- 
elry. The  building  is  of  granite,  with  two 
imposing  Doric  porticoes,  one  on  each  street. 
In  the  vicinity  is  the  massive  granite  building 
of  the  custom  house  and  post  office.  The 
state  house  is  a  brick  building  on  the  E.  side 
of  Providence  river.  Several  of  the  school 
houses  are  handsome  buildings.  The  new  opera 
house  and  the  Butler  exchange  are  also  fine 
structures.  Near  the  railroad  depot  the  state 
has  erected  a  monument  to  its  citizens  who 
fell  in  the  civil  war;  it  was  completed  in  1871 
at  a  cost  of  $60,000,  and  consists  of  a  base  of 
blue  Westerly  granite,  with  five  bronze  statues. 
In  the  same  vicinity  a  granite  building  for  the 
city  hall  has  recently  been  commenced,  which 
will  cost  about  $675,000.  The  present  city 
hall  is  a  three-story  brick  structure.  A  coun- 
ty court  house  is  to  be  erected  on  the  corner 
of  Benefit  and  College  streets.  The  Narragan- 
sett  hotel,  in  course  of  construction,  is  to  be 
of  stone,  brick,  and  iron,  seven  stories  high, 
covering  22,000  sq.  ft.  There  are  several  small 
public  squares.  Roger  Williams  park,  con- 
taining about  100  acres,  is  near  the  W.  shore 
of  Narragansett  bay,  in  the  S.  part  of  the 
city;  it  was  devised  to  the  city  in  1871  by 
Betsy  Williams,  a  descendant  of  Roger  Wil- 
liams. The  north  burying  ground,  in  the  N. 
part  of  the  city,  is  the  property  of  the  muni- 
cipality ;  it  contains  122  acres.  Swan  Point 
cemetery,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Seekonk  riv- 
er, embraces  a  large  tract  of  beautifully  diver- 
sified land,  laid  out  at  a  great  cost  and  elegant- 
ly ornamented. — The  following  railroads  con- 
nect Providence  with  the  principal  points  in 
New  England :  Boston  and  Providence ;  Hart- 
ford, Providence,  and  Fishkill ;  New  Bed- 
ford; Providence,  Nantucket,  and  Cape  Cod; 
Providence  and  Springfield;  Providence  and 
Stonington;  Providence  and  Worcester ;  War- 
wick ;  Fall  River,  Warren,  and  Providence ; 
and  Providence,  Warren,  and  Bristol.  All  of 
these  except  the  last  two  occupy  the  same 
passenger  depot,  a  spacious  and  elegant  struc- 
ture of  brick  nearly  700  ft.  long,  situated  near 
the  heart  of  the  city  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
cove,  and  near  the  great  bridge.  Horse  cars  run 
through  different  parts  of  the  city  and  to  the 
adjoining  towns.  A  daily  passenger  line  and 
a  semi- weekly  freight  line  of  steamers  ply  to 
New  York,  and  steamers  also  run  to  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  Norfolk,  and  Charleston,  and 
to  Fall  River,  Newport,  and  various  points  on 
Narragansett  bay.  During  the  colonial  pe- 
riod Providence  enjoyed  an  extensive  foreign 


TEARS. 

No.  of  pieces. 

TEARS. 

No.  of  pieces. 

1864... 

2,697,150 

1870... 

5.540.800 

1805  

4,112,700 

1671  .. 

6,612  800 

1666  

2,953,700 

1672. 

4,842,600 

1867 

2,688,000 

1873.. 

8  888  100 

1S6S  

4,701,900 

1874  

2  648  210 

1669  

9,178,000 

commerce,  which  has  now  greatly  fallen  off, 
and  its  commerce  is  chiefly  confined  to  the 
coasting  trade.  The  value  of  foreign  com- 
merce for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1875,  was 
$589,545  ($23,086  exports  and  $566,459  im- 
ports). The  number  of  arrivals  from  foreign 
ports  during  the  same  year  was  148  ;  of  coast- 
wise arrivals,  5,852 ;  number  of  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  port  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
142,  tonnage  36,995. — Providence  is  the  lead- 
ing market  for  the  trade  in  domestic  printing 
cloths.  The  sales  since  1864  have  been  as 
follows : 


The  pieces  average  43  yards  each.  Its  manu- 
factures are  very  extensive,  and  include  cot- 
ton and  woollen  goods,  iron,  gold,  and  sil- 
ver wares,  and  numerous  other  articles.  The 
American  screw  company  possesses  five  large 
mills  and  five  storehouses,  besides  other  build- 
ings; the  mills  have  a  capacity  for  the  em- 
ployment of  about  2,500  hands,  and  for  the 
production  daily  of  nearly  40,000  gross  of 
wood  screws,  several  tons  of  rivets,  large 
quantities  of  machine  screws,  stove  bolts, 
coach  screws,  tire  bolts,  &c.  The  Providence 
tool  company  produces  heavy  and  ship  chan- 
dlers' hardware,  sewing  machines,  and  the  Pea- 
body  breech-loading  rifle ;  the  works  cover 
more  than  five  acres  and  employ  1,500  hands. 
The  Providence  steam  engine  company  manu- 
factures the  Greene  cut-off  engine,  and  also 
steam  boilers  and  riveting  machines.  The 
works  of  the  Barstow  stove  company  cover 
more  than  two  acres.  The  Allen  fire  depart- 
ment supply  company  manufactures  steam  fire 
engines,  fire  hose,  hose  carriages,  hose  coup- 
lings, discharge  pipes,  hydrants,  fire  escapes, 
&c. ;  it  has  a  brass  foundery  in  connection 
with  its  works,  in  which  brass  finishing  is 
extensively  carried  on.  The  manufacture  of 
gold  jewelry  is  the  most  prominent  industry 
of  the  city ;  more  than  150  establishments  of 
all  sizes  are  engaged  in  it,  and  the  annual  pro- 
duct is  about  $5,000,000.  The  Gorham  com- 
pany's manufactory  of  solid  silver  ware  em- 
ploys nearly  400  hands,  and  is  the  leading  sil- 
ver manufactory  of  the  world.  There  are  sev- 
eral establishments  for  the  refining  of  gold  and 
silver,  in  which  are  smelted  large  quantities 
of  sweepings  and  refuse  obtained  from  the 
jewelry  establishments.  About  25  establish- 
ments are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  wool- 
len cloths,  yarns,  &c.,  and  worsted  goods;  an<J 
about  50,  with  150,000  spindles,  in  the  man 
ufacture  of  printing  cloths,  yarns,  battings, 
thread,  spool  cotton,  lacings,  braids,  and  other 
cotton  goods.  The  Fletcher  manufacturing 
company  employs  500  hands,  and  is  the  largest 


4-4 


PROVIDENCE 


establishment  in  the  country,  and  probably  in 
the  world,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
"small  wares,"  comprising  boot,  shoe,  and 
corset  lacings,  lamp  wicks,  yarns,  braids,  &c. ; 
the  buildings  cover  four  acres.  There  are 
three  large  cloth-printing  establishments,  and 
several  shops  for  the  engraving  of  copper  roll- 
ers for  printing  calicoes.  Among  other  es- 
tablishments, the  Rumford  chemical  works  (in 
East  Providence),  the  manufactory  of  Perry 
Davis'a  "pain  killer,''  the  Corliss  steam  engine 
works,  the  stove  works  of  Spicers  and  Peck- 
ham,  and  the  Rhode  Island  locomotive  works 
are  noteworthy.  There  are  also  several  bleach- 
ing and  calendering  establishments,  and  manu- 
factories of  alarm  tills,  toilet  and  laundry 
soaps,  ribbons,  &c.  Providence  contains  23 
national  and  12  state  banks,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $17,707,850 ;  10  savings  banks,  with 
deposits  to  the  amount  of  $25,807,905 ;  1  trust 
company,  capital  $500,000  ;  1  sate  deposit 
company,  capital  $50,000;  and  20  insurance 
companies,  with  assets  to  the  amount  of  $13,- 
175,629.— The  city  is  divided  into  10  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  a  board  of  alder- 
men of  10,  and  a  common  council  of  40  mem- 
bers, elected  annually.  The  mayor,  aldermen, 
and  common  council  in  their  joint  capacity 
are  styled  the  city  council.  At  the  close  of 
1874  the  police  force  numbered  190  men.  The 
number  of  arrests  during  that  year  was  8,440, 
of  which  4,950  were  for  drunkenness.  There 
is  an  effective  paid  fire  department,  consisting 
of  146  officers  and  men  organized  into  five 
steam  engine  companies,  six  hose  companies, 
and  three  hook  and  ladder  companies.  The 
city  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Pawtuxet 
river,  6  m.  distant,  by  works  recently  con- 
structed at  a  cost  of  about  $4,260,000.  Since 
1855  much  attention  has  been  given  to  vital 
statistics  in  Providence,  and  the  returns  of 
births,  marriages,  and  deaths  are  probably 
more  complete  and  perfect  than  those  of  any 
other  city  in  America.  During  the  same  time 
special  efforts  have  been  made  for  the  preven- 
tion of  disease.  In  addition  to  this  there  are 
some  peculiarities  of  natural  location  and  in- 
ternal construction  which  make  the  city  very 
healthy.  During  the  year  1873,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  80,592,  there  were  1,719  deaths,  1,150 
marriages,  and  2,128  births;  or  one  birth  in 
87'83,  one  person  married  in  85*04,  and  one 
death  in  46*88  of  the  population.  The  annual 
average  for  19  years,  1855  to  1878  inclusive, 
was  one  birth  in  34*19,  one  person  married  in 
38*10,  and  one  death  in  50*65  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  valuation  of  real  estate  in  1874  was 
$81,040,300 ;  personal  estate,  $42,642,500 ; 
total,  $123,682,800 ;  rate  of  tax,  $14  50  per 
$1,000 ;  amount  of  tax,  $1,798,400  60.  The 
receipts  into  the  city  treasury  during  the  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  including  a  balance  on 
hand  of  $177,159  67,  were  $7,968,238  86,  of 
which  $1,520,716  68  was  from  taxation,  $5,- 
722,289  52  from  loans,  and  $184,574  90  from 
water  works.  The  expenditures  were  $7,506,- 


590,  of  which  $6,158,854  05  were  classed  as 
extraordinary  and  $1,847,235  95  as  ordinary; 
balance  in  treasury  Sept.  80,  1874,  $462,643 
86.  The  funded  debt  on  Sept.  30,  1874,  was 
$5,400,000;  floating  debt,  $2,048,800;  total, 
$7,443,800.  Deducting  $1,493,748  64  assets 
available  for  its  reduction,  the  net  debt  was 
$5,950,051  36. — Providence  has  many  chari- 
table institutions  and  associations.  The  Butler 
hospital  for  the  insane,  founded  in  1847,  is  on 
the  W.  bank  of  Seekonk  river,  surrounded  by 
extensive  grounds,  60  acres  of  which  are  under 
cultivation,  with  about  the  same  extent  of 
native  woodland.  The  average  number  of  pa- 
tients is  about  130.  The  edifice  was  erected 
and  the  lands  purchased  by  subscription,  Cy- 
rus Butler  contributing  $40,000,  and  Nicholas 
Brown  $30,000.  Its  annual  not  disbursements 
are  about  $55,000.  The  state  of  Rhode  Island 
makes  an  annual  appropriation  of  $2,000  to  en- 
able the  governor  to  aid  poor  insane  persons 
there,  and  it  also  pays  a  portion  of  the  ex- 
penses of  all  such  poor  insane  as  the  town 
may  choose  to  send.  The  Dexter  asylum  for 
the  poor  is  situated  on  high  land  E.  of  the  riv- 
er. It  is  a  fine  edifice  of  brick,  170  ft.  long, 
including  wings,  and  three  stories  high.  The 
grounds,  which  comprise  about  40  acres,  are 
enclosed  with  a  stone  wall  8  ft.  high.  The 
land  was  devised  by  Ebenezer  Knight  Dexter 
in  1824,  and  the  buildings  erected  by  the  city 
in  1828.  The  Rhode  Island  hospital,  founded 
in  1863,  has  stately  buildings  surrounded  by 
pleasant  grounds,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  city, 
fronting  on  the  harbor.  Other  important  in- 
stitutions are  two  homes  for  the  aged,  the  nurse- 
ry, a  Roman  Catholic  orphan  asylum,  and  two 
dispensaries.  The  reform  school,  established 
in  1850,  for  juvenile  offenders  between  the  ages 
of  8  and  18,  is  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  city. 
The  number  of  inmates  at  its  last  annual  re- 
port, 1874,  was  220,  of  whom  179  were  boys 
and  41  girls.  Its  expenses  for  the  year  were 
$40,753 ;  earnings,  $13,222.  The  state  prison 
is  on  the  N.  side  of  the  cove.  At  the  close  of 
the  year  1874  it  contained  67  convicts.  The 
county  jail  is  within  the  prison  walls.  The 
convicts  are  almost  exclusively  employed  in 
cabinet  work  and  shoemakiug. — The  following 
are  the  statistics  of  public  schools  for  1878-'4: 


SCHOOLS. 

No.  of 
echooli. 

No.  of 
room. 

Whole 
number  of 
tetcben. 

No.  of 
nude 
tMcben. 

No.  of 
female 
teachen. 

No.  of 
puplli. 

High  school. 

1 

9 

19 

4 

8 

898 

Gnun'ar  sc'ls 

7 

00 

68 

7 

01 

2.667 

Intennedia'e 

20 

00 

55 

U 

2.128 

Primary  

89 

04 

86 

86 

8,969. 

Evening  

7 

18 

87 

8T 

DO 

2,074 

Vacation.... 

6 

6 

17 

17 

1,200 

Total  

76 

80S 

829 

48 

277 

12,489 

There  were  also  seven  special  teachers.  The 
expenditure  for  school  purposes  in  1878  was 
$267,597  25,  viz. :  salaries,  $146,656 13 ;  house* 
and  lota,  $91,738  97;  incidental  expenses,  $29,- 
202  15.  The  schools  are  under  the  immediate 


PROVIDENCE 


PROVOOST 


supervision  of  a  superintendent,  but  the  gen- 
eral control  is  vested  in  a  school  committee, 
consisting  of  the  mayor  and  president  of  the 
common  council  ex  officio  and  six  members 
from  each  ward,  whose  term  of  office  is  three 
years.  The  Friends'  yearly  meeting  boarding 
school,  or  "  Quaker  college,"  occupies  a  lot  of 
43  acres  in  the  E.  part  of  the  city.  It  consists 
of  two  spacious  brick  buildings,  three  stories 
high  with  wings  of  two  stories.  It  is  liberally 
endowed  and  in  a  prosperous  condition.  A 
legacy  of  $100,000  was  bequeathed  to  it  by 
the  late  Obadiah  Brown.  It  was  established  in 
1819,  and  is  under  the  direction  of  a  commit- 
tee of  the  New  England  yearly  meeting.  The 
Eoman  Catholics  have  three  flourishing  acad- 
emies, one  male  and  two  female.  The  grounds 
and  buildings  of  Brown  university  occupy  an 
elevated  situation  in  the  E.  part  of  the  city. 
(See  BROWN  UNIVERSITY.)  The  Athenssum,  in- 
corporated in  1836,  is  a  handsome  granite 
building,  containing  a  reading  room  and  a  well 
selected  library  of  34,000  volumes,  to  which 
large  additions  are  annually  made.  The  Ehode 
Island  historical  society,  founded  in  1822,  oc- 
cupies a  fine  brick  and  granite  building  oppo- 
site the  university  grounds,  erected  in  1844, 
and  containing  a  library  of  6,000  volumes  and 
85,000  pamphlets,  besides  a  large  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  other  memorials  relating  to 
the  history  of  the  state.  The  Franklin  soci- 
ety, incorporated  in  1823,  has  for  its  object  the 
cultivation  and  dissemination  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  natural  sciences  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
The  Franklin  lyceum  has  a  reading  room  and  a 
library  of  8,000  volumes.  The  mechanics'  and 
apprentices'  library  numbers  6,500  volumes, 
and  that  of  the  young  men's  Christian  as- 
sociation 5,000.  Steps  have  been  taken  to- 
ward the  establishment  of  a  free  public  li- 
brary. Four  daily,  one  semi-weekly,  and  five 
weekly  newspapers,  and  three  monthly  period- 
icals are  published.  There  are  76  churches, 
viz. :  13  Baptist,  2  Christian,  7  Congregation- 
al, 12  Episcopal,  1  Evangelical  Lutheran,  5 
Free  Baptist,  1  Friends',  2  Jewish,  10  Meth- 
odist Episcopal,  1  Presbyterian,  10  Roman 
Catholic,  1  Swedenborgian,  3  Unitarian,  1  Uni- 
ted Presbyterian,  2  Universalist,  and  5  mis- 
cellaneous. The  first  Baptist  church,  the  old- 
est in  America,  was  founded  here  in  1638. — 
Providence  was  first  settled  in  1636  by  Roger 
Williams,  who  was  banished  from  Massachu- 
setts on  account  of  his  religious  opinions,  and 
who,  in  his  new  colony,  was  the  first  to  pro- 
pose and  establish  the  principles  of  universal 
freedom  in  religious  matters.  The  rock  on 
the  banks  of  the  Seekonk  river  on  which  he 
landed,  and  where  he  was  received  by  the  In- 
dians, is  about  a  mile  from  the  centre  of  the 
city.  The  town  received  its  first  patent  from 
Charles  I.,  bearing  date  1643.  It  suffered  much 
in  the  famous  war  of  King  Philip,  in  1675, 
when  a  considerable  portion  of  it  was  burned. 
It  again  suffered  severely  in  September,  1815, 
when  a  southeasterly  storm  forced  an  extra- 


ordinary tide  into  the  harbor,  raising  the  water 
12  ft.  higher  than  the  usual  spring  tides,  spread- 
ing devastation  and  ruin  along  the  wharves  and 
the  lower  part  of  the  town,  overturning  houses 
and  stores,  and  doing  much  damage  to  the 
shipping.  One  large  East  Indiaman  was  driv- 
en up  beyond  the  cove,  and  never  removed. 
Providence  received  a  city  charter  in  1832. 
The  first  printing  press  was  established  here 
by  William  Goddard  in  1762,  from  whose  office 
the  "  Providence  Gazette  "  was  issued. 

PROVIDENCE,  Sisters  of.    See  SISTERHOODS. 

PROVIMJETOWN,  a  town  of  Barnstable  co., 
Massachusetts,  occupying  the  extremity  of 
Cape  Cod,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Cape  Cod 
division  of  the  Old  Colony  railroad,  120  m.  by 
rail  and  55  m.  by  water  S.  E.  of  Boston ;  pop. 
in  1850,  3,157 ;  in  1860,  3,206 ;  in  1870,  3,865. 
The  town  is  4  m.  long  by  3  m.  in  width  at  the 
widest  part.  The  harbor  is  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  cape,  and  is  almost  entirely  landlocked. 
It  is  unsurpassed  for  size  and  depth  of  water, 
covering  an  area  of  3  by  5  m.,  30  fathoms 
deep  in  the  deepest  parts,  without  rocks,  bars, 
or  shoals.  The  village  skirts  the  shore  of  the 
harbor,  and  is  formed  of  wooden  buildings, 
compactly  built,  presenting  a  beautiful  view 
from  the  water.  Provincetown  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.  It  is  noted  for  its  cod,  mack- 
erel, and  whale  fisheries.  In  1875  there  were 
owned  here  185  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  16,000,  of  which  20  were  employed  in 
coasting,  19  in  whaling,  and  146  in  the  cod  and 
mackerel  fisheries.  The  average  annual  catch 
of  codfish  for  the  four  years  ending  in  1875 
was  80,000  quintals ;  of  mackerel,  20,000  bar- 
rels. In  whaling  the  town  ranks  with  New  Lon- 
don next  to  New  Bedford.  It  contains  three 
marine  railways,  30  wharves,  a  national  bank 
with  a  capital  of  $200,000,  a  savings  bank 
with  deposits  amounting  to  $500,000,  and 
three  marine  insurance  companies  with  an  ag- 
gregate capital  of  $250,000.  It  has  a  fine  fire 
department.  The  assessed  value  of  property 
in  1875  was  about  $2,000,000.  There  are  14 
public  schools  (1  high,  1  grammar,  and  12  in- 
termediate and  primary),  supported  at  an  an' 
nual  cost  of  $7,400,  exclusive  of  repairs  of 
building ;  a  weekly  newspaper ;  a  public  library 
of  2,200  volumes;  and  six  religious  societies. 
— In  Provincetown  harbor  the  Mayflower  first 
cast  anchor  in  America.  Here  the  pilgrims 
signed  the  first  compact  of  government,  and 
here  the  first  child  in  New  England  of  English 
parentage  was  born. 

PROVOOST,  Samuel,  an  American  bishop,  born 
in  New  York,  March  11,  1742,  died  Sept.  6, 
1815.  He  graduated  at  Zing's  (now  Columbia) 
college  in  1758,  and  in  1761  entered  as  fellow 
commoner  of  St.  Peter's  college,  Cambridge, 
England.  He  was  ordained  in  1766,  returned 
to  New  York,  and  was  assistant  minister  ol 
Trinity  church  till  1768.  In  1770  he  retired 
to  a  small  farm  in  Dutchess  co.,  remained  there 
till  the  close  of  the  revolution,  and  was  then 
elected  rector  of  Trinity  church.  He  was  chap- 


PROVOST 


PRUNING 


lain  to  the  continental  congress  in  1785,  and 
to  the  senate  of  the  United  States  in  1789. 
Having  been  elected  bishop  of  New  York  in 
June,  1786,  he  accompanied  Dr.  William  White 
to  England,  and  was  consecrated  with  him, 
Feb.  4,  1787,  at  Lambeth  palace.  In  1800,  on 
account  of  his  health,  he  resigned  the  rector- 
ship of  Trinity  church,  and  in  1801  the  epis- 
copal office.  The  latter  resignation  was  not 
accepted  by  the  house  of  bishops,  and  Dr. 
Benjamin  Moore  was  chosen  his  coadjutor. 

PROVOST,  Jean  Baptist*  Franfote,  a  French 
actor,  born  Jan.  29,  1798,  died  Dec.  24,  1865. 
He  studied  at  the  conservatory  in  Paris,  and 
became  professor  of  elocution  in  1839.  He 
played  at  the  Odeon  theatre  from  1819  to  1828, 
and  at  .that  of  Porte  Saint  Martin  till  1835, 
when  ho  appeared  at  the  Theatre  Francais,  of 
which  he  became  a  member  in  1839.  His  most 
celebrated  roles  as  a  tragedian  were  Claude  in 
Valeria  (1852),  the  marquis  de  Rieux  in  Due 
Job  (1858),  the  banker  Oharrier  in  Augier's 
Ejfrontet,  and  the  deputy  marshal  in  the  same 
author's  Le  Jilt  de  Oiboyer  (1863-'4). 

PillI)E.\THS,  Aurolins  Clemens,  a  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Spain  in  A.  D.  848,  died  early  in  the 
5th  century.  He  was  a  lawyer,  became  a 
civil  and  criminal  judge,  and  was  appointed  to 
a  high  military  station  at  court.  In  his  later 
years  he  devoted  himself  to  religious  exercises 
and  study.  His  extant  poems  are  :  Prctfatio, 
giving  a  catalogue  of  his  works  up  to  his  57th 
year,  with  a  brief  autobiography ;  Cathemeri- 
non  Liber,  12  sacred  hymns,  some  of  which 
have  been  inserted  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church;  Apotheosit,  maintaining 
the  divinity  of  Christ  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity;  Hamartigenia,  on  the  origin  of  sin, 
directed  against  the  Marcionites;  Psychoma- 
ehia,  representing  the  struggle  between  virtue 
and  vice  in  the  soul,  and  tho  triumph  of  the 
former ;  Contra  Symmachum  Liber  /.,  an  ac- 
count of  the  conversion  of  Rome,  with  an  ex- 
posure of  the  folly  of  the  ancient  religion ; 
Contra  Symmachum  Liber  II.,  a  refutation  of 
the  argument  of  Symmochus  in  his  petition 
to  the  emperor  Valentinian ;  Peri  Stephanon 
Liber,  14  poems  in  honor  of  martyred  saints; 
Diptychon  or  Dittochaon,  48  poems  in  heroic 
hexameters,  24  describing  events  and  charac- 
ters in  the  Old  Testament,  and  24  in  the  New, 
about  tho  authenticity  of  which  there  has  been 
much  controversy;  and  the  Epilogui.  The 
earliest  dated  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
Deventer  (1472);  the  best  is  thnt  of  Faustus 
Arevalus  (2  vols.  4to,  Rome,  1788-'9).  His 
works  are  also  published  in  vols.  lix.  and  Ix. 
of  Migne's  Patrologie  Intine. — See  Bayle,  Ca- 
themerinon,  traduit  et  annote.,  arec  une  etude 
sur  Prudence  (8vo,  Paris,  1860). 

PRUD'OOX,  Pierre  Ptnl,  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Cluny,  April  4,  1758,  died  in  Paris, 
Feb.  16,  1823.  He  was  educated  by  charity, 
developed  a  taste  for  art,  and  was  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  Devosges  at  Dijon.  Having  won 
a  prize  awarded  by  tho  states  of  Burgundy,  he 


went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Canova.  In  1789  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
supported  himself  by  painting  miniatures  and 
making  drawings  for  concert  tickets,  bill  heads, 
tradesmen's  cards,  and  confectionery  boxes. 
In  1794  he  went  to  Rigney,  near  Gray,  and 
executed  a  series  of  pastel  portraits  for  which 
he  received  a  handsome  price.  On  his  return 
to  Paris  he  won  a  prize  for  an  allegorical 
drawing,  representing  "Wisdom  and  Virtue 
descending  upon  earth."  In  1805  he  painted 
on  a  ceiling  in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre 
"Diana  imploring  Jupiter;"  and  in  1808,  for 
the  hall  of  the  criminal  court,  "Justice  and 
Divine  Vengeance  pursuing  Crime."  For  this 
he  received  from  Napoleon  tho  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  was  appointed  teacher  to  the 
empress  Maria  Louisa,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  institute.  He  painted  "  Psyche  borne 
away  by  the  Zephyrs"  (1808),  "Zephyr  bal- 
ancing himself  upon  the  Water,"  a  portrait 
of  the  king  of  Rome,  "Venus  and  Adonis" 
(1810),  "Andromache"  (1817),  and  "The  As- 
sumption "  (1819).  In  1821  his  pupil  Constance 
Mayer,  for  whom  ho  entertained  a  warm  affec- 
tion, put  an  end  to  her  life,  and  thenceforth 
he  pined  away.  He  nevertheless  completed 
"The  Indigent  Family,"  the  rough  draught 
of  which  had  been  left  by  his  unfortunate 
pupil,  and  "Christ  dying  upon  the  Cross," 
which  was  exhibited  after  his  death. 

PKIXK.     See  PLUM. 

PttlMXG,  a  most  important  horticultural 
operation,  which  consists  in  removing  a  por- 
tion of  a  plant  for  the  benefit  of  that  which  re- 
mains. The  operation  may  bo  required  by  all 
plants  which  have  an  above-ground  stem,  even 
the  most  delicate.  It  is  performed  either  to 
induce  a  vigorous  growth,  or  to  diminish  vigor 
and  dwarf  a  plant;  a  tree  which  does  not 
bear  is  pruned  to  increase  its  fruitfulness,  or 
it  may  be  pruned  to  prevent  over  production. 
It  requires  to  be  done  understanding!)' ;  and  so 
much  injury  has  resulted  from  indiscriminate 
pruning,  that  certain  cultivators  go  to  an  op- 
posite extreme,  and  advise  not  to  prune  at  all. 
Where  trees  grow  in  a  dense  forest  we  find 
tall  straight  trunks  without  a  branch  for  50  ft 
or  more,  and  at  the  top  a  small  branching  head, 
that  in  size  is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the 
trunk  ;  when  such  trees  are  felled  and  sawed 
into  boards,  we  see  by  the  knots  that  a  natu- 
ral pruning  has  been  carried  on  for  years ;  tho 
lower  branches  of  the  trees  were  so  excluded 
from  the  light  by  the  growing  tops  that  they 
were  smothered  and  fell  away,  while  the 
wounds  were  closed  so  neatly  that  no  external 
indication  of  their  presence  is  manifest.  Trees 
of  the  same  species  with  those  which  grow  in 
the  forest,  when  found  as  isolated  specimens, 
are  much  shorter,  but  clothed  with  branches 
from  the  base  upward.  In  this  country  pru- 
ning has  until  recently  been  regarded  as  be- 
longing only  to  fruit  trees,  but  in  those  parts 
of  Europe  where  forestry  is  a  distinct  art, 
forest  trees  are  pruned  with  a  view  to  their 


PKUNING 


47 


future  uses  for  timber,  and  while  some  are 
made  to  grow  with  a  clear  straight  trunk,  in 
other  cases  their  branches  are  encouraged  and 
so  directed  as  to  form  knees  required  in  ship 
building.  In  this  country  pruning  is  most  fre- 


FIG.  1. — A  Young  Tree  Pruned  and  Unpruned. 

quently  done  upon  old  orchards,  in  which  the 
trees  have  been  left  to  themselves  since  they 
were  first  planted,  and  are  unfruitful  except 
on  the  extreme  outer  twigs  on  account  of  the 
crowded  condition  of  their  heads,  in  which 
branches  cross  one  another  in  a  confused  mass, 
impenetrable  to  light  and  air.  In  such  cases 
all  that  need  be  done  is  to  remove  the  super- 
fluous wood  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  an 
evenly  balanced  and  open  head.  The  intelli- 
gent fruit  grower  will  prefer  to  set  trees  only 
one  year  old  from  the  bud  or  graft,  and  they 
will  be  either  simple  wands  or  stems,  furnished 
with  buds  along  their  length,  or  a  few  of  the 
upper  buds  may  have  pushed  and  formed 
branches ;  with  a  tree  like  this  to  start  with, 
he  can  form  the  head  at  such  height  as  best 
suits  him,  and  de- 
termine its  branch- 
ing. The  upper- 
most buds  of  a 
young  tree  or 
branch  are  the 
most  vigorous,  and 
start  the  soonest 
in  spring ;  if  left 
to  itself,  such  a 
branch  or  young 
tree  will  produce  a 
few  strong  shoots 
at  the  top,  those 
below  will  be  grad- 
ually weaker,  un- 
til those  at  its  lower  part,  being  robbed  of  all 
nourishment  by  the  rapidly  growing  shoots 
above,  will  not  start  at  all.  Such  a  branch  or 
tree  as  this  may  be  cut  back  so  that  the  lower 
buds  only  will  start  and  produce  shoots,  which 
688  VOL.  xiv. — 4 


Fio.  2.— Kisrht  and  Wrong  In 
Pruning. 


will  ripen  into  three  or  four  branches,  and 
these  will  be  strong,  from  having  all  the  nutri- 
ment that  would  have  been  divided  among  nu- 
merous shoots  were  it  left  unpruned.  Simi- 
larly the  ramification,  and  consequently  the 
whole  head  of  the  tree,  may  be  directed  and 
controlled  at  will.  The  effects  of  judicious  pru- 
ning upon  young  trees  are  strikingly  shown  in 
apple  and  pear  trees,  which  at  the  end  of  four 
or  five  years  of  systematic  pruning  are  com- 
plete pyramids,  with  the  base  near  the  ground, 
and  the  branches  equally  distributed  and  grad- 
ually diminishing  in  size  to  the  top. — Pruning 
is  frequently  resorted  to  when  trees  have  be- 
come stunted  and  almost  ceased  to  grow  ;  if  the 
top  of  such  a  tree  has  its  branches  judiciously 
cut  back,  the  remaining  buds,  having  to  them- 
selves the  sap  which  was  formerly  divided 
among  the  whole,  will  produce  vigorous  new 
shoots,  and  this  will  be  responded  to  by  a  new 
growth  of  roots,  and 
the  whole  tree  will  be 
invigorated.  These  in- 
stances have  reference 
to  the  wood  growth  of 
the  tree ;  whatever  fa- 
vors that  diminishes 
the  production  of  fruit, 
and  vice  versa  ;  hence 
the  pruning  to  induce 
fruit-bearing  is  quite 
different  from  that 
to  promote  vigor  of 
growth.  If  a  tree  is 
severely  pruned  soon 
after  its  leaves  are  de- 
veloped, it  receives  a 
sudden  check,  and  it 
is  the  tendency  of  all 
such  shocks  to  induce 
the  tree  to  propagate 
itself  by  seed ;  instead 
of  preparing  for  an 
extended  growth  of 
branches  the  next 
year,  many  of  the  buds, 
which  would  other- 
wise have  produced  leafy  shoots,  become  fruit 
buds.  In  practice,  pruning  to  produce  fruit 
is  not  done  in  this  severe  manner,  but  by  stop- 
ping the  extension  of  a  portion  of  the  shoots 
after  they  have  made  a  certain  growth ;  as 
this  is  done  when  the  shoots  are  so  tender  as 
not  to  require  a  knife,  it  is  termed  pinching. 
By  careful  management  the  form  and  fruit- 
fulness  of  trees  may  be  controlled  with  but 
little  use  of  the  knife;  buds  which  would 
produce  branches  where  they  are  not  wanted 
are  broken  off  soon  after  they  start  to  grow, 
and  by  checking  the  prolongation  of  other 
branches  at  the  proper  point  an  equal  dis- 
tribution of  sap,  and  consequently  of  growth, 
is  maintained  over  the  whole  tree. — Eoot 
pruning,  or  removing  a  portion  of  the  roots, 
is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  control- 
ling the  size  of  the  tree,  to  produce  fruit- 


Fio.  8. — A  Pyramidal  Tree, 
produced  by  proper  Pru- 
ning. 


PRUNING 


PRUSSIA 


fulness,  and  to  allow  the  tree  to  be  trans- 
planted. Some  trees,  especially  forest  and 
ornamental  ones,  produce  long  roots  with  very 
few  fine  fibrous  rootlets,  and  are  difficult  to 
remove  unless  prepared  a  year  beforehand ; 
the  long  roots  being  cut  off  within  a  moder- 
ate distance  of  the  trunk,  the  shortened  roots 
will  form  numerous  rootlets,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  season  may  be  transplanted  with  safety. 
Root  pruning  is  one  of  the  readiest  methods 
of  checking  the  too  vigorous  wood  growth  of 
trees  and  throwing  them  into  bearing ;  it  con- 
sists in  opening  a  circular  trench  around  the 
tree,  at  a  distance  governed  by  the  kind  and 
the  vigor  of  the  individual,  and  cutting  off 
with  a  sharp  spade  all  roots  which  extend  out- 
side of  this  circle;  sometimes  half  the  roots 
are  operated  on  one  year  and  the  other  half 
the  next. — The  proper  time  for  pruning  trees 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion; 
wounds  heal  over  most  rapidly  if  made  after 
the  season's  increase  in  length  is  completed, 
and  the  fully  developed  leaves  are  engaged 
in  maturing  the  buds  and  preparing  for  the 
growth  of  another  year.  This  time,  since  it 
occurs  in  summer,  is  usually  an  inconve- 
nient one,  and  the  end  of  winter  or  very  early 
spring,  before  vegetation  starts,  is  the  season 
generally  selected;  this  has  reference  to  the 
removal  of  branches.  Summer  pruning,  or 
pinching,  is  done  at  the  time  when  its  objects 
can  be  best  accomplished.  "Whenever  it  may 
be  performed,  the  utility  of  pruning  will  de- 
pend upon  the  intelligence  of  the  operator,  who 
should  understand  the  laws  of  plant  growth 
and  the  peculiar  habit  of  each  tree.  The  peach, 
for  example,  produces  its  flowers  and  fruit 
along  the  branches  which  grew  the  preceding 
year,  and  is  generally  much  benefited  by  hav- 
ing these  branches  shortened  in,  or  cut  back, 
for  one  third  or  more  of  their  length ;  the 
horse  chestnut,  on  the  other  hand,  produces  its 
flowers  and  fruit  from  buds  at  the  ends  of 
branches  of  the  previous  year,  and  if  the  cut- 
ting back  so  useful  to  the  peach  were  practised 
on  this,  all  the  flowers  would  be  destroyed. 
In  some  plants,  like  the  grape,  there  are  several 
different  methods  of  pruning  to  obtain  the 
same  result.  With  the  grape,  pruning  is  so  in- 
timately related  to  training  that  it  is  difficult  to 
treat  of  the  two  separately,  and  this  is  espe- 
cially the  case  with  fruit  trees  grown  upon 
walls  and  trellises,  whether  as  espaliers  or  by 
the  cordon  method.  In  this  country  the  cli- 
mate does  not  require  the  highly  artificial 
methods  of  training,  and  the  pruning  to  effect 
them,  so  common  in  Europe ;  these  are  given 
in  various  English  and  French  works  upon 
fruit  culture,  and  with  special  completeness  in 
Du  Breuil's  Court  ilementaire  d1  arboriculture. 
— As  a  mechanical  operation,  pruning  requires 
some  skill  and  care ;  large  cutting  is  done  with 
a  saw  made  for  the  purpose,  the  teeth  of  which 
are  set  wide.  An  axe  should  never  be  used. 
The  wound  made  by  the  saw  should  be  smooth- 
ed with  a  drawing  knife  or  other  tool,  and 


covered  with  shellac  varnish,  melted  grafting 
wax,  or  thick  common  paint,  to  prevent  decay 
before  a  new  deposit  of  wood  and  bark  covers 
it.  Every  branch  should  be  cut  close-  to  the 
trunk,  or  other  branch  to  which  it  is  attached ; 
if  a  stub,  or  projection  of  a  few  inches,  be  left, 
this  will  not  heal  over,  but  in  time  decay  will 
set  in,  which  may  extend  to  the  whole  interior 
of  the  tree.  The  decay  of  many  orchards  may 
be  traced  to  this  fault  in  pruning.  For  the 
removal  of  branches  two  inches  in  diameter 
or  less,  a  heavy  chisel  made  for  the  purpose, 
and  driven  from  below  upward  with  a  mallet, 
makes  quick  and  neat  work.  A  heavy  knife 
is  used  for  the  removal  of  twigs,  and  for 
shortening  young  growths ;  shears  made  for 
the  work  do  it  quicker,  but  do  not  leave  so 
clean  a  cut  as  the  knife,  though  in  many  cases 
they  answer.  In  shortening  a  twig  or  small 
branch,  the  cut  should  be  made  at  a  bud,  and 
as  the  shoot  from  this  will  continue  the  upward 
growth  of  the  branch,  it  is  of  some  importance 
to  cut  to  a  bud  pointing  in  the  desired  direc- 
tion, as  the  future  shape  of  the  tree  will  be 
materially  influenced  by  it.  Cutting  must  not 
be  done  too  far  above  a  bud,  as  this  will  leave 
a  stub  which,  having  no  leaves  to  sustain  it 
will  die  down  to  the  bud ;  if  the  cut  is  made 
too  close  to  the  base  of  the  bud,  there  is 
danger  that  it  will  dry  out  or  be  otherwise 
injured ;  the  proper,  cut  is  made  by  placing  the 
knife  at  a  point  opposite  the  base  of  the  bud, 
and  bringing  it  out,  with  a  slightly  upward 
slanting  cut,  opposite  the  apex  of  the  bud. 

FBI'S  A,  or  Prnslts.    See  BRCSA. 

PKl'ssi  \.  the  largest  and  leading  state  of  the 
German  empire,  occupying  a  northern  central 

Eortion  of  the  European  continent,  between 
it.  49°  and  56°  N.,  and  Ion.  5°  45'  and  23°  E. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  North  sea,  Denmark, 
and  the  Baltic ;  E.  by  Russia ;  S.  by  Cisleithan 
Austria,  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  Thurin- 
gian  states,  Bavaria,  Hesse,  and  Alsace-Lor- 
raine; and  W.  by  Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and 
Holland.  Its  greatest  length,  from  a  point 
near  where  the  Niemen  or  Memel  crosses  the 
N.  E.  frontier  to  the  point  of  junction  of  its 
boundaries  with  those  of  Luxemburg  and  Al- 
sace-Lorraine, is  800  m. ;  the  longest  line  that 
can  be  drawn  on  its  soil  in  a  direction  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  this  extends  from  the  Baltic 
coast  N.  W.  of  Stralsund  to  the  8.  E.  extremity 
of  the  province  of  Silesia,  and  measures  a  little 
more  than  400  m.  The  area  of  Prussia,  ac- 
cording to  the  official  figures  which  are  made 
the  basis  for  the  land  tax  (but  which,  owing 
to  very  recent  territorial  changes,  are  perhaps 
not  absolutely  accurate),  is  186,656  sq.  m.  in- 
cluding the  area  of  all  the  principal  gulfs,  bays, 
and  arms  of  the  sea,  and  184,496  sq.  m.  ex- 
cluding all  bodies  of  water  except  inland  lakes. 
The  kingdom  is  divided  into  12  provinces  (in- 
clusive of  the  detached  Hohenzollern,  and  ex- 
clusive of  Lauenburg),  and  these  into  adminis- 
trative districts  named  after  their  respective 
chief  towns,  as  follows . 


PRUSSIA 


PROVINCES. 

Area, 
iq.  miles. 

DISTRICTS. 

Prussia  

24,114 

Konigsberg,        Gumbinnen, 

Brandenburg.  . 

15,403 

Dantzic,  Marienwerder. 
(Berlin),    Potsdam,    Frank- 

Pomerania  

11  680 

fort-on-the-Oder. 
Stettin,  Koslin,  Stralsund. 

Posen  

11.179 

Posen,  Bromberg. 

Silesia  

15.556 

Breslau,  Liegnitz,  Oppeln. 

Saxony  

9,746 

Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  Er- 

Pehleswig-Holstein .  . 
Hanover  

6,766 
14,856 

furt. 
Schleswig. 
Hanover,  Hildesheim,  Lune- 

"Westphalia  

7,799 

burg,    Stade,    Osnabruck, 
Aurich. 
Munster,  Minden,  Arnsberg. 

Hesse-Nassau  

6,138 

Cassel,  Wiesbaden. 

The  Rhine  Province. 
Hohenzollern 

10,416 
440 

Coblentz,     Dusseldorf,     Co- 
logne, Treves,  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle. 
Sigmaringen. 

Total  

134,043 

Duchy  of  Lauenburg 

458 

Grand  total  

184,496 

Until  1866  the  territory  of  Prussia  was  not 
only  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover,  the  electorate  of  Hesse,  and 
other  foreign  possessions  lying  in  its  midst, 
but  was  also  dotted  here  and  there  by  small 
independent  principalities  and  duchies,  which 
greatly  hindered  its  unity  of  action  and  made 
its  political  geography  extremely  complicated. 
These  have  all  been  absorbed  since  the  war 
of  1866,  with  the  exception  of  the  following 
small  states  and  tracts  of  land,  which  are  still 
subject  to  other  German  powers,  though  sur- 
rounded by  Prussian  territory:  three  com- 
munes in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  be- 
longing to  Mecklenburg- Schwerin;  the  city  of 
Hamburg  and  vicinity,  with  tracts  belonging 
to  it  in  Holstein  and  Hanover;  the  duchy  of 
Anhalt,  divided  into  eight  portions ;  the  duchy 
of  Brunswick,  also  in  eight  portions;  the 
principalities  of  Schaumburg-Lippe  (in  two 
portions)  and  Lippe-Detinold ;  the  principality 
of  Waldeck  (in  two  portions) ;  Allstedt  and 
Oldisleben,  a  territory  belonging  to  Weimar 
(in  two  portions);  Volkerode,  belonging  to 
Gotha;  territories  belonging  to  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen  and  Schwarzburg-Rudolstein ; 
the  village  of  Mumsdorf,  belonging  to  Alten- 
burg;  the  Hessian  province  of  Upper  Hesse, 
with  a  territory  belonging  to  it  in  the  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau;  the  principality  of  Birken- 
feld  in  the  Rhine  province,  belonging  to  Ol- 
denburg ;  two  tracts  owned  by  Baden  and  three 
by  Wurtemberg  in  the  Hohenzollern  domains. 
The  larger  territory  of  the  duchies  of  Meck- 
lenburg -  Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg  -  Strelitz 
(with  the  adjoining  LUbeck  and  a  detached 
portion  of  Oldenburg)  in  the  north,  and  the 
grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg  {with  the  adjoin- 
ing Bremen)  in  the  northwest,  each  surround- 
ed by  Prussian  territory  on  three  sides,  but 
having  their  own  seacoast,  are  now  the  only 
states  of  consequence  which  break  in  upon  the 
outline  and  territorial  unity  of  the  country. 


In  addition  to  the  united  territory  enclosed  by 
the  boundaries  given  above,  Prussia  has  the 
following  outlying  possessions:  six  communes 
and  domains  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin ;  Gross- 
menow  in  Mecklenburg- Strelitz ;  a  commune, 
formerly  belonging  to  Hanover,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Hamburg;  seven  communes  in  An- 
halt ;  four  tracts  in  Brunswick ;  one  in  Olden- 
burg ;  the  town  of  Liigde  between  Lippe-Det- 
mold  and  Waldeck;  two  villages  in  Waldeck; 
Kischlitz  in  Saxe- Altenburg ;  the  circle  of  Zie- 
genriick,  in  six  portions,  lying  near  Meiningen, 
Weimar,  Rudolstadt,  &c. ;  Moleschutz,  Abtlob- 
nitz,  and  Barchf  eld  in  Saxe-Meiningen ;  Wan- 
dersleben  and  Muhlberg  in  Saxe-Gotha;  the 
circles  of  Schleusingen  and  Smalcald  in  Thu- 
ringia,  in  several  divisions;  and  the  domains 
of  the  Hohenzollerns,  in  eleven  portions,  scat- 
tered through  the  territory  of  Baden,  Wurtem- 
berg, and  Bavaria.  The  duchy  of  Lauenburg 
belongs  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  without  being 
consolidated  with  the  kingdom.  (See  LATJ- 
ENBTJKG.) — The  coast  line  of  Prussia  on  the 
North  sea  is  about  250  m.  long ;  on  the  Bal- 
tic it  measures  about  750  m.  On  both  seas 
the  shore  is  almost  uniformly  flat  and  low  ;  so 
much  so  that  at  several  points  on  the  North 
sea,  and  where  the  province  of  Prussia  borders 
on  the  Baltic,  dikes  have  been  built  to  protect 
the  tracts  of  nearly  level  land  that  stretch 
away  from  the  water's  edge,  parts  of  them 
lying  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  The 
only  exceptions  to  this  formation  are  the  more 
rugged  coasts  of  N.  E.  Schleswig,  and  the  high 
chalk  cliffs  of  the  island  of  Rtigen,  lying  in 
the  Baltic  off  Stralsund.  On  the  North  sea 
the  Dollart  (the  estuary  of  the  Ems),  the  bay 
of  Jade,  and  the  estuaries  of  the  Weser  and 
Elbe,  form  excellent  harbors,  their  ports  be- 
ing respectively  Emden,  Wilhelmshaven,  Bre- 
men, and  Hamburg;  while  on  the  Baltic  the 
best  are  those  of  Kiel,  Stralsund,  Stettin, 
and  Dantzic,  the  last  two  respectively  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula.  The  chief 
gulfs  and  bays  are  formed  on  both  seas  by  the 
broadening  estuaries  of  the  rivers  named,  the 
Oder  and  Vistula  forming  at  their  mouths 
large  bodies  of  water  almost  enclosed  by  land, 
known  respectively  as  the  Stettiner  Haff  and 
the  Frisches  Haff,  while  the  Kurisches  Haff, 
at  the  extreme  N.  E.  of  the  coast,  is  a  similar 
body  receiving  the  river  Memel. — The  greater 
part  of  the  surface  of  Prussia  is  flat  and  low ; 
an  extended  plain,  sloping  toward  the  north,  and 
only  broken  by  small  detached  ranges  of  hills, 
forms  the  northern  portion.  The  direction  of 
such  ranges  is  in  almost  every  case  N.  E.  and 
S.  W. ;  but  the  highest  of  their  summits  in  the 
north  is  the  Thurmberg,  near  Dantzic,  1,131 
ft.  The  surface  of  the  S.  part  is  more  varied, 
and  some  portions  of  it  are  mountainous  and 
picturesque.  The  S.  W.  boundary  of  Silesia 
is  formed  by  the  Riesengebirge  (highest  peak 
about  5,300  ft.)  and  its  various  continuations. 
The  N.  and  E.  parts  of  the  province  of  Saxony 
form  almost  a  perfect  level,  interrupted  only 


60 


PRUSSIA 


by  inconsiderable  hills;  the  S.  W.  portion  is 
intersected  by  projecting  spurs  of  the  Hartz 
mountains  (highest  elevation  the  Brocken  or 
Blocksberg,  3,737  ft.),  and  the  Thuringian  for- 
est. Westphalia,  the  Rhine  province,  and  Hesse- 
Nassau  contain  the  N.  W.  group  of  the  moun- 
tain system  of  Germany,  each  of  its  numerous 
ridges  having  its  own  distinctive  name.  The 
more  important  are :  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Taunus,  the  Weser  hills,  including 
the  picturesque  gap  known  as  the  Porta  West- 
phalica,  the  Teutoburg  forest  (the  battle 
ground  of  the  Germans  and  Romans),  the  Roth- 
haar  hills,  the  Sauerland  hills  (2,800  ft.),  the 
Siebengebirge,  the  Westerwald,  the  Spessart, 
the  Rh6n,  and  offshoots  from  the  Vogelsberg ; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  Hunsruck, 
Hohe  Venn,  and  Eifel  (2,500  ft.).  The  Ho- 
henzollern  territory  is  intersected  by  the 
Rauhe  Alp. — Prussia  contains  a  large  number 
of  lakes,  especially  in  the  level  N.  E.  section, 
but  none  of  them  are  of  much  importance. 
(For  the  principal  lakes  see  GERMANY,  vol.  vii., 
p.  746.)  There  are  large  swamps  on  the  lower 
course  of  the  Havel,  Oder,  Warthe,  and  Netzo 
rivers,  which  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  drain.  All  the  river  systems  of  Prussia  be- 
long to  the  basins  of  the  Baltic  and  North 
seas.  The  principal  rivers  belonging  to  the 
basin  of  the  Baltic  are  the  Momol,  Vistula 
(with  its  tributaries  the  Drewenz  and  Braho), 
and  Oder  (with  its  tributaries  the  Bartsch, 
Bober,  Neisse,  and  Warthe).  Independent  of 
these  are  a  number  of  coast  rivers,  viz.,  the 
Dange,  Pregel,  Passarge,  Elbing,  Leba,  Lupow, 
Stolpe,  Wipper,  Persante,  Roga,  Ihna,  Peene, 
Ucker,  Recknitz,  and  Trave,  nearly  all  of  them 
navigable  for  some  distance.  Belonging  to  the 
North  sea  basin  are  the  Eider,  the  Elbe  (with 
its  tributaries  the  Mulde,  Saale,  and  Havel),  the 
Weser,  formed  by  the  Werra  and  Fulda  (with 
its  tributary  the  Aller),  the  Ems  (with  the 
Vechto),  and  the  Rhine.  The  Rhine  flows 
through  Prussian  territory  about  200  m.,  en- 
tering it  at  Mentz,  forming  about  29  m.  of  the 
boundary  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  receivingon  the 
right  bank  the  Main,  Lahn,  Wied,  Sieg,  Wipper, 
Ruhr,  and  Lippe,  and  on  the  left  bank  the  Nahe, 
Moselle,  and  Ahr,  and  passing  into  Holland  a 
little  bolow  Emmerich.  Prussia  has  a  large 
number  of  artificial  watercourses,  the  Vistula 
and  Oder  being  connected  by  the  Bromberg 
canal,  the  Oder  and  Spree  (an  affluent  of  the 
Havel)  by  the  Mullroso  canal,  the  Havel  and 
Elbe  by  the  Plan  canal,  the  Elbe  and  Trave  by 
the  Stecknitz  canal,  and  the  Eider  and  the  Bal- 
tic by  the  Eider  canal.  Other  canals  connect 
small  adjacent  river  systems  in  the  western 
provinces. — The  climate  is  wholesome  and  tem- 
perate. The  mean  temperature  at  Kcmigsberg 
is  4:*°  F.,  at  Berlin  48°,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
49°,  and  at  Cologne  and  Treves  50°.  The 
soil,  though  in  some  mountainous  districts  of 
the  western  section  extremely  desolate  and 
sterile,  and  in  a  large  division  of  the  middle 
provinces  a  poor  loamy  sand,  is  on  the  whole 


fertile,  and  preeminently  so  in  the  bottoms  of 
the  Elbe,  Saale,  Unstrut  (an  affluent  of  the 
Saale),  Oder,  Warthe,  Netze,  and  some  otlu-r 
rivers.  Even  where  it  is  naturally  poor,  a  woll 
developed  system  of  agriculture,  assiduously 
fostered  by  the  government,  renders  it  highly 
productive. — The  population  of  Prussia,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1871  (corrected  tables 
of  1873),  was  as  follows: 

Prussia....                   8,187,546 

Brandenburg ^BSlH 

Pomeranla 1.4HUM8 

Posen...             I,to8,t>48 

Silesia 8,7»7,li;7 

Saxony 2,1  («.  1 71 

Schleswig-Holsteln 1»5,s78 

Hanover  (including  the  Jade  district) 1,9(3,618 

Westphalia 1,775.175 

Hesse-Nassau 1,4(M).870 

Rhine  Province 8,57'.V«7 

Hohenzollern 65,558 

Soldiers  and  sailors  not  included  above 87,4U9 

Total 24,648,951 

Duchy  or  Lauenburg 49,546 

Grand  total 24,698,497 

The  excess  of  females  over  males  was  857,542. 
Of  the  entire  population  about  21,800,000  speak 
German,  146,800  are  Lithuanians,  2,420,000 
(in  Prussia,  Posen,  and  Pomerania)  Poles,  50,- 
000  (in  Silesia)  Czechs,  83,000  (in  Silesia  and 
Brandenburg)  Wends,  10,400  (in  the  Rhine 
province)  Walloons,  and  145,000  (in  Schleswig- 
Ilolstein)  Danes.  Prussia  has  one  city  (Ber- 
lin) of  more  than  900,000  inhabitants  (in  Au- 
gust, 1878,  909,580),  5  of  from  100,000  to  210,- 
000  (Breslau,  Cologne,  Magdeburg,  KSnigsberg, 
and  Hanover),  12  of  from  50,000  to  100,000 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Dantzic,  Stettin,  Bar- 
men, Elberfeld,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Altona,  Dus- 
soldorf,  Crefeld,  Posen,  Halle,  and  Essen),  and 
6  of  from  40,000  to  50,000  (Cassel,  Dortmund. 
Potsdam,  Erfurt,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and 
Gorlitz).  The  number  of  births  in  1872  was 
1,023,005,  of  which  73,527  were  illegitimate 
and  40,505  still-born  ;  of  deaths,  765,360 ;  of 
marriages,  255,421.  The  number  of  emigrants 
from  1844  to  1872  was  706,562  ;  of  immigrants, 
110,973. — Of  the  total  area  of  the  kingdom, 
50'1  per  cent,  consists  of  tilled  fields,  gardens, 
vineyards,  and  orchards,  18-3  meadowg,  23'1 
woodland,  and  8'5  unproductive  land.  All 
kinds  of  grain  are  produced  in  abundance  in 
Prussia  proper,  Posen,  Silesia,  and  Saxony,  all 
of  which  export  breadstuff's  to  the  other  prov- 
inces or  to  foreign  countries.  An  average 
grain  crop  is  estimated  at  53,000,000  bushels 
of  wheat,  194,000,000  of  rye,  34,000,000  of 
barley,  and  154,000,000  of  oats.  Of  potatoes 
about  495,000,000  bushels  are  raised.  Spelt, 
peas,  rape  seed,  dyestuffs,  herbs,  flax,  hemp, 
chiccory,  hops,  and"  beets  (chiefly  used  for  the 
sugar  manufacture)  are  cultivated  in  large 
quantities  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Tobacco 
is  largely  raised  in  western  and  central  Prus- 
sia, but  has  of  late  considerably  decreased  in 
amount;  the  produce  of  raw  tobacco  in  1869 
was  about  17,000,000  Ibs.  Of  the  vineyards 
full  four  fifths  are  on  the  Rhine  and  its  tribu- 


PRUSSIA 


51 


taries ;  their  average  yield  is  about  10,000,000 
gallons.  Wine  of  good  quality  is  produced 
only  near  the  Rhine ;  those  brands  which  are 
produced  in  Saxony  (Naumburg)  and  Silesia 
(Griineberg)  are  proverbially  bad.  The  forests 
furnish  an  abundance  of  excellent  timber  and 
lumber.  In  the  raising  of  domestic  animals 
the  progress  of  Prussia  since  its  reconstruction 
after  the  wars  of  Napoleon  has  been  more 
marked  than  in  any  other  agricultural  pursuit. 
The  breed  of  horses  has  been  so  improved  by 
government  studs,  that  not  only  are  all  the 
horses  wanted  for  army  purposes  obtained 
within  the  state,  but  large  numbers  are  ex- 
ported to  neighboring  countries.  In  1873  the 
total  number  of  horses  was  2,278,274,  of  cat- 
tle 8,612,150,  of  sheep  19,624,758,  and  of  swine 
4,278,531.  Hogs  are  most  numerous  in  West- 
phalia, geese  in  Pomerania,  bees  in  Branden- 
burg and  Westphalia,  and  goats  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts ;  poultry  is  abundant  every- 
where. The  fisheries  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  and  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  impor- 
tant, and  all  kinds  of  game  common  to  central 
Europe  are  found  in  the  forests.  Wolves  are 
seen  only  in  Prussia  proper  and  Posen,  where 
also  a  few  specimens  of  the  aurochs  and  elk  are 
carefully  preserved.  The  lynx,  fox,  badger, 
marten,  beaver,  otter,  and  wild  fowl  are  met 
with  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Seals 
are  sometimes  caught  in  the  Baltic. — Mining 
industry  advanced  with  astonishing  rapidity 
within  the  second  quarter  of  the  present  cen- 
tury; it  received  a  temporary  check  in  1858, 
but  has  since  made  great  progress,  especially 
in  the  production  of  coal,  iron,  and  zinc.  In 
1872  the  total  number  of  mines  in  Prussia  was 
2,702,  among  which  were  476  coal  mines,  544 
of  brown  coal,  1,559  of  iron,  130  of  lead,  82  of 
zinc,  39  of  copper,  5  of  vitriol,  46  of  man- 

ganese,  and  1  of  cobalt,  employing  225,936 
ands,  including  women  and  children.  The  to- 
tal value  of  mining  products  was  $82,460,000. 
The  production  of  coal  in  1872  amounted  to 
581,000,000  cwt.,  that  of  brown  coal  to  146,- 
000,000  cwt.  In  the  production  of  raw  iron 
Prussia  exceeds  all  other  states  of  the  Euro- 
pean continent ;  in  the  production  of  zinc  all 
the  countries  of  the  world.  The  value  of  the 
products  of  furnaces,  founderies,  puddling 
works,  &c.,  in  1872,  was  $59,000,000.  About 
9,280,000  cwt.  of  salt  was  produced  in  that  year. 
A  very  small  quantity  of  gold  is  found ;  and 
agate,  amethysts,  alabaster,  marble,  gypsum, 
clays,  &c.,  are  obtained.  Amber  is  found  on 
the  Baltic  coast.  Among  the  mineral  springs 
of  Prussia  the  following  enjoy  the  widest 
reputation :  Warmbrunn,  Salzbrunn,  Reinerz, 
and  Landeck  in  Silesia;  Freienwalde  in  Bran- 
denburg ;  Lauchstadt  in  Saxony ;  Driburg 
in  Westphalia  ;  the  sulphur  springs  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle;  Wiesbaden,  Ems,  Selters,  Schwal- 
bach,  and  Homburg  in  Hesse-Nassau. — Up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  Prussia 
was  mainly  an  agricultural  and  military  state. 
Even  the  efforts  of  Frederick  the  Great  to 


introduce  new  branches  of  manufacture  were 
in  the  main  unsuccessful.  It  was  only  after 
the  final  abolition  of  serfdom  (Oct.  9,  1807), 
the  introduction  of  municipal  self-government 
(Nov.  19, 1808),  and  the  removal  of  the  medise- 
val  institution  of  trade  guilds  (Oct.  28,  1810), 
that  manufacturing  industry  began  to  take  root 
in  Prussia.  Soon  after  Napoleon's  downfall 
the  government  turned  its  earnest  attention  to 
fostering  home  manufactures,  and  during  the 
past  50  years  the  industry  of  Prussia  has  stead- 
ily and  rapidly  advanced.  In  1806  the  popu- 
lation of  Prussia  was  1D,000,000,  with  an 
average  income  of  $10  to  each  inhabitant;  the 
capital  invested  in  manufacturing  establish- 
ments little  exceeded  $200,000,000,  and  the 
number  of  free  laborers  was  480,000.  In  1856 
the  average  income  of  over  17,000,000  in- 
habitants was  $42  each,  the  capital  invested 
in  manufactures  $770,000,000,  and  the  number 
of  free  laborers  2,771,000.  In  1872  the  total 
income  of  the  24,600,000  inhabitants  was  es- 
timated at  $1,880,000,000,  an  average  of  $76 
to  each  inhabitant.  A  powerful  impulse  has 
recently  been  given  to  Prussian  industry  by 
the  results  of  the  Franco-German  war.  The 
increase  of  capital  and  the  strengthened  con- 
fidence of  the  capitalists  in  the  lasting  prom- 
inence of  Prussia  and  Germany  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  large  number  of  new  manu- 
factories and  the  enlargement  of  many  old 
ones.  Among  the  new  branches  of  industry 
the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  stands  foremost, 
the  number  of  factories  in  1873  amounting 
to  257.  The  introduction  of  the  cotton  manu- 
facture has  been  attended  with  great  losses. 
In  1846  the  number  of  spindles  was  194,290  ; 
in  1856,  289,000  ;  in  1866,  about  600,000.  The 
linen  manufacture  has  been  developed  to  the 
greatest  perfection  in  Silesia  and  Westphalia, 
and  has  of  late  assumed  larger  dimensions  in 
the  provinces  of  Hanover  and  Hesse-Nassau. 
Among  the  most  prosperous  manufactures  of 
the  kingdom  is  that  of  woollen  goods,  which 
is  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  two  Rhenish  dis- 
tricts of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Dilsseldorf  and 
in  the  provinces  of  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and 
Silesia.  Large  manufactories  of  silks  are  found 
in  the  Rhine  province,  Westphalia,  and  Bran- 
denburg. Hardware  of  all  kinds  is  manu- 
factured in  all  the  provinces  except  Prussia 
proper  and  Posen.  The  machine  shops  of 
Berlin  rival  the  largest  establishments  of  the 
kind  in  England,  while  the  great  iron  and  steel 
works  of  Krupp  at  Essen  are  now  the  most 
extensive  and  famous  in  the  world.  Solingen 
and  Suhl  are  celebrated  for  cutlery  and  guns ; 
Silesia  for  castings  and  sheet  iron ;  Westphalia 
for  scythes  and  needles.  In  1868  the  iron 
works  of  Prussia  produced  10,279,000  cwt.  of 
bar  and  rolled  iron,  2,408,000  of  steel,  1,781,- 
000  of  sheet  iron,  862,156  of  iron  wire,  and 
3,490,000  of  castings.  Rapid  as  the  increase 
of  the  production  of  raw  iron  has  been,  it  has 
not  been  able  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase 
of  consumption.  The  manufacture  of  leather, 


62 


PRUSSIA 


morocco,  cordovan,  &c.,  flourishes  in  Saxony, 
in  Berlin,  and  in  Prussia  proper.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  the  progress  has  been  more 
rapid  even  than  in  textile  fabrics ;  it  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  Rhine  province,  "Westphalia, 
Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and  Silesia.  Chiccory 
and  starch  are  manufactured  principally  in 
Saxony,  tobacco  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
The  most  extensive  copper  and  brass  manufac- 
turing establishments  are  found  in  Saxony  and 
on  the  Rhine.  Glass  ware,  crockery,  stone- 
ware, and  china  are  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties, principally  in  the  central  and  eastern  prov- 
inces. The  porcelain  of  Berlin  rivals  the  best 
made  in  France.  Tassels,  fringes,  trimmings, 
&c.,  are  manufactured  at  Breslau,  Magdeburg, 
Cologne,  and  Berlin ;  furniture  and  pianos  at 
Berlin. — The  postal  arrangements  of  Prussia, 
which  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  ad- 
mirable convenience,  economy,  and  exactness, 
have  now,  in  common  with  those  of  the  other 
states  of  the  German  empire,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  imperial  government,  by  which 
however  their  leading  features  are  retained. 
The  telegraphs,  all  of  which  are  under  state 
control,  followed  the  same  course.  The  aggre- 
gate length  of  the  railway  lines  in  operation  in 
May,  1874,  was  9,042  m.,  of  which  2,520  m. 
\rere  comprised  in  roads  belonging  to  the  state, 
1,611  m.  in  roads  of  private  companies  managed 
by  the  state,  and  4,911  m.  in  roads  belonging 
to  and  managed  by  private  companies.  The 
rolling  stock  in  1872  consisted  of  4,827  loco- 
motives, 6,794  passenger  cars,  and  95,296  freight 
cars.  The  number  of  passengers  carried  over 
the  roads  in  1872  was  86,442,679 ;  total  freight, 
1,550,000,000  cwt.  In  1878  the  commercial 
marine  comprised  2,961  vessels  (including  river 
steamers),  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  489,- 
890,  of  which  1,104  were  steamers.  The  en- 
trances at  the  various  ports  in  1872  were  56,974 
vessels,  tonnage  4,613,228;  clearances,  55,088, 
tonnage  4,61 1,598.— Until  1855  the  Royal  bank 
at  Berlin  (which  had  been  transformed  into  a 
joint  stock  bank  in  1846)  was  the  only  bank  of 
issue.  In  December,  1873,  the  number  of  banks 
of  issue  was  12.  The  circulation  of  the  Roy- 
al bank,  which  until  1850  had  not  exceeded 
$15,000,000,  rose  to  $50,000,000  in  1857,  and 
in  December,  1878,  amounted  to  $215,000,000. 
In  all  the  principal  cities  there  are  branches  of 
the  Royal  bank.  The  Frankfort  bank,  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  had  a  circulation  of  about 
$10,000,000,  and  the  Hanover  bank  of  $2,800,- 
000 ;  the  note  circulation  of  each  of  the  other 
banks  does  not  exceed  $700,000.  A  pecu- 
liar moneyed  institution  of  Prussia,  first  intro- 
duced by  Frederick  the  Great,  but  since  imi- 
tated in  other  countries,  is  the  real  estate  bank 
(Hypothekeribanle),  originally  intended  to  save 
the  large  landholders  from  the  usurious  prac- 
tices of  money  lenders.  These  banks  issue 
transferable  mortgage  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
one  half  or  two  thirds  of  the  value  of  landed 
estates,  the  bank  or  association  of  landholders 
guaranteeing  the  principal  and  interest  to  the 


holders  of  the  bonds.  The  aggregate  amount 
of  such  bonds  exceeds  $380,000,000.  The  as- 
sociation of  capital  for  commercial  and  \\ 
trial  purposes,  not  including  railways,  turn- 
pikes, or  canals,  has  of  late  greatly  increased. 
In  December,  1872,  the  total  number  of  com- 
panies was  1,041,  of  which  762  had  been  found- 
ed since  June  11,  1870,  the  date  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  new  law  on  stock  compa- 
nies. Of  the  latter  number  126  were  banking, 
28  insurance,  108  mining,  6  steamship,  and  298 
manufacturing  companies.  A  large  number  of 
these  companies  disappeared  npain  in  conse- 
quence of  the  financial  crisis  of  1878-'4.  The 
savings  banks  of  Prussia  are  municipal  institu- 
tions, belonging  to  the  towns  (stadtitche  tijxtr- 
banken)  or  to  the  circles  (Kreiuparbanken). 
The  aggregate  deposits  in  them  amount  to  more 
than  $113,000,000.— -The  system  of  public  edu- 
cation in  Prussia  is  one  of  the  most  thorough 
in  the  world.  Instruction  in  the  common 
branches  is  compulsory.  It  is  difficult  in  Prus- 
sia to  find  adult  persons  unable  to  read.  The 
number  of  common  schools  in  1878  was  about 
35,000,  with  over  8,700,000  pupils.  The  num- 
ber of  "middle  schools,"  academies,  appren- 
tices' schools,  Sunday  schools,  and  industrial 
schools  is  very  large,  and  increasing  from  year 
to  year.  In  1878  there  were  32  provincial 
technical  schools  (Gewerbeschuleri).  The  mid- 
dle schools  embraced  218  Gymnatien  (classical 
colleges),  8  Realgymnaiieit,  78  Progymnatien 
(preparatory  colleges)  and  Latin  schools,  and 
246  Reahchuhn  and  hohere  Burgerschulen, 
having  together  120,000  pupils.  There  were 
nine  universities,  at  Berlin,  Konigsberg,  Halle, 
Breslau,  Greifswald,  Marburg,  GottSngen,  Bonn, 
and  Kiel,  with  more  than  800  teachers  and  9,600 
students ;  two  Roman  Catholic  academies ; 
and  128  normal  schools,  94  for  male  and  34 
for  female  teachers.  Besides  these  there  are 
numerous  educational  institutions  for  special 
branches  of  science,  as  theological  seminaries 
connected  with  the  universities  and  at  the 
seats  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  a  philo- 
sophical academy  at  Paderborn,  a  polytechnic 
institution  and  an  academy  of  architecture  at 
Berlin,  polytechnic  schools  at  Hanover  and 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  mining  academies  at  Berlin 
and  Clausthal,  academies  of  veterinary  surgery 
at  Berlin  and  Hanover,  academies  of  forest 
culture  at  Neustadt-Eberswalde  and  Munden, 
agricultural  colleges  at  Eldena,  Proskau,  Pop- 
pelsdorf,  and  GOttingen-Weende,  84  agricul- 
tural schools,  and  a  great  number  of  private 
commercial  academies.  All  educational  insti- 
tutions are  controlled,  more  or  less  directly, 
by  the  government.  Even  private  teachers 
must  submit  to  a  thorough  examination  before 
they  are  permitted  to  open  schools.  The  com- 
mon schools  are  sustained  and  managed  by  the 
municipal  corporations,  but  the  teachers  are 
appointed  by  government.  Of  charitable  in- 
stitutions, there  are  18  deaf-mute  asylums,  16 
asylums  for  the  blind,  several  orphan  asylums 
and  nurseries,  Bible  and  missionary  societies, 


PKUSSIA 


53 


&c.  The  highest  branches  of  scientific  culture 
are  fostered  by»the  royal  academy  of  Berlin 
and  numerous  associations  of  scholars.  There 
are  large  public  libraries  in  all  the  principal 
cities ;  observatories  and  botanical  gardens  are 
connected  with  the  universities;  a  zoological 
garden  is  kept  near  Berlin.  The  fine  arts  are 
taught  by  the  royal  academy  of  art  at  Berlin, 
the  art  academies  of  Diisseldorf,  Konigsberg, 
Hanau,  and  Cassel,  and  five  art  schools.  The 
number  of  musical  academies  and  musical  so- 
cieties is  enormous.  The  press  of  Prussia  is 
treated  in  the  article  NEWSPAPEKS,  vol.  xii.,  p. 
338. — The  dominant  religion  in  Prussia  is  the 
Protestant.  The  two  principal  Protestant  de- 
nominations, the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
or  Calvinistic  church,  united  in  1817,  assuming 
the  common  designation  of  Evangelical  church. 
According  to  the  census  of  1871,  there  were 
in  Prussia  16,041,215  Evangelical  Christians, 
8,268,309  Koman  Catholics,  325,565  Jews,  and 
54,903  of  smaller  religious  sects.  Included  in 
the  latter  number  were  20,009  Lutheran  dissent- 
ers, 14,052  Mennonites,  9,375  Baptists,  2,531 
Free  Religionists,  1,354  German  Catholics,  and 
987  Free  Congregationalists.  The  Old  Catho- 
lics in  1874  numbered  about  18,000.  The 
Evangelical  church  constitutes  a  majority  in 
the  provinces  of  Schleswig-Holstein  (99  per 
cent.),  Pomerania  (97),  Brandenburg  (95),  Sax- 
ony (93),  Hanover  (87),  Hesse-Nassau  (70),  and 
Prussia  (70);  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
Hohenzollern  (96  per  cent.),  the  Rhine  prov- 
ince (73),  Posen  (64),  Westphalia  (53),  and 
Silesia  (51).  The  Evangelical  church  is  gov- 
erned by  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  council 
at  Berlin  (established  in  1850)  in  all  spiritual 
matters,  and  by  the  ministry  of  public  worship 
in  temporal  affairs.  Each  province  has  a  con- 
sistory and  a  superintendent  general,  and  is 
divided  into  dioceses,  at  the  head  of  which 
stand  superintendents.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church  has  2  archbishoprics  (Gnesen-Posen  and 
Cologne)  and  10  bishoprics  (Culm,  Ermeland, 
Breslau,  Minister,  Paderborn,  Treves,  Osna- 
brilck,  Hildesheim,  Fulda,  and  Limburg).  Of 
the  Jews  fully  one  half  live  in  the  eastern  (for- 
merly Polish)  provinces.  The  members  of  all 
churches  recognized  by  government  enjoy  equal 
civil  rights.  The  Old  Catholics  have  been 
recognized  by  the  government  as  a  part  of 
the  Catholic  church,  and  the  bishop  elected 
by  them  as  a  bishop  of  the  Catholic  church. 
Other  denominations  (Baptists,  Methodists, 
German  Catholics,  and  Free  Congregational- 
ists) are  barely  tolerated,  though  the  constitu- 
tion guarantees  full  religious  liberty. — Prussia 
is  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  The 
constitution  was  promulgated  Jan.  81,  1850, 
but  has  since  received  various  modifications, 
the  last,  in  reference  to  the  ecclesiastical  pro- 
visions, in  May,  1875.  In  the  territories  an- 
nexed in  1866,  the  Prussian  constitution  was 
introduced  on  Oct.  1,  1867.  It  guarantees  to 
all  citizens  equality  in  civil  rights,  the  right 
of  habeas  corpus,  religious  liberty,  freedom  of 


the  press,  &c.  The  king  is  the  chief  execu- 
tive, clothed  with  all  prerogatives  of  monar- 
chical power.  He  administers  the  government 
by  the  advice  of  nine  responsible  ministers, 
viz. :  of  the  royal  household,  of  foreign  affairs, 
of  finances,  of  public  worship,  education,  and 
health,  of  commerce,  industry,  and  public  works, 
of  the  interior,  of  justice,  of  war,  and  of  agri- 
culture. The  legislature  (Landtag)  consists  of 
a  house  of  lords  (HerrenJiaus)  and  a  house  of 
deputies  (Abgeordnetenhaus).  The  former  em- 
braces: 1,  all  princes  of  royal  blood,  including 
the  princes  of  the  formerly  sovereign  houses 
of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen  and  Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen;  2,  the  chiefs  of  the  mediatized 
princely  houses,  recognized  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  to  the  number  of  16  in  Prussia;  3, 
the  heads  of  the  territorial  nobility,  number- 
ing about  50  members;  4,  eight  titled  noble- 
men, elected  in  the  eight  old  provinces  by  the 
resident  landowners ;  5,  the  representatives  of 
the  universities,  the  heads  of  the  chapters,  and 
the  burgomasters  of  towns  with  more  than 
50,000  inhabitants;  6,  an  unlimited  number  of 
members  appointed  by  the  king  for  life  or  for 
a  restricted  period.  The  chamber  of  deputies 
consists  of  432  members,  352  for  the  old  prov- 
inces, and  the  remainder  for  the  new  territories 
annexed  in  1866.  The  deputies  are  elected  by 
indirect  universal  suffrage  for  a  term  of  three 
years.  The  king  has  an  absolute  veto  power. 
At  the  head  of  the  political  administration  of 
each  of  the  11  provinces  stands  an  Oterprdsi- 
dent  (chief  president).  The  provinces  are  divi- 
ded into  administrative  districts  called  Regie- 
rungsbezirTce,  except  in  the  province  of  Han- 
over, where  the  former  division  into  Land- 
drosteien  is  retained.  At  the  head  of  each 
RegierungsbezirTc  stands  a  Regierungsprasi- 
dent,  at  the  head  of  a  Landdrostei  a  Land- 
drost.  The  number  of  administrative  districts 
is  34,  besides  the  city  of  Berlin  and  Hohen- 
zollern, each  of  which  forms  a  separate  dis- 
trict. The  districts  are  divided  into  Krei»e 
or  circles,  except  Hohenzollern,  which  is  di- 
vided into  four  Oberamtsbezirke.  At  the  head 
of  a  circle  in  all  the  old  and  some  of  the  new 
provinces  is  a  LandratJi;  in  parts  of  the  new 
territories,  the  former  titles  of  the  heads  of 
subdivisions,  like  Kreishauptmann  and  Amts- 
hauptmann,  have  been  retained.  Provincial 
assemblies  exist,  but  their  powers  are  only  ad- 
visory. They  cannot  originate  any  measures, 
and  must  not  even  advise  the  government  upon 
any  subject  unless  called  upon  to  do  so.  Their 
principal  duty  is  to  apportion  the  taxes  to  be 
levied  from  the  provinces.  The  police  through- 
out the  kingdom  is  administered  by  the  gov- 
ernment. The  administration  of  justice  has 
been  completely  reorganized  since  1848.  Pub- 
licity of  judicial  proceedings,  trial  by  jury,  and 
a  new  criminal  code  have  been  introduced,  and 
all  exceptional  jurisdiction  has  been  abolished. 
In  Rhenish  Prussia  the  code  Napoleon  and  the 
French  legal  procedure,  which  were  introduced 
under  the  rule  of  Napoleon,  have  been  main- 


PRUSSIA 


tained.  In  the  other  provinces  there  are  city 
or  district  courts,  and  26  courts  of  appeal. 
The  chief  tribunal  at  Berlin  is  the  court  of  last 
resort  for  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. — Finan- 
cially Prussia  is  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and 
its  financial  administration  is  excellent.  The 
annexation  of  large  territories  in  1866  and 
the  establishment  of  the  German  empire  under 
the  Prussian  dynasty  in  1871,  to  whose  budget 
some  of  the  revenues  as  well  as  the  expendi- 
tures of  Prussia  were  transferred,  render  a 
comparison  of  the  Prussian  budgets  of  the 
years  before  1867  with  those  of  the  following 
years  of  little  value.  The  estimates  of  public 
revenue  and  expenditure  submitted  by  the 
government  tp  the  chambers  are  always  pre- 
pared to  show  an  even  balance ;  but  in  recent 
years  the  actual  revenue  has  always  largely 
exceeded  the  estimate,  and  shown  even  in 
years  of  war  a  constant  and  increasing  sur- 
plus. In  the  budgets  of  1868  to  1874,  reve- 
nue and  expenditures  were  each  estimated  at 
the  following  amounts:  1868,  $115,000,000; 
1869,$120,600,000;  1870,  $121,200,000;  1871, 
$124,500,000;  1872,  $134,600,000;  1878,  $151,- 
200,000;  1874,  $167,500,000.  The  actual  sur- 
plus amounted  in  1870  to  $6,700,000,  in  1871 
to  $7,200,000,  and  in  1872  to  $8,900,000.  Of 
late  the  income  from  railways  and  other  state 
undertakings,  such  as  mines,  has  been  largely 
increasing,  showing  a  tendency  to  become  in 
the  course  of  time  larger  than  that  from  taxa- 
tion, direct  or  indirect.  In  the  estimates  for 
1874,  the  revenue  of  the  ministry  of  commerce, 
chiefly  from  the  railways  and  mines,  was  more 
than  two  fifths  of  the  entire  government  re- 
ceipts. The  exemption  of  a  large  number  of 
landed  proprietors  (noblemen)  from  taxation 
on  real  estate  was  abolished  in  1861,  but  the 
actual  payment  of  taxes  by  them  did  not  begin 
till  1865.  The  public  debt  of  Prussia,  which 
in  1787  was  only  $32,250,000,  amounted  in 
1820  to  $152,491,000.  In  1847  it  had  been  re- 
duced to  $98,000,000,  but  in  1862  it  again 
amounted  to  $175,700,000.  On  the  annexation 
of  Schleswig-IIolstein,  Hanover,  Ilesse-Cassel, 
Nassau,  and  Frankfort  to  Prussia,  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  the  incorporation  of  the  debts  of 
these  states  with  that  of  Prussia  should  take 
place  at  some  future  period.  This  had  not  yet 
been  done  in  1874.  The  aggregate  debt  of  the 
entire  monarchy  in  that  year  amonnted  to 
$259,400,000,  of  which  $107,900,000  was  rail- 
way debt.  The  interest  on  the  latter  debt  is 
paid  out  of  the  profits  of  the  state  lines,  the 
yearly  increasing  dividends  of  which  likewise 
create  a  sinking  fund  for  the  gradual  extinc- 
tion of  the  debt — The  Prussian  military  sys- 
tem, so  elaborate  and  thorough  that  it  has 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  giving  the  state  its 
present  leadership  among  European  countries, 
was  in  1871  extended  to  the  whole  empire,  and 
the  Prussian  became  a  part  of  the  imperial 
army.  The  navy  of  Prussia  has  in  the  same 
way  become  the  chief  part  of  the  imperial  naval 
force.  (See  GERMANY,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  750,  751.) 


— The  country  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia,  of  which  it  is  now  only  a 
province,  was  in  antiquity  probably  known  to 
the  Phoenicians,  who  either  in  their  ships  or 
through  trading  posts  procured  amber  from  its 
Baltic  shores.  The  aborigines,  a  Lettic  tribe 
kindred  to  the  Lithuanians,  appear  to  have  been 
peaceable  and  quiet,  and  acquainted  with  agri- 
culture. During  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era  they  became  dependent  upon  the 
Goths,  who  overran  their  country.  In  the 
10th  century  they  are  first  mentioned  under 
the  name  of  Borussi  or  Porussi.  Their  re- 
ligion was  polytheism,  and  human  sacrifices 
were  not  uncommon.  Bishop  Adalbert,  who 
attempted  to  convert  them  to  Christianity, 
was  slain  by  them  while  hewing  down  thoir 
sacred  oak  tree,  in  A.  D.  997.  Boleslas  I.  of 
Poland  invaded  their  country  and  compelled 
them  to  profess  the  Christian  faith  in  1015, 
but  neither  he  nor  his  immediate  successors 
could  retain  a  hold  upon  them.  A  large  army 
which  Boleslas  IV.  led  against  them  was 
totally  annihilated,  and  the  Prussians  even 
held  a  part  of  Poland  in  subjection  for  some 
time.  In  1219  they  repelled  a  crusade  sent 
against  them  from  Germany,  and  soon  became 
the  terror  of  all  neighboring  countries.  The 
Teutonic  knights  finally  conquered  Prussia 
(1280-'83),  founded  cities,  introduced  German 
colonists  and  German  laws,  and  by  their  firm 
rule  made  Prussia  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing countries  of  its  time.  (See  TEUTONIC 
KNIGHTS.)  But  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century  the  demoralization  of  the  knights, 
their  continual  wars  with  Poland  and  Lithu- 
ania, and  their  reckless  exactions  created  a 
powerful  opposition.  The  nobility  and  the 
municipalities  obtained  the  assistance  of  th« 
king  01  Poland,  Casimir  IV.,  and  by  a  war  of 
12  years'  duration  (1454-'66)  compelled  the 
order  to  cede  western  Prussia  and  Ermeland  to 
Poland.  The  remainder  was  left  to  them  as  a 
fief  of  Poland.  In  1511  the  margrave  Albert 
of  Brandenburg  was  elected  grand  master  of 
the  order.  Having  vainly  striven  to  throw  off 
the  Polish  rule,  he  turned  Protestant,  and  in 
1525  accepted  Prussia  as  a  duchy  from  Poland. 
His  son  Albert  Frederick  becoming  insane, 
the  duchy  was  governed  by  his  relatives,  of 
whom  John  Sigismund,  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, inherited  it  in  1618.  He  was  a  descen- 
dant of  Frederick  of  Hohenzollern,  burgrave 
of  Nuremberg,  who  had  become  possessor  of 
Brandenburg  in  1415  by  foreclosure  of  mort- 
gage. (See  BRANDENBURG,  and  HOHEKZOL- 
LKBN.)  The  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  not 
Prussia  proper,  must  be  considered  the  nucleus 
of  the  present  monarchy  of  that  name.  The 
electorate,  though  frequently  divided  by  the 
descendants  of  Frederick,  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  history  of  Germany,  especially  du- 
ring the  reformation.  Frederick  I.  (1415-'40) 
subdued  the  robber  knights,  and  obtained  some 
additional  territory  from  Pomerania  and  Meck- 
lenburg, but  succumbed  to  the  Hussites,  who 


PRUSSIA 


55 


devastated  his  country  with  fire  and  sword  in 
1432.  Frederick  II.  (1440-'70)  enlarged  his 
possessions  by  purchases  from  neighboring 
states,  but  was  unfortunate  in  his  attempts  to 
conquer  Lusatia  from  Bohemia  and  Stettin  from 
Pomerania.  Albert  Achilles  (1470-'86)  and 
John  Cicero  (1486-'99)  contended  energetically 
against  the  usurpations  of  the  lords,  and  pro- 
moted industry,  commerce,  and  science.  The 
two  younger  brothers  of  the  latter  received 
the  Franconian  possessions  of  their  father,  and 
%  founded  the  two  branch  lines  of  the  house 
of  Brandenburg,  Anspach  and  Baireuth.  Jo- 
achim I.  Nestor  (1499-1535)  was  noted  as  a 
scholar,  and  also  as  one  of  the  most  violent 
opponents  of  the  reformation,  and  a  persecu- 
tor of  the  Jews,  of  whom  he  had  many  burned 
at  the  stake  or  exiled.  Joachim  II.  Hector 
(1535-'71)  became  a  Protestant,  secularized 
the  bishoprics  of  Brandenburg,  Havelberg,  and 
Lebus,  founded  many  educational  or  charitable 
institutions  with  the  proceeds  of  the  church 
property,  and  concluded  a  treaty  of  mutual  in- 
heritance with  the  duke  of  Liegnitz  in  Silesia, 
which  two  centuries  later  became  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Prussian  claims  on  Silesia.  John 
George  I.  (1571-'98)  expelled  the  Jews  who  had 
been  readmitted  by  his  predecessor,  but  invited 
the  exiled  Protestants  from  the  Netherlands 
into  his  country,  and  by  wise  economy  greatly 
improved  the  financial  condition  of  his  state. 
Joachim  Frederick  (1598-1608)  acquired  by 
marriage  a  claim  on  the  duchy  of  Prussia, 
which  his  son  John  Sigismund  (1608-' 19)  per- 
manently united  to  the  electorate  of  Branden- 
burg, having  previously,  after  the  death  of  the 
duke  of  Jiilich,  acquired  Oleves  and  other  pos- 
sessions. Under  the  reign  of  George  William 
(1619-'40),  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  suffered 
terribly  from  the  thirty  years'  war.  Having 
adopted  a  policy  of  neutrality,  the  elector  was 
looked  upon  as  an  enemy  by  both  contending 
parties.  Prussia  was  ravaged  by  Swedes  and 
Poles,  Brandenburg  by  the  imperial  armies  and 
those  of  the  league,  and  during  12  years  by 
the  Swedes.  From  the  lowest  depth  of  misery 
and  desolation  the  country  was  raised  by  the 
energy  and  wisdom  of  Frederick  William,  the 
Great  Elector'  (1640-'88).  By  marking  out  a 
vigorous  and  independent  policy  against  France, 
Sweden,  and  Poland,  and  shrewdly  taking 
advantage  of  dissensions  among  his  enemies, 
he  enlarged  his  dominions  and  obtained  a  posi- 
tion but  little  below  that  of  the  great  powers 
of  Europe.  Of  Prussia  he  made  a  sovereign 
duchy,  severing  its  connection  with  Poland. 
At  his  death  his  possessions  had  increased 
to  42,000  sq.  m.  with  1,500,000  inhabitants. 
His  son  Frederick,  the  third  elector  of  that 
name  (1688-1713),  by  consent  of  the  German 
emperor,  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Prussia, 
and  was  crowned  as  such  Jan.  18,  1701.  He 
acquired  a  few  small  territories,  the  princi- 
pality of  Neufchatel  in  Switzerland  among  the 
rest.  His  son  Frederick  William  I.  (1713-'40) 
acquired  from  Sweden  a  part  of  Pomerania, 


with  Stettin,  increasing  the  area  of  the  country 
to  48,000  sq.  m.  He  left  to  his  son  Frederick 
II.,  the  Great  (l740-'86),  $6,000,000  over  and 
above  all  debts,  and  an  army  of  70,000  men, 
the  best  disciplined  in  all  Europe.  With  these 
means  Frederick  began  a  war  of  conquest,  and 
wrested  Silesia  from  Austria.  By  a  wise  and 
prudent  administration  he  strengthened  and 
consolidated  his  kingdom,  and  elevated  it  to 
the  rank  of  a  great  power  by  successfully  re- 
sisting during  a  sanguinary  war  of  seven  years' 
duration  (1756-'63)  the  combined  aggressions 
of  Austria,  France,  and  Russia.  In  1772  he 
took  part  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland.  To 
his  successor  he  left  a  treasure  of  $50,000,000, 
an  army  of  220,000  men,  and  «a  territory  of 
77,000  sq.  m.  On  his  accession  he  had  2,240,000 
subjects,  and  at  his  death  the  number  exceeded 
6,000,000.  Frederick  William  II.  (l786-'97), 
though  his  reign  was  weak,  harmful,  and  oc- 
cupied by  imprudent  and  unsuccessful  wars 
in  alliance  with  Austria  against  revolutionary 
France,  failed  to  destroy  the  prestige  of  Prus- 
sia, and  by  participating  in  the  second  and 
third  partitions  of  Poland  added  to  his  posses- 
sions 40,000  sq.  m.  Frederick  William  III. 
(1797-1840),  by  a  weak  and  vacillating  policy, 
isolated  Prussia  and  encountered  the  wrath  of 
Napoleon,  who,  after  the  ignominious  defeat 
of  the  Prussian  armies  at  Jena  in  1806,  reduced 
the  kingdom  to  less  than  half  its  former  area. 
For  six  years  Prussia  was  cruelly  oppressed  by 
Napoleon,  who  did  his  utmost  to  reduce  the 
kingdom  to  insignificance.  But  during  this 
period  the  statesmen  of  Prussia  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  its  subsequent  greatness  by  unfet- 
tering labor  and  commerce,  by  granting  muni- 
cipal self-government,  and  basing  the  military 
power  of  the  state  upon  the  people.  After 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon  most  of  its  former 
possessions  were  restored  to  Prussia,  and  in 
addition  to  them  it  acquired  parts  of  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony  and  of  Pomerania,  Berg,  Julich, 
and  several  valuable  territories  on  the  Rhine. 
The  promise  of  a  liberal  constitution,  given  by 
the  king  to  his  people,  was  not  kept.  The 
political  condition  settled  down  into  a  sort  of 
patriarchal  despotism.  The  establishment  of 
the  Zollverein  was  the  only  wise  and  states- 
manlike measure  during  25  years  of  peace. 
Frederick  William  IV.  (1840-'61),  who  had 
great  natural  talents  and  scholarship,  but  was 
weak  and  pusillanimous,  destroyed  almost  to- 
tally the  moral  prestige  of  Prussia,  and  threw 
away  the  opportunity,  offered  to  him  by  the 
revolution  of  1848,  of  becoming  the  head  of  a 
united  German  nation.  For  nearly  10  years 
under  his  reign  the  reactionary  party  held  al- 
most absolute  sway,  though  the  state  had  been 
converted  into  a  constitutional  monarchy.  In 
1857  his  mental  faculties  gave  way,  and  his 
brother  William  was  intrusted  with  the  re- 
gency. Frederick  William  died  Jan.  2,  1861, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  regent  as  William  I. 
The  accession  of  the  new  king,  whose  career 
had  already  shown  him  to  be  heartily  devoted 


56 


PRUSSIA 


to  the  long  cherished  plan  of  securing  com- 
plete Prussian  leadership  in  Germany,  found 
the  country  in  the  very  height  of  jealous  dis- 
sensions with  Austria,  which  had  become  par- 
ticularly prominent  after  the  peace  of  Villa- 
franca  between  Austria  and  France  (1859). 
The  acts  which  this  mutual  jealousy  inspired, 
and  by  which  every  possible  factor  was  brought 
into  the  struggle  for  control,  are  described 
at  length  in  the  article  GERMANY.  For  seve- 
ral years  there  was  no  open  rupture ;  it  was 
only  with  the  entrance  of  Bismarck  into  the 
Prussian  cabinet  as  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs, in  1862,  and  the  uncompromising  attitude 
then  assumed  in  certain  questions  of  German 
politics,  that  the  breach  seemed  to  become 
irreparable ;  and  no  sooner  had  it  been  thus 
widened  than  the  Sohleswig-llolstein  compli- 
cation (see  AUSTRIA,  DENMARK,  GERMANY,  and 
ScHLESwio-IIoLSTEix)  arose  to  present  a  possi- 
ble and  plausible  easus  belli.  In  apite  of  many 
attempts  at  mediation,  the  attitude  of  the 
great  powers  became  more  and  more  hostile, 
and  after  several  arbitrary  acts  on  both  sides, 
the  convention  of  Gastein,  which  gave  the 
occupation  of  Holstein  to  Austria  and  that  of 
Schleswig  to  Prussia,  but  which  it  seemed  evi- 
dent neither  power  would  long  adhere  to, 
placed  affairs  in  precisely  the  position  where 
another  step  on  either  side  must  mean  war. 
The  convention  was  signed  on  Aug.  14,  1865 ; 
but  as  early  as  January,  1866,  the  conduct  of 
the  officials  in  the  duchies  gave  cause  for  a  new 
quarrel.  In  April  Prussia  made  an  alliance  with 
Italy,  and  began  to  arm.  The  smaller  states  of 
Germany  generally  sided  with  Austria.  On 
June  1  Austria  arbitrarily  took  the  question  of 
the  Danish  duchies  out  of  the  limits  of  the  Gas- 
tein agreement,  by  suddenly  declaring  it  to  be 
referred  to  the  federal  diet;  and  Prussia,  re- 
garding this  as  a  breach  of  treaty,  marched  its 
troops  into  Hol.stein,  and  proposed  to  restore 
the  joint  occupation  of  both  duchies.  Austria 
declared  this  act  to  bo  a  violation  of  the  federal 
constitution,  and  the  federal  diot,  acting  en- 
tirely under  its  leadership,  ordered  (June  14) 
the  mobilization  of  all  the  federal  troops  except 
those  of  Prussia.  On  June  15  Prussia  sum- 
moned Hanover,  Saxony,  and  Ilesse-Cassel  to 
retract  their  action  at  the  diet ;  they  refused, 
and  on  the  next  day  Prussian  troops  occupied 
their  territory,  and  war  was  begun.  The  con- 
flict whioh  followed  was  a  remarkable  proof  of 
the  condition  of  preparation  in  which  the  Prus- 
sian state  had  placed  itself;  and  under  the 
name  of  the  "seven  weeks'  war"  it  has  be- 
come famous  as  one  of  the  shortest  but  most 
decisive  struggles  in  history.  On  June  22  and 
23  the  three  divisions  of  the  Prussian  main  army 
advanced  toward  the  frontiers  of  Bohemia 
from  two  directions — in  Silesia  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Prussian  crown  prince,  in  Saxony 
under  that  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of 
Prussia  and  Gen.  Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld. 
From  the  26th  to  the  29th  various  minor  en- 
gagements took  place  along  the  lines,  at  Podol, 


Huhnerwasser,  Munchengratz,  Gitschin,  Trau- 
tenau,  Nachod,  Koniginhof,  &c.  In  the  moan 
while,  on  the  28th,  the  Hanoverian  army,  cut 
off  from  reinforcements  or  means  of  retreat 
by  the  Prussian  forces  about  it,  had  surren- 
dered at  Langensalza.  On  July  1  the  Prussiaa 
armies  were  united  near  Koniggratz ;  and  on 
the  3d  they  encountered  at  Sadowa,  near  by, 
the  main  Austrian  army  under  Benedek,  and 
achieved  the  decisive  victory  of  the  war.  (See 
SADOWA.)  The  armies  of  Austria  at  once  re- 
treated to  the  south,  and  the  northern  prov-^ 
inces  were  left  in  the  power  of  the  enemy.* 
While  these  things  were  in  progress,  a  simul- 
taneous campaign  was  carried  on  by  Prussia  in 
western  Germany,  but  with  far  less  bloodshed ; 
an  army  under  Gen.  Vogel  von  Falkenstein 
had  opposed  the  Bavarians  and  the  army  of  the 
smaller  states,  forced  them  to  retreat  after  a 
battle  near  Eissingen  on  July  10,  met  an  Aus- 
trian division  near  Aschaffenburg  on  the  14th, 
and  entered  Frankfort  on  the  16th.  Another 
portion  of  the  "  army  of  the  Main,"  under  Gen. 
Manteuffel,  met  the  7th  and  8th  corps  of  the 
federal  army,  July  24-27,  at  Tauberbischofs- 
heiin,  Helmstadt,  and  Wurzburg,  and  won  mi- 
nor victories.  On  the  26th  preliminary  nego- 
tiations for  peace  were  begun  at  Nikolsburg, 
and  a  truce  with  Austria  was  declared ;  this 
was  followed  by  truces  with  Bavaria,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Wurtemberg,  and  Baden  (Aug.  1-3). 
Definite  treaties  of  peace  followed  with  Wur- 
temberg (Aug.  13),  Baden  (Aug.  17),  Bavaria 
(Aug.  22),  and  Austria  (the  peace  of  Prague, 
Aug.  23).  The  "  seven  weeks'  war,"  and  the 
treaty  which  ended  it,  placed  Prussia  at  the 
head  of  Germany,  and  marked  it  as  one  of  the 
first  military  powers  of  Europe.  The  treaty 
of  Prague  virtually  established  a  new  federa- 
tion of  German  states,  soon  definitely  formed 
(Aug.  18  to  Oct.  21)  into  the  "North  German 
Confederation"  (Norddeuttcher  Bund),  inclu- 
ding all  the  states  north  of  the  Main.  It  shut 
out  Austria  from  Germany,  and  left  the  South 
German  states  to  take  their  own  course  as  to 
the  establishment  of  a  Bund  between  them- 
selves. But  Prussia  gained  an  aggrandizement 
of  territory  as  well  as  of  prestige ;  for  it  an- 
nexed Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort,  and  thus  not 
only  extended  its  boundaries,  but  removed  the 
principal  obstacles  to  its  territorial  unity.  The 
chief  measures  of  Prussian  politics  from  the 
close  of  the  war  of  1866  till  1870  are  again 
treated  in  the  article  GERMANY.  The  minor 
measures  of  its  politics  during  this  period  com- 
prised treaties  on  points  of  administration, 
posts,  military  affairs,  &c.,  with  the  other 
states,  and  regulation  of  its  own  educational, 
industrial,  and  financial  affairs.  The  part  of 
Prussia  in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-'71 
(see  FRANCE,  and  GERMANY)  is  inextricably  in- 
volved with  that  of  the  whole  German  nation. 
The  conflict  served  to  precipitate  the  solution 
of  the  question  which  had  always  been  the 
aim  of  the  king  and  Bismarck :  German  unity 


PRUSSIAN  BLUE 


PRYNNE 


under  Prussian  leadership.  On  Jan.  18,  1871, 
King  William  was  crowned  at  Versailles  as 
emperor  of  Germany,  and  on  March  21  the 
first  German  Reichstag  assembled  at  Berlin. 
From  1871  to  1874  Prussia  had  undertaken  no 
important  measures  independently  of  the  rest  of 
Germany,  and  its  most  recent  history  is  there- 
fore contained  in  the  article  on  the  empire. 
(See  also  WILLIAM  I.,  of  Prussia  and  Germany, 
and  for  fuller  accounts  on  previous  periods  of 
Prussian  history  the  notices  on  the  principal 
monarchs  under  the  head  of  FREDERICK.) 

PRUSSIAN  BUT.     See  POTASSIUM. 

PRUSSIA  PROPER,  a  great  division  of  the 
Prussian  kingdom,  comprising  East  or  Ducal 
Prussia,  and  West  or  Royal  Prussia,  now  offi- 
cially united  into  one  province ;  area,  24,114 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  3,137,545.  East  Prussia 
is  bounded  N.  E.,  E.,  and  S.  by  Russia  (Cour- 
land,  Lithuania,  and  Poland),  W.  by  West 
Prussia,  and  N.  W.  by  the  Baltic.  Its  surface 
is  low  and  almost  uniformly  level,  and  there 
are  numerous  lakes  formed  by  the  rivers,  the 
fall  being  insufficient  to  carry  their  waters  to 
the  ocean.  The  most  important  streams  are 
the  Memel  or  Niemen,  which  empties  into  a 
vast  estuary  or  lagoon  called  the  Kurisches 
Half,  the  Pregel,  and  the  Passarge.  The 
greater  part  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  prin- 
cipal crop  is  potatoes.  Nearly  one  third  of 
the  land  is  covered  with  forests.  Fruit,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  grain,  live  stock,  and  fowls 
are  largely  produced,  game  is  abundant,  and 
amber  is  found  in  considerable  quantities. 
East  Prussia  comprises  the  administrative  dis- 
tricts of  Konigsberg  and  Gumbinnen.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Germans. — West  Prussia 
is  bounded  N.  by  the  Baltic,  E.  by  East  Prussia, 
S.  by  Russian  Poland  and  Posen,  and  W.  by 
Brandenburg  and  Pomerania.  The  surface, 
soil,  and  productions  are  like  those  of  East 
Prussia.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Vistula, 
whose  E.  mouth,  the  Nogat,  enters  the  Frisches 
Haff,  the  Drewenz,  and  the  Brahe.  There  are 
numerous  inland  lakes,  but  they  are  not  so 
large  as  those  of  East  Prussia.  This  division 
comprises  the  administrative  districts  of  Dant- 
zic  and  Marienwerder.  About  67  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Germans,  and  33  per  cent. 
Poles. — Prussia  proper  was  conquered  and 
Christianized  in  the  13th  century  by  the  Teu- 
tonic knights.  In  1466  they  were  forced  by 
Casimir  IV.  to  cede  West  Prussia  to  Poland, 
while  keeping  East  Prussia  as  a  fief  of  that 
kingdom.  The  latter  division,  when  converted 
into  a  duchy  by  the  last  grand  master  of  the 
order,  Albert  of  Brandenburg  (1511),  was  des- 
ignated as  Ducal  Prussia,  and  was  united  with 
Brandenburg  by  the  elector  John  Sigismund 
(1618).  Western  or  Royal  Prussia  was  severed 
from  Poland,  in  the  first  partition  of  that 
kingdom  (1772),  by  Frederick  the  Great,  with 
the  exception  of  the  cities  of  Dantzic  and 
Thorn,  which  Frederick  William  II.  received 
in  the  second  partition  (1793). 

PRUSSIC  ACID.    See  HYDROCYANIC  Aero. 


PRUTH  (anc.  Poras),  a  river  of  Europe, 
which  rises  in  the  N.  E.  Carpathians,  on  the 
boundary  between  the  Hungarian  county  of 
Marmaros  and  Galicia,  flows  E.  through  the 
latter  country  and  Bukowina,  and  S.  S.  E. 
along  the  boundary  line  of  Roumania  and  Bes- 
sarabia, and  joins  the  Danube  at  Reni,  near 
the  delta  of  the  latter  river.  The  length  of  its 
course  is  about  350  m.  The  Pruth  figures  con- 
spicuously in  the  history  of  every  Turko-Rus- 
sian  war  since  the  times  of  Peter  the  Great, 
who  in  1711  narrowly  escaped  being  captured 
on  its  banks,  with  his  army. 

PRIME,  William,  an  English  political  writer, 
born  at  Swainswick,  near  Bath,  in  1600,  died 
in  London,  Oct.  24,  1669.  He  graduated  at 
Oriel  college,  Oxford,  in  1620,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  a  barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 
Having  become  a  Puritan,  he  published  pam- 
phlets against  Arminianism ;  and  some  passages 
in  one  entitled  "  Histriomastix,  the  Player's 
Scourge"  (1632),  appearing  to  reflect  upon  the 
king  and  queen,  Bishop  Laud  brought  him  be- 
fore the  star  chamber,  and  by  that  court  he  was 
excluded  from  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  condemned  to 
pay  a  fine  of  £5,000,  to  have  his  ears  cut  off,  to 
stand  in  the  pillory  at  Westminster  and  Cheap- 
side,  and  to  be  imprisoned  during  the  king's 
pleasure.  His  work  was  also  ordered  to  be 
burned  before  his  eyes  by  the  common  hang- 
man. This  sentence  was  rigorously  carried 
out,  but  from  his  prison  he  continued  to  issue 
tracts  against  the  prelates.  The  publication 
of  one  of  these,  in  1637,  entitled  "News  from 
Ipswich,"  stirred  up  anew  the  anger  of  Laud, 
and  Prynne  was  again  summoned  before  the 
star  chamber,  and  fined  £5,000.  The  remains 
of  his  ears  were  cut  off,  and  the  letters  S. 
L.  (seditious  libeller)  were  branded  on  both 
cheeks.  At  the  execution  of  this  sentence 
in  the  palace  yard,  and  afterward  on  his  way 
to  his  prison,  Carnarvon  castle,  a  great  crowd 
was  present,  which  manifested  its  sympathy 
and  respect  for  the  sufferer.  Such  numbers 
also  visited  the  castle,  that  after  a  residence  of 
ten  weeks  he  was  removed  by  an  illegal  order 
to  the  castle  of  Mont  Orgueil  in  the  island  of 
Jersey.  On  Nov.  7,  1640,  he  was  released  by 
an  order  of  the  house  of  commons,  his  sentence 
being  reversed,  and  damages  to  the  amount  of 
£5,000  being  awarded  him  against  his  judges. 
His  entrance  into  London  had  the  appearance 
of  a  triumphal  procession.  Soon  after  he  be- 
came a  member  of  parliament  for  Newport  in 
Cornwall,  and  in  1 647  he  was  elected  recorder 
of  Bath.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  long  parliament,  zealously 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  Presbyterians  and 
opposing  the  Independents.  Just  before  the 
king's  trial  he  was  ordered  into  the  custody  of 
the  sergeant  at  arms  for  "  denying  the  suprem- 
acy of  parliament,"  and  on  Dec.  6,  1648,  he 
was  arrested  by  the  army  and  ejected  from  the 
house.  He  now  became  a  bitter  opponent  of 
Cromwell,  and  published  articles  of  so  virulent 
a  character  that  he  was  twice  imprisoned.  He 


58 


PRZEMYSL 


PSALMS 


was  discharged  from  his  office  of  recorder  of 
Bath  in  1654,  but  was  reflected  after  the  res- 
toration. He  was  one  of  the  excluded  mem- 
bers who  sat  in  the  house  of  commons  early 
in  1660,  and  was  zealous  in  furthering  the 
restoration,  after  which  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  records  in  the  tower.  Wood,  in  his 
AthencB  Oxonienses,  gives  a  catalogue  of  his 
writings,  which  comprises  nearly  200  volumes. 
The  most  valuable  are  his  "  Collection  of  Rec- 
ords," "  Calendar  of  Parliamentary  Writs," 
and  "Observations  on  the  Fourth  Part  of 
Coke's  Institutes."  His  "  Records "  he  in- 
tended to  bring  down  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  but  he  lived  only  long  enough  to 
complete  the  work  as  far  as  that  of  Henry  III. 

PRZEMYSL,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on 
the  San,  at  the  junction  of  the  Lemberg  and 
Cracow  and  the  Hungaro-Galician  railways, 
55  m.  W.  of  Lemberg;  pop.  in  1870,  15,184 
(against  9,800  in  1857),  including  more  than 
5,000  Jews.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Poland.  It  has  many  Gothic  churches,  inclu- 
ding two  ancient  cathedrals,  is  the  seat  of  a 
Catholic  and  a  Greek  United  bishop,  and  has  a 
gymnasium  and  other  schools.  The  principal 
trade  is  in  timber,  leather,  and  linens. 

Ps\LM  lYl/AR,  George,  the  assumed  name  of 
a  French  impostor,  born  about  1679,  died  in 
London  in  1753  or  1703.  Ho  travelled  over 
various  parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands ;  was  a  soldier,  a  beggar,  and  a 
servant,  pretending  at  first  to  be  a  Japanese 
and  afterward  a  Formosan  ;  and  at  length 
went  to  England  with  one  Innes,  a  chaplain  in 
a  Scotch  regiment,  who  claimed  the  credit  of 
converting  him  to  Christianity.  In  1704  he 
published  at  London  a  pretended  "  History 
and  Description  of  the  Island  of  Formosa  off 
the  Coast  of  China,"  in  which  the  description 
of  the  island  was  given  with  such  apparent 
fidelity,  the  manners  and  customs  were  illus- 
trated with  so  many  engravings,  and  such 
copious  specimens  were  given  of  a  new  lan- 
guage, that  the  belief  in  the  story  was  general 
until  the  author  revealed  the  imposition.  He 
now  applied  himself  seriously  to  study,  and 
wrote  a  largo  portion  of  the  "  Universal  His- 
tory," a  true  account  as  far  as  known  of  For- 
mosa for  the  "  Complete  System  of  Geogra- 
phy," an  "  Essay  on  Miracles,"  and  a  version 
of  the  Psalms.  He  left  in  manuscript  his  own 
memoirs,  published  in  London  in  1765. 

PSALMS,  Book  of  (in  the  Septuagint,  *a?,/io/, 
hymns  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  stringed 
instruments;  in  Hebrew  collections,  Tehillim, 
praise  songs),  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  containing  a  copious  col- 
lection of  religious  songs.  Religious  poetry 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  among  the  oriental 
nations  in  general,  can  be  traced  to  a  high 
antiquity.  The  Pentateuch  contains  several 
hymns  and  fragments  of  hymns ;  in  the  book 
of  Psalms  we  find  one  psalm  which  is  as- 
cribed to  Moses;  and  in  the  time  of  the  judges 
we  meet  with  the  beautiful  song  of  Deborah 


(Judges  v.).  But  the  religious  poetry  of  the 
Hebrews  attained  its  principal  development 
through  King  David,  who  is  represented  in 
the  Scriptures  as  having  practised  it  from 
early  youth  until  his  death,  and  in  particular 
as  having  introduced  the  singing  of  hymns 
into  the  service  in  the  tabernacle.  In  the 
Hebrew  original  73  psalms  are  ascribed  to 
David,  but  none  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  trans- 
lations, as  the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the 
Peshito,  agree  in  this  respect.  Besides  Moses 
and  David,  several  other  authors  of  psalms 
are  named  in  the  headings;  thus,  2  psalms 
are  ascribed  to  Solomon,  12  to  Asaph,  11  to 
the  sons  of  Eorah,  a  Levitic  family,  and  one 
each  to  Heman  and  Ethan.  The  Alexandrine 
and  Syriac  versions  mention  also  the  prophets 
Haggai  and  Zechariah  as  the  authors  of  some 
psalms. — The  collection  of  psalms,  in  the  form 
in  which  it  appears  in  the  Old  Testament,  can- 
not have  been  completed  until  after  the  cap- 
tivity, as  some  of  the  psalms  are  obviously  of 
subsequent  origin.  According  to  Hitzig,  Len- 
gerke,  and  Olshausen,  some  of  the  psalms  be- 
long to  a  time  as  late  as  that  of  the  Macca- 
bees. The  possibility  of  Maccabtean  psalms 
is  admitted  by  Delitzsch,  while  their  existence 
is  denied  by  Hengstenberg,  Havernick,  Keil, 
Ewald,  and  others.  Particular  collections, 
which  were  afterward  embodied  in  the  book 
of  Psalms,  may  possibly  have  existed  as  early 
as  the  time  of  David.  The  book  of  Psalms  is, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  Pentateuch, 
divided  into  five  books,  each  of  which  closes 
with  a  doxology.  The  second  book  has  a  post- 
script, which  seems  to  have  been  the  conclu- 
sion of  an  old  particular  collection.  The  Sep- 
tuagint and  the  Vulgate,  which  follows  it,  dif- 
fer somewhat  from  the  Hebrew  in  number- 
ing the  psalms,  the  difference  beginning  with 
the  10th  and  extending  to  the  147th  ;  the  en- 
tiro  number  in  all  these  is  150. — The  contents 
of  the  book  of  Psalms  are  manifold.  With  re- 
gard to  their  object,  they  may  be  divided  into 
six  classes:  1,  hymns  to  God,  in  which  he  is 
praised  as  the  creator,  preserver,  and  governor 
of  the  world,  and  in  particular  as  the  protector 
of  his  chosen  people  ;  2,  national  psalms,  in 
which  the  people  are  reminded  of  the  ancient 
history  of  Israel  from  the  time  of  the  patriarchs, 
especially  of  the  history  of  Moses,  of  the  many 
favors  received  from  God,  of  the  occupation 
of  the  promised  land,  of  the  signal  assistance 
of  God,  and  of  the  gratitude  therefore  due  to 
him  ;  3,  the  king's  psalms,  in  which  the  theo- 
cratic king  is  praised  as  the  representative  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  assistance  of  the  Lord  is  in- 
voked for  him ;  4,  moral  hymns,  in  which  the 
fate  of  the  pious  and  the  wicked  is  described ; 
5,  the  psalms  of  lamentation,  in  which,  some- 
times by  individuals,  sometimes  by  the  entire 
people,  misery  and  calamity,  especially  op- 
pression experienced  from  foreign  or  domestic 
foes,  are  lamented,  with  a  prayer  to  God  for 
deliverance ;  a  subdivision  of  this  class  is  the 
penitential  psalms,  describing  the  Bufferings 


PSALMS 


PSYCHE 


59 


of  the  psalmist  as  deserved,  recognizing  the 
committed  sin,  and  praying  for  pardon ;  6, 
prophetic  psalms,  which  have  reference  to  a 
Messianic  future.  A  great  difference  of  opin- 
ion prevails  among  exegetical  writers  as  to  the 
number  of  psalms  belonging  to  this  last  class, 
and  theologians  of  the  rationalistic  school  have 
maintained  that  a  directly  predictive  character 
cannot  be  claimed  for  a  single  passage  in  the 
Psalms. — The  collection  of  psalms  seems  to  have 
come  at  once  into  public  use  at  divine  service 
both  as  prayers  and  hymns.  The  singers  who 
were  appointed  by  David  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  sang  psalms.  In  the  time  of  Heze- 
kiah,  psalms  of  David  and  Asaph  are  recorded 
as  having  been  sung  at  religious  solemnities 
(2  Chron.  xxix.  30),  and  songs  of  David  were 
also  sung  in  the  second  temple,  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  iii.  10).  In  the  Christian  church 
the  book  of  Psalms  had  likewise  from  the  be- 
ginning a  great  importance.  Christ  himself, 
after  the  celebration  of  the  last  supper,  sang 
psalms  with  his  disciples;  and  soon  afterward, 
when  on  the  cross,  he  used  the  words  of  a 
psalm.  Paul  and  Silas  praised  God  in  psalms 
in  the  dungeon  at  Philippi,  and  Paul  exhorts 
the  Ephesians  and  Philippians  to  praise  the 
Lord  with  psalms  and  spiritual  songs.  The 
early  Christians  used  the  psalms  both  in  public 
service  and  in  their  private  devotions,  and  the 
church  soon  made  them  a  prominent  part  of 
the  liturgical  books,  in  particular  of  the  brevi- 
ary. In  the  Protestant  churches  the  psalms 
have  always  been  extensively  used  for  congre- 
gational singing,  and  some  denominations,  as 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  church,  do  not  al- 
low in  divine  service  the  use  of  any  other  re- 
ligious hymns. — On  account  of  the  significance 
which  has  always  been  attached  to  the  book  of 
Psalms,  it  has  in  modern  times  called  forth  a 
larger  number  of  commentaries  than  any  other 
Biblical  book.  Le  Long,  in  his  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  (Paris,  1723),  enumerates  more  than  500 
commentaries,  exclusive  of  those  which  form 
parts  of  larger  works,  as  well  as  of  the  com- 
mentaries on  a  part  of  the  book  of  Psalms. 
Among  the  English  commentaries  the  work 
of  Bishop  Home  has  not  been  superseded  for 
popular  use,  though  its  critical  value  is  small. 
Of  more  critical  worth  are:  Phillips,  "The 
Psalms  in  Hebrew,  with  a  Critical,  Exegeti- 
cal, and  Philological  Commentary"  (2  vols., 
London,  1846);  and  Browne,  "The  Book  of 
Psalms,  a  new  Translation,  with  Introduction 
and  Notes  Explanatory  and  Critical"  (2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  London,  1870).  The  exegetical  litera- 
ture of  Germany  is  rich  in  excellent  commen- 
taries, of  which  the  best  known  are  those  by 
De  Wette,  Hitzig,  Hirzel,  Ewald,  Hengsten- 
berg,  Delitzsch  (new  ed.,  1867),  Hupfeld  (4 
vols.,  1855-'61;  new  ed.  by  Eiehm,  1867-'7l), 
and  Moll,  Der  Psalter  (in  Lange's  Bibelwerlc, 
1869-'70).  In  America  new  translations  have 
been  published  by  G.  R.  Noyes,  "  A  new 
Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  with  an 
Introduction"  (3d  ed.,  1867);  J.  A.  Alexander, 


"The  Psalms  Translated  and  Explained"  (3 
vols.,  1850);  and  T.  J.  Conaut,  "A  new  Ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms,  and  Philological  Notes  "  (in 
the  American  ed.  of  Lange's  Bilelwerk,  1872). 

PSALTERY  (Gr.  i(>afaj/piov),  a  stringed  musical 
instrument  in  use  among  the  ancient  Jews, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  identical  with  the 
nebel  mentioned  in  the  Psalms.  Burney  says 
it  resembled  partly  the  lyre  and  partly  the 
harp,  but  according  to  others  it  was  in  shape 
a  trapezium,  not  unlike  the  dulcimer.  (See 
DULCIMER.) 

PSAJOIEMTCS  (PsAMMETix  III.),  the  last  king 
of  Egypt  of  the  26th  dynasty,  succeeded  his 
father  Amasis  in  526  B.  C.  He  had  scarcely 
begun  his  reign  when  Egypt  was  invaded  by 
Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  who  defeated  him 
near  Pelusium,  shut  him  up  in  Memphis,  and 
soon  forced  him  to  surrender  (525).  He  was 
at  first  spared,  but,  being  suspected  of  treason- 
able designs,  was  condemned  to  put  an  end  to 
his  life. 

PSAMMETICHrS.     See  EGYPT,  vol.  vi.,  p.  463. 

PSKOV,  or  PleskOT.  I.  A  W.  government  of 
European  Russia,  bordering  on  St.  Petersburg, 
Novgorod,  Tver,  Smolensk,  Vitebsk,  and  Livo- 
nia; area,  inclusive  of  lakes,  17,067  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  775,701.  The  Valdai  hills  trav- 
erse the  S.  E.  part,  but  the  surface  is  gen- 
erally level.  There  are  several  lakes,  the 
most  important  of  which,  Lake  Pskov,  form- 
ing the  southern  part  of  Lake  Peipns,  comes 
within  the  limits  of  the  province  on  the  N.  W. 
frontier;  and  in  the  southeast  there  are  nu- 
merous marshes.  A  great  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  covered  with  forests  of  pine,  which 
yield  large  quantities  of  pitch.  The  principal 
crops  are  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  pulse.  Hemp 
and  flax  are  cultivated.  The  only  important 
manufacture  is  leather,  and  the  inhabitants 
excel  in  dressing  skins.  The  population  is 
chiefly  of  Russian  origin,  but  there  are  a  few 
of  other  races,  including  some  Mohamme- 
dans. II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  government, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Velikaya, 
about  5  m.  from  its  mouth  in  Lake  Pskov,  and 
on  the  St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw  railway, 
165  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  St.  Petersburg;  pop.  in  1867, 
12,981.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  5  m.  in  cir- 
cuit, and  the  Kremlin,  or  citadel,  stands  in  the 
centre.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop, 
whose  diocese  embraces  also  the  governments 
of  Livonia  and  Courland,  and  has  a  cathedral 
and  about  30  other  churches,  several  of  which 
are  in  a  ruinous  condition,  three  convents,  sev- 
eral schools,  and  some  charitable  institutions. 
There  are  many  tanneries,  and  a  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  in  lumber,  hemp  and  flax.  Pskov 
is  very  conspicuous  in  the  early  history  of 
Russia.  It  has  been  often  besieged;  in  1614 
Gustavus  Adolphus  was  obliged  to  retire  from 
before  its  walls. 

PSYCHE  (Gr.  Tjn>xh  breath,  or  the  soul),  a 
character  of  Greek  romance,  generally  accepted 
as  a  personification  of  the  human  soul.  A  cer- 
tain king,  says  Apuleius,  had  three  daughters, 


60 


PSYCHOLOGY 


PTAKMIGAN 


of  whom  the  youngest,  named  Psyche,  was  a 
marvel  of  beauty,  and  altars  were  consecrated 
to  her  that  properly  belonged  to  Venus.  The 
anger  of  that  goddess  was  excited,  and  she 
commanded  her  son  Cupid  to  inspire  Psyche 
with  a  passion  for  some  frightful  monster ;  but 
he  himself  fell  in  love  with  her,  and  bore  her 
away  to  a  delightful  place,  where  she  was  vis- 
ited every  night  by  the  young  god,  who  left 
her  at  dawn.  Her  sisters  persuaded  her  that 
he  who  came  to  her  every  night,  and  whom  she 
had  never  seen,  must  be  a  loathsome  creature, 
and  urged  her  to  destroy  him  while  he  slept ; 
but  when  she  brought  a  lamp  and  beheld  his 
beauty,  her  joy  deprived  her  of  the  power  of 
motion,  and  while  she  stood  a  drop  of  hot  oil 
falling  from  her  lamp  upon  his  shoulder  awoke 
him.  "With  a  few  words  of  reproach  he  fled. 
Psycho  now  endeavored  to  destroy  herself,  but 
nothing  in  nature  would  injure  her.  At  length 
she  came  to  the  temple  of  Venus,  who  made 
her  a  slave.  Cupid  finally  delivered  her,  and, 
being  now  sufficiently  purified  through  suffer- 
ing, she  was  united  to  her  beloved  by  Jupiter 
himself.  In  works  of  art  Psyche  is  represent- 
ed with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly. 

PSYCHOLOGY.     See  PHILOSOPHY. 

PT1H,  or  Phthfth,  one  of  the  principal  divini- 
ties of  ancient  Egypt.  lie  was  believed  to  be 
the  author  of  everything  visible,  the  father  of 
the  god  of  the  sun,  and  the  ruler  of  light  and 
fire.  His  seat  of  adoration  was  at  Memphis, 
and  his  temple,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Menes,  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
magnificent  in  Lower  Egypt.  At  Hermopolis 
Magna  were  worshipped  eight  children  of  Ptah, 
representing  the  elements,  and  the  immediate 
rulers  of  the  world.  Ptah's  symbol  was  the 
scardbceui  sacer,  which  insect  was  supposed 
to  multiply  without  bearing,  and  many  monu- 
ments depict  Ptah  with  this  animal  instead  of 
a  head  upon  the  shoulders.  lie  is  sometimes 
represented  in  the  diminutive  form  of  a  child 
or  a  dwarf,  presumably  as  suggestive  of  his 
being  the  god  of  the  beginning,  and  occasion- 
ally also  in  the  swaddlings  of  a  mummy,  which 
was  probably  intended  to  suggest  his  attribute 
of  immutability.  The  Greeks  compared  him 
to  their  god  Ilephaostus.  (See  VULCAN.) 

PTARMIGAN,  the  popular  name  of  the  galli- 
naceous birds  of  the  grouse  family  embraced 
in  the  genus  lagopus  (Briss.),  which  differ  from 
the  ordinary  grouse  in  having  the  legs  feath- 
ered to  the  claws,  giving  somewhat  the  appear- 
ance of  a  hare's  foot  (whence  the  generic  name, 
Gr.  Aayuf,  a  hare,  and  n-otif,  foot),  in  the  trun- 
cated tail  about  two  thirds  as  long  as  the  wings 
and  of  16  to  18  feathers,  in  most  of  the  species 
becoming  white  in  winter,  and  in  the  nasal 
groove  being  densely  clothed  with  feathers; 
the  family  characters  have  been  given  under 
GROUSE.  There  are  six  or  eight  species  de- 
scribed, inhabiting  the  northern  and  snow-cov- 
ered regions  of  both  hemispheres,  being  one 
of  the  few  genera  characteristic  of  the  arctic 
fauna ;  they  are  as  much  at  home  in  snow  as 


are  the  web-footed  birds  in  water,  and  their 
plumed  feet  enable  them  to  run  over  its  sur- 
face without  sinking.  They  live  in  families 
during  most  of  the  year,  and  are  monogamous ; 
the  females  incubate,  but  the  males  assist  in 
rearing  and  feeding  the  young ;  the  males  have 
a  loud  harsh  cry,  and  the  females  cackle  like  a 
hen.  They  are  rapid  fliers,  without  making  a 
whirring  noise,  and  swift  runners ;  they  feed 
upon  berries,  buds,  mosses  and  lichens,  and 
even  insects;  their  flesh  is  good,  and  their 
pursuit  affords  an  exciting  sport ;  they  are  very 
shy,  but  when  started  are  easily  shot  on  ac- 
count of  their  regular  flight.  The  summer 
plumage  is  varied  with  brown,  black,  and  gray, 
most  of  the  wing  remaining  white ;  in  the  males 
the  mottling  is  finer  and  the  colors  brighter. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  num- 
ber of  species,  from  the  rarity  of  specimens  in 
summer  plumage,  and  the  absence  of  accurate 
determination  of  sex. — There  are  three  well 
ascertained  species  in  America.  The  white 
ptarmigan  or  willow  grouse  (L.  allu»,  Aud.)  is 


Willow  Grouse  (Lagopus  albas). 

about  15|  in.  long  and  24^  in.  in  alar  extent; 
the  bill  is  black,  very  stout  and  convex,  and 
broad  at  tip;  the  general  plumage  in  summer 
is  rufous  or  orange  chestnut  on  the  head  and 
neck;  feathers  of  back  black,  closely  barred 
with  yellowish  brown  and  chestnut;  most  of 
wings  and  lower  parts  white;  tail  brownish 
black;  in  winter  white,  with  black  tail;  no 
black  stripes  through  the  eye.  It  occurs  in 
the  northern  parts  of  America,  and  is  common 
in  eastern  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  and  the 
Northwest  territories,  and  in  rare  instances  in 
the  northern  United  States ;  it  is  found  in  open 
rocky  grounds  and  among  dwarf  willows  and 
birches.  In  winter  they  scratch  in  the  snow 
down  to  the  mosses  and  lichens  on  which  they 
feed,  collecting  often  in  considerable  flocks. 
In  winter  the  flesh  is  dry,  but  is  tender  and  haa 
an  agreeable  aromatic  flavor  in  summer.  Thej" 
breed  in  Labrador  about  the  beginning  of  June, 
placing  the  nest  under  the  creeping  branches 
of  low  firs;  the  eggs  are  from  6  to  14,  of  a 
fawn  color  or  rufous  ground  with  irregular 


PTARMIGAN 


PTERODACTYL 


61 


spots  of  reddish  brown ;  only  one  brood  is  raised 
in  a  season.  The  rock  ptarmigan  (L.  rupea- 
tris,  Leach)  is  14£  in.  long;  the  bill  is  slender, 
rather  compressed  at  tip ;  in  summer  the  feath- 
ers of  the  back  are  black  banded  with  yellow- 
ish brown  and  tipped  with  white;  in  winter 
white,  with  the  tail  black  (the  four  middle 
feathers  white),  and  the  male  with  a  black  bar 
from  the  bill  through  the  eyes.  It  occurs  in 
arctic  America,  rarely  coming  further  south 
than  lat.  63°  K  in  the  interior,  but  to  58°  on 
Hudson  bay,  and  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  ac- 
cording to  Richardson,  to  55° ;  the  same  spe- 
cies is  said  to  occur  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere ;  the  eggs  are  pale  red- 
dish brown,  with  darker  spots,  and  are  If  by 
1£  in.  The  white-tailed  ptarmigan  (L.  leucu- 
rus,  Swains.)  has  a  slender  bill,  the  plumage  in 
summer  blackish  brown  barred  with  brownish 
yellow,  and  in  winter  entirely  white;  it  is  13 
in.  long  and  21  in  alar  extent;  it  is  found 
in  the  N.  W.  portions  of  America,  and  to  the 
south  along  the  Rocky  mountains  to  lat.  39°. 


.European  Ptarmigan  (Lagopus  mutus)— winter  plumage. 

—The  common  European  ptarmigan  (L.  mu- 
tus, Leach)  is  about  15  in.  long;  the  bill  is 
black,  short,  and  robust ;  the  summer  plumage 
is  ashy  brown  mottled  with  darker  spots  and 
barred  with  orange  yellow  and  dark  brown  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  back,  and  the  tail, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  middle  feathers, 
grayish  white  with  a  narrow  terminal  white 
band.  It  is  fond  of  lofty  and  northern  re- 
gions, going  as  far  as  Greenland  and  coming 
down  to  the  highlands  of  Scotland ;  when  pur- 
sued, like  the  other  species,  it  is  apt  to  dive 
under  the  soft  snow;  it  sometimes  does  this 
for  protection  from  the  cold,  and  in  damp 
weather  is  sometimes  imprisoned  and  destroyed 
under  the  frozen  surface  of  the  snow;  the 
ruffed  grouse  has  the  same  habit.  A  species 
much  resembling  this,  if  not  identical  with  it, 
occurs  in  America,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Baffin  bay,  and  has  been  described  by  Audu- 
bon  as  L.  Americanm. — The  Scotch  ptarmigan 
or  moorcock  (L.  Scoticus,  Steph.)  seems  pecu- 


liar to  Great  Britain,  and  is  abundant  in  the 
hilly  districts  of  Scotland ;  the  general  color  is 
chestnut  brown,  with  black  spots  on  the  back 
and  undulating  black  lines  below  ;  the  winter 
plumage  is  the  same.  It  is  highly  esteemed  as 
game ;  where  not  much  pursued  it  is  not  very 
shy,  but  its  plumage  is  so  like  the  surrounding 
dark  moss  and  heaths,  that  it  can  hardly  be 
discovered  without  the  aid  of  a  pointer ;  it 
feeds  upon  heath  tops  and  mountain  berries. 

PTEBICHTHYS.     See  GANOIDS. 

PTERODACTYL  (pterodactylus,  Cuv. ;  Gr. 
nripov,  wing,  and  d<krivlof,  finger),  a  genus  of 
fossil  flying  reptiles,  possessing  essentially  the 
characters  of  saurians,  with  some  only  appa- 
rent relations  to  bats  and  birds.  They  have  been 
divided  into  three  genera  according  to  the 
number  of  joints  in  the  wing-bearing  finger 
and  the  disposition  of  the  teeth ;  all  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  secondary  epoch,  being  found 
principally  in  the  lithographic  schists  of  So- 
lenhofen,  and  in  the  oolite,  lias,  wealden,  and 
chalk  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  In 
the  genus  pterodactylus  the  jaws  had  teeth 
even  to  the  extremity;  the  skull  was  elon- 
gated, with  the  intermaxillaries  large ;  nasal 
opening  wide  and  near  the  middle  of  the  muz- 
zle, partly  closed  in  front  by  a  small  bone  as 
in  the  monitors,  and  with  a  surrounding  circle 
of  small  bones  and  a  small  opening  into  the 
orbit  as  in  birds ;  the  lower  jaw,  as  in  croco- 
diles, had  n@  coronary  process,  and  was  articu- 
lated behind  the  eyes ;  the  teeth,  5  to  17  on 
each  side,  were  conical,  slightly  arched,  com- 
pressed, inserted  in  separate  cavities,  and  hol- 
lowed at  the  base ;  neck  of  7  stout  vertebrae  ; 
dorsals  13  to  15,  and,  with  the  ribs,  weak; 
lumbar  2  or  3,  sacral  6,  anchylosed  together, 
and  caudal  10  to  15;  the  shoulder  blade 
and  coracoid  bone  separate  and  weak  ;  scapu- 
lar arch  and  pelvis  as  in  lizards,  except  that 


Pterodactyl. 


the  last  seems  to  have  had  marsupial  bones, 
according  to  Pictet;  the  long  bones  hollow 
and  with  air  openings,  as  in  birds ;  humerus 


62 


PTERODACTYL 


PTOLEMY 


short  and  stont,  and  forearm  twice  as  long; 
bind  limbs  slender,  with  5  moderate  toes  of 
the  same  length ;  5  or  6  bones  in  the  wrist,  5 
metacarpals,  5  fingers,  with  respectively  1,  2, 
3,  4,  and  4  joints ;  the  first  4  short  and  with 
hooked  nails,  the  external  very  long,  eqnal  to 
the  neck  and  body,  and  nailless ;  the  gape  of 
mouth  very  large.  This  singular  animal  was 
referred  to  the  swimming  birds  by  Blumen- 
bach  and  to  the  bats  by  Sommering,  and  was 
determined  to  be  a  reptile  by  Ouvier.  The 
nearly  equal  and  conical  teeth,  very  small  cra- 
nial cavity,  different  number  of  joints  in  the 
fingers,  and  reptilian  shape  of  sternum  and 
scapula  show  that  it  was  not  a  bat-like  mam- 
mal ;  the  existence  of  teeth,  the  small  number 
of  the  vertebras  in  the  neck,  the  thinness  of 
the  ribs  and  tail  and  the  absence  of  recurrent 
processes  in  the  latter,  the  form  of  the  ster- 
num and  number  of  the  fingers,  prove  that 
it  was  not  a  bird.  These  characters  place  it 
among  reptiles,  but  it  had  also  a  modification 
of  the  anterior  extremities  in  the  form  of 
wings,  which  are  not  possessed  by  any  existing 
or  any  other  fossil  members  of  the  class,  the  so- 
called  wings  of  the  dragon  being  merely  mem- 
branous expansions  from  the  sides  of  the  body 
supported  by  the  ribs.  The  form  of  the  wings 
is  also  remarkable  and  unique ;  in  birds  the 
fingers  are  very  little  separated,  and  serve  as  a 
basis  for  the  plumes ;  in  bats  the  flying  mem- 
brane is  stretched  upon  the  four  elongated 
fingers,  the  thumb  remaining  rudimentary; 
but  in  the  pterodactyl  the  external  finger  alone 
is  greatly  developed  and  supports  the  flying 
membrane,  the  other  four  having  the  usual 
short  dimensions;  the  membrane  extended 
probably  from  the  long  finger  along  the  sides 
of  the  body  to  the  hind  limbs  and  beyond,  in- 
cluding the  tail.  About  20  species  are  de- 
scribed, varying  in  alar  extent  from  a  few 
inches  to  four  or  five  yards;  they  probably 
flew  and  crept  about  in  the  manner  of  bats ; 
the  form  of  the  teeth  and  strength  of  the 
jaws  indicate  a  carnivorous  animal,  but  of 
feeble  powers;  the  smaller  species  must  have 
been  insectivorous,  and  the  largest  may  have 
seized  fish  or  small  reptiles  of  their  own  or 
other  genera.  The  great  size  of  the  eye»  in- 
dicates nocturnal  habits;  the  posterior  limbs 
were  so  far  developed  that  they  could  doubt- 
less assume  an  erect  position  like  birds,  and 
perch  on  trees;  the  claws  of  the  fore  and 
hind  feet  would  also  enable  them  to  climb 
along  the  rocks ;  the  body  was  probably  scaly, 
as  in  lizards.  From  the  weakness  of  the  scap- 
ular arch  some  have  doubted  the  power  of 
active  flight  in  the  pterodactyl,  believing  that 
the  wing  membranes  could  only  support  it  in 
the  air  when  leaping,  in  a  little  more  perfect 
manner  than  in  the  dragons;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  sec- 
ondary geological  age  was  much  more  dense 
than  the  present,  requiring  proportionally  less 
muscular  force  for  aerial  locomotion.  The 
most  anciently  known  species  is  the  P.  longi- 


rostris  (Oken),  about  the  size  of  a  woodcock, 
with  a  length  of  10  in.  and  an  alar  extent  of 
21  in.;  the  teeth  were  4-f  on  each  side.  The 
P.  breviroatria  (Cuv.)  had  a  shorter  muzzle, 
the  head  resembling  more  that  of  a  goose  just 
hatched  than  of  a  reptile ;  the  teeth  were  very 
small,  £ ;  the  total  length  was  less  than  3  in., 
and  there  were  only  four  posterior  toes.  Other 
species  were  less  than  2  in.  long,  while  on  the 
contrary  the  P.  ornis  (Giebel)  of  the  wealden 
was  2  ft.  in  length ;  in  the  chalk  of  Maidstone, 
England,  Mr.  Bowerbank  detected  bones  of  a 
species  which  he  named  P.  giganteut,  6  to  7 
ft.  in  alar  extent;  the  P.  Cuvieri  (Bowerb.)  is 
believed  to  have  spread  16|  ft.  In  1871  Prof. 
Marsh  found  in  the  upper  cretaceous  rocks  of 
western  Kansas  a  species  with  an  expanse  of 
wing  of  20  ft.,  which  he  named  P.  Owenii. 
Since  1869  Prof.  Marsh  has  discovered  the  re- 
mains of  three  different  species  in  the  same 
regions. — The  genus  rhamphorhynchus  (II.  von 
Meyer)  or  ornithocephalus  (S6mm.)  was  sep- 
arated for  a  few  species  of  the  Jurassic  age, 
having  the  anterior  portion  of  the  jaws  with- 
out teeth,  and  probably  with  a  horny  beak ; 
the  scapula  and  coracoid  were  consolidated 
together,  and  the  tail  long  and  stiff,  with  about 
30  vertebra ;  there  were  four  joints  in  the 
wing  finger;  the  largest  species  was  about  18 
in.  long.  The  genus  omithopterus  (H.  VOE 
Meyer)  had  only  two  joints  in  the  wing  finger. 

PTEROPODS.     See  MOLLUSCA. 

PTOLEMAIS.     See  ACRE. 

PTOLEMY  (Gr.  IlroAe^aZof),  the  name  of  18 
Greek  kings  of  Egypt,  of  whom  the  first  three 
were  the  most  important,  and  are  treated  in 
separate  articles.  Ptolemy  IV.,  Philopator 
(222-205  B.  C.),  son  of  Ptolemy  III.,  was 
mainly  distinguished  for  cruelty  and  debauch- 
ery. The  reign  of  Ptolemy  V.,  Epiphanes,  his 
son  (205-181),  was  marked  by  the  rapid  de- 
cline of  the  Egyptian  monarchy.  His  son  Ptol- 
emy VI.,  Philometor  (181-146),  by  Cleopatra, 
daughter  of  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria,  was 
aided  in  his  wars  with  Syria,  where  he  was 
some  time  a  captive,  by  the  Romans.  Ptolemy 
VII.,  Physcon  (the  Fat,  his  usual  cognomen,  but 
called  by  himself  Euergetes  II.,  146-117),  bro- 
ther of  the  last,  with  whom  he  reigned  jointly 
for  a  time,  and  whose  son  he  murdered,  was 
driven  to  Cyprus  by  a  rebellion  of  the  Alex- 
andrians on  account  of  his  cruelty,  and  after- 
ward restored.  He  married  his  sister  Cleopatra 
II.,  and  afterward  his  niece  Cleopatra  III.,  and 
was  a  patron  of  letters  and  himself  an  author. 
Ptolemy  VIII.,  Lathyrus,  ruled  in  conjunction 
with  his  mother  Cleopatra  III.  at  intervals  from 
117  to  81,  and  married  his  sister  Cleopatra  IV. 
During  his  reign  Thebes,  having  revolted,  was 
destroyed.  Ptolemy  IX.  (Alexander  I.),  bro- 
ther of  the  last,  ruled  for  a  while  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  mother.  His  wife  was  his  sister 
Berenice  III.  Ptolemy  X.  (Alexander  II.), 
step-son  and  husband  of  Berenice  III.,  whom 
in  81  he  put  to  death,  was  himself  expelled 
and  slain  after  a  reign  of  19  days.  With  him 


PTOLEMY  I. 


PTOLEMY  II. 


63 


expired  the  legitimate  line  of  the  Ptolemies. 
Ptolemy  XL,  Nothus  or  the  Bastard,  also  called 
Auletes  or  the  Flute  Player  (80-51),  an  ille- 
gitimate son  of  Lathyrus,  was  one  of  the  worst 
of  the  Ptolemies,  and  his  reign  was  marked 
by  complications  with  the  Romans,  whom  he 
courted.  He  was  expelled  in  58,  and  restored 
in  55  by  A.  Gabinius,  proconsul  in  Syria,  for  a 
bribe  of  10,000  talents.  Ptolemy  XII.  (51-48), 
his  son,  ruled  in  conjunction  with  his  sister 
Cleopatra  VI.,  whom  he  expelled  in  49 ;  for 
this  the  Eomans  made  war,  and  he  was  lost  in 
attempting  to  escape.  Ptolemy  XIII.,  Puer, 
younger  brother  of  the  last,  married  his  sister, 
widow  of  Ptolemy  XII.,  and  was  poisoned  by 
her  in  43.  With  him  closes  the  line,  although 
some  reckon  CaBsarion,  the  son  of  Cleopatra 
by  Cajsar,  as  Ptolemy  XIV.  (See  CLEOPATRA.) 
PTOLEMY  I.,  surnamed  SOTEE,  son  of  Lagus, 
and  founder  of  the  GraBCO-Egyptian  dynasty, 
born  near  the  court  of  Philip  of  Macedon  in 
367  B.  C.,  died  in  Alexandria  in  283.  His 
mother  Arsinoe  had  been  a  concubine  of  Philip, 
and  many  therefore  supposed  him  to  be  his 
eon.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  campaigns. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander  in  323,  he  be- 
came governor  of  Egypt  during  the  nominal 
reigns  of  Philip  Arrhidseus  and  Alexander  IV., 
and  the  regency  of  Perdiccas.  One  of  his  first 
acts  was  to  put  to  death  Cleornenes,  who  as 
receiver  general  of  tributes  had  amassed  an 
enormous  fortune,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Per- 
diccas. In  322  he  annexed  the  city  and  province 
of  Cyrene.  To  oppose  Perdiccas,  he  leagued  in 
321  with  Antigonus,  Antipater,  and  Craterus. 
Perdiccas  invaded  Egypt,  but  Ptolemy  defeated 
him  and  prevented  him  from  crossing  the  Nile. 
Subsequently,  when  Perdiccas  was  murdered 
by  his  own  soldiers,  Ptolemy  sent  wine  and 
provisions  to  the  invading  army,  and  so  won 
them  that  they  offered  him  the  regency,  which 
he  declined.  In  320  he  seized  upon  Phoenicia 
and  Ccele-Syria,  and  it  was  probably  during 
this  expedition  that  he  took  possession  of  Jeru- 
salem without  opposition  by  attacking  it  on 
the  sabbath.  To  resist  Antigonus,  he  formed 
a  coalition  in  316  with  Seleucus,  Cassander, 
and  Lysimachus ;  and  after  a  struggle  of  four 
years,  during  which  he  lost  Phosnicia,  peace 
was  concluded  (311).  In  310  Ptolemy  renewed 
hostilities  under  the  pretext  that  Antigonus 
had  violated  the  treaty  by  keeping  his  garri- 
sons in  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  and  in  the  long  war  which 
followed  he  lost  Cyprus  by  his  defeat  in  the 
sea  fight  near  Salamis  in  306.  Antigonus  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king,  and  Ptolemy  followed 
his  example.  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus 
and  conqueror  of  Salamis,  now  invaded  Egypt, 
but,  baffled  at  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  turned  his 
arms  against  Khodes,  which  had  refused  to  join 
in  the  attack.  Ptolemy  eTnabled  it  to  hold  out 
by  furnishing  troops  and  provisions,  and  out  of 
gratitude  the  Rhodians  gave  him  the  title  of 
saviour  (Soter).  The  death  of  Antigonus  at 
689  VOL.  xiv.— 5 


the  battle  of  Ipsus  in  301  terminated  the  war, 
and  added  Syria  and  Palestine  to  Ptolemy's 
dominions ;  and  in  295  Cyprus  was  recovered. 
In  287  he  was  in  league  with  Seleucus  and 
Lysimachus  against  Demetrius,  but  the  rest  of 
his  reign  was  peaceful.  He  made  Memphis  his 
capital,  took  measures  to  promote  the  happi- 
ness of  his  Egyptian  subjects,  revived  their 
ancient  religious  and  political  constitution,  and 
restored  to  the  priestly  caste  some  of  its  for- 
mer privileges.  He  showed  equal  toleration 
to  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks,  and  great  numbers 
of  both,  among  them  scholars  of  the  greatest 
renown,  were  attracted  to  Alexandria.  He 
laid  the  foundation  of  literary  institutions,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  were  a  library  and 
a  museum,  a  kind  of  university  whose  profes- 
sors and  teachers  were  supported  at  the  public 
expense.  Ptolemy  wrote  a  history  of  the  wars 
of  Alexander.  He  wished  his  youngest  son 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the  offspring  of  his  fa- 
vorite wife  Berenice,  to  succeed  him,  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  elder  son  by  his  former  wife 
Eurydice,  and  effected  his  purpose  by  abdica- 
ting in  his  favor  in  285,  continuing  however 
to  exercise  sovereignty  until  his  death. 

PTOLEMY  II.,  surnamed  PHILADELPHUS,  king 
of  Egypt,  youngest  son  of  the  preceding  by 
Berenice,  born  in  the  island  of  Cos  in  309  B.  0., 
died  in  Alexandria  in  247.  He  was  carefully 
educated,  and  was  thoroughly  imbued  with  his 
father's  policy.  He  cleared  Upper  Egypt  of 
robbers,  penetrated  Ethiopia,  establishing  traf- 
fic with  the  tribes,  and  opened  southern  Africa 
to  the  Alexandrian  merchants.  To  command 
the  Red  sea,  he  founded  Arsinoe  (near  Suez), 
and  connected  it  with  Alexandria  by  restoring 
and  completing  the  canal  begun  by  Necho. 
He  constructed  the  ports  of  Myos-Hormos  and 
Berenice,  and  connected  the  latter  .with  Coptos 
on  the  Nile  by  a  road  258  m.  long  across  the 
desert.  The  museum  founded  by  his  father 
was  improved  by  the  addition  of  botanical  and 
zoological  gardens,  works  of  art  were  collected 
from  Greece,  and  large  additions  were  made 
to  the  library.  (See  ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY.) 
He  spent  vast  sums  on  public  works,  built  the 
celebrated  lighthouse  on  the  island  of  Pharos, 
and  erected  a  magnificent  royal  mausoleum, 
to  which  he  removed  the  remains  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great  from  Memphis.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished poets,  philosophers,  mathematicians, 
and  astronomers  resided  at  his  capital.  For 
the  use  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  the  Septua- 
gint  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is  said 
to  have  been  made  by  his  command.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  the  revolt  of  his  half 
brother  Magas,  viceroy  of  Cyrene,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  his  independence ;  and 
by  a  contest  with  Syria  for  the  possession  of 
Phoenicia  and  Coele-Syria,  which  was  kept  up 
at  intervals  till  near  the  close  of  his  life,  when 
these  provinces  at  last  remained  in  his  posses- 
sion. He  took  part  several  times  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece,  maintaining  an  unfriendly  attitude 
toward  Macedon,  and  established  relations  of 


PTOLEMT  III. 


PUBERTY 


amity  with  the  rising  republic  of  Rome.  He 
founded  a  gymnasium  at  Athens,  and  planted 
numerous  colonies  in  various  parts  of  his  for- 
eign dominions,  which  comprised  Phoenicia, 
Ccele-Syria,  Palestine,  Cyprus,  the  Cyclades, 
and  portions  of  southern  Asia  Minor,  Ethio- 
pia, Arabia,  and  Libya.  The  effeminacy  of  his 
court  increasing  with  the  wealth  of  the  coun- 
try, he  came  at  length  to  lead  the  indolent  life 
of  a  refined  voluptuary.  Repudiating  his  first 
wife,  Arsinoe,  daughter  of  Lysimachus,  he  mar- 
ried his  own  sister  Arsinoe,  widow  of  Lysima- 
chus, which  the  Egyptian  law  allowed,  but  she 
brought  him  no  children.  Another  stain  on 
his  memory  is  the  execution  of  two  of  his 
brothers,  for  which  his  surname,  which  he  him- 
self had  assumed  to  signalize  his  attachment 
to  his  sister,  became  a  subject  of  derision. 

PTOLEMY  III.,  surnamed  EUERGETES,  eldest 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  by  Arsinoe, 
daughter  of  Lysimachus,  died  in  222  B.  C.  On 
coming  to  the  throne  ho  found  in  the  public 
treasury  an  immense  amount  of  money,  and  at 
his  command  a  vast  army  and  navy.  His  war- 
like ardor  was  roused  by  the  ill  treatment  and 
subsequent  murder  of  his  sister  Berenice,  wife 
of  Antiochus  Theos,  king  of  Syria.  With  a 
largo  army  he  ravaged  Syria  and  its  eastern 
provinces,  advancing  as  far  as  Susa,  and,  with- 
out establishing  his  authority  in  any  now  pos- 
sessions, brought  back  immense  booty  in  gold 
and  silver,  and  the  Egyptian  idols  which  Cam- 
byses  had  carried  off  to  Persia.  For  this  the 
Egyptians  called  him  Euergetes  (benefactor). 
In  right  of  his  wife  Berenice,  daughter  of  Magas, 
Gyrene  was  united  to  his  dominions,  and  he 
made  large  acquisitions  of  territory  in  Arabia 
and  Abyssinia.  lie  inherited  the  religious  lib- 
erality and  love  of  learning  of  his  progenitors, 
and  was  like  them  a  proficient  in  letters. 

PTOLEMY,  Claudius  a  Hellene-Egyptian  math- 
ematician, astronomer,  and  geographer,  said 
to  have  been  born  in  Pelusium,  flourished  at 
Alexandria  in  the  2d  century  A.  D.  Scarcely 
any  particulars  of  his  life  are  known.  His 
MfydX^  2(jvrai;if  TIK  'Aorpovo/w'af,  or  "  Great 
Astronomical  Construction,"  contains  nearly 
all  that  is  known  of  the  astronomical  observa- 
tions and  theories  of  the  ancients,  and  is  gen- 
erally cited  under  the  Latin  titles  Syntaxu 
Jfathematica  and  Conttruetio  Mathematica. 
The  most  important  port  of  this  work  is  a  cat- 
alogue of  stars,  deduced  from  that  constructed 
by  Hipparchus.  (See  PRECESSION.)  The  Syn- 
taxis  treats  of  the  relations  of  the  earth  and 
heavens ;  the  effect  of  position  upon  the 
earth ;  the  theory  of  the  sun  and  moon,  with- 
out which  that  of  the  stars  cannot  be  under- 
taken ;  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars ;  and  the 
determination  of  the  planetary  orbits.  He 
places  the  earth  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
and  the  Ptolemaic  system,  based  on  the  theo- 
ries of  Hipparchus,  was  universally  received 
till  the  time  of  Copernicus.  During  all  that 
interval  the  history  of  astronomy  presents 
scarcely  anything  more  than  comments  on 


Ptolemy's  writings.  But  for  the  Arabians  the 
Syntaxis  would  probably  hove  perished.  It 
was  translated  by  them  in  the  reign  of  the 
caliph  Al-Mamoun,  son  of  Haroun  al-Rashid 
(about  827),  and  handed  down  under  the  title 
of  Almagest.  Translations  from  the  Arabic 
were  made  into  Latin,  but  the  Greek  text  was 
subsequently  also  discovered  in  Byzantine  man- 
uscripts. Ptolemy  left  a  copious  account  of 
the  manner  in  which  Ilipparchus  established 
his  theories,  and  in  most  of  the  branches  of 
the  subject  gave  additional  exactness  to  what 
that  astronomer  had  done.  He  computed, 
notwithstanding  the  fundamental  errors  and 
the  inaccuracies  of  his  system,  the  eclipses  of 
the  next  six  centuries ;  determined  the  plane- 
tary orbits;  and  is  commonly  said  to  have 
discovered  the  moon's  second  inequality  or 
evection,  though  it  is  probable  that  Ilippar- 
chus really  detected  this  inequality.  Three 
observations  cited  by  Ptolemy  in  support  of 
his  theory  were  borrowed  from  Ilipparchus, 
and  the  nature  of  one  of  them  suggests  that 
they  were  taken  from  a  great  mass  of  obser- 
vations, though  Ptolemy  himself  says  nothing 
to  that  effect.  The  astronomer  who  took  a 
predecessor's  star  catalogue,  and  adding  a  con- 
stant correction  to  each  star  published  it  as 
the  result  of  his  own  observations,  would  have 
left  unnoticed  all  lunar  observations  by  Hip- 
parchus not  absolutely  necessary  to  establish 
his  own  theory.  As  a  geometer  Ptolemy  has 
been  ranked  as  certainly  the  fourth  among  the 
ancients,  after  Euclid,  Apollonius,  and  Archi- 
medes. He  caused  light  to  pass  through  media 
of  unequal  density,  and  thus  discovered  re- 
fraction, and  he  is  said  to  have  first  recognized 
the  alteration  of  the  apparent  position  of  a 
heavenly  body  which  is  due  to  this  cause  ;  but 
here  again  it  is  probable  that  Hipparchus 
anticipated  him.  Ptolemy  wrote  a  universal 
geography,  which  continued  to  be  the  standard 
text  book  till  the  16th  century.  He  was  the 
first  to  use  the  terms  latitude  and  longitude, 
by  which  he  laid  down  the  position  of  each 
country  and  town.  He  proved  the  earth  to 
be  a  globe,  and  calculated  its  inhabited  parts 
to  extend  from  the  meridian  of  Thin»,  Ion. 
119°  30'  E.  of  Alexandria,  to  the  meridian  of 
the  Islands  of  the  Blessed,  60°  80'  W. ;  and 
from  the  parallel  of  Meroe,  about  lat.  16°  80' 
N.,  to  that  of  Thule  (Iceland  or  the  Shetland 
islands),  63°  N.  The  maps  of  this  geography 
have  been  preserved  with  it.  After  him  no 
one  attempted  for  many  centuries  to  reform 
geography  except  in  the  improvement  of  de- 
tails. He  was  distinguished  also  as  a  musician, 
and  wrote  treatises  on  music,  mechanics,  chro- 
nology, and  astrology;  but  probably  most  of 
these  works  were  mere  compilations.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Almagest  is  by  Halma 
(Greek  text  with  French  translation,  2  vols. 
4to,  Paris,  1813-'16). 

PUBERTY,  the  period  of  youth  characterized 
by  the  acquirement  of  functional  power  in  the 
reproductive  apparatus  of  the  sexes;  its  ac- 


PUBLICOLA 


PtfCKLER-MUSKAU 


65 


tivity,  however,  cannot  be  called  into  exercise 
until  the  growth  of  the  individual  is  comple- 
ted, on  penalty  of  premature  and  permanent 
exhaustion  of  the  vital  powers,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  any  latent  disposition  to  disease. 
That  puberty  is  not  the  period  of  completed 
growth  is  shown  by  the  increase  in  stature 
after  its  attainment,  the  subsequent  complete 
ossification  and  consolidation  of  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  spinous  and  transverse  processes 
of  the  vertebras,  and  the  consolidation  of  the 
pelvic,  sacral,  and  coccygeal  vertebra,  sternal 
pieces,  and  epiphyses  of  the  ribs,  scapula,  clav- 
icle, and  bones  of  the  extremities.  In  the  hu- 
man male  puberty  is  established  between  the 
14th  and  16th  years;  besides  the  increased 
sexual  and  muscular  development,  the  beard 
makes  its  appearance,  the  larynx  enlarges,  giv- 
ing a  lower,  harsher,  and  stronger  tone  to  the 
voice,  and  the  thoughts,  desires,  and  actions 
have  a  more  manly  character.  In  the  female 
this  period  is  arrived  at  between  the  13th  and 
16th  years  in  temperate  climates,  and  some- 
what earlier  in  the  tropics  and  in  the  midst  of 
the  luxury  and  excitements  of  city  life ;  there 
is  a  similar  development  in  the  reproductive 
system,  usually  coincident  with  the  appearance 
of  the  catamenia  and  mammary  enlargement, 
and  a  deposition  of  fat  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body.  In  the  male  there  is  at  this  time 
no  special  tendency  to  disease,  nor  in  the 
healthy  female ;  but,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
defective  physical  training  of  most  female 
youth,  disorders  of  the  menstrual  function  are 
very  apt  to  occur,  with  numerous  functional, 
nervous,  and  even  organic  complications ;  in 
persons  of  naturally  weak  constitutions,  of 
both  sexes,  and  in  those  enfeebled  by  prema- 
ture exercise  of  the  mental,  physical,  or  gen- 
erative powers,  the  tuberculous  diathesis  is 
frequently  developed  soon  after  puberty. 

PUBLICOLA,  Pnblins  Valerius,  a  Roman  law- 
giver of  the  semi-historical  period  of  the  foun- 
dation of  the  republic.  He  is  said  to  have^ 
been  present  when  Lucretia  stabbed  herself, 
and  to  have  borne  a  prominent  part  in  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Tarquins.  After  the  compul- 
sory resignation  of  Collatinus  he  was  elected 
consul  in  his  place  (about  509  B.  C.).  In  the 
war  between  the  Tarquins  and  Veientes  and 
the  Romans,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  for- 
mer. Returning  to  Rome,  he  began  building 
a  house  on  the  Velian  hill  overlooking  the 
forum,  which  excited  a  popular  fear  that  he 
was  seeking  to  raise  himself  to  royal  power. 
Valerius  therefore  ordered  the  building  to  be 
demolished,  and  his  lictors  when  they  appear- 
ed before  the  people  to  lower  their  fasces ; 
whence  he  received  the  surname  of  Publicola 
or  Poplicola,  "  the  peopled  friend."  He  now 
brought  forward  laws  for  the  establishment  of 
the  republic,  one  of  which  declared  that  who- 
ever attempted  to  make  himself  king  might 
be  killed  by  any  one ;  another,  that  plebeians 
condemned  by  a  magistrate  might  appeal  to 
the  people.  He  was  afterward  thrice  elected 


consul ;  and  the  expedition  of  Porsena  is  placed 
during  his  time  of  office.  With  T.  Lucretius 
Tricipitinus,  his  colleague,  he  routed  the  Sa- 
bines  and  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph. 

PUBLIUS  SYRUS,  a  Latin  comic  poet,  who 
flourished  at  Rome  at  the  time  of  Caesar's 
death  (44  B.  C.).  He  was  a  native  of  Syria, 
and  was  brought  to  Rome  as  a  slave ;  but  his 
master  had'  him  instructed  and  gave  him  his 
freedom.  He  improved  the  mimic  art,  and  it 
is  said  by  St.  Jerome  that  a  collection  of  moral 
sentences  from  the  farces  of  Publius  was  a 
school  book  at  Rome.  A  collection  of  this 
kind,  comprising  upward  of  1,000  lines,  each 
forming  an  apophthegm,  extant  under  the  title 
of  Publii  Syri  Sententice,  is  in  reality  a  com- 
pilation from  various  sources. 

PCCCOON,  an  aboriginal  name  applied  to  sev- 
eral plants  with  a  yellow  or  reddish  juice,  but 
quite  unlike  in  other  properties.  In  the  south, 
the  bloodroot  (sanguinaria  Canadensis)  is  called 
puccoon.  (See  BLOODKOOT.)  In  some  parts  of 
the  west  the  name  is  applied  to  two  species  of 
lithospermum,  of  the  borage  family,  both  yield- 
ing a  red  dye ;  L.  hirtum  being  the  hairy,  and 
L.  canescens  the  hoary  puccoon.  The  name  is 
perhaps  more  generally  used  to  designate  Jiy- 
drastis  Canadensis  than  either  of  the  foregoing, 
which  is  called,  besides  yellow  puccoon,  golden- 
seal,  yellow-root,  orange-root,  Indian  paint,  &c. 
The  genus  Jiydrastis  (Gr.  vfiup,  water,  and  Spav, 
to  act)  belongs  to  the  crowfoot  family,  or  ra- 
nunculacece.  It  has  a  thick,  knotted,  yellow 
rootstock,  from  which  rise  a  single  radical  leaf 
and  a  low,  simple,  hairy  stem,  bearing  two 
leaves  near  the  summit,  and  terminated  by  a  sin- 
gle apetalous  greenish  white  flower ;  the  three 
petal-like  sepals  fall  away  when  the  flower 
opens,  leaving  the  numerous  stamens,  and  the 
cluster  of  12  or  more  pistils,  which  in  fruit 
become  berry-like,  and,  being  bright  crimson, 
the  cluster  has  the  appearance  of  a  raspberry. 
There  is  but  one  species,  which  is  found  from 
New  York  westward  and  southward,  and  is 
nowhere  very  common.  It  was  used  by  the 
aborigines  as  a  stimulant  application  to  ulcers, 
and  also  as  a  dye ;  it  is  among  the  many  re- 
puted cancer  cures.  It  is  a  tonic,  and  is  re- 
garded by  some  as  having  especial  action  on 
the  liver  and  kidneys.  In  the  western  states 
it  is  used  as  an  antiperiodic,  as  a  substitute  for 
quinine ;  the  dose  in  powder  is  30  to  60  grains. 
The  so-called  hydrastin  of  the  eclectics,  preci- 
pitated from  a  concentrated  infusion  by  mu- 
riatic acid,  is  used  in  doses  of  three  to  five 
grains ;  it  consists  mostly  of  berberine. 

PfCKLER-MFSKAU,  Hermann  Ludwig  Hdnrich 
von,  prince,  a  German  author,  born  at  Muskau, 
Lusatia,  Oct.  30,  1785,  died  at  Branitz,  near 
Kottbus,  Feb.  4,  1871.  He  studied  in  Leipsic, 
served  in  various  armies,  and  was  made  prince 
by  the  king  of  Prussia  in  1822.  He  laid  out 
magnificent  parks  at  Muskau  and  Branitz,  but 
in  1845  sold  the  former  domain.  His  pri- 
vate life  was  marked  by  eccentric  habits. 
Among  his  principal  works,  which  chiefly  de- 


66 


PUDDLING 


PUEBLO  INDIANS 


scribe  his  extensive  travels  in  Europe  and  the 
East,  and  are  remarkable  for  racy  delineations 
both  of  aristocratic  and  semi-civilized  life,  are : 
Briefe  eines  Verstorbenen  (4  vols.,  1830-'31 ; 
English  translation  by  Mrs.  Sarah  Austin,  "  The 
Travels  of  a  German  Prince  in  England,"  3 
vols.,  1832);  Andeutungen  uber  Landtchafts- 
gdrtnerei  (1834);  Tutti  Frutti  (5  vols.,  1834; 
English  translation  by  Edmund  Spencer,  1834) ; 
Semilasso's  torletzter  Weltgang  (3  vols.,  1835) ; 
Semilasso  in  Afrika  (5  vols.,  1836);  Sudo*t- 
licher  Bildersaal  (3  vols.,  1840);  Atu  Mehemet 
Alfs  Reich  (8  vols.,  1844);  and  Die  Ruckkehr 
(3  vols.,  1846-'8  ;  English  translation,  "  Mehe- 
met AH  and  Egypt,"  3  vols.,  1848).  Ludmilla 
Assing  has  published  Farst  Puckler  Mmkau, 
tein  Leben  tind  Nachlass  (4  vols.,  1873-'4). 

IM  DDLl.VU.  See  IBOX  MANUFACTURE,  vol.  ix., 
p.  399. 

Pl'EBLA.  I.  A  S.  E.  state  of  the  republic  of 
Mexico,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Vera  Cruz,  S. 
by  Oajaca,  S.  W.  by  Guerrero,  and  W.  by  Mex- 
ico, Tlascala,  and  Hidalgo ;  area,  9,598  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  697,788.  It  is  intersected  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E.  by  the  Cordillera  of  Aniihuac, 
from  which  flow  many  small  streams,  but  there 
are  no  large  rivers.  The  drainage  belongs 
partly  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  partly  to  the 
Pacific.  The  general  elevation  of  the  surface 
is  about  6,000  ft.,  and  a  large  part  of  the  soil  is 
fertile.  The  most  valuable  mineral  produc- 
tions are  silver,  marble,  and  alabaster.  Abun- 
dant crops  of  grain,  fruit,  sugar,  and  cotton 
are  produced ;  and  iron,  steel,  glass,  soap,  and 
earthenware  are  manufactured.  Many  re- 
markable remains  of  ancient  Mexican  civiliza- 
tion are  found  in  this  state.  II.  A  city  (Lx 
PITEBLA  DE  LOS  ANGELES),  capital  of  the  state, 
7,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  in  lat.  19°  5'  N.,  Ion. 
98°  W.,  76  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Mexico ;  pop.  in  1869, 
75,500.  The  streets  are  laid  out  generally  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  and  are  broad  and 
well  paved.  There  are  many  fine  squares; 
fronting  the  Plaza  Mayor  are  the  cathedral, 
the  governor's  palace,  and  the  exchange.  Pue- 
bla  is  the  sacred  city  of  Mexico,  and  contains 
more  than  60  churches,  13  nunneries,  9  monas- 
teries, 21  collegiate  houses  or  higher  theo- 
logical schools,  and  many  academies,  charity 
schools,  hospitals,  and  other  benevolent  insti- 
tutions. Many  of  the  churches  and  convents 
are  rich  in  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  paint- 
ings, and  statues,  but  some  of  them  were  in- 
jured by  the  French  during  the  siege  in  1868. 
The  city  is  well  supplied  with  water  by  a  small 
stream  on  its  E.  side.  The  country  around  it 
is  very  fertile,  it  being  easily  irrigated  by 
streams  from  the  mountains.  The  climate  is 
particularly  mild  and  agreeable.  Within  sight 
of  the  city  are  the  volcanic  peaks  of  Popocate- 
petl, distant  about  25  m.  W.  by  S. ;  IztaccihuatL, 
80  m.  W.  N.  W. ;  Malinche,  20  m.  N.  E. ;  and 
Orizaba,  60  m.  E.  Puebla  is  connected  with 
the  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  by  a 
branch  road  to  Apizaco,  29  m.  long,  and  a  road 
is  now  building  (1875)  to  connect  it  directly 


with  Vera  Cruz. — Puebla  was  founded  after 
the  reduction  of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
built  it  six  miles  from  Cholula,  the  sacred  city 
of  the  Mexicans.  It  is  noted  for  its  protracted 
defence  against  the  French  under  Gen.  Forey 
in  1863,  when  it  withstood  a  siege  of  two 
months.  It  was  surrendered  by  Gen.  Ortega 
on  May  17,  after  the  destruction  of  many  of 
its  buildings  by  bombardment,  and  the  French 
made  a  triumphal  entry  on  the  19th. 

PIEBLO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Colorado,  inter- 
sected by  the  Arkansas  river;  area,  about 
2,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,265.  The  tribu- 
taries of  the  Arkansas  form  fertile  valleys, 
with  intervening  mesas  or  table  lands,  which 
afford  excellent  pasturage.  The  greater  por- 
tion of  the  county  is  easily  irrigated.  The 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railroad  traverses  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  24,451 
bushels  of  wheat,  99,390  of  Indian  corn,  89,- 
822  of  oats,  8,353  of  peas  and  beans,  6,000 
Ibs.  of  wool,  14,963  of  butter,  and  1,366  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  555  horses,  4,269  milch 
cows,  6,162  other  cattle,  2,166  sheep,  and 
2,066  swine.  Capital,  Pueblo. 

Pl'EBLO  1M)IA\S  a  general  name  applied 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  subsequently  by  Ameri- 
cans, to  several  tribes  of  semi-civilized  Indians 
found  by  the  former  early  in  the  16th  centU' 
ry  in  what  is  now  New  Mexico,  who  lived  in 
permanent  villages  (pueblos).  Alvar  Nunez 
(Cabeca  do  Vaca)  passed  through  their  country 
between  1529  and  1538  ;  Friar  Marco  de  Niza 
visited  it  in  1539,  and  Coronado  in  1540.  They 
were  finally  subdued  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
occupied  the  country  in  1586.  They  were 
then  as  advanced  as  they  now  are,  raising  grain, 
vegetables,  and  cotton,  which  they  spun  and 
wove,  and  manufacturing  pottery.  Their  houses 
are  sometimes  built  of  stone,  laid  in  mortar 
made  of  mud,  but  more  generally  of  sun-dried 
brick  or  adobe.  These  buildings  are  generally 
large,  of  several  stories,  and  contain  many 
families.  In  some  of  the  pueblos  the  whole 
'community,  amounting  to  from  800  to  700 
souls,  are  domiciled  in  one  of  these  huge  struc- 
tures. The  houses  are  sometimes  in  the  form 
of  a  hollow  square ;  at  other  times  they  are  on 
the  brow  of  a  high  bluff  or  mountain  terrace, 
difficult  of  approach.  The  first  or  lower  story 
is  invariably  without  openings,  entrance  to  the 
house  being  effected  by  ladders.  Each  upper 
story  recedes  a  few  feet  from  that ,  below  it, 
leaving  a  terrace  or  walk  around  or  along  the 
whole  extent  of  the  structure,  from  which  lad- 
ders lead  to  those  above.  The  upper  stories 
have  doors  and  windows,  but  no  stairways. 
In  most  instances  a  single  family  occupies  one 
apartment,  and  as  its  number  increases  anoth- 
er apartment  is  added  when  there  is  sufficient 
space,  or  it  is  built  above  and  reached  by  a 
ladder.  This  mode  was  practised  by  these  In- 
dians three  centuries  ago.  In  every  village 
there  is  at  least  one  room  large  enough  to  con- 
tain several  hundred  persons,  in  winch  they 
hold  their  councils  and  have  their  dances. 


PUERPERAL  CONVULSIONS 


67 


These  Indians  constituted  several  distinct  tribes 
with  different  languages.  Some  of  them  are 
now  extinct;  those  still  existing  are:  1,  the 
Zunis,  inhabiting  Zufii ;  2,  the  Toltos,  inhabit- 
ing Taos,  with  whom  some  unite  the  Picuries 
and  the  people  of  Sandia  and  Isleta;  3,  the 
Teguas  in  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  Nambe,  San 
Hdefonso,  Poiuaque,  and  Tesuque ;  4,  the 
Queres  in  Cochiti,  San  Domingo,  San  Felipe, 
Santa  Afla,  Zia,  Laguna,  and  Acoma;  and  5, 
the  Jemes,  occupying  a  town  of  the  same  name. 
The  population  of  these  19  pueblos,  and  some 
now  abandoned,  toward  the  close  of  the  last 
century  was  given  at  10,000  or  11, 000.  Under 
the  Spanish  government  schools  were  main- 
tained and  religious  instruction  given  by  Fran- 
ciscan and  other  Catholic  missionaries,  who 
began  their  labors  before  1600,  and  still  con- 
tinue them.  They  were  protected  from  hostile 
tribes  and  oppression,  and  supplied  with  cattle 
and  sheep ;  but  under  Mexican  rule  they  were 
deprived  of  this  support,  and  have  declined  till 
they  now  number  only  about  7,000.  They  were 
recognized  as  citizens  under  Mexican  rule,  but 
since  New  Mexico  became  a  part  of  the  United 
States  the  matter  has  been  left  in  doubt.  In 
1857  Chief  Justice  Slough  decided  that  the 
Pueblo  Indians  were  under  the  treaty  citizens 
of  the  United  States.  An  act  of  congress 
passed  Dec.  22,  1858,  had  confirmed  old  Span- 
ish grants  to  the  Pueblos.  Their  status  as 
tribes  has  not,  however,  been  recognized  by 
any  treaties;  and  though  Judicially  declared 
to  be  citizens,  the  laws  of  New  Mexico  deprive 
them  of  the  suffrage.  They  retain  their  own 
government,  each  village  having  an  elected  gov- 
ernor, and  a  court  consisting  of  three  old  men  ; 
but  executions  for  witchcraft  have  led  to  in- 
terference by  the  territorial  authorities.  A 
Baptist  mission  established  a  few  years  ago  at 
Laguna  led  to  dissensions  and  punishments 
there,  which  again  called  for  interference. 
Under  the  division  of  tribes  among  the  differ- 
ent denominations,  the  Pueblos,  though  Cath- 
olics, were  assigned  to  the  Christians,  and,  on 
their  non-action,  to  the  Presbyterians.  This 
led  to  a  protest  from  the  governors  of  15 
pueblos  at  Santa  Fe,  Aug.  16,  1872,  and  to  an 
appeal  to  the  government  made  through  the 
Catholic  commissioner  in  1874.  Under  the 
new  agency  eight  schools  are  supported,  which 
number  298  pupils.  The  total  wealth  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians  in  1873  was  given  at  $535,750. 
PUERPERAL  CONVULSIONS,  or  Pnerperal  Eclam- 
psia (Lat.  puer,  child,  and  par  ere,  to  bring 
forth),  a  dangerous  disease  occurring  during 
the  puerperal  or  lying-in  period  of  women, 
either  before,  during,  or  after  delivery.  It  has 
been  the  source  of  much  discussion  and  dis- 
agreement, and  although  recent  advances  in 
physiological  chemistry  have  shed  much  light 
on  the  causes  of  the  disease,  many  points  re- 
main in  dispute.  It  has  been  asserted  by  Dr. 
Karl  Braun  of  Vienna  that  it  is  commonly  the 
result  of  ursemic  poisoning,  and  is  produced 
mostly  by  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  the  blood, 


arising  from  decomposition  of  urea ;  but  al- 
though it  is  conceded  that  uraemic  poison- 
ing is  a  frequent  cause  of  puerperal  convul- 
sions, the  ammonia  theory,  which  originated 
with  Dr.  Frerichs  of  Berlin,  is  not  general- 
ly accepted,  and  many  believe  that  a  variety 
of  causes  other  than  urea  in  the  blood  are 
competent  to  produce  convulsions  by  acting 
upon  the  highly  developed  nervous  system  of 
the  puerperal  woman.  Even  when  the  at- 
tacks are  connected  with  organic  or  functional 
disease  of  the  kidneys,  and  when  the  urine  is 
albuminous,  the  presence  of  urea  in  the  blood 
is  not  always  made  out ;  and  in  many  marked 
cases  of  albuminuria  during  pregnancy  convul- 
sions do  not  occur.  Constipation,  retention  of 
urine,  extreme  pain,  and  great  mental  distress 
may,  it  is  contended,  bring  on  in  the  puerperal 
state  convulsions  precisely  similar  in  character 
to  those  produced  by  ura;mia.  According  to 
Braun  and  Wieger,  more  than  half  of  all  the 
cases  occur  during  labor,  but  others  consider 
the  relative  frequency  during  the  three  epochs 
to  be  in  the  order,  pregnancy,  labor,  delivery. 
It  is  more  likely  to  occur  in  first  than  in  suc- 
ceeding labors.  The  frequency  of  the  dis- 
ease, as  indicated  by  statistics,  is  about  one 
case  in  350  labors.  There  are  usually,  but  not 
always,  premonitory  symptoms.  One  of  the 
most  important  and  common  of  these  is  oede- 
ma or  dropsy,  especially  of  the  ankles  and 
feet,  which  is  usually  developed  some  weeks 
before  the  appearance  of  the  first  fit.  "When 
this  symptom  is  present,  an  examination  of  the 
urine  is  almost  sure  to  reveal  by  the  ordinary 
tests  of  heat  and  nitric  acid  the  presence  of  a 
large  quantity  of  albumen  ;  and  there  may  gen- 
erally be  found,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope, 
several  tube  casts,  sometimes  accompanied  with 
blood  corpuscles,  or  there  may  be  evidence 
of  a  more  advanced  stage  of  Bright's  disease. 
Pregnancy  disposes  toward  this  condition  by 
reason  of  obstruction  to  the  circulation  from 
pressure  of  the  gravid  uterus.  There  are  three 
objective  premonitory  symptoms  which  are 
also  important:  extremely  acute  headache,  de- 
rangement of  vision,  and  pain  in  the  epigas- 
trium. The  headache  is  generally  in  the  fron- 
tal region,  at  first  intermittent,  but  gradually 
becoming  continuous.  Derangement  of  vis- 
ion is  a  grave  symptom;  sometimes  there  is 
cloudiness  or  dimness,  at  others  objects  ap- 
pear to  change  color;  there  is  often  double 
vision,  or  only  half  of  an  object  may  be  seen  ; 
there  are  flashes  of  light,  and  sometimes  the 
sight  is  suddenly  lost.  The  convulsive  seiz- 
ure is  characteristic,  and  to  have  witnessed 
it  once  will  impress  its  prominent  features 
upon  the  memory.  After  a  few  precursory 
symptoms  the  patient  seems  deeply  absorbed 
and  preoccupied ;  then  her  gaze  becomes  fixed 
and  her  whole  body  motionless.  This  is  soon 
succeeded  by  twitchings  of  the  eyelids  and  fa- 
cial muscles.  The  eyeballs  roll  upward  so  that 
only  the  whites  are  seen.  The  contractions 
of  the  muscles  from  being  spasmodic  or  clonic 


68   PUERPERAL  CONVULSIONS 


PUERPERAL  FEVER 


become  tonic,  as  it  is  called;  that  is,  they 
become  more  persistent.  The  angles  of  the 
mouth  are  strongly  drawn  to  one  side,  the  mus- 
cles of  the  neck  drawing  the  head  in  the  same 
direction.  After  a  few  moments  these  parts 
will  be  drawn  in  the  contrary  direction.  From 
the  head  the  convulsive  phenomena  rapidly  ex- 
tend to  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  extensor 
muscles  of  the  trunk  contract,  producing  the 
condition  called  optithotonos,  and  the  whole 
trunk  becomes  perfectly  rigid.  The  neck  swells, 
the  jugular  veins  becoming  prominent,  and  the 
carotid  arteries  beat  violently.  Contraction  of 
the  muscles  of  the  larynx  causes  suspension  of 
respiration,  the  capillary  circulation  becomes 
impeded,  and  the  face  assumes  a  livid  hue. 
The  tongue  is  often  severely  bitten  between 
the  convulsively  closed  jaws.  In  about  half  a 
minute  these  tonic  convulsions  are  generally 
succeeded  by  those  of  a  clonic  character,  and 
jerking  movements  of  all  the  muscles  succeed, 
the  countenance  becoming  frightfully  distort- 
ed. The  pulse,  strong  and  full  at  the  com- 
mencement, is  rapidly  accelerated  by  the  con- 
vulsions, but  at  the  height  of  the  paroxysm  is 
very  feeble.  It  is  during  the  middle  stage,  that 
of  tonic  convulsions,  that  death  is  immediately 
imminent,  when  the  respiration  is  suspended 
and  the  condition  is  that  of  profound  asphyxia. 
When  recovery  from  the  attack  takes  place, 
the  symptoms  gradually  abate;  the  convul- 
sive movements  become  less  violent  and  then 
less  frequent;  the  respiration  becomes  more 
regular  but  stertorous,  and  the  circulation  more 
active ;  and  the  skin  resumes  its  natural  color. 
The  patient  does  not  immediately  regain  con- 
sciousness, but  remains  in  a  comatose  condi- 
tion, the  duration  of  which  depends  upon  the 
intensity  of  the  paroxysm ;  sometimes  only  a 
few  minutes  elapse,  at  others  several  hours. 
But  recovery  from  the  tonic  stage  may  not 
take  place,  or  there  may  bo  a  succession  of  fits 
with  intervals  so  brief  that  consciousness  is 
not  recovered  between  them,  and  the  patient 
dies  in  a  state  of  coma.  In  case  of  recovery, 
on  regaining  sensibility  a  confused  feeling  with 
headache  is  complained  of,  and  she  has  no 
recollection  of  what  has  taken  place.  Some- 
times there  is  impairment  of  vision  or  of  hear- 
ing, or  both.  As  to  the  effects  of  these  con- 
vulsions, they  may,  if  occurring  before  the 
lying-in  period,  bring  on  premature  labor  and 
destroy  the  life  of  either  the  mother  or  the 
child,  or  both,  or  they  may  happily  terminate 
in  recovery.  When  the  attack  precedes  de- 
livery, it  frequently  happens  that  the  birth 
of  a  child  removes  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  convulsions  depend,  and  the  patient  is  im- 
mediately relieved.  After  delivery  the  attack 
may  be  followed  by  dangerous  haemorrhage, 
from  non-contraction  of  the  uterus,  due  to 
exhausted  nervous  energy  or  to  the  impov- 
erished state  of  the  blood.  In  some  cases  the 
recovery  is  surprising,  and  it  often  takes  place 
contrary  to  the  predictions  of  the  most  ex- 
perienced. The  treatment  is  prophylactic  or 


preventive,  and  curative.  The  prophylactic 
treatment  consists  in  eliminating  the  urea  from 
the  system  when  present,  by  the  use  of  diuretics 
and  purgatives,  and  in  relieving  excessive  ple- 
thora by  bloodletting,  which  may  sometimes 
be  freely  employed  with  advantage. 

PUERPERAL  FEVER,  or  Childbed  Fever,  a  disease 
which  attacks  lying-in  women,  generally  at- 
tended by  an  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum, 
or  of  the  uterus  and  its  appendages,  of  a  dan- 
gerous character.  The  name  puerperal  fever 
was  given  by  Strother  in  his  work  on  fevers 
(1716).  Hippocrates  gives  accounts  of  cases 
of  death  in  lying-in  women  which  resembled 
the  puerperal  fever  of  to-day,  as  do  Celsus, 
Galen,  Avicenna,  and  others  down  to  near  the 
17th  century.  From  observations  extending 
through  the  last  two  centuries  it  has  been  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  disease  often  prevails 
epidemically.  It  has  been  observed  that  lying- 
in  women,  attended  by  physicians  coming  from 
cases  of  erysipelas,  gangrene,  or  sloughing  sores 
of  any  kind,  or  from  making  post-mortem  dis- 
sections, are  very  liable,  sometimes  almost 
certain,  to  be  attacked  with  puerperal  fever. 
These  facts  have  caused  several  good  authori- 
ties to  regard  the  disease  as  due  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  septic  matter  by  an  abraded  surface  on 
the  body  of  the  patient.  Denman,  an  English 
obstetrician,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
assert  that  puerperal  fever  is  often  propagated 
by  the  medical  attendant ;  and  this  view  of  the 
subject  has  been  recently  more  particularly  ex- 
amined, and,  with  others  in  regard  to  its  prop- 
agation by  septic  contact,  adopted  in  Germany. 
That  absorption  may  occur,  there  must  bo  a 
fresh  wound  or  abraded  surface;  if  granula- 
tions have  taken  place,  absorption  is  prevented. 
Now  fresh  wounds  exist  in  every  parturient 
woman  in  consequence  of  laceration  or  abra- 
sion during  labor,  and  infection  may  take  place 
by  decomposition  in  the  tissues  of  the  patient, 
or  it  may  have  an  external  origin.  The  au- 
thorities who  embrace  those  views  do  not 
therefore  regard  puerperal  fever  as  contagious 
in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word,  that  is,  spread 
by  a  specific  contagion ;  but  admit  that  it  is 
manually  transferable,  while  the  septic  matter 
may  be  brought  from  an  external  source  in 
which  puerperal  fever  is  not  present. — The  viru- 
lence of  cases  which  have  been  called  puerperal 
fever  has  varied  very  greatly  at  different  times 
and  in  the  practice  of  different  physicians,  and 
the  post-mortem  appearances  of  the  fatal  cases 
have  been  unlike.  Sometimes  there  would  be 
found  extensive  lesions,  not  only  in  nearly  all 
the  pelvic  viscera,  but  in  other  parts  of  the 
body.  Sometimes  there  would  be  peritonitis 
alone,  or  with  very  few  complications,  and 
sometimes  only  the  uterus  would  present  much 
evidence  of  inflammation ;  and  in  some  of  the 
most  rapidly  fatal  cases  no  evidence  of  estab- 
lished inflammation  would  be  found.  More- 
over, the  number  of  recoveries  would  be  great 
in  the  practice  of  some  physicians,  and  many 
of  the  cases  would  present  symptoms  indica- 


PUERPEEAL  FEVER 


PUERPERAL  MANIA 


69 


ting  little  more  than  inflammation  of  the  con- 
nective cellular  tissue  of  the  pelvic  cavity.  It 
will  therefore  he  seen  that  the  subject  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  and  perplexing  which  writers 
on  obstetrics  have  to  meet.  No  system  of  clas- 
sification has  been  generally  agreed  upon,  but 
several  authorities,  with  the  sanction  of  Sir 
James  Y.  Simpson  and  others,  embrace  within 
the  term  puerperal  fever  all  those  lesions  of 
pelvic  organs  and  tissues  which  in  the  puer- 
peral state,  under  favorable  circumstances,  are 
liable  to  engender  and  propagate  septic  poison. 
But  it  is  asserted  by  many  high  authorities  that 
there  is  a  form  of  the  disease  which  is  charac- 
terized from  the  first  by  symptoms  indicating 
the  operation  of  a  virulent  poison,  and  which 
has  received  the  name  of  malignant  puerperal 
fever,  or  puerperal  typhus.  This  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  true  epidemic  puerperal  fever. 
Those  who  maintain  these  views  also  believe 
in  the  contagiousness  of  the  disease,  and  in 
their  classification  they  separate  epidemic  puer- 
peral fever  from  such  affections  as  are  specially 
named  puerperal  metritis,  puerperal  peritoni- 
tis, puerperal  phlebitis,  puerperal  pelvic  cellu- 
litis,  and  puerperal  septicaemia  and  pyaemia. 
The  symptoms  of  epidemic  or  malignant  puer- 
peral fever  usually  commence  with  a  chill  be- 
tween the  first  and  third  days  after  delivery, 
rarely  being  deferred  to  the  fifth  day,  although 
sometimes  to  the  eighth  or  ninth ;  but  this  is 
not  one  of  the  most  important  symptoms,  for 
it  is  sometimes  so  slight  as  not  to  attract  at- 
tention. In  some  cases,  however,  it  is  very  se- 
vere and  lasts  30  or  40  minutes  or  longer,  and 
during  the  chill  the  pulse  is  small  and  quick ; 
afterward  it  becomes  fuller  but  more  compres- 
sible, ranging  from  110  to  150.  There  is  more 
or  less  delirium,  and  vomiting  is  quite  common. 
Sometimes  these  symptoms  are  intensified,  and 
the  patient  succumbs  to  the  attack  in  24  or  48 
hours.  In  cases  of  the  epidemic  disease  post- 
mortem examination  will  sometimes  reveal  not 
many  pathological  changes,  but  sometimes  they 
are  quite  extensive  and  similar  to  those  in  sep- 
ticaemia and  pyaemia.  In  cases  of  puerperal 
peritonitis,  there  may  be  nothing  found  except 
indications  of  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum ; 
but  in  cases  of  septicaemia  and  pyaemia  there 
will  usually  be  found  abscesses  in  different 
parts  of  the  body.  The  uterus  will  be  found 
cedematous,  and  its  lymphatics  are  usually  dis- 
tended with  purulent  contents,  which  are  of- 
ten traced  to  ulcers  on  the  neck  of  the  womb. 
There  are  often  dilatations  in  the  lymphatics 
as  large  as  a  hazel  nut,  filled  with  pus;  and 
there  are  frequently  abscesses  in  the  body  of 
the  uterus  causing  perforations  into  the  peri- 
toneal cavity.  The  cellular  connective  tissue 
becomes  inflamed  and  filled  with  serum,  and 
often  pelvic  peritonitis  follows  this,  and  may 
extend  to  the  general  abdominal  cavity,  its 
contents  becoming  more  or  less  adherent  to 
each  other  from  the  formation  of  false  mem- 
brane. Changes  occur  in  other  cavities  besides 
that  of  the  peritoneum ;  extravasations  of  blood 


are  often  found  beneath  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  heart  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
intestines.  There  is  also  often  found  pericar- 
ditis and  inflammation  of  the  joints,  most  fre- 
quently in  the  shoulder  and  knee,  the  pus  un- 
dermining the  surrounding  parts,  often  to  a 
great  extent.  Embolism  of  the  blood  vessels 
is  common,  especially  in  the  lungs,  the  throm- 
bi which  form  in  these  organs  breaking  up 
and  passing  on  into  the  circulation.  Pneu- 
monia is  frequent,  with  a  great  tendency  to 
gangrene,  caused  by  the  presence  of  putrid 
emboli.  The  spleen  is  frequently  enlarged,  of 
a  pulpy,  greasy  consistence  and  of  a  chocolate 
color;  and  the  liver  presents  marks  of  fatty 
infiltration,  embolism,  and  disintegration  of 
liver  cells. — The  treatment  in  all  these  puer- 
peral diseases  depends  upon  the  extent  and  in- 
tensity of  the  attack,  and  upon  the  organs  in- 
volved, and  consists  to  a  great  degree  in  pro- 
phylactic measures,  such  as  cleanliness,  inclu- 
ding the  prevention  of  the  reabsorption  of  sep- 
tic matter,  and  a  bland  but  not  innutritions 
diet.  The  medical  attendant  should  exercise 
the  most  extreme  care  not  to  approach  the 
lying-in  chamber  after  attending  cases  of  ery- 
sipelas or  scarlet  fever,  or  any  other  conta- 
gious disease.  If  he  has  recently  attended  a 
post-mortem  dissection,  he  should  bathe  his 
person,  use  carbolic  or  salicylic  acid  gargles, 
and  change  his  entire  clothing. — See  "Clini- 
cal Lectures  on  Diseases  of  Women,"  by  Sir 
James  Y.  Simpson,  M.  D.  (Edinburgh,  1871); 
"A  System  of  Midwifery,"  by  William  Leish- 
man,  M.  D.  (Glasgow,  1873) ;  "  On  the  Nature, 
Signs,  and  Treatment  of  Childbed  Fever,"  by 
Charles  D.  Meigs,  M.  D.  (Philadelphia,  1872) ; 
"  The  Puerperal  Diseases,"  by  Fordyce  Barker, 
M.  D.  (New  York,  1874);  "Erysipelas  and 
Childbed  Fever,"  by  Thomas  0.  Minor,  M.  D. 
(Cincinnati,  1874);  and  "A  Manual  of  Mid- 
wifery," by  Dr.  Karl  Schroeder  (New  York, 
1875). 

PUERPERAL  MANIA,  a  form  of  mental  de- 
rangement which  attacks  women  during  the 
lying-in  period.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  melancholia  which  occurs  at  the  same  pe- 
riod, although  some  authors  treat  both  affec- 
tions under  one  head,  either  that  of  puerperal 
mania  or  puerperal  insanity.  It  is  also  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  insanity  of  pregnancy 
and  the  insanity  of  lactation,  affections  which 
are  liable  to  occur  in  the  earlier  stages  of  preg- 
nancy, or  during  lactation  after  the  puerperal 
period  has  passed ;  and  it  is  also  distinct  from 
the  delirium  of  labor.  The  insanity  of  preg- 
nancy, which  generally  occurs  between  the 
third  and  seventh  months,  may  be  caused  by  de- 
rangement of  some  of  the  bodily  functions,  usu- 
ally associated  with  an  anaemic  condition,  and, 
according  to  Esquirol,  dependent  in  more  than 
one  third  of  the  number  of  cases  upon  hered- 
itary predisposition.  The  insanity  of  lactation 
generally  occurs  after  the  sixth  month  of  that 
period,  and  therefore  its  principal  cause,  weak- 
ness from  the  exhaustion  of  nursing,  is  appa- 


70 


PUERPERAL  MANIA 


PUFENDORF 


rent.  The  delirium  of  labor  is  caused  by  the 
over-excited  or  erethistic  condition  of  the  brain 
in  consequence  of  the  intensity  of  the  pains  of 
labor.  It  is  of  much  rarer  occurrence  since 
the  use  of  anaesthetics  in  labor  than  formerly. 
Puerperal  mania  generally  conies  on  during 
the  first  two  weeks  after  confinement,  while 
melancholia  is  rarely  developed  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  month.  Among  other  prominent 
premonitory  symptoms  are  sleeplessness,  lo- 
quaciousness, and  aversion  toward  friends ;  and 
a  short  period  before  the  attack  there  are  often 
movements  of  the  eyelids  and  facial  muscles. 
At  the  moment  of  attack  the  facial  expression 
is  often  peculiar,  the  features  becoming  drawn 
and  pallid,  with  an  expression  of  fright  mingled 
more  or  less  with  that  of  rage.  The  patient 
then  becomes  boisterous,  stares  wildly  and 
makes  rapid  gestures,  clutches  at  things 'and 
persons  near  her,  throws  off  her  covering,  and 
attempts  to  jump  out  of  bed ;  and  her  language 
will  often  bo  so  profane  as  to  mortify  her 
friends.  The  skin  is  cold,  pallid,  and  clammy, 
and  the  pulse  is  small,  quick,  and  irritable. 
There  is  great  muscular  weakness,  which  how- 
ever sometimes  alternates  with  great  spasmodic 
strength. — Among  the  predisposing  causes  he- 
redity is  the  most  frequent,  and  it  is  said  to 
be  generally  traceable  to  the  female  side  of  the 
family.  The  pathological  condition  of  the 
brain  is  therefore  similar  to  that  of  insanity  in 
general,  but  this  cannot  always  be  demonstra- 
ted by  microscopical  examination.  The  prin- 
cipal exciting  cause  is  mental  emotion,  and  it 
has  been  observed  that  those  who  possess  the 
most  sensitive  organizations  and  have  been 
particularly  the  victims  of  treachery  are  much 
more  likely  than  others  to  be  attacked.  For- 
merly it  was  frequently  held  that  the  disease 
was  of  inflammatory  origin,  being  a  modifica- 
tion of  phrenitis ;  but  the  opinion  advanced  by 
Gooch,  that  "  it  is  not  a  disease  of  congestion 
or  inflammation,"  has  been  sustained  by  mod- 
ern experience.  Dr.  Ferriar  believes  that  the 
loss  of  reason  is  often  principally  due  to  some 
interference  with  the  establishment  of  lacta- 
tion. Convulsions  which  occur  after  labor  are 
frequently  followed  by  mania.  It  seems  to  bo 
well  established  that  there  is  an  essential  con- 
nection between  puerperal  mania  and  albnmi- 
nuria ;  but  the  indications  of  the  presence  of 
albumen  are  less  persistent  than  in  convulsions. 
— Bleeding,  which  was  once  a  common  prac- 
tice, is  now  regarded  as  injurious  in  all  but  a 
very  few  exceptional  cases,  as  the  disease  is 
nearly  always  associated  with  an  anaemic  con- 
dition of  the  blood  and  a  state  of  nervous  ex- 
haustion. The  best  therapeutic  agent  for  re- 
lieving the  cerebral  excitement  is  perhaps  the 
hydrate  of  chloral,  and  it  is  said  to  have  a 
much  better  effect  than  pure  chloroform.  The 
most  important  remedial  treatment,  however, 
is  the  use  of  nutritious  food  to  restore  the  ex- 
hausted nervous  energy  by  reestablishing  the 
organic  functions.  Ferruginous  tonics  may 
also  be  given  with  advantage. 


PUERTO  BELLO.     See  PORTO  BKLLO. 

PFERTO  CABALLOS.     See  CORTES. 

PUERTO  CABELLO,  a  seaport  town  of  Vene- 
zuela, in  the  province  of  Carabobo,  on  Triste 
bay,  70  m.  W.  of  Caracas;  pop.  about  8,000. 
The  town  is  principally  on  an  island,  which 
is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bridge. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthy,  but  the  har- 
bor being  fine,  the  place  is  the  seat  of  a  con- 
siderable trade.  During  the  year  ending  Sept. 
80,  1873,  the  total  value  of  the  imports  was 
$3,691,287;  of  the  exports,  $5,118,788;  en- 
trances, 205  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  103,476,  of  which  50  were  German,  38  Eng- 
lish, 82  Dutch,  27  Venezuelan,  19  Spanish,  18 
French,  12  Danish,  10  American,  2  Austrian, 
and  2  Italian.  The  principal  exports  are  cot- 
ton, coffee,  cacao,  indigo,  sugar,  cocoanuts, 
hides,  lumber,  and  cabinet  and  dye  woods. 
Of  20,011,801  Ibs.  of  coffee  exported  in  Ib73, 
6,212,890  came  to  the  United  States. 

PUERTO  Li  MAR.     See  COBIJA. 

PUERTO  PLATA,  or  Porto  Plata,  a  seaport  town 
of  Santo  Domingo,  on  the  N.  coast,  100  m. 
N.  N.  W.  of  Santo  Domingo  city;  pop.  about 
8,000.  It  lies  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain  at 
the  foot  of  a  crescent-shaped  bay.  The  harbor 
has  good  anchorage,  but  shallows  rapidly  near 
the  shore,  and  ships  are  loaded  from  lighters. 
The  trade,  principally  in  tobacco,  is  in  the 
hands  of  foreign  merchants,  mostly  Germans. 
In  1873,  201  vessels,  of  12,191  tons,  entered  the 
port;  of  these  75  were  English,  87  Spanish, 
84  German,  and  20  American.  The  total  uiluu 
of  the  imports  in  1873  was  $871,116;  of  the 
exports,  $1,093,753. — Puerto  Plata  is  said  to 
have  been  planned  by  Columbus  on  his  first 
voyage.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury it  was  largely  resorted  to  by  Spanish 
vessels.  It  has  been  destroyed  several  times, 
the  last  time  by  the  Spaniards  when  they 
evacuated  the  island  in  1865. 

PUERTO  PRIM  II'K.  Santa  Maria  de,  a  city  of 
Cuba,  capital  of  the  Central  department,  about 
midway  between  the  N.  and  S.  coasts,  805  m. 
E.  8.  E.  of  Havana,  and  45  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Nue- 
vitas,  its  port,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway ;  pop.  about  80,000.  It  lies  between 
two  small  streams,  the  Tinima  and  the  Jati- 
bonico,  in  a  rich  agricultural  district,  the  chief 
products  of  which  are  sugar  and  tobacco.  The 
climate  is  hot,  moist,  and  unhealthy.  The  city 
is  irregularly  built.  Its  chief  buildings  are  sev- 
eral churches  and  monasteries,  a  hospital,  and 
two  theatres.  Its  trade  is  inconsiderable  com- 
pared with  its  population.  Puerto  Principe 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  supreme  court  of 
all  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  It  has 
been  threatened  several  times  during  the  pres- 
ent war  by  the  Cuban  patriots,  and  two  or 
three  battles  have  taken  place  in  its  vicinity. 

PUFEXDORF  (often  spelled  PTJFFENDORF  by 
English  writers),  Samuel,  a  German  jurist  and 
publicist,  born  near  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  Jan.  8, 
1632,  died  in  Berlin,  Oct.  26, 1694.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Grimma,  studied  theology  at  the  uni- 


PUFENDORF 


PUFF  BIKD 


versity  of  Leipsic,  and  in  1656  went  to  Jena  to 
devote  himself  to  mathematics  and  philosophy 
under  Erhard  Weigel,  at  the  same  time  apply- 
ing himself  to  the  law  of  nature.  On  quitting 
Jena  he  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  the  Swedish 
ambassador  at  Copenhagen,  and  while  there 
prepared  a  work  on  general  law,  in  which  the 
principles  of  Grotius,  Hobbes,  and  other  ju- 
rists were  combined  with  observations  of  his 
own.  This  was  published  in  Holland  in  1660 
under  the  title  of  Elementa  Jurisprudentice 
Universalis.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  elector 
palatine,  Charles  Louis,  who  in  1661  founded 
at  Heidelberg  a  professorship  of  the  law  of  na- 
ture and  of  nations,  and  placed  Pufendorf  in 
the  chair.  His  lectures  were  very  popular,  and 
the  university  recovered  during  his  residence 
much  of  its  ancient  prestige.  In  his  Severini 
a  Monzambano,  De  Statu  Imperil  Germanici 
(Geneva,  1667)  he  showed  that  the  Germanic 
system  was  an  incongruous  assemblage  of  dis- 
cordant parts,  and  the  parent  of  many  social 
and  political  abuses,  and  suggested  practical 
remedies.  The  work  was  translated  into  the 
chief  languages  of  Europe,  but  excited  much 
hostile  criticism  in  Germany,  particularly  in 
Austria,  where  it  was  ordered  to  be  burned  by 
the  hangman.  Pufendorf  defended  the  work 
without  acknowledging  the  authorship,  but 
found  his  position  so  uncomfortable,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  acrimonious  controversy  with 
German  publicists,  that  in  1670  he  accepted 
from  Charles  XI.  of  Sweden  the  professorship 
of  the  law  of  nations  at  Lund.  In  1672  he 
published  there  the  work  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion now  rests,  the  treatise  De  Jure  Natures 
et  Gentium  ("  On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  Na- 
tions"), of  which  in  1673  he  prepared  an  abridg- 
ment with  some  variations,  entitled  De  Officio 
Hominis  ac  Civis  Libri  duo  ("  On  the  Duties  of 
a  Man  and  a  Citizen  ").  On  the  invitation  of 
the  king  of  Sweden  he  removed  to  Stockholm, 
was  appointed  councillor  of  state  and  royal 
historiographer,  and  published  Commentarii 
de  Rebus  Suecicis  ab  Expeditione  Gustavi  Adol- 
pJii  usque  ad  Abdicationem  Christina  (Utrecht, 
1676).  In  1688  he  accepted  a  similar  office, 
with  an  annual  pension  of  2,000  crowns,  at  the 
court  of  Frederick  William,  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, the  history  of  whose  reign  he  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Commentarii  de  Rebus 
Gestis  Frederici  Wilhelmi  Magni,  Electoris 
Brandenburgici.  In  1694,  shortly  before  his 
leath,  and  while  he  was  in  Berlin,  the  king  of 
•Sweden  created  him  a  baron.  Of  his  great 
reatise,  first  printed  in  German  at  Leyden  in 
1672,  and  afterward  at  Frankfort  much  aug- 
mented (1684),  the  best  edition  is  that  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  cum  Notis  Variorum  by  G. 
"fascov  (2  vols.  4to,  1744).  The  French  trans- 
ition by  J.  Barbeyrac  (2  vols.  4to,  Amster- 
dam, 1712),  with  notes,  is  the  version  most  es- 
emed.  There  is  an  English  version  by  Basil 
Kennet,  with  Barbeyrac's  preface  and  notes 
translated  by  Carew  (London,  1749).  Pufen- 
dorf wrote  several  less  important  works. 


PUFF  BALL.     See  LYCOPEEDON. 

PUFF  BIRD,  an  appropriate  name  for  the 
bucconina,  an  American  subfamily  of  diurnal 
fissirostral  birds,  placed  by  Gray  in  the  king- 
fisher family,  but  by  the  older  and  some  mod- 
ern writers  in  the  scansorial  family  of  barbets 
or  capitonincB  ;  the  generic  name  bucco  is  ap- 
plied by  Cuvier  to  the  latter.  In  the  typical 
genus  ~bucco  (Linn.),  as  recognized  by  Gray,  the 
bill  is  long,  strong,  elevated,  and  very  broad  at 
the  base,  where  it  is  furnished  with  tufts  of 
strong  bristles,  and  suddenly  curved  at  the  tip, 
which  is  hooked ;  the  gape  very  wide ;  nostrils 
concealed  by  the  projecting  plumes  and  bristles; 
wings  moderate  and  rounded,  the  first  quill 
short  and  the  fourth  the  longest ;  tail  long, 
broad,  even,  rounded  on  the  sides ;  tarsi  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe,  strong,  and  covered  in 
front  with  transverse  scales ;  toes  two  before 
and  two  behind,  the  outer  anterior  the  longest, 
and  the  claws  long  and  acute.  There  are  about 


Pied  Puff  Bird  (Bucco  macrorhynchus). 

a  dozen  species  described,  in  tropical  South 
America ;  the  name  is  derived  from  their  habit 
of  puffing  out  the  plumage  of  the  head,  which 
gives  them  a  heavy  and  ill  balanced  appear- 
ance. They  are  solitary,  silent,  and  melan- 
choly-looking, living  generally  in  retired  woods, 
perching  on  some  low  and  thickly  leaved 
branch,  with  the  large  head  drawn  between 
the  shoulders ;  thus  they  remain  for  hours  at  a 
time,  occasionally  darting  after  insects,  return- 
ing to  the  same  perch,  which  they  are  said  to 
frequent  for  months  together ;  they  sometimes 
climb  like  woodpeckers,  supported  by  the  tail, 
in  search  of  insects  in  the  bark ;  the  nest  is 
made  in  the  hollows  of  trees ;  they  are  not  shy, 
and  sometimes  select  spots  near  human  habita- 
tions ;  their  colors  are  sombre,  very  different 
from  those  of  the  barbets,  with  which  some 
authors  have  classed  them.  The  collared  puff 
bird  (£.  collaris,  Lath.)  is  7J  in.  long ;  rufous 
above,  striated  with  black;  whitish  on  the 
chest,  terminated  by  a  broad  black  band ;  a 
similar  band  across  the  shoulders ;  abdomen 


72 


PUFFIN 


PUGHE 


rufous  white;  bill  1|  in-  and  horn-colored. 
The  pied  puff  bird  (li.  macrorhynchu*,  Gmel.) 
is  black,  with  a  black  and  larger  bill ;  general 
color  black,  with  forehead,  throat,  abdomen, 
and  tip  of  tail  white. — Figures  of  many  of 
these  puff  birds  may  be  found  in  Swainson's 
44  Birds  of  Brazil  and  Mexico  "  (London,  1841). 

PIFFIN.     See  ArK. 

PIGATCUEFF,  YfaHyan,  a  Cossack  chieftain 
and  pretender  to  the  throne  of  Russia,  born  at 
Simoveisk  on  the  Don  in  1726,  executed  in 
Moscow,  Jan.  21,  1775.  He  first  appeared  as 
the  leader  of  a  band  of  disciplined  robbers.  In 
the  seven  years'  war  he  served  against  the 
Prussians,  and  subsequently  in  the  Russian 
campaign  of  1769  against  Turkey.  Returning 
to  his  native  land,  he  was  imprisoned  for  sedi- 
tious conduct;  but  having  recovered  his  lib- 
erty, he  went  to  Yaitzkoi,  where  a  striking  re- 
semblance noticed  between  himself  and  Peter 
III.  prompted  him  to  puss  himself  off  as  the 
murdered  monarch,  to  forge  a  tale  about  his 
escape  from  death,  and  to  declare  that  he  was 
now  to  set  about  the  task  of  dethroning  Cath- 
arine II.  and  regaining  his  crown.  The  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  the  middle  of  1778,  when 
a  manifesto  of  Pugatchetf  in  the  name  of  Pe- 
ter III.  was  published.  After  he  had  got  pos- 
session of  the  fortress  of  Yaitzkoi,  and  the 
religious  sect  of  the  Raskolniks,  of  which  he 
had  become  a  member,  had  embraced  his  cause, 
the  peasantry  went  over  to  his  side  in  large 
numbers,  and  many  Tartar  and  Finnish  tribes 
joined  him.  With  these  he  took  numerous 
fortresses  on  the  Ural,  the  Volga,  and  the 
Don,  and  marched  upon  Moscow ;  but  he  was 
betrayed  by  his  comrades  for  100,000  rubles 
to  Michelson  and  Suvaroff.  In  this  insurrec- 
tion 100,000  lives  were  lost. 

PCGET,  Pierre,  a  French  artist,  born  in  Mar- 
seilles, Oct.  31,  1022,  died  there,  Dec.  2,  1694. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  ship  builder  and  wood 
carver,  travelled  on  foot  to  Italy,  and  after 
suffering  great  hardships  obtained  admission 
to  the  studio  of  Pietro  da  Cortona  in  Rome. 
Returning  to  Marseilles  in  1643,  ho  was  com- 
missioned by  the  duke  do  Brez6  to  design  a 
magnificent  ship,  which,  in  honor  of  the  queen, 
Anne  of  Austria,  was  called  La  Reine,  and 
Pugut  devoted  three  years  to  decorating  it 
with  carvings.  He  next  went  to  Italy  again, 
and  spent  some  years  in  copying  antique 
monuments  and  in  art  and  architectural  stud- 
ies. In  1658  ho  returned  to  France,  and 
painted  many  church  pictures  for  Marseilles, 
Ai.x,  Toulon,  Cuers,  and  La  Ciotat,  Ill  health 
obliging  him  to  give  up  painting  in  1655,  he 
devoted  himself  to  sculpture  and  architecture. 
The  gate  and  the  balcony  of  the  city  hall  at 
Toulon,  which  he  built  and  carved,  were  his 
first  works.  He  then  went  to  Genoa,  where 
he  executed  many  important  works.  In  1665 
he  was  recalled  to  France  by  Colbert,  and  ap- 

Sointed  director  of  ship  decorations  at  the 
ockyard  of  Toulon,  where  he  also  began  to 
build  an  arsenal ;  but  its  progress  being  hinder- 


ed by  official  intrigues,  he  retired  to  his  native 
city.  While  at  Toulon  he  had  partly  sculp- 
tured in  Carrara  marble  the  group  upon  which 
his  fame  mainly  rests,  his  "  Milo  of  Crotona 
devoured  by  a  Lion."  It  was  finished  in  1683, 
for  the  gardens  at  Versailles.  His  group  of 
Andromeda  and  Perseus  was  completed  in 
1685,  and  brought  to  Versailles  by  his  son; 
three  years  later  he  himself  went  there  with 
his  bass  relief  of  Alexander  and  Diogenes. 
After  his  return  to  Marseilles,  he  superintend- 
ed the  building  of  a  church,  executed  his  last 
work  in  bass  relief,  u  The  Plague  of  Milan," 
and  spent  his  later  years  in  retirement. 

PTGET  SOl'XD,  in  a  general  sense,  the  body 
of  water  which  extends  S.  from  the  E.  end  of 
the  strait  of  Fuca,  through  which  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Pacific  ocean,  into  the  N.  W. 
portion  of  Washington  terrritory,  for  a  dis- 
tance in  a  direct  line  of  about  80  m.  Its  prin- 
cipal constituents  are  Admiralty  inlet,  Puget 
sound  proper,  the  S.  termination  of  this  inlet, 
and  Hood's  canal.  Admiralty  inlet  extends 
from  the  strait  of  Fuca  a  little  E.  of  S.,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  nearly  6  m.,  for  70 
m.,  and  communicates  with  the  sound  proper 
through  the  "  narrows,"  1  m.  wide  ana  4  m. 
long.  The  sound  extends  S.  W.  from  the  nar- 
rows, ramifying  into  numerous  bays  and  inlets, 
and  containing  many  islets.  Hood's  canal 
branches  off  from  Admiralty  inlet  18  m.  S.  of 
the  strait  of  Fuca,  and  extends  8.  W.,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  2  m.,  for  50  m.,  when  it 
bends  abruptly  and  extends  N.  E.  for  15  m., 
nearly  connecting  with  tho  waters  of  tho  sound. 
Hood's  canal  on  the  one  hand  and  Admiralty 
inlet  and  the  sound  on  the  other  enclose  a 
peninsula,  of  which  Kitsnp  co.  forms  the  great- 
er part.  As  determined  by  tho  United  States 
coast  survey,  the  coast  line  of  Admiralty  inlet 
measures  334  nautical  miles;  of  Puget  sound 
proper,  280;  of  Hood's  canal,  192;  total,  806. 
These  bodies  of  water  are  all  navigable,  nnd 
the  smaller  inlets  afford  numerous  safe,  deep, 
and  capacious  harbors.  The  shores  are  fertile, 
and  are  covered  with  abundant  timber.  The 
chief  towns  are  Olympia,  tho  capital  of  the 
territory,  at  tho  S.  extremity  ;  Steilacoom, 
Tacoma  (tho  N.  terminus  of  the  Pacific  division 
of  tho  Northern  Pacific  railroad),  and  Seattle, 
on  the  E.  shore ;  and  Port  Townsend,  at  the 
N.  W.  extremity.  The  sound  was  named  after 
an  officer  in  Vancouver's  expedition. 

PI  (iHK,  William  Own,  a  Welsh  author,  born 
at  Tyn  y  Bryn,  Merionethshire,  Aug.  7,  1769, 
died  June  4,  1835.  His  original  name  was 
William  Owen,  to  which  he  added  that  of 
Pughe  late  in  life,  on  receiving  an  inheritance. 
At  the  age  of  17  he  went  to  London  to  earn 
his  living,  and  there  mado  the  acquaintance 
of  Owen  Jones,  a  tradesman,  with  whose  sup- 
port and  encouragement  he  entered  upon  the 
study  of  ancient  Welsh  literature.  The  two 
published  in  conjunction  in  1789  tho  poems 
of  Dafydd  ap  Gwilym,  a  bard  of  the  14th 
century.  This  was  followed  by  the  works  of 


PUGILISM 


other  poets  and  by  translations;  and  in  1801, 
a  third  Welshman,  Edward  Williams,  being 
associated  with  them,  they  published  the  first 
two  volumes  of  the  "Myvyrian  Archaiology;" 
a  third  volume  appeared  in  1807.  Pughe 
also  prepared  a  Welsh  and  English  diction- 
ary (1793-1803),  and  the  "  Cambrian  Biogra- 
phy "  (1803)  ;  published  a  Welsh  magazine 
entitled  T  Great;  and  translated  into  Welsh 
the  "Paradise  Lost,"  Heber's  "Palestine,"  and 
other  poems. — His  son,  ANEURIST  OWEN  (1790- 
1851),  who  dropped  the  name  of  Pughe,  edit- 
ed "Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  Wales," 
printed  by  the  record  commission  in  1841. 

PUGILISM  (Lat.  pugil,  a  boxer),  the  art  of 
fighting  with  the  fists,  practised  in  modern 
times  according  to  certain  rules,  known  as  the 
rules  of  the  English  prize  ring.  It  is  said  that 
Theseus  was  the  inventor  of  the  art  of  boxing, 
or  the  skilled  use  of  the  fists  and  arms  in  as- 
sault and  defence.  Homer  describes  pugilistic 
encounters,  and  Pollux,  Hercules,  and  others 
are  mentioned  as  excelling  in  pugilism.  Box- 
ing was  one  of  the  most  important  exercises 
in  the  Olympic  games.  The  ancient  pugilists 
fought  with  the  cestus,  formed  of  strips  of 
leather  wound  around  the  fist  and  arm,  fre- 
quently as  far  up  as  the  elbow.  This  was  some- 
times studded  over  the  fist  with  knobs  loaded 
with  lead  or  iron,  and  was  practically  the  same 
as  the  brass  knuckles  of  the  present  day.  The 
cestus  used  by  the  Greeks  was  of  various  kinds, 
called  fieiMxai,  CTrelpat,  floeiai,  aijtalpai,  and  piip- 
firjKE^.  The  peiMxcu  were  the  softest,  and  the 
pbpfjiTjKEG  the  hardest.  The  rules  of  boxing  in 
ancient  times  resembled  those  of  the  modern 
prize  ring,  except  that  wrestling  was  not  per- 
mitted. The  right  arm  was  used  chiefly  in  of- 
fence, the  left  arm  serving  to  protect  the  person. 
The  ears  were  much  exposed  to  injury  in  the 
old  games,  and  they  were  sometimes  protected 
by  covers.  With  the  cestus,  especially  when 
loaded  with  knobs  of  metal,  the  ancient  pugi- 
listic encounters  must  have  been  terribly  severe, 
resulting  often  in  mutilation,  and  sometimes  in 
death.  At  the  Olympic  games  the  boxers  were 
usually  naked,  or  wore  simply  a  girdle  around 
the  loins.  In  the  earliest  times  boxing  at  the 
games  was  permitted  only  between  freemen 
and  those  who  had  not  committed  crime.  Con- 
tests between  boys  were  early  introduced  at 
Olympia. — The  art  of  boxing,  as  now  prac- 
tised, may  be  said  to  date  from  the  building 
in  London  of  a  theatre  for  exhibitions  of  the 
"  manly  art  of  self-defence  "  by  one  Broughton, 
about  1740.  Broughton,  who  for  18  years 
was  champion  of  England,  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented boxing  gloves.  He  held  exhibitions  in 
his  theatre,  and  laid  down  certain  rules  for 
fighting,  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  But  for  many  years  before  the  time 
of  Broughton  pugilistic  encounters  had  been 
common  at  fairs  and  festivals  in  England. 
The  funds  for  the  erection  of  Broughton's 
theatre  were  provided  by  about  80  of  the  no- 
blemen and  gentry  of  England,  and  the  en- 


counters were  witnessed  by  the  best  blood  in 
the  land,  including  the  prince  of  Wales.  Jack- 
son, who  was  champion  in  1795,  is  now  re- 
garded as  having  been  one  of  the  most  skil- 
ful professors  of  the  art.  He  gave  instruc- 
tion to  many  of  the  aristocracy,  among  whom 
were  Lord  Byron  and  Shaw,  the  life-guards- 
man. The  prominent  points  in  Jackson's  sys- 
tem were  the  use  of  the  legs  in  avoiding  blows 
and  the  correct  estimate  of  distance,  striking 
no  blows  out  of  range.  In  1817  the  future  em- 
peror Nicholas  of  Eussia  witnessed  a  prize  fight 
in  England,  and  shook  hands  with  the  victor. 
Since  that  time  the  prize  ring  has  gradually  fal- 
len into  disrepute ;  but  for  a  long  time  the  prin- 
ciple of  "  fair  play  "  was  strictly  adhered  to  in 
England.  At  the  present  day  prize  fighting  is 
practised  only  in  Great  Britain  and  America. 
The  brutality  of  such  exhibitions  has  at  last  ex- 
cited the  general  condemnation  of  society,  and 
for  more  than  half  a  century  the  practice  has 
been  under  the  ban  of  the  law.  The  rough 
character  of  the  assemblages  on  such  occasions, 
and  the  frequent  "  selling  out "  and  fraud 
in  the  encounters,  have  disgusted  those  of  the 
patrons  and  professors  of  the  "manly  art" 
who  believed  in  fair  play.  It  is  thought 
that  very  few  of  the  fights  which  have  oc- 
curred within  the  past  few  years  have  been 
honestly  conducted. — Although  prize  fighting 
has  deservedly  fallen  into  disrepute,  many  per- 
sons practise  boxing  for  exercise  and  amuse- 
ment, the  rules  being  essentially  those  of  the 
prize  ring  (commonly  abbreviated  to  P.  E.). 
The  present  rules  are  briefly  as  follows.  The 
ring  shall  be  on  turf,  formed  of  a  square  of  24 
ft.,  bounded  by  a  double  line  of  ropes  at- 
tached to  eight  stakes.  The  lower  rope  is  2 
ft.  and  the  upper  4  ft.  from  the  ground.  The 
choice  of  "  corners  "  is  determined  by  the  toss 
of  a  coin.  The  winner  of  the  choice  selects 
his  corner  according  to  the  state  of  the  wind 
and  the  position  of  the  sun,  it  being  an  advan- 
tage to  have  the  sun  in  his  opponent's  face. 
The  loser  takes  the  opposite  corner.  A  space 
is  marked  off  in  each  corner  large  enough  to 
accommodate  the  man,  his  second,  and  his  "  bot- 
tle-holder," who  are  allowed  to  attend  their  man 
in  the  ring.  The  colors  of  the  men  are  tied 
around  the  stakes  at  their  respective  corners. 
Each  man  names  his  second  and  bottle-holder. 
The  seconds  agree  upon  two  umpires,  one  for 
each  man.  The  umpires  usually  select  a  ref- 
eree, unless  one  be  agreed  upon  in  some  other 
way.  The  referee  directs  the  contest,  and  de- 
cides the  fight  and  all  questions  of  fairness, 
and  his  decision  is  binding  and  final.  The 
umpires  watch  the  fight  in  the  interests  of 
their  respective  men,  and  call  upon  the  referee 
for  a  decision  regarding  all  questions  of  fair- 
ness. The  referee  withholds  all  expressions  of 
opinion  until  he  is  appealed  to  by  the  umpires, 
or  until  the  close  of  the  fight.  The  referee 
and  umpires  are  so  placed  as  to  be  able  to 
watch  the  fight,  but  no  one  is  allowed  within 
the  ring  except  the  men  with  their  seconds 


PUGILISM 


and  bottle-holders.  The  men  are  stripped  be- 
fore the  fight  by  their  seconds  and  dressed  for 
the  contest.  The  dress  is  usually  knee  breech- 
es or  drawers,  stockings,  and  shoes,  the  soles 
of  the  shoes  being  provided  with  spikes  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  long  and  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  broad  at  the  points.  The  men  are  naked 
above  the  belt.  The  seconds  and  umpires  see 
to  it  that  no  improper  articles  are  used  in  the 
dress.  The  men  are  allowed  nothing  in  their 
hands,  and  no  resin  or  other  sticky  substance 
is  allowed  upon  the  fists.  One  of  the  umpires 
is  selected  to  act  as  time-keeper.  It  is  his  duty 
to  call  "  time  "  at  the  expiration  of  80  seconds 
after  each  round.  If  one  of  the  contestants 
fails  to  come  to  "the  scratch"  within  eight 
seconds  after  time  has  been  called,  he  is  con- 
sidered to  have  lost  the  fight.  The  scratch  is  a 
straight  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the 
ring  between  the  two  corners.  The  bottle- 
holder  is  provided  with  a  bottle  of  water  and 
a  sponge,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  second  and 
bottle-holder  to  take  their  man  to  his  corner 
at  the  close  of  each  round,  render  him  all 
needed  assistance  there,  and  bring  him  to  the 
scratch  when  time  is  called.  The  second  and 
the  bottle-holder  are  not  permitted  to  ap- 
proach their  man  during  a  round,  or  to  give 
him  advice  at  that  time,  and  are  cautioned 
not  to  injure  the  antagonist  when  they  pick 
up  their  man  at  the  close  of  a  round.  When 
the  man  cannot  come  to  the  scratch  at  the  call 
of  time,  the  second  usually  throws  up  the 
sponge  as  a  token  of  defeat,  and  the  victor 
takes  his  antagonist's  colors  as  a  trophy.  The 
men  being  ready,  time  is  called,  and  each  man 
is  conducted  to  his  side  of  the  scratch  by  his 
second.  The  men  shake  hands  with  each  oth- 
er, the  seconds  do  the  same,  the  latter  retire 
to  their  corners,  and  the  fight  begins.  When 
time  is  called  after  a  round,  the  principal  rises 
from  his  second's  knee,  and  walks  unaided  to 
the  scratch.  A  round  is  considered  closed 
when  one  or  both  men  are  down,  either  from 
a  knock-down  blow  or  from  being  thrown 
after  they  have  closed.  Unless  there  is  a 
knock-down,  the  rounds  usually  terminate  in 
a  clinch.  The  following  acts  are  considered 
foul :  wilfully  falling  without  receiving  a  blow 
at  the  time  of  falling,  except  that  one  may  slip 
from  the  grasp  of  his  antagonist  after  the  men 
have  closed;  butting  with  the  head,  gouging, 
scratching,  biting,  kicking,  or  falling  upon  the 
antagonist  when  he  is  down;  striking  the  an- 
tagonist below  the  belt,  or  grasping  him  by  the 
.  legs,  and  striking  the  antagonist  when  he  is 
down  (a  man  with  both  knees  or  with  one 
hand  and  one  knee  upon  the  ground  is  con- 
sidered down).  If  one  of  the  umpires  claim  a 
foul,  the  referee  may  caution  the  man  and  his 
second,  or  may  declare  that  the  man  against 
whom  the  foul  is  claimed  has  lost  the  fight. 
The  referee's  judgment  is  usually  based  upon  his 
opinion  as  to  whether  the  foul  was  intentional. 
In  case  of  disputes,  the  men  retire  to  their 
respective  corners  pending  the  decision  of  the 


referee.  In  case  any  circumstance  interfere 
with  the  progress  of  the  fight,  the  referee  may 
appoint  another  time  or  place  of  meeting,  at 
which  the  fight  is  to  be  continued ;  but  unless 
it  is  concluded  within  a  week,  the  battle  is 
considered  drawn.  The  referee  has  power  to 
cause  the  men  to  be  separated  when  one  is 
in  such  a  position  across  the  ropes  as  to  be 
helpless  or  in  danger  of  his  life. — The  first 
prize  fight  in  the  United  States  took  place  in 
1816,  between  Jacob  Hyer  (father  of  the  cele- 
brated Tom  Hyer)  and  Tom  Beasley,  the  result 
of  which  was  a  draw.  The  rules  of  the  ring 
were  observed  during  the  first  part  of  this 
fight,  but  it  soon  degenerated  into  rough-and- 
tumble,  and  friends  of  the  men  interfered  after 
one  of  Hyer's  arms  had  been  broken.  This 
was  followed  by  numerous  fights  of  a  more 
scientific  character.  Among  the  most  cele- 
brated was  the  fight  between  Tom  Hyer  and 
"  Yankee  "  Sullivan,  in  1849.  Numerous  other 
fights  occurred  between  1849  and  1860,  when 
the  so-called  great  international  fight  took  place 
in  England  between  John  0.  Heenan  of  New 
York  and  Tom  Sayers,  champion  of  England. 
This  was  very  severe,  and  the  general  opinion 
has  been  that  Heenan  was  the  winner,  although 
no  decision  was  given  by  the  referee,  the  fight 
being  interrupted  by  breaking  in  the  ring. — 
In  the  accounts  of  fights,  particularly  those 
published  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  English 
ring,  the  slang  words  and  expressions  used  are 
peculiar,  and  some  of  them  are  quite  de- 
scriptive and  suggestive.  The  following  are 
some  of  those  commonly  met  with  in  pugilistio 
writings:  "Bellows,"  lungs;  "bellowser,"  a 
blow  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  taking  one's 
breath  away;  "blinker,"  a  blackened  eye; 
"bore,"  to  press  a  man  down  by  force  of 
weight  and  blows;  "brain  canister,"  "knowl- 
edge box,"  "lob,"  "lolly,"  "nob,"  the  head; 
"  buff,"  the  bare  skin,  as  "  stripped  to  the 
buff;"  "cant,"  a  blow;  a  "cant  over  the 
kisser,"  a  blow  on  the  mouth;  "castor,"  a 
hat  (before  entering  the  ring,  the  pugilist  gen- 
erally tosses  in  his  "castor")  ;  "  chancery,"  a 
position  in  which  a  pugilist  gets  his  opponent's 
head  under  his  arm ;  "  claret,"  blood ;  "  claret 
jug,"  "  conk,"  "  nozzle,"  "  proboscis,"  "  snuff 
box,"  "snorer,"  "snout,"  the  nose;  "cork," 
to  give  a  bloody  nose;  "daylights,"  "gog- 
gles," "  peepers,"  "  squinters,"  the  eyes ;  "  fan- 
cy," a  general  name  for  pugilists;  "fibbing," 
striking  blows  in  quick  succession  at  close 
quarters;  "fives,"  "a  bunch  of  fives,"  the 
fist ;  "  fives  court,"  a  boxing  hall ;  "  send  to 
grass,"  to  knock  down ;  "  groggy,"  used  to 
describe  the  condition  of  a  pugilist  when  he 
comes  to  the  "  scratch  "  weak  on  his  "  pins;" 
"grubber,"  "kisser,"  " oration  trap,"  "potato 
trap,"  "  whistler,"  "  ivory  box,"  the  mouth ; 
"mauley,"  the  fist;  "mill,"  a  fight;  "mourn- 
ing"— "  to  put  the  eyes  in  mourning,"  to 
blacken  the  eyes;  "painted  peepers,"  black- 
ened eyes ;  "  pins,"  the  legs ;  "  portmanteau," 
the  chest;  "rib  roaster,"  a  blow  on  the  ribs; 


PUGILISM 


75 


"  smeller,"  a  blow  on  the  nose. — A  closely 
contested  prize  fight  taxes  a  man's  strength, 
endurance,  and  "pluck"  to  the  utmost;  and, 
however  courageous  he  may  he,  poor  physical 
condition  is  so  great  a  disadvantage  that  it 
can  hardly  he  overcome  in  the  face  of  good 
condition  of  an  antagonist,  the  skill,  courage, 
and  strength  of  the  men  being  equal.  It 
has  therefore  been  considered  of  the  last  im- 
portance to  bring  a  man  into  the  ring  per- 
fectly trained.  The  duration  of  rigid  training 
depends  largely  upon  the  previous  muscular 
condition ;  but  two  or  three  months  are  usu- 
ally sufficient.  Without  going  into  the  minu- 
tiae of  the  different  training  systems,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  indicate  the  general  method  and 
the  main  objects  to  be  attained.  Fat  is  inert, 
useless  matter  during  a  fight,  and  is  to  be 
eliminated  from  the  body  as  far  as  is  possible 
without  depressing  the  nervous  energy.  The 
muscular  system  should  be  developed  to  the 
highest  degree.  The  nervous  system  should 
act  promptly  and  perfectly,  a  condition  essen- 
tial to  endurance,  which  is  probably  the  most 
important  quality  in  a  pugilist.  The  respira- 
tion should  be  free  and  performed  with  the 
smallest  expenditure  of  nervous  and  muscular 
force.  Finally,  the  temper  and  judgment  should 
be  clear,  the  skill  as  great  as  possible,  and  the 
man  should  have  the  moral  and  physical  force 
to  fight  to  the  last  extremity  of  endurance.  To 
secure  these  ends,  the  diet  is  restricted  to  lean 
and  easily  digestible  meats,  stale  bread  or  toast, 
a  small  quantity  of  vegetables,  and  a  very  mod- 
erate quantity  of  liquids ;  but  the  amount  of 
food  should  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  appetite, 
never  allowing  the  nervous  system  to  become 
depressed.  The  exercise  is  such  as  to  develop 
the  general  muscular  system,  particularly  the 
muscles  employed  in  hitting,  and  the  legs.  To 
secure  perfect  condition  of  the  nervous  power, 
all  sources  of  mental  irritation  are  avoided, 
sexual  intercourse  is  interdicted,  and  stimu- 
lants, if  taken  at  all,  are  used  with  care  and  in 
very  small  quantity.  Tea  may  be  use'd  mod- 
erately once  a  day,  without  sugar  or  milk;  a 
glass  of  sherry  with  a  raw  egg  or  a  glass  of 
old  ale  may  be  taken  once  a  day,  though  it  is 
generally  best  to  avoid  alcohol.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  secure  perfect  and  tran- 
quil sleep,  which  is  a  good  indication  of  the 
condition  of  the  nervous  system.  If  a  man 
is  in  good  health,  purgatives,  with  which  the 
training  sometimes  begins,  are  unnecessary. 
The  bowels  may  be  kept  regular  by  varying 
the  diet,  and  oat-meal  gruel  is  frequently  used 
with  this  end  in  view.  Perfect  action  of  the 
skin  should  be  secured  by  proper  ablutions 
after  exercise.  Fat  may  sometimes  be  removed 
from  particular  parts  by  local  sweating  with 
bandages.  It  is  especially  important  to  remove 
fat  from  the  face  and  to  harden  the  skin  and 
subcutaneous  cellular  tissue,  so  that  the  "  pun- 
ishment "  will  not  puff  up  the  face,  particular- 
ly about  the  eyes,  which  sometimes  become 
closed  by  swelling  under  the  blows  of  the 


antagonist.  A  man  is  not  in  good  condition 
unless  the  skin  be  bright,  clear,  and  free  from 
blotches  or  pimples.  A  constitutional  taint, 
such  as  syphilis,  usually  shows  itself  during  a 
course  of  severe  training,  and  the  man  breaks 
down  or  "goes  stale."  The  wind  and  endu- 
rance are  developed  by  boxing  and  running. 
The  man  boxes  with  his  trainer  or  strikes  at 
the  bag  for  several  hours  each  day,  and  runs  at 
a  moderate  pace  from  six  to  ten  miles,  doing 
a  quarter  or  half  of  a  mile  at  the  top  of  his 
speed.  This  shakes  the  abdominal  organs, 
promotes  the  removal  of  fat  from  the  omen- 
turn,  and  gives  play  to  the  diaphragm,  while 
at  the  same  time  it  gives  agility  and  power  to 
the  legs.  The  trainer  should  have  his  man  un- 
der complete  subjection,  and  never  leave  him, 
night  or  day,  during  the  whole  course  of  train- 
ing. He  learns,  if  possible,  the  points  and 
style  of  fighting  of  his  adversary,  and  general- 
ly fixes  upon  a  plan  of  battle.  He  boxes  with 
his  man  constantly,  hits  him  hard,  and  accus- 
toms him  to  bear  punishment  without  loss  of 
temper  or  judgment.  His  man  should  go  into 
the  ring  confident  that  he  will  win  the  battle. 
For  at  least  24  hours  immediately  preceding 
the  fight  the  man  should  rest.  Many  trainers 
bring  down  the  weight  of  their  men  by  diet 
and  sweating  below  the  point  at  which  they 
are  to  fight,  depressing  the  system  somewhat 
at  first,  and  then  allow  the  weight  to  come  up 
to  the  proper  point,  so  that  they  fight  when 
the  system  is  at  its  maximum  of  reaction  and 
in  perfect  condition.  In  the  articles  of  agree- 
ment of  a  prize  fight,  the  weight  at  which  the 
men  are  to  fight  is  iisually  stipulated.  When 
no  such  stipulation  is  made,  the  men  are  said 
to  fight  at  "  catch  weight,"  or  at  such  weight 
as  they  may  think  proper.  A  man  may  fight 
at  less  than  the  stipulated  weight,  but  he  is 
ruled  out  if  he  is  over  weight.  Pugilists  are 
usually  classed  with  regard  to  weight  as  fol- 
lows :  a  man  of  115  Ibs.  or  under  is  called 
a  feather  weight;  between  115  and  130  Ibs., 
a  light  weight ;  between  130  and  150  Ibs., 
a  middle  weight ;  at  150  Ibs.  or  over,  a  heavy 
weight. — Boxing,  which  is  practised  for  ex- 
ercise and  amusement  and  in  training  for  a 
prize  fight,  is  conducted  according  to  the  rules 
of  the  ring,  and  the  hands  are  provided  with 
gloves  padded  with  hair  on  the  back  to  the 
thickness  of  two  or  three  inches,  so  that  the 
blows  are  much  less  severe  than  with  the  naked 
fist.  Glove  fights  are  sometimes  practised  at 
public  exhibitions  in  exact  accordance  with 
pugilistic  rules,  and  these  are  frequently  quite 
severe.  Occasionally  the  gloves  are  blackened 
so  as  to  leave  a  mark  when  a  man  is  hit,  each 
blow  being  counted  by  the  judges.  Boxing 
constitutes  the  greatest  part  of  so-called  pu- 
gilistic science,  and  different  professors  of  the 
"manly  art"  usually  have  different  method? 
or  styles.  The  most  important  principles  oi 
boxing  are  as  follows.  The  position  is  with 
the  left  foot  forward,  the  feet  separated  16  or 
18  in.  according  to  the  size  of  the  man.  The 


76 


PUGILISM 


weight  rests  mainly  upon  the  right  leg,  the 
left  leg  being  free  to  advance.  The  body  is 
erect,  the  head  easily  poised  and  erect,  so  that 
the  movements  are  free,  and  the  hands  are 
placed  at  about  the  level  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  chest,  with  the  fists  closed  and  the  arms 
slightly  bent.  The  left  hand  is  somewhat  in 
advance  of  and  lower  than  the  right,  and  is 
used  mainly  for  striking  when  the  antagonist  is 
just  within  distance.  The  right  hand  is  used  in 
guarding  blows  of  the  left  and  in  close  work. 
A  boxer  keeps  his  eyes  constantly  fixed  upon 
the  eyes  of  his  opponent,  ready  to  hit  or  guard 
when  occasion  offers.  Sparring  technically 
means  the  movements  of  the  hands  to  and  fro, 
which  are  constantly  made  when  boxers  are  in 
position.  The  main  point  in  striking  a  first 
blow,  or  "  lead-off,"  is  to  deliver  the  blow  with- 
out any  "show"  or  warning,  and  so  quickly 
that  the  opponent  cannot  defend  himself.  In 
boxing,  feints  are  frequently  made  to  direct 
the  attention  of  the  adversary  from  the  place 
where  the  real  blow  is  to  be  delivered.  The 
blows  of  all  good  boxers  are  struck  straight 
from  the  shoulder,  and  the  most  effective 
blows  are  those  into  which  the  whole  weight 
of  the  body  is  thrown.  It  is  not  correct  judg- 
ment to  strike  a  blow  unless  the  distance  and 
position  of  the  opponent  be  such  that  the  blow 
will  probably  "  get  in."  A  "  chopping  "  blow 
is  one  in  which  the  fist  is  brought  from  above 
downward.  This  blow  is  frequently  used  by 
good  boxers  in  returns,  but  is  not  a  good  blow 
as  a  lead-off.  The  great  point  in  striking  is 
to  hit  quickly,  straight,  and  as  hard  as  pos- 
sible. One  solid  blow  is  worth  a  hundred 
light  taps.  Rounding  blows  are  seldom  if 
ever  used  by  good  boxers,  as  these  are  not  effi- 
cient and  they  expose  the  person.  The  most 
efficient  blows  are  about  the  face  and  neck,  on 
the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  over  the  lower 
ribs.  All  blows  below  the  waist  are  foul. 
Blows  are  avoided  by  guarding,  jumping  back, 
dodging  with  the  head,  &c.  Dodging  the  head 
is  very  useful,  and  is  practised  in  making  many 
of  tho  so-called  "  points."  A  very  slight  move- 
ment of  the  arm  upward  in  front  of  the  face 
is  sufficient  to  cause  a  powerful  blow  to  glance 
off.  A  movement  of  the  arm  downward  across 
the  body  wards  off  a  body  blow.  In  hitting, 
the  large  knuckles  should  strike,  and  the  back 
of  the  hand  should  be  turned  downward.  In 
real  fights  points  are  seldom  used,  and  the 
practical  work  is  done  by  plain  hitting  and 
guarding  of  the  head  and  body.  The  "  coun- 
ter "  is  a  very  effective  blow,  as  it  meets  the 
man  while  he  is  advancing.  This  is  a  great 
practical  point  with  good  boxers.  The  man 
watches  his  opponent  closely,  and  when  he 
thinks  he  is  about  to  lead  off  he  strikes,  hoping 
that  his  blow  will  get  in  before  that  of  his 
adversary.  At  the  same  time  he  endeavors  to 
guard  his  adversary's  blow.  A  plain  counter 
is  when  both  men  strike  at  nearly  the  same 
instant,  with  corresponding  hands.  If  a  man 
be  remarkably  quick  in  countering,  he  often 


demoralizes  his  adversary,  who  becomes  afraid 
to  make  a  full  lead-off,  under  tho  apprehension 
of  the  counter  blow.  A  man  may  counter 
either  upon  his  opponent's  head  or  body.  In 
countering,  the  opponent's  blow  is  sometimes 
avoided  by  dodging  the  head  to  one  side.  If 
the  head  be  dodged  backward,  the  force  of  the 
counter  is  lost,  and  the  opponent  may  get  in 
a  severe  blow  in  following  up.  When  the  op- 
ponent has  received  a  heavy  blow,  it  is  well 
to  follow  up  the  advantage  with  close  work 
and  to  keep  the  man  moving,  so  that  he  has 
no  time  to  recover  himself.  Close  work,  rapid 
blows  at  close  quarters,  or  "  fibbing,"  requires 
great  skill  and  judgment.  The  blows  in  close 
work  should  always  be  straight,  as  they  protect 
from  the  blows  of  the  adversary.  Such  quick 
work,  however,  is  a  great  strain  on  the  wind 
and  endurance.  Right-hand  work  is  very  ef- 
fective in  close  quarters.  In  making  points 
the  right  hand  is  very  useful.  A  man  dodges 
his  head  to  one  side  to  avoid  his  opponent's 
lead-off  with  the  left,  and  strikes  his  opponent 
with  the  right  in  the  face  (called  a  cross  coun- 
ter, because  the  right,  arm  crosses  the  adver- 
sary's left),  or  he  strikes  his  opponent  in  the 
body.  Another  point  is  to  drop  the  head 
quickly  under  the  arm  of  the  opponent  when 
he  strikes,  and  to  deliver  blows  right  and  left 
when  the  head  is  raised.  Another  point  is  to 
strike  the  opponent's  left-hand  blow  aside  with 
the  palm  of  the  left,  and  immediately  strike 
with  the  right.  Another  is  to  strike  the  left- 
hand  lead-off  up  with  the  left  elbow,  and  strike 
immediately  a  chopping  blow  with  the  same 
hand  ("peak  and  chop").  Numerous  points 
such  as  those  just  mentioned  are  used,  particu- 
larly in  "  fancy  "  boxing ;  but  they  can  hardly 
be  described  clearly,  even  with  the  aid  of  illus- 
tration by  drawings.  Most  of  these  "  points  " 
require  great  confidence,  as  the  man  advances 
to  meet  his  opponent  as  he  strikes,  avoiding 
the  blows  mainly  by  dodging,  or  "  head  work. 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  boxing  without  a 
master.  A  good  boxer  must  have  great  prac- 
tice and  must  box  with  many  different  per- 
sons. Clinching,  chancery,  and  throwing  are 
fair,  so  long  as  a  man  does  not  grasp  his  op- 
ponent's legs ;  but  these  manoeuvres  are  not 
often  practised  in  friendly  boxing  with  gloves. 
A  man  steps  in  with  his  left  foot,  throws  his 
left  arm  around  the  neck  or  chest  of  his  oppo- 
nent, and  tosses  him  backward,  the  buttocks 
being  crossed.  This  is  called  the  "  cross-but- 
tock throw."  Another  throw  is  to  step  in 
with  the  right  foot,  throw  the  right  arm  around 
the  opponent's  waist,  and  throw  him  over  the 
hips  (the  "  hip  throw  ").  Many  throws  and 
trips  are  used  in  fighting,  and  each  has  its 
counter  movement.  Throwing  in  the  ring 
differs  from  ordinary  wrestling,  as  a  man 
grasps  his  opponent  wherever  he  can  above 
the  belt.  The  different  kinds  of  chancery  con- 
sist in  rushing  in  when  the  opponent  strikes, 
or  in  close  quarters,  and  throwing  either  arm 
around  his  neck,  striking  him  as  hard  and  as 


PUGIN 


PULASKI 


77 


often  as  possible  in  this  position.  Each  chan- 
cery has  its  counter  movement,  by  which  a 
man  may  sometimes  extricate  himself.  The 
"  upper  cut "  is  generally  used  in  close  quar- 
ters. It  consists  in  striking  from  below  up- 
ward with  the  back  of  either  hand,  hitting 
the  man  under  the  chin  or  in  the  face,  accord- 
ing to  his  position.  Some  boxers  take  a  posi- 
tion occasionally  with  the  right  foot  advanced, 
instead  of  the  left;  but  this  position  is  not 
considered  good,  and  it  is  much  more  difficult, 
with  the  right  foot  advanced,  to  protect  the 
body. — See  Egan,  "  Boxiana,  a  Sketch  of  An- 
cient and  Modern  Pugilism  "  (5  vols.,  London, 
1818)  ;  Brandt,  "  Habet !  A  Short  Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  the  Land  as  it  affects  Pugilism  " 
(London,  1857) ;  "  Fistiana  "  (24th  ed.,  London, 
1863) ;  Maclaren,  "  Training,  in  Theory  and 
Practice"  (London,  1866);  Harrison,  "Ath- 
letic Training  and  Health"  (London,  1869); 
Flint,  "  Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  374 
et  seq.  (New  York,  1870) ;  "  The  Slang  Dic- 
tionary "  (London,  1870) ;  and  "  American 
Fistiana,  from  1816  to  1873"  (New  York, 
1874).  "  Bell's  Life  in  London  "  contains  ac- 
counts of  the  most  important  English  prize 
fights,  and  Wilkes's  "Spirit  of  the  Times" 
(New  York)  of  English  and  American  fights. 
The  "Spirit  of  the  Times"  for  May  5,  1860, 
contains  a  full  account  of  the  fight  between 
Heenan  and  Sayers. 

PCGIN.  I.  Augustas,  an  English  architectural 
draughtsman  of  French  extraction,  born  in 
Normandy  in  1769,  died  in  London,  Dec.  19, 
1832.  He  made  many  architectural  drawings 
for  engraving,  but  is  best  known  by  a  series  of 
elaborate  works  on  the  Gothic  architecture  of 
the  middle  ages.  These  comprise  "  Specimens 
of  Gothic  Architecture  selected  from  various 
ancient  Edifices  in  England,"  &c.  (2  vols.  fol. 
and  4to,  with  114  plates,  1821-'3),  the  descrip- 
tions of  which  were  written  chiefly  by  E.  J. 
Wilson;  "Architectural  Illustrations  of  the 
Buildings  of  London"  (2  vols.  4to,  1824),  and 
"  Specimens  of  the  Architectural  Antiquities 
of  Normandy,"  &c.  (1825-'8),  both  published 
in  conjunction  with  John  Britton  the  anti- 
quary. He  also  prepared,  with  the  assistance 
of  his  son,  "  Gothic  Ornaments  selected  from 
various  Buildings  in  England  and  France." 
II.  Angnstin  Welby  \ortlimoro,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  London,  March  1,  1812,  died 
at  Ramsgate,  Sept.  14,  1852.  He  designed  or- 
namental Gothic  furniture  and  metal  work, 
and  published  "  Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture 
in  the  Style  of  the  15th  Century  "  (1835),  "  De- 
signs for  Iron  and  Brass  Work  in  the  Style  of 
the  15th  and  16th  Centuries"  (1835),  "De- 
signs for  Gold  and  Silversmiths'  Work  "  (1836), 
and  "Ancient  Timber  Houses"  (1836),  all  of 
which  had  a  material  influence  in  promoting  a 
revival  of  the  taste  for  Gothic  forms.  He  also 
published  "  Contrasts,  or  a  Parallel  betwen  the 
Noble  Edifices  of  the  14th  and  15th  Centuries 
and  similar  Buildings  of  the  present  Decay  of 
Taste  "  (2d  ed.,  1841).  Becoming  a  convert  to 


the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  Gothic  architec- 
ture, and  thereafter  invariably  declined  to  de- 
sign for  Protestant  places  of  worship,  and  sel- 
dom accepted  commissions  from  Protestants. 
The  chief  exceptions  to  this  rule  were  the  gate- 
way to  Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  and  the  elab- 
orate mediaeval  ornamentation  of  the  new  par- 
liament houses.  He  purchased  an  estate  at 
Ramsgate,  and  erected  a  house,  church,  schools, 
&c.,  all  of  which  were  dedicated  to  St.  Augus- 
tine. His  chief  publications  besides  those  men- 
tioned are :  "  Examples  of  Gothic  Architecture  " 
(3  vols.  4to,  225  plates,  1838) ;  "  True  Princi- 
ples of  Pointed  or  Christian  Architecture " 
(1841);  "An  Apology  for  the  Revival  of 
Christian  Architecture"  (1843);  and  "Glos- 
sary of  Ecclesiastical  Ornament "  (1844). — See 
"  Recollections  of  A.  W.  N.  Pugin,  and  his 
Father,-  Augustus  Pugin,  with  Notices  of  their 
Works,"  by  Benjamin  Ferrey,  with  an  appen- 
dix by  E.  Sheridan  Purcell  (1861),  and  "Pho- 
tographs from  500  sketches  by  the  younger 
Pugin"  (2  vols.,  1865).  III.  Edwin  Welby,  an 
English  architect,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
March  11,  1834,  died  in  London,  June  7,  1875. 
He  completed  his  father's  unfinished  works, 
and  designed  hundreds  of  churches  and  oth- 
er public  buildings  in  England  and  Ireland. 
Among  his  works  are  the  orphanages  of  Hel- 
lingly  and  Bletchingly,  the  Carmelite  church 
at  Kensington,  and  the  cathedral  at  Queens- 
town,  near  Cork,  in  conjunction  with  Mr. 
AsTilin.  In  1873  he  was  involved  in  a  suit  for 
libel  with  the  painter  Millais. 

PUJOL,  Abel  de.     See  ABEL  DE  PIJJOL. 

ITLASKI,  the  name  of  counties  in  seven  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Vir- 
ginia, bordered  E.  partly  by  New  river,  which, 
turning  W.,  intersects  it  toward  the  south, 
Little  river,  a  branch  of  New,  completing  the 
E.  boundary ;  area,  about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,538,  of  whom  1,809  were  colored.  It 
lies  between  two  mountain  ranges,  Walker 
mountain  on  the  northwest  and  the  Blue  Ridge 
on  the  southeast.  The  surface  is  broken  and 
the  soil  generally  fertile.  The  Atlantic,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Ohio  railroad  passes  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  38,411 
bushels  of  wheat,  96,690  of  Indian  corn,  27,- 
301  of  oats,  2,817  tons  of  hay,  18,580  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  9,605  of  wool,  and  53,100  of  butter. 
There  were  1,104  horses,  1,147  milch  cows, 
4,169  other  cattle,  2,018  sheep,  and  4,347 
swine.  Capital,  Newbern.  II.  A  central 
county  of  Georgia,  intersected  by  the  Ocmul- 
gee  and  Little  Ocmulgee  rivers,  and  drained 
by  their  branches ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  11,940,  of  whom  5,948  were 
colored.  It  has  a  level  surface  toward  the 
south  and  rolling  toward  the  north.  The  Ma- 
con  and  Brunswick  railroad  and  the  Hawkins- 
ville  branch  intersect  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  215,375  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  13,646  of  oats,  20,432  of  sweet  potatoes, 
17,320  Ibs.  of  butter,  15,444  of  wool,  and  6,617 


78 


PULASKI 


bales  of  cotton.  There  were  855  horses,  940 
mules  and  asses,  2,868  milch  cows,  6,230  other 
cattle,  6,767  sheep,  and  12,728  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Hawkinsville.  III.  A  central  county  of 
Arkansas,  intersected  by  the  Arkansas  river 
and  drained  by  its  branches ;  area,  1,200  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  32,066,  of  whom  5,948  were 
colored.  In  the  south  the  surface  is  level,  and 
in  the  north  and  west  hilly,  and  the  soil  is 
moderately  fertile.  Lead,  slate,  and  excellent 
granite  are  found.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Memphis  and  Little  Rock,  the  Little  Rock  and 
Fort  Smith,  and  the  Cairo  and  Fulton  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
9,673  bushels  of  wheat,  516,519  of  Indian  corn, 
16,442  of  oats,  26,252  of  Irish  and  41,743 
of  sweet  potatoes,  161,310  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
14,891  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,888 
horses,  1,913  mules  and  asses,  4,341  milch 
cows,  5,514  other  cattle,  2,288  sheep,  and 
24,977  swine ;  2  manufactories  of  boots  and 
shoes,  1  of  carriages  and  wagons,  4  of  clothing, 
8  of  furniture,  2  of  iron  castings,  2  of  ma- 
chinery, 2  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  3  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  cigars,  1 
planing  mill,  nnd  10  saw  mills.  Capital,  Lit- 
tle Rock,  wliioh  is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 
IV.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Kentucky,  bordered  S. 
by  the  Cumberland  river,  and  E.  by  the  Rock 
Castle;  area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
17,670,  of  whom  1,075  were  colored.  It  has  a 
diversified  surface,  with  several  elevated  ranges, 
and  contains  iron,  lead,  and  coal.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  43,918  bushels  of 
wheat,  466,379  of  Indian  corn,  176,016  of  oats, 
34,790  of  Irish  and  21,709  of  sweet  potatoes, 
279,716  Ibs.  of  butter,  37,341  of  wool,  47,749  of 
tobacco,  and  2,252  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
4,854  horses,  1,187  mules  and  asses,  4,631 
milch  cows,  1,055  working  oxen,  4,747  other 
cattle,  21,579  sheep,  and  22,570  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Somerset.  V.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Indiana, 
intersected  by  Tippecanoe  river ;  area,  435  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,801.  It  has  a  nearly  level 
surface,  about  equally  divided  between  prairie 
and  oak  openings,  and  a  generally  fertile  soil. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Louisville,  New  Albany, 
and  Chicago  railroads.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  87,640  bushels  of  wheat,  12,035 
of  rye,  60,512  of  Indian  corn,  25,186  of  oats, 
50,102  of  potatoes,  147,015  Ibs.  of  butter,  22,- 
266  of  wool,  and  14,442  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,576  horses,  8,341  milch  cows,  5,427 
other  cattle,  7,823  sheep,  and  5,008  swine. 
Capital,  Winamac.  VI.  A  S.  county  of  Illi- 
nois, separated  from  Kentucky  by  the  Ohio 
river  and  bordered  N.  W.  by  Cache  river ; 
area,  about  175  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,752. 
It  has  a  level  and  well  wooded  surface  and  a 
fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Illinois 
Central  and  the  Cairo  and  Vincennes  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  44,922 
bushels  of  wheat,  195,735  of  Indian  corn,  16,- 
511  of  oats,  24,652  of  potatoes,  and  157,000  Ibs. 
of  tobacco.  There  were  871  horses,  842  milch 


cows,  1,736  other  cattle,  1,880  sheep,  and 
5,715  swine.  Capital,  Mound  City.  VII.  A 
S.  county  of  Missouri,  intersected  by  the  Gas- 
conade river  and  drained  by  several  of  its 
branches;  area,  1,332  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,714,  of  whom  25  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  hilly  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  28,037 
bushels  of  wheat,  201,019  of  Indian  corn,  20,- 
873  of  oats,  9,020  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  7,150  of 
wool,  75,580  of  butter,  and  6,052  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,481  horses, 
1,271  milch  cows,  2,949  other  cattle,  3,886 
sheep,  and  10,154  swine.  Capital,  Waynesville. 
Pl'LASKI,  Casimlr  (Pol.  KAZIMIERZ  I  YI.AWSKI), 
count,  a  Polish  soldier,  born  in  Lithuania, 
March  4,  1747,  died  from  a  wound  received  in 
the  attack  on  Savannah,  Oct.  11,  1779.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Polish  nobleman,  the  starosta 
of  Wareck,  who  was  the  chief  organizer  of  the 
confederation  of  Bar,  which  was  signed  by  his 
three  sons  (1768).  Casimir,  who  had  acquired 
military  experience  in  the  service  of  Duke 
Charles  of  Courland,  entered  heartily  into  the 
war  for  the  liberation  of  his  country.  Forced 
to  cross  the  Dniester,  he  took  refuge  after  the 
storming  of  Bar  in  the  monastery  of  Berditchev 
with  300  men,  and  after  sustaining  a  siege 
of  several  weeks  capitulated  on  the  condition 
that  the  garrison  should  be  set  at  liberty.  Ho 
himself  was  not  freed  until  he  had  pledged 
himself  to  bear  proposals  for  a  reconciliation 
to  the  chiefs  of  the  confederates ;  but  as  soon 
as  he  was  set  at  liberty  he  refused  to  keep  a 
promise  extorted  by  force.  Joining  his  father 
in  Moldavia,  ho  made  incursions  across  the 
Dniester,  and  attacked  the  Russians  and  forti- 
fied posts  within  the  Polish  borders.  He  car- 
ried on  a  desultory  warfare  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  until  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
gain  possession  of  the  person  of  King  Stanis- 
las Augustus,  in  1771,  caused  a  sentence  of 
outlawry  and  death  to  be  passed  against  him, 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  his  intention  to 
assassinate  the  monarch.  The  coalition  of 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  for  the  conquest 
and  division  of  Poland  was  soon  after  com- 
pleted, and  resistance  became  hopeless.  Pu- 
laski,  who  had  lost  his  father  and  brothers  in 
the  war,  made  his  way  to  Turkey,  and  after- 
ward went  to  France,  where  he  offered  his 
services  in  the  American  cause  to  Franklin. 
With  high  recommendations  to  Washington  he 
arrived  at  Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1777. 
He  at  first  served  in  the  army  as  a  volunteer ; 
but  four  days  after  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine, 
in  which  he  distinguished  himself,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  congress  commander  of  the  cavalry 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier  general.  After  five 
months  he  resigned  his  command,  and  entered 
the  main  army  at  Valley  Forge  in  March, 
1778,  where  he  proposed  to  organize  an  inde- 
pendent corps  of  cavalry  and  light  infantry, 
to  which  congress  assented.  By  October  330 
men  were  in  this  corps,  which  was  called  Pu- 


PULCI 


PULSE 


79 


laski's  legion.  With  this  he  marched,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1779,  to  South  Carolina,  reached  Charles- 
ton May  8,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  project 
of  surrendering  the  place  to  the  British  army 
then  before  the  city.  On  May  11  he  attacked 
with  his  legion  the  British  advance  guard,  and 
was  repulsed  with  considerable  loss  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  he  himself  escaping 
with  difficulty  to  the  American  lines.  In  Sep- 
tember the  French  under  Count  d'Estaing  and 
the  Americans  prepared  to  besiege  Savannah. 
On  Oct.  9  it  was  determined  to  carry  the  town 
by  assault.  Pulaski  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  French  and  American  cavalry,  and  during 
the  engagement  received  a  mortal  wound.  He 
was  taken  on  board  the  brig  Wasp,  which  lay 
in  the  Savannah  river,  died  after  lingering  two 
days,  and  was  buried  in  the  river.  A  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  voted  by  congress  has 
never  been  erected,  but  one  was  raised  by  the 
citizens  of  Georgia  in  Savannah. 

PULCI,  Lnigi,  an  Italian  poet,  born  in  Flor- 
ence in  1431,  died  there  in  1487.  He  held  an 
inferior  office  under  the  republic,  and  was  one 
of  those  for  whom  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  kept  a 
place  at  his  table.  His  Morgante  Maygiore, 
treating  the  legend  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
paladins,  was  first  published  in  Florence  in 
1481.  One  canto  of  it  was  translated  into 
English  by  Lord  Byron.  Pulci  also  wrote 
sonnets  and  other  short  pieces. 

PULKOVA.     See  OBSERVATORY. 

PULLEY.     See  MECHANICS,  vol.  xi.,  p.  327. 

PULMONAR1A.     See  LUNGWORT. 

PULQUE,  an  aboriginal  Mexican  name  for 
the  fermented  juice  of  agave  Americana,  the 
American  aloe,  maguey,  or  century  plant  (see 
AGAVE),  which  is  cultivated  in  southern  Mexico, 
as  well  as  in  Central  and  South  America, 
for  this  and  other  products.  The  plant  can- 
not be  utilized  for  pulque  until  it  has  com- 
pleted its  growth  and  is  about  to  flower,  a 
time  which  varies  with  the  soil  and  location 
from  5  to  15  years.  The  sap  stored  up  in 
the  long  and  very  fleshy  leaves  for  the  rapid 
development  of  the  flower  stalk  abounds  in 
sugar  and  mucilage.  As  soon  as  there  are  in- 
dications of  the  shooting  up  of  a  flower  stalk 
from  the  centre  of  the  plant,  the  central  leaves 
and  forming  bud  are  cut  out,  a  cavity  being 
formed  in  their  place,  into  which  the  sap  will 
flow ;  the  cavity  is  shaded  by  drawing  over 
some  of  the  outer  leaves  and  tying  their  points. 
A  vigorous  plant  will  yield  about  two  gallons 
a  day  for  four  or  five  months ;  as  it  quickly 
ferments,  the  juice  is  gathered  from  the  plant 
three  times  a  day  in  earthen  jars,  which  are 
emptied  into  reservoirs  made  of  raw  hide 
tacked  to  a  wooden  frame.  A  portion  of  the 
juice  is  disposed  of  as  pulque,  i.  e.,  simply  fer- 
mented, while  the  greater  part  is  distilled  to 
form  a  strong  alcoholic  liquor,  called  pulque 
brandy,  aguardiente,  mezcal,  and  by  other 
names.  Pulque  is  a  favorite  drink  with  the 
Mexicans,  and  in  the  towns  is  sold  in  the 
market  places  and  at  shops  called  pulquerias, 
690  VOL.  xiv.— 6 


where  the  strong  liquor  is  also  kept.  Taken 
in  an  early  stage  of  fermentation,  when  the 
liquid  is  brisk  with  the  bubbles  of  carbonic 
acid  that  are  given  off,  pulque  is  a  pleasant 
drink,  not  unlike  spruce  beer;  but  if  allowed 
to  complete  its  fermentation,  which  it  does  in 
three  or  four  days,  and  reach  the  condition  in 
which  Mexicans  like  it  best,  no  uneducated 
stomach  can  tolerate  it;  it  contracts  the  odor 
of  putrid  animal  matter  from  the  skin  in  which 
it  is  fermented,  and  is  exceedingly  repulsive. 
Among  the  Mexicans  the  pulque  from  certain 
localities  or  plantations  is  especially  esteemed, 
as  among  Europeans  preference  is  given  to  the 
wine  of  certain  vineyards.  When  the  flow  of 
sap  ceases,  the  plant  dies,  but  not  without  hav- 
ing formed  innumerable  offsets  by  means  of 
which  the  plantation  may  be  renewed. 

PULSATILLA.     See  ANEMONE. 

PULSE  (Lat.  pulsare,  to  beat),  the  throbbing 
of  the  arteries  caused  by  the  intermitting  im- 
pulses communicated  to  the  blood  by  the 
heart's  contractions,  propagated  as  a  wave  by 
the  elasticity  of  the  arteries,  perceptible  to  the 
touch  in  all  but  the  smallest  vessels,  and  visi- 
ble when  they  are  superficial  or  exposed ;  the 
pulsation  being  nearly  synchronous  with  the 
contraction  of  the  left  ventricle.  At  each  pul- 
sation the  capacity  of  the  artery  is  augmented 
by  an  increase  of  diameter  and  by  a  partial 
elongation,  the  vessel  being  thereby  lifted  from 
its  bed ;  this  increase  has  been  estimated  for 
the  carotid  artery  as  -fa  part,  but  this  can  be 
only  an  approximation.  The  pulsation  of  the 
larger  arteries  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  chest,  as  for  example  the  carotids,  is 
perceptibly  synchronous  with  that  of  the 
heart ;  but  for  those  at  a  distance,  a  slight  in- 
terval of  time  is  required  for  its  propagation. 
Thus  the  pulse  of  the  radial  artery  at  the 
wrist  is  sensibly  later  than  that  of  the  heart, 
and  that  of  the  posterior  tibial  artery,  at  the 
ankle  joint,  later  still.  But  this  interval  in 
each  instance  is  very  short,  and  requires  care- 
ful attention  to  be  distinguished.  The  pulse  is 
liable  to  vary,  within  the  limits  of  health,  from 
the  diversities  of  age,  sex,  stature,  muscular 
exertion,  condition  of  the  mind,  state  of  the 
digestive  process,  and  period  of  the  day.  The 
following  table  is  given  by  Carpenter  as  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  average  frequency  of  the 
pulse  per  minute  at  different  ages: 

In  the  foetus 140  to  150 

Newly  born  infant 180  to  140 

During  the    1st  year 115  to  180 

"               2d      u    100  to  115 

3d      "    95  to  105 

"                7th  to  14th  year 80  to    90 

"              14th  to  21st     "   75  to    85 

"             21st  to  60th     "  70  to    75 

In  old  age 75  to    80 

According  to  Dr.  Guy,  the  pulse  of  the  adult 
female  usually  exceeds  that  of  the  adult  male 
of  the  same  age  by  10  to  14  beats  a  minute; 
according  to  Volkmann,  the  pulse  is  less  fre- 
quent as  the  stature  is  greater,  about  four  beats 
for  half  a  foot  in  height.  It  is  well  known 


80 


PULSE 


that  muscular  exertion  increases  the  frequency 
of  the  pulse.  The  effect  of  posture  has  thus 
been  expressed  by  Dr.  Guy : 


Average  temti  per  minute  In 

Standing. 

Sitting. 

Lying. 

81 

71 

66 

91 

84 

79 

According  to  this,  the  difference  between  stand- 
ing and  lying  in  the  former  is  one  fifth  of  the 
whole,  in  the  latter  one  eighth ;  when  this 
change  is  effected  by  muscular  effort  the  vari- 
ation is  greater,  accounting  for  many  cases  of 
sudden  death  in  persons  with  disease  of  the 
heart  or  in  very  weak  conditions  on  quickly 
assuming  an  erect  position.  Mental  excite- 
ment, the  digestive  process,  alcoholic  drinks, 
and  elevation  above  the  sea  level,  accelerate 
the  pulse ;  as  a  general  rule,  though  with  nu- 
merous exceptions,  it  is  more  frequent  in  the 
morning  than  in  the  evening,  and  in  sanguine 
than  in  lymphatic  temperaments.  The  pulse 
is  slower  during  sleep,  and  from  the  effect  of 
rest,  diet,  cold,  venesection,  and  the  action  of 
many  drugs,  especially  digitalis,  aconite,  and 
hellebore.  The  pulse  may  be  counted  in  any 
artery,  and  in  a  manner  familiar  to  all,  but 
most  conveniently  in  the  radial  at  the  wrist,  in 
the  carotids,  temporals,  brachial,  or  femoral. 
The  average  numerical  proportion  of  the  arte- 
rial pulsations  to  the  respiratory  movements 
is  4  or  5  to  1 ;  when  this  proportion  is  widely 
departed  from,  there  is  either  some  general 
diseased  condition  of  the  system  accompanied 
with  fever,  some  obstruction  to  the  proper 
lUTHtion  of  the  blood,  or  some  disorder  in  the 
nervous  system ;  in  inflammatory  or  acute 
diseases,  the  pulse  may  rise  to  120  and  160 
in  the  adult,  and  so  that  it  cannot  be  counted 
in  the  child;  in  pneumonia,  with  the  quick- 
ened pulse  the  number  of  respirations  in- 
creases more  rapidly,  the  above  proportion 
becoming  as  3  or  even  2  to  1 ;  in  hysteria  a 
similar  increase  may  occur  in  both  without 
any  serious  cause. — The  exact  form  of  the  ar- 
terial pulse  has  been  determined  by  means  of 
a  contrivance  termed  the  "  sphygmograph," 
which  consists  of  a  small  metallic  or  ivory 
plate,  held  in  contact  with  the  integument  im- 
mediately over  the  vessel  by  means  of  a  deli- 
cate spring,  and  lifted  from  its  bed  by  each 
pulsation  of  the  artery.  The  plate  carries  an 
upright  rod,  which  in  its  turn  moves  a  long  but 
light  index,  the  end  of  which  traces  an  alter- 
nately ascending  and  descending  line  upon  the 
surface  of  a  strip  of  paper  moving  with  uni- 
form velocity.  Thus  the  extent  of  the  verti- 
cal motion  measures  the  width  of  the  arterial 
expansion  ;  and  its  greater  or  less  obliquity,  as 
traced  upon  the  paper,  indicates  its  rapidity 
or  slowness,  as  compared  with  the  horizontal 
movement  of  the  paper  itself.  Such  a  trace  is 
very  useful,  first  by  showing  minute  peculiari- 
ties of  the  arterial  pulsation,  too  small  to  be 
distinctly  perceptible  by  the  touch;  and  sec- 


ondly, by  leaving  them  in  the  form  of  a  perma- 
nent record,  suitable  for  subsequent  study  and 
comparison.  The  ordinary  trace  of  the  radial 
pulse,  taken  in  this  way,  consists  of  a  nearly 
vertical  ascending  line,  which  indicates  the 
sudden  and  rapid  expansion  of  the  artery,  fol- 
lowed by  an  oblique  and  somewhat  undula- 
ting descent,  showing  the  comparatively  slow- 
er and  more  irregular  collapse  of  the  vessel. 
These  two  ascending  and  descending  lines  are 
repeated  for  every  pulsation  of  the  artory. 


FIG.  1. — Trace  of  the  Radial  Pulse,  taken  by  the 
Sphygmograph. 

Sometimes  the  undulations  of  the  descending 
line  become  more  perceptible,  owing  to  an  in- 
crease of  temperature  or  some  other  cause 
which  diminishes  the  resistance  of  the  arterial 
walls  to  the  heart's  impulse ;  and  under  these 
circumstances  the  expansion  of  the  vessel  is 
more  sudden  and  vertical,  while  its  collapse  ia 
indicated  by  one  or  two  well  marked  oscilla- 
tions, in  the  trace  of  the  descending  line.  In 


FIG.  2.— Trace  of  the  Radial  Pulse  under  the  influence  of 
Increased  Temperature. 

certain  cases  of  disease  this  oscillation  of  the 
artery  at  the  period  of  collapse  becomes  so 
marked  that  a  sort  of  secondary  beat,  or  redu- 
plication of  the  pulse,  is  perceptible  even  to 
the  touch  ;  and  this  constitutes  what  is  known 
as  the  double  or  dicrotic  pulse,  in  which  there 
are  two  perceptible  pulsations  of  the  artery  for 
every  contraction  of  the  heart.  Of  these  two 


FIG.  8.— Trace  of  a  Dicrotic  Pulae,  in  Typhoid  Fever. 

pulsations,  only  the  first  is  directly  caused  by 
the  impulse  of  the  heart ;  the  second  is  due  to 
the  oscillation  of  the  blood  in  the  relaxed  ar- 
terial tube.  Dr.  E.  R.  Hun,  who  at  that  time 
was  special  pathologist  to  the  New  York  state 
lunatic  asylum  at  Utica,  published  in  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Insanity"  for  January, 
1870,  the  results  of  a  series  of  investigations, 
in  which  he  found  that  the  pulse  of  the  insane 
"  alwavs  tends  toward  the  dicrotic  or  mono- 


FIG.  4. — Trace  of  Pulse  In  Dementia. 

erotic  type,  being  never  tricrotic  in  uncompli- 
cated cases.  It  becomes  more  characteristic  as 
the  mental  condition  degenerates,  and  assumes 


PULTENEY 


PUMP 


81 


its  typical  form  in  the  most  profound  state  of 
dementia,"  as  shown  in  the  following  sphyg- 
mographic  tracing  of  the  pulse  of  a  patient  37 
years  of  age.  The  trace  given  in  fig.  5  shows 
a  marked  dicrotic  form  in  a  patient  having 
slight  symptoms  of  mania.  This  became  ir- 


FIG.  5. — Trace  of  Dicrotic  Pulse  in  Mania. 

regularly  tricrotic  under  excitement,  and  more 
regular  after  an  outburst  of  excitement. — 
Usually  the  pulsating  movement  of  the  blood 
is  not  continued  into  the  capillary  vessels ;  but 
when  the  arteries  are  dilated  in  the  glandular 
organs  at  the  time  of  their  increased  func- 
tional activity,  the  pulsation  is  communicated 
to  the  capillaries,  and  even  through  them  to 
the  veins.  This  condition,  however,  lasts  only 
during  the  period  of  increased  vascular  excite- 
ment ;  and  as  it  subsides,  the  movement  of 
the  blood  in  the  capillaries  again  becomes  uni- 
form, and  the  pulsation  is  limited  as  before  to 
the  arterial  system. 

PULTENEY,  William,  earl  of  Bath,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  1682,  died  in  London,  July 
8,  1764.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  travelled 
on  the  continent,  and  in  1705  became  member 
of  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Hedon  in 
Yorkshire.  This  position  he  owed  to  his  guar- 
dian, Henry  Guy,  who  subsequently  left  him 
a  legacy  of  £40,000  and  landed  estate  to  the 
amount  of  £500  a  year.  He  acted  as  a  whig 
throughout  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  partici- 
pated in  the  prosecution  of  Sacheverell,  and 
defended  Walpole  in  the  prosecution  against 
him  in  1712.  When  that  minister  resigned  in 
1717,  Pulteney  gave  up  his  office  of  secretary 
at  war,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  on  the 
accession  of  George  I.  When  Walpole  resumed 
office  in  1720,  Pulteney  was  appointed  coffer- 
er of  the  household  ;  but  he  went  over  to  the 
opposition  in  1725,  was  dismissed  from  his 
office,  and  became  one  of  the  most  bitter  ene- 
mies of  the  minister.  He  allied  himself  with 
Bolingbroke,  and  published  pamphlets  in  which 
he  attacked  the  ministry  so  virulently  as  to 
bring  about  a  duel  in  1731  between  himself 
and  Lord  Hervey,  in  which  both  were  slightly 
wounded.  Through  the  brilliancy  of  his  speech- 
es, and  his  patriotic  sentiments,  he  became  the 
most  popular  man  in  the  nation ;  and  in  1742, 
when  Walpole  was  driven  from  power,  Pulte- 
ney constructed  a  new  cabinet  with  the  earl 
of  Wilmington  at  its  head,  in  which  he  took  a 
seat,  but  without  office,  and  accepted  a  peerage. 
The  administration  satisfied  neither  the  people 
nor  his  partisans.  Pulteney  lost  his  popular- 
ity, and,  as  Chesterfield  wrote,  "  shrunk  into 
insignificance  and  an  earldom."  In  1746  the 
Pelham  ministry  resigned,  and  Pulteney  became 


premier ;  but  he  had  so  little  influence  that  he 
was  unable  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  any  men 
of  importance,  and  he  held  office  only  two 
days.  In  1760  he  published  "  A  Letter  to  Two 
Great  Men  "  (Pitt  and  the  duke  of  Newcastle). 
As  his  only  son  had  died  before  him,  the  peer- 
age in  his  family  became  extinct. 

PULTOCK,  Robert,  an  English  author,  whose 
only  known  work  is  "  The  Life  and  Adventures 
of  Peter  Wilkins"  (London,  1750),  which  de- 
scribes an  imaginary  race  of  flying  islanders  in 
the  South  Pacific.  The  name  of  the  author 
was  unknown  till  1835,  when,  at  a  sale  of  books 
and  manuscripts  which  had  belonged  to  Dods- 
ley  the  publisher,  the  original  agreement  for 
the  copyright  t»f  the  book  was  found,  in  which 
Pultock  is  described  as  "  of  Clement's  Inn, 
gentleman."  He  sold  his  story  for  £20,  with 
12  copies  of  the  work,  and  a  set  of  the  first 
impressions-  of  the  engravings. 

PULTOWA.     See  POLTAVA. 

PUMA.     See  COUGUAR. 

PUMICE.     See  OBSIDIAN  AND  PTJMICE. 

PUMP,  a  machine  for  raising  liquids  in  pipes, 
either  by  direct  action  or  by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  also  for  exhausting  air  from  vessels. 
(See  AIR  PUMP.)  The  history  of  the  hydraulic 
pump  cannot  be  clearly  traced.  Methods  of 
raising  water  by  wheels  with  buckets  attached 
to  their  peripheries,  and  also  by  means  of  end- 
less ropes  moved  by  two  drum  wheels,  were 
used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Assyrians ; 
and  the  chain  pump  was  probably  derived  from 
the  Chinese,  or  at  least  was  first  used  by  them. 
But  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  employment 
of  a  valve  pump  until  near  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era,  although  a  machine  re- 
sembling a  portable  pump  is  often  represent- 
ed in'  ancient  Egyptian  sculptures.  "Vitruvius 
ascribes  the  invention  of  the  valve  pump  to 
Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  who  probably  lived 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  century  B.  C.  The 
water  pump  of  Ctesibius  was  described  by 
Heron,  who  flourished  in  the  same  century.  It 
consisted  of  two  single-acting  solid-headed  pis- 
tons moving  up  and  down  in  two  vertical  cylin- 
ders with  lift  valves  at  the  bottom,  and  a  branch 
pipe  with  an  outgoing  valve  placed  between 
the  piston  and  the  lower  valve,  and  was  very 
much  like  the  simple  force  pump  of  the  present 
day.  The  motive  power  in  large  machines  was 
an  undershot  paddle  wheel.  The  employment 
of  a  valve  in  the  piston  head,  and  placing  this 
below  the  discharge  pipe,  so  as  to  constitute 
a  lift  pump,  was  probably  of  later  date. — Ac- 
cording to  the  manner  in  which  pumps  act, 
they  may  be  divided  into  vacuum  and  force 
pumps;  but  it  is  more  common  to  divide  them 
into  the  force  pump,  the  common  suction 
pump,  the  lift  pump,  and  the  suction  and  force 
pump  combined.  The  power  may  be  applied 
by  a  piston  moving  to  and  fro  in  a  cylinder, 
or  by  a  wheel  revolving  in  a  box.  Rotary 
pumps,  in  which  the  latter  method  is  used,  may 
be  simply  force  pumps  or  suction  and  force 
pumps,  the  power  being  applied  by  direct 


PUMP 


Fio.  1  —Force  Pump. 


pressure  or  by  centrifugal  force.     It  is  usual 
to  denominate  them  rotary  force  pumps  and 
centrifugal   pumps.      The   cylinder   and   pis- 
ton pump  will  be  described  first. —  The  Force 
Pump.    It  is  probable,  as  has  been  intimated, 
that     the     earliest 
valve   pump  was  a 
force  pump,  and  was 
similar  in  construc- 
tion and  action   to 
that  shown  in  fig. 
1   when  the  lower 
valve  v  is  immersed 
in  the  reservoir,  so 
that  exhaustion,  suc- 
tion, or  atmospher- 
ic pressure  has  no 
essential  connection 
with    its    working. 
When  the  piston  P 
is  raised,  water  will 
rush  into  the  cham- 
ber through  0,  and  j 
when  the  piston  is  : 
depressed  this  valve  will  close,  while  the  valve  j 
w  will  be  raised  by  the  water,  which  is  forced 
up  into  the  pipe  d.     Upon  raising  the  piston 
again,  the  pressure  being  removed  from  beneath 
the  valve  w,  the  weight  of  water  above  will 
cause  it  to  close  and  thus  prevent  any  return. 
But  water  from  external  pressure  will  again 
rush  through  the  valve  r,  and  the  descending 
piston  will  again  force  it  up  through  the  valve 
w  into  the  discharge  pipe.     The  operation  may 
be  continued  until  there  is  enough  water  in 
the  pipe  d  to  exert  a  pressure  per  square  inch 
equal  to  that  exerted  by  the  propelling  power 
upon  each  square  inch  of  the  piston  head. — 
The  Common  Suction  Pump.   The  functions  of 
this  pump  depend  upon  the  relative  pressure 
of  a  column  of  water  within  the  pipe  and  that 
of  the  atmospheric 
pressure    upon   the 
water     outside     of 
it.     At  the  level  of 
the  sea  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere, 
when    water    boils 
at  212°  F.,  is  equal 
to  sustaining  a  col- 
umn of  mercury  of 
29-922  in.  when  at 
a    temperature     of 
60°.     (See   BOILING 
POINT.)   The  atmos- 
pheric   pressure    is 
therefore      capable 
of    sustaining,    un- 
der the  same  condi- 
tions, a  column   of 
water  33'8  ft.  high, 
or  a  little  more  than  13£  times  as  high  as  the 
column  of  mercury,  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
fluid  metal  being  13 -557  at  62-6°  F.    (See  MER- 
CURY.)    Consequently,  if  the  lower  end  of  a 
vertical  tube  of  sufficient  length  is  immersed 


FIG.  2.— Common  Suction 
Pump. 


in  water  and  the  tube  completely  exhausted  of 
air,  the  water  will  rise  to  a  height  of  38'8  ft. 
above  its  level  in  the  reservoir.    The  action  of 
the  common  suction  pump,  fig.  2,  will  be  easily 
understood  from  a  consideration  of  this  fact. 
The  piston  P,  fitting  the  cylinder  air-tight,  on 
being  raised  will  expand  the  air  beneath  it,  and 
therefore  diminish  its  pressure  upon  the  water 
in  the  pipe  beneath,  according  to  the  law  of 
Boyle  or  Mariotte.    (See  PNEUMATICS.)    "When 
the  piston  is  depressed  the  lower  valve  «  will 
shut  in  consequence  of    the  pressure  being 
greater  above  than  below,  and  the  valve  in 
the  piston,  opening  upward,  will  open  when 
the  density  of  the  air  in  the  cylinder  becomes 
greater  than  that  of  the  external  air,  and  its 
contents  will  thus  be  expelled.     Succeeding 
motions  of  the  piston  will  thus  continue  to  ex- 
haust the  air  within  the  pipe  until  the  pressure 
of  the  air  on  the  water  in  the  reservoir  is  suf- 
ficient to  force  the  water  in  the  pump  up  to 
the  lower  or  suction  valve.     If  the  exhaustion 
is  complete  the  water  will  rise  to  a  height  of 
83-8  ft.     This  effect 
can   be  secured  by 
filling  the  pump  with 
water    at    the    top 
before  commencing. 
Now,  as  a  column  of 
water  83'8  ft.  high 
ordinarily  measures 
the   extent   of    the 
pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere    at     the 
level  of  the  sea,  it 
follows  that  if  the 
suction      valve      is 
placed  at  a  greater 
distance  above  the 
water  in  the  reser- 
voir the  pump  will 
•  not  work.      At   an 
elevation,  as  upon  the  side  or  top  of  a  moun- 
tain, the  atmospheric  pressure  being  less,  the 
valve  must  be  placed  lower.     At  a  height  of 
15,700  ft.,  where  water  boils  at  about  186°  and 
the  barometer  stands  at  about  IT'S  inches,  the 
lower  valve  requires  to  be  within  19'7  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir,  this  be- 
ing the  height  of  a  column  of  water  which  will 
balance  the  atmospheric   column. —  The   Lift 
Pump.     By  a  slight  change  in  the  form  of  the 
suction  pump,  and  the  addition  of  a  valve  at 
z,  fig.  3,  the  modern  form  of  the  lift  pump  is 
produced,  and  the  water  may  be  raised  to  a 
height  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  power 
applied.     The  form  shown  in  this  figure  is  that 
of  a  lift  and  suction  pump  combined.     Remov- 
ing the  lower  valve  e,  and  immersing  the  pump 
till  the  valve  w  in  the  piston  is  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  external  water,  the  machine  becomes 
simply  a  lift  pump.     The  suction  pump  is  also 
often  called  a  lift  pump.     A  form  which  is 
often   figured   in   books  employs  an  exterior 
frame  supporting  a  piston  rod  which  enters 
the  pump  at  the  lower  end,  pushing  the  piston 


Fio.  8.— Lift  Pump. 


PUMP 


83 


FIG.  4. — Force  Pump  with  Air 
Chamber. 


up  instead  of  raising  it  through  a  packed  box 
at  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  Such  were  the  old 
pumps  used  by  Kannequin  in  the  water  works 
at  Marli,  and  by  Lintlaer  in  the  engines  erected 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  at  the  Pont 
Neuf,  to  supply  the 
Louvre  from  the 
Seine.  The  lift 
pump  is  in  fact  an- 
other kind  of  force 
pump,  and  in  its 
simplest  form  may 
have  been  one  of 
the  first  employed. 
The  efficiency  of  the 
force  pump,  as  well 
as  of  the  lift  pump, 
may  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  em- 
ployment of  an  air 
chamber,  as  shown 
in  fig.  4,  by  which 
means  a  constant 
and  equable  flow  is 
secured  and  the  sud- 
den shock  of  reaction  avoided.  A  dome- 
shaped  vessel  is  placed  in  the  course  of  the 
discharge  pipe,  a  short  distance  beyond  the  up- 
per valve.  When  the  water  in  the  discharge 
pipe  is  raised  to  a  height  of  33*8  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  air  chamber,  the  lat- 
ter will  of  course  be  half  filled  with  water,  the 
air  being  compressed  to  one  half  its  original 
volume  by  the  double  pressure  of  water  and 
atmospheric  air  upon  it.  It  may  be  remarked 
that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hydraulic  ram,  the 
air  in  the  chamber  becomes  gradually  absorbed 
by  the  water  as  it  passes  through  the  pump, 
and  must  from  time  to  time  be  replaced.  The 
discharge  pipe,  instead  of  branching  off  from 
the  base  of  the  air  chamber,  may  pass  direct- 
ly into  it  through  a 
hole  in  the  dome, 
and  down  to  near 
the  base.  In  either 
case  the  air  cham- 
ber is  replenished 
by  allowing  the  wa- 
ter to"  run  off  by  a 
cock  at  its  base.  A 
double-acting  force 
pump  is  shown  in 
fig.  5.  This  pos- 
sesses the  advan- 
tage of  producing  a 
more  uninterrupted 
stream  than  the 
form  shown  in  fig. 
1,  and  if  supplied 
with  an  air  cham- 
ber the  latter  need 


FIG.  5. — Double-Acting  Force 
Pump. 


not  be  so  large  to  effect  the  same  equaliza- 
tion of  current.  Double-acting  force  pumps, 
either  with  or  without  the  air  chamber,  are 
often  employed  at  large  town  water  works  for 
raising  water  to  the  distributing  reservoirs. 


FIG.  6.— Plunger  Pump. 


Such  a  pump  acts  as  follows.  When  the  solid 
piston  head  P  descends,  the  valves  a  and  e  are 
forced  shut,  while  d  and  c  are  opened,  water 
entering  behind  the  piston  through  d  and  be- 
ing forced  in  front  of  it  through  c,  and  up  the 
pipe  C  D.  When  the  pis- 
ton is  raised  the  position 
of  the  valves  is  reversed, 
the  water  entering  through 
a  and  being  forced  out 
through  e.  This  is  the 
position  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure. When  water  is  to  be 
raised  to  a  great  height  or 
against  great  resistance,  as 
in  the  hydrostatic  or  hy- 
draulic press,  a  plunger  in 
place  of  the  ordinary  pis- 
ton with  packed  head  is 
used,  which  passes  through 
a  tightly  packed  box,  as 
shown  in  fig.  6.  Such 
plunger  pumps  were  em- 
ployed in  the  water  works 
at  York  buildings,  London, 
in  the  last  century,  but  they  are  described  in 
Commandine's  translation  of  Heron's  Spirita- 
lia.  It  is  evident  that  the  introduction  of  the 
plunger  into  the  cylinder  must  expel  an  equal 
volume  of  water  through  the  upper  valve,  and 
on  being  withdrawn  allow  the  entrance  of  the 
same  quantity  through  the  lower  valve.  The 
fire  engine  is  a  combination  of  two  force  pumps, 
as  shown  in  fig.  7,  the  water  being  forced  from 
each  into  the  common  air  chamber  A,  and  so 
on  through  the  discharge  pipe  E,  to  which  may 
be  attached  the  hose.  The  power  applied  as 
a  motor  may  be  various,  as  that  of  man,  of 
animals,  of  water,  or  of  steam.  The  earliest 
application  of  a  steam  engine  to  a  pump  was 
by  Newcomen  in  1713.  The  contrivance  of 
Savary  can  hardly  be  called  an  application  of 
a  steam  engine  to  a 
pump,  because  the 
steam  cylinder  was 
a  part  of  the  pump 
itself,  the  steam  per- 
forming the  func- 
tions of  a  piston 
head.  Very  large 
pumps  are  often  used 
for  drainage  pur- 
poses, which  are 
usually  worked  by 
steam  engines  sepa- 
rate from  the  pump 
itself.  An  enormous 
steam  engine  was  em- 
ployed in  the  drain- 
age of  Haarlem  lake 
in  Holland,  which 


FIG.  7.— Fire  Engine. 


drove  ten  pumps  having  a  united  capacity  of 
raising  112  tons  of  water  at  each  stroke.  (See 
DRAINAGE.)  Large  pumps  are  used  for  rais- 
ing water  into  reservoirs  for  supplying  cities. 
(See  WATER  WORKS.)  Most  modern  pumps 


.84 


PUMP 


of  moderate  size  which  are  driven  by  steam 
are  known  as  direct-acting  steam  pumps ; 
that  is,  there  is  no  intervention  of  rotary 
motion,  the  reciprocating  motion  not  being 
caused  by  the  action  of  an  eccentric,  and  the 
dead  points  or  centres  are  avoided  by  the 
use  of  what  is  called  an  auxiliary  valve.  A 
good  steam  pump  of  this  kind,  constructed  by 
the  "  Knowles  Steam  Pump  Works  "  of  War- 
ren, Mass.,  a  company  owning  the  patent  for 
the  auxiliary  valve,  is  shown  in  fig.  8.  The 
auxiliary  valve,  A,  moves  back  and  forth  with- 
in the  steam  chest,  and  it  also  has  a  slight 
rotary  motion  by  which  the  ports  at  each  end 
are  opened  and  shut  to  produce  reciprocating 
motion.  When  steam  is  admitted  into  the 
steam  chest,  it  enters  the  valve  A  at  the  mid- 
dle portion  and  passes  out  at  one  of  the  ports 
of  the  main  flat  valve  v  0,  this  valve  being 
moved  over  its  seat  by  the  motion  of  the  aux- 
iliary valve,  through  the  medium  of  the  stem 
S,  which  plays  in  a  slot  wide  enough  to  admit 
of  the  slight  rotation  of  the  auxiliary  valve. 
Now,  when  the  steam  enters  the  cylinder  C, 
we  will  suppose  upon  the  left,  the  piston  is 
driven  in  the  direction  GD.  This  carries  the 
standard  F  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  top 
of  this  standard  there  is  a  hole  which  slides 
over  the  rod  d'  d",  upon  which  there  are  two 
cams,  w  and  o.  When  the  top  of  the  standard 
strikes  one  of  these,  it  pushes  the  rod  d'  d" 
which  is  attached  to  the  auxiliary  valve  A  in 
one  direction,  and  also  rotates  it  sufficiently  to 
reverse  the  ports  in  the  steam  chest.  The  main 
valve  v  is  therefore  reversed  and  steam  is  ad- 
mitted upon  the  other  side  of  the  piston  head, 
by  which  means  the  standard  F  is  moved  in 
the  direction  opposite  to  its  previous  one,  so 
that  it  will  strike  the  opposite  cam  and  cause 


into  French  mines  by  Belidor  in  1739,  and 
is  described  in  his  Architecture  hydraulique. 
It  consists  of  two  cylinders,  a  larger,  C,  fig. 
9,  and  a  smaller,  D,  with  a  piston  in  each,  con- 
nected by  a  common  rod.  A  supply  pipe,  A, 
conveys  the  descending  column  from  its  source 


FIG.  S. — Knowles'g  Steam  Puuip. 

the  rod  d'  d"  to  move  forward  and  rotate  and 
again  reverse  the  auxiliary  valve  A.  The  pump 
is  simply  a  double-acting  force  pump  with  an 
air  chamber,  and  its  action  needs  no  special 
explanation.  A  force  pump  called  a  hydraulic 
pressure  engine  was  devised  and  introduced 


Fia.  9. —  Hydraulic  Pressure  Engine,  from  Belldor. 

to  the  three-way  cock  F,  the  air  chamber  E 
and  the  pipe  B  being  the  way  of  exit  for  that 
portion  of  the  water  which  is  raised.  When 
the  water  from  A  enters  the  way  leading  into 
0,  the  piston  in  this  cylinder,  having,  we  will 
suppose,  twice  the  area  of  cross  section  as  the 
one  in  I),  will  force  the  water  from  the  latter 
up  the  pipe  B  at  each  stroke  until  it  has  twice 
the  elevation  of  the  source  supplying  A.  The 
three-way  cock  is  so  arranged  that  the  pipe  A 
is  connected  with  the  cylinder  C  or  with  the 
pipe  H,  and  through  it  with  the  cylinder  D  by 
means  of  connections  between  the  piston  rod 
and  a  set  of  levers.  When  the  piston  in  0  re- 
turns toward  F,  an  opening  at  one  side  of  the 
three-way  cock  allows  the  water  to  escape, 
the  opening  being  closed 
when  the  piston  begins 
to  move  in  the  direc- 
tion of  D.  A  portion 
of  the  water  therefore 
runs  to  waste,  a  neces- 
sary result  of  the  laws 
of  mechanics. — Rotary 
Pumps.  These  are  of 
two  kinds,  force  pumps 
proper  and  centrifugal 
pumps.  One  of  the  old- 
est forms  of  rotary  force 
pumps  of  which  there 
is  an  account  was  con- 
tained in  a  collection  of 
old  models  by  Serviere, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1598. 
It  consists  of  two  cog 
wheels  within  an  ellip- 
tical box,  fitting  accu- 
rately, as  shown  in  fig.  10.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  the  water  must  be  propelled  in  the 
direction  taken  by  the  cogs  which  are  in  con- 
tact with  the  box.  The  cogs,  fitting  to  each 
other  accurately  in  the  centre  of  the  box,  pre- 
vent the  return  of  water,  and  the  machine 


PUMP 


85 


becomes  both  a  force  and  a  suction  pump. 
When  accurately  made  and  used  only  in  clear 
water,  it  is  quite  an  efficient  machine,  and  has 
since  been  employed  as  a  form  of  rotary  steam 
engine.  It  could  not  be  used  to  raise  water 
containing  gravel  or  much  solid  matter.  An- 


Fio.  10. — Rotary  Pump 
from  Servifere's  collection. 


FIG.   11. — Rotary  Pump  of 
16th  century. 


other  old  form  of  rotary  pump  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury is  shown  in  fig.  11.  A  wheel  of  a  diame- 
ter and  thickness  proportional  to  the  capacity 
of  the  pump  has  its  periphery  formed  into 
three  cams,  which  give  space  for  the  passage 
of  water  between  them  and  the  inner  surface 
of  the  cylindrical  box  in  which  it  moves,  and 
also  raise  and  drop  a  broad  sliding  vertical  bar, 
B  (seen  edgewise),  which  acts  as  a  shut-off  to 
the  passage  of  the  water  within  the  box,  di- 
recting it  into  the  pipe  A.  The  cams  act  the 
part  of  pistons,  the  water  entering  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinder  and  being  forced  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  arrows.  To  prevent  its  return 
on  stopping  the  pump,  a  lift  valve  is  placed 
in  the  discharge  pipe,  which  shuts  when  the 
pressure  above  exceeds  that  below  it.  There 
are  many  other  and  recent  forms  of  rotary 
force  pumps,  acting  much  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciples, with  the  addition  of  devices  which  se- 


Fi(!.  12  FIG.  13. 

Bagley  and  Sewall's  Rotary  Pump. 

cure  greater  efficiency.  One  of  the  latest  of 
these  is  Bagley  and  Sewall's,  patented  by  L.  D. 
Green,  of  which  fig.  12  is  a  vertical  longitu- 
dinal, and  fig.  13  a  transverse  section.  A  is 
the  main  case,  made  in  one  piece,  and  having 
attached  the  ring  B,  seen  in  both  sections.  The 


space  outside  of  B  is  the  water  space.  This 
cylinder  is  enclosed  by  the  disk  D,  which  is 
attached  to  the  shaft.  An  eccentric  ring,  E,  is 
attached  to  the  disk  D  so  that  in  revolving  its 
outer  surface  touches  the  inside  of  the  case  A, 
while  the  interior  surface  upon  the  opposite 
side  of  the  ring  touches  the  outside  of  the 
ring  B.  The  eccentric  ring  E  acts  as  the  pis- 
ton of  the  pump.  The  suction  and  discharge 
are  respectively  shown  in  both  sections  at  I 
and  J,  the  direction  of  the  water  being  indica- 
ted in  fig.  12  by  the  arrows.  The  parts  are  sep- 
arated by  the  sliding  valve  H  H,  which  is 
moved  back  and  forth  on  its  seat  by  means  of 
two  tumblers  shown  in  fig.  13  between  H  and 
H.  These  tumblers  are  moved  by  the  eccen- 
tric ring  E,  which  passes  between  them.  The 
centre  ring  B  is  made  enough  deeper  than  the 
casing  A,  as  shown  in  fig.  12,  to  equalize  the 
quantity  of  water  within  and  without  the  ec- 
centric piston  ring  E.  F  is  the  cover  or  outside 
case,  and  contains  a  closed  bearing  for  the  end 
of  the  shaft.  The  inner  part  of  the  disk  D 
forms  a  collar  G  to  the  shaft,  and  by  means  of 
a  screw  at  the  end  this  collar  can  be  forced 
tightly  against  its  seat  K,  thus  avoiding  the  use 
of  packing.  In  the  centre  of  the  seat  there  is 
a  circular  groove,  shown  in  section  at  K  K, 
which  connects  by  a  drilled  channel  with  the 
suction  part.  Any  tendency  to  escape  of  water 
at  the  seat  by  pressure  is  thus  overcome  by 
vacuum  force. — The  chain  pump  consists  of 
an  endless  chain  carrying  cups  or  disks  around 
two  drums,  one  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  well  or  stream,  and  the  other  at  a 
convenient  elevation.  The  ascending  part  of 
the  chain  passes  through  a  pipe  just  large 
enough  to  allow  the  cups  or  disks,  which  act 
as  pistons,  to  move  with  little  friction.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  chain  pump  is  little  else 


FIG.  14.— Old  French  Chain  Pump. 

than  a  modified  form  of  rotary  pump.  When 
the  water  is  to  be  raised  to  a  moderate  height, 
it  often  becomes  a  convenient  and  useful  ma- 
chine. Fig.  14  shows  the  form  of  an  old  French 
chain  pump  used  in  the  ship  yards  at  Mar- 
seilles, described  by  Belidor.  It  was  worked 


86 


PUMP 


by  two  galley  slaves,  who  were  relieved  every 
hour.  It  is  uncertain  where  the  chain  pump 
originated,  but  it  was  probably  first  used  in 
China  in  the  form  of  an  inclined  trough  with 
drums  at  either  end, 
giving  motion  to  a 
chain  or  rope  with 
scoops  or  blocks  at- 
tached.— The  centrif- 
ugal pump  is  a  ma- 
chine which  acts  upon 
an  entirely  different 
principle  from  that 
of  any  pump  so  far 
described.  The  force 
which  elevates  the 
water  is  the  centrifu- 
gal force  developed  by 
the  revolution  of  a  fan 


Fio.  15.— Massachusetts 
Pump. 


wheel.  An  early  efficient  form  of  centrifugal 
pumps  was  constructed  in  Massachusetts  in 
1818,  and  called  the  Massachusetts  pump.  It 
resembles  an  ordinary  fan  blower,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  cut,  fig.  15.  It  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal shaft  to  which  are  attached  four  eccen- 
tric blades,  narrowed  toward  their  extremities 
and  located  within  a  cylindrical-shaped  box, 
from  which  a  discharge  pipe  F  passes  upward. 
The  water  is  received  at  the  centre,  around  the 
shaft,  which  is  so  placed  that  the  blades  just 
graze  the  inner  surface  of  the  box  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  discharge  pipe,  into  which  the  water 
is  necessarily  forced.  The  apparatus  is  placed 
below  the  level  of  the  water,  aa  the  vacuum 
power  is  small.  A  more  recent  form  of  centrifu- 
gal pump  is  Appold's,  shown  in  figs.  16  and  17, 
which  was  first  exhibited  at  the  world's  fair  in 
London  in  1851.  The  efficiency  of  a  centrifu- 
gal pump  depends  upon  the  form  of  its  blades, 
and  Mr.  Appold  made  a  great  improvement, 
nearly  doubling  the  efficiency  of  the  Massachu- 
setts pump,  by  giving  them  the  form  shown  in 
section  by  the  dotted  lines  in  fig.  17.  The  re- 
volving fan  wheel,  shown  in  fig.  16  at  c,  is  fixed 


FIG.  16.  FIG.  17. 

Appold's  Centrifugal  Pump 

to  the  end  of  a  shaft  turned  by  the  drum  D. 
It  plays  between  two  circular  checks,  through 
the  centre  of  both  of  which  there  is  a  circular 
opening  to  admit  the  water  from  the  reser- 
voir, beneath  the  level  of  which  the  wheel  is 
placed.  The  water  enters  at  the  central  part 
of  the  fan,  as  shown  in  section  in  fig.  16  by 
the  four  curved  arrows,  two  on  either  side, 


the  whole  being  rotated  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion. The  lower  part  of  the  discharge  pipe  i» 
enlarged  into  a  drum  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  Massachusetts  and  of  the  Gwynne  pump, 
and  the  water  issues  from  all  parts  of  the  pe- 
riphery of  the  fan  wheel  and  is  forced  upward 
into  the  discharge  pipe  A.  Calculations  have 
been  made  as  to  the  height  to  which  water 
may  be  carried  with  one  of  these  pumps,  but 
they  do  not  possess  much  practical  value,  as 
the  power  of  each  machine  varies  with  its  con- 
struction ;  and  20  ft.  is  the  practical  limit,  al- 
though by  means  of  a  very  high  velocity,  not 
practicable  for  ordinary  use,  a  height  of  50  ft. 
has  been  reached.  Gwynne  and  co.'s  centrifu- 
gal pump  is  a  modification  of  Appold's,  and 
was  shown  at  the  same  exhibition.  A  sec- 
tional view  is  given  in  fig.  18.  Six  equidistant 
arms,  extending  first  in  the  direction  of  radii, 
but  toward  their  outer  ends  curved  and  pointing 
backward  as  regards  the  direction  of  rotation, 
are  fixed  within  a  drum,  which  again  moves, 
within  an  outer  drum. 
The  water  enters  at 
the  centre,  and  taking 
the  course  of  the  ar- 
rows ascends  the  dis- 
charge pipe.  Three 
of  the  arms  commence 
at  the  axis,  but  the 
other  three,  alterna- 
ting, commence  at  the 
circle  of  admission. 
The  two  drums  are 
only  in  contact  at  a 
small  ring  surround- 
ing the  central  open- 
ing. The  arms  dimin- 
ish in  breadth  toward 
their  outer  extremi- 


FIG.  16. — tiwynne's  Centrifu- 
gal Pump. 


ties  to  render  the  flow  of  water  smooth,  as 
the  increase  of  centrifugal  force  at  the  pe- 
riphery causes  an  increase  in  the  velocity  of 
the  water,  and  therefore  it  requires  a  less 
space  through  which  to  move. — There  are  nu- 
merous practical  points  about  the  different 
kinds  of  pumps,  to  mention  which  would  re- 
quire a  too  extended  detail.  It  may  be  re- 
marked that  a  pump  is  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult machines  to  keep  in  order.  It  is  exposed, 
if  not  constantly  in  use,  to  great  changes  of 
moisture  and  dryness,  and  its  metallic  parts, 
particularly  if  of  iron,  soon  become  rusty.  It- 
is  often  convenient  to  have  valves  partly  made 
of  leather,  but  these  cannot  be  expected  to 
last  long ;  if  constantly  in  use  they  soon  wear 
out,  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  become  dry 
they  shrink  and  cease  to  perform  their  office* 
well. — A  kind  of  steam  pump  without  a  pis- 
ton, called  a  "  pulsometer,"  is  the  invention  of 
Mr.  C.  H.  Hall  of  New  York.  It  consists  of 
two  long-necked  chambers  joined  together  at 
the  top,  where  a  ball  valve  by  falling  one  way 
or  the  other  opens  one  of  the  chambers  to  the 
admission  of  steam.  The  water  is  admitted  at 
the  bottom  of  the  chambers,  and  passes  into- 


PUMPELLY 


PUMPKIN 


87 


them  alternately  through  two  openings,  which 
are  also  opened  and  closed  by  ball  valves,  the 
alternate  expansion  and  condensation  of  steam 
in  the  chambers  causing  the  movements.  A 
delivery  passage,  common  to  both  chambers, 
is  also  provided  with  a  ball  valve,  which  os- 
cillates from  side  to  side  as  the  lower  valves 
alternately  open  and  close.  It  is  claimed  to 
be  peculiarly  adapted  to  pumping  water  from 
mines,  from  its  not  being  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  working  very  well,  it  is  said,  when  the 
water  contains  grit  and  mud. — Pumps  for  ships, 
mines,  and  submarine  excavations,  from  their 
liability  to  become  obstructed  with  solid  sub- 
stances or  corroded  with  salt  water,  should  be 
selected  with  especial  reference  to  the  difficul- 
ties met  with  in  each  case.  The  valves  should 
be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
will  not  be  liable  to  become  clogged,  and, 
when  they  are  so,  can  be  easily  reached  and 
cleaned. — For  a  further  description  of  pumps 
and  water  engines,  see  Ewbank's  "Hydrau- 
lics "  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1863),  the  report  on 
the  Paris  universal  exposition  of  1867  by  F.  A. 
P.  Barnard,  LL.  D.  (New  York,  1869),  and 
Spon's  "  Dictionary  of  Engineering "  (Lon- 
don, 1874). 

PUMPELLY,  Raphael,  an  American  metallur- 
gist, born  at  Owego,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1837. 
He  studied  for  several  years  in  Hanover,  Pa- 
ris, and  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  returning  home 
in  1860.  He  afterward  engaged  in  mining 
and  smelting  operations  in  Arizona  and  other 
territories,  and  was  employed  by  the  Japanese 
government  to  explore  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  island  of  Yezo,  and  by  the  Chinese 
government  to  survey  the  coal  fields  of  north- 
ern China.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  mining  engineering  in  Harvard  univer- 
sity, in  1870-'7l  had  charge  of  the  state  geolo- 
gical survey  of  the  copper  district  of  Michigan, 
and  in  1871  was  appointed  state  geologist  of 
Missouri,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1873.  He 
has  published  "Across  America  and  Asia" 
(New  York,  1870);  "Geological  Survey  of 
Missouri,  Preliminary  Eeport,"  with  an  atlas 
and  plates  (1873) ;  "  Geological  Survey  of 
Michigan,"  vol.  i.,  part  2,  "Copper  District," 
with  atlas  (1873);  and  various  monographs  in 
scientific  journals. 

PUMPKIN  (formerly  written  pompion,  from 
the  old  French  pompon  ;  Gr.  TreTrow),  the  plant 
and  fruit  of  cucurbita  pepo,  an  annual  plant  of 
the  natural  order  cucurlitacece  or  gourd  family, 
for  the  characters  of  which  see  GOURD.  The 
genus  cucurbita  has  large  yellow  flowers,  with 
a  bell-shaped  or  short  funnel-formed,  five-cleft 
corolla,  its  base  adherent  to  the  bell-shaped 
tube  of  the  calyx  ;  the  three  long,  much  curved 
anthers  united  into  a  small  head ;  stigmas 
three,  each  three-lobed ;  fruit  fleshy,  with  a 
firm  rind.  The  pumpkins,  the  squashes  in  all 
their  great  variety,  and  the  vegetable  marrows 
belong  to  this  genus,  in  which  the  species  are 
in  great  confusion.  The  term  pumpkin  is  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  very  loosely  ap- 


plied ;  in  the  present  article  it  refers  to  those 
varieties  of  C.  pepo  which  are  known  in  the 
agriculture  of  the  northern  states  as  pumpkin, 
leaving  the  others  to  be  described  under  SQUASH. 
The  plant  is  a  vigorous  one,  often  running  12 
ft.  or  more  ;  rough-hairy,  and  almost  prickly  ; 


Field  Pumpkin  (Cucurbita  pepo). 

the  flower  stalks  are  obtusely  angled,  and  after 
fruiting  have  five  to  eight  ridges  with  deep 
grooves  between ;  the  fruit  varies  in  shape, 
and  is  marked  with  longitudinal  broad  ribs  and 
furrows;  the  interior  is  hollow,  and  traversed 
by  coarse  pulpy  threads.  In  its  most  common 
form  the  fruit  is  a  little  longer  than  broad, 
flattened  at  the  ends,  and  rather  regularly  rib- 
bed, and  averaging  about  a  foot  in  diameter, 
though  often  much  larger ;  the  color  a  rich 
clear  orange  yellow.  There  is  much  doubt  as 
to  the  native  country  of  the  pumpkin,  it  being 
claimed  for  the  Levant  and  for  Astrakhan, 
while  Dr.  Gray  ("American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence," 1857)  shows  that  there  is  good  reason 
for  believing  it  to  have  been  cultivated  in  this 
country  by  the  Indians  before  the  coming  of 
the  whites.  In  the  earlier  agriculture  of  the 
country  the  pumpkin  was  a  more  important 
crop  than  at  present ;  it  was  then  raised,  as  it 
is  now  to  some  extent,  as  a  "  stolen  crop,"  a 
few  seeds  placed  at  intervals  in  a  field  of  Indian 
corn  or  potatoes  often  giving,  besides  the  regu- 
lar crop,  a  ton  of  pumpkins,  which  afforded 
a  food  much  relished  by  cattle,  and  abundant 
supplies  for  the  table.  Before  the  introduction 
of  the  greatly  superior  squashes,  or  even  the 
better  varieties  of  the  pumpkin,  the  common 
field  variety  was  much  used  as  food,  not  only 
as  the  basis  of  pumpkin  pies,  but  for  a  table 
vegetable,  as  squash  is  now  served  ;  stewed  or 
baked  pumpkin  (the  fruit  divided,  the  seeds 
and  stringy  matter  removed,  and  the  halves 
baked)  was  a  very  common  article  of  food,  and 
is  still  preferred  by  some  to  the  finer  substi- 
tutes. For  winter  use  it  is  cut  into  thin  strips 
and  dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  a  warm  room.  Its 
use  is  at  present  mainly  for  feeding  farm  ani- 
mals, for  which  purpose  the  seeds  must  be 
removed,  as  they  have  a  diuretic  effect,  which 
is  especially  undesirable  for  milking  cows.  The 


88 


PUNCH 


PUNCTUATION 


best  variety  for  table  use  is  the  sugar  pumpkin, 
which,  though  not  large,  is  an  abundant  bear- 
er; it  has  a  very  long  stalk,  is  of  a  bright 
orange  color,  and  has  a  fine-grained,  sweet 
flesh.  Another  esteemed  variety  is  the  cheese 
pumpkin,  so  called  from  its  shape ;  it  is  large, 
and  of  a  deep  reddish  orange  color.  The  long 
pumpkin  is  twice  as  long  as  broad ;  the  striped 
is  like  the  common  field  pumpkin,  but  marked 
with  alternate  bands  of  green  and  yellow,  while 
the  Nantucket  is  deep  green  when  ripe,  and 
a  little  yellowish  on  the  sunny  side,  while  its 
surface  is  marked  by  warty  excrescences ;  this 
is  much  esteemed  for  its  good  quality  and  long 
keeping.  The  flesh  of  the  pumpkin  contains 
much  sugar,  and  it  is  said  that  during  the  war 
of  independence  housekeepers  boiled  it  in  wa- 
ter and  evaporated  the  decoction  to  a  sirup, 
as  a  substitute  for  sugar.  Besides  the  diuret- 
ic property  already  referred  to,  the  seeds  are 
among  the  most  valued  anthelmintics  for  the 
removal  of  tapeworm ;  though  this  property 
was  ascribed  to  them  a  long  while  ago,  they 
have  only  recently  come  into  very  general  use. 
Dr.  Patterson  of  Philadelphia  about  20  years 
ago  published  an  account  of  a  remarkable  cure 
by  their  use,  followed  in  an  hour  and  a  half 
by  castor  oil.  The  dose  of  the  seeds  is  two 
ounces ;  they  are  first  deprived  of  their  coats, 
and  the  kernels  beaten  in  a  mortar  to  a  paste, 
to  which  water  is  gradually  added. 

PUNCH,  or  Punchinello,  a  humorous  character 
in  a  species  of  puppet  show  exhibited  in  the 
streets  of  European  cities.  The  exhibition  is 
of  Italian  origin,  and  its  Italian  name  Polici- 
nella  or  Pulemella,  according  to  Gallani  in  his 
Vocdbolario  del  dialetto  Napoletano,  was  de- 
rived from  Puccio  d'Aniello,  a  buffoon  of  Acer- 
ra,  near  Naples,  whose  humorous  eccentricities 
were  in  the  17th  century  transferred  to  the 
Neapolitan  stage  ;  and  the  character  continues 
to  be  the  medium  of  local  and  political  satire  in 
the  Italian  exhibitions  of  fantoccini,  or  puppet 
shows.  Another  theory  derives  the  name  from 
pollice,  thumb,  a  name  of  dwarfs  in  several 
languages.  It  is  thought  that  the  grotesque 
face  is  only  a  modification  of  the  ancient  comic 
mask,  and  that  the  character  of  Punch  is  kin- 
dred to  the  "Vice"  of  the  old  moralities,  and 
the  clown  of  the  later  drama.  The  modern 
drama  of  "  Punch  "  is  supposed  to  have  been 
composed  by  Silvio  Fiorello,  an  Italian  come- 
dian, about  1 600.  It  embodies  a  domestic  trage- 
dy followed  by  a  supernatural  retribution,  the 
whole  of  which  is  treated  in  a  broadly  farcical 
manner.  Punch  is  a  short  obese  personage, 
with  an  enormous  hump  on  his  back,  a  wide 
mouth,  long  chin,  and  hooked  nose,  and  wear- 
ing a  three-pointed  cap.  His  wife  Judy  and 
his  dog  Toby  are  important  characters  in  the 
performance.  A  similar  puppet  show,  con- 
taining the  same  leading  characters,  has  been 
known  for  ages  in  China.  It  is  managed  by  a 
single  individual,  who  exhibits  the  theatre  on 
his  head,  the  moving  wires  being  concealed  un- 
der his  gown. 


PUNCTUATION,  in  grammar,  the  art  of  divi- 
ding a  written  or  printed  discourse  into  sen- 
tences and  parts  of  sentences,  for  the  purpose 
of  indicating  the  mutual  relations  of  the  words, 
by  means  of  points.  The  principal  points  used 
in  English  composition  are  the  comma  (,),  semi- 
colon (;),  colon  (:),  period  (.),  note  of  interro- 
gation (?),  note  of  exclamation  or  admiration 
(!),  dash  ( — ),  and  parenthesis  ().  Of  these, 
only  the  first  four  are  marks  of  punctuation  aa 
the  term  is  usually  understood,  or  grammatical 
points  indicating  the  length  and  character  of  the 
pauses  to  be  made  in  reading.  The  others  are 
mainly  rhetorical  or  syntactical  aids,  regulating 
the  modulation  of  the  tone  rather  than  the  sus- 
pension of  the  voice ;  but  the  interrogation  or 
exclamation  point  may  take  the  place  of  either 
of  the  former,  according  to  the  structure  of  the 
sentence,  and  the  dash  partakes  of  both  char- 
acteristics. The  comma  marks  the  smallest 
grammatical  division  in  written  or  printed  lan- 
guage. The  semicolon  separates  such  parts  of 
a  sentence  as  are  somewhat  less  closely  con- 
nected than  those  separated  by  a  comma.  The 
colon  denotes  a  still  longer  pause  than  the 
semicolon.  The  period  indicates  the  end  of  an 
assertive  sentence  which  is  grammatically  in- 
dependent of  any  that  follows,  and  is  also  used 
after  every  abbreviated  word,  after  headings, 
titles  of  books,  &c.,  and  generally  (though  im- 
properly) after  Roman  numerals.  The  note 
of  interrogation  is  placed  after  a  question,  and 
in  Spanish  is  also  placed  inverted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  question.  The  note  of  exclamation 
indicates  an  ardent  wish,  admiration,  or  other 
strong  emotion,  and  is  placed  after  interjec- 
tions, words  used  as  interjections,  and  clauses 
or  sentences  expressing  strong  emotion  of  any 
kind ;  it  is  also  duplicated  in  Spanish  like  the 
preceding.  The  dash  is  employed  where  a 
sentence  breaks  off  abruptly  and  the  subject  is 
changed ;  where  the  sense  is  suspended,  and  is 
continued  after  a  short  interruption,;  where 
there  is  an  unexpected  or  epigrammatic  turn 
in  the  sentiment;  after  a  long  member,  or  se- 
ries of  phrases  or  clauses,  leading  to  an  im- 
portant conclusion;  before  a  word  or  phrase 
repeated  in  an  exclamatory  or  emphatic  man- 
ner— what  elocutionists  term  an  echo ;  where 
there  is  an  ellipsis  of  such  words  as  "  namely  " 
and  "that  is;"  where  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  let- 
ters or  figures;  and  in  numerous  other  cases. 
Sometimes,  as  in  this  work,  it  is  used  instead 
of  paragraphs.  The  parenthesis  encloses  a 
word  or  phrase  introduced  into  the  body  of 
a  sentence  with  which  it  has  no  grammatical 
connection,  or  an  explanatory  or  other  sentence 
or  passage  independent  of  the  context.— Other 
marks  in  frequent  use,  and  generally  treated 
under  the  head  of  punctuation,  though  not 
strictly  included  in  it,  are  the  apostrophe  ( ' ), 
used  to  indicate  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  let- 
ters, and  also  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive  case ; 
the  hyphen  (-),  placed  between  the  constituent 
parts  of  a  compound  word,  and  at  the  end  of 
a  line  when  a  word  is  divided ;  quotation  marks 


PUNJAUB 


89 


("  "  or  ' '),  placed  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  extracted  passages,  of  the  speeches  in  dia- 
logue, &c. ;  brackets  or  crotchets  [  ],  generally 
enclosing  an  explanatory  phrase  or  passage  in- 
serted by  one  writer  in  a  quotation  from  an- 
other ;  and  references  (consisting  of  the  char- 
acters *,  t,  J,  §,  1,  and  IT,  called  respectively 
asterisk  or  star,  dagger,  double  dagger,  section, 
parallel,  and  paragraph,  or  of  figures  or  letters 
smaller  than  those  of  the  text),  pointing  to 
notes  correspondingly  marked  at  the  foot  or 
margin  of  the  page. — The  ancients  were  in  the 
habit  of  writing  without  distinction  of  either 
sentences  or  words  until  about  364  B.  C.  Af- 
terward it  became  usual  to  place  a  mark  of 
distinction  at  the  end  of  every  word,  as  in  the 
following  inscription  found  near  Bath,  England : 

IVLIVSv  VITALISv   FABRI,  &c. 

Sometimes,  as  in  the  subjoined  extract  from  an 
inscription  given  by  Montfaucon,  a  letter  laid 
horizontally  was  used  as  an  interstitial  mark : 

P.  FERRARIVS  HERMES 
CAECINIAE    H  DIGNAE 
CONIVGI    H   KARISSIMAE 
NVMERIAE    H 

But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  sorie  sys- 
tem of  punctuation  was  known  to  the  Greeks 
in  the  time  of  Aristotle.  It  probably  consisted 
of  a  single  mark,  which  changed  its  significa- 
tion according  to  a  change  of  position.  At  the 
bottom  of  a  letter  (A.)  it  was  equivalent  to  a 
comma ;  in  the  middle  (A-),  to  a  colon ;  and  at 
the  top  (A'),  to  a  period ;  but  this  plan  could 
only  be  followed  as  long  as  Greek  manuscripts 
were  written  entirely  in  capitals.  St.  Jerome 
in  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  used  certain 
marks  of  distinction  or  division,  which  he  called 
commata  and  cola;  but  it  has  been  thought 
that  they  consisted  simply  in  writing  every 
clause  on  a  separate  line.  The  modern  points 
came  into  use  very  gradually  after  the  invention 
of  printing,  the  comma,  parenthesis,  note  of 
interrogation,  and  period  being  the  earliest  in- 
troduced, and  the  note  of  exclamation  the  last. 
The  first  printed  books  have  only  arbitrary 
marks  here  and  there,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
16th  century  that  an  approach  was  made  to  a 
regular  system  by  the  Manutii  of  Venice. 

POJJAIJB,  or  I'anjab  (Pers.,  the  country  of  the 
five  rivers),  a  province  in  the  N.  W'.  portion 
of  British  India,  between  lat.  27°  40'  and  35° 
5'  N.,  and  Ion.  69°  30'  and  78°  30'  E.,  and 
bounded  N.  by  Kafiristan  and  Cashmere, .E. 
by  the  Himalaya  range  and  Northwest  Prov- 
inces, S.  by  Rajpootana  and  Bhawalpoor,  S.  W. 
by  Sinde,  and  W.  by  Beloochistan  and  Afghan- 
istan. According  to  the  official  statement  of 
the  progress  and  condition  of  India  submitted 
to  the  British  parliament  in  June,  1874,  the 
area  of  the  Punjaub  is  103,748  sq.  m.,  evident- 
ly including  the  Bannu  district,  which  was 
omitted  in  the  statement  of  the  previous  year. 
(See  INDIA.)  According  to  the  last  census, 
taken  in  January,  1868,  the  population  was 
more  than  17,500,000,  but  is  supposed  now  to 


have  increased  to  19,000,000.  There  are  ten 
civil  divisions,  each  under  a  commissioner,  and 
subdivided  into  districts  as  follows :  1.  Am- 
bala  or  Umballa — Ambala,  Loodiana,  Simla. 

2.  Amritsir — Amritsir,  Gurdaspoor,  Sealkote. 

3.  Delhi — Delhi,  Goorgaon,  Kurnal.     4.  Dera- 
jat — Bunnoo    or    Bannu,   Dera  Ghazi   Khan, 
Dera  Ismail  Khan.    5.  Hissar — Hissar,  Rohtuk, 
Sirsa.     6.  Jalandhar — Hoshiarpoor,  Jalandhar, 
Kangra.     7.  Lahore — Ferozepoor,  Gujranwala, 
Lahore.       8.   Mooltan — Jhang,    Montgomery, 
Mooltan,  Mozuffergurh.    9.  Peshawer — Huzara 
(Abbottabad),  Kohat,  Peshawer.     10.  Rawul- 
pindi — Gujrat,  Jhylum,  Rawulpindi,  Shahpoor. 
Under  the  supervision  of  the  Punjaub  govern- 
ment are  32  native  Himalayan  hill  states,  of 
which  Cashmere  is  by  far  the  most  important. 
(See  CASHMERE.)    Of  these,  five  in  addition  to 
Cashmere  are  beyond  the  river  Sutlej  ;  among 
them  Chumba,  area  3,216  sq.  m.,   pop.  110,- 
000,  paying  an  annual  tribute  of  £500 ;  Mandi, 
area  1,080  sq.  m.,  pop.  135,000,  annual  tribute 
£10,000 ;  and   Sukhet,  area  420  sq.  m.,  pop. 
45,000,  annual  tribute  £1,100.     The  remaining 
26  hill  states  lie  S.  of  the  Sutlej,  and  are  geo- 
graphically arranged  into  four  groups,  known 
as  the  northern,  east  central,  west  central,  and 
southern  groups.     Each  of  these  states  is  very 
small,  the  most  important  being  Nahun  or  Sir- 
mor,  in  the  southern  group,  whose  sovereign 
has  90,000  subjects.     The  affairs  of  the  native 
state  of  Bhawalpoor  are  managed  by  a  British 
political  agent,  whose  administration  is  super- 
vised by  the  lieutenant  governor  of  the  Pun- 
jaub.— The  territory  of  the  Punjaub  is  exceed- 
ingly irregular  in  outline,  but  consists  mainly 
of  the  extensive  plain  which  slopes  S.  W.  from 
the  highlands   of   Cashmere.      This  plain   is 
drained  by  the  Indus,  and  its  five  great  trib- 
utaries, from  which  the   country  derives  its 
name,  though  some  geographers  improperly  re- 
gard it  as  derived  from  the  Indus  and  its  four 
larger  tributaries,  excluding  the  Beas.      The 
Indus  is  the  westernmost  river;  the  tributaries, 
from  W.  to  E.,  are  the  Jhylum,  the  Chenaub, 
the  Eavee,  the  Sutlej,  and  the  affluent  of  the 
latter,  the  Beas,  all  flowing  into  the  Indus  near 
Mittun  Kote,  lat.  28°  58'  N.,  Ion.  70°  23'  E., 
through  the  Punjnud,  a  broad  stream  in  which 
their  waters  unite  about  50  m.  N.  E.  of  this 
point  of  confluence.     The  Punjnud  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  Chenaub  from  the  north, 
bearing  the  accumulated  waters  of  the  Jhylum 
and  the  Ravee,  with  the  Ghara,  or  united  Sut- 
lej and  Beas,  from  the  east.     These  streams 
are  all  described  under  their  own  names.     The 
only  portion  of  the  Punjaub  not  included  in 
the  Indus  basin  is  the  region  about  Delhi  bor- 
dering the  Northwest  Provinces,   which    lie 
within  the  valley  of  the  Ganges. — The  moun- 
tains of  the  Punjaub  are  confined  to  the  N.  E. 
and  N.  W.  corners  of  the  province.     In  the 
former  region   is  the   Himalayan   district  of 
Kangra,  comprising  Lahool,  Spiti,  and  Kulo ; 
and  in  the  latter  the  Salt  range,  about  2,000 
ft.   high,  trends  westward  from  the  Jhylum 


90 


PUNJAUB 


and  crosses  the  Indus,  beyond  which  it  is 
known  as  the  Kalabagh  and  extends  to  the 
Suleiman  or  Solyman  mountains  in  Afghan- 
istan. The  general  aspect  of  the  districts  of 
the  Punjaub  N.  of  the  Salt  range  is  hilly  and 
even  mountainous.  The  elevation  of  the  great 
plain  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  however,  is 
only  about  1,000  ft.,  and  thence  the  surface 
slopes  gradually  southward,  diversified  by 
scarcely  an  eminence,  until  it  is  little  more 
than  200  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  province,  where  the  coun- 
try is  for  the  most  part  an  absolute  desert. — 
The  plain  is  divided  into  five  extensive  doabs, 
as  the  natives  term  the  spaces  enclosed  between 
the  convergent  rivers.  Enumerated  from  W. 
to  E.,  these  doabs  are  :  1,  the  Sindh  Sagur 
doab,  the  largest  of  all,  between  the  Indus  on 
the  west  and  the  Jhylum,  Chenaub,  and  Punj- 
nud  on  the  east;  2,  the  Jetch,  between  the 
Jhylum  and  the  Chenaub;  3,  the  Richna, 
between  the  Chenaub  and  the  Ravee ;  4,  the 
Baree,  which  is  the  most  densely  populated  and 
prosperous,  between  the  Ravee  and  Chenaub 
and  the  Ghara ;  and  5,  the  Jalandhar,  between 
the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej.  Fertility  is  diffused 
over  the  narrow  plain  along  the  base  of  the 
Himalaya  range  by  the  six  rivers  which  there 
first  enter  upon  it,  and  the  abundant  rainfall 
of  not  less  than  40  inches  in  the  year  to  which 
it  is  subject.  Here  artificial  irrigation  is  need- 
less. In  the  northern  dry  zone,  a  strip  of 
country  below  this,  from  100  to  200  m.  broad, 
and  where  the  annual  supply  of  rain  is  be- 
tween 15  and  30  inches,  the  rivers  have  worn 
down  their  valleys  to  a  level  from  10  to  50  ft. 
lower  than  the  general  surface  of  the  plain. 
The  width  of  these  valleys  varies  from  4  to  10 
m.,  and  they  contain  the  fertile  tracts  of  this 
portion  of  the  province,  called  Khadar  lands. 
Their  borders  are  the  loftier  sterile  expanses 
of  the  plateau,  known  as  Bangar  lands  and 
forming  the  doabs.  These  are  largely  over- 
grown with  grass  and  brushwood,  and  though 
they  are  fertile,  cultivation  is  dependent  upon 
an  artificial  supply  of  water.  Near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  the  Khadar  lowlands  ex- 
tend from  stream  to  stream  and  the  high  tracts 
disappear ;  but  the  aridity  of  the  climate  in 
this  region  is  such  that  the  rivers  alone  do  not 
suffice  to  maintain  the  productiveness  even  of 
their  valleys,  and  without  artificial  irrigation 
the  adjacent  country  would  be  a  mere  waste. 
Frequent  changes  occur  in  the  course  of  each 
of  the  great  rivers  of  the  Punjaub,  and  from 
October,  when  the  Indus  is  lowest,  until  spring- 
time, its  capacious  bed  is  occupied  by  a  num- 
ber of  shallow  watercourses  hardly  navigable. 
In  the  plains  the  periodical  rise  of  the  river 
begins  in  February,  when  the  melted  snows 
of  the  Himalaya  begin  to  come  down,  and  its 
volume  increases  till  July,  when  the  river  is 
in  full  flood. — Three  kinds  of  irrigation  are 
practised  in  the  Punjaub.  In  the  Himalayan 
districts  and  elsewhere  in  the  north,  where 
water  is  less  than  25  ft.  from  the  surface,  the 


supply  for  agricultural  and  horticultural  pur- 
poses is  obtained  from  wells.  A  system  of 
irrigation  through  inundation  canals,  whereby 
the  water  is  conducted  from  the  rivers  when 
they  are  highest,  is  applied  in  the  comparative- 
ly rainless  districts  wherever  the  land  is  low 
enough.  The  inundation  system  comprises  the 
canals  of  the  lower  Sutlej  and  Chenaub  divi- 
sion, 39  in  number  and  632  m.  in  length,  which 
water  the  garden-like  district  of  Mooltan ;  the 
upper  Sutlei  canals  above  Mooltan,  213  m. 
long ;  and  the  Indus  canals,  of  which  600  m. 
are  in  the  district  of  Derajat  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river,  and  66  m.  in  Mozufergurh 
on  the  left.  The  inundation  system,  however, 
was  not  applicable  to  the  higher  lands  of  the 
doabs,  which  require  perennial  canals  to  make 
their  natural  fertility  available.  This  want 
has  been  supplied  only  to  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Baree  doab,  which  is  traversed  by  a 
canal  from  the  Ravee  at  Madhopoor,  where 
that  river  leaves  the  Himalaya,  extending  in 
three  branches  to  Lahore,  Kussoor,  and  So- 
braon.  In  1872-'3  the  main  channel  of  this 
state  canal  was  212  m.  long,  with  692  m.  of 
distributaries,  watering  228,796  acres.  All  the 
canals  are  managed  by  the  government  irriga- 
tion department. — The  climate  of  the  plains  is 
dry  and  exceedingly  warm.  In  the  colder  sea- 
son the  midday  temperature  is  seldom  below 
70°  F.,  and  not  infrequently  80°,  while  in  sum- 
mer it  sometimes  rises  to  112°  in  the  shade. 
In  the  higher  northern  districts  the  climate  is 
proportionately  cooler. — The  flora  of  the  prov- 
ince is  not  abundant  or  varied.  Characteris- 
tic forms  of  vegetation  are  acacias,  tamarisks, 
a  tree-like  caper  without  leaves,  the  jujube, 
and  a  species  of  wild  palm.  There  is  a  great 
deficiency  of  timber.  The  government  leases 
and  manages  the  deodar  forests  in  the  native 
tributary  states  of  the  Trans-Sutlej  highlands, 
where  this  valuable  tree  grows  only  at  a  height 
of  from  5,000  to  9,000  ft.  The  valleys  of  all 
the  principal  rivers  also  contain  forests  of  deo- 
dar. The  Indus  is  bordered  by  babul  forests 
in  the  arid  districts  of  the  south  near  Sinde. 
In  the  doabs  of  the  dry  region  are  tracts  of 
wood  and  jungle  called  rakhs,  from  which  con- 
siderable fuel  is  obtained,  and  the  management 
of  which,  to  the  extent  of  about  8,000  sq.  m., 
has  recently  been  undertaken  by  the  forest 
department.  The  collection  of  waif  and  drift 
timber  on  the  rivers  is  regulated  by  law.  In 
1872-'3  the  receipts  from  the  government  for- 
ests were  but  £65,800,  against  an  expenditure 
of  £79,594  upon  them.  Earnest  efforts  are 
being  made  to  promote  the  growth  of  forest 
trees,  and  the  forest  administration  has  estab- 
lished several  tree  plantations,  one  of  them 
on  the  Bari  doab  canal  covering  7,200  acres. 
Fruit  is  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns 
and  villages,  the  mangoes,  oranges,  and  pome- 
granates of  Mooltan  being  especially  noted  for 
their  excellent  quality  ;  almonds,  figs,  mulber- 
ries, dates,  apricots,  peaches,  apples,  quinces, 
and  melons  are  also  raised.  At  Lahore  there 


PUNJAUB 


91 


is  an  agri-horticultural  society,  through  whose 
efforts  the  olive  and  the  Australian  blue  gum 
tree  (eucalyptus  globulus)  have  been  introduced 
into  the  province. — The  tiger  is  the  most  for- 
midable of  the  wild  animals  found  in  the  Pun- 
jaub. The  lion  has  sometimes  been  enumera- 
ted among  the  carnivora  of  the  region,  but  prob- 
ably does  not  now  exist  in  India  except  within 
Or  near  the  peninsula  of  Guzerat.  The  leopard 
and  wild  cat  commit  annoying  depredations 
on  the  smaller  domestic  animals.  Lynxes, 
wolves,  hyeenas,  jackals,  porcupines,  foxes,  and 
hares  are  common.  A  species  of  black  bear 
(helarctos  Tibetanus)  is  met  with  in  the  Salt 
range,  where  also  the  wild  pig  is  distributed 
in  large  numbers.  Several  species  of  deer  and 
antelopes  inhabit  the  province,  and  wild  sheep, 
sometimes  called  deer-sheep  on  account  of 
their  shy  habits  and  fleetness,  are  numerous 
in  many  districts.  The  fauna  of  the  Punjaub 
is  particularly  rich  in  birds,  among  which  are 
the  Asiatic  bald-headed  eagle,  the  pea  fowl 
and  common  jungle  fowl,  parrots,  kites,  ra- 
vens, jackdaws,  owls,  pigeons,  pheasants,  par- 
tridges, quails,  and  many  kinds  of  water  fowl, 
including  geese,  ducks,  herons,  cormorants,  pel- 
icans, and  the  black  ibis.  The  Indian  alliga- 
tor haunts  the  rivers,  which  abound  in  many 
varieties  of  excellent  fish.  Fish  is  extensively 
eaten  by  the  people. — The  principal  mineral 
product  is  rock  salt,  which  occurs  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Salt  range  in  deposits  said  to  be  un- 
surpassed elsewhere  in  the  world  in  extent  or 
purity.  It  is  mined  from  considerable  depths 
and  also  quarried  at  the  surface,  and  there  are 
at  least  12  localities  in  the  range  at  which  vast 
deposits  are  known  to  exist.  Salt  of  a  black 
or  dark  green  hue  is  quarried  in  the  hills  of  the 
Kohat  district.  Small  quantities  of  gold,  quite 
insignificant  in  proportion  to  the  labor  required 
to  obtain  them,  can  be  washed  from  the  gravel 
of  many  of  the  streams.  Petroleum  has  been 
discovered  at  Eawulpindi  and  elsewhere,  but 
has  not  yet  been  put  to  any  practical  use. — 
Among  the  more  important  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  wheat,  sugar,  rice,  barley,  millet, 
maize,  peas,  beans,  mustard,  and  hemp  and  oth- 
er fibres.  In  1872-'3,  47,781  acres  were  plant- 
ed with  crotalaria  juncea,  a  leguminous  annual 
yielding  the  fibre  known  as  sunn,  from  which 
twine  is  made.  Tobacco  was  grown  on  90,000 
acres,  and  7,732  acres  are  included  within  the 
28  tea  plantations  of  the  Kangra  district,  where 
the  average  yield  is  130  Ibs.  per  acre.  The  crop 
of  1872  amounted  to  428,655  Ibs.  The  breed- 
ing of  horses  is  encouraged  by  the  government, 
which  keeps  37  stallions  in  the  province.  An 
important  horse  fair  is  annually  held  at  Ra- 
wulpindi  for  market  purposes  as  well  as  the 
distribution  of  government  prizes.  There  are 
Iso  great  cattle  fairs  at  Hissar  and  Sirsa, 
sometimes  attended  by  more  than  25,000  per- 
sons. Sheep  are  raised  in  the  grazing  districts 
from  English  imported  stock. — The  manufac- 
tures of  the  province,  valued  at  £5,315,400  in 
1872-'3,  consist  largely  of  cotton,  which  is 


made  into  white  and  colored  cloths  and  thick 
striped  cloth  for  floors ;  woollen  goods,  from 
the  fleeces  of  sheep,  goats,  and  camels;  and 
silk  made  at  Amritsir,  Lahore,  and  Mooltan, 
out  of  the  raw  material  imported  from  Bengal, 
China,  Afghanistan,  and  eastern  Turkistan. 
The  industrial  progress  of  the  country  is  ac- 
tively stimulated  by  the  numerous  fairs  fre- 
quently held  in  various  localities.  Of  these 
there  are  128  in  the  Punjaub,  each  attended 
by  at  least  10,000  persons,  and  some  by  more 
than  100,000.  In  the  year  1872-'3  the  value 
of  the  trade  up  the  Indus  was  £47,588,  against 
a  downward  trade  of  £448,476,  while  the 
external  trade  of  the  province  amounted  to 
£5,024,883. — According  to  the  parliamentary 
accounts  for  1872-'3,  there  were  in  that  year 
410  m.  of  railway  in  the  Punjaub,  2,470  m.  of 
water  communication,  and  20,798  m.  of  roads. 
The  railway  system  is  not  yet  completed.  At 
present  there  is  the  great  trunk  road  from 
Delhi  to  Lahore  and  thence  to  Mooltan,  whence 
the  broad  gauge  Indus  valley  line,  480  m.  in 
length,  now  in  process  of  construction,  will 
run  southward  to  Kotree  and  there  meet  the 
Sinde  railway  from  Kurrachee.  Lahore  is  also 
to  be  connected  with  Peshawer  by  a  narrow 
gauge  line,  270  m.  long,  with  three  costly 
bridges  over  the  Ravee,  Chenaub,  and  Jhylum 
rivers.  Lines  of  telegraph  are  already  in 
existence  along  all  these  routes. — The  ancient 
village  communities  have  maintained  their 
organization  intact  throughout  a  great  part  of 
the  Punjaub,  and  the  proprietors  of  the  soil 
usually  cultivate  it  themselves,  paying  the  land 
tax  through  the  elders  of  their  village.  Other- 
wise the  land  settlement  is  like  that  of  the 
Northwest  Provinces.  The  revenue  derived 
from  it  is  easily  collected,  and  in  1872-'3 
amounted  to  £2,005,666.  A  revenue  of  £811,- 
190  was  derived  from  the  sale  of  salt  and  the 
duties  on  that  mineral  collected  at  the  customs 
line,  982  m.  long,  which  runs  down  the  Indus, 
and  is  intended  to  restrict  the  importation  of 
red  salt  from  Peshawer.  The  opium  excise  and 
licenses  for  the  sale  of  drugs  and  spirits  yield- 
ed £87,633.  In  the  same  year,  under  a  new 
arrangement,  the  local  authorities  received 
£748,718  from  the  supreme  government  of 
India  for  provincial  expenditure  upon  jails, 
police,  education,  hospitals,  roads,  buildings, 
miscellaneous  public  improvements,  and  other 
objects  of  a  local  character ;  and  the  disburse- 
ments out  of  provincial  funds  amounted  to 
£515,153.  The  local  revenue  in  that  year  was 
£751,040,  and  the  local  expenditure  £468,174. 
Municipal  institutions  for  local  taxation  and 
expenditure  have  been  organized  by  the  British 
government  in  125  cities  and  towns,  and  189 
smaller  places;  a  few  of  the  more  important 
municipalities  elect  their  own  officers. — The 
population  of  the  Punjaub  is  made  up  of  Ma- 
hommedans  and  Hindoos  in  the  proportion  of 
about  two  to  one.  The  Sikhs  constitute  about 
half  of  the  smaller  and  Hindoo  portion.  The 
total  number  of  native  Protestant  converts  to 


92 


PUNJAUB 


Christianity  in  the  province  in  1872  was  1,870, 
of  whom  14  were  ordained  ministers,  and  707 
were  communicants.  There  are  two  colleges 
in  the  Punjaub  affiliated  to  the  university  of 
Calcutta :  one  at  Lahore,  with  52  students  in 
1872-'3;  the  other  at  Delhi,  attended  by  36 
students.  The  government  maintains  three 
normal  schools  and  aids  six  others ;  of  high 
schools  it  supports  six  and  assists  ten.  There 
is  a  special  educational  institution  at  Ambala 
for  instructing  the  wards  of  the  government 
and  the  sons  of  natives  of  rank ;  and  the  gov- 
ernment also  manages  an  Anglo- Arabic  school 
at  Delhi  endowed  by  a  native  nawaub.  The 
entire  number  of  government  primary  or  vil- 
lage schools  in  the  province  is  1,046,  having  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  51,251  pupils,  in 
addition  to  which  there  are  188  aided  schools 
of  the  same  class  with  an  average  attendance 
of  20,825.  There  are  345  schools  for  girls,  of 
which  91  are  wholly  sustained  by  the  govern- 
ment, while  the  rest  receive  aid  from  it.  No 
insignificant  educational  influence  is  exerted 
by  the  central  museum  at  Lahore,  which  is 
visited  by  nearly  50,000  persons  annually. 
There  are  14  newspapers  in  the  province,  all  j 
printed  in  native  languages  except  two,  which 
are  in  English.  In  1872-'3,  344  books  were 
published.  About  20,000  men  are  employed 
as  police,  more  than  half  the  number  being 
Mohammedans.  There  are  34  jails ;  a  ticket- 
of-leave  system  exists,  and  the  prisoners  are 
employed  in  industrial  pursuits.  The  number  ! 
of  government  hospitals  and  dispensaries  is  j 
116,  including  the  Mayo  hospital  connected 
with  the  medical  school  at  Lahore.  A  system 
of  elementary  medical  instruction  has  been  in- 
troduced for  native  physicians,  who  are  sup- 
plied with  the  requisite  medicines  and  paid  for 
their  services  in  times  of  epidemic. — In  a  mili- 
tary sense,  the  position  of  the  Punjaub  is  more 
important  than  that  of  any  other  province  of 
India,  lying  as  it  does  in  the  very  highway  of 
invasion  from  the  interior  of  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent. A  large  British  force  is  constantly  garri- 
soned there;  in  1872-'3  it  consisted  of  35,885 
men,  with  97  field  guns.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  lieutenant  governor  had  under  his  orders  a 
frontier  force  of  12,416  troops,  principally 
Sikhs,  Gorkhas,  and  natives  of  the  Punjaub. 
— The  government  of  the  province  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  lieutenant  governor,  whose  official 
residence  is  at  Lahore.  The  highest  judicial 
authority  is  vested  in  a  chief  court  composed 
of  a  barrister  and  a  civilian  judge.  In  ad- 
dition to  Lahore,  the  chief  towns  are  Delhi, 
Peshawer,  Amritsir,  Arabala  or  Umballa,  Ra- 
wulpindi,  Mooltan,  Ferozepore,  Leia,  and  Dera 
Ismail  Khan. — In  the  year  327  B.  C.  Alexan- 
der the  Great  invaded  the  Punjaub,  crossed  the 
Indus,  Jhylum  (anc.  Hydaspes),  Chenaub  (Ace- 
sines),  and  Ravee  (ffydraotes),  and  marched  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  Beas  or  of  the  Sutlej  (to 
either  of  which  the  ancient  name  Hyphasix 
may  be  referred),  which  was  the  limit  of  his 
advance  eastward.  At  that  time  the  country 


was  ruled  by  a  Hindoo  monarch  named  Taxiles 
in  the  west,  and  by  a  sovereign  called  Porus, 
whose  dominions  extended  from  the  Jhylum  to 
Delhi.  After  the  Greek  invasion  the  whole 
appears  to  have  become  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Maghada,  which  existed  until  about  195  B.  C. 
For  many  centuries  subsequently  the  history  of 
the  Punjaub  is  enveloped  in  much  doubt  and 
obscurity.  About  A.  D.  1000  Mooltan  appears 
as  a  Mohammedan  state,  though  it  is  not  clear 
how  it  became  so.  At  this  period  Mahmoad 
of  Ghuzni  invaded  India  from  Afghanistan, 
subjugated  the  Punjaub,  and  made  Lahore  the 
seat  of  his  dynasty,  which  came  to  an  end  in 
1186.  It  was  afterward  subject  to  numerous 
different  chieftains,  principally  Afghans,  who 
ruled  it  until  it  was  invaded  and  pillaged  by 
Timour  and  his  army  in  1398.  The  Mogul 
dynasty  was  finally  established  over  the  coun- 
try by  his  lineal  descendant  Baber  in  1526. 
Humayun,  son  and  successor  of  Baber,  lost 
the  province  temporarily,  but  recovered  it  in 
1555  from  his  Afghan  rival,  Shere  AH  Khan. 
The  Punjaub  was  the  scene  of  a  considerable 
insurrection  in  1709-'!  1  on  the  part  of  the 
Sikhs,  who  had  long  been  persecuted  by  their 
Mohammedan  rulers,  and  it  was  quelled  with 
some  trouble  by  Bahadoor  Shah,  who  had  not 
long  previously  succeeded  his  father  Aurung- 
zebe  on  the  throne.  In  1752  the  Afghan  king 
Ahmed  Shah  Abdalli  entered  the  province, 
exacted  contribution  from  its  inhabitants,  and 
a  few  years  later  forced  the  Mogul  emperor 
to  cede  it  to  him.  Soon  afterward  the  grow- 
ing power  of  the  Sikhs  was  manifested  by  a 
fresh  uprising  in  the  districts  E.  of  the  Jhy- 
lum. The  Afghan  dynasty  terminated  in  1809, 
and  by  that  time  Runjeet  Singh,  the  greatest 
chieftain  of  the  Sikhs,  had  acquired  Lahore 
and  controlled  the  larger  portion  of  the  prov- 
ince through  a  confederacy  of  the  various 
Sikh  clans  within  its  boundaries.  He  endeav- 
ored to  force  the  Sikh  hill  states  E.  of  the 
Sutlej  into  this  confederacy,  and  only  yielded 
his  claim  to  their  allegiance  upon  the  advance 
of  a  British  army  to  the  banks  of  the  river. 
He  reigned  till  1839,  and  in  the  interval  con- 
quered Mooltan,  Peshawer,  and  the  Derajat 
district  beyond  the  Indus.  A  period  of  an- 
archy followed  the  death  of  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Khuruk  Singh  in  1840,  and  the  Sikhs 
finally  determined  to  invade  the  British  terri- 
tories in  India.  Thus,  in  1845,  began  the  first 
Sikh  war,  in  which  were  fought  the  battles 
known  as  those  of  the  Sutlej.  The  Sikh 
forces  were  defeated  with  heavy  loss,  and  in 
1846  the  English  took  possession  of  the  Ja- 
landhar  doab  and  the  Sikh  territories  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  and  undertook  tho 
guardianship  of  the  young  Maharajah  Dhu> 
leep  Singh,  a  grandson  of  Runjeet  Singh  and 
then  a  minor..  In  1848  the  disaffection  of  the 
chieftains  led  to  the  second  Sikh  war,  in 
which  the  most  celebrated  battle  was  fought 
at  Chillianwallah,  where  the  English  were 
nearly  defeated ;  but  the  result  of  the  contest 


PUNTA  ARENAS 


PURCELL 


93 


was  the  annexation  of  the  Punjaub  to  the 
British  dominions,  by  a  proclamation  of  the 
viceroy  on  March  29,  1849.  (See  SIKHS.)  Du- 
ring the  sepoy  mutiny  of  1857  Sir  John  Law- 
rence (now  Lord  Lawrence)  was  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  Punjaub,  and  by  his  prompt 
action  in  disarming  the  native  regiments,  the 
confidence  which  he  displayed  in  the  Sikhs  as 
friends  of  the  British,  and  his  judicious  admin- 
istration generally,  the  rebellion  was  rendered 
utterly  unsuccessful  in  that  part  of  India. 

PCNTA  ARENAS,  the  only  seaport  town  of 
Costa  Rica  on  the  Pacific,  situated  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  gulf  of  Nicoya,  about  60  m.  W.  by  N. 
of  San  Jos6 ;  permanent  pop.  about  300.  The 
town  stands  on  a  sandy  point  which  projects 
into  the  gulf.  Vessels  drawing  more  than  7 
ft.  of  water  are  obliged  to  anchor  3  m.  from 
shore,  in  the  outer  harbor,  which  is  protected 
from  the  swell  of  the  Pacific  by  two  islands. 
An  inner  harbor,  between  the  point  and  the 
mainland,  is  accessible  only  for  vessels  of  very 
light  draught.  The  climate  is  unhealthy,  but 
less  so  than  that  of  other  parts  of  the  coast. 
Punta  Arenas  is  the  port  of  San  Jose,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  good  carriage  road, 
and  a  railway  is  projected.  There  is  a  tele- 
graph line  to  Cartago,  which  is  to  be  contin- 
ued to  Limon  on  the  Atlantic.  The  steamers 
of  the  Panama  railway  company  and  those  of 
the  Pacific  mail  steamship  company  touch  reg- 
ularly at  Punta  Arenas.  In  1873  the  entries 
at  the  port  were  97  ships,  of  15,464  aggregate 
tonnage.  The  port  was  established  in  1840, 
when  Caldera,  S.  of  it,  was  abandoned  on  ac- 
count of  its  unhealthfulness. 

PUPA.     See  BUTTERFLY,  and  CHRYSALIS. 

PURBACH,  or  Penrbaeh,  Georg,  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Peurbach,  Austria,  in  1423, 
died  in  Vienna  in  1461.  He  studied  astronomy 
under  Gmunden  at  the  university  of  Vienna, 
went  to  Italy,  and  on  his  return  succeeded  his 
master  in  the  professorship  at  Vienna.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  reputed  the  first  as- 
tronomer in  Europe.  He  began  a  new  edition 
of  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  based  upon  the  Latin 
translation  from  the  Arabic ;  and  though  he 
neither  understood  Greek,  in  which  the  work 
was  originally  written,  nor  Arabic,  his  knowl- 
edge of  astronomy  enabled  him  to  make  his 
edition  much  better  than  previous  ones.  He 
left  this  work  unfinished  to  his  pupil  Regio- 
montanus,  who  completed  it.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  Purbach's  own  works  is  his  posthu- 
mous Theoria  Novae  Planetarum  (1472),  which 
served  as  an  introduction  to  Ptolemy. 

PCRCELL,  Henry,  an  English  composer,  born 
in  London  in  1658,  died  Nov.  21,  1695.  While 
a  singing  boy  in  the  choir  of  the  king's  chapel 
he  composed  several  anthems.  At  the  age  of 
18  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Westminster 
abbey,  and  six  years  afterward  one  of  the  three 
organists  of  the  chapel  royal.  His  anthems 
previously  written  were  very  popular,  and  in 
1677  he  composed  the  music  for  an  operetta 
by  Tate,  entitled  "  Dido  and  JSneas,"  performed 


by  the  pupils  of  a  female  boarding  school.  The 
success  of  this  work  encouraged  him  to  be- 
come a  regular  writer  for  the  stage,  and  for  the 
play  of  "  Abelazor"  (1677),  ShadwelPs  adapta- 
tion of  "Timon  of  Athens"  (1678),  and  Lee's 
"Theodosius"  (1680),  he  composed  the  over- 
tures and  songs.  A  number  of  hi«  instru- 
mental pieces  in  four  parts  were  published  by 
his  widow  in  1697,  under  the  title  of  "A  Col- 
lection of  Ayres,  composed  for  the  Theatre  and 
on  other  occasions,  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Pur 
cell."  Next  in  order  of  his  compositions  was 
a  series  of  12  sonatas  for  two  violins  and  a  bass 
published  in  1683,  followed  by  another  series 
of  10.  Subsequently  he  produced  the  greater 
part  of  his  dramatic  music,  and  set  the  songs, 
dialogues,  and  choruses  in  several  of  Dryden's 
most  successful  plays.  In  1690  he  composed 
new  music  for  the  "Tempest,"  as  adapted  for 
the  stage  by  Dryden  and  Davenant,  and  within 
the  next  two  years  he  similarly  embellished 
Dryden's  "  King  Arthur,"  "  Indian  Queen," 
and  "  Tyrannic  Love."  For  D'Urfey's  three 
parts  of  "Don  Quixote,"  produced  in  1694-'6, 
he  furnished  the  two  songs,  "  Let  the  dreadful 
engines"  and  "From  rosy  bowers."  He  also 
furnished  the  music  for  "  Bonduca,"  a  tragedy 
by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  made  into  an  opera 
by  Dryden,  in  which  occurs  the  well  known 
duet  and  chorus,  "  Britons,  strike  home  ;"  and 
vocal  pieces  for  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  "  Dio- 
cletian," altered  by  Betterton,  Dryden's  "  Au- 
rungzebe,"  and  Shadwell's  "  Libertine."  These 
works  were  published  by  his  widow  in  1697 
under  the  title  of  "  Orpheus  Britannicus." 
His  published  anthems  number  50,  besides  a 
celebrated  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate,  with  orches- 
tral accompaniments;  and  his  church  music 
includes  a  complete  service  and  a  number  of 
hymns  and  psalms.  His  odes,  glees,  catches, 
rounds,  &c.,  were  also  numerous  and  popular. 
Purcell  died  of  consumption,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  abbey. 

PDRCELL,  John  Baptist,  an  American  arch- 
bishop, born  in  Mallow,  Ireland,  Feb.  26, 1800. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age, 
began  his  theological  studies  in  Mount  St. 
Mary's  college,  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  completed 
them  in  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  that  city  in  1826.  After  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  taught  theology  at 
Mount  St.  Mary's,  and  became  president  of  the 
college  in  r829.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Cincinnati  in  1833,  when  there  was  but  one 
Roman  Catholic  church  there,  while  the  dio- 
cese comprised  the  entire  state  of  Ohio;  but 
the  numbers  of  his  flock  rapidly  increased,  and 
he  founded  many  important  institutions.  The 
diocese  was  divided  in  1847  by  the  erection 
of  Cleveland  into  an  independent  see,  and  the 
diocese  of  Columbus  was  separated  in  1868. 
In  1860  he  was  made  an  archbishop.  In  1869 
he  attended  the  council  of  the  Vatican,  and 
voted  against  the  opportuneness  of  defining  the 
doctrine  of  pontifical  infallibility.  After  his 
return  to  Cincinnati  in  1870,  he  was  involved 


PURCHAS 


PURPLE 


in  a  public  discussion  with  the  freethinker 
Vickers.  Previously,  in  1837,  he  had  a  seven 
days'  discussion  with  the  Rev.  Alexander 
Campbell,  which  excited  great  interest,  and  an 
account  of  which  was  afterward  printed  in  a 
volume.  Archbishop  Purcell  has  published  a 
volume  of  "Lectures  and  Pastoral  Letters," 
and  edited  Kenelm  Digby's  "  Ages  of  Faith  " 
and  Donald  Macleod's  "  History  of  the  Devo- 
tion to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  in  North 
America  "  (New  York,  1866). 

PURCHAS,  Samuel,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Thaxted,  Essex,  in  1577,  died  about  1628.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge, 
and  in  1604  became  vicar  of  Eastwood  in  Es- 
sex. Removing  to  London,  he  received  the 
rectory  of  St.  Martin's,  Ludgate,  and  became 
chaplain  to  Archbishop  Abbot.  He  compiled 
from  more  than  1,300  authorities  a  work  en- 
titled "  Purchas  his  Pilgrimage,  or  Relations 
of  the  World,  and  the  Religions  observed  in  all 
Ages,  and  Places  discovered,  from  the  Crea- 
tion unto  this  present"  (fol.,  1613);  and  a  col- 
lection of  voyages  under  the  title,  "  Purchas 
his  Pilgrimmes  "  (4  vols.  fol.,  1625).  The  third 
and  fourth  volumes  relate  to  America.  He 
also  wrote  "  Microcosmus,  or  the  History  of 
Man"  (1619),  and  "The  King's  Tower,  and 
Triumphant  Arch  of  London"  (1623). 

PURGATORY  (Lat.  purgatorium,  a  place  for 
cleansing),  in  the  belief  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  eastern  churches,  a  state  of  temporary 
suffering  in  the  next  world,  where  the  souls  of 
the  just  expiate  the  offences  committed  in  this 
life.  The  liturgies  of  the  Latin  church  and  of 
all  the  eastern  churches,  without  exception, 
contain  prayers  for  the  repose  of  departed 
souls.  According  to  Catholic  theologians, 
every  sin,  no  matter  how  slight,  deserves  and 
will  receive  punishment  either  before  or  after 
death.  The  absolution  of  a  priest  in  the  sac- 
rament of  penance  washes  away  the  guilt  of 
sin  and  remits  the  eternal  punishment  due  for 
grave  offences,  but  not  the  temporal  penalty 
which  has  to  be  undergone  as  a  satisfaction  to 
God's  justice.  Baptism  alone  removes  both 
the  guilt  and  the  penalty ;  and  as  few  or  no 
adult  persons  depart  this  life  without  having 
committed  sins  after  baptism,  there  must  be 
some  middle  state  for  such  as  do  not  deserve 
hell  and  are  yet  not  pure  enough  to  enter 
heaven.  The  Catholic  church  has  not  defined 
the  nature  and  duration  of  the  punishment  of 
purgatory,  or  declared  that  it  is  situated  in  any 
particular  place.  She  believes  that  the  suffer- 
ings of  souls  in  the  middle  state  may  be  abridged' 
by  indulgences,  masses,  and  the  prayers  of  their 
friends  on  earth ;  and  one  day  in  the  year  (All 
Souls'  day,  Nov.  2)  is  specially  devoted  to  ser- 
vices and  prayers  for  their  benefit.  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  commonly  teach  that  the 
purification  of  departed  souls  is  effected  by  fire, 
while  the  Greeks  regard  the  soul  after  death 
as  being  purified  "  through  tribulation."  This 
point  was  left  open  by  the  council  of  Florence 
in  1439,  as  was  the  question  concerning  the 


duration  of  purgatorial  suffering.  The  Wal- 
denses  and  other  sects  in  the  middle  ages  pro- 
tested against  the  belief  in  purgatory  and  the 
practices  it  involved.  The  reformed  churches 
also  rejected  them. — See  Bellarmin,  De  Igne- 
Purgatorio  ;  Leo  Allatius,  De  utriusque  Eech- 
sice  in  Dogmate  de  Purgatorio  perpetua  Con- 
sentione ;  Wiseman,  "Lectures  on  the  Doc- 
trines and  Practices  of  the  Catholic  Church" 
(2  vols.,  Baltimore,  1852);  and  Hodge,  "Dog- 
matic Theology,"  vol.  iii.  (New  York,  1874). 
PURGSTALL,  Hammer.  See  HAMMER-PURG- 

STAI.L. 

PURITAN,  an  epithet  first  applied  in  1564  to 
English  nonconformists,  which  continued  to 
designate  them  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth 
and  the  first  two  Stuarts.  During  the  reign  of 
Mary  the  stricter  nonconformist  element  of  the 
church  was  driven  out  of  the  country,  and  a 
number  of  exiles  at  Frankfort  resolved  to  use 
in  public  worship  the  Genevan  service  book,  in 
preference  to  the  book  of  King  Edward  VI. 
They  were  resisted  in  this  by  other  exiles  and 
failed,  but  renewed  the  struggle  on  their  return 
to  England  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth. 
There  were  different  degrees  of  puritanism, 
some  seeking  a  moderate  reform  of  the  English 
liturgy  and  discipline,  others  wishing  to  abol- 
ish episcopacy,  and  some  declaring  against  any 
church  authority  whatever.  Representatives 
from  these  three  classes  formed  the  bulk  of 
the  settlers  of  New  England,  and  the  union  of 
them  in  the  English  civil  wars  effected  the 
overthrow  of  royalty  and  the  establishment  of 
the  commonwealth.  At  the  time  of  the  restora- 
tion the  name  became  one  of  reproach.  Since 
the  relaxation  in  1690  of  the  acts  against  the 
nonconformists,  it  has  ceased  to  designate  any 
particular  sect. — See  Neal,  "  The  History  of 
the  Puritans  "  (revised  ed.  by  Joshua  Toulmin, 
5  vols.  8vo,  Bath,  1798-'7;  American  ed.,  with 
notes  by  John  O.  Choules,  2  vols.  8vo,  New 
York,  1844),  and  Bacon,  "  The  Genesis  of  the 
New  England  Churches  "  (New  York,  1874). 

PURPLE  (Gr.  nop^AfM ;  Lat.  purpura),  a  color 
produced  by  the  union  of  red  and  blue,  and  of 
various  shades  as  one  or  the  other  of  these 
predominates.  The  ancients  esteemed  it  more 
highly  than  any  other  color,  sometimes  making 
it  a  distinctive  badge  of  royalty,  and  again  ap- 
propriating it  to  religious  uses,  as  the  decora- 
tions of  the  temple  and  of  the  garments  of  the 
priests.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  Exodus  and  other  books.  But  it 
is  supposed  by  some  that  the  purple  of  the 
Israelites  was  a  scarlet,  or  even  that  the  term 
was  used  generally  for  any  color  in  which  red 
predominated.  Tyrian  purple,  the  purple  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  obtained  from  the 
murex,  a  genus  of  gasteropod  mollusks  found 
in  the  Mediterranean.  (See  MUREX.)  The 
use  of  this  color  passed  away  with  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  a  simple  purple 
color,  that  is,  one  not  made  by  using  two 
separate  dyes,  was  not  known  until  a  Floren- 
tine, Orchillini,  discovered  the  dyeing  proper- 


PURPLE   OF   CASSIUS 


PUKSLANE 


95 


ties  of  the  lichen  called  orchilla  weed.  Oth- 
er lichens  growing  in  different  parts  of  the 
world  now  furnish  the  dye  known  as  orchil 
or  archil.  (See  AECHIL.)  Shades  of  purple 
are  abundantly  obtained  from  coal-tar  colors. 
(See  ANILINE,  DYEING,  and  MAUVE.)  The 
compounds  called  "purpurates,"  especially  the 
purpurate  of  ammonia,  called  by  Liebig  and 
Wohler  murexide,  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
Tyrian  purple,  present  beautiful  shades  of  pur- 
ple. (See  PuRPtTEATES.) 

PURPLE  OF  CASSIUS.    See  CASSIUS,  PURPLE  OF. 

PURPURATES,  salts  of  purpuric  acid.  Scheele 
in  1776  found  that  a  solution  of  uric  in  nitric 
acid  produced  a  beautiful  deep  red  dye.  Prout 
in  1818  obtained  this  coloring  matter  in  a 
crystalline  form,  and  regarded  it  as  purpurate 
of  ammonia.  By  double  decomposition  he 
obtained  metallic  purpurates  having  a  similar 
color.  The  colorless  substance  which  sepa- 
rated from  purpurate  of  ammonia  by  the  ac- 
tion of  strong  acids,  he  regarded  as  purpuric 
acid;  but  Liebig  and  Wohler  showed  that  this 
did  not  possess  the  property  of  forming  colored 
salts,  and  therefore  held  that  Prout's  com- 
pound was  not  an  ammonium  salt,  but  an  amide, 
'  which  they  called  murexide.  (See  MUREX.) 
Later  researches  by  Freitzsch  and  Beilstein  in- 
dicate that  it  is  a  true  ammonium  salt ;  still 
the  purpuric  acid  has  never  been  isolated,  be- 
cause it  is  decomposed  when  its  salts  are  treat- 
ed with  a  stronger  acid.  The  formula  of  pur- 
purate of  ammonia  or  murexide  is  OsHsNeOe^ 
KH^Cs^NsOe ;  therefore  the  acid  is  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  CsEUNsOe.  Murexide 
is  the  principal  salt,  and  is  a  beautiful  purple, 
but  is  becoming  superseded  by  rosaniline. 

PURSH,  Frederick,  an  American  botanist,  born 
in  Tobolsk,  Siberia,  in  1774,  died  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  June  11,  1820.  He  was  educated  at 
Dresden,  came  to  America  in  1799,  and  spent 
12  years  in  botanical  explorations.  In  1811 
he  visited  England,  and  published  "  Flora 
Americas  Septentrionalis,  or  a  Systematic  Ar- 
rangement and  Description  of  the  Plants  of 
North  America"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1814). 
He  was  engaged  in  the  collection  of  materials 
for  a  flora  of  Canada  when  he  died. 

PURSLANE,  the  common  name  (of  obscure 
derivation)  for  portulaca  oleracea,  one  of  the 
most  common  weeds  of  our  gardens,  and  often 
abbreviated  to  "  pusley."  Portulaca  (the  an- 
cient Latin  name)  gives  its  name  to  a  small 
family  of  succulent  annual  or  perennial  herbs, 
the  portulacacece,  closely  related  to  the  pink 
family,  from  which  they  are  mainly  dis- 
tinguished by  their  two-sepalled  calyx,  and 
the  often  transversely  dehiscent  capsule,  which 
opens  by  the  falling  away  of  the  upper  part  as 
a  lid.  The  common  purslane  is  a  prostrate, 
smooth,  annual  plant,  its  fleshy  and  often  red- 
dish stems  spreading  in  all  directions,  and 
forming  a  mat  a  foot  or  more  across ;  the 
alternate  or  opposite  leaves  are  wedge-shaped 
or  obovate,  and  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  long ; 
the  axillary  or  terminal  flowers  sessile;  the 
691  VOL.  xiv. — 7 


two-cleft  calyx  cohering  with  the  ovary  below ; 
petals  five,  yellow,  and  with  the  7  to  12  sta- 
mens inserted  on  the  calyx  at  the  point  where 
it  becomes  free  from  the  ovary ;  ovary  one- 
celled,  with  a  deeply  five-  to  six-parted  style, 
ripening  to  a  many-seeded  capsule,  which 
opens  by  a  lid ;  the  kidney-shaped  seeds  are 
shining  and  handsomely  marked  with  a  net- 
work. The  flowers  open  only  in  bright  sun- 
shine, usually  about  11  o'clock  A.  M.,  and  re- 
main but  a  short  time.  Purslane  has  been 
used  as  a  pot  herb  from  very  ancient  times,  a 
fact  recognized  in  its  specific  name,  oleracea ; 
and  though  it  is  but  little  used  in  this  country, 
it  is  cultivated  in  French  gardens  as  pourpier, 
and  seeds  of  the  green,  golden,  and  large  golden 
varieties  are  offered  in  their  catalogues.  When 
grown  rapidly  in  a  rich  soil,  and  properly 
served,  it  is  to  many  a  most  acceptable  vege- 
table. In  this  country  it  finds  a  congenial 
climate,  and  is  everywhere  one  of  the  most 


Common  Purslane  (Portulaca  oleracea). 

prominent  weeds ;  it  gives  but  little  trouble 
before  hot  weather  sets  in,  but  grows  then 
with  astonishing  rapidity  ;  so  tenacious  of  life 
is  it,  that  it  must  be  entirely  removed  from  the 
ground  or  it  will  go  on  and  perfect  its  seeds. 
Pigs  are  very  fond  of  it.  The  hairy  purslane, 
P.  pilosa,  with  narrow  cylindrical  leaves  and 
pink  or  purple  flowers,  is  found  in  Florida; 
and  P.  retusa,  which  much  resembles  the 
common  species,  with  its  leaves  notched  at 
the  ends,  is  common  west  of  the  Mississippi. — 
The  garden  portulacas,  probably  all  to  be  re- 
ferred to  the  South  American  P.  grandiflora, 
though  several  different  names  have  been  given 
to  them,  have  cylindrical  leaves  and  very  large 
showy  flowers  of  the  most  brilliant  colors, 
from  white  through  yellow,  orange,  and  red, 
to  bright  purple,  and  often  striped  or  blotched 
with  two  colors ;  the  double  ones  are  very 
fine,  and  deserve  the  name  of  "portulaca 
roses  "  given  them  by  the  German  florists. — 


96 


PURtfS 


The  sea  purslanes,  sesunium  portulacastrum, 
found  along  the  shores  of  the  southern  states, 
and  S.  pentandrum,  from  Long  Island  south- 
ward, have  much  the  habit  of  the  common 
purslane,  but  have  no  petals,  though  the  calyx 
is  purplish  inside,  and  usually  numerous  sta- 
mens.— Black  purslane  and  milk  purslane  are 
names  given  in  some  parts  of  the  country  to 
euphorbia  maculata&nd  E.  hypericifolia,  which 
are  also  common  garden  weeds,  and  have  a 
prostrate  habit  like  purslane ;  they  can  at  once 
be  distinguished  from  purslane  by  their  copious 
milky  juice.  They  belong  to  a  dangerously 
active  family,  and  the  term  purslane  should 
not  be  applied  to  them,  as  their  proper  name 
is  spurge. — Belonging  to  the  purslane  family 
are  several  interesting  genera,  including  Clay- 
fonia,  with  two  handsome  species  known  in 
the  eastern  states  as  spring  beauty,  and  a 
dozen  or  more  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Calan- 
drinia  is  an  allied  showy  genus,  some  species 
of  which  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Pl'KlS,  a  river  of  South  America,  rising  about 
lat.  14°  S.,  in  the  mountains  E.  of  Cuzco,  Peru, 
and  flowing  in  a  northeasterly  direction  to  its 
junction  with  the  Amazon,  into  which  it  falls 
by  two  principal  and  three  minor  mouths,  the 
extremes  of  which  are  over  100  in.  apart.  The 
most  easterly  branch  is  125  m.  W.  of  the  Rio 
Negro.  A  part  of  its  upper  course  is  on  the 
borders  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Brazil,  and  the 
lower,  more  than  half  of  the  whole,  through 
the  latter  country.  Its  entire  length  is  estima- 
ted, inclusive  of  curves,  at  upward  of  2,000  m., 
and  it  flows  through  uninterrupted  primeval 
forests  of  great  beauty.  The  Purus,  probably 
the  Amam-mayu  of  the  Incas  and  the  Mad  re 
de  Dios  of  the  early  Spaniards,  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  Amazon  feeders  W.  of  the 
Madeira,  parallel  to  which  it  rolls  and  with 
which  it  communicates.  It  is  navigable  unin- 
terruptedly from  the  Amazon,  about  Ion.  60° 
30',  to  southern  Peru. 

PUSEY,  Edward  Bonverie,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1800.  He  is  the  second  son  of  the 
Hon.  Philip  Bouverie  (who  assumed  the  name 
of  Pusey),  younger  brother  of  the  first  earl  of 
Radnor.  He  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, in  1822,  obtained  a  fellowship  in  Oriel 
college,  took  orders,  and  in  1828  became  canon 
of  Christ  Church  cathedral  and  regius  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  in  the  university,  a  post 
which  he  still  holds.  He  shares  with  Dr.  New- 
man the  reputation  of  originating  the  so-called 
Anglo-Catholic  movement  in  the  church  of 
England  in  1833,  which  finds  its  best  exponent 
in  the  celebrated  "Tracts  for  the  Times." 
Many  of  these,  including  an  elaborate  treatise 
on  baptism,  were  written  by  Dr.  Pusey,  who 
also  published  letters  in  defence  of  his  views 
to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bish- 
ops of  Oxford  and  London.  The  characteristic 
tenets  of  the  "  Puseyite  "  party  are  judgment  by 
works  equally  as  by  faith,  baptismal  regenera- 
tion, the  apostolic  succession  of  the  clergy,  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  church,  the  expedi- 


PUSHKIN 

ency  of  auricular  confession  and  conventual 
establishments,  and  an  efficacy  in  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  church  not  inferior  to  that  claimed 
exclusively  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
They  aimed  also  at  certain  innovations  in  the 
ceremonies  of  public  worship.  In  1843  Dr. 
Pusey  preached  a  sermon  before  the  univer- 
sity, in  which  he  was  understood  to  confess 
his  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation ; 
and  after  an  examination  before  a  board  of 
judges  he  was  accordingly  suspended  from  the 
office  of  preacher  within  the  precincts  of  the 
university  for  three  years.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  Library  of  Translations  from 
the  Fathers"  and  of  the  "Anglo-Catholic 
Library,"  and  has  adapted  to  the  use  of  the 
church  of  England  several  Roman  Catholic 
devotional  works.  He  has  published  "  Causes 
of  Rationalism  in  Germany"  (1828);  "Re- 
marks on  Cathedral  Institutions"  (2d  ed., 
(1833)  ;  "  Royal  Supremacy  in  Spiritual  Mat- 
ters "(1850);  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence,  gathered  from  the  Fathers"  (1855); 
"  The  Real  Presence  the  Doctrine  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church"  (1857);  "History  of  the  Coun- 
cils of  the  Church,  A.  D.  51-381"  (1857); 
"Commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets"  (in 
numbers,  1860-'ti2);  "Daniel  the  Prophet: 
nine  Lectures"  (1864);  and  "The  Church  of 
England  a  Portion  of  Christ's  one  Holy  Cath- 
olic Church"  (1865). 

PUSHKIN,  Alexander  Sergeyevtteh,  a  Russian 
poet,  born  in  Pskov,  June  6,  1799,  died  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Feb.  10,  1837.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  nobleman,  studied  at  Tzarskoye  Selo,  and 
became  a  clerk  in  the  foreign  office.  In  1820 
he  was  expelled  on  account  of  his  "  Ode  to 
Liberty,"  and  subsequently  he  was  expelled 
from  Odessa  for  his  tirade  against  the  governor 
general.  The  emperor  Nicholas,  after  his  acces- 
sion in  1825,  reinstated  him  in  his  clerkship  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  appointed  him  to  prepare 
the  history  of  Peter  the  Great.  This  shook  his 
friends'  belief  in  his  liberalism,  and  his  life  was 
further  embittered  by  what  he  fancied  to  be 
undue  attentions  paid  to  his  beautiful  wife  by 
George  Charles  d' Anthes,  a  French  officer  in  the 
Russian  army  (the  future  senator  baron  de  Hee- 
keren).  Although  D' Anthes  married  Mme. 
Pushkin's  sister  to  disarm  the  husband's  suspi- 
cion, Pushkin  fought  a  duel  with  him  and  was 
killed.  The  emperor  gave  a  pension  of  10,- 
000  rubles  to  the  widow,  and  provided  for  the 
children's  education,  and  for  the  publication 
of  a  superb  edition  of  Pushkin's  works.  A 
public  subscription  for  a  monument  in  his 
honor  amounted  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  to  about  75,- 
000  rubles.  Among  his  earliest  works  were 
the  poems  "  Ruslan  and  Liudmila,"  "  The 
Prisoner  of  the  Caucasus,"  a  sketch,  and  "  The 
Fountain  of  Bakhtchiserai,"  resembling  By- 
ron's "  Corsair."  His  masterpiece,  "  Eugene 
Onegin,"  a  novel  in  verse,  appeared  between 
1825  and  1828.  His  other  works  include  the 
narrative  poems  "The  Gypsies"  (1827)  and 
"  Poltava  "  (1829) ;  the  dramatic  poems  "  Boris 


PUSTULE 


97 


Godunoff"  and  "The  Stone  Guest"  (1836); 
and  the  novels  "The  Captive's  Daughter"  and 
"The  Captain's  Daughter."  The  latter  and 
other  novels  are  comprised  in  "  Russian  Ro- 
mance, from  the  Tales  of  Belkin,"  an  English 
translation  by  Mrs.  J.  Buchan  Telfer,  nee  Mura- 
vieff  (London,  1875).  Prosper  M6rimee  and 
Viardot  have  translated  some  of  his  works  into 
French,  and  Bodenstedt  and  others  into  Ger- 
man. The  best  complete  editions  of  Push- 
kin's works  are  by  Anenkoff  (7  vols.,  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1854-'7)  and  Gennadi  (6  vols.,  1869 
et  seq.). 

PUSTULE,  Malignant,  a  specific  disease,  essen- 
tially septic  and  gangrenous,  confined  to  the 
cutaneous  tissue,  and  generally  to  those  parts 
of  the  surface  that  are  habitually  uncovered. 
It  appears  most  commonly  on  the  face,  and 
next  on  the  hands,  neck,  and  arms.  It  first 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  painful  swelling, 
which,  after  a  lapse  of  time  varying  from  one 
to  three  days,  rarely  more,  develops  upon  its 
central  part  a  small  reddish  or  purple  spot, 
accompanied  with  itching.  In  the  course  of 
12  or  15  hours  more  this  spot  changes  into  a 
bleb  or  vesicle,  not  usually  larger  than  the 
head  of  a  pin,  containing  a  reddish  brown  or 
yellowish  fluid.  Owing  to  continued  itching, 
the  vesicle  is  ordinarily  ruptured  soon  after  its 
appearance ;  if  otherwise,  it  dries  up  in  about 
36  hours,  leaving  the  exposed  derma  dry,  and 
generally  of  a  livid  color.  Itching  now  ceases ; 
and,  after  a  time  varying  from  a  few  hours 
to  a  day,  the  centre  of  this  discolored  and  de- 
nuded surface  begins  to  grow  hard  and  becomes 
surrounded  by  an  inflamed  areola  covered 
with  numerous  small  vesicles  similar  to  the 
vesicle  which  first  appeared.  The  middle  of 
this  areola  is  depressed,  and  the  color  varies 
from  yellow  to  black.  It  is  now  hard  in  the 
centre  and  more  painful  than  at  any  other 
stage.  But  it  is  a  remarkable  feature  of  ma- 
lignant pustule  that  severe  pain  is  generally 
absent;  and  this  character,  so  different  from 
all  other  acute  inflammations  of  the  skin,  is  a 
valuable  negative  diagnostic  of  the  disease. 
During  the  next  24  or  48  hours  the  subcuta- 
neous tissue  becomes  involved;  the  tumor 
strikes  deeper  and  rapidly  extends  in  all  direc- 
tions, yet  it  is  so  indurated  as  to  be  easily  cir- 
cumscribed, and  its  confines  determined  with- 
out difficulty.  Meanwhile  the  central  point, 
now  of  brown  or  livid  hue,  exceedingly  hard 
and  insensible,  becomes  gangrenous.  If  the 
disease  makes  no  further  progress,  an  inflamed 
circle  of  vivid  redness  now  surrounds  the  gan- 
grenous portion;  the  tumefaction,  which  had 
before  rapidly  extended,  diminishes;  and  the 
patient  experiences  something  like  an  agree- 
able warmth  accompanied  by  a  pulsatory  mo- 
tion of  the  affected  part.  The  pulse,  which 
had  before  grown  irritable  and  feeble,  revives; 
strength  increases ;  if  there  has  been  some  de- 
gree of  fever,  as  occasionally  happens,  it  is 
now  resolved  into  a  gentle  perspiration ;  sup- 
puration sets  in  between  the  living  and  the 


dead  parts,  and  the  detachment  of  the  gangre- 
nous portion  leaves  a  suppurating  surface  of 
variable  extent  in  different  cases.  When  the 
disease  tends  to  an  unfavorable  issue,  gener- 
ally no  suppuration  takes  place ;  the  gangrene 
spreads  rapidly  from  the  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  tumor ;  the  pulse  becomes  small- 
er and  more  contracted ;  the  patient  complains 
of  extreme  lassitude  with  inability  to  sleep,  is 
attacked  with  fainting  fits,  and  becomes  passive 
as  to  the  result;  there  is  disinclination  to  take 
food  or  medicine,  or  have  anything  done,  and 
a  total  loss  of  appetite;  the  tongue  is  dry 
and  brown ;  the  features  shrink ;  the  skin  is 
pkrched ;  the  eyes  are  glassy ;  and  increasing 
debility  and  a  low  delirium  indicate  a  fatal 
termination.  Such  are  in  general  the  ordinary 
phenomena  of  malignant  pustule,  usually  ter- 
minating in  from  five  to  eight  days.  Excep- 
tional fatal  cases  have  been  recorded,  varying 
from  24  hours  to  16  days.  In  the  suddenly 
fatal  cases,  the  forces  of  the  constitution  are 
so  quickly  and  entirely  subverted  by  the  malig- 
nancy of  the  disease,  that  few  symptoms  are 
manifested;  the  powers  sink  under  it,  as  it 
were,  without  resistance.  It  is  most  fatal  when 
attacking  the  face  or  neck. — Another  variety, 
which  commonly  attacks  the  hands  or  arms,  is 
of  a  less  regular  character,  in  some  cases  pre- 
senting an  appearance  and  running  a  course 
V ery  similar  to  a  circumscribed  phlegmon,  while 
in  others  it  is  exceedingly  violent  and  fatal  in 
a  few  hours,  and  in  others  still  runs  on  for 
several  weeks,  and  finally  proves  fatal  rather 
from  the  effects  of  the  disorder  than  from  the 
disease  itself.  In  the  majority  of  these  cases 
there  is  intense  local  pain  in  the  affected  part 
from  the  commencement,  with  enormous  swell- 
ing and  more  or  less  redness.  A  small  vesicle 
or  pustule  forms  in  the  centre,  and  takes  on  a 
gangrenous  character.  Sometimes  it  becomes 
circumscribed  and  limits  its  action  to  the  skin ; 
but  at  other  times  numerous  phlyctinaB  cover 
the  surface,  and  the  destructive  inflammation 
burrows  into  the  cellular  tissue  which  envel- 
ops the  muscles,  completely  surrounding  and 
disintegrating  these  organs,  which  become  soft, 
black,  and  gangrenous.  The  blood  vessels  and 
nerves  also  become  involved,  and  as  a  necessary 
consequence  the  death  of  the  part  ensues. — The 
pathology  of  malignant  pustule  is  distinguished 
by  a  fluid  state  of  the  blood,  which  is  usually 
very  dark-colored ;  the  texture  of  the  heart  is 
softened,  and  its  surface  covered  with  ecchy- 
mosed  spots  ;  the  veins  are  sometimes  softened 
and  ecchymosed,  and  usually  contain  black  or 
yellowish  white  clots  of  blood,  of  gelatinous 
consistence.  The  lungs  are  covered  with  su- 
perficial ecchymoses,  presenting  over  their 
surface  a  number  of  deeply  penetrating  black 
spots,  produced  by  local  sanguineous  infiltra- 
tion. The  inner  coat  of  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines presents  in  different  places,  correspond- 
ing to  the  course  of  the  vessels,  prominent, 
dark-colored  spots,  formed  by  blood  effused 
between  the  inner  coats  and  the  peritoneal  cov- 


98 


PUSTULE 


ering. —  Causes.  It  is  the  general  conclusion 
of  those  who  have  investigated  the  nature  of 
malignant  pustule,  that  the  germ  of  the  disease 
consists  in  an  animal  poison,  usually  contracted 
by  man  from  cattle  or  their  remains.  In  sup- 
port of  this  view,  it  is  found  that  the  disease 
most  frequently  occurs  among  knackers,  tan- 
ners, veterinarians,  persons  engaged  in  the 
removal  of  offal,  and  stevedores,  particularly 
those  employed  in  handling  hides  from  dis- 
tricts and  countries  where  the  diseases  of  cattle 
most  prevail.  In  other  cases  it  has  been  at- 
tributed to  eating  diseased  animal  food.  Yet, 
strange  as  it  may  appear,  in  the  whole  scope 
of  veterinary  medicine  no  disease  is  known 
which  accurately  resembles  the  malignant  pus- 
tule of  man.  Certain  herbivorous  animals, 
especially  beasts  of  pasture,  are  subject  to  a 
disease  called  malignant  carbuncle,  character- 
ized by  the  occurrence  of  a  large  uncircum-  I 
scribed  emphysematous  tumor,  which  yields  to  ' 
pressure  and  crepitates  under  the  fingers,  and  [ 
exhales  a  peculiar  putrid  odor.  In  its  progress 
it  turns  black  in  the  centre,  and  appears  as  if 
burned  or  charred ;  it  is  infiltrated  with  a  yel- 
lowish colored  fluid,  and  distended  with  a  fetid 
gas.  This  disease  may  be  transmitted  from  j 
one  animal  to  another  by  inoculation,  and  by 
absorption  to  man,  in  whom  it  runs  a  violent 
and  dangerous  course.  MM.  Salmon  and  Ma- 
noury  of  France  have  vainly  attempted  to  limit 
the  term  malignant  pustule  to  this  disease  only. 
Malignant  carbuncle  and  other  ulcers  which 
occur  in  cattle  are  the  eruptive  symptoms  of 
grave  febrile  disorders  depending  upon  a  dis- 
eased state  of  the  blood,  and  always  consecu- 
tive to  the  febrile  symptoms ;  and  the  inocula- 
lation  of  man  with  matter  from  such  an  ulcer 
is  only  equally  dangerous  with  the  blood,  and 
possibly  the  milk,  of  the  same  animal  in  the 
febrile  state  before  the  ulcer  appeared.  In- 
deed, cases  have  occurred  where  the  blood  of 
animals  not  previously  known  to  have  been 
diseased  has  caused  malignant  pustules  in  man 
by  absorption.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  ob- 
servers that  malignant  pustule  may  occur  spon- 
taneously, without  any  contact  with  poisonous 
animal  matter.  But  from  the  fact  that  dis- 
eased animal  matter  is  known  to  cause  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  many  ways  will  read- 
ily suggest  themselves  by  which  inoculation 
might  take  place  without  any  knowledge  of 
the  circumstance  on  the  part  of  the  person 
affected.  As  a  general  rule,  cattle  which  feed 
on  prairie  meadows  are  exempt  from  malignant 
disease ;  while  those  which  are  fed  upon  dried 
clover,  lucern,  and  vetch  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  carbuncle.  The  same  may  be  said  of  cattle 
that  are  fed  upon  semi-decomposed  grain,  the 
refuse  of  distilleries  and  breweries.  All  such 
things  are  actively  predisposing  agents  to  the 
blood  diseases  of  cattle,  and  liable  to  engender 
malignant  pustule  in  man. — Treatment.  Pro- 
mote suppuration  in  the  pustule  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  and  sustain  the  constitution.  To  this 
end,  as  soon  as  the  nature  of  the  disease  is  as- 


certained, the  vesication  formed  on  its  surface 
should  be  opened,  the  fluid  contents  removed, 
and  the  denuded  part  covered  with  a  dossil  of 
lint  dipped  in  a  strong  solution  of  muriate  of 
ammonia  or  other  caustic.  Six  hours  after- 
ward this  may  be  removed  and  a  poultice  ap- 
plied ;  and  24  hours  after  this,  if  pain  and 
burning  heat  have  nearly  or  quite  ceased,  and 
no  areola  has  formed,  it  may  be  safely  con- 
cluded that  the  caustic  has  effectually  perme- 
ated the  whole  of  the  diseased  tissue,  and  that 
it  will  proceed  to  a  healthy  suppuration  by  the 
continued  application  of  poultice.  But  if,  on 
the  contrary,  a  hard  and  deep-seated  painful 
tumor  has  formed  around  the  primary  seat  of 
the  vesicle,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that 
the  disease  is  extending  itself.  The  tumor 
should  be  forthwith  divided  through  the  whole 
width  and  depth  by  a  crucial  incision,  the  gan- 
grenous parts  removed  if  any  have  formed,  and 
the  nitrate  of  silver  or  fused  potassa  thor- 
oughly applied  to  the  freshly  divided  surfaces. 
This  proceeding  is  equally  requisite  when  the 
slough  which  forms  on  the  centre  quickly  be- 
comes hard  and  impermeable,  like  a  piece  of 
dry  hide;  this  must  be  removed  to  admit  of 
the  unimpeded  action  of  the  caustic.  Scarifi- 
cations and  cauterizations,  with  the  continued 
application  of  poultice,  should  be  repeated 
daily  until  suppuration  is  established,  or  until 
the  extent  of  the  pustule  as  clearly  defined. 
Internally,  the  bowels  being  first  cleared  by  a 
mild  cathartic,  quinia  (four  or  five  grains  every 
three  or  four  hours),  with  wine  or  brandy,  and 
as  much  food  as  the  patient  can  be  induced  to 
take  (there  being  generally  disinclination  to 
take  food),  and  opiates  with  camphor,  as  much 
as  may  be  necessary  to  allay  pain  and  pro- 
duce sleep,  constitute  the  basis  of  treatment. 
In  spite  of  everything,  the  peculiar  contagion 
of  malignant  pustule,  being  in  the  blood,  fre- 
quently proceeds  straight  on  to  a  fatal  termina- 
tion ;  and  this  is  sometimes  the  case  even  when 
the  pustule  seems  to  have  been  checked.  On 
recovery  from  malignant  pustule,  the  deform- 
ities consequent  upon  its  ravages  sometimes 
require  surgical  operations  for  their  relief. — 
History.  Malignant  pustule  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  Celsns  and  Paulus  ^Egineta  both 
described  it  under  the  head  of  carbuncle.  Am- 
broise  Pare,  in  the  16th  century,  distinguished 
it  from  plague.  Yet  it  was  not  until  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  18th  century  that  physicians 
began  to  appreciate  its  nature.  Thomassin, 
Boyer,  Fournier,  Montfiels,  Veson,  Sancerotte, 
Chambon,  and  especially  £naux  and  Chaussier, 
contributed  to  make  the  medical  world  acquaint- 
ed with  the  nature  of  malignant  pustule.  Du- 
ring the  present  century,  Bayle,  Bidault,  Vil- 
liers,  Reynier,  Raver,  Branell,  Wagner,  Raim- 
bert,  Manoury,  and  Salmon,  and  more  recently 
Bourgeois  and  Gaujot,  have  given  valuable  mo- 
nographs of  cases  and  epidemics.  In  the  United 
States,  it  has  at  least  twice  prevailed  epidem- 
ically :  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  in  1834 
-'6,  and  in  Louisiana  in  1837-'9.  It  is  also 


PUTLITZ 


PUTNAM 


99 


said  to  have  prevailed  in  Louisiana  soon  after 
its  settlement  by  the  French.  It  is  not  known 
to  have  occurred  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  United  States  otherwise  than  sporadically ; 
unless,  possibly,  the  "malignant  erysipelas" 
which  prevailed  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  of  New  York  in  1825  was  a  variety  of  ma- 
lignant pustule ;  it  was  immediately  preceded 
by  a  fatal  epizootic  of  slavers  among  horses. 
In  the  same  region,  and  just  subsequent  to  an 
epizootic  among  horned  cattle  in  1842,  there 
were  several  cases  of  genuine  malignant  pus- 
tule, yet  no  one  seems  to  have  recognized  its 
source.  Since  that  time,  and  it  may  be  added 
since  the  common  practice  of  feeding  cattle 
on  the  refuse  of  distilleries  and  breweries,  and 
the  more  general  spread  of  epizootic  diseases, 
particularly  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  malignant  pustule  has  become  more 
common.  Both  of  the  epidemics  referred  to 
were  in  conjunction  with  epizootics. 

PI  TUT/,  Gnstav  Heinrich  Cans  zn,  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Eetzien,  Prussia,  March  20, 1821. 
He  studied  in  Magdeburg,  Berlin,  and  Heidel- 
berg, and  was  employed  in  the  civil  service  from 
1846  to  1848.  In  1863  he  became  director  of  the 
court  theatre  at  Schwerin.  His  exquisite  fairy 
poem,  Was  sich  der  Wald  erzaldt  (Berlin,  1850 ; 
32d  ed.,  1872),  served  as  a  model  for  many 
similar  works,  and  was  followed  by  Vergiss- 
meinnicht  (1851 ;  9th  ed.,  1872),  Die  Halben 
(1869),  Walpurgis  (1870),  and  Funken  unterder 
Asche  (1871).  He  has  also  written  Branden- 
lurger  Oeschichten  (Stuttgart,  1862),  Novellen 
(1863),  and  numerous  dramas  and  comedies, 
the  latter  collected  in  many  volumes,  1850-'69. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  1872. 

PUTNAM,  the  name  of  counties  in  nine  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  New 
York,  bordered  W.  by  the  Hudson  river,  E. 
by  Connecticut,  and  watered  by  Oroton  river 
and  Peekskill  creek ;  area,  234  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,420.  Its  surface  is  mountainous, 
several  ranges  crossing  the  county  from  S.  W. 
to  N.'  E.,  and  the  deep  valleys  are  fertile. 
There  are  several  beautiful  mountain  lakes, 
the  principal  of  which  are  Mahopac,  Canopus, 
and  Gleneida.  Iron,  granite,  limestone,  and 
other  minerals  are  found  in  the  mountains,  and 
there  are  many  mines  and  quarries.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Hudson  River  and  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  railroads.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  2,599  bushels  of  wheat, 

J,934  of  Indian  corn,  49,673  of  oats,  101,595 
of  potatoes,  33,671  tons  of  hay,  3,707  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  277,759  of  butter.  There  were 
2,184  horses,  10,220  milch  cows,  1,480  work- 
ing oxen,  2,141  other  cattle,  2,119  sheep,  and 
2,015  swine ;  3  flour  mills,  3  paper  mills,  2 
founderies,  and  5  manufactories  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware.  Capital,  Carmel. 
II.  A  W.  county  of  West  Virginia,  touching 
the  Ohio  with  its  W.  corner,  intersected  by 
the  Great  Kanawha,  and  drained  by  its  tribu- 
taries; area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,794,  of  whom  260  were  colored.  It  has  a 


rough  and  hilly  surface  and  a  generally  fertile 
soil,  and  contains  extensive  beds  of  iron  ore 
and  bituminous  coal.  The  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad  crosses  the  S.  corner.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  40,020  bushels  of 
wheat,  232,126  of  Indian  corn,  49,879  of  oats, 
28,090  of  potatoes,  472,765  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
14,992  of  wool,  63,061  of  butter,  and  19,541 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
1,463  horses,  1,565  milch  cows,  3,035  other 
cattle,  6,291  sheep,  and  6,999  swine.  Capital, 
Winfield.  III.  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bordered  E.  by  the  Oconee  and  drained  by 
Little  river  and  several  creeks ;  area,  about 
350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,461,  of  whom 
7,445  were  colored.  It  has  a  nearly  level  sur- 
face, abounding  with  forests  of  oak  and  pine, 
and  a  soil  naturally  fertile.  The  Milledgeville 
branch  of  the  Central  railway  of  Georgia  ter- 
minates at  Eatonton.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  11,040  bushels  of  wheat,  160,661 
of  Indian  corn,  7,872  of  oats,  14,848  of  sweet 
potatoes,  7,326  bales  of  cotton,  3,328  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  29,047  of  butter.  There  were  464 
horses,  1,100  mules  and  asses,  1,541  milch 
cows,  465  working  oxen,  2,250  other  cattle, 
1,538  sheep,  and  4,346  swine.  Capital,  Eaton- 
ton.  IV.  An  E.  county  of  Florida,  bounded 
E.  by  St.  John's  river  and  drained  by  its  tribu- 
taries; area,  610  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,821, 
of  whom  1,334  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
low  and  level,  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  contains 
several  small  lakes.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  16,592  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  11,- 
673  of  sweet  potatoes,  162  bales  of  cotton, 
1,125  Ibs.  of  rice,  and  4,823  gallons  of  molasses. 
There  were  1,055  milch  cows,  5,526  other 
cattle,  360  sheep,  and  2,710  swine.  Capital, 
Palatka.  V.  A  N.  county  of  Tennessee,  drain- 
ed by  affluents  of  the  Cumberland  river ;  area, 
about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,698,  of 
whom  530  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  sur- 
face, and  much  of  it  is  covered  by  forests. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  39,330 
bushels  of  wheat,  332,254  of  Indian  corn,  37,- 
854  of  oats,  17,367  of  Irish  and  11,581  of 
sweet  potatoes,  131,856  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  19,092 
of  wool,  125,938  of  butter,  18,945  of  honey, 
and  17,772  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  2,218  horses,  2,166  milch  cows,  1,364 
working  oxen,  2,865  other  cattle,  10,460  sheep, 
and  21,568  swine.  Capital,  Cookville.  VI.  A 
N.  W.  county  of  Ohio,  drained  by  Auglaize 
river  and  its  tributaries,  the  Ottawa  and 
Blanchard's  fork ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  17,081.  It  has  a  level  surface, 
is  covered  with  large  tracts  of  timber,  and  its 
soil  is  fertile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton,  and  Dayton  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  237,586  bushels  of 
wheat,  434,948  of  Indian  corn,  105,896  of 
oats,  70,527  of  potatoes,  16,331  tons  of  hay, 
78,605  Ibs.  of  wool,  330,078  of  butter,  14,098 
of  maple  sugar,  and  12,801  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  5,437  horses,  5,242 
milch  cows,  7,191  other  cattle,  23,269  sheep, 


100 


PUTNAM 


and  15,466  swine;  8  manufactories  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  1  woollen  mill,  6  flour 
mills,  and  14  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ottawa. 
VII.  A  W.  county  of  Indiana,  drained  by  a 
branch  of  Eel  river  and  several  creeks  ;  area, 
486  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,514.  It  has  an 
undulating  surface  and  fertile  soil.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Indianapolis  and  Illinois  canal 
and  several  railroads.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  297,797  bushels  of  wheat,  988,- 
919  of  Indian  corn,  68,565  of  oats,  57,710  of 
potatoes,  15,990  tons  of  hay,  125,320  Ibs.  of 
wool,  332,383  of  butter,  33,289  of  maple  sugar, 
and  21,207  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  8,274  horses,  2,416  mules  and  asses, 
5,729  milch  cows,  19,236  other  cattle,  34,227 
sheep,  and  26,777  swine;  16  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  furniture,  2  of  cur- 
ried leather,  3  of  pumps,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  3  founderies,  1  woollen  mill, 
4  flour  mills,  and  1 6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Green- 
castle.  VIII.  A  N.  central  county  of  Illinois, 
intersected  by  the  Illinois  river  and  drained  by 
its  branches;  area,  200  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,280.  It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  fer- 
tile soil.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  28,933  bushels  of 
wheat,  334,259  of  Indian  corn,  86,519  of  oats, 
73,707  of  potatoes,  10,571  Ibs.  of  wool,  47,6'.»9 
of  butter,  4,916  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses, 
and  5,080  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,420 
horses,  1,406  milch  cows,  2,899  other  cattle, 
1,987  sheep,  and  5,431  swine.  Capital,  Hen- 
nepin.  IX.  A  N.  county  of  Missouri,  border- 
ing on  Iowa,  bounded  K.  by  the  Chariton  river 
and  drained  by  its  branches;  area,  about  550 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,217,  of  whom  9  were 
colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface,  diver- 
sified by  prairies  and  forests,  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  62,308 
bushels  of  wheat,  458,582  of  Indian  corn,  146,- 
152  of  oats,  34,979  of  potatoes,  12,911  tons  of 
hay,  39,200  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  63,800  of  wool, 
194,098  of  butter,  10.885  of  cheese,  26,365  of 
honey,  and  32,483  gallons  of  sorghum  and  14,- 
731  of  maple  molasses.  There  were  5,329 
horses,  515  mules  and  asses,  4,137  milch  cows, 
9,351  other  cattle.  26,227  sheep,  and  21,789 
swine.  Capital,  Unionville. 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  the  part  of  Salem  now  constituting  the  town 
of  Danvers,  Mass.,  Jan.  7, 1718,  died  in  Brook- 
lyn, Conn.,  May  19,  1790.  He  was  the  llth 
in  a  family  of  12  children,  and  in  his  boyhood 
was  noted  for  his  physical  strength  and  bra- 
very ;  but  he  had  few  educational  advantages. 
On  coining  of  age  he  bought  a  farm  in  Pom- 
fret,  Conn.,  and  fixed  his  residence  there. 
Here  occurred  his  famous  encounter  with  a 
she  wolf  that  had  for  several  years  preyed  upon 
the  flocks  and  cattle  of  the  neighborhood. 
Having  discovered  her  den,  Putnam  entered  it 
alone  by  creeping  into  a  narrow  opening,  and 
shot  and  killed  the  wolf  as  she  was  advancing 
to  attack  him.  This  adventure,  which  gave 


him  a  wide  reputation  for  courage,  took  place 
when  he  was  25  years  old.  The  next  12  years 
he  spent  as  a  careful  and  successful  farmer. 
In  1755  he  was  appointed  by  the  legislature  a 
captain  in  Col.  Lyman's  regiment,  and  fonned 
a  strong  company  from  among  his  neighbors, 
who  were  employed  chiefly  on  special  service 
as  rangers.  His  first  expedition  was  under  Sir 
William  Johnson  against  Crown  Point.  In 
1756  he  was  reappointed  under  his  old  com- 
mander Lyman,  and  in  1757  the  legislature  of 
Connecticut  gave  him  the  commission  of  major. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  service  rendered 
by  him  during  that  year  was  the  saving  of  the 
powder  magazine  of  Fort  Edward  at  the  con- 
flagration of  the  barracks.  For  an  hour  and 
a  half  he  contended  with  the  fire,  and  he  was 
severely  burned  in  his  efforts  to  arrest  its 
progress.  In  1758,  to  escape  from  a  strong 
party  of  Indians,  he  descended  with  a  few  men 
the  falls  of  the  Hudson  at  Fort  Miller  in  a 
bateau.  The  savages  with  admiration  beheld 
him  unharmed  by  their  balls  steering  his  boat 
down  rapids  never  before  passed.  The  same 
year,  when  returning  to  Fort  Edward  from  an 
expedition  to  watch  the  enemy  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ticonderoga,  his  corps  was  sur- 
prised by  a  party  of  French  and  Indians,  and 
lie  himself  captured  and  bound  to  a  tree.  White 
in  this  situation  a  battle  between  his  own  party 
and  the  enemy  raged  around  him  for  an  hour, 
the  tree  being  for  part  of  the  time  in  the  hot- 
test fire.  At  length  the  French  and  Indians 
were  forced  to  retreat,  but  carried  with  them 
their  captive,  whom  the  savages  determined  to 
roast  alive.  He  was  tied  to  a  tree,  and  the  fire 
was  already  blazing,  when  his  life  was  saved 
by  the  French  commander,  Molang.  The  next 
day  he  was  taken  to  Ticonderoga,  and  after- 
ward to  Montreal,  where  among  other  prison- 
ers he  met  Col.  Peter  Schuyler,  through  whose 
intervention  he  was  treated  according  to  his 
military  rank  and  exchanged.  In  1759,  having 
meanwhile  been  made  lieutenant  colonel,  he 
served  under  Gen.  Amherst.  In  1762  he  com- 
manded a  Connecticut  regiment  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Havana.  In  1764  Putnam,  now  a 
colonel,  at  the  head  of  400  Connecticut  men  ac- 
companied Col.  Bradstreet  to  Detroit  in  the 
Pontiac  war.  For  some  years  afterward  he 
kept  an  inn  at  Brooklyn,  the  capital  of  Wind- 
ham  county,  and  during  the  same  period  fre- 
quently represented  the  town  in  the  legislature. 
In  1773  he  was  engaged  in  the  expedition  that 
went  up  the  Mississippi  to  survey  a  tract  above 
Natchez  for  settlement.  In  the  revolutionary 
war  Putnam  from  the  beginning  embraced 
zealously  the  cause  of  the  colonists.  In  April, 
1775,  at  the  alarm  occasioned  by  the  battle 
of  Lexington,  he  left  his  plough  in  the  field, 
turned  loose  the  oxen,  and  rode  to  Boston  in 
one  day,  a  distance  of  68  m.  Learning  that 
the  British  were  besieged  in  Boston,  he  went 
to  Hartford  to  meet  with  the  legislature,  of 
which  he  was  a  member.  Being  elected  by 
that  body  brigadier  general,  he  promptly  gath- 


PUTNAM 


101 


ered  and  organized  a  regiment,  and  after  drill- 
ing them  for  some  days  marched  to  Cambridge. 
The  British  officers  offered  him  a  commission 
as  major  general  in  the  royal  service  and  a 
large  sum  of  money,  both  of  which  he  indig- 
nantly rejected.  In  May  he  led  a  battalion  of 
300  men  to  Noddle's  island,  now  East  Boston, 
and  burned  a  British  schooner,  captured  a 
sloop,  killing  and  wounding  70  of  the  enemy, 
and  brought  off  several  hundred  sheep  and  cat- 
tle. It  was  in  great  measure  through  his  wish 
to  bring  on  a  general  engagement  while  the 
spirit  of  the  troops  was  high,  that  the  determi- 
nation was  taken  to  fortify  Bunker  hill.  In 
the  battle  which  followed  he  acted  a  conspic- 
uous part.  When  Washington  arrived  at  the 
camp  to  take  command  in  July,  he  brought 
with  him  commissions  from  congress  for  four 
major  generals,  one  of  whom  was  Putnam  ; 
and  to  him  alone  did  he  deliver  his  commis- 
sion, the  others  being  withheld  on  account 
of  the  general  dissatisfaction  attending  these 
appointments.  In  March,  1776,  Washington 
being  about  to  take  possession  of  Dorchester 
heights,  Putnam  was  ordered  to  attack  Boston 
with  4,000  men  in  case  the  enemy  should  at- 
tempt to  dislodge  the  Americans.  Soon  after 
the  evacuation  of  that  city  he  was  ordered 
to  take  command  in  New  York.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  Aug. 
27,  and  afterward  went  to  Philadelphia  to 
prepare  for  the  defence  of  that  place.  After 
completing  the  necessary  fortifications,  he  was 
stationed  at  Crosswick  and  subsequently  at 
Princeton.  In  May,  1777,  he  was  ordered  to 
take  command  in  the  highlands  of  New  York. 
While  there  he  sent  the  following  famous  re- 
ply to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  claimed  a  lieu- 
tenant of  a  tory  regiment  as  an  officer  in  the 
British  service:  "Edmund  Palmer,  an  officer 
in  the  enemy's  service,  was  taken  as  a  spy 
lurking  within  our  lines ;  he  has  been  tried  as 
a  spy,  condemned  as  a  spy,  and  shall  be  exe- 
cuted as  a  spy,  and  the  flag  is  ordered  to  de- 
part immediately.  Israel  Putnam.  P.  S.  He 
has  been  accordingly  executed."  In  the  sum- 
mer of  this  year  the  British  troops  surprised 
and  took  Forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton,  and 
obliged  Putnam  to  retire  to  Fishkill.  Subse- 
quently he  was  removed  from  his  command  in 
the  highlands,  as  Washington  says,  "  on  ac- 
count of  the  prejudices  of  the  people,"  and  the 
dissatisfaction  of  Hamilton  and  other  officers, 
and  also  from  the  fact  that  a  court  of  inquiry 
had  been  ordered  to  investigate  the  causes  of 
the  loss  of  Forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton. 
This  court  decided  unanimously  that  no  blame 
could  be  attributed  to  Putnam,  who  not  long 
afterward  was  stationed  in  Connecticut.  In 
March,  1779,  a  corps  of  1,500  British  troops 
under  command  of  Tryon  made  an  incursion 
into  that  state  and  approached  Horseneck,  one 
of  Putnam's  outposts.  To  oppose  him  were 
150  men  with  two  pieces  of  artillery,  and  with 
these  Putnam  took  his  position  on  the  brow  of 
a  steep  hill.  After  exchanging  shots,  as  he  saw 


the  enemy's  dragoons  were  about  to  charge,  he 
ordered  his  men  to  retire  to  a  swamp  inacces- 
sible to  cavalry.  He  himself  was  hotly  pursued, 
and  finding  that  the  dragoons  were  gaining  upon 
him,  he  rode  down  a  steep  declivity,  receiving 
on  his  passage  a  ball  through  his  hat.  Riding 
on  to  Stamford,  he  called  out  the  militia,  and 
effecting  a  junction  with  his  little  party  he 
hung  upon  the  rear  of  Tryon  in  his  retreat  and 
took  about  50  prisoners,  whom  he  treated  with 
a  humanity  customary  on  his  park  but  so  un- 
expected that  the  British  general  sent  him  a 
letter  of  thanks.  During  the  summer  of  1779 
Putnam  held  command  of  the  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Virginia  troops  in  the  highlands 
of  New  York,  and,  assisted  by  his  cousin  Rufus 
Putnam  and  others,  completed  the  fortifications 
at  West  Point.  After  the  army  went  into 
winter  quarters,  he  returned  home,  and  on 
setting  out  again  for  camp  was  attacked  by 
paralysis  of  his  left  side.  He  then  took  up  his 
residence  on  his  farm  in  Brooklyn,  and  there 
remained  until  his  death.  He  was  of  medi- 
um height  and  of  great  physical  strength  ;  and 
decision  and  personal  daring  were  his  most 
marked  characteristics.  "  He  dared  to  lead 
where  any  dared  to  follow,"  is  the  inscription 
upon  his  tombstone.  His  life  is  contained  in 
the  "  Miscellaneous  Works "  of  Gen.  David 
Humphreys  (New  York,  1790),  and  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.,  by  O.  W.  B. 
Peabody. 

PUTNAM,  Mary  Lowell,  an  American  authoress, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  Lowell,  born 
in  Boston,  Dec.  3, 1810.  She  was  married  April 
5,  1832,  to  Samuel  R.  Putnam,  a  merchant  of 
Boston,  who  died  in  1861.  She  possesses  a 
remarkable  knowledge  of  languages,  compri- 
sing not  only  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and 
the  modern  tongues  of  western  Europe,  but 
Swedish,  Danish,  Polish,  Russian,  Hungarian, 
Turkish,  Sanskrit,  and  other  oriental  tongues. 
She  has  published  "  Record  of  an  Obscure 
Man "  (Boston,  1861) ;  a  dramatic  poem  in 
two  parts,  "  Tragedy  of  Errors  "  and  "  Tra- 
gedy of  Success  "  (1862) ;  and  a  memoir  of  her 
son  William  Lowell  Putnam,  killed  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Ball's  Bluff  in  1861. 

PUTNAM,  Rufns,  an  American  pioneer,  cousin 
of  Gen.  Israel  Putnam,  born  in  Sutton,  Mass., 
April  9,  1738,  died  in  Marietta,  O.,  May  1, 
1824.  In  1757  he  enlisted  in  the  war  against 
the  French,  and  in  1760  was  made  ensign.  He 
afterward  worked  as  a  farmer  and  millwright, 
and  in  1773  went  on  an  expedition  to  the  new- 
ly created  government  of  West  Florida.  In 
1775  he  entered  the  continental  army  as  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  in  1776  was  appointed  engineer 
with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  in  1777  com- 
manded a  regiment  in  the  Massachusetts  line. 
He  constructed  the  fortifications  at  West  Point, 
and  in  January,  1783,  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier general.  He  removed  to  Rutland  in  1782, 
and  for  several  years  was  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lature and  employed  in  government  surveys. 
After  a  visit  to  the  Ohio  country  he  called  and 


102 


PUTREFACTION 


PYAT 


presided  over  a  convention  that  met  in  Boston 
on  March  1,  1786,  and  formed  the  Ohio  com- 
pany, of  which  he  was  made  a  director.  The 
company  bought  1,500,000  acres  of  government 
land,  and  Putnam  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Muskingum  on  April  7,  1788,  and  laid  out  the 
city  of  Marietta,  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment in  Ohio.  In  1790  he  was  appointed  judge 
'over  the  territory  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio,  and  in 
1796  surveyor  general  of  United  States  lands. 
In  May,  1792,  he  had  been  appointed  a  briga- 
dier general  in  the  United  States  army,  and  com- 
missioned to  make  a  treaty  with  the  tribes  on 
the  W abash.  In  1803  Jefferson  removed  him 
from  the  surveyorship,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  Ohio  state  constitution. 

PUTREFACTION.  See  FERMENTATIOX,  'vol. 
vii.,  p.  144. 

PUTTY,  a  kind  of  cement  used  for  filling  cav- 
ities in  cabinet  and  carpenter's  work,  for  fast- 
ening window  panes  in  sashes,  and  kindred 
purposes.  Ordinary  glazier's  putty  is  made 
of  whiting  (finely  levigated  chalk)  and  boiled 
linseed  oil,  kneaded  into  a  doughy  mass  and 
beaten  with  a  mallet.  The  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  tallow  prevents  its  getting  too 
hard.  French  putty  is  made  by  boiling  4  Ibs. 
of  brown  umber  in  7  Ibs.  of  linseed  oil  for 
about  two  hours,  adding  2  oz.  of  melted  wax, 
5£  Ibs.  of  whiting,  and  11  Ibs.  of  dry  white 
lead,  mixing  well.  This  putty  is  very  durable, 
and  will  adhere  to  unpainted  wood. 

PUY,  Le,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Haute-Loire,  270  in.  S.  S.  E.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  19,532.  It  is  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  valleys  of  the  Loire,  Borne,  and 
Dolaison,  and  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
towns  of  France.  It  is  on  the  steep  southern 
acclivity  of  Mont  Anis,  which  is  crowned  by  a 
mass  of  volcanic  rock  with  a  flat  top,  called 
Rocher  de  Oorneille.  On  this  was  erected  in 
1860  a  colossal  statue  of  the  Virgin,  made  from 
213  iron  cannon  captured  at  Sevastopol.  The 
principal  part  of  the  town  occupies  a  series  of 
terraces.  The  cathedral,  a  fine  Romanesque 
building  of  the  10th  century,  is  reached  by  a 
stairway  of  118  steps.  Le  Puy  has  also  two 
ecclesiastical  seminaries,  a  lyceum,  normal 
school,  public  library,  museum,  theatre,  and 
institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind.  It  manufactures  lace,  bells,  and  clocks. 

PUY-DE-DOME,  a  S.  central  department  of 
France,  in  Auvergne,  bordering  on  Allier, 
Loire,  Haute-Loire,  Oantal,  Correze,  and 
Creuse;  area,  3,073  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
566,463.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Forez  moun- 
tain, branches  of  the  Cevennes,  and  the  Au- 
vergne group,  among  the  highest  summits  of 
which  are  the  Puy  de  D6me,  nearly  5,000  ft., 
and  Mont. Dor  or  Dore,  more  than  6,000  ft. 
There  are  many  extinct  volcanoes.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Allier.  A  large  part  of  the  sur- 
face consists  of  the  fertile  valley  of  Limagne. 
Mineral  springs,  lead,  antimony,  coal,  and  tim- 
ber abound.  The  soil,  though  stony,  is  pro- 


ductive, particularly  in  the  north;  the  hillsides 
are  covered  with  orchards  and  vineyards,  and 
there  are  extensive  chestnut  plantations.  It 
is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Ambert, 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Issoire,  Riom,  and  Thiers. 
Capital,  Clermont-Ferrand. 

PYAT,  Fflix,  a  French  author,  born  in  Vierzon, 
department  of  Cher,  Oct.  4,  1810.  He  studied 
law  in  Paris,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1831,  but  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature 
and  politics.  He  contributed  to  several  jour- 
nals, furnished  Jules  Janin  with  one  of  the 
most  striking  chapters  of  his  Hamate,  and  was 
connected  as  feuilletonwte  with  the  Siecle,  and 
afterward  for  several  years  as  political  editor 
with  the  National.  His  first  play,  composed 
in  conjunction  with  Theodore  Burette,  Une 
revolution  d'autrefois,  was  brought  out  at  the 
Odeon,  March  1,  1832,  but  was  suppressed  at 
once  on  account  of  its  bold  political  allusions. 
Une  conjuration  (Tautrefois,  printed  in  1833  in 
the  Retue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and  Arabella,  in 
which,  under  assumed  names,  he  branded  the 
supposed  accomplices  in  the  death  of  the  duke 
of  Bourbon,  were  of  a  similar  political  charac- 
ter. In  conjunction  with  Luchet,  he  produced 
in  1834  Le  brigand  et  le  philosophe,  and  in  1885 
Ango.  Politics  now  engaged  his  attention  for 
about  six  years.  In  1841  his  Deux  serruriers 
had  an  extraordinary  run ;  and  his  Cedric  le 
Norvegien  (1842),  Diogene  (1846),  and  Le  chjf- 
fonnier  (1847),  his  last  play,  were  also  success- 
ful. In  1844,  for  a  violent  pamphlet,  Marie 
Joseph  Chenier  et  le  prince  de»  critiques,  against 
his  former  friend  Jules  Janin,  he  was  sentenced 
to  six  months'  imprisonment.  He  left  the  Na- 
tional for  the  more  revolutionary  Reforme,  and 
on  the  proclamation  of  the  republic  in  1848 
sided  with  the  socialists.  Elected  to  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  he  became  one  of  its  secre- 
taries, and  voted  with  the  party  of  the  moun- 
tain. After  his  reelection  in  1849,  he  signed 
Ledru-Rollin's  "Appeal  to  Arms,"  June  13, 
accompanied  him  to  the  conservatoire  dcs  arts 
et  metiers,  and  making  his  escape  first  took 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  and  then  removed  to 
Belgium,  where  he  occasionally  wrote  political 
pamphlets,  became  connected  with  the  "  Euro- 
pean revolutionary  committee,"  and  wrote  an 
apology  for  the  attempt  to  assassinate  Napo- 
leon III.  He  refused  to  profit  by  the  amnesty 
granted  by  the  emperor  in  1859 ;  but  after  that 
of  1869  he  returned  to  France.  In  the  same 
year,  however,  he  was  again  forced  to  conceal 
himself  on  account  of  prosecutions  brought 
against  him  for  articles  in  the  Rappel.  At 
first  he  remained  in  hiding  in  Paris,  but  after 
the  plebiscitum  of  May,  1870,  more  vigorous 
measures  were  taken  against  him,  and  he  es- 
caped to  London.  He  was  found  guilty  of 
taking  part  in  various  revolutionary  conspira- 
cies, and  although  safe  from  arrest  was  sen- 
tenced in  contumaciam  to  five  years'  imprison- 
ment and  a  heavy  fine.  On  the  fall  of  the 
empire  Pyat  returned  to  Paris,  and  during  the 
German  siege  edited  the  Combat  and  the  Ven- 


PYDKA 


PYLOS 


103 


geur.  After  the  surrender  he  was  elected  to 
the  national  assembly  from  one  of  the  city 
districts;  but  he  appeared  only  once  at  the 
debates.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  commune  (March  18,  1871),  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  communal  body  by  the 
tenth  Paris  arrondissement.  Here  his  course, 
throughout  the  insurrection,  was  very  arbi- 
trary. Most  of  the  acts  of  violence  were  sup- 
ported by  him,  and  he  was  chiefly  instrumen- 
tal in  the  suppression  of  many  of  the  Paris 
journals  for  articles  which  he  deemed  hostile 
to  the  commune's  rule.  He  was  successively 
a  member  of  the  first  executive  committee  of 
the  commune,  of  several  special  commissions, 
and  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  under 
whose  rule  the  last  acts  of  the  communists 
were  perpetrated.  On  the  capture  of  Paris  by 
the  Versailles  troops  he  made  his  escape,  and 
has  since  lived  chiefly  in  London.  Here,  in 
June,  1874,  after  the  artist  Courbet  had  been 
condemned  to  pay  the  cost  of  reerecting  the 
column  Vendome,  Pyat  published  a  protest, 
assuming  himself  all  responsibility  for  the  de- 
cree under  which  the  column  was  destroyed. 

PYDNA  (now  Kitro),  an  ancient  town  of 
southern  Macedonia,  near  the  W.  shore  of  the 
Thermaic  gulf.  It  was  a  Greek  colony,  but 
was  repeatedly  subjected  by  the  Macedonian 
kings,  and  finally  by  Philip,  who  enlarged  and 
fortified  it.  Here  ^Emilius  Paulus  vanquished 
Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon  (168  B.  C.). 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  also  called  Citrum  or 
Citrus,  from  which  its  modern  name  is  derived. 

PYGMALION,  a  legendary  king  of  Cyprus, 
whom  the  licentious  conduct  of  his  country- 
women so  disgusted  that  he  conceived  a  hatred 
against  the  whole  sex.  According  to  Ovid,  he 
made  an  ivory  female  statue  of  such  exceed- 
ing beauty  that  he  fell  desperately  in  love  with 
it  himself,  and  prayed  to  Venus  to  endow  it 
with  life.  The  goddess  granted  his  request. 
Pygmalion  then  married  the  object  of  his  af- 
fections, and  by  her  had  a  son  called  Paphus, 
who  founded  the  city  of  that  name.  (For 
another  legendary  Pygmalion,  see  DIDO.) 

PIGMY,  or  Pigmy  (Gr.  Tn^uat'of,  from  Trvy//?, 
the  fist,  or  a  measure  extending  from  the  elbow 
to  the  fist,  equal  to  about  13£  inches),  the  name 
of  a  nation  of  dwarfs  believed  by  the  ancients 
to  inhabit  the  interior  of  Africa.  They  were 
supposed  to  be  about  three  spans  high,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  favorite  story  they  were  engaged 
in  constant  war  with  the  cranes,  their  invet- 
erate enemies.  Herodotus  speaks  seriously  of 
them  (ii.  32)  as  an  existing  race ;  and  many 
recent  commentators  have  believed  that  the 
accounts  from  which  he  took  his  information 
had  confounded  a  small  species  of  African  apes 
with  men.  The  story  of  a  pygmy  race  was 
universally  regarded  as  entirely  fabulous  until 
a  very  recent  period.  Dr.  Krapf,  a  German 
missionary,  was  (about  1850)  the  first  to  revive 
the  old  myth,  in  accounts  of  a  tribe  of  dwarf- 
ish negroes  of  which  he  had  heard  in  the  un- 
explored part  of  S.  E.  Africa.  Du  Chaillu's 


explorations  enabled  him  to  give  still  more 
definite  statements,  which  were  long  doubted, 
but  the  mystery  surrounding  the  subject  was 
finally  cleared  away  by  the  discoveries  of  Dr. 
Georg  Schweinfurth.  In  the  country  of  the 
Monbuttoos,  between  lat.  3°  and  4°  N.  and  Ion. 
28°  and  29°  E.,  during  a  long  time  passed  at 
the  king's  residence  (1870)  he  was  brought  into 
actual  communication  with  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  people  from  a  pygmy  race,  inhabiting  a 
district  nearly  corresponding  to  that  indicated 
by  the  ancient  story.  The  first  of  the  pygmies 
whom  he  examined  was  brought  by  the  Mon- 
buttoos to  his  tent.  Dr.  Schweinfurth  says : 
"  With  his  own  lips  I  heard  him  assert  that  the 
name  of  his  nation  was  Akka ;  and  I  further 
learnt  that  they  inhabit  large  districts  to  the 
south  of  the  Monbuttoo,  between  lat.  2°  and 
1°  N.  A  portion  of  them  are  subject  to  the 
Monbuttoo  king,  who,  desirous  of  enhancing 
the  splendor  of  his  court  by  the  addition  of 
any  available  natural  curiosities,  had  compelled 
several  families  of  the  Akka  to  settle  in  the 
vicinity."  Schweinfurth  soon  after  saw  many 
other  representatives  of  this  strange  colony, 
and  even  succeeded  in  carrying  away  one  of 
them ;  but  he  died  before  the  explorer  reached 
the  coast.  No  one  of  six  specimens  that  he 
measured,  some  of  whom  were  of  advanced  age, 
much  exceeded  4  ft.  10  in.  in  height.  Their 
heads  were  disproportionately  large,  their 
shoulders  peculiar  in  shape,  with  crooked  and 
singularly  formed  blades;  the  chest  was  flat 
and  contracted  above,  but  expanded  below  to 
support  the  belly,  which  Schweinfurth  says  is 
"  huge  and  hanging."  All  the  lower  joints  are 
angular  and  projecting  except  the  knees,  which 
are  plump  and  round.  The  feet  turn  inward, 
and  the  Akka  "  waddle  and  lurch  "  in  walking. 
The  hands  alone  are  remarkably  well  formed. 
The  skulls  of  all  examined  were  prognathous  to 
an  extraordinary  degree,  the  facial  angles  of 
two  of  them  being  respectively  60°  and  66°. 
They  have  a  snout-like  projection  of  the  jaws, 
with  an  unprotruding  chin  ;  the  upper  part  of 
the  skull  is  wide  and  almost  spherical.  At  the 
base  of  the  nose  there  is  an  unusually  deep  in- 
dentation. Of  their  country  he  could  only 
learn  that  it  was  scantily  watered  and  probably 
flat ;  that  it  was  politically  divided  among  a 
considerable  number  of  tribes ;  and  that  there 
were  nine  kings.  (See  DWARF.) 

PYLOS,  the  name  of  three  ancient  towns  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  on  or  near  its  western  shore, 
one  of  which  was  in  Hollow  Elis,  another  in 
Triphylia,  and  the  third  and  most  important  in 
Messenia,  on  the  promontory  of  Coryphasium. 
The  earlier  city  on  the  promontory  was  for- 
saken by  the  inhabitants  after  the  close  of  the 
second  Messenian  war,  and  the  promontory 
remained  deserted  until  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  when  in  425  B.  C.  it  was  fortified  by  the 
Athenian  general  Demosthenes.  It  became 
memorable  for  the  defeat  of  the  Spartans  not 
long  after,  but  at  the  close  of  the  war  passed 
again  into  the  hands  of  the  Lacedemonians. 


104 


PYM 


PYRAMID 


The  town  of  Navarino  is  near  the  site  of  the 
old  city,  which  is  considered  by  most  critics 
as  the  Pylos  of  Nestor.  K.  O.  Miiller,  how- 
ever, decides  in  favor  of  the  Triphylian  Pylos. 

P1M,  John,  an  English  patriot,  born  at  Bry- 
more,  Somersetshire,  in  1584,  died  in  London, 
Dec.  8,  1643.  He  was  of  a  good  family,  and 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  college,  Oxford, 
but  left  without  taking  his  degree,  and  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  common  law.  He  be- 
came a  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  exchequer,  en- 
tered parliament  in  1614,  and  in  1620  became 
conspicuous  as  a  leader  of  the  country  party. 
In  1621  he  was  one  of  the  12  commissioners 
sent  to  James  I.  at  Newmarket  in  behalf  of 
the  privileges  of  parliament,  and  at  the  close 
of  that  year  was  sentenced  with  Coke,  Philips, 
and  Mallory  to  imprisonment  for  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  measures  of  the  court.  In  the  first 
parliament  of  Charles  I.  he  was  indefatigable 
in  his  support  of  the  rights  of  the  people,  and 
in  1626  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  articles 
of  impeachment  against  the  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham. In  1639  he  held  communications  with 
the  commissioners  sent  to  London  by  the 
Scotch  Covenanters,  and  accompanied  Hamp- 
den  through  the  country  to  incite  the  people 
to  send  in  petitions.  In  the  short  parliament 
of  1640  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  mem- 
bers, and  in  the  long  parliament  exerted  great 
influence.  On  Nov.  11  he  moved  to  impeach 
the  earl  of  Strafford  for  high  treason,  and  as 
one  of  the  managers  on  the  part  of  the  house 
of  commons  he  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the 
proceedings  which  led  to  the  execution  of  that 
minister.  In  the  subsequent  trial  of  Laud 
he  also  made  a  violent  speech  against  the 
prisoner,  and  was  the  mover  of  the  grand  re- 
monstrance, which  enumerated  the  faults  of 
the  royal  administration  from  the  accession 
of  Charles.  He  was  one  of  the  five  mem- 
bers of  parliament  whom  the  king  attempted 
in  person  to  seize ;  and  after  the  departure  of 
Charles  from  London,  he  assisted  in  carrying 
on  the  executive  branch  of  the  government. 
Yet  in  1643  he  -put  forth  a  vindication  of  his 
conduct  in  answer  to  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  from  which  it  was  thought  doubt- 
ful with  which  of  the  two  parties  then  divi- 
ding the  kingdom  he  would  go.  In  November, 
1643,  just  before  his  death,  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant  of  the  ordnance.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey. 

PYVAKER,  Adam,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Pynaker,  between  Delft  and  Schiedam,  in  1621, 
died  in  1673.  In  his  youth  he  resided  for  sev- 
eral years  at  Rome,  where  he  acquired  an  ideal 
or  pastoral  style  of  landscape  painting.  His 
pictures  contain  charming  effects  of  sunlight, 
with  clear,  warm  skies,  and  trees  and  other 
natural  objects  are  painted  with  a  broad,  free 
pencil,  and  great  richness  of  color.  The  best 
of  his  works  are  of  cabinet  size,  and  many  of 
these  are  owned  in  England. 

PYRAMID  (Gr.  irvpaju.if),  the  geometrical  term 
for  any  solid  contained  by  a  plane  polygonal 


base  and  other  planes  meeting  in  a  point,  ap- 
plied to  various  monumental  and  temple  struc- 
tures of  several  nations.  The  most  famous 
pyramids  are  those  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  with  few  exceptions  are  the  tombs  of 
kings.  The  theories  that  they  were  astronom- 
ical monuments,  or  large  storehouses,  or,  as 
Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth  holds,  memorials  of  a  sys- 
tem of  weights  and  measures,  intended  to  be 
universal,  and  built  with  the  aid  of  divine  in- 
spiration, are  not  supported  by  the  accounts  of 
the  ancients,  nor  by  the  Egyptian  inscriptions 
and  other  testimony.  The  facts  that  the  pyra- 
mids are  found  in  the  midst  of  a  necropolis, 
that  they  contain  sarcophagi  and  mummies,  and 
that  the  inscriptions  on  the  tombs  of  many 
priests  mention  as  a  special  honor  that  the  de- 
ceased officiated  at  the  funeral  services  held 
at  the  pyramids,  seem  to  prove  that  they  are 
tombs  and  nothing  else.  As  the  Egyptian 
tombs  have  always  borne  one  and  the  same 
character,  and  only  the  manner  in  which  they 
were  adorned  varied  with  the  tastes  of  the 
period,  their  age  may  be  determined  with 
great  certainty.  For  the  first  eleven  dynas- 
ties, or  previous  to  about  8000  B.  C.,  the 
tombs  were  in  the  form  of  a  mastaba,  or  mere- 
ly rectangular  walls  looking  like  unfinished 
pyramids,  and  their  interior  was  richly  deco- 
rated with  sculptures  and  paintings,  referring 
either  to  the  life  of  the  deceased  or  to  the 
gods  of  the  current  religious  system.  During 
the  middle  empire,  and  until  about  1600  B. 
C.,  the  tnastnba  was  superseded  by  small  pyra- 
mids, and  by  the  gpeos  or  halls  cut  into  the 
rocks,  and  the  divinities  were  seldom  repre- 
sented upon  them.  In  the  next  period,  until 
about  340  B.  C.,  excavated  tombs  prevailed, 


and  the  statuary  and  images  of  the  deceased 
were  superseded  again  by  those  of  a  mytho- 
logical nature.  The  pyramids  are  only  en- 
larged mattaba,  and  belong  as  such  to  the  first 
period.  Each  one  was  commenced  over  a  se- 
pulchral chamber  excavated  in  the  rock,  and 


PYKAMID 


105 


during  the  life  of  the  king  for  whom  it  was 
intended  the  work  of  building  up  the  structure 
over  this  chamber  went  on,  a  very  narrow  and 
low  passageway  being  kept  open  as  the  courses 
of  the  stone  were  added,  by  which  access  from 
the  outside  was  secured  to  the  central  cham- 
ber. At  the  death  of  the  monarch  the  work 
ceased,  and  the  last  layers  were  then  finished 
off  and  the  passageway  closed  up.  The  piles 
were  constructed  of  blocks  of  red  or  syenitic 
granite  from  the  quarries  of  Asswan,  and  also 
of  others  of  a  hard  calcareous  stone  from  the 
quarries  of  Mokattam  and  Turah.  They  were 
of  extraordinary  dimensions,  and  their  trans- 
portation to  the  pyramids  and  adjustment  in 
their  places  indicate  a  surprising  degree  of 
mechanical  skill.  Their  thickness  varied  from 
more  than  four  to  less  than  two  feet,  and  when 
arranged  one  upon  another  forming  steps  up 
the  outer  slopes,  the  thickness  of  the  stones 
determined  the  height  of  these  steps.  Those 
near  the  top  are  of  the  thicker  stones,  but  the 
blocks  are  of  moderate  length  compared  with 
those  near  the  base.  The  foundations  for  the 
structures  were  excavated  in  the  solid  rock, 
sometimes  to  the  depth  of  10  ft.,  and  upon 
this  the  great  stones  were  arranged  and  built 
up  layer  upon  layer,  and  one  shell  succeeding 
another,  the  spaces  within  being  filled  in  with 
smaller  stones  closely  packed.  To  quarry  and 
move  the  immense  blocks  to  the  pyramids  and 
then  raise  them  to  their  places  required  no 
little  engineering  skill,  notwithstanding  an  un- 
limited amount  of  human  labor  was  at  com- 
mand. Near  the  summits  the  number  of  men 
that  could  aid  in  raising  the  huge  stones  must 
have  been  comparatively  small  for  want  of 
room,  and  it  seems  that  some  mechanical  pow- 
er must  have  been  employed  besides  any  which 
we  know  they  possessed.  The  probability  of 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  cavities  in 
the  stones  have  been  found,  which  appear  as 
though  they  might  have  been  worn  by  the  foot 
of  derricks  turning  in  them.  The  three  pyra- 
mids of  the  Memphis  group  stand  upon  a  pla- 
teau about  137  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  high- 
est rise  of  the  Nile,  not  far  apart,  and  nearly 
on  a  N.  E.  and  S.  "W.  line.  Like  the  other 
pyramids  of  Egypt,  their  four  sides  are  direct- 
ed, toward  the  cardinal  points.  The  largest 
of  them,  known  as  the  great  pyramid  or  the 
pyramid  of  Cheops  (Khufu  or  Shufu),  covers 
at  present  an  area  of  between  12  and  13 
acres.  Its  dimensions  have  been  reduced  by 
the  removal  of  the  outer  portions  to  furnish 
stone  for  the  city  of  Cairo.  Thus  despoiled, 
the  walls  have  lost  their  smooth  finished  sur- 
face, in  which  state  they  were  left  by  their 
builders,  who,  beginning  at  the  top,  filled  in 
with  small  stones  the  angles  formed  by  the  re- 
cession of  each  upper  layer,  and  bevelled  off  the 
upper  edges  of  the  great  blocks,  till  reaching 
the  base  they  left  each  side  of  an  even  surface 
sloping  at  an  angle  of  51°  50'.  By  stripping  off 
the  outer  casing  the  courses  of  stone  appear  in 
the  form  of  steps,  which,  though  ragged  and 


unequal,  can  be  ascended  even  by  ladies.  The 
great  pyramid  has  203  of  these  steps,  the  lower 
ones  being  4  ft.  1 0  in.  high.  The  horizontal  sur- 
faces were  nicely  finished,  and  the  stones  were 
joined  together  with  a  cement  of  lime  without 
sand.  The  masonry  of  the  great  pyramid  con- 


Section  of  the  Great  Pyramid. 

sisted  originally  of  89,028,000  cubic  feet,  and 
still  amounts  to  82,111,000  ft.  The  present 
vertical  height  is  450  ft.,  against  479  ft.  origi- 
nally, and  the  present  length  of  the  sides  is  746 
ft.,  against  764  ft.  originally.  The  total  weight 
of  the  stone  is  estimated  at  6,316,000  tons.  The 
only  entrance  is  on  the  N.  face,  49  ft.  above 
the  base,  and  about  24  ft.  E.  of  the  central 
line.  The  masonry  about  it  is  much  broken 
away,  and  the  piles  of  broken  stones  reach  up 
from  the  ground  nearly  to  its  level.  This  pas- 
sageway (marked  a  in  the  adjoining  illustration) 
is  only  3  ft.  11  in.  high  and  3  ft.  5$  in.  wide; 
it  leads  down  a  slope  at  an  angle  of  26°  41'  a 
distance  of  320  ft.  10  in.  to  the  original  sepul- 
chral chamber,  commonly  known  as  the  sub- 
terraneous apartment,  and  beyond  this  52  ft. 
9  in.  into  the  rock,  with  an  area  in  this  por- 
tion of  only  2  ft.  7  in.  in  width  and  2  ft.  8  in. 
in  height.  It  is  supposed  that  it  was  intended 
to  excavate  another  chamber  at  the  end  of 
this  passage,  and  that  it  was  not  done  on  ac- 
count of  the  monarch  continuing  to  live  until 
it  was  found  expedient  to  close  up  the  mouth 
of  the  passage  with  the  external  casing  of 
masonry.  The  sepulchral  chamber  (c)  is  46 
ft.  long  by  27  ft.  in  width,  and  its  height  is 
11$  ft.  The  entrance  passage,  63  ft.  long, 
connects  with  a  branch  passage,  which  rises 
at  an  angle  of  26°  18',  and  thus  extends  124 
ft.,  when  it  becomes  level  and  runs  109  ft. 
further.  This  connects  with  several  chambers 
and  passages.  One  situated  nearly  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  pyramid,  and  67  ft.  above 
its  base,  is  known  as  the  queen's  chamber  (/). 
This  measures  17  ft.  by  18  ft.  9  in.,  and  20  ft. 
3  in.  high,  and  has  a  groined  roof.  It  appears 
to  have  been  intended  for  a  sarcophagus ;  but 
the  only  one  found  was  in  what  is  called  the 
grand  or  king's  chamber  (A).  This  is  an  apart- 
ment lined  with  red  granite  highly  polished, 
single  stones  reaching  from  the  floor  to  the 
ceiling,  and  the  ceiling  is  formed  of  nine  large 
slabs  of  polished  granite,  extending  from  wall 


106 


PYRAMID 


to  wall.  It  is  34  ft.  3  in.  long,  17  ft.  1  in. 
wide,  and  19  ft.  1  in.  high.  Over  it  are  five 
small  chambers  (Z),  apparently  built  to  shelter 
the  larger  room  beneath  from  the  weight  of 
the  masonry.  The  room  is  perfectly  plain, 
and  contains  only  a  sarcophagus  of  red  gran- 
ite, 7£  ft.  long,  3  ft.  3  in.  wide,  and  3  ft.  5 
in.  high,  which  is  too  large  to  have  been  in- 
troduced through  the  entrance  passage,  and 
must  therefore  have  been  placed  in  the  room 
when  this  was  built.  It  contained  a  wooden 
coffin  with  the  mummy  of  the  king,  which 
disappeared  when  the  pyramids  were  first 
opened  and  plundered.  In  the  construction 
of  the  pyramids  arrangements  were  made 
for  blocking  up  the  important  passages  with 
huge  masses  of  granite,  and  the  obstacles  thus 
interposed  have  greatly  impeded  their  ex- 
ploration, and  sometimes  rendered  it  neces- 
sary to  open  new  passages  past  the  obstruc- 
tions. It  is  probable  that  on  account  of  these 
extraordinary  precautions  there  are  yet  un- 
discovered apartments  in  the  immense  body 
of  these  structures.  Niebuhr  (1761),  Davison 
(1763),  the  French  expedition  (1798),  Hamilton 
(1801),  Caviglias  (1817),  Belzoni  (1818),  ahd 
Col.  Howard  Vyse  (18:57)  penetrated  into  the 
interior;  but  a  forcible  passage  had  been  ef- 
fected into  the  pyramid  long  before  any  of 
these  visits.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Egyptians  themselves  violated  the  tomb  of 
Cheops,  or  that  Cambyses  entered  it;  but  Arab 
historians  record  that  the  caliph  Mamoun,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  forced  his 
way  into  the  pyramid  in  order  to  rob  it  of  its 
supposed  treasures.  Unable  to  discover  the 
hidden  entrance,  lie  caused  a  passageway  to  be 
broken  through  the  masonry  on  the  north  side 
(&),  and  thus  readied  the  passage  coining  from 
above.  He  found  nothing  hut  empty  cham- 
bers, and  a  stone  sarcophagus,  containing  an- 
other of  wood,  which  held  a  richly  decorated 
mummy. — The  second  pyramid,  KingShafra's, 
stands  on  a  base  33  ft.  above  that  of  the  great 
pyramid,  and  in  an  excavation  made  for  it  in 
the  rock.  It  measured  originally  707  ft.  9  in. 
on  the  sides,  and  was  454  ft.  3  in.  high;  but 
these  dimensions  are  now  reduced  respectively 
to  690  ft.  9  in.  and  447$  ft.  The  angle  of  its 
slope  is  52°  20'.  The  upper  portion  of  its 
casing  is  still  preserved,  and  persons  can  as- 
cend this,  though  not  without  danger,  espe- 
cially if  liable  to  become  dizzy  by  losing  sight 
of  the  lower  portion  of  the"  structure.  This 
pyramid  has  two  entrances,  one  37  ft.  8  in. 
above  the  base,  and  the  other  built  out  in 
front  of  the  base,  each  leading  by  an  inclined 
passage  about  100  ft.  in  length  to  the  same 
sepulchral  chamber.  This  has  a  roof  of  the 
shape  of  the  pyramid  itself,  and  measures  46 
ft.  2  in.  by  16  ft.  2  in.,  and  is  19  ft.  3  in. 
high.  It  contains  a  granite  sarcophagus  8  ft. 
7  in.  long,  3$  ft.  wide,  and  3  ft.  high.  It  was 
reached  with  great  difficulty  by  Belzoni  in 
1818,  who  found  a  Cufic  inscription  recording 
the  visit  of  a  caliph  and  the  opening  by  him 


of  the  pyramid,  A.  D.  1196-'7.  The  only  re- 
mains met  with  were  those  of  a  bull.  The 
third  pyramid  is  only  354$  ft.  square  and  203 
ft.  high,  but  was  originally  219  ft.  high.  It 
was  explored  in  1887  by  Col.  Vyse,  who  dis- 
covered several  apartments,  in  one  of  which 
were  a  highly  finished  sarcophagus,  a  mummy 
case  bearing  the  name  of  King  Menkara,  and 
the  body  of  a  workman.  The  last  two  are  now 
in  the  British  museum,  but  the  sarcophagus 
was  lost  on  the  passage.  This  pyramid,  though 
the  smallest,  is  the  best  constructed  of  the 
three,  and  indeed  the  style  of  the  work  is  more 
costly  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  pyramids 
of  Egypt.  In  the  same  vicinity  are  six  small- 
er pyramids,  supposed  to  have  been  the  tombs 
of  some  of  the  relatives  of  the  kings  who 
constructed  the  larger  ones,  and  an  immense 
number  of  tombs,  some  built  up  above  the  sur- 
face, some  excavated  in  the  rock,  and  some 
subterranean  channels.  Near  the  great  pyra- 
mids is  also  the  famous  sphinx. — Of  the  other 
:  pyramids  further  S.,  the  largest  are  of  the  Da- 
shoor  group,  of  which  there  are  five,  two  of 
stone  and  three  of  rough  brick.  One  of  the 
former  is  now  reduced  from  71 9$  to  700  ft. 
square,  and  from  342$  to  326$  ft.  high,  and  the 
other  is  616&  ft.  square  and  319$  ft.  high.  Abu- 
sir  has  a  group  of  14  pyramids,  but  many  of 
them  are  small  and  mere  heaps  of  rubbish,  and 
only  two  are  more  than  100  ft.  high.  The 
Sakkara  field  of  pyramids  is  adjacent  to  that 
of  Abusir,  and  contains  17  pyramids  more  or 
less  preserved.  The  most  remarkable  and 
largest  in  this  group  is  the  pyramid  in  steps, 
which  possibly  may  once  have  been  as  smooth 
as  the  other  pyramids,  but  none  of  the  stones 
which  formerly  filled  the  gaps  are  to  be  seen. 
Its  situation  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
oldest  portion  of  the  city,  its  rude  construc- 
tion, and  its  oblong  rectangular  form,  originally 
measuring  351  ft.  from  N.  to  S.  and  8!i."  ft. 
from  E.  to  W.,  indicate  a  very  high  antiquity. 
Its  nucleus  is  still  standing,  and  rises  190  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  desert,  in  five  distinct 
portions.  Instead  of  facing  the  cardinal  points, 
it  is  turned  4°  35'  to  the  east,  which  seems  to 
show  that  its  erection  dates  from  a  time  when 
the  rules  for  the  exact  astronomical  construc- 
tion had  not  been  discovered.  Egyptologists 
adduce  many  reasons  for  considering  this  pyr- 
amid either  the  tomb  of  Uenephes  or  the  old- 
est burial  place  of  Apis.  As  both  Apis  bones 
and  the  remains  of  royal  mummies  have  lict-n 
found  in  it,  the  pyramid  may  have  served  first 
as  the  tomb  of  kings,  and  been  afterward  ap- 
propriated for  the  service  of  Apis.  The  other 
pyramids  of  Sakkara  are  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed. One  of  them,  an  enormous  mastaba, 
the  Mastaba  el-Faraoon,  has  recently  been  en- 
U-n-d  by  Mariette  Bey,  who  discovered  an  in- 
scription dedicating  the  tomb  to  King  Unas,  of 
the  fifth  dynasty-.  Among  the  minor  fields  of 
pyramids  is  that  of  Abu  Roash,  a  village  two 
hours  from  Gizeh,  where  there  arc  three  which 
evidently  date  from  the  earliest  dynasties.  But 


PYRAMID 


PYRENEES 


107 


generally  speaking  there  is  little  of  interest  in 
the  pyramids  outside  of  Gizeh,  Abusir,  Sak- 
kara,  and  Dashoor. — Pyramids  are  frequently 
met  with  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile.  There  are  many  in  Nubia  about  lat.  17° 
and  18°  N.,  the  sepulchres  of  the  monarchs  of  j 
Meroe  and  of  Ethiopia ;  a  single  group  N.  of 
Jebel  Barkal  comprises  120.  Others  are  met 
with  in  other  ancient  countries  of  the  East. 
At  Birs  Nimrud  is  the  step-shaped  pyramid 
built  by  Nebuchadnezzar  of  bricks  of  different 
colors,  known  as  the  temple  of  seven  spheres. 
This  was  235  ft.  high  with  a  perimeter  of  2,286 
ft.  The  same  monarch  built  the  pyramidal  brick 
structure  of  Mujellibe  at  Babylon,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  remain.  At  Benares  in  India 
are  also  the  ruins  of  pyramids ;  and  others 
were  built  in  ancient  times  at  Peking,  and 
again  at  Suka  in  Java.  At  Rome  one  was  con- 
structed 20  or  30  years  B.  C.,  in  honor  of  0. 
Oestius,  in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, and  furnished  with  a  sepulchral  cham- 
ber; it  is  120  ft.  high  on  a  base  of  95  ft.  di- 
ameter, built  of  hewn  stone  and  marble-faced. 
— In  Mexico  are  similar  structures  far  exceed- 
ing in  the  area  they  cover  the  dimensions  even 
of  the  great  pyramid  of  Egypt.  These  monu- 
ments, called  teocallis,  literally  "  houses  of 
God,"  are  pyramids  in  terraces  with  flat  tops, 
and  surmounted  by  a  chamber  or  cell,  which  is 
the  temple  itself.  They  seem  to  be  of  all  ages ; 
that  of  Cholula  is,  according  to  tradition,  as 
early  as  the  Toltecs,  while  the  great  teocalli 
of  the  city  of  Mexico  was  finished  only  five  or 
six  years  before  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus.  (See  CHOLULA,  and  MEXICO,  vol. 
xi.,  p.  483.)  There  are  two  pyramids  at  Teoti- 
huacan,  the  largest  of  which  is  apparently  a 
square  of  645  ft.  with  a  height  of  171  ft,  and 
there  are  others  at  Tezcuco  of  about  the  same 
dimensions,  and  like  them  divided  into  five  or 
seven  stories;  but  the  most  interesting  of  those 
yet  brought  to  light  is  that  of  Xochicalco,  on 
account  of  its  sculptures  and  architectural  or- 
naments. There  are  in  Mexico  also  numerous 
pyramids  of  one  story,  but,  like  that  of  Oajaca, 
they  are  only  devices  to  raise  a  temple  to  such 
a  height  as  would  enable  the  people  to  witness 
the  ceremonies  performed  around  it.  While 
Egyptian  pyramids  are  always  tombs,  and  ter- 
minate in  a  point,  without  steps  leading  to  the 
apex,  the  Mexican  are  always  temples,  and  in 
terraces,  with  the  upper  platform  crowned  by 
a  chamber  or  cell.  Similar  to  the  latter  were 
the  Assyrian  pyramids,  and  the  object  of  their 
construction  was  the  same.  In  fact  this  form 
of  temple  has  been  found  from  Mesopotamia 
to  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  resemblance  has 
given  rise  to  many  theories  on  the  racial  con- 
nection of  the  builders,  and  Fergusson  says : 
"  If  we  still  hesitate  to  pronounce  that  there 
was  any  connection  between  the  builders  of 
the  pyramids  of  Suku  and  Oajaca,  or  the  tem- 
ples of  Xochicalco  and  Boro  Buddor,  we  must 
at  least  allow  that  the  likeness  is  startling  and 
difficult  to  account  for  on  the  theory  of  mere 


accidental  coincidence." — See  Vyse's  "Opera- 
tions carried  on  at  Ghizeh  in  1837  "  (3  vols., 
London,  1840-'42),  and  Piazzi  Smyth's  "Life 
and  Work  at  the  Great  Pyramid  "  (3  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1867).  Excellent  accounts  of  the 
Egyptian  pyramids  will  be  found  also  in  Pro- 
kesch-Osten's  Nilfahrt  (Leipsic,  1874),  and  in 
the  new  edition  of  Brugsch  Bey's  Histoire 
dSfigypte  (Leipsic,  vol.  i.,  1875). 

PTRAMUS  AND  THISBE,  a  youth  and  maiden 
of  Babylon,  celebrated  in  Ovid's  Me  tarn  orphoses. 
Their  parents  opposed  their  union,  but  the 
lovers,  living  in  adjoining  houses,  found  means 
to  converse  with  each  other  through  a  hole  in 
the  wall,  and  once  made  an  agreement  to  meet 
at  the  tomb  of  Ninus.  There  Thisbe  arrived 
first,  but,  terrified  by  a  lioness  which  had  just 
torn  to  pieces  an  ox,  she  hid  herself  in  a  cave, 
and  in  her  flight  lost  her  mantle,  which  was 
rent  by  the  lioness  and  soiled  with  blood. 
When  Pyramus  came  and  found  the  garment 
torn  and  bloody,  he  imagined  that  Thisbe  had 
been  killed,  and  thereupon  fell  upon  his  sword. 
When  Thisbe  returned  and  found  the  body  of 
her  lover,  she  slew  herself  with  the  same  sword. 
This  tragedy  was  enacted  under  a  mulberry 
tree,  the  fruit  of  which,  before  white,  has  ever 
since  been  of  the  color  of  blood. 

PYRENEES  (Celt,  fyrin,  a  steep  mountain),  a 
mountain  range  of  Europe,  separating  France 
from  Spain,  and  extending  from  Capes  Creus 
and  Cervera  on  the  Mediterranean  to  the  S.  E. 
angle  of  the  bay  of  Biscay.  The  divisions  of 
the  two  countries  along  the  boundaries  are, 
beginning  at  the  east :  in  France,  the  depart- 
ments of  Pyren6es-Orientales,  Ari6ge,  Haute- 
Garonne,  Hautes-Pyren6es,  and  Basses-Pyre- 
n6es;  in  Spain,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Navarre, 
and  Guipuzcoa.  The  Pyrenees  form  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  great  northern  barrier  of  the 
Iberian  mountain  system,  their  prolongation, 
the  Cantabrian  mountains,  stretching  to  Cape 
Finisterre,  the  N.  W.  point  of  the  peninsula. 
On  the  N.  E.  the  Cevennes  form  a  connecting 
link  with  the  Alps.  The  direction  of  the  chain 
is  from  S.  S.  E.  to  N.  N.  W. ;  its  length  is  about 
250  m.,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  excluding  some 
of  the  remoter  slopes,  about  70  m.  Near  the 
middle  its  axis  is  deflected  by  an  elbow,  so  that 
the  line  of  the  western  half,  if  prolonged,  would 
run  about  20  m.  to  the  south  of  the  eastern 
portion.  The  Pyrenees  generally  consist  of 
two  parallel  main  ridges,  from  which  trans- 
verse spurs  extend  far  on  either  side.  The 
southern  ridge  is  the  more  elevated.  The  chain 
is  higher  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
portion,  and  attains  its  greatest  altitude  and 
extension  in  the  centre.  Here  the  double 
range  encloses  the  valley  of  Arran,  in  which 
the  Garonne  takes  its  rise.  Other  streams 
break  through  the  northern  ridge,  but  the 
southern  presents  a  vast  unbroken  wall.  This 
main  ridge  lies  S.  of  the  political  boundary,  so 
that  the  loftiest  peaks  and  most  elevated  passes 
belong  to  Spain.  The  highest  summits  are  not 
found  along  this  crest,  but  occupy  projections 


108 


PYKENEES 


to  the  south.  The  mass  of  the  Maladetta,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia,  pre- 
sents the  two  peaks  of  Nethou  or  Anethou 
and  Maladetta,  the  former  the  culminating 
point  of  the  chain  (11,160  ft.).  Mont  Perdu 
(10,994  ft.),  called  in  Spanish  las  Tres  Sorores, 
and  the  Cylindre  de  Marbore  lie  further  to  the 
west.  To  the  north  of  these  are  the  Pic  Posets 
and  Pic  de  Vignemale,  the  latter  the  highest 
summit  of  the  Pyrenees  in  France  (10,791  ft.). 
Among  the  other  principal  summits  are  the 
Tour  de  Marbore,  Pic  Long,  Montcalm,  Pic 
de  Neouvielle,  Pic  du  Midi  de  Bigorre,  and 
Pic  du  Midi  de  Pau,  most  of  them  upward 
of  10,000  ft.  high.  Mont  Canigou  (9,134  ft.), 
near  the  E.  extremity  of  the  range,  on  the 
meridian  of  Paris,  forms  a  bold  projection 
in  France.  The  summit  line,  very  uniform 
for  long  distances,  has  a  mean  elevation  of 
about  8,000  ft.,  the  passes  being  as  elevated  as 
those  in  the  Alps. — A  remarkable  feature  of 
the  Pyrenees  is  the  almost  complete  absence 
of  longitudinal  valleys,  the  great  depressions 
running  transverse  to  the  chain.  These  fre- 
quently meet  near  the  crest,  and  form  passes 
called  cols  or  ports.  Many  of  the  valleys  ter- 
minate abruptly  in  huge  basins  (cirque*  or 
oules)  enclosed  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock, 
and  often  one  basin  is  continued  by  others  on 
a  higher  level  in  the  manner  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, the  streams  descending  from  one  into 
the  other  in  magnificent  cascades.  There  are 
about  12  such  falls  in  the  basin  of  Gavarnie, 
the  descent  of  one  being  1,400  ft.  In  places 
the  peaks  rise  almost  perpendicularly  for  thou- 
sands of  feet,  and  the  grandeur  of  the  sce- 
nery is  unsurpassed  even  in  the  Alps.  The 
snow  line  is  about  8,500  ft.  on  the  N.  side,  and 
on  the  S.  side  about  1,000  ft.  higher.  The 
snow  does  not  appear  in  continuous  fields,  but 
is  rather  confined  to  the  summits.  Glaciers, 
the  existence  of  which  was  until  recently  un- 
known, extend  on  the  N.  slopes  of  the  highest 
peaks,  above  an  elevation  of  7,000  ft.  There 
are  a  number  of  small  lakes  on  the  side  of 
France.  The  passes  of  the  Pyrenees  are  very 
numerous,  but  only  a  few  are  practicable  for 
carriages.  The  principal,  beginning  at  the  east, 
are :  the  col  de  Pertus,  the  great  highway  be- 
tween Perpignan  and  Gerona;  the  col  de  la 
Perche ;  col  de  Puymorens ;  port  de  Salo ;  the 
pass  of  Viella;  the  port  de  Venasque;  the  port 
d'Oo;  the  Breche  de  Roland  (9,193  ft.),  almost 
inaccessible  to  the  experienced  smugglers  of 
these  mountains ;  the  port  de  Gavarnie ;  the 
port  de  Canfranc,  between  Oleron  and  Jaca; 
the  pass  of  Roncesvalles,  between  St.  Jean- 
Pied-de-Port  and  Pamplona,  memorable  for  the 
defeat  of  Charlemagne  (see  RONCESVALLES)  ; 
and  the  pass  of  the  Bidassoa,  leading  through 
Irun.  The  railroad  from  Bayonue  to  Vitoria 
passes  the  western  extremity.  The  greater  part 
of  the  range  forms  an  unbroken  watershed  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the  bay  of  Bis- 
cay, but  the  eastern  portion  belongs  exclusive- 
ly to  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 


PYRENEES-ORIENTALES 

principal  rivers  flowing  toward  the  north  are 
the  Adour,  Garonne,  Ariege,  and  Aude.  The 
southern  slope  is  tributary  to  the  Ebro,  which 
receives  the  Segre  and  other  considerable 
streams,  and  to  the  Llobregat.  The  Bidassoa, 
which  traverses  the  charming  valley  of  Bastan, 
forms  the  westernmost  portion  of  the  boundary 
line.  The  opposite  sides  of  the  Pyrenees  pre- 
sent a  great  contrast.  Toward  Spain  the  range 
rises  in  a  succession  of  abrupt  terraces,  whose 
rugged  faces  support  a  scanty  and  stunted  ve- 
getation. On  the  side  of  France  the  descent 
is  much  more  gradual.  Here  the  spurs  en- 
close fruitful  valleys  enriched  with  fine  pas- 
tures and  orchards,  and  extensive  forests  stretch 
far  up  the  slopes,  affording  good  timber  for 
ship  building. — The  primary  geological  forma- 
tions are  granite,  forming  the  nucleus  of  the 
chain,  micaceous  schist,  and  primitive  lime- 
stone, which  are  flanked  by  bands  of  clay 
slate,  graywacke,  and  blue  limestone.  Oolitic 
and  chalk  formations  occur,  and  trap,  basalt, 
and  porphyry  appear  in  scattered  masses.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  Pyrenees  is  great,  em- 
bracing iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  lead,  but  only 
the  first  of  these  metals  is  extensively  worked. 
The  Ariege  rolls  particles  of  gold.  The  min- 
eral springs,  mostly  sulphurous,  have  long  been 
noted,  the  best  known  being  those  of  Eaux 
Bonnes,  Eaux  Chaudes,  Bagneres-de-Bigorre, 
Bagneres-de-Luchon,  Bareges,  and  St.  Sauveur, 
all  in  France.  The  climate  is  comparatively 
mild.  The  forest  trees  include  the  oak,  beech, 
fir,  yew,  and  pine,  and  in  the  more  elevated 
regions  are  found  the  rhododendron,  daphne, 
and  willow.  Among  the  wild  animals  are  the 
bear,  wolf,  lynx,  and  the  izard,  a  species  of 
wild  goat.  The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains 
are  a  vigorous  race.  Toward  the  east  the  lit- 
tle republic  of  Andorra  has  long  maintained 
an  independent  existence.  The  Basques  in- 
habit the  westernmost  portion  of  the  chain. 
—The  Pyrenees  have  repeatedly  been  traversed 
by  hostile  armies,  from  the  time  of  Hanni- 
bal, who  is  supposed  to  have  passed  by  the 
col  de  Pertus,  to  the  present  century.  In  1813 
they  were  the  scene  of  encounters  between 
Wellington  and  Soult.  The  treaty  between 
Louis  XIV.  and  Philip  IV.,  known  as  the 
peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  was  concluded  on  an 
islet  of. the  Bidassoa,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

PYBEXEES,  Basses.     See  BASSES-PYRENEES. 

PYRENEES,  Haute.     See  HAUTES-PYRENEES. 

PYREXEES-ORIECTALES,  a  S.  department  of 
France,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  old  province 
of  Roussillon,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Ariege,  N. 
by  Aude,  E.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  S.  by 
Spain;  area,  1,591  sq.  m;  pop.  in  1872,  191,- 
856.  It  is  traversed  by  lofty  ridges  of  the 
Pyrenees,  especially  in  the  south,  and  there 
are  vast  plains  in  the  east,  and  many  rapid 
streams.  It  abounds  in  minerals,  is  celebrated 
for  its  fine  wines  and  excellent  merino  sheep 
and  mules,  and  has  productive  fisheries.  Fruit, 
grain,  hemp,  and  flax  are  raised ;  and  coarse 
cloth,  cutlery,  and  leather  are  manufactured. 


PYRITES 


PYROMETER 


109 


The  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Spain.  It  is  di- 
vided into  the  arrondissements  of  Perpignan, 
Ceret,  and  Prades.  Capital,  Perpignan. 

PYRITES  (Gr.  wvpirw,  from  irvp,  fire),  a  name 
given  to  yellow  sulphuret  of  iron  because  it 
struck  fire  with  steel.  The  German  name  Kies 
is  similar  to  that  for  flint,  Kiesel,  and  in  the 
earliest  firearms  the  powder  was  ignited  by  a 
piece  of  pyrites,  the  use  of  flints  being  later. 
It  is  now  extended  to  sulphurets  of  other 
metals,  and  also  to  certain  arsenides  and  dou- 
ble compounds  of  metals  with  sulphur.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  iron  pyrites :  cubic  or  yel- 
low, marcite  or  white,  and  magnetic  pyrites. 
The  first  two  are  isomeric,  having  the  for- 
mula FeS-z,  but  are  not  isomorphous.  Cubic  py- 
rites crystallizes  in  several  monometric  forms, 
of  which  the  cube,  octahedron,  and  dodeca- 
hedron are  the  chief;  while  marcite  belongs 
to  the  trimetric  or  rhombic  system.  Magnetic 
pyrites  when  pure  has  the  formula  Fe7S8,  and 
crystallizes  in  the  hexagonal  system.  Cubic  or 
yellow  pyrites,  or  mundic  as  it  is  called  in 
Wales,  is  found  in  all  geological  formations, 
from  the  most  ancient  crystalline  to  recent  al- 
luvial. Very  large  cubes  have  been  found  in 
some  of  the  Cornish  mines,  dodecahedrons  6 
in.  in  diameter  in  the  island  of  Elba,  and  large 
octahedral  crystals  at  Persberg  in  Sweden;  in 
Connecticut,  at  Lane's  mine  in  octahedrons, 
and  at  Orange  and  Milford  in  cubes  in  chlorite 
state ;  and  in  Pennsylvania,  at  Cornwall,  Leb- 
anon co.,  in  cubo-octahedrons  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Cubic  pyrites  is  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  copperas  and  sulphuric  acid, 
and  in  Sweden  for  obtaining  sublimed  sulphur ; 
and  enormous  quantities  are  exported  from 
Spain  to  Great  Britain.  Yellow  pyrites,  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  precious  metal,  by 
which  many  have  been  deceived,  is  sometimes 
called  "  fool's  gold."  In  the  chemical  works 
of  Yorkshire  "  coal  brasses,"  as  pyrites  is 
called,  are  exposed  in  their  beds,  where  by  the 
action  of  air  and  moisture  they  are  converted 
into  copperas ;  heat  is  developed  during  the 
process.  In  the  coal  fields  subterranean  fires 
are  sometimes  kindled  by  the  conversion  of 
masses  of  pyrites  into  copperas.  At  Quarrel- 
town  in  Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  is  a  deep  hol- 
low where  about  100  years  ago  the  ground  fell 
from  a  subterranean  fire  thus  kindled.  The 
conversion  of  pyrites  into  copperas  is  more 
conveniently  conducted  by  roasting.  (See  SUL- 
PHUR, and  SULPHURIC  ACID.)  Copper  pyrites 
(calcopyrite  of  Dana)  is  the  common  copper 
ore  of  Cornwall,  where  from  10,000  to  12,000 
tons  of  copper  are  smelted  from  150,000  to 
160,000  tons  of  ore.  It  is  a  double  sulphuret 
of  copper  and  iron,  containing  sulphur  84*9, 
copper  34' 6,  iron  30 '5.  It  crystallizes  in  the 
dimetric  system,  often  in  tetrahedrons.  Cop- 
per pyrites  in  massive  crystals  occurs  at  Ellen- 
ville,  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  composed  of  sulphur 
36-65,  copper  32*43,  and  iron  31-25.  Fire  py- 
rites is  found  in  the  Cornish  mines  having  the 
following  composition :  sulphur  30'0,  tin  27'2, 


copper  29-7,  iron  13-1.  Leucopyrite  (Dana)  is 
an  arsenide  of  iron,  and  mispickle  is  a  sul- 
phuret of  arsenic. 

PIRMONT,  a  watering  place  of  Waldeck, 
Germany,  on  the  Emmer,  34  m.  S.  "W.  of  Han- 
over. It  has  chalybeate  springs,  is  the  capi- 
tal of  the  county  of  Pyruiont  (pop.  in  1871, 
7,588),  and  contains  a  fine  palace,  a  large 
bathing  establishment,  and  a  gas  grotto  emit- 
ting deadly  vapors. 

PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID  (Gr.  KVP,  fire,  and  Lat. 
lignum,  wood),  also  called  pyroligneous  and 
wood  vinegar,  the  compound  mixture  of  the 
volatile  products  from  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  woody  matters,  which  when  purified 
yield  acetic  acid,  wood  naphtha,  creosote,  tar, 
&c.  The  method  of  producing  it  is  noticed  in 
the  article  ACETIC  ACID,  vol.  i.,  p.  62,  as  also 
its  use  in  the  crude  state  for  furnishing  com- 
pounds useful  as  mordants  in  calico  print 
works,  as  pyrolignate  of  iron,  alumina,  &c. 
It  has  been  applied  to  various  other  uses,  as 
for  example,  in  medicine,  as  an  antiseptic  and 
stimulant  in  a  wash  for  gangrene  and  ulcers, 
although  at  present  the  more  definite  products, 
such  as  carbolic  acid,  are  preferred.  Its  anti- 
septic qualities  have  led  to  its  use  in  preserv- 
ing articles  of  food,  as  herrings  and  other 
fish.  The  process  is  auxiliary  to  drying  in 
the  shade,  which  precedes  the  dipping  of  the 
articles  in  the  acid.  Herrings  first  cured  by 
a  sprinkling  of  salt  left  upon  them  for  six 
hours,  and  then  drained,  being  immersed  a 
few  seconds  in  pyroligneous  acid  and  then 
dried  for  two  months,  are  in  an  excellent  con- 
dition for  preservation  and  retain  a  smoky  fla- 
vor. The  addition  of  a  quart  of  the  acid  to 
the  common  pickle  for  a  barrel  of  hams  will 
cause  the  hams  to  acquire  this  flavor  as  if 
they  had  been  smoked  in  the  ordinary  way. 

PYROMETER  (Gr.  nvp,  fire,  arid  /serpov,  mea- 
sure), any  instrument  for  determining  degrees 
of  heat  higher  than  those  which  can  be  mea- 
sured by  ordinary  thermometers.  Pyrome- 
ters are  required  in  the  determination  of  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  of  furnaces,  and  in  as- 
certaining at  what  temperatures  metals  melt 
and  chemical  compounds  are  formed  or  are  de- 
composed. They  may  be  arranged,  according 
to  the  principles  on  which  they  act,  in  the  fol- 
lowing classes:  1,  pyrometers  using  the  expan- 
sion of  solids  as  a  means  of  measuring  high 
temperatures,  of  which  class  Daniell's  is  a 
type ;  2,  those  using  the  contraction  of  baked 
clay,  as  Wedgwood's ;  3,  those  employing  the 
expansion  of  air,  as  Pouillet's,  Regnault's, 
and  Jolly's;  4,  those  using  the  known  melt- 
ing points  of  solids ;  5,  those  depending  on  the 
chemical  decomposition  of  solids,  as  Lamy's; 
6,  those  measuring  temperatures  by  heating  a 
known  weight  of  water,  by  allowing  to  cool  in 
it  a  known  weight  of  platinum  or  other  metal, 
which  has  been  heated  to  the  temperature 
of  the  space  or  of  the  body  to  be  tested,  as 
Pouillet's ;  7,  those  which  determine  tempera- 
tures from  the  measures  of  the  strength  of 


110 


PYEOMETER 


thermo-electric  currents  produced  by  heating 
the  junction  of  two  different  metals,  as  Bec- 
querel's;  8,  those  which  determine  tempera- 
tures by  the  measurement  of  changes,  pro- 
duced by  heat,  in  the  electrical  resistance  of  a 
length  of  platinum  wire,  as  Siemens's ;  9,  those 
which  use  the  expansion  of  the  wave  length  of 
a  sound,  which  traverses  a  tube  placed  in  the 
furnace  whose  temperature  is  to  be  measured, 
as  Mayer's.  We  will  restrict  our  detailed  de- 
scription to  the  three  pyrometers  which  ex- 
perience has  shown  to  be  most  trustworthy, 
viz. :  Dtiniell's  pyrometer,  the  air  pyrometer, 
and  Siemens's  pyrometer.  Of  the  others  we 
will  give  only  general  descriptions  of  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  they  depend.  1.  The  first  py- 
rometer based  on  the  expansion  of  solids  ap- 
pears to  have  been  invented  by  Mnsschenbroek 
about  1730.  This  instrument,  which  he  called 
a  "pyrometer,"  was  formed  of  a  metallic  bar, 
fixed  at  one  end,  and  connected  at  the  other 
with  wheel  work  which  multiplied  the  motion 
of  elongation  caused  by  the  elevation  of  its 
temperature.  This  was  improved  by  others, 
who  directed  their  efforts  principally  to  the 
mechanism  by  which  the  motion  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  index.  Many  of  these  contri- 
vances are  described  in  the  article  "  Thermom- 
eter and  Pyrometer  "  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  "  Natural 
Philosophy  "  published  in  the  "  Library  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge  "  (London,  1832).  Daniell's  py- 
rometer, called  by  its  inventor  "the  register 
pyrometer,"  was  first  described  in 
the  "  Transactions  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety" for  1830.  It  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  register,  fig.  1,  and  the 
scale,  fig.  2.  The  register  is  a  solid 
bar  of  black-lead  earthenware,  A, 
highly  baked.  In  the  axis  of  this  a 
hole  is  drilled,  reaching  from  one 
end  of  the  bar  to  within  half  an 
inch  of  the  other  extremity.  In 
this  cylindrical  cavity  is  placed  a 
rod  of  platinum  or  of  iron,  a  a,  6$ 
in.  long.  Upon  the  top  of  the  bar 
rests  a  cylindrical  piece  of  porce- 
lain, c  c,  long  enough  to  project  a 
short  distance  beyond  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  black-lead  bar,  to  serve 
as  an  index.  It  is  confined  in  its 
position  by  a  ring  or  strap  of  plati- 
num, d,  passing  round  the  top  of 
the  black-lead  tube,  which  is  partly 
cut  away  at  the  top ;  the  ring  is 
tightened  by  a  wedge  of  porcelain, 
e.  When  it  is  exposed  to  a  high 
temperature,  the  expansion  of  the 
metallic  rod,  a  a,  forces  the  index 
forward  to  a  distance  equal  to  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  expan- 
sion between  the  metallic  rod  and  the  black- 
lead  bar,  and  when  cool  it  will  remain  pro- 
truded to  the  same  distance,  which  will  be 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  temperature ; 
the  exact  measurement  of  this  distance  is  ef- 
fected by  the  scale,  fig.  2.  This  scale  is  in- 


Fio.  1. 

DanielPs 
Pyrometer, 

Register. 


dependent  of  the  register,  and  consists  of  two 
rules  of  brass,  f  g,  joined  together  by  their 
edges  accurately  at  a  right  angle,  and  fitting 
square  upon  the  two  sides  of  the  black-lead 
bar.  Near  one  end  of  this  double  rule  a  small 
brass  plate,  A,  projects  at  a  right  angle,  which 


f 


Fic».  2. 
Daniell's  Py- 
rometer, Scale. 


when  the  instrument  is  used  is 
brought  down  upon  the  shoul- 
der of  the  register,  formed  by 
the  notch  cut  away  for  the  pla- 
tinum strap.  To  the  extremity 
of  the  rule  nearest  this  brass 
plate  is  attached  a  movable  arm, 
D,  turning  at  its  fixed  extremity 
upon  a  centre,  »',  and  at  the  oth- 
er end  carrying  an  arc  of  a  cir- 
cle, E,  the  radius  of  which  is 
exactly  5  in.,  accurately  divided 
into  degrees  and  thirds  of  a  de- 
gree. Upon  this  arm,  at  the  cen- 
tre, £,  another  lighter  arm,  C,  is 
made  to  turn,  carrying  upon  the 
extremity  of  its  longer  limb  a  vernier,  II, 
which  moves  on  the  face  of  the  arc,  and  sub- 
divides the  graduation  into  minutes.  The 
shorter  arm,  which  is  half  an  inch  in  length, 
crosses  the  centre,  and  terminates  in  an  obtuse 
steel  point,  m,  turned  inward  at  a  right  angle. 
To  use  the  instrument,  the  metallic  rod  is  placed 
in  the  register,  and  the  index  is  pressed  firmly 
down  upon  its  extremity  and  secured  tightly 
by  the  platinum  strap  and  the  wedge.  The 
position  of  the  index  is  then  read  off  on  the 
scale,  by  placing  the  register  in  the  reentering 
angle  for  its  reception,  with  the  cross  piece 
firmly  held  against  the  shoulder,  and  the  steel 
point,  wi,  resting  on  the  top  of  the  index,  in  a 
notch  cut  for  it,  which  coincides  with  the  axis 
of  the  rod.  A  similar  observation,  made  after 
the  instrument  has  been  heated  and  allowed  to 
cool,  gives  the  value  of  the  expansion.  The 
scale  of  the  pyrometer  is  compared  with  that 
of  the  mercurial  thermometer,  by  observing 
the  amount  of  expansion  between  two  fixed 
points,  such  as  the  melting  of  ice  and  the  boil- 
ing of  mercury.  In  this  pyrometer  the  tem- 
perature to  which  its  register  has  been  exposed 
is  deduced  from  the  amount  of  elongation  of 
its  metallic  bar,  on  the  supposition  that  the 
amount  of  elongation  for  an  elevation  of  the 
same  number  of-  degrees  is  the  same  whether 
these  degrees  occur  in  the  lower  or  in  the  high- 
est regions  of  the  thermometric  scale.  We  now 
know,  however,  that  the  coefficient  of  expan- 
sion of  a  solid  is  not  constant  throughout  the 


PYROMETER 


111 


range  of  available  temperatures ;  hence,  to  ob- 
tain accurate  measures  with  Daniell's  pyrome- 
ter, it  should  be  graduated  by  noting  its  indica- 
tions at  successive  high  temperatures,  the  ther- 
mornetric  values  of  which  have  been  determined 
with  an  air  thermometer.  We  should  also  be 
sure  that  successive  heatings  and  coolings  of 
the  metallic  bar  do  not  change  its  coefficient  of 
expansion.  2.  Wedgwood's  pyrometer,  using 
the  contraction  of  baked  clay  as  a  measure,  con- 
sists of  a  metallic  groove  or  gauge,  the  sides  of 
which  gradually  converge ;  pieces  of  very  pure 
clay  are  made  into  small  cylinders,  having  one 
side  flattened,  and,  being  heated  to  redness, 
made  just  to  fit  the  larger  extremity  of  the 
groove.  It  is  a  property  of  clay  permanently 
to  contract  and  become  harder  by  exposure  to 
a  high  temperature,  in  consequence  of  its  losing 
a  portion  of  the  water  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined ;  and  it  was  supposed  that  the  amount 
of  the  contraction  was  exactly  proportioned 
to  the  intensity  of  the  heat  to  which  it  is 
exposed.  The  amount  of  contraction  in  the 
clay  cylinders,  after  being  exposed  to  the  tem- 
perature which  it  was  desired  to  measure, 
was  easily  determined  by  allowing  the  cylin- 
ders to  slide  from  the  top  of  the  groove  down- 
ward, till  they  arrived  at  a  point  beyond 
which  they  would  not  pass.  Mr.  Wedgwood 
divided  the  whole  length  of  this  gauge  into 
240  parts  or  degrees,  each  of  which  he  calcu- 
lated to  be  equal  to  130°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale ; 
and  the  zero  of  his  scale,  indicating  a  red  heat, 
corresponded,  according  to  his  experiments, 
to  1,077°.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining  clay  of 
uniform  composition  is  of  itself  an  almost  in- 
superable objection,  to  this  method  of  estima- 
ting high  temperatures ;  and  it  has  been  since 
ascertained  that  the  observation  upon  which 
it  is  founded  is  not  correct,  for  clay  will  con- 
tract as  much  by  the  long  continuance  of  a 
comparatively  low  heat  as  by  a  short  continu- 
ance of  a  high  one.  Hence  the  degrees  of 
heat  which  Wedgwood's  pyrometer  has  been 
applied  to  measure  have  been  enormously  ex- 
aggerated. Thus,  Daniell's  pyrometer  shows 
that  the  melting  point  of  cast  iron  is  2,786°, 
and  the  highest  temperature  of  a  good  wind 
furnace  about  8,300° ;  points  which  were  esti- 
mated by  Wedgwood  at  20,577°  and  32,277° 
respectively.  In  other  words,  Wedgwood's 
pyrometer  gave  figures  nearly  ten  times  higher 
than  those  obtained  by  Daniell's.  3.  The  ex- 
pansion of  air  is  used  in  pyrometers  contrived 
by  Pouillet,  Regnault,  and  Jolly.  If  thermom- 
eters carefully  made  of  any  number  of  solids 
and  liquids  are  all  simultaneously  exposed  to 
the  same  successive  elevations  of  temperature, 
it  will  be  found  that  no  two  of  them  agree  in 
their  readings  throughout  the  range  of  tem- 
peratures ;  but  if  we  at  the  same  time  expose 
a  set  of  thermometers  made  of  the  permanent 
gases  (i.  e.,  of  gases  which  have  never  been 
liquefied  by  pressure  and  cold),  as  oxygen,  ni- 
trogen, air,  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  oxide,  we 
will  find  that  they  all  agree  in  their  readings. 
6G2  VOL.  xiv. — 8 


For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  these  perma- 
nent gases  should  have  the  preference  as  bodies 
to  form  the  expanding  material  of  thermome- 
ters ;  but  the  theory  of  the  thermodynamics 
of  gases  shows  that  from  the  expansion  of 
these  gases  alone  can  we  arrive  at  the  knowl- 
edge of  true  temperatures.  In  short,  it  ap- 
pears that  while  the  coefficients  of  expansion 
of  solids  and  liquids  increase  with  the  temper- 
ature, the  permanent  gases  have  the  same  co- 
efficient of  expansion,  which  also  remains  con- 
stant throughout  the  range  of  available  tem- 
peratures. Indeed,  men  of  science  have  agreed 
that  the  determination  of  temperature  rests 
upon  the  assumption  that  the  permanent,  or, 
as  they  are  now  called,  perfect  gases,  when 
subjected  to  a  constant  pressure,  expand  pro- 
portionately to  the  rise  of  temperature.  This 
expansion,  in  the  case  of  dry  air,  amounts  for 
each  degree  centigrade  to  0-003665,  or  ^-fg  of 
the  volume  at  0°  C. ;  or  what  is  the  same,  the 
pressure  of  a  mass  of  air  kept  at  a  constant 
volume  increases  0'003665  of  its  pressure  at 
0°  C.  for  each  rise  of  1°  C.  in  temperature.  The 
simplest  air  thermometer,  and  the  one  best 
adapted  to  practical  purposes,  is  that  of  Jolly. 
Its  action  depends  on  the  law  just  given.  A 
hollow  globe  of  hard  porcelain  (platinum  cannot 
be  used  by  reason  of  its  permeability  to  gases 
at  high  temperatures),  A,  fig.  3,  communicates 
through  the  capillary  tube  E  with  the  fixed 
vertical  glass  tube  B. 
The  tube  B  commu- 
nicates with  the  open 
glass  tube  C  through 
the  rubber  tube  D. 
The  tubes  B  and  0 
and  the  connecting 
rubber  tube  contain 
mercury.  The  tube 
C  moves  upward  and 
downward  in  a  ver- 
tical direction,  and 
carries  with  it  the 
rubber  tube  D,  and 
thus  the  surface  of 
the  mercury  in  B  can 
always  be  brought  to. 
coincide  with  a  mark, 
R,  on  the  capillary 
tube  E ;  so  that  the 
air  in  A  and  E  is  al- 
ways observed  under 
a  constant  volume 
after  it  has  been 
heated  to  any  tem- 
perature. The  height 
of  the  mercury  in  0 
above  R  is  read  off  on 
scale.s  formed  by  cut- 
ting lines  in  the  silvering  of  slips  of  glass  mir- 
rors placed  behind  the  tubes  C  and  R.  When 
the  centre  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  seen  in  the 
plane  passing  through  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
cury, we  know  that  the  line  of  sight  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  length  of  the  columns  of  mercu- 


Fra.  8.— Jolly's  Air  Ther- 
mometer. 


112 


PYROMETER 


ry,  and  that  their  true  difference  of  levels  has 
been  correctly  determined.  To  graduate  the 
apparatus,  the  globe  is  surrounded  with  melt- 
ing ice  and  the  mercury  is  brought  to  the  level 
R  in  the  tube  E ;  then  the  height  of  the  ba- 
rometer, &0,  and  the  height,  A0,  of  the  mercu- 
ry in  C  above  the  level  R  in  E,  are  observed. 
We  will  call  50  +  ^o=Ho.  The  heights  bo  and 
ho  must  be  reduced  to  what  they  would  be  if 
the  mercury  in  the  apparatus  were  at  0°  0. 
To  measure  any  temperature,  £,  we  expose  the 
globe  to  this  temperature  for  a  length  of  time 
sufficient  to  heat  uniformly  the  contained  air, 
which  is  .known  to  be  the  case  when  the  mer- 
cury is  stationary  in  B  and  in  0.  When  this 
condition  has  been  reached  we  obtain  the 
height  A,  which  is  the  difference  of  the  read- 
ings of  the  levels  of  mercury  at  R  and  in  0 
reduced  to  0°  0.,  and  then  read  the  height 
I  of  the  barometer  reduced  to  0°  0.  Calling 
h  +  b=ll,  we  have  for  the  sought  tempera- 

ture  *  =  .oo366H5 r-ri^TT  in  which  formula  8c 
is  the  cubical  expansion  of  the  porcelain  or 
other  material  forming  the  globe.  In  this 
formula  the  volume  of  air  contained  in  the  ca- 
pillary tube  E,  up  to  the  mark  R,  is  neglect- 
ed ;  but  when  the  most  accurate  determina- 
tions are  desired,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
this  portion  of  air  in  the  pyrometer  remains 
at  or  about  the  temperature  of  the  air  sur- 
rounding the  part  of  the  apparatus  outside  of 
the  furnace.  This  temperature,  which  we  will 
call  t',  can  be  determined  by  means  of  a 
thermometer  placed  close  to  the  tube  E.  Now 
to  obtain  the  exact  value  of  the  tempera- 
ture to  which  the  globe  has  been  exposed,  we 
must  add  to  the  value  of  t  as  given  above 

the  following  correction :   t.  —  • '— •  — 

V'    H0    1  +  -00360W" 

in  which  expression  »  represents  the  volume  of 
the  globe,  t'  the  volume  of  the  capillary  tube 
from  its  junction  with  the  globe  up  to  the  mark 
R,  and  v  the  reading  of  the  thermometer  con- 
tiguous to  the  tube  E.  The  ratio  —  is  found 

o 

by  determining  the  weight  of  the  globeful  of 
mercury  up  to  the  junction  with  it  of  the  capil- 
lary tube,  and  the  weight  of  the  mercury  in 
the  capillary  tube  from  its  junction  with  the 
globe  to  the  point  R.  If  p  be  the  weight  of 
the  mercury  in  the  globe  alone,  and  P  the 
weight  when  both  globe  and  capillary  tube  are 

filled  up  to  the  mark  R,'then  -=-~^.     The 

v         p 

determinations  thus  made  with  the  air  pyrome- 
ter are  universally  accepted  as  standards  with 
which  to  test  all  other  methods  of  pyrometry, 
and  the  confidence  placed  in  any  pyrometer 
increases  with  the  constancy  and  closeness  of 
its  agreement  with  the  determinations  made 
with  the  air  pyrometer.  4.  The  range  and  ac- 
curacy of  pyrometers  using  the  melting  points 
of  solids  are  limited  to  the  number  of  metals 
and  definite  alloys  whose  melting  points  have 
been  determined  with  precision.  The  method 


evidently  gives  only  successive  steps  in  eleva- 
tion of  temperature.  Some  of  these  steps  ac- 
cording to  the  determinations  of  fusibility  by 
Pouillet,  who  used  an  air  pyrometer  in  his  ex- 
periments, are  given  in  the  article  FUSIBILITY. 

5.  The  method  of  pyrometry  by  the  chemical 
decomposition  of  solids  is  described  in  the 
article  DISSOCIATION,  and  more  detailed  infor- 
mation may  be  found  in  Lamy's  papers  pub- 
lished in  the  Compte*  rendus  of  the  institute  of 
France,  vol.  Ixix.,  p.  347,  and  vol.  Ixx.,  p.  393. 

6.  In  measuring  high  temperatures  by  the  heat- 
ing of  water  with  heated  platinum  or  other 
metal,  according  to  Pouillet's  method,  we  heat 
to  the  temperature  to  be  measured  a  mass  of 
the  metal  and  then  suddenly  immerse  it  in  a 
mass  of  water.     Knowing  the  weight  of  the 
metal  and  its  specific  heat,  and  the  weight  of 
the  water  and  its  temperature  before  and  after 
the  immersion  of  the  metal,  we  can  compute 
the  temperature  of  the  latter  before  its  immer- 
sion as  follows  :  Let  m  be  the  weight  of  the 
metal,  c  its  specific  heat,  and  t  its  high  tem- 
perature before  immersion  in  the  water.     Let 
m'  be  the  weight  of  the  water,  and  t'  its  tem- 
perature before  the  introduction  of  the  hot 
metal.     The  specific  heat  of  water  is  unity. 
The  thin  metallic  vessel  containing  the  water 
has  a  weight  «,  and   its  specific   heat  is  ft. 
The   thermometer  which   shows  the  amount 
of  elevation  of  temperature  of  the  water  by 
the  heated  metal  has  a  portion  of  its  length 
heated  ;  let  us  call  the  weight  of  this  part  of 
the    thermometer  «,  and  its  specific  heat  d. 
Finally  let  6  be  the  temperature  of  water,  met- 
al, vessel,  and  thermometer  after  the  immer- 
sion of  the  heated  metal,  and  at  the  moiiient 
they  have  all  reached  the  same  temperature. 
The  metal  in  falling  in  temperature  from  t  to 
0  has  lost  t—  6  degrees,  and  a  quantity  of  heat 
equal  to  mc(t—6).     The  water  in  being  heated 
from  t'  to  6  has  gained  in  temperature  8—  t' 
degrees,  and  a  quantity  of  heat  equal  to  m1 
(Q—f).     For  a  similar  reason  the  vessel  and  the 
thermometer   which  partake  of   the  heating 
of  the  water  gain  respectively  ab(6—  t1}  and 
ed(0—t').     Hence  the  whole  quantity  of  heat 
gained   is  (m'  +  ab  +  ed)(6—  $'),  or  m,(0—t')  if 


we  make  mi  =  m'  +  ab  +  ed  ;  mt  is  then  called 
the  equivalent  mass  of  water.  In  forming 
an  equation  between  the  quantity  of  heat  re- 
ceived and  the  quantity  of  'heat  lost  we  have 
mc(t-e)  =  mtf—t1)  •  whence  £,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  heated  metal,  is  expressed  by 

t  =  ~~  -  +  6-     In  using  this  method  Pouil- 

let heated  a  ball  of  platinum  in  a  crucible  of 
the  same  metal,  and  the  vessel  containing  tho 
water  had  a  wire  cup  in  its  centre  into  which 
the  heated  platinum  mass  was  thrown.  One 
of  the  elements  of  accuracy  in  this  method  is 
the  precise  knowledge  of  the  specific  heat  of 
platinum  at  high  temperatures.  Pouillet  made 
this  a  special  study,  and  determined  it  up  to 
1,200°  C.,  using  an  air  thermometer  in  obtain- 
ing the  successive  temperatures.  To  obtain 


PYROMETER 


113 


precise  results  with  this  method  requires  care- 
ful attention  to  several  operations  in  the  pro- 
cess, such  as  allowance  for  loss  of  heat  by 
radiation  from  the  water  vessel  during  the  ex- 
periment, and  loss  of  weight  of  water  by  evap- 
oration after  weighing  it  and  after  the  immer- 
sion of  the  heated  platinum.  We  have  also  to 
guard  specially  against  the  projection  of  water 
from  the  apparatus  by  the  generation  of  steam 
by  the  hot  platinum.  7.  Becquerel's  pyro- 
meter, based  on  the  strength  of  thermo-electric 
currents  produced  by  heating  the  junction  of 
two  different  metals,  is  an  improvement  on  a 
similar  one  devised  by  Pouillet.  Two  wires, 
one  of  platinum  and  the  other  of  palladium, 
each  about  two  metres  long  and  of  one  square 
millimetre  of  section,  are  firmly  tied  together 
with  fine  platinum  wire  for  a  distance  of  about 
a  centimetre  from  their  ends.  The  palladium 
wire  is  enclosed  in  a  porcelain  tube,  while  the 
platinum  wire  is  on  the  outside  of  this  tube, 
which  is  itself  enclosed  in  another  tube  of  porce- 
lain. The  free  ends  of  the  palladium  and  plati- 
num wires  are  soldered  to  copper  wires  which 
lead  to  a  tangent  galvanometer,  and  the  junction 
of  the  copper  and  the  palladium  and  platinum 
wires  are  immersed  in  melting  ice  to  keep  them 
at  a  constant  temperature,  so  that  no  thermo- 
electric current  can  be  generated  in  the  appara- 
tus except  at  the  junction  of  the  wires  in  the 
porcelain  tube.  In  order  to  obtain  the  value 
of  a  high  temperature,  the  end  of  the  porcelain 
tube  containing  the  junction  of  the  wires  is 
heated  up  to  this  temperature,  and  from  the 
deflection  of  the  galvanometer  needle  produced 
by  the  thermo-electric  current  thus  produced 
we  deduce  the  temperature  of  the  junction  of 
the  wires.  This  apparatus,  to  be  of  any  value, 
has  to  be  graduated  by  exposing  the  junction 
of  the  metals  along  with  an  air  thermometer 
to  the  same  successive  high  temperatures,  and 
thus  fixing  the  relation  connecting  the  indica- 
tions of  each  apparatus  with  the  correspond- 
ing temperatures.  8.  Siemens's  pyrometer  is 
thus  described  by  the  inventor :  "  In  order  to 
realize  a  pyrometer  by  electrical  resistance,  it 
is  necessary  to  rely  upon  the  absolute  mea- 
surement of  the  electrical  resistance  of  a  coil 
of  wire,  which  must  be  made  to  resist  intense 
heats  without  deteriorating  through  fusion  or 
oxidation.  Platinum  is  the  only  suitable  metal 
for  such  an  application,  but  even  platinum  wire 
deteriorates  if  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  flame  of  a  furnace,  and  requires  an  exter- 
nal protection.  The  platinum  wire  used  has, 
moreover,  to  be  insulated  and  supported  by  a 
material  which  is  not  fused  or  rendered  con- 
ductive at  intense  heats,  and  the  disturbing  in- 
fluence of  the  varying  resistance  of  the  wires 
leading  to  thje  platinum  wire  has  also  to  be 
neutralized.  These  various  conditions  are  very 
fully  realized  by  the  arrangement  represented 
in  %.  4.  Thin  platinum  wire  is  coiled  upon 
a  cylinder  of  hard-baked  porcelain,  upon  the 
surface  of  which  a  double-threaded  helical 
groove  is  formed  for  its  reception,  so  as  to 


prevent  contact  between  the  coils  of  wire. 
The  porcelain  cylinder  is  pierced  twice  longi- 
tudinally for  the  passage  of  two  thick  plati- 
num leading  wires,  which  are  connected  to 
the  thin  spiral  wire  at  the  end.  In  the  upper 
portion  of  the  porcelain  cylinder  the  two  spi- 
ral wires  are  formed  into 
a  longitudinal  loop,  and 
are  connected  crossways 
by  means  of  a  platinum 
binding  screw,  which  ad- 
mits of  being  moved  up  or 
down  for  the  purpose  of 
adjustment  of  the  electri- 
cal resistance  at  the  zero  of 
the  centigrade  scale.  The 
porcelain  cylinder  is  pro- 
vided with  projecting  rims, 
which  separate  the  spiral 
wire  from  the  surrounding 
protecting  tube  of  plati- 
num, which  is  joined  to 
a  longer  tube  of  wrought 
iron,  serving  the  purpose 
of  a  handle  for  moving  the 
instrument.  If  the  tem- 
perature to  be  measured 
do  not  exceed  a  moderate 
white  heat,  or  say  1,300° 
C.=2,372°  F.,  it  suffices  to 
make  the  lower  protecting 
tube  also  of  wrought  iron 
to  save  expense.  This  low- 
er portion  only,  up  to  the 
conical  enlargement  or  boss 
of  iron,  is  exposed  to  the 
heat  to  be  measured .  Three 
leading  wires  of  insulated 
copper  united  into  a  light 
cable  connect  the  pyrome- 
ter with  the  measuring  in- 
strument, which  may  be  at 
a  distance  of  some  hundred 
yards  f  roni  the  same.  They 


FIG.  4.;— Siemens's  Py- 
rometer, Coil  Tube. 


are  connected  by  means  of  binding  screws  at  the 
end  of  the  tube  to  three  thick  platinum  wires 
passing  down  the  tube  to  the  spiral  of  thin  pla- 
tinum wire.  Here  two  of  the  leading  wires 
are  united,  whereas  the  third  traverses  the  spi- 
ral, and  joins  itself  likewise  to  one  of  the  two 
former,  which  forms  the  return  wire  for  two 
electric  circuits,  the  one  comprising  the  spiral 
of  thin  wire,  and  the  other  returning  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  same,  but  traversing  in 
its  stead  a  comparison  coil  of  constant  resis- 
tance. By  this  arrangement  of  wires  the  ef- 
fect of  the  varying  resistances  of  the  leading 
wires  is  completely  neutralized,  for  both  bat- 
tery circuits  comprise  the  leading  wires  up  to 
the  distant  coil,  and  all  variations  of  resistance 
by  temperature  to  which  the  leading  wires 
may  be  subjected  affect  both  sides  of  the  bal- 
ance equally.  The  measuring  instrument  may 
consist  of  a  differential  galvanometer  if  to  the 
constant  resistance  a  variable  resistance  be 
added.  If  the  pyrometer  coil  were  to  be  put 


PYROMETER 


into  a  vessel  containing  snow  and  water,  the 
balance  of  resistance  between  the  two  battery 
circuits  would  be  obtained  without  adding  va- 
riable resistance  to  the  coil  of  constant  resis- 
tance, and  the  needle  of  the  differential  gal- 
vanometer would  remain  at  zero  when  the 
current  is  established.  But  on  exposing  the 
pyrometer  to  an  elevated  temperature,  the  re- 
sistance of  its  platinum  coil  would  be  increased, 
and  resistance  to  the  same  amount  would  have 
to  be  added  to  the  constant  resistance  of  the 
measuring  instrument,  in  order  to  reestablish 
the  electrical  balance.  This  additional  resis- 
tance would  be  the  measure  of  the  increase  of 
temperature,  if  only  the  ratio  in  which  plati- 
num wire  increases  in  electrical  resistance  with 
temperature  is  once  for  all  established.  This 
is  a  question  which  I  shall  revert  to  after  hav- 
ing completed  the  description  of  the  pyrome- 
tric  instrument.  Although  I  have  stated  that 
by  means  of  a  differential  galvanometer  and 
a  variable  resistance  (constituting  in  effect  a 
Wheatstone  bridge  arrangement)  the  increas- 
ing resistance  of  the  platinum  spiral  may  be 
measured,  it  was  found  that  the  use  of  a  deli- 
cate galvanometer  is  attended  with  consider- 
able practical  difficulty  in  iron  works  and  oth- 
er rough  places  where  it  is  important  to  meas- 
ure elevated  temperatures,  or  on  board  ship 
for  measuring  deep-sea  temperatures.  I  was 
therefore  induced  to  seek  the  same  result  by 
the  conception  of  an  instrument  which  is  inde- 
pendent in  its  action  from  tremulous  motion, 
or  from  magnetic  disturbance  caused  by  mov- 
ing masses  of  iron,  and  which  require  no  care- 
ful adjustment  or  special  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
operator.  This  instrument  is  represented  in 
fig.  5,  and  may  be  termed  a  chemical  resistance 
measurer  or  'differential  voltameter.'  Fara- 
day has  proved  that  the  decomposition  of  wa- 
ter in  a  voltameter,  expressed  by  the  volume 
of  gases  V,  is  proportionate  in  the  unit  of  time 
to  the  intensity  I  of  the  decomposing  current, 

•rr 

or  that  1=^     According  to  Ohm's  general 

law,  the  intensity  I  is  governed  by  the  electro- 
motive force  E,  and  inversely  by  the  resistance 

R,  or  it  is  1=^.    It  is  therefore  ^=T[,  or 

ET 

V=-jj-;  or  the  volume  V  would  give  a  cor- 
rect measure  of  the  electrical  resistance  R, 
if  only  the  electromotive  force  E  and  time  T 
were  known  and  constant  quantities.  But  the 
electromotive  force  of  a  battery  is  very  vari- 
able ;  it  is  influenced  by  polarization  of  the 
electrodes,  by  temperature,  and  by  the  strength 
and  purity  of  the  acid  employed.  The  volume 
of  gases  obtained  is  influenced,  moreover,  by 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  make  time  observations  correctly. 
It  occurred  to  me,  however,  that  these  uncer- 
tain elements  might  be  entirely  eliminated  in 
combining  two  similar  voltameters  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  current  of  the  same  battery 
was  divided  between  the  two,  the  one  branch 


comprising  tie  unknown  resistance  to  be  meas- 
ured, and  the  other  a  known  and  constant 
resistance.  The  volume  of  gas  V,  produced 
in  this  second  voltameter,  having  a  resistance 

R*V 

R,  in  circuit,  would  be  expressed  by  Vt=-—t 
and  we  should  have  the  proportion  of  V :  V,= 
—  :  -^ ;  but  E  and  T,  being  the  same  in  both 

K  K 

cases,  may  be  struck  out,  and  the  expression 
will  -assume  the  simple  form  V  :  V, : :  R  :  11,. 
The  constant  resistance  R  of  the  one  circuit 
being  known,  it  follows  that  the  unknown  re- 

T>y 

sistance  R,  is  expressed  by  -  - ;  that  is  to  say, 

by  a  constant  multiplied  by  the  proportion  of 
gas  produced  in  the  two  voltameters  irrespec- 
tive of  time,  or  strength  of  battery,  or  tem- 
perature, or  the  state  of  the  barometer.  The 
resistances  R  and  R,  are  composed  each  of 
two  resistances,  namely,  that  of  the  principal 
coils,  which  we  may  term  R  or  R/?  and  of 
the  voltameter  and  leading  wires,  which  is 
the  same  in  both  cases,  and  may  be  expressed 
by  y.  The  expression  should  therefore  be 
written  as  follows :  V  :  V,  =  R,  +  yt :  R  -f  y, 
R,  being  the  unknown  quantity.  The  mechan- 
ical arrangement  of  the  instrument  will  be  un- 
derstood from  the  diagram,  fig.  5;  and  the 


Fio.  5. — Siemens's  Pyrometer,  Resistance  Measurer. 

whole  arrangement  of  the  pyrometer,  with  its 
leading  wire  and  resistance  measurer,  from  the 
general  view  given  in  fig.  6.  The  voltaic  re- 
sistance measurer,  fig.  5,  consists  of  two  cali- 
brated vertical  tubes  of  glass  of  about  three 
millimetres  diameter,  which  are  fixed  upon  a 
scale  showing  arbitrary  but  equal  divisions. 
The  upper  ends  of  the  tubes  are  closed  by  small 
cushions  of  India  rubber  pressed  down  upon 


PYROMETER 


115 


the  openings  by  means  of  weighted  levers, 
whereas  the  lower  portions  of  the  tubes  are 
widened  out  and  closed  by  plugs  of  wood, 
through  which  the  electrodes  in  the  form  of 
pointed  platinum  wires  penetrate  to  the  depth 
of  about  25  millimetres  into  the  widened  por- 
tions of  the  tubes.  By  a  side  branch  the 
widened  portion  of  each  vertical  tube  com- 
municates by  means  of  an  India-rubber  con- 


Fio.  6. — Siemens's  Pyrometer,  General  View. 

necting  pipe  to  a  little  glass  reservoir  contain- 
ing acidulated  water,  and  supported  in  a  ver- 
tical slide.  In  raising  the  weighted  cushions 
closing  the  upper  ends  of  the  vertical  tubes, 
and  in  adjusting  the  position  of  the  small 
reservoirs,  the  acidulated  water  will  rise  in 
both  tubes  to  the  zero  line  of  the  scale.  In 
turning  a  button  in  front  of  the  tubes  the 
battery  current  is  passed  through  both  pairs 
of  electrodes,  the  one  circuit  comprising  the 
permanent  resistance  R  and  the  leading  wires 
up  to  the  pyrometer,  and  the  other  the  lead- 
ing wires  and  the  pyrometer  coil.  If  the  re- 
sistance of  the  pyrometer  coil  should  be  equal 
to  the  permanent  resistance  R,  then  R,  +  y 
will  be  equal  to  R  +  y,  and  therefore  V= V, ; 
but  as  the  resistances  differ,  so  will  the  vol- 
umes. Necessary  conditions  are,  that  both 
reservoirs  are  filled  with  the  same  standard 
solution  of  pure  water  with  about  10  per  cent, 
of  sulphuric  acid,  that  all  of  the  electrodes  are 
of  the  same  form  and  size,  and  that  their  po- 
larity is  reversed  frequently  during  the  progress 
of  each  observation,  in  order  to  avoid  unequal 
polarization.  With  these  precautions,  which 
involve  no  particular  skill  or  knowledge  of 
electrical  observation  on  the  part  of  the  ope- 
rator, very  accurate  results  are  obtained ;  but 
in  order  not  to  incur  considerable  error  of  ob- 
servation, it  is  advisable  not  to  continue  the 
current,  reversing  the  same,  say  twice,  until  at 
least  40  divisions  of  gases  are  produced  in  the 
least  activated  tube,  which  operation  will  oc- 
cupy from  two  to  three  minutes,  if  a  battery  of 
from  four  to  six  Daniell  elements  is  employed. 
The  volumes  V  and  V,  being  noted,  after  hav- 
ing allowed  half  a  minute  for  the  gases  to  col- 
lect after  the  current  has  ceased,  the  weighted 
cushions  upon  the  tubes  are  raised  in  order  to 
allow  the  gases  to  escape,  when  the  water 
levels  will  immediately  return  to  their  zero 
position,  to  make  ready  for  another  observa- 


tion. By  inserting  the  observed  values  for  V 
and  Vy  into  the  expression  above  given,  the 
unknown  resistance  R/  can  be  easily  calculated ; 
but  in  order  to  facilitate  the  use  of  the  instru- 
ment, I  have  prepared  a  table  which  gives  at  a 
glance  the  resistance  due  to  any  two  observed 
volumes,  the  volumes  V  governing  the  vertical, 
V,  the  horizonal  columns,  and  the  resistance 
read  off  at  the  point  of  intersection.  At  each 
point  of  intersection  the  resistance  is  marked 
in  black,  and  the  corresponding  temperature 
in  red  ink.  It  now  remains  only  to  be  shown 
what  is  the  relation  between  the  resistance 
and  temperature  in  heating  a  platinum  wire. 
The  researches  of  Dr.  Matthiesen,  who  has 
made  the  latest  investigation  on  the  effect 
of  temperature  upon  electrical  resistance,  are 
restricted  to  the  narrow  range  of  temperatures 
between  0°  and  100°  C.,  nor  do  they  comprise 
platinum.  He  adopted  the  following  general 

expression  for  the  pure  metals :  R<=j — T~TV 

which,  in  determining  the  specific  values  of  x 
and  y  for  each  metal,  gives  a  close  agreement 
with  observation  between  the  narrow  limits 
indicated,  but  is  wholly  inapplicable  for  tem- 
peratures exceeding  200°  C.,  when  the  value 
t*  commences  to  predominate  and  to  produce 
absurd  values  for  R<.  It  was  necessary  for 
my  purpose  to  undertake  a  series  of  elaborate 
experiments  with  a  view  of  finding  a  ratio  of 
general  application.  Coils  of  thin  wire,  of 
platinum,  iron,  copper,  and  some  other  met- 
als, were  gradually  heated  and  cooled  in  metal- 
lic chambers  containing  the  bulbs  of  mercury 
thermometers,  and  for  higher  temperatures  of 
air  thermometers,  and  the  electrical  resistan- 
ces were  carefully  noted.  The  progressive  in- 
crease of  electrical  resistance  was  thus  com- 
pared directly  with  the  increasing  volume  of  a 
permanent  gas  (carefully  dried)  between  the 
limits  of  zero  and  470°  C.,  and  a  ratio  estab- 
lished which  is  represented  by  the  formula 
R(=aT2  +  /rr  +  y,  in  which  T  signifies  total 
temperature  counting  from  the  absolute  zero 
(272°  C.),  and  a,  /?,  and  7  specific  coefficients 
for  each  metal.  According  to  this  formula, 
the  electrical  resistance  is  a  constant  at  the 
absolute  zero,  and  progresses  in  a  ratio  rep- 
resented graphically  by  a  tipped-up  parabola, 
approaching  more  and  more  toward  a  uniform 
ratio  at  elevated  temperatures.  Although  the 
comparison  with  the  air  thermometer  could 
only  be  carried  up  to  470°  C.,  the  general  cor- 
rectness of  the  ratio  of  increase  just  stated  has 
been  verified  by  indirect  means  in  measuring 
progressive  heats,  and  by  comparison  with  the 
platinum  ball  pyrometer.  It  is  important  to 
mention  here  that  great  care  must  be  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  the  platinum  wire  for  the 
measuring  spiral,  one  of  two  samples,  both  of 
which  were  supplied  by  the  same  eminent  ma- 
kers, Messrs.  Johnson  and  Mathey,  having  con- 
ducted 8'2  and  the  other  only  4'7  times  better 
than  mercury  at  0°  C.  The  abnormal  electri- 
cal resistance  of  some  platinum  wire  is  due 


116 


PYKOMETER 


chiefly  to  the  admixture  of  iridium  or  other 
metals  of  the  same  group,  and  it  appears  that 
the  platinum  prepared  by  the  old  welding  pro- 
cess is  purer  and  therefore  better  suited  for 
electrical  purposes  than  the  metal  consolida- 
ted by  fusion  in  a  Deville  furnace.  This  py- 
rometer has  already  received  several  useful 
applications.  Through  its  first  application  an 
important  telegraph  cable  was  saved  from  de- 
struction through  spontaneous  generation  of 
heat.  Prof.  Bolzani  of  Kazan  has  made  some 
interesting  applications  of  it  for  recording  the 
temperature  at  elevated  points  and  at  points 
below  the. earth's  surface.  Mr.  Lowthian  Bell 
has  used  it  in  his  well  known  researches  on 
blast-furnace  economy;  and  at  several  iron 
works  pyrometer  tubes  are  introduced  into  the 
heating  stoves,  and  permanently  connected 
with  the  office,  where  the  heat  of  each  stove 
can  at  all  times  be  read  off  and  recorded."  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  of  all  pyrometers, 
this  is  the  best  adapted  for  use  in  the  arts.  9. 
By  Mayer's  pyrometer  the  expansion  of  the 
wave  length  of  a  definite  sound,  caused  by  ele- 
vation of  temperature,  is  measured  as  follows : 
Opposite  the  mouth  of  an  organ  pipe  is  placed 
a  Helmholtz  resonator  (see  SOUND),  which  re- 
sponds to  the  note  of  the  organ  pipe.  The 
sonorous  pulses,  emanating  from  the  organ 
pipe,  enter  the  mouth  of  the  resonator,  and 
are  thence  sent  through  a  tube  terminated  by 
a  spiral  tube  of  platinum.  The  pulses  which 
have  passed  through  this  spiral  tube  are  led  to 
one  of  Konig's  vibrating  manometric  flames. 
Another  flame  placed  directly  behind  the  for- 
mer one  is  vibrated  by  pulses  which  have  pro- 
ceeded directly  from  the  organ  pipe.  If  the 
temperature  in  the  organ  pipe  and  in  the  spiral 
tube  is  the  same  (as  is  the  case  before  the  latter 
is  introduced  into  the  furnace),  on  viewing  the 
flames  in  a  rotating  mirror  we  shall  see  both 
flames  vibrating  together  and  presenting  the 
appearance  of  a  deeply  serrated  band  of  light. 
Now,  on  slowly  introducing  the  spiral  tube  into 
the  furnace,  we  shall  see  the  serrations,  pro- 
duced by  the  pulses  which  have  traversed  this 
tube,  slowly  sliding  over  the  fixed  serrations 
which  are  caused  by  the  pulses  led  directly  from 
the  organ  pipe  to  its  special  flame.  After  the 
air  in  the  spiral  tube  has  reached  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  furnace  and  is  stationary,  we  shall 
observe  the  serrations  stationary  also.  From 
this  observation  of  the  number  of  movable  ser- 
rations which  have  glided  over  any  one  fixed 
serration  we  can  deduce  the  temperature  of 
the  furnace,  as  follows :  Let  t  =  temperature 
centigrade  of  the  air  in  and  around  the  organ 
pipe ;  t'  =  that  of  the  air  in  the  spiral  or  fur- 
nace tube ;  v  =  velocity  of  sound  at  tempera- 
ture t ;  v'  =  that  of  sound  at  temperature  t'  ; 
I  =  number  of  wave  lengths  in  furnace  tube 
at  temperature  t ;  d  =  observed  displacement 
of  resonator  serrations  by  an  elevation  of  tem- 
perature t'— t.  Then  <',  the  temperature  of 

the  furnace,  will  be  t>= 


PYROPHORUS 

which  gives  t'  in  terms  of  t>,  Z,  and  d.  For 
fuller  details  concerning  this  method  see  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Science "  for  Decem- 
ber, 1872.  The  advantage  of  this  process  is 
that  no  correction  has  to  be  made  for  baro- 
metric pressure,  and  the  precision  of  the  meth- 
od depends  alone  on  the  accuracy  of  the  de- 
termination of  the  coetficient  -00367,  which  is 
the  number  arrived  at  by  Regnault  and  Mag- 
nus for  the  expansion  of  air  under  a  constant 
pressure ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  certain 
constants  we  have  in  physics.  Hence,  theo- 
retically, this  method  is  as  accurate  as  that  of 
the  air  thermometer. — For  further  information 
on  this  important  subject  of  pyromctry,  see 
an  article  entitled  Pyrometrische  Versuche,  by 
A.  Weinhold,  in  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  vol. 
xxix.,  1873.  In  this  the  author  gives  the  bib- 
liography of  the  subject  and  details  of  his  ex- 
periments with  all  pyrometers  to  decide  their 
relative  values  in  practice. 

PYROPHONE  (Gr.  7rfy>,  and  ijxjvJj,  sound),  or 
Flame  Organ,  a  musical  instrument  invented  by 
Frederic  Kastner  of  Paris,  in  which  the  tones 
are  produced  by  flames  of  hydrogen  or  illu- 
minating gas  burning  in  tubes  of  different 
sizes  and  lengths,  arranged  similarly  to  those 
in  the  common  pneumatic  organ.  The  pro- 
duction of  musical  tones  by  means  of  the  little 
apparatus  called  the  philosopher's  lamp,  in 
which  hydrogen  gas  is  burned  in  a  tube,  is  a 
popular  and  familiar  experiment;  but  it  has 
been  hitherto  difficult  to  produce  the  same  ef- 
fects with  illuminating  gas  in  consequence  of 
the  carbon  element  interfering  with  the  explo- 
sions of  the  gases.  Kastner  has  overcome  this 
difficulty  by  burning  the  gas  in  several  small 
jets  arranged  in  a  circle,  instead  of  a  large 
one.  He  also  made  the  discovery  that  when 
these  flames  were  brought  together  the  sound 
ceased,  reappearing  as  soon  as  they  were  sep- 
arated, and  that  the  position  of  the  flames 
should  be  one  third  the  distance  from  the  base 
of  the  tube.  By  a  mechanical  contrivance 
keys  like  those  of  a  pianoforte  or  organ  are 
connected  with  jointed  arms,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  flames  are  burned  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  may  be  spread  apart  or  joined  to- 
gether at  will  by  a  touch  of  the  finger.  The 
principles  involved  will  be  treated  in  the  arti- 
cle SOUND.  (See  also  FLAME.) 

PYROPHORUS  (Gr.  rip,  fire,  and  jtpetv,  to 
bear),  a  substance  which  takes  fire  on  exposure 
to  the  air.  This  property  is  possessed  by  sev- 
eral substances  and  mixtures  specially  pre- 
pared. Finely  divided  metals,  as  iron  when 
reduced  from  the  oxide  at  the  lowest  possible 
temperature  by  a  current  of  hydrogen,  exhibit 
it  in  a  remarkable  degree.  The  effect  appears 
to  be  produced  in  all  cases  by  rapid  combina- 
tion of  the  oxidizable  substance  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air.  An  excellent  pyrophorus  is 
produced  by  calcining  in  a  close  crucible  6  parts 
of  lampblack  mixed  with  11  of  sulphate  of 
potash ;  the  product  is  a  mixture  of  carbon 
and  sulphuret  of  potassium.  Homberg's  pyro- 


PYROTECHXY 


117 


phorus  is  made  by  stirring  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  alum  and  brown  sugar  in  an  iron  ladle 
over  the  tire  till  it  becomes  dry  ;  then  heating 
the  same  in  a  red-hot  vessel  nearly  closed  as 
long  as  a  flame  appears  at  the  aperture.  It 
is  then  removed  from  the  fire,  and  carefully 
stopped  until  required  for  the  experiment. 
Tartrate  of  lead  heated  to  dull  redness  in  a  glass 
tube  becomes  a  brown  powder,  which  when 
shaken  out  into  the  air  ignites.  It  is  prepared 
from  the  solution  of  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead 
by  adding  to  it  tartaric  acid  or  a  tartrate. 

PlROTECmn  (Gr.  TTV/J,  fire,  and  rkxyn,  art), 
the  art  of  making  fireworks  for  public  exhibi- 
tions or  for  military  purposes.  Until  the  in- 
vention of  gunpowder,  and  before  the  proper- 
ties of  saltpetre  were  understood,  fireworks 
may  be  said  to  have  been  unknown  in  Europe ; 
but  the  Chinese  from  an  early  period  were  skil- 
ful in  true  pyrotechnic  works.  In  Europe  the 
art  was  first  cultivated  by  the  Italians  ;  and  it 
was  described  by  Biringucci  Vanuccio  in  his 
work  De  la  pirotechnia  (1540).  In  France  the 
subject  was  treated  by  J.  Hanzelet  in  his  Traites 
militaires  (1598),  who  recommended  the  use 
of  the  rocket  in  war,  thus  anticipating  Con- 
greve.  The  Chinese  had  from  an  unknown 
period  employed  the  rocket  as  an  offensive 
weapon,  affixing  to  it  a  pointed  barb  like  that 
of  an  arrow.  Among  the  earliest  pyrotechnic 
displays  of  much  note  in  Europe  were  the  ex- 
hibitions at  Fontainebleau  by  Sully  in  1606, 
and  by  Morel,  commissary  of  artillery,  in  1612. 
The  rejoicings  at  the  establishment  of  peace  in 
1739  gave  occasion  for  splendid  exhibitions  at 
the  hotel  de  ville  and  the  Pont  Neuf  in  Paris 
and  at  Versailles. — The  compositions  prepared 
for  fireworks  are  too  numerous  to  be  even 
named  in  this  article,  and  reference  can  be 
made  merely  to  the  materials  commonly  em- 
ployed, with  exemplifications  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  compounded  in  a  few  of  the 
principal  pieces.  Gunpowder  and-  its  ingre- 
dients, nitre,  sulphur,  and  charcoal,  are  the 
chief  constituents  of  fireworks.  Iron  and  steel 
filings  and  cast-iron  borings,  which  must  be 
free  from  rust,  are  used  to  increase  the  vivid- 
ness of  the  combustion,  and  produce  what  is 
known  as  the  Chinese  "  brilliant  fire."  It  is 
these  which  are  thrown  out  by  rockets  as  they 
explode,  and  produce  the  bright  sparks  as  they 
meet  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Copper  filings 
and  the  salts  of  copper  give  a  greenish  tint  to 
the  fire;  zinc  filings,  a  fine  blue;  sulphuret  of 
antimony,  a  light  greenish  blue  with  much 
smoke;  amber,  rosin,  and  common  salt  pro- 
tected against  dampness,  are  used  to  give  a 
yellow  fire ;  a  red  is  produced  by  lampblack, 
and  a  pink  by  nitre  in  excess;  the  salts  of 
strontia  also  give  a  red  color,  and  those  of 
barytes  a  green. — The  most  useful  piece  of  fire- 
works is  the  sky  rocket,  employed  as  a  signal, 
and  under  favorable  circumstances  visible  for 
30  leagues.  As  a  warlike  missile  it  will  be 
treated  under  ROCKET.  In  exhibitions  of  fire- 
works the  rocket  is  aluminous  projectile,  made 


to  dart  upward  with  immense  velocity  and  a 
loud  hissing  sound,  and  explode  at  the  top  of 
its  flight.  It  is  sent  up  singly  or  in  volleys  of 
great  numbers  together,  and  as  they  explode 
each  one  commonly  discharges  colored  lights 
which  descend  in  brilliant  showers,  or  dart 
forth  in  every  direction  with  the  irregular  mo- 
tions of  the  so-called  fusees  and  serpents.  It 
is  made  of  various  compositions,  which  are 
packed  in  tubes  formed  by  rolling  paper  hard 
round  a  cylindrical  core.  The  match  by  which 
the  rocket  is  to  be  fired  is  introduced  into  the 
cavity  at  the  bottom,  and  the  whole  exposed 
surface  of  the  composition  forming  the  walls 
of  the  cavity  is  instantly  ignited.  The  gaseous 
products,  being  violently  ejected  from  the  open 
end,  react  with  equal  force,  carrying  the  rocket 
forward  in  the  other  direction.  The  move- 
ment would  be  extremely  wild  if  not  con- 
trolled by  some  regulator.  This  is  furnished 
in  a  long  balance  stick  firmly  tied  to  the  rocket 
and  projecting  several  feet  behind.  It  is  made 
of  light  wood,  and  when  it  is  set  free  after 
the  explosion  it  rarely  falls  with  sufficient 
velocity  to  do  any  harm.  Long  triangular 
pieces  of  pasteboard  have  been  secured  by  the 
edge  to  the  sides  of  the  rocket  as  a  substitute 
for  the  stick,  and  have  also  served  to  steady 
its  movement.  Among  the  decorations  or  gar- 
nitures for  the  rockets  are  stars,  small  cylin- 
drical or  cubical  bodies  variously  compounded, 
as  of  1  part  of  sulphuret  of  antimony,  2  of 
quartz,  2  of  gunpowder,  15  of  nitre,  6  of  sul- 
phur, and  2  of  zinc  filings.  The  materials, 
being  separately  pulverized,  are  mixed  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  gum  water  or  glue,  made  into 
the  desired  shapes,  rolled  in  gunpowder,  and 
dried. — Roman  candles  are  cylindrical  cases 
charged  with  stars  alternating  with  a  composi- 
tion like  that  of  the  rockets,  and  with  gunpow- 
der. A  small  quantity  of  the  composition  is 
rammed  into  the  bottom  of  the  case,  upon  this 
a  little  gunpowder,  and  a  star  is  then  pushed 
down  upon  the  powder.  These  charges  are 
repeated  in  the  same  order  until  the  case  is 
filled.  The  end  is  then  closed  with  a  piece 
of  match  paper  pasted  round  the  outside  and 
drawn  to  a  point  at  the  top.  When  this  is 
fired  the  charges  are  shot  at  short  intervals 
successively  from  the  tube  into  the  air.  The 
effect  is  heightened  by  varying  the  composition 
and  colors  of  the  stars.  A  red  fire  adapted 
for  this  or  other  pieces  may  be  made  by  mixing 
4  parts  of  dry  nitrate  of  strontia  with  15  of 
pulverized  gunpowder ;  or  this  may  be  varied 
with  40  parts  of  the  strontia,  13  of  sulphur,  5 
of  chlorate  of  potash,  and  4  of  sulphuret  of 
antimony.  The  usual  precautions  should  be 
observed  in  pulverizing  and  mixing  the  chlo- 
rate of  potash.  A  green  fire  like  that  burned 
in  theatres,  which  gives  to  everything  upon 
the  stage  a  death-like  aspect,  is  produced  by  77 
parts  of  nitrate  of  barytes,  13  of  sulphur,  5  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  3  of  pulverized  charcoal, 
and  2  of  arsenic. — Bengal  lights,  also  called 
blue  lights,  and  used  by  ships  as  night  signals, 


118 


PYROXEXE 


are  compounded  of  nitre  7  or  5  parts,  sulphur 
2,  antimony  1 ;  or  for  the  sparkling  ones,  4 
each  of  sulphur  and  nitre,  1  of  antimony,  and 
2  of  fulminating  composition  (of  fulminating 
mercury  and  gunpowder).  The  proportions 
of  these  ingredients  may  be  variously  modified 
from  those  given. — The  published  works  on 
pyrotechny  are  mostly  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  Those  of  more  recent  date  are: 
L'art  defaire  d  peu  de  frais  lesfeux  (Tartifice 
(Paris,  1828) ;  Manuel  'de  Vartificier,  by  A.  D. 
Vergnaud  (Paris,  1828);  and  *"  Pyrotechny," 
by  G.  W.  Mortimer  (London,  1853).  The  full- 
est work  in  English  is  "System  of  Pyrotechny, 
comprehending  the  Theory  and  Practice,  with 
the  Application  of  Chemistry,"  by  James  Cut- 
bush  (large  8vo,  Philadelphia,  1825). 

PYKI)XK\E  (Gr.  nvp,  fire,  and  #vof,  a  stran- 
ger), a  mineral  species  of  Dana's  augite  section 
of  the  silicates,  comprising  numerous  varie- 
ties. That  to  which  the  name  was  first  applied, 
though  found  in  the  so-called  igneous  rocks, 
was  supposed  not  to  occur  in  modern  lavas; 
whence  the  name.  The  species  is  interesting 
for  its  many  varieties,  which  differ  in  physi- 
cal characters  and  chemical  constituents,  and 
consequently  have  been  separated  by  differ- 
ent mineralogists  among  several  species.  They 
were  first  brought  together  under  the  head  of 
pyroxene  by  Hatty,  who  recognized  the  iden- 
tity of  the  crystalline  form  common  to  them 
all ;  and  though  for  a  time  the  relationship 
among  them  was  not  admitted  by  chemists,  it 
was  at  last  found  that  the  differences  in  their 
composition  resulted  from  the  substitution  of 
one  isomorphous  element  for  another,  and  that 
one  general  formula  might  be  used  to  express 
the  combination  of  silicic  acid  with  one  or 
more  of  the  following  bases  (one  replaced  by 
another  in  any  proportions),  viz.:  lime,  mag- 
nesia, protoxide  of  iron,  or  manganese,  and 
sometimes  soda.  Alumina  may  also  enter  into 
the  composition,  replacing  it  may  be  a  portion 
of  silicic  acid,  without  essentially  changing  the 
crystallization.  Among  the  varieties  comprised 
in  this  species  are  the  augites,  coccolite,  diop- 
side,  sahlite,  jeffersonite,  and  many  others. 

PYROXYLIC  SPIRIT  (also  known  as  pyrolig- 
neous  spirit  or  ether,  wood  spirit  or  naphtha, 
methylic  alcohol,  hydrate  of  methyle,  &c.),  a 
spirituous  liquid,  not  a  product  of  fermenta- 
tion, but  forming  one  of  the  most  volatile  con- 
stituents of  pyroligneous  acid,  from  which  it  is 
obtained  in  the  process  of  purifying  this  acid 
by  distillation;  formula  CH4O.  (See  ACETIC 
ACID,  and  NAPHTHA.)  When  purified,  wood 
spirit  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  a  penetrating  em- 
pyreumatic  odor,  and  a  disagreeable  burning 
taste.  It  is  very  inflammable,  burning  like  al- 
cohol with  a  blue  flame.  It  mixes  with  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether  in  all  proportions.  It  boils 
at  150°,  and  at  68°  its  specific  gravity  is  0'798 ; 
at  32°,  0-8179.  The  substance  was  first  recog- 
nized by  P.  Taylor  in  1813;  but  its  properties 
were  first  explained  by  Dumas  and  Peligot  in 
1835.  In  Great  Britain  wood  naphtha,  not 


PYRRHUS 

being  subject  to  the  excise  duty,  has  been  a 
valuable  substitute  for  alcohol  in  various  man- 
ufactures. By  repeated  rectifications  over  lime 
or  chalk,  and  rejecting  the  latter  portions  in 
the  distillations,  it  was  obtained  of  strength 
varying  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  pure  spirit, 
and  of  specific  gravity  from  0*87  to  0-83.  From 
its  property  of  dissolving  the  resins  it  was 
much  used  in  the  production  of  varnishes,  lac- 
quers, &c.,  and  by  the  hatters  for  their  solu- 
tions of  shellac.  The  medical  properties  of 
wood  naphtha  have  not  been  fully  investigated, 
but  it  has  been  regarded  as  narcotic,  sedative, 
and  anti-emetic.  At  present  it  is  little  used,  if 
at  all.  Berthelot  has  prepared  wood  spirit  ar- 
tificially by  acting  upon  marsh  gas  with  chlo- 
rine, and  decomposing  the  chloride  thus  ob- 
tained by  means  of  a  solution  of  potash. 

PYROXYLINE.  See  EXPLOSIVES,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
35. 

PYRRHA.     See  DEUCALION. 

PYRRUO,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
Elis,  born  about  360  B.  C.,  died  about  270. 
He  was  successively  a  painter,  a  poet,  and  a 
companion  of  Anaxarchus,  under  whose  patron- 
age he  joined  the  eastern  expedition  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  He  addressed  a  poem  to 
that  monarch,  for  which  he  received  10,000 
pieces  of  gold.  After  the  Indian  campaign  he 
returned  to  Elis,  where  he  was  made  high 
priest,  and  for  his  sake  a  law  was  passed  ex- 
empting philosophers  from  the  payment  of 
taxes.  The  only  condition  which  he  deemed 
worthy  of  a  philosopher  was  that  of  suspended 
judgment.  A  man,  he  taught,  should  be  in- 
different to  all  external  circumstances  of  life, 
and  allow  nothing  to  disturb  his  equanimity. 
Virtuous  imperturbability  was  the  highest  aim 
of  life,  but  truth,  from  a  scientific  point  of 
view,  unattainable.  Ho  developed  his  views 
only  orally,  and  his  name  was  bestowed  on 
all  who  shared  them.  The  Pyrrhonists  were 
called  inquirers,  skeptics,  ephectics,  and  doubt- 
ers. His  doctrines  were  expounded  by  Timon, 
Philo  of  Athens,  Nausiphanes  of  Teos,  and 
many  others. 

PYRRHCS,  son  of  Achilles.  See  NEOPTOLE- 
Mrs. 

PYRRHUS,  king  of  Epirus,  born  about  318 
B.  C.,  killed  at  Argos  in  272.  He  was  the  son 
of  ^Eaoides  and  Plithia,  and  traced  his  descent 
from  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  and  was  also 
connected  with  the  royal  family  of  Macedon. 
His  father  having  been  dethroned  by  the  Epi- 
rotes,  Pyrrhus  was  rescued  and  brought  to 
Glaucias,  king  of  the  Taulantinns,  an  Illyrian 
people,  who  educated  him  with  his  own  chil- 
dren. When  Cassanders  power  in  Greece 
waa  weakened,  his  protector  restored  Pyrrhus 
to  his  throne;  but  he  was  again  expelled  by 
the  Epirotes,  and  fled  to  his  brother-in-law 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  was  then  in  Asia. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus 
in  301,  and  subsequently  went  into  Egypt  ns  a 
hostage  for  Demetrius.  There  he  gained  the 
good  will  of  Ptolemy's  wife  Berenice,  married 


PYRRHUS 


t 


PYTHAGORAS 


119 


her  daughter  Antigone,  and  was  furnished  by 
the  king  with  a  fleet  and  troops  to  recover 
Epirus.  He  found  Neoptolemus  in  possession 
of  the  throne,  and  the  two  agreed  to  hold  it  in 
common;  but  presently,  to  prevent  his  own 
destruction,  Pyrrhus  put  Neoptolemus  to  death 
(about  295).  He  now  interfered  in  the  quar- 
rels of  Antipater  and  Alexander,  the  two  sons 
of  Cassander,  and  took  the  part  of  the  latter 
on  condition  that  he  should  receive  Acarnania, 
Amphilochia,  Ambracia,  and  some  Macedonian 
districts.  He  then  placed  Alexander  on  the 
throne  of  Macedon,  but  the  latter  was  soon  de- 
throned by  a  powerful  neighbor.  Pyrrhus  came 
and  restored  him  to  his  kingdom.  Soon  after- 
ward Demetrius,  to  whom  Alexander  had  also 
applied  for  aid,  put  him  to  death  and  made 
himself  king  in  his  place.  Hostilities  soon 
arose  between  Pyrrhus  and  Demetrius,  who 
had  formerly  been  close  friends.  In  291  Thebes 
revolted  from  Demetrius ;  and  while  the  Mace- 
donian king  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  that 
place  Pyrrhus  marched  into  Thessaly,  but  was 
forced  to  retire.  Thebes  fell  in  290,  and  De- 
metrius invaded  Epirus  in  289,  leaving  Pan- 
tauchus  in  j^Etolia  with  a  large  force.  Pyrrhus, 
advancing  to  meet  Demetrius,  but  taking  a  dif- 
ferent route,  entered  ^Etolia,  encountered  Pan- 
tauchus,  vanquished  him  in  single  combat,  and 
routed  his  army.  The  next  year  he  invaded 
Macedonia,  and  marched  as  far  as  Edessa,  but 
was  driven  back,  and  soon  after  concluded  a 
peace  with  Demetrius,  who  was  now  anxious 
to  regain  his  father's  dominions  in  Asia.  Here- 
upon Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  and  Lysimachus  en- 
tered into  an  alliance,  which  they  persuaded 
Pyrrhus  to  join,  to  attack  the  Macedonian  king 
in  his  European  dominions.  Demetrius  fled, 
and  his  kingdom  was  divided,  a  large  share  of 
Macedonia  falling  to  Pyrrhus ;  but  the  Mace- 
donians soon  drove  him  out  again,  and  put 
themselves  under  Lysimachus.  In  281  an  em- 
bassy from  the  Tarentines  implored  Pyrrhus 
to  come  over  to  Italy  and  assist  the  Greek  in- 
habitants against  the  Romans.  He  set  out  in 
280  with  an  army  of  20,000  foot,  3,000  horse, 
2,000  archers,  500  slingers,  and  a  number  of  ele- 
phants ;  but  a  great  storm  scattered  the  fleet, 
and  Pyrrhus  arrived  at  Tarentum  with  only  a 
small  part  of  his  army.  There,  while  waiting 
for  the  dispersed  ships  to  come  in,  finding  the 
inhabitants  indisposed  to  take  their  proper 
share  in  the  war,  he  compelled  them  to  enter 
the  army,  closed  their  theatres,  and  soon 
showed  himself  their  master  as  well  as  ally. 
Failing  to  negotiate  with  M.  Valerius  La3vi- 
nus,  the  Roman  general,  Pyrrhus  met  him  on 
the  river  Siris  (now  Sinno),  and  won  a  victory 
with  the  loss  of  a  large  number  of  his  best 
troops.  "  Another  such  victory,"  he  is  re- 
ported to  have  said,  "and  I  must  return  to 
Epirus  alone."  He  now  sent  Cineas  to  Rome, 
offering  peace  on  condition  that  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Italian  Greeks  should  be  recog- 
nized, and  that  the  Samnites,  Lucanians,  Apu- 
lians,  and  Bruttians  should  regain  the  pos- 


sessions they  had  lost  in  the  war.  The  Ro- 
man senate  rejected  the  terms,  and  Pyrrhus 
marched  to  within  24  miles  of  Rome,  plun- 
dering the  country  as  he  went;  but  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Roman  army  from  Etruria  com- 
pelled him  to  retire.  He  took  the  field  again 
in  the  spring  of  279,  and  gained  a  hardly  won 
victory  at  Asculum.  Few  of  his  Grecian 
troops  were  now  left ;  and,  unable  to  obtain 
reinforcements  from  home,  he  was  willing  to 
conclude  a  truce  in  order  to  drive  the  Cartha- 
ginians from  Sicily.  Previously  the  Roman 
consuls  Fabricius  and  ^milius  had  sent  back 
to  Pyrrhus  a  servant  who  had  deserted  and 
promised  to  poison  his  master,  and  in  return 
for  this  Pyrrhus  released  all  the  Roman  prison- 
ers. He  now  passed  over  into  Sicily,  and  at 
first  was  so  successful  that  the  Carthaginians 
agreed  to  assist  him  against  the  Romans  on 
condition  of  peace.  He  rejected  this  offer,  but 
failing  in  an  attack  upon  Lilybfeum  returned 
to  Italy  in  276.  His  fleet  was  attacked  by  the 
Carthaginians,  and  70  of  his  ships  were  de- 
stroyed. In  275  he  was  routed  near  Beneven- 
tum  by  Curius  Dentatus,  and  obliged  to  return 
to  Epirus.  In  273  he  invaded  Macedonia,  of 
which  Antigonus  Gonatas,  the  son  of  Deme- 
trius, was  then  king,  and  for  the  second  time 
gained  possession  of  that  country.  At  the  in- 
stance of  Cleonymus,  who  had  been  excluded 
from  the  Spartan  throne,  he  marched  into 
Laconia  in  272  with  25,000  foot,  2,000  horse, 
and  24  elephants.  He  arrived  before  Sparta 
at  the  close  of  day,  but  deferred  the  attack 
until  the  following  morning.  During  the 
night  the  Spartans  fortified  themselves  so 
strongly  as  to  be  able  to  hold  the  city  until 
relieved  by  reinforcements.  Taking  up  his 
winter  quarters  in  Laconia,  Pyrrhus  was  in- 
duced to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Argos,  and 
in  a  conflict  in  the  streets  of  that  city  he  re- 
ceived a  slight  wound  from  a  javelin.  He  was 
about  to  cut  down  the  Argive  who  had  attack- 
ed him,  when  the  mother  of  the  man  hurled 
from  the  roof  of  a  house  a  large  tile  which 
struck  Pyrrhus  on  the  back  of  the  neck.  He 
fell  from  his  horse  and  was  killed  by  soldiers 
of  the  enemy.  Pyrrhus  was  regarded  in  sub- 
sequent times  as  one  of  the  greatest  generals 
that  had  ever  lived.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the 
art  of  war,  and  his  commentaries  are  quoted 
by  Dionysius  and  Plutarch. 

PYTHAGORAS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  founder 
of  a  philosophical,  religious,  and  political  asso- 
ciation in  southern  Italy,  born  in  Samos  about 
580  B.  C.,  died  probably  in  Metapontum  about 
500.  He  was  the  son  of  Mnesarchus,  an  opu- 
lent merchant,  and  according  to  some  accounts 
was  a  disciple  of  Pherecydes  of  Syros,  and  of 
Thales  and  Anaximander.  He  is  said  to  have 
spent  30  years  in  travel  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  all  attainable  knowledge,  especially 
the  esoteric  doctrines  of  priests  concerning  the 
worship  of  the  gods.  Egypt,  Arabia,  Phoeni- 
cia, Judea,  Babylonia,  and  even  Gaul  and  In- 
dia, are  among  the  countries  in  which  he  is  said 


120 


PYTHAGORAS 


PYTHEAS 


to  have  travelled.  Herodotus  traces  the  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis  and  certain  religious 
regulations  of  the  Pythagoreans  and  Orphists 
back  to  the  Egyptians,  thus  apparently  imply- 
ing that  Pythagoras  visited  Egypt.  Aristotle 
testifies  that  the  mathematical  sciences  origi- 
nated in  Egypt,  and  were  there  cultivated  by 
the  priests ;  and  according  to  Callirnachus  Py- 
thagoras brought  his  mathematical  knowledge 
from  that  country.  On  the  authority  of  Apol- 
lodorus,  Diogenes  Laertius  ascribes  to  Pythag- 
oras, among  other  things,  the  discovery  of  the 
relation  between  the  hypothenuse  and  the 
sides  of  the  right-angled  triangle.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  many  of  the  statements  made  by 
later  writers  are  mere  embellishments  and  fa- 
bles. Following  Aristoxenus,  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius again  says  that  Pythagoras  emigrated  to 
Orotona  in  lower  Italy,  in  order  to  escape  the 
tyranny  of  Polycrates,  and  according  to  Cicero 
he  came  to  Italy  about  529  B.  0.  In  Crotona  he 
succeeded  in  winning  the  aristocratic  party  to 
his  project  of  an  ethical  and  religious  reform, 
and  in  uniting  them  into  a  powerful  political 
faction.  Then  it  is  said  that  about  20  years 
later  the  democratic  party  of  Crotonians,  under 
Cylon,  obtained  his  banishment,  and  he  with- 
drew to  Metapontum,  where  he  soon  died. — 
It  is  generally  held  that  Philolaus,  a  contem- 
porary of  Socrates,  was  the  first  to  publish 
the  Pythagorean  system  of  philosophy;  but 
though  a  considerable  number  of  fragments 
that  pass  under  his  name  are  extant,  their  au- 
thenticity is  very  questionable.  BOckh's  col- 
lection of  the  fragments  has  baen  in  part,  if 
not  wholly,  rejected  by  Zeller,  Rose,  and  oth- 
ers. The  writings  reported  to  come  from 
Pythagoras  himself  are  undoubtedly  spurious. 
The  most  important  indications  of  his  doc- 
trines are  obtained  from  the  writings  of  Aris- 
totle. The  fundamental  doctrines  are,  that 
the  essences  of  all  things  rest  upon  numerical 
relations;  that  numbers  are  the  principle  of  all 
that  exists;  and  that  the  world  subsists  by  the 
rhythmical  order  of  its  elements.  Everywhere 
in  nature  appear  the  two  elements  of  the  finite 
and  the  infinite,  which  give  rise  to  the  ele- 
mentary opposites  of  the  universe,  the  odd  and 
even,  one  and  many,  right  and  left,  male  and 
female,  fixed  and  moved,  straight  and  curved, 
light  and  darkness,  square  and  oblong,  good 
and  bad.  The  essence  of  number  is  unity, 
which  is  at  once  odd  and  even,  and  contains 
in  itself  in  gorrn  all  the  universe.  It  is  both 
the  form  and  the  substance  of  all  things,  and 
identical  with  the  Deity.  Proceeding  from 
itself  it  begets  duality,  and  returning  upon  it- 
self it  begets  trinity.  Added  to  itself  it  pro- 
duces the  line;  a  third  point  placed  on  the 
other  two  gives  the  surface;  and  a  fourth 
point  placed  on  the  other  three  gives  the  pyra- 
mid or  solid.  The  quadrate  or  tetractys  and 
the  decade  are,  like  unity,  sacred  numbers  and 
first  principles.  The  univers*  was  produced 
by  the  breathing  of  the  first  principle  into  the 
infinite  void  of  the  world,  which  thus  became 


both  finite  and  infinite,  and  therefore  capable 
of  development  into  a  multiplicity  of  numbers 
or  things.  In  the  actual  world  every  single 
whole  is  a  unit,  capable  of  further  develop- 
ment by  the  vital  process  of  breathing.  Every 
abstract  idea  is  a  number,  and  material  objects 
are  symbols  of  numbers.  Thus  the  Pythago- 
reans called  justice  a  square  number,  intend- 
ing by  this  to  express  the  correspondence 
between  action  and  suffering  or  retribution. 
There  are  five  elements,  earth,  fire,  air,  wa- 
ter, and  ether,  represented  respectively  by  the 
cube,  pyramid,  octahedron,  icosahedron,  and 
dodecahedron.  The  universe  is  a  harmonious 
whole,  consisting  of  ten  great  bodies  revolving 
around  a  common  centre.  The  doctrine  of 
the  harmony  of  the  spheres  was  based  on  the 
idea  that  the  celestial  spheres  were  separated 
from  each  otber  by  intervals  corresponding 
with  the  relative  lengths  of  strings  arranged 
to  produce  harmonious  tones.  The  centre  is 
the  sun,  the  seat  of  Jupiter,  the  principle  of 
life,  and  the  most  perfect  object  in  nature. 
That  his  hypothesis  of  the  sun's  immobility, 
and  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  it, 
agrees  with  the  facts  of  nature,  was  shown 
much  later  (about  280  B.  C.)  by  the  astron- 
omer Aristarchus  of  Satnos.  The  stars  also 
are  divinities,  and  men  and  even  inferior  ani- 
mals are  akin  to  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
souls  of  men  are  moving  numbers,  light  parti- 
cles from  the  universal  soul,  capable  of  com- 
bining with  any  body,  and  destined  to  pass  suc- 
cessively through  several.  They  are  chained 
to  the  body  as  a  punishment,  and  dwell  in  it 
as  in  a  prison.  With  the  theory  of  metem- 
psychosis he  combined  the  doctrine  of  moral 
retribution.  The  reason  and  understanding 
have  their  seats  in  the  brain ;  the  passions  are 
placed  in  the  heart.  Moral  good  is  identified 
with  unity,  evil  with  multiplicity;  virtue  is 
the  harmony  of  the  soul  and  its  similitude  to 
God.  The  aim  of  life  is  to  make  it  repre- 
sent the  beautiful  order  of  the  universe.  The 
whole  practical  tendency  of  Pythagoreanism 
was  ascetic  (according  to  some  accounts  in- 
cluding abstinence  from  animal  food),  and  in- 
culcated a  strict  self-control,  promoted,  as  is 
said,  by  a  novitiate  of  silence,  and  an  earnest 
culture,  in  which  music  was  considered  impor- 
tant. Though  it  seems  to  have  been  founded 
on  the  mysticism  of  numbers,  yet  Aristotle 
called  the  Pythagoreans  a  school  of  mathema- 
ticians.— See  Schaarschmidt,  Die  angelilirlie 
Schriftttelltrei  de*  Philolaut  (Bonn,  1864); 
Zeller,  Die  Pythagorassage  (Leipsic,  1865);  and 
Ueberweg's  "  History  of  Philosophy  "  (trans- 
lated into  English,  New  York,  1872). 

PYBCS.     See  APPLE,  Asn,  and  PEAR. 

PYTHEAS,  a  Greek  navigator  of  Massilia  or 
Marseilles,  who  flourished  about  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  is  said  to  have 
made  two  voyages,  in  one  of  which  he  visited 
Britain  and  Thule  (perhaps  Iceland),  and  in 
the  second  passed  along  the  western  and  north- 
ern coast  of  Europe.  He  also  wrote  two 


PYTHIA 


QUADRANT 


121 


books,  one  of  which,  describing  the  ocean, 
was  probably  an  account  of  his  first  voyage, 
and  the  other,  entitled  Periplus,  of  his  second. 
Polybius  and  Strabo  treat  the  statements  of 
Pytheas  with  contempt ;  but  in  modern  times 
it  has  become  evident  that  he  was  a  bold  navi- 
gator and  sagacious  observer.  He  was  the 
first  who  determined  the  latitude  of  a  place 
from  the  shadow  cast  by  the  sun,  obtaining 
the  position  of  Massilia  by  the  gnomon.  He 
was  also  aware  of  the  influence  of  the  moon 
upon  the  tides.  The  few  fragments  of  Pytheas 
now  extant  were  collected  by  Arvedson  (TJp- 
sal,  1824). 

PTTHIA.     See  DELPHI. 

PITHIAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four  great  na- 
tional festivals  of  Greece,  held  at  Delphi,  which 
was  originally  called  Pytho  from  the  serpent 
Python  killed  by  Apollo  near  there.  The  legen- 
dary account  attributed  the  origin  of  these 
games  to  Apollo,  although  there  were  tradi- 
tions referring  them  to  Amphictyon,  Diomedes, 
and  other  heroes.  At  first  the  Delphians  them- 
selves decided  the  disputes  and  adjudged  the 
prizes,  but  after  the  Crisssean  war  the  man- 
agement came  into  the  .hands  of  the  Ainphic- 


tyons.  Once,  in  Ol.  122,  the  games  were  held 
in  Athens  by  the  advice  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes.  They  appear  to  have  lasted  as  long  as 
the  Olympic  games,  or  till  about  A.  D.  394. 
They  were  held  in  the  Crisssean  plain,  which 
had  a  theatre  for  the  musical  contests,  a  race 
course,  a  stadium  1,000  ft.  long,  and  probably 
a  gymnasium,  prytaneum,  and  similar  build- 
ings. Some  ancient  writers  tell  us  that  they 
were  first  called  Pythian  games  in  01.  48,  when 
the  Amphictyons  assumed  their  management. 
Previously  they  had  been  held  at  the  end  of 
every  eight  years,  but  afterward  at  the  end  of 
every  four.  They  were  probably  solemnized 
in  the  spring,  and  lasted  several  days.  There 
were  other  Pythian  games  of  less  importance 
held  in  various  places  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Italy,  where  the  worship  of  Apollo  was 
established. 

PITHIAS.     See  DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS. 

PYTHON  (Daudin),  a  genus  of  large  tropical, 
non-venomous  serpents,  replacing  in  the  old 
world  the  boas  of  the  new.  The  pythons  dif- 
fer from  the  boas  in  having  four  teeth  in  the 
intermaxillary  bone,  and  in  most  of  the  sub- 
caudal  scales  being  in  pairs.  (See  BOA.) 


Q 


QTHE  17th  letter  and  13th  consonant  of  the 
?  English  alphabet.  It  corresponds  with 
the  Hebrew  and  Phoanician  koph,  and  as  it 
is  seldom  used  except  in  conjunction  with  u, 
most  grammarians  are  disposed  to  regard  it  as 
a  superfluous  letter  whose  place  could  be  sup- 
plied by  k.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  Greek, 
old  Latin,  Slavic,  Irish,  or  Saxon  alphabet ; 
but  it  was  introduced  into  the  Latin  at  a  pret- 
ty early  period.  The  words  which  are  now 
written  with  a  q  were  spelt  by  the  ancient 
Romans  with  a  c,  as  anticus  for  antiquus,  co- 
tidie  for  quotidie;  and  some  words  are  still 
spelt  indiscriminately  with  either,  as  locutus 
or  loquutus.  Varro  and  some  other  gramma- 
rians never  consented  to  admit  this  letter  into 
the  Roman  alphabet.  Others  regarded  it  not 
as  a  simple  letter,  but  as  a  contraction  of  CD  or 
cu;  thus  quis,  according  to  them,  was  origi- 
lally  cvis  or  qis.  The  Anglo-Saxons  for  qu 
wrote  cw.  Q  never  ends  a  word  in  English, 
but  it  does  in  French,  as  cinq.  It  is  some- 
times used  without  u  in  the  transcription  of 
words  from  the  Arabic  and  other  oriental  lan- 
guages, to  represent  a  peculiar  guttural  sound. 
The  letters  with  which  it  interchanges  are  c 
and  Tc.  As  a  Latin  numeral  it  stands  for  500, 
or  with  a  dash  over  it  (<j )  for  500,000.  Used 
as  an  abbreviation,  it  signifies  quantum,  quod, 
qucB,  que  (and),  Quintus,  &c. 

QUA  BIRD,  or  Quawk.     See  FIGHT  HERON. 

QUACKEJVBOS,  George  Payn,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  in  New  York,  Sept.  4,  1826.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  college  in  1843,  spent  a 


year  in  North  Carolina,  and  began  to  study 
law  in  New  York.  In  1847  he  opened  a  private 
school  in  that  city,  and  he  continued  to  teach 
till  1868.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to  various 
journals,  and  in  1848-'50  conducted  the  "Lit- 
erary American."  He  has  published  many 
popular  school  books,  including  text  books  of 
rhetoric  and  natural  philosophy,  arithmetics, 
grammars,  and  elementary  histories.  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Wesleyan 
university  in  1863. 

QIADI,  a  powerful  ancient  people  of  S.  E. 
Germany,  of  the  Suevic  race.  They  inhabited 
the  country  between  Mount  Gabreta,  the  Her- 
cynian  forest,  the  Sarmatian  mountains,  and 
the  Danube  (portions  of  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
and  Lower  Austria),  their  neighbors  being  the 
Gothini  and  Osi  on  the  northeast,  the  Jazyges 
Metanastfe  on  the  east,  the  Pannonians  on  the 
south,  and  the  Marcomanni  on  the  northwest. 
Of  the  last  named  they  were  allies.  In  the 
reign  of  Tiberius  the  Romans  erected  a  king- 
dom of  the  Quadi,  and  gave  the  crown  to  Van- 
nius ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  the 
Quadi  joined  the  German  confederacy  against 
the  empire,  and  in  174  were  on  the  point  of 
destroying  the  imperial  legions  in  a  great  bat- 
tle when  a  sudden  storm  enabled  the  Romans 
to  recover  and  gain  a  victory.  The  Quadi  re- 
mained independent  till  their  disappearance 
from  history  about  the  close  of  the  4th  century. 

QIADRAM  (Lat.  quadrant,  a  quarter),  the 
fourth  part  of  the  circle  or  an  arc  of  90°,  and 
hence  an  instrument  employed  for  measuring 


122 


QUADRANT 


angles  in  any  plane.  The  use  of  quadrants  has 
been  for  surveying  and  for  making  astronomi- 
cal observations,  and  especially  in  navigation 
for  determining  the  meridian  altitude  of  the 
sun,  and  through  this  the  latitude  of  the  ob- 
server. They  have  been  constructed  of  a  great 
variety  of  forms  and  dimensions  adapted  for 
their  several  uses ;  but  at  present  the  interest 
attached  to  them  is  historical  only,  as  they 
have  been  entirely  superseded  either  by  the 
sextant  or  the  full  circle.  The  former,  of  more 
portable  form  than  the  quadrant,  by  the  use 
of  two  reflecting  mirrors  doubles  the  angle  in- 
cluded between  the  direct  and  reflected  line  of 
light,  and  thus  with  an  arc  of  60°  or  one  sixth 
of  the  circle  includes  a  range  of  120° ;  while 
the  circle,  on  account  of  the  symmetry  of  its 
form  and  the  completeness  of  its  graduated  arc 
all  around,  secures  greater  exactness  in  its  read- 
ings, and  is  less  liable  to  the  introduction  of  any 
unsuspected  source  of  error.  Ptolemy  made 
use  of  a  quadrant  for  determining  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic.  Tycho  Brahe  had  a  large  mural 
quadrant  (so  called  from  its  being  suspended 
upon  an  axis  secured  in  a  solid  wall  of  ma- 
sonry) with  which  he  observed  altitudes,  and 
also  another  on  a  vertical  axis  for  measuring 
horizontal  angles.  The  mural  quadrants  of 
that  period  were  of  6  or  8  ft.  radius,  and  for 
some  time  continued  to  be  employed  in  the 
principal  observatories.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is 
said  to  have  constructed  a  reflecting  quadrant 
as  early  as  1672;  but  the  first  instrument  of 
this  character  brought  before  the  public  was 
that  afterward  known  as  Hadley's,  the  in- 
vention of  which  was  claimed  by  Godfrey,  a 
mechanician  of  Philadelphia.  This  instrument, 
which  has  been  in  general  use  in  navigation,  is 
a  graduated  octant  of  90  half  degrees,  reading 
as  90°.  With  the  radial  bars  at  each  extremi- 
ty of  the  arc  it  forms  a  triangular  frame,  which 
is  made  of  convenient  dimensions  for  holding 
in  the  hands.  A  movable  radial  bar  or  index 
revolves  in  the  plane  of  the  sector  upon  a  pin 
passing  through  the  centre.  At  the  centre  it 
carries  a  mirror,  the  face  of  which  is  perpen- 
dicular to  this  plane,  and  which  in  making  an 
observation  is  turned  toward  the  object,  as  the 
sun  or  a  star,  and  at  the  other  end  it  carries  a 
vernier  for  subdividing  the  angles  on  the  grad- 
uated limb.  On  the  outer  edge  of  the  radial 
bar,  back  of  the  movable  mirror,  is  the  sight 
vane,  which  is  directed  across  to  a  second  mir- 
ror fixed  upon  the  opposite  bar,  its  plane  per- 
pendicular to  that  of  the  bar,  and  its  face  so 
adjusted  that  a  ray  reflected  from  the  first  mir- 
ror to  the  second  is  transmitted  from  this  to 
the  eye  at  the  sight  vane.  Only  half  of  the 
glass  of  the  second  mirror,  called  the  fore  hori- 
zon glass,  is  silvered,  and  consequently  rays 
passing  through  it  from  any  object,  as  the  hori- 
zon at  sea,  meet  the  eye  in  a  direct  line ;  and 
if  at  the  same  instant,  while  the  instrument  is 
held  to  this  position,  the  index  is  moved  so  as 
to  bring  the  reflected  image  of  the  sun  upon 
the  silvered  part  of  the  glass  and  from  this  to 


QUADRATURE 

the  eye,  the  reading  of  the  vernier  is  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  sun  above  the  horizon.  Various 
other  appendages  are  introduced  in  the  quad- 
rant, as  a  telescope  for  the  sight  vane,  colored 
glasses  for  diminishing  the  intensity  of  the 
light,  and  a  third  mirror  called  the  back  hori- 
zon glass,  with  its  sight  vane,  for  taking  a  bark 
observation.  (For  Gunter's  quadrant,  see  Gr.v- 
TEK.) — In  gunnery,  the  quadrant  or  gunner's 
square  is  a  rectangular  frame  with  a  graduated 
arc  between  the  two  limbs.  One  of  the  limbs 
is  extended  beyond  the  arc,  so  as  to  be  set  into 
the  mouth  of  the  piece,  the  elevation  of  which 
it  is  to  measure.  A  plummet  suspended  from 
the  point  of  meeting  of  the  two  arms  marks 
by  the  intersection  of  its  line  on  the  graduated 
arc  the  degree  of  elevation. 

QUADRATURE,  the  finding  of  a  square  equal 
in  area  to  that  of  any  given  figure.  No  math- 
ematical problem  has  excited  so  great  interest 
as  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  or  the  deter- 
mination of  a  square  of  the  same  area.  As  it 
is  proved  that  the  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to 
that  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  altitude  of 
which  is  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  the  base 
its  circumference,  and  as  the  side  of  the  square 
of  equal  surface  with  the  triangle  is  a  mean 
proportional  between  the  height  and  half  the 
base  of  the  triangle,  the  problem  would  bo 
solved  if  the  circumference  could  be  imme- 
diately calculated  from  the  radius  which  is 
known.  Thus  the  question  of  the  quadrature 
of  the  circle  is  reduced  to  finding  the  propor- 
tion between  the  diameter  and  circumference. 
Archimedes  undertook  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem on  tha  principle  of  calculating  the  periph- 
eries of  two  polygons  of  many  sides  (as  96), 
one  circumscribed  about  the  circle  and  the 
other  inscribed,  between  which  must  lie  the 
circumference  of  the  circle.  He  thus  found 
that  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  circum- 
ference lay  between  1  :  8|£  and  1  :  3f  ?,  and 
he  adopted  the  former,  which  is  also  expressed 
7  :  22.  The  Hindoos  at  some  early  period, 
certainly  before  any  improvement  was  made 
upon  this  result  in  Europe,  obtained  the  pro- 
portion 1,250  :  3,927,  or  3-1416,  which  is  much 
more  exact  than  that  of  Archimedes.  Ptolemy 
gives  3-141552,  which  is  not  quite  so  correct. 
In  modern  times  the  first  great  step  in  extend- 
ing this  calculation  was  made  by  Peter  Metius, 
a  Hollander,  and  was  published  by  his  son 
Adrian  Metius.  By  calculating  from  polygons 
of  about  1,536  sides  he  found  that  the  propor- 
tion was  less  than  3Ty,r  and  greater  than  3-JW ; 
and  presuming  that  the  mean  of  these  was 
nearer  the  truth  than  either  limit,  he  happily 
hit  thus  by  chance  on  a  near  approximation, 
and  determined  a  ratio  convenient  for  practical 
purposes,  and  easy  to  recollect  from  its  terms 
being  made  up  of  successive  pairs  of  the  first 
three  odd  numbers,  viz.:  113  :  355.  The  error 
involved  in  this  expression  in  a  circle  of  1,000 
miles  circumference  is  less  than  one  foot.  Lu- 
dolph  van  Ceulen  (or  Keulen),  another  Holland- 
er, in  1590,  about  the  same  time  that  Metius 


QUADKATURE 


QUADRUMANA 


123 


made  his  calculations,  extended  the  calculation 
to  36  figures,  which  are  engraved  upon  his  tomb- 
stone in  Leyden.  These  are  3-1415926535897- 
9323846264338327950289.  The  last  figure  is 
too  large,  and  8  would  be  too  small.  This 
was  obtained  by  calculating  the  chords  of  suc- 
cessive arcs,  each  one  being  half  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  for  the  above  result  this  was  carried 
out  so  far,  that  the  last  arc  was  one  side  of  a 
polygon  of  36,893,488,147,419,103,232  sides. 
The  method  of  calculation  was  greatly  simpli- 
fied by  Snell,  who  carried  the  computation  to 
55  decimal  places  by  means  of  a  polygon  of 
only  5,242,880  sides.  By  other  mathematicians 
the  computation  was  carried  on,  reaching  suc- 
cessively during  the  last  century  75,  100,  128, 
and  140  places  of  decimals ;  and  Montucla  re- 
ceived from  Baron  Zach  154  figures,  said  to 
have  been  obtained  from  a  manuscript  in  the 
Radcliffe  library  at  Oxford,  of  the  existence 
of  which  there  is  no  other  evidence.  The 
figures,  however,  except  the  last  two,  have 
since  been  proved  correct.  (See  Montucla, 
Histoire  des  recherches  sur  la  quadrature  du 
cercle,  1754.)  Notwithstanding  that  Lambert 
in  1761,  and  still  later  Legendre  in  his  Ele- 
ments de  geometrie,  proved  that  the  ratio  of 
the  diameter  to  the  circumference  cannot  be 
expressed  by  any  numbers,  the  wish  to  satisfy 
those  who  still  sought  the  exact  expression  of 
this  ratio  led  other  mathematicians  to  continue 
to  add  to  these  figures ;  and  some  must  have 
derived  a  singular  gratification  in  the  compu- 
tation itself  and  its  never  terminating  result. 
In  May,  1841,  a  paper  was  communicated  to 
the  royal  society  by  Dr.  Rutherford  of  Wool- 
wich, presenting  208  figures  of  decimals,  of 
which  however  56  were  afterward  proved  to 
be  wrong,  so  that  the  series  was  not  really 
carried  beyond  the  result  obtained  from  the 
Oxford  manuscript.  In  1846  200  decimals 
were  correctly  made  out  by  Mr.  Base ;  and 
the  next  year  250  by  Dr.  Clausen  of  Dorpat. 
In  1851  Mr.  William  Shanks  of  Durham  cal- 
culated 315  decimals,  which  Dr.  Rutherford 
verified  and  extended  to  350.  Mr.  Shanks 
soon  carried  these  to  527  decimals,  of  which 
411  were  confirmed  by  Dr.  Rutherford.  Fi- 
nally in  1853  Mr.  Shanks  reached  the  num- 
ber of  607  decimals,  and  gave  the  result  in 
"his  "Contributions  to  Mathematics"  (London, 
1853). — When  it  was  made  evident  that  the 
arithmetical  expression  was  impossible,  it  was 
still  hoped  by  many  that  the  ratio  might  be 
determined  by  geometrical  construction ;  and 
the  bare  possibility  of  this,  which  a  few  math- 
ematicians have  admitted,  has  given  encour- 
agement to  some  to  seek  the  solution  in  this 
direction.  But  this,  too,  is  now  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  impracticable. — Little  benefit  has 
resulted  from  the  vast  amount  of  time  and 
labor  that  have  been  expended  upon  this  fa- 
mous problem.  Wallis,  investigating  it  at  a 
time  when  the  nature  of  the  subject  was  not 
so  well  understood,  and  the  investigation  was 
consequently  a  proper  one,  was  led  to  the  dis- 


covery of  the  binomial  theorem  ;  but  most  of 
those  who  have  since  interested  themselves  in 
the  question  understood  too  little  of  the  math- 
ematical sciences  to  avail  themselves  of  any 
opportunity  that  might  be  presented  of  in- 
creasing the  means  of  mathematical  research. 
The  academy  of  sciences  at  Paris  in  1775,  and 
soon  after  the  royal  society  in  London,  to  dis- 
courage this  and  other  similarly  futile  research- 
es, declined  to  examine  in  future  any  paper 
pretending  to  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  the 
trisection  of  an  angle,  the  duplication  of  the 
cube,  or  the  discovery  of  perpetual  motion. 

QUADROIAJVA  (Lat.,  from  quatuor,  four,  and 
manus,  hand),  a  division  of  the  mammalia  em- 
bracing the  lemurs  and  monkeys  or  apes,  and 
forming  the  highest  order  of  Owen's  subclass 
gyrencephala,  so  called  from  the  generally  pre- 
hensile nature  of  their  four  extremities.  Al- 
though, on  anatomical  grounds,  the  term  quad- 
rumanous  cannot  be  considered  as  strictly  ap- 
plicable to  the  members  of  this  extensive  or- 
der, it  is  nevertheless  retained  by  the  majority 
of  naturalists  in  contradistinction  to  bimanous 
(two-handed),  as  restricted  to  man  alone.  The 
restoration  of  the  Linnrean  term  primates 
(limited  so  as  to  exclude  the  cheiroptera)  has 
of  late  been  advocated  by  Prof.  Huxley,  as 
more  conformable  to  the  true  nature  of  struc- 
tural affinities,  a  view  in  which  he  has  been 
sustained  by  St.  George  Mivart.  This  order, 
which  has  been  conveniently  divided  into  the 
three  families  of  strepsirrliini,  platyrrMni,  and 
catarrhini,  may  be  briefly  defined  as  follows  : 
Animals  wkh  a  deciduate,  discoidal  placenta; 
clavicles  complete ;  orbital  ring  completely  cir- 
cumscribed, and  usually  separated  by  an  osse- 
ous septum  from  the  temporal  fossa;  pollex 
(when  present)  often,  and  hallux  generally  op- 
posable,  the  latter  provided  with  a  flat  nail  (ex- 
cept in  orang,  in  which  the  nail  is  often  want- 
ing) ;  cerebral  hemispheres  well  developed  and 
strongly  convoluted,  covering  the  cerebellum 
(except  in  mycetes  and  certain  genera  of  the 
lemuridce,  where  the  cerebellum  is  naked,  and 
in  the  marmoset,  where  the  external  gyri  and 
sulci  are  almost  entirely  wanting)  ;  stomach  in 
most  cases  simple  (complex  in  semnopithecus 
and  cololivs)  and  furnished  with  csecal  appen- 
dages ;  teetli  never  in  an  unbroken  series,  but 
separated  by  a  diastema. — The  strepsirrhini 
(lemurs,  aye-ayes,  loris,  galagos,  potos,  and  in- 
dris)  constitute  the  lowest  family  of  the  order, 
and  inhabit  portions  of  Africa,  Madagascar, 
and  some  of  the  Asiatic  islands.  They  are 
characterized  by  the  twisted  nature  of  their 
nostrils,  and  by  the  presence  of  a  claw  on  the 
second  digit  of  the  foot.  The  aye-ayes  (cheiro- 
mys),  which  seem  to  connect  the  lemurs  with 
the  lower  rodents,  form  an  abnormal  group 
by  themselves,  by  reason  of  the  true  rodent 
type  of  their  dentition,  which  is,  incisors  -fz-f, 
canines  •§,  premolars  ^i£,  and  molars  fif  =  18. 
The  chisel-shaped  incisors,  moreover,  agree 
with  thoee  of  the  rodents  in  growing  from  per- 
sistent pulps,  but  differ  in  being  entirely  in- 


124: 


QUADRUMANA 


QUAESTOR 


vested  with  a  coat  of  enamel.  The  platyrrhini, 
American  monkeys,  are  distinguished  from  the 
catarrhini,  or  monkeys  of  the  old  world,  by 
several  well  marked  characters,  the  most  prom- 
inent of  which  is  the  broader  development  of 
the  nasal  septum.  They  also  differ  from  them 
in  the  universal  presence  of  a  tail,  which  is 
generally  prehensile,  and  in  their  dental  for- 
mula, which  is,  incisors  |if,  canines  f_^,  pre- 
molars  fig,  and  molars  fc£-=38.  The  mar- 
mosets form  a  sole  exception  to  the  general 
rule  of  dentition,  in  possessing  but  two  molars 
in  each  side  of  both  jaws,  thereby  reducing 
the  total  number  of  teeth  to  32.  The  catar- 
rhini have  the  dental  formula  corresponding 
to  that  of  man,  namely,  incisors  £ jf,  canines 
$~fa  premolars  fif,  and  molars  J_-J=32.  In 
this  family  the  meatus  auditorius  eiternut  is 
osseous,  and  the  pollex  is,  with  one  excep- 
tion (colobus),  always  opposable,  circumstances 
which  would  be  by  themselves  almost  sufficient 
to  separate  the  monkeys  of  the  old  from  those 
of  the  new  world.  The  catarrhini  have  been 
divided  into  tho  subfamilies  cynomorpha  and 
anthropomorpha.  The  former  (baboons,  ma- 
caques, &c.),  which  are  essentially  quadrupe- 
dal, are  all  possessed  of  ischial  callosities,  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  cheek  pouches,  serv- 
ing as  temporary  receptacles  for  food,  are 
present ;  the  latter  comprise  tho  anthropoid 
apes,  which,  like  the  gorilla,  assume  a  semi- 
erect  attitude. — The  skull  in  the  quadrumana 
presents  an  extraordinary  amount  of  diver- 
gence. It  rarely  assumes  the  rounded  form 
observed  in  man,  owing  to  tho  disproportion- 
ate size  of  the  face  as  compared  to  that  of 
the  brain  case.  The  facial  portion  attains  its 
greatest  development  in  the  dog-faced  baboon 
(cynocephaliis)  of  Africa,  where  the  jaws  are 
prodigiously  extended.  The  squirrel  monkey 
(chrysothrix)  of  South  America  presents  the 
opposite  extreme,  in  having  the  face  relatively 
smaller  even  than  in  man.  In  no  instance  does 
the  absolute  size  of  the  brain  approach  that 
of  the  human  subject.  The  cranial  capacity, 
which  is  seldom  as  much  as  26  or  27  cubic 
inches  (orang  and  chimpanzee),  reaches  its 
maximum,  35  inches,  in  the  gorilla.  The  num- 
ber of  vertebrae  entering  into  the  composition 
of  the  dorso -lumbar  region  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn is  17  in  the  orang,  chimpanzee,  and  goril- 
la, 18  in  ateles  and  hylobatfs,  22  in  nyctipithe- 
cu»,  and  19  in  the  remaining  monkeys;  in  the 
lemurs  the  number  varies  from  19  (typical)  to 
24  in  stenops  tardiyradits.  The  caudal  verte- 
brae are  susceptible  of  a  much  greater  variation, 
ranging  from  3  in  tho  Barbary  ape  to  33  in  the 
spider  monkey.  The  muscular  system  of  the 
quadrumana  closely  resembles  that  of  man, 
differing  most  widely  in  the  long-tailed  mon- 
keys, where  the  muscles  answering  to  the 
coccygeal  in  the  human  form  are  very  greatly 
developed.  The  respiratory  system  presents 
some  curious  modifications,  especially  noticea- 
ble in  the  singular  structure  of  the  larynges. 
These  are  in  many  cases  provided  with  air 


sacs,  numbering  five  in  the  howlers,  whereby 
the  intensity  of  sound  is  greatly  increased. — 
The  quadrumana  are  very  extensively  distrib- 
uted over  the  tropical  regions  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. The  catarrhini  inhabit  almost  the 
entire  continent  of  Africa,  a  large  portion  of 
southern  Asia,  and  most  of  the  islands  consti- 
tuting the  Indian  archipelago.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  Papua,  an  island  rich  in  animal  and 
vegetable  forms,  and  presenting  climatal  and 
terrestrial  conditions  almost  analogous  to  those 
of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  or  Java,  should  be  en- 
tirely destitute  of  a  monkey  population ;  nor  is 
it  less  remarkable  that  Australia  has  thus  far 
furnished  not  a  single  representative  of  this 
family.  But  one  species,  the  macacut  inuus, 
is  found  native  of  Europe.  Brazil  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  homo  of  the  American  monkeys, 
which  however  extend  from  Mexico  to  the  30th 
parallel  of  S.  latitude.  The  West  India  islands 
present  the  same  peculiarity  as  Papua.  The 
limit  of  the  vertical  distribution  of  the  quad- 
rumana appears  to  be  about  1 1,000  ft. — No  une- 
quivocal remains  of  a  monkey  have  as  yet  been 
discovered  in  any  formation  dating  anterior  to 
the  miocene.  The  best  known  fossil  forms  are 
the  dryopithecui  and  pliopithecus,  from  the 
fresh-water  deposits  of  France.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  present  divisions  of  catar- 
rhini and  platyrrhini  seem  to  have  been  as 
clearly  defined  in  former  ages  as  they  are  now, 
no  representative  of  either  family  having  as 
yet  been  found  in  the  hemisphere  other  than 
that  to  which  it  is  peculiar. — The  exact  posi- 
tion of  the  quadrumana  is  still  unsatisfactorily 
determined.  Their  close  relationship  to  the 
bimana  is  obvious,  but,  as  Mivart  remarks,  it 
may  bo  doubted  whether,  if  the  animal  man 
had  never  existed,  the  highest  point  in  the 
scale  of  perfection  would  have  been  conceded 
to  the  apes.  The  transition  to  the  quadrumana 
from  the  lower  orders  is  effected  through  the 
(jaleopithecus,  a  lissencephalous  insectivore,  in- 
habiting the  Indian  archipelago. — For  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  different  families,  see  the 
articles  APK,  ATE- ATE,  BABOON,  CHIMPANZEE, 
GIBBON,  GORILLA,  LEMUR,  LORI,  MACAQUE, 
MARMOSET,  MONKEY,  and  ORANG-OUTANG.  See 
also  Owen,  "  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  vols. 
i.  and  ii.  (18G6-'8);  Huxley,  "Man's  Place  in 
Nature"  (18fi3),  and  "Anatomy  of  Vertebra- 
ted  Animals"  (1872);  Darwin,  "Descent  of 
Man"  (1871);  and  the  article  "Ape"  by  St. 
George  Mivart  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  "  Encyclopae- 
dia Britannica  "  (9th  ed.,  1875). 

Ql.ESTOR  (Lat.,  from  quaerere,  to  seek),  the 
name  given  to  two  classes  of  officers  at  Rome, 
the  qucettores  parricidii  and  the  qucextores  clat- 
sici.  The  former  have  sometimes  been  con- 
founded with  the  perduellionis  duumriri,  who 
had  their  origin  in  the  time  of  the  kings.  Their 
duty  was  to  bring  accusations  of  capital  of- 
fences, and  to  execute  the  sentence.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  republic,  qitcestoret 
parricidii  were  elected  regnlarly^every  year 
by  the  curise.  After  the  decemvirate  they 


QUAGGA 


QUAIL 


125 


were  appointed  by  the'  centuries,  and  at  the 
passage  of  the  Licinian  laws  their  functions 
were  transferred  to  the  triumviri  capitales, 
sediles,  and  tribunes.  The  qucestores  classici 
had  charge  of  the  public  money,  registered  and 
exacted  fines,  provided  accommodations  for 
foreign  ambassadors  and  guests  of  the  repub- 
lic, took  charge  of  the  funerals  and  monuments 
of  illustrious  men  buried  at  public  expense,  and 
kept  the  books  in  which  the  copies  of  the  sen- 
ate decrees  were  registered  until  the  time  of 
Augustus,  when  the  originals  were  given  into 
their  hands.  This  office  could  only  be  held  by 
patricians  until  421  B.  C.,  when  the.number, 
which  previously  had  been  two,  was  doubled, 
and  the  choice  was  not  confined  to  either  or- 
der ;  but  it  was  not  until  ten  years  later  that 
any  plebeians  were  elected.  Afterward  the 
consuls  in  their  campaigns  were  attended  each 
by  one  quaestor,  who  originally  took  charge 
only  of  the  sale  of  the  spoils,  but  subsequently 
became  the  paymaster  of  the  army.  In  265 
B.  C.  the  number  of  quaestors  was  raised  to 
eight,  one  of  whom  resided  at  Ostia  and  sup- 
plied Rome  with  corn.  After  this  the  number 
varied.  By  Sulla  it  was  raised  to  20,  and  by 
Julius  Caesar  to  40.  In  49  B.  C.  the  latter  also 
transferred  the  administration  of  the  public 
treasury  to  the  sediles,  subsequently  to  the 
praetors,  and  sometimes  to  the  prefects  of  the 
treasury,  and  sometimes  again  to  the  quaestors. 
During  the  empire  some  qusestors  were  entitled 
candidati  principis,  and  their  duty  was  to  read 
to  the  senate  the  communications  of  the  em- 
peror. From  the  reign  of  Claudius  it  became 
the  custom  of  quaestors  on  assuming  their  office 
to  give  gladiatorial  spectacles  to  the  people,  so 
that  none  but  wealthy  men  were  eligible  ;  and 
the  custom  also  prevailed  in  Constantinople 
after  it  became  a  capital  of  the  empire. — Every 
praetor  or  proconsul  was  attended  in  his  prov- 
ince by  a  quaestor,  who,  besides  being  paymas- 
ter of  the  army,  raised  the  revenue  not  farmed 
out  to  the  publicani,  and  controlled  the  latter 
also.  When  the  praetor  was  away,  the  quaestor 
took  his  place,  in  which  case  he  was  attended 
by  lictors.  During  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
the  title  of  quaestor  sacri  palatii  was  given  to 
an  officer  in  the  imperial  court,  whose  func- 
tions were  somewhat  analogous  to  those  of  a 
modern  chancellor. — Any  person  who  had  held 
the  office  of  quaestor  was  entitled  to  a  seat  in 
the  senate,  unless  excluded  by  the  next  censors. 
QUAGGA,  a  species  of  zebra,  belonging  to  the 
asinine  division  of  the  horse  family,  and  to  the 
genus  asinm  as  defined  by  Gray,  characterized 
by  a  tail  furnished  with  long  hair  only  at  the 
tip,  the  absence  of  horny  warts  on  the  hind 
legs,  and  a  short  and  upright  mane.  The 
quagga  {A.  quagga,  Gray)  is  about  4  ft.  high 
at  the  shoulders ;  the  neck  and  anterior  parts 
of  the  body  are  dark  brown,  elegantly  striped 
with  broad  black  bands ;  the  rest  of  the  body 
paler  brown,  belly  and  legs  white ;  a  dark 
median  line  on  the  back  extending  to  the  tail. 
This  beautiful  species  associates  in  large  herds 


with  the  gnu  and  ostrich,  but  not  with  other 
zebras,  on  the  plains  of  S.  Africa,  and  is  rare- 
ly found  north  of  the  Gariep  or  Orange  river ; 
it  is  the  most  horse-like  in  structure  of  any  of 
the  group,  having  the  form,  light  figure,  and 
small  head  and  ears  of  the  horse,  with  the  tail 
of  the  ass;  Buffon  regarded  it  as  a  hybrid 


Quagga  (Asinus  quagga) 


between  a  horse  and  a  zebra.  It  is  swift,  and 
rather  shy  in  its  native  state,  strong,  robust, 
and  bold  when  attacked  by  hyaenas  or  dogs ; 
the  voice  resembles  a  barking  neigh  more  than 
a  bray,  and  has  given  to  the  animal  the  Hot- 
tentot name  of  quagga.  It  is  the  most  easily 
domesticated  of  the  zebras,  and  is  docile,  gen- 
erally good-natured,  and  obedient,  but  disposed 
to  kick  at  the  sight  of  a  dog.  Its  fiesh,  though 
coarse,  is  eaten  by  natives  and  hunters. 

QUAHAUG.     See  CLAM. 

QUAIL,  the  common  name  of  several  genera 
of  the  partridge  division  of  gallinaceous  birds. 
The  American  quails  constitute  the  subfamily 
of  odontophorince  or  ortygince,  which  have  a 
short,  high,  and  arched  bill,  compressed  on  the 
sides,  with  obtuse  tip,  the  upper  overhanging 
the  lower  mandible,  and  the  latter  with  two 
teeth  on  each  side  concealed  when  the  mandi- 
bles are  closed ;  the  wings  moderate,  concave, 
and  rounded ;  tarsi  generally  slender;  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe,  and  covered  with  divided 
scales ;  toes  long,  the  inner  shorter  than  the 
outer ;  claws  slightly  curved  and  acute.  In 
the  genus  ortyx  (Steph.)  the  head  is  without 
crest,  the  bill  broad,  the  third  quill  nearly  as 
long  as  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth,  which  are 
longest ;  tail  short,  broad,  and  rounded ;  toes 
slender,  slightly  united  at  the  base  by  mem- 
brane ;  hind  toe  moderate  and  slightly  eleva- 
ted. There  are  about  a  dozen  species,  found 
in  North  and  Central  America  and  in  the  "West 
Indies ;  they  seek  their  food  on  the  ground 
among  the  leaves,  eating  grains,  seeds,  berries, 
and  insects,  which  they  swallow  with  small 
pebbles  or  fine  sand.  The  common  quail,  or 
Bob  White  (0.  Virginianus,  Bonap.),  is  about 
10  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  15  in. ;  the 


126 


QUAIL 


general  color  above  is  brownish  red,  especial- 
ly on  the  wing  coverts,  tinged  with  gray  and 
mottled  with  dusky  on  the  upper  back ;  chin, 
throat,  forehead,  and  lines  through  the  eyes 


Common  Quail  (Ortyx  Virginianus). 

and  along  the  sides  of  the  neck,  white ;  a  black 
band  across  the  top  of  the  head,  extending 
backward  on  the  sides,  and  from  the  bill  be- 
low the  eyes  crossing  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
throat ;  below  white,  tinged  with  brown  an- 
teriorly, each  feather  with  black  bands;  the 
female  has  not  the  black  marks,  and  the  white 
on  the  head  is  replaced  by  brownish  yellow. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  eastern  United  States  to 
the  high  central  plains ;  the  northern  birds 
are  largest  and  lighter  colored,  the  southern 
with  more  black  on  the  head,  wings,  and  back ; 
a  smaller  and  more  grayish  variety  in  Texas 
has  been  separated  as  a  species.  The  flight 
is  rapid,  low,  and  with  numerous  quick  flap- 
"pfngs.  It  takes  to  trees  when  alarmed,  a  flock 
dispersing  in  all  directions  and  afterward  com- 
ing together  at  the  call  of  the  leader.  The 
males  are  very  pugnacious,  and  in  the  breed- 
ing season  utter  the  well  known  notes,  "  Ah 
Bob  White,"  the  first  syllable  rather  low,  but 
the  others  loud  and  clear ;  by  some  these  notes 
are  thought  to  resemble  u  more  wet,"  and  are 
therefore  regarded  as  omens  of  rainy  weather. 
The  eggs  are  10  to  18,  pure  white;  the  young 
run  about  as  soon  as  hatched,  but  follow  the 
old  birds  till  spring,  when  they  acquire  their 
full  plumage,  pair,  and  breed ;  only  one  brood 
is  raised  in  a  season.  They  rest  on  the  ground 
at  night,  arranged  in  a  circle  with  their  heads 
outward,  so  that  each  can  fly  off  in  a  straight 
line,  if  alarmed,  without  interfering  with  the 
others ;  they  are  easily  caught  in  snares  and 
traps  or  driven  into  nets;  they  are  difficult 
to  raise  from  the  egg,  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  impossibility  of  obtaining  the  insects  on 
which  the  young  feed,  but  adults  fatten  well 
in  captivity,  eating  grain,  seeds,  and  berries ; 
their  flesh  toward  autumn  is  fat,  juicy,  and 
tender,  white  and  highly  esteemed ;  many 
perish  from  cold  and  hunger  and  from  being 


imprisoned  under  the  snow  during  severe  win- 
ters. There  is  great  confusion  a*bout  the  name 
of  this  bird ;  it  is  called  quail  in  the  northern 
states,  but  in  the  middle  and  southern  par- 
tridge;  where  the  former  name  prevails  the 
ruffed  grouse  is  called  partridge,  and  where 
the  latter  this  grouse  is  styled  pheasant;  as 
neither  the  name  quail,  partridge,  nor  pheas- 
ant is  properly  given  to  any  American  bird, 
Mr.  Baird  proposes  to  call  this  species  Bob 
White,  and  the  other  mountain  grouse. — The 
genus  lophortyx  (Bonap.)  has  a  crest  of  about 
half  a  dozen  lengthened  feathers,  the  shafts 
in  the  same  vertical  plane  and  the  recurved 
webs  overlapping  each  other ;  the  bill  weak ; 
tail  lengthened  and  graduated,  of  12  stiff  feath- 
ers, and  nearly  as  long  as  the  wings.  Here 
belongs  the  beautiful  California  quail  (L.  Cali- 
fornicu*,  Bonap.),  about  9$  in.  long,  with 
back  and  wings  olivaceous  brown,  the  sec- 
ondaries and  tertiaries  edged  with  buff ;  breast 
and  neck  above  plumbeous,  the  imbricated 
feathers  on  the  latter  with  an  edge  and  middle 
stripe  of  black  ;  top  of  head  brown,  and  crest 
black;  throat  black  edged  with  white.  This 
takes  the  place  of  the  Bob  White  in  California 


California  Quail  (Lophortyx  Callfornicus). 

and  Oregon. — The  European  quail  belongs  to 
the  genus  coturnix  (Mohr.)  of  the  partridge 
subfamily;  in  this  the  bill  is  short,  elevated 
at  the  base  and  arched  to  the  obtuse  tip ;  wings 
moderate,  with  the  second  to  the  fourth  quills 
the  longest ;  tail  very  short,  pendant,  and 
mostly  hidden  by  the  coverts.  There  are 
about  20  species,  scattered  over  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Australia,  migrating  in  large  flocks  to 
warm  regions  in  winter ;  some  prefer  culti- 
vated districts,  among  tufts  of  grass,  others 
rocky  places,  and  others  elevated  table  lands; 
the  food  and  habits  are  as  in  other  partridges. 
The  European -quail  (C.  communis,  Bonn.)  is 
8  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  14  in. ;  the 
upper  parts  are  variegated  with  reddish  gra5 
and  brownish  black,  with  whitish  longitudi- 
nal streaks;  throat  of  male  dark  brown,  and 


QUAKERS 


QUARANTINE 


127 


a  double  interrupted  black  band  on  the  fore 
neck;  throat  of  female  yellowish  gray;  head 
completely  feathered,  with  a  white  streak  over 
the  eyes.  It  is  abundant  in  southern  Europe, 


European  Quail  (Coturnix  communis). 

India,  and  N.  Africa;  it  was  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  who  employed  it  as  a  fighting 
bird  for  their  amusement.  The  notes  of  the 
male,  especially  in  moonlight  nights  in  sum- 
mer, are  very  clear  and  pleasing,  and  have  ac- 
quired for  it  the  specific  name  of  dactyloso- 
nans.  The  Chinese  quail  ( C.  Chinensi#,~E<lw.) 
is  a  smaller  species,  used  in  the  East  Indies  as 
a  fighting  bird,  and  also  for  warming  the  own- 
ers' hands  in  winter. — The  turnicince  or  bush 
quails  of  the  old  world  have  a  moderate  and 
usually  straight  bill,  short  wings,  and  tail  al- 
most concealed  by  the  dorsal  feathers;  tarsi 
strong;  toes  usually  three,  long,  and  free  at 
the  base.  In  the  genus  turnix  (Bonn.)  the 
bill  is  curved,  the  tertials  shorter  than  the  pri- 
maries, and  the  first,  second,  and  third  quills 
equal  and  longest.  There  are  more  than  20 
small  species  found  in  southern  Europe,  India 
and  its  islands,  Africa,  Madagascar,  and  Aus- 
tralia; they  frequent  open  places  near  rivers, 
keeping  near  the  ground  when  flying,  and  run- 
ning rapidly  among  the  grasses ;  the  eggs  are 
usually  four.  The  T.  puynax  (Lath.)  of  Java 
has  the  body  varied  with  reddish  black  and 
white,  beneath  streaked  with  white  and  black, 
amd  throat  black. 

QUAKERS.     See  FRIENDS. 

QUARANTINE  (It.  quarantine,,  Fr.  quaran- 
taine,  a  space  of  40  days),  a  police  regulation 
for  the  exclusion  of  contagious  diseases  from  a 
city  or  state.  Sanitary  laws  are  founded  upon 
the  assumption  that  certain  diseases  depend 
upon  a  specific  contagion,  and  their  professed 
ends  are  to  prevent  the  exportation,  importa- 
tion, and  spreading  of  contagious  pestilential 
disease.  For  the  first  we  have  a  process  of 
purification,  for  the  second  quarantine  and 
lazarettos,  and  for  the  third  lines  of  circum- 
vallation  and  other  modes  of  separation,  seclu- 
sion, and  restriction.  The  subjects  of  the 
693  VOL.  xiv.— 9 


sanitary  code  are  epidemic  and  pestilential 
diseases  generally,  of  which  cholera,  plague, 
yellow  fever,  smallpox,  typhus,  and  dysentery 
are  the  principal;  but  its  operations  have 
chiefly  been  directed  against  the  supposed  con- 
tagions of  plague  and  yellow  fever,  and  of 
late  years  have  formed  a  feature  in  the  sani- 
tary police  of  domestic  animals.  Moses  pre- 
scribed (Lev.  xiii.)  the  most  stringent  precau- 
tionary measures  to  prevent  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease. He  not  only  ordered  the  lepers  to  be 
set  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  people,  but  re- 
quired that  their  clothes  should  be  purified, 
and  even  that  the  garments  belonging  to  the 
more  aggravated  cases  should  be  burned.  He 
gives  explicit  directions  for  the  purification  of 
the  persons  of  those  who  have  been  cured  of 
the  disease,  and  also  determines  the  time  that 
the  diseased  shall  dwell  alone  without  the 
camp,  as  well  as  without  their  tent  after  be- 
ing permitted  to  enter  the  camp.  A  peremp- 
tory sequestration  of  seven  to  fourteen  days 
is  also  ordered  for  all  those  who  had  diseases 
of  the  skin.  Long  after  Moses  the  religious 
laws  were  rigorously  executed ;  and  when  the 
crusaders  occupied  Jerusalem,  they  established 
outside  of  the  city  an  isolated  place  for  the 
treatment  of  contagious  diseases,  called  the 
hospital  of  St.  Lazarus,  whence  the  word  laza- 
retto. Quarantine  in  Europe  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  13th  or  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century,  when  leprosy  prevailed  in  Italy  and 
France.  A  military  expedition  returning  from 
the  Holy  Land  brought  with  it  the  Egyptian 
plague,  which  was  looked  upon  as  a  new  dis- 
ease, and  excited  an  unusual  degree  of  atten- 
tion from  its  great  mortality  and  contagious 
character ;  it  was  soon  discovered  that  those 
who  avoided  the  sick  escaped  the  disease.  The 
first  quarantine  regulation  originated  with 
Viscount  Bernabo  of  Reggio  in  Italy,  and  is 
dated  Jan.  17,  1374.  Yet  the  authorities  of 
Florence  are  said  to  have  used  occasional  pre- 
cautions as  early  as  1348,  and  we  see  in  Fa- 
lasius  that  the  emperors  of  the  East  had  pre- 
scribed measures  against  those  who  arrived 
from  places  where  plague  prevailed,  and  it  was 
at  that  time  that  the  space  of  40  days  was  fixed 
to  observe  them.  The  first  quarantine  regula- 
tions, founded  on  superstition  and  prejudice 
rather  than  reason  and  science,  were  most 
cruel  and  inhuman.  The  order  of  Bernabo 
required  "  every  plague  patient  to  be  taken  out 
of  the  city  into  the  field,  there  to  die  or  to  re- 
cover." Their  attendants  were  forbidden  to 
associate  with  any  one  for  ten  days.  Not  only 
were  these  regulations  strictly  enforced,  but  in 
1388  Bernabo  forbade  the  admission  of  people 
from  infected  places  into  his  territory,  on  pain 
of  death.  In  course  of  time  the  benefits  of 
these  precautionary  measures  began  to  be  un- 
derstood and  generally  practised ;  but  we  have 
no  account  of  any  well  defined  legal  code  of 
regulations  until  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century,  when  the  commerce  of  Venice  was 
at  its  highest  point.  Robertson  says  this  city 


128 


QUARANTINE 


was  not  afflicted  with  plague  while  her  com- 
merce was  limited  or  when  it  was  dulled  by 
the  rivalries  of  the  orientals;  but  when  she 
had  become  strong  enough  to  undertake  con- 
quests, when  she  covered  the  Mediterranean 
with  her  ships,  and  made  commerce  and  war 
at  the  same  time,  she  was  invaded  by  a  suc- 
cession of  plagues  which  originated  in  the 
Levant.  In  six  centuries  (from  901  to  1500) 
she  had  63  epidemics.  The  Venetian  senate 
in  1448  enacted  a  digest  of  laws  known  as  the 
laws  of  quarantine.  This  system  obliged  all 
ships  and  individuals  arriving  from  suspected 
places  to  undergo  a  terra  of  probation  before 
entering  port  and  discharging  their  cargoes. 
The  first  organized  lazaretto  or  pest  house  was 
erected  in  1453  on  the  island  of  Sardinia,  sub- 
sequently called  il  lazaretto  vecchio ;  another 
was  erected  in  1468,  called  il  lazaretto  nuovo. 
All  persons  arriving  from  places  where  the 
existence  of  plague  was  suspected  were  de- 
tained there.  The  sick  from  the  city  laboring 
under  the  disease  were  sent  with  their  families 
to  the  former  station,  and  when  cured  were 
kept  still  40  days  longer  in  the  latter.  At  a 
later  period  the  republic  of  Venice  established 
the  first  board  of  health,  consisting  of  three 
nobles,  who  were  appointed  by  the  grand  coun- 
cil. They  were  called  the  council  of  health,  and 
were  ordered  to  investigate  the  best  means 
for  preserving  health  and  for  preventing  the 
introduction  of  disease  from  abroad.  The  ef- 
forts of  this  council  not  being  entirely  suc- 
cessful, in  1504  they  were  invested  with  the 
power  of  life  and  death  over  those  who  vio- 
lated the  regulations  for  health,  and  there  was 
no  appeal  from  their  sentence.  During  the 
prevalence  of  plague  in  Italy  about  1527  bills 
of  health  were  first  introduced,  and  in  1605 
they  had  become  general.  Quarantines  and 
lazarettos  began  to  multiply  along  the  shores 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  other  nations  established 
similar  laws.  Though  certain  preventive  regu- 
lations had  existed  in  England  from  a  very 
early  period,  no  regular  system  of  quarantine 
was  enforced  until  about  1710,  when  plague 
was  raging  in  the  towns  on  the  Baltic.  Du- 
ring the  dreadful  plague  at  Marseilles  in  1720 
the  government  appointed  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Richard  Mead  to  draw  up  quarantine  regula- 
tions. Parliament,  approving  his  suggestions, 
repealed  the  act  of  1710,  and  passed  an  act 
establishing  quarantine  throughout  the  com- 
mercial kingdom.  Yellow  fever  visited  Phila- 
delphia in  1699,  and  in  1700  the  general  assem- 
bly enacted  the  first  quarantine  law  in  this 
country,  imposing  a  fine  of  £100  for  every  un- 
healthy vessel  that  landed.  In  1701  a  health  law 
partly  quarantine  was  enacted  in  Massachusetts. 
The  first  law  on  the  subject  in  New  York  was 
passed  by  the  colonial  legislature  in  1758.  Con- 
gress passed  "an  act  respecting  quarantines 
and  health  laws,"  approved  Feb.  25,  1799, 
which  still  stands  upon  the  statutes.  In  1831 
cholera  rode  over  all  quarantine  restraints; 
and  these  barriers  being  deemed  antiquated, 


reforms  were  suggested.  On  Aug.  18,  1847,  a 
royal  ordinance  of  France  declared  the  first 
recognition  of  the  truth,  based  upon  the  opin- 
ions of  medical  men,  that  many  of  the  restric- 
tions of  quarantine  were  unnecessarily  burden- 
some, and  therefore  they  were  abolished.  Still 
other  reforms  were  established  by  decrees  of 
Aug.  10,  1849,  and  Dec.  24, 1850.  Dupeyron 
suggested  the  idea  of  a  sanitary  congress.  A 
convention  of  delegates  from  the  principal 
countries  in  Europe  met  in  Paris  in  1851,  and 
after  a  long  discussion  proposed  an  interna- 
tional code  of  quarantine  laws,  which  was  rati- 
fied by  the  nations  represented.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  cholera  in  1865  the  French  gov- 
ernment called  an  international  sanitary  con- 
ference at  Constantinople.  Since  this  discus- 
sion quarantine  has  been  established  on  a  sci- 
entific basis,  and  more  in  accordance  with  mod- 
ern notions  of  liberty  and  justice. — Reviewing 
the  history  of  quarantine,  several  periods  may 
be  distinguished.  At  first  people,  seized  with 
terror,  became  panic-stricken  ;  they  wanted  to 
be  protected  at  any  price.  During  this  first 
period  of  superstition  and  terror,  plague- 
stricken  cities  were  burned ;  the  sick  were  left 
alone  to  die;  the  shipwrecked  from  a  suspected 
port  were  refused  assistance;  and  physicians, 
afraid  to  appproach  their  patients,  threw  bis- 
touries at  them  from  a  distance  in  order  to 
open  their  buboes.  The  second  may  be  called 
the  period  of  reaction.  The  atmosphere  was 
considered  as  the  vehicle  of  epidemics,  and  was 
supposed  to  transmit  diseases  to  a  great  dis- 
tance. Going  to  the  opposite  extreme,  quaran- 
tines were  declared  useless.  The  cholera  of 
1830  furnished  new  arms  to  the  adversaries  of 
restrictive  measures.  The  severe  quarantines 
and  cordons  organized  on  a  vast  scale  in  Rus- 
sia and  Prussia,  and  other  parts  of  central  Eu- 
rope, applied  in  the  midst  of  dense  populations, 
became  mere  propagating  agents.  With  the 
conference  of  Constantinople  the  question  en- 
ters on  the  third  or  scientific  period,  when  the 
true  principles  of  international  hygiene  became 
established.  Why  the  term  of  40  days  was 
fixed  upon  as  a  proof  whether  people  were 
infected,  is  not  very  clear.  Some  say  it  was 
chosen  merely  from  superstitious  notions,  be- 
cause people  were  accustomed  to  it  in  Lent ; 
others  that  it  arose  from  the  doctrine  of  physi- 
cians in  regard  to  the  critical  days  of  many  dis- 
eases.— Communication  with  a  country  where 
a  contagious  disease  exists  may  be  interdict- 
ed by  lines  of  troops  or  detachments  posted 
from  place  to  place.  Some  happy  results  may 
be  cited  in  favor  of  these  sanitary  cordons 
applied  at  an  opportune  time  and  rigorously 
observed.  Forts  and  villages  in  Orenburg  and 
Astrakhan  have  been  preserved  from  cholera 
by  this  means,  as  well  as  other  towns  in  Russia, 
and  also  in  Palestine  and  Arabia.  The  original 
lazaretto  at  Venice  was  the  model  for  most 
of  those  forming  part  of  the  quarantine  estab- 
ment  in  nearly  all  European  ports.  The  old 
lazarettos  are  more  dangerous  than  useful ; 


QUAKANTINE 


129 


those  of  Ancona  and  the  Dardanelles  gave 
ample  proof  of  this  during  the  cholera  epi- 
demic of  1865.  At  the  present  day  temporary 
lazarettos  are  considered  the  most  desirable. 
Floating  ones  have  lately  been  used  in  New 
York.  In  England  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
lazaretto,  though  the  quarantine  act  of  July 
28,  1800,  provided  for  the  erection  of  a  lazaret 
on  Chetney  hill,  in  the  county  of  Kent. — A 
rigorous  quarantine  consists  in  the  sequestra- 
tion and  isolation  of  both  ships  and  persons  for 
a  determined  time,  with  disinfection  of  every- 
thing susceptible  of  concealing  morbific  germs. 
A  quarantine  of  observation  holds  ship,  crew, 
&c.,  under  surveillance  for  a  certain  number  of 
days ;  it  may  be  enforced  against  a  ship  from 
a  suspected  port,  or  a  ship  in  a  filthy  or  un- 
healthy condition,  although  there  may  be  no 
case  of  actual  sickness  on  board.  When  a 
ship  is  about  to  sail,  she  is  furnished  by  the 
consul  of  her  country  or  other  competent  au- 
thority with  a  bill  of  health,  which  is  her  pass- 
port. It  shows  the  sanitary  state  of  the  place 
of  departure  and  of  the  points  at  which  she  has 
put  in.  A  foul  bill  is  delivered  in  a  port  where 
cholera,  plague,  or  yellow  fever  prevails;  a 
clean  bill,  where  none  of  these  diseases  exist. 
The  duration  of  quarantine  is  regulated  by  the 
nature  of  these  documents.  The  declaration 
of  the  captain  or  master  of  the  vessel,  upon 
all  incidents  of  the  voyage  having  reference  to 
the  public  health,  is  an  act  in  certain  circum- 
stances of  high  importance.  In  1865,  upon 
false  declarations  made  at  Suez  and  at  Constan- 
tinople, two  captains  obtained  free  entry  into 
two  ports;  and  the  terrible  consequences  of 
these  lying  declarations  are  well  known.  Sev- 
eral countries  where  the  cattle  plague  is  re- 
garded as  exotic  have  enacted  laws  to  prevent 
its  spread ;  and  an  act  of  parliament  is  believed 
to  have  prevented  its  spread  in  Great  Britain. 
Legal  enactments  of  the  same  nature,  only 
more  stringent,  prevail  in  France  and  Holland, 
and  by  the  Ottoman  government  peste  bovine 
is  equally  regarded  with  the  plague,  cholera, 
and  yellow  fever.  An  act  of  congress  "  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  foreign  diseases  among  the 
cattle  of  the  United  States"  was  approved  Dec. 
18,  1865,  and  an  act  amending  this,  March  6, 
1866.  Cattle  plague  appeared  simultaneously 
a  few  years  ago  in  England  and  France,  and 
the  most  rigorous  methods  were  taken  to  strike 
at  the  root  of  the  evil.  In  France  it  sufficed  to 
kill  100  head  of  cattle  to  put  an  end  to  the 
progress  of  the  epidemic.  In  England,  owing 
to  difference  of  opinion  and  insufficiency  of 
legislation,  things  were  allowed  to  take  their 
natural  course,  and  as  many  as  300,000  head  of 
cattle  were  lost. — In  the  United  States  quaran- 
tine is  exceedingly  defective.  Each  state  has 
laws  of  its  own,  which  in  many  cases  are  ab- 
surd and  conflict  with  one  another.  The  law 
deserving  most  attention  is  that  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  New  York,  Jan.  22, 1873,  entitled  "An 
act  establishing  a  quarantine,  and  defining  the 
qualifications,  duties,  and  powers  of  the  health 


officer  for  the  harbor  and  port  of  New  York." 
The  quarantine  establishment  for  the  port  of 
New  York  consists  of  warehouses,  docks,  and 
wharves,  anchorage  for  vessels,  a  floating  hos- 
pital, boarding  station,  burying  ground,  and 
residence  for  officers  and  men.  Merchants  are 
afforded  facilities  for  overhauling  and  refitting 
vessels  while  in  quarantine.  Connected  with 
the  warehouses  are  apartments  with  appliances 
for  special  disinfection  by  forced  ventilation, 
refrigeration,  high  steam,  dry  heat,  and  chemi- 
cal disinfection.  The  boarding  station  for  sus- 
pected vessels,  arriving  between  the  first  day 
of  April  and  the  first  day  of  November,  is  in 
the  lower  bay  below  the  Narrows.  Vessels 
are  boarded  as  soon  as  practicable  after  their 
arrival,  between  sunrise  and  sunset.  The  an- 
chorage for  vessels  under  quarantine  is  in  the 
lower  bay,  two  miles  from  shore,  and  within 
an  area  designated  by  buoys.  Quarantine  ap- 
plies against  yellow  fever,  cholera,  typhus  or 
ship  fever,  and  smallpox,  and  any  new  disease 
of  a  contagious,  infectious,  or  pestilential  na- 
ture. The  floating  hospital,  with  a  capacity 
sufficient  to  accommodate  100  patients,  is  an- 
chored in  the  lower  bay  from  the  first  of  May 
to  the  first  of  November ;  at  other  times  it  is 
anchored  in  some  more  secure  place.  The  hos- 
pital at  "West  bank,  when  so  required,  is  used 
exclusively  for  yellow  fever  and  cholera  pa- 
tients. The  buildings  on  Hoffman  island  are 
used  as  a  place  of  reception  and  temporary  de- 
tention of  persons  who  have  been  exposed  to 
contagious  or  infectious  diseases,  but  who  are 
not  actually  sick.  The  health  officer  is  the 
custodian  of  the  quarantine  establishment ; 
his  .jurisdiction  extends  within  the  limits  of 
the  city  and  county  of  New  York.  In  ascer- 
taining the  sanitary  condition  of  a  vessel  he  is 
authorized  to  examine  under  oath  the  captain, 
crew,  and  passengers,  and  to  inspect  the  bill 
of  health,  manifest,  log  book,  cargo,  &c.  Ves- 
sels liable  to  quarantine  are  required  to  dis- 
charge in  quarantine,  and  be  detained  long 
enough  thereafter  for  disinfection  and  aera- 
tion, such  detention  not  to  exceed  ten  days 
unless  the  disease  occurs  or  reappears  during 
that  interval,  in  which  event  the  time  is  «x- 
tended  ten  days.  But  no  vessel  or  cargo  which 
has  been  in  quarantine  is  allowed  to  proceed 
to  New  York  or  Brooklyn  without  the  ap- 
proval of  the  mayor  or  board  of  health  of 
those  cities  respectively.  Filthy  or  unhealth- 
ful  vessels  are  subject  to  quarantine  for  purifi- 
cation, not  exceeding  ten  days.  On  Infected 
or  suspected  vessels  all  clothing,  personal  bag- 
gage, cotton,  hemp,  rags,  paper,  hides,  skins, 
feathers,  hair,  woollens,  and  other  articles  of 
animal  origin,  are  subjected  to  an  obligatory 
quarantine  and  purification.  Molasses,  sugar, 
and  live  and  healthy  cattle  are  subjected  to 
quarantine  at  the  option  of  the  health  officer. 
All  other  merchandise  is  exempted  from  quar- 
antine and  admitted  without  delay.  The  effects 
of  persons  who  die  in  quarantine  are  taken  in 
charge  by  the  health  officer,  and  if  not  claimed 


130 


QUARANTINE 


by  the  rightful  heir  within  three  months  are 
delivered  to  the  public  administrator  of  the 
city  of  New  York.  All  persons  who  have  died 
are  interred  without  delay  in  the  quarantine 
burying  ground  at  Seguin's  point.  A  vessel  has 
the  right  to  put  to  sea  before  breaking  bulk, 
in  preference  to  going  into  quarantine ;  but  the 
health  officer  in  such  case  indorses  on  her  bill 
of  health  the  circumstances  under  which  she 
leaves  port,  the  length  of  her  detention,  and 
her  actual  condition,  and  sends  to  the  quaran- 
tine hospital  such  sick  as  may  desire  to  remain. 
All  passengers  on  board  of  vessels  under  quar- 
antine are  provided  for  by  the  master  of  the 
vessel.  Any  person  violating  the  quarantine 
regulations,  or  who  shall  oppose  or  obstruct 
the  health  officer  or  any  of  his  employees  in 
the  performance  of  their  duties,  is  guilty  of 
misdemeanor  and  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not 
less  than  $100,  or  by  imprisonment  not  less 
than  three  nor  more  than  six  months,  or  by 
both  such  fine  and  imprisonment.  Any  person 
aggrieved  by  any  decision  of  the  health  officer 
may  appeal  therefrom  to  the  commissioners  of 
quarantine,  who  constitute  a  board  of  appeal. — 
On  June  6,  1872,  congress  passed  a  joint  reso- 
lution providing  for  a  more  effective  system 
of  quarantine  on  the  southern  and  gulf  coasts. 
Dr.  Harvey  E.  Brown  of  the  army,  being  de- 
tailed in  obedience  to  the  resolution,  made  a 
thorough  report,  on  the  strength  of  which  a 
national  quarantine  was  proposed,  and  "  An 
act  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  contagious 
or  infectious  diseases  into  the  United  States  " 
passed  the  house  of  representatives,  but  did 
not  become  a  law.  Quarantine  in  France,  un- 
der the  new  organization  of  1850,  founded 
upon  the  departmental  division,  comprises  two 
elements  :  the  one,  active  and  responsible,  rep- 
resenting authority  ;  the  other  simply  consul- 
tative, and  representing  the  locality.  The  first 
is  personified  in  an  agent  appointed  directly  by 
the  minister,  called  director  of  health  or  prin- 
cipal agent,  according  as  his  duties  are  more  or 
less  circumscribed.  The  second  is  formed  of 
a  reunion  of  small  functionaries  and  citizens 
taken  from  certain  competent  categories,  and 
io  particular  from  among  the  members  of  the 
council  of  hygiene  and  board  of  health.  This 
organization  is  that  of  the  large  ports,  which 
alone  have  a  director  and  a  special  agent.  In 
the  others  the  service,  reduced  for  economy  to 
the  strictest  necessity,  is  done  by  secondary 
agents,  principally  employees  of  the  custom 
house,  who  perform  this  service  concurrently 
with  their  other  functions.  In  India  only 
limited  measures  have  been  taken  to  prevent 
the  exportation  of  cholera.  The  "  natives  pas- 
senger act,"  promulgated  by  the  government 
of  India  in  1858,  only  applies  to  the  hygienic 
conditions  and  navigability  of  ships.  The 
Dutch  government,  with  a  view  to  reducing 
the  constantly  increasing  number  of  pilgrims 
who  go  from  its  possessions  to  Mecca,  has  es- 
tablished a  regulation  which  may  be  beneficial 
in  the  future. — Many  intelligent  scientific  ob- 


QUARLES 

servers  have  not  only  suggested  sweeping  and 
radical  reforms  in  quarantine,  but  have  ques- 
tioned its  utility  and  recommended  its  entire 
abrogation.  In  England,  the  general  board  of 
health,  after  close  investigation,  propose  the 
entire  discontinuance  of  quarantines,  substitu- 
ting for  them  a  strict  code  of  international  hy- 
gienic regulations,  and  they  unhesitatingly  as- 
sert that  quarantines  are  no  public  security. 
The  doctrine  of  a  specific  contagion,  so  univer- 
sally received  when  quarantines  were  first  es- 
tablished, has  lately  undergone  almost  an  en- 
tire revolution.  Objections  to  new  and  more' 
comprehensive  measures  of  protection  on  the 
part  of  the  general  government  of  the  United 
States  cannot  now  be  raised,  as  in  the  days  of 
Jefferson,  who  in  1804,  in  a  communication  to 
congress  on  the  state  of  the  Union,  protested 
against  the  adoption  of  a  code  of  laws  to  pre- 
vent the  introduction  of  yellow  fever.  The 
conference  at  Constantinople,  although  estab- 
lishing the  true  principles  of  international  hy- 
giene, was  occupied  exclusively  with  their  ap- 
plication to  cholera.  It  is  proposed  that  any 
resolutions  adopted  by  a  future  convention 
should  have  for  their  common  end  the  preser- 
vation of  the  healthy  individual,  and  be  founded 
upon  a  different  principle :  to  regulate  the  iso- 
lation and  sequestration  of  the  human  species, 
and  to  systematize  the  destruction  of  animals. 
QUABLES.  I.  Frauds,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Stewards,  Essex,  in  1592,  died  Sept.  8, 1644. 
He  was  educated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge, 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  cupbearer  for 
a  while  to  the  queen  of  Bohemia,  and  in  1621 
went  to  Dublin,  where  he  became  secretary  to 
Bishop  Usher.  Returning  to  England  after 
several  years'  absence,  he  was  appointed  chro- 
nologer  to  the  city  of  London,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  labors  until  the  rupture  between 
the  king  and  parliament,  when  his  attachment 
to  the  royal  cause  plunged  him  into  difficulties 
from  which  he  never  recovered.  His  best 
known  writings  are  his  "  Divine  Emblems " 
(1035)  and  "Enchiridion"  (1641).  The  for- 
mer, imitated  from  the  Pin  Detideria  of  the 
Jesuit  Herman  Hugo,  consists  of  symbolical 
pictures  with  short  moral  lessons  in  verse ;  the 
latter  is  a  collection  of  brief  essays  and  apho- 
risms, in  vigorous  and  occasionally  eloquent  lan- 
guage. Among  his  poetical  works  are :  "  Feast 
for  Worms,  or  the  History  of  Jonah  "  (1620) ; 
"Quintessence  of  Meditation"  (1620);  "Ar- 
galus  and  Parthenia"  (1621);  "History  of 
Queen  Esther;"  an  "Alphabet  of  Elegies" 
(1632),  in  memory  of  his  friend  Archdeacon 
Aylmer;  "Hieroglyphics"  (1638);  "The 
Shepherd's  Oracles"  (1644);  and  "The  Virgin 
Widow"  (1649),  a  comedy.  "The  School  of 
the  Heart,"  attributed  to  him,  is  a  translation 
of  a  Latin  poem  by  Van  Haeften  of  Antwerp, 
published  anonymously  in  London  in  1635.  In 
most  of  these  works  he  evinces  strength  of 
thought  and  considerable  wit,  but  frequently 
becomes  absurd  and  grotesque.  His  "  Enchi- 
ridion "  has  been  republished  in  Smith's  "  Li- 


QUARTZ 


131 


brary  of  Old  Authors ;"  the  "  School  of  the 
Heart  "  and  "  Hieroglyphics "  were  reprinted 
in  London  in  1858,  and  the  "Emblems"  in 
1859  and  1868.  II.  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Essex  in  1624,  died  of  the  plague  in 
London  in  1665.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  assisted  in  defending  the  town  against 
the  parliamentarians,  was  afterward  a  cap- 
tain of  the  royal  forces,  and  retired  to  London 
after  the  king's  final  overthrow.  He  wrote 
"  Regale  Lectum  Miseries,  or  a  Kingly  Bed 
of  Misery"  (1648);  "Tons  Lachrymarum,  or 
a  Fountain  of  Tears"  (1648);  a  continuation 
of  the  "History  of  Argalus  and  Parthenia" 
(1659);  "Divine  Meditations"  (1665)  ;  and 
other  works  in  verse  and  prose. 

QUARTZ,  the  most  abundant  of  all  minerals, 
existing  as  a  constituent  of  many  rocks,  as  the 
granitic  and  the  micaceous  and  silicious  slates, 
composing  of  itself  the  rock  known  as  quartz- 
ite  or  quartz  rock  and  some  of  the  sandstones 
and  pure  sand,  forming  the  chief  portion  of 
most  mineral  veins,  and  found  interspersed  in 
crystals  and  crystalline  fragments  throughout 
many  rocks,  and  especially  in  their  fissures 
and  cavities.  In  composition  it  is  silica,  and 
when  uncontaminated  with  any  foreign  inter- 
mixture it  appears  in  clear  transparent  crys- 
tals like  glass  or  ice.  The  presence  of  a  little 
oxide  of  manganese  gives  these  a  violet  tinge, 
and  they  are  then  known  as  amethyst.  Oth- 
er impurities  which  variously  affect  the  ap- 
pearance and  properties  of  quartz,  even  in 
the  small  quantities  in  which  they  enter  into 
its  composition,  are  oxides  of  iron,  aluminum, 
nickel,  and  other  metals.  Through  all  its  vari- 
eties quartz  is  distinguished  by  the  same  chemi- 
cal properties  and  degrees  of  hardness.  This, 
which  enables  the  mineral  to  scratch  glass  and 
to  give  fire  when  struck  with  steel,  is  repre- 
sented by  7  of  the  scale  of  hardness.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  2'5  to  2'8.  Its  lustre  is  vitreous, 
its  colors  various  according  to  the  impurities 
present,  and  its  fracture  conchoidal.  It  is  fu- 
sible only  at  the  intense  heat  of  the  oxyhy- 
drogen  blowpipe,  and  of  the  furnaces  invent- 
ed by  Saint-Claire  Deville;  but  it  is  readily 
fluxed  with  soda  or  lime.  The  quartz  glass 
obtained  by  Deville,  amounting  to  30  grammes, 
possessed  a  density  of  only  2*2,  or  about  one 
seventh  less  than  that  of  the  crystallized  quartz 
from  which  it  was  melted.  The  colorless, 
transparent  crystals  impress  circular  polariza- 
tion upon  a  ray  of  plane-polarized  light.  They 
exhibit  double  refraction  when  the  object  is 
observed  through  two  faces  which  are  not 
parallel  to  each  other.  Milk-white  varieties 
often  give  a  phosphorescent  light  when  rubbed 
together  in  the  dark.  The  primary  form  of 
the  crystal,  which  is  very  rarely  seen,  is  a 
rhomboid.  The  common  form  is  a  hexagonal 
prism  terminated  by  hexagonal  pyramids.  The 
crystals  occur  in  groups  of  great  beauty  and  of 
all  sizes  up  to  single  crystals  of  several  hundred 
pounds'  weight.  In  the  museum  of  the  uni- 
versity at  Naples  is  a  group  weighing  nearly 


half  a  ton.  In  Milan  is  a  crystal  3£  ft.  long 
and  5$-  ft.  in  circumference,  estimated  to  weigh 
870  Ibs.  A  crystal  in  the  museum  of  natural 
history  in  Paris  is  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  the 
same  in  length,  and  weighs  800  Ibs.  Occasion- 
ally immense  quantities  of  crystals  are  found 
collected  in  cavities  in  the  rocks  and  in  caves, 
loose  and  incrusting  the  walls.  Such  a  collec- 
tion, discovered  at  Zinken  more  than  a  century 
ago,  produced  1,000  cwt.  of  rock  crystal,  which 
at  that  period,  when  the  article  was  more 
highly  valued  than  now,  brought  $300,000. 
In  the  United  States  some  rich  deposits  have 
been  met  with  in  the  Ellenville  lead  mine, 
Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  and  in  some  of  the  southern 
gold  mines ;  and  large  groups  of  fine  crystals 
have  been  found  in  Moose  mountain,  N.  H., 
and  in  Waterbury,  Vt.  Little  Falls  on  the 
Mohawk  in  New  York  is  a  famous  locality  for 
the  purest  transparent  crystals  of  complete 
forms,  and  they  are  met  with  in  other  places 
also  in  the  same  region,  occurring  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  calciferous  sand  rock,  which  over- 
lies the  Potsdam  sandstone.  Trenton  Falls 
also  furnishes  perfect  transparent  crystals, 
which  are  sometimes  5  in.  long  and  contain 
drops  of  water.  These  are  occasionally  recog- 
nized in  quartz  crystals  of  various  localities. 
In  St.  Lawrence  and  Jefferson  cos.,  N.  Y.,  in 
the  deposits  of  iron  ore,  quartz  crystals  are 
ibund  of  dodecahedral  forms.  In  Orange  co., 
4  m.  E.  of  Warwick,  they  occur  in  the  primary 
form.  Many  of  the  varieties  of  quartz  are 
known  by  other  names,  under  which  they  have 
been  particularly  described  in  this  work.  (See 
AGATE,  AMETHYST,  CARNELIAN,  OATS'  EYE, 
CHALCEDONY,  FLINT,  GEODE,  and  JASPEE.) — 
Clear  crystalline  quartz,  called  rock  crystal, 
was  in  former  times  esteemed  for  ornamental 
objects.  It  was  cut  into  vases,  cups,  lustres, 
&c.,  many  of  which  are  still  preserved  as  cu- 
riosities. In  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  are 
great  numbers  of  them,  some  belonging  to  the 
times  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  but 
more  generally  of  the  period  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  perfection  to  which  the  manufac- 
ture of  glass  and  pastes  has  been  brought  and 
the  cheapness  of  these  materials  have  almost 
completely  taken  away  the  value  of  rock  crys- 
tal, which  requires  a  great  amount  of  labor  in 
its  cutting  and  polishing,  and  after  all  is  not 
really  superior  to  the  artificial  products.  But 
some  use  is  still  made  of  it,  as  for  buttons, 
seals,  breast  pins,  &c.  It  is  procured  from 
Madagascar,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil.  Very 
transparent  specimens  from  the  latter  country 
are  made  into  spectacle  lenses  called  "  Brazil- 
ian pebbles."  They  are  superior  to  glass  on 
account  of  their  greater  hardness.  In  Switz- 
erland quartz  veins  which  occasionally  yield 
rich  cavities  of  crystals  are  regularly  mined 
for  this  product.  From  Madagascar  large  clear 
masses  are  received,  which  sell  for  from  $1  to 
$10  a  pound.  When  cut  and  set  by  the  jew- 
ellers, the  stone  is  commonly  sold  as  white 
topaz,  and  sometimes  as  "  California  dia- 


132 


QUASSIA 


monds."  Pure  quartz  is  largely  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass,  and  is  commonly  ob- 
tained for  this  purpose  in  the  form  of  sand ; 
but  metamorphic  quartz  rock  of  a  granular 
structure  and  crumbly  consistency  is  also  used. 
(See  GLASS.)  Varieties  of  quartz  of  a  cellular 
texture  and  great  tenacity  are  used  for  mill- 
stones, the  roughness  and  hardness  of  their 
surface  and  sharpness  of  the  edges  of  the 
cells  giving  them  a  powerful  grinding  capacity 
combined  with  durability.  (See  BUHRSTONK.) 
Quartz  veins  with  few  exceptions  form  the 
gangues  in  which  gold  is  found  in  situ,  and  it 
is  probable  that  most  of  the  gold  which  is  ob- 
tained from  alluvial  and  drift  deposits  came 
originally  from  the  quartz  veins.  These  gold- 
bearing  quartz  veins  intersect  various  meta- 
morphic rocks,  such  as  chloritic,  talcose,  and 
argillitic  schist,  hornblende  schist,  gneiss,  por- 
phyry, and  sometimes  granite.  (See  GOLD.) 

QUASSIA,  a  bitter  drug,  the  properties  of 
which,  it  is  said,  were  first  made  known  to 
Europeans  by  a  negro  slave  named  Quassi ;  the 
tree  producing  it  was  named  Quassia  amara 
by  Linnaius,  and  belongs  to  the  simarubecs. 
Its  wood  is  intensely  bitter,  and  is  sold  in  bil- 
lets 2  to  4  in.  in  diameter.  The  supply  of  the 
drug  originally  came  from  Surinam  ;  small 
quantities  are  exported  to  Europe,  and  under 
the  name  of  Surinam  quassia  it  is  still  used 
in  Germany  and  France.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  last  century  it  was  discovered  that  a  tree 
known  in  Jamaica  and  neighboring  islands  as 
bitterwood  and  bitter  ash  had  properties  al- 
most identical  with  the  quassia;  being  much 
more  abundant  and  in  much  larger  pieces  than 
the  Surinam  drug,  this  has  almost  entirely  sup- 


Bitterwood  (Plcrsena  excelsa). 

planted  it,  and,  though  afforded  by  a  differ- 
ent tree,  the  drug  is  called  quassia.  The  tree 
is  picrcena  excelsa,  an  allied  genus  in  the  same 
family  with  the  other,  having  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  an  ash,  inconspicuous,  greenish 
flowers,  and  black  drupes  the  size  of  a  pea. 


QUATREFAGES  DE  BREAU 

The  wood  is  imported  in  logs,  sometimes  a  foot 
thick,  with  a  smooth  brittle  bark;  it  is  kept  in 
the  form  of  chips  or  turnings,  which  are  nearly 
white  when  first  cut,  but  become  yellowish  by 
exposure ;  it  has  no  odor,  and  a  strong,  pure 
bitter  taste,  which  is  imparted  to  water  and  to 
alcohol.  A  neutral  substance,  to  which  the 
bitterness  is  due,  has  been  separated  and  called 
quassiine. — The  properties  of  quassia  are  those 
of  the  simple  bitters,  and  as  a  medicine  it  is 
adapted  to  cases  of  dyspepsia  and  the  debili- 
tated state  of  the  digestive  organs  which  some- 
times succeeds  acute  disease.  Animals  have 
been  killed  by  concentrated  preparations  of 
the  drug.  A  sweetened  decoction  is  some- 
times used  for  poisoning  flies.  It  is  given  in 
the  form  of  cold  infusion  and  in  tincture. 
Bitter  cups  or  quassia  cups  were  at  one  time 
very  popular ;  these  are  goblets  turned  from 
the  wood,  which  quickly  impart  a  bitter  taste 
to  wine,  water,  or  other  liquid  placed  in  them. 
The  decoction  was  formerly  used  in  England 
by  some  of  the  brewers  as  a  substitute  for 
hops,  but  this  is  now  prohibited  under  severe 
penalties. 

QIATRE  BRAS.     See  WATERLOO. 

QtATREFAGES  DE  BKEAII,  Jean  Louis  Armand 
de,  a  French  naturalist,  born  near  Valleraugue, 
department  of  Gard,  Feb.  10, 1810.  Ho  gradu- 
ated doctor  in  medicine  and  science  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1829,  published  papers  Sur  les  aero- 
lithes  (1830),  and  De  I 'extroversion  de  la  ressie 
(1832),  and,  while  assistant  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  medical  faculty  at  Strasburg,  wrote 
extensively  for  scientific  periodicals.  In  1838 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  at  Tou- 
louse, in  1850  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  lycee  Napoleon,  in  1852  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences,  and  in  1855  professor  of 
anatomy  and  ethnology  in  the  museum  of 
natural  history.  Among  his  publications  are  : 
Considerations  sur  les  caracteres  zoologiques 
des  rongeurs  (4to,  1840) ;  De  V organisation  des 
animaux  sans  vertebres  des  cotes  de  la  Manche 
(1844);  Recherches  sur  le  systeme  nerveux, 
Vembryogenie,  les  organes  des  sens  et  la  circu- 
lation des  annelides  (1844-'50);  Sur  Vhistoire 
naturelle  des  tarets  (1848-'9);  Sur  les  affinites 
et  Ifs  analogies  des  lombric*  et  des  sangsues 
(1852) ;  Souvenirs  d'un  naturalisle  (2  vols. 
12mo,  1854;  English  translation,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1857) ;  Unite  de  Vespece  humaine  (1861) ; 
Metamorphoses  de  Vhomme  et  des  animaux 
(1862;  English  translation  by  II.  Lawson, 
1864) ;  Hisioire  naturelle  des  anneles  marins 
et  d'eau  douce  (1865  et  seq.) ;  Les  Polynesiens  et 
leurs  migrations  (1866);  Rapport  sur  les  pro- 
gres  de  V anthropologie  (1867);  Le  vers  d  soie 
(1869) ;  Histoire  de  Vhomme  (1869 ;  English 
translation  by  Miss  Eliza  Youmans,  New  York, 
1875) ;  Charles  Darwin  et  ses  procureurs  fran- 
cais:  etude  sur  le  transformisme  (1870);  La 
race  prussienne  (1871);  and,  in  conjunction 
with  E.  T.  Haury,  Crania  Ethnica :  Lescrdnes 
des  races  humaines  decrits  et  figures  (1875 
et  seq.). 


QUATEEMEEE 

Q1ATKF.MKUE,  Etienne  Mare,  a  French  orien- 
talist, born  in  Paris,  July  12,  1782,  died  Sept. 
18,  1857.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sylvestre  de  Sacy 
and  Ch6zy.  In  1809  he  became  professor  of 
Greek  literature  at  Eouen,  in  1819  was  called 
to  the  college  de  France  to  teach  Hebrew,  Chal- 
daic,  and  Syriac,  and  in  1827  became  professor 
of  Persian  at  the  school  of  the  living  eastern 
languages.  To  him  is  mainly  owing  the  identi- 
fication of  the  modern  Coptic  as  a  derivative 
of  the  language  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  which 
gave  an  important  clue  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  latter.  He  wrote  Recherches  historiques 
et  critiques  sur  la  langue  et  la  litterature  de 
Vffigypte  (1808) ;  Memoires  geographiques  et 
Mstoriques  sur  VEgypte  (1810) ;  and  Observa- 
tions sur  quelques  points  de  la  geographic  de 
VEgypte  (1812).  His  editions  and  translations 
of  Eashid  ed-Din's  Histoire  des  Mongols  en 
France  (1836)  and  Makrizi's  Histoire  des  soul- 
tans  mamlouks  en  Egypte  (1837-'40)  are  of 
special  value.  His  library  was  bought  by  the 
king  of  Bavaria  and  removed  to  Munich. 

QIATKEHEKE  DE  QII.NCY,  intoine  Chrysostome, 
a  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  28, 
1755,  died  Dec.  28,  1849.  In  1785  a  paper 
Sur  V architecture  egyptienne  secured  for  him 
a  prize  from  the  academy  of  inscriptions ;  he 
was  then  engaged  as  a  contributor  to  the  En- 
cyclopedie  methodique,  for  which  he  wrote  a 
Dictionnaire  de  T  architecture  (3  vols.  4to,  1786- 
1825).  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  events 
of  the  French  revolution,  and  held  several 
political  offices  under  the  republic,  consulate, 
and  empire,  and  after  the  restoration.  In  1815 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  public 
monuments,  and  in  1818  professor  of  archaeol- 
ogy in  the  royal  library ;  and  he  was  secretary 
general  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  from  1816 
to  1839.  Among  his  voluminous  works  are : 
Le  Jupiter  olympien  (fol.,  1814),  a  restoration 
of  the  great  work  of  Phidias ;  De  limitation 
dans  les  beaux  arts  (1823  ;  English  translation 
by  J.  C.  Kent,  8vo,  1837) ;  Histoire  de  la  vie  et 
des  outrages  de  Raphael  (1824)  ;  Canova  et  ses 
outrages  (1834)  ;  and  Histoire  de  la  me  de  Mi- 
chel-Ange  (1835). 

QUEBEC  (formerly  LOWER  CANADA,  or  CANA- 
DA EAST),  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada, situated  between  lat.  45°  and  53°  30'  N., 
and  Ion.  57°  8'  and  79°  30'  "W. ;  area,  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  estimates,  193,355  sq.  m.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  the  Northwest  territories  and 
the  portion  of  Labrador  belonging  to  New- 
foundland ;  E.  by  Labrador  and  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence;  S.  and  S.  E.  by  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  New  Brunswick,  Maine,  and  New 
Hampshire,  then  S.  by  Vermont  and  New  York ; 
and  S.  "W.  and  W.  by  the  province  of  Ontario, 
from  which  it  is  mostly  separated  by  the  Otta- 
wa river.  The  N.  boundary  line,  formed  by  the 
height  of  land  which  separates  the  waters  that 
flow  into  the  river  and  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
on  the  one  hand  from  those  that  flow  into 
Hudson  bay  and  those  that  reach  the  Atlantic 
through  the  Labrador  coast  on  the  other,  is 


QUEBEC  (PROVINCE) 


133 


irregular,  and  has  not  been  surveyed.  The  E. 
limit  is  a  line  drawn  due  N.  and  S.  from  Blanc 
Sablon  bay  (at  the  W.  entrance  of  the  strait  of 
Belle  Isle)  to  the  52d  parallel.  From  Lake 
Temiscamingue,  on  the  Ontario  border,  N.  E. 
to  Blanc  Sablon  bay,  is  about  1,050  m. ;  E.  to 
the  extremity  of  the  Gasp6  peninsula,  700  m. ; 
S.  E.  to  the  angle  formed  by  the  boundary 
with  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  400  m. 
The  general  breadth  N.  and  S.  is  about  125  m. 
E.  of  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and 
about  250  m.  W.  of  that.  Exclusive  of  the 
cities  of  Montreal  and  Quebec,  each  contain- 
ing three  electoral  districts,  the  province  is 
divided  into  59  electoral  districts  or  counties, 
viz. :  Argenteuil,  Bagot,  Beauce,  Beauharnois, 
Bellechasse,  Berthier,  Bonaventure,  Brome, 
Chambly,  Champlain,  Charlevoix,  Chateau- 
guay,  Chicoutimi  and  Saguenay,  Compton, 
Dorchester,  Drummond-Arthabaska,  Gaspe\ 
Hochelaga,  Huntingdon,  Iberville,  Jacques  Car- 
tier,  Joliette,  Kamouraska,  Laprairie,  L'As- 
somption,  Laval,  L6vis,  L'Islet,  Lotbini£re, 
Maskinonge',  M6gantic,  Missisquoi,  Montcalm, 
Montmagny,  Montmorency,  Napierville,  Nico- 
let,  Ottawa,  Pontiac,  Portneuf,  Quebec,  Eiche- 
lieu,  Eichmond- Wolfe,  Eimouski,  Eouville, 
Shefford,  Sherbrooke,  Soulanges,  St.  Hyacinthe, 
St.  Johns  (St.  Jean),  St.  Maurice,  Stanstead, 
T6miscouata,  Terrebonne,  Three  Eivers  (Trois 
EiviSres),  Two  Mountains  (Deux  Montagnes), 
Vaudreuil,  Vercheres,  and  Yamaska.  Quebec 
(pop.  in  1871,  59,699)  is  the  capital  and  Mon- 
treal (pop.  107,225)  the  commercial  metropolis 
of  the  province.  There  are  two  other  cities, 
Three  Eivers  (pop.  7,570)  and  St.  Hyacinthe 
(pop.  3,746).  Levis  (pop.  6,691),  Sorel  (5,636), 
Sherbrooke  (4,432),  Joliette  (3,047),  and  St. 
Johns  (3,022)  are  incorporated  towns.  Other 
towns  and  villages,  having  each  more  than 
1,000  inhabitants,  are  Aylmer,  Berthier,  Beau- 
harnois, Buckingham,  Chicoutimi,  Couticook, 
Farnham,  Fraserville,  Hull,  Lachine,  Laprai- 
rie, L'Assomption,  Longueuil,  Montmagny,  Ei- 
mouski, St.  Jerome,  and  Terrebonne.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  province  in  1676  was  8,415 ; 
in  1734,  37,252;  in  1770,  91,078;  in  1780, 
127,845;  in  1827,  423,378;  in  1831,  511,920; 
in  1844,  690,782;  in  1851,  890,261;  in  1861, 
1,111,566;  in  1871,  1,191,516.  Of  the  last 
number,  596,041  were  males  and  595,475  fe- 
males; 1,104,401  were  born  in  the  province, 
7,018  in  Ontario,  2,746  in  other  parts  of  Brit- 
ish America,  12,371  in  England,  35,828  in  Ire- 
land, 11,260  in  Scotland,  and  14,714  in  the 
United  States;  929,817  were  of  French,  123,- 
478  of  Irish,  69,822  of  English,  49,458  of  Scotch, 
7,963  of  German,  and  148  of  African  origin; 
and  6,988  were  Indians,  chiefly  Algonquins, 
Iroquois,  Abenakis,  Hurons,  Micmacs,  Mali- 
cetes,  Montagnais,  and  Nasqnapees.  There 
were  191,862  persons  20  years  old  and  over 
(107,782  males  and  84,080  females)  unable  to 
read,  and  244,731  (123,926  males  and  120,805 
females)  unable  to  write;  180,615  occupied 
dwellings,  213,303  families,  1,630  deaf  and 


134: 


QUEBEC  (PEOTIXCE) 


dumb  persons,  1,023  blind,  and  8,300  of  un- 
sound mind.  Of  the  341,291  persons  returned 
as  engaged  in  occupations,  160,641  belonged 
to  the  agricultural,  26,507  to  the  commercial, 
21,186  to  the  domestic,  65,707  to  the  indus- 
trial, and  15,376  to  the  professional  class,  and 
52,874  were  unclassified.  A  large  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  live  in  the  region  S.  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  W.  of  the  meridian  of  Quebec. 
This  region  is  known  as  the  "eastern  town- 
ships," though  the  term  in  strictness  is  confined 
to  the  district  between  the  Chaudiere  and 
Richelieu  rivers  in  the  rear  of  the  settlements 
immediately  along  the  St.  Lawrence.  E.  of 
Quebec  the  settlements  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
extend  to  and  around  the  extremity  of  the 
Gaspe  peninsula,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are 
closely  confined  to  the  shore.  N.  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sague- 
nay  there  are  only  a  few  scattered  fishing  settle- 
ments, and  above  that  the  settlements  for  the 
most  part  extend  only  a  few  miles  from  the 
river.  In  the  valley  of  the  Ottawa,  however, 
and  on  the  upper  Sagiienay  and  around  Lake 
St.  John,  there  is  a  considerable  population. 
A  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  speak  the 
French  language,  but  English  may  also  bo  used 
in  legislative  and  judicial  proceedings,  and  the 
laws  must  be  printed  in  both  languages.  Tho 
greater  part  of  the  English-speaking  popula- 
tion is  in  the  cities  of  Montreal  and  Quebec,  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  eastern  townships,  and  in  tho 
valley  of  the  Ottawa.  Recently  efforts  have 
been  made  to  colonize  the  unsettled  portions  of 
the  province ;  colonization  societies  have  been 
formed  to  aid  settlers,  and  roads  have  been  built 
by  the  government ;  but  the  access  of  popula- 
tion from  abroad  has  not  been  equal  to  the 
emigration  from  the  province  to  the  United 
States. — The  region  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is 
generally  hilly;  N.  of  that  river  tho  country 
is  for  the  most  part  rocky  and  mountainous. 
The  Notre  Dame  mountains,  a  continuation  of 
the  Green  mountains  of  Vermont,  stretch  E. 
from  the  meridian  of  Quebec,  passing  through 
the  interior  of  the  Gaspe  peninsula  to  near  its 
extremity,  and  attaining  in  places  a  height  of 
8,000  or  4,000  ft.  This  elevation  is  reached 
near  the  Cape  Ohatte  river,  in  a  portion  of  the 
range  called  the  Shickshock  mountains.  The 
Laurentian  mountains,  on  the  north  of  the 
river  St.  Lawrence,  extend  from  the  Labrador 
coast  to  the  Ottawa  river  above  the  city  of 
that  name.  They  lie  near  the  margin  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  as  far  up  as  Cape  Tourmente  near 
the  city  of  Quebec,  above  which  they  recede 
N.,  passing  60  m.  behind  Quebec  and  30  m. 
behind  Montreal.  This  range,  between  Quebec 
and  Lake  St.  John,  where  the  rivers  are  8,000 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  attains 
an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  ft.  above 
the  sea,  but  in  general  its  height  is  much  less. 
The  province  has  a  coast  line  on  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  not  including  indentations  of  the 
land,  of  1,164  m.  There  are  many  small  bays 
on  the  coast  N.  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence ;  the 


principal  ones  S.  of  it  are  Gasp6  bay  and  the 
bay  of  Chaleurs.  The  latter,  lying  between 
the  province  and  New  Brunswick,  includes 
with  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  the  penin- 
sula of  Gaspe.  Except  those  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence, the  principal  islands  belonging  to  the 
province  are  Anticosti  (2,500  sq.  m.),  at  the 
mouth  of  that  river,  and  the  Magdalen  islands 
in  the  gulf.  The  St.  Lawrence,  flowing  in  a 
N.  E.  direction  for  more  than  500  m.  through 
the  province,  and  rendered  navigable  the  en- 
tire distance  by  canals  around  the  rapids,  is 
the  great  avenue  of  commerce.  Vessels  may 
ascend  from  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
head  of  Lake  Superior.  It  contains  numerous 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  are  Orleans  (69 
sq.  in.)  just  below  Quebec,  Montreal  (169  sq. 
m.)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ottawa,  and  Isle  Jesus 
(85  sq.  m.)  N.  of  Montreal  and  separated  from 
it  by  a  narrow  channel.  The  largest  tributaries 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  from  the  north ;  the 
principal  ones  from  the  south,  proceeding  down 
the  stream,  are  the  Chateauguay,  which  rises 
in  New  York  and  is  navigable  for  a  consider- 
able distance  by  bateaux ;  the  Richelieu,  also 
called  the  Chambly,  Sorel,  or  St.  Johns,  80  m. 
long,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain;  the  Vu- 
maska,  90  m.  long;  the  St.  Francis,  more  than 
100  m.  long,  which  receives  the  Magog,  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Memphremagog,  and  empties 
into  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Lake  St.  Peter;  the 
Nicolet,  60  m.  long ;  the  Becancour,  70  m.  long ; 
the  Chaudiere,  120  m.,  emptying  into  the  St. 
Lawrence  a  few  miles  above  Quebec  ;  the  Et- 
chomin,  50  m.  long ;  the  Rimouski ;  the  M i-t is ; 
the  Matane,  60  m.  long ;  and  the  Cape  Chatte 
river,  entering  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Cape  Chatte. 
By  means  of  the  Richelieu  river,  Chambly 
canal,  Lake  Champlain,  the  Champlain  canal, 
and  the  Hudson  river,  there  is  continuous 
water  communication  between  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  New  York.  The  largest  tributa- 
ries from  the  north,  lying  wholly  within  the 
province,  are  the  Saguenay  and  the  St.  Mau- 
rice. The  former  flows  out  of  Lake  St.  John, 
and  after  a  course  of  upward  of  100  m.  joins 
the  St.  Lawrence  120  m.  below  Quebec.  It  has 
an  average  width  of  about  three  fourths  of  a 
mile,  with  high  precipitous  banks.  It  is  navi- 
gable by  tho  largest  vessels  to  Chicoutimi,  75 
m.  above  its  mouth.  During  the  summer  the 
Saguenay  is  much  visited  by  tourists,  and  the 
ancient  port  of  Tadousac  at  its  mouth  is  a 
favorite  watering  place.  The  St.  Maurice  rises 
in  the  height  of  land,  and  after  a  course  of 
more  than  400  m.  discharges  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence at  Three  Rivers.  Its  banks  are  generally 
high,  and  it  contains  numerous  falls,  and  has 
many  important  tributaries.  It  is  navigable 
for  a  few  miles  at  its  mouth ;  the  navigation 
is  then  interrupted  for  about  40  m.,  above 
which  there  is  a  navigable  stretch  of  75  m. 
Other  important  tributaries  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence from  the  north  are  the  Portneuf,  the 
Betsiamites  or  Bersimis  (navigable  for  a  con- 
siderable distance),  the  riviere  aux  Outardes, 


QUEBEC  (PEOVINOE) 


135 


and  the  Manicouagan,  below  the  Saguenay ;  the 
Jacques  Cartier  (60  m.  long),  the  St.  Anne 
(70  m.)  and  the  Batiscan  (50  m.),  between 
Quebec  and  the  St.  Maurice ;  and  the  Du  Loup, 
the  Maskinonge,  and  L'Assomption  (100  in. 
long),  above  the  St.  Maurice.  The  Ottawa 
river  rises  in  the  W.  part  of  the  province,  and 
has  a  tortuous  course,  first  in  a  N.  W.,  then 
in  a  W.  direction,  of  300  m.  to  Lake  Temisca- 
mingue  on  the  Ontario  border,  below  which, 
flowing  S.  E.,  it  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  two  provinces  for  400  m.,  emptying  into 
the  St.  Lawrence  just  above  the  island  of 
Montreal.  It  is  navigable  along  the  border  for 
more  than  250  m.,  the  rapids  and  falls  being 
avoided  by  means  of  canals.  The  only  portion 
of  the  province  of  Quebec  W.  of  the  Ottawa  is 
the  angle  made  by  that  river  with  the  St.  Law- 
rence, comprising  the  counties  of  Soulanges 
and  Vaudreuil.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the 
Ottawa  from  this  province  are  the  Keepawa, 
120  m.  long,  which  enters  Lake  Temisca- 
mingue ;  the  Du  Moine,  having  about  the  same 
length ;  the  Gatineau,  400  m.  long,  which  joins 
the  main  stream  nearly  opposite  the  city  of 
Ottawa,  and  is  navigable  by  canoes  for  more 
than  300  m. ;  the  Du  Lievre,  260  m.  long ;  the 
North  Petite  Nation,  95  m. ;  the  Rouge,  90  m. ; 
and  North  river  or  riviere  du  Nord,  160  m. 
The  E.  part  of  the  province  is  drained  by 
numerous  streams  that  flow  into  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  from  the  north.  Among  these,  pro- 
ceeding toward  the  east,  are  the  Moisie,  Mani- 
tou,  Magpie,  St.  John,  Mingan,  Natashquan, 
St.  Augustine,  and  Esquimaux  or  St.  Paul. 
In  the  south,  portions  are  drained  by  tribu- 
taries of  the  St.  John  and  the  Restigouche,  the 
latter  flowing  into  the  bay  of  Chaleurs  and 
forming  a  part  of  the  boundary  with  New 
Brunswick.  Its  chief  tributary  from  Quebec 
is  the  Matapediac.  The  chief  tributaries  of 
the  St.  John  are  the  St.  Francis,  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  boundary  with  Maine,  and  the 
Madawaska,  which  flows  into  New  Brunswick. 
The  principal  rivers  of  the  peninsula  of  Gasp6 
are  the  Grand  and  Little  Cascapediac  and  the 
Bonaventure,  which  empty  into  the  bay  of 
Chaleurs;  the  Mai  Baie,  St.  Johns,  York,  and 
Dartmouth,  flowing  into  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence from  the  west ;  and  the  Madeleine  and 
St.  Anne,  emptying  into  the  gulf  from  the 
south.  There  are  numerous  lakes,  particularly 
in  the  northwest,  where  the  country  is  covered 
by  a  network  of  them,  the  rivers  here  being 
little  else  than  chains  of  lakes.  The  most  im- 
portant ones  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  Mem- 
phremagog,  partly  in  Vermont ;  M6gantic, 
which  discharges  through  the  Chaudiere  river ; 
Temiscouata,  discharging  through  the  Mad- 
awaska river ;  and  Matapediac,  discharging 
through  the  river  of  the  same  name.  The 
largest  in  the  province  is  Lake  St.  John,  30  by 
25  m.  in  extent,  about  120  m.  N.  of  Quebec, 
in  which  the  Saguenay  river  takes  its  rise. 
This  lake  lies  in  an  extensive  valley,  and  re- 
ceives numerous  large  streams,  some  of  which 


rise  in  the  height  of  land.  The  largest  of  its 
tributaries  are  the  Peribonka,  from  the  north- 
east ;  the  Mistassini  and  Ashuapmouchouan  or 
Chamouchouan,  from  the  northwest ;  and  the 
Ouiatchouanish,  Ouiatchouan,  Metabetchouan, 
Kushpahiganish,  and  Belle  Riviere  or  Kush- 
pahigan,  from  the  southwest  and  south.  Lake 
St.  Peter  is  an  expansion  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
between  Montreal  and  Quebec. — The  geolo- 
gical formations  that  occur  in  the  province 
are  the  Laurentian,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and 
carboniferous.  The  region  N.  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence is  occupied  by  the  lower  Laurentian, 
with  small  areas  of  upper  Laurentian  around 
Lake  St.  John  and  N.  of  Montreal,  and  a  nar- 
row belt  of  lower  Silurian  along  the  river 
bank  above  Quebec.  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
the  country  consists  of  different  groups  of  the 
lower  Silurian,  followed  S.  E.,  along  the  bor- 
ders of  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  and  New 
Brunswick,  by  smaller  tracts  of  middle  and 
upper  Silurian,  with  areas  of  the  Devonian  in 
the  Gaspe  peninsula.  Anticosti  is  occupied 
by  the  lower  and  middle  Silurian.  The  Mag- 
dalen islands  are  of  carboniferous  formation 
below  the  coal  measures.  Gold  is  found  on 
the  Chaudiere  river,  and  mining  has  been  car- 
ried on  in  Beauce  co.,  but  with  little  success. 
Copper  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the 
eastern  townships,  where  mines  are  in  opera- 
tion. Iron  ore  is  widely  diffused,  and  is  mined 
to  some  extent.  An  ore  of  excellent  quality 
is  obtained  near  the  St.  Maurice  river.  Lead, 
silver,  platinum,  zinc,  &c.,  have  also  been 
found.  Quebec  abounds  in  magnificent  sce- 
nery, especially  on  the  lower  St.  Lawrence 
and  Saguenay.  Among  objects  of  interest 
may  be  mentioned  the  Chaudiere  falls  in  the 
Ottawa,  the  falls  of  the  Chaudiere  river,  the 
falls  of  Montmorency  near  the  city  of  Quebec, 
and  the  falls  of  the  St.  Anne  20  m.  below  it. — 
The  climate  is  healthy,  but  subject  to  extremes 
of  temperature.  The  winters  are  cold,  with  a 
clear  and  bracing  air  ;  the  summers  are  warm. 
Winter  commences  about  the  end  of  November 
and  lasts  till  the  middle  of  April.  The  plateau 
of  Lake  St.  John  is  sheltered  on  the  north  and 
east  by  mountains,  and  has  a  climate  like  that 
of  Montreal.  The  shores  of  the  Gasp6  penin- 
sula are  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  and  fogs  of 
the  gulf.  In  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  province, 
comprising  a  portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Lab- 
rador, the  climate  is  much  colder  than  else- 
where. The  following  table  gives  the  results 
of  observations  for  a  series  of  years  at  Mont- 
real (lat.  45°  31')  and  Quebec  (lat,  46°  49') : 


SEASON. 

MONTREAL. 

QUEBEC. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Rainfall, 
inches. 

Mean 
temperature. 

Rainfall, 
inchei. 

Autumn  

47-8' 
18-1 
42-5 
69-5 

10-88 
1-91 
5  72 
9-80 

44-6' 
18-8 
87-6 
66-0 

6-66 
0-25 
2-70 
9-66 

Winter  

Tear  

44-8' 

27-26 

40-5' 

19-26 

136 


QUEBEC  (PBOVIXCE) 


The  highest  temperature  observed  at  Montreal 
during  the  period  was  96 '1° ;  lowest,  —28°. 
The  highest  observed  at  Quebec  was  94'4° ; 
lowest,  — 30-5°.  The  annual  precipitation  of 
rain  and  melted  snow  at  Montreal  is  37'54 
inches;  at  Quebec,  31-84  inches. — The  soil  of 
the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  of  the  "  east- 
ern townships  "  is  generally  fertile.  The  town- 
ships are  a  fine  grazing  country,  and  much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  raising  of  cattle  and 
wool.  On  either  side  of  the  Notre  Dame  moun- 
tains, W.  of  the  Gasp6  peninsula,  there  is  much 
good  soil.  The  peninsula  is  generally  rocky, 
but  contains  considerable  arable  land,  particu- 
larly along  the  bay  of  Chaleurs.  On  the  upper 
Saguenay  and  around  Lake  St.  John  there  is 
an  extensive  region  suited  to  agriculture,  and 
the  basin  of  the  St.  Maurice  contains  many 
fertile  valleys.  In  the  basin  of  the  Ottawa  also 
there  are  extensive  tracts  of  good  land.  The 
Labrador  portion  of  the  province  is  rocky  and 
sterile,  and  its  climate  too  severe  for  agricul- 
ture. The  greater  portion  of  the  province  is 
covered  with  forests,  the  most  common  and 
important  trees  being  the  red  and  white  pine. 
Other  species  are  the  ash,  birch,  beech,  elm, 
hickory,  black  walnut,  maple,  cherry,  butter- 
nut, basswood,  spruce,  fir,  and  tamarack.  Hard 
wood  is  most  common  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Lumbering  is  very  extensively  carried  on,  par- 
ticularly on  the  tributaries  of  the  Ottawa,  St. 
Maurice,  and  Saguenay.  The  timber  lands  are 
leased  by  the  government  for  a  term  of  years 
for  a  certain  bonus  and  annual  rents.  Oats, 
potatoes,  and  hay  are  the  largest  crops.  Wheat, 
barley,  rye,  peas,  beans,  buckwheat,  Indian 
corn,  turnips,  tlax,  apples,  tobacco,  hops,  &c., 
are  also  grown.  Except  in  the  S.  W.  portions, 
the  climate  is  too  cool  for  Indian  corn.  The 
island  of  Montreal  is  noted  for  the  excellence 
of  its  apples,  and  the  island  of  Orleans  for  its 
plums.  The  wild  animals  are  similar  to  those 
of  other  parts  of  British  America.  Fur-bear- 
ing animals  are  still  trapped  in  the  N.  and  N. 
E.  portions  of  the  province,  where  the  Hudson 
Bay  company  has  several  posts.  The  manu- 
factures are  of  considerable  value,  though  they 
have  not  yet  been  extensively  developed.  Among 
the  principal  articles  produced  are  flour,  lum- 
ber, furniture,  leather,  hardware,  paper,  chemi- 
cals, soap,  boots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  steam  engines,  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Ship  building  is  carried  on  chiefly  at 
Quebec.  Home-made  woollen  and  linen  cloths 
are  extensively  worn  by  the  rural  population. 
(For  statistics  of  agriculture,  manufactures, 
&c.,  see  APPENDIX  to  vol.  xii.)  The  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  abounds  in  fish,  and  the  fisheries 
are  extensively  pursued  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
around  the  shores  of  the  Gaspe  peninsula,  and 
at  the  Magdalen  islands.  The  value  of  the 
fisheries  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
was  $1,008,660  20.  The  chief  items  of  catch 
were  cod,  herring,  salmon,  seals,  mackerel,  and 
lobsters.  The  value  of  fish  oil  preserved,  in- 
cluded in  the  above  figures,  was  $89,211  60, 


viz.:  cod  oil,  $48,854  50;  seal  oil,  $27,047  60; 
whale  oil,  $13,296 ;  porpoise  oil,  $13  60.— In 
respect  to  foreign  commerce  Quebec  is  the  first 
province  in  the  Dominion.  The  value  of  goods 
entered  for  consumption  from  foreign  coun- 
tries during  the  year  1873-'4  was  $51,980,870, 
including  $32, 749,883  from  Great  Britain,  $12,- 
703,967  from  the  United  States,  $1,530,152  from 
France,  $939,451  from  the  West  Indies,  $737,- 
866  from  Germany,  $677,017  from  China,  $528,- 
232  from  Newfoundland,  $452,486  from  South 
America,  $352,934  from  Spain,  $295,958  from 
Japan,  $283,956  from  Belgium,  $243,782  from 
the  East  Indies,  $204,581  from  Holland,  and 
$138,712  from  Switzerland.  The  principal  ar- 
ticles of  import  were  manufactures,  including 
cottony  woollens,  fancy  goods,  silks,  iron  and 
hardware,  and  machinery,  besides  sugar  and 
molasses,  tea,  tobacco  and  cigars,  wine,  brandy 
and  other  spirits,  coal,  wheat,  &c.  The  value 
of  exports  to  foreign  countries  was  $46,393,845, 
of  which  $36,099,441  were  to  Great  Britain, 
$5,812,596  to  the  United  States,  $967,615  to 
South  America,  $813,888  to  Newfoundland, 
$255,267  to  the  British  West  Indies,  $237,259 
to  France,  $229,480  to  Belgium,  $169,528  to 
Italy,  and  $169,150  to  Portugal.  Of  the  whole 
amount  $9,405,600  represented  goods  not  the 
produce  of  Canada,  $901,703  coin  and  bullion, 
$053,869  the  estimated  amount  not  returned 
at  inland  ports,  and  $35,432,673  Canadian  pro- 
duce, viz. :  of  the  mine,  $210,414;  of  the  fish- 
eries, $778,672;  of  the  forest,  $13,115,106; 
animals  and  their  produce,  $8,18i»,013;  agri- 
cultural products,  $11,256,057;  manufactures, 
$917,404;  miscellaneous  articles,  $102,732; 
new  ships,  $796,075.  The  number  of  entrances 
from  sea  was  1,501,  tonnage  1,135,500;  clear- 
ances for  sea,  1,493,  tonnage  1,087,151 ;  en- 
trances in  inland  navigation  from  the  United 
States,  2,793,  tonnage  288,862 ;  clearances  in 
inland  navigation  for  the  United  States,  1,487, 
tonnage  216,990  ;  total  entrances  in  the  foreign 
trade,  4,294,  tonnage  1,424,422;  total  clear- 
ances, 2,980,  tonnage  1,304,141.  The  number 
of  vessels  built  during  the  year  was  63,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  22,189  ;  belonging  in 
the  province  at  the  close  of  1874, 1,837  vessels, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  218,946.  The 
following  is  a  comparative  statement  of  the 
foreign  commerce  for  the  six  years  ending 
June  30,  1874: 


YEARS. 

Import*. 

EnUrcd  for 
con«umptlon. 

Export!. 

1869.... 

$90,940  341 

$29  546  177 

$28.228  268 

1870  

828S8((16 

8'2  1  66  2^8 

"T  ^>~  46s 

1871  

48  094  412 

40  108,120 

3'»  09  1  706 

1872  

49376  175 

47  788  687 

41  VS470 

1878  

53715459 

M  •'•»!  1T>8 

41  4H--  o:<3 

1874.  

51  557  072 

51  9SO  870 

46  398  845 

— The  province  is  connected  with  Ontario  and 
the  United  States  by  several  lines  of  railway, 
the  statistics  of  which  for  1875  are  contained 
in  the  following  table : 


QUEBEC  (PEOVINOE) 


137 


Miles  la 
operation  In 
the  province. 


Grand  Trunk,  W.  division 

"  "      E.  division 

"  "  Portland  division 

"  Three  Kivers  branch 

"  Cham  plain  division 

"  "  Lachine  and  Province  Line  division 

Massawippi  Valley 

Montreal  and  Vermont  Junction 

Montreal,  Chambly,  and  Sorel 

Quebec  and  Gosford 

St.  Lawrence  and  Industry 

Southeastern 

Stanstead,  Shefford,  and  Chambly 


Montreal  to  Detroit,  Mich.  (564  in.) 

Montreal  to  Trois  Pistoles 

Richmond  to  Portland,  Me.  (221  m.) 

Arthabaska  to  Doucet's  Landing  (opposite  Three  Elvers). 

St.  Lambert  to  Rouse's  Point,  N.  Y 

Montreal  to  Province  Line 

Sherbrooke  to  Newport,  Vt.  (40  m.) 

St.  Johns  to  Burlington,  Vt.  (78  m.) 

St.  Lambert  to  West  Farnhain 

Quebec  to  Gosford 

Lanoraie  to  Joliette 

West  Farnham  to  Newport,  Vt.  (65  m.) 

St.  Johns  to  Waterloo 


45 
810 
54 
85 
42 
40 
84 
26 
28 
26 
12 
82 
43 


Total. 


733 


The  Intercolonial  railway  is  intended  to  be 
extended  from  Moncton,  New  Brunswick,  N. 
and  then  W.  to  Kiviere  du  Loup  on  the  St. 
Lawrence.  There  are  other  lines  projected 
or  in  progress.  There  were  19  banks  on  Sept. 
30,  1874,  with  an  aggregate  paid-up  capital  of 
$42,351,464. — The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  lieutenant  governor,  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor general  of  the  Dominion  in  council,  as- 
sisted by  an  executive  council  of  seven  mem- 
bers (secretary  and  registrar  and  minister  of 
public  instruction,  treasurer,  attorney  general, 
commissioner  of  crown  lands,  commissioner 
of  agriculture  and  public  works,  president  of 
legislative  council,  and  solicitor  general)  ap- 
pointed by  himself  and  responsible  to  the  as- 
sembly. The  legislative  authority  is  exercised 
by  a  legislative  council  of  24  members,  ap- 
pointed by  the  lieutenant  governor  in  council 
for  life,  and  a  legislative  assembly  of  65  mem- 
bers (one  from  each  electoral  district),  elected 
by  the  qualified  voters  for  four  years.  The 
right  of  suffrage  is  conferred  on  all  male  Brit- 
ish subjects  21  years  old  and  upward  who 
possess  a  small  property  qualification.  Voting 
is  by  ballot.  For  judicial  purposes  the  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  20  districts.  The  princi- 
pal courts  are  the  queen's  bench,  consisting 
of  a  chief  justice  and  four  puisn6  judges,  and 
the  superior  court,  with  a  chief  justice  and  25 
puisne  judges.  These  judges  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  general  of  the  Dominion  in  coun- 
cil during  good  behavior.  The  queen's  bench 
sits  four  times  a  year  at  Montreal  and  as  fre- 
quently at  Quebec  for  the  purpose  of  hearing 
appeals.  Trial  terms  are  held  twice  a  year 
in  different  parts  of  the  province  by  a  single 
judge,  in  criminal  cases  with  a  jury.  Three 
judges  of  the  superior  court  sit  in  review  of 
judgments  of  a  single  judge  at  the  superior  and 
circuit  courts.  Superior  courts,  with  jurisdic- 
tion of  sums  exceeding  $200,  are  held  three 
times  a  year  in  each  judicial  district  by  a 
single  judge.  Circuit  courts,  with  jurisdiction 
of  sums  not  exceeding  $200,  are  held  in  each 
county  by  a  judge  of  the  superior  court.  A 
vice-admiralty  court  is  held  at  Quebec  by  a 
judge  of  vice-admiralty.  Justice  is  adminis- 
tered according  to  the  Code  civil  de  Quebec, 
which  is  based  mainly  upon  the  coutume  de 


Paris  and  the  edicts  and  ordinances  of  the 
French  kings  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  ces- 
sion to  Great  Britain.  The  province  is  rep- 
resented in  the  Dominion  parliament  by  24 
senators  and  65  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mon* (one  from  each  electoral  district).  The 
balance  in  the  provincial  treasury  on  June  30, 
1873,  was  $948,001  43  ;  receipts  during  the  fol- 
lowing year,  $2,041,174  71,  including  $1,014,- 
712  12  subsidy  from  the  Dominion  government, 
$542,140  72  from  the  crown  lands  department, 
$121,540  98  from  law  stamps,  and  $141,597  72 
from  licenses,  &c.  The  expenditures  amount- 
ed to  $1,992,594  88,  including  $54,822  84  out- 
standing warrants ;  balance  in  treasury  on  June 
30,  1874,  $1,051,404  10.  The  chief  items  of 
expenditure  were  as  follows  :  legislation,  $173,- 
292  98;  civil  government,  $146,766  41;  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  $364,555  29 ;  police, 
$63,292  20;  reformatories,  $38,000;  educa- 
tion, $320,166  07;  agriculture,  $61,352  15; 
immigration,  $48,978  79 ;  colonization  roads, 
$114,525  76;  public  works  and  buildings, 
$161,147  42;  charities,  $218,224  85;  crown 
lands  department,  $128,574  82 ;  subsidy  to 
Southeastern  railway,  $38,700. — The  provin- 
cial lunatic  asylum  is  at  Beaufort,  near  Que- 
bec. There  are  also  lunatic  asylums  at  Mon- 
treal, at  St.  Ferdinand  d'Halifax,  and  at  St. 
Johns,  which  receive  aid  from  the  province, 
the  first  two  being  under  the  control  of  the 
Catholics  and  the  last  of  the  Protestants.  Aid 
is  also  granted  to  the  Belmont  Eetreat  ine- 
briate asylum  in  Quebec,  to  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  deaf  and  dumb  institutions  in  Mon- 
treal, to  the  Nazareth  asylum  for  the  blind 
and  for  destitute  children  in  Montreal  (under 
the  control  of  the  sisters  of  charity),  to  the 
reformatories  at  Montreal  and  Sherbrooke  (the 
former  Catholic  and  the  latter  Protestant),  and 
to  various  hospitals  and  asylums  conducted  by 
religious  bodies.  There  is  a  penitentiary  at 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  on  Isle  Jesus,  under  the 
control  of  the  Dominion.  The  number  of  con- 
victs at  the  close  of  1873  was  122.— The  pub- 
lic schools  of  the  province  are  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  as- 
sisted by  a  council  of  24  members  (16  Catho- 
lics and  8  Protestants)  appointed  by  the  lieu- 
tenant governor.  For  each  municipality  there 


138 


QUEBEC  (PROVINCE) 


are  five  commissioners,  elected  by  the  rate 
payers,  having  the  immediate  management  of 
primary  schools.  In  municipalities  where  dif- 
ferent religious  denominations  exist,  the  mi- 
nority may  select  syndics  or  trustees  to  direct 
their  own  schools ;  these  are  called  dissentient 
schools.  Inspectors,  32  in  number,  acting  un- 
der the  immediate  direction  of  the  minister 
of  public  instruction,  are  required  to  visit  the 
schools  of  their  respective  districts  at  least 
twice  a  year  and  report  upon  their  condition. 
The  provincial  grant  is  apportioned  among 
the  municipalities,  and  in  each  a  special  tax 
is  levied.  Each  head  of  a  family  is  also  re- 
quired to  pay  a  monthly  fee,  varying  from  5 
to  40  cents,  for  every  child  between  7  and  14 
years  of  age,  whether  attending  school  or  not. 
Dissentient  schools  receive  a  share  of  these 
moneys.  The  following  statistics  are  for  1873 : 

Municipalities,  number 852 

School  districts 8.870 

School  houses 8.331 

Elementary  schools 8.254 

Pupils 141,990 

Primary  superior  schools  for  boys 269 

Pupils 21,653 

Primary  superior  schools  for  girls 74 

Pupils 6,980 

Protestant  dissentient  schools 186 

Pupils 6,156 

Catholic  dissentient  schools 84 

Pupils. 1,509 

Academies , 88 

Pupils 8,252 

Colleges 87 

Pupils 7,118 

Normal  schools 4 

Pupils 246 

Educational  convents , 129 

Pupils 24,236 

Independent  schools 156 

Pupils 6,261 

Total  educational  institutions 4,226 

"  pupils 924,851 

Male  teachers 999 

Female  teacher* 4,017 

Provincial  grant,  amount $155,000  00 

Local  assessments,  regular  and  special $456,194  40 

Monthly  fees $715.661  76 

Total  amount  available .  $1,826,856  16 

Public  libraries,  number 206 

Volumes 108,812 

Only  the  municipal  or  parochial  libraries  are 
given  in  the  table.  The  schools  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  are  the  Laval  normal  school 
at  Quebec,  and  the  Jacques  Cartier  and  McGill 
normal  schools  at  Montreal.  There  are  three 
universities :  Laval  university  at  Quebec  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  McGill  university  at  Montreal 
(Protestant,  but  not  denominational),  and  the 
university  of  Bishop's  college  at  Lennoxville 
(Episcopal).  The  first,  with  its  affiliated  in- 
stitutions in  various  parts  of  the  province, 
is  treated  in  the  article  on  the  city  of  Que- 
bec. McGill  university  was  founded  by  a  be- 
quest of  the  Hon.  James  McGill  in  1811,  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1821,  and  re- 
organized by  an  amended  charter  in  1852.  In 
immediate  connection  with  it  are  the  McGill 
normal  and  model  schools  and  McGill  college. 
The  college  has  a  faculty  of  arts,  with  a  de- 
partment of  applied  science,  and  faculties  of 
medicine  and  law.  The  department  of  arts 
has  a  museum  and  a  library  of  16,330  volumes, 


and  the  medical  department  a  museum  and  a 
library  of  4,000  volumes.  St.  Francis  college, 
at  Richmond,  and  Morrin  college,  at  Quebec, 
are  affiliated  with  the  university,  the  former 
in  respect  of  degrees  in  arts  and  the  latter 
in  arts  and  law.  There  are  two  affiliated 
theological  colleges,  the  Congregational  col- 
lege of  British  North  America,  at  Montreal, 
and  the  Presbyterian  college  of  Montreal,  th« 
students  in  which  have  the  privilege  of  pur- 
suing the  course  of  study  in  arts.  The  uni- 
versity receives  a  small  annual  grant  from  the 
province.  Morrin  college  was  founded  in  1860 
and  incorporated  in  1861.  It  has  a  faculty 
of  divinity  in  connection  with  the  church  of 
Scotland.  The  university  of  Bishop's  college 
was  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1852. 
It  comprises  faculties  of  divinity,  arts,  and 
medicine,  the  last  being  at  Montreal.  Bishop's 
college,  founded  in  1843,  and  Bishop's  college 
school,  in  1857,  are  in  immediate  connection 
with  it.  The  college  has  a  museum  and  a 
library  of  5,000  volumes.  There  is  a  medical 
school  (ecolt  de  medeeine  et  de  chirurgie)  at 
Montreal  affiliated  with  Victoria  university, 
Cobourg,  Ontario.  There  are  12  or  15  clas- 
sical colleges  besides  those  already  named,  and 
about  the  same  number  of  industrial  colleges. 
The  number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals 
published  in  the  province  in  1875  was  72  (43 
English  and  29  French),  issuing  90  editions, 
viz.:  14  daily,  10  tri-weekly,  3  semi-weekly, 
40  weekly,  1  semi-monthly,  19  monthly,  and  3 
quarterly. — The  following  table  contains  the 
statistics  of  the  principal  religious  denomina- 
tions, according  to  the  census  of  1871 : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Churcbrt. 

Bulldlnp 
attached. 

Adherata. 

Baptist  

82 

44 

-  r>-fi 

KpWopal  

176 

809 

62.449 

Methodist  

181 

l-> 

84100 

Presbvterian  

94 

154 

Kl  <••.•> 

Roman  Catholic  

610 

2097 

1019850 

Other  

23 

40 

20266 

Total.... 

1.071 

-'.•<!  1 

1.191.516 

Of  the  Baptists  3,878  were  Freewill  Baptists, 
and  of  the  Methodists  26,737  were  Wesleyans. 
Among  denominations  not  named  in  the  table 
were  5,240  Congregationalists,  8,150  Advent- 
ists,  1,937  Universalists,  and  1,093  Unitarians. 
— Jacques  Cartier  took  possession  of  this  region 
in  the  name  of  the  French  king  in  1534.  The 
first  permanent  settlement  was  effected  at  the 
city  of  Quebec  in  1608.  Montreal  was  settled 
in  1642.  The  French  ceded  the  territory,  to- 
gether with  what  is  now  Ontario,  to  Great 
Britain  in  1763,  and  in  1774  the  whole  was 
organized  as  the  province  of  Quebec.  In 
1791  it  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Low- 
er Canada  and  Upper  Canada,  and  in  1841 
these  were  reunited  as  the  province  of  Can- 
ada. Upon  the  organization  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  in  1867,  they  were  again  separa- 
ted, and  Lower  Canada  became  the  province  of 


QUEBEC 


139 


Quebec.  An  elective  assembly  was  granted  to 
the  provinces  in  1791,  and  in  1841  responsible 
government  was  introduced.  For  further  his- 
torical details,  see  CANADA,  DOMINION  OF. 

QUEBEC,  a  county  of  the  province  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
including  territorially,  though  not  politically, 
the  city  of  Quebec ;  area,  2,598  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  19,607,  of  whom  14,681  were  of 
French,  3,321  of  Irish,  772  of  English,  and  547 
of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Batiscan,  St.  Anne,  and  St.  Charles  rivers, 
and  other  streams.  Capital,  Charlesbourg. 

QIJEBKC,  a  fortified  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  situated  on  the  N".  W.  bank  of 
the  river  St.  Lawrence,  at  its  confluence  with 
the  St.  Charles,  nearly  400  m.  from  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  140  m.  (in  a  direct  line) 
N.  E.  of  Montreal,  in  Lit.  46°  49'  6"  N.,  Ion. 
71°  13'  45"  W.;  pop.  in  1861,  59,990;  in  1871, 


69,699  (the  decrease  being  attributed  to  the 
withdrawal  of  the  British  regiments  forming 
the  garrison).  Of  the  latter  number,  40,890 
were  of  French,  12,345  of  Irish,  3,974  of  Eng- 
lish, and  1,861  of  Scotch  origin,  and  52,357 
were  Roman  Catholics.  Quebec  is  built  on 
the  northern  extremity  of  an  elevated  tongue 
of  land  which  forms  the  left  bank  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  for  several  miles.  Cape  Diamond, 
so  called  from  the  numerous  quartz  crystals 
formerly  found  there,  is  the  loftiest  part  of 
the  headland,  333  ft.  above  the  stream,  and 
crowned  with  the  vast  fortifications  of  the 
citadel.  These  occupy  about  40  acres,  and 
with  their  outlying  works  obtained  for  Que- 
bec the  appellation  of  the  "  Gibraltar  of 
America."  From  the  citadel  a  line  of  wall 
runs  westward  toward  the  cliffs  overhanging 
the  valley  of  the  St.  Charles,  and  is  thence 
continued  around  the  brow  of  the  promon- 
tory till  it  connects  once  more  with  Cape  Dia- 


Quebee,  from  Point  Levi. 


mond  near  the  governor's  garden.  This  circuit 
is  about  2f  m.  in  extent,  and  is  pierced  by 
five  gates,  now  dismantled.  The  walls  and 
ramparts  outside  of  the  citadel  proper,  though 
still  mounted  with  cannon,  are  no  longer  kept 
in  repair.  The  modern  changes  in  artillery 
have  necessitated  the  construction  at  enormous 
cost  of  a  vast  system  of  defensive  works  on 
the  heights  beyond  Point  Levi,  and  others  are 
contemplated.  Cape  Diamond,  Durham  ter- 
race, the  grand  battery,  and  the  vast  balcony 
on  the  university  building,  on  the  east  and 
north,  and  the  ramparts  between  St.  Louis  and 
St.  John  gates,  on  the  south  and  west,  afford 
prospects  rivalled  by  few  in  America.  The 
city  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  the  lower 
town.  The  former  comprises  the  walled  city 
with  the  two  suburbs  of  St.  Louis  and  St.  John, 
between  the  walls  and  the  plains  of  Abraham. 
The  lower  town  is  the  portion  which  encircles 


the  base  of  the  promontory  from  beneath  Cape 
Diamond  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Charles,  to- 
gether with  the  suburbs  of  St.  Roch,  St.  Sau- 
veur,  and  Boisseauville.  A  very  large  part  of 
the  city  within  the  walls,  or  the  upper  town 
proper,  is  taken  up  with  the  buildings  and 
grounds  of  great  religious  corporations,  the 
seminary  and  Laval  university,  the  Ursulines 
and  the  H6tel-Dieu,  and  the  ancient  Jesuit  col- 
lege, founded  in  1633,  and  occupied  as  a  bar- 
rack after  1812.  It  is  now  proposed  (1875) 
to  erect  a  building  for  the  provincial  legisla- 
ture on  its  site.  Over  the  remaining  irregu- 
lar surface,  not  covered  by  military  works, 
are  crowded  the  quaint  mediaeval  streets  and 
dwellings,  built  generally  of  stone,  two  or 
three  stories  high,  and  roofed,  like  the  public 
buildings,  with  shining  tin.  Here  are  situated 
the  parliament  house,  post  office,  court  house, 
city  hall,  the  residences  of  the  officers  of  the 


140 


QUEBEC  (CITY) 


provincial  government  and  of  the  wealthy  cap- 
italists, the  principal  hotels,  finest  stores,  and 
chief  places  of  amusement.  The  suburbs  of 
St.  Louis  and  St.  John  extend  southward  and 
westward  along  the  plateau ;  the  former  along 
the  foot  of  the  citadel  to  that  part  of  the 


Wolfe's  Monument. 

plains  of  Abraham  where  Wolfe  conquered, 
and  where  a  modest  column  stands  with  the 
inscription :  "  Here  Wolfe  died  victorious,  Sept. 
13,  1759;"  the  latter  lower  down  on  the  slope, 
skirting  the  verge  of  the  acclivity.  A  hand- 
some iron  column,  surmounted  by  a  bronze 
statue  of  Bellona,  in  memory  of  the  victory 
of  the  chevalier  de  Levis  over  Gen.  Murray  in 
1760,  was  erected  here  in  1854,  the  statue  be- 
ing presented  by  Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
These  suburbs,  which  are  constantly  encroach- 
ing on  the  historic  plains,  contain  many  beauti- 
ful private  residences,  and  several  large  conven- 
tual establishments  and  churches. — The  lower 
town  proper  was  the  most  ancient  part  of 
Quebec,  surrounding  the  old  church  of  Notre 
Dame  des  Victoires  on  the  east,  built  on  the  site 
of  Champlain's  residence,  and  comprising  chief- 
ly what  is  now  the  Champlain  ward.  It  com- 
municates with  the  upper  town  by  the  Cham- 
plain  steps  and  the  steep  and  winding  C6te  de 
la  Montagne  or  Mountain  street.  Here,  around 
Notre  Dame  des  Victoires  and  the  Champlain 
market,  are  the  principal  wharves  and  steam- 
boat and  ferry  landings.  It  is  the  busiest  and 
most  crowded  mart  of  the  city,  and  a  conglom- 
eration of  irregular  streets.  St.  Peter  street 
leads  northward  from  this  quarter  to  the  custom 
house,  on  the  very  apex  of  the  beach  formed 
by  the  confluent  waters.  Here,  beneath  the 
guna  of  the  grand  battery  200  ft.  above,  are 
the  great  commercial  establishments,  the  mer- 
chants' exchange,  the  banking  houses,  whole- 


sale stores,  and  bonded  warehouses.  St.  Paul's 
street  connects  with  St.  Peter's  before  the  cus- 
tom house,  and  stretches  westward  on  the  nar- 
row strand  between  the  cliff  and  the  bay,  amid 
breweries,  distilleries,  manufactories,  and  gas 
works,  till  it  meets,  near  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Charles,  St.  Joseph  street,  the  main  artery  of 
the  large  suburb  St.  Roch.  On  the  banks  of 
the  St.  Charles  are  the  principal  ship  yards. 
St.  Roch  and  Boisseauville  are  the  home  of 
the  laboring  classes.  The  chief  institutions 
here  are  the  large  convent  and  schools  of  the 
sisters  of  Notre  Dame  near  the  church  of  St. 
Roch,  and  the  general  hospital  on  the  banks 
of  the  St.  Charles. — From  Pres-de-ville,  at  the 
foot  of  Cape  Diamond,  proceeding  S.  W.  as 
far  as  Sillery,  the  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
is  indented  with  17  coves,  all  filled  with  lum- 
ber rafts.  The  opposite  shore  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, from  New  Liverpool  to  and  beyond  Point 
Lcvi,  presents  a  scene  of  activity  scarcely  sur- 
passed by  the  city  itself.  New  Liverpool  is 
connected  with  Quebec  by  a  steam  ferry,  has 
several  factories  and  mills,  a  large  trade  in 
lumber,  and  the  church  of  St.  Romuald,  the 
finest  on  the  lower  St.  Lawrence.  Adjoining 
New  Liverpool  is  South  Quebec,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  8,000  (increasing  rapidly),  and  im- 
mense lumber  yards  from  which  large  yearly 
shipments  are  made.  It  is  the  stopping  place 
of  the  transatlantic  steamers  from  Liverpool. 
St.  Joseph,  between  South  Quebec  and  Levis, 
has  as  large  a  business  as  the  former.  The 
town  of  Levis  or  Point  Levi,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  opposite  the  island  of  Orleans,  just 
where  the  main  branch  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
turns  eastward,  is  the  terminus  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  railway  and  of  the  Levis  and  Kenne- 
bec  railway.  It  has  several  churches,  a  thri- 
ving college,  a  succnrsal  of  the  seminary  of 
Quebec,  a  convent  with  a  large  female  acad- 
emy, several  other  flourishing  schools,  hotels, 
telegraph  offices,  extensive  lumber  and  ship 
yards,  and  a  considerable  trade. — Quebec  has 
many  fine  buildings.  The  custom  house,  on 
the  bank  of  the  river,  is  an  imposing  Doric 
edifice  with  a  dome  and  a  facade  of  noble 
columns,  approached  by  a  long  flight  of  steps. 
Of  the  church  edifices,  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame  is  the  most  remarkable.  It  was  elevated 
in  October,  1874,  to  the  rank  of  a  basilica,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  second  centenary  of  the 
erection  of  the  see  of  Quebec.  It  is  a  plain 
edifice  externally,  with  a  cut  stone  front  added 
to  it  in  1844,  and  unpleasantly  contrasting  with 
the  remainder  of  the  structure.  It  is  216  ft. 
long,  180  wide,  and  about  80  in  interior  ele- 
vation, capable  of  seating  4,000  persons,  with 
a  spacious  sanctuary,  a  richly  decorated  high 
altar,  and  several  original  paintings  of  great 
value.  The  Protestant  cathedral,  a  plain  gray 
edifice  surmounted  by  a  tall  spire,  stands  in 
the  centre  of  a  large  square,  enclosed  with  an 
iron  fence.  S.  E.  of  it  is  the  parade  ground, 
a  central  point,  adorned  with  a  fine  fountain. 
The  garden  of  the  fortress,  another  fine  pro- 


QUEBEC  (CiTT) 


141 


menade,  has  an  obelisk  erected  in  1828  to  the 
memory  of  Wolfe  and  Montcalm.  The  Chal- 
mers church,  the  Wesleyan  church  (in  the 
flamboyant  style),  and  the  chapel  of  the  gray 
sisters  are  good  specimens  of  Gothic  church 
architecture.  The  marine  hospital,  built  after 
the  model  of  the  temple  of  the  Muses  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ilissus,  the  archbishop's  palace, 
the  parliament  buildings,  the  theatre,  the  city 
hall,  and  the  university  buildings  are  worthy 
of  notice. — The  St.  Lawrence  is  about  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  (1,314  yards)  wide  oppo- 
site Cape  Diamond,  but  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Charles  forms  with  it  a  magnificent  basin  near- 
ly 4  m.  long  and  3  m.  wide.  The  beautiful 
island  of  Orleans  and  the  shores  of  Point  Levi 
shut  in  this  basin  on  the  northeast  and  east. 
The  depth  of  the  water  is  about  28  fathoms. 
The  ordinary  tide  is  17  or  18  ft.  at  new  and 
full  moon ;  but  the  spring  tides  attain  a  height 
of  23  or  24  ft.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  com- 
modious, and  the  largest  vessels  can  lie  at  the 
wharves.  In  the  latter  part  of  December  the 
river  is  closed  by  ice,  and  navigation  ceases 
till  the  latter  part  of  April,  when  the  ice  usu- 
ally disappears  very  suddenly.  There  are  two 
regular  lines  of  transatlantic  steamers,  running 
weekly  between  Quebec,  Liverpool,  and  Glas- 
gow, and  one  fortnightly  line  between  Quebec 
and  London.  There  are  also  weekly  steamers 
for  the  gulf  ports,  steamers  for  the  Saguenay 
almost  daily  in  the  summer  months,  and  semi- 
weekly  for  the  stations  intermediate  between 
Quebec  and  Three  Rivers,  besides  several  fer- 
ries.— Quebec,  next  to  Montreal,  is  the  most 
important  centre  of  maritime  commerce  in 
British  North  America.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
lumber  and  timber  markets  on  the  American 
continent.  The  principal  imports  are  woollen, 
cotton,  and  silk  goods,  iron,  hardware,  coal, 
and  salt.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  ships, 
lumber,  and  grain.  The  ships  built  at  Que- 
bec are  renowned  for  their  beauty,  solidity, 
and  sailing  qualities.  Much  the  larger  portion 
of  the  commerce  is  with  Great  Britain.  The 
value  of  imports  in  1860  was  $3,358,676;  of 
exports,  $7,271,959.  The  value  of  imports 
and  exports  for  the  four  years  ending  June  30, 
1874,  was  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1871... 

$0.277.370 

$12.683,904 

1872  

7,532.221 

11.931,077 

1873  

6  846  976 

12  587  276 

1874  

7  422  063 

12,746,305 

The  number  of  entrances  during  the  last  named 
year  was  983,  tonnage  790,361,  of  which  533, 
tonnage  381,032,  were  in  ballast ;  of  clearances, 
846,  tonnage  671,386  ;  number  of  vessels  built, 
52,  tonnage  21,065.  The  number  of  vessels 
belonging  to  the  port  on  June  1, 1874,  was  801, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  100,564.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1871,  the  amount  of 
capital  invested  in  manufactures  was  $2,870,- 
638;  number  of  hands  employed,  7,250;  amount 


of  yearly  wages,  $1,459,279  ;  value  of  raw  ma- 
terials, $4,771,459;  total  value  of  products, 
$8,449,752.  The  principal  articles  of  manufac- 
ture are  boots  and  shoes,  saw-mill  products, 
ships,  bakery  products,  furniture,  foundery 
products  and  machinery,  refined  sugar,  India- 
rubber  goods,  rope  and  twine,  clothing,  cooper- 
age, carriages,  ale  and  beer,  furs  and  hats,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  soap  and  candles,  and  tobac- 
co. There  are  three  banks  with  an  aggregate 
paid-up  capital  on  Sept.  30,  1874,  of  $6,307,- 
205;  circulation,  $3,044,719;  deposits,  $8,614,- 
438;  specie  and  Dominion  notes,  $1,623,750; 
discount,  $14,603,747. — Quebec  returns  three 
members  to  the  Dominion  house  of  commons, 
and  three  to  the  provincial  legislature.  It  is 
divided  into  eight  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  eight  aldermen,  and  18  councillors.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  bishop  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  and  has  19  churches  and 
a  synagogue.  The  chief  benevolent  institu- 
tions are :  the  H6tel-Dieu,  with  its  convent 
and  hospital,  founded  in  1639  by  the  duchess 
d'Aiguillon,  and  in  1875  comprising  45  sisters 
of  the  Sacred  Blood  of  Dieppe,  80  beds  for  pa- 
tients of  every  creed  and  nationality,  and  min- 
istering gratuitously  to  10,000  patients  yearly; 
the  general  hospital,  with  convent  and  halls 
for  incurable  patients,  founded  at  a  personal 
expense  of  100,000  crowns  by  Bishop  de  Saint- 
Valier  in  1693 ;  the  hospital  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus,  a  branch  of  the  general  hospital, 
opened  Sept.  8, 1873  ;  the  convent  of  the  sisters 
of  charity,  or  gray  sisters,  founded  in  1848  by 
Archbishop  Turgeon,  combining  an  asylum  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  poor,  an  orphanage,  and  a 
free  industrial  school  for  1,000  pupils,  the  whole 
supported  by  private  industry  and  charity ;  the 
house  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  a  reformatory 
for  the  fallen,  a  conservatory  for  exposed  girls, 
and  a  school  for  500  pupils,  established  in  1850, 
supported  during  the  first  year  by  the  guild 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  at  present  almost 
entirely  self-supporting  with  the  aid  of  pri- 
vate charity.  Connected  with  the  medical 
school  of  the  Laval  university  are*  the  mater- 
nity hospital  and  the  dispensary,  the  former 
founded  in  1852  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Auclair, 
aided  by  Mile.  M6thivier,  a  poor  seamstress 
(who  has  also  opened  a  private  lying-in  asyr 
lum,  now  governed  by  herself) ;  the  latter  es- 
tablished in  February,  1866,  also  by  .Father 
Auclair  and  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  and  ex- 
clusively supported  by  them  with  the  aid  of 
private  charity,  and  a  grant  of  $500  from  the 
legislature  toward  the  hospital.  Both  afford 
assistance  to  all  applicants  without  exception. 
The  maternity  hospital  is  under  the  charge  of 
the  sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  the  dis- 
pensary under  that  of  the  sisters  of  charity. 
There  are  also  the  St.  Bridget's  asylum,  con- 
nected with  St.  Patrick's  Roman  Catholic 
church,  and  the  ladies'  Protestant  home,  the 
latter  providing  for  old  men  and  young  unpro- 
tected girls.  The  marine  hospital,  on  the  bank 
of  the  St.  Charles,  near  the  general  hospital, 


142 


QUEBEC  (Cmr) 


and  the  Canada  military  asylum  for  the  widows 
and  orphans  of  British  soldiers,  are  maintained 
at  the  public  expense. — The  most  important 
educational  institution  is  the  "Seminary  of 
Quebec,"  with  its  offshoot  and  dependent  the 
Laval  university.  The  seminary  was  founded 
in  1663  by  Francois  de  Montmorency-Laval, 
first  bishop  of  Quebec,  who  bestowed  upon  it 
at  his  death  in  1708  all  the  personal  prop- 
erty in  Canada  which  he  had  purchased  by 
the  sale  of  his  patrimonial  estates  in  France. 
The  grand  seminaire  or  theological  school  was 
opened  in  1666,  and  ihe  petit  seminaire  or  col- 
legiate school  in  1668.  The  first  building  for 
the  special  use  of  these  schools,  of  stone,  on 
the  site  of  the  present  middle  seminary  build- 
ing, was  erected  in  1678 ;  it  was  burned  in 
1701,  rebuilt,  and  again  burned  in  1705,  when 
it  was  built  larger.  It  was  originally  designed 
only  for  clerical  students ;  but  when  the  Jesuit 
college,  founded  in  1637,  was  closed  after  the 
conquest,  the  seminary  courses  were  thrown 
open  to  all  classes.  The  whole  community  of 
professors  and  pupils  numbered  54  persons  in 
1704,  and  110  in  1800.  Within  the  present  cen- 
tury two  new  wings  have  been  added  to  the 
original  building,  each  far  exceeding  it  in  size 
and  costliness.  The  institution  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  university  by  a  charter  signed  by 
Queen  Victoria  Dec.  8,  1852,  the  power  of  con- 
ferring the  canonical  degrees  in  theology  being 
granted  by  Pius  IX.,  March  6, 1853.  The  cor- 
ner stone  of  the  principal  university  building 
was  laid  Sept.  20,  1854.  The  three  buildings 
erected  are  576  ft.  long  (the  main  building  being 
286  ft.),  five  stories  high,  and  of  cut  stone ;  the 
whole  lias  been  completed  at  a  cost  of  $238,- 
787,  without  counting  the  sums  expended  for 
museums,  library,  apparatus,  and  picture  gal- 
lery, amounting  to  about  $500,000.  In  1865 
the  whole  of  the  new  wing  of  the  theological 
seminary  and  a  portion  of  the  old  were  burned 
down;  but  the  directors  rebuilt  and  enlarged 
these  portions,  giving  a  total  length  of  684  ft. 
for  the  seminary  buildings  alone.  The  build- 
ings connected  with  the  main  university  edifice 
are  a  separate  school  of  medicine  and  a  board- 
ers' hall  for  students  in  law  and  medicine. 
In  thus  founding  the  university  and  provi- 
ding it  with  all  that  was  needful,  the  directors 
declined  all  aid  from  the  government  or  the 
city.  The  large  hall  of  convocation  has  seats 
for  1,200  persons,  besides  galleries  for  ladies ; 
the  chemical  laboratory  is  spacious,  fire-proof, 
and  provided  .with  complete  apparatus.  The 
mineralogical  and  geological  collections  were 
first  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev. 
John  Holmes,  and  afterward,  with  several 
large  subsequent  additions,  arranged  systemat- 
ically by  Prof.  T.  Sterry  Hunt.  The  museum 
of  botany  is  equally  complete.  That  of  zoology 
contains  upward  of  1,300  different  birds  and 
over  7,000  insects.  The  ethnological  collection 
is  chiefly  made  up  of  the  remains  of  Canadian 
Indians,  and  is  mainly  due  to  the  labors  of  Dr. 
J.  C.  Tache.  The  museum  of  the  medical  de- 


partment is  especially  complete.  The  gallery 
of  paintings,  lately  thrown  open  to  the  public, 
contains  150  originals,  duplicates,  and  copies, 
sent  from  France  after  the  revolution  of  1791, 
and  repurchased  from  various  owners  in  Can- 
ada, by  the  Hon.  Joseph  Legare.  The  univer- 
sity library  contains  upward  of  55,000  volumes, 
independently  of  the  libraries  belonging  to 
the  theological  and  preparatory  departments, 
amounting  to  about  20,000  volumes  more. 
The  nine  directors  of  the  seminary  are  by 
right  members  of  the  university  council,  the 
superior  of  the  seminary  being  ex  ofticio  rector 
of  the  university.  The  other  members  of  the 
council  are  the  three  senior  professors  in  each 
of  the  faculties  of  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and 
arts.  The  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  Que- 
bec is  ex  officio  visitor  of  the  university ;  to  him 
belongs  the  appointment  of  the  professors  of 
divinity  and  canon  law,  and  the  conferring  of 
all  degrees  in  the  same.  In  1875  there  were  five 
titular  professors  in  divinity  and  its  kindred 
sciences,  six  in  law,  nine  in  medicine,  and  five 
titular  and  six  associate  professors  in  arts, 
and  one  honorary  professor  and  three  tutors 
or  professors  charge*  de  court.  The  divinity 
course  embraces  four  years,  the  law  course 
three  years,  and  the  medical  course  four  years. 
There  are  six  affiliated  colleges:  the  college 
or  preparatory  seminary  of  Quebec,  the  col- 
lege of  Nicolet,  the  college  of  Ste.  Anne  de 
la  Pocatiere,  the  college  of  Ste.  Therese  de 
Blainville,  the  college  of  St.  Joseph,  Three 
Rivers,  and  that  of  St.  Germain,  Rimouski. 
The  affiliated  theological  seminaries  are  those 
of  Quebec,  Ste.  Anne  de  la  Pocatiere,  and 
St.  Germain  de  Rimouski.  About  40  priests 
and  theological  students  are  employed  in  va- 
rious capacities:  of  these  the  board  of  direc- 
tors, or  the  corporation  of  the  seminary,  re- 
ceive no  salary,  being  provided  with  all  ne- 
cessaries at  an  annual  expense  of  about  $250 
for  each.  The  auxiliary  priests  receive,  be- 
sides their  board,  a  salary  of  $100 ;  the  tutors 
or  disciplinarians  who  are  theological  students 
have  each  a  yearly  salary  of  $55 ;  and  the 
whole  amount  of  salaries  is  considerably  less 
than  $2,000.  In  1874  there  were  in  all  290 
university  students,  of  whom  55  were  in  the 
divinity  school,  36  in  the  law  school,  93  in  the 
medical  school,  and  106  in  the  junior  and  se- 
nior classes  of  philosophy. — Besides  the  uni- 
versity, Quebec  has  the  Laval  normal  and 
model  school,  founded  in  January,  1857,  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  Hon.  Pierre  J.  O. 
Chauveau ;  the  Morrin  college,  the  only  non- 
episcopal  Protestant  one  in  the  province ;  and 
the  Quebec  high  school.  Morrin  college  oc- 
cupies the  old  prison  in  the  centre  of  the  up- 
per town;  it  has  10  professors,  but  is  inade- 
quately patronized.  The  high  school  has  been 
always  very  successful,  and  has  200  students, 
with  a  large  staff  of  professors  and  a  handsome 
library.  The  other  principal  schools  are  :  the 
Ursuline  convent,  founded  in  1639,  having  in 
1875  89  nuns,  and  educating  260  boarders,  140 


QUEBEC  (CITY) 


QUEDLINBURG 


143 


half  boarders,  and  400  day  scholars,  together 
with  55  pupil  teachers  and  200  pupils  belong- 
ing to  the  female  department  of  the  Laval  nor- 
mal school ;  the  congregation  of  Notre  Dame, 
with  their  chief  convent  and  school  near  St. 
Koch's  church,  established  in  1843  by  the  Rev. 
Z.  Charest,  and  having  two  schools  in  the  city 
with  2,100  pupils  in  1875,  most  of  whom  are 
educated  without  cost  to  the  parents;  and  the 
"Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,"  founded 
in  1842  by  the  late  Archbishop  Baillargeon, 
-with  three  residences  and  six  schools  and  a  com- 
mercial academy  founded  by  the  Eev.  Joseph 
Auclair,  educating  gratuitously  2,500  pupils, 
and  receiving  in  return  the  bare  necessaries  of 
life  from  the  free  bounty  of  the  citizens.  There 
are  several  flourishing  literary  societies,  fore- 
most among  which  is  the  Quebec  literary  and 
historical  society,  the  oldest  chartered  institu- 
tion of  the  kind  in  Canada,  founded  in  1824. 
It  still  has  a  valuable  library,  though  a  great 
portion  of  its  most  precious  books  and  man- 
uscripts were  destroyed  with  the  parliament 
buildings  in  1854.  The  Canadian  institute,  the 
entomological  society,  and  the  St.  Patrick's 
literary  institute  possess  valuable  libraries,  as 
well  as  the  society  of  advocates,  the  board  of 
trade,  and  the  merchants'  exchange.  There 
are  five  daily  newspapers  (three  of  which  are 
in  the  French  language),  one  tri-weekly,  four 
weekly,  and  three  monthly  periodicals. — The 
site  of  Quebec  was  visited  by  Cartier  in  1534- 
'5,  and  the  city  was  founded  by  Champlain  in 
1608.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1629, 
and  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  1632. 
In  1636  it  had  100  inhabitants.  It  was  the 
colony  of  a  concessionary  company,  who  did 
not  fulfil  their  promises  to  the  settlers,  and 
hence  its  growth  was  slow.  The  magistrate, 
named  by  the  company,  was  called  a  syndic, 
and  had  powers  similar  to  those  of  a  mayor. 
The  king,  dissatisfied  with  the  management  of 
the  company,  took  the  colony  into  his  own 
hands,  and  in  1663  appointed  a  governor  and 
created  the  sovereign  council  of  Quebec,  who 
were  charged  with  its  government.  In  1690 
the  neighboring  English  colonies  made  an  un- 
successful maritime  expedition  against  it.  In 
1711  the  attempt  was  renewed,  with  no  better 
success.  The  first  attempt  at  erecting  stone 
fortifications  was  made  after  the  first  of  these 
attacks,  the  place  having  been  previously  pro- 
tected only  by  palisades.  In  1734  it  had,  in- 
cluding its  suburbs,  only  4,603  inhabitants. 
In  1759,  during  the  seven  years'  war,  the 
English  Gen.  James  "Wolfe  attacked  the  city 
and  bombarded  it.  On  Sept.  13  took  place 
the  first  battle  of  the  plains  of  Abraham,  in 
which  both  the  contending  generals  fell,  and 
England  gained  at  one  blow  an  American  em- 
pire. On  Sept.  18  Quebec  capitulated  after  a 
siege  of  69  days.  The  French  attempted  its 
recapture,  and  in  the  following  spring  the 
second  battle  of  the  plains  of  Abraham  was 
fought,  and  victory  sided  with  the  French 
colonists;  but  at  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1763 
694  TOL.  xiv.— 10 


Louis  XV.  ceded  the  whole  of  New  France  to 
the  English.  Quebec,  ruined  by  Wolfe's  bom- 
bardment, rose  slowly  from  its  ashes,  though 
its  commerce  increased.  In  1764  the  first 
newspaper,  the  "Quebec  Gazette,"  published 
in  two  languages,  made  its  appearance.  In 
1775  the  city  had  only  5,000  inhabitants.  In 
December,  1775,  a  small  American  force  under 
Gen.  Montgomery  attempted  its  capture,  but 
failed,  with  the  loss  of  about  700  men  and 
their  commander  (Dec.  31).  In  1792,  the  year 
after  the  inauguration  of  the  representative 
system  in  Canada,  the  first  Lower  Canadian 
parliament  was  convoked  at  Quebec,  and  the 
city  remained  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
lower  province  till  the  union  of  the  Canadas 
in  1841.  During  this  period  its  growth  was 
steady  and  moderately  rapid;  in  1844  its  pop- 
ulation was  32,876,  besides  2,797  in  the  sub- 
urbs. Two  terrible  fires  occurred  in  1845,  at 
a  month's  interval,  in  the  faubourgs  of  St. 
Roch  and  St.  John ;  nearly  3,000  houses  were 
burned,  and  property  to  the  amount  of  more 
than  $8,000,000  was  destroyed.  Large  confla- 
grations also  occurred  in  1862  and  1866;  and 
great  improvements  have  since  been  made  in 
the  fire  department  and  a  more  secure  style  of 
building  adopted.  In  1851  Quebec  again  be- 
came the  capital  for  four  years  tinder  the  ar- 
rangement for  alternating  capitals  adopted  in 
1849,  and  kept  up  till  1858,  when  Ottawa  be- 
came the  seat  of  government.  After  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1867,  Quebec 
became  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Quebec. 
QUEDLDTBIIRG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  beautifully  situated  near  the 
lower  Hartz  mountains,  on  the  Bode,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Saale,  31  m.  S.  "W.  of  Magdeburg; 
pop.  in  1871,  16,402.  Two  arms  of  the  Bode 
divide  the  old  from  the  new  town,  and  there 
are  four  suburbs,  one  laid  out  in  1862.  The 
castle,  on  a  rocky  eminence,  once  the  residence 
of  the  local  abbesses,  is  in  decay,  and  is  partly 
used  as  a  school.  The  Schlosskirche,  with  re- 
markable art  treasures,  was  made  in  1838  the 
theme  of  a  special  work  by  Ranke  and  Kugler. 
There  are  seven  Protestant  churches,  and  one 
Catholic.  A  gymnasium  was  established  here 
by  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  The  ruined  con- 
vent of  St.  Wipertus  is  now  a  barn.  In  the 
Bruhl  garden  are  monuments  of  Klopstock 
and  Carl  Ritter,  who  were  born  here.  Qued- 
linburg  is  a  market  for  seeds,  agricultural  and 
garden  products,  cattle,  books,  and  woollen 
goods.  The  see  of  Quedlinburg  was  celebra- 
ted from  the  10th  to  the  18th  century  for  its 
abbesses,  who  had  a  seat  in  the  diet  as  prin- 
cesses of  the  German  empire.  The  first  ab- 
bess was  Matilda,  daughter  of  Otho  I.  (963- 
999).  In  1539  the  abbesses  joined  the  refor- 
mation. Conspicuous  among  those  of  the  18th 
century  were  Anne  Amalia,  a  sister  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  and  Sophia  Albertina,  a  daugh- 
ter of  King  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Sweden, 
who  was  the  last,  retiring  in  1802,  but  retain- 
ing the  title  till  her  death. 


QUEEN 


QUEEN'S 


QUEEN  (Goth,  queins,  quena,  a  woman,  a 
wife ;  Icelandic,  knan  ;  A.  S.  cwen,  wife,  queen ; 
Gr.  -ywfa  a  woman),  the  wife  of  a  king,  or  a 
woman  who  is  the  sovereign  of  a  kingdom. 
In  the  former  capacity  she  is  regarded  in  most 
countries  as  a  person  of  dignity  only  inferior 
to  that  of  her  husband,  and  possesses  all  the 
privileges  enjoyed  by  a  feme  sole.  Thus  in 
England  she  can  receive  grants  from  or  make 
them  to  her  husband,  can  purchase  or  convey 
land  without  his  concurrence,  can  sue  and  be 
sued  alone,  and  dispose  of  her  property  by 
will.  She  has  a  separate  household  and  sepa- 
rate courts  and  officers,  is  exempted  from  pay- 
ing tolls  and  amercements,  and  has  other  extra- 
ordinary privileges ;  and  to  compass  or  imagine 
her  death,  or  to  violate  or  defile  her  person, 
even  with  her  consent,  is  treason.  If  accused 
of  treason  herself,  she  is  tried  by  the  peers 
of  parliament.  She  is  also  entitled  to  be 
crowned  with  full  regal  solemnities.  In  other 
respects  she  is  on  a  footing  of  equality  with 
the  subjects  of  her  husband,  in  accordance 
with  the  maxim  of  the  Roman  law:  Augusta 
legibus  soluta  non  est.  As  a  sovereign  princess, 
a  signification  not  originally  comprehended  in 
the  term  queen,  she  possesses  all  the  attri- 
butes of  a  king;  and  her  husband,  if  she  is 
married,  is  her  subject.  In  France,  where  by 
the  Salic  law  a  female  could  not  succeed  to 
the  throne,  the  mother  of  a  sovereign  some- 
times exercised  royal  authority  during  the 
minority  of  her  son,  in  which  case  she  was 
called  the  queen  regent.  The  queen  dowager 
is  the  widow  of  a  king,  and  as  such  enjoys 
most  of  the  privileges  accorded  to  her  during 
the  lifetime  of  her  husband.  In  England  she 
does  not  lose  her  rank,  although  she  marry 
with  a  commoner ;  but  no  one  can  contract  a 
marriage  with  her  without  a  special  license 
from  the  sovereign.  When  the  queen  dowager 
is  mother  of  the  sovereign,  she  is  commonly 
called  the  queen  mother. 

Ql'KK\  ANNE,  an  E.  county  of  Maryland,  bor- 
dered E.  by  Delaware,  W.  by  Chesapeake  bay, 
and  N.  W.  by  Chester  river,  and  drained  by 
several  creeks;  area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,171,  of  whom  6,592  were  colored.  It  has  a 
rolling  surface  and  fertile  soil.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  326,828  bushels  of  wheat, 
605,975  of  Indian  corn,  59,167  of  oats,  26,845 
of  Irish  and  9,467  of  sweet  potatoes,  22,581  Ibs. 
of  wool,  and  107,422  of  butter.  There  were 
3,703  horses,  586  mules  and  asses,  8,121  milch 
cows,  1,201  working  oxen,  3,050  other  cattle, 
5,373  sheep,  and  9,942  swine;  1  fruit-canning 
establishment,  1  woollen  mill,  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Centreville. 

QUEEX  CHARLOTTE  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
N.  Pacific  ocean,  about  130  m.  N.  W.  of  Van- 
couver island,  and  about  80  m.  from  the  coast 
of  British  Columbia,  to  which  they  belong. 
They  consist  of  four  principal  islands,  with 
numerous  adjacent  islets,  extending  N.  N.  W. 
and  S.  S.  E.  about  180  m.,  and  separated  by 
narrow  channels;  aggregate  area  about  5,000 


sq.  m.  The  largest  islands  are  Prevost  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  group,  Moresby, 
Graham,  and  North  at  the  northern.  Mores- 
by island  is  about  80  m.  long  and  from  10  to 
30  m.  wide,  with  an  area  of  1,500  sq.  m. 
Graham  island  is  about  80  m.  long  and  from 
20  to  60  ui.  wide,  with  an  area  of  3,000  sq.  m. 
Prevost  and  North  islands  are  much  small- 
er. The  surface  is  hilly,  but  not  mountainous. 
The  interior  is  clothed  with  magnificent  for- 
ests of  pine,  cedar,  and  similar  trees.  Copper 
and  iron  ores  and  anthracite  coal  have  been 
found.  Various  kinds  of  berries  are  abun- 
dant, and  potatoes  are  cultivated  by  the  natives. 
There  is  thought  to  be  much  arable  land.  The 
climate  is  equable,  the  winters  being  mild  and 
the  summers  cool.  The  harbors  are  numer- 
ous. The  surrounding  waters  swarm  with  fish. 
The  natives,  divided  into  several  tribes,  num- 
ber 4,000  or  5,000. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  SOUND.  See  VANCOUVER 
ISLAND. 

QUEENS,  a  S.  E.  county  of  New  York,  in  the 
W.  part  of  Long  Island,  bordered  N.  by  Long 
Island  sound  and  S.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean; 
area,  410  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  73,803.  Its 
surface  is  somewhat  hilly  ;  much  of  the  soil 
is  fertile,  and  nearly  all  is  highly  cultivated. 
The  shores  are  much  indented  by  bays  and  in- 
lets, and  on  the  S.  beach  are  many  small  islands. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Long  Island  and  sev- 
eral other  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  83,258  bushels  of  wheat,  58,576  of 
rye,  535,796  of  Indian  corn,  164,599  of  oats, 
7,063  of  barley,  24,685  of  buckwheat,  49,145 
of  peas  and  beans,  734,549  of  potatoes,  48,325 
tons  of  hay,  11,254  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  362,250  of 
butter.  There  were  7,733  horses,  8,627  milch 
cows,  569  working  oxen,  2,294  other  cattle, 
3,838  sheep,  and  8,229  swine  ;  4  manufactories 
of  brick,  28  of  carriages  and  wagons,  7  of  cor- 
dage and  twine,  two  of  explosives  and  fire- 
works, 1  of  fertilizers,  1  of  India-rubber  and 
elastic  goods,  3  of  liquors,  4  of  machinery,  8 
of  brick  and  atone,  4  of  oil,  6  of  paper,  1  1  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  2  of  starch,  3  of  stone  and  earthen 
ware,  14  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron,  4  flour 
mills,  5  lumber  mills,  and  4  ship  yards.  The 
court  house  is  in  the  town  of  North  Hempstead, 
about  a  mile  from  Mineola  station  on  the  Long 
Island  railroad.  The  county  clerk's  office  is  in 
the  village  of  Jamaica.  A  new  court  house  is 
in  course  of  erection  in  Long  Island  City. 

QUEEN'S.  I.  A  S.  central  county  of  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  intersected  by  the  St. 
John  river;  area,  1,480  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
13,847,  of  whom  5,469  were  of  Irish,  4,842  of 
English,  2,142  of  Scotch,  and  918  of  Dutch 
origin  or  descent.  Around  Grand  lake  consid- 
erable quantities  of  bituminous  coal  are  mined. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  European  and 
North  American  railway.  Capital,  Gagetown. 
II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  ocean;  area,  1,065 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  10,554,  of  whom  5,270 


QUEEN'S 


QUEENSLAND 


145 


were  of  English,  2,245  of  German,  1,150  of 
Scotch,  and  1,110  of  Irish  origin  or  descent. 
The  coast  is  deeply  indented,  and  bordered  by 
a  rugged  ridge  extending  many  miles  inland. 
The  interior  is  beautifully  diversified  with  val- 
leys, rivers,  and  lakes.  The  soil  along  the 
streams  is  fertile.  Capital,  Liverpool.  III.  The 
central  county  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  Can- 
ada; area,  771  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  42,651. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Prince  Edward  Island 
railway.  The  surface  is  diversified  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Capital,  Charlottetown,  which  is 
also  the  capital  of  the  province. 

QUEEN'S,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Leinster ;  area,  664  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  77,071.  The  Slieve-Bloom  mountains 
divide  it  from  King's  county.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Barrow  and  its  tributary  the 
Nore.  Lough  Annagh,  on  the  N.  boundary, 
the  only  lake  of  any  importance,  is  not  more 
than  a  mile  long.  Iron  and  copper  ore  and 
potter's  clay  are  found;  and  anthracite  coal 
mines  are  worked.  Excepting  in  the  centre  of 
the  county,  where  there  are  extensive  bogs, 
the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  principal 
towns  are  Mountmellick,  Mountrath,  and  Mary- 
borough. 

QUEENSLAND,  a  British  colony  in  Australia, 
comprising  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  island,  lying 
between  lat.  10°  43'  and  29°  S.,  and  Ion.  138° 
and  153°  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Torres  strait,  N.  E. 
by  the  Coral  sea,  E.  by  the  South  Pacific,  S. 
by  New  South  Wales  and  South  Australia,  W. 
by  South  Australia  and  the  Northern  Terri- 
tory, and  N.  W.  by  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria; 
area,  including  the  coast  islands,  678,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871  (revised),  120,104 ;  in  1873, 
estimated  at  146,690.  Of  the  population  in 
1871,  71,767  were  males  and  48,337  females ; 
47,343  were  born  in  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land, 26,296  in  England  and  Wales,  8,564  in 
Scotland,  20,972  in  Ireland,  8,317  in  Germa- 
ny, 3,305  in  China,  215  in  the  United  States, 
and  188  in  France.  The  religious  division  of 
the  inhabitants  in  1871  was  as  follows :  Angli- 
cans, 43,764 ;  Roman  Catholics,  81,822  ;  Pres- 
byterians, 15,373  ;  Wesleyans,  7,206 ;  Congre- 
gationalists,  2,647;  other  Protestant  denomi- 
nations, 11,485 ;  Jews,  291.  No  trustworthy 
information  can  be  obtained  concerning  the 
number  of  aborigines. — The  coast  line,  from 
Point  Danger,  the  S.  E.  extremity,  to  Cape 
York,  the  most  northerly  point,  has  a  general 
N.  W.  direction ;  it  runs  thence  nearly  due  S. 
to  the  southernmost  part  of  the  gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, forming  the  York  peninsula,  when  it 
turns  W.  and  then  nearly  N.  W.  to  the  boun- 
dary line  of  the  Northern  Territory.  Its  entire 
length  is  about  2,500  m.  Off  the  E.  coast,  at  an 
average  distance  of  20  to  30  m.  from  the  shore, 
though  in  some  places  60  m.,  lies  the  coral  reef 
called  the  Great  Barrier,  which  extends  from 
Cape  York  to  lat.  24°,  about  1,250  m.  Within 
this  reef,  through  which  there  are  frequent 
though  dangerous  passages,  is  a  navigable  sea, 
with  an  ordinary  depth  of  10  to  25  fathoms ; 


but  at  the  S.  end,  where  the  channel  is  widest, 
the  depth  exceeds  60  fathoms.  The  coast,  both 
within  this  sea  and  S.  of  it,  is  indented  by  nu- 
merous fine  bays,  with  capacious  natural  har- 
bors, many  of  which  form  the  outlets  of  navi- 
gable rivers.  The  principal  of  these  are  More- 
ton  bay,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  Brisbane, 
the  capital  of  the  colony,  Hervey  bay,  Port 
Curtis,  Keppel  bay,  Port  Bowen,  Port  Denison, 
and  Halifax,  Eockingham,  Trinity,  Princess 
Charlotte,  Weymouth,  and  Shelburne  bays. 
The  whole  E.  coast  is  strewn  with  islands, 
chiefly  small.  The  largest,  Frazer  or  Great 
Sandy  island,  in  lat.  25°,  is  about  80  m.  long 
by  20  m.  wide.  In  Torres  strait  are  Mulgrave's, 
Banks,  and  Prince  of  Wales  islands,  and  in 
Carpentaria  bay  is  a  group  called  the  Wellesley 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  Mornington. 
Along  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria  the  coast  is  low 
and  sandy,  with  the  exception  of  the  S.  part, 
where  mountain  ranges  approach  the  sea.  The 
E.  coast  is  generally  mountainous.  From  50 
to  100  m.  from  the  shore,  and  parallel  to  it, 
is  a  mountain  chain  forming  several  distinct 
ranges,  from  which  numerous  spurs  run  to  the 
sea.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  Gilbert 
range  in  the  north,  the  Expedition  range  in 
the  middle,  and  the  Denham  range  in  the  south. 
The  general  height  of  the  mountains  is  not 
more  than  2,000  ft.,  but  some  of  the  peaks  are 
much  higher.  Mt.  Mitchell,  S.  of  Brisbane, 
is  4,120  ft.  high ;  Mt.  Eliot,  near  Halifax  bay, 
4,122  ft. ;  and  two  of  the  peaks  of  the  Bellen- 
den  Kerr  range,  on  the  coast  S.  of  Trinity  bay, 
are  respectively  5,158  ft.  and  5,438  ft.  high. 
Beyond  the  mountains,  table  lands  covered 
with  herbage  and  well  supplied  with  water, 
but  without  trees,  stretch  across  the  country 
to  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria,  broken  occasionally 
by  mountain  ranges.  Within  certain  distances 
of  the  principal  mountains  the  rains  fall  regu- 
larly, and  the  plains  are  covered  with  light 
timber.  The  mountains  themselves  are  heavily 
wooded.  Queensland  is  drained  by  many  riv- 
ers, several  of  which  are  navigable.  In  the  S. 
part  most  of  the  streams  flow  into  New  South 
Wales.  The  chief  rivers  that  find  an  outlet  on 
the  E.  coast  are  the  Brisbane,  which,  together 
with  the  Arrowsmith,  Logan,  Pine,  and  Ca- 
boolture,  empties  into  Moreton  bay,  and  it  is 
navigable  for  75  m.  by  steamers ;  the  Mary  and 
the  Burnett,  which  flow  into  Hervey  bay ;  the 
Fitzroy,  which,  with  its  affluents,  the  Dawson, 
Mackenzie,  and  Isaacs,  drains  several  hundred 
miles  of  country,  and  is  navigable  for  60  m. 
above  its  mouth  in  Keppel  bay ;  and  the  Bur- 
dekin,  which  is  fed  by  the  Bowen,  Belyando, 
and  others,  and  empties  into  Wickham  bay. 
The  Mitchell,  Van  Diemen,  Flinders,  and  Al- 
bert flow  into  Carpentaria  bay.  The  banks  of 
the  rivers  are  usually  high  and  well  wooded, 
being  mostly  covered  with  thick  hedges  of 
mangroves  and  forests  of  fig  trees  and  euca- 
lypti, festooned  with  flowering  vines.  On  the 
mountains  the  pine  and  cedar,  and  many  varie- 
ties of  trees  unknown  elsewhere,  grow  luxu- 


146 


QUEENSLAND 


riantly. — The  climate  of  Queensland  is  prefer- 
able to  that  of  other  parts  of  Australia,  it  being 
said  to  resemble  closely  that  of  Madeira,  and 
the  colony  has  been  for  many  years  the  resort 
of  invalids  from  the  other  settlements.  The 
summer  is  hot,  the  thermometer  sometimes 
indicating  100°  in  the  shade ;  but  the  atmos- 
phere is  dry,  and  the  heat  is  so  tempered  by 
the  sea  breezes  that  the  nights  are  always  cool. 
It  is  generally  exempt  from  the  hot  winds 
which  prevail  in  other  parts  of  Australia.  Kain 
falls  regularly  in  the  hot  season,  but  a  dry  sea- 
son is  experienced  every  six  or  seven  years. 
Most  of  the  productions  of  both  temperate  and 
tropical  countries  can  be  cultivated  with  suc- 
cess. There  are  few  indigenous  fruits  or  vege- 
tables, but  those  of  almost  all  other  countries 
have  been  naturalized.  The  soil  is  well  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and 
tobacco,  as  well  as  of  maize,  wheat,  and  other 
cereals,  and  all  the  vegetables  and  flowers  of 
northern  Europe.  At  the  end  of  1872  there 
were  62,491  acres  under  cultivation,  of  which 
12,002  were  devoted  to  cotton  and  11,757  to 
sugar  cane.  The  orange,  lemon,  citron,  pine- 
apple, fig,  banana,  peach,  nectarine,  grape, 
guava,  mulberry,  apple,  pear,  granadilla,  and 
many  other  fruits,  grow  to  perfection.  In 
consequence  of  the  high  price  of  labor  and  the 
difficulty  of  finding  a  market  for  agricultural 
products,  the  greater  part  of  the  industry  is 
devoted  to  stock  raising.  The  downs  furnish 
rich  pasturage,  and  sheep  and  cattle  increase 
rapidly.  Horses  are  so  numerous  that  only 
the  best  bred  animals  are  selected  for  breaking. 
Cattle  and  sheep  are  frequently  boiled  down 
for  their  tallow  and  hides,  but  attempts  have 
been  made  of  late  years  to  preserve  the  meat 
for  exportation  to  Europe.  The  staple  product 
is  wool,  the  quality  of  which  increases  in  fine- 
ness as  the  flocks  are  driven  northward.  About 
195,000  sq.  m.  are  occupied  for  sheep  raising. 
At  the  close  of  1872  the  live  stock  in  the 
colony  numbered  6,687,907  sheep,  1,200,992 
horned  cattle,  92,798  horses,  and  35,732  swine. 
— Queensland  is  rich  in  minerals,  principally 
gold,  copper,  and  coal.  Gold  was  first  discov- 
ered at  Canoona,  about  35  m.  from  Rockhamp- 
ton.  In  1867  several  other  fields  were  opened, 
the  richest  of  which  was  at  Gympic  creek, 
130  m.  from  Brisbane,  which  proved  to  be  very 
rich  in  gold-bearing  quartz.  There  are  now 
more  than  a  dozen  gold  fields  in  the  colony, 
mostly  in  the  N.  and  N.  W.  districts.  The  total 
gold  product  for  1872  was  178,308  oz.,  valued 
at  £592,993.  The  richest  copper  mines  are  at 
Clermont,  and  the  chief  coal  mines  are  on  the 
Brisbane  and  Bremer  rivers.  The  product  of 
the  coal  mines  for  1872  was  27,727  tons,  valued 
at  £16,120. — Queensland  is  divided  into  12  dis- 
tricts :  Moreton,  Darling  Downs,  Burnett,  Port 
Curtis,  Maranoa,  Leichhardt,  Kennedy,  Mitch- 
ell, Warrego,  Gregory,  Burke,  end  Cook.  The 
principal  towns,  besides  Brisbane,  are  Ipswich, 
Rockhampton,  Gympic,  Maryborough,  and  To- 
(Rroomba.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  gov- 


ernor appointed  by  the  crown,  an  executive 
council,  and  a  parliament  of  two  houses,  the 
legislative  council  and  the  legislative  assembly. 
The  governor  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
troops,  and  has  also  the  title  of  vice  admiral. 
The  executive  council  consists  of  a  colonial 
secretary,  treasurer,  postmaster  general,  attor- 
ney general,  minister  for  lands,  and  minister 
for  mines  and  public  works.  The  legislative 
council  consists  of  21  members,  nominated  by 
the  crown  for  life.  The  house  of  assembly 
comprises  32  deputies,  elected  by  ballot  for 
five  years.  Electors  must  be  natural  born  or 
naturalized  citizens,  21  years  of  age,  who  pos- 
sess certain  small  property  qualifications,  and 
have  suffered  no  condemnation  for  criminal 
acts.  Justice  is  administered  through  a  chief 
justice,  a  puisn6  judge,  each  of  whom  has  asso- 
ciates, and  several  district  judges.  There  ia 
no  state  church,  an  act  having  been  passed  in 
1860  abolishing  state  aid  to  religion.  Nearly 
all  the  leading  denominations  are  represented 
in  the  colony,  and  all  have  numerous  places 
of  worship.  Education  is  under  the  control 
of  a  board  of  education,  consisting  of  six  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  government,  with  one 
of  the  ministry  for  chairman.  It  is  similar  to 
the  national  system  in  vogue  in  Ireland,  and 
is  entirely  free.  Aid  is  granted  to  schools  not 
established  by  the  board,  which  are  called  non- 
vested  schools,  on  their  complying  with  certain 
regulations.  The  state  also  assists  schools  more 
advanced  than  primary  schools.  In  1870  there 
were  111  public  schools,  226  teachers,  and  an 
aggregate  attendance  of  16,227.  Of  these,  89 
were  primary  schools,  with  170  teachers  and 
11,087  scholars.  Brisbane,  Ipswich,  and  Mary- 
borough have  grammar  schools.  There  were 
also  101  .private  schools  in  the  colony  in  1870. 
The  gross  revenue  in  1873  was  £1,120,034,  and 
the  expenditure  £948,750.  The  public  debt 
on  Dec.  31,  1872,  was  £4,547,850.  The  total 
value  of  the  imports  in  1873  was  £2,881,726; 
exports,  £3,542,518.  Commercial  intercourse 
is  chiefly  with  the  other  Australian  colonies 
and  with  Great  Britain.  In  1873  the  imports 
from  Great  Britain  amounted  to  £815,638,  and 
the  exports  to  it  to  £871,235,  of  which  £534,935 
was  for  wool.  The  principal  articles  exported 
were  wool,  tallow,  gold,  copper,  tin  ore,  cot- 
ton, live  stock,  hides,  timber,  and  provisions. 
The  total  export  of  wool  in  1872  was  17,798,- 
000  Ibs.  The  entrances  at  the  various  ports  in 
1870  were  476  vessels  of  the  aggregate  capacity 
of  139,292  tons.  In  the  same  year  2,825  immi- 
grants were  landed.  At  the  close  of  1873  there 
were  218  m.  of  railway  in  operation.  The 
chief  lines  are  the  Southern  and  Western,  from 
Ipswich  to  Warwick,  176  m. ;  and  the  North- 
ern, from  Rockhampton  in  the  direction  of  the 
Dawson  river,  which  in  1873  was  completed  to 
Westwood,  30  m.  The  railways  have  a  gauge 
of  3  ft.  6  in.  At  the  close  of  1872  there  were 
3,368  m.  of  telegraph  wire  in  operation,  with 
53  stations.  (For  information  relating  to  the 
geology,  zoology,  botany,  and  aborigines,  see 


QUEENSTOWN 


QUERETARO 


147 


AUSTRALIA.) — The  E.  coast  of  Queensland  was 
discovered  by  Capt.  James  Cook,  who  anchored 
in  Moreton  bay  in  1770.  The  country  was  at 
first  attached  to  New  South  Wales,  under  the 
name  of  the  Moreton  Bay  district.  In  1823 
the  Brisbane  river  was  explored  by  Oxley,  the 
surveyor  general  of  New  South  Wales,  and  the 
site  of  the  city  of  Brisbane  selected  for  a  penal 
station.  In  1825  the  first  convicts  were  landed 
there,  and  employed  in  making  roads  and  oth- 
er public  improvements.  Convict  immigration 
ceased  in  1839,  and  in  1842  the  country  was 
thrown  open  to  free  settlers.  In  1859,  in  def- 
erence to  repeated  petitions  from  the  settlers, 
it  was  erected  into  an  independent  colony. 

QUEENSTOWN,  a  town  of  county  Cork,  Ire- 
land, on  the  S.  side  of  Great  island,  in  the 
harbor  and  7  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cork ; 
pop.  in  1871,  10,039.  It  is  built  on  a  steep 
acclivity,  the  streets  rising  one  above  another 
parallel  to  the  beach,  and  the  piers  forming 
a  fine  promenade.  A  splendid  Catholic  cathe- 
dral is  in  course  of  erection  (1875).  The  har- 
bor is  3  m.  long  by  2  m.  broad,  with  an  en- 
trance 2  m.  long  and  1  m.  wide.  It  contains 
Spike  island  with  Fort  Westmoreland,  artil- 
lery barracks,  and  a  prison  for  800  convicts, 
who  are  employed  in  the  fortifications  and 
in  constructing  a  dockyard  and  basin  on  the 
adjoining  island  of  Haulbowline.  This  island 
contains  a  depot  for  ordnance  and  victualling 
stores,  and  near  it  is  Rocky  island,  with  bar- 
racks and  powder  magazines  cut  out  of  the 
rock.  Queenstown  is  the  station  of  the  com- 
manding admiral,  of  the  royal  yacht  club,  and 
of  transatlantic  steamers.  A  vast  number  of 
Irish  emigrants  embark  here  for  the  United 
States,  and  many  passengers  land  here  in  pref- 
erence to  Liverpool.  Previous  to  the  wars 
with  Napoleon  I.  it  was  a  small  village  of  fish- 
ermen; it  then  became  important  as  a  naval 
station.  It  was  known  as  the  Cove  of  Cork 
until  1849,  when  the  name  was  changed  on 
occasion  of  Queen  Victoria's  visit. 

QUEKETT,  John  Thomas,  an  English  micrp- 
scopist,  born  at  Langport,  Somersetshire,  in 
1815,  died  at  Pangbourne,  Berkshire,  Aug.  20, 
1861.  He  entered  London  hospital  as  a  stu- 
dent in  1831,  and  became  a  licentiate  of  the 
apothecaries'  company  and  member  of  the  roy- 
al college  of  surgeons.  The  latter  body  having 
established  a  studentship  of  human  and  com- 
parative anatomy,  he  was  unanimously  elected 
to  it,  and  in  1843  was  appointed  assistant  con- 
servator of  the  Hunterian  museum,  and  on  Pro- 
fessor Owen's  retirement  in  1856  conservator 
of  the  museum  and  professor  of  histology.  He 
was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  in 
1860.  He  published  "Practical  Treatise  on 
the  Use  of  the  Microscope"  (8vo,  1848;  new 
ed.,  1865) ;  "  Lectures  on  Histology  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1852-'4);  and  an  "Illustrated  Catalogue 
of  Specimens  in  the  College  Museum  in  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields." 

QCELPAERT  ISLAND  (called  by  the  Japanese 
Kandozan),  an  island  in  the  Eastern  sea,  about 


55  m.  S.  of  Corea,  and  110  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  the 
Goto  islands.  It  is  about  45  m.  long  and  20 
m.  broad.  The  soil  is  volcanic  and  fertile, 
good  timber  abounds,  and  grazing  pastures  are 
extensive.  The  highest  peak  reaches  an  alti- 
tude of  6,500  ft.  The  population  is  consid- 
erable; villages,  each  under  the  control  of  a 
chief,  being  numerous.  There  are  no  harbors. 
Corea  claims  this  island,  and  uses  it  as  a  place 
for  exiles  and  criminals. 

QIERARD,  Joseph  Marie,  a  French  bibliogra- 
pher, born  in  Rennes,  Dec.  25,  1797,  died  in 
Paris,  Dec.  3,  1865.  He  was  early  connected 
with  the  publishing  business,  and  from  1819 
to  1824  with  an  establishment  in  Vienna.  He 
afterward  published  in  Paris  La  France  lit- 
teraire  (10  vols.,  1827-'42),  followed  by  La 
litterature  francaise  contemporaine  (6  vols., 
1842-'57),  which  was  prepared  by  others  from 
the  middle  of  the  second  volume,  owing  to 
his  difficulties  with  the  publisher  and  to  his 
forfeiture  of  the  copyright.  Among  his  other 
compilations  are  Les  auteurs  deguises  de  la 
litterature  franfaise  au  19*  siecle  (1845),  and 
Les  supercheries  litteraires  dewilees  (5  vols., 
1845-'56). 

QIEKCITRON,  a  dyestuff,  the  bark  of  the 
black  oak,  quercus  coccinea,  var.  tinctoria  (Q. 
tinctoria  of  authors),  in  some  localities  called 
the  yellow-barked  oak.  (See  OAK.)  The  black 
outer  portion  of  the  bark  being  removed,  the 
inner  portion  is  found  to  contain  a  coloring 
principle  which  stains  the  saliva  yellow  when 
the  bark  is  chewed ;  this  is  extracted  by  boil- 
ing water,  giving  to  it  a  brownish  yellow  color, 
which  is  deepened  by  alkalies  and  brightened 
by  acids.  The  bark  is  largely  employed  in 
the  United  States  as  a  dye,  and  it  is  also  re- 
duced to  a  coarse  powder  and  shipped  to  Eu- 
rope in  great  quantities  for  the  same  use,  par- 
ticularly in  calico  printing.  When  this  decoc- 
tion has  been  deprived  of  tannin  by  means  of 
glue,  a  fine  yellow  color  is  obtained  upon  fab- 
rics mordanted  with  alum,  and  various  shades 
of  olive  with  iron  mordants.  The  coloring 
principle  is  called  quercitrine,  or  from  its  acid 
reaction  quercitric  acid.  Black-oak  bark  is 
used  for  tanning  also,  but  its  yellow  color 
makes  it  objectionable.  Its  astringent  and 
tonic  properties  have  led  to  its  use  in  medi- 
cine, but  white-oak  bark,  having  similar  medi- 
cal properties  without  the  color,  is  preferred. 

QCEBETARO.  I.  A  central  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  N.  by  San  Luis  Potosi,  E.  by  Hidalgo, 
S.  by  Mexico,  S.  W.  by  Michoacan,  and  W.  by 
Guanajuato ;  area,  3,429  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869, 
153,286.  It  occupies  a  part  of  the  plateau  of 
the  Cordillera,  and  is  traversed  by  numerous 
mountain  spurs,  but  contains  much  fertile  land. 
The  rivers  are  all  small,  and  the  Rio  de  Mon- 
tezuma  and  Lerma,  on  the  frontiers,  are  the 
only  streams  that  deserve  notice.  Gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  quicksilver,  tin,  lead,  and  antimony 
are  found.  Grain,  tobacco,  and  the  sugar  cane 
are  extensively  cultivated ;  cotton  is  grown 
in  some  districts;  and  considerable  numbers 


QUERINI 


QUETELET 


of  cattle  are  reared.  The  forests  abound  in 
fine  timber  and  precious  woods.  Woollen  and 
cotton  goods,  earthenware,  and  saddlery  are 
manufactured,  from  materials  produced  main- 
ly within  its  limits.  The  state  is  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Quer6taro,  San  Juan  del  Rio, 
Amealco,  Jalpan,  Toliman,  and  Cadereyta ;  the 
chief  towns  besides  the  capital  are  San  Juan 
del  Rio  and  Toliman.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  state,  on  a  plateau  upward  of  6,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  110  m.  N.  W.  of  Mexico;  pop. 
in  1869,  48,237.  It  occupies  the  sides  and 
summits  of  several  hills,  and  is  separated  from 
its  suburbs  by  a  small  stream.  The  streets  are 
well  laid  out,  the  houses  regular,  and  the  city 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  republic.  The  two 
parish  churches  are  magnificently  decorated, 
and  there  are  13  other  churches.  There  are 
a  college,  a  school  of  art,  and  an  academy  of 
design.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  an 
aqueduct  2  m.  long,  which  crosses  a  plain  upon 
arches,  some  of  which  are  90  ft.  high,  and  in 
connection  with  a  tunnel  brings  the  water  a 
distance  of  6  m.  The  manufactures  consist 
chiefly  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  leather, 
soap,  cigars,  and  pulque.  Two  miles  from  the 
city  is  the  largest  cotton  mill  in  the  country, 
employing  2,500  hands.  In  1848  the  Mexican 
congress  ratified  the  peace  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States  at  Queretaro.  In  February, 
1867,  the  emperor  Maximilian  having  taken 
refuge  in  Queretaro,  the  town  was  besieged 
by  Gen.  Escobedo;  on  May  15  the  emperor 
was  captured,  and  on  June  19  he  and  his  two 
generals,  Miramon  and  Mejia,  were  shot,  on 
the  Oerro  de  las  Campanas,  or  hill  of  the  Bells, 
which  overlooks  the  town. 

QUERINI,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  scholar,  born  in 
Venice,  March  80,  1680,  died  in  Brescia,  Jan. 
6,  1759.  He  became  a  Benedictine  monk  in 
Florence  in  1698,  assuming  the  name  of  An- 
gelo  Maria.  In  1700  he  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Montfaucon;  and  after  lecturing  for 
some  time  in  his  convent  on  Hebrew  and  Bib- 
lical literature,  he  spent  several  years  visiting 
the  principal  libraries  of  Europe,  and  returned 
to  Florence  in  1714.  He  was  enjoined  by  the 
general  chapter  of  his  order  to  write  a  history 
of  the  Italian  Benedictines,  but  was  prevent- 
ed after  years  of  laborious  research  by  Pope 
Clement  XL,  and  published  only  a  plan  of  his 
work  with  the  title  De  Monastiea  Italia  Hi»- 
toria  Conscribenda  (4to,  Rome,  1717).  The 
pope  appointed  him  abbot  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  in  Florence.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Corfu  in  1723,  and  in  1727  bishop 
of  Brescia  and  cardinal.  He  left  Latin  works 
on  history,  biography,  and  mathematics. 

Ql'ESADA.    See  XIMEXES  DK  QUESADA. 

QIESNAY,  Francois,  a  French  economist,  born 
at  Merey,  near  Versailles,  June  4, 1694,  died  in 
Versailles,  Dec.  16,  1774.  He  began  life  as  a 
surgeon,  and  in  1737  became  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  surgical  academy ;  but  in  1 744  he  obtained 
a  diploma  as  a  physician.  He  was  a  favorite 
medical  attendant  of  the  royal  family  and  of 


Mme.  de  Pompadour,  and  occupied  rooms  next 
to  hers  in  the  palace  at  Versailles.  He  pub- 
lished many  works  on  medicine  and  surgery, 
which  are  now  obsolete ;  and  he  is  chiefly  re- 
membered as  the  father  of  the  agricultural  sys- 
tem of  economy,  called  by  him  physiocracy. 
(See  POLITICAL  ECONOMY.)  His  Tableau  eco- 
nomique  (1758)  was  called  by  Laharpe  "the 
Koran  of  economists."  His  economical  works 
were  edited  by  Dupont  de  Nemours,  under  the 
title  Physiocratie,  ou  Constitution  naturelle 
du  gouvemement  le  plus  avantageux  au  genre 
humain  (Paris  and  Leyden,  1768 ;  reprinted 
in  the  Collection  des  principaux  economistes, 
Paris,  1846). 

QIESNEL,  Pasqnlor,  a  French  theologian,  born 
in  Paris,  July  14,  1634,  died  in  Amsterdam, 
Dec.  2,  1719.  He  studied  in  the  Sorbonne,  be- 
eame  a  member  of  the  French  congregation  of 
the  Oratory  in  1657,  and  was  appointed  supe- 
rior of  the  house  of  his  order  in  Paris.  Having 
imbibed  the  doctrines  of  the  Port  Royal  the- 
ologians, he  began  to  publish  them  in  a  series 
of  moral  commentaries  on  the  gospel  for  the 
use  of  young  Oratorians.  The  first  volume  ap- 
peared in  1671,  entitled  Reflexions  morales  tur 
le  Nouveau  Testament.  He  next  published  an 
edition  of  St.  Leo  the  Great  (4  vols.  4to,  1672), 
containing  notes  and  commentaries  favorable 
to  Jansenism,  followed  by  a  commentary  on 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles, 
which  was  the  continuation  of  the  Reflexions 
morales.  In  1681  he  was  banished  to  Orleans. 
Refusing  to  sign  a  theological  formulary  im- 
posed on  the  Oratorians,  he  left  the  order  in 
1684,  joined  Arnauld  in  Brussels,  and  there 
published  in  1694  a  complete  edition  of  his 
Reflexions  morales.  The  angry  controversies 
to  which  this  book  gave  rise  in  France  and  the, 
Low  Countries  caused  Quesnel  to  be  imprison* 
ed  by  the  Spanish  authorities,  but  he  escaped 
and  found  refuge  in  Amsterdam.  The  work 
was  condemned  by  Clement  XL,  July  18, 1708, 
and  still  more  solemnly  in  the  famous  bull 
Unigcnitus,  Sept.  8,  1718.  Among  Quesnel's 
other  important  works  are:  Abrege  de  la  mo- 
rale de  t£tangile  (8  vols.,  1687) ;  Tradition 
de  Vfiglise  romaine  sur  la  predestination  des 
saints  et  sur  la  grace  efficace,  under  the  pseu- 
donyme  of  Sieur  Germain  (4  vols.,  Cologne, 
1687);  Discipline  de  Vfiglise  tiree  du  Nou- 
veau Testament  et  de  quelques  anciens  con- 
ciles  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1689);  Histoire  abregec 
de  la  vie  d'Antoine  Arnauld  (2  vols.,  Liege, 
1699);  Justification  de  M.  Arnauld  (3  vols., 
1702) ;  La  souterainete  des  rots  dtfendue  con- 
tre  Leydeker  (Paris,  1704)  ;  Reeueil  de  lettres 
spirituelles  (8  vols.,  1721).  There  are  several 
English  translations  of  the  Reflexions  morales. 

QUETELET,  Lambert  AdoJphf  Jacques,  a  Belgian 
statistician,  born  in  Ghent,  Feb.  22,  1796,  died 
in  Brussels,  Feb.  17,  1874.  When  scarcely  18 
years  old  he  was  appointed  professor  of  math- 
ematics in  his  native  town,  and  five  years  later 
at  the  Athenroum  in  Brussels.  In  1824  the 
king  of  the  Netherlands  sent  him  to  Paris  to 


QUETZALCOATL 


QUICHES 


149 


complete  his  astronomical  studies ;  and  on  his 
return  in  1826,  he  was  charged  with  super- 
intending the  building  of  an  observatory,  of 
which  he  was  director  until  his  death.  Be- 
tween 1827  and  1829  he  visited  England,  Scot- 
land, Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  He 
was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  Belgium,  president  of  the  central 
statistical  committee,  and  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  institute.  His  most  impor- 
tant publications  are :  Recherches  sur  la  repro- 
duction et  la  mortality  et  sur  la  population  de 
la  Belgique  (1832) ;  De  V influence  des  saisons 
sur  la  mortalite  aux  different^  ages  (1838); 
Sur  la  theorie  des  probability  appliquees  aux 
sciences  morales  et  politiques  (1846);  Du  sys- 
teme  social  et  des  lois  que  le  regissent  (1848) ; 
Sur  la  statistique  morale  et  les  principes  qui 
doivent  en  former  la  base  (1848);  and  Anthro- 
pometrie  (1873).  From  1833  he  published  an 
Annuaire  de  Vobservatoire  de  Bruxelles. 

QIETZALCOATL  (i.  e.,  the  serpent  or  the  twin 
with  peacock  or  trogon  feathers),  the  name 
of  a  mythical  personage  introduced  into  Mex- 
ican mythology  by  the  Huastecas,  a  branch 
of  the  Mayas,  who  came,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, in  boats  along  the  coast  and  settled  at 
Panuco,  without  opposition  from  the  former 
possessors,  though  in  course  of  time  they  held 
their  own  against  the  Otomies,  Nahoas,  and 
Chichimecas,  till  they  were  finally  conquered 
by  the  great  monarch  Nezahualcoyotl.  The 
Natchez  are  supposed  to  have  been  also  a  part 
of  this  body  of  emigrants.  This  mythical  per- 
sonage appeared  in  a  long  white  robe,  hold- 
ing a  statf,  and  introduced  the  honors  paid  to 
the  cross.  He  taught  the  people  many  arts, 
introduced  a  system  of  worship,  and  finally 
returned  to  Yucatan  according  to  Mexican 
tradition,  though  in  Yucatan,  where  he  is 
known  as  Cuculcan,  they  make  him  return  to 
Mexico.  The  accounts  given  of  him  are  not 
always  consistent,  and  may  apply  to  a  series 
who  bore  the  name.  He  was  ultimately  hon- 
ored as  a  god,  and  especially  as  the  god  of 
rain.  The  religious  ideas  introduced  by  him 
were  not  confined  to  the  Huastecas,  but  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  Mexican  empire. 

QCEVEDO  T  YILLEGiS,  Francisco  Gomez  de,  a 
Spanish  author,  born  in  Madrid,  Sept.  26, 
1580,  died  at  Villanueva  de  los  Infantes,  Sept. 
8, 1645.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Alcala,  and  took  a  degree  in  theology  at  the 
age  of  15.  Having  killed  a  nobleman  in  a  duel, 
he  fled  to  Sicily,  where  the  viceroy,  the  duke  of 
Osuna,  gave  him  honorable  employment,  and 
on  his  removal  to  Naples  made  him  minister 
of  finance.  Cfo.  visiting  Madrid  on  diplomatic 
business,  he  was  pardoned  and  received  a  pen- 
sion. He  was  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  of 
the  marquis  of  Bedmar  against  Venice  (16*18), 
and  narrowly  escaped  from  that  city  with  his 
life.  After  the  disgrace  of  his  patron  (1620) 
he  was  kept  a  prisoner  at  his  country  seat, 
La  Torre  de  Juan  Abad,  for  three  years  and  a 
half,  but  was  released  without  trial.  He  pub- 


lished in  1631  a  collection  of  the  poetry  of 
Luis  de  Leon,  and  Poesias  del  bacMller  de  la 
Torre,  being  probably  the  work  of  Quevedo 
himself.  Being  falsely  accused  in  1639  of  wri- 
ting some  satirical  verses  which  had  been  laid 
under  the  king's  napkin  at  dinner,  he  was  kept 
for  nearly  four  years  in  rigorous  confinement, 
where  he  contracted  diseases  from  which  he 
never  recovered.  His  papers  having  been 
twice  seized  by  the  government,  the  greater 
part  of  his  works  have  never  been  printed. 
Among  his  published  writings  are  treatises 
"  On  the  Providence  of  God ;"  "  God's  Politics 
and  Christ's  Government,"  in  which  he  en- 
deavors to  collect  a  complete  body  of  political 
philosophy  from  the  example  of  the  Saviour ; 
"On  a  Holy  Life;"  "The  Militant  Life  of  a 
Christian,"  &c.  His  most  celebrated  works 
are  his  prose  satires,  more  witty  than  delicate. 
Among  these  are  his  "History  and  Life  of 
the  great  Sharper,  Paul  of  Segovia"  (1627); 
his  treatise  "  On  all  Things,  and  many  more;" 
"The  Tale  of  Tales;"  and  "Letters  of  the 
Knight  of  the  Forceps"  (Cartas  del  cavallero 
de  la  Tenaza,  1635).  His  Suenos,  or  "  Visions," 
perhaps  the  most  popular  and  effective  of  his 
satires,  were  published  collectively  in  1635,  and 
translated  into  English  by  Sir  Eoger  L'Estrange 
in  1708.  A  collection  of  Quevedo's  poetry  was 
made  by  Salas  in  1648,  another  by  Alderete  in 
1670,  under  the  title  of  "The  Spanish  Parnas- 
sus, divided  into  two  Summits,  with  the  Nine 
Castilian  Muses."  There  is  a  complete  edition 
of  his  works  by  Sancho  (11  vols.  8vo,  Madrid, 
1790-'94),  and  a  later  collection  by  Guerra  y 
Orbe  (Madrid,  1852).  A  translation  of  the 
satirical  works  appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1798. 
QtlCHES,  Kiehes,  or  Vtlatecas,  a  semi-civilized 
nation  of  Guatemala,  occupying  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  the  greater  part  of  what  is  now 
called  Los  Altos,  or  the  highlands  of  Guate- 
mala, including  the  districts  of  Quiche,  Totoni- 
capam,  and  Quesaltenango.  Their  traditions 
indicate  that  they  sprung  from  the  Toltec 
stock.  Their  records,  as  written  out  by  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  house  immediately  after  the 
conquest,  give  a  long  array  of  kings,  and  imply 
a  high  antiquity.  It  seems  that  the  Kachi- 
quels  and  Zutugils  were  once  embraced  in  the 
Quich6  kingdom,  and  that  their  separation 
was  the  act  of  the  king  Acxopil,  who  divided 
his  power  with  his  two  sons,  retaining  to  him- 
self the  capital  and  surrounding  regions,  which 
preserved  the  name  of  Quiche\  These  three 
divisions,  subsequently  becoming  hostile,  were 
easily  conquered  by  the  Spaniards.  Alvarado 
encountered  his  most  vigorous  resistance  in 
Quiche^,  where  the  king,  Tecum-Umam,  went 
out  to  meet  him,  according  to  the  chroniclers, 
with  232,000  men.  They  fought  with  great 
bravery,  but  musketry  and  cannon,  and  above 
all  the  terror  inspired  by  the  Spanish  horse, 
proved  too  powerful  for  the  rude  means  of  re- 
sistance at  their  command.  The  battle  lasted 
six  days,  the  Indians  fighting  desperately  as 
they  fell  back.  The  king  at  last  was  slain  by 


150 


QUICHUAS 


QUTLLWORT 


Alvarado,  and  the  subjugation  of  the  Quiches 
was  completed. — The  ruins  of  the  city  of 
Quiche,  described  by  Mr.  Stephens,  attest  the 
grandeur  and  power  of  this  people,  and  give  a 
fair  support  to  the  early  accounts  of  their  num- 
bers. The  district  which  they  occupied  is  the 
best  populated  portion  of  Guatemala,  and  is  al- 
most purely  Indian,  the  ancient  language  being 
still  in  general  use.  The  people  are  described 
by  Arthur  Morelet  as  "an  active,  courageous 
race,  whose  heads  never  grow  gray,  perseve- 
ring in  their  industry,  skilful  in  almost  every 
department  of  art,  good  workers  in  iron  and 
the  precious  metals,  generally  well  dressed, 
neat  in  person,  with  a  firm  step  and  indepen- 
dent bearing,  and  altogether  constituting  a  class 
of  citizens  who  only  require  to  be  better  edu- 
cated to  rise  equal  to  the  best."  Their  language 
is  regarded  as  a  purer  dialect  than  either  the 
Kachiquel  or  Zutugil,  with  which  it  is  com- 
pared by  Fray  Ildefonso  Flores,  in  his  Arte  de 
la  lengua  Kachiquel  (Guatemala,  1753).  Much 
has  been  done  recently  for  a  better  knowledge 
of  this  people  by  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  es- 
pecially in  his  Grammaire  de  la  langue  Quichee 
mise  en  parallele  atec  tea  deux  dialectes  Cakchi- 
quel  et  Tzutuhil,  avec  un  vocdbulaire,  servant 
d 'introduction  au  Rdbinal  Achi,  drame  in- 
digene (Paris,  1862),  and  Popul  Voh,  le  litre 
tacre  et  les  mythes  de  Vantiquite  americaine, 
avec  lea  litres  heroiquea  et  historiques  de  Qui- 
che (1861). 

Ql'ICIH'AS,  the  dominant  people  in  the  em- 
pire of  Peru  under  the  incas,  who  made  their 
language  the  general  one  of  their  territory. 
The  Quichuas  extended  from  Lake  Titicaca  to 
Quito,  and  toward  the  coast  to  the  territory  of 
the  Ohinchas  and  Yuncas.  The  Aymaras,  ex- 
tending from  Lake  Titicaca  to  what  is  now  the 
southern  limit  of  Bolivia,  were  first  reduced 
by  the  Quichuas  under  the  incas.  The  Qui- 
chuas are  gay,  cheerful,  energetic,  and  under  the 
wise  sway  of  the  incas  seem  to  have  risen  rap- 
idly in  many  arts.  They  were  assiduous  culti- 
vators of  the  soil;  maize  and  other  grains 
raised  in  Titicaca  were  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
empire  as  sacred  presents,  and  the  inca  himself 
gave  an  example  of  the  honor  of  agriculture. 
They  wove  and  spun  the  wool  of  the  llama, 
vicufla,  and  alpaca ;  they  worked  mines  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper;  built  suspension  bridges; 
erected  adobe  houses  with  gables,  niches,  and 
arches,  and  temples  of  the  same  material  or 
stone,  cutting  and  fitting  the  blocks  with  an 
accuracy  and  finish  that  cannot  be  excelled; 
made  sterile  tracts  productive  by  a  wise  and  ex- 
tended system  of  otequ'ias  and  aqueducts,  and 
also  by  excavating  till  moisture  was  reached. 
In  astronomy  they  had  not  reached  as  high 
a  degree  as  the  Mexicans;  and  in  literature, 
though  preserving  records  mainly  by  quipus  or 
knotted  cords,  they  cultivated  poetry,  and  had 
dramas  as  well  as  touching  songs  that  won  the 
admiration  of  the  Spaniards.  The  incas  claimed 
to  descend  from  the  sun,  and  introduced  the 
worship  of  that  luminary.  They  reduced  the 


Chancas  and  Huancas,  apparently  intrusive 
eastern  tribes,  and  then  attacked  the  Yuncas, 
the  people  of  the  coast,  whose  capital  was  at 
Chimu  near  Trujillo,  and  who  worshipped  Pa- 
chacamac,  creator  of  the  world,  of  whom  there 
was  a  famous  idol  and  temple  at  the  place  that 
still  bears  the  name,  the  god  Rimac,  who  had 
a  famous  oracle  near  Lima,  and  other  deities. 
After  a  long  and  bloody  war  the  inca  Capao 
Yupanqui  overthrew  Chuqui  Manca,  king  of 
Chimu,  and  reduced  the  Yuncas.  They  were 
compelled  to  accept  the  sun  worship,  but  the 
inca  allowed  the  temple  of  Pachacamac  to  stand, 
as  its  fame  was  spread  through  most  of  South 
America.  There  are  remnants  of  the  Yuncas 
still  retaining  their  language  at  Moche,  Eten, 
&c. ;  it  is  entirely  different  from  the  Quichua. 
The  priests  of  the  sun  dressed  in  white,  and 
practised  celibacy  and  fasts ;  near  each  temple 
was  also  a  convent  of  virgins  of  the  sun.  The 
men  wore  woollen  tunics  and  leggings,  the 
women  long  skirts  and  short  cloaks,  joined  by 
gold,  silver,  or  copper  clasps.  The  incas  were 
distinguished  by  the  llautu,  a  fillet  with  a  ball 
descending  between  the  eyes.  After  the  Span- 
ish conquest  the  Indians  lost  much  of  the  arts 
they  had  gained,  and  retrograded  generally. 
A  desperate  effort  was  made  by  the  Quichuas  in 
the  last  century  to  recover  their  freedom,  but 
their  leader,  Tupac  Amaru,  a  descendant  of  the 
incas,  was  taken  and  torn  in  pieces  by  horses  in 
the  plaza  of  Cuzco  in  1780. — There  is  a  series 
of  grammars  of  the  Quichua,  beginning  with 
that  of  Fray  Domingo  de  San  Tomas  (Valla- 
dolid,  1560),  and  coming  down  to  Markham, 
"Contributions  toward  a  Grammar  and  Dic- 
tionary of  Quichua"  (London,  1864).  Ollan- 
tay,  a  Quichua  drama,  and  several  songs  of 
the  hararecs  or  bards,  have  been  published. 

QUICKSILVER.     See  MEROCRY. 

QUIETISM.    See  MOLINOS. 

<jl  II.PI  I  Ml,  or  kilimanr,  a  town  and  military 
station  in  the  Portuguese  territory  of  Mozam- 
bique, on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Quilimane,  the  N. 
arm  of  the  Zambesi,  12  m.  from  the  sea,  in  lat. 
17°  45'  S.,  Ion.  36°  44'  E.;  pop.  about  12,000. 
It  is  irregularly  built,  some  of  the  dwellings 
being  of  brick,  some  of  mud,  and  many  of 
reeds  and  grass;  but  there  are  gardens,  with 
orange  and  cocoanut  trees,  about  many  of  the 
houses.  Its  principal  trade  is  the  export  of 
slaves.  The  Portuguese  garrison  consists  of  a 
commandant,  a  few  Europeans,  and  about  50 
native  troops.  Quilimane  is  one  of  the  very 
few  places  on  the  Mozambique  coast  actually 
occupied  by  the  Portuguese,  but  it  is  very  un- 
healthy and  fast  decaying. 

QUILLWORT,  a  genus  of  cryptogamic  plants 
so  called  from  having  some  resemblance  to  a 
bunch  of  quills ;  they  are  mostly  aquatics,  and 
being  evergreens,  Linnanis  called  the  genus 
isoetes  (Gr.  ICTOJ,  equal,  and  frof,  year);  this 
is  placed  by  some  botanists  in  the  family  of 
club  mosses  (lycopodiacece),  while  others  give 
it  the  rank  of  an  order.  The  external  appear- 


QUILOA 


QUINCE" 


151 


ance  of  the  plants  is  that  of  a  tuft  of  linear 
leaves,  attached  by  their  enlarged  bases  to  a 
very  short  rootstock,  from  the  lower  part  of 


Quillwort  (Isogtes  lacustrls).  A  small  plant  of  natural  size ; 
magnified  bases  of  two  leaves,  showing  macrospores  and 
microspores ;  and  macrospores  greatly  magnified. 

which  roots  are  produced.  The  organs  of  re- 
production are  curiously  concealed;  the  spo- 
rangia or  spore  cases  are  orbicular  or  ovoid, 
plano-convex,  and  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  the  bases  of  which  are  hollowed  out  to 
receive  and  partly  cover  the  sporangia,  which 
are  united  to  them  by  the  back.  The  spores  are 
of  two  kinds,  those  in  the  cases  of  the  outer 
leaves  being  very  much  larger  than  those  near 
the  centre  of  the  cluster.  The  large  spores 
(macrospores)  are  from  20  to  200  in  a  spore 
case,  and  are  divided  into  two  hemispheres 
by  a  line,  one  of  the  halves  being  marked  by 
three  radiating  lines ;  the  minute  spores  of  the 
inner  leaves  (microspores)  are  so  small  that 
it  is  estimated  that  each  case  contains  over  a 
million ;  they  are  obliquely  oblong  and  trian- 
gular. Ten  or  a  dozen  species  are  found  in 
the  whole  country,  one  of  which,  /.  lacmtris, 
occurs  also  in  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
is  found  along  our  northern  border  from  New 
England  to  Lake  Superior;  it  has  10  to  25 
leaves,  2  to  6  in.  long ;  the  largest  species,  /. 
Engelmannii,  has  from  50  to  200  leaves,  often 
25  in.  long.  These  singular  plants  are  not 
rare,  but  they  escape  general  notice  from  their 
resemblance  to  submerged  grasses. 

QUILOA.     See  KILWA. 

QUDIPER,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Finistere,  on  the  Odet,  32  m. 
S.  E.  of  Brest  and  13  m.  from  the  Atlantic ; 
pop.  in  1872,  13,159.  It  is  partly  surrounded 
by  ancient  walls  and  watch  towers.  The  ca- 
thedral of  St.  Brentin,  begun  in  1239  and  fin- 
ished in  1493,  was  rebuilt  in  1858  from  the  de- 
signs of  Viollet-le-Duc.  There  are  ship  yards, 
manufactories  of  pottery,  fisheries,  and  trade 
in  grain,  horses,  honey,  and  cattle.  Formerly 
it  was  the  capital  of  Cornouailles. 


QH\,  James,  an  English  actor,  born  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  24,  1693,  died  in  Bath,  Jan.  21, 1766. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Dublin, 
and  when  20  years  old  went  to  London,  and 
began  to  study  law  in  the  Temple.  Having 
obtained  an  engagement  at  Drury  Lane,  he 
at  first  acted  subordinate  parts,  but  gained 
some  reputation  in  the  character  of  Bajazet. 
In  1720  he  secured  his  fame  by  acting  Falstaff 
in  the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  and  greatly 
increased  it  in  1731  by  excelling  Barton  Booth 
in  the  part  of  Cato ;  and  on  the  appearance 
of  Garrick  in  1741,  he  stood  at  the  head  of 
his  profession.  In  1748  he  retired  from  the 
stage,  thereafter  residing  at  Bath,  but  per- 
formed Falstaff  every  year  till  1753,  refusing 
to  play  afterward  because  he  had  lost  his  voice. 
He  received  a  pension  from  George  III.,  whom 
in  his  youth  he  had  instructed  in  elocution. 

QUINARY  SYSTEM.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  and 
ORNITHOLOGY. 

QUINAULT,  Philippe,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris,  June  3,  1635,  died  there,  Nov.  26, 
1688.  When  about  18  years  old  he  produced 
on  the  stage  a  five-act  comedy,  Les  rivales, 
which  was  received  with  applause.  He  studied 
law,  married  a  rich  widow,  assumed  the  title 
of  councillor  before  the  parliament,  and  bought 
an  office  as  auditor  in  the  court  of  exchequer. 
In  1664  he  produced  La  mere  coquette,  ou 
Les  amants  corriges.  Astarte  (1663),  his  only 
tragedy  which  is  now  remembered,  was  ridi- 
culed by  Boileau.  He  wrote  lyrical  tragedies 
to  which  Lully  furnished  the  music.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  academy  in 
1670.  His  complete  works  were  published  in 
1739  and  1778  (5  vols.  12mo). 

QUINCE  (the  plural  of  old  Eng.  coine,  from 
Fr.  coing,  which  is  derived  from  the  Lat.  cy- 
donia,  from  the  Cretan  town  of  Cydonia),  a 


Apple-shaped  Quince  (Pyrus  Cydonia). 

tree  long  cultivated  in  temperate  climates  for 
its  fruit,  and  which  is  found  wild  in  southern 
Europe,  northern  Africa,  and  in  various  parts 


152 


QUINCE 


of  Asia.  Arguments  have  been  presented  to 
show  that  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides 
•were  quinces  instead  of  oranges ;  at  all  events 
the  fruit  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  an- 
cients, who  had  several  distinct  varieties.  The 
quince  has  usually  been  placed  in  a  separate 
genus,  Cydonia,  but  modern  botanists  class  it 
with  the  apple  and  pear  in  pyrus,  and  accord- 
ing to  this  view  its  botanical  name  (in  most 
works  given  as  Cydonia  vulgaris)  is  pyrus 
Cydonia.  The  chief  botanical  difference  be- 
tween the  quince  and  the  apple  and  pear  is, 
that  it  has  numerous  ovules  in  each  cell  and 
the  seeds  are  surrounded  by  mucilage,  while 
the  others  have  only  two  ovules  in  the  cell 
and  are  without  mucilage.  The  quince  seldom 
grows  over  15  ft.  high,  and  when  left  to  itself 
is  disposed  to  form  a  bush  with  numerous 
crooked  branches  rather  than  a  tree ;  its  oval 
or  ovate  deciduous  leaves  are  entire,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  cottony  down  on  the  under  side. 
The  flowers  are  produced  singly  at  the  ends 
of  short  branches  of  the  current  season,  which 
bear  five  or  six  leaves,  and  appear  late  in 
spring ;  they  have  leafy  calyx  lobes,  and  large 
white  or  rose-colored  petals.  The  large  fruit 
is  pear-  or  apple-shaped,  very  downy  when 
young,  but  smooth  when  mature,  of  a  fine 
golden  yellow  color,  and  very  fragrant;  the 
flesh  hard,  and  in  most  varieties  very  austere 
and  unfit  for  eating  raw.  The  fruit  is  much 
used  for  preserves,  and  for  making  marma- 
lade and  jellies,  and  is  sometimes  added  to 
apples  which  of  themselves  lack  character  in 
making  pies  and  sauce.  The  seeds  have  long 
been  used  medicinally ;  their  epidermis  is  so 
abundantly  supplied  with  mucilage  that  one 
part  of  dry  seed  will  coagulate  40  parts  of 
water ;  it  has  but  little  adhesive  power,  and 
is  regarded  as  a  modification  of  cellulose.  A 
decoction  is  used  as  a  demulcent  application, 
and  is  sometimes  added  to  eye  washes ;  the 
perfumed  mucilage,  called  bandoline,  was  once 
a  popular  dressing  for  the  hair. — The  quince 
is  a  profitable  fruit,  though  very  much  neglect- 
ed ;  because  it  will  give  some  returns  when 
set  in  an  out-of-the-way  place  and  allowed  to 
run  wild,  it  is  a  popular  impression  that  this 
is  the  proper  treatment  for  it;  the  tree  will 
abundantly  repay  good  culture,  and  when  prop- 
erly trained  to  a  tree  form  it  is  very  ornamen- 
tal both  in  flower  and  in  fruit.  The  leading 
varieties  are  the  apple-  or  orange-shaped  and 
the  pear-shaped.  The  first  named  under  good 
cultivation  sometimes  reaches  a  pound  in 
weight,  and  is  often  depressed-spherical  in 
shape.  The  other  has  not  only  the  more  elon- 
gated form  indicated  by  its  name,  but  ripens 
two  weeks  later ;  its  flesh  is  less  tender  than 
that  of  the  apple-shaped  variety.  The  Portu- 
gal is  such  a  poor  bearer  that  it  is  but  little 
cultivated,  though  its  fruit  is  of  superior  qual- 
ity and  turns  crimson  when  cooked.  Rea's 
seedling,  which  originated  in  Greene  co.,  N. 
Y.,  and  is  but  little  known  as  yet,  produces  a 
fruit  of  excellent  quality  and  from  a  third  to 


a  half  larger  than  any  other.  An  important 
use  of  the  quince  is  for  stocks  upon  which  to 
graft  or  bud  the  pear  (see  PEAR),  which  upon 
a  quince  root  becomes  much  dwarfed  and  fruits 
very  early.  The  ordinary  varieties  of  quince 
do  not  answer  for  this  purpose,  as  they  are 
of  too  slow  growth ;  two  kinds  are  used,  both 
of  which  originated  in  France,  the  Angers  and 
the  Fontenay  or  Paris  quince,  both  of  which 
bear  fruit  inferior  in  quality  to  those  already 
named.  The  quince  is  easily  propagated  ;  cut- 
tings taken  off  in  the  fall  and  set  out  at  once, 
or  kept  buried  till  spring,  root  readily ;  it  is 
also  propagated  by  layering  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  and  for  the  production  of  stocks  for 
the  pear  by  what  is  known  as  mound  or  stool 
layers.  (See  LAYERING.)  To  train  the  quince 
in  the  tree  form,  a  shoot  should  be  selected  as 
a  leader  and  kept  tied  to  a  stake  until  of  the 
proper  height,  cutting  off  all  the  shoots  which 
start  below ;  when  a  strong  stem  is  thus  pro- 
duced, it  is  to  be  cut  back  to  a  desirable  height, 
and  four  or  more  branches  allowed  to  grow 
to  form  the  head. — The  Chinese  quince,  pyrut 
(or  Cydonia)  Sinentis,  is  occasionally  seen  in 
cultivation  ;  it  is  said  to  reach  20  ft.  in  China, 
but  is  here  not  more  than  half  that  height ;  its 
ovate  leaves  are  acuminated  at  both  ends,  and 
smooth ;  its  small  flowers  appear  in  May,  are 
rosy  red  with  a  violet  tinge,  and  quite  orna- 
mental ;  the  fruit  is  very  large,  egg-shaped,  and 
green,  but  useless,  being  hard  and  dry. — The 
Japan  quince,  P.  (Cydonia)  Japonica,  was  in- 
troduced into  English  gardens  in  1815,  and 


Japan  Quince  (Pyrug  Japonica). 

has  become  one  of  the  most  popular  ornamen- 
tal shrubs.  When  trained  to  a  wall  it  has 
reached  15  ft.  high,  but  it  is  usually  only  5  or 


QUINCY 


153 


{ 


6  ft.  and  much  branched,  its  spray  heing  ter- 
minated by  thorns.  The  oval  leaves,  some- 
what wedge-shaped  at  the  base,  are  serrate, 
smooth,  and,  with  the  conspicuous  kidney- 
Bhaped  stipules,  very  dark  green.  The  flowers 
appear  just  before  the  leaves  and  in  great 
abundance ;  in  the  ordinary  form  they  are 
bright  scarlet  inclining  to  crimson,  but  there 
are  garden  varieties  with  white  and  blush 
flowers,  and  of  several  shades  of  red  to  dark 
crimson ;  also  varieties  in  which  the  flowers 
are  semi-double.  The  fruit  somewhat  re- 
sembles a  small  apple,  is  yellowish  green,  and 
has  a  very  strong  and  rather  agreeable  odor ; 
it  is  uneatable  raw  or  cooked,  but  is  some- 
times put  into  drawers  to  perfume  their  con- 
tents. This  is  well  suited  for  an  ornamental 
hedge,  as  it  bears  clipping  well  and  has  re- 
markably clean  and  bright  foliage ;  when  in 
bloom  nothing  can  be  more  brilliant.  It  is 
readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots. 

QUINCY,  a  town  of  Norfolk  co.,  Massachu- 
setts, on  Quincy  bay,  and  on  the  Old  Colony 
railroad,  7  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Boston;  pop.  in  1830, 
2,201 ;  in  1840,  3,486  ;  in  1850,  5,017 ;  in  1860, 
6,778;  in  1870,  7,442.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
quarries  of  granite,  large  quantities  of  which 
are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  It 
contains  two  national  banks,  with  a  joint  capi- 
tal of  $300,000;  a  savings  bank,  with  more 
than  $1,000,000  deposits;  eight  schools,  inclu- 
ding a  high  school ;  a  weekly  newspaper ;  and 
nine  churches.  It  is  noted  as  the  birthplace 
of  Gov.  John  Hancock,  and  Presidents  John 
Adams  and  John  Quincy  Adams.  The  principal 
village  is  beautifully  situated  on  an  elevated 
plain  near  the  centre  of  the  town.  The  most 
noteworthy  buildings  are  the  town  house,  of 
granite ;  the  Adams  temple,  a  granite  church 
containing  monuments  in  memory  of  John 
Adams  and  John  Quincy  Adams  and  their 
wives ;  and  the  Adams  and  Quincy  mansions. 
Quincy  was  formed  from  Braintree  in  1792. 

QCINCY,  the  capital  of  Adams  co.,  Illinois, 
and  the  second  city  in  the  state  in  popula- 
tion, situated  on  the  Mississippi  river,  160  m. 
above  St.  Louis  and  95  m.  W.  of  Springfield ; 
pop.  in  1837,  1,653;  in  1850,  6,9.02;  in  1860, 
13,718 ;  in  1870,  24,052,  of  whom  7,733  were 
foreigners  and  1,073  colored ;  in  1875,  estima- 
ted by  local  authorities  at  35,000.  It  is  hand- 
somely situated  on  a  limestone  bluff  125  ft. 
above  the  river,  of  which  and  of  the  surround- 
ing country  it  commands  an  extensive  view. 
It  is  regularly  laid  out  and  well  built,  chiefly  of 
brick,  and  has  fine  water  works.  The  streets 
are  lighted  with  gas,  and  the  principal  ones 
are  traversed  by  horse  cars.  There  are  many 
substantial  business  blocks  and  handsome  resi- 
dences, the  latter  being  surrounded  by  well 
kept  grounds.  It  contains  four  small  parks 
and  several  cemeteries.  About  2  m.  from 
the  centre  of  the  city  are  well  appointed  fair 
grounds  comprising  about  80  acres.  The  trade 
of  Quincy  is  extensive,  the  river  affording 
ample  water  communication,  and  eight  lines  of 


railroad  rendering  tributary  a  wide  and  fertile 
region.  The  railroads  centring  here  are :  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy;  Toledo,  Wa- 
bash,  and  Western;  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph, 
crossing  the  Mississippi  on  a  magnificent  rail- 
road bridge  recently  completed ;  Quincy,  Car- 
thage, and  Burlington;  Quincy,  Missouri,  and 
Pacific;  St.  Louis,  Keokuk,  and  Northwest- 
ern ;  Quincy,  Alton,  and  St.  Louis ;  and  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  and  Texas.  The  facilities  for 
manufacturing  are  good.  The  various  estab- 
lishments employ  an  aggregate  of  about  3,500 
hands,  and  produce  annually  goods  to  the 
value  of  about  $10,000,000.  Among  the  more 
important  are  10  manufactories  of  wagons 
and  ploughs,  4  of  furniture,  3  of  carriages,  4 
of  plug  tobacco,  1  of  corn  planters,  11  of  brick, 
2  of  organs,  2  of  canned  fruit  and  pickles,  8 
iron  founderies  (producing  stoves  and  general 
castings),  11  flouring  mills,  1  paper  mill,  1 
woollen  mill,  4  planing  mills,  2  grain  and  2 
fruit  distilleries,  5  rectifying  establishments,  6 
breweries,  and  a  grain  elevator  with  a  capaci- 
ty of  150,000  bushels,  besides  manufactories  of 
cigars,  cooperage,  soap  and  candles,  files,  hoes, 
sewing  machines,  matches,  &c.  Pork  packing 
employs  7  firms,  and  15  establishments  are 
engaged  in  the  gathering  and  shipment  of  ice. 
There  are  7  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $1,000,000.  Quincy  is  divided  into  6  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  board  of  12 
aldermen.  It  has  an  efficient  police  force  and 
a  well  organized  fire  department.  The  prin- 
cipal charitable  institutions  are  two  hospitals 
and  three  asylums.  There  are  nine  public 
schools,  embracing  a  high  school  and  gram- 
mar, intermediate,  and  primary  departments, 
attended  by  about  3,000  pupils;  also  several 
academies.  A  medical  college  was  incorpora- 
ted in  1873.  The  Quincy  library  has  4,000 
volumes.  Three  daily  (one  German),  one  tri- 
weekly, and  four  weekly  (one  German)  news- 
papers, and  two  monthly  (one  German)  peri- 
odicals are  published.  There  are  30  church- 
es, viz. :  4  Baptist  (1  colored),  1  Christian,  1 
Congregational,  2  Episcopal,  4  Evangelical,  2 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  1  Jewish,  6  Methodist 
(1  colored),  2  Presbyterian,  6  Roman  Catholic, 
and  1  Unitarian. — The  first  white  settler  estab- 
lished himself  on  the  site  of  Quincy  in  1822. 
It  was  laid  out  in  1825  and  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1834.  It  received  a  city  charter  in  1839. 
QUINCY.  I.  Josiali,  jr.  (so  called  to  distinguish 
him  from  his  father,  who  survived  him),  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Boston,  Feb.  23, 
1744,  died  at  sea  off  Gloucester,  Mass.,  April 
26,  1775.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1763,  and  studied  law.  After  the  passage  of 
the  stamp  act  he  denounced  the  oppressions  of 
the  parliament  and  its  violations  of  the  rights 
of  the  colonists,  in  public  meetings  and  through 
the  press.  Though  of  a  slender  frame  and  im- 
perfect health,  he  had  a  voice  of  great  compass 
and  beauty,  and  a  graceful  and  passionate  de- 
livery. His  name  is  associated  with  those  of 
James  Otis  and  Joseph  "Warren,  as  men  who 


154 


QUINCY 


were  most  powerfully  influential  in  causing  the 
revolution.  On  the  arrest  of  Capt.  Preston 
and  the  soldiers  who  fired  upon  the  people  in 
the  "  Boston  massacre  "  of  March  5,  1770,  ap- 
plication was  made  on  their  hehalf  to  Mr. 
Quincy  and  to  John  Adams  to  act  as  their 
counsel.  This  duty  they  accepted  in  the  face 
of  the  strongest  popular  opprobrium,  and  on 
the  trials  the  next  autumn  the  acquittal  of  the 
prisoners  justified  their  course.  In  1 773  Quincy 
on  account  of  ill  health  sailed  to  Charleston, 
8.  0.,  returning  on  horseback  in  the  spring. 
During  this  tour  he  put  himself  in  communica- 
tion with  the  principal  whigs  of  the  southern 
and  middle  states,  and  established  a  plan  of 
correspondence  between  them  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts patriots.  Besides  his  speeches  in 
town  meetings  and  other  public  assemblies,  he 
made  bold  and  animated  appeals  through  the 
newspapers,  under  various  signatures.  In  May, 
1774,  he  published  under  his  own  name  his 
principal  political  work,  "  Observations  on  the 
Boston  Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts  on  Civil  Gov- 
ernment and  Standing  Armies."  In  it  he  dis- 
tinctly declares  the  inevitable  necessity  of  the 
appeal  to  arms  which  soon  followed,  and  plainly 
shadows  forth  independence  as  the  necessary 
result.  This  work  was  republished  in  London, 
and  excited  much  attention  on  the  part  both 
of  ministerialists  and  the  opposition.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  deter  him  from  publishing 
it  by  an  elaborate  letter  sent  to  him  anony- 
mously, but  believed  to  have  proceeded  from  a 
high  functionary  of  the  government.  To  this 
letter  he  made  a  brief  but  spirited  reply  through 
the  "  Massachusetts  Gazette,"  and  forthwith 
proceeded  with  the  publication.  He  was  pre- 
vailed upon  in  September,  1774,  to  go  to  Eng- 
land on  a  private  mission  for  the  popular  cause, 
as  well  as  for  the  good  of  his  health.  This 
visit  excited  considerable  notice  in  London. 
He  had  interviews,  at  their  own  request,  with 
Lord  North  and  Lord  Dartmouth,  and  was  in 
constant  intercourse  with  Dr.  Franklin,  Col. 
Hartley,  Gov.  Pownall,  the  earl  of  Shelburne, 
Col.  Barr6,  Dr.  Priestley,  Dr.  Price,  and  other 
prominent  friends  of  America.  Lord  Hills- 
borough  denounced  him  in  his  place  in  the 
house  of  lords,  as  a  man  who,  if  the  govern- 
ment did  its  duty,  "  would  be  in  Newgate  or 
at  Tyburn."  He  prepared  to  return  early  in 
the  spring  of  1775,  against  the  advice  of  his 
physician,  but  died  just  before  arriving.  Al- 
most his  last  words  were  that  he  should  die 
content  could  he  have  but  an  hour's  interview 
with  Samuel  Adams  or  Joseph  Warren.  His 
"  Reports  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  1761-'72,"  was  edited  by  S.M.  Quincy 
(8vo,  1865).  See  also  his  life  by  his  son  Josiah 
Quincy  (8vo,  1825 ;  new  ed.,  1875).  II.  Josiah, 
an  American  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Boston,  Feb.  4,  1772,  died  in  Quincy, 
July  1,  1864.  He  received  his  early  education 
at  Phillips  academy,  Andover,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1790.  He  studied  law  in 
Boston,  and  began  practice  in  1793.  In  1804  he 


was  elected  state  senator,  and  in  1805  became  a 
member  of  congress,  where  he  served  till  1813. 
During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  federal 
party  was  in  a  hopeless  minority ;  its  only 
service  was  one  of  protest,  and  Mr.  Quincy  was 
its  most  prominent  and  efficient  member  in  the 
discharge  of  this  duty.  The  embargo,  the  war 
of  1812,  the  erection  of  the  Orleans  territory 
into  a  state,  which  were  the  chief  public  mea- 
sures of  that  period,  he  encountered  with  the 
most  untiring  hostility.  He  was  one  of  the 
first,  if  not  the  first,  among  northern  men  to 
denounce  the  slaveholding  interest  as  a  rising 
and  dangerous  tyranny.  In  1813,  having  de- 
clined a  reelection,  he  returned  to  private  life, 
dividing  his  year  between  Boston  and  his  coun- 
try seat  at  Quincy.  He  was  immediately  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  state  senate,  and  joined  in 
the  protest  of  the  legislature  against  the  war 
and  the  admission  of  Louisiana,  and  reported 
the  famous  resolution,  occasioned  by  a  pro- 
posed vote  of  thanks  to  Capt.  Lawrence  for  the 
capture  of  the  Peacock,  to  the  effect  that  in  a 
war  waged  without  justifiable  cause  and  for 
conquest  and  ambition,  it  was  not  becoming  a 
moral  and  religious  people  to  express  appro- 
bation of  exploits  not  immediately  connected 
with  the  defence  of  the  seacoast  and  harbor. 
He  remained  in  the  state  senate  till  the  close 
of  1820,  when  he  was  dropped  by  the  federal 
managers  under  an  impression  that  his  uncom- 
promising course  had  weakened  his  popularity, 
but  was  immediately  elected  to  the  house  of 
representatives  at  the  head  of  the  ticket,  and 
chosen  speaker,  which  office  he  held  while  in 
the  house.  In  1822  he  resigned  to  take  the 
office  of  judge  of  the  municipal  court  of  Bos- 
ton, lie  first  laid  down  the  law  in  the  case 
of  Joseph  T.  Buckingham,  indicted  for  a  libel 
on  John  N.  Maffit,  that  the  publication  of  the 
truth,  with  a  good  intention,  and  for  a  justi- 
fiable end,  is  not  libellous.  This  ruling  ex- 
cited much  censure  at  the  time,  but  is  now 
the  acknowledged  rule  of  law  in  this  country 
and  in  England.  In  1823  he  left  the  bench 
to  become  mayor  of  Boston,  being  the  sec- 
ond incumbent  of  that  office,  which  he  held 
till  1828,  when  he  was  chosen  president  of 
Harvard  university.  He  was  inaugurated  in 
June,  1829,  and  held  the  post  till  August, 
1845,  when  he  resigned.  In  1856  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  effort  to  elect  Fremont 
to  the  presidency.  Besides  many  speeches 
in  congress  and  orations  on  particular  occa- 
sions (the  chief  of  which  are  those  on  July 
4,  1826,  the  jubilee  of  independence,  on  the 
second  centennial  celebration  of  the  settle- 
ment of  Boston,  September,  1830,  and  the  sec- 
ond centennial  of  Harvard  university,  Septem- 
ber, 1836),  Mr.  Quincy  published  "Memoir  of 
Josiah  Quincy,  jr.,  of  Massachusetts"  (Bos- 
ton, 1825;  new  ed.,  1875);  "History  of  Har- 
vard University"  (2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1840); 
"The  Journals  of  Major  Samuel  Shaw,  the 
first  American  Consul  at  Canton,  with  a  Life  of 
the  Author"  (Boston,  1847);  "The  History 


QUINCY 


QUINTANA 


155 


of  the  Boston  Athenroum  "  (Cambridge,  1851) ; 
"  The  Municipal  History  of  the  Town  and  City 
of  Boston  during  two  Centuries "  (Boston, 
1852);  "The  Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams" 
(1858);  and  "Essays  on  the  Soiling  of  Cattle" 
(1859). — See  his  life  by  his  son  Edmund  Quincy 
(1867),  who  has  also  edited  his  "  Speeches  de- 
livered in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  " 
(8vo,  1875).  III.  Edmund,  an  American  author, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Boston,  Feb.  1, 
1808.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1827.  He  has  published  "Wensley,  a  Story 
without  a  Moral"  (Boston,  1854),  and  a  "Me- 
moir of  Josiah  Quincy"  (8vo,  1867),  and  has 
been  a  frequent  contributor  to  literary  period- 
icals and  political  newspapers.  He  was  long 
prominent  among  the  Garrisonian  abolitionists. 

QUINCY,  Qnatremere  de.  See  QUATBEMERE  DE 
QUINOT. 

QUINET,  Edgar,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Bourg,  department  of  Ain,  Feb.  17,  1803,  died 
in  Paris,  March  27,  1875.  He  studied  Ger- 
man literature  in  Germany,  and  spent  some 
time  in  Greece.  He  was  professor  at  Lyons 
from  1839  to  1842,  when  he  became  the  first 
incumbent  of  the  new  chair  of  the  languages 
and  literature  of  southern  Europe  at  the  col- 
lege de  France.  In  1846  he  was  suspended 
on  account  of  his  inflammatory  lectures,  but 
he  was  triumphantly  reinstated  after  the  rev- 
olution of  Feb.  24,  1848,  in  which  he  took 
a  part,  and  was  returned  to  the  constituent 
and  legislative  assemblies.  In  January,  1852, 
he  was  banished,  and  lived  abroad  till  1870, 
when  he  resumed  his  professorship.  In  1871 
he  took  his  seat  in  the  national  assembly,  and 
opposed  peace  with  Germany  and  all  cession 
of  territory.  He  wrote  much  on  the  literature 
of  Germany,  France,  and  southern  Europe, 
several  books  of  travel,  and  many  remarkable 
political  pamphlets.  His  principal  works  are : 
Ahasverus  (1833) ;  Des  Jesuites  (in  conjunction 
with  Michelet,  1843)  ;  Les  esclaves,  a  dramatic 
poem  (1853) ;  La  revolution  religieuse  au  XVII' 
siecle  (1857) ;  Merlin  V  enchanteur  (2  vols., 
1860);  La  revolution  (2  vols.,  1865;  5th  ed., 
1868) ;  La,  creation  (2  vols.,  1870)  ;  and  V Es- 
prit nouveau  (3d  ed.,  1875). — His  wife,  a  Mol- 
davian lady,  in  1868  published  Memoires  d'exil. 

QUIN1C  ACID.     See  KINIC  ACID. 

QUININE,  or  Quinla.     See  CINCHONA. 

QUINSY  (tonsillitis,  amygdalitis,  or  cynanche 
tonsillaris  ;  Fr.  esquinancie),  common  inflam- 
matory sore  throat.  Though  called  tonsillitis, 
the  inflammation  is  rarely  coniined  to  the  ton- 
sils, but  involves  the  pharynx,  the  soft  palate, 
and  the  uvula,  and  sometimes  extends  to  the 
root  of  the  tongue.  It  commences  with  a  feel- 
ing of  dryness  and  discomfort  about  the  throat, 
and  with  pain  in  swallowing.  The  mucous 
membrane  lining  the  throat  is  reddened,  and 
the  tonsils  are  more  or  less  swollen.  As  the 
disease  advances,  the  inflamed  parts,  at  first 
preternaturally  dry,  become  covered  with  vis- 
cid mucus,  and  the  distress  of  the  patient  is 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  efforts  which  he  is 


tempted  to  make  to  remove  this  secretion.  In 
many  cases  suppuration  occurs  in  one  or  both 
tonsils  ;  when  this  takes  place  those  organs  are 
often  enormously  swollen,  and  together  with 
the  obstruction  of  the  inflamed  palate  may  ren- 
der breathing  difficult  and  painful.  In  such 
cases  the  febrile  reaction  is  strongly  marked, 
the  skin  being  hot,  and  the  pulse  full  and  fre- 
quent; the  patient  is  unable  to  take  nourish- 
ment, and  the  voice  becomes  thick  and  char- 
acteristic of  the  disease.  The  pain,  exceed- 
ingly acute  when  the  patient  attempts  to  swal- 
low, or  to  clear  his  throat  of  the  viscid  mat- 
ter which  adheres  to  it,  often  extends  to  the 
ear,  and  is  sometimes  .attended  with  partial 
deafness.  The  bursting  of  the  abscess  in  the 
tonsil  is  at  once  followed  by  relief ;  the  mat- 
ter has  a  nauseous  taste  and  often  an  exceed- 
ingly offensive  smell.  The  disease,  though 
very  painful,  is  attended  with  little  danger ; 
but  the  inflammation  may  by  extension  in- 
volve the  larynx  and  thus  prove  fatal,  and 
cases  are  on  record  in  which  death  has  oc- 
curred from  the  ulceration  having  involved  a 
branch  of  the  carotid  artery. — The  disease  re- 
quires but  little  treatment.  "Where  the  mu- 
cous membrane  alone  is  involved,  astringent 
gargles,  repeated  five  or  six  times  a  day,  usual- 
ly give  relief  and  tend  to  shorten  the  course  of 
the  inflammation.  The  food  should  be  liquid 
(soups,  beef  tea,  milk,  &c.),  and  should  be  swal- 
lowed in  large  mouthfuls,  which  give  less  pain 
in  deglutition  than  smaller  ones.  If  an  a-b- 
scess  forms  in  either  or  both  of  the  tonsils, 
the  greatest  relief  is  obtained  from  frequent 
inhalations  of  warm  steam,  which  acts  as  a 
poultice  to  the  inflamed  parts.  As  soon  as  the 
location  of  the  abscess  can  be  determined,  it 
should  be  opened  and  the  pus  evacuated,  after 
which  there  is  usually  no  further  trouble. 

QUINTANA,  Manuel  Jose,  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Madrid,  April  11,  1772,  died  there,  March 
11,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  Salamanca  and 
practised  law  for  a  time  at  Madrid;  but  he 
soon  turned  his  attention  to  letters.  His  tra- 
gedy of  Elduque  de  Viseo  (1801),  imitated  from 
"The  Castle  Spectre"  of  M.  G.  Lewis,  was 
not  successful.  In  1802  he  produced  a  small 
volume  of  lyric  poems,  the  patriotic  spirit  of 
which  immediately  brought  them  into  favor; 
and  in  1805  he  placed  upon  the  stage  his  Pelayo, 
intended  to  rouse  his  countrymen  to  resist  for- 
eign oppression,  which  was  equally  well  re- 
ceived. His  Vidas  de  los  Espanoles  celebres  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1807-'34),  and  Poes'tas  selectan  casti- 
llanas  (3  vols.  8vo,  1808),  with  critical  notes, 
were  prepared  with  the  same  patriotic  motive. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  rising  against  the  French 
in  1808  he  published  his  Odas  a  Expana  libre, 
and,  both  through  the  press  and  as  secretary  to 
the  cortes  and  the  regency,  exerted  himself  to 
the  utmost  in  behalf  of  his  country ;  but  aftef 
the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.  from  France  in 
1814,  Quintana  was  confined  for  more  than  six 
years  in  the  fortress  of  Pamplona.  He  was 
delivered  by  the  revolution  of  1820,  and  after 


156 


QUINTILIAN 


its  overthrow  in  1823  he  remained  in  Estrema- 
dura  until  the  accession  of  Isabella  II.,  whose 
education  he  superintended.  In  1835  he  was 
created  a  senator,  and  in  1855  crowned  by  the 
queen  with  laurel.  His  complete  works  have 
been  published  in  Rivadeneyra's  Biblioteca  de 
autores  espanoles  (1852). 

(Jl I\TILIL\  (QuiNTiuANUs),  Marcos  Fftbins,  a 
Roman  rhetorician,  born  probably  at  Calagur- 
ris  in  Spain  about  A.  D.  40,  died  about  118. 
He  was  educated  at  Rome,  and  waa  an  advo- 
cate and  teacher  of  eloquence.  Among  his 
pupils  were  the  younger  Pliny  and  the  two 
grand-nephews  of  Domitian,  by  which  mon- 
arch he  was  invested  with  the  consular  honors 
and  title.  He  was  the  first  public  teacher  of 
oratory  who  received  from  the  imperial  trea- 
sury a  regular  salary  (100,000  sesterces  a  year), 
the  endowment  having  been  made  by  Vespa- 
sian. He  continued  his  teaching  for  about  20 
years,  with  the  greatest  success.  His  great 
work  was  De  Institutions  Oratorio,  Libri  JT//., 
called  also  Institutionet  Oratorios,  which  is 
both  a  complete  system  and  a  model  of  elo- 
quence. There  are  164  declamations  falsely 
ascribed  to  him.  The  first  complete  manu- 
script of  the  "  Institutes "  was  discovered  by 
Poggio  Bracciolini  in  the1  monastery  of  St. 
Gall.  The  editio  princepa  was  printed  at  Rome 
by  Lignamine  (fol.,  1470)  ;  the  best  edition  is 
that  by  Spalding  and  Zumpt  (6  vols.  8vo,  Leip- 
sic,  1798-1829).  The  "  Institutes  "  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  Guthrie  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1756),  by  Patsall  (2  vols.,  1774),  and 
by  Watson  (2  vols.,  1856). 

QUINTUS  (TUTU'S  BUFIS.     See  CURTIUS. 

QITYTES  ICILIUS.     See  GUISCHABD. 

QUITCLAIM,  a  word  often  used  in  deeds,  and 
usually  in  connection  with  words  of  grant  and 
conveyance,  when  the  grantor  or  seller  intends 
to  convey  to  the  grantee  or  buyer  all  the  right, 
title,  interest,  and  estate  of  the  grantor,  but 
without  any  warranty  whatever,  whether  of 
title,  quantity,  or  anything  else.  Sometimes  a 
deed  purports  to  be  a  deed  of  "grant  and  quit- 
claim," when  the  grantor  adds  to  the  words  of 
grant  and  conveyance  words  of  limited  war- 
ranty :  as,  for  instance,  warranty  against  him- 
self and  all  persons  claiming  by,  from,  through, 
or  under  him.  Even  this  limited  warranty, 
and  still  more  a  general  warranty,  would  estop 
the  grantor  from  ousting  the  grantee  by  any 
better  title,  not  coming  through  the  grantee, 
which  was  outstanding  at  the  time,  and  which 
the  grantor  might  acquire  subsequently.  But 
if  the  deed  were  one  of  grant  and  quitclaim 
only,  without  any  warranty,  the  grantor  might 
then  assert  such  a  title.  For  example,  A  sells 
and  conveys  to  B,  by  grant  and  quitclaim  only, 
for  a  full  price,  an  estate  to  which  it  turns  out 
A  has  no  title.  But  A  subsequently  acquires 
title  to  it  by  inheritance  from  the  true  owner. 
A  may  now  recover  the  estate  from  B;  but 
not  if  he  granted  with  warranty,  because  if 
he  then  took  the  estate  by  his  better  title,  B 
would  turn  round  upon  him  on  the  warranty 


QUITMAN 

and  get  the  estate  back  again.  Quitclaim  is 
also  used  in  receipts,  usually  with  such  words 
as  release  and  discharge,  when  it  is  intended 
to  signify  that  the  party  giving  the  receipt  or 
release  agrees  never  to  make  any  claim  against 
the  other  party  for  any  existing  demand. 

QUTMABf,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  sepa- 
rated from  Alabama  by  the  Chattahooch.ee  and 
drained  by  Pataula  creek  and  other  streams ; 
area,  190  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,150,  of  whom 
2,377  were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating 
and  the  soil  productive.  It  is  traversed  by  a 
branch  of  the  Southwestern  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  79,610  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  4,151  of  oats,  15,615  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  3,880  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  287  horses,  473  mules  and  asses,  1,734 
cattle,  and  2,828  swine.  Capital,  Georgetown. 

(jl  inn V  John  Anthony,  an  American  politi- 
cian, born  in  Rhinebeck,  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  1,  1799,  died  in  Natchez,  Miss.,  July  17, 
1858.  He  studied  law  in  Ohio,  and  in  1821 
settled  in  Natchez,  Miss.  In  1827  he  was 
elected  to  the  legislature,  from  1828  to  1834 
was  chancellor  of  the  state,  and  afterward 
president  of  the  state  senate.  In  1836  he 
raised  a  small  body  of  men  to  aid  the  Texans. 
and  after  the  capture  of  Santa  Anna  returned 
to  Natchez,  where  he  became  major  general 
of  militia  and  filled  several  local  offices.  In 
July,  1846,  he  was  appointed  brigadier  general 
in  the  United  States  army,  and  ordered  to  re- 
port to  Gen.  Taylor  at  Camargo.  At  the  bat- 
tle of  Monterey  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  successful  assault  on  Fort  Tenerice,  and 
his  daring  advance  into  the  heart  of  the  city. 
At  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  he  commanded  in 
the  first  sharp  engagement,  and  subsequently 
led  an  expedition  against  Alvarado,  in  con- 
junction with  the  naval  forces  under  Com. 
Perry.  He  was  with  the  advance  under  Gen. 
Worth  that  took  possession  of  the  city  of 
Puebla,  where  he  was  bre vetted  major  general 
and  received  a  sword  voted  to  him  by  congress. 
At  Chapultepec  he  stormed  the  formidable 
works  at  the  base  of  the  hill,  pushed  forward 
to  the  Belen  gate,  which  he  carried  by  assault, 
and  took  possession  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  of 
which  the  general-in-chief  on  his  arrival  ap- 
pointed him  governor.  After  establishing  or- 
der and  discipline  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  was  soon  after,  almost  by  acclama- 
tion, elected  governor  of  Mississippi.  Being 
threatened  with  arrest  for  alleged  complicity 
with  Gen.  Lopez  in  organizing  an  expedition 
to  Cuba,  he  resigned  his  office  and  went  to 
New  Orleans  in  the  custody  of  the  United 
States  marshal;  but  after  an  abortive  effort 
to  obtain  evidence,  the  prosecution  was  aban- 
doned. The  democratic  party  in  Mississippi 
immediately  renominated  him  for  governor, 
but  he  withdrew  from  the  contest  when  the 
people,  at  an  election  for  delegates  to  a  state 
convention,  condemned  his  opposition  to  the 
compromise  measures.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
to  congress,  and  in  1857  reflected  without 


QUITO 


R 


157 


opposition.  During  his  whole  term  he  was  at 
the  head  of  the  military  committee.  His  par- 
liamentary fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  celebrated 
speech  for  the  repeal  of  the  neutrality  laws, 
and  his  argument  on  the  powers  of  the  federal 
government,  which  made  him  the  recognized 
head  of  the  state  rights  party.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  J.  F.  H.  Claiborne  (2  vols. 
12mo,  New  York,  1860). 

QIIITO,  a  city  of  Ecuador,  capital  of  the  re- 
public, and  of  the  province  of  Pichincha,  in  a 
district  of  its  own  name  formed  by  a  valley 
in  the  Andes;  lat.  0°  13'  S.,  Ion.  78°  43'  W. ; 
pop.  about  70,000.  Built  upon  the  slopes  of 
several  hills  on  the  E.  flank  of  the  volcano  Pi- 
chincha, at  an  elevation  of  nearly  10,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  it  has  but  two  approaches  from 
the  south  and  one  from  the  north,  the  eastern 
and  western  portions  being  hemmed  in  by  pre- 
cipitous mountains.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  mostly  unpaved,  and  the  houses,  owing  to 
the  frequency  of  earthquakes,  are  generally  of 
one  story.  Many  houses  are  built  on  arches 
over  two  deep  ravines  which  traverse  the  town 
from  E.  to  W.,  through  which  rush  down  tor- 
rents of  melted  snow  from  the  neighboring 
volcanoes,  and  which  here  and  there  present 
dangerous  precipices.  Water  is  distributed  by 
pipes  in  the  houses  of  the  rich,  and  by  hand- 
some stone  fountains  embellishing  the  public 
squares.  The  principal  public  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  archiepiscopal  palace,  city  hall,  and 
government  house,  all  in  the  Plaza  Mayor,  one 
of  the  finest  public  squares  in  South  America. 
Most  of  the  churches  are  attached  to  large 
convents.  There  are  three  hospitals,  one  being 
for  elephantiasis,  asylums  for  the  blind  and 
the  insane,  a  university  once  famous  for  the 
number  of  its  students,  a  seminary,  a  college, 
and  a  number  of  public  and  private  schools. 
An  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  schools 
of  agriculture,  obstetrics,  and  sculpture,  were 
to  be  organized  in  1873.  Quito  has  several 
libraries,  chief  of  which  is  that  of  the  old 
Jesuit  college,  with  about  20,000  volumes. 
The  mint  occupies  part  of  the  same  structure 
as  the  university.  The  climate  is  salubrious; 
the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  60°  F., 
and  the  extremes  45°  and  75°.  Elephantiasis 
is  very  common.  The  foreign  commerce  is 
mostly  in  produce  sent  to  Central  America, 
and  some  precious  metals  to  Peru,  all  by  the 


port  of  Guayaquil.  The  manufactures  include 
coarse  cottons  and  woollens;  there  are  a  few 
silk-weaving  establishments,  the  raw  material 
for  which  is  mainly  imported  from  France,  but 
recent  attempts  to  acclimatize  the  silkworm 
bid  fair  to  prove  successful.  The  women  make 
very  fine  gold  lace,  and  excellent  embroidery, 
needlework,  and  lace.  Quito  communicates 
with  Bogota  by  a  good  road,  the  only  one 
worthy  the  name  in  the  republic  before  the 
commencement  of  a  carriage  road  to  lead  from 
Guayaquil  to  Quito,  save  in  the  space  between 
Sibamba  and  Pueblo  Nuevo,  over  which  a  rail- 
way is  to  extend.  There  is  a  telegraph  from 
Quito  to  Guayaquil. — The  history  of  Quito  goes 
back  to  a  remote  antiquity.  Of  its  primitive 
rulers,  tradition  preserves  the  names  of  a  num- 
ber who  were  called  Quita.  About  A.  D.  280 
the  city  is  said  to  have  been  captured  by  cer- 
tain foreign  invaders,  who,  under  the  name  of 
Siris,  maintained  their  dominion  until  the  in- 
vasion of  the  inca  Huayna  Capac,  who  sub- 
dued the  entire  kingdom.  At  his  death  he 
divided  his  kingdom  between  his  two  sons, 
Atahuallpa  and  Huascar,  leaving  to  the  first 
the  sceptre  of  Quito,  and  to  the  second  that  of 
Cuzco.  War  ensued  between  the  brothers,  in 
which  Atahuallpa  obtained  control  of  all  the 
provinces.  But  his  triumph  was  of  short  dura- 
tion, and  he  lived  to  find  himself  the  pris- 
oner of  the  Spanish  adventurer  Pizarro.  Ta- 
king advantage  of  the  capture  of  his  king,  Ru- 
minagui,  one  of  the  inca  generals,  usurped  regal 
authority  in  Quito,  but  fled  to  the  mountains 
on  the  approach  of  Sebastian  Benalcazar.  Un- 
der the  Spanish  dominion  Quito,  erected  into 
a  presidency,  first  formed  part  of  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Peru ;  afterward  it  was  attached  to 
that  of  Santa  Fe,  and  subsequently  restored  to 
that  of  Peru,  to  which  it  remained  attached 
until  the  independence  of  the  country,  when  it 
was  aggregated  with  Venezuela  and  New  Gra- 
nada in  the  republic  of  Colombia.  On  the  dis- 
solution of  that  republic  in  1831,  it  was  or- 
ganized, with  the  districts  of  Asuay  and  Guay- 
aquil, into  a  new  republic  under  the  name  of 
Ecuador.  The  modern  city  was  founded  in 
1534  by  Benalcazar ;  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1541,  and  erected  into  a  bishopric  four 
years  later.  Several  disastrous  earthquakes 
have  occurred  here,  especially  those  of  Feb.  4, 
1797,  and  March  22,  1859. 


R 


RTHE  18th  letter  and  14th  consonant  of 
.  the  English  alphabet.  It  is  a  lingual 
and  a  liquid  or  semi-vowel,  being  pronounced 
both  before  and  after  most  other  consonants. 
It  is  found  in  all  languages  except  the  Chinese 
and  the  tongues  of  some  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians.  The  Romans  borrowed  it  from 
the  Greek  rJio  (P,  p),  which  is  derived  from 


the  Hebrew  and  Phcenician  resh.  It  is  one  of 
the  last  which  children  learn  to  pronounce, 
and  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  teaching 
persons  deaf  from  birth  to  articulate  find  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  conveying  any  idea  of  its 
sound  to  their  pupils.  The  most  common  mode 
of  pronouncing  it  is  by  an  expiration  while  the 
tongue  touches  the  roof  of  the  mouth  with  a 


158 


EAAB 


tremulous  motion,  as  in  the  word  rhetoric. 
The  tremulous  sound  is  more  distinct  in  the 
Spanish  rr,  which  indeed  is  not  readily  learned 
by  Englishmen  or  Americans.  It  is  frequent- 
ly exaggerated  by  the  Irish  and  softened  down 
by  the  English,  who  are  more  easily  distin- 
guished by  their  peculiar  pronunciation  of  this 
letter  than  by  that  of  any  other. — The  Ro- 
mans often  added  an  r  to  words  which  they 
borrowed  from  the  Greek,  as  w6q,  nurus ; 
yudaf ,  murex  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  they  often 
dropped  it  from  the  nominative  case  of  nouns 
and  retained  it  in  the  oblique  cases,  as  ces,  aria  ; 
os,  oris.  It  was  interchanged  sometimes  with 
*,  the  words  arena,  laribus,  pignora,  Furii, 
Valerii,  and  Papirii  having  been  anciently 
written  asena,  lasibus,  pignosa,  Fusii,  Valesii, 
and  Papisii.  The  same  change  is  observed  in 
some  modern  languages,  as  Eng.  hare,  Ger. 
haase ;  Eng.  was,  Ger.  war.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently interchanged  however  with  I.  The 
Chinese,  who  cannot  pronounce  r,  always  use 
I  in  its  place ;  the  Japanese  do  exactly  the 
reverse.  (See  L.) — As  a  Roman  numeral  R 
denotes  80,  or  with  a  dash  over  it  (it)  80,000. 
The  Greek  P  with  a  dash  over  it  stands  for 
100,  and  with  a  dash  under  it  for  100,000.  As 
an  abbreviation,  R  signifies  Roma,  Romanus  ; 
R.  P.,  res  publica  ;  R.  C.,  Roma  condita. 

RAAB  (Hung.  Oyor).  I.  A  W.  county  of 
Hungary,  in  the  Trans-Danubian  circle,  bor- 
dering on  Presburg,  Coinorn,  Veszprem,  Oeden- 
burg,  and  Wieselburg;  area,  1,590  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870, 103,637,  chiefly  Magyars.  The  surface 
is  level,  except  in  the  south.  The  extensive 
marsh  of  Hansag  is  in  the  western  portion. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Danube  and  the  Raab. 
The  principal  products  are  corn,  wine,  fruits, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Arrabona 
or  Rabona),  capital  of  the  county,  in  an  exten- 
sive plain  at  the  junction  of  the  Rabnitz  and 
Raab,  near  the  entrance  of  the  latter  (which 
rises  in  Styria)  into  an  arm  of  the  Danube, 
known  as  the  Little  Danube,  67  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Buda;  pop.  in  1870,  20,035,  including  about 
5,000  Germans.  The  old  cathedral  has  been 
restored  and  embellished,  and  the  episcopal 
palace  is  a  striking  building.  The  academy 
of  law  was  reopened  in  1867,  and  the  city 
has  a  theological  faculty  and  a  Catholic  and  a 
Protestant  gymnasium.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Szent-Marton  (Martins- 
berg),  one  of  the  oldest  in  Hungary.  In  the 
10th  century  the  town  regained  the  importance 
which  it  once  possessed  as  a  Roman  colony 
in  Pannonia,  and  it  was  generally  kept  in  a 
state  of  defence  by  the  Hungarian  kings,  but 
suffered  during  their  warfare  with  the  em- 
perors of  Germany.  The  Turks  took  it  in 
1595,  and  were  expelled  in  1598  with  great 
loss,  by  Schwarzenberg  and  PiiLffy.  The  for- 
tress was  finally  razed  in  1820.  *The  Hunga- 
rian army  of  "  insurrection  "  (defensive  rising 
en  masse  of  the  nobility)  was  defeated  in  the 
plain  of  Raab  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  June 
14,  1809.  In  1848-'9  it  was  strongly  fortified 


RABBIT 

by  the  Hungarians,  who  were  here  defeated 
by  the  Austrians  under  Haynan,  June  28, 1849. 

RABANUS  (or  Hrabanns)  MAURIS,  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Mentz  about  776,  died  at 
Winkel  in  856.  He  was  educated  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  Fulda,  and  continued  his  stu- 
dies in  Tours  under  Alcuin,  who  gave  him  the 
surname  of  Maurus  in  honor  of  St.  Maurus. 
He  returned  to  Fulda  in  804,  founded  there 
the  first  public  convent  school  in  Germany, 
and  labored  especially  for  the  spread  and  im- 
provement of  the  German  language.  He 
wished  to  free  the  German  church  from  the 
influence  of  Rome,  and  succeeded  in  intro- 
ducing the  rule  that  the  clergy  should  only 
preach  in  the  native  tongue.  He  has  also  the 
merit  of  having  given  a  new  impetus  to  Bibli- 
cal research  by  requiring  the  study  of  the  ori- 
ginal tongue  of  the  New  Testament.  These 
innovations  drew  upon  him  the  displeasure 
and  suspicion  of  the  clerical  party,  and  though 
finally  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an  abbot,  he 
laid  down  his  office  in  842  to  live  in  the  priory 
of  St.  Peter;  but  in  847  he  resumed  teach- 
ing, and  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Mentz. 
Among  his  works  is  Glossaria  Latino-theo- 
dtica,  which  is  now  an  important  monument 
of  the  earliest  phase  of  the  German  language. 
He  wrote  also  De  Universe,  De  Arte  Gram- 
matica  Prisciani,  and  several  other  theological 
treatises.  His  works  (exclusive  of  the  Glot- 
taria)  were  published  by  Calvonerius  (6  vols. 
fol.,  Cologne,  1627). 

EABAT,  a  town  of  Morocco,  in  Fez,  on  a  bay 
of  the  W.  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bure- 
krag  or  Bu-Regreb,  opposite  the  town  of  Sal6 ; 
pop.  about  20,000,  including  many  Jews.  The 
custom  house  and  the  minaret  of  the  principal 
mosque  are  remarkable  specimens  of  Moorish 
architecture ;  most  of  the  other  Moorish  build- 
ings are  in  decay,  and  there  are  many  houses 
built  in  European  style.  Rabat  was  founded  in 
the  13th  century,  and  together  with  Sale  was 
long  notorious  as  a  haunt  of  pirates.  The  im- 
ports in  1874,  chiefly  cotton  goods,  amounted 
to  $58,000,  and  the  exports,  chiefly  of  wool 
(exclusive  of  specie),  to  $27,000. 

RABBATH-AMMON.  See  PHILADELPHIA  (Pal- 
estine). 

RABBI  (Heb.,  my  master,  lord,  or  teacher),  a 
title  of  honor  bestowed  on  the  doctors  of  the 
Jewish  law  since  the  1st  century  B.  0.  The 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic  words  rdb,  rabba,  rnbban 
(master),  rabboni  (my  master),  and  rabbenu 
(our  master),  have  also  been  employed  in  the 
same  sense.  The  title  rabbi  or  rabbin  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  the  Talmudic  writers,  the 
Jewish  theological  writers  of  post-Talmudio 
times  (see  HEBREWS),  whose  dialect  is  there- 
fore called  rabbinical,  and  the  religious  heads 
of  Jewish  congregations.  The  Jews  of  eastern 
Europe  and  others  attach  Rdl>,  both  in  conver- 
sation and  writing,  to  the  name  of  every  mar- 
ried Jew  of  good  reputation. 

RABBIT,  the  common  name  of  several  species 
of  the  hare  family,  especially  the  lepus  cuni- 


RABBIT 


159 


culus  of  Europe  and  the  L.  sylvaticua  of  North 
America;  the  family  and  generic  characters 
have  been  given  under  HARE.  The  European 
rabbit  or  cony  (L.  cuniculus,  Linn.),  the  lapin 
of  the  French,  is  about  16 £  in.  long,  with  the 
tail  3  in.  additional,  and  the  ears  also  3  in. ; 


European  Babbit  or  Cony  (Lepus  cuniculus). 

the  tarsus  shorter  than  in  the  hare  ;  the  gen- 
eral color  gray  brown,  white  below,  the  back 
of  the  neck  rufous ;  tail  white  below,  blackish 
above,  but  pencilled  with  dirty  white ;  ears 
not  tipped  with  black ;  compared  with  that 
of  the  hare,  the  skull  has  the  muzzle,  inter- 
orbital  space,  and  incisive  openings  narrower ; 
the  mammse  are  five  pairs,  two  pectoral  and 
three  ventral.  In  the  wild  state  the  rabbit  in- 
habits Europe,  except  the  more  northern  por- 
tions, and  N.  Africa ;  it  is  thought  to  be  origi- 
nally from  Spain,  but,  being  hardy,  has  been 
carried  to  most  parts  of  the  world ;  it  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  hare  by  its  smaller  size, 
grayish  color,  and  short  feet  and  ears ;  it  also 
differs  from  the  hares  in  its  burrowing  habits. 
Unable  to  escape  from  its  enemies  by  speed,  it 
seeks  safety  in  deep  holes  dug  in  dry  sandy 
places,  living  in  society  in  what  are  called  war- 
rens, with  an  ample  supply  of  food,  in  places 
suitable  for  burrows,  such  as  sandy  heaths 
covered  by  a  prickly  furze.  Remaining  con- 
cealed by  day,  they  come  out  at  twilight  in 
search  of  food,  and  often  do  considerable  mis- 
chief by  digging  up  the  newly  sprouted  corn 
and  gnawing  the  bark  from  young  trees ;  these 
warrens  are  often  of  large  extent,  and  a  source 
of  great  profit  from  the  flesh  and  skins  of  the 
animals,  which  are  caught  in  snares  and  traps, 
dug  or  drowned  out,  and  hunted  by  dogs  and 
ferrets.  They  begin  to  breed  at  the  age  of 
six  months,  have  several  litters  in  a  year  and 
five  to  eight  at  a  time ;  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  about  three  weeks,  but,  as  the  uterus 
is  double,  there  may  be  two  distinct  litters 
at  an  interval  of  a  few  days ;  the  young  are 
born  blind  and  naked,  in  a  nest  lined  with  the 
mother's  soft  fur  ;  they  are  said  to  live  eight 
or  nine  years.  They  seem  to  have  social  laws, 
the  same  burrow  being  transmitted  from  pa- 
rent to  children,  and  enlarged  as  the  family 
increases.  Rabbits  and  hares  appear  to  be 
695  VOL.  xiv. — 11 


natural  enemies ;  they  are  not  found  in  the 
same  localities,  and  when  they  meet  they  gen- 
erally engage  in  combat ;  when  brought  up  to- 
gether they  do  not  produce  a  fertile  offspring 
inter  se,  and  hybrids  probably  never  occur 
between  them  in  the  natural  state.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  in  four  years  a  single  pair 
of  rabbits  would,  if  unmolested,  become  the 
progenitors  of  more  than  1,250,000 ;  but  this 
increase  is  checked  by  the  persecution  of  man 
and  of  carnivorous  beasts  and  birds.  Their 
ravages  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
their  flesh,  which  forms  a  nutritious  and  easily 
digested  food,  and  by  their  skins,  which  are 
used  in  making  hats  and  are  dyed  to  imitate 
more  expensive  furs.  The  name  rabbit  or 
cony  is  erroneously  applied  in  the  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to  the  shaphan.  (See 
HYKAX.)  Rabbits  are  easily  domesticated,  and 
in  this  state  vary  greatly  in  colors,  size,  and 
character  of  fur ;  black,  white,  and  gray  are  the 
prevailing  colors  ;  in  the  silver-gray  variety 
the  hairs  are  white  and  black ;  the  Angora 
rabbit  is  noted  for  the  length  and  softness  of 
its  white  fur ;  in  the  lop-eared  varieties  the 
size  is  three  or  four  times  that  of  the  wild 
animal,  and  the  ears  are  more  or  less  bent 
downward  from  the  base.  When  tame  they 
do  not  pair  like  those  in  a  wild  state,  and  lose 
more  or  less  the  instinct  of  burrowing ;  their 
flesh  is  also  inferior  in  flavor,  though  more 
delicate  and  digestible ;  the  tame  males  not 
unfrequently  kill  the  young. — The  American 
gray  r-abbit  (L.  sylvaticus.  Bach.)  is  about  16£ 
in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  26^  in.  to  the 
end  of  the  outstretched  legs,  the  tail  to  the 
end  of  the  hairs  2£  in. ;  fur  and  pads  of  the 
feet  full  and  soft ;  on  the  back  light  yellowish 
brown,  lined  with  black,  grayer  on  the  sides ; 
on  the  rump  mixed  ash,  gray,  and  black,  pure 


American  Gray  Babbit  (Lepus  sylvaticus). 

white  below ;  upper  surface  of  tail  like  the 
back,  below  pure  cottony  white;  posterior 
edge  of  ears  whitish,  edges  of  the  dorsal  surface 
toward  the  tip  black,  the  rest  ashy  brown  ;  fur 
lead-colored  at  the  base.  This  is  among  the 
largest  of  the  short-eared  leporidce  of  America, 


160 


RABELAIS 


being  largest  in  the  west  and  smallest  and 
coarsest-haired  in  the  south ;  it  is  found  almost 
throughout  the  United  States,  from  the  south- 
ern parts  of  New  Hampshire  to  Florida,  and 
west  to  the  upper  Missouri,  being  most  abun- 
dant in  sandy  regions  covered  with  pines.  It 
also  frequents  woods  and  thickets,  concealing 
itself  in  its  form,  in  thick  bushes,  or  in  holes 
in  trees  or  under  stones  by  day,  coming  out  at 
night  to  feed ;  in  clover  and  corn  fields,  vege- 
table gardens,  and  nurseries  of  young  trees,  it 
does  much  mischief.  It  does  not  dig  burrows 
like  the  European  rabbit,  and  comes  rather  in 
the  class  of  hares  ;  when  pursued  it  runs  with 
great  swiftness  and  with  few  doublings  to  its 
hole  in  a  tree  or  rock ;  though  it  will  breed  in 
enclosed  warrens,  it  does  not  become  tame, 
and  has  not  been  domesticated.  It  is  very 
prolific,  or  else  it  would  be  exterminated  by 
its  numerous  enemies ;  it  often  runs  into  the 
hole  of  the  woodchuck,  skunk,  fox,  or  weasel, 
in  the  last  three  cases  often  falling  a  victim  to 
the  inhabitant  of  the  burrow  ;  it  is  hunted  by 
dogs,  shot  from  its  form,  and  caught  in  snares 
and  traps ;  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed.  It 
somewhat  resembles  the  European  rabbit  in 
its  gray  color,  but  it  does  not  change  its  colors 
like  the  latter,  and  is  smaller  and  more  slender. 
Hybrids  are  sometimes  produced  between  this 
species  and  the  domesticated  European  rabbit 
which  has  escaped  from  confinement  into  the 
woods.  The  sage  rabbit  (L.  artemisia,  Bach.), 
from  the  west  and  the  plains  of  Mexico  and 
Texas,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  distinguished 
from  the  last  species.  The  jackass  rabbit  or 
Texan  hare  (L.  callotis,  Wagl.)  is  so  named 
from  its  very  long  ears,  measuring  about  5  in., 
though  the  animal  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
European  hare  ;  it  is  yellowish  gray  above, 
waved  irregularly  with  black,  upper  part  of 
tail  black,  sides  gray,  and  dull  whitish  below  ; 
nape  sooty  black  ;  it  is  found  in  Mexico,  Texas, 
and  Oregon,  and  on  the  plains.  The  long  and 
slender  legs  indicate  rapid  locomotion  and  ti 
capacity  for  making  long  leaps ;  it  is  a  soli- 
tary and  not  very  common  species,  and  has  not 
been  found  in  California. 

RABELAIS,  Francois  a  French  author,  born 
in  Chinon,  Touraine,  about  1490,  died  about 
1553.  He  was  educated  at  the  convent  of 
Seuille  and  the  monastery  of  La  Baumette,  and 
was  ordained  as  a  priest  in  1511.  He  then 
made  up  for  former  idleness  by  devoting  him- 
self to  the  study  of  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages, mastering  the  Latin,  Greek,  Italian, 
Spanish,  German,  English,  Hebrew,  and  Ara- 
bic. Greek  had  especial  attraction  for  him ; 
and  this  involved  him  in  serious  quarrels  with 
his  fellow  monks,  who  were  fiercely  hostile 
to  the  study.  The  ill  feeling  grew  so  strong 
that  in  1524  he  obtained  permission  from  Pope 
Clement  VII.  to  enter  the  order  of  Benedic- 
tines. He  spent  several  years  in  their  house 
at  Maillezais,  but  in  1530  abandoned  monas- 
tic life  and  repaired  to  Montpellier  to  study 
medicine.  In  1532  he  was  a  physician  at  Ly- 


ons, and  published  annotated  'and  corrected 
editions  of  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and  others. 
From  1583  to  1550  he  published  several  edi- 
tions of  a  facetious  production,  in  which  he 
endeavored  to  destroy  faith  in  astrology.  At 
Lyons  also  he  published  the  first  rough  sketch 
of  the  strange  work  upon  which  his  fame 
rests :  Lea  faits  et  diets  du  geant  Qargantua 
et  de  son  fils  Pantagruel  (1533).  Jean  du 
Bellay,  his  old  schoolmate,  bishop  of  Paris 
and  afterward  cardinal,  having  been  appointed 
French  ambassador  to  Rome,  engaged  Rabelais 
as  his  physician,  and  obtained  for  him  from 
Pope  Paul  III.  a  bull,  dated  Jan.  17,  1536,  re- 
mitting the  penalties  which  he  had  incurred  by 
the  abandonment  of  his  order.  He  then  be- 
came a  member  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Maur  des 
Fosses  at  Paris,  where  he  remained  till  1542, 
when  he  was  presented  with  the  comfortable 
living  of  Meudon.  Here  he  applied  himself 
faithfully  to  the  duties  of  his  ministry,  and 
devoted  his  leisure  hours  to  the  completion 
of  his  great  work,  three  books  of  which  had 
already  appeared.  This  being  done  in  1551, 
he  went  again  to  Paris,  published  the  fourth 
book,  and  spent  his  later  years  at  Meudon. 
Such  are  the  ascertained  facts  of  a  life  which 
has  been  egregiously  misrepresented.  No  per- 
formance in  French  literature  had  greater  suc- 
cess in  its  time,  or  has  since  attracted  so  much 
attention,  as  his  "  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel."' 
It  is  a  ruthless  attack  upon  monks,  princes, 
kings,  and  all  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authori- 
ties. Amid  its  chaos  of  eccentricities  and  al- 
lusions to  persons  and  events,  of  good  sense 
and  folly,  of  delicate  thoughts  and  gross  ob- 
scenities, commentators  have  tried  in  vain  to 
unravel  the  work.  According  to  the  best  au- 
thorities, Gargantua  stands  for  King  Francis 
I. ;  Grandgousier  for  Louis  XII. ;  Pantagruel 
for  Henry  II. ;  Pichrocole  for  Maximilian 
Sforza,  duke  of  Milan ;  Gargamelle  for  Anne 
of  Brittany,  the  queen  of  Louis  XII. ;  Bade- 
bec  for  Claude  of  France,  queen  of  Francis  I. ; 
Grandejument  de  Gargantua  for  Diana  of  Poi- 
tiers ;  Panurge  for  the  cardinal  de  Lorraine ; 
and  Frere  Jean  des  Entomeurs  for  Cardinal  du 
Bellay.  Be  this  as  it  may,  "the  work  was 
entirely  in  accordance  with  the  taste  of  his 
age,"  as  Vinet  remarks ;  "  and  excellent  mind* 
which  could  appreciate  its  fine  parts  were  also 
delighted  with  those  that  are  repulsive  to  our 
taste."  Lord  Bacon  called  Rabelais  "  the  great 
jester  of  France;"  others  have  called  him  a 
"comic  Homer."  More  than  60  editions  of 
the  work  have  been  published;  that  of  Bur- 
gaud  des  Marets  and  Rathery  (2  vols.  12mo, 
Paris,  1857-'8)  is  the  most  convenient  and 
acceptable,  with  a  good  biographical  and  criti- 
cal notice,  explanations,  notes,  <fec.  There  are 
several  English  translations.  That  of  Sir  T. 
Urquhart  (1653 ;  reprinted  by  the  Maitland 
club,  4to,  1838)  was  adopted  by  both  Ozell  and 
Motteux  as  a  basis.  Their  united  translation 
is  often  reprinted ;  the  last  edition  is  by  Bohn 
(2  vols.,  London,  1850).  Sixteen  private  let- 


RABIES 


RACHEL 


161 


ters  of  Rabelais  were  published  in  1651. — See 
Ginguene,  De  Vautorite  de  Rabelais  dans  la 
revolution  presente  et  dans  la  constitution  ci- 
vile du  clerge,  ou  Institutions  royales,  politiques 
et  ecclesiastic ues  tirees  de  Gargantua  et  de 
Pantagruel  (Paris,  1791). 

BABIES.     See  HYDROPHOBIA. 

RABI.V,  the  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bor- 
dering N.  on  North  Carolina  and  E.  on  South 
Carolina,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Chattooga  river ;  area,  about  320  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  3,256,  of  whom  119  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  mountainous ;  the  Blue  Ridge 
forms  the  W.  boundary  and  then  curves  through 
the  N.  portion  of  the  county.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  4,080  bushels  of  rye, 
71,376  of  Indian  corn,  2,704  of  Irish  potatoes, 
'3,915  of  sweet  potatoes,  4,208  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
5,541  of  wool,  and  19,868  of  butter.  There 
were  481  horses,  470  mules  and  asses,  1,170 
milch  cows,  453  working  oxen,  1,855  other 
cattle,  4,086  sheep,  and  6,672  swine.  Capital, 
Clayton. 

RACCOON  (procyon,  Storr),  a  genus  of  Amer- 
ican plantigrade  mammals  of  the  bear  family, 
of  the  section  subursince.  In  this  genus  the 
size  is  comparatively  small,  the  body  stout, 
and  the  tail  moderately  long,  bushy,  and  not 
prehensile ;  the  muzzle  is  pointed,  and  the 
end  very  movable  and  slightly  projecting ;  the 
teeth  are :  incisors  |_f,  canines  \~\,  premo- 
lars  £c|-,  and  molars  fzf,  in  all  40,  there  being 
one  upper  true  molar  on  each  side  less  than 
in  the  bears.  The  shape  is  not  unlike  that 
of  the  badger,  though  the  legs  are  longer ;  ears 
moderate,  erect,  and  covered  with  hair;  head 
broad  behind  and  flat,  with  naked  and  large 
muffle ;  whiskers  in  four  principal  horizontal 
series,  five  or  six  bristles  in  each ;  feet  five  toed, 
with  naked  soles  and  no  indication  of  webs ; 
claws  curved,  not  retractile,  and  sharp;  though 


Raccoon  (Procyon  lotor). 
I 

plantigrade  when  standing,  the  gait  is  rather 
digitigrade.  The  common  raccoon  (P.  lotor, 
Storr)  is  22  or  23  in.  long,  with  the  tail  about 
a  foot  additional ;  the  general  color  is  grayish 
white,  the  tips  of  the  long  hairs  black  and  giv- 
ing this  tint  to  the  back;  under  surface  dark 


brown ;  an  oblique  black  patch  on  the  cheeks, 
continuous  with  a  paler  one  beneath  the  jaw, 
and  another  behind  the  ears ;  the  end  of  muz- 
zle, ears,  and  posterior  part  of  cheek  patch 
whitish;  tail  bushy,  with  the  tips  and  five 
rings  black,  and  the  nearly  equal  interspaces 
rusty  white  ;  hind  feet  4  in.  long,  dirty  white 
above,  the  fore  feet  2f  in. ;  mamma3  six,  ven- 
tral ;  there  are  anal  glands  which  secrete  a 
somewhat  offensive  fluid.  Some  varieties  oc- 
cur nearly  black,  others  are  nearly  white. 
The  raccoon  is  found  generally  over  the  United 
States,  as  far  north  as  lat.  60°  in  the  interior, 
as  high  as  Newfoundland  on  the  Atlantic,  and 
further  north  on  the  Pacific;  it  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  southern  states,  frequenting  re- 
tired swamps  covered  with  high  trees  a"nd  well 
watered.  It  is  an  excellent  climber,  in  this 
way  obtaining  eggs  and  young  birds ;  watching 
the  soft-shelled  turtle  lay  her  eggs  in  the  sand, 
it  uncovers  and  devours  them ;  it  seizes  ducks 
as  they  come  to  the  water,  and  is  extremely 
fond  of  ripe  and  juicy  corn,  as  well  as  of  frogs 
and  shell  fish.  It  is  not  entirely  nocturnal, 
and  sometimes  visits  the  corn  fields  and  the 
poultry  yard  at  midday  ;  it  feeds  much  on  an 
inferior  oyster  in  the  southern  states,  hence 
called  the  raccoon  oyster ;  it  also  eats  rabbits, 
squirrels,  and  other  rodents,  fish,  nuts,  and 
honey.  It  has  been  generally  supposed  to  dip 
its  food  in  water  before  eating  it,  hence  its  spe- 
cific name  of  lotor  or  washer  ;  but  this,  which 
it  does  not  generally  do  in  captivity,  according 
to  Bachman,  is  probably  only  an  occasional 
habit.  It  hibernates  during  the  coldest  weather 
in  the  northern  states.  It  is  shy,  and  has  an 
acute  sense  of  smell ;  it  brings  forth  about  the 
month  of  May,  in  a  nest  in  a  hollow  tree,  four 
to  six  at  a  time,  about  the  size  of  half-grown 
rats,  which  utter  a  plaintive  infant-like  cry. 
It  is  a  favorite  sport  of  the  southern  negroes 
in  winter  to  hunt  "  coons,"  driving  them  to  a 
tree,  and  then  climbing  up  and  shaking  them 
off,  or  felling  the  tree  to  bring  them  within 
reach  of  the  dogs ;  they  sell  the  skin  to  the 
hatters,  and  eat  the  flesh,  which  is  generally 
very  fat  and  tender,  with  a  flavor  of  pig. 
Many  are  caught  also  in  traps,  and  are  hunted 
by  torchlight.  In  captivity  it  makes  a  very 
cunning  and  interesting  pet,  being  easily  tamed 
so  as  to  follow  its  master  even  into  the  crowd- 
ed street,  ambling  along  in  the  manner  of  a 
bear,  and  adroitly  picking  his  pockets  of  dain- 
ties. The  crab-eating  raccoon  (P.  cancrivo- 
rus,  Illig.),  from  Brazil  and  the  northern  parts 
of  South  America,  is  longer  and  more  slender 
than  the  common  species,  grayish  above  shaded 
with  brown  and  black,  and  yellowish  below  ; 
the  face  is  whitish,  with  a  black  band  sur- 
rounding each  eye ;  tail  less  distinctly  annu- 
lated.  Its  habits  are  nearly  the  same  as  in 
the  other  species,  but  it  is  more  arboreal ;  it 
is  equally  omnivorous ;  its  flesh  is  also  used  as 
food.  It  is  found  on  the  seacoast  and  in  the 
interior,  and  as  far  south  as  Paraguay. 
RACHEL,  in  Biblical  history.  See  JACOB. 


162 


RACHEL 


RACINE 


RACHEL  (Elisabeth  Baehel  Felix),  a  French  ac- 
tress, born  at  Mumpf,  Switzerland,  Feb.  28, 
1820,  died  at  Cannet  (near  Toulon),  France, 
Jan.  3,  1858.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Jew- 
ish peddler,  whom  she  accompanied  as  a  stroll- 
ing singer  and  guitar  player.  While  singing 
in  a  cafe  in  Paris  she  attracted  the  attention 
of  Achille  Ricourt,  a  theatrical  manager  and 
writer  on  art,  and  of  Choron,  who  in  1831  be- 
gan to  give  her  instruction  in  music.  As  she 
showed  a  great  talent  for  the  stage,  he  trans- 
ferred her  to  the  care  of  Saint- Aulaire,  under 
whom  she  made  rapid  progress  in  elocution. 
Her  personation  of  Hermione  at  a  private  per- 
formance procured  her  admission  in  1836  as 
a  pupil  of  the  conservatory ;  and  on  April  24, 
1837,  she  appeared  at  the  Gymnase  theatre  in 
La  Vendeenne,  a  vaudeville  written  for  her  by 
Paul  Dufourt.  She  attracted  little  attention, 
and  for  more  than  a  year  did  not  again  appear 
prominently.  In  the  mean  time  she  studied  as- 
siduously under  Samson,  and  on  Sept.  7,  1838, 
produced  a  great  sensation  as  Camille  in  Cor- 
neille's  Lea  Horaces  at  the  Theatre  Francais. 
The  long  neglected  plays  of  Corneille,  Racine, 
and  Voltaire  were  speedily  revived  for  her, 
and  she  became  best  known  as  Eriphile  in 
Iphigenie,  Arnenaide  in  Tancredc,  Roxane  in 
Bajaiet,  Pauline  in  Polyeucte,  as  Athalie,  and 
especially  as  Phedre  and  Camille.  She  was 
also  much  admired  in  other  parts,  such  as 
Joan  of  Arc,  Mary  Stuart,  and  Adrienne  Le- 
couvreur;  and  during  the  excitement  of  1848 
she  produced  a  great  effect  by  her  peculiar 
rendition  of  the  Maneillaise.  She  excelled 
most  in  the  impersonation  of  lofty  classical 
heroines  and  in  the  delineation  of  the  fiercer 
emotions,  and  was  celebrated  for  the  magnet- 
ism of  her  gestures  and  voice,  her  singular  air 
of  distinction,  dignity,  grace,  and  repose,  and 
her  wonderful  identification  with  the  charac- 
ters she  represented.  Her  income,  originally 
4,000  francs,  soon  rose  to  80,000;  and  in  1849 
she  effected  an  arrangement  at  the  Theatre 
Francais,  by  which  six  months  of  absence  in 
each  year  were  allowed  her.  The  receipts 
from  her  performances  in  the  French  prov- 
inces and  in  England  reached  enormous  sums, 
and  in  Russia  in  1853  she  received  400,000 
francs.  In  1855,  in  company  with  her  brother 
Raphael  Felix,  her  sisters  Sarah,  Lia,  and  Di- 
nah, and  a  complete  troupe,  she  gave  perform- 
ances in  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  cities 
of  the  United  States,  and  then  went  to  Havana 
to  regain  her  strength ;  subsequently  she  spent 
some  time  in  Egypt,  and  finally  sought  relief 
in  southern  France;  but  all  attempts  to  ar- 
rest the  progress  of  her  disease  (consumption) 
proved  unavailing.  Rachel  was  slender,  rather 
tall,  with  a  finely  modelled  head,  clear,  pale 
complexion,  and  features  capable  of  the  great- 
est variety  of  expression.  She  died  unmarried 
and  a  Jewess,  but  left  two  sons,  who  were 
educated  as  Catholics. 

RACINE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bor- 
dering on  Lake  Michigan ;  area,  about  850  sq. 


m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  26,740.  It  is  watered  by 
several  streams,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern,  and  the  Western  Union 
railroads.  The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and  the 
soil  productive.  Limestone  is  found.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  339,739  bush- 
els of  wheat,  376,398  of  Indian  corn,  393,127 
of  oats,  25,983  of  barley,  164,219  of  potatoes, 
164,321  Ibs.  of  wool,  610,228  of  butter,  and 
43,070  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,395  horses, 
7,257  milch  cows,  6,747  other  cattle,  37,620 
sheep,  and  7,423  swine;  12  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  6  of  boots  and  shoes, 

5  of  brick,  13  of  carriages  and  wagons,  22  of 
clothing,  2  of  iron  castings,  3  of  lime,  8  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  2  of  woollens,  7  flour  mills,  8  tanneries, 

6  currying  establishments,  6  breweries,  and  8 
planing  mills.     Capital,  Racine. 

RACINE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Racine 
co.,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth 
of  Root  river,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western railroad,  23  m.  S.  of  Milwaukee  and 
62  m.  N.  of  Chicago;  pop.  in  1860,  7,822;  in 
1870,  9,880;  in  1875,  18,282.  It  is  built  on  a 
plateau  projecting  about  5  m.  into  the  lake 
and  elevatea  about  40  ft.  above  its  level.  The 
climate  is  cold  in  winter  and  cool  and  bracing 
in  summer;  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
about  44°.  The  streets  are  wide  and  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles,  the  principal  ones 
being  bordered  by  shade  trees.  Main  street  is 
the  business  thoroughfare,  and  its  upper  por- 
tion is  lined  with  elegant  residences.  The 
city  is  connected  with  Rock  Island,  111.,  by  the 
Western  Union  railroad.  The  harbor  is  one  of 
the  best  on  the  lake,  and  is  accessible  by  ves- 
sels drawing  14  ft.  A  considerable  tonnage  is 
owned  here,  and  the  lake  commerce  is  impor- 
tant. The  lumber  trade  is  large  and  increas- 
ing. Manufacturing  is  the  chief  interest,  and 
to  this  Racine  owes  most  of  its  wealth  and 
prosperity.  The  value  of  products  in  1874 
was  $4,179,265.  The  principal  establishments 
are  8  wagon  factories,  8  carriage  factories,  5 
fanning-mill  works,  10  tanneries,  2  trunk  fac- 
tories, 5  harness  and  saddle  factories,  3  sash 
and  blind  manufactories,  3  founderies  and 
machine  shops,  6  saw  mills,  a  paper  machine 
factory,  a  woollen  mill,  a  wire  manufactory, 
a  wagon  lock  manufactory,  a  manufactory  of 
threshers,  a  linseed  oil  mill,  a  basket  factory, 
and  a  silver-plating  factory,  besides  many  oth- 
er establishments.  There  are  two  national 
banks,  with  a  joint  capital  of  $400,000,  two 
elevators,  a  dredge  company,  and  seven  hotels. 
The  assessed  value  of  property  in  1875  was 
$4,200,000.  The  public  schools  are  excellent, 
and  the  Roman  Catholics  have  a  flourishing 
academy.  Racine  college,  under  the  control  of 
the  Episcopalians,  was  founded  in  1852.  The 
buildings  are  situated  in  handsome  grounds,  10 
acres  in  extent,  at  the  upper  end  of  Main  street. 
The  institution  comprises  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, with  classical  and  scientific  courses,  and 


RACINE 


RADETZKY 


163 


a  grammar  school,  with  classical  and  math- 
ematical courses.  In  1874-''5  it  had  18  in- 
structors, 180  students,  of  whom  135  were  in 
the  grammar  school,  and  a  library  of  3,000 
volumes.  Four  weekly  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished, of  which  one  is  in  the  Bohemian  lan- 
guage. There  are  24  churches. — Racine  was 
first  settled  in  1834.  The  first  post  office  was 
established  in  1836;  the  first  steamer  entered 
the  harbor  in  1844.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1848.  Its  growth  has  been  rapid. 

RACINE,  Jean,  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
La  Ferte-Milon,  lle-de-France,  Dec.  21,  1639, 
died  in  Paris,  April  22,  1699.  He  studied  at 
the  college  of  Beauvais,  at  Port  Royal,  and  at 
the  college  of  Harcourt.  He  won  the  friend- 
ship of  Boileau  and  Moliere  and  the  good  will 
of  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  him  a  pension  in 
1660  for  his  ode  on  occasion  of  his  marriage. 
His  reputation  as  a  dramatic  poet  of  remark- 
able genius  was  firmly  established  in  1667  by 
his  Andromaque,  and  in  rapid  succession  ap- 
peared Les  plaideurs,  a  comedy  (1668),  Britan- 
nicus  (1669),  Berenice  (1670),  Bajazet  (1672), 
Mithridate  (1673),  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  (1674), 
and  Phedre  (1677).  The  last,  one  of  his  master- 
pieces, was  so  coldly  received,  owing  to  the  in- 
trigues of  his  enemies,  that  he  ceased  to  write 
for  the  stage,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  his  duties  as  official  historiographer  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  At  the  suggestion  of  Mme. 
de  Maintenon  he  wrote  in  1689  Esther,  a  Bibli- 
cal drama,  for  the  young  ladies  at  the  seminary 
of  St.  Cyr,  where  it  was  performed,  and  in  1691 
Athalie,  which  was  only  recited,  and  not  per- 
formed at  the  Theatre  Francais  until  a  much 
later  period.  Boileau  regarded  this  as  one  of 
his  finest  productions,  and  it  is  still  used  in 
schools  as  a  model  of  dramatic  eloquence.  In 
1697  appeared  his  memoir  on  the  unhappy  con- 
dition of  France,  which  he  had  written  at  the 
request  of  Mme.  de  Maintenon.  Louis  XIV. 
was  displeased  with  it,  and  Racine's  death  is 
said  to  have  been  hastened  by  his  grief  on  this 
account.  He  left  some  prose  writings,  which 
are  marked  by  terseness,  perspicuity,  and  elo- 
quence. The  last  quality  is  peculiarly  striking 
in  his  speech  before  the  academy  on  the  recep- 
tion of  Thomas  Corneille  (Jan.  2,  1685),  when 
he  paid  a  warm  tribute  to  the  genius  of  Cor- 
neille's  illustrious  brother.  His  miscellaneous 
poems  also  possess  high  merit.  The  most  val- 
uable complete  editions  of  his  works  are  by 
Pierre  Didot  the  elder  (3  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1801- 
'5),  richly  illustrated  and  forming  part  of  the 
magnificent  Louvre  editions  ;  by  La  Harpe 
(7  vols.  8vo,  1807) ;  Geoffroy  (7  vols.,  1808) ; 
Aim6  Martin,  with  notes  from  the  principal 
commentators  (7  vols.,  1820)  ;  and  Mesnard  (5 
vols.,  1865-'9),  to  be  completed  in  7  vols.,  and 
to  form  part  of  the  new  editions  of  Les  grands 
ecrivains  de  la,  France,  under  the  direction  of 
Adolphe  Regnier. — Racine's  second  son,  Louis 
(1692-1763),  wrote  two  didactic  poems,  La 
grace  and  La  religion,  remarkable,  especially 
the  latter,  for  elegance,  but  deficient  in  most 


other  respects ;  they  are  chiefly  intended  to 
vindicate  the  principles  of  Jansenism.  His 
Memoires  sur  la  me  et  les  outrages  de  Jean 
Racine  (2  vols.,  1747)  is  a  more  valuable  per- 
formance. Among  his  other  works  is  a  prose 
translation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost." 

RADCLIFFE,  Ann,  an  English  novelist,  born  in 
London,  July  9,  1764,  died  there,  Feb.  7,  1823. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Ward.  At  the  age  of 
22  she  married  Mr.  William  Radcliffe,  a  student 
of  law,  who  afterward  became  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  "  The  English  Chronicle,"  a  weekly 
newspaper.  Her  first  novel,  "  The  Castles  of 
Athlin  and  Dunbayne"  (1789),  gave  little  indi- 
cation of  her  powers,  though  it  had  the  wild 
and  improbable  plot  and  the  unnatural  char- 
acters which  distinguish  her  later  writings. 
"The  Sicilian  Romance"  (1790)  is  much  bet- 
ter, and  the  "  Romance  of  the  Forest"  (1791) 
is  sufficient  to  place  her  at  the  head  of  all  wri- 
ters of  melodramatic  romance.  "  The  Myste- 
ries of  Udolpho"  (1794)  is  generally  regarded 
as  her  masterpiece.  About  the  time  this  work 
was  produced  she  made  a  tour  through  Germa- 
ny, and  in  1795  published  "Journey  through 
Holland,"  &c.,  with  some  observations  on  the 
lake  district  of  England.  Her  last  novel,  "  The 
Italian,"  which  deals  with  racks,  tortures, 
dungeons,  confessionals,  monks,  and  inquisi- 
tors, appeared  in  1797.  After  her  death  there 
were  published  "  Gaston  de  Blondeville,  a  Ro- 
mance," "  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  a  Metrical  Tale," 
and  some  poems,  together  with  a  memoir  by 
T.  N.  Talfourd  (4  vols.,  1826) ;  and  a  collection 
of  her  poems  appeared  in  1834. 

RADCLIFFE,  John,  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1650,  died  at  Car- 
shalton,  near  London,  Nov.  1,  1714.  He  grad- 
uated at  University  college,  Oxford,  in  1669, 
studied  medicine,  and  in  1675  began  to  practise 
in  Oxford.  In  1682  he  received  the  degree  of 
M.  D.,  and  in  1684  removed  to  London,  where 
he  soon  acquired  an  extensive  practice.  He  was 
appointed  principal  physician  to  the  princess 
Anne  in  1686,  and  in  1713  was  elected  to  par- 
liament by  the  town  of  Buckingham.  Many 
anecdotes  are  recorded  of  his  wit  and  rudeness 
of  speech,  which  sometimes  verged  upon  bru- 
tality. He  bequeathed  nearly  his  whole  for- 
tune to  public  uses,  dividing  it  mostly  between 
University  college,  Oxford,  and  the  foundation 
at  Oxford  of  a  library  with  especial  reference 
to  medical  science.  This  is  known  as  the  Rad- 
cliffe library. — See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Dr. 
Radcliffe,"  by  W.  Pittis  (8vo,  London,  1736). 

RADETZKY,  Joseph  Wenzel,  count,  an  Austrian 
general,  born  at  Trzebnitz,  Bohemia,  Nov.  2, 
1766,  died  in  Milan,  Jan.  5,  1858.  He  was  in 
active  service  from  1784,  and  in  1805  was  made 
a  major  general.  He  contributed  much  to  the 
victory  at  Aspern  and  Essling,  May  21  and  22, 
1809,  and  commanded  the  Austrian  cavalry  at 
the  battle  of  Wagram,  having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  field  marshal.  After  the 
peace  he  was  made  chief  of  the  quartermaster 
general's  staff,  and  councillor  of  the  minister  of 


164 


RADIATA 


war,  in  which  capacity  he  had  a  large  share  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  army.  In  the  cam- 
paigns of  1813-'14  and  1815  he  was  chief  of  the 
staff  of  Field  Marshal  Schwarzenberg,  had  an 
important  share  in  the  victory  at  Kulm,  and 
was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 
In  1831  he  took  command  of  the  Austrian 
troops  in  Italy,  and  in  1836  was  made  field  mar- 
shal. During  the  revolution  of  1848,  though 
an  octogenarian,  he  evinced  remarkable  vigor 
and  equal  ability  as  a  commander.  From  March 
18  to  March  23  combats  between  the  Austrian 
troops  and  the  insurgents  constantly  took  place 
in  the  streets  of  Milan.  On  the  latter  day  Ra- 
detzky  evacuated  the  city  and  retreated  behind 
the  Mincio,  with  his  headquarters  at  Verona  ; 
but  the  advance  of  Charles  Albert  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army  compelled  him  to  retire  behind 
the  Adige.  After  the  reduction  of  Peschiera 
by  the  Sardinian  army,  May  30,  he  feigned  a 
general  retreat,  reduced  Vicenza,  Treviso,  and 
Padua,  thus  securing  his  rear,  and  rapidly  re- 
turned to  Verona.  His  victory  at  Custozza 
(July  25)  forced  the  Piedmontese  to  retreat, 
and  from  this  time  the  success  of  the  Austrians 
was  assured.  Milan  capitulated  on  Aug.  6,  and 
an  armistice  of  six  weeks  was  agreed  upon  be- 
tween Sardinia  and  Austria.  Charles  Albert 
having  resumed  hostilities  in  March,  1849,  Ra- 
detzky  invaded  Piedmont,  and  on  March  23 
gained  the  decisive  victory  of  Novara.  He 
now  marched  against  Venice,  which  after  a 
protracted  siege  finally  surrendered,  Aug.  23. 
Radetzky  was  made  governor  general  and  mili- 
tary commander  of  the  whole  country,  the  du- 
ties of  which  situation  he  performed  with  un- 
mitigated rigor.  On  Feb.  28,  1857,  at  the  age 
of  90,  he  retired  from  command. 

RADIATA,  or  Radiates,  next  to  the  protozoa 
the  lowest  of  the  great  branches  of  the  in- 
vertebrates, whose  characteristic  feature  is  that 
of  radiation  from  the  mouth  as  a  centre. 
All  live  in  the  water,  and  most  are  marine. 
They  were  divided  by  Agassiz  into  polyps, 
acalephs  or  jelly  fishes,  and  echinoderms,  the 
last  class  the  highest,  which  have  been  de- 
scribed under  these  titles  respectively.  As 
they  are  among  the  lowest  in  rank  in  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  they  are  among  the  earliest  in 
time.  Huxley  divides  the  old  branch  of  ra- 
diates into  the  subkingdom  coelenterata,  inclu- 
ding the  hydroids,  sea  anemones,  corals,  and 
acalephs ;  and  (in  part)  the  subkingdom  an- 
nuloida,  including  the  echinoderms.  In  the 
latter  subkingdom  he  places  also  the  intesti- 
nal and  some  minute  aquatic  worms,  an. asso- 
ciation not  generally  accepted  by  naturalists. 
His  classification,  in  detail,  is  as  follows :  Sub- 
kingdom  ccelenterata,  having  the  alimentary 
canal  communicating  freely  with  the  body 
cavity;  with  no  heart  or  circulating  system, 
and  in  most  with  no  nervous  system.  Class 
A,  hydrozoa,  with  walls  of  the  digestive  sac 
not  separated  from  those  of  the  body  cavity, 
with  the  reproductive  organs  external;  con- 
taining subclasses  I.,  hydroida  (hydroid  zo- 


RADISH 

ophytes),  with  orders:  1,  hydrida  (hydra); 
2,  corynida  (tubularia) ;  3,  sertularida  (sea 
firs);  II.,  siphonophora  (oceanic),  with  orders: 
4,  calycophoridce  (diphyes)-  5,  physophorida 
(Portuguese  man-of-war)  ;  III.,  discojihora 
(jelly  fish),  with  order  6,  medusidce ;  IV.,  lu- 
cernarida  (sea  blubbers),  with  orders :  7,  lu- 
cemariadce ;  8,  pelagida  ;  9,  rhigostomidce ; 
V.,  graptolitidce  (extinct).  Class  B,  acMnozoa, 
with  stomach  opening  into  body  cavity,  which 
is  divided  into  compartments  by  vertical  parti- 
tions, and  with  reproductive  organs  internal ; 
with  orders:  1,  zoantharia,  with  rounded  ten- 
tacles in  multiples  of  five  or  six,  as  the  sea 
anemones,  star  and  brain  corals,  and  madre- 
pores ;  2,  alcyonaria,  with  fringed  tentacles 
in  multiples  of  4,  as  alcyonium,  tubipores,  sea 
pens,  and  red  coral ;  3,  rugosa  (extinct) ;  4, 
ctenophora,  oceanic  jelly  fishes  like  Venus's 
girdle  and plcurobrachia.  In  the  subkingdom 
annuloida,  the  alimentary  canal  is  shut  off 
from  the  body  cavity,  and  there  is  a  distinct 
nervous  system,  generally  a  blood-circulating 
system,  and  a  water-vascular  system.  The 
only  class  which  concerns  the  radiates  is  the 
echinodermata,  with  the  five  living  orders  of 
crinoids,  ophiurans,  star  fishes,  sea  urchins, 
and  holothurians,  and  the  two  extinct  low 
orders  of  blastoids  and  cystoids,  allied  to  cri- 
noids.— See  a  series  of  papers  on.  "  The  Mode 
of  Growth  of  the  Radiates,"  by  Prof.  Packard, 
in  the  "American  Naturalist,"  March,  1875, 
et  teg. 

RADISH  (Lat.  radix,  root),  a  cruciferous  plant, 
raphanus  sativus  (Gr.  04,  quickly,  and  <f>alvetv, 
to  appear,  in  allusion  to  its  rapid  germination), 
long  cultivated  for  its  edible  root.  The  plant 
has  rough  and  lyrately  lobed  leaves,  the  flow- 
ers purple  or  whitish  and  with  the  structure 
common  to  the  family ;  but  the  pods  differ 
from  those  of  the  other  common  crucifera  in 
being  divided  into  cells  by  fleshy  false  parti- 
tions. The  radish  is  a  hardy  annual  of  which 
the  nativity  is  uncertain,  but  it  was  in  cultiva- 
tion in  Egypt  in  very  early  times ;  being  val- 
ued for  its  root  only,  all  improvement  has  been 
directed  toward  that  part,  and  it  presents  a 
great  number  of  varieties,  from  the  size  of  a 
small  olive  up  to  those  weighing  several  pounds, 
and  in  shape  from  long  and  tapering  to  those 
much  broader  than  long;  some  varieties  are 
of  very  rapid  growth,  and  must  be  eaten  when 
very  young,  while  others  require  as  long  to 
mature  as  turnips,  and  are  kept  all  winter. 
The  radish  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  condiment 
rather  than  a  nutritious  food ;  in  common  with 
cresses,  horseradish,  and  others  of  the  family, 
it  possesses  a  highly  pungent  principle  which 
contains  nitrogen  and  often  sulphur ;  and  with 
the  others  it  is  regarded  as  possessing  anti- 
scorbutic properties.  The  summer  varieties  in 
ordinary  culture  are  sown  as  early  in  spring 
as  the  soil  can  be  prepared,  but  they  may  be 
had  much  earlier  by  sowing  in  a  frame,  or  at 
any  time  during  winter  if  a  hot-bed  is  used. 
In  market  gardens,  where  the  greatest  econo- 


RADISH 


RADOWITZ 


165 


my  in  land  is  practised,  it  is  customary  to  sow 
a  bed  with  beets  in  regular  drills,  and  then 
scatter  radish  seed  over  the  bed  broadcast  and 
rake  it  in ;  the  radishes  are  gathered  before 
the  slowly  germinating  beets  need  attention ; 
they  do  best  upon  a  light  warm  soil  that  has 


Tarieties  of  Radish.     1.  Chinese  Winter.     2.  Olive-shaped. 
8.  Long.    4.  Turnip-shaped. 

been  heavily  manured  for  some  crop  the  pre- 
vious year.  In  some  localities  a  fly  (antho- 
myia  rapJianum)  makes  their  culture  impos- 
sible ;  its  larva,  a  small  white  maggot,  is  very 
destructive.  The  turnip-shaped  and  olive- 
shaped,  the  French  breakfast,  and  long  scarlet 
are  the  leading  early  sorts,  and  the  catalogues 
give  many  others,  including  white  and  other 
colors.  The  winter  varieties  are  sown  late  in 
July  or  early  in  August  in  the  latitude  of  New 
York,  and  harvested  before  freezing  weather ; 
to  keep  them  fresh,  they  should  be  packed  in 
earth  or  sand.  The  black  and  white  Spanish 
are  most  common,  but  the  rose-colored  Chi- 
nese is  by  far  the  best. — The  rat-tailed  radish 
is  probably  a  distinct  species  (R.  caudatus)  • 
its  root  is  not  edible,  but  the  pods,  which  are 
2  ft.  or  more  long,  are  used  for  pickles,  and 
by  some  liked  when  dressed  in  the  manner 
of  asparagus. — The  wild  radish  (R.  raphanis- 
trum),  also  called  jointed  charlock,  has  yellow 
flowers  and  necklace-formed  pods  with  a  long 
beak ;  this  is  a  common  weed  in  European 
agriculture,  and  has  firmly  established  itself 
in  some  of  our  older  states ;  it  has  much  the 
same  general  appearance  as  the  true  charlock 
(brassica  sinapistrum,  or  sinapis  arvensis  of 
most  authors),  from  which  it  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  jointed  pods,  which  when 
quite  ripe  often  break  up  between  the  seeds. 
In  1860  M.  Carriere,  a  French  horticulturist, 
published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in 
improving  the  wild  radish,  and  found  that  a 
careful  selection  gave  him  in  four  generations 
edible  roots  of  as  varied  forms  as  are  present- 
ed by  the  garden  radish. 


RADNORSHIRE,  a  county  of  S.  Wales,  bor- 
dering on  Montgomery,  Shropshire,  Hereford, 
Brecknock,  and  Cardigan ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  25,430.  The  chief  towns  are 
Presteign,  Knighton,  Radnor,  and  Rhayader. 
The  Wye  is  the  principal  river.  The  surface 
is  mountainous,  the  highest  point  being  2,163 
ft.  above  the  sea ;  but  the  S.  E.  part  is  in  gen- 
eral level.  A  great  portion  of  the  county  con- 
sists of  common  bog  and  moor  land.  Num- 
bers of  small  ponies  are  reared.  The  county 
was  anciently  inhabited  by  the  Silures. 

RADOM,  a  government  of  Russian  Poland, 
I  bordering  on  the  governments'of  Kielce,  Piotr- 
k6w,  Warsaw,  Siedlce,  and  Lublin,  and  bound- 
ed S.  E.  by  Austrian  Galicia;  area,  4,768  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  532,466.  It  is  drained  by 
the  Pilica  and  Vistula,  which  bound  it  on  the 
north  and  west,  and  east  and  southeast  respec- 
tively, and  their  affluents.  The  soil  is  diversi- 
fied, and  the  surface  the  most  elevated  in  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  being  mountainous  in  the 
S.  E.  part.  The  government  of  Kielce  on  the 
southwest  was  separated  from  it  in  1866.  The 
capital,  Radom,  is  in  the  N.  part  on  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Vistula,  6/)  m.  S.  of  Warsaw ; 
pop.  in  1867,  10,944. 

RADOWITZ,  Joseph  Maria  von,  a  Prussian 
statesman,  born  at  Blankenburg,  Brunswick, 
Feb.  6,  1797,  died  in  Berlin,  Dec.  25,  1853. 
His  ancestors  had  emigrated  from  Hungary. 
He  was  instructed  by  his  mother  as  a  Protes- 
tant, and  subsequently  by  his  father  as  a  Cath- 
olic. He  entered  the  army  in  1813,  and  was 
wounded  and  captured  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 
In  1815,  after  the  restoration  of  peace,  he  set- 
tled in  Cassel  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics  and 
military  science  at  the  school  of  cadets,  "and 
was  attached  in  the  same  capacity  to  the  house- 
hold of  Prince  Frederick  William,  the  future 
elector.  In  1823  he  returned  to  the  Prussian 
army  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  in  1845  he 
became  general.  His  great  influence  over  the 
crown  prince,  the  future  king  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV.,  gave  him  a  prominent  position,  and 
after  holding  various  diplomatic  offices  and 
prompting  the  king  in  1847  to  make  impor- 
tant organic  changes  in  the  government,  he 
retired  from  the  army  in  1848,  and  went  to 
Frankfort  as  leader  of  the  ultra  conservatives 
in  the  German  parliament.  His  views,  how- 
ever, underwent  a  gradual  change,  and  he  be- 
came an  advocate  of  a  constitutional  monar- 
chy and  of  the  union  of  North  Germany  under 
the  king  of  Prussia.  In  1849-'50  he  was  fore- 
most in  Berlin  and  Erfurt  in  the  general  di- 
rection of  affairs,  and  from  Sept.  27  to  Nov. 
29,  1850,  he  was  minister  of  foreign  relations. 
He  retired  from  this  office  in  consequence  of 
the  opposition  to  his  plan  of  a  rupture  with 
Austria.  His  principal  works  are  :  Gesprache 
aus  der  Oegenwart  uber  Staat  und  KircJie 
(1846) ;  Deutschland  und  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
IV.  (1848)  ;  and  Neue  Gesprdc7ie  aits  der 
Gegenwart  (2  vols.,  1851).  His  Oesammelte 
Schriften  comprise  5  vols.  (1852-'3). 


166 


RADZIWILL 


RAFFLESIA 


RADZIWILL,  the  name  of  a  family  long  dis- 
tinguished in  Lithuania  and  Poland.  Nicholas 
IV.,  surnamed  the  Black,  prince  of  Olyka  and 
Nieswiez,  the  founder  in  the  16th  century  of 
the  modern  branch  of  the  family,  promoted 
the  reformation,  and  published  in  1563  the 
Radziwill  Bible  ;  but  his  sons  returned  to  the 
Catholic  church.  One  of  them,  Prince  Chris- 
topher, made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  of 
which  an  account  has  been  published  (Polish, 
Breslau,  1847;  Latin,  Braunsberg,  1861).  He 
appropriated  5,000  ducata  for  the  purchase  of 
copies  of  his  father's  Protestant  Bible,  intend- 
ing to  destroy  them.  Among  the  other  mem- 
bers of  this  family  was  Michael  Jerome  (Ge- 
ron)  (1778-1850),  an  associate  of  Kosciuszko 
in  the  war  of  independence  of  1794,  and  of 
Dombrowski  in  1807.  During  the  Russian 
campaign  of  1812,  Napoleon  nominated  him 
general  on  the  battle  field.  In  1831  he  was 
for  a  short  time  commander-in-chief  of  the 
patriot  army,  and  after  its  defeat  by  the  Rus- 
sians he  was  detained  by  them  till  1836.  Sub- 
sequently he  resided  in  Dresden. 

RVKBl  R\,  Sir  Henry,  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
in  that  part  of  Edinburgh  formerly  called 
Stockbridge,  March  4,  1756,  died  July  8,  1823. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith,  but  ob- 
tained his  release,  and  began  portrait  painting 
in  Edinburgh,  where  ho  soon  became  a  rival 
of  David  Martin,  who  then  stood  at  the  head 
of  this  branch  of  the  art.  After  visiting  Rome 
he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1787,  and  at  once 
became  the  leading  portrait  painter  there,  a  su- 
premacy which  he  maintained  until  his  death. 
Among  his  sitters  were  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Hen- 
ry Mackenzie,  Dugald  Stewart,  Lord  Eldon, 
George  IV.,  Prof.  Playfair,  Dr.  Hugh  Blair, 
Jeffrey,  and  Alison.  In  1814  he  was  elected 
an  associate  and  in  1815  a  member  of  the  royal 
academy;  and  in  1822  he  was  knighted. 

RAFF,  Joachim,  a  German  composer,  born  at 
Lachen,  Switzerland,  June  27,  1822.  He  de- 
voted his  early  years  to  science  and  literature 
quite  as  much  as  to  music.  In  1843  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  light  pieces  for  the  piano- 
forte, which  met  with  such  success  that  he 
renounced  his  career  as  a  school  teacher  and 
gave  himself  up  to  the  art  of  music.  Remov- 
ing to  Weimar,  he  wrote  under  the  auspices 
of  Liszt,  for  the  theatre  of  that  city,  an  opera 
entitled  Konig  Alfred,  which  possessed  no  de- 
cided merit.  He  has  since  resided  in  Cologne, 
Stuttgart,  and  Wiesbaden,  devoting  himself  to 
musical  composition  and  to  writing  upon  musi- 
cal topics.  He  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  com- 
posers of  the  present  day,  having  published 
about  200  pieces,  mostly  for  the  pianoforte. 
The  works  upon  which  his  reputation  chiefly 
rests  are  his  six  symphonies,  among  which  the 
Leonore  and  Im  Walde  are  most  noted. 

RAFFAELLE.     See  RAPHAEL. 

RAFFLES,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford,  an  English 
official,  born  at  sea,  off  Jamaica,  July  5,  1781, 
died  July  4,  1826.  He  was  an  assistant  clerk 
in  the  India  house  at  the  age  of  15,  and  in  1805 


was  appointed  under  secretary  to  the  new  gov- 
ernment formed  by  the  East  India  company 
at  Penang.  In  1807  he  became  chief  secretary ; 
but  intense  application  to  business  affected  his 
health,  and  in  1808  he  was  compelled  to  go 
to  Malacca.  By  his  advice  an  expedition  was 
fitted  out  against  Batavia  in  1811,  and  when 
that  place  was  captured  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  Java  and  its  dependencies. 
He  held  this  office  for  five  years,  during  which 
slavery  was  abolished.  He  was  knighted  in 
1817.  In  1818  he  was  made  lieutenant  gover- 
nor of  Fort  Marlborough  at  Bencoolen,  Su- 
matra, and  remained  there  six  years,  emanci- 
pating the  slaves.  He  established  the  British 
settlement  at  Singapore,  and  founded  a  college 
there  for  the  encouragement  of  Anglo-Chinese 
and  Malay  literature.  The  state  of  his  health 
compelled  him  in  1824  to  resign  and  return  to 
England.  On  his  homeward  voyage  his  ship 
was  burned,  and  his  natural  history  collections, 
were  lost.  He  founded  the  zoological  society, 
and  was  its  first  president.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Java"  (2  vols.  4to,  London,  1817), 
and  "Malayan  Miscellanies"  (2  vols.  8vo,  Ben- 
coolen, 1820-'22).  His  "Life  and  Remains" 
was  edited  by  his  widow  (4to,  1830). 

RAFFLESIA,  a  remarkable  genus  of  apeta- 
lous,  exogenous  plants,  named  in  honor  of  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles.  While  making  a  tour  in  the 
interior  of  Sumatra,  Dr.  Joseph  Arnold,  one 
of  the  suite  of  Raffles,  was  called  aside  by  a 
native  to  see  a  fine  flower,  and  was  the  first 
European  to  examine  the  largest  flower  known. 
A  drawing  was  made,  and,  with  portions  of 
the  reproductive  organs  preserved  in  spirits, 
sent  to  England,  where  Robert  Brown  de- 
scribed it  as  a  new  genus  and  called  it  in  hon- 
or of  those  engaged  in  the  discovery  RqfflesiOr 
Arnoldi ;  since  then  three  or  four  other  spe- 
cies have  been  found,  all  smaller  than  the  first, 
and  this  genus  and  a  few  others  form  the  order 
Raffltoiacem,  all  of  them  parasites.  The  spe- 
cies of  rafflesia  are  all  natives  of  Sumatra  and 


Rafflesia  Arnold!. 

the  neighboring  islands,  and  parasitic  upon  the 
roots  and  branches  of  species  of  vitis  related 
to  the  grape.  The  plant  consists  solely  of  a 
flower,  subtended  by  a  few  bracts,  and  directly 
sessile  upon  the  stem  of  its  host.  The  flower 
first  appears  as  a  small  knob  upon  the  vine, 


RAFINESQUE 


RAGUET 


167 


which  gradually  enlarges,  and  at  the  end  of 
several  months  the  fully  developed  bud  looks 
like  a  monstrous  cabbage.  The  perianth  is 
tubular  below,  with  five  entire  thick  lobes  ; 
the  throat  of  the  flower  is  surrounded  by  a 
thick  and  fleshy  ring;  within  the  cup  or  tu- 
bular portion  are  the  stamens  or  pistils.  In 
S.  Arnoldi  the  flower  is  flesh-colored,  marked 
with  yellowish  white  protuberances,  and  the 
interior  of  the  cup  is  of  an  intense  purple  color. 
The  flower  measures  fully  3  ft.  across  and 
weighs  15  Ibs. ;  its  cup  is  estimated  to  hold 
12  pints.  In  this  as  in  other  species  the  flower 
gives  off  a  most  repulsive  odor  of  tainted  meat, 
which  is  however  attractive  to  insects,  large 
numbers  of  which  hover  about  it,  and  as  the 
plant  is  dioecious  they  no  doubt  aid  in  its  fer- 
tilization. There  are  several  plants  of  the  order 
Rafflesiacem  in  South  America  and  a  solitary 
species  in  the  United  States,  described  by  Gray 
as  pilostyles  Thurberi,  found  upon  the  Gila 
river  in  Arizona ;  this  is  parasitic  upon  a  legu- 
minous shrub  (Dalea),  and  though  of  the  same 
family  and  having  the  same  habit  of  growth 
with  the  rafBesia  just  described,  it  is  as  re- 
markable for  its  minuteness  as  that  is  for  its 
Titanic  proportions,  the  whole  plant  being 
barely  a  quarter  of  an  inch  across. 

RAFINESQUE,  Constantine  Smaltz,  an  American 
botanist,  born  of  French  parents  in  Galata, 
a  suburb  of  Constantinople,  in  1784,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  18,  1842.  He  came  to 
America  in  1802,  collected  a  large  number  of 
botanical  specimens,  and  in  1805  went  to  Leg- 
horn, and  thence  to  Sicily,  where  he  remained 
ten  years.  While  there  he  published  three 
scientific  works  in  French.  Sailing  for  New 
York  in  1815,  he  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Long  Island,  and  lost  his  collections  and  labors 
for  20  years.  He  became  a  teacher,  made  a 
tour  to  the  west  in  1818,  and  was  for  a  time 
professor  of  botany  in  Transylvania  univer- 
sity, Lexington,  Ky.  Finally  he  settled  in 
Philadelphia,  and  established  in  1832  "The 
Atlantic  Journal  and  Friend  of  Knowledge," 
of  which  only  eight  numbers  appeared.  He 
published  "  Annals  of  Kentucky"  (8vo,  Frank- 
fort, 1824);  "Medical  Flora  of  the  United 
States"  (2  vols.  12mo,  Philadelphia,  1828-'30); 
"  The  American  Nations,  or  Outlines  of  a  Na- 
tional History  "  (2  vols.  12mo,  1836) ;  and  "A 
Life  of  Travel  and  Researches"  (1836).  He 
also  wrote  many  smaller  botanical  and  zoologi- 
cal works,  several  of  which  were  left  unfin- 
ished ;  and  he  needlessly  introduced  so  many 
new  genera  and  species  as  to  produce  great  con- 
fusion. "  The  Writings  of  0.  S.  Rafinesque  on 
Recent  and  Fossil  Conchology  "  has  been  edited 
by  W.  G.  Binney  and  G.  W.  Tryon,  jr.  (8vo, 
Philadelphia,  1864). 

RAF\,  Carl  Christian,  a  Danish  archaeologist, 
born  in  Brahesborg,  island  of  Funen,  Jan.  16, 
1795,  died  in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  20,  1864.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen, 
of  which  in  1821  he  was  made  an  assistant 
Jibrarian.  He  undertook  a  general  revision  of 


all  the  Icelandic  and  Norwegian  manuscripts 
yet  unpublished,  belonging  to  the  collection. 
Through  his  exertions  in  1825  the  "  Society 
for  Northern  Antiquities"  was  founded,  the 
principal  object  of  which  was  to  publish  those 
manuscripts  which  could  throw  light  on  the 
obscure  passages  of  Scandinavian  history.  It 
has  published  many  volumes  on  the  history 
and  antiquity  of  the  North.  The  work  which 
excited  the  most  attention  was  the  Antiquita- 
tes  Americana,  seu  Scriptores  Septentrionalet 
Rerum  Ante-Columbianarum  in  America  (Co- 
penhagen, 1837),  prefaced  by  a  summary  in 
English,  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove  that 
the  Scandinavians  discovered  America  in  the 
10th  century,  and  that  from  the  llth  to  the 
14th  they  made  frequent  voyages  thither,  and 
effected  settlements  in  what  is  now  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Island.  An  important  se- 
quel to  this  work  is  Denkmaler  Gronlands  (3 
vols.,  1838-'45).  He  also  published  Antiqui- 
tes  russes  (3  vols.,  1850-'54). 

RAGATZ,  a  watering  place  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  adjoining  Pfafers,  and 
situated  at  the  junction  of  several  railways 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  through  which 
the  Tamina  flows  into  the  Rhine.  It  is  one 
of  the  so-called  indifferent  thermal  springs 
used  for  rheumatism  and  nervous  diseases,  and 
the  place  is  generally  overcrowded  in  summer. 
It  has  a  fine  bathing  establishment,  with  ter- 
race gardens  to  which  water  is  conveyed  from 
Pfafers  in  wooden  pipes.  It  contains  an  Eng- 
lish chapel  and  a  monument  of  Schelling,  who 
is  buried  in  the  Catholic  cemetery. 

RAGLAN,  Fitzroy  James  Henry  Somerset,  baron, 
an  English  general,  born  Sept.  30, 1788,  died  in 
camp  before  Sebastopol,  June  28,  1855.  He 
was  the  eighth  and  youngest  son  of  the  fifth 
duke  of  Beaufort.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school,  and  at  the  age  of  16,  being 
then  known  as  Lord  Fitzroy  Somerset,  entered 
the  4th  regiment  of  dragoons  as  ensign.  In 
1805  he  became  lieutenant,  and  in  1809  was 
attached  to  the  staff  of  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton as  aide-de-camp  and  military  secretary. 
At  Busaco  he  was  wounded,  and  at  the  storm- 
ing of  Badajoz  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter 
the  town.  At  Waterloo  he  lost  his  right  arm. 
For  these  services  he  was  made  colonel  and 
knighted.  In  1818  and  1826  he  was  elected  to 
parliament,  where  he  acted  with  the  moderate 
tories.  In  1852  he  was  made  master  general 
of  the  ordnance,  and  created  Baron  Raglan. 
In  the  Crimean  war  he  was  commander-in- 
chief  with  the  rank  of  field  marshal,  and  on 
Sept.  20,  1854,  fought  the  battle  of  the  Alma. 
The  sufferings  of  the  troops  during  the  follow- 
ing winter  and  the  disastrous  repulse  of  June 
18,  1855,  weighed  upon  his  mind,  and  aggra- 
vated an  attack  of  cholera,  of  which  he  died. 

RAGOTZKY.     See  RiK6czY. 

RAGUET,  Condy,  an  American  political  econo- 
mist, born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  28,  1784,  died 
there,  March  22,  1842.  He  was  of  French  de- 
scent, was  educated  at  the  university  of  Penn- 


KiS 


RAGUSA 


sylvania,  and  for  18  months  studied  law.  Af- 
terward entering  the  counting  house  of  a  mer- 
chant, at  the  age  of  20  he  was  sent  to  Santo 
Domingo  as  supercargo  of  a  vessel.  There  he 
spent  four  months,  and  on  his  return  published 
"  A  Short  Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
Affairs  in  St.  Domingo."  After  a  second  voy- 
age to  the  same  island  in  1805,  when  he  re- 
mained eight  months,  he  published  "A  Cir- 
cumstantial Account  of  the  Massacre  in  St. 
Domingo."  In  1806  he  went  into  business  in 
Philadelphia,  and  was  highly  successful.  Du- 
ring the  war  of  1812  he  took  an  active  part  in 
providing  for  the  defence  of  the  city.  From 
1822  to  1827  he  resided  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  at 
first  as  United  States  consul,  and  from  1825  as 
charg6  d'affairs  to  Brazil.  After  his  return  to 
the  United  States  he  edited  several  journals 
devoted  to  free-trade  doctrines.  He  published 
"  An  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  of  the  Present 
State  of  the  Circulating  Medium  of  the  United 
States  "  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1815) ;  "  Principles 
of  Free  Trade  "  (1835) ;  and  a  treatise  "  On  Cur- 
rency and  Banking"  (1839),  which  was  repub- 
lished  in  England,  and  translated  into  French. 

RAGISA  (Slav.  Dubrovnik),  a  town  of  Dal-  | 
matia,  on  a  small  peninsula  of  the  Adriatic, 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sergius,  40  m.  N.  W.  of 
Cattaro;  pop.  in  1870,  8,678.  It  has  several 
towers  and  old  walls,  and  the  streets  are  con- 
nected by  steps,  the  principal  being  the  Corso. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
and  has  several  Catholic  and  Greek  churches. 
The  cathedral,  built  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion, 
contains  Titian's  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin." 
The  town  is  strongly  fortified  and  of  strate- 
gical importance.  The  number  of  vessels  en- 
tering in  1872  was  519,  tonnage  12,208.  The 
harbor  is  small  and  exposed  to  the  sirocco. 
The  port  for  larger  vessels  is  at  Gravosa,  or 
Santa  Croce,  2  m.  from  Ragusa,  where  are 
many  fine  villas  and  a  new  and  large  ship  yard. 
— Ragusa  was  founded  in  the  7th  century, 
after  the  destruction  of  Ragusa  Vecchia  (the 
ancient  Greek  colony  Epidaurus,  now  a  small 
village  7  in.  S.  E.  of  the  present  town).  In 
the  middle  ages  it  was  a  republic,  and  was  suc- 
cessively under  Greek,  Venetian,  Hungarian, 
and  Turkish  protection.  In  the  15th  century 
it  had  a  population  of  40,000,  which  declined 
in  consequence  of  the  plague,  earthquakes,  and 
the  diversion  of  trade  to  other  places.  In  1807 
it  was  occupied  by  the  French  under  Gen. 
Lauriston,  who  soon  after  stood  here  a  famous 
siege  by  the  Russians  and  Montenegrins.  Na- 
poleon made  Marraont  duke  of  Ragusa,  and  in- 
corporated it  with  the  new  kingdom  of  Illyria, 
with  which  in  1814  it  passed  to  Austria. 

RAGUSA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of 
Noto,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Syracuse ;  pop.  in  1872, 
21,546.  It  is  built  on  a  steep  ridge,  and  con- 
sists of  Ragusa  Superiore  and  Ragusa  Inferi- 
ore,  with  separate  municipalities.  In  the  Ca- 
puchin convent  are  pictures  by  Novelli.  The 
town  has  large  cotton  factories.  There  are  an- 
cient remains,  probably  of  Hybla  Minor. 


RAIL 

Kill  WAY,  a  city  of  Union  co.,  New  Jersey, 
on  Rah  way  river,  here  navigable  by  small 
craft,  at  the  head  of  tide,  5  m.  above  its  mouth 
in  Staten  Island  sound,  16  m.  in  a  direct  line 
S.  W.  of  New  York ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,258.  It 
is  a  station  on  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and 
another  railroad  is  in  course  of  construction 
by  the  Rahway  railroad  company  to  connect 
with  New  York  and  Long  Branch.  The  streets 
are  well  laid  out,  and  are  lighted  with  gas. 
There  are  numerous  tine  residences,  surround- 
ed by  handsome  gardens.  Water  works  sup- 
ply the  city  on  the  direct  pressure  plan,  ob- 
viating the  necessity  of  fire  engines.  It  is 
chiefly  noted  for  its  extensive  carriage  facto- 
ries, of  which  there  are  15  or  20.  There  are 
also  a  printing-press  manufactory,  two  wool- 
scouring  establishments,  a  manufactory  of  pa- 
per hangings,  and  some  minor  establishments. 
The  city  contains  two  national  banks,  several 
hotels,  five  public  schools,  a  male  and  female 
institute,  numerous  private  schools,  a  public 
library  of  about  5,000  volumes,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  16  churches. — Rahway  was 
first  settled  about  1720,  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1858. 

RA1K.ES,  Robert,  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  in  Gloucester  in  1735,  died  April  5,  1811. 
He  was  publisher  and  editor  of  the  "Glouces- 
ter Journal^"  and  in  1781  hired  rooms  for 
Sunday  schools,  employed  poor  women  at  a 
shilling  a  day  to  teach,  and  induced  large  num- 
bers of  the  poor  children  whom  he  found  in 
the  streets  of  the  town  to  attend.  In  a  short 
time  Sunday  schools  were  established  in  all 
the  larger  towns  of  England. 

RAIL,  the  proper  name  of  the  rallina,  a  sub- 
family of  wading  birds  of  the  family  rallidas. 
The  genus  rallw  (Linn.)  is  characterized  by  a 
bill  longer  than  the  head,  nearly  straight  and 
slender,  with  the  culmen  a  little  curved,  and 
tip  obtuse  and  slightly  notched  ;  nostrils  in  a 
membranous  groove  which  extends  for  two 
thirds  of  the  bill ;  wings  short,  with  the  sec- 
ond and  third  quills  equal  and  longest ;  tail 
short  and  rounded  ;  tarsi  shorter  than  the 
middle  toe,  covered  with  transverse  scales ; 
toes  long  and  slender,  free  at  the  base,  the 
hind  one  short ;  claws  short  and  sharp ;  fore- 
head, as  in  all  the  subfamily,  feathered  to  base 
of  bill,  the  culraen  parting  the  frontal  feathers 
for  a  short  distance  and  in  an  angle.  There 
are  about  20  species,  found  in  all  the  temper- 
ate parts  of  the  globe,  resembling  each  other 
in  habits  and  much  alike  in  plumage;  they  in- 
habit marshes  and  borders  of  rivers,  among 
reeds  and  aquatic  plants,  which  their  long 
toes,  sharp  claws,  and  compressed  bodies  en- 
able them  to  climb  and  run  over  or  between 
with  great  facility  ;  the  flight  is  awkward  and 
slow,  with  the  legs  hanging  down,  and  for 
short  distances  only  except  during  migration ; 
they  are  good  swimmers  and  divers,  and  very 
rapid  runners.  Their  food  consists  of  worms, 
slugs,  crustaceans,  tadpoles,  insects,  and  leaves 
and  seeds  of  water  plants ;  the  nest  is  made  of 


RAIL 


169 


coarse  grasses,  and  placed  in  retired  marshes, 
and  the  eggs  are  10  to  12.  They  are  very  gen- 
erally called  marsh  hens,  as  they  resemble  do- 
mestic fowls  in  their  manner  of  carrying  the 
head,  in  some  of  their  habits,  and  in  their  cack- 
ling notes.  The  largest  of  the  North  Ameri- 


Fresh-water  Marsh  Hen  (Eallus  elegans). 

<san  rails,  and  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  ge- 
nus, is  the  red-breasted  rail  or  the  fresh-water 
marsh  hen  (H.  elegans,  Aud.);  it  is  about  18 
in.  long,  the  bill  3,  and  24  in  alar  extent, 
with  a  weight  of  about  1^  Ib. ;  the  color  above 
is  olive  brown,  with  longitudinal  stripes  of 
brownish  black,  especially  on  the  back ;  throat 
and  lower  lid  white ;  neck  before  and  breast 
rufous  chestnut ;  sides,  lower  parts,  and  under 
tail  coverts  with  transverse  bands  of  brownish 
black  and  white ;  upper  wing  coverts  reddish 
chestnut,  the  under  black  with  white  lines.  It 
is  found  in  the  middle  and  southern  states  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  probably  extending  across 
to  the  Pacific,  and  chiefly  on  the  margin  of 
fresh  waters ;  it  begins  to  breed  in  the  south- 
ern states  about  the  middle  of  April  in  its  fa- 
vorite marshes;  the  young  leave  the  nest  as 
soon  as  born.  The  females  are  like  the  males, 
but  smaller;  they  do  not  take  to  the  water 
willingly,  and  are  rather  poor  divers;  the  flesh 
is  good,  especially  in  autumn,  and  their  eggs 
are  said  to  be  delicious.  The  clapper  rail  or 
salt-water  marsh  hen  (It.  crepitans,  Gmel.)  is 
about  14  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  20 ; 
the  adult  plumage  is  considerably  like  that  of 
the  last  species,  but  the  upper  parts  have  a 
light  ashy  olive  tint,  and  the  neck  and  breast 
are  more  yellowish.  It  is  abundant  from  New 
Jersey  to  Florida,  extending  also  to  South 
America,  and  is  rarely  found  far  from  the  sea ; 
the  nest  is  deep  and  funnel-shaped,  made  of 
marsh  plants  and  fastened  to  reeds  above  the 
ordinary  high  tide  level;  incubation  lasts  14 
days ;  the  eggs  are  collected  by  hundreds  in 
New  Jersey  toward  the  end  of  spring.  It  is 


not  a  rapid  swimmer,  but  is  a  good  diver,  and 
a  very  swift  runner  either  on  the  ground  or  on 
floating  weeds ;  its  flight  is  slow  and  generally 
straight ;  though  esteemed  as  food,  other  spe- 
cies are  more  sought  after,  especially  the  sora, 
in  the  middle  states.  The  Virginia  rail  (R. 
Virginianus,  Linn.)  is  about  10  in.  long,  with 
an  alar  extent  of  14;  it  is  like  the  others  in 
form,  and  resembles  R.  elegans  in  color,  hard- 
ly differing  from  it  except  in  size.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  North 
America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  most 
abundantly  along  the  margins  of  rivers  and 
bays  on  the  Atlantic,  migrating  south  in  au- 
tumn ;  it  is  a  very  rapid  runner  and  good 
swimmer,  feeding  both  on  salt  marshes  and 
fresh  meadows  by  day  and  night.  It  breeds 
from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the  middle  of 
June,  according  to  latitude ;  like  the  other  spe- 
cies it  is  a  good  ventriloquist,  and  seems  often 
to  be  far  off  when  close  at  hand ;  the  flesh  is 
good  eating  in  autumn  and  winter.  The  Euro- 
pean water  rail  (R.  aquaticus,  Linn.)  is  fulvous 
brown  spotted  with  black  above,  bluish  ash  be- 
low, and  barred  black  and  white  on  the  sides. 
The  habits  are  the  same  as  in  other  species ; 
the  flesh  is  esteemed,  though  having  rather  a 
marshy  flavor. — The  genus  ortygometra  (Linn.) 
has  been  subdivided  into  porzana  (Vieill.)  and 
crex  (Bechst.).  In  porzana  the  bill  is  shorter 
than  the  head,  the  primaries  longer  than  the 
tertiaries,  the  tail  short,  and  the  legs  robust ; 
there  are  about  20  species  in  the  temperate  re- 
gions of  the  globe,  with  habits  similar  to  those 
of  rallus.  Among  the  North  American  spe- 
cies is  the  Carolina  or  sora  rail  (P.  Carolina, 
Cab.),  so  well  known  and  so  abundant  as  to 


Carolina  Kail  (Porzana  CarolinenEis). 

be  called  "the  rail"  in  the  middle  states;  the 
length  is  about  9  in.  and  the  alar  extent  14 ; 
the  color  is  greenish  brown  above,  with  longi- 
tudinal lines  of  black ;  behind  the  eyes,  sides 
of  neck,  and  breast  bluish  ashy,  with  round 
white  spots  on  the  latter;  middle  of  abdomen 


170 


RAILROAD 


white.  It  occurs  throughout  temperate  North 
America  on  both  shores,  migrating  southward 
in  winter ;  it  is  rarely  seen  east  of  New  York ; 
in  autumn  it  is  abundant  in  the  rice  fields  and 
fresh-water  marshes  of  South  Carolina.  It  is 
semi-nocturnal;  when  migrating  the  flight  is 
low  and  in  compact  flocks ;  instinct  teaches 
them  the  last  moment  at  which  they  can  remain 
in  autumn,  all  migrating  in  a  single  day  or  night, 
whence  the  once  prevalent  idea  that  they  dived 
under  the  mud  to  pass  the  winter.  The  little 
black  rail  (P.  Jamaicensis,  Cab.)  is  about  6  in. 
long,  the  smallest  of  the  North  American  spe- 
cies of  the  family ;  the  head  and  lower  parts 
are  slate-colored,  nearly  black  on  the  top  of 
the  head ;  abdomen  banded  with  white ;  upper 
parts  brownish  black  with  white  stripes,  and 
reddish  chestnut  on  the  upper  back ;  the  young 
are  wholly  bluish  black.  It  is  rare  on  the  con- 
tinent, but  more  abundant  in  the  West  Indies ; 
it  is  highly  prized  by  collectors.  The  yellow- 
breasted  rail  (P.  Noveboracensis,  Cab.)  is  about 
Tin.  long  and  13  in  alar  extent;  the  color  is 
ochre-yellow  above,  with  brownish  black  and 
white  stripes ;  neck  and  breast  tinged  with 
reddish,  middle  of  abdomen  white,  sides  band- 
ed with  reddish  brown  and  white ;  under  tail 
coverts  rufous,  white-spotted,  and  under  wing 
coverts  white.  It  is  found,  though  not  abun- 
dantly, in  damp  meadows  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  states  ;  it  approaches  in  habit  the 
corn  crake  and  in  some  respects  the  European 
quail,  and  was  regarded  by  Audubon  as  one  of 
the  connecting  links  between  land  and  water 
birds ;  the  flesh  is  delicate. — In  the  genus  crex 
(Bechst.)  the  bill  is  conical,  shorter  than  the 
head,  and  the  appearance  and  habits  are  like 
those  of  gallinaceous  birds.  (See  CRAKE.) 

RAILROAD,  or  Railway,  a  road  with  wooden, 
stone,  or  iron  sleepers  supporting  timber  or 
iron  ways  upon  which  the  wheels  of  carriages 
may  run.  The  graduated  earthen  or  stone  em- 
bankment or  cut  which  supports  the  road  is 
called  the  road  bed,  while  the  sleepers,  rails,  &c., 
constitute  the  superstructure.  Various  devices 
have  been  employed  since  wheeled  carriages 
were  first  used  for  facilitating  their  movements, 
but  until  modern  times  these  have  mostly  con- 
sisted of  levelling  and  hardening  common  roads. 
(See  ROAD.)  Wooden  rails  were  first  used  as 
early  as  1672  in  a  short  road  constructed  by 
Mr.  Beaumont  at  the  collieries  near  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne.  They  were  laid  exactly  straight 
and  parallel,  and  four-wheeled  carts  were  drawn 
by  horses  upon  them.  Iron  rails  were  first 
used  at  Whitehaven,  England,  in  1788 ;  another 
iron  railway  was  laid  down  by  John  Curr  near 
Sheffield  in  1776,  but  this  was  torn  up  by  the 
colliers.  In  1786  the  first  considerable  iron 
railway  was  built  at  the  iron  works  of  Cole- 
brookdale,  and  had  its  origin  partly  in  the  low 
price  of  pig  iron.  The  upper  rails  were  made 
of  cast  iron,  5  ft.  long,  4  in.  wide,  and  If  in. 
thick,  with  holes  through  which  they  were 
spiked  to  the  lower  wooden  rails  or  ground- 
sills ;  they  were  cast  with  a  raised  lip  on  the 


outer  edge  to  keep  the  carriage  wheels  upon 
the  track.  The  success  of  this  improvement 
led  to  its  general  use  in  and  about  mines  and 
collieries,  and  for  many  years  rails  were  made 
altogether  of  cast  iron.  These  roads  were 
called  tramways,  and  were  commonly  built  as 
follows :  The  road  bed  was  brought  to  as  uni- 
form an  inclination  and  level  a  surface  as  prac- 
ticable ;  squared  logs  called  sleepers  or  ties  about 
6  ft.  long,  6  or  8  in.  wide,  and  4  or  5  in.  thick, 
were  laid  crosswise,  2  or  3  ft.  apart ;  upon  these 
long  wooden  rails  6  or  7  in.  wide  and  5  in. 
thick  were  notched  and  pinned,  4  ft.  apart  and 
parallel  with  each  other.  The  iron  plates  or 
rails  were  then  spiked  to  the  wooden  rails,  and 
the  road  bed  was  filled  in  with  gravel,  ashes, 
or  coal  waste,  to  form  a  smooth  surface  for  the 
horses  to  walk  upon.  This  is  substantially  the 
plan  upon  which  railroads  for  collieries,  quar- 
ries, mines,  and  streets  are  constructed  at  the 
present  time.  The  first  iron  railway  sanctioned 
by  parliament,  except  a  few  built  by  canal 
companies  to  bring  in  the  products  of  adjacent 
mines,  was  the  Surrey  railway,  running  from 
the  banks  of  the  Thames  at  Wandsworth  to 
Croydon,  which  was  authorized  in  1801.  From 
this  time  forward  the  principal  improvements 
in  railway  construction  related  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  form  and  materials  of  the  rails  and 
the  method  of  fastening  them,  and  later  to  the 
introduction  and  improvement  of  steam  loco- 
motives and  machinery.  Cast-iron  rails  had 
been  laid  by  Jessop  at  Loughborough  in  1789, 
without  lip  or  raised  edge,  but  having  a  smooth 
upper  surface,  upon  which  the  carriages  were 
kept  by  means  of  flanges  on  the  wheels ;  these 
were  called  "  edge  rails,"  and  were  set  in  cast- 
iron  chairs,  which  rested  upon  the  wooden 
sleepers.  Edge  rails  of  oval  section,  with  the 
longer  axes  vertical,  were  again  used  in  1801 
at  the  slate  quarries  of  Lord  Penrhyn ;  they 
were  4£  ft.  long,  and  each  end  terminated 
by  a  pyramidal  or  wedge-shaped  block,  which 
rested  upon  and  fitted  into  an  iron  sill.  The 
carriage  wheels  were  hollowed  out  to  fit  upon 
the  convex  surface  of  the  rails,  but  as  this  de- 
vice increased  the  friction  by  increasing  the 
bearing  surfaces,  the  surfaces  of  both  rails  and 
wheels  were  afterward  made  flat,  and  the 
wheels  were  made  with  flanges  to  keep  them 
on  the  rails.  By  the  use  of  these  improve- 
ments it  was  found  that  one  horse  could  do 
the  work  of  40  on  a  common  road ;  they  were 
rapidly  adopted  by  the  colliers,  and  in  the 
north  of  England  still  further  improvements 
were  made  in  the  form  of  the  rails,  with 
the  view  of  increasing  their  strength  without 
decreasing  their  weight.  They  were  made 
still  thinner,  the  oval  cross  section  verging 
toward  the  pear  shape,  with  the  thicker  part 
at  the  top,  while  the  longitudinal  section  was 
straight  on  the  top  and  curved  downward 
on  the  bottom,  the  greatest  depth  of  the  rails 
being  midway  between  the  ends ;  those  of  this 
form  were  known  as  "fish-bellied"  rails,  and 
were  used  for  some  years  after  the  introduction 


RAILROAD 


171 


of  wrought-iron  rails.  This  took  place  in  1808, 
though  it  was  not  till  1820  that  suitable  ma- 
chinery was  devised  for  rolling  rails  into  other 
than  flat  shapes.  This  was  a  most  important 
step,  as  cast-iron  rails  could  not  be  made 
straight  in  greater  lengths  than  4  or  5  ft.,  and 
consequently  required  many  cross  ties  and 
joints;  whereas  the  introduction  of  wrought 
iron  permitted  the  increase  of  the  length  of 
the  rails  by  successive  steps,  till  with  the  per- 
fected processes  of  the  present  day  they  are 
.  made  of  iron  and  steel  30  ft.  and  even  longer 
if  required.  With  the  improvements  in  the 
machinery  for  rolling  rails,  it  became  possi- 
ble to  make  the  new  and  improved  forms  of 
rails  rendered  necessary  by  the  substitution  of 
steam  carriages  for  horses,  which  had  hitherto 
been  almost  exclusively  used.  The  force  of 
gravity  was  utilized  in  exceptional  instances 
where  the  roads  sloped  gradually  from  the  col- 
lieries, and  by  the  adaptation  of  ropes  and 
wheels  or  windlasses  the  descending  loaded 
cars  were  made  to  draw  up  the  empty  ones. — 
Watt  suggested  the  possibility  of  constructing 
steam  carriages  in  1759,  and  patented  one  in 
1784.  Oliver  Evans  of  Philadelphia  patented  a 
steam  wagon  in  1782,  the  drawings  and  speci- 
fications of  which  were  sent  to  England  in 
1787,  and  again  in  l794-'5.  In  1784  Murdoch, 
Watt's  assistant,  constructed  a  working  model 
of  Watt's  carriage.  In  1802  Trevithick  and 
Vivian  patented  a  high-pressure  locomotive 
engine,  and  in  1804  built  one  for  the  Merthyr- 
Tydfil  railway  in  S.  Wales,  which  was  found 
to  work  well  with  light  loads  upon  a  level  sur- 
face or  moderate  grades,  but  if  more  severely 
tasked  the  wheels  would  slip  without  advan- 
cing. A  check  was  thus  put  upon  their  use 
until  some  method  could  be  devised  by  which 
they  might  obtain  a  hold  upon  the  track  or 
otherwise  push  themselves  forward.  A  rack 
laid  along  the  side  of  the  rail,  into  which 
worked  a  toothed  wheel  fitted  to  the  loco- 
motive, was  tried  in  1811  on  a  colliery  line  near 
Leeds,  but  the  friction  was  too  great,  and  it 
was  abandoned.  The  next  year  engines  were 
tried  with  eight  driving  wheels  for  securing 
the  required  adhesion;  and  about  the  same 
time  other  engines  were  constructed  with  le- 
vers projecting  behind  and  working  alternately 
like  the  hind  legs  of  a  horse.  In  1814  and  1815 
engines  with  plain  wheels  were  found  to  work 
successfully  on  some  of  the  northern  roads; 
but  no  other  application  was  made  of  them 
than  for  transporting  the  coal  and  ore  wagons 
of  the  mines.  In  1814  George  Stephenson  con- 
structed his  first  locomotive,  which  travelled 
at  the  rate  of  6  m.  an  hour;  in  1826  Seguin,  a 
French  engineer,  built  locomotives  in  which 
he  increased  the  evaporative  power  of  the 
engine  by  small  tubes  passing  from  the  fire 
box  to  the  chimney ;  in  1829  Stephenson  and 
Booth  built  the  engine  Rocket,  weighing  4  tons 
5  cwt.,  which  travelled  at  a  rate  of  35  m.  an 
hour;  in  1834  the  Firefly  drew  a  loaded  train 
at  the  rate  of  20  m.  an  hour ;  in  1839  the  North 


Star  moved  with  a  velocity  of  37  m.  an  hour; 
and  at  the  present  time  locomotives  have  at- 
tained a  speed  of  75  m.,  and  for  short  distances 
even  greater  velocities  have  been  reached. 
(See  STEAM  CARRIAGE.)— The  first  railroad  for 
carrying  passengers  was  the  Stockton  and  Dar- 


Flrst  Railroad  Passenger  Car. 

lington  road,  built  by  Edward  Pease  and  George 
Stephenson,  and  opened  Sept.  27,  1825.  The 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  road,  commenced 
in  1826,  and  opened  Sept.  15,  1830,  was  in- 
tended by  its  proprietors  to  carry  passengers 
at  a  high  speed.  As  it  would  be  expensive  to 
do  this  with  horses,  it  was  thought  that  sta- 
tionary steam  engines  placed  at  short  inter- 
vals along  the  road  might  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drawing  the  trains ;  but  the  success  of 
the  locomotives  built  by  Stephenson,  Ericsson, 
and  others,  under  the  stimulus  of  a  premium  of 
£500  offered  by  the  railway  company,  caused 
this  plan  to  be  abandoned,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
establishment  of  a  new  system  of  locomotion  of 
almost  limitless  speed  and  capacity.  The  small 
engines  at  first  used  were  soon  found  inade- 
quate to  the  service  demanded  of  them,  and  were 
replaced  by  others  of  larger  size  and  greater 
weight ;  some  now  employed  have  10  or  12 
wheels  and  weigh  in  some  cases  as  much  as  75 
tons,  and  there  are  many  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  weighing  30,  40,  and  50  tons,  according 
to  their  pattern  and  uses.  Finally,  owing  to 
the  great  weight  and  high  speed  of  these  loco- 
motives, and  the  consequent  wear  and  tear 
upon  themselves  and  the  rails,  joints,  and 
bridges,  it  has  come  to  be  a  grave  question  as 
to  whether  they  have  not  grown  beyond  the 
limit  of  economy,  and  should  not  therefore  be 
reduced  in  size  and  weight.  The  gauge  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  was  fixed  by 
Stephenson  at  4  ft.  8^  in.,  that  being  about  the 
common  gauge  of  the  ordinary  road  wagons  of 
the  day.  It  was  afterward  generally  adopted 
throughout  the  world,  partly  for  the  same 
reason  that  influenced  Stephenson,  but  mostly 
because  the  English  were  the  first  locomotive 
builders  for  foreign  countries,  and  stoutly  ad- 
hered to  the  precedent  set  them  by  their  most 
distinguished  engineer.  Later  the  merit  of  this 
precedent  was  disputed  by  Brunei  and  other 
able  engineers,  who  claimed  that  a  broader 


172 


RAILROAD 


gauge  would  give  greater  speed,  safety,  and 
economy ;  and  roads  of  5  ft.,  5  ft.  5  in.,  6  ft., 
and  even  of  7  ft.  gauge  were  built.  But  the 
wider  gauges  are  gradually  losing  favor,  and  have 
generally  been  abandoned  for  the  4  ft.  8£  in. 
(or  the  4  ft.  9  in.),  now  commonly  called  the 
standard  gauge.  It  has  come  to  be  contended 
by  many  engineers,  and  notably  by  Mr.  Fairlie 
of  England,  that  even  the  standard  gauge  is 
too  wide,  and  that  gauges  of  3  ft.  and  less  are 
still  more  economical.  The  success  of  the  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  railway  led  to  the  pro- 
jection of  new  roads  in  England,  chiefly  in  the 
northern  part,  connecting  together  its  princi- 
pal cities ;  but  the  capacity  of  the  locomotive 
was  not  yet  fully  developed  or  appreciated, 
and  upon  most  of  the  roads  it  was  considered 
necessary  to  overcome  the  heavier  grades  by 
the  use  of  stationary  engines.  These  and  also 
inclined  planes  were  gradually  dispensed  with, 
and  tunnels  were  substituted  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  the  grades  and  curvature,  both  of 
which  were  brought  to  a  minimum  by  the  ex- 
penditure of  large  sums  of  money.  As  a  mea- 
sure of  safety,  the  most  important  roads  in 
England  were  from  the  first  built  with  double 
tracks ;  but  this  practice  was  not  followed  in 
America  till  the  traffic  on  the  various  lines 
had  become  so  great  as  to  render  it  absolutely 
necessary. — The  first  railroad  constructed  in 
America  was  projected  by  Gridley  Bryant,  a 
civil  engineer,  in  1825,  and  carried  through  by 
himself  and  Col.  T.  H.  Perkins  in  1826.  It  was 
designed  to  carry  granite  from  the  quarries 
of  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the  nearest  tide  water, 
and  is  known  as  the  Quincy  railroad.  It  is 
4  m.  long  including  branches,  and  its  first 
cost  was  $50,000.  It  was  laid  to  a  5  ft. 
gauge,  and  was  constructed  as  follows :  Stone 
sleepers  were  laid  across  the  track  8  ft.  apart ; 
upon  these  wooden  rails  6  in.  thick  and  12  in. 
high  were  placed ;  upon  the  top  of  these  rails 
wrought-iron  plates  3  in.  wide  and  J  in.  thick 
were  spiked,  but  at  all  the  crossings  of  the  public 
road  and  driftways  stone  rails  were  used,  and 
as  the  wooden  rails  decayed  they  were  replaced 
by  others  of  stone.  This  road  was  supplied 
with  the  first  turn-table  ever  used,  which  was 
designed  by  Bryant  and  is  said  to  be  still  in 
good  order.  Bryant  also  invented  the  port- 
able derrick  and  the  switch  or  turnout,  and 
constructed  the  first  eight-wheeled  car  ever 
used,  by  combining  two  four-wheeled  trucks 
for  hauling  long  pieces  of  granite  intended  for 
columns ;  and  although  a  more  complete  ap- 
plication of  the  principle  was  afterward  made 
by  Ross  Winans  of  Baltimore  in  the  construc- 
tion of  eight-wheeled  cars  used  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  the  latter  was  unable  to 
sustain  his  patent  by  law  against  the  claims  of 
others  in  Bryant's  behalf.  Winans  began  his 
experiments  in  1830,  with  the  view  of  design- 
ing a  carriage  which  would  easily  traverse  the 
short  curves  of  the  railroads  then  under  con- 
struction, and  ultimately  produced  the  eight- 
wheeled  or  double  bogie  carriage,  which  is  now 


in  use  throughout  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, and  is  being  introduced  upon  the  Pullman 
carriages  into  Europe.  The  second  American 
railroad  was  laid  out  in  January,  1827,  and 
opened  in  May  of  the  same  year  from  the  coal 
mines  of  Mauch  Chunk,  Pa.,  to  the  Lehigh 
river,  and  with  turnouts  and  branches  was  IS 
m.  long.  This  was  also  of  6  ft.  gauge,  with 
timber  sleepers  and  rails,  strapped  with  flat 
iron.  It  was  operated  by  gravity,  though  the 
length  of  the  road  was  so  great  that  mules  had 
to  be  used  for  returning  the  empty  cars  to  the 
mines.  The  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal  com- 
pany sent  Horatio  Allen  to  Europe  in  1827  to 
buy  three  locomotives  and  the  iron  for  a  rail- 
road, which  they  built  the  next  year  from  the 
coal  mines  at  Honesdale  to  the  terminus  of  their 
canal.  One  of  the  locomotives,  built  by  George 
Stephenson  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  arrived  at 
New  York  in  the  spring  of  1829.  Another,  built 
by  Foster,  Rastrick  and  co.  of  Stourbridge, 
arrived  shortly  afterward,  and  went  upon  the 
railroad  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer. 
This  was  the  first  locomotive  actually  put  into 
use  in  America.  It  had  four  wheels,  a  multi- 
tubular  boiler,  and  the  exhaust  steam  blast. 
In  March,  1827,  the  legislature  of  Maryland 
granted  a  charter,  modelled  upon  the  old  turn- 
pike charters,  to  the  first  railroad  company  in 
America  authorized  to  carry  on  the  general 
business  of  transportation;  its  capital  stock 
was  $500,000,  with  permission  for  its  increase, 
and  both  the  state  of  Maryland  and  the  city  of 
Baltimore  were  authorized  to  subscribe  to  its' 
shares.  In  the  beginning  no  one  dreamed  of 
using  steam  upon  the  road ;  horses  were  to  do 
the  work,  and  even  after  the  road  was  com- 
pleted to  Frederick  relays  of  horses  moved  the 
cars  from  place  to  place.  From  this  circum- 
stance the  Relay  House,  at  the  junction  of  the 
main  line  and  the  Washington  branch,  took  its 
name.  This  great  highway,  now  known  as  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  was  begun  July  4, 
1828,  and  was  gradually  extended  along  the 
valley  of  the  Patapsco  13  m.  to  Ellicott's  Mills, 
thence  to  the  Potomac  at  the  Point  of  Rocks, 
thence  along  the  valley  of  the  Potomac  to  the 
Cumberland  coal  region,  and  finally  across  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghany  mountains  to  the 
Ohio  river  at  Wheeling,  with  a  branch  toward 
Parkersburg  in  the  direction  of  Cincinnati.  At 
Wheeling  and  Parkersburg  it  now  connects 
with  other  railroads  owned  or  controlled  by 
the  same  company,  leading  to  Cincinnati  and 
St.  Louis,  and  also  to  Pittsburgh,  Cleveland, 
and  Chicago.  In  1830  a  small  locomotive  was 
built  in  Baltimore  by  Peter  Cooper  (now  of 
New  York),  who  was  satisfied  that  steam  en- 
gines might  be  adapted  to  the  curved  roads 
which  would  have  to  be  built  in  America.  He 
also  believed  that  the  crank  could  be  dispensed 
with  in  the  change  from  a  reciprocating  to  a 
rotary  motion,  and  designed  his  engine  to  dem- 
onstrate both  conclusions.  The  boiler,  which 
stood  upright,  was  not  so  large  as  the  ordinary 
boiler  attached  to  the  range  of  a  modern  man- 


RAILROAD 


173 


sion ;  the  cylinder  was  3£  in.  in  diameter,  and 
connected  with  the  wheels  by  a  system  of  gear- 
ing. The  whole  engine  could  not  have  weighed 
over  a  ton,  but  with  it  he  drew  an  open  car 
filled  with  the  directors  of  the  road  and  some 
friends,  at  a  speed  which  reached  18  m.  an 
hour,  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott's  Mills.  This 
was  the  first  locomotive  for  railroad  purposes 
ever  built  in  America,  and  the  first  one  nsed 
in  the  transportation  of  passengers  on  this  side 
of  the  Atlantic.  This  railroad  was  originally 
built  with  stone  and  wooden  cross  ties,  and 
wooden  rails  strapped  with  flat  bars  of  iron  ^ 
and  £  in.  thick,  and  from  2£  to  4J  in.  wide. 
The  bars  were  fastened  down  by  spikes,  the 
heads  of  which  were  countersunk  into  the  iron. 
This  method  was  generally  adopted  upon  the 
early  American  railroads,  but  was  soon  found 
to  be  defective  and  dangerous.  The  oscillation 
and  balloting  of  the  engines  and  cars  caused 
the  ends  of  the  rails  to  work  loose,  thus  making 
what  came  to  be  known  as  "  snake  heads,"  and 
these  were  caught  up  by  the  wheels  and  thrust 
upward  through  the  bottom  of  the  cars.  The 
successful  use  of  locomotives  in  Europe  and 
America  gave  an  extraordinary  impulse  to  the 
construction  of  new  lines  of  railroad  upon  the 
principal  routes  of  intercommunication.  Char- 
ters for  railroads  were  obtained  in  Massachu- 
setts, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  other  states.  Operations  were 
begun  in  South  Carolina  in  1829  upon  a  rail- 
road designed  to  connect  Charleston  with  the 
Savannah  river,  six  miles  of  which  were  com- 
pleted and  opened  in  the  same  year.  The  com- 
pany having  this  work  in  charge,  under  the 
advice  of  their  engineer,  Horatio  Allen,  who 
had  gone  to  England  to  examine  the  railways 
of  that  country,  determined  to  operate  their 
road  by  the  exclusive  use  of  locomotives,  and 
offered  a  premium  of  $500  for  the  best  plan  of 
horse  locomotive.  This  was  awarded  to  C.  E. 
Detmold,  civil  engineer  (now  of  New  York), 
who  designed  and  constructed  an  engine  run 
by  a  horse  walking  on  an  endless  platform, 
which  carried  passengers  at  the  rate  of  12  m. 
an  hour.  The  same  gentleman  in  the  winter  of 
1829-'30  made  the  drawings  of  the  steam  loco- 
motive Best  Friend,  designed  by  E.  L.  Miller 
of  Charleston,  which  was  built  by  the  Kembles 
of  New  York  and  placed  on  the  Charleston 
railroad  late  in  the  summer  of  1835.  This 
railroad  was  the  first  to  use  the  important  ar- 
rangement of  two  four-wheeled  trucks  or  bo- 
gies for  engines  and  passenger  cars.  As  be- 
fore stated,  this  arrangement  was  practically 
wrought  out  by  Bryant  on  the  Quincy  railroad 
in  hauling  large  masses  of  granite,  and  was 
experimented  upon  and  finally  in  1834  patented 
by  Ross  Winans,  but  seems  to  have  been  first 
put  into  efficient  use  in  accordance  with  de- 
signs made  by  Horatio  Allen  in  1830.  The 
eight-wheeled  double  bogie  carriage  was  first 
used  upon  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  road  in 
1834,  and  was  built  from  the  designs  of  Wi- 
nans. In  August,  1830,  the  Mohawk  and  Hud- 


son railroad,  from  Albany  to  Schenectady,  was 
begun;  in  October,  1831,  it  was  carrying  387 
passengers  a  day;  and  in  1832  a  locomotive 
with  a  load  of  eight  tons  travelled  on  it  at  the 
rate  of  30  m.  an  hour.  Various  railroads  in 
the  Pennsylvania  coal  region  and  the  Balti- 
more and  Susquehanna  railroad  were  begun  in 
1830.  The  railroad  from  Richmond  to  the 
coal  mines,  13  m.  distant,  was  finished  in 
1831 ;  and  on  April  16  of  the  same  year  the 
New  Orleans  and  Pontchartrain  railroad,  44- 
m.  long,  was  opened.  From  this  time  forth 
railroads  were  multiplied  with  great  rapidity. 
In  1832  it  is  stated  that  67  were  in  opera- 
tion in  Pennsylvania  alone ;  and  in  that  year 
several  of  the  most  important  railroads  in 
Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  were  begun. 
Indeed,  so  great  was  the  enterprise  through- 
out the  United  States  from  1832  to  1837  in 
the  projection  and  construction  of  railroads, 
that  at  the  end  of  that  period  the  completed 
lines  exceeded  in  number  and  aggregate  length 
those  of  any  other  country.  Since  then,  with 
occasional  interruptions  arising  from  financial 
crises  and  the  civil  war,  the  multiplication  of 
railroads  has  kept  pace  with  the  extraordinary 
increase  of  population  and  wealth;  and  now 
the  mileage  of  railroads  in  this  country  is  more 
than  four  times  as  great  as  in  Great  Britain, 
and  far  in  excess  of  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  American  railroads  have  how- 
ever grown  up  under  the  requirements  of  the 
various  regions,  and  have  been  planned,  con- 
structed, and  fostered  in  a  great  measure  inde- 
pendently of  each  other  and  without  regard  to 
any  great  or  national  system.  The  charters  in 
nearly  every  instance  were  granted  by  the  re- 
spective states  for  the  roads  in  their  own  terri- 
tory, so  that  most  of  the  through  lines  con- 
necting the  great  cities  and  widely  separated 
regions  of  the  country  grew  up  by  the  con- 
solidation of  various  short  sections  of  road  into 
continuous  lines  under  one  management,  or  by 
the  longer  and  more  prosperous  roads  leasing 
the  shorter  and  poorer  ones,  and  only  occa- 
sionally by  agreement  of  connecting  roads  to 
cooperate  with  each  other  in  the  arrangement 
of  their  trains.  To  the  absence  of  national 
control  over  the  construction  of  railroads  is 
due  the  fact  that  no  uniform  gauge  for  the 
American  system  was  adopted.  Every  state, 
and  in  fact  nearly  every  company,  was  left 
free  to  fix  its  own  gauge  and  decide  upon  the 
character  of  its  own  roads.  The  gauge  of  4 
ft.  8^  in.  first  used  in  English  locomotives  was 
generally  continued  for  the  sake  of  conveni- 
ence even  after  the  locomotives  came  to  be 
exclusively  built  in  this  country,  but  indepen- 
dent gauges  were  also  introduced.  The  Ohio 
and  New  Jersey  railroads  generally  adopted  4 
ft.  10  in.,  which  in  connecting  with  the  roads 
of  the  standard  gauge  necessitated  the  use  of 
cars  with  the  trucks  adjusted  to  the  narrower 
gauge,  but  having  wheels  sufficiently  wide  to 
run  upon  the  wider  gauge.  These  were  called 
"broad  tread"  wheels,  and  the  cars  "compro- 


174 


RAILROAD 


mise  cars."  The  railroads  of  the  southern 
states,  with  only  a  few  exceptions,  were  laid  to 
a  5  ft.  gauge ;  two  in  Ohio  to  5  ft.  4  in. ;  several 
in  Maine,  Missouri,  and  Canada  to  5  ft.  6  in. ; 
while  the  Erie,  the  Atlantic  and  Great  West- 
ern, and  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  were  laid 
to  the  6  ft.  or  "broad  gauge."  The  last  named 
road  changed  to  the  gauge  of  4  ft.  9  in.  in 
1870,  the  work  of  moving  in  both  rails  hav- 
ing been  completed  in  a  single  Sunday  with- 
out the  stoppage  of  trains  or  the  slightest  de- 
rangement of  business. — Notwithstanding  the 
original  absence  of  system  and  national  con- 
trol, many  important  continuous  lines  have 
been  developed  by  the  consolidation  of  inde- 
pendent ones,  and  the  construction  of  others 
necessary  to  connect  or  extend  the  various 
parts  of  the  trunk  lines.  The  first  great  lines 
of  this  character  originated  in  the  desire  of  the 
great  seaboard  cities  to  secure  a  larger  share 
of  the  business  from  the  interior  and  western 
states.  The  railroad  from  Boston  to  Albany, 
the  New  York  Central,  the  Erie,  the  Penn- 
sylvania Central  with  its  eastern  and  western 
connections,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  are 
the  most  notable  instances  illustrating  the  pe- 
culiar method  by  which  the  great  trunk  rail- 
roads have  been  created.  The  Atlantic  and 
Great  Western,  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  West- 
ern, the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Cleve- 
land, Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianapolis, 
the  Michigan  Central,  and  many  others  of 
equal  or  less  extent,  grew  up  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. The  money  for  carrying  out  these  vast 
improvements  was  in  general  raised  by  pri- 
vate subscriptions  to  the  share  capital,  supple- 
mented by  loans  secured  by  mortgages  upon 
the  property  created ;  in  many  instances,  how- 
ever, towns,  cities,  and  even  states  subscribed 
to  the  capital  stock,  or  lent  their  credit  to  the 
various  companies.  In  1848  the  Mobile  and 
Ohio  railroad,  designed  to  connect  Mobile 
with  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  river,  was  pro- 
jected, and  in  the  winter  of  1849-'50  congress 
passed  an  act  giving  to  that  undertaking  about 
1,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  lying  con- 
tiguous to  the  route.  This  was  the  first  act  of 
the  kind,  and  was  soon  followed  by  a  grant  of 
2,595,000  acres  to  the  state  of  Illinois,  which 
conveyed  it  to  the  Illinois  Central  railroad 
company,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  it  to  con- 
struct its  road  from  Dunleith  on  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  in  the  N.  W.  corner  of  the  state, 
to  Cairo,  455  m.,  with  a  branch  from  Oentra- 
lia  to  Chicago,  249  m.  By  the  hypothecation 
and  sale  of  these  lands  and  the  mortgage  of  its 
railroad,  the  company  secured  the  means  of 
completing  its  lines,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
embarrassments  during  its  earlier  days  and 
before  the  country  along  the  road  had  become 
sufficiently  developed  to  yield  an  adequate  traf- 
fic for  its  support,  this  has  been  one  of  the 
most  successful  railroads  of  the  country.  The 
policy  of  granting  public  lands  to  railroad  com- 
panies gave  an  extraordinary  development  to 
railroad  enterprise  in  the  northwestern,  west- 


ern, and  southern  states,  which,  aided  by  their 
great  fertility  and  other  natural  resources,  soon 
surpassed  the  older  states  in  the  length  and 
number  of  their  lines. — Pacific  Railroads.  The 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  the  rapid 
increase  of  wealth  and  population  in  the  ter- 
ritory west  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  together 
with  the  desire  of  the  older  states  to  establish 
closer  connections  during  the  civil  war  with 
those  outlying  communities,  caused  congress 
in  1862  to  authorize  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
road to  the  Pacific  ocean,  with  various  branches 
to  connect  it  with  rival  towns  on  the  Missouri 
river.  This  project  was  first  brought  into  pub- 
lic notice  by  Mr.  Asa  Whitney,  who  from  1846 
to  1850  advocated  it  in  addresses  to  state  legis- 
latures and  before  public  meetings,  and  memo- 
rialized congress  on  the  subject.  The  idea  was 
strongly  advocated  by  Senator  Breese  of  Illi- 
nois and  by  many  other  men  of  distinction  both 
in  and  out  of  congress ;  but  the  plan  first  took 
tangible  shape  in  the  bill  introduced  by  Senator 
Benton  of  Missouri,  Feb.  7,  1849.  In  March, 
1853,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  surveys 
by  the  corps  of  topographical  engineers  of  the 
various  routes,  and  particularly  of  a  northern, 
southern,  and  middle  one,  with  the  view  of  de- 
termining which  offered  the  greatest  advan- 
tages for  the  construction  of  the  railroad.  These 
surveys  resulted  in  the  decision  that  the  en- 
terprise could  be  carried  through  upon  either 
route  which  might  be  adopted ;  but  owing  to 
dissensions  and  rivalry  between  the  northern, 
and  southern  states,  nothing  further  was  done 
by  congress  till  the  war  had  removed  this  ob- 
stacle. Acts  of  congress  were  passed  in  July, 
1862,  and  in  July,  1864,  providing  for  a  sub- 
sidy in  United  States  6  per  cent,  gold  bonds  at 
the  rate  of  $16,000  per  mile  of  railroad  from 
the  Missouri  river  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  $48,000  per  mile  for  a  distance  of 
300  m.  through  the  mountains,  $32,000  per 
mile  for  that  portion  between  the  Rocky  and 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  and  $16,000  per 
mile  for  that  west  of  the  latter  mountains.  In 
addition  to  this  subsidy,  the  same  acts  of  con- 
gress gave  to  the  railroad  companies  under- 
taking this  great  work  20  sections  (12,800  acres) 
of  land  for  each  mile  of  railroad  built,  or  about 
25,000,000  acres  in  all.  The  first  act  of  con- 
gress provided  that  the  government  subsidy  of 
bonds  should  constitute  a  first  lien  upon  the 
road  and  its  appurtenances,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  money  arising  from  the  subsidy  would 
not  secure  the  completion  of  the  work.  Con- 
gress therefore  released  the  first  lien  of  the 
government,  and  empowered  the  railroad  com- 
panies to  issue  their  own  bonds  or  debentures 
at  the  same  rate  per  mile,  and  to  secure  their 
payment  by  a  first  mortgage  upon  their  prop- 
erty. The  railroad  was  built  from  the  Cali- 
fornia end  eastward  by  the  Central  Pacific 
railroad  company,  and  from  the  Missouri  river 
westward  to  the  common  meeting  point  at 
Ogden  by  the  Union  Pacific  company.  Work 
waa  commenced  in  1863,  but  it  was  not  till 


ioo          eo          200          so         300          so  400        BO          aoo          ao          eoo          fto          TOO        j   °  1000 

"  ° 
ttr:  Scale:  360  Wet  to  1  /«<;». 

T«r:  5feofe:  2000  Fettrto  \Inch. 


CENTRAL         PACIFIC         R.     R. 


PROFILE  OF  THE 


UNION       PACIFIC       R.     R 


iCIFIC  RAILROAD 


RAILROAD 


175 


1865  that  the  first  40  m.  from  Omaha  to  Fre- 
mont were  completed.  From  that  time  for- 
ward, however,  the  road  was  constructed  and 
opened  for  traffic  much  more  rapidly  than  had 
ever  been  done  upon  any  route  or  in  any  coun- 
try. In  1866,  265  m.  of  the  Union  Pacific 
were  completed ;  in  1867,  245  m. ;  in  1868,  350 
m. ;  and  on  May  12,  1869,  the  railroad  com- 
munication from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
ocean  was  opened.  The  rails  were  laid  at  the 
rate  of  two  and  three  miles  a  day,  and  in  one 
instance  the  trackmen  under  the  orders  of  Gen. 
G.  M.  Dodge,  chief  engineer  of  the  Union  Pa- 
cific, laid  eight  miles  of  track  in  one  day.  The 
preliminary  surveys  for  the  Pacific  railroad, 
covering  a  vast  extent  of  country,  required  the 
greater  portion  of  four  working  seasons  for 
their  completion,  and  cost  upward  of  $1,000,- 
000.  The  route  adopted  follows  valleys  favor- 
ably located,  but  crosses  nine  separate  mountain 
ranges:  1,  the  Black  Hills,  at  an  elevation 
of  8,242  ft.  above  the  sea  level ;  2,  the  Rattle- 
snake pass,  in  the  range  west  of  the  Laramie 
plains,  7,123  ft. ;  3,  a  range  called  by  some 
"  the  continental  divide,"  7,100  ft. ;  4,  the  sum- 
mit at  the  head  of  Bitter  creek  (the  waters 
of  which  flow  into  the  Pacific),  6,990  ft. ;  5, 
the  eastern  rim  of  the  Great  Salt  lake  basin, 
7,458  ft. ;  6,  theWasatch  mountains,  6,804ft.; 
7,  Promontory  mountain,  west  of  Great  Salt 
lake,  4,889  ft.;  8,  Cedar  pass  of  the  Towano 
mountains,  6,193  ft. ;  and  9,  the  summit  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  7,044  ft.  The  points 
of  the  lowest  level  crossed  by  the  railroad  in  the 
mountainous  regions  are  :  1,  the  second  crossing 
of  the  North  Platte  river,  at  an  elevation  of 
6,475  ft.  above  the  sea;  2,  the  Red  Desert 
basin  on  "  the  continental  divide,"  6,659  ft. ; 
3,  the  Green  river  crossing,  6,061  ft. ;  4,  the 
Great  Salt  lake  basin,  4,239  ft.;  and  5,  the 
Humboldt  river,  near  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  3,969  feet.  The 
aggregate  length  of  the  tunnels,  of  which 
there  are  15,  all  occurring  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
or  its  spurs,  is  6,600  ft.  The  gradients  do  not 
generally  exceed  80  ft.  to  the  mile,  though  in 
one  instance  they  reach  90  ft.  and  in  another 
116  ft.  to  the  mile.  The  length  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad  is  1,029  m.,  and  of  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific,  exclusive  of  branches,  881  m. ; 
the  entire  distance  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco,  via  Chicago  and  Omaha,  is  trav- 
ersed in  six  or  seven  days,  according  to  the 
route.  The  cost  of  the  Union  Pacific  road,  in 
capital  stock,  mortgage  bonds,  and  land  grant, 
income,  and  government  bonds,  was  reported 
to  the  secretary  of  the  interior  at  $112,259,360, 
or  an  average  of  $108,778  a  mile;  but  the  lia- 
bilities of  the  company  at  the  date  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  road  were  $116,730,052,  or  an 
average  of  $113,110  a  mile.  Jesse  L.  Williams, 
one  of  the  government  directors  of  the  com- 
pany and  a  civil  engineer  of  great  experience, 
in  a  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  interior, 
dated  Nov.  14,  1868,  gave  the  approximate  cost 
of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad  in  cash  at  $38,- 
696  VOL.  xiv.— 12 


824,821,  or  an  average  of  about  $35,000  a 
mile,  and  this  cannot  have  been  far  from  cor- 
rect. The  cost  of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad 
and  branches,  1,222  m.,  in  stock,  bonds,  and 
liabilities  of  every  sort,  was  reported  in  1874 
at  $139,746,311,  or  an  average  of  $114,358  a 
mile.  The  Northern  Pacific  railroad  company 
was  chartered  by  congress  in  1864,  and  subsi- 
dized, to  construct  a  railroad  from  Lake  Supe- 
rior to  Puget  sound,  1,800  m.,  with  a  branch 
of  200  m.  via  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  river 
to  Portland,  Oregon.  The  construction  of  the 
road  was  begun  in  1870,  but  was  arrested  in 
1873  by  financial  difficulties.  In  1875  there 
were  in  operation  450  m.  from  Duluth,  Minn., 
to  Bismarck,  Dakota,  and  105  m.  between 
Kalama  and  Tacoma  in  Washington  territory. 
The  Texas  and  Pacific  railroad  is  to  extend 
from  Shreveport,  La.,  and  Texarkana,  Ark., 
via  El  Paso,  to  San  Diego,  CaL,  a  distance  from 
Shreveport  of  1,514  m.  In  1875  the  main  line 
was  in  operation  from  Shreveport  to  Dallas, 
Texas,  189  m. ;  also  the  division  between  Tex- 
arkana and  Marshall  on  the  main  line,  75  m. — 
Railway  Statistics.  Details  in  regard  to  rail- 
roads are  given  in  the  articles  on  the  various 
states  and  countries.  The  following  tabulated 
statement  from  Poor's  "Manual"  shows  the 
number  of  miles  of  road  constructed  in  the 
United  States  each  year  since  1830 : 


YEAR. 

Mil.s 
in  opera- 
tion. 

Annual 
increase, 
miles. 

TEAR. 

Miles 
in  opera- 
tion. 

Annual 
increasef 
miles. 

1S80. 

28 

1853. 

15,360 

2,452 

1881. 

95 

72 

1854. 

16,720" 

1.860 

1882. 

229 

184 

1855. 

18.374 

1,654 

1883. 

880 

151 

1856. 

22,016 

3,647 

1884. 

633 

253 

1857. 

24,503 

2,647 

1835. 

1,098 

465 

1858. 

26,968 

2,465 

1836. 

1,278 

175 

1859. 

28,789 

1,821 

1887. 

1,497 

224 

1860. 

80,685 

1,846 

1838. 

1,913 

416 

1861. 

81,286 

651 

1889. 

2,802 

889 

1862. 

32,120 

884 

1840. 

2,818 

616 

1863. 

83,170 

1,050 

1841. 

8,535 

717 

1864. 

83,908 

788 

1842. 

4,026 

491 

1865. 

85.085 

1,177 

1843. 

4,185 

159 

1866. 

86,827 

1,742 

1844. 

4,377 

192 

1867. 

89,276 

2,449 

1845. 

4,638 

256 

1868. 

42,256 

2,979 

1846. 

4,980 

297 

1869. 

47,208 

4,953 

1847. 

5,598 

668 

1870. 

62.898 

6,690 

1848. 

5,996 

898 

1871. 

60,566 

7,670 

1849. 

7,865 

1,369 

1872. 

66,735 

6,167 

1850. 

9,021 

1,656 

1878. 

70,683 

3,948 

1851. 

10,982 

1,961 

1874. 

72,628 

1,940 

1852. 

12,908 

1,926 

The  most  important  facts  for  1874  were  as 
follows  : 

Population  (estimated) 42,219,000 

Area  in  square  miles,  exclusive  of  those  terri- 
tories which  have  no  railroads 2,492,316 

Miles  of  railroad 72,623 

Number  of  inhabitants  to  a  mile  of  railroad ...  681 

"       of  square  miles  to  a  mile  of  railroad. . .  84  '4 

Capital  stock $1,990,997,466 

Funded  and  other  debt $2,230,766,108 

Total  capital  account $4,221,763,594 

Cost  of  railroad  per  mile $60,425 

Receipts,  total $520.466,016 

"          from  passengers $140,999,081 

"             "           "          percent,  to  total...  27'1 

«          from  freight $347,016,874 

"             "         "       per  cent,  to  total 64.-  8 


1T6 


RAILEOAD 


Percentage  of  total  receipts  to  total  capital  and 

debt 18-8 

Receipts  to  each  mile  of  railroad 17,844 

"       to  each  Inhabitant $1282 

Operating  expenses $380,896,058 

Percentage  to  receipts 68' 6 

Net  earnings. $189,570,958 

Percentage  to  receipts 86'4 

"         to  total  capital  and  debt 4-5 

Dividends  paid $67,042.942 

Percentage  of  dividends  to  capital  stock 

The  total  mileage  of  railways  in  the  United 
Kingdom  has  increased  from  8,835  m.  in  1855 
to  13,289  in  1865, 15,376  in  1871,  and  16,082  in 
1873.  Of  the  mileage  in  1873,  11,369  m.  were 
in  England  and  Wales,  2,612  in  Scotland,  and 
2,101  in  Ireland.  The  authorized  capital  for 
the  United  Kingdom  in  1873  was  £676,686,- 
586,  of  which  £588,320,308  was  paid  in.  The 
total  receipts  amounted  to  £57,742,000,  inclu- 
ding £31,821,529  from  freight,  £28,858,892 
from  passengers,  and  £2,066,579  from  rents, 
tolls,  &c.  The  working  expenditures  were 
£30,752,848,  and  the  net  receipts  £26,989,152. 
In  1874  the  Dominion  of  Canada  had  4,099  m. 
of  railway.  The  length  of  railways  in  opera- 
tion in  the  chief  countries  of  the  European 
continent  in  or  about  1872  was  as  follows: 

MllM. 

Austria,  Cicleithan  (1870) 8,724 

Baden  (1870),  constructed  by  the  state 580 

Bavaria,  constructed  by  companies 609 

"  "  by  the  state 1,221 

Belgium,  constructed  by  companies 1,042 

44  by  the  stite 962 

Denmark,  constructed  by  companies 166 

"  "  by  the  state 874 

France  (1870) 10,847 

Hesse 246 

Holland,  constructed  by  companies 429 

by  the  state 014 

Hungary  (1S70) 2,151 

Italy 4,087 

Norway,  constructed  by  companies 42 

by  the  state 265 

Portugal  (1870) 489 

Prussia,  constructed  by  companies 4.788 

by  the  state 8.918 

Russia  (1S74) 10,725 

Saxony  (1870),  constructed  by  companies. 140 

«  »  "  by  the  state 687 

Spain  (1870) 8,880 

Sweden,  constructed  by  companies 461 

"  bythestate 787 


Total. 


52,424 

— Railroad  Management.  The  policy  of  gov- 
ernments and  countries  in  respect  to  the  con- 
struction of  railroads  at  first  differed  as  wide- 
ly as  the  countries  themselves,  but  now  there 
may  be  said  to  be  only  two  systems,  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  French.  In  England  and  the 
United  States  the  initiative  is  given  by  pri- 
vate enterprise,  and  the  entire  control  of  op- 
erations is  exercised  by  joint-stock  compa- 
nies, through  their  officers  or  agents,  subject 
only  to  the  laws  regulating  and  defining  their 
powers.  In  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
most  countries  of  continental  Europe,  every- 
thing connected  with  railroads  and  other  pub- 
lic works  is  organized  on  a  systematic  plan 
and  conducted  with  complete  uniformity.  In 
England  and  America  everything  is  left  to  ex- 
perience, and  no  fixed  practice  or  general  prin- 
ciple exists.  Government  plays  an  insignifi- 


cant part;  when  it  has  authorized  the  con- 
struction of  a  railroad  and  defined  the  powers 
of  the  company  having  it  in  hand,  it  goes  no 
further.  In  France  and  most  other  countries 
the  executive  government  determines  the  local- 
ities for  which  railway  communication  is  to  be 
provided,  lays  out  the  line,  chooses  the  com- 
pany which  is  to  make  the  road,  or  if  no  com- 
pany offers  makes  it  itself,  regulates  the  num- 
ber of  trains,  fixes  the  tariffs,  controls  the 
administration,  and  in  short  attends  to  the 
minutest  details  of  construction,  maintenance, 
and  operation.  The  point  of  principal  impor- 
tance in  the  comparison  of  the  English  and 
French  railway  systems  is  that,  setting  out  with 
different  policies — private  enterprise  and  free 
competition  on  one  side,  state  control  and 
monopoly  on  the  other  side — both  have  ended 
in  the  division  of  the  two  countries  among  a 
few  great  companies,  and  the  consequent  tri- 
umph of  monopolies.  Starting  from  diametri- 
cally opposite  principles,  the  two  contrary  sys- 
tems have  reached  nearly  similar  results.  The 
construction  of  railways  as  a  whole  has  been 
as  rapid  in  France  as  in  England ;  their  mileage 
is  nearly  equal,  with  not  very  different  fares 
and  nearly  the  same  number  of  passengers  and 
tons  of  freight  per  mile;  while- in  the  United 
States  the  mileage  is  nearly  five  times  as  great 
as  in  either  France  or  England,  though  the 
aggregate  cost  of  the  railroads  in  each  of  the 
three  countries  is  nearly  equal.  In  America 
the  tendency  is  toward  amalgamation  and  mo- 
nopoly. The  richer  companies  are  gradually 
absorbing  the  weaker  ones,  and  yet  so  far  the 
general  result  has  been  to  cheapen  transporta- 
tion and  give  the  public  greater  and  better 
facilities.  In  some  instances  consolidations 
have  taken  place  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
public  has  become  alarmed,  and  efforts  have 
been  made,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Illinois,  through  the  agency  of  boards 
of  railroad  commissioners,  to  exercise  such  con- 
trol over  the  railroad  system  of  the  respective 
states  as  to  properly  harmonize  the  interests 
of  the  public  and  the  companies.  Many  of 
the  state  legislatures  have  undertaken  to  equal- 
ize and  control  the  fares  and  rates  of  freight 
by  arbitrary  enactments,  while  others  have  en- 
deavored to  do  so  through  their  boards  of  com- 
missioners. As  yet  no  practical  settlement  of 
the  various  questions  has  been  reached.  The 
railroad  companies  make  the  general  claim  that 
their  charters  are  contracts  with  the  state, 
which  authorize  them  to  regulate  their  own 
charges  and  control  their  own  business,  and 
which  cannot  be  altered  or  amended  directly 
or  indirectly  without  their  consent ;  and  final- 
ly that  all  efforts  to  do  so  are  in  contravention 
of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  which 
prohibits  the  states  from  making  laws  impair- 
ing the  obligation  of  contracts.  The  theory 
of  those  who  assert  that  the  states  have  the 
right  to  regulate  the  rates  at  which  passengers 
and  freights  shall  be  carried  by  railroads,  is 
that  they  are  public  highways,  controlled  by 


RAILROAD 


177 


corporations  created  by  law,  and  therefore  sub- 
ject to  the  law-making  power  whenever  it  may 
choose  to  intervene.  Still  another  theory  has 
been  set  up  and  received  public  attention, 
namely,  that  the  authority  to  regulate  com- 
merce between  the  states,  given  to  congress 
by  the  constitution  of  the  'United  States,  is 
broad  enough  to  cover  and  does  cover  the  right 
to  regulate  and  control  the  railroads  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  their  operation,  and  par- 
ticularly in  fixing  the  rates  at  which  freights 
and  passengers  shall  be  carried,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  railroads  for  commercial  pur- 
poses were  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
constitution  entirely  unknown  and  unthought 
of.  What  will  be  the  future  solution  of  this 
question,  now  receiving  the  attention  of  many 
writers  and  thinkers  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
cannot  be  predicted.  In  France  and  other 
countries,  where  a  system  of  monopolies  was 
deliberately  established  by  the  government,  a 
system  of  checks  has  been  or  can  be  established 
in  the  interest  of  the  public.  In  England  the 
purchase  of  the  railways  by  the  state  has  been 
urged  by  an  influential  party,  on  the  ground 
that  the  state  is  the  only  power  which  can 
properly  control  an  interest  so  great  and  which 
so  vitally  affects  the  welfare  of  the  entire  na- 
tion ;  and  in  Belgium  such  purchase  is  gradu- 
ally being  made  by  the  government.  From 
the  peculiar  nature  of  our  institutions,  as  well 
as  from  the  complexity  and  extent  of  our  rail- 
road system,  the  regulation,  of  railroads  by 
government  is  much  more  difficult,  and  there- 
fore probably  much  more  remote,  than  it  is 
in  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  the  difficulty 
of  consolidation  and  combination,  owing  to 
the  extent  of  the  country  and  the  diversity 
of  interests,  is  also  greater,  while  the  danger 
of  monopolies  is  less ;  and  hence  the  ques- 
tion will  probably  receive  a  solution  in  Amer- 
ica founded  upon  competition. —  Construction 
and  Rolling  Stock.  Before  deciding  upon 
the  construction  of  a  railroad  along  a  given 
route,  a  careful  calculation  of  the  amount  of 
transporting  business  already  done  on  the 
route  should  be  made,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining whether  it  is  sufficient  to  justify  the 
proposed  railroad ;  though  estimates  of  this 
kind  have  in  general  been  found  to  afford  a 
very  uncertain  indication  of  the  amount  of 
business  which  the  railroad  itself  when  con- 
structed would  obtain.  A  more  enlarged  esti- 
mate should  be  made  of  She  extent  of  country 
tributary  to  the  proposed  railroad,  together 
with  its  mineral  and  agricultural  resources, 
developed  and  undeveloped,  its  wealth  and 
population,  and  also  the  influence  of  the  new 
route  of  transportation  upon  those  already 
established,  as  well  as  upon  the  habits  and  pro- 
ductions of  the  people  who  are  expected  to  use 
it.  The  first  question  to  be  considered  is.  Will 
any  kind  of  railroad  pay  when  built  ?  the  sec- 
ond is,  What  kind  of  a  railroad,  all  things  con- 
sidered, should  be  built?  and  the  third  is, 
Where  and  how  can  the  money  be  got  to  pay 


for  it?  In  one  region  a  double  track  steel 
railway,  with  low  grades,  slight  curvature,  iron 
bridges,  brick  or  stone  station  houses,  and  the 
largest  and  best  rolling  stock,  all  costing  $100,- 
000  more  or  less  per  mile,  may  be  necessary 
to  accommodate  the  business ;  in  another  case, 
a  single  track,  with  heavier  grades  and  sharper 
curvature,  wooden  bridges,  and  cheaper  appur- 
tenances of  every  kind,  may  be  sufficient ;  and 
in  still  another  case  lighter  rails,  narrower 
gauge,  and  still  lighter  rolling  stock  and  ma- 
chinery, may  prove  to  be  more  than  is  required. 
No  rule  can  be  given  for  telling  beforehand 
just  what  kind  of  a  railroad  should  be  built, 
or,  when  built,  will  prove  to  be  the  one  best 
suited  to  the  situation.  Such  questions  are 
necessarily  indeterminate.  It  is  however  a 
safe  principle,  economically  considered,  that 
no  more  expensive  railroad  should  be  built 
over  any  route  than  can  be  paid  for  out  of  the 
money  which  the  people  to  be  benefited  by  it 
will  subscribe  to  the  company's  stock  or  lend 
upon  the  pledge  of  its  mortgage  bonds.  This 
rule  has  not  generally  been  kept  in  view  in  the 
United  States  and  other  new  countries,  and 
the  consequence  is  that  there  has  been  a  great 
over  production  of  railroads  at  various  periods, 
and  particularly  between  1863  and  18V3.  To 
such  an  extent  has  this  over  production  gone 
that  the  financial  panic  of  October,  1873,  has 
been  attributed  by  some  writers  exclusively  to 
this  cause. — Preparatory  to  the  construction 
of  a  railroad,  surveys  are  made  along  the  sev- 
eral routes  the  road  may  follow,  and  plans 
are  constructed  representing  the  exact  dis- 
tances and  grades  or  the  amount  of  deviation 
from  a  level  at  all  the  points.  From  these 
plans  the  amount  of  excavation  and  embank- 
ment, of  tunnelling,  bridging,  &c.,  necessary 
to  bring  the  road  within  the  required  de- 
gree of  straightness  and  level,  are  calculated. 
Thus  the  estimates  are  obtained,  by  compari- 
son of  which,  including  also  the  ascertained 
amount  to  be  paid  for  right  of  way,  the  con- 
struction of  the  road  is  determined.  The  im- 
portance of  the  road  and  the  special  purpose 
for  which  it  is  designed  are  to  be  duly  con- 
sidered in  deciding  upon  saving  of  distance  and 
reduction  of  grades  by  heavier  expenditures. 
Roads  upon  which  numerous  trains  are  to  pass 
daily,  each  one  of  which  will  incur  a  certain 
additional  expense  for  every  additional  mile, 
and  each  mile  will  involve  a  certain  annual  ex- 
pense for  keeping  in  repair,  may  economically 
be  shortened  by  increased  outlays  that  would 
be  entirely  inadmissible  in  securing  a  similar 
reduction  of  distance  for  less  travelled  routes. 
So  upon  roads  that  are  to  be  run  at  high  rates 
of  speed  short  curves  must  be  avoided  at  any 
expense.  It  has  happened,  from  the  experience 
gained  in  the  working  of  railroads;  that  some 
of  the  earlier  lines  have  been  economically  re- 
constructed by  a  partial  abandonment  of  the 
old  routes  under  more  judicious  surveys,  or 
from  the  increase  in  the  business  justifying  the 
adoption  of  a  more  perfect  line.  As  already 


178 


RAILROAD 


remarked,  the  old  system  of  occasional  inclined 
planes  is  almost  wholly  abandoned  for  roads 
of  general  travel,  and  the  construction  and 
capacity  of  locomotives  and  carriages  are  so 
much  better  understood,  that  a  much  greater 
range  in  curvatures  and  grades  is  now  found 
practicable  than  was  formerly  ever  thought  of. 
As  regards  curves,  it  was  at  first  recommend- 
ed in  England  to  fix  the  minimum  radius  that 
should  be  allowed  at  one  mile,  and  in  1846  it 
was  one  of  the  "standing  orders"  of  parlia- 
ment that  no  curve  should  be  made  with  a  ra- 
dius of  less  than  half  a  mile  (2,640  ft.)  without 
special  permission  of  parliament.  In  France  a 
minimum  was  established  by  "  the  administra- 
tion of  roads  and  bridges"  of  2,700  ft.,  or 
about  2°.  On  the  Hudson  River  railroad  the 
minimum  curve  has  a  radius  of  2,062  ft. =2'75°. 
But  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  road  was  built 
with  several  curves  of  400  ft.  radius  (14-25°), 
and  with  one  of  318  ft.  (18°),  and  no  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  running  over  them  at  15 
m.  an  hour.  The  narrow-gauge  railroads  now 
coming  into  favor  for  light  traffic,  in  thinly 
settled  or  mountainous  districts,  are  built  with 
curves  of  very  much  shorter  radius,  in  some 
instances  not  exceeding  50  ft.  in  length.  The 
objectionable  features  of  the  curves  are  avoided 
by  making  the  wheels  conical,  of  greater  diam- 
eter within  than  at  their  outer  edge ;  the  effect 
of  this  in  running  on  a  curve,  when  the  wheels 
on  the  outer  side  are  pushed  by  the  centrifugal 
force  outwardly,  is  to  make  them  roll  on  their 
larger  diameter,  and  at  the  same  time  the  wheels 
on  the  other  side,  drawn  in  toward  the  centre 
of  the  track,  roll  on  their  smaller  diameter. 
On  each  side  they  are  thus  accommodated  to 
the  different  lengths  they  have  to  traverse, 
without  straining  the  axles  and  without  great- 
ly increased  friction  or  slipping  of  the  inner 
wheel  upon  the  rail.  The  friction  against  the 
outer  rail  due  to  the  centrifugal  force  is  par- 
tially prevented  by  elevating  the  outer  rail. 
The  object  of  attaching  the  wheels  to  their 
axles,  instead  of  letting  them  turn  upon  these, 
is  to  secure  greater  steadiness  at  high  speed. 
The  requiring  of  minimum  degrees  of  curva- 
ture has  been  abandoned  upon  the  English  and 
French  roads.  In  France,  upon  the  Paris  and 
Orsay  and  Paris  and  Sceaux  railroads,  there  are 
curves  of  82  ft.  radius,  and  trains,  the  engines 
and  carriages  of  which  are  provided  with  loose 
wheels  and  guide  rollers,  run  through  complete 
semicircles  at  20  m.  an  hour. — Upon  the  earlier 
roads  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States 
grades  of  30  or  40  ft.  to  the  mile  were  con- 
sidered heavy,  at  the  last  figure  nearly  tripling 
the  power  that  was  required  to  draw  the  load 
upon  a  level.  Grades  of  70  to  80  ft.  were  re- 
garded as  almost  impracticable,  as  they  would 
compel  the  carrying  of  light  loads  over  the 
whole  line,  and  therefore,  when  such  grades 
could  not  be  otherwise  avoided,  inclined  planes 
worked  by  stationary  engines  were  adopted. 
The  Hudson  and  Mohawk  railroad,  in  a  length 
of  16  m.,  was  built  with  one  such  plane  at 


Albany,  and  another  at  Schenectady.  The 
Philadelphia  and  Columbia  railroad  was  also 
built  with  two  planes,  one  at  Columbia  and 
the  other  near  P.'.Jadelphia,  and  there  were 
ten  on  the  Allegheny  Portage  road  over  the 
Allegheny  mountains,  all  of  which  have  been 
displaced  by  the  substitution  of  heavier  grades 
on  more  extended  lines.  But  as  experience 
was  acquired  in  the  working  of  railroads,  it 
was  found  that  locomotives  rarely  carried  max- 
imum loads  for  the  moderate  grades,  and  that 
a  temporary  slackening  of  the  speed  upon  the 
steep  grades  rendered  a  further  portion  of  the 
power  of  the  locomotive  available  for  over- 
coming the  increased  resistance.  Thus,  when 
the  doubtful  point  as  to  the  adhesion  of  the 
driving  wheels  to  the  rails  was  satisfactorily 
determined,  and  the  common  law  of  mechanics, 
that  power  can  be  gained  at  the  expense  of  mo- 
tion, was  found  to  be  applicable  to  ascending 
grades  of  a  railroad,  these  were  increased  much 
beyond  thejr  former  limits.  High  grades  were 
sooner  introduced  in  this  country  than  in  Eu- 
rope, but  they  have  since  been  adopted  there 
also.  On  the  Mount  Savage  and  George's  Creek 
railroads  in  Maryland  grades  of  140  ft.  to  the 
mile  have  long  been  used ;  and  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  road,  through  the  Allegheny 
mountains,  of  114  ft.  In  England  those  of  100 
ft.  to  the  mile  are  not  uncommon,  and  there 
are  several  from  180  to  150  ft.  At  Sheffield  is 
a  grade  of  196  ft.  to  the  mile,  and  the  same  is 
seen  at  Oldham  on  the  Lancashire  and  York- 
shire road,  extending  for  1$  m.  In  France  on 
the  St.  Germain  railroad  is  a  grade  of  123  ft.  to 
the  mile  for  about  1 J  in. ;  and  it  is  now  assert- 
ed by  engineers  that  grades  of  870  ft.  to  the 
mile  can  bo  worked  by  locomotives,  but  that 
on  heavy  grades  the  locomotive  should  take 
no  more  cars  in  descending  than  in  ascend- 
ing.— The  proper  preparation  of  the  road  bed 
should  be  an  object  of  the  most  particular 
care.  Being  the  foundation  and  support  of 
the  whole  superstructure,  it  should  as  a  mat- 
ter of  economy  be  made  as  firm  and  dura- 
ble as  possible.  But  it  is  in  this  that  the 
American  roads  are  most  defective.  The  least 
width  of  embankments  for  double  tracks  ought 
not  to  be  less  than  the  width  of  the  two 
tracks,  with  6  ft.  between  them,  and  6  ft. 
outside  of  each.  In  excavations  the  width 
of  ditches  on  each  side  should  be  added.  A 
common  width  of  embankments  in  England 
is  83  ft.,  while  on  the  principal  American  roads 
it  varies  with  the  height  of  the  embankment. 
The  transverse  slopes  of  the  English  roads  are 
much  flatter  than  ours,  and  are  commonly  well 
protected  with  a  good  grass  sod.  But  the  most 
essential  difference  is  in  the  drainage,  upon 
which  more  than  anything  else  depends  the 
durability  of  the  earthwork  and  of  the  sleep- 
ers and  rails.  Upon  some  American  roads  the 
sleepers  are  laid  directly  upon  the  natural  soil, 
or  upon  this  thrown  up  in  a  bank.  Where  the 
ground  freezes,  any  superstructure  on  such  a 
basis  is  certain  to  be  more  or  less  displaced  in 


KAILKOAD 


179 


the  spring  thaws ;  in  wet  weather  it  must  prove 
very  insecure,  and  in  dry  weather  very  dusty. 
The  sleepers  soon  settle  irregularly,  placing  the 
rails  out  of  line,  and  thus  are  involved  rapid 
wear,  deterioration,  accidents,  and  loss  to  the 
rolling  stock  and  to  the  road.  The  dust  rises 
in  clouds,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  machinery 
and  of  the  passenger  cars,  and  seriously  incom- 
moding the  passengers  themselves.  The  effects 
of  water  about  the  earthwork  of  railroads  are 
regarded  as  so  injurious  that  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish authority  says :  "  Wherever  it  is  known 
or  suspected  to  exist,  its  immediate  source 
should  be  traced,  and  every  possible  means 
adopted  for  diverting  it  from  the  slopes  and 
adjacent  surfaces."  Not  only  are  capacious 
and  permanent  culverts,  ditches,  and  drains 
abundantly  provided,  but  subdrainage  by  tile 
drains  is  also  employed  to  great  advantage ; 
and  as  a  final  precaution  the  road  bed  is  bal- 
lasted, usually  a  foot  deep  beneath  the  sleepers 
and  another  foot  around  and  over  them,  and 
for  a  width  on  double  tracks  of  26  ft.,  the 
quantity  per  mile  amounting  to  10,000  or  12,000 
cub.  ft.  The  material  preferred  for  ballast  is 
gravel  containing  a  natural  mixture  of  clean 
sand,  and  next  to  this  broken  stone  in  pieces 
not  exceeding  2£  in.  in  diameter.  Limestone 
is  not  so  good  as  gneiss,  as  it  packs  too  densely, 
and  trap  rock  also  is  likely  to  become  too  solid 
and  rigid.  A  certain  elasticity  in  the  bed  is 
essential  for  the  durability  of  the  rails ;  and 
where  no  other  suitable  material  is  at  hand, 
common  clay  burned  in  lumps  in  great  heaps 
intermixed  with  bituminous  coal  has  been 
found  to  answer  very  well,  especially  if  hard- 
burned.  Cinders  and  small  coal  are  excellent 
materials,  and  in  Holland  shells  and  broken 
bricks  are  extensively  used.  The  road  bed 
through  the  long  English  tunnels,  and  also 
upon  the  viaducts,  is  well  ballasted,  and  the 
wear  of  the  rails  is  thereby  materially  de- 
creased. The  wooden  sleepers  on  many  Euro- 
pean and  some  American  roads  are  also  pro- 
tected by  some  chemical  application.  (See 
PRESERVATION  OF  WOOD.)  The  ordinary  dura- 
tion of  sleepers  upon  American  roads  is  hard- 
ly 7  years,  but  upon  English  roads  it  is.  15 
years  and  upward.  By  the  scrupulous  atten- 
tion directed  to  these  details  in  building  the 
European  roads  a  great  saving  is  effected  in 
the  cost  of  "maintenance  of  way,"  engines, 
and  working.  Only  one  half  as  much  fuel 
is  consumed  to  the  mile  run  on  the  English 
and  French  roads  as  on  those  of  the  north- 
ern United  States ;  and  the  consumption  of 
fuel  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  resis- 
tances overcome.  If  the  English  trains  are 
from  20  to  30  per  cent,  lighter  than  those 
of  American  lines,  they  are  run  25  per  cent, 
faster,  thus  requiring  about  the  same  power. 
— The  superstructure  of  railroads  is  almost 
universally  laid  upon  transverse  wooden  sleep- 
ers, the  primary  object  of  which  is  to  give  a 
steady  bearing  upon  the  road  bed.  Seasoned 
white  oak  is  preferable  to  any  other  wood 


for  strength  and  for  holding  the  spikes.  Hem- 
lock is  better  than  chestnut,  and  both  these 
are  extensively  used  in  the  United  States. 
Their  dimensions  are  commonly  8  ft.  long  with 
V,  8,  or  9  in.  width  of  bearing  surface,  and 
their  distance  apart  from  centre  to  centre  is 
from  2  ft.  1£  in.,  as  on  the  Erie  road,  to  2  ft. 
6  in.  On  the  English  roads  they  are  com- 
monly 9  ft.  long,  10  in.  wide,  often  squared, 
and  5  in.  thick.  They  are  usually  laid  3  ft. 
apart  from  centre  to  centre ;  and  that  a  uni- 
form bearing  may  be  secured,  particular  care 
is  taken  that  the  sleepers  are  alike  in  size  and 
regularly  spaced  in  their  beds.  In  France 
the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  cutting  the 
sleepers  in  two  in  the  middle,  leaving  one  in 
every  10  or  12  ft.  to  bind  the  two  rails  to- 
gether. The  result  was  very  satisfactory,  the 
object  being  to  prevent  the  spring  of  the  full- 
length  sleepers  or  the  movement  they  some- 
times acquire  on  their  centre.  But  for  these 
and  detached  rectangular  blocks  of  any  mate- 
rial, either  transverse  or  longitudinal,  it  is  es- 
sential that  the  supports  should  be  well  packed 
upon  a  thoroughly  ballasted  road  bed.  In  Eng- 
land and  India,  where  wood  is  expensive  and 
iron  comparatively  cheap,  rectangular  blocks 
and  also  inverted  pots  of  cast  iron  have  been 
tried  upon  some  of  the  roads,  and  with  good 
results ;  but  the  conditions  of  cost  are  alto- 
gether unfavorable  to  the  adoption  of  such 
devices  in  the  United  States.  Granite  sleep- 
ers have  been  tried  and  have  continued  in  use 
upon  one  of  the  tracks  of  the  Boston  and 
Lowell  road.  They  make  a  very  hard  and 
rigid  support,  and  cannot  be  used  in  connection 
with  wooden  sleepers  interspersed  or  alterna- 
ting with  them,  unevenness  in  the  track  soon 
resulting.  The  smooth  face  of  a  rock  ledge 
has  been  tried  upon  the  Manchester  and  Leeds 
road,  the  rails  being  spiked  directly  down 
upon  it.  It  was  soon  found  necessary  to  take 
them  up  on  account  of  the  excessive  wear  upon 
the  rails  thus  placed.  The  Great  Western  road 
in  England  is  constructed  with  longitudinal 
bearings  or  sills  measuring  10  in.  square, 
and  framed  together  by  cross  ties  of  6  by  4  in. 
every  6  ft.  The  arrangement  is  said  to  be  easy 
on  the  rolling  stock,  but  as  regards  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  way  this  is  one  of  the  most  expen- 
sive roads  in  England. — The  iron  rails,  which 
are  generally  straight  bars  of  wrought  iron,  dif- 
fer greatly  in  the  shape  of  their  cross  section, 
their  weight,  quality,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  secured  to  the  road  bed.  Almost  the 
first  form  was  the  fish-bellied  rail,  made  about 
the  year  1820.  This  soon  gave  place  to  others 
of  more  economical  shape,  as  the  T  and  the  i 
rails,  and  to  these  was  added  the  bridge  or 
hollow  rail,  the  form  of  which  is  nearly  that 
of  the  letter  U  inverted.  These  have  been 
variously  modified  in  their  figures  and  pro- 
portions, and  a  great  number  of  other  forms 
that  may  not  be  referred  to  either  of  these 
have  been  introduced  upon  different  roads. 
In  the  United  States  an  inverted  T  rail  has 


180 


RAILROAD 


been  in  very  general  use,  so  as  to  be  known 
as  the  American  rail.  It  has  a  broad  bearing 
base,  and  is  easily  secured  to  the  sleepers  by 
hook-headed  spikes  driven  into  elongated  slots 
in  the  edge  of  the  flange,  or  merely  over  the 
edge,  thus  allowing  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  rail  with  changing  temperatures  with- 
out disturbing  the  fastenings.  With  this  rail 
the  cast-iron  chairs  employed  for  seating  and 
holding  almost  all  other  rails  were  at  first 
used  to  strengthen  the  joints.  Up  to  about 
the  year  1854  the  weight  of  rails  had  been 
steadily  increasing  from  about  35  Ibs.  per 
lineal  yard  till  it  had  reached  85  and  in  some 
cases  even  100  Ibs.  No  advantage  was  found 
in  the  very  heavy  rails,  however,  but  on  the 
contrary  the  iron  in  such  large  piles  was 
necessarily  less  worked  in  the  manufacture  and 
was  in  a  poor  condition  for  wear.  The  ten- 
dency has  since  been  to  return  to  lighter  rails, 
of  55  to  65  Ibs.  to  the  yard,  and  to  require 
these  to  be  made  of  iron  originally  good,  the 
piles  to  be  first  rolled  into  blooms,  and  these 
to  be  again  brought  to  a  welding  heat,  and 
then  rolled  into  rails.  The  miserable  qual- 
ity of  much  of  the  iron  on  American  roads 
is  due  to  the  deficient  working,  the  fibres  of 
the  iron  as  it  wears  showing  that  they  had 
never  been  thoroughly  incorporated  togeth- 
er. In  bargaining  for  it  no  test  and  no  par- 
ticular conditions  of  manufacture  were  re- 
quired, as  is  customary  in  other  countries. 
Rails  of  45  Ibs.  have  worn  under  the  heaviest 
traffic  for  20  years,  us  those  laid  in  1837  on 
the  Reading  railroad,  while  others  of  nearly 
double  the  weight  have  given  out  on  other 
roads  in  one,  two,  or  three  years.  The  first 
rails  employed  on  the  Stonington  railroad,  of 
54  Ibs.  to  the  yard,  also  lasted  20  years.  Rails 
have  gradually  increased  in  length  to  15,  16, 
18,  and  20  ft.,  and  even  30  ft.,  which  latter 
is  now  the  common  length  made  by  American 
rolling  mills  and  used  upon  American  railroads. 
An  important  feature  in  the  rail  is  its  height 
or  depth.  Its  stiffness,  if  the  rail  could  be  re- 
garded as  a  rectangular  beam,  increases  as  the 
square  of  the  depth ;  thus  doubling  the  height 
and  retaining  the  same  weight  of  material  quad- 
ruples the  stiffness,  but  doubling  the  height 
and  weight  also  increases  its  stiffness  eight 
times.  The  effect  of  a  want  of  stiffness  in  the 
rail  is  deflection  between  the  supports  under 
the  weight  and  a  mashing  of  the  iron  into  the 
wood  of  the  sleepers,  which  continually  in- 
creases the  mischief.  Even  between  rigid  sup- 
ports the  temporary  depression  of  the  rail  is 
such  as  to  present  a  continual  ascending  plane 
in  front  of  the  wheels,  which  the  descent  of 
the  slope  from  behind  does  not  in  any  measure 
compensate,  the  advantage  of  this  being  wholly 
balanced  by  other  considerations.  In  1857 
steel  rails  were  first  rolled  in  England,  and  so 
greatly  were  they  found  to  surpass  iron  rails  in 
endurance,  that,  notwithstanding  their  greater 
cost,  the  demand  for  them  kept  ahead  of  the 
capacity  of  the  mills  to  make  them,  till  Besse- 


mer's  process  of  producing  them  from  the 
puddling  furnace  reduced  their  cost  and  greatly 
increased  the  demand  for  them.  At  first  steel 
rails  were  used  only  at  such  points  as  were  sub- 
jected to  extraordinary  usage,  as  at  terminal 
stations  and  for  switches,  frogs,  and  crossings. 
They  were  gradually  introduced  by  the  roads 
having  the  heaviest  traffic,  and  finally  they 
have  come  to  be  used  in  the  first  construction 
of  many  of  the  more  important  new  roads,  and 
by  nearly  all  the  old  ones  instead  of  the  iron 
rails  as  they  wear  out.  The  following  figures 
show  the  sections  of  rails  now  commonly  in 
use  in  America  and  England. — Various  devices 


Sections  of  Rails. 

have  been  invented  and  used  from  time  to  time 
in  securing  rails  to  the  sleepers,  and  for  keep- 
ing their  ends  together.  All  of  them  recognize 
the  effects  of  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
rails  under  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  in 
laying  rails  a  proper  allowance,  varying  with 
the  length  of  the  rail  and  the  variations  of 
temperature,  is  always  made  for  this.  By 
neglect  of  this  precaution  the  rails  heated  by 
the  sun  have  sometimes  expanded  so  as  to  bo 
thrust  upward,  lifting  the  sleepers  one  or  two 
feet  out  of  the  ground.  From  this  cause,  a 
train  running  in  June,  1856,  on  the  North- 
eastern railway  in  England,  at  40  m.  an  hour, 
was  thrown  off  the  inside  of  a  curve,  though 
the  82  Ib.  rail  was  fastened  every  three  feet 
in  heavy  chairs  and  "  fiahed  "  at  the  joints. 
Almost  the  universal  fastenings  in  England 
used  to  be  cast-iron  chairs,  made  to  hold  the 
rail  in  an  opening  in  the  top,  into  which  it 
was  seated  and  keyed  by  a  wooden  Wedge. 
The  chairs  were  themselves  strongly  bolted 
down  upon  the  sleepers.  Those  for  receiv- 
ing the  two  ends  of  adjoining  rails  were 
much  heavier  and  stronger  than  the  others, 
weighing  from  26  to  89  Ibs.,  and  others  18  to 
26  Ibs.  It  is  of  great  consequence  to  keep  the 
ends  of  the  rails  securely  upon  the  same  hori- 
zontal line.  If  one  end  is  depressed  by  the 
weight  coming  upon  it,  the  wheel  strikes  the 
end  of  the  next  rail  with  a  concussion  that 
soon  shatters  the  rail,  and  being  repeated  at 
other  joints  seriously  injures  the  rolling  stock. 
Various  methods  of  keying  and  fastening  the 
ends  of  the  rails  have  been  used,  but  they  have 
generally  been  discarded  in  favor  of  what  is 
known  as  the  fish  joint,  first  tried  in  1843  at 
New  Castle,  Del.,  but  not  finally  adopted  to 
any  extent  till  1847.  This  method  was  not 
favorably  received  on  American  roads  at  first, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  applying  it  to  the 
low  rails  generally  in  use,  but  in  some  form 
or  other  it  has  finally  superseded  all  others 
everywhere.  As  first  proposed,  two  sleepers 
were  to  be  placed  6  in.  apart  at  the  joints,  and 


EAILEOAD 


181 


two  plates  of  iron  slightly  wedging  were  to  be 
driven  one  on  each  side  between  the  jaws  of 
the  chairs  flat  against  the  sides  of  the  two 
rails.  Instead  of  this,  however,  a  pair  of  iron 
or  steel  plates  18  in.  long,  £  in.  thick,  and  about 
3  in.  wide,  are  bolted  together  through  the  rails 
with  f  or  £  in.  bolts,  the  holes  in  the  rail  being 
elongated  to  allow  for  contraction  and  expan- 
sion. Another  form  of  fish  joint  is  construct- 
ed by  applying  the  bars  to  the  flange  of  the 
rails  and  bolting  them  firmly  to  a  suspension 
plate  extending  under  the  joint  from  one  rail 
to  the  other.  Nearly  all  the  forms  of  the  fish 
joint  will  give  a  smooth  track  when  first  laid, 
but  the  natural  tendency  of  the  nuts  holding 
the  fish  plates  to  the  rails  is  to  work  loose  and 
thus  to  weaken  the  joint.  Various  devices 
more  or  less  efficient  have  been  invented  for 
locking  the  nut  and  thus  insuring  the  stiffness 
of  the  joint.  In  order  that  trains  of  cars  may 
pass  from  one  track  to  another  an  extra  pair 
of  rails  are  laid  down,  which  can  be  moved  so 
as  to  complete  the  connection  with  either  one 
of  the  lines  as  desired  and  break  it  with  the 
other.  These  movable  rails  are  called  switch- 
es, and  are  commonly  controlled  by  a  long  bar 
under  the  surface  connecting  with  an  upright 
lever  at  the  side  of  the  road.  This  is  in  the  care 
of  the  men  known  as  switch  tenders,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  see  before  the  approach  of  every 
train  that  the  rails  are  so  placed  as  to  carry  it 
upon  the  right  track.  Turn-tables  are  plat- 
forms constructed  of  wood  or  iron  which  can 
be  pushed  round  upon  a  circular  track  sunk  be- 
low the  level  of  the  ground.  A  locomotive  or 
car  being  run  on  to  the  platform,  it  is  thus 
easily  turned  about  or  directed  upon  any  other 
diverging  track,  numbers  of  which  usually  con- 
centrate around  the  turn-tables. — The  passen- 
ger cars  or  carriages  used  upon  railroads  are 
generally  constructed  after  either  the  English 
or  American  plan.  The  for-  ^ 
mer  had  its  origin  in  the  old- 
fashioned  stage  coach,  and  in 
many  instances  preserves  the 
outlines  of  the  stage  coach 
body  on  its  sides.  It  is  gen- 
erally about  24  ft.  long  and  di- 
vided into  four  compartments, 
each  carrying  six  passengers. 
Each  compartment  is  uphol- 
stered according  to  the  class 
to  which  it  belongs,  and  is 
furnished  with  two  doors  for 
ingress  and  egress,  the  upper 
parts  of  which  are  of  glass. 
These  compartments  have  no 
communication  with  each  oth- 
er, nor  is  there  any  means  of 
passing  from  one  carriage  to 
another,  except  by  the  preca- 
rious means  of  a  foot  board  running  along  the 
outside  of  the  carriages.  They  are  carried  by 
four  and  sometimes  six  wheels,  fastened  rigidly 
together.  The  American  passenger  car,  as  be- 
fore shown,  had  its  origin  in  the  sharp  curves  of 


the  American  railroads,  and  was  originally  con- 
structed by  splicing  two  common  English  car- 
riages together  and  placing  a  pair  of  bogie 
trucks  under  each  end.  At  first  these  trucks 
were  made  with  four  wheels,  but  now  they  are 
frequently  made  with  six  and  eight,  the  weight 
of  the  car  being  equally  distributed  over  them 
by  means  of  equalizing  beams.  The  cars  are 
from  46  to  60  ft.  long,  are  entered  by  doors  at 
the  ends,  and  carry  from  44  to  62  passengers. 
They  are  warmed  by  stoves  or  hot-water  heat- 
ers, and  are  furnished  with  water  and  water 
closets,  while  the  English  carriages  have  none  of 
these  conveniences.  The  American  cars  were 
formerly  coupled  into  trains  by  means  of  links 
and  pins,  but  these  together  with  the  weak 
platforms  connecting  them  were  found  to  be 
the  cause  of  many  accidents.  They  have  been 
replaced  to  a  great  degree  by  Miller's  patent 
buffer,  coupler,  and  platform,  which  couple  the 
cars  automatically,  hold  them  together  without 
motion,  and  in  case  of  accident,  the  platform 
being  strongly  trussed,  the  danger  of  crushing 
or  telescoping  is  entirely  obviated.  Sleeping 
cars  were  first  adopted  by  a  few  of  the  lead- 
ing American  railroads  about  1858,  but  they 
were  for  the  most  part  crude  and  unsatisfac- 
tory in  their  arrangement  and  appointments. 
They  were  constructed  under  a  variety  of 
patents,  employed  various  devices  which  had 
not  yet  been  perfected  by  experience,  were 
chiefly  used  for  local  travel,  and  did  not  leave 
the  roads  owning  them.  It  soon  became  ap- 
parent that  a  class  of  cars  that  could  be  used 
both  night  and  day,  and  run  between  distant 
points  over  several  different  roads,  would  be 
necessary  to  supply  the  growing  want  of  the 
public.  In  1864  George  M.  Pullman  invented 
and  patented  a  car  designed  to  meet  all  the  re- 
quirements of  the  problem,  and  so  great  was 
its  success  that  it  grew  rapidly  into  popular 


Pullman  Parlor  Car. 


favor,  and  supplanted  all  others.  In  1867  the 
Pullman  palace  car  company  was  organized 
for  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  sleeping  car 
business,  now  rapidly  increasing  in  magnitude 
and  importance.  It  contracts  to  furnish  its 


182 


RAILROAD 


cars  to  railroad  companies  for  a  period  of  15 
years,  giving  each  company  the  option,  if  ex- 
ercised within  a  reasonable  time,  of  purchasing 
a  half  interest  in  the  cars  assigned  to  its  road, 
and  of  sharing  equally  with  the  Pullman  com- 
pany in  the  results  of  the  business.  The  Pull- 
man company  furnishes  the  various  kinds  of 
cars  required  for  the  business,  employs  the  ser- 
vants and  attendants,  and  maintains  all  the  in- 
terior equipment  pertaining  to  the  sleeping  ac- 
commodations. The  railroad  companies  con- 
trol the  movements  of  the  cars,  carrying  their 
passengers  in  them,  receive  the  whole  of  the 
railroad 'fares,  and  maintain  the  outside  and 
running  gear  of  the  cars,  exactly  as  they  do 
their  own.  Upward  of  60  railroads  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  England,  and  Italy  have 
entered  into  contracts  with  the  Pullman  com- 
pany. Some  of  them  are  participants  in  the 
entire  business,  while  others  are  joint  owners 
with  the  Pullman  company  in  the  cars  assigned 
to  their  respective  lines.  The  present  standard 
sleeping  car  exceeds  the  weight  of  the  ordinary 
12-wheeled  first  class  passenger  car  used  on  the 
leading  railroads  by  about  2$  tons,  the  excess 
being  due  to  the  bedding  and  partitions  essen- 
tial to  the  sleeping  arrangements.  These  cars 
are  now  used  on  more  than  30,000  m.  of  rail- 
road in  America,  and  the  advantages  of  the 
system  have  so  recommended  them  that  they 
have  recently  been  adopted  with  favor  in  Eng- 
land and  Italy,  and  will  probably  make  their 
way  at  an  early  day  to  the  railroads  of  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  Pullman  company  has  adopt- 
ed a  number  of  ingenious  devices  which  very 
greatly  increase  the  comfort,  safety,  and  health- 
fulness,  and  decrease  the  fatigue,  anxiety,  and 
loss  of  time  of  railroad  travelling.  The  freight 
cars  or  carriages  used  upon  railroads  are  con- 
structed according  to  two  distinct  systems,  the 
English  and  American,  which  like  the  passen- 
ger cars  differ  especially  in  reference  to  the 
trucks,  the  former  using  the  rigid  four-wheel 
system,  and  the  latter  the  bogie  truck  sys- 
tem. The  American  railroads  use  wheels  of 
cast  iron  or  low  steel  almost  exclusively,  the 
surfaces  of  which  are  hardened  by  chilling 
them  in  cooling;  while  all  European  roads 
use  wheels  of  wrought  iron,  steel,  and  wood. 
The  former  are  much  cheaper,  bat  said  to  be 
more  liable  to  accident. — In  treating  upon  rail- 
roads numerous  important  considerations  pre- 
sent themselves  besides  those  already  noticed, 
each  of  which  should  receive  particular  atten- 
tion. Such  especially  are  the  viaducts,  bridges, 
and  tunnels,  and  the  immense  cuts  or  excava- 
tions and  embankments ;  also  the  processes 
employed  by  the  engineers  in  laying  out  the 
road,  their  seeking  for  the  most  level  and  the 
straightest  line  while  restricted  by  the  amount 
of  means  provided,  and  planning  the  excava- 
tions and  embankments,  so  that  the  material 
supplied  by  the  former  shall  amount  as  near  as 
may  be  to  that  required  by  the  latter.  The 
station  houses,  which  in  themselves  are  an  im- 
portant class  of  structures  peculiar  to  this 


new  improvement,  are  generally  constructed 
of  brick  or  stone  in  Europe,  of  iron  in  tropi- 
cal countries,  and  in  America  at  first  of  wood, 
for  which  brick,  stone,  or  iron  is  nearly  al- 
ways substituted  as  soon  as  the  change  can 
be  afforded.  Railroad  bridges  are  generally 
built  of  iron  and  placed  upon  stone  or  iron 
supports  in  all  countries  except  the  United 
States,  where  engineers  in  the  first  construc- 
tion of  railroads  more  commonly  use  timber 
owing  to  its  great  abundance,  lightness,  and 
cheapness.  Tunnels  constitute  a  remarkable 
feature  in  the  construction  of  railroads.  In 
Great  Britain,  where  it  is  considered  to  be 
more  economical  to  tunnel  through  rock  than 
to  make  open  cuts  deeper  than  60  ft.,  many 
tunnels  have  been  constructed,  several  of  them 
over  3  m.  long.  The  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  through 
the  Alps  is  nearly  8  m.  long ;  the  Hoosac  tun- 
nel in  Massachusetts  is  nearly  4f  m.  long ;  and 
it  is  now  proposed  to  construct  one  under  the 
straits  of  Dover,  21  m.  long,  to  connect  the 
English  and  French  railway  systems.  (See 
TUNNEL.) — Cost  of  Railway  Construction  and 
Management.  The  comparative  economy  in  the 
construction  and  operation  of  railroads  has  re- 
ceived particular  attention  from  many  compe- 
tent engineers  and  railroad  managers.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  English  roads  have  been 
built  at  an  extraordinary  amount  of  first  cost, 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  expenditures  for 
actual  construction  have  been  much  larger  than 
in  the  United  States  for  works  of  similar  char- 
acter. The  practice  in  the  two  countries  has 
been  entirely  different.  In  England  the  plan 
has  been  to  build  them  in  the  most  solid  and 
substantial  manner  from  the  start,  and  to  sup- 
ply them  with  every  appliance  necessary  for 
their  operation ;  while  in  America  the  general 
rule  has  been  to  build  upon  the  cheapest  possi- 
ble plans,  with  light  rails,  narrow  banks,  heavy 
gradients,  wooden  bridges,  and  less  expensive 
care,  buildings,  and  machinery,  and  to  depend 
upon  future  earnings  for  the  means  with  which 
to  bring  the  works  up  to  the  standard  required 
by  the  increasing  business  of  the  line.  Among 
the  large  items  of  cost  upon  English  lines  is 
that  of  land  damage  or  right  of  way,  the  aver- 
age of  which  has  been  rated  at  about  $45,000 
a  mile,  or  about  the  average  cost  of  American 
railroads.  The  "parliamentary  expenses,"  in- 
curred in  obtaining  charters,  are  also  very 
great,  amounting  in  several  instances  to  an 
average  of  $7,345  a  mile,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  Great  Northern  railway  to  an  average  of 
$16,000  a  mile.  The  several  items  of  interest, 
discount  on  loans,  bonuses,  and  commissions, 
also  add  greatly  to  the  aggregate  cost  of  rail- 
roads in  all  countries.  Larger  expenditures 
than  are  usual  in  the  United  States  are  in- 
volved from  the  more  unfavorable  physical 
features  of  the  country,  the  topography  pre- 
senting no  long  lines  of  watercourses  nor  wide 
table  lands,  both  which  are  common  in  this 
country.  Boggy  districts  are  also  more  fre- 
quent in  England,  and  the  construction  of  a 


EAILROAD 


183 


permanent  road  across  these  has  often  cost 
immense  sums.  Even  when  the  embankments 
through  them  have  been  apparently  completed, 
as  much  more  material  has  in  some  cases  been 
required  for  their  maintenance  in  consequence 
of  their  subsidence.  The  bridges,  viaducts, 
tunnels,  &c.,  are  much  more  numerous  and  ex- 
pensive structures  upon  English  than  Ameri- 
can roads.  The  superior  equipment  of  engines 
and  carriages  adds  a  considerable  amount  to 
cost  per  mile,  some  of  the  roads  having  even 
more  than  a  locomotive  for  every  mile,  the 
cost  of  which  averages  about  $12,000  each. 
Among  the  heavier  items  of  expense  are  the 
approaches  to  the  cities,  London  particularly, 
where  the  roads  for  several  miles  are  frequent- 
ly constructed  upon  arched  viaducts  of  brick. 
The  London  and  Greenwich  line,  3f  m.  long, 
thus  built,  cost  $1,299,651  a  mile ;  the  London 
and  Blackwall,  of  the  same  character,  $1,406,- 
804.  From  such  causes  the  total  cost  of  Eng- 
lish roads  has  amounted  to  about  $170,000  a 
mile.  The  French  double-track  roads  in  1857 
were  estimated  to  have  cost  $101,877  a  mile  ; 
about  one  fourth  of  the  whole  was  for  earth- 
work and  "  works  of  art,"  as  bridges,  viaducts, 
and  tunnels ;  one  quarter  for  rails,  chairs,  ties, 
and  keys ;  and  $6,039  for  ballast,  much  more 
even  than  upon  the  English  roads.  Few  roads 
in  the  United  States  have  reached  an  expendi- 
ture for  construction  equal  to  that  of  the  least 
expensive  roads  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  the  av- 
erage cost  of  all  those  of  the  United  States  is 
estimated  at  little  more  than  $60,000  a  mile. — 
The  effect  of  the  superior  character  of  English 
railways  is  shown  in  a  remarkable  manner  by 
the  low  rate  per  mile  at  which  the  permanent 
way  is  kept  in  order,  and  by  the  cheapness  with 
which  they  are  operated  as  compared  with  the 
same  items  for  equal  traffic  on  American  lines. 
In  Great  Britain  the  distance  run  to  a  ton  of 
bituminous  coal  or  of  coke  varies  from  75  to 
118  m.,  the  latter  having  been  obtained  with 
coke  for  a  full  year  on  the  Cork  and  Bandon 
railway ;  75  m.  is  considered  to  be  a  fair  aver- 
age. In  America  the  number  of  miles  run  per 
ton  of  bituminous  coal  varies  with  the  quality 
of  the  coal,  weight  of  the  trains,  and  gradients 
of  the  roads,  from  35  to  60  m. ;  45  m.  may  be 
considered  as  about  a  fair  average.  The  rate 
at  which  trains  are  run  upon  the  English  roads 
is  not  so  high  as  it  was  formerly.  Passenger 
trains  run  from  18  to  40  m.  an  hour,  the  latter 
being  the  speed  of  some  of  the  express  trains ; 
the  average  rate  is  about  27  m.  Freight  trains 
average  about  15  m.,  including  all  stops.  The 
highest  rate  for  a  passenger  train  attained  for 
a  few  miles  together  has  been  73  m.  an  hour. 
A  speed  of  60  m.  is  made  daily  for  short  dis- 
tances, and  sometimes  even  of  78  m.  an  hour. 
The  average  speed  is  considerably  greater  than 
on  the  French  roads,  and  also  exceeds  that 
on  the  American,  where  it  is  not  over  25  m. 
an  hour,  though  35  and  even  40  m.  are  made 
upon  some  of  the  principal  lines  by  the  fastest 
trains. — According  to  the  report  of  the  Massa- 


chusetts board  of  railroad  commissioners  for 
the  year  1874,  it  appears  that  one  passenger 
was  killed  and  seven  were  wounded  during  the 
year  by  causes  over  which  they  had  no  control. 
The  whole  number  of  persons  carried  by  rail 
during  the  year  was  reported  at  42,480,000, 
and  the  average  journey  at  16  m. ;  it  conse- 
quently follows  "that  the  average  journey  by 
rail,  resulting  in  death,  during  the  last  year, 
has  been  679,000,000  m.,  and  that  resulting 
either  in  death  or  injury  has  been  85,000,000 
m, ;  in  other  words,  in  estimating  the  chances 
of  danger  in  travelling  by  rail  in  Massachusetts 
for  any  given  person,  the  returns  of  the  last 
year  show  that  he  will  probably  travel  85  mil- 
lions of  miles  before  sustaining  any  injury 
from  an  accident  from  causes  beyond  his  con- 
trol. The  ordinary  average  of  accidents  of 
this  description  in  Massachusetts,  in  years  past, 
has  been  about  one  passenger  to  each  1,400,000 
carried ;  during  the  past  year  it  has  been  one 
only  to  each  5,300,000  carried,  and  for  the  pre- 
vious year  one  to  42,400,000  carried."  In  con- 
trast with  this  it  is  added  that  "  through  a  pe- 
riod of  ten  years,  1859-'69,  one  passenger  was 
killed  or  injured  on  the  French  railroads  to  each 
674,000  carried,  and  in  England  the  average 
has  been  about  one  in  every  430,000  ;  or,  in  the 
first  case,  twice  the  proportion  of  Massachu- 
setts casualties,  and  in  the  last,  three  times  the 
proportion."  The  foregoing  is  a  more  favor- 
able statement  than  can  be  made  by  the  aver- 
age of  the  American  railroads,  and  yet  it  is 
believed  that  they  in  turn  can  show  a  greater 
degree  of  safety  in  the  transportation  of  their 
passengers  than  obtains  in  either  England  or 
France. — Narrow-gauge  Railroads.  As  before 
stated,  the  standard  railway  gauge  of  the  world 
is  now  4  ft.  8£  in.  In  1832  a  horse  tramway, 
since  known  as  the  Festiniog  railway,  was  built 
in  Wales  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  slate  from 
the  quarries  to  Port  Madoc.  It  was  nominally 
of  2  ft.  gauge,  and  was  used  as  originally  de- 
signed till  1863,  when  0.  E.  Spooner,  the  engi- 
neer of  the  line,  recommended  the  use  of  loco- 
motives. Seven  of  these  were  built,  two  weigh- 
ing eight  tons  and  five  weighing  ten  tons  each. 
In  1869  Mr.  Fairlie  built  an  engine  for  this 
road  known  as  the  Little  Wonder.  It  is  mount- 
ed on  two  trucks  or  bogies,  each  having  four 
coupled  wheels  2  ft.  4  in.  in  diameter  with  a 
wheel  base  of  5  ft.,  making  the  total  wheel 
base  of  the  engine  19  ft.  The  cylinders  are 
8y\  in.  in  diameter  and  13  in.  stroke,  and  the 
entire  engine  weighs  19£  tons.  The  success 
of  the  Festiniog  railway  and  the  Fairlie  en- 
gines became  widely  known ;  and  the  wri- 
tings of  Mr.  Fairlie,  published  in  1870  and 
1871,  on  "The  Gauge  for  the  Railways  of  the 
Future,"  again  attracted  the  attention  of  en- 
gineers throughout  the  world  to  the  question 
of  the  gauges.  The  advocates  of  Fairlie's  sys- 
tem claim :  1,  that  the  cost  of  constructing, 
taking  the  average  expense,  will  be  found  to 
vary  as  the  gauge ;  2,  that  every  inch  added 
to  the  width  of  the  gauge  beyond  what  is  ab- 


184 


RAILROAD 


solutely  necessary  for  the  traffic  adds  to  the 
cost  of  construction  and  increases  the  dead 
weight  of  the  rolling  stock  and  the  cost  of 
working ;  3,  that  the  dead  weight  of  the  trains 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  gauge  on  which 
they  run ;  4,  that  a  saving  in  first  construction 
equal  in  many  cases  to  33  per  cent,  can  be  made 
by  the  adoption  of  the  narrow  gauge,  which 
allows  greater  curvature,  narrower  banks,  and 
lighter  bridging,  rails,  and  ties ;  5,  that  nar- 
row-gauge railroads  have  relatively  greater 
traffic  capacity  than  roads  of  the  standard 
gauge ;  and  finally,  that  they  are  safer  and  can 
be  more  economically  maintained  and  opera- 
ted. Narrow-gauge  railroads  have  been  built 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  At  the  end  of 
1874  there  were  2,025  m.  in  operation  in  the 
United  States,  511  m.  under  construction,  and 
about  6,000  m.  more  projected  ;  and  in  Canada 
594  m.  were  in  operation  and  886  m.  projected. 
The  gauge  of  these  roads  is  generally  8  ft., 
though  that  of  the  East  Indian  roads  is  8  ft.  3J 
in.  or  one  metre,  and  a  few  in  other  countries 
are  3  ft.  6  in.  The  rails  weigh  from  24  to 
52  Ibs.  per  lineal  yard.  The  engines,  rolling 
stock,  and  other  appurtenances  are  generally 
built  after  the  same  plans  used  by  the  roads  of 
the  standard  gauge,  but  proportionally  smaller. 
—  City  Railroads.  Although  railroads  were 
long  used  in  Great  Britain  with  horse  power 
only,  this  method  of  working  them  was  there 
generally  abandoned  ;  but  in  the  United  States 
their  peculiar  adaptation  for  the  streets  of 
cities  was  early  perceived,  and  they  are  now 
in  use  upon  the  principal  thoroughfares  of 
most  of  the  cities.  Cars  seating  from  22  to 
50  passengers  are  easily  drawn  by  two  horses 
at  the  rate  of  5  or  6  m.  an  hour,  taking 
the  place  of  a  much  larger  number  of  om- 
nibuses, and  running  at  considerably  less  ex- 
pense. The  trucks  turning  upon  pivots,  the 
carriages  turn  round  the  corners  of  the  streets 
without  difficulty;  and  the  rails  being  laid 
nearly  flush  with  the  surface,  but  little  ob- 
struction is  presented  by  them  to  the  pas- 
sage of  vehicles  across  the  track.  The  im- 
portance and  utility  of  this  class  of  railroads 
having  been  fully  demonstrated  by  their  use  in 
the  United  States,  they  have  been  introduced 
after  much  opposition  into  the  principal  cities 
of  England,  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  and 
Spanish  America.  The  metropolitan  district 
railway  of  London  is  a  double  track  road  op- 
erated by  steam,  about  19  m.  long,  running 
through  a  tunnel  with  occasional  open  cuts, 
by  a  circular  route  from  the  Moorgate  street 
station  to  the  mansion  house.  It  was  opened 
in  1863,  and  cost  about  $3,500,000  a  mile. 
Another  quick  transit  railway  in  London  runs 
from  Charing  Cross  to  the  city  terminus  in 
Cannon  street,  and  is  carried  on  arches  over 
the  tops  of  the  houses.  It  crosses  the  Thames 
twice  near  its  termini,  and  carries  an  enor- 
mous number  of  passengers.  The  necessity 
for  means  of  rapid  transit  is  greater  in  New 
York  than  in  almost  any  other  large  city,  on 


account  of  its  excessive  length  in  proportion 
to  its  breadth,  and  the  subject  has  bee  a  dis- 
cussed for  many  years.  One  of  the  plans 
most  persistently  urged  was  that  of  a  viaduct 
railroad  under  Broadway,  which  required  the 
excavation  of  the  entire  street,  with  provision 
for  gas  and  water  pipes,  sewerage,  and  venti- 
lation, to  be  covered  by  a  continuous  arch  sup- 
porting the  surface  roadway.  A  short  experi- 
mental section  of  a  proposed  pneumatic  rail- 
way was  constructed  under  Broadway  in  1870, 
and  various  other  subterranean  projects  have 
been  put  forth ;  but  plans  for  elevated  roads 
have  met  with  the  greatest  favor.  One  such 
road,  that  of  the  "  New  York  Elevated  Rail- 
way Company,"  begun  in  1866,  has  been  in 
successful  operation  since  1872  from  the  Bat- 
tery along  Greenwich  street  and  9th  avenue 
to  80th  street.  It  consists  of  a  single  track, 
carried  by  longitudinal  wrought-iron  girders 
resting  on  corbels  supported  by  a  single  line 
of  wrought-iron  posts  planted  along  the  curb- 
stones. The  original  plan  of  operating  it  by 
stationary  engines  and  endless  wire  ropes  was 
abandoned  for  "dummy  engines,"  each  draw- 
ing three  cars,  adapted  for  86  passengers  each, 
at  the  rate  of  nearly  20  m.  an  hour.  The 
"Gilbert  Elevated  Railway  Company,"  char- 
tered in  1872,  on  the  plan  of  Dr.  R.  II.  Gilbert, 
propose  to  build  a  double  track  tubular  road 
carried  by  a  trussed  iron  bridge  spanning  the 
street,  which  is  to  be  supported  by  a  series 
of  arches  springing  from  wrought-iron  piers 
resting  upon  stone  foundations  at  the  edges  of 
the  sidewalks.  No  complete  system  of  rapid 
transit  for  the  city  seeming  likely  to  be  con- 
structed under  existing  circumstances,  the  le- 
gislature in  1875  provided  for  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  with  full  power  to  decide 
upon  a  general  plan  and  devise  means  for  car- 
rying it  out.  This  body  reported  in  October 
in  favor  of  a  double  track  elevated  road  on 
each  side  of  the  city,  to  be  constructed  by  the 
two  companies  above  named,  or  by  another 
provisionally  organized  under  the  powers  con- 
ferred upon  the  commission,  called  the  "  Man- 
hattan Railway  Company."  Considerable  lat- 
itude is  allowed  as  to  details,  but  the  whole 
system  is  to  be  completed  by  Dec.  1,  1878. — 
Mountain  Railroads.  In  1865-'8  a  railroad 
was  constructed  up  Mont  Cenis  by  the  English 
engineer  Fell,  in  which  the  traction  of  the  en- 
gine is  secured  by  two  wheels  working  hori- 
zontally under  heavy  pressure  against  the  sides 
of  a  middle  rail.  (See  CENIS,  MOXT.)  In  the 
railroad  up  Mt.  Washington,  New  Hampshire, 
built  in  1866-'9,  the  traction  is  effected  by 
a  cogged  wheel  working  into  a  cogged  rail 
firmly  spiked  to  the  track.  The  Mt.  Rigi  rail- 
way, in  Switzerland,  on  the  same  plan,  was 
completed  in  1878.  A  mountain  railway  has 
been  devised  upon  which  the  cars  are  carried 
astride  of  a  single  line  of  rails  in  turn  sup- 
ported upon  a  line  of  posts ;  but  this  plan 
has  not  yet  been  successfully  applied. — For 
the  detailed  statistics  of  railroads  in  the  Uni- 


KAILWAY 


RAIN 


185 


ted  States  and  Canada  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  manuals  published  annually  in 
New  York  by  H.  V.  and  H.  W.  Poor  and 
Edward  Vernon;  and  for  methods  of  con- 
struction to  the  various  works  in  English, 
French,  and  German  upon  railroad  engineering. 

RAILWAY,  Atmospheric.  See  PNEUMATIC  DES- 
PATCH, and  PNEUMATIC  RAILWAY. 

RAIMONDI,  Marc'  Antonio,  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  in  Bologna  about  1480,  died  there  subse- 
quent to  1539.  He  was  instructed  in  design 
by  Francesco  Francia,  some  of  whose  pictures 
he  engraved  as  early  as  in  his  15th  year.  Sub- 
sequently he  imitated  Albert  Dilrer,  and  while 
on  a  visit  to  Venice  made  facsimile  copies  on 
copper  of  his  set  of  36  woodcuts  representing 
the  life  and  passion  of  the  Saviour,  and  of 
another  set  of  17,  representing  the  life  of  the 
Virgin ;  and  the  imitation  was  so  exact  that 
Raimondi's  prints  sold  for  originals.  Diirer 
was  obliged  to  visit  Venice  to  procure  redress, 
but  only  succeeded  in  preventing  the  use  of 
his  monogram.  Raimondi  soon  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  employed  in  engraving  the  choice 
works  of  Raphael,  and  afterward  of  Giulio  Ro- 
mano. He  is  said  to  have  excited  the  wrath 
of  Pope  Clement  VII.  by  executing  a  set  of 
obscene  prints,  for  which  he  was  thrown  into 
prison;  but  he  appeased  him  by  an  admira- 
ble engraving  after  Bandinelli's  picture  of  the 
"Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence."  The  sack  of 
the  city  by  the  army  of  the  constable  de  Bour- 
bon in  1527  reduced  him  to  poverty,  and  he 
returned  to  Bologna.  For  purity  of  outline, 
correct  expression,  and  drawing,  he  was  one 
of  the  best  engravers  on  record.  The  British 
museum  has  500  of  his  choicest  productions. 

RAIN,  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  con- 
densed into  drops  large  enough  to  fall  with 
perceptible  velocity  to  the  earth.  The  water 
thus  precipitated  is  quite  pure,  except  in  so  far 
as  it  absorbs  a  slight  quantity  of  air,  carbonic 
acid,  ammonia,  or  nitric  acid,  from  the  atmos- 
phere. The  formation  of  rain  is  in  general  a 
continuation  of  the  processes  of  the  formation 
of  clouds,  dew,  and  fog.  The  deposition  of 
moisture  depends  upon  the  cooling  of  the  at- 
mosphere, as  was  first  recognized  by  Dalton 
(1787),  but  concerning  the  precise  process  by 
which  that  cooling  is  effected  erroneous  views 
have  been  widely  entertained.  In  general  it 
may  be  said  that  the  temperature  of  a  given 
mass  of  warm  moist  air  is  lowered  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  atmospheric  phenomena  by 
one  or  another  of  the  following  four  process- 
es :  1,  by  radiation  to  the  cold  sky,  according 
to  the  views  first  developed  by  Fourier  (1812) 
and  Wells  (1818)  ;  2,  by  radiation  to  neighbor- 
ing masses  of  cold  air,  or  the  cold  ground ;  3, 
by  mixture  with  cooler  air,  a  view  suggested  by 
Hutton  (1787),  the  slight  importance  of  which 
was  demonstrated  by  Espy  (1833,  &c.) ;  4,  by 
the  absorption  of  heat  in  the  expansion  of 
ascending  air,  a  view  first  developed  by  Espy. 
Radiation  takes  place  especially  at  night  du- 
ring the  winter,  when  the  upper  regions  of 


the  atmosphere  contain  but  little  moisture  to 
hinder  the  free  radiation  of  heat,  but  the  re- 
sult is  more  frequently  snow  or  cloud  than 
rain ;  its  importance  has  been  well  shown  by 
Tyndall  (1859,  &c.).  The  third  process  de- 
pends for  its  effect  upon  the  principle  that  the 
density  of  saturation  increases  faster  than  the 
temperature,  so  that  if  we  mix  two  equal  vol- 
umes of  saturated  air  having  different  tem- 
peratures, the  resulting  mixture  will  have  a 
temperature  somewhat  less  than  the  average 
of  the  two,  and  the  quantity  of  moisture  then 
present  will  be  slightly  in  excess ;  but  the  con- 
densation of  even  a  slight  portion  of  this  moist- 
ure into  cloud  evolves  latent  heat  sufficient  to 
elevate  the  temperature  above  the  point  of  con- 
densation. The  fourth  of  the  above  processes 
is  doubtless  by  far  the  most  efficient  of  all  in 
lowering  the  temperature  and  producing  rain. 
Its  precise  importance  in  the  economy  of  the 
atmosphere  has  been  well  shown  by  the  re- 
searches of  Espy  (1833,  &c.),  Thomson  (1862), 
Peslin  (1868),  Him  (1870),  Reye  (1872),  and 
Hann  (1874).  According  to  Hann,  the  ascent 
of  dry  air  to  higher  altitudes  must,  by  reason  of 
its  expansion  under  the  lower  pressure  there 
prevailing,  be  from  this  cause  alone  attended 
with  a  uniform  diminution  of  temperature  at 
the  rate  of  0-9907°  C.  per  100  metres  of  ascent, 
a  rate  that  becomes  0'9751°  when  the  moisture 
in  the  air  gives  it  a  relative  humidity  of  60  per 
cent.  But  so  soon  as  by  this  cooling  the  air  is 
brought  to  its  point  of  saturation  and  the  forma- 
tion of  cloud  or  rain,  snow,  or  hail  begins,  the 
evolution  of  latent  heat  largely  reduces  the 
rate  of  diminution  of  temperature.  As  the 
saturated  air  ascends  in  the  form  of  cloud,  its 
temperature  no  longer  diminishes  uniformly, 
but  at  a  decreasing  rate,  so  that  a  point  may  be 
ultimately  reached  where  its  rate  of  diminution 
becomes  zero.  In  general,  therefore,  clouds 
thus  formed  are  warmer  than  the  adjacent 
clear  air.  Doubtless  it  rarely  happens  but  that 
rainfall  is  produced  by  the  concomitant  action 
of  two  or  more  of  our  four  principles.  Such 
attempts  as  have  been  made  to  show  that  elec- 
tricity has  an  influence  in  causing  rain  must  at 
present  be  considered  "wholly  unsatisfactory ; 
yet  it  is  acknowledged  that  the  electrical  dis- 
plays which  so  frequently  accompany  rain,  and 
especially  hail,  are  but  very  imperfectly  under- 
stood. Of  other  phenomena  attending  the  for- 
mation of  rain,  the  most  important  is  the  gen- 
eral elevation  of  temperature  on  the  earth's 
surface,  which  is  largely  due  to  the  great 
amount  of  sensible  heat  thrown  into  the  at- 
mosphere by  the  condensation  of  vapor  into 
rain.  The  other  important  factor  in  this  ele- 
vation of  temperature  is  probably  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  the  clouds  against  radiation, 
so  that  any  heat  which  emanates  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  retained  under  the  cov- 
ering of  clouds. — The  distribution  of  rain  over 
the  surface  of  the  globe  is  of  importance  to  the 
interests  of  mankind  both  as  regards  its  quan- 
tity and  its  frequency.  Aa  regards  the  quan- 


186 


RAIN 


tity,  accurate  measurements  are  wanting  for 
many  portions  of  the  globe,  but  the  following 
table,  condensed  from  a  larger  one  in  Symons's 
treatise  on  rain  (1867),  gives  an  approximate 
presentation  of  the  subject : 


COUNTRIES. 

Annual  rain- 
fall, Inchet. 

COUNTRIES. 

11 

li 

is 

EUROPE. 

19  6 
28-6 
22-8 
19-0 
80-8 
22-9 
56-2 
24-0 
43-0 
89-0 
50-0 
42-4 
22-0 
28-0 
88-0 
15-0 
s4-s 
28-0 
28-6 
16-2 
6-1 
22-8 
9-0 
19-7 
81-8 

69-8 
26-9 
84-7 
610-8 
44-6 

190-0 

17-5 
19-8 

Turkey  :  Jerusalem  .  .  . 
Smyrna  

AFRICA. 

Algeria  :  Algiers  

16-8 
27-6 

27-0 
22-1 

24-8 

80-  9 
18-8 
86-0 

54-1 
158-0 
89-9 

75-0 
5«)-2 
83-0 
60-6 

53-7 
7-5 

46-2 

19-2 
80-9 

20-8 
45-7 

Belgium  :  Brussels  
Deri  mark  :  .Cope  n  hagen, 
France:  Marseilles  — 
Montpellier  .  . 
Paris. 

Oran  

Cape  Colony  : 
Cape  Town  

Bayonne  
G't  Britain:  London... 
Cardiff.  .  .  . 
Glasgow.. 
Gal  way... 
Greece  :  Corfu  

Madeira      

St.  Helena    

NORTH    AMERICA.* 

British  Columbia  : 
New  Westminster. 
Honduras  :  Balize  
Alaska:  Sitka  

Holland:  Rotterdam.. 
Iceland  :  Reykjavik  .  .  . 
Italy:  Milan     

West  Indies  : 
Barbadoes  

Portugal  :  Lisbon  

Havana.  

Russia  :  St.  Petersburg 
Astrakhan  
Slcilv:  Palermo. 

St.  Thomas  

SOUTH   AMERICA. 

Brazil  :  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Venezuela:  Cumana.. 

AUSTRALIA. 

New  South  Wales  : 
Sydney  

Spain  :  Madrid  

Sweden  :  Stockholm  .  . 
Switzerland:  Geneva.. 

ASIA. 

China  :  Canton  

Peking 

India  :  Bombay  

South  Australia: 
Adelaide  

Cherrapongee.  . 
Madras  
Malay  Peninsula: 
Singapore  
Asiatic  Russia  : 
Nertchinsk  .... 
Tiflis  

Victoria:  Melbourne.. 
Tasmania: 
UobartTown  

POLYNESIA. 

Tahiti  :  Papiete  

The  extensive  mass  of  information  presented 
in  Mr.  Symons's  table  shows  that  the  regular 
decrease  of  rainfall  as  wo  proceed  from  the 
equator  to  the  pole,  announced  many  years 
ago  by  Humboklt  and  others,  was  a  too  hasty 
generalization,  and  that  the  data  on  hand  must 
bo  further  increased,  and  must  be  studied  with 
reference  to  the  local  influences  bearing  upon 
every  station,  before  any  exact  conclusion  can 
be  arrived  at,  other  than  this,  that  the  heaviest 
falls  are  in  the  tropics,  and  that  beyond  them 
there  is  no  material  decrease.  The  study  of 
about  1,500  stations  by  Schmid  shows  that  the 
rainfall  appears  not  to  depend  entirely  either 
upon  the  latitude  or  the  season  of  the  year, 
but  principally  upon  the  relations  between  the 
general  system  of  atmospheric  currents  and 
the  position  of  the  station  in  reference  to 
geographical  and  topographical  features ;  thus 
the  enormous  rainfall  of  Cherrapongee,  India, 
depends  directly  upon  the  ascent  of  the  cur- 
rent of  warm  moist  monsoon  winds  over  the 
Cossya  hills.  In  general  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  rain  proves  that  rainfall  is  prin- 
cipally due  to  condensation  in  ascending  cur- 
rents of  air,  and  in  a  less  degree  to  the  cool- 

*  For  Canada  and  the  United  States,  see  METEOROLOGY. 


ing  due  to  radiation  of  heat.  Concerning  the 
annual  and  daily  period  of  the  rainfall,  and 
the  connection  between  rainfall  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind,  see  METEOROLOGY. — In  re- 
gard to  the  frequency  of  rain,  while  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  a  broad  distinction  exists 
between  the  rainy  and  the  wet  season,  else- 
where we  are  able  to  distinguish  only  be- 
tween the  seasons  of  short  heavy  showers  and 
those  of  long  continued  gentle  rains.  A  gen- 
eral view  of  this  important  feature  of  the  rains 
throughout  the  globe  is  afforded  by  the  ac- 
companying chart,  which  is  due  to  Wojeikof 
(1874).  This  meteorologist  says  that  the  nor- 
mal condition  of  the  oceanic  portions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  is  a  subdivision  into  four 
zones:  1.  The  equatorial  zone  of  constant 
rains ;  this  is  shifted  with  the  seasons  N.  and 
S.  of  its  mean  position,  and  on  the  average 
extends  from  within  a  degree  of  the  equator  to 
10°  of  N.  latitude.  2.  A  rainless  zone  of  trade 
winds,  extending  from  lat.  10°  to  25°  or  30° 
N.  8.  The  subtropical  zone  of  rain,  extend- 
ing to  lat.  40° ;  into  this  zone  during  summer 
the  trade  winds  extend,  and  but  little  rain 
falls;  in  winter  variable  winds  with  frequent 
rains  occur.  4.  A  zone  of  rains  with  S.  W. 
winds,  whose  occurrence  is  distributed  pretty 
equally  throughout  the  year,  and  which  extend 
from  lat.  40°  N.  to  the  pole.  On  passing  from 
the  ocean  to  the  land,  we  find  that  the  third 
or  subtropical  zone  almost  entirely  disappears, 
while  the  regions  of  rain  at  all  seasons,  and 
of  summer  rains,  extend  further  southward. 
Other  features  in  the  distribution  of  rain  will 
be  seen  from  the  map  itself.  In  the  article 
METEOROLOGY  will  be  found  information  con- 
cerning the  general  laws  of  rainfall  in  so  far 
as  they  pertain  to  dynamical  meteorology. 
— On  the  question  of  the  secular  variation  in 
rainfall  as  an  item  of  climatology  (specially 
interesting  to  civil  engineers  in  connection 
with  the  industries  of  any  country),  the  most 
extensive  investigations  have  been  made  by 
Symons  (1870)  in  England,  Schott  (1872)  in 
the  United  States,  Rawson  (1873)  in  Barba- 
does, and  Raulin  (1871)  in  France.  The  equal- 
ly important  studies  of  Meldrum  (1872)  and 
K6ppen  (1873)  have  relation  more  directly  to 
the  eleven-year  periodicity.  Symons,  as  the 
result  of  all  observations  in  Great  Britain  from 
1725  to  18C9,  shows  that  if  we  take  the  aver- 
ago  of  60  years  (from  1810  to  1869)  as  our 
standard,  the  rainfall  for  each  decade  will  be 
relatively  as  in  the  following  table : 


DECADE. 

Rrlatlrc 
rainfall. 

DECADE. 

RcUtlre 

rainfall. 

DECADE. 

Relative 
rainfall. 

1780-'89 
1740--49 
1750-'59 
176rt-'69 
1770-'79 

0-899 
0-706 
0-SS5 
0-911    1 
1-085- 

1780-'89 
1790-'»9 
1SOO-'09 
1S10-"19 
1820-'2» 

0-935 
0-9B5 
n  --•_' 
0-980 
I'OU 

18MPM 

1840-'49 

I-.Vl--.Yj 

1860-'69 

1-014 
1-026 
0-952 
1-015 

Schott,  in  his  "  Tables  of  Rainfall  in  the  Uni- 
ted States"  (Smithsonian  institution,  1872,) 
gives  the  result  of  all  observations  that  have 

UK)  140          130  180  110 


ess  Tirade  Wlind 
Zone 


•Jtain  atalJ  Seanotis  qf  tin  Year 

Subtropical  Sains 

TraHe  ~W!na  Zone 
Arl&Jlepton 
Equatorial  Jtatn* 

Trot>i(.ulJi>iin» 
Monsoon  Ttitglan 
AvttraHanJTonsoon  Region 


CHAUT 

DISTRIBFTI01S 


OVER  THE  ( 

BIT  DR.A.WOJI 


Megion  of  ^Annual  Maint  of  oner  47,'i  inclus 


150  140          130  120  UO          100  00  30  70  60 


60  40  JO  «)  10 


60  70  SO  W  100          110          120  130 


150         180  170 


00  100          110  120          130          140          150  160  170 


RAINBOW 


1ST 


been  made  at  about  1,200  stations,  showing 
that  the  slight  general  variations  in  the  rain- 
fall throughout  the  country  have  somewhat  of 
a  periodical  nature ;  thus  along  the  seaboard 
from  Maine  to  Virginia,  as  also  in  New  York, 
and  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys,  there 
has  been  an  increase  (amounting  however  to 


scarcely  1  per  cent.)  in  the  average  annual 
precipitation  during  the  last  50  years ;  on  the 
southern  Atlantic  coast  it  appears  to  have 
been  on  the  decrease.  The  following  table, 
condensed  from  those  of  Schott,  gives  the 
relative  rainfall  by  decades  for  several  sections 
of  the  United  States : 


DECADE. 

Eastern  and 
Middle  States. 

New  York 
State. 

The 

Northwest. 

The 
Ohio  Valley. 

The 

Southwest. 

The 
Gulf  States. 

The  South 
Atlantic  States. 

California. 

1810-M9  

0-933 

l820-'29  

0-971 

1880-'39  

0-981 

0-933 

0-926 

0-955 

1840-'49  

0-999 

0-978 

0-969 

1-048 

1-067 

1-000 

1-068 

1850-'59  

1-050 

1-028 

1-031 

1-009 

0  972 

0-962 

0-974 

1-211 

1860-'69... 

1-068 

1-057 

1-030 

0  980 

1-032 

1-066 

Both  the  British  and  American  series  there- 
fore unite  in  showing  that  during  60  years 
there  has  been  no  appreciable  change. — For 
further  details  on  the  subject  of  rain,  see 
Wojeikof,  Die  atmospJidrische  Circulation, 
appendix  No.  38  to  Petermann's  Geographi- 
echen  Mittheilungen  (Gotha,  1874).  For  in- 
formation relating  to  the  United  States,  see  the 
above  cited  "Tables  of  Rainfall."  With  re- 
gard to  the  rainfall  in  Great  Britain,  see  the 
annual  volumes  of  "  British  Rainfall,"  by  G. 
J.  Symons,  which  contain  every  variety  of  in- 
formation on  this  subject,  including  the  actual 
measurements  at  1,500  stations  and  numerous 
special  investigations  into  sources  of  error. 

RAINBOW,  an  arch  of  concentric  colored 
bands,  visible  usually  on  a  portion  of  sky 
overspread  with  falling  rain  drops,  and  always 
on  that  side  of  the  observer  opposite  to  the 
place  from  which  the  sun  or  moon  is  shining 
at  the  time.  When  the  field  of  falling  drops  is 
large,  and  the  illumination  thrown  on  it  is 
bright,  a  second  bow,  exterior  to  and  concen- 
tric with  the  first,  appears.  The  inner,  or 
most  usual,  is  termed  the  primary,  the  outer 
the  secondary  bow.  Each  shows  the  same 
colors,  and  in  the  same  succession,  as  those 
obtained  in  decomposing  a  beam  of  sunlight 
by  means  of  a  dispersing  prism  of  glass ;  but 
in  the  two  bows  the  colors  lie  in  opposite  or- 
der; in  the  primary  the  red  is  outermost,  in 
the  secondary  innermost.  The  primary  is  al- 
ways the  brighter,  and  decidedly  the  narrow- 
er. When  the  light  is  abundant,  this  bow  is 
often  accompanied  by  successive  bands  of  red 
and  green,  lying  just  within  it  or  overlapping 
its  violet  edge,  concentric  with  it,  but  extend- 
ing through  parts  of  its  course  only,  and  es- 
pecially where  it  nears  the  horizon  ;  these  are 
called  supernumerary  bows.  The  common 
centre  of  the  two  bows  is  always  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  antisolar  point ;  so  that,  of  course, 
the  rainbow  rises  at  the  same  rate  as  the  sun 
declines,  or  declines  if  the  sun  is  rising. — The 
conditions  requisite  to  produce  the  rainbow 
have  been  in  a  general  way  understood  from 
an  early  period,  though  its  causes  were  not. 
The  earliest  known  attempt  at  an  explanation 
of  it  is  that  of  Aristotle.  He  observed  that 
from  a  glass  globe  filled  with  water,  and  set  in 


the  sun,  certain  colors  were  always  returned 
at  certain  angles  with  the  course  of  the  sun's 
beams ;  and  he  properly  explained  the  circular 
form  of  the  bow,  by  saying  that  if  the  sun- 
beam passing  through  the  observer's  eye  be 
taken  as  an  axis,  and  the  globe  be  revolved 
round  this  axis,  and  at  the  same  distance  from 
it  in  all  parts  of  its  course,  the  same  colors, 
preserving  their  angle  with  the  direction  of 
the  sunbeams  or  of  the  axis,  would  be  visible 
through  all  parts  of  this  course ;  and  hence  it 
followed  that  a  rainbow  would  result  if  there 
were  globes  enough,  and  so  placed  as  to  reflect 
colors  at  the  same  time  from  all  parts  of  an 
arc  of  such  a  circle.  The  colors  were  sup- 
posed to  be  merely  reflected  from  the  globe, 
or  (in  the  sky)  from  the  drop  of  water,  until 
Fleischer  of  Breslau  (1571),  concluding  that 
reflected  light  does  not  give  colors,  stated  as  a 
consequence  that  the  rays  must  enter  the  drops. 
Of  the  light  falling  on  the  presented  side  of 
the  drops,  of  course  part  will  be  reflected,  but 
another  part  will  enter  and  be  refracted  at  the 
same  time ;  striking  on  the  inner  opposite  sur- 
face of  the  drop,  part  of  this  beam  will  emerge 
and  escape,  while  another  part  will  be  re- 
flected ;  and  on  again  striking  the  side  of  the 
drop  toward  the  spectator,  though  a  portion 
of  this  residue  of  the  first  beam  undergoes 
a  second  reflection,  another  portion  emerges, 
again  refracted,  and,  if  at  a  proper  angle,  then 
passes  to  the  eye.  Kepler  agreed  in  this  view, 
but  erred  in  supposing  the  entering  light  to  be 
that  of  rays  grazing  or  tangent  to  the  upper 
sides  of  the  drops.  Antonio  de  Dominis,  in 
1611,  carefully  repeated  the  experiments  with 
the  glass  sphere  filled  with  water,  showing  in 
sunlight  very  vivid  colors  to  a  great  distance, 
and  each  at  an  angle  of  its  own.  Descartes 
showed:  1,  why  there  must  be  on  the  illumi- 
nated field  of  falling  drops  a  circular  belt  of  col- 
ors bright  enough  to  be  seen,  and  always  of  a 
definite  diameter ;  and  2,  that  the  colors  are  in 
separate  bands  or  stripes  in  this,  because  they 
are  not  equally  refracted.  He  gave  the  reasons 
why  the  colors  must  be  just  where  they  were, 
and  in  bands  just  so  broad,  if  they  all  appeared ; 
he  could  not  tell  why  they  must  all  appear. 
This  element  Newton  supplied,  when  he  dis- 
covered (1666)  that  sunlight  is  decomposable 


188 


EAINBOW 


into  a  fixed  number  of  different  colored  rays, 
refracted  or  bent  at  the  same  time  in  different 
but  definite  degrees,  so  that  they  must  appear, 
under  given  circumstances,  separated  just  so 
much,  and  always  in  the  same  successive  or- 
der. This  result  will  follow,  then,  whether 
sunlight  is  dispersed  by  prisms  or  by  transpar- 
ent spheres,  as  water  drops.  The  mathemati- 
cal theory,  which  belongs  to  Descartes,  may  be 
found  in  the  higher  text  books  of  optics,  and 


is  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  diagram 
taken  from  DeschanePs  "  Natural  Philosophy." 
If  a  ray  of  light  pass  through  the  centre  of  a 
sphere  or  drop,  its  course  is  in  an  axis  of  the 
sphere  or  drop;  it  is  not  refracted.  A  ray 
parallel  with  this,  and  very  near  it,  is  refracted 
within  the  drop,  toward  this  axis,  but  very 
slightly.  Other  rays,  further  and  further  from 
the  axis,  are  refracted  more  and  more  toward 
it,  but  yet  so  as  to  fall,  by  lessening  degrees, 
further  from  it  on  the  inner  or  second  sur- 
face of  the  drop ;  until,  as  Descartes  proved,  a 
ray,  S  b  or  S  a,  entering  the  upper  side  of  the 
drop,  when  this  is  above  the  eye,  and  at  a  point 
for  which  its  angle  of  incidence  is  60°,  will 
strike  on  the  inner  surface  as  far  as  any  ray 
can  do  from  the  axis;  the  rays  incident  at 
greater  angles  than  this,  up  to  90°,  deviating 
again  toward  the  axis.  Of  course,  near  this 
limit,  the  deviation  is  very  slight  for  rays  com- 
ing on  either  side,  so  that  much  more. light 
within  the  drop  will  be  accumulated  just  at 
this  point  of  the  second  surface  than  at  any 
other ;  and  though  part  of  it  emerges  here,  a 
sufficient  quantity  is  reflected,  and  that  in  rays 
which  preserve  a  parallel  course  (ft  O  or  a  O), 
after  leaving  the  drop  in  the  direction  toward 
the  spectator,  to  form  a  compact,  parallel  beam, 
bright  enough  to  affect  the  eye  at  a  great  dis- 
tance. The  apparent  radii  of  the  arcs  con- 
stituting the  rainbow  are  constant,  or  nearly 


so ;  they  are  expressed  by  the  angles  between 
the  axis  O  Z  and  the  lines  O  a,  O  ft,  &c.,  and 
are  as  follows:  in  the  primary  bow,  for  the 
violet  40°  17',  for  the  red  42°  2' ;  in  the  sec- 
ondary bow,  for  the  red  50°  57',  for  the  violet 
54°  7'.  A  tertiary  bow,  formed  by  rays  that 
have  been  thrice  reflected  within  the  rain- 
drops, is  possible  at  a  distance  of  about  43°  50' 
from  the  sun ;  but  this  is  very  rarely  visible, 
owing  to  its  faintness  and  other  causes.  From 
the  above  explanation,  the  following  conse- 
quences are  obvious:  that  the  ordinary  rain- 
bows must  be  on  the  side  of  the  observer  op- 
posite the  sun ;  that  their  centres  must  be  di- 
rectly opposite  the  sun ;  that  they  must  move 
with  the  motion  of  the  sun,  declining  in  the 
morning,  and  rising  if  seen  at  evening;  that 
when  the  sun  and  the  observer  are  in  the 
same  horizontal  plane,  as  at  sunset,  the  bows 
will  be  semicircles,  and  their  altitudes  then 
about  42°  and  54°;  that  they  can  never  ap- 
proach nearer  than  this  to  the  zenith,  unless 
the  observer  be  on  an  elevated  position,  so  that 
the  sun  can  shine  from  below  the  horizontal 
plane  in  which  he  is ;  that  at  the  tops  of  high 
mountains  they  may  be  seen  as  complete  cir- 
cles; and  that,  to  one  at  the  ordinary  level, 
in  the  low  and  middle  latitudes,  they  are  nev- 
er seen  between  about  9  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing and  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon ;  while  in 
higher  latitudes,  where  the  sun  is  always  very 
low  in  the  sky,  they  may  occur  even  at  mid- 
day. If  the  rain  is  near,  the  bows  may  some- 
times be  seen  prolonged  upon  the  landscape. 
The  small  water  drops  constituting  spray  may 
afford  a  rainbow ;  hence  it  is  seen  in  the 
mist  arising  near  cataracts,  and,  because  near, 
is  then  small,  and  may  appear  as  a  complete 
circle.  A  partial  bow  may  be  observed  at  times 
in  drops  of  dew  or  rain  upon  herbage  or  grass. 
The  formation  of  the  supernumerary  bows  was 
explained  by  Young  (1804),  as  due  to  interfer- 
ence of  sets  of  rays  emerging  at  angles  very 
nearly  those  of  the  proper  colors  of  the  bows. 
Biot,  and  afterward  Brewster,  have  shown 
that  in  all  rainbows  the  light  is  polarized  in 
the  radial  planes  passing  through  the  axis 
O  Z,  and  hence  polarized  by  refraction  and  re- 
flection.— The  lunar  rainbow  is  usually  sin- 
gle, the  primary  bow  only,  and  is  often  white; 
when  colored,  it  is  but  faintly  so. — When  the 
drops  of  rain  are  exceedingly  fine,  as  in  the 
case  of  clouds  and  fog,  the  rainbow  prop- 
er is  replaced  by  bows  formed  by  the  reflec- 
tion and  interference  of  light  from  these  fine 
particles.  The  laws  of  these  fog  bows  are 
deducible  from  the  same  principles  that  hav» 
served  to  explain  the  rainbow.  The  phe- 
nomena themselves  are  exceedingly  brilliant; 
they  were  observed  by  Sykes  in  1829  (see 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  1835),  but  far 
more  perfectly  by  the  aeronauts  of  the  past 
few  years;  beautiful  examples  are  recorded 
in  Glaisher's  "  Travels  in  the  Air  "  (London, 
1870). — The  floating  ice  spiculse  or  crystals 
that  compose  those  higher  clouds  called  cirri 


EAIN  CROW 


EAISIN 


189 


affect  the  solar  rays  even  more  curiously  than 
the  spherical  drops  of  water,  causing  the  varied 
phenomena  of  parhelia,  all  of  which  are  ex- 
plainable on  principles  not  materially  different 
from  those  that  apply  to  the  rainbow  proper. 

RAIN  CROW.    See  CUCKOO. 

RAIN  GAUGE,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  upon  a  given 
area  during  a  certain  space  of  time.  For  ap- 
proximate purposes  a  tub  or  bucket,  with  a 
thin-edged  mouth,  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion for  catching  the  rain,  whose  depth  may 
afterward  be  measured  by  means  of  a  graduated 
rod,  .may  be  employed,  and  if  well  constructed 
and  used  with  care  may  fulfil  most  of  the  re- 
quirements of  exactness.  It  is  more  common,' 
however,  to  catch  the  fall  in  an  accurately 
made  funnel  whence  it  flows  into  a  holder, 
whose  form  is  immaterial;  it  is  subsequent- 
ly measured  either  by  weighing  or  by  means 
of  a  tall  graduated  cylinder,  which  gives  the 
average  depth  of  the  rainfall.  The  holder 
should  have  a  capacity  abundantly  sufficient  to 
receive  all  the  rain  that  may  be  caught.  It  is 
difficult  to  employ  a  rain  gauge  to  measure  a 
snowfall  unless  the  air  is  perfectly  still,  as  the 
wind  interferes  with  the  reception  of  the  snow  ; 
it  is  therefore  generally  preferable  after  a 
snow  storm  to  take  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  suffi- 
cient depth  and  with  it  cut  out  a  section  of  the 
snow  from  some  region  which  has  an  average 
depth  of  covering;  the  snow  thus  collected 
should  be  melted  or  dissolved  in  a  known 
quantity  of  water  and  measured.  For  special 
studies  different  forms  of  gauges  are  employed, 
in  which  the  opening  of  the  mouth  may  be 
horizontal,  inclined,  or  vertical;  rain  gauges 
are  also  attached  to  wind  vanes  so  as  always 
to  be  turned  toward  the  wind.  Very  great 
discretion  is  required  in  the  selection  of  the 
site  of  the  instrument ;  the  standard  position 
of  the  mouth  of  the  gauge  is  8  to  16  in.  above 
the  surface  of  a  broad  level  lawn ;  gauges  in 
the  neighborhood  of  trees  and  buildings  or  on 
the  tops  of  isolated  buildings  are  not  allow- 
able except  for  the  purpose  of  investigation. 
— For  the  numerous  details  in  reference  to 
this  important  subject,  see  the  annual  vol- 
umes of  Symons  on  "  British  Kainfall." 

RAINS,  a  K  E.  county  of  Texas,  watered  by 
Lake  fork  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Sabine 
river;  area,  about  220  sq.  m.  It  has  been 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  There  is 
considerable  timber.  Indian  corn,  wheat,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  sweet  potatoes,  cattle,  &c.,  are 
raised.  Capital,  Emory. 

RAINY  LAKE,  a  body  of  water,  50  m.  long 
and  of  irregular  width,  on  the  border  of  Minne- 
sota and  British  America,  discharging  through 
Eainy  or  Eainy  Lake  river  (100  m.  long)  into 
the  lake  of  the  Woods.  It  receives  the  river 
La  Seine,  the  outlet  of  Lac  des  Mille  Lacs,  from 
the  northeast,  and  from  the  east  the  waters  of 
a  chain  of  lakes  lying  along  the  international 
frontier,  and  having  their  source  in  the  height 


of  land  dividing  the  streams  that  flow  into 
Lake  Superior  from  those  that  flow  into  Lake 
Winnipeg.  It  contains  numerous  islands.  Near 
its  outlet  are  the  falls  of  Fort  Francis,  20  ft. 
high.  The  lake  and  Eainy  river  below  the 
falls  are  navigable  by  steamers. 

RAISIN  (Fr.,  a  grape),  the  dried  fruit  of  the 
European  grape  vine  (vitis  vinifera).  None  of 
our  native  grapes  (see  GRAPE)  has  yet  afforded 
raisins  suitable  for  commerce,  though  one  or 
two  varieties  encourage  the  hope  that  some 
may  yet  be  produced  which  will  make  good  rai- 
sins. The  European  grape  succeeds  perfectly  in 
California,  and  the  production  there  is  already 
sufficient  to  supply  the  home  demand.  The 
raisins  of  commerce  are  produced  in  the  coun- 
tries around  the  Mediterranean.  The  varieties 
recognized  in  trade  arise  not  merely  from  the 
original  differences  in  the  grapes,  but  also  from 
the  methods  of  drying.  Among  the  best  sorts 
are  those  known  as  the  Malaga,  muscatel,  or 
"  sun  raisins ;"  these  are  dried  upon  the  vines, 
as,  unlike  most  fruits,  the  grape  does  not  drop 
when  ripe ;  the  stem  to  each  bunch  when  ripe 
is  twisted  or  partly  severed,  and  the  grapes 
soon  shrivel  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
they  contain,  and  become  sweeter  by  the  con- 
sequent concentration  of  the  pulp  ;  when  dried 
the  bunches  are  taken  off  and  carefully  placed 
in  boxes  with  sheets  of  paper  separating  the 
layers.  These  raisins,  better  than  any  other 
sort,  retain  the  freshness  and  bloom  of  the  fruit, 
and  when  fresh  have  less  of  the  saccharine  ex- 
udation which  is  found  upon  most  of  the  other 
varieties.  The  common  kinds  of  raisins  are  pre- 
pared by  drying  the  ripe  grapes  after  they  are 
picked,  either  in  the  sun  or  in  heated  rooms, 
and  while  they  are  drying  dipping  them  in  a 
lye  of  wood  ashes  and  barilla,  of  specific  grav- 
ity 1-110,  to  every  four  gallons  of  which  is 
added  a  pint  of  oil  and  a  handful  of  salt ;  the 
effect  of  this  is  to  cause  a  saccharine  exudation 
to  take  place,  which  forms  concretions  upon 
the  raisins  and  coats  them  with  a  thin  varnish. 
The  best  raisins  of  this  kind  are  hung  on  lines 
to  dry  in  the  sun,  and  as  they  begin  to  shrivel 
they  are  dipped  in  the  lye  once  or  twice  and 
hung  up  again  to  complete  the  drying.  The 
raisins  known  as  sultana  come  from  Smyrna; 
they  are  from  a  small  grape  without  seeds,  and 
come  packed  in  drums.  The  black  Smyj-na 
raisins  are  also  small,  but  have  very  large 
seeds,  and  are  generally  free  from  sugary  con- 
cretions.— A  very  important  variety  of  raisins 
are  called  currants,  or  Zante  currants,  and  are 
popularly  supposed  to  be  common  currants 
preserved  in  some  manner ;  they  are,  however, 
produced  by  a  very  small-sized  grape,  largely 
cultivated  at  Patras,  in  Zante,  Ithaca,  and 
Cephalonia,  and  in  the  Grecian  archipelago. 
The  grapes  are  no  larger  than  peas,  and  the 
bunches  are  only  about  3  in.  long.  After  dry- 
ing in  the  sun,  they  are  stored  in  large  mass- 
es, which  become  so  compact  from  the  sugar 
which  exudes  from  them,  that  they  have  to  be 
forcibly  dug  apart  for  packing.  For  shipment 


190 


EAJAHMUNDRY 


RAJPOOTANA 


they  are  placed  in  casks,  and  made  into  a  solid 
mass  by  treading.  They  were  formerly  called 
corinths,  and  are  mentioned  in  old  books  as 
currans.  The  demand  for  them  is  very  large 
in  the  United  States. — Raisins  are  sometimes 
employed  instead  of  grapes  in  making  wine, 
and  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
some  of  the  best  wines  were  of  this  character. 

RAJAIIMl.VURY,  or  Biy»mahendri,  a  town  of 
British  India,  in  the  province  and  280  m.  N.  N. 
E.  of  the  city  of  Madras,  capital  of  a  district 
formerly  of  the  same  name,  but  now  known 
as  the  district  of  Godavery;  pop.  between 
15,000  and  20,000.  It  is  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Godavery  river,  here  nearly  two  miles 
wide.  The  houses  are  mainly  of  mud,  but  one 
story  high,  and  roofed  with  tiles. — The  district 
(pop.  in  1872,  1,584,179)  includes  the  rich  al- 
luvial delta  region  of  the  Godavery,  which  has 
been  made  very  prosperous  by  the  existing  sys- 
tem of  irrigation.  The  chief  products  are  rice, 
millet,  maize,  cotton,  indigo,  tobacco,  and  sugar 
cane.  Ooriuga,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Godavery, 
is  the  principal  port. 

RAJPOOTANA  (formerly  RAJASTHAX),  a  terri- 
tory of  British  India,  consisting  of  18  native 
states,  principally  inhabited  by  Rajpoots,  in 
subsidiary  alliance  with  the  British  govern- 
ment. This  aggregation  of  states,  which  com- 
pletely encloses  the  district  of  Ajmeer,  ex- 
tends E.  and  W.  a  distance  of  520  in.  between 
Ion.  69°  35'  and  78°  10'  E.,  and  N.  and  S.  480 
m.  between  lat.  23°  15'  and  30°  10'  N.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  Bhawalpoor  and  the  Punjaub ; 
E.  by  the  Northwest  Provinces,  the  Chitore 
hills,  and  the  river  Ohumbul,  a  tributary  of  the 
Jumna,  beyond  which  lie  the  dominions  of 
Sindia ;  S.  by  Malwa  and  Guzerat ;  and  W. 
by  Sinde.  For  purposes  of  British  interven- 
tion and  control  the  region  is  divided  into 
seven  political  agencies,  and  the  following 
table  exhibits  the  area  and  population  of  the 
several  states  in  each : 


DIVISIONS. 

An*  In 

iqotre  milw. 

Population. 

Mewar  Agency  : 
Odeypoor  or  Mewar  

11.614 

1,161.400 

Purtabgurh  

1,460 

150000 

Dongurpoor  

1,000 

100000 

Banswara  

1,900 

I;-MKMI 

Jeypoor  Agency  : 
Jeypoor  .... 

15000 

1900000 

Kisliriiu'iini  

720 

TIM  i.«i 

Bickaneer  

17,878 

531)000 

Marwar  Agency  : 
Joodpoor  or  Marwar  

86.672 

1  7S8600 

Jessulmeer.  

12,252 

Til  IMll 

Haraotee  Agency  : 
Boondee  

2,291 

220000 

Kotah  

6.000 

433400 

Jhalawar  

2.500 

220000 

Tonk  

1,800 

182  000 

Eastern  States  Agency  : 
Dholepoor  

1  626 

500000 

Bhurtpoor  

1  :iT4 

('.:,  i  it.ii  i 

Kerowlee  

1  260 

1  in..,,,  i 

Alwur  (or  Ulwur)  Agency  : 
Alwnr  

3000 

778596 

Serohee  Superintendency  : 
Serohee  

8000 

55,000 

Total I   120.845 


The  Aravulli  mountains  are  for  the  most  part 
within  the  limits  of  Rajpootana,  extending 
from  Ajmeer  southwesterly  between  Marwar 
and  Mewar  to  Mt.  Aboo,  near  the  southern 
frontier  of  the  country  in  the  state  of  Serohee, 
where  they  attain  a  height  of  5,650  ft.  The 
regions  of  Marwar  immediately  W.  of  the 
range  are  watered  by  the  river  Loonee,  which 
rises  on  its  western  slope  and  flows  S.  W.  more 
than  200  m.  into  the  runn  of  Cutch.  West- 
ward, beyond  this  river,  a  great  part  of  Raj- 
pootana is  a  sandy  expanse  of  desert,  extend- 
ing from  Joodpoor,  the  capital  of  Marwar, 
through  Jessulmeer,  the  westernmost  of  the 
Rajpoot  states.  The  towns  scattered  over  this 
arid  tract  are  situated  in  oases,  and  among 
them  are  some  of  the  most  salubrious  and 
beautiful  inhabited  places  in  India.  The  state 
of  Bickaneer,  in  the  north,  bordering  upon 
Bhawalpoor,  is  also  a  dry  and  desolate  region. 
Greater  fertility  prevails  in  the  states  which 
lie  N.  E.  and  E.  of  Ajmeer  and  the  Aravulli 
range,  and  which  are  watered  by  the  Chumbul 
and  its  tributaries,  as  well  as  by  other  affluents 
of  the  Jumna.  Directly  N.  of  Ajmeer,  on  the 
boundary  between  Jeypoor  and  Joodpoor,  is 
the  Sambhur  salt  lake,  22  m.  long  and  6  m. 
broad,  which  yields  a  valuable  product  of  salt, 
the  annual  receipts  from  the  Joodpoor  por- 
tion being  about  £40,000.  There  are  several 
smaller  lakes  in  the  country. — Of  the  18  states 
of  Rajpootana,  15  are  occupied  principally  by 
Rajpoots ;  there  are  two  Jat  states,  Dholepoor 
and  Bhurtpoor;  and  the  population  of  Tonk 
is  Mohammedan.  Each  of  the  seven  political 
agencies  is  under  the  charge  of  a  British  offi- 
cer, who  maintains  constant  political  relations 
with  the  native  ministers  of  state.  The  chief 
administrative  and  diplomatic  authority  for  the 
entire  territory  is  vested  in  a  political  agent  of 
the  viceroy,  who  resides  at  Ajmeer  and  on  Mt. 
Aboo.  An  interjurisdictional  court  of  wakils 
is  held  under  the  presidency  of  the  Marwar 
agent,  for  the  settlement  of  all  disputes  be- 
tween the  several  states  of  Rajpootana.  In 
March,  1873,  the  military  force  stationed  in 
Rajpootana  comprised  2,919  native  infantry, 
1,472  native  cavalry,  and  42  British  officers. — 
The  Rajpoots,  by  far  the  most  numerous  por- 
tion of  the  population,  who  claim  to  be  de- 
scendants of  the  original  Kshattriya  caste  of  the 
Hindoos,  appear  to  have  inhabited  the  coun- 
try from  the  earliest  historical  period.  Not- 
withstanding their  formidable  resistance  to  the 
Mohammedan  invasion,  they  became  peaceful 
subjects  of  the  earlier  emperors,  who  treated 
their  religion  with  tolerance ;  but  in  the  time 
of  Aurungzebe  his  oppressive  measures  induced 
them  to  take  part  in  the  war  of  the  Mahrattas 
against  him.  Subsequently  Rajpootana  was 
invaded  by  various  marauding  armies,  but  in 
1761  the  Rajpoots  had  achieved  practical  inde- 
pendence both  of  the  Mohammedans  and  of 
the  Mahrattas.  In  the  early  part  of  the  pres- 
ent century  Sindia  and  Holkar  exacted  tribute 
from  the  chiefs,  and  the  Pindarrees  made  re- 


EAKOCZY 


EALEIGH 


191 


peated  incursions  into  the  country,  which  were 
so  destructive  that  British  intervention  was 
necessary  to  save  the  people  from  ruin ;  and 
the  principal  Rajpoot  states  were  transferred 
to  the  English,  by  the  consent  of  their  own 
rulers,  in  1818,  after  the  British  forces  had  de- 
feated Holkar  and  expelled  the  Pindarree  rob- 
bers. A  few  were  acquired  earlier,  and  others 
subsequently.  Their  present  political  status  is 
that  of  subject-allied  states. — See  Tod's  "  An- 
nals and  Antiquities  of  Kajasthan  "  (London, 
1829),  and  Malleson's  "Historical  Sketch  of 
the  Native  States  of  India  "  (1875). 

RAKOCZY,  a  noble  family  of  Transylvania, 
several  members  of  which  were  princes  of  that 
country.  Of  these,  GEOEGB  I.  (1631-'48)  made 
himself  conspicuous  by  his  cooperation  with 
the  Swedes  in  the  latter  years  of  the  thirty 
years'  war,  when  he  succeeded  in  forcing  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  III.  to  restore  the  liberties 
of  Hungary  by  the  treaty  of  Linz  (1645).  (See 
Actes  et  documents  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  de 
Valliance  de  George  Rakbczy  avee  lea  Francais 
et  les  Suedois,  &c.,  by  A.  Szilagyi,  Pesth,  1875.) 
His  son  GEOEGE  II.  was  less  successful  in  a 
war  with  Poland  (1657).  The  most  celebrated 
member  of  the  family,  FKANCIS  II.,  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1676,  died  at  Bodos- 
to,  Turkey,  April  8,  1735.  After  the  death  of 
his  father,  Francis  I.,  and  the  surrender  of 
Munkacs  to  the  Austrians  after  a  heroic  de- 
fence by  his  mother,  he  was  brought  up  under 
the  care  of  the  court  of  Vienna,  and  during 
the  insurrection  under  Tokolyi  was  placed  un- 
der the  Jesuits  in  Bohemia,  who  strove  in 
vain  to  induce  him  to  abjure  Protestantism. 
Subsequently  he  received  part  of  the  estates 
of  his  relatives,  and  was  permitted  to  reside 
in  Hungary.  Accused  of  being  engaged  in  a 
conspiracy  to  excite  rebellion,  he  was  taken 
in  May,  1701,  to  Austria,  and  confined  in  a 
dungeon  at  Wiener-Neustadt ;  but  he  escaped 
and  fled  to  Poland,  and  in  1703  suddenly  ap- 
peared in  the  vicinity  of  Munkacs,  collected  an 
insurrectionary  band,  and  issued  a  bitter  mani- 
festo against  Austria.  He  was  subsidized  by 
Louis  XIV.,  then  engaged  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  after  a  short  time  had 
most  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania  in  his  pow- 
er, and  even  threatened  Vienna.  The  revolted 
Hungarian  districts  and  cities  in  1705  formed 
a  confederation  similar  to  those  of  Poland,  ap- 
pointing Eakoczy,  who  had  previously  been 
elected  prince  of  Transylvania,  their  chief  with 
the  title  of  dux  (Hung,  vezer).  But  in  August, 
1708,  while  investing  Trentschin,  he  was  sur- 
prised and  badly  defeated  by  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral Heister,  and  barely  escaped.  From  this 
time  the  arms  of  Austria  were  in  the  ascen- 
dant, and  her  victories  in  the  field  were  assisted 
by  the  dissensions  which  long  before  had  man- 
ifested themselves  among  the  confederates. 
Eak6czy  having  gone  to  Poland,  in  order  to 
meet  with  Peter  the  Great  of  Eussia,  a  peace 
was  concluded  in  his  absence  between  Austria 
and  the  confederates  at  Szatmar  in  1711.  Af- 
697  VOL.  xiv.— 13 


ter  living  several  years  in  France  and  Spain, 
Eakoczy  went  to  Turkey,  and  with  other  refu- 
gees passed  the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  castle  of 
Eodosto  on  the  sea  of  Marmora.  He  wrote  a 
narrative  of  the  struggle  in  Hungary  under  the 
title  of  Hemoires  sur  les  revolutions  de  Hongrie 
(the  Hague,  1738).  He  also  composed  medita- 
tions, hymns,  soliloquies,  and  a  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch. 

RAKOS.    See  PESTH. 

RlLE,  or  Rasles,  Sebastien,  a  French  mission- 
ary to  the  North  American  Indians,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1658,  killed  at  Norridge- 
wock,  Maine,  Aug.  12, 1724.  He  was  a  Jesuit, 
and  taught  Greek  at  a  college  in  Nimes.  He 
embarked  at  La  Eochelle,  July  23, 1689,  arrived 
in  Quebec  on  Oct.  13,  and  was  stationed  suc- 
cessively at  the  Abenaki  mission  of  St.  Francis 
near  the  falls  of  the  Chaudiere,  then  in  the 
Illinois  country,  and  finally  at  Norridgewock 
on  the  Kennebec.  He  arrived  here  at  least  as 
early  as  1695.  The  English  settlers  ascribed 
their  quarrels  with  the  Abenakis  to  his  influ- 
ence, accused  him  of  instigating  the  forays  of 
the  savages  upon  the  settlements  along  the 
coast,  and  set  a  price  upon  his  head.  A  party 
of  New  Englanders  under  Capt.  Hilton  at- 
tacked Norridgewock  in  1705,  but  withdrew 
after  burning  the  church.  A  second  expedi- 
tion in  1722  pillaged  his  cabin  and  the  church, 
which  had  been  rebuilt,  but  the  missionary  es- 
caped to  the  woods.  Among  the  papers  which 
they  carried  off  was  his  dictionary  of  the  Abe- 
naki language,  now  preserved  in  the  library  of 
Harvard  college,  and  printed  in  the  memoirs 
of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and  sciences, 
with  an  introduction  and  notes  by  John  Pick- 
ering (4to,  Cambridge,  1833).  In  1724  a  party 
of  208  men  from  Fort  Eichmond  surprised 
Norridgewock,  killed  a  number  of  the  Indians, 
and  shot  Father  Eale  at  the  foot  of  the  mission 
cross. — See  a  memoir  of  him  by  Convers 
Francis,  D.  D.,  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biogra- 
phy "  (2d  series,  vol.  vii.). 

RALEIGH,  a  S.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Kanawha  or  New  river,  and 
watered  by  Coal  river  and  other  tributaries  of 
the  Kanawha;  area,  about  380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  3,673,  of  whom  16  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  mountainous.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  7,509  bushels  of  wheat, 
73,657  of  Indian  corn,  16,278  of  oats,  6,720  of 
potatoes,  5,769  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  11,338  of  wool, 
and  41,635  of  butter.  There  were  827  horses, 
3,357  cattle,  5,462  sheep,  and  4,120  swine. 
Capital,  Ealeigh  Court  House. 

RALEIGH,  a  city  of  Wake  co.,  North  Caro- 
lina, capital  of  the  county  and  state,  on  the 
Ealeigh  and  Gaston  and  the  Ealeigh  and  Au- 
gusta Air  Line  railroads,  and  on  the  North 
Carolina  division  of  the  Eichmond  and  Dan- 
ville railroad,  6  m.  W.  of  the  Neuse  river,  and 
230  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Washington ;  lat.  35°  47' 
N.,  Ion.  78°48'W.;  pop.  in  1850,4,518;  in 
1860,  4,780;  in  1870,7,790,  of  whom  4,094 
were  colored.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on 


192 


RALEIGH 


an  elevation,  and  is  very  regularly  laid  out. 
In  the  centre  is  a  park  of  ten  acres  called 
Union  square,  from  which  extend  four  streets, 
99  ft.  wide,  dividing  the  city  into  four  parts, 
in  each  of  which  is  a  square  of  four  acres. 
The  state  house  is  of  granite,  166  ft.  long 
and  90  ft.  wide,  and  cost  $531,000.  The  old 
state  house,  containing  Canova's  statue  of 
Washington,  was  burned  in  1831.  Other  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  state  geological  museum, 
the  state  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  the  blind,  the  state  insane  asylum,  the 
state  penitentiary,  the  county  court  house, 
and  the  county  jail.  The  United  States  court 
house  and  post  office,  a  fine  granite  building, 
is  in  course  of  erection  (1875).  The  state  su- 
preme court  and  the  United  States  circuit  court 
for  the  eastern  district  of  North  Carolina  are 
held  here.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  cotton 
and  dry  goods.  The  city  contains  the  shops 
of  the  Raleigh  and  Gaston  and  Raleigh  and 
Augusta  Air  Line  railroads,  two  iron  founde- 
ries,  two  cigar  manufactories,  a  manufactory 
of  pumps,  two  or  three  marble  yards,  several 
printing  and  binding  establishments,  and  three 
national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$700,000.  There  are  three  hotels,  two  public 
halls,  separate  public  schools  for  white  and  col- 
ored children,  three  female  seminaries,  under 
the  management  of  the  Baptists,  Episcopalians, 
and  Presbyterians  respectively,  several  private 
schools,  two  libraries  in  the  state  house  (the 
law  library  with  4,000  volumes,  and  the  state 
library  with  25,000  volumes),  two  daily,  one 
semi- weekly,  and  nine  weekly  newspapers,  and 
Baptist,  Christian,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  Pres- 
byterian, and  Roman  Catholic  churches. — The 
site  of  Raleigh  having  been  selected  as  the  seat 
of  government  in  1788,  it  was  laid  out  in  1792 
and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1794. 

RALEIGH,  or  Ralegh,  Sir  Walter,  an  English 
courtier  and  navigator,  born  at  Hayes,  Devon- 
shire, in  1552,  beheaded  at  Old  Palace  yard, 
Westminster,  Oct.  29,  1618.  At  the  ago  of  17 
he  left  Oriel  college,  Oxford,  to  join  a  troop 
sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Huguenots  in  France, 
and  afterward  served,  it  is  said,  in  the  Neth- 
erlands. On  his  return  to  England  he  found 
that  his  half  brother,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert, 
had  just  obtained  a  patent  (1578)  for  estab- 
lishing a  plantation  in  America,  and  entered 
into  the  scheme.  They  put  to  sea  in  1579; 
one  of  their  ships  was  lost,  the  remainder,  it 
is  said,  were  crippled  in  an  engagement  with 
a  Spanish  fleet,  and  they  returned  without 
making  land.  The  next  year  Raleigh  served 
as  captain  against  the  Desmond  rebellion  in 
Ireland.  On  his  return,  it  is  said  that  he 
met  the  queen  one  day  as  she  was  walking, 
and  spread  his  mantle  over  a  miry  place  in  the 
path  for  her  to  tread  upon  it.  Struck  by  his 
gallantry,  Elizabeth  admitted  him  to  court, 
loaded  him  with  attentions,  and  employed  him 
to  attend  the  French  ambassador  Simier  on  his 
return  to  France,  and  afterward  to  escort  the 
duke  of  Anjou  to  Antwerp.  He  soon  made 


use  of  his  influence  to  promote  a  second  expe- 
dition to  America.  Prevented  by  an  accident 
from  going  in  person,  he  left  the  command  of 
the  fleet  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  who  sailed 
from  Plymouth  with  five  ships  in  1583,  and 
reached  Newfoundland,  of  which  he  took  pos- 
session in  the  name  of  the  queen ;  but  his  ships 
were  dispersed,  and  Gilbert  himself  on  the 
voyage  home  was  lost.  Raleigh,  obtaining 
from  Elizabeth  an  ample  patent  and  the  title 
of  lord  proprietor  over  an  extensive  region, 
fitted  out  two  vessels  under  the  command  of 
Philip  Amidas  and  Arthur  Barlow,  who  reach- 
ed Ocracoke  inlet  on  the  shore  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  July,  1584.  They  explored  Pamlico  and 
Albemarle  sounds,  and  returned  to  England  in 
September  with  a  glowing  account  of  their 
discoveries.  Elizabeth,  as  a  memorial  of  her 
state  of  life,  called  the  newly  found  region 
Virginia,  and  conferred  knighthood  upon  Ra- 
leigh, with  a  lucrative  monopoly  of  wines. 
Raleigh,  now  a  member  of  parliament  for  Dev- 
onshire, obtained  a  bill  confirming  his  patent, 
raised  a  company  of  colonists,  and  in  1585  sent 
out  under  command  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville 
seven  vessels  with  108  emigrants.  The  colony 
landed  at  Roanoke  island  about  July  1,  and 
Grenville  soon  returned  home  with  the  ships, 
capturing  on  his  way  a  rich  Spanish  prize.  In 
the  mean  time  Raleigh  had  been  appointed 
seneschal  of  the  duchies  of  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall and  lord  warden  of  the  stannaries,  and 
had  obtained  a  grant  of  12,000  acres  of  for- 
feited land  in  Ireland.  His  favor  at  court  con- 
tinued to  increase,  but  among  the  multitude  he 
was  one  of  the  most  cordially  hated  persons 
in  England.  In  1586  two  parties  were  sent 
out  to  Virginia  with  reinforcements,  but  they 
found  the  settlement  abandoned.  The  dis- 
heartened colonists  had  gone  home  in  Sir 
Francis  Drake's  ship,  and  the  fruit  of  their 
expedition  had  been  little  more  than  the  intro- 
duction into  England  of  tobacco  and  potatoes. 
Raleigh  now  determined  to  found  an  agricul- 
tural state,  and  in  April,  1587,  despatched  a 
considerable  body  of  emigrants  to  make  a  set- 
tlement on  Chesapeake  bay.  He  granted  them 
a  charter  of  incorporation,  and  appointed  a 
municipal  government  "  for  the  city  of  Ra- 
leigh," intrusting  the  administration  to  John 
White,  with  12  assistants.  They  founded  their 
city  not  on  the  bay,  but  on  the  site  of  the  for- 
mer settlement  at  Roanoke  island,  and  when 
their  ship  returned  sent  Gov.  White  back  to 
England  to  expedite  reinforcements.  But  two 
ships  which  Raleigh  sent  out  with  supplies 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  His  means 
were  now  exhausted,  and  the  colonists  all  per- 
ished. Meanwhile  Raleigh  had  exerted  him- 
self to  assist  the  preparations  for  resisting  an 
expected  Spanish  invasion ;  in  1587  he  was  a 
member  of  the  council  of  war,  and  had  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  Cornwall,  of  which  coun- 
ty he  was  lieutenant  general ;  and  in  1588, 
when  the  great  armada  appeared  in  the  chan- 
nel, he  hung  upon  its  rear  in  a  vessel  of  his 


RALEIGH 


RALPH 


193 


own,  annoying  it  by  quick  and  unexpected 
movements.  He  was  in  Drake's  expedition  to 
restore  Dom  Antonio  to  the  throne  of  Por- 
tugal (1589),  and  captured  some  Spanish  ves- 
sels intended  for  a  fresh  invasion  of  England. 
Visiting  Ireland,  he  saw  Edmund  Spenser,  with 
whom  he  had  already  contracted  a  friendship, 
and  brought  him  to  Elizabeth's  court  to  pre- 
sent to  her  majesty  three  books  of  the  "Faerie 
Queen."  In  the  hope  of  shattering  the  power 
of  Spain  in  the  West  Indies,  he  collected,  most- 
ly at  his  own  expense,  and  sailed  with  a  fleet 
of  13  vessels,  and  with  Frobisher  captured  the 
largest  Spanish  prize  that  had  ever  been  brought 
to  an  English  port.  Soon  after  this  (1591) 
it  was  discovered  that  he  had  debauched  one 
of  the  queen's  maids  of  honor,  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Throgmorton ;  and  though  he 
married  the  lady  and  lived  with  her  happily  till 
his  death,  such  an  offence  was  not  to  be  over- 
looked. Imprisoned  for  two  months  and  ban- 
ished from  court,  he  employed  the  period  of 
his  disgrace  in  planning  an  expedition  to  Gui- 
ana. He  set  sail  with  five  ships  in  1595,  and 
returned  the  same  year,  after  exploring  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  country  about  the  Orinoco 
and  destroying  the  Spanish  settlement  of  San 
Jose\  He  published  on  his  return  a  highly  col- 
ored account  of  this  voyage,  in  his  "Discovery 
of  the  large,  rich,  and  beautiful  Empire  of  Gui- 
ana" (4to,  1596).  He  cooperated  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Cadiz,  was  wounded,  and  was  restored 
to  the  queen's  favor.  In  1597  he  sailed  under 
Essex  against  the  Azores,  and  took  Fayal,  but 
quarrelled  with  his  commander  and  returned. 
He  had  obtained  a  grant  of  the  manor  of  Sher- 
borne  in  Dorsetshire,  which  he  magnificently 
embellished,  was  sent  with  Lord  Cobham  on  a 
joint  embassy  to  the  Netherlands  in  1600,  and 
on  his  return  was  made  governor  of  Jersey. 
The  execution  of  Essex,  which  he  was  supposed 
to  have  had  an  agency  in  effecting,  added  great- 
ly to  the  public  odium  with  which  he  was 
regarded,  and  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603 
proved  a  final  blow  to  his  fortunes.  On  the 
accession  of  James  he  was  stripped  of  his  pre- 
ferments, forbidden  the  royal  presence,  and 
shortly  afterward  arrested  on  charge  of  con- 
spiring to  place  Lady  Arabella  Stnart  on  the 
throne.  He  made  an  attempt,  probably  feigned, 
to  commit  suicide.  Convicted  on  the  slightest 
evidence,  after  a  rancorous  speech  from  Attor- 
ney General  Coke,  he  was  reprieved  and  sent  to 
the  tower,  and  his  estates  were  given  to  Carr, 
afterward  earl  of  Somerset.  During  his  13 
years'  imprisonment  he  composed  his  "  Histo- 
ry of  the  World"  (1614),  a  work  greatly  supe- 
rior botli  in  style  and  matter  to  the  English 
historical  compositions  which  had  preceded  it. 
For  six  years  his  wife  was  permitted  to  bear 
him  company.  At  last,  Villiers  having  sup- 
planted Somerset  in  the  royal  favor,  Raleigh 
was  liberated  in  March,  1615,  but  not  pardoned. 
Obtaining  from  James  a  commission  as  admiral 
of  the  fleet  with  ample  privileges,  he  fitted  out 
14  ships,  and  reached  Guiana  with  the  loss  of 


two  in  November,  1617.  Keymis  was  sent  up 
the  Orinoco  with  250  men  in  boats,  landed  at 
the  Spanish  settlement  of  St.  Thomas,  and,  in 
defiance  of  the  peaceable  instructions  of  James, 
killed  the  governor  and  set  fire  to  the  town. 
Raleigh's  eldest  son  was  killed  in  the  action. 
Unable  either  to  advance  or  to  maintain  their 
position,  they  retreated  in  haste  to  the  ships, 
a  Spanish  fleet,  which  had  been  informed  of 
their  intended  movements,  hovering  near  them. 
Keymis,  reproached  for  his  ill  success,  com- 
mitted suicide  ;  many  of  the  sailors  mutinied; 
the  ships  scattered ;  and  Raleigh  landed  at  Ply- 
mouth in  June,  1618,  completely  broken  in  for- 
tune and  reputation.  He  was  soon  arrested, 
and  failing  in  an  attempt,  by  feigning  madness, 
to  escape  to  France,  was  committed  to  the 
tower.  The  Spanish  ambassador  demanded  his 
punishment,  and  James  was  not  reluctant  to 
grant  it.  The  judges  decided  that,  being  still 
under  judgment  of  death  pronounced  in  1603, 
he  could  not  be  tried  again,  and  it  was  resolved 
to  execute  the  former  sentence. — Raleigh  was 
a  man  of  imposing  person,  dauntless  courage, 
extensive  knowledge,  and  varied  accomplish- 
ments. His  speeches  show  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  political  economy  far  above  his 
time.  His  literary  productions,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  include  some  short  poems, 
"  Maxims  of  State,"  "  The  Cabinet  Council," 
"  The  Sceptic,"  and  "Advice  to  his  Son ;"  and 
he  is  also  remembered  in  the  world  of  letters 
as  the  founder  of  the  "  Mermaid  club."  His 
life  has  been  written  by  William  Oldys,  Arthur 
Cay  ley  (2  vols.  4to,  London,  1805-'6),  Mrs.  A. 
T.  Thomson  (8vo,  London,  1830),  P.  F.  Tytler 
(Edinburgh,  1833),  and  Edward  Edwards  (2 
vols.,  London,  1868).  His  poems  were  col- 
lected by  Sir  E.  Brydges  (London,  1814),  his 
"Miscellaneous  Waitings"  by  Dr.  Birch  (2 
vols.,  1751),  and  his  "  Complete  Works"  were 
published  at  Oxford  (8  vols.,  1829). 

RALLS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  separated 
from  Illinois  by  the  Mississippi  river,  and  in- 
tersected by  Salt  river ;  area,  about  525  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,510,  of  whom  1,255  were  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  broken  or  undulating, 
comprising  prairie  and  timber  land  in  nearly 
equal  proportion.  The  soil  is  very  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  158,728  bushels 
of  wheat,  292,534  of  Indian  corn,  125,677  of 
oats,  15,740  of  potatoes,  32,533  Ibs.  of  wool, 
127,793  of  butter,  and  8,962  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  4,715  horses,  1,150  mules  and  asses, 
3,668  milch  cows,  11,470  sheep,  and  16,660 
swine.  Capital,  New  London. 

RALPH,  James,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  died  in  Chiswick,  England, 
Jan.  24,  1762.  He  was  a  schoolmaster  in  Phila- 
delphia, went  to  England  in  company  with  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  in  1724,  wrote  "The  Fashion- 
able Lady,  or  Harlequin's  Opera,"  performed 
in  1730,  and  altered  several  old  plays.  He  at- 
tached himself  to  the  faction  of  the  prince  of 
Wales,  and  on  the  accession  of  George  III.  re- 
ceived a  pension,  but  only  lived  to  enjoy  it  six 


194 


RAM 


months.  His  only  political  work  now  remem- 
bered is  an  octavo  volume  in  answer  to  the 
duchess  of  Marlborough's  "Account  of  her 
Conduct,"  in  which  he  defended  the  memory 
of  Queen  Mary  and  Queen  Anne.  He  con- 
tinned  anonymously  Guthrie's  history,  under 
the  title  of  a  "  History  of  England  during  the 
Reigns  of  King  William,  Queen  Anne,  and 
George  I." 

RAM,  Battering.    See  BATTERING.  RAM. 

RAM,  Water.    See  HYDRAULIC  RAM. 

RAMADAN,  or  Ramazan  (the  hot  month,  from 
Arab,  ramida,  to  glow  with  heat),  the  ninth 
month  of  the  Mohammedan  year,  during  the 
whole  of  which  a  rigorous  fast  is  command- 
ed by  the  Koran,  in  commemoration  of  the 
first  divine  revelations  received  by  the  prophet. 
No  one  is  allowed  food  or  drink  from  sun- 
rise until  the  appearance  of  the  stars ;  and 
those  who  are  unable  to  observe  the  ordinance 
on  account  of  sickness,  must  fast  during  the 
month  immediately  succeeding  their  recovery. 
The  Moslems  compensate  themselves  for  this 
rigor  during  the  day  by  feasting  at  its  close; 
and  Ramadan  is  succeeded  by  three  days  of 
feasting  called  the  little  Bairam,  the  two  cor- 
responding to  the  Christian  Lent  and  Easter. 
(See  BAIRAM.) 

RAMAYANA.  See  I.vni A.  RELIGIONS  AND  RE- 
LIGIOUS LITERATURE  OF,  vol.  ix.,  p.  223. 

RAMBOMLLET,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Seine-et-Oise,  30  m.  S.  W.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  4,725.  It  contains  a  pal- 
ace built  in  the  shape  of  a  horse  shoe,  protected 
by  ditches  and  flanked  with  five  strong  towers, 
in  one  of  which  Francis  I.  died.  It  is  stir- 
sounded  by  beautiful  gardens  planned  by  Le 
N6tre  and  a  large  park.  The  extensive  forest 
adjoining  was  the  favorite  sporting  ground  of 
Charles  X.,  who  after  the  triumph  of  the  rev- 
olution of  July,  1830,  in  Paris,  made  an  inef- 
fectual show  of  resistance  here.  A  school 
for  daughters  of  officers  was  established  in  the 
palace  in  1852. 

RAMBOl'ILLET,  Catherine  de  Vivonne,  marchion- 
ess de,  a  French  leader  of  society,  born  in  Rome 
in  1588,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  2,  1665.  Her  fa- 
ther was  Jean  de  Vivonne,  marquis  of  Pisani, 
French  ambassador  in  Rome,  and  her  mother 
was  a  Roman  lady.  At  an  early  age  she  mar- 
ried Charles  d'Angennes,  afterward  marquis 
de  Rambouillet.  After  arriving  in  Paris  she 
was  shocked  by  the  immorality  and  puerility 
of  the  court  circles,  gathered  round  her  a  se- 
lect society,  and  fitted  up  the  h6tel  Rambouil- 
let with  a  special  view  to  its  convenience  for 
literary  reunions.  Here  she  dispensed  generous 
hospitality  for  half  a  century  alike  to  authors, 
wits,  and  persons  of  rank,  who  now  for  the 
first  time  met  on  a  footing  of  equality.  Her 
daughter  Julie,  afterward  duchess  de  Montau- 
sier,  was  the  idol  of  her  guests,  of  whom  the 
women  were  called  les  precieuses,  and  assumed 
classical  and  romantic  names.  The  conversa- 
tional brilliancy  which  ever  afterward  distin- 
guished the  great  saloons  of  Paris  originated 


RAMIE 

here,  and  the  French  academy  took  its  rise 
from  one  of  the  literary  reunions  which  grew 
out  of  those  at  the  hotel  Rambouillet.  Voiture, 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  academy, 
was  the  most  assiduous  and  popular  habitue  of 
the  house;  Corneille  and  Bossuet  first  came 
into  notice  here ;  Descartes  found  here  warm 
admirers ;  Balzac,  La  Rochefoucault,  Malherbe, 
Mine,  de  Sevigne,  and  hosts  of  other  distin- 
guished persons  were  among  the  visitors.  Du- 
ring the  first  half  of  the  17th  century  these 
gatherings  exerted  a  noble  influence  on  the 
French  language  and  literature,  but  subsequent- 
ly declined,  chiefly  owing  to  the  mannerism  of 
Mile,  de  Scudery  and  other  ladies,  and  never 
recovered  from  the  effect  of  Moliere's  comedy 
Let  precieuses  ridicules  (1659),  though  this  was 
aimed  particularly  against  numerous  extrava- 
gant offshoots  of  the  h&tel  Rambouillet. — See 
Memoires  pour  sertir  d  Vhistoire  de  la  societe 
polie  en  France  pendant  le  dix-septUme  siecle, 
by  Roederer  (Paris,  1835),  and  Precieux  et  pre- 
cieuses,  by  Charles  Livet  (1859). 

RAMEAC,  Jean  Philippe,  a  French  composer, 
born  in  Dijon,  Oct.  25,  1683,  died  in  Paris, 
Sept.  12,  1761.  He  was  the  son  of  an  organ- 
ist, and  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  at  the 
age  of  18  went  to  Italy  as  a  violinist.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1717,  and  was  organist  in 
several  churches.  He  composed  anthems,  can- 
tatas, and  pieces  for  the  organ  and  the  harpsi- 
chord, published  a  Traite  de  Vharmonie  (1722) 
and  Nouteau  systeme  de  mutique  theorique 
(1726),  and  composed  the  music  for  several  of 
Piron's  and  Voltaire's  comedies  and  other 
pieces,  the  best  being  that  to  Pellegrin's  Hip- 
poly te  et  Aricie  (1733).  His  numerous  operas 
and  theoretical  writings  are  now  obsolete. 

RAMESES,  or  Ramses,  the  nnme  of  14  or  15 
Egyptian  kings  of  the  19th  and  20th  dynas- 
ties, called  collectively  the  Ramessids.  Rame- 
ses  I.  was  the  first  monarch  of  the  19th  dy- 
nasty, beginning,  according  to  Mariette,  about 
1460  B.  C.  He  was  succeeded  by  Seti  I.  Ra- 
meses  II.,  son  of  Seti  I.,  was  one  of  the  great- 
est of  Egyptian  kings,  and  a  detailed  account 
of  his  reign,  as  well  as  of  that  of  Rameses  III., 
in  many  respects  an  equally  eminent  ruler,  is 
given  in  the  article  EGYPT,  vol.  vi.,  p.  462. 
Very  little  is  known  of  the  reigns  of  the  others. 

RAMIE,  one  of  the  East  Indian  names,  and 
the  one  generally  adopted  in  this  country,  for 
the  plant  producing  the  fibre  called  China 
grass.  Its  botanical  name  is  Boehmeria  ni- 
c«a,  and  it  is  found  either  cultivated  or  wild 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  tropical  and 
eastern  Asia;  the  genus  (named  after  G.  R. 
Bohmer,  a  Wittenberg  botanist  of  the  last  cen- 
tury) belongs  to  the  urticnceae  or  nettle  family, 
and  is  nearly  related  to  the  true  nettles ;  but 
the  plants  are  not  armed  with  stings,  and  the 
fertile  flowers,  instead  of  a  two-  to  five-parted 
calyx  (see  NETTLE),  have  a  tubular  calyx,  which 
closely  surrounds  the  small  nut-like  fruit ;  one 
species,  a  coarse  nettle-like  weed  (B.  cylin- 
dria),  is  very  common  in  moist  shady  places  in 


KAMIE 


EAMISSEKAM 


195 


most  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  ramie  is 
a  perennial,  somewhat  shrubby  plant,  growing 
4  ft.  high,  and  throwing  up  numerous  stems  as 
thick  as  the  little  finger,  which  bear  opposite, 
pointed,  serrate  leaves,  6  in.  long  by  4  in.  broad, 
on  long  hairy  petioles ;  their  upper  surface  is 


Bamie  (Boehmeria  nivea). 

dark  green,  but  underneath  they  are  covered 
with  a  very  white  down,  suggesting  the  speci- 
fic name  nivea,  snowy,  which  makes  the  con- 
trast between  the  two  surfaces  very  marked. 
The  inconspicuous  flowers  are  in  little  clusters 
upon  axillary  stalks.  A  variety,  candicans, 
which  has  been  called  E.  tenacissima,  is  culti- 
vated in  the  same  countries  as  the  type,  from 
which  it  differs  in  being  more  robust  and  in 
having  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  scarcely 
whitened.  The  useful  portion  is  the  fibre  of 
the  inner  bark,  which  in  eastern  countries' is 
stripped  from  the  stems  in  two  long  pieces, 
cleared  of  extraneous  matter,  dried,  and  as- 
sorted according  to  the  fineness  of  the  fibre, 
which  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the  ra- 
pidity with  which  the  plant  grew.  For  weav- 
ing, the  fibres,  after  being  bleached,  are  slowly 
picked  apart  by  the  fingers  into  threads  coarser 
or  finer  according  to  the  intended  fabric. 
This  plant  has  been  used  in  China  and  other 
eastern  countries  from  time  immemorial  to 
make  a  great  variety  of  fabrics,  some  having 
the  fineness  and  brilliancy  of  silk ;  the  woven 
material  was  early  an  article  of  commerce,  and 
considerable  quantities  of  the  fibre  are  now  im- 
ported by  England  and  France  and  used  as  a 
substitute  for  or  to  mix  with  silk.  In  warm 
countries  three  crops  of  stems  are  obtained  in 
the  year,  the  second  affording  the  finest  fibre  ; 
it  may  be  raised  from  seed,  but  the  usual 
method  is  to  divide  up  the  old  plants ;  the  sets 
are  planted  in  rows  about  5  ft.  apart,  and  very 
thickly  in  the  rows,  as  straight  stems  are  ob- 
tained only  when  they  are  crowded.  It  needs 
a  rich  and  well  drained  soil,  and  a  climate 


where  there  are  no  hard  frosts;  in  northern 
China  the  planters  take  up  the  roots  and  keep 
them  in  pits  over  winter.  The  proper  time 
for  cutting  is  indicated  by  the  turning  brown 
of  the  stems  at  the  base.  The  plant  was  in- 
troduced into  Jamaica  in  1854,  and  in  1855  was 
sent  to  the  botanic  garden  at  Washington ;  but 
no  serious  attempt  was  made  to  engage  in  its 
culture  till  1867,  when  an  excitement  like  that 
formerly  caused  by  morw  multicaulis  seemed 
imminent.  On  account  of  the  deranged  con- 
dition of  labor  southern  planters  were  eager 
for  any  crop  which  could  be  raised  with  less 
manual  labor  than  cotton  ;  great  stories  were 
told  of  the  productiveness  and  profit  of  ramie, 
and  a  lot  of  plants  brought  from  Mexico,  where 
it  had  been  introduced  a  few  years  before, 
were  sold  at  high  prices.  For  a  few  years 
those  who  raised  plants  for  sale  found  it  prof- 
itable, but  when  the  product  became  consider- 
able the  heretofore  unconsidered  problem  of 
the  disposal  of  the  crop  came  up ;  to  prepare 
the  fibre  in  the  eastern  manner  by  hand  was 
impossible,  and  the  crude  material  was  too 
bulky  for  export.  Machines  were  invented  for 
separating  the  fibre  without  encouraging  suc- 
cess, and  the  excitement  subsided. — The  seeds 
of  the  wood  nettle,  Laportea  Canadensis,  a  tall, 
coarse,  stinging,  nettle-like  plant,  have  been 
offered  as  those  of  the  "American  ramie." 

RAMILLIES,  or  Ramilios,  a  village  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  South  Brabant,  16  m.  S.  by 
E.  of  Louvain,  noted  for  a  brilliant  victory 
achieved  here,  May  23,  1706,  by  Marlborough 
at  the  head  of  English,  Dutch,  and  Danish 
troops,  over  the  French  and  Bavarians  under 
Marshal  Villeroi.  France  speedily  surrendered 
almost  all  her  possessions  in  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands, Marlborough  expressing  astonishment 
"  that  the  enemy  should  give  up  a  whole  coun- 
try with  so  many  strong  places  without  the 
least  resistance." 

RAMISSERAM,  or  Rameswar,  an  island  between 
Ceylon  and  the  continent  of  India,  at  the  W. 
extremity  of  the  chain  of  rocks  and  sand  banks, 
called  Adam's  Bridge,  that  stretch  across  from 
Ceylon  and  separate  Palk  strait  from  the  gulf 
of  Manaar.  The  island  is  of  irregular  shape, 
about  12  m.  long  and  6  m.  broad.  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  by  the  Pamban  pas- 
sage, which  has  been  improved  and  deepened 
by  the  British  government,  until  its  depth  at 
low  water  now  ranges  from  11  to  14  ft.  Sev- 
eral schemes  for  the  construction  of  a  ship 
canal  across  the  W.  end  of  the  island  itself  are 
under  consideration.  The  surface  is  generally 
low,  and  there  are  tracts  of  considerable  ex- 
tent covered  by  swamps.  It  is  well  watered, 
and  there  is  a  fresh-water  lake  nearly  3  m.  in 
circumference.  It  has  on  its  E.  side,  in  lat.  9° 
15' K,  Ion.  79°  20' E.,  a  town  of  the  same  name, 
containing  about  1,000  houses  and  a  magnifi- 
cent pagoda  built  of  immense  blocks  of  gran- 
ite; its  inhabitants  are  principally  Brahmans. 
The  island  is  looked  upon  as  a  place  of  great 
sanctity  by  the  Hindoos,  and  pilgrimages  are 


196 


KAM  MOHUN  ROY 


undertaken  to  it  from  the  most  distant  parts 
of  India,  the  annual  number  visiting  the  great 
pagoda  being  estimated  at  30,000. 

RAM  MOHUN  ROY,  rajah,  a  Hindoo  scholar, 
born  in  the  district  of  Burdwan,  Bengal,  about 
1774,  died  near  Bristol,  England,  Sept.  27, 
1833.  His  family  were  strict  Brahrnans,  but 
having  studied  the  Koran  he  early  renounced 
polytheism.  In  1803,  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  Ram  Mohun  Roy  published  several 
pamphlets  in  the  native  and  foreign  languages, 
to  show  that  the  Brahmans  had  fallen  away 
from  their  original  faith,  for  which  an  attempt 
was  made  to  deprive  him  of  caste.  He  trans- 
lated into  Bengalee  and  Hindostanee  the  Ve- 
danta,  or  body  of  Hindoo  theology  as  con- 
tained in  the  Vedas,  afterward  prepared  an 
abridgment  of  it,  and  in  1816  translated  the 
abridgment  into  English.  In  conjunction  with 
two  other  natives  he  published  the  "Bengal 
Herald,"  an  English  newspaper,  and  in  1820 
published  in  English,  Sanskrit,  and  Bengalee  a 
series  of  selections  from  the  New  Testament, 
entitled  "  The  Precepts  of  Jesus  the  Guide  to 
Peace  and  Happiness."  In  this  he  advanced 
Unitarian  opinions,  which  involved  him  for 
several  years  in  controversy  with  Dr.  Marsh- 
man  and  other  missionaries.  He  believed  in 
the  divine  mission  of  Christ,  and  considered 
Christianity  consistent  with  Brahmanism.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  exertions  to  abol- 
ish the  practice  of  suttee,  or  female  immola- 
tion. In  1830  he  was  accredited  to  the  Brit- 
ish court  by  the  titular  sovereign  of  Delhi,  to 
make  a  representation  of  grievances,  and  was 
successful  in  his  mission.  He  visited  Eng- 
land twice,  and  was  buried  there. 

RAMORINO,  Glrolamo  (according  to  some,  prop- 
erly GIOVANNI  PIETRO  REMORIXO),  a  military 
adventurer,  "born  in  Genoa  about  1792,  exe- 
cuted in  Turin,  May  22, 1849.  He  was  a  natural 
son  of  a  French  officer,  entered  the  ranks  of 
the  French  army,  and  in  the  campaign  of  1809 
against  Austria  served  as  a  common  soldier, 
and  in  that  of  1812  against  Russia  as  captain 
of  artillery.  In  1815  the  emperor  appointed 
him  officer  of  ordnance,  and  after  the  second 
restoration  he  retired  to  Savoy.  lie  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  in  Piedmont 
in  1821.  After  the  failure  of  the  movement 
he  fled  to  France,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Polish  insurrection  of  1830  hastened  to  War- 
saw to  offer  his  services.  He  was  first  made 
colonel,  and  then  general  of  a  corps  with  which 
he  gained  numerous  advantages,  and  his  suc- 
cess alone  saved  him  from  the  condemnation 
of  a  court  martial  on  account  of  his  frequent 
disobedience  of  orders.  After  the  fall  of 
Warsaw  he  went  to  France.  In  1834  he  com- 
manded in  the  invasion  of  Savoy  planned  by 
Mazzini.  At  the  beginning  of  Charles  Albert's 
second  campaign,  in  1849,  Chrzanowski  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  fifth  division,  with  or- 
ders to  prevent  the  advance  of  the  enemy  from 
Pavia.  Ramorino,  mistaking  the  design  of  the 
Austrians,  left  the  N.  bank  of  the  Po  unde- 


RAMSAY 

fended  and  the  direct  road  from  Pavia  to  Turin 
open.  The  fatal  issue  of  the  battle  of  Novara, 
March  23, 1849,  was  the  consequence.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  command,  arrested  at  Arena  by 
the  national  guards,  tried  before  a  court  martial 
on  a  charge  of  insubordination,  and  sentenced 
to  be  shot.  He  justified  his  course  on  the 
ground  of  the  feebleness  of  his  division,  which 
rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  prevent  the 
advance  of  the  Austrian  army. 

RAMSAY.  I.  Mian,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Leadhills,  Lanarkshire,  Oct.  15,  1686,  died  in 
Edinburgh,  Jan.  7,  1758.  He  was  originally 
a  wig  maker  in  Edinburgh,  and  his  first  poem 
was  written  at  the  age  of  26.  He  subse- 
quently published  on  single  or  half  sheets  many 
poems  on  local  or  familiar  topics.  His  first 
poem  of  considerable  length  was  a  continua- 
tion of  King  James's  "Christ's  Kirk  on  the 
Green"  (1716).  About  this  time  he  became 
a  bookseller,  being  at  the  same  time  an  in- 
dustrious editor  and  author.  In  1721  ap- 
peared a  4to  edition  of  his  collected  poems. 
This  was  succeeded  by  his  "  Fables  and  Tales," 
"The  Fair  Assembly,"  "  Health,"  a  poem  in- 
scribed to  the  earl  of  Stair,  and  the  "  Tea 
Table  Miscellany"  (4  vols.,  1724),  a  collec- 
tion of  songs,  Scottish  and  English,  which 
passed  through  12  editions  in  a  few  years.  His 
most  important  work  was  "  The  Gentle  Shep- 
herd" (1725),  portions  of  which  had  appeared 
in  his  first  volume  of  poems.  He  now  re- 
moved to  a  larger  shop,  which  soon  became 
the  resort  of  the  wits  and  literary  men  of 
Edinburgh,  and  in  which  he  established  the 
first  circulating  library  ever  opened  in  Scot- 
land. His  last  original  work  of  importance 
was  a  collection  of  fables  (1730).  He  retired 
from  business  in  1755.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  poems,  with  a  biography  by  George 
Chalmers,  was  published  in  2  vols.  8vo  in  1800 
(new  ed.,  with  an  essay  on  Ramsay's  genius 
by  Lord  Woodhouslee,  Paisley,  1874).  II.  Al- 
lan, a  portrait  painter,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713,  died  in  Dover, 
Aug.  10,  1784.  He  was  a  man  of  literary  cul- 
ture, settled  in  London,  and  was  a  visitor  at 
the  house  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Though  raised 
to  a  momentary  rivalry  with  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, his  works  are  not  above  mediocrity. 

RAMSAY,  Andrew  Cromble,  a  British  geologist, 
born  in  Glasgow,  Jan.  31, 1814.  He  was  early 
connected  with  the  geological  survey  of  Great 
Britain,  of  which  he  became  a  director  in  1845, 
and  director  general  in  1872.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  geology  at  University  col- 
lege, London,  in  1848,  and  at  the  royal  school 
of  mines  in  1851,  which  latter  office  he  still 
holds  (1875).  He  was  president  of  the  geologi- 
cal society  in  1862-'3,  and  in  1872  succeeded 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison  as  director  general  of 
the  museum  Of  practical  geology.  His  works 
include  "The  Geology  of  Arran "  (1841); 
"Geology  of  North  Wales"  (1858);  "Geologi- 
cal Map  of  England  and  Wales"  (1859);  "The 
Old  Glaciers  of  North  Wales  and  Switzerland  " 


RAMSAY 


RAMSEY 


19T 


(1860);  "Physical  Geology  and  Geography  of 
Great  Britain  "  (1863 ;  4th  ed.,  1875) ;  and  vol. 
v.  of  the  "  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain  " 
(1856-'66),  comprising  "Geology  of  Wiltshire 
and  Gloucestershire."  He  has  in  preparation 
(1875)  a  work  on  the  formation  of  hills  and 
valleys,  to  be  entitled  "  Earth  Sculpture." 

RAMSAY,  Andrew  Michael,  known  as  the  cheva- 
lier de  Ramsay,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in  Ayr 
in  1C86,  died  in  St.  Germain-en -Laye,  France, 
May  6,  1743.  He  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  afterward  resided  for  six 
months  with  F6nelon  at  Cambrai,  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  was  appointed  tutor  to 
the  duke  de  Chateau-Thierry  and  afterward  to 
the  prince  de  Turenne.  Subsequently  he  had 
charge  for  a  year  at  Rome  of  the  education  of 
the  two  sons  of  the  pretender.  He  revisited 
Scotland  in  1725,  and  for  several  years  was  an 
inmate  of  the  family  of  the  duke  of  Argyll. 
Returning  to  France,  he  was  intendant  of  the 
prince  de  Turenne  till  his  death.  His  largest 
work  is  "  On  the  Principles  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion"  (2  vols.  4to,  Glasgow, 
1749).  His  Voyages  de  Cyrus  (2  vols.  8vo, 
Paris  and  London,  1727),  by  which  he  is  best 
known,  is  a  palpable  imitation  of  the  Tele- 
maque  of  Fenelon.  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Nathaniel  Hooke.  He  also  wrote 
a  biography  of  Fenelon  (the  Hague,  1723),  and 
one  of  Marshal  Turenne  (Paris,  1735),  both 
translated  into  English. 

RAMSAY,  David,  an  American  historian,  born 
in  Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  April  2,  1749,  assassi- 
nated in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  8,  1815.  In 
1773  he  settled  as  a  physician  in  Charleston. 
He  took  the  field  as  a  surgeon  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  revolution,  was  a  member  of  the  South 
Carolina  legislature,  and  of  the  privy  council 
or  council  of  safety,  and  after  the  capture 
of  Charleston  he  was  included  among  sev- 
eral inhabitants  of  that  place  who  were  held 
in  close  confinement  at  St.  Augustine  as  hos- 
tages. From  1782  to  1786  he  was  a  member 
of  congress  from  the  Charleston  district,  and 
for  a  year  was  president  of  that  body.  He  was 
shot  in  the  street  by  a  lunatic,  to  whose  insan- 
ity he  had  testified.  In  1785  he  published  his 
"  History  of  the  Revolution  in  South  Carolina," 
and  in  1789  his  "  History  of  the  American  Rev- 
olution." Both  were  republished  in  Europe, 
and  were  translated  into  French.  In  1801  he 
published  a  "Life  of  Washington,"  and  in  1809 
a  "History  of  South  Carolina"  (2  vols.  8vo). 
His  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  from  their 
settlement  as  English  colonies  to  the  close  of 
1808,  was  continued  to  the  treaty  of  Ghent  by 
the  Rev.  S.  S.  Smith  and  others  (3  vols.  8vo). 
This  was  included  in  his  "  Universal  History 
Americanized"  (12  vols.  8vo,  1816-'19),  pur- 
porting to  give  a  historical  view  of  the  world 
from  the  earliest  records  to  the  19th  century. 
Among  his  minor  works  was  a  "  History  of  the 
Congregational  Church  in  Charleston"  (1815). 

RA9ISAY,  Edward  Baimernan,  a  Scottish  au- 
thor, born  at  Balmain,  Kincardineshire,  Jan. 


31,  1793,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  27,  1872. 
He  graduated  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge, 
in  1815,  was  a  curate  of  the  established  church 
in  Somersetshire  for  seven  years,  became  min- 
ister of  St.  John's  church  in  Edinburgh  in  1830, 
and  in  1841  dean  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
church  in  Scotland.  He  delivered  in  1862  be- 
fore the  philosophical  institute  of  Edinburgli 
two  lectures  on  the  "  Genius  and  Works  of 
Handel,"  and  in  1866  two  lectures  on  "Preach- 
ers and  Preaching,"  which  have  been  published 
in  book  form.  His  best  known  publication  is 
his  "  Reminiscences  of  Scottish  Life  and  Char- 
acter" (Edinburgh,  1857),  which  in  1872  had 
passed  through  19  editions.  His  "Manual  of 
Catechising"  (1859)  has  had  11  editions.  He 
also  published  memoirs  of  Sir  J.  E.  Smith 
(1827)  and  of  Dr.  Chalmers  (1867)  ;  "  Ad- 
vent Sermons"  (1850) ;  "Diversities  of  Chris- 
tian Character  "  (1858) ;  "  The  Christian  Life  " 
(1859) ;  "  On  the  Canon  Law  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church  of  Scotland  as  it  stood  in  1860" 
(I860);  "Christian  Responsibility"  (1864); 
and  "Pulpit  Table  Talk"  (1868). 

RAMSDEN,  Jesse,  an  English  instrument  ma- 
ker, born  at  Salterhebble,  near  Halifax,  York- 
shire, in  1735,  died  in  Brighton,  Nov.  5,  1800. 
He  was  at  first  a  cloth  dresser,  but  in  1758 
bound  himself  to  an  instrument  maker  in 
London,  and  he  early  opened  a  shop  of  his 
own.  He  improved  the  construction  of  the 
sextant  so  as  to  reduce  the  limit  of  error  from 
5'  to  30".  He  married  the  daughter  of  Dol- 
lond,  and  acquired  a  part  of  Dollond's  pat- 
ent for  achromatic  telescopes.  The  telescopes 
erected  by  him  at  the  observatories  of  Blen- 
heim, Mannheim,  Dublin,  Paris,  and  Gotha 
were  remarkable  for  the  superiority  of  their 
object  glasses.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
productions  was  a  dividing  machine  of  great 
perfection.  By  his  will  a  large  portion  of  his 
fortune  was  distributed  among  his  workmen. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  of 
the  imperial  academy  of  St.  Petersburg. 

RAMSES.     See  RAMESES. 

RAMSEY.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bordered  S.  W.  and  S.  by  the  Mississippi  riv- 
er; area,  about  200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,- 
886.  It  has  an  elevated  surface,  with  prairies 
and  forests.  It  is  intersected  by  several  rail- 
roads centring  in  St.  Paul.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  54,321  bushels  of.  wheat, 
38,020  of  Indian  corn,  53,868  of  oats,  9,015  of 
barley,  5,600  tons  of  hay,  1,500  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  91,185  of  butter.  There  were  618  horses, 
1,099  milch  cows,  298  sheep,  and  1,357  swine  ; 
9  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  > 
furniture,  3  of  dressed  furs,  4  of  machinery, 
6  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds,  3  of  soap  and  candles,  3  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  tannery,  2  flour 
mills,  2  saw  mills,  and  4  distilleries.  Capital, 
St.  Paul,  which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 
II.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently  formed 
and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870  ;  area, 
about  1,500  sq.  m.  Stump  lake  is  in  the  S. 


198 


RAMSGATE 


RANDOLPH 


part,  and  the  S.  "W.  corner  is  occupied  by  a 
portion  of  Miniwakan  or  Devil's  lake.  The 
surface  is  rolling  prairie. 

RAMSGATE,  a  seaport  of  Kent,  England,  at 
the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  isle  of  Thanet,  67  m. 
E.  by  S.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  14,640. 
The  older  part  of  the  town  lies  in  a  natural 
hollow,  while  the  newer  portions  occupy  the 
high  ground  on  either  side,  have  a  fine  sea 
view,  and  contain  many  handsome  houses. 
The  harbor  is  artificial,  and  nearly  circular, 
comprising  an  area  of  48  acres,  and  including 
a  dry  dock  and  ship  railway.  Ship  building 
and  rope  making  are  carried  on.  Ramsgate  is 
a  dependency  of  Sandwich,  and  a  fashionable 
watering  place. 

KAMI'S,  Joseph  Marias,  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Aix,  June  19,  1805.  He  studied  at  the 
school  of  fine  arts  in  Paris,  and  was  sent  to 
copy  mediaeval  sculptures  in  the  galleries  of 
Florence.  Among  his  works  are  statues  of 
Lafontaine,  Anne  of  Austria,  St.  John,  Philippe 
of  Champagne,  and  Judith.  One  of  his  finest 
is  "David  fighting  Goliath."  Many  of  his 
works  are  at  Versailles  and  in  the  Luxembourg. 

R  \MI'S,  Peter  (PIERRE  DE  LA  RAMEE),  a 
French  logician,  born  at  Cuth,  Picardy,  in  1515 
or  1502,  killed  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew at  Paris,  Aug.  24,  1572.  At  the  age  of 
12  he  entered  the  college  of  Navarre  at  Paris 
as  a  servant,  and  made  rapid  progress.  When 
he  presented  himself  for  examination  for  the 
degree  of  master  of  arts  in  1536,  the  subject 
of  his  exercise  was :  Quascumque  ab  Aristotele 
dicta  esse  commenticia  esse  ("  All  that  has  been 
affirmed  by  Aristotle  is  a  fabrication  "),  and  he 
maintained  it  with  so  much  skill  that  he  was 
admitted  to  his  degree.  He  afterward  taught 
in  the  college  of  Ave  Maria,  and  in  1543  pub- 
lished Institutions  Dialectics  and  Animadcer- 
siones  in  Lialecticam  Aristotelis.  These  books 
were  attacked  by  the  officers  of  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  the  author  was  represented  as 
impious  and  seditions,  and  as  aiming  to  destroy 
all  science  and  religion  under  the  pretence  of 
assailing  Aristotle.  To  settle  the  quarrel  be- 
tween the  advocates  of  the  rival  systems  of 
logic,  Francis  I.  ordered  a  trial  in  which  two 
of  the  judges  were  nominated  by  Ramus,  two 
by  Govea,  his  chief  accuser,  and  one  by  the 
king.  After  a  hearing,  Ramus  was  condemned 
on  March  1,  1544,  as  having  "acted  rashly, 
arrogantly,  and  impudently;"  he  was  prohib- 
ited from  teaching  and  his  books  were  sup- 
pressed. Soon  after  he  lectured  on  rhetoric 
at  the  college  of  Presles,  and  in  1545  was  per- 
^mitted  to  resume  teaching  in  Paris.  He  began 
a  course  of  mathematics,  which  was  continued 
till  1551,  when  Henry  II.  appointed  him  profes- 
sor of  philosophy  and  eloquence.  In  1561  he 
embraced  Protestantism,  and  in  July,  1562,  he 
was  forced  to  flee,  but  was  offered  by  Charles 
IX.  a  refuge  at  Fontainebleau,  his  house  hav- 
ing been  pillaged  and  his  library  destroyed 
during  his  absence.  In  1563  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  for  a  time  occupied  the  professor's 


chair;  but  in  1568  he  received  permission  to 
travel.  He  once  more  returned  in  1571.  His 
followers  were  called  Ramists  or  Ratneans. 
A  catalogue  of  his  works  is  contained  in  Ra- 
mus, sa  vie,  set  ecriti  et  ses  opinions,  by  Wad- 
dington-Kastus  (8vo,  Paris,  1855). 

RA9IUSIO,  Giambatttsta,  an  Italian  author,  born 
in  Treviso  in  1485,  died  in  Padua,  July  10, 
1557.  He  was  secretary  of  the  council  of  ten 
in  Venice,  travelled  as  ambassador  through 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  and  was  au- 
thor of  Raccolta  di  navigazioni  e  vtiaggi  (3 
vols.,  1550-'59),  a  collection  of  voyages  and 
travels  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  He  left 
materials  for  a  fourth  volume,  but  they  were 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1557.  The  best  edition  is 
that  of  1606. 

RAXCE,  t  rniand  Jean  Le  Bonthillier  do,  reformer 
of  the  monastery  of  La  Trappe,  born  in  Paris, 
Jan.  9,  1626,  died  Oct.  27,  1700.  He  was  a 
godson  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  at  the  age 
of  12  published  an  edition  of  Anacreon,  with 
notes  and  comments.  Though  ordained  a 
priest  in  1651,  he  led  a  dissipated  life,  and  was 
an  assiduous  visitor  at  the  hotel  Rambouillet, 
where  he  fell  in  love  with  the  duchess  de 
Montbazon.  After  her  death  he  submitted 
himself  to  severe  penances,  gave  his  property 
to  the  poor,  and  resigned  all  his  benefices 
except  the  abbey  of  La  Trappe,  to  which  he 
retired  in  1662.  Impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  a  reform  in  monastic  life,  he  went  to  Rome 
in  1664  to  obtain  from  the  pope  permission 
to  enforce  in  France  the  rules  of  the  former 
"  strict  observance  of  Citeaux."  He  failed  in 
his  mission,  but  on  his  return  in  1666  he  in- 
troduced the  most  rigorous  regulations  into 
his  own  community.  In  1683  he  published  a 
treatise  De  la  saintete  et  des  devoirs  de  la  vie 
monastique,  and  in  1690  assumed  the  spiritual 
direction  of  the  convent  of  Les  Clairets,  a 
female  community  dependent  on  that  of  La 
Trappe,  and  composed  his  Reflexions  sur  let 
quatre  evangelistes.  In  1695,  having  brought 
on  a  severe  disease  by  his  austerities,  he  re- 
signed his  abbacy  and  remained  a  private  monk 
in  the  convent,  redoubling  his  penances,  and 
finally  breathing  his  last  upon  a  bed  of  straw 
and  ashes.  His  life  was  written  by  his  con- 
temporaries Maupeau,  Marsollier,  and  Lenain 
de  Tillemont,  by  Chateaubriand  (Paris,  1844), 
and  by  0.  Butler  (London,  1814). 

RANDOLPH,  the  name  of  counties  in  eight  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  West 
Virginia,  drained  by  the  sources  of  the  Monon- 
gahela  river;  area,  about  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,563,  of  whom  108  were  colored.  A 
range  of  the  Alleghanies  runs  along  its  E.  bor- 
der, and  several  parallel  ranges  extend  within 
its  limits;  the  soil  in  the  valleys  is  fertile. 
Coal,  iron,  salt,  limestone,  and  other  minerals 
abound.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
8,969  bushels  of  wheat,  59,758  of  Indian  corn, 
33,237  of  oats,  7,298  tons  of  hay,  2,133  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  17,706  of  wool,  90,840  of  butter, 
41,434  of  maple  sugar,  and  3,603  gallons  of 


EANDOLPH 


199 


sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,525  horses, 
1,970  milch  cows,  6,503  other  cattle,  8,523 
sheep,  and  2,834  swine.  Capital,  Beverly.  II. 
A  central  county  of  North  Carolina,  drained 
by  Deep  river  and  by  the  Uharie,  a  tributary 
of  the  Yadkin ;  area,  725  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  17,551,  of  whom  2,606  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  generally 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
137,427  bushels  of  wheat,  264.924  of  Indian 
corn,  95,681  of  oats,  18,880  of 'Irish  and  23,- 
125  of  sweet  potatoes,  24,399  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
26,050  of  wool,  121,618  of  butter,  and  4,346 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,844  horses,  772 
mules  and  asses,  4,787  milch  cows,  839  work- 
ing oxen,  6,290  other  cattle,  17,101  sheep,  and 
23,387  swine.  Capital,  Ashborough.  III.  A 
S.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  separated  from  Ala- 
bama by  the  Chattahoochee,  intersected  by 
Pataula  creek,  and  drained  by  branches  of 
Flint  river ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  10,561,  of  whom  5,477  were  colored.  It 
has  a  nearly  level  surface,  and  a  very  fer- 
tile soil  in  the  river  bottoms.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Southwestern  railroad  of  Geor- 
gia. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  184,- 
940  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  25,457  of  sweet 
potatoes,  5,748  bales  of  cotton,  2,215  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  9,165  gallons  of  molasses.  There 
were  574  horses,  962  mules  and  asses,  1,553 
milch  cows,  2,803  other  cattle,  1,143  sheep, 
and  9,540  swine.  Capital,  Cuthbert.  IV.  An 
E.  county  of  Alabama,  bordering  on  Georgia, 
intersected  by  the  Tallapoosa  river;  area, 
about  600  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  12,006,  of 
whom  1,641  were  colored.  It  has  an  uneven 
surface  and  a  generally  fertile  soil.  Gold  is 
found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
48,587  bushels  of  wheat,  264,448  of  Indian 
corn,  20,707  of  oats,  37,758  of  sweet  potatoes, 
2,246  bales  of  cotton,  7,667  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
13,262  of  wool,  125,066  of  butter,  and  8,188 
gallons  of  cane  and  4,804  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  1,313  horses,  845  mules  and  asses, 
3,062  milch  cows,  1,751  working  oxen,  5,047 
other  cattle,  7,485  sheep,  and  14,819  swine. 
Capital,  Wedowee.  V.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ar- 
kansas, bordering  on  Missouri  and  drained  by 
branches  of  Black  river;  area,  about  850  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,466,  of  whom  357  were  col- 
ored. Its  surface  is  generally  level  and  the 
soil  fertile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Cairo  and 
Fulton  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  16,733  bushels  of  wheat,  265,990  of  In- 
dian corn,  18,293  of  oats,  11,130  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
7,643  of  wool,  and  57,450  of  butter.  There 
were  757  horses,  1,472  milch  cows,  2,706  other 
cattle,  2,507  sheep,  and  8,658  swine.  Capital, 
Pocahontas.  VI.  An  E.  county  of  Indiana, 
bordering  on  Ohio,  and  drained  by  White, 
Mississinewa,  and  Whitewater  rivers;  area, 
about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,862.  It 
has  an  undulating  surface  and  fertile  soil.  It 
is  intersected  by  several  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  535,003  bushels  of 
wheat,  740,051  of  Indian  corn,  147,992  of 


oats,  10,088  of  flax  seed,  9,208  tons  of  hay, 
73,019  Ibs.  of  wool,  349,327  of  butter,  and 
36,914  gallons  of  maple  molasses.  There 
were  8,485  horses,  6,094  milch  cows,  8,571 
other  cattle,  25,154  sheep,  and  32,590  swine; 
5  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  9  of 
furniture,  2  of  wagon  material,  1  of  woollen 
goods,  4  tanneries,  7  flour  mills,  and  19  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Winchester.  VII.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Illinois,  separated  from  Missouri  by 
the  Mississippi  river,  intersected  by  the  Kas- 
kaskia,  and  drained  by  several  small  streams ; 
area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,859. 
It  has  an  undulating  and  hilly  surface  and  a  gen- 
erally fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the  St. 
Louis,  Belleville,  and  Southern  Illinois,  and 
the  Chester  and  Tamaroa  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  1,031,472  bushels 
of  wheat,  510,080  of  Indian  corn,  414,487  of 
oats,  107,049  of  Irish  and  11,362  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 11,097  tons  of  hay,  3,572  Ibs.  of  to- 
bacco, 35,731  of  wool,  109,184  of  butter,  and 
42,345  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  6,972  horses,  1,209  mules  and  asses,  4,619 
milch  cows,  5,351  other  cattle,  12,180  sheep, 
aftd  24,590  swine  ;  2  manufactories  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  19  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  woollen 
goods,  3  breweries,  10  flour  mills,  and  4  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Chester.  VIII.  A  N.  county 
of  Missouri,  intersected  by  the  E.  fork  of 
Chariton  river  and  drained  by  several  other 
streams;  area,  about  450  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
15,908,  of  whom  2,134  were  colored.  It  has 
a  nearly  level  surface  and  a  very  fertile  soil. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City, 
and  Northern  railroad.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  82,538  bushels  of  wheat,  22,361 
of  rye,  594,372  of  Indian  corn,  209,013  of  oats, 
7,929  tons  of  hay,  873,776  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
63,623  of  wool,  150,737  of  butter,  22,435  of 
honey,  and  15,169  gallons  of  sorghum  molas- 
ses. There  were  7,155  horses,  2,203  mules  and 
asses,  4,380  milch  cows,  7,133  other  cattle, 
21,770  sheep,  and  25,714  swine;  3  flour  mills, 
and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Huntsville. 

RANDOLPH,  Edmund,  an  American  statesman, 
son  of  John  and  nephew  of  Peyton  Randolph, 
born  in  Virginia,  Aug.  10,  1753,  died  in  Fred- 
erick co.,  Va.,  Sept.  12,  1813.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  disinherited  by  his  father,  who  was 
an  intense  royalist.  In  1775  he  served  on  the 
staff  of  Washington.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Virginia  convention  in  May,  1776,  and  from 
1779  to  1783  he  was  a  member  of  the  conti- 
nental congress.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of 
the  constitutional  convention,  and  introduced 
what  was  called  the  "  Virginia  plan."  He 
refused  to  sign  the  constitution,  though  he 
afterward  advocated  its  adoption  in  the  Vir- 
ginia convention.  In  1788  he  was  governor 
of  Virginia,  and  in  1789  was  appointed  attor- 
ney general  of  the  United  States.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1794,  he  succeeded  Jefferson  as  secretary 
of  state ;  but  having  been  accused  of  an  in- 
trigue with  the  French  envoy,  he  resigned  in 


200 


RANDOLPH 


August,  1795.    He  published  "A  Vindication  " 
(Philadelphia,  1795). 

RANDOLPH,  John,  of  Roanoke,  an  American 
orator,  born  at  Cawsons,  Chesterfield  co.,  Va., 
June  2,  1773,  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  24, 
1833.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton,  at  Co- 
lumbia college,  New  York,  and  at  the  college 
of  William  and  Mary,  and  studied  law  at  Phila- 
delphia, but  never  practised.  In  1799  he  was 
elected  a  representative  in  congress,  and  soon 
became  conspicuous,  in  the  language  of  Hil- 
dreth,  as  "  a  singular  mixture  of  the  aristo- 
crat and  .the  Jacobin."  He  was  reflected  in 
1801,  and  was  made  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee of  ways  and  means.  In  1803,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee,  he  reported  against  a  memorial 
from  Indiana  for  permission  to  introduce  slaves 
into  that  territory  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of 
the  ordinance  of  1787,  which  ho  pronounced 
to  be  "  wisely  calculated  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness and  prosperity  of  the  northwestern 
country."  In  1804  ho  was  chief  manager  in 
the  trial  of  Judge  Chase,  impeached  before  the 
senate.  (See  CHASE,  SAMUEL.)  In  1806  he  as- 
sailed President  Jefferson  and  his  supporters 
with  great  virulence,  lie  attacked  Madison^s 
administration,  and  opposed  the  declaration  of 
war  against  Great  Britain  in  1812.  His  oppo- 
sition caused  his  defeat  at  the  next  election. 
He  was  reflected  in  1814,  and  again  in  1818, 
having  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in  1816.  In 
the  congress  of  1819-"20  he  opposed  the  Mis- 
souri compromise,  stigmatizing  the  northern 
members  by  whose  cooperation  it  was  carried 
as  "  doughfaces,"  an  epithet  adopted  into  the 
political  vocabulary  of  the  United  States.  In 
1822,  and  again  in  1824,  he  visited  England. 
From  1825  to  1827  he  was  a  senator  of  the 
United  States,  and  during  that  time  fought  a 
duel  with  Mr.  Clay.  (See  CLAY,  HENRY.)  He 
supported  Gen.  Jackson  for  president  in  1828. 
In  1829  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  to 
revise  the  constitution  of  Virginia,  and  in  1830 
was  appointed  minister  to  Russia ;  but  soon 
after  his  reception  by  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
he  departed  abruptly  for  England,  where  ho 
remained  for  nearly  a  year,  and  returned  homo 
without  revisiting  Russia.  He  was  again  elect- 
ed to  congress,  but  was  too  ill  to  take  his  seat. 
Exhausted  with  consumption,  ho  died  in  a  ho- 
tel at  Philadelphia,  whither  ho  had  gone  on 
his  way  to  take  passage  again  across  the  ocean. 
During  his  life  his  speeches  were  more  fully 
reported  and  more  generally  read  than  those  of 
any  other  member  of  congress.  He  was  tall 
and  slender,  with  long,  skinny  fingers,  which 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  pointing  and  shaking 
at  those  against  whom  he  spoke.  His  voice 
was  shrill  and  piping,  but  under  perfect  com- 
mand and  musical  in  its  lower  tones.  His  in- 
vective, sarcasm,  and  sharp  and  reckless  wit 
made  him  a  terror  to  his  opponents  in  the 
house.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  owned 
318  slaves,  whom  by  his  will  he  manumitted, 
bequeathing  funds  for  their  settlement  and 
maintenance  in  a  free  state.  His  "Letters 


RANDOLPH  MACON   COLLEGE 

to  a  Young  Relative"  appeared  in  1834. — See 
"Life  of  John  Randolph,"  by  Hugh  A.  Gar- 
land (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1850). 

RANDOLPH,  Peyton,  an  American  patriot,  pres- 
ident of  the  first  congress,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1723,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  22,  1775.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  Sir  John  Randolph,  and 
after  graduating  at  the  college  of  "William  and 
Mary  went  to  England  and  studied  law  at  the 
Temple.  In  1748  he  was  appointed  king's  at- 
torney general  for  the  colony,  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  house  of  burgesses,  and  was 
chairman  of  a  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of 
the  colony.  In  1764  he  drew  up  the  address 
of  the  burgesses  to  the  king  against  the  passage 
of  the  stamp  act.  In  1765,  after  that  act  be- 
came a  law,  Randolph  with  other  proprietors 
of  large  estates  opposed  Patrick  Henry's  cele- 
brated five  resolutions.  (See  HENRY,  PATRICK.) 
In  the  same  year  Virginia  forwarded  to  Eng- 
land petitions  similar  to  those  adopted  by  the 
congress,  with  an  address  to  the  king  written 
by  Randolph.  In  1766  Randolph  was  made 
speaker  of  the  house  of  burgesses,  resigning 
about  the  same  time  his  office  of  attorney  gen- 
eral. In  the  measures  of  opposition  to  the 
English  government  ho  now  took  a  conspicu- 
ous part.  Ho  was  a  member  of  the  commit- 
tee of  vigilance  appointed  to  obtain  the  most 
accurate  intelligence  of  all  acts  of  parliament 
affecting  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  and  to  open 
a  correspondence  with  the  other  colonies.  In 
August,  1774,  he  presided  in  the  convention  at 
Williamsburg,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates 
elected  to  the  continental  congress.  On  the 
assembling  of  that  body  in  Philadelphia  in  Sep- 
tember, he  was  unanimously  elected  its  pres- 
I  ident,  but  in  consequence  of  ill  health  held 
that  post  only  five  or  six  weeks.  In  1775  he 
presided  over  the  second  convention  of  Vir- 
ginia at  Richmond,  was  elected  again  as  a  del- 
egate to  congress,  and  when  that  body  met  at 
Philadelphia  on  May  10,  1775,  was  reflected 
president;  but  the  duties  of  speaker  of  the 
house  of  burgesses  recalling  him  to  Virginia, 
he  was  succeeded  by  John  Hancock.  Ho  died 
suddenly  of  apoplexy. 

RANDOLPH  MACON  "COLLEGE,  an  institution  of 
learning  at  Ashland,  Hanover  co.,  Va.,  16  m. 
N.  of  Richmond,  on  the  Richmond,  Fredericks- 
burg,  and  Potomac  railroad.  It  was  founded 
by  a  resolution  of  the  Virginia  conference  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  1827,  the 
charter  was  obtained  in  1830,  and  the  college 
began  work  in  Mecklenburg  co.,  Va.,  near  the 
North  Carolina  border,  in  1832.  In  1852  an 
endowment  of  $100,000  was  secured,  but  this 
was  lost  for  the  most  part  during  the  civil  war. 
In  1866  the  college  was  removed  to  its  present 
site.  The  course  of  study  is  distributed  into 
separate  schools,  of  Latin,  Greek,  English,  &c., 
the  principal  schools  being  arranged  in  four 
courses  of  one  year  each.  Degrees  are  con- 
ferred for  graduation  in  each  school ;  for  grad- 
uation in  a  certain  number  of  schools  the  de- 
gree of  B.  S.  or  A.  B.  is  given,  and  for  gradu- 


EANGOON 


BANKINE 


201 


ation  with  distinction  that  of  A.  M.  There  is 
a  school  of  Biblical  literature  and  oriental  lan- 
guages for  students  preparing  for  the  ministry, 
to  whom  instruction  in  all  the  schools  is  free. 
A  diploma  is  conferred  for  graduation  in  Bib- 
lical literature.  In  1875  the  college  had  10 
professors  and  tutors  and  235  students. 

RANGOON,  a  seaport  and  the  capital  of  British 
Burmah,  in  Pegu,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  E. 
branch  of  the-  Irrawaddy,  known  as  the  Kan- 
goon,  about  26  m.  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  16°  46' 
N.,  Ion.  96°  17'  E. ;  pop.  in  1871,  96,952.  The 
houses  of  the  town  are  somewhat  unequally 
distributed,  in  narrow  but  clean  and  well  paved 
streets,  over  a  space  about  a  mile  long,  parallel 
to  the  river,  and  extending  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  inland.  There  are  several  Buddhist  pago- 
das, one  Baptist,  two  Episcopal,  and  two  Eo- 
man  Catholic  churches,  and  a  number  of  schools. 
It  is  the  centre  of  the  American  Baptist  mis- 
sions in  Burmah,  connected  with  which  are  a 
theological  seminary,  college,  and  printing  of- 
fice. The  harbor  is  capable  of  receiving  ves- 
sels of  1,200  tons,  and  the  tide  rises  18  to  25 
and  even  30  ft.  Ship  building  is  an  important 
industry.  The  principal  export  is  rice;  next 
in  the  order  of  values  come  timber,  raw  cot- 
ton, and  petroleum.  The  East  Indian  trade  of 
Eangoon  is  mostly  with  Calcutta,  but  also  ex- 
tends to  Madras  ports  and  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments. There  are  five  lighthouses  on  the  Bur- 
mese coast  to  guide  vessels  to  the  port.  The 
town  is  fortified  and  garrisoned.  It  has  two 
markets,  a  recorder's  court,  and  an  English 
newspaper. — Eangoon  was  founded  by  the 
Burmese  conqueror  of  Pegu  in  1755.  In  1852 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  who  have 
since  retained  it.  In  1853  and  1855  it  was 
greatly  devastated  by  fire. 

RANKE,  Leopold  Ton,  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Wiehe,  near  Naumburg,  Dec.  21,  1795. 
In  1818  he  became  principal  teacher  of  the 
gymnasium  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  In  1824 
appeared  at  Berlin  his  Geschichte  der  romani- 
schenund  germanischen  VolJccr  wn  1494-1555. 
He  was  made  professor  of  history  in  Berlin 
in  1825,  and  soon  after  was  sent  by  the  Prus- 
sian government  to  search  for  historical  mate- 
rials in  the  archives  of  Vienna,  Venice,  Eome, 
and  Florence.  The  first  results  of  his  labors 
appeared  in  the  1st  volume  (embracing  the 
history  of  the  Ottomans  and  the  Spanisli 
monarchy)  of  his  Fursten  und  Vollcer  von 
Sudeuropa  im  IQten  und  I7ten  Jahrhundert 
(1827).  In  1829  he  published  Die  serlische 
Revolution,  in  1831  Ueber  die  Verschicorung 
zu  Venedig  im  Jahre  1688,  and  in  1837  Vorle- 
sungen  zur  Geschichte  der  italienischen  Poesie. 
His  work  Die  rdmischen  Pdpste,  ihre  Kirche 
und  ihr  Staat  ("  The  Popes  of  Eome,  their 
Church  and  State,"  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1834-'6), 
forming  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  volumes  of  the 
Fursten  und  Vollcer  von  Sudeuropa,  &c.,  was 
translated  into  English  by  Mrs.  Austin  in  1840  ; 
by  Scott,  with  an  introductory  essay  by  Merle 
d'Aubigne,  in  1846;  and  by  E.  Foster  in  1848. 


A  sixth  edition  of  it  was  published  in  1874  with 
the  title  Die  romischen  Papste  in  den  letzten 
vier  Jahrhunderten  (3  vols.,  Leipsic),  and  a  sev- 
enth in  1875.  In  1 832  he  began  the  Historisch- 
politische  Zeitschrift  (vol.  i.,  Hamburg,  1832 ; 
vol.  ii.,  Berlin,  1833-'6),  which,  being  decried 
as  illiberal,  was  discontinued  in  1886.  His 
Deutsche  Geschichte  im  Zeitalter  der  Reforma- 
tion ("  History  of  Germany  in  the  Time  of  the 
Eeformation,"  6  vols.,  Berlin,  1839-'47),  in 
which  he  gave  an  account  of  the  rise  of  Protes- 
tantism, was  translated  into  English  by  Mrs. 
Austin  (5th  ed.,  1874).  It  was  followed  by 
Neun  Bucher  preussischer  Geschichten  (3  vols., 
1847-'8),  for  aid  in  writing  which  the  Prussian 
archives  were  for  the  first  time  opened.  This 
work  has  been  translated  by  Sir  A.  and  Lady 
Duff  Gordon,  under  the  title  of  "Memoirs  of  the 
House  of  Brandenburg,  and  History  of  Prussia 
during  the  17th  and  18th  Centuries"  (1849). 
He  has  also  written  Jahrbucher  des  deutschen 
Reichs  unter  dem  sdchsischen  Hause  (3  vols., 
1837-'40);  Franzosische  Geschichte,  vornehm- 
lich  im  IQten  und  If  ten  Jahrhundert  (5  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1852-'5),  which  contains  an  account 
of  Protestant  struggles  in  France ;  Englische 
Geschichte  im  IQten  und  Vlten  Jahrhundert 
(7  vols.,  Berlin  and  Leipsic,  1859-'68;  English 
translation,  "  A  History  of  England,  principally 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century,"  6  vols.,  Oxford, 
1875);  Geschichte  Wallemteim  (Leipsic,  1869); 
Ursprung  des  siehenjdhrigen  Krieges  (1871); 
and  Genesis  des  preussischen  Staats,  and  Aus 
dem  Briefwechsel  Friedrich,  Wilhelm's  IV.  mit 
Bumen  (1873).  An  edition  of  his  complete 
works,  to  comprise  36  vols.,  is  in  progress 
(29  vols.,  1867-'74). — His  brother  FEIEDRICH 
HEINEICH,  born  in  1797,  from  1842  chief  coun- 
cillor of  the  Protestant  consistory  of  Munich, 
is  the  author  of  Untersuchungen  <uber  den  Pen- 
tateuch (2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1834-'40),  Zeugniss 
von  Christo  (2  vols.,  1845-'8),  Das  Lelen  in 
C'hristo  (Frankfort,  1852),  &c. 

RANKIN,  a  central  county  of  Mississippi,  bor- 
dered W.  and  N".  "W.  by  Pearl  river  and  drained 
by  its  branches ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12.977,  of  whom  7,273  were  colored. 
Its  surface  is  covered  with  pine  forests,  and 
its  soil  is  generally  fertile.  It  is  intersect- 
ed by  the  Vicksburg  and  Meridian  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  217,708 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  5,996  of  oats,  13,360 
Ibs.  of  rice,  3,279  of  wool,  and  8,705  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  1,327  horses,  1,083  mules 
and  asses,  3,088  milch  cows,  1,315  working 
oxen,  5,023  other  cattle,  4,799  sheep,  and  13,239 
swine.  Capital,  Brandon. 

RANKINE,  William  John  Maequorn,  a  Scottish 
physicist,  born  in  Edinburgh,  July  5,  1820, 
died  in  Glasgow,  Dec.  24,  1872.  He  attend- 
ed scientific  classes  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  when  22  years  of  age  published 
"An  Experimental  Inquiry  into  the  Advan- 
tages attending  the  Use  of  Cylindrical  Wheels." 
In  1843  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  in- 
stitution of  civil  engineers.  In  1849  he  pub- 


202 


RANSOM 


RANUNCULUS 


lished  an  investigation  of  the  theory  of  molec- 
ular vortices,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society  of  Edinburgh,  to  which  in  1850 
he  presented  a  paper  on  the  mechanical  action 
of  heat,  especially  in  gases  and  vapors,  pub- 
lished in  1851.  In  'the  winter  of  1850-'51  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  Glasgow,  and  in  1852 
read  to  the  philosophical  society  a  paper  on 
transformation  of  energy.  In  1855  he  was 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of  Lon- 
don, and  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
mechanical  action  of  heat  in  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  was  elected  regius  professor  of 
civil  engineering  there.  He  published  "Man- 
ual of  Applied  Mechanics"  (1858);  "Manual 
of  the  Steam  Engine  and  other  Prime  Movers  " 
(1859);  "Civil  Engineering"  (1862);  "Useful 
Rules  and  Tables"  (1866);  "Cyclopaedia  of 
Machine  and  Hand  Tools"  (1869);  and  "  Man- 
ual of  Machinery  and  Millwork"  (1869). 

RANSOM,  an  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently 
formed  and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870 ; 
area,  about  1,800  sq.  m.  The  N.  part  is  wa- 
tered by  the  Sheyenne  river,  a  tributary  of  the 
Red,  and  the  S.  W.  corner  by  the  Dakota.  The 
surface  consists  of  rolling  prairies. 

RANTOFL,  Robert,  jr.,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Beverly,  Mass.,  May  13,  1805, 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Aug.  7,  1852.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1826,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Essex  bar  in  1827,  and  practised 
in  South  Reading  till  1832,  when  he  removed 
to  Gloucester,  which  town  he  represented  in 
the  legislature  in  1834-'7.  He  exerted  him- 
self for  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment, 
and  his  report  on  that  subject  is  still  one  of 
the  standard  authorities  of  the  opponents  of 
the  practice.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  educa- 
tion. In  1838  he  removed  to  Boston,  in  1843 
was  appointed  by  President  Tyler  collector  of 
the  port,  and  in  1845  United  States  district 
attorney.  In  1851  he  filled  a  part  of  the  un- 
expired  term  of  Daniel  Webster  in  the  United 
States  senate;  and  in  the  session  of  1851-'2 
he  sat  in  the  house  of  representatives,  having 
been  elected  as  a  freesoiler.  His  speeches  and 
writings,  with  a  memoir,  appeared  in  1854. 

RANUNCULUS  (Lat.,  a  little  frog,  some  of  the 
species  growing  in  wet  places  where  frogs 
abound),  the  botanical  name  of  a  large  genus 
of  plants,  the  common  species  of  which  are 
popularly  known  as  buttercup,  kingcup,  or 
crowfoot.  The  genus  gives  its  name  to  a  large 
family,  the  ranunculacece,  which  cpmprises 
plants  widely  differing  in  their  external  ap- 
pearance, many  of  which  are  among  the  best 
known  and  most  showy  wild  and  garden  plants ; 
the  anemones,  columbines,  larkspurs,  aconites, 
pssonies,  and  others  belong  here.  In  modern 
systematic  works  upon  botany  this  family  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  list,  and  is  the  one 
with  which  the  student  first  makes  acquaint- 
ance, examples  being  found  almost  everywhere ; 
the  flowers  are  usually  rather  large  and  the 
structure  distinct  and  easily  made  out.  The 


Ranunculus — Section  of  Flower. 


ranunculacece  consist  mainly  of  herbs  (rarely 
undershrubs  or  woody  climbers)  with  a  color- 
less, acrid  juice ;  they  are  polypetalous,  or 
when  the  petals  are  absent  the  calyx  is  colored 
like,  and  is  often  mistaken  for,  the  corolla ; 
the  stamens  numerous,  and  the  pistils  (usually 
more  than  one)  dis- 
tinct (rarely  some- 
what united),  one- 
celled,  and  one-  to 
many-ovuled.  The 
leaves  when  not 
radical  are  alter- 
nate, or  in  a  few 
genera  opposite,  of- 
ten much  divided, 
and  have  sheathing  petioles.  In  ranunculut 
itself  there  are  five  sepals  and  five  flat  petals, 
each  with  a  little  scale  or  pit  at  its  base ;  nu- 
merous pistils,  which  ripen  into  a  head  of  most- 
ly flattened,  one-seeded  fruits  or  akenes ;  some- 
times the  sepals  and  petals  are  only  three,  or 
the  petals  more  than  five,  and  sometimes  white 
instead  of  the  usual  yellow.  There  are  about 
160  species,  which  are  distributed  all  over  the 
world ;  in  the  eastern  states  there  are  some 
20  species,  including  four  introduced  from  Eu- 
rope, and  in  the  far  west  several  others.  Some 
are  truly  aquatics,  others  abound  in  muddy 
and  swampy  places ;  one  is  found  only  at  the 
seaside  or  by  the  shores  of  the  great  lakes,  and 
others  are  common  weeds.  All  have  an  acrid 
juice,  which  in  some  is  so  powerful  as  to  blister 
readily,  and  was  formerly  used  as  a  vesicant ; 
the  leaves  are  said  to  be  used  by  the  profes- 
sional beggars  of  London  to  keep  up  ulcers 
with  which  to  excite  sympathy.  This  acridity 
is  dissipated  in  drying ;  one  of  the  most  active, 
very  common  in  the  meadows  in  the  older 
states,  is  cut  in  large  quantities  with  the  grass, 
and  is  eaten  with  the  hay,  though  animals  at 
pasture  avoid  it  in  the  fresh  state.  The  species 
common  as  meadow  weeds  are  the  bulbous  and 
the  tall  buttercups ;  the  first  named  (R.  bul- 
losus),  more  abundant  in  New  England  than 
elsewhere,  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  bulb- 
like  base  to  the  stem,  and  its  very  large  flowers, 
more  than  an  inch  broad,  and  of  a  very  deep 
shining  yellow,  blooming  from  May  to  July. 
Tall  buttercup  (R.  acrti)  is  more  widely  dis- 
tributed and  grows  twice  as  high  as  the  pre- 
ceding, in  rich  soil  being  8  ft.  or  more  tall ; 
its  stem  is  not  bulbous,  and  its  smaller  and 
paler  flowers  appear  in  June  and  continue  till 
August  and  later.  There  are  double  varie- 
ties of  both  these  species,  common  in  gardens 
as  double  buttercups,  the  boutons  cTor  of  the 
French.  The  creeping  crowfoot  or  buttercup 
(R.  repens)  is  a  very  common  species,  forming 
long  runners  which  root  at  every  joint ;  it  is 
extremely  variable,  and  often  found  without 
runners ;  it  is  a  native,  and  somewhat  trouble- 
some in  moist  meadows  and  pastures.  The 
yellow  water  buttercup  (R.  multifidui  or  R. 
Punhii  of  the  older  books)  has  its  leaves  very 
much  dissected  into  filiform  divisions,  and  bears 


RANZANI 


RAPE 


203 


Garden  Ranunculus  (Ranun- 
culus Asiaticus). 


a  large  bright  yellow  flower ;  its  handsome 
foliage  makes  it  an  excellent  plant  for  an  aqua- 
rium. The  remaining  natives  are  only  of  bo- 
tanical interest. — Among  the  exotic  species 
cultivated  in  gardens  is  It.  aconitifolius,  which 
grows  2  ft.  or  more  high,  and  has  large  white 
flowers ;  there  is  a 
double  form  of  it, 
with  flowers  like  mi- 
nute camellias,  which 
bears  the  fanciful 
name  of  "  fair  maids 
of  France."  Some 
other  hardy  species 
are  grown  in  Eu- 
ropean gardens,  but 
rarely  in  ours. — The 
Asiatic  ranunculus 
(B.  Asiaticus)  ranks 
as  a  florist's  flower. 
The  roots,  which  are 
imported  in  autumn 
by  the  seedsmen  with 
Holland  bulbs,  are  in 
small  clusters,  fleshy, 
an  inch  or  more  long, 
and  apparently  with- 
out signs  of  life  ;  they 
are  not  hardy  gene- 
rally in  the  northern 
states,  and  if  planted  in  the  garden  must  be 
well  covered ;  they  are  often  cultivated  in  pots, 
in  the  same  manner  as  bulbs,  and  give  large 
very  double  flowers,  2  in.  across,  and  of  a 
great  variety  of  colors. 

RANZANI,  Camillo,  an  Italian  naturalist,  born 
in  Bologna,  June  22,  1775,  died  there,  April 
23,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  Bologna,  and 
at  the  age  of  22  became  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  Fano,  where  he  received 
holy  orders,  and  taught  till  1798.  Political 
disturbances  compelling  him  to  return  to  Bo- 
logna, he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  botanic 
garden,  and  in  1803  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory in  the  university,  of  which  he  became  rec- 
tor in  1824.  His  chief  work  is  his  uncompleted 
Elementi  di  zoologia  (10  vols.,  1819  et  seq.~). 

RANZ  DBS  VACHES,  the  name  applied  to  cer- 
tain simple  melodies  played  by  the  moun- 
taineers of  Switzerland  upon  the  Alpine  horn, 
which  are  identified  with  the  scenes  and  pur- 
suits of  pastoral  life.  The  term  (in  German 
Kuhreigen  or  Kuhreiheri)  means  literally  cow 
rows,  and  the  musical  call  of  the  herdsman  is 
so  named  from  the  fact  that  the  cattle  in  an- 
swering it  move  toward  him  in  a  row,  preceded 
by  those  wearing  bells.  The  character  of  these 
melodies,  which  are  scarcely  such  in  fact,  as 
they  are  not  governed  by  the  ordinary  rules  of 
music,  varies  in  different  parts  of  Switzerland. 
They  are  in  general  without  words.  A  collec- 
tion of  the  various  Banz  des  Vaches  and  other 
Swiss  airs  was  published  at  Bern  in  1818  under 
the  title  of  Sammlung  von  schweizer  Kuhreihen 
und  Voll-sliedern.  They  are  also  incorporated 
in  the  Allgemeines  schweizer  Liederluch  (1851). 


RAOrL-ROCHETTE.     See  ROCIIETTE. 

RAPE  (law  French,  rapt ;  law  Latin,  raptus), 
the  violation  or  carnal  knowledge  of  a  woman, 
forcibly  and  against  her  will.  Early  English 
statutes,  which  have  perhaps  in  some  of  the 
United  States  the  force  of  common  law,  extend 
this  to  the  case  of  a  woman  child  under  the  age 
of  10  years  carnally  known  either  with  or 
against  her  will.  Every  civilized  nation,  an- 
cient and  modern,  has  declared  by  its  criminal 
code  its  abhorrence  of  this  offence,  and  affixed 
to  its  commission  the  severest  punishments.  By 
the  Mosaic  law,  to  ravish  a  damsel  who  was 
betrothed  to  another  was  a  crime  punishable 
with  death ;  and  in  case  of  one  not  betrothed 
the  offender  was  compelled  to  take  the  damsel 
to  wife  and  pay  her  father  a  fine  of  50  shekels. 
By  the  civil  law  rape  was  punishable  with  death 
and  confiscation  of  goods.  Unlike  our  law, 
however,  the  civilians  made  no  distinction  be- 
tween rape  as  defined  by  us,  of  which  force  is 
the  characteristic  element,  and  seduction  with- 
out force,  of  which  the  common  law  takes  no 
cognizance  ;  and  by  the  civil  law  the  unlawful 
carnal  knowledge  of  a  woman  with  her  consent 
was  subject  to  the  same  severity  of  punishment 
as  if  obtained  forcibly  and  against  her  will. 
This,  we  are  told,  was  because  the  Roman  law 
entertained  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  virtue 
and  chastity  of  woman,  that  it  would  not  pre- 
sume her  to  be  capable  of  a  violation  of  those 
qualities,  unless  induced  thereto  by  the  evil 
arts  and  solicitations  of  man ;  and  in  order  to 
secure  her  the  more  effectually  from  the  dan- 
ger of  these,  it  made  such  a  violation  of  chastity, 
however  consummated,  equally  a  crime  in  him, 
and  visited  its  penalties  upon  him  alone.  By 
the  Saxons  rape  was  also  esteemed  a  felony 
and  punished  with  death,  though  the  woman 
ravished  (if  single)  might  redeem  the  offender 
from  execution  if  she  were  willing  to  accept 
him  as  her  husband,  and  he  were  willing  to 
be  so  redeemed.  But  William  the  Conqueror, 
probably  deeming  the  punishment  of  death  too 
severe,  altered  it  to  castration  and  loss  of  the 
eyes.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  law  was 
still  further  modified,  and  rape  was  declared 
to  be,  and  was  punished  as,  a  misdemeanor 
only  ;  but  the  consequences  of  this  ameliora- 
tion proving  disastrous  and  inducing  a  fearful 
increase  of  the  crime,  10  years  afterward,  du- 
ring the  same  reign,  it  was  restored  to  the  rank 
of  felony  and  punished  as  before  with  death. 
By  9  George  IV.  it  was  made  a  non-capital 
felony,  and  is  now  punishable  by  imprisonment 
with  hard  labor  for  not  less  than  two  years. 
In  the  United  States,  although  by  statute  the 
punishment  varies  somewhat  in  different  states, 
it  is  by  all  treated  as  felony  and  punished  with 
imprisonment  for  life  or  for  a  term  of  years. — 
It  was  for  a  long  time  an  unsettled  question 
what  was  requisite  to  constitute  this  offence, 
and  proof  of  the  full  accomplishment  of  the 
act  was  once  considered  indispensable  in  order 
to  secure  a  conviction.  As  far  as  the  wrong 
and  outrage  to  the  individual  ia  concerned, 


204 


EAPE 


the  crime  is  perhaps  equally  entire  where  the 
offence  is  imperfectly  committed.  But  the 
physical  completion  of  the  offence  is  not  now 
necessary,  in  law,  to  complete  the  guilt  of  the 
offender ;  for  it  is  not  the  degree  of  gratifica- 
tion to  the  lust  of  the  ravisher  which  gauges 
the  degree  of  criminality,  but  the  injury  done 
to  the  person  and  feelings  of  the  victim,  and 
the  dastardly  violation  of  that  modesty  and 
sense  of  delicacy  which  nature  has  implanted 
in  the  female  heart.  Force  is  a  necessary  ele- 
ment, and  the  offence  must  be  perpetrated 
against  the  will  of  the  party  ravished.  Though 
the  woman  at  first  consent,  yet  if  she  is  af- 
terward forced,  or  if  her  consent  is  obtained 
through  duress  or  fear  of  death,  it  is  equally  a 
rape ;  and  so  careful  is  our  law  of  the  rights 
and  safety  of  all  classes  and  persons,  that  even 
a  common  prostitute  may  be  the  subject  of  a 
rape,  though  by  the  civil  law  she  could  not 
be.  But  fraud  is  not  equivalent  to  force,  and 
in  the  case  of  Jackson,  who  accomplished  his 
purpose  by  personating  tho  woman's  husband 
during  his  absence,  it  was  held,  after  careful 
consideration  by  the  judges,  that  he  could  not 
be  convicted  of  rape,  but  simply  of  an  assault. 
It  has  been  made  a  question  whether  sexual 
intercourse  with  a  female  non  compos  mentis 
should  not  bo  held  to  be  rape,  on  the  ground 
of  her  inability  to  give  consent;  but  tho  au-  j 
thorities  are  to  the  contrary  where  no  force  is 
employed  and  such  consent  as  she  is  capable 
of  is  given.  A  husband  cannot  commit  a  rape 
upon  his  wife,  for  by  the  marriage  contract 
she  yields  herself  to  him,  and  she  cannot  after- 
ward retract  her  assent :  but  if  ho  is  present, 
and  aids  in  prostituting  her  to  another  against 
her  will,  ho  becomes  thereby  equally  guilty 
with  the  principal,  and  is  liable  to  the  same 
punishment  as  the  actual  perpetrator  of  the 
outrage.  An  infant  under  14  years  of  age  is 
presumed  in  law,  on  the  ground  of  a  supposed 
imbecility  of  body  if  not  of  mind,  to  be  in- 
capable of  committing  a  rape ;  and  though  as 
to  other  felonies  the  maxim  malitia  tupplet 
cetatem  holds,  it  is  not  so  as  regards  this  offence. 
An  infant  may,  however,  where  the  mischiev- 
ous intention  and  capacity  are  evident,  become 
a  principal  in  the  second  degree,  or  suffer  con- 
viction for  an  assault  with  intent. — The  party 
ravished  is  a  competent  witness  against  tho 
accused;  but  her  credibility  is  a  matter  for 
the  consideration  of  the  jury.  If  unsupported 
by  other  direct  testimony,  it  must  depend  on 
concurrent  circumstances  for  confirmation;  as 
"for  instance,"  says  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  "if 
the  witness  be  of  good  fame,  if  she  presently 
discovered  the  offence,  made  pursuit  after  the 
offender,  showed  circumstances  and  signs  of 
the  injury,  whereof  many  are  of  that  nature 
that  only  women  are  the  most  proper  exami- 
ners and  inspectors,  if  the  place  where  the  fact 
was  done  was  remote  from  people,  inhabitants, 
or  passengers,  if  the  offender  fled  for  it ;  these 
and  the  like  are  concurring  evidences  to  give 
greater  probability  to  her  testimony,  when 


proved  by  others  as  well  as  herself."  In 
charges  of  this  nature  the  courts  are  compelled 
to  proceed  with  the  utmost  caution  and  care 
and  to  require  convincing  evidence  of  guilt 
before  convicting  the  accused ;  for,  as  Sir 
Matthew  Hale  further  remarks:  "It  is  true 
rape  is  a  most  detestable  crime,  and  therefore 
ought  severely  and  impartially  to  be  punished 
with  death ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  an  accusation  easily  made  and  hard  to  be 
proved,  and  harder  to  be  defended  by  the  party 
accused,  though  never  so  innocent ;"  and  ho 
then  proceeds  to  state  several  singular  cases 
which  came  under  his  own  judicial  observa- 
tion, and  in  which  innocent  men  falsely  and 
maliciously  accused  of  this  crime  narrowly 
escaped  conviction.  The  defendant  may  im- 
peach the  character  of  the  prosecutrix  by 
general  evidence,  but  particular  acts  of  mis- 
conduct or  immorality  are  inadmissible.  As 
regards  the  testimony  of  children  under  10 
years  of  age,  upon  whom  this  offence  has  been 
committed,  it  is  admissible  where  the  witness 
is  old  enough  and  has  sufficient  instruction  and 
intelligence  to  understand  the  relations  of  good 
and  evil,  and  the  nature  of  an  oath ;  but,  like 
that  of  older  complainants,  its  credibility  de- 
pends upon  similar  supporting  circumstances. 
— As  in  other  felonies,  there  may  be  acces- 
sories before  and  after  the  fact ;  but  all  per- 
sons actually  present,  aiding  and  abetting  its 
commission,  are  principals,  and  are  liable  to 
the  same  punishment  as  that  awarded  to  the 
actual  perpetrator  of  the  outrage.  An  attempt 
to  commit  a  rape,  which  is  usually  indicted  as 
"  an  assault  with  an  attempt,"  &c.,  is  a  high 
misdemeanor,  and  is  severely  punished  by  the 
laws  of  the  various  United  States. 

RAPE  (Lat.  rnjmm),  a  cruciferous  plant  cul- 
tivated from  very  early  times  for  the  oil  con- 
tained in  its  seeds,  and  as  a  forage  plant.  It 
belongs  in  the  genus  Iratsica,  sufficiently  de- 
scribed under  MUSTARD;  some  botanists  place 
the  turnip  and  rape  as  distinct  species  (B.  na- 
pn«  and  B.  rapa),  but  the  best  authors  now 
regard  both  as  varieties  of  B.  campettris,  a 
variable  plant  found  throughout  Europe  and 
Russian  Asia,  and  differing  from  others  of  tho 
genus  in  having  its  stem  leaves  sessile  and  au- 
ricled,  or  produced  at  base  into  two  rounded 
lobes;  the  lower  leaves  pinnately  divided, 
slightly  glaucous,  and  usually  rough  with  stiff 
hairs;  flowers  bright  yellow.  Though  not 
botanically  distinct  from  the  turnip,  the  two 
are  quite  unlike  in  their  uses ;  the  turnip  hav- 
ing been  cultivated  for  centuries  with  a  view- 
to  the  development  of  the  root  to  the  neglect 
of  all  other  parts,  while  in  the  rape,  the  great- 
est amount  of  seeds  being  desirable,  no  regard 
has  been  had  to  the  root,  which  remains  small 
and  in  its  natural  condition.  The  plant  is  an 
annual,  but  some  of  the  forms  of  it  are  treated 
like  biennials,  being  sown  in  autumn  to  per- 
fect itself  the  following  summer.  It  is  an  im- 
portant plant  in  English  agriculture,  where  it 
is  cultivated  for  its  herbage,  of  which  on  rich 


RAPHAEL 


205 


land  it  yields  an  enormous  amount,  the  plant 
standing  4  ft.  high ;  domestic  animals  general- 
ly are  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  especially  useful  for 
sheep,  which  are  allowed  to  feed  it  off,  and 
thus  enrich  the  land ;  it  is  sometimes  ploughed 
under  as  a  green  fertilizer.  In  this  country 


Eape  (Brassica  campestris,  var.  rapa). 

rape  has  been  hut  little  cultivated ;  the  winters 
in  the  northern  states  are  too  severe  for  the 
fall-planted  kinds,  hut  the  early  or  German 
rape,  sown  in  May,  has  been  satisfactorily  tried 
by  some  sheep  raisers.  In  Europe  it  is  grown 
in  gardens  as  a  salad  plant  and  pot  herb,  being 
eaten  young  in  the  same  manner  as  mustard. 
As  a  forage  plant  it  is  sown  broadcast,  the  stems 
being  more  succulent  if  the  plants  are  crowded; 
but  when  grown  for  its  seeds,  the  young  plants 
are  raised  in  a  seed  bed,  and  when  large  enough 
are  set  in  the  field  in  rows  the  same  as  cab- 
bages; the  yield  of  seed  varies  from  20  to  40 
bushels  to  the  acre.  The  seeds  closely  resemble 
those  of  the  turnip,  but  are  somewhat  larger ; 
they  yield  about  33  per  cent,  of  oil,  which, 
when  freed  from  the  mucilage  it  contains,  is 
used  as  a  lubricator,  for  illumination,  for  dress- 
ing leather,  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
cloths,  for  soap  making,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses; it  is  also  called  colza  oil,  a  name  more 
especially  given  to  that  derived  from  a  sub- 
variety  called  B.  campestris  oleifera.  The 
mass  left  after  the  expression  of  the  oil,  known 
as  rape  cake,  is  a  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce in  Europe;  its  composition  is,  in  100 
parts,  water  15,  ash  7*4,  albuminoids  18-3,  car- 
bohydrates 33'5,  crude  fibre  15'8,  fat,  &c.,  10; 
it  is  a  powerful  manure,  which  acts  promptly, 
and  is  used  either  in  compost,  or  ground  fine 
and  drilled  in  with  the  seed;  it  is  especially 
valuable  for  turnips  and  wheat. 

RAPHAEL  (RAFFAELLE  SANZIO,  or  SANTI  D'UK- 
BINO),  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Urbino,  April 
6,  1483,  died  in  Rome,  April  6,  1520.  He  be- 
longed to  a  family  of  artists,  and  his  father, 
Giovanni  Santi  (whose  life  has  been  written 


by  Count  Pompeo  Gherardi,  1875),  was  his  first 
instructor.  At  the  age  of  12  he  was  placed  in 
the  school  of  Perugino,  and  remained  with  him 
until  near  his  20th  year,  assisting  him,  but  at- 
tempting nothing  which  can  be  authenticated 
as  his  own  until  about  1500.  After  leaving 
the  school  of  Perugino,  he  worked  for  about  a 
year  in  Perugia,  producing  the  "Marriage  of 
the  Virgin,"  now  in  the  Brera  at  Milan,  and 
well  known  by  Longhi's  engraving;  "The 
Knight's  Dream,"  now  in  the  British  national 
gallery ;  the  "  Agony  in  the  Garden,"  and  "  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George,"  all  executed  in  what 
is  known  as  his  first  or  Peruginesque  manner. 
In  1504  Raphael  visited  Florence  for  the  first 
time.  The  compositions  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
and  Michel  Angelo,  known  as  the  "  Battle  for 
the  Standard "  and  the  "  Cartoon  of  Pisa," 
had  recently  been  opened  to  public  inspection, 
and  to  their  influence  may  be  attributed  the 
new  era  which  thenceforth  commences  in  his 
development.  He  returned  in  the  same  year 
to  Perugia,  and  for  several  months  was  em- 
ployed in  painting  altarpieces,  after  which  he 
revisited  Florence,  where  he  remained  until 
the  middle  of  1508.  During  this  period  he 
painted  about  30  pictures,  the  latest  essential- 
ly after  the  style  of  the  Florentines,  and  par- 
ticularly of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Preeminent 
among  them  were  those  testifying  his  devo- 
tion for  the  Virgin,  to  whom  in  after  life  he 
dedicated  a  chapel  in  Rome.  "  The  mere  col- 
lection of  all  the  Virgins  painted  or  even  de- 
signed by  Raphael,"  says  Quatremere  de  Quin- 
cy,  "  and  the  detail  of  the  variations  which 
he  introduced  into  his  compositions,  would 
form  an  abridged  history  of  his  genius." 
The  Madonna  del  granduca,  now  in  the  Pitti 
palace,  painted  either  during  his  first  visit  to 
Florence  or  in  the  early  part  of  his  longer 
sojourn  there,  represents  the  highest  perfection 
of  which  Perugino's  type  was  capable.  Imme- 
diately succeeding  this  in  date  were  the  "  Ma- 
donna of  the  Palm  Tree,"  now  in  the  Elles- 
mere  collection ;  the  Madonna  del  cardellino 
(of  the  goldfinch),  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  so 
called  because  the  little  St.  John  is  presenting 
a  goldfinch  to  the  infant  Christ ;  and  the  pic- 
ture in  the  Louvre  known  as  La  lelle  jar- 
diniere, in  which  the  Madonna  is  sitting  with 
the  two  children  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful 
landscape.  To  this  Florentine  period  belong 
also  the  "  St.  Catharine  "  in  the  British  national 
gallery,  the  two  little  "St.  Georges"  in  St, 
Petersburg  and  the  Louvre,  the  "Entomb- 
ment "  in  the  Borghese  gallery,  and  the  well 
known  portrait  of  himself  in  theUffizi  at  Flor- 
ence. The  production  of  works  like  these 
made  Raphael's  name  famous  over  all  Italy, 
and  Pope  Julius  II.  invited  him  to  complete  the 
frescoes  of  those  halls  of  the  Vatican  which 
had  been  left  unfinished  by  Nicholas  V.  and 
Pius  II.  In  the  middle  of  the  year  1508  Ra- 
phael arrived  at  the  papal  court,  and  began 
that  grand  series  of  works  which  develop  his 
third  or  Roman  manner.  His  frescoes,  cover- 


206 


RAPHAEL 


ing  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  three  chambers  or 
camere  and  a  large  saloon,  known  collectively 
as  the  "  Stanze  of  Raphael,"  were  intended  to 
glorify  the  power  of  the  church,  and  to  repre- 
sent Rome  as  the  centre  of  spiritual  culture. 
The  first  saloon,  called  the  camera  della  segna- 
tura,  he  dedicated  to  representations  of  the- 
ology, poetry,  philosophy,  and  jurisprudence, 
each  of  which  is  personified  by  an  allegorical 
figure  on  the  ceiling,  while  beneath,  on  the  four 
sides  of  the  apartment,  are  painted  the  princi- 
pal subjects.  "Theology,"  sometimes  called 
the  "Dispute  of  the  Sacrament,"  consists  of 
an  assemblage  of  doctors  and  dignitaries  of 
the  church  seated  in  council,  above  whom  is 
represented,  in  the  symmetrical  and  conven- 
tional manner  of  the  early  painters,  a  heavenly 
glory,  with  Christ  throned  on  clouds  and  pre- 
siding over  a  host  of  patriarchs,  saints,  and 
angels.  This,  the  first  work  executed  by  Ra- 
phael in  Rome,  is  also  the  last  of  his  large  com- 
positions which  contains  traces  of  his  early 
religious,  Peruginesque  manner.  The  influence 
of  the  antique,  which  he  here  first  felt  in  its 
fulness,  the  proximity  of  Michel  Angelo,  who 
was  then  painting  his  sublime  frescoes  in  the 
Sistine  chapel,  and  the  importance  and  gran- 
deurof  the  subjects  upon  which  he  was  engaged, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  his  genius,  and  he  reach- 
ed almost  at  a  single  step  the  limit  of  his  stylo. 
His  next  work  in  point  of  date,  u  Poetry  "  or 
"  Parnassus,"  representing  an  assembly  of 
Greek,  Roman,  and  Italian  poets  on  Mount 
Parnassus,  with  Apollo  and  the  Muses  in  the 
centre,  marks  perhaps  the  transition  period ; 
but  in  "  Philosophy"  or  the  "  School  of  Athens," 
which  followed,  the  Roman  style  is  matured. 
The  composition  represents  a  grand  hall  or 
portico,  in  which  are  characteristically  grouped 
the  great  philosophers  and  sages  of  antiquity. 
The  remaining  fresco  in  this  ttanza,  "Juris- 
prudence," owing  to  the  peculiar  construc- 
tion of  the  wall,  is  divided  into  three  composi- 
tions, Gregory  delivering  the  ecclesiastical  law, 
and  Justinian  promulgating  his  code  of  civil 
law,  above  which  are  female  personifications 
of  prudence,  fortitude,  and  temperance.  These 
frescoes  were  finished  in  1511,  and  appear  to 
have  been  immediately  succeeded  by  those  in 
the  stama  of  Heliodorus,  so  called  from  the 
story  of  the  expulsion- of  Heliodorus  from  the 
temple,  as  related  in  the  second  book  of  Mac- 
cabees, which  is  painted  on  one  of  its  walls.  In 
this  composition  the  group  of  Heliodorus  and 
the  pursuing  angels  is  especially  noticeable  for 
its  supernatural  power.  The  "Mass  at  Bol- 
sena,"  "  Attila  terrified  by  a  Celestial  Vision," 
and  "  St.  Peter  delivered  from  Prison  "  occupy 
the  remaining  walls  of  this  stama  ;  and  on  the 
ceiling  are  representations  of  the  promises  of 
God  to  the  four  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  and  Moses.  Julius  II.  died  during  the 
progress  of  the  work,  but  his  successor,  Leo  X., 
directed  its  completion,  as  also  that  of  the  other 
works  in  the  Vatican  on  which  Raphael  was 
engaged,  besides  intrusting  him  with  new  ones. 


Before  this  time,  however,  commissions  multi- 
plied so  greatly  upon  the  painter's  hands,  that 
he  was  obliged  to  commit  to  the  best  of  the 
numerous  scholars  who  now  resorted  to  him 
from  all  parts  of  Italy  the  execution  of  portions 
of  the  frescoes  in  the  remaining  stame  from 
his  cartoons  and  designs.  In  this  manner  was 
painted  the  stama  deW  incendio,  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  principal  subject  illustrated, 
the  "  Fire  in  the  Borgo,"  and  in  which  are  rep- 
resented the  prominent  events  in  the  lives  of 
Popes  Leo  III.  and  IV.  The  frescoes  in  the  sala 
di  Constantino,  the  last  of  the  series,  were  ex- 
ecuted after  his  death  under  the  direction  of 
Giulio  Romano,  his  most  eminent  pupil.  They 
all  suffered  from  neglect  after  the  removal  of 
the  popes  to  the  Quirinal  palace,  and  were 
cleaned  and  in  some  instances  restored  by 
Carlo  Maratti  in  the  18th  century.  While  en- 
gaged on  these  works  Raphael  executed  in 
fresco  for  Agostino  Chigi,  a  banker  of  Rome, 
the  four  grand  figures  of  the  Sibyls  in  the 
Chigi  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  and 
the  well  known  "  Triumph  of  Galatea,"  be- 
sides many  Madonnas  and  other  easel  pictures. 
His  fortune  kept  pace  with  his  celebrity,  and 
he  lived  in  princely  magnificence,  admired  and 
beloved  by  all  contemporary  artists,  excepting 
Michel  Angelo,  who  ill  endured  the  fame  of 
his  young  rival.  During  the  progress  of  the 
later  works  in  the  stame  Leo  X.  employed  Ra- 
phael on  the  decoration  of  the  loggie,  or  open 
galleries  round  three  sides  of  the  court  of  St. 
Damasus  (the  older  portion  of  the  Vatican), 
and  the  designs  for  the  tapestries  of  the  Sis- 
tine  chapel.  For  the  loggie  he  furnished  a 
series  of  designs  from  the  Old  Testament, 
known  as  "  Raphael's  Bible,"  which  were  exe- 
cuted in  13  small  cupolas  on  the  gallery  on 
the  second  story  by  Giulio  Romano,  Francesco 
Penni,  Pellegrino  da  Modena,  Perino  del  Vaga, 
and  others  of  his  pupils.  A  variety  of  beau- 
tiful arabesque  ornaments  and  stuccoes  in  the 
same  gallery  were  executed  from  his  designs 
by  Giovanni  da  Udine.  The  cartoons  for  tap- 
estries, prepared  probably  between  1518  and 
1516,  represent  the  highest  efforts  of  Raphael's 
genius  in  historical  composition.  They  are 
from  14  to  18  ft.  long  by  12  high,  and  are 
colored  in  distemper.  The  subjects  are  "  The 
Death  of  Ananias,"  "Elymas  the  Sorcerer 
struck  with  Blindness,"  "  The  Healing  of  the 
Lame  Man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Tem- 
ple," "The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes," 
"Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra,"  " Paul  preach- 
ing at  Athens,"  and  "The  Charge  to  Peter." 
These  cartoons,  at  the  suggestion  of  Rubens, 
were  purchased  by  Charles  I.  of  England,  and 
are  now  deposited  in  the  South  Kensington 
museum.  The  remaining  cartoons  of  the  se- 
ries, representing  "  The  Stoning  of  Stephen," 
"  The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  and  "  Paul  in 
the  Prison  of  Philippi,"  are  lost.  The  original 
tapestries,  for  which  the  pope  paid  the  manu- 
facturers in  Arras  50,000  gold  ducats,  after 
various  mutations  of  fortune,  are  now  in  the 


RAPHAEL 


RAPIN 


207 


Vatican,  but  are  so  injured  and  faded  that  the 
general  effect  of  the  coloring  is  destroyed. 
Raphael  also  furnished  the  designs,  but  not 
the  cartoons,  for  a  second  series  of  ten  tapes- 
tries which  are  now  in  the  Vatican.  Amid 
these  great  undertakings  he  did  not  neglect 
the  subjects  which  had  first  inspired  his  pen- 
cil, and  the  numerous  Madonnas  and  holy  fam- 
ilies produced  during  his  residence  in  Rome 
include  some  of  the  most  characteristic  and 
admirable  of  his  works.  Distinguished  among 
them  is  the  wonderful  Madonna  di  San  Si&to 
(painted  between  1517  and  1520)  in  the  Dres- 
den gallery,  representing  the  Virgin  standing 
in  a  majestic  attitude  with  the  child  in  her 
arms.  It  is  said  to  have  been  painted  at  once 
on  the  canvas,  without  any  preliminary  study, 
and  has  been  engraved  in  a  style  not  unwor- 
thy of  the  original  by  Friedrich  Muller.  Other 
celebrated  Madonnas  of  this  period  are  the  Al- 
dobrandini  Madonna,  in  the  possession  of  Lord 
Garvagh,  that  known  as  the  Bridgewater,  the 
Vierge  au  diademe  in  the  Louvre,  the  lovely 
Madonna  delta  sedia  or  seggiola  in  the  Pitti 
palace,  the  Madonna  di  Foligno  in  the  Vatican, 
that  called  the  "Pearl"  at  Madrid,  and  the 
Madonna  del  pesce  in  the  Escurial,  the  two 
last  mentioned  being  altarpieces  with  saints 
assembled  around  the  Virgin.  Of  several  of 
these  duplicates  exist,  and  all  of  them  have 
been  repeatedly  engraved.  Among  his  remain- 
ing easel  pictures  are  the  St.  Cecilia,  now  in 
Bologna;  the  "  Archangel  Michael  overcoming 
the  Devil,"  in  the  Louvre;  "Christ  bearing 
the  Cross,"  known  as  Lo  spasimo  di  Sicilia,  in 
Madrid ;  and  his  last,  and  by  many  considered 
his  grandest  work,  the  "  Transfiguration,"  in 
the  Vatican,  painted  in  competition  with  Se- 
bastian del  Piombo's  "Raising  of  Lazarus,"  of 
which  Michel  Angelo  is  said  to  have  furnished 
the  design.  He  executed  upward  of  80  por- 
traits, the  most  famous  being  those  of  Julius 
II.  and  Leo  X.,  the  originals  of  both  of  which 
are  in  Florence,  Cardinals  Bibbiena,  Bembo, 
de'  Medici,  and  de'  Rossi,  Joanna  of  Aragon, 
and  the  "  Fornarina,"  which  was  long  supposed 
to  represent  one  of  his  mistresses,  but  which 
Passavant  considers  to  be  the  portrait  of  a  cele- 
brated improvjsatrice  named  Beatrice  Pio.  The 
last  named  picture  is  in  the  Barberini  palace  in 
Rome.  To  this  list  of  works  must  be  added 
the  fresco  of  "  Cupid  and  Psyche  "  in  the  villa 
Farnesina,  and  numerous  drawings  in  chalk, 
from  which  the  engraver,  Marc'  Antonio  Rai- 
mondi,  executed  several  of  his  finest  plates. 
Raphael  also  directed  the  construction  of  St. 
Peter's  from  his  own  plans  subsequent  to  the 
death  of  Bramante  in  1514,  besides  executing 
several  other  architectural  works ;  and  he  made 
at  least  one  statue  in  marble,  besides  designing 
others.  He  died  of  a  fever  caught  in  super- 
intending some  subterranean  excavations,  and 
was  buried  in  the  Pantheon,  near  the  remains 
of  Maria  di  Bibbiena,  niece  of  the  cardinal  of 
that  name,  to  whom  he  had  been  betrothed. 
Through  some  doubt  as  to  the  place  of  his 
698  VOL.  xiv. — 14 


sepulture,  his  remains  were  exhumed  in  Sep- 
tember, 1833,  and  on  Oct.  18  reinterred  with 
great  ceremony.  Of  his  private  character  Mrs. 
Jameson  says:  "There  was  a  vulgar  idea  at 
one  time  prevalent  that  Raphael  was  a  man  of 
vicious  and  depraved  habits,  and  even  died  a 
victim  to  his  excesses;  this  slander  has  been 
silenced  for  ever  by  indisputable  evidence  to 
the  contrary,  and  we  may  now  reflect  with 
pleasure  that  nothing  rests  on  surer  evidence 
than  the  admirable  qualities  of  Raphael ;  that 
no  earthly  renown  was  ever  so  unsullied  by  re- 
proach, so  justified  by  merit,  so  confirmed  by 
concurrent  opinion,  so  established  by  time." 
— His  life  has  been  written  by  Quatrernere  de 
Quincy  (Paris,  1824);  by  Passavant  (3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1839-'58);  by  Baron  von  Wollzogen 
(1865;  English  translation  by  F.  E.  Bunnett, 
London,  1866) ;  and  more  briefly  by  Mrs.  Jame- 
son in  her  "  Memoirs  of  the  early  Italian 
Painters."  See  also  Kugler's  "Handbook  of 
Italian  Schools."  The  house  at  Urbino  where 
Raphael  was  born  was  purchased  in  1874  for 
22,000  francs  by  the  Raffaello  academy,  and 
is  to  be  restored  and  used  as  a  museum. 

K  A  I'll)  AX,  a  river  of  Virginia,  rising  in  the 
Blue  Ridge  mountains.  It  flows  first  S.  and 
then  E.,  forming  the  boundary  between  Greene 
and  Orange  counties  on  the  right  and  Madison 
and  Culpeper  counties  on  the  left,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  Rappahannock  about  10  m.  above 
Fredericksburg.  Its  length  is  about  80  m. 

RAPIDES,  a  W.  parish  of  Louisiana,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  Little  river,  and  intersected  by  the 
Red  and  Calcasieu  rivers;  area,  about  2,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,015,  of  whom  10,267 
were  colored,  since  which  a  portion  has  been 
taken  to  form  Vernon  parish.  The  surface  is 
nearly  level  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  261,579  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  54,276  of  sweet  potatoes,  9,133 
bales  of  cotton,  8,868  Ibs.  of  wool,  3,324 
hhds.  of  sugar,  and  212,860  galls,  of  molasses. 
There  were  2,225  horses,  1,976  mules  and  asses, 
3,748  milch  cows,  1,218  working  oxen,  9,259 
other  cattle,  3,848 sheep,  and  14,724  swine;  18 
establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
and  1  saw  mill.  Capital,  Alexandria. 

RAPIN,  Paul  de,  sieur  de  Thoyras,  a  French 
historian,  born  in  Castres,  March  25, 1661,  died 
in  Wesel,  May  16,  1725.  He  became  an  advo- 
cate, but  turned  his  attention  to  arms  and  lit- 
erature. Being  a  Protestant,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
(1685),  and  afterward  to  Holland,  where  he 
joined  a  company  of  French  cadets,  and  fol- 
lowed the  prince  of  Orange  (William  III.)  to 
England.  He  was  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  siege  of  Limerick. 
He  afterward  became  tutor  of  the  young  duke 
of  Portland,  and  in  1707  settled  in  Wesel  on 
the  Rhine.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
Uistoire  d? Angleterre  (9  vols.  4to,  the  Hague, 
1724),  in  which  the  narration  of  events  is  car- 
ried down  to  the  death  of  Charles  I.  It  was 
translated  and  continued  by  N.  Tindal,  and  has 


208 


RAPOPORT 


RASCIA 


been  often  printed  (2  vols.  fol.,  l732-'3;  5 
vols.  fol.,  1743-7;  21  vols.  8vo,  1757-'9). 

RAPOPORT.     See  RAPPAPORT. 

RAPP,  Georg,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Har- 
monists, born  in  Wurtemberg  in  1770,  died  at 
Economy,  Pa,,  Aug.  7,  1847.  Believing  that 
he  had  a  divine  call,  and  was  charged  with  the 
restoration  of  the  Christian  religion  to  its  ori- 
ginal purity,  he  organized  a  community  on  the 
model  of  the  primitive  church,  with  goods  in 
common.  A  difficulty  with  the  government  in 
regard  to  worship  impelled  Rapp  to  transplant 
his  community  in  1803  from  Wurtemberg  to 
the  United  States.  They  settled  first  on  Co- 
nequenessing  creek,  in  Butler  co.,  Pa.,  where 
they  founded  the  village  of  Harmony,  and  em- 
ployed themselves  in  agriculture  and  manufac- 
tures. They  acquired  considerable  wealth,  and 
in  1815  removed  to  the  territory  of  Indiana, 
where  they  had  purchased  a  tract  of  27,000 
acres  on  the  Wabash.  The  settlement  of  New 
Harmony  here  was  even  more  prosperous  than 
their  former  establishment,  but  in  1824  they 
sold  the  property  to  Robert  Owen,  and  emi- 
grated to  Beaver  co.,  Pa.,  where  the  town  of 
Economy  was  laid  out  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ohio,  17  m.  N.  W.  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is  an 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  community. 
Members  of  both  sexes  are  admitted,  but  they 
do  not  marry ;  they  profess  Protestantism,  ob- 
serve strict  morality,  and  pay  much  attention 
to  education.  There  was  a  secession  of  about 
200  members  in  1832.  The  village  of  Harmony 
(pop.  in  1870,  225)  was  in  1851  set  off  from  the 
township  of  Economy  (pop.  in  1870,  1,824). 

RAPP,  Jean,  a  French  general,  born  in  Col- 
mar  in  April,  1772,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  8, 
1821.  He  entered  the  French  army  as  a  pri- 
vate in  1788,  distinguished  himself  during  the 
wars  of  the  revolution,  and  was  an  aide-de- 
camp of  Desaix  in  Italy  and  Egypt.  After  the 
battle  of  Marengo  Napoleon  attached  him  to 
his  staff,  and  when  ho  became  emperor  Rapp 
was  promoted  to  brigadier  general.  At  Aus- 
terlitz  he  decided  the  victory  by  precipitating 
his  force  upon  the  Russian  imperial  guard, 
and  was  made  general  of  division.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  succeeding  campaigns, 
especially  at  Golymin  (1806),  where  he  was 
wounded  for  the  ninth  time.  To  enable  him 
to  recruit  his  health  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  government  of  Thorn,  and  subsequently 
with  that  of  Dantzic.  He  was  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1812  against  Russia,  receiving  at  the 
Moskva  his  23d  wound;  and  after  the  disas- 
trous result  of  that  invasion  he  withdrew  to 
Dantzic,  where  he  was  blockaded  by  the  Prus- 
sians and  Russians.  He  held  out  12  months, 
but  finally  surrendered,  and  was  carried  to 
Russia  as  prisoner  of  war.  Returning  to  France 
on  the  restoration,  he  was  sent  to  oppose  the 
return  of  Napoleon,  but  went  over  to  his  old 
leader,  who  appointed  him  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  But  being  pressed 
by  an  Austrian  army  superior  to  his,  he  retired 
to  Strasburg,  and  after  the  second  restoration 


went  to  Switzerland.  In  1818  he  returned  to 
France,  was  reinstated  in  the  army,  and  in 
1819  was  made  a  peer.  He  left  a  volume  of 
"Memoirs,"  published  in  1828. 

RAPPAHAMOCK,  a  river  in  the  E.  part  of 
Virginia,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
North  fork  and  other  small  streams,  which  rise 
in  the  Blue  Ridge  and  unite  on  the  N.  E.  bor- 
der of  Culpeper  co.  At  the  S.  E.  extremity  of 
that  county  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Rap- 
idan,  its  largest  tributary ;  thence  flowing 
in  a  devious  course,  it  reaches  tide  water 
at  Fredericksburg,  where  by  a  fall  it  supplies 
valuable  power ;  thence  it  becomes  navigable, 
and  enters  Chesapeake  bay  by  an  estuary  about 
60  m.  long.  The  whole  length  in  a  straight 
line  from  its  sources  to  Chesapeake  bay  is 
about  140  m.,  but  with  its  numerous  and  in- 
tricate windings  its  real  length  must  be  nearly 
twice  as  much.  It*  general  course  is  S.  E. 

RAPPAHANNOCK,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordered  N.  E.  by  the  North  fork  of  the  Rap- 
pahannock,  and  drained  by  others  of  its  head 
waters;  area,  about  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,261,  of  whom  8,066  were  colored.  It  is  bor- 
dered N.  W.  by  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  has  a  gen- 
erally fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  103,112  bushels  of  wheat,  10,755 
of  rye,  304,040  of  Indian  corn,  44,297  of  oats, 
2,058  tons  of  hay,  23,918  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  15,036 
of  wool,  87,426  of  butter,  and  8,819  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  2,087  horses, 
1,904  milch  cows,  5,192  other  cattle,  3,655 
sheep,  and  5,615  swine.  Capital,  Washington. 

RAPPAPORT,  or  Rapoport,  Solomon  Judab,  a 
Jewish  antiquary,  born  in  Lemberg  in  June, 
1790,  died  in  Prague,  Oct.  16,  1867.  He  pub- 
lished critico-biographical  and  other  essays 
in  the  Hebrew  periodicals  Bikkurei  ha'ittim 
(Vienna,  1820-'31)  and  Kerem  'hemed  (Vienna 
and  Prague,  1833-'45),  which  raised  him  to 
the  highest  rank  among  the  Hebrew  scholars 
of  the  age.  The  most  important  of  his  nu- 
merous writings,  including  the  posthumous 
Na'halath  Yehudnh  (Cracow,  1869),  is  the 
first  volume  of  a  Talmudo-rabbinical  cyclopae- 
dia entitled  'Erekh  millin  (Prague,  1852).  He 
was  elected  rabbi  of  Tarnopol  in  1837,  and  of 
Prague  in  1840,  and  held  the  latter  position 
till  his  death. 

RARATONGA,  or  Rarotonga.  See  COOK'S  ISL- 
ANDS. 

RARITAN,  a  river  of  New  Jersey,  formed  by 
the  confluence  in  Somerset  co.  of  two  branch- 
es, both  having  their  sources  in  the  mountains 
of  Morris  co. ;  the  North  branch  flows  mainly 
due  S.,  and  the  South  branch  makes  a  curve  S. 
W.  through  Hunterdon  co.,  and  then  forms  a 
circuit  to  the  north.  From  the  junction  the 
course  of  the  Raritan  is  nearly  E.  It  passes 
by  New  Brunswick,  whence  it  is  navigable  to 
Raritan  bay,  which  it  enters  at  Perth  Am  boy. 
The  main  stream  is  about  33  m.  long. 

RASCIA,  in  the  middle  ages,  the  name  of 
southern  Servia,  derived  from  Rasa  (now  Novi- 
Bazar),  on  the  Rashka,  and  subsequently  ex- 


KASHI 


RASPBERKY 


209 


tended  to  the  whole  of  the  Servian  kingdom. 
The  name  Rascians,  variously  modified,  is  still 
used  in  Hungary,  Roumania,  and  other  coun- 
tries, to  designate  various  Serb  populations 
living  outside  of  Servia. 

KASHI.    See  SOLOMON  BEN  ISAAC. 

RISK,  Rasmus  Christian,  a  Danish  philologist, 
born  at  Brendekilde,  on  the  island  of  Ftinen, 
Nov.  22,  1787,  died  in  Copenhagen,  Nov.  14, 
1832.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Co- 
.penhagen,  was  appointed  an  assistant  in  the 
university  library  in  1808,  and  in  1811  pub- 
lished in  Danish  his  "  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse  Language." 
In  1812  he  went  to  Sweden,  and  in  1813  to  Ice- 
land, where  he  remained  three  years  studying 
its  history  and  literature.  In  1817  he  was  in 
Stockholm,  and  in  1818  and  1819  in  Finland 
and  St.  Petersburg,  occupied  with  the  study 
of  Finnish,  Russian,  Armenian,  Persian,  and 
Arabic.  From  St.  Petersburg  he  went  to  Per- 
sia, thence  to  India  and  Ceylon,  and  returned 
to  Copenhagen  in  1823.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  literary  history  in  the  university 
in  1825,  of  oriental  languages  in  1828,  and  first 
librarian  in  1829.  According  to  Bunsen,  Rask 
anticipated  some  of  the  greatest  discoveries  of 
Grimm,  Bopp,  and  Burnouf.  He  published 
Icelandic,  Anglo-Saxon,  Spanish,  Frisian,  Da- 
nish, and  Lappish  grammars,  and  works  on  the 
ancient  Egyptian  chronology,  on  the  oldest  He- 
brew chronology,  and  on  the  Thracian  and 
Zend  languages.  After  his  death  his  contribu- 
tions to  various  journals  were  collected,  with  a 
life  by  Petersen  (3  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1834-'8). 

KASKOLMKS,  or  Roskolniks,  the  principal  class 
of  Russian  dissidents.  See  RUSSIA. 

RASPAIL,  Francois  Vincent,  a  French  naturalist 
and  revolutionist,  born  in  Carpentras,  Jan.  29, 
1794.  He  studied  at  the  seminary  of  Avignon, 
settled  in  Paris  in  1815  as  a  scientific  writer, 
and  was  in  1830  wounded  during  the  revolu- 
tion. He  was  subsequently  a  journalist,  spend- 
ing many  years  in  prison  on  account  of  his 
revolutionary  writings.  He  led  the  populace 
in  1848  to  proclaim  the  republic,  and  was  after- 
ward again  imprisoned  till  1854,  although  elect- 
ed in  1849  to  the  national  assembly.  In  the 
interval  he  had  also  been  imprisoned  for  illegal 
practice  of  medicine.  He  had  sold  camphor 
in  the  form  of  cigarettes  as  the  best  remedy 
against  internal  and  external  parasites,  and 
written  much  on  the  subject.  In  1869  he  was 
elected  to  the  legislative  body,  and  joined 
Rochefort  in  editing  the  Marseillaise.  In  1870- 
'71  he  was  identified  with  the  commune  move- 
ment. His  principal  works  are:  Nouveau 
systeme  de  chimie  organique  (new  ed.,  3  vols., 
1838);  Nouveau  systeme  de  physiologie  vege- 
tale,  &c.  (2  vols.,  1837) ;  Histoire  naturelle  des 
ammonites  et  des  terebratules  (3  vols.,  1842; 
new  ed.,  1866);  Histoire  naturelle  de  la  sante 
et  de  la  maladie  (3  vols.,  1839-'43 ;  3d  ed.,  en- 
larged, 1857) ;  Manuel  de  la  sante  (annual, 
1846-'65);  and  Nouvelles  etudes  scientifiques 
et  philologiques  (1865). 


RASPBERRY,  the  name  (of  very  doubtful 
derivation)  of  fruit-bearing  shrubs  of  the  genus 
rubus,  of  the  order  rosacece  or  rose  family. 
The  genus  consists  of  shrubs  or  half-shrubby 
(and  a  few  herbaceous)  perennial  plants,  with 
mostly  compound  leaves ;  the  lobes  of  the 
bractless  calyx  persistent ;  petals  five ;  stamens 
and  pistils  numerous ;  the  ovaries  containing 
two  ovules,  and  in  fruit  becoming  one-seeded 
pulpy  drupes,  which  cohere  in  a  head  or  clus- 
ter above  the  open  calyx.  It  is  one  of  those 
genera  in  which  the  species  are  so  variable 
that  their  number  has  been  unduly  increased 
by  local  botanists ;  over  500  have  been  de- 
scribed, but  there  are  probably  not  more  than 
100  good  species.  The  genus  rubus  includes 
both  the  raspberries  and  the  blackberries ;  in 
the  former  the  drupes  cohere,  and  when  ripe 
fall  away  from  the  dry  receptacle,  or  in  some 
species  there  are  only  a  few  grains  which  fall 
separately,  while  in  the  latter  the  drupes  re- 
main attached  to  the  receptacle.  Our  native 
raspberries  are  divided  into  three  sections:  1. 
With  simple  leaves,  large  flowers,  plant  with- 
out prickles,  and  the  fruit  very  flat  and  broad. 
To  this  section  belongs  what  is  called  in  this 
country  the  rose-flowering,  and  in  England  the 
Virginia  raspberry,  R.  odoratus ;  it  is  about  5 
ft.  high,  with  ample  three-  to  five-lobed  leaves, 
which  as  well  as  the  young  shoots  are  viscid 
with  glandular  bristly  hairs ;  the  flowers,  of  a 
rich  rose-purple  color,  are  about  2  in.  across ; 
the  fruit,  which  is  variable,  is  sometimes  an 
inch  broad,  very  flat,  reddish,  with  a  rather 
pleasant  flavor,  though  dry.  This  is  found  in 
rocky  places  from  Canada  to  the  mountains 
of  Georgia,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  cultiva- 
tion, though  not  so  often  as  it  deserves ;  its 
large  flowers,  varying  in  depth  of  color,  appear 
much  like  single  roses,  and  it  blooms  at  mid- 
summer, when  but  few  shrubs  are  in  flower. 
The  white-flowering  raspberry,  R.  Nvtlanus, 
was  first  discovered  at  Nootka  on  the  N.  W. 
coast,  but  has  later  been  found  to  extend  as  far 
east  as  upper  Michigan ;  among  other  differ- 
ences from  the  foregoing,  it  is  not  bristly  and 
has  white  flowers.  The  Rocky  mountain  bram- 
ble, R.  deliciosus,  is  hairy,  and  has  smaller 
leaves  and  larger  flowers  than  either  of  the 
preceding ;  it  has  recently  been  introduced  into 
gardens,  and  will  be  popular  on  account  of  its 
abundant  flowers,  which  are  pure  white,  and 
have  a  peculiarly  delicate  texture ;  the  specific 
name  was  given  it  by  Torrey,  from  the  accounts 
of  the  fruit  given  by  the  discoverer  Dr.  James ; 
but  it  proves  to  be  very  indifferent.  Belong- 
ing to  the  same  section  is  the  cloudberry,  It. 
chamamorvs,  a  low,  creeping,  nearly  herba- 
ceous, dioecious,  subalpine  species,  with  white 
flowers,  and  a  few  amber-colored,  very  large 
grains ;  it  is  also  a  European  species,  and  is 
found  throughout  arctic  America,  on  the  White 
mountains  above  the  tree  line,  and  at  Mount 
Desert  and  other  points  on  the  eastern  coast, 
where  its  fruit  is  called  the  baked-apple  berry. 
2.  The  second  section  comprises  low,  mostly 


210 


RASPBERRY 


herbaceous,  and  unimportant  species.  3.  Spe- 
cies with  biennial,  woody,  and  prickly  stems, 
and  three  to  five  foliolate  compound  leaves. 
The  common  wild  red  raspberry  is  found  from 
Newfoundland  to  Oregon,  and  as  far  south  as 
the  middle  states.  The  upright  stems  are  bris- 
tly and  prickly ;  the  leaves,  with  three  to  five 
oblong-ovate,  serrate  leaflets,  are  covered  on 
the  under  side  with  a  white  down  ;  the  petals 
as  long  as  the  sepals,  the  fruit  light  red.  This 
species  is  abundant  northward,  especially  on 
recently  cleared  lands,  where  it  produces  frwit 
in  great  profusion  all  summer.  The  garden 
raspberry  of  Europe,  R.  Idceus,  is  so  very  near 
this  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  good  botanical 
characters  to  separate  them  ;  this  species  has 
been  improved  by  raising  seedlings  under  cul- 
tivation ;  varieties  derived  from  it  are  the  Al- 
len, Kirtland,  scarlet,  and  others.  The  plant 
propagates  itself  abundantly  by  underground 
stems,  which  run  beneath  the  surface  for  sev- 
eral feet  and  appear  above  ground  as  suckers ; 
these  stems  grow  to  their  full  height,  5  or  6  ft., 
in  one  season,  bear  their  fruit  the  next  sum- 
mer, and  then  die ;  the  European  raspberry 
lias  a  similar  manner  of  growth,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  varieties  of  this  species  is  the 
same  as  given  below  for  that. — The  black  rasp- 
berry, R.  occidentals,  also  called  blackcaps  and 
thimbleberry,  is  more  widely  distributed  than 
the  red,  extending  as  far  south  as  Georgia; 
it  has  prickly  stems  with  a  glaucous  bloom; 
leaflets  mostly  three  and  white  underneath ; 
the  petals  shorter  than  the  sepals ;  the  fruit 
black,  with  whitish  varieties,  ripe  in  July,  drier 
than  the  red,  and  with  a  distinct  and  pecu- 
liar flavor.  In  manner  of  growth  this  is  very 
different  from  the  red  raspberry  ;  it  makes  no 
distant  suckers,  but  new  shoots  spring  up  from 
the  base  of  the  old  plant,  and  late  in  summer 
the  branches,  which  grow  very  long,  become 
recurved,  until  finally  their  tips  reach  the 
ground,  where  they  take  root  and  form  new 
plants;  in  cultivation  this  process  is  aided  by 
covering  the  ends  of  the  branches  with  a  little 
earth.  Within  the  past  20  years  much  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  cultivating  varieties 
of  this  species,  and  they  are  now  very  popu- 
lar. Among  the  cultivated  sorts  are  Doo- 
little's,  Seneca,  Davidson's  thornless,  Miami 
or  Mammoth  cluster,  and  the  whitecap.  In 
cultivating  for  fruit,  the  stems  are  stopped  by 
pinching  when  about  3  ft  high,  and  the  side 
branches  are  also  stopped,  forming  a  compact 
branched  bush,  which  will  bear  a  great  quan- 
tity of  fruit ;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  multiply 
plants,  the  branches  are  allowed  to  grow,  bend 
over,  and  reach  the  ground  as  described  above. 
— There  is  a  set  of  native  raspberries  which 
appear  to  have  escaped  the  attention  of  bota- 
nists, but  are  well  known  to  cultivators  as  the 
purple-cane  family  ;  the  plants  have  the  habit 
of  growth  of  the  black,  but  the  fruit,  though 
dark-colored,  resembles  in  form  and  flavor  the 
red  raspberry ;  it  has  been  suggested  that  these 
have  originated  by  hybridizing  the  black  and 


red  species.  They  are  not  so  high-flavored  as 
the  red  kinds,  but  as  they  bear  profusely  and 
do  not  sucker,  they  are  better  adapted  to  small 
gardens;  the  varieties  are  purple  cane,  Cata- 
wissa,  Ellisdale,  and  a  few  others. — The  garden 
raspberry,  R.  Idceus,  so  named  from  Mount 
Ida,  is  found  all  over  Europe  and  in  Russian 
Asia;  it  only  differs  from  our  native  red  species 
in  being  a  taller  plant,  with  thicker  leaves  and 
firmer,  larger,  and  better  fruit.  This  species 
was  cultivated  by  the  Romans  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, and  the  oldest  English  writers  on  rural 
matters  mention  it,  some  giving  both  a  red 
and  a  white  kind.  There  are  over  50  varie- 
ties in  the  fruit  lists,  very  few  of  which  are 
generally  cultivated ;  among  the  most  popular 
kinds  are  those  which  have  been  raised  in  this 
country  from  seed.  The  berry  with  which  the 
New  York  market  is  mainly  supplied  is  the 
Hudson  River  Antwerp,  a  red  variety  of  un- 
known (though  supposed  English)  origin  ;  im- 
mense quantities  are  brought  from  various  lo- 


Earopean  Raspberry  (Rubus  Idteus). 

calities  along  the  Hudson,  and  it  has  not  yet 
been  superseded  by  any  other;  among  the  other 
popular  varieties  of  this  class  are  Belle  de  Fon- 
tenay  (with  many  synonymes),  Clarke,  Dow- 
ning, Fastolff,  Franconia,  Hornet,  Brinckle's 
orange,  and  Philadelphia.  The  last  named  is 
by  some  regarded  as  a  native;  it  is  a  great 
bearer  even  on  poor  soils,  and,  though  not 
of  first  quality,  is  one  of  the  most  profitable. 
These  varieties  are  propagated  by  suckers, 
which  most  of  them  produce  in  abundance ; 
after  the  sucker  has  grown  a  year  it  is  separa- 
ted from  the  parent  plant,  and,  its  stem  being 
cut  back  to  a  few  inches,  is  taken  up  for  plant- 
ing. A  plantation  is  made  in  autumn  or  very 
early  in  the  spring,  setting  the  plants,  accord- 
ing to  the  vigor  of  the  variety,  4  to  6  ft.  apart 
each  way ;  two  or  three  shoots  are  allowed  to 
grow  from  the  plant  the  first  season,  and  not 
more  than  six  thereafter ;  they  are  supported 
by  tying  to  stakes,  or  to  wires  stretched  along 
the  rows;  the  shoots  bear  fruit  the  second 


BASSE 


RAT 


211 


year,  and  at  the  same  time  new  shoots  are 
produced ;  as  soon,  as  the  fruit  is  gathered  the 
old  canes  are  cut  out,  and  the  new  ones,  which 
will  fruit  the  following  year,  are  cared  for,  all 
surplus  shoots  being  removed.  All  the  for- 
eign varieties  in  the  northern  states  (and  they 
do  not  succeed  in  the  southern)  need  to  be 
covered  in  winter. 

RASSE.     See  CIVET. 

RASTADT,  a  fortified  town  of  Baden,  on  the 
Murg,  14  m.  S.  W.  of  Carlsruhe ;  pop.  in  1871, 
11,559.  It  has  a  fine  palace,  a  Protestant  and 
several  Catholic  churches,  a  Catholic  normal 
school,  a  lyceum,  and  a  museum.  A  congress 
met  here  in  November,  1713,  and  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  March  6,  1714,  ending  the 
Spanish  war  of  succession.  The  treaty  of 
peace  of  Campo  Formio  and  the  secret  Ras- 
tadt  convention  of  Dec.  1,  1797,  gave  to  France 
all  German  fortresses  on  the  Rhine.  At  the 
second  congress  of  Rastadt  for  peace  between 
France  and  Germany,  which  opened  Dec.  9, 
1797,  the  extravagant  demands  of  the  French 
were  granted ;  but  war  being  renewed,  the 
congress  broke  up  in  April,  1799,  and  the 
French  ambassadors,  on  leaving,  were  mur- 
dered near  the  town  by  Austrian  hussars 
(April  28).  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna  of  1815 
Rastadt  became  a  fortress  of  the  Germanic 
confederation.  The  Baden  revolution  of  1849 
began  here  May  11,  with  a  mutiny  of  the  Ba- 
denese  troops,  which  was  followed  by  a  rising 
in  Carlsruhe.  A  few  days  later  the  Austrian 
garrison  abandoned  the  fortress,  which  was 
occupied  in  June  by  the  insurgent  troops  un- 
der Mieroslawski,  a  provisional  government 
having  replaced  that  of  the  grand  duke.  The 
rising  extended  to  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  but 
was  suppressed  by  Prussian  intervention  under 
the  command  of  the  crown  prince  (the  present 
emperor  William).  Rastadt  was  blockaded  at 
the  end  of  June,  and  bombarded  on  July  6  and 
7,  and  surrendered  on  July  23.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Prussians  from  that  time  till  1866. 

RAT,  a  well  known  rodent,  the  type  of  the 
subfamily  murince.  In  the  murine  tribe  of  this 


Norway  Eat  (Mus  decumanus). 

subfamily,  confined  originally  to  the  old  world, 
belong  the  common  house  rats.  The  brown 
or  Norway  rat  (mua  decumctnus,  Pall.)  has  a 


body  8  to  10  in.  long,  and  the  tail  6  to  8  in., 
scantily  covered  with  hair  and  with  about  200 
rings ;  the  color  above  is  grayish  brown  mixed 
with  rusty,  grayer  on  the  sides,  and  ashy  white 
below ;  the  upper  surface  of  the  feet  dirty 
white.  This  species,  originally  from  India  and 
Persia,  entered  Europe  through  Russia,  appear- 
ing in  the  central  countries  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century ;  it  was  brought  to  Amer- 
ica about  1775,  and  has  since  greatly  increased 
in  numbers,  driving  out  here  as  in  Europe  the 
black  rat  which  had  been  previously  introduced ; 
it  is  now  generally  distributed  over  the  world, 
having  been  transported  in  ships,  and  most 
abundantly  near  the  seacoasts.  Its  haunts  are 
cellars,  sewers,  canal  docks,  and  similar  dirty 
places,  wherever  it  can  make  a  burrow  or  find 
abundant  food ;  it  is  a  great  household  pest, 
and  so  prolific  that  its  devastations  are  some- 
times very  great ;  it  breeds  from  three  to  five 


Black  Eat  (Mus  rattus). 

times  a  year,  having  12  to  15  at  a  birth,  the 
males  always  being  the  most  numerous.  Not 
only  the  black  rat,  but  other  species  indi- 
genous to  the  old  world,  are  driven  off  or  de- 
stroyed by  it ;  the  dead  and  even  living  per- 
sons are  attacked  by  it  when  hard  pressed ;  it 
is  not  only  pursued  by  man,  dogs,  and  cats,  but 
the  stronger  will  kill  and  devour  the  weaker 
of  its  own  species.  The  black  rat  (M.  rattua, 
Linn.)  is  7  or  8  in.  long,  with  a  tail  of  8-J-  in. ; 
the  color  is  very  dark,  often  nearly  black, 
with  numerous  long  hairs  projecting  from  the 
short  and  soft  fur,  plumbeous  beneath,  and 
the  feet  brown ;  it  has  a  slighter  form  than 
the  brown  rat,  with  the  upper  jaw  more  pro- 
jecting, the  ears  larger,  and  the  tail  much 
longer  in  proportion.  It  is  not  very  strong, 
but  exceedingly  active;  being  rather  timid, 
it  is  exterminated  by  the  larger  and  fiercer 
brown  rat ;  the  habits  of  the  two  species  are 
much  the  same,  but  the  black  rat  is  less  a 
burrowing  animal,  and  prefers  the  upper  parts 
of  houses  to  cellars  and  low  dirty  places.  It 
used  to  be  the  common  house  rat  in  Europe 
and  warm  countries,  until  driven  off  by  its 
congener ;  it  appears  to  have  been  brought 
to  the  new  world  about  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century  ;  it  came  originally  from  central 


212 


EAT 


Asia;  like  the  preceding  species,  it  is  omniv- 
orous. The  roof  or  white-bellied  rat  (M.  tec- 
torum,  Savi)  is  about  6£  in.  long,  and  the  tail 
about  8  in.  with  240  rings ;  it  is  colored  above 
like  the  brown  rat,  the  lower  parts  and  up- 
per surface  of  feet  yellowish  white  ;  the  head 
is  rather  blunt,  the  eyes  large,  whiskers  long 
and  black,  ears  very  large,  and  the  thumb 
rudimentary.  It  came  originally  from  Egypt 
and  Nubia,  thence  passed  to  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  from  the  last  to  America  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury ;  it  is  common  in  Mexico  and  Brazil, 
and  in  the  southern  states,  but  is  rarely  found 
above  North  Carolina ;  it  is  fond  of  inhabiting 
the  thatched  roofs  of  houses,  whence  its  name  ; 
it  is  the  same  as  the  M.Alexandrinus  (Geoffr.) 
and  M.  Americanm  (Seba).  Some  of  the  East 
Indian  rats  are  far  larger  than  any  of  these ; 
the  giant  rat  of  Bengal  and  the  Coromandel 
coast  (M.  giganteus,  Raffles)  has  a  body  13  in. 
long  and  a  tail  as  much  more ;  this  is  very 
destructive  in  gardens  and  granaries,  devour- 
ing chickens  and  ducks,  undermining  houses, 
and  piercing  the  mud  walls ;  it  is  the  largest  of 
the  subfamily,  a  male  weighing  as  much  as  3 
Ibs. ;  it  is  often  eaten  by  the  lower  caste  Hin- 
doos.— All  these  rats  are  very  fond  of  fighting, 
and  with  their  omnivorous  habits  are  decided- 
ly murine  cannibals,  eating  not  only  their  con- 
quered brethren  but  their  young.  Though  liv- 
ing in  the  filthiest  places  and  in  the  foulest  air, 
they  always  have  a  sleek  coat,  and  take  the 
greatest  pains  to  clean  themselves,  licking  the 
paws  in  the  manner  of  a  cat ;  during  mastica- 
tion the  jaws  move  very  rapidly ;  they  drink 
by  lapping ;  when  asleep  the  body  is  coiled  in 
a  ball,  with  the  nose  between  the  hind  legs,  and 
the  tail  curled  around  the  outside,  leaving  only 
the  ears  out  ready  to  catch  the  least  sound 
of  danger  ;  as  food  fails  they  migrate  in  com- 
panies from  one  place  to  another.  There  are 
more  muscles  in  a  rat's  tail  than  in  the  human 
hand ;  this  most  useful  appendage,  with  its 
chain  of  movable  bones  and  numerous  muscles, 
is  covered  with  minute  scales  and  short  stiff 
hairs,  rendering  it  prehensile,  and  capable  of 
being  employed  as  a  hand,  balancer,  or  project- 
ing spring.  The  teeth  are  long  and  sharp,  but 
there  is  nothing  specially  dangerous  in  wounds 
made  by  them ;  their  strength  enables  them 
to  gnaw  ivory,  as  dealers  in  this  article  well 
know  ;  in  fact,  even  in  Africa,  elephants'  tusks 
are  found  gnawed  by  rats,  squirrels,  porcu- 
pines, and  perhaps  other  rodents,  as  long  as 
any  gelatine  is  contained  in  them.  They  are 
very  subject  to  tumors  of  the  skin,  which 
often  end  fatally ;  they  also  perish  soon  with- 
out water.  These  animals  have  their  uses,  es- 
pecially for  devouring  refuse  matters  which 
would  otherwise  engender  disease,  as  in  tropi- 
cal climates  or  in  large  cities,  in  the  sewers  of 
which  they  live  in  legions ;  their  skins  are  em- 
ployed for  various  purposes,  as  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  thumbs  of  gloves,  but  are  too  del- 
icate for  any  article  requiring  much  strength. 
The  Chinese  and  other  Asiatic  nations,  and 


many  African  tribes,  eat  the  flesh  of  rats ; 
and  arctic  travellers  have  often  found  them  a 
welcome  addition  to  their  bill  of  fare. — In 
the  sigmodont  tribe  of  the  murina,  belonging 
entirely  to  the  new  world,  besides  the  genera 


Florida  Hut  (Neotoms  Floridana). 

noticed  under  MOUSK,  may  be  mentioned  neo- 
toma  (Say  and  Ord) ;  in  this  the  fur  is  soft 
and  full,  the  form  rat-like,  the  tail  long  and 
more  or  less  hairy ;  ears  very  large  and  near- 
ly naked ;  molars  rooted  ;  heels  hairy.  It  is 
peculiar  to  North  America,  and  found  in  the 
United  States  except  New  England;  some  of 
the  species  are  much  larger  than  house  rats, 
and  are  rather  handsome.  The  Florida  or 
wood  rat  (N.  Floridana,  Say  and  Ord)  is 
about  8  in.  and  the  tail  6  in.  long,  the  short 
stiff  hair  of  the  latter  not  concealing  the  scaly 
rings ;  the  color  above  is  plumbeous  mixed 
with  dark  and  yellowish  brown,  lighter  on 
the  sides,  beneath  and  the  feet  white;  tail 
dusky  above,  white  below  ;  the  head  is  sharp. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  southern  Atlantic  and 
gulf  states,  and  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
west ;  the  habits  vary  much  in  different  local- 
ities, living  in  some  places  in  the  woods,  in 
others  under  stones  or  in  the  ruins  of  build- 
ings; in  swampy  districts  it  heaps  up  mounds, 
2  or  3  ft.  high,  of  grasses,  leaves,  nnd  sticks 
cemented  with  mud ;  sometimes  the  nest  is 
in  the  fork  or  the  hollow  of  a  tree.  It  is  cre- 
puscular, very  active  and  an  excellent  climber; 
the  food  consists  of  corn,  nuts,  cacti,  crusta- 
ceans, mollusks,  and  various  roots  and  fruits ; 
the  disposition  is  mild  and  docile ;  from  three 
to  six  young  are  produced  twice  a  year.  Larger 
species  are  found  west  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, very  destructive  to  the  furs,  blankets, 
and  stores  of  the  trappers ;  for  an  account  of 
these  see  vol.  yiii.  of  the  "Reports  of  the  Pa- 
cific Railroad  Expedition."  In  the  bone  caves 
of  Pennsylvania  have  been  found  the  remains 
of  a  species  whose  body  must  have  been  at 
least  12  in.  long. — In  the  genus  sigmodon  (Say 
and  Ord)  the  general  appearance  is  that  of  a 


KATAZZI 


RATISBON 


213 


large  field  mouse ;  the  body  is  stout,  the  hair 
long,  the  muzzle  blunt  and  hairy  except  on 
the  septum ;  the  upper  lip  slightly  notched ; 
thumb  rudimentary ;  soles  naked,  with  six 
granular  tubercles ;  incisors  stout,  the  upper 
much  rounded ;  ears  and  tail  moderate ;  mo- 
lars rooted,  with  a  plane  surface,  the  last  two 
lower  with  the  enamel  in  the  form  of  an  S, 
whence  the  name.  The  genus  is  confined  to 
the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
best  known  species  is  the  cotton  rat  (S.  hispi- 
dus,  Say  and  Ord),  about  5  in.  long  with  a  tail 
of  4  in. ;  the  color  above  is  reddish  brown, 
brightest  on  the  sides,  lined  with  dark  brown, 
and  under  parts  grayish  white ;  the  hair  is  long 
and  coarse,  and  the  claws  very  strong.  It  is 
more  abundant  in  the  southern  states  than  the 
meadow  mice  in  the  north,  living  in  hedges, 
ditches,  and  deserted  fields,  and  consequently 
doing  but  little  damage  to  the  planter.  It  is 
gregarious,  feeding  on  seeds  of  grasses  and 


Cotton  Bat  (Sigmodon  hispidus). 

leguminous  plants,  and  also  on  flesh ;  it  picks 
up  wounded  birds  and  small  mammals,  craw- 
fish, and  crabs ;  it  is  very  fierce  and  pugnacious, 
the  stronger  killing  and  devouring  the  weak- 
er, and  the  males  often  eating  the  young ;  it 
is  also  very  fond  of  sucking  eggs.  Nocturnal 
in  habit,  it  is  seen  by  day  in  retired  places ;  it 
digs  very  extensive  galleries  not  far  from  the 
surface,  a  family  in  each  hole ;  it  breeds  sev- 
eral times  a  year,  having  four  to  eight  in  a  lit- 
ter ;  it  swims  and  dives  well.  It  received  its 
name  from  its  lining  the  nest  with  cotton.  It 
is  preyed  upon  by  foxes,  wild  cats,  hawks,  and 
owls.  It  is  not  found  north  of  Virginia. 

RATAZZI.     See  RATTAZZI. 

RATIBOR,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Oder,  which  is  here  navigable,  90  m.  S.  E.  of 
Breslau;  pop.  in  1871,  15,323,  chiefly  Roman 
Catholics.  It  has  one  Protestant  and  several 
Catholic  churches,  and  a  Protestant  gymna- 
sium attended  by  about  500  students.  The 
principal  trade  is  in  grain  and  timber;  tobacco 
is  manufactured.  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  a  principality,  which  belonged  to  the  house 


of  Hapsburg  from  1532  to  1742,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Prussians.  From  1822  to  1834 
it  belonged  with  its  castle  (burned  in  1858) 
and  domains  to  the  landgrave  Victor  Amadeus 
of  Hesse-Rothenburg,  and  it  is  now  held  as  a 
dukedom  by  Prince  Victor  of  Hohenlohe-Wal- 
denburg-Schillingsfurst. 

RATISBON  (Ger.  Regensburg ;  anc.  Reginum; 
mediasval  Lat.  Ratisbona),  a  city  of  Bavaria, 
capital  of  the  united  district  of  the  Upper 
Palatinate  and  Ratisbon,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  opposite  its  junction  with  the 
Regen,  65  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Munich ;  pop.  in  1871, 
29,224,  including  about  6,000  Protestants,  the 
rest  being  chiefly  Catholics.  It  is  a  city  of 
great  antiquity,  having  crooked  streets  and 
tall,  quaint  houses  with  gable  roofs,  and  in- 
tervening lofty  towers.  The  restoration  of  the 
cathedral,  founded  about  1275,  was  completed 
in  1875 ;  it  has  a  richly  sculptured  portal,  and  is 
one  of  the  grandest  Gothic  structures  in  Ger- 
many. The  abbey  of  Emmeran,  dating  from 
652,  and  improved  by  Charlemagne,  consists 
of  a  vast  pile  of  buildings,  including  the  half 
ruined  church  with  the  shrine  of  St.  Emme- 
ran, the  patron  saint  of  the  city;  the  cloisters 
have  been  embellished  and  enlarged  by  their 
present  owner,  Prince  Thurn  and  Taxis.  The 
Bischofshof,  once  the  residence  of  German  em- 
perors, and  where  Maximilian  II.  died,  is  now 
a  brewery.  The  city  has  a  town  hall  with 
interesting  historical  associations,  an  observa- 
tory, a  lyceum,  a  gymnasium,  an  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  an  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
a  public  library,  a  well  endowed  hospital,  and 
a  fine  promenade  (Furstengarteri)  at  the  rear 
of  the  Thurn  and  Taxis  palace,  with  a  monu- 
ment of  Kepler,  who  is  buried  in  the  Protes- 
tant cemetery.  The  most  celebrated  building 
in  the  vicinity  of  Ratisbon  is  the  Walhalla,  the 
Bavarian  pantheon,  at  Donaustauf ;  it  consists 
of  a  Doric  marble  temple  after  the  model  of 
the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  begun  in  1816  by 
Klenze  for  the  crown  prince,  afterward  King 
Louis  I.,  and  opened  in  1841.  The  Danube  is 
spanned  in  Ratisbon  by  a  stone  bridge  nearly 
1,500  ft.  long.  The  shipping  trade  chiefly  con- 
sists of  timber,  grain,  and  salt,  of  which  Ratis- 
bon is  the  principal  depot.  Gold,  silver,  steel, 
tin,  and  other  wares  are  made,  and  there  are 
many  breweries  and  distilleries. — Under  the 
Romans  Ratisbon  was  an  important  frontier 
fortress  of  Vindelicia.  Subsequently  it  became 
a  commercial  centre,  and  in  the  6th  century 
the  capital  of  Bavarian  dukes.  The  important 
bishopric  of  Ratisbon  was  established  in  the 
8th  century.  In  the  12th  century  it  was  made 
a  free  imperial  city.  In  1633-'4  it  was  succes- 
sively taken  by  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  Bernard 
of  Weimar,  and  the  imperial  troops.  From 
1663  to  1806  it  was  almost  continually  the  seat 
of  the  German  imperial  diet.  Under  Charles 
Dalberg,  elector  of  Mentz,  the  city  and  the 
see  of  Ratisbon  formed  together  a  principality 
from  1803  to  1810,  when  both  were  incorpo- 
rated with  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria. 


214 


RATTAN 


RATTLESNAKE 


RATTAN.     See  PALM,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  18. 

RATTiZZI.  I.  [Irbano,  an  Italian  statesman, 
born  in  Alessandria,  June  29, 1808,  died  in  Fro- 
sinone,  June  5,  1873.  He  became  an  advocate, 
and  in  1848  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Sar- 
dinian parliament.  For  a  short  time  in  July 
he  was  minister  of  instruction.  A  steady  op- 
ponent of  peace  with  Austria,  he  joined  in  De- 
cember Gioberti's  cabinet  as  minister  of  justice, 
and  succeeded  him  in  February,  1849,  as  its 
virtual  head,  with  the  portfolio  of  the  interior. 
He  retired  on  the  abdication  of  Charles  Albert 
after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Novara  at  the  end 
of  March.  His  continued  parliamentary  oppo- 
sition to  Austrian  domination  in  Italy  resulted 
in  the  election  of  a  new  parliament,  in  which 
he  formed  a  middle  party  (il  connubio)  acting 
in  concert  with  Oavour  and  the  liberal  conser- 
vatives. In  Oavour's  cabinet  Rattazzi  became 
minister  of  justice  in  October,  1853,  and  at 
the  end  of  May,  1855,  minister  of  the  interior. 
Early  in  1858  he  withdrew  on  account  of  a 
considerable  accession  to  the  ranks  of  the  cleri- 
cal party  in  the  chamber,  after  having  carried 
through  the  partial  suppression  of  monasteries 
and  other  religious  bodies.  In  January,  1859, 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  chamber,  and 
after  the  peace  of  Villafranca  replaced  Cavour 
as  head  of  the  cabinet,  but  again  gave  way  to  the 
latter  on  Jan.  20,  1860.  His  unpopularity  was 
increased  by  his  refraining  from  voting  on  the 
question  of  the  annexation  of  Nice  and  Savoy 
to  France,  and  it  was  only  in  February,  1861, 
that  Cavour  could  prevail  upon  the  chamber  to 
accept  him  again  as  president.  After  the  death 
of  Cavour  he  opposed  Ricasoli,  and  took  his 
place  as  premier  in  March,  1862.  Against  his 
former  policy,  he  was  obliged  to  combat  the 
revolutionists  at  Sarnico,  Aspromonto,  and 
other  places,  without  gaining  any  advantage 
in  the  Roman  question,  and  had  to  resign  in 
December.  In  1863  he  fought  a  duel  with  his 
political  adversary  Minghetti.  From  April  to 
October,  1867,  he  was  for  the  last  time  prime 
minister.  By  the  Garibaldians,  who  were  soon 
afterward  defeated  at  Montana  owing  to  the 
measures  which  he  had  taken,  he  was  accused 
of  subserviency  to  Napoleon  III.,  while  the  cler- 
ical party  charged  him  with  encouraging  the 
Garibaldians ;  but  in  parliament  he  vindica- 
ted his  course  (Dec.  18,  19)  by  pleading  the  in- 
ternational obligations  which  the  government 
was  bound  to  observe.  II.  Marie  Stndolmine, 
a  French  writer,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  London  about  1830.  Her  mother  was  the 
princess  Lsetitia,  a  daughter  of  Lucien  Bona- 
parte, and  her  father  was  Sir  Thomas  Wyse, 
English  minister  at  Athens.  The  separation 
of  her  parents  left  her  without  resources,  and 
Louis  Philippe  placed  her  in  a  royal  school  at 
St.  Denis.  In  1850  she  married  M.  Frederic 
Solins,  a  rich  Alsatian,  from  whom  she  sepa- 
rated in  1852.  Louis  Napoleon  objected  to 
her  residing  in  Paris  on  account  of  her  polit- 
ical intrigues,  and  she  afterward  lived  in  Sa- 
Toy  and  at  Nice  under  the  name  of  the  prin- 


cess Marie  de  Solms,  engaged  in  literary  labor, 
and  intimately  associating  and  corresponding 
with  many  eminent  men.  In  1860  she  returned 
to  Paris,  and  subsequently  went  to  Florence, 
where  in  1862  she  married  Rattazzi.  Lately 
she  has  resided  in  Paris.  The  best  known  of 
her  many  novels  are  Les  mariages  de  la  creole 
(1866)  and  Si  fetaig  reine  (1868).  She  has 
also  published  poems  and  dramas  (often  acting 
in  the  latter),  and  edited  several  journals. 

RATTLESNAKE,  an  American  venomous  ser- 
pent, the  type  of  the  family  crotalida,  which 
includes  several  species,  all  characterized  by  a 
deep  pit  lined  with  small  plates  on  each  side, 
beneath  and  usually  a  little  behind  the  nostrils. 
In  the  genus  crotalus  (Linn.)  the  head  is  very 


Hood  of  Rattlesnake,  showing  Poison  Fangs. 

large,  flattened  above  and  triangular,  scaly  on 
the  crown,  with  small  shields  on  its  sides  and 
the  nose ;  eyes  large  and  brilliant ;  teeth  very 
small,  but  theHrue  maxillaries,  which  are  small 
and  attached  to  the  cranium  by  a  small  pedicel 
and  by  ligamentary  union,  have  a  single  pair 
of  long  curved  fangs,  laid  flat  during  inaction, 
but  erected  when  the  mouth  is  opened  ;  these 
fangs  are  channelled  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
poison  secreted  by  a  gland  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  beneath  and  behind  the  eyes;  behind  the 
fangs  are  the  rudiments  of  others,  which  are 
developed  as  occasion  requires ;  there  are  also 
two  rows  of  small  fixed  teeth  on  the  palate ; 
the  belly  is  covered  with  broad  shields;  the 
trunk  and  tail  are  scaly  above,  and  nearly  all 
the  subcaudal  scutes  simple.  The  last  three 
to  eight  caudal  vertebrae  coalesce  to  form  a 


Rattle  and  Section  of  Rattle. 

single  terminal  conical  and  compressed  bone, 
covered  by  muscle  and  a  thick  spongy  skin 
which  secretes  the  pieces  of  the  rattle,  an  ap- 
pendage of  loosely  articulated  horny  segments, 
whose  rattling  noise  has  given  the  popular 
name  to  this  genus;  the  rattle  may  consist  of 
20  or  30  pieces,  the  smallest  at  the  end  ;  they 


RATTLESNAKE 


215 


are  securely  strung  together,  each  consisting  of 
three  annular  portions,  the  basal  ring  of  one 
grasping  the  second  of  the  preceding,  and  this 
again  enclosing  the  third  of  the  joint  next  but 
one  preceding ;  the  first  only  has  a  vital  con- 
nection with  the  skin  ;  this  apparatus  is  made 
to  vibrate  by  the  muscles  of  the  tail,  with  a 
sound  like  that  of  peas  in  a  dry  pod.  The 
sound  of  the  rattle  closely  resembles  that  made 
by  the  17-year  locust  (cicada)  and  grasshop- 
pers. It  is  popularly  but  erroneously  believed 
that  the  age  of  the  snake  can  be  estimated 
by  the  number  of  the  rattles ;  though  these 
may  increase  with  age,  their  fragility  is -811011 
that  many  may  be  lost  from  accident;  and 
moreover,  more  than  one  may  be  added  annu- 
ally, according  to  the  vigor,  food,  state  of  cap- 
tivity, &c.,  of  the  animal ;  20  are  not  unfre- 
quently  seen  in  large  specimens,  but  it  would 
be  incorrect  to  conclude  from  these  that  the 
snake  was  neither  more  nor  less  than  20  years 
old.  As  the  bite  of  these  reptiles  is  speedily 
fatal  to  small  animals,  it  has  been  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  use  of  the  rattles  is  to  warn  an- 
imals and  man  of  its  vicinity;  but,  as  other 
equally  and  even  more  dangerous  species  have 
no  such  apparatus,  it  is  more  likely  that  its  use 
is  to  startle  the  squirrels,  birds,  and  other  crea- 
tures upon  which  it  preys  from  their  retreats, 
or  for  some  other  purpose  for  its  own  welfare 
rather  than  the  safety  of  man.  It  may  serve 
for  its  own  protection  by  alarming  its  enemies 
and  drawing  attention  to  its  menacing  attitude; 
yet  were  this  the  case  we  should  expect  the 
young  to  be  best  provided  with  this  apparatus, 
whereas  it  increases  in  size  with  age ;  it  has 
been  suggested  that  it  is  to  call  the  sexes  to- 
gether. (See  vol.  vi.  of  "  American  Naturalist," 
1872.)  Rattlesnakes  rarely  attack  man  unless 
provoked,  and  are  sluggish  in  their  movements, 
unable  to  spring  except  from  a  coil,  and  are 
disabled  by  slight  blows.  They  are  ovo-vivip- 
arous,  the  eggs  being  retained  until  hatched, 
and  the  young  expelled  alive ;  in  winter  they 
retire  to  holes  in  the  ground,  and  there  remain 
torpid,  several  interlaced  with  each  other ;  they 
are  unable  to  climb  trees,  and  do  not  follow 
a  retreating  animal  which  has  escaped  their 
spring.  They  are  said  to  be  fond  of  music, 
like  many  other  serpents.  Some  Indians  are 
afraid  to  kill  them,  lest  the  spirit  of  the  slaugh- 
tered animal  should  excite  its  living  relatives  to 
avenge  its  death.  They  are  capable  of  attain- 
ing to  a  considerable  age,  and  are  tenacious  of 
life  under  circumstances  speedily  fatal  to  most 
other  animals. — The  most  common  is  the  band- 
ed rattlesnake  (C.  [uropsophvs]  durissits,  Linn.), 
4  to  5  ft.  long,  ash-colored  above  with  irregular 
transverse  dusky  bars,  confluent  near  the  tail ; 
vertebral  line  yellowish,  the  sides  tinged  with 
the  same ;  the  body  is  thick  and  robust  and  the 
tail  short  and  thick ;  in  a  specimen  about  4  ft. 
long  the  head  was  2  in.,  the  body  40,  the  tail 
8|,  and  nine  rattles  2  in.,  the  greatest  circum- 
ference being  6  in. ;  there  were  177  broad  ab- 
dominal plates,  and  25  under  the  tail ;  in  the 


young  the  tail  is  black.  It  is  generally  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  United  States,  from  lat. 
45°  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Mississippi  and  Red  rivers ;  it  preys 


Rattlesnake  (CrotaluB  durissus). 

principally  on  rabbits,  squirrels,  rats,  and  small 
birds,  quietly  waiting  for  them  to  come  within 
its  reach,  its  bite  proving  fatal  to  animals  of 
this  size  in  less  than  a  minute  when  the  snake 
is  in  full  vigor.  It  is  now  rarely  met  with 
in  the  northern  states,  except  in  uncultivated 
and  rocky  places,  remote  from  dwellings  ;  it  is 
more  common  in  the  western  states,  where  its 
fat  is  highly  prized  as  an  antidote  to  its  bite, 
and  also  for  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  pains ; 
cattle  are  often  bitten  by  it,  and  it  is  the  cus- 
tom there  to  cast  them  and  bury  the  wounded 
part  in  the  mud,  recovery  taking  place  rapidly ; 
this  shows  the  comparatively  little  danger  for 
a  large  animal,  as  there  can  be  nothing  cura- 
tive in  the  application  made.  The  diamond  or 
water  rattlesnake  (C.  adamantevs,  Beauv.)  is 
dark  brown  or  dusky  above,  with  a  series  of 
large  rhomboidal  spots  continuous  from  head 
to  tail ;  abdomen  dirty  yellowish  white ;  the 
mouth  is  large,  the  neck  small  and  contracted, 
and  the  body  long  and  thick ;  it  is  the  largest 
of  the  genus,  and  may  attain  a  length  of  8  ft. ; 
in  one  about  6  ft.  long  the  head  was  2f  in., 
the  body  60,  the  tail  2|,  and  the  rattles  3  in. ; 
abdominal  plates  172,  and  25  subcaudal.  It 
frequents  damp  and  dark  places,  always  near 
water,  though  not  living  in  it ;  it  is  one  of 
the  most  hideous  and  sullenly  ferocious  ser- 
pents of  the  family ;  its  range  is  very  limit- 
ed, from  North  Carolina  to  East  Florida,  on 
the  seacoast.  The  C.  horridus  (Linn.)  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  warm  parts  of  South  America ;  it 


216 


RATTLESNAKE 


RAUCH 


attains  a  length  of  5  or  6  ft.  and  the  thickness 
of  a  man's  wrist;  the  color  is  yellowish  brown 
varied  with  darker,  on  the  lower  parts  lighter; 
there  are  wide  lozenge-shaped  spots  along  the 
back  edged  with  white,  with  light  stripes  and 
other  smaller  and  less  distinct  spots  on  the 
sides ;  brownish  black  bands  between  the  eyes, 
and  from  the  top  of  the  head  along  the  neck. 
It  is  found  only  in  dry,  rocky,  elevated  regions, 
covered  with  thorns  and  bushes ;  the  negroes 
esteem  its  flesh  a  delicacy ;  it  often  bites  and 
destroys  cattle  coming  near  its  retreat,  the 
poison  being  more  virulent  in  tropical  climates. 
— The  genus  crotalophorut  (Gray)  seems  to 
connect  crotalus  with  trigonocephalus  (copper- 
head), having  the  rattles  of  the  former  and  the 
plates  on  the  head  of  the  latter.  The  small  or 
ground  rattlesnake  (C.  miliariu»,  Gray)  is  dark 
gray  above,  with  a  brownish  red  vertebral  line 
interrupted  by  a  row  of  subquadrate  black 
spots  margined  with  yellow ;  a  double  series 
of  black  spots  on  each  side,  the  upper  larger 
but  less  distinct,  and  a  white  streak  backward 
from  the  eyes.  It  is  generally  from  16  to  18 
in.  long,  and  is  common  in  the  United  States 
as  far  N.  as  lat.  35°,  in  dry  places  among  leaves, 
preying  on  field  mice  and  small  birds ;  its  bite 
is  fatal  to  small  animals,  but  not  to  man.  The 
prairie  rattlesnake  (C.  tergeminus,  Say)  is  a 
little  over  2  ft.  long;  it  is  cinereous  above, 
with  a  triple  series  of  dark  brown  spots,  and  a 
double  series  of  dusky  spots  below ;  it  is  fond 
of  hiding  in  the  holes  of  the  prairie  dog  (cyno- 
mys),  on  the  young  of  which  it  chiefly  feeds ; 
it  occurs  in  the  country  near  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains and  the  sources  of  the  Missouri.  Other 
species  are  described  by  Dr.  Holbrook,  and  by 
Baird  and  Girard. — The  poison  gland  is  com- 
pressed by  the  temporal  muscle  during  the  act 
of  striking ;  there  is  a  very  extensive  communi- 
cation of  the  glandular  tissue  with  the  vascular 
system,  the  blood  vessels  surrounding  the  se- 
creting tubes  in  a  capsular  manner.  Microscop- 
ically the  poison  appears  as  a  limpid  hyaline 
serum,  with  crystals  of  ammonio-magnesian 
phosphate,  according  to  Dr.  W.  I.  Burnett. 
According  to  Dr.  Mitchell  it  is  yellow,  acid, 
glutinous,  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1'04;  devoid 
of  taste,  smell,  and  acridity ;  beginning  to  co- 
agulate at  140°  F.,  and  soluble  in  water.  It 
consists :  1,  of  an  albuminoid  substance,  coagu- 
lable  by  pure  alcohol  but  not  by  a  heat  of  212° 
F.,  called  by  him  crotaline,  the  poisonous  ele- 
ment ;  2,  of  a  non-poisonous  albuminoid  com- 
pound, coagulable  both  by  heat  and  alcohol ; 
3,  of  a  yellow  coloring  matter  and  an  undeter- 
mined substance,  both  soluble  in  alcohol,  traces 
of  fatty  matter  and  free  acid-saline  bodies,  chlo- 
rine, and  phosphates.  No  temperature  from 
zero  to  212°,  nor  acids  and  alkalies  at  moderate 
temperatures,  nor  alcohol,  chlorine,  nor  iodine, 
destroy  the  poisonous  property  of  the  venom. 
This  fluid  is  fatal  even  to  the  bitten  snake;  it 
destroys  the  vitality  of  the  blood  and  its  pow- 
er of  coagulation,  as  by  a  lightning  stroke ;  it 
probably  acts  as  a  powerful  sedative  through 


the  blood  on  the  nervous  centres;  hence  the 
best  antidotes  are  active  stimulants,  especially 
alcohol  in  some  form ;  and,  vice  versa,  intoxi- 
cation may  be  neutralized  by  taking  this  poison 
into  the  stomach  in  the  form  of  pills.  The 
poison  varies  in  intensity  according  to  season, 
climate,  and  vigor  of  the  animal,  being  most 
active  in  tropical  regions  and  in  warm  weather, 
when  it  has  been  long  retained  or  the  animal 
is  greatly  irritated ;  cold-blooded  animals  gen- 
erally suffer  little  from  its  bite,  and  pigs  kill 
and  devour  it  with  impunity  atid  avidity,  their 
covering  of  fat  preventing  the  introduction  of 
the  poison  into  the  circulation ;  its  virulence  is 
soon  exhausted  by  rapidly  succeeding  bites,  as 
has  been  proved  by  experiments  on  chickens 
and  rats ;  as  its  secretion  goes  on  for  some  time 
after  death,  experimenters  should  be  careful  in 
their  manipulations  about  the  fangs  and  poison 
apparatus.  Many  plants,  and  other  substances 
are  reputed  to  be  efficacious  against  the  bite  of 
the  rattlesnake ;  but  none  have  been  proved  to 
be  so  when  the  poison  fangs  have  actually  en- 
tered the  tissues. — For  details  on  the  habits  of 
these  serpents,  on  the  anatomy  of  the  parts 
concerned  in  the  secretion  and  expulsion  of  the 
poison,  and  in  the  infliction  of  the  wound,  and 
for  a  full  enumeration  of  genera  and  species, 
with  illustrations  and  copious  bibliography,  see 
a  memoir  in  vol.  xii.  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge"  (1860),  by  S. 
Weir  Mitchell,  M.  D.,  and  an  abstract  of  the 
same  in  the  secretary's  report  for  1860  (8vo, 
Washington,  1861). 

K  vu  II,  Christian  Daniel,  a  German  sculptor, 
born  in  Arolsen,  Jan.  2, 1777,  died  in  Dresden, 
Dec.  3,  1857.  He  studied  in  Cassel,  and  in 
1797  went  to  Berlin,  where  ho  was  attached 
to  the  royal  household  till  1804,  when  Queen 
Louisa  enabled  him  to  study  in  Dresden  and  in 
Rome.  He  early  became  known  by  his  bust  of 
a  daughter  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  and  bass 
reliefs  of  "  Hippolytus  and  Phaedra,"  "Mars," 
and  "  Venus  wounded  by  Diomedes."  In  1813 
he  finished  his  celebrated  statue  of  Queen 
Louisa,  and  subsequently  executed  hundreds 
of  works,  of  which  almost  every  considerable 
German  city  has  one  or  more.  The  principal 
are  statues  of  King  Maximilian  at  Munich, 
Blucher  at  Berlin  and  at  Breslau,  Durer  at 
Nuremberg,  Luther  at  Wittenberg,  Kant  at 
Konigsberg.  six  large  Victories  in  the  Walhalla, 
and  especially  his  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Berlin,  finished  in 
1851.  His  last  model,  that  of  "Moses  praying 
together  with  Aaron  and  Hur,"  has  been  cut 
in  marble  by  Albert  Wolf.  He  held  the  posts 
of  court  sculptor  and  professor  of  sculpture  in 
the  academy  of  Berlin. 

RUTH,  Friedrleh  August,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Kirchbracht,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
July  27,  1806,  died  in  Mercersburg,  Pa.,  March 
2,  1841.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Marburg  in  1827,  afterward  studied  at  Gies- 
sen  and  Heidelberg,  and  in  his  24th  year  be- 
came extraordinary  professor  in  the  univer- 


BAUMER 


RAVAILLAO 


217 


sity  of  Giessen,  and  soon  afterward  ordinary 
professor  at  Heidelberg.  Before  assuming  the 
duties  of  the  latter  appointment,  he  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  the  government  by  too  free 
an  expression  of  his  political  sentiments,  and 
fled.  He  arrived  in  America  in  1831,  and  in 
June,  1832,  was  ordained  to  the  ministry,  arid 
called  to  York,  Pa.,  to  take  charge  of  a  classi- 
cal school  in  connection  with  the  theological 
seminary  of  the  German  Reformed  church. 
In  1835  he  was  chosen  president  of  Marshall 
college,  Mercersburg,  acting  at  the  same  time 
as  professor  of  Biblical  literature  in  the  theo- 
logical seminary,  which  had  been  removed  to 
that  place.  He  continued  in  this  double  office 
up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  published 
"  Psychology,  or  a  View  of  the  Human  Soul " 
(1840),  and  left  unfinished  a  work  entitled 
"Christian  Ethics."  A  volume  of  his  ser- 
mons was  edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gerhart, 
entitled  "The  Inner  Life  of  the  Christian" 
(Philadelphia,  1856). 

RAUAIEK.  I.  Friedrleh  Lndwig  Georg  von.  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Worlitz,  near  Des- 
sau, May  14,  1781,  died  in  Berlin,  June  13, 
1873.  He  completed  his  studies  at  Halle  and 
Gottingen,  and  was  employed  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice from  1801  to  1811,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  Breslau,  and  in  1819  at  Berlin,  where 
he  remained  till  1853.  At  various  periods 
he  visited  England,  the  United  States,  and 
other  countries.  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament,  and  was  employed 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Paris ;  and  he  was 
afterward  a  member  of  the  Prussian  upper 
house  till  1875.  His  principal  works  are 
Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen  und  ihrer  Zeit  (6 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1823-'5 ;  4th  ed.,  1871),  and 
Geschichte  Europe? s  seit  dem  Ende  des  15. 
Jahrhunderts  (8  vols.,  1832-'50).  His  other 
publications  include  Herbstreise  nach  Venedig 
(2  vols.,  1816);  Vorlesungen  uber  die  alte 
Geschichte  (2  vo!g.,  1821 ;  3d  ed.,  1861) ;  Brief e 
aus  Paris  und  Frankreich,  1830  (2  vols.,  1831) ; 
Brief  e  aus  Paris  zur  Erlduterung  der  Geschichte 
des  16.  und  17.  Jahrhunderts  (2  vols.,  1831); 
England  im  Jahr  1835  (2  vols.,  1836;  en- 
larged ed.,  3  vols.,  1842 ;  English  translation 
by  Sarah  Austin  and  H.  E.  Lloyd,  1836-'42) ; 
Beitrdge  zur  neuern  Geschichte  avs  dem  Bri- 
tischen  Museum  und  Reichsarchive  (5  vols., 
1836-'9);  Italien  (2  vols.,  1840);  Die  Vereinig- 
ten  Staaten  von  Nordamerika  (2  vols.,  1845 ; 
English  translation  by  W.  W.  Turner,  "  Amer- 
ica and  the  American  People,"  New  York, 
1846) ;  Brief  e  aus  Frankfurt  und  Paris  (2  vols., 
1849);  Antiquarische  Briefe  (1851);  Ver- 
mischte  Schriften  (3  vols.,  1852-'4);  Lelens- 
erinnerungen  und  Briefwechsel  (2  vols.,  1861); 
Handbuch  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Litera- 
tur  (4  vols,  1864-'6) ;  and  Literarischer  Nach- 
lass  (2  vols.,  1869).  In  1830  he  began  the  pub- 
lication of  the  yearly  Historisches  Taschenbuch, 
which  he  edited  till  his  death,  and  which  is 
now  continued  by  Riehl.  II.  Karl  Georg  von,  a 
German  geographer,  brother  of  the  preceding, 


born  at  "Worlitz,  April  9,  1783,  died  in  Erlan- 
gen,  June  2,  1865.  He  studied  at  Gottingen, 
Halle,  and  Freiberg.  In  1810  he  received  an 
appointment  in  the  mineralogical  bureau  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1811  at  Breslau.  In  1813-'14 
he  fought  against  the  French  as  aide-de-camp 
of  Gneisenau.  From  1819  to  1823  he  was  em- 
ployed both  in  the  mining  bureau  and  the 
university  of  Halle,  and  subsequently  at  Nu- 
remberg till  1827,  when  he  became  professor 
of  natural  history  and  mineralogy  at  Erlangen. 
His  chief  works  are :  Lehrbuch  der  allgemei- 
nen  Geographic  (Berlin,  1832 ;  3d  ed.,  Leip- 
sic, 1848) ;  Beschreibung  der  Erdoberflache  (6th 
ed.,  1866) ;  Palastina  (1835 ;  4th  ed.,  I860) ; 
Kreuzzuge  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1840  and  1864); 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  (3d  ed.,  4  vols., 
1857-'61)  ;  and  his  autobiography  (1866).  III. 
Rudolf  TOD,  a  German  philologist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Breslau,  April  14,  1815. 
He  studied  at  Erlangen,  Gottingen,  and  Mu- 
nich, and  in  1840  began  to  teach  at  the  first 
named  university,  where  in  1852  he  became 
professor  of  philology.  Among  his  works  are : 
Gesammelte  sprachwissenschaftliche  Schriften 
(Frankfort,  1863) ;  Untersuchungen  uber  die 
Urverwandtschaft  der  semitischen  und  indo- 
europdischen  Sprachen  (1868  et  seq.) ;  and  Ge- 
schichte der  germanischen  PhilosopJiie,  vor- 
zugsweise  in  Deutschland  (Munich,  1870). 

RAUSCHER,  Joseph  Othmar  von,  an  Austrian 
cardinal,  born  in  Vienna,  Oct.  6,  1797,  died  in 
November,  1875.  He  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  and  church  history  at  Salz- 
burg, rector  of  the  oriental  academy  of  Vienna, 
preceptor  to  the  present  emperor  and  the  arch- 
dukes Maximilian  and  Charles  Louis,  prince- 
bishop  of  Seckau  in  1849,  prince-archbishop  of 
Vienna  in  1853,  and  cardinal  Dec.  17,  1855. 
This  last  dignity  was  bestowed  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  services  in  bringing  about  the 
concordat  of  Aug.  18,  1855,  between  Austria 
and  the  holy  see.  He  was  foremost  among 
the  German  episcopate  in  opposing  the  intro- 
duction of  the  question  of  papal  infallibility, 
and  in  April,  1870,  published  a  pamphlet  argu- 
ing strongly  the  dangers  of  such  a  discussion. 
When  the  general  debate  on  infallibility  was 
closed  by  the  presiding  legates  in  the  beginning 
of  June,  a  meeting  of  prelates  was  called  at  his 
residence,  at  which  a  protest  was  drawn  up 
against  the  act  of  the  legates.  His  last  speech 
in  the  council  warned  the  fathers  that  fatal 
consequences  would  ensue  from  a  declaration. 
He  was  one  of  the  88  bishops  who  voted  non 
placet  on  July  13,  and  one  of  the  55  who 
signed  a  formal  protest  against  the  manner  of 
proceeding.  He  afterward  acquiesced  in  the 
decision  of  the  majority,  and  promulgated  the 
dogma  for  acceptance  by  his  flock.  After 
1870  Cardinal  Rauscher  strenuously  opposed 
the  Old  Catholic  movement. 

BAVAILLAC,  Francois,  the  assassin  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  born  in  Angouleme  about  1578, 
executed  May  27,  1610.  He  was  first  a  law- 
yer's clerk,  and  then  a  schoolmaster.  Having 


218 


RAVEE 


RAVEN 


been  cast  into  prison  for  some  offence,  he  fell 
into  a  gloomy  fanaticism.  He  went  to  Paris, 
and  joined  the  Feuillants,  but  was  expelled  as  a 
fanatic  and  fool,  and  returned  to  Angouleme, 
where  he  manifested  the  most  intense  hatred 
of  Protestantism.  He  determined  to  under- 
take the  murder  of  Henry  IV.,  whom  he  was 
taught  to  consider  the  great  enemy  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  went  to  Paris.  On  May 
14,  1610,  about  4  P.  M.,  the  king  drove  to  the 
arsenal  to  visit  Sully,  who  was  sick.  In  the 
narrow  street  La  Ferronnerie  the  carriage  was 
obliged  to  stop,  as  the  way  was  blocked  up 
by  market  wagons.  The  king  was  sitting  on 
the  left  side  next  to  the  duke  d'Epernon,  when 
Ravaillac,  throwing  himself  upon  the  right 
hind  wheel,  struck  twice  at  him  with  a  dag- 
ger, the  second  time  plunging  the  knife  into 
the  heart  of  the  king.  He  was  immediately 
caught  with  the  knife  in  his  hand,  acknowl- 
edged his  deed,  and  after  a  trial  before  the 
parliament  of  Paris  was  torn  to  pieces  by 
horses  with  unexampled  tortures. 

RAVEE,  a  river  of  India,  an  eastern  affluent 
of  the  Chenaub,  and  one  of  the  live  rivers  to 
which  the  Punjaub  owes  its  name.  It  rises  in 
the  Mid-Himalaya  range,  in  the  state  of  Kooloo, 
W.  of  the  Rotang  pass,  about  lat.  82°  30'  N.,  Ion. 
77°  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  about  16,000  ft.  It 
flows  S.  W.  about  450  m.,  passing  the  towns 
of  Chamba,  Lahore,  and  Tulumba.  It  is  the 
main  feeder  of  the  great  Baree  doab  canal. 
The  railway  from  Lahore  to  Mooltan,  about  40 
m.  below  its  junction  with  the  Chenaub,  al- 
most skirts  its  left  bank.  Its  width  varies  be- 
tween 50  and  500  yards,  and  it  attains  when 
fullest  in  some  places  a  depth  of  12  ft.,  but  it 
is  generally  fordable  three  fourths  of  the  year. 
Its  ancient  Sanskrit  name  was  Iravati,  which 
is  still  preserved  in  the  local  dialect  as  Iraotee. 
Ancient  Greek  writers  call  it  the  Hydraotes  or 
Hyarotis,  while  Ptolemy  gives  it  the  name  of 
Adris. 

RAVE.V,  the  largest  of  the  corvidas  or  crow- 
family,  and  the  type  of  the  genus  corcus 
(Linn.).  In  this  genus  the  bill  is  long  and 
very  strong,  and  arched;  the  nasal  feathers 
are  lengthened  and  reach  about  to  the  middle 
of  the  bill,  and  the  nostrils  are  large,  circu- 
lar, and  overhung  behind  by  membrane;  the 
gape  without  bristles;  wings  long  and  pointed, 
when  closed  reaching  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail  and  far  beyond  the  under  coverts ;  the 
second  quill  longer  than  the  first,  and  the  third 
and  fourth  the  longest ;  primaries  ten,  the  out- 
er four  sinuated  on  the  inner  edge;  tail  short 
and  nearly  even ;  tarsi  longer  than  middle  toe, 
scaled  in  front.  The  American  raven  (C.  car- 
nivorut,  Bartram)  is  about  25  in.  long  with  an 
alar  extent  of  50,  and  the  bill  3  in. ;  the  female 
is  a  little  smaller,  but  in  other  respects  like  the 
male.  The  plumage  is  compact,  glossy  black, 
with  violet  and  greenish  reflections;  the  feath- 
ers of  the  chin  and  throat,  as  in  all  ravens,  are 
elongated,  stiffened,  narrow,  lanceolate,  and 
with  very  distinct  outlines.  It  is  found  over 


the  entire  continent, of  North  America  from 
Labrador  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  in  some  places 
migratory,  but  in  others  (as  at  Lake  Superior 
and  in  Canada)  braving  the  cold  of  the  seve- 
rest winters ;  it  is  most  abundant  in  rocky  dis- 
tricts, near  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
iri  thinly  peopled  regions.  It  is  generally  seen 
alone  or  in  pairs,  but  sometimes  in  small  flocks 
after  the  breeding  season ;  the  flight  is  rapid, 
elevated,  and  protracted,  the  bird  often  sailing 
for  hours  at  a  time  at  a  great  height ;  on  the 
ground  the  gait  is  grave  and  dignified,  with 
frequent  opening  of  the  wings.  It  is  truly 
omnivorous,  but  by  preference  carnivorous, 
eating  small  animals  of  all  kinds, .  eggs  and 
young  birds,  carrion,  dead  fish,  mollusks,  crus- 
taceans, insects,  nuts,  and  berries.  It  is  very 
wary  and  cunning,  and  is  rarely  caught  in 
traps  or  shot,  but  it  often  falls  a  victim  to  the 
poisoned  baits  set  by  the  trappers  for  the 
fur-bearing  animals.  It  breeds,  according  to 
latitude,  between  January  and  June,  making 
a  rude  nest  on  inaccessible  cliffs,  repairing  the 
same  for  years  in  succession;  the  eggs  are 
four  to  six,  2  in.  long,  light  greenish  blue  with 
numerous  light  purple  and  yellowish  brown 
blotches,  especially  at  the  larger  end ;  incuba- 
tion lasts  about  three  weeks,  and  the  young 
remain  in  the  nest  several  weeks  before  they 
are  able  to  fly,  fed  at  first  on  the  half  digested 
food  disgorged  by  the  parents ;  only  one  brood 
is  raised  in  a  year,  and  this  is  bravely  nnd 
successfully  defended  against  the  largest  birds 
of  prey.  It  is  easily  domesticated  by  kind- 
ness, and  becomes  much  attached  to  its  mas- 
ter, following  him  like  a  dog ;  it  can  be  taught 
to  imitate  the  human  voice  and  to  pronounce 
a  few  words  with  great  distinctness ;  when 
irritated  or  wounded,  it  strikes  savagely  with 
bill  and  claws.  Its  flesh  is  tough  and  unfit 
for  food  ;  it  disgorges  indigestible  substances, 
as  bones,  hair,  and  feathers,  like  birds  of  prey. 
Like  others  of  the  genus,  this  species  varies 
much  in  size  and  proportions,  according  to 
locality,  those  of  the  south,  contrary  to  the 
general  rule,  being  larger  than  the  northern 
individuals  of  the  same  species;  this  fact  has 
led  some  to  think  that  the  Colorado  raven  (C. 
cacalotl,  Wagl.)  is  only  a  southern  variety  of 
the  C.  carnivorvs,  the  chief  differences  being 
a  slightly  greater  size,  longer  wings  and  tail, 
and  a  western  and  southern  habitat  exclusive- 
ly. The  white-necked  raven  (C.  cryptoleucut, 
Couch),  from  Mexico  and  Texas,  is' about  21  in. 
long,  with  the  feathers  cf  the  neck  all  round, 
back,  and  breast,  snow-white  at  the  base.— 
The  European  rav«n  (C.  corax,  Linn.)  very 
much  resembles  the  American  in  size  and  pro- 
portions, and  the  two  have  been  regarded  by 
Audubon  and  others  as  the  same,  but  most 
modern  naturalists  consider  them  distinct;  it 
is  about  26  in.  long  and  52  in  alar  extent.  It 
is  very  interesting  on  account  of  its  habits, 
and  its  historical,  economical,  and  superstitious 
relations ;  it  is  very  grave  and  dignified,  saga- 
cious, courageous,  and  powerful ;  its  beak  is  as 


KAVEN 


RAVENNA 


219 


well  adapted  for  tearing  flesh  as  is  that  of  ra- 
pacious birds ;  though  wary  and  distrustful,  it 
is  docile  and  affectionate  when  domesticated ; 
it  has  an  excellent  memory,  and  a  decidedly 
thievish  disposition.  The  color  is  black,  with 
steel-blue  and  purplish  or  violet  reflections; 


Baven  (Corvus  corax). 

its  form  is  symmetrical  and  its  proportions  are 
fine.  It  is  proverbially  long-lived,  and  has 
been  known  to  attain  the  age  of  about  100 
years ;  it  is  spread  extensively  over  Europe, 
and  allied  species  are  found  in  Africa  and 
Asia.  It  is  voracious  and  omnivorous,  but 
particularly  fond  of  carrion,  whether  of  flesh, 
fish,  or  fowl,  dead  from  disease  or  accident; 
it  will  attack  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  sheep 
if  it  is  helpless  or  dying ;  it  is  said  to  destroy 
young  lambs,  and  certainly  makes  great  havoc 
among  half-grown  hares  and  rabbits,  young 
and  full-fledged  birds,  and  eggs;  when  it  finds 
a  carcass  the  first  attack  is  upon  the  eyes  and 
tongue,  and  then  upon  the  abdomen  to  drag  out 
the  intestines ;  in  autumn  it  sometimes  com- 
mits serious  depredations  upon  barley  fields. 
The  flight  is  at  times  very  high,  which  ena- 
bles them  to  follow  any  companions  which 
have  chanced  to  spy  their  favorite  food ;  this 
explains  the  rapid  collecting  of  a  large  number 
in  a  short  time ;  they  have  no  special  acuteness 
of  smell,  but  are  guided  to  their  food  by  the 
sense  of  sight;  the  voice  is  a  harsh  and  dis- 
agreeable croak.  They  are  usually  seen  alone 
or  in  pairs,  except  when  drawn  together  by  a 
large  carcass  in  the  field  or  on  the  shore;  the 
nest  is  made  in  lofty  trees  or  in  holes  of  inac- 
cessible cliffs,  and  the  same  one  is  used  year 
after  year ;  a  fetid  odor  issues  from  the  body, 
probably  on  account  of  their  carrion  food. 
Farmers  and  shepherds  like  to  have  them  breed 
on  their  premises,  as  they  keep  off  eagles,  cats, 
dogs,  &c.  This  was  considered  a  bird  of  ill 
omen  by  the  ancients,  and  its  movements  were 
watched  by  the  augurs  with  great  attention ; 


and  it  has  been  generally  looked  upon  with 
superstitious  fears,  on  account  of  its  black 
hue,  mournful  croak,  fetid  odor,  and  disgust- 
ing habits.  It  by  preference  inhabits  the  most 
desolate  places.  In  America,  where  the  crow 
abounds,  as  about  Lake  Superior,  the  raven  is 
very  rarely  seen,  and  vice  versa. 

RAVEMA.  I.  A  N.  E.  province  of  Italy,  in 
Emilia,  bordering  on  the  Adriatic,  Ferrara, 
Bologna,  Florence,  and  Forli ;  area,  742  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  221,115.  It  is  mountainous,  es- 
pecially in  the  south,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
Savio,  Santerno,  and  many  other  streams.  The 
principal  products  are  rice,  grain,  hemp,  flax, 
and  pine,  anise,  and  coriander  seeds.  It  com- 
prises the  former  papal  legation  of  Ravenna, 
excepting  the  district  of  Iinola,  which  has  been 
added  to  Bologna,  but  including  that  of  Lugo, 
taken  from  Ferrara;  the  other  two  districts 
are  Ravenna  and  Faenza.  II.  A  city,  capital 
of  the  province,  in  a  marshy  plain  on  the  river 
Montone,  near  the  Adriatic,  and  173  m.  N".  of 
Rome;  pop.  in  1872,  58,904.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  of  the  4th  century, 
with  fine  pictures  by  Guido  Reni ;  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  della  Rotonda,  formerly  the 
mausoleum  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths, N.  of  the  city  proper;  the  basilica  of 
San  Vitale,  remarkable  chiefly  for  its  splendid 
mosaics ;  the  churches  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
and  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  built  early  in  the 
5th  century  by  the  empress  Galla  Placidia ; 
and  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  Theodosius, 
occupied  after  him  by  the  exarchs.  Among 
the  many  historical  curiosities  is  the  tomb  of 
Dante,  who  died  here.  (See  DANTE,  vol.  v.,  p. 
672.)  Ravenna  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
and  has  many  convents,  a  museum,  library,  and 
academy  of  fine  arts.  The  chief  pursuits  are 
the  culture  of  the  vine  and  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms, with  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  silk. 
The  town  was  once  situated  on  the  Adriatic  in 
the  midst  of  marshes,  but  it  is  now  some  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  and  separated  from  it  by 
the  Pineta,  a  remarkable  forest  of  pines  ex- 
tending for  many  miles  along  the  coast. — The 
city  appears  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Um- 
brians.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  history  until  a 
late  period  of  the  Roman  republic,  but  during 
the  later  civil  wars  it  held  a  prominent  posi- 
tion. Augustus  raised  it  to  still  greater  im- 
portance by  building  a  new  port  called  Portus 
Classis,  or  simply  Classis,  capable  of  contain- 
ing 250  ships  of  war,  and  making  it  the  station 
of  the  fleet  guarding  the  Adriatic.  Its  natural 
strength  contributed  to  render  it  an  important 
military  post,  and  in  A,  D.  404  Honorius  made 
it  the  imperial  abode.  On  the  fall  of  the  west- 
ern empire  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Gothic 
kings,  and  it  was  subsequently  the  residence  of 
the  exarchs  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and 
the  whole  province  under  their  jurisdiction 
was  called  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  The 
city  itself  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Greek  emperors  until  taken  by  Luitprand,  king 
of  the  Lombards,  in  728,  and  again,  after  a  re- 


220 


RAVIGNAN 


RAWLINSON 


capture,  by  Astolphus,  one  of  his  successors,  in 
752.  Luitprand  destroyed  the  ancient  port  of 
Classis.  When  Pepin  had  conquered  the  Lom- 
bards he  made  a  present  of  Kavenna  to  the 
pope,  and  with  occasional  interruptions  it  be- 
longed to  the  Papal  States  till  1860.  From 
1441  to  1508  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Vene- 
tians, but  the  league  of  Cambrai  placed  it  again 
under  the  pope.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  great 
victory  gained  under  its  walls  by  the  French 
under  Gaston  de  Foix,  who  fell  in  the  action, 
over  the  Spaniards  and  the  troops  of  Pope  Ju- 
lius II.,  April  11, 1512.  (See  GASTON  DE  Foix.) 

RAVIGXAN,  Gnstave  Xavler  Delacroix  de,  a  French 
preacher,  born  in  Bayonne,  Dec.  2,  1795,  died 
in  Paris,  Feb.  26,  1858.  He  studied  law,  and 
in  1821  became  counsellor  to  the  royal  court  of 
Paris,  and  deputy  attorney  general  near  the 
tribunal  of  the  Seine.  He  resigned  and  entered 
the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Montrouge  in  1822,  was 
ordained  priest  in  1828,  and  taught  theology 
at  St.  Acheul  till  1830,  and  afterward  at  Brig 
in  the  Valais  till  1833.  His  Lenten  sermon 
in  the  cathedral  of  Amiens  in  1831  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  fame  as  a  preacher.  In  1836 
he  preached  a  Lenten  sermon  in  Paris,  and 
shortly  after  succeeded  Lacordaire  in  the  pul- 
pit of  Notre  Dame,  which  he  occupied  till  1848. 
lu  1844  the  attacks  made  on  the  Jesuits  in  the 
public  press  and  the  legislature  induced  him  to 
publish  an  apologetic  work  entitled  De  Vexit- 
tence  et  de  Vinstitut  des  Jesuites  (7th  ed.,  1855). 
In  1887  he  founded  a  house  of  his  order  in 
Bordeaux,  which  he  governed  for  four  years; 
and  in  1848  he  became  superior  of  the  Parisian 
residence  in  the  rue  de  Sevres,  the  interval 
being  filled  up  by  charity  sermons,  and  the 
foundation  and  direction  of  various  charitable 
and  pious  associations,  all  aiming  at  the  im- 
provement of  the  common  people.  In  1851  he 
visited  London  during  the  universal  exhibition, 
and  gave  a  course  of  lectures.  In  1852  he 
wrote  at  the  instigation  of  Pius  IX.  his  Clement 
XIII,  et  Clement  XIV.,  a  history  of  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits,  designed  to  counteract 
the  extreme  views  of  Theiner  and  Cretineau- 
Joly.  His  life  was  written  by  Poujoulat  (1858) 
and  by  Pere  de  Ponlevoy  (2  vols.,  1860;  Eng- 
lish translation,  New  York,  1873). 

RAWDON,  Lord.     See  HASTINGS,  FRANCIS. 

RAWLE,  William,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  April  28,  1759,  died 'April  12, 
1836.  He  studied  law  in  New  York,  London, 
and  Paris,  and  commenced  practice  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1783.  He  was  United  States  district 
attorney  under  Washington,  was  president  of 
the  Pennsylvania  historical  society,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  associate  members  of  the  bar  of 
Philadelphia,  He  published  "  A  View  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  "  (1829). 

K  \\VIJ >S,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  formed 
since  1870;  area,  900  sq.  m.  It  borders  on 
Nebraska,  and  is  drained  by  Beaver  and  Sappa 
creeks,  affluents  of  the  Republican  river. 

K  \\VLI.\s».\.  I.  Sir  Henry  Creswleke,  an  Eng- 
lish archa3ologist,  born  at  Chadlington,  Oxford- 


shire, in  1810.  In  1826  he  entered  the  military 
service  of  the  East  India  company,  and  served 
in  Bombay  till  1833,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Persian  army.  In  1835,  while  stationed  at 
Kermanshah,  he  began  to  study  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  at  Mt.  Elvend.  In  1837  he  copied 
the  first  column  of  the  great  Behistun  inscrip- 
tion and  four  minor  inscriptions,  and  on  Jan. 

I,  1838,  submitted  a  report  to  the  Asiatic  so- 
ciety in  London.     The  outbreak  of  the  war  in 
Afghanistan  interrupted  his  labors.    After  ex- 
ploring various  regions  of  central  Asia,  he  was 
for  some  time  political  agent  at  Candahar,  and 
returned  in  the  same  capacity  to  Bagdad.     In 
1844  he  forwarded  to  London  complete  copies 
of  the  Persian  portion  of  the  Behistun  inscrip- 
tion, of  which  the  Asiatic  society  published 
facsimiles  in  1846,  and  which  included  more 
of  the  cuneiform  writing  of  the  first  kind  than 
the   aggregate  of  all  other  inscriptions  then 
known  in  Europe.    (See  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP- 
TIONS.)    He  was  consul  at  Bagdad  from  1844 
to  1851,  and  consul  general  till  1855.     After 
returning  to  England  he  was  knighted  and  ap- 
pointed a  director  of  the  East  India  company. 
In  1858  he  was  elected  to  parliament  for  Rei- 
gate,  and  from  1859  to  I860  he  was  minister  at 
Teheran  with  the  rank  of  major  general.    He 
represented  Frome  in  parliament  from  1865 
to  1808,  when  he  was  reappointed  member  of 
the  council  for  India.     In  1871-'8  he  was  pres- 
ident of  the  royal  geographical  society,  which 
office  he  again  holds  (1875) ;  and  he  also  pre- 
sides over  the  society  of  Biblical  archaeology. 
Besides  his  numerous  contributions  to  the  jour- 
nals of  Asiatic  societies  and  other  learned  pe- 
riodicals, he  has  published  "On  the  Inscrip- 
tions  of   Assyria  and   Babylonia"   (London, 
1850);    "Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria, 
as  collected  from  the  Inscriptions  discovered 
by  A.  II.  Layard  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh" 
(1852);  "Memorandum  on  the  Publication  of 
the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions"  (1855);  contribu- 
tions to  his  brother's  "  Herodotus  "  (4  vols., 
1858-'60);  "A  Selection  from  the  Historical 
Inscriptions  of  Chaldoea,  Assyria,  and  Baby- 
lonia" (fol.,  1861);  in  conjunction  with  N  or- 
ris, ''  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western 
Asia"  (3  vols.,  1861-'70,  lithographed  for  the 
British  museum) ;   and  jointly  with   George 
Smith,  "  A  Selection  from  the  Miscellaneous 
Inscriptions   of    Assyria "    (fol.,    1870).      In 
1874-'5  appeared  his  "England  and  Russia  in 
the  East,"  a  series  of  papers  on  the  political 
and  geographical  condition  of  central  Asia. 

II.  George,  an  English  historian  and  orientalist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Chadling- 
ton in  1815.    He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1838, 
became  a  fellow  and  tutor  of  Exeter  college, 
and  was  Bampton  lecturer  from  1859  to  1861, 
and  Camden  professor  of  ancient  history  from 
1861  to  1874,  when  he  became  canon  of  Can- 
terbury cathedral.     He  has  published  "  Histor- 
ical Evidences  of  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture 
Records"   (London,   1860);    "The   Contrasts 
of  Christianity  with  the  Heathen  and  Jewish 


RAY 


221 


Systems"  (1861);  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Henry  and  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  an 
annotated  translation  of  "  Herodotus"  (4  vols., 
1858-'60);  and  "Historical  Illustrations  of 
the  Old  Testament"  (1871).  His  most  cele- 
brated works  are  "The  Five  Great  Monarchies 
of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World,  or  the  History, 
Geography,  and  Antiquities  of  Chaldraa,  As- 
syria, Babylonia,  Media,  and  Persia"  (4  vols., 
1862-'7;  2d  ed.,  republished  in  New  York, 
1871),  "A  Manual  of  Ancient  History"  (1869), 
and  u  The  Sixth  Great  Oriental  Monarchy,  or 
the  Geography,  the  History,  and  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Parthia "  (1873). 

RAY,  the  name  of  the  plagiostome,  chondrop- 
terygian,  or  cartilaginous  fishes  of  the  suborder 
raiiw,  popularly  called  skates.  The  numerous 
families  are  characterized  by  great  flatness  and 
width  of  the  body,  the  latter  arising  princi- 
pally from  the  extreme  expansion  of  the  pec- 
toral fins ;  the  skull  is  flat,  the  upper  wall  gen- 
erally membranous,  and  movably  articulated, 
as  in  sharks,  by  two  condyles  and  an  interve- 
ning space  with  the  spine ;  anteriorly  the  head 
ends  in  a  tapering  cartilage  which  supports  the 
snout ;  spout  holes  or  spiracles  for  respiration 
and  eyes  on  the  dorsal  aspect,  the  latter  with- 
out lids  or  with  an  upper  adherent  one ;  on  the 
ventral  surface  are  five  slit-like  gill  openings, 
before  the  ventrals  and  under  the  pectorals; 
the  scapular  arch  is  complete  above  and  be- 
low, supporting  the  long,  jointed,  cartilaginous 
rays  of  the  pectorals;  between  this  and  the 
pelvic  arch,  supporting  the  ventral,  lie  the  ab- 
dominal viscera,  and  between  it  and  the  nar- 
row skull  are  the  branchial  apparatus  and  the 
vascular  centres.  The  spiracles  are  openings 
by  which  the  water  may  pass  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head  into  the  mouth  cavity,  and 
are  found  in  perfection  only  in  those  species 
which  live  upon  the  bottom;  the  eyes  being 
above,  and  the  fins  feeble,  they  seek  their  prey 
by  the  sense  of  touch  in  the  snout,  stirring  up 
the  mud  and  sand  while  feeding;  their  gills 
would  thus  be  injured  by  gritty  materials  were 
the  water  taken  in  from  below  by  the  mouth  ; 
in  the  rays  the  comparatively  pure  water  enters 
from  above  by  the  spiracles,  and  passes  out  at 
the  branchial  openings,  or  vice  versa.  The  de- 
velopment of  these  openings  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  that  of  the  sense  of  smell,  and  in 
inverse  proportion  to  that  of  sight.  (See  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory," vol.  xvii.,  November,  1874.)  In  the  tor- 
pedoes the  cellular  galvanic  batteries  occupy 
the  spaces  between  the  skull  and  the  pectorals ; 
and  a  homologous  rudimentary  apparatus  has 
been  found  in  the  tail  of  common  skates,  show- 
ing the  adherence  to  a  general  plan  of  structure 
irrespective  of  function.  The  tail  in  some  is 
fleshy  and  tapering,  in  others  slender  and  car- 
tilaginous, in  others  elongated  like  a  whip  lash, 
and  in  others  armed  with  lancet-shaped  spines 
on  the  upper  surface,  making  a  very  formida- 
ble weapon.  The  gills  consist  of  membranous 
folds  on  plane  surfaces,  and  the  arterial  bulb 


has  from  two  to  five  transverse  rows  of  semi- 
lunar  valves.  The  reproductive  secreting  or- 
gans are  compact  and  oblong,  the  efferent  tubes 
communicating  with  the  ureters  and  ending  in 
a  rudimentary  organ  in  the  cloaca ;  the  claspers 
are  present  in  the  males,  as  appendages  to  the 
posterior  edge  of  the  anal  fin,  fissured  toward 
the  end,  leading  to  a  blind  subcutaneous  sac 
well  lubricated  with  mucus  and  the  secretion 
of  a  glandular  body ;  the  ovaria  are  compara- 
tively small,  and  the  ova  are  larger  and  fewer 
than  in  common  fishes,  and  more  as  in  birds ; 
most  of  the  genera  are  viviparous,  but  some  of 
the  genus  raia  are  oviparous.  The  claspers  are 
not  mere  organs  of  prehension ;  they  may  be 
so  rotated  as  to  bring  an  opening  in  them  oppo- 
site to  the  spermatic  duct,  and  may,  according 
to  Agassiz  ("  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Soci- 
ety of  Natural  History,"  vol.  vi.,  p.  377,  May, 
1858),  be  introduced  into  the  oviducts,  and 
reach  the  glands  there  situated  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  egg  case.  They  are  true  intromit- 
tent  or  copulatory  organs.  The  egg  cases  of 
the  skate  are  often  seen  on  our  beaches  after  a 
storm;  they  are  quadrangular,  about  two  inches 
by  one,  brown  and  leathery,  each  corner  pro- 
longed into  a  tubular  process ;  they  look  some- 
what like  pillow  cases,  and  are  often  called 
sailors'  purses  and  skates'  barrows.  The  young 
within  the  egg  has  no  investing  membrane,  and 
the  yolk  seems  to  bear  no  relation  in  size  to 
that  of  the  embryo ;  water  for  respiration  is 
admitted  and  ejected  through  the  corner  pro- 
longations, and  the  young  fish  escapes  through 
a  transverse  fissure  at  one  end.  The  horny 
egg  case  may  be  formed  in  each  oviduct,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  glandular  enlargement  which 
secretes  its  materials ;  it  is  formed  before  the 
egg  descends  into  it,  in  the  shape  of  a  pocket 
open  above  for  the  reception  of  the  egg,  which 
must  be  impregnated  in  the  ovary,  contrary  to 
the  usual  order  of  things,  in  which  the  yolk 
is  enclosed  before  the  shell  is  formed;  as  the 
eggs  are  found  to  be  of  different  sizes  and  va- 
rious degrees  of  development  in  the  ovary,  it 
is  probable  that  several  years  are  required  for 
their  maturity;  these  peculiarities  show  the 
propriety  of  placing  the  skates  (with  the  sharks 
forming  the  division  of  selachians  of  Aristotle 
and  Agassiz)  in  a  class  by  themselves.  The 
teeth  of  the  rays  are  generally  tubercular,  in 
close  quincunx  order  like  a  mosaic  pavement. 
Disgusting  as  is  the  form  of  the  rays,  their  flesh 
is  esteemed  a  delicacy  in  England  and  France, 
though  it  is  rarely  eaten  in  America  except  by 
those  of  European  origin ;  it  is  tough  when 
first  caught,  but  becomes  tender  by  being  kept 
several  days ;  with  us  it  is  most  commonly  used 
as  bait  for  lobster  pots,  or  for  manure.  Of  the 
families  of  rays,  the  pristidce  and  torpedinidce 
will  be  described  under  SAWFISH  and  TORPEDO 
respectively ;  the  cephalopteridce  have  been  no 
ticed  under  DEVIL  FISH. — The  family  rhinoba- 
tidce,  are  intermediate  between  sharks  and  rays, 
having  the  form  of  body,  position  of  fins,  thick, 
fleshy  tail,  and  smallness  of  pectorals  of  the 


222 


RAY 


former  ;  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  forms  a 
disk  by  the  union  of  the  pectoral  fins  with  the 
snout,  the  latter  divided  from  the  former  by  a 
furrow,  whence  these  have  been  called  beaked 
rays ;  the  first  dorsal  is  over  the  ventrals ;  the 
caudal  bilobed,  with  the  upper  lobe  the  larger, 
and  the  keel  of  the  sides  continued  along  it ; 
margins  of  mouth  generally  undulated,  three 
protuberances  of  the  under  jaw  fitting  into 
corresponding  indentations  in  the  upper;  nos- 
trils longitudinal  near  the  mouth,  with  flaps. — 
In  the  family  raiidce  or  the  typical  rays,  the 


Smooth  Skate  (Rala  laeris). 

snout  is  more  or  less  pointed,  the  disk  of  the 
body  and  pectorals  usually  rhombic ;  tail  slen- 
der, with  two  small  dorsals  near  the  end  and 
sometimes  a  caudal ;  spiracles  near  the  eyes ; 
mouth  curved,  with  the  convexity  forward ; 
teeth  of  males  with  a  central  cusp  in  spawn- 
ing time ;  skin  either  smooth  or  studded  with 
prickles  pointing  backward,  sometimes  with 
spines  on  th'e  dorsal  ridge  and  sides  of  tail. 
This  family  includes  the  genus  rnia  (Cuv.),  with 
about  30  species,  embracing  the  best  known  in 
America  and  in  Europe,  and  such  as  are  com- 
monly eaten  in  the  latter.  The  smooth  ray  or 
common  skate  of  the  northern  coast  of  America 
is  the  rain  Icecis  (Mitch.) ;  it  is  of  a  uniform 
light  brownish  color  above,  and  dingy  white 
below ;  the  female  is  marked  above  with  black- 
ish spots ;  it  attains  a  length  of  from  3  to  6  ft., 
and  a  weight  of  200  Ibs. ;  it  is  found  from  New 
York  to  the  British  provinces ;  the  body  is  gen- 
erally smooth,  but  there  are  small  spines  about 
the  orbits,  on  the  anterior  edge  of  the  pectorals, 
and  on  the  tail ;  the  snout  is  blunt,  and  the 
teeth  in  compact  rows,  six-sided  and  nearly 
smooth.  Its  flat  form  is  peculiarly  adapted  for 
life  on  or  near  the  bottom ;  the  usual  mode 
of  progression  is  by  a  gentle  undulating  move- 
ment of  the  pectorals,  intermediate  between 
flying  and  swimming ;  when  in  pursuit  of  prey 
or  escaping  from  its  enemies,  the  motions  are 
rapid.  The  young  are  produced  twice  a  year, 
in  spring  and  in  autumn,  deposited  in  thin, 
horny,  nearly  quadrangular  cases.  Its  flesh  is 
said  by  Mr.  Perley  to  be  extensively  consumed, 
and  the  fleshy  part  of  the  pectorals  to  be  beau- 
tifully white  and  delicate ;  it  is  usually  dressed 
in  long  thin  slips,  rolled  like  ribbon.  On  the 
coast  of  New  England,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 


Brunswick  it  is  frequently  taken  by  the  cod 
fishers,  being  generally  hooked  by  its  pectorals; 
it  is  pulled  up  like  a  dead  weight  to  near  the 
surface,  unless  caught  by  the  mouth  or  head, 
and  struggles  violently  on  being  drawn  out. 
It  feeds  on  fish,  crustaceans,  and  mollusks, 
and  is  very  voracious ;  it  digs  up  clams  with 
its  powerful  spade-like  snout,  crushing  them 
easily  with  its  rolling  flattened  teeth.  The  skin 
is  covered  with  an  abundant  tenacious  slime. 
There  are  eight  or  nine  species  in  European 
waters,  some  attaining  a  weight  of  200  Ibs. 
The  sharp-nosed  ray  (/?.  oxyrhyncha,  Linn.) 
attains  a  length  of  6  ft. ;  this  is  the  favorite 
species  in  the  French  markets.  The  common 
skate  or  ray  (R.  batis,  Linn.)  is  a  large  species, 
with  a  granulated  skin  above ;  the  color  ia 
brown  above,  cinereous  below  or  grayish  white 
with  black  specks.  Several  species  are  com- 
mon in  the  London  market,  where  the  females 
are  known  as  maids. — In  the  family  trygonidoe 
or  sting  rays  the  tail  is  slender,  often  whip- 
like,  naked  or  bearing  one  or  more  barbed 
spines ;  no  caudal  fin ;  pectorals  large,  uniting 
in  front  of  the  head  ;  spiracles  large  and  close 
behind  the  eyes ;  teeth  small,  transversely 
elliptical,  and  ridged ;  skin  either  smooth  or 
prickly,  but  without  prickles  on  the  pectorals. 
The  American  whip  sting  ray  (pattinaca  ha»- 
tata,  Do  Kay)  occurs  on  the  coast  of  the  middle 
states,  in  Long  Island  sound,  and  sometimes  on 


American  Sting  Bay  (Pastinaca  hastate),  under  surface. 

the  coast  of  Massachusetts ;  it  is  olive  brown 
above,  and  white  below ;  it  attains  a  length 
of  from  5  to  8  ft.,  including  the  tail.  It  ia 
not  uncommon  on  the  shores  of  New  Jersey, 
where  it  is  caught  both  by  hook  and  seine, 
varying  in  size  from  a  breakfast  plate  to  a 
width  of  4  ft.  and  a  tail  of  6  ft. ;  the  fisher- 
men always  cut  off  the  tail  at  once,  to  prevent 
wounds  from  its  spines,  which,  being  serrated, 
produce  extensive  lacerations  accompanied  by 
severe  inflammation.  The  principal  use  made 
of  this  species,  and  indeed  of  all  the  rays  in 


RAY 


223 


this  country,  is  to  extract  the  oil  from  the  liv- 
er, which,  with  that  from  this  organ  in  sharks, 
is  employed  for  various  domestic  and  medici- 
nal purposes.  The  European  sting  ray  is  com- 
mon in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  south- 
ern Atlantic  coast ;  it  was  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  who  thought  it  capable  of  inflicting 
poisoned  wounds ;  it  twists  its  long  tail  around 
its  prey  or  its  enemies,  causing  very  severe 
lacerated  wounds ;  its  flesh  is  not  eatable.  The 
spines  of  some  of  the  species  of  this  genus  are 
used  by  savages  as  arrow  and  spear  heads. — In 
the  family  myliobatidoi  or  eagle  rays,  the  head 
is  more  elevated  than  in  the  other  families, 
projecting  as  far  as  the  gills,  without  fin  rays 
on  its  sides,  but  with  a  kind  of  cephalic  fin 
in  front  of  the  skull  making  the  point  of  the 
disk ;  the  pectorals  are  very  large  and  wing- 
like  ;  the  tail  is  long  and  slender,  with  a  small 
dorsal  and  strong  spine ;  the  mouth  is  trans- 
verse, with  the  dental  plates  reaching  far  back 
into  the  cavity  of  the  mouth ;  the  teeth  are 
like  a  mosaic  pavement,  large  and  even,  in 
several  rows  forming  a  convex  surface ;  the 
eyes  and  spiracles  are  on  the  sides  of  the  head, 
and  a  broad  ridge  runs  between  the  two  ;  the 
interrupted  pectorals  on  the  sides  of  the  head 
are  a  family  character.  In  the  genus  mylioba- 
tis  (Cuv.)  the  nasal  membrane  is  square,  and 
the  pectorals  end  in  an  angular  projection  ;  the 
teeth  form  long  hexagonal  plates  in  the  mid- 
dle, with  two  or  three  short  or  equal  rows 
on  the  sides.  The  M.  acuta  (Ayres)  is  found 
on  the  Massachusetts  coast  and  in  Long  Island 
sound,  and  attains  a  length  of  about  4  ft. ; 
the 'body  is  smooth  and  reddish  brown  above, 
whitish  below;  tail  very  slender  and  armed 
with  spines.  The  eagle  ray  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean (M.  aquila,  Risso)  grows  large ;  the 
wounds  made  by  its  spines  are  much  dreaded 
by  fishermen.  Several  species  are  found  in  the 
seas  of  the  warm  parts  of  the  globe.  In  rhi- 
noptera  (Kuhl)  the  nasal  membrane  is  notched ; 
the  central  teeth  are  the  largest,  the  three 
lateral  rows  growing  smaller  and  smaller  ex- 
ternally. In  aetolatis  (Mull.)  the  nasal  mem- 
brane is  lobed,  which  would  embrace  many 
species  of  rhinoptera  aa  usually  defined,  and 
the  pectorals  are  rounded ;  the  teeth  form  a 
single  row  of  simple  arched  plates,  without 
lateral  rows.  In  zygobatis  (Ag.)  the  nasal 
lobes  and  the  pectorals  are  as  in  the  preceding 
genus ;  the  central  rows  of  teeth  are  much  the 
largest,  the  first  lateral  about  half  as  large,  and 
the  two  external  very  much  smaller.  In  go- 
niobatis  (Ag.)  the  palate  is  broadest  behind, 
and  the  plates  are  obtusely  angular,  with  their 
rounded  edges  forward. — There  is  hardly  a 
family  of  fishes  in  the  classification  of  which 
more  confusion  reigns  than  that  of  the  rays ; 
naturalists  see  them  only  in  rare  instances, 
and  almost  always  single  specimens  at  a  time ; 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  two  sexes  of 
the  same  species  have  in  some  instances  been 
made  into  distinct  species.  Even  our  most 
common  rays  are  very  imperfectly  known,  and 
699  VOL.  xiv.— 15 


the  genus  raia  embraces  many  species  which 
are  not  congeners. — For  details  on  the  embry- 
ology of  the  rays,  see  Prof.  J.  Wyman's  paper 
in  "Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy,"  vol. 
ix.,  1867,  and  Mr.  Putnam's  in  the  "American 
Naturalist,"  vol.  iii.,  1870. 

EAT,  a  N.  "W.  county  of  Missouri,  bordered 
S.  by  the  Missouri  river ;  area,  about  570  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,700,  of  whom  1,833 
were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface, 
covered  with  forests  and  prairies,  and  a  gen- 
erally fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Northern  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  187,736 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,245,233  of  Indian  corn, 
177,461  of  oats,  39,114  of  potatoes,  6,610 
tons  of  hay,  190,355  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  42,374 
of  wool,  122,774  of  butter,  and  11,085  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  9,009 
horses,  2,155  mules  and  asses,  5,469  milch 
cows,  11,176  other  cattle,  20,580  sheep,  and 
38,523  swine ;  2  flour  mills,  and  13  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Richmond. 

RAY,  Isaac,  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Beverly,  Mass.,  in  January,  1807.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  Harvard  medical  school,  and  began 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  Portland,  Me.,  in 
1827.  In  1829  he  removed  to  Eastport,  Me., 
in  1841  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
state  insane  hospital  at  Augusta,  and  in  1845 
superintendent  of  the  Butler  hospital  for  the 
insane  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  which  office  he 
filled  till  1866.  He  subsequently  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  He  has  published  "Conversa- 
tions on  Animal  Economy"  (Portland,  1829); 
"Medical  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity"  (Boston, 
1838 ;  5th  ed.,  enlarged,  1872) ;  "  Education  in 
relation  to  the  Health  of  the  Brain"  (1851); 
and  "Mental  Hygiene"  (1863). 

RAY,  John  (or  WHAT,  as  he  at  one  time  spelled 
his  name),  an  English  naturalist,  born  near 
Braintree,  Essex,  in  1628,  died  in  1705.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  be- 
came a  fellow  in  1649,  professor  of  Greek  in 
1650,  and  mathematical  tutor  in  1652.  His 
health  being  impaired,  he  travelled  over  the 
greater  part  of  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland, 
studying  their  botany  and  zoology.  At  the 
restoration  he  took  orders,  but  never  held  any 
church  preferment,  and  two  years  later  re- 
signed his  fellowship,  as  he  could  not  consci- 
entiously subscribe  to  the  act  of  uniformi- 
ty. After  this  he  resided  chiefly  at  Middleton 
hall,  in  Warwickshire.  From  1663  to  1666  he 
travelled  with  Mr.  Willughby  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  he  published  an  account  of  this  tour 
in  1673.  In  1667  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  royal  society.  Among  his  most  impor- 
tant works  are :  Catalogue  Plantarum  Anglics 
(1670),  the  foundation  of  all  English  floras ; 
Methodm  Plantarum  Nova  (1682),  in  which 
he  proposed  a  new  method  of  classification, 
which,  altered  and  amended  by  himself,  formed 
the  basis  of  the  method  of  Jussieu ;  and  Eis- 
toria  Plantarum  (3  vols.,  1686-1704).  He 
edited  Willughby's  works  on  the  animal  king- 


224: 


EATER 


dom,  and  published  several  of  his  own.  His 
"Collection  of  English  Proverbs"  (1672)  has 
passed  through  many  editions,  and  was  re- 
printed with  additions  by  H.  G.  Bohn  (Lon- 
don, 1850).  A  revised  edition  of  his  "  Glos- 
saries of  North  and  South  Country  Words,"  by 
Skeat,  was  published  in  1874  by  the  English 
dialect  society.  The  Ray  society  of  London, 
formed  in  1844  for  the  publication  of  works 
on  natural  history,  took  its  name  from  him, 
and  has  published  "  Memorials  of  John  Ray," 
edited  by  E.  Lankester,  M.  D.  (1844). 

RATER,  Pierre  Franfols  Olive,  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  St.  Sylvain,  Normandy,  March 
8,  17U3,  died  Sept.  10,  1867.  He  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Paris  in  1818,  and  soon  acquired 
an  extensive  reputation  both  as  a  scientific 
man  and  as  a  practitioner.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  physician-in-cbief  to  the  hospital  of 
La  Charit6,  and  in  1852  was  attached  to  the 
medical  service  of  the  imperial  household.  He 
published  Sommaire  d?une  histoire  abregee  de 
Vanatomie  pathologique  (1818) ;  Memoire  sur 
le  delirium  tremens  (1819)  ;  Histoire  de  Fepi- 
demie  de  suette  miliaire  qui  a  regne  en  1821 
dans  FOise  et  le  Seine-et-Oise  (1822);  De  la 
morve  et  du  farcin  chez  I'homme  (1837) ;  Traite 
theorique  et  pratique  des  maladies  de  la  peau 
(2  vols.,  1826-7 ;  new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1835) ;  and 
Traite  des  maladies  des  reins  et  de»  alterations 
de  la  secretion  urinaire  (3  vols.,  1839-'41). 
The  last  two  were  his  most  important  works. 

RAYMOND,  Henry  Juris,  an  American  journal- 
ist, born  in  Lima,  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y.,  Jan. 
24,  1820,  died  in  New  York,  June  18,  18G9. 
Ho  worked  on  his  father's  farm,  at  the  ago  of 
16  taught  a  country  school,  and  graduated  at 
the  university  of  Vermont  in  1840.  He  then 
studied  law  for  a  year  in  New  York,  and  be- 
came assistant  editor  of  the  "Tribune"  on  its 
establishment  by  Mr.  Greeley  in  1841,  having 
previously  contributed  to  the  "  New  Yorker," 
edited  by  the  same  journalist.  He  was  remark- 
ably accurate  and  successful  as  a  reporter,  and 
in  1843  joined  the  staff  of  the  "  Courier  and 
Enquirer,"  in  which  journal  he  had  a  contro- 
versy with  Greeley  on  Fourierism,  which  was 
published  in  a  pamphlet.  He  was  elected  by 
the  whigs  to  the  state  assembly  in  1849,  was 
reflected  in  1850,  and  became  speaker.  In  1851 
he  severed  his  connection  with  the  "Courier 
and  Enquirer,"  and  founded  (Sept.  18)  the 
"New  York  Times."  In  the  whig  national 
convention  at  Baltimore  in  1852,  in  the  face 
of  violent  opposition,  he  delivered  a  long  ad- 
dress setting  forth  the  northern  views  of  the 
public  questions  then  at  issue.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  lieutenant  governor  of  New  York.  He 
was  prominent  in  organizing  the  republican 
party,  and  wrote  its  "  Address  to  the  People  " 
issued  by  the  convention  at  Pittsburgh  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1856.  He  warmly  supported  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  civil  war,  and  in  1864  was 
elected  to  congress,  where  he  advocated  the 
reconstruction  policy  of  President  Johnson. 
He  published  "History  of  the  Administration 


RAYNAL 

of  President  Lincoln  "  (12mo,  New  York,  1864; 
enlarged  and  reissued  as  "  Life  and  Public  Ser- 
vices of  Abraham  Lincoln,"  8vo,  1865),  and 
numerous  addresses. 

RAYMOND,  Rossiter  Worthlngton,  an  American 
mining  engineer,  born  in  Cincinnati,  April  27, 
1840.  He  graduated  at  the  Brooklyn  poly- 
technic institute  in  1858,  and  afterward  spent 
three  years  in  study  at  Heidelberg,  Munich, 
and  Freiberg.  In  1864  he  began  practice  iu 
New  York  as  a  consulting  engineer,  and  he 
has  been  since  1867  editor  of  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Mining  "  (afterward  the  "  Engineer- 
ing and  Mining  Journal "),  since  1868  United 
States  commissioner  of  mining  statistics,  and 
since  1870  lecturer  on  economic  geology  in 
Lafayette  college,  Easton,  Pa.  He  was  elected 
a  vice  president  of  the  American  institute  of 
mining  engineers  in  1871,  and  president  in 
1872,  '78,  and  '74.  He  has  published  annual 
reports  of  mining  statistics  from  1869  to  1875 
inclusive,  several  of  which  have  been  repub- 
lished  as  separate  works ;  "  The  Children's 
Week,"  a  volume  of  short  stories  (1871) ; 
"Brave  Hearts,"  a  novel  (1873);  and  "The 
Man  in  the  Moon  and  other  Stories"  (1874). 

RAYMOND  VI.,  of  Toulouse.    See  ALBIGENSKS. 

RAYNAL,  GaUbrame  Thomas  Franfote,  a  French 
historian,  born  at  St.  Geniez,  Guienne,  April 
12,  1713,  died  near  Paris,  March  6,  1796.  He 
was  educated  at  a  college  of  the  Jesuits,  be- 
came a  priest,  and  for  some  time  taught  the- 
ology and  preached.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1747, 
and  became  an  assistant  clergyman  at  the 
church  of  St.  Sulpice ;  but  he  soon  gave  up  the 
ministry,  associated  with  the  "  philosophers," 
and  became  director  of  the  Mercure  de  France. 
He  published  various  historical  works,  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  Diderot  and  otheis,  pre- 
pared anonymously  an  Histoire  philosophique 
et  politique  des  etdblissements  et  du  commerce 
des  Europeens  dans  les  deux  Indes  (4  vols.  8vo, 
1770).  A  second  edition,  containing  attacks 
upon  religion  and  government,  was  interdicted 
on  Dec.  19,  1779  ;  and  when  it  appeared  under 
his  name  at  Geneva  (5  vols.  4to,  with  atlas, 
1780),  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  arrest, 
which  he  avoided  by  leaving  France,  and  the 
parliament  ordered  his  book  to  be  burned  by 
the  executioner  (May  25, 1781).  In  the  same 
year  he  published  his  Tableau  et  revolution! 
des  colonies  anglaixes  dans  FAmerique  Septen- 
trionale  (2  vols.  12mo),  which  was  immediate- 
ly translated  into  English,  and  the  blunders 
of  which  were  pointed  out  in  a  pamphlet  by 
Thomas  Paine.  For  several  years  Raynal  wan- 
dered in  foreign  countries,  and  was  finally  per- 
mitted to  return  home  in  1788;  in  1790  the 
sentence  of  the  parliament  against  his  Histoire 
philosophique  was  reversed.  The  next  year 
Raynal  addressed  to  the  president  of  the  con- 
stituent assembly  a  letter  denouncing  the  dis- 
orders committed  in  France  in  the  name  of 
liberty,  and  regretting  that  he  "was  one  of 
those  who,  by  expressing  in  their  works  a  gen- 
erous indignation  against  arbitrary  power,  had 


RAYNOUARD 


RAZZI 


225 


been  perhaps  the  means  of  putting  weapons 
into  the  hands  of  licentiousness  and  tyranny." 

KAYAOIAUD,  Francois  Juste  Marie,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Brignolles,  Provence,  Sept.  18, 
1761,  died  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  Oct.  27,  1836. 
Elected  an  assistant  deputy  to  the  convention, 
he  sided  with  the  Girondists,  and  after  their 
fall  was  detained  in  prison  till  the  revolution 
of  Thermidor  (July  27, 1794).  In  1803  he  ob- 
tained a  prize  at  the  French  academy  for  a 
poem  entitled  La  vertu  necessaire  dans  les  re- 
publiques;  and  in  the  following  year  another 
for  his  Socrate  dans  le  temple  cPAglaure.  In 
1805  his  tragedy  Les  templiers  was  very  suc- 
cessful. He  was  a  member  of  the  corps  16gis- 
latif  from  1806  to  1813,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  academy  in  1807.  Du- 
ring the  hundred  days  Raynouard  was  offered 
the  title  of  councillor  of  the  university  and  the 
post  of  minister  of  justice,  both  of  which  he 
declined.  He  published  Choix  de  poesies  origi- 
nales  des  troubadours  (6  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1816- 
'21).  His  Lexique  roman,  ou  Dictionnaire  de 
la  langue  des  troubadours,  comparee  aux  autres 
langues  de  V Europe  latine,  was  posthumously 
published  (6  vols.  8vo,  1838-'44).  He  was 
elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  acad- 
emy in  1817,  but  declined  the  usual  salary  at- 
tached to  this  office.  Soon  afterward,  to  save 
his  brother  from  bankruptcy,  he  voluntarily 
gave  up  all  his  property. 

RAZOR  FISH  (xyrichthys,  Val.),  an  acanthop- 
terygian  genus  belonging  to  the  family  of  cyclo- 
labridcs.  The  body  is  compressed  and  covered 
with  large  scales,  the  lateral  line  interrupted ; 
the  profile  is  almost  vertical,  the  forehead 
trenchant,  and  the  eyes  high  up  ;  the  sharpness 
of  the  head  is  not  owing  to  the  interparietal 
crest  as  in  coryphosna  (the  dolphin  of  sailors), 
but  to  the  ethmoid  and  intermaxillaries  grow- 
ing directly  downward,  the  lower  jaw  being 


Mediterranean  Razor  Fish  (Xyrichthys  cultratus). 

horizontal  and  of  ordinary  length  ;  the  cheeks 
are  scaleless,  and  the  snout  smooth  and  blunt ; 
the  dorsal  is  long  and  of  uniform  height ;  the 
teeth  are  in  one  row,  conical,  largest  in  the 
middle ;  the  palate  and  tongue  are  smooth,  but 
the  pharynx  is  furnished  with  small  and  pave- 
ment-like teeth ;  the  intestinal  tube  is  simple, 
without  stomachal  dilatation  and  pancreatic 
cajca ;  the  air  bladder  is  large,  pointed  in  front. 
The  type  of  the  genus  is  the  razor  fish  of  the 
Mediterranean  (X.  cultratus,  Val.)  ;  it  is  about 
8  in.  long,  reddish,  variously  striped  with  blu- 


ish ;  its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicate 
food  ;  it  lives  solitary,  on  sandy  bottoms  near 
the  shores,  feeding  on  such  fish  and  mollusks 
as  its  very  small  mouth  enables  it  to  swallow. 
About  a  dozen  other  species,  of  the  same  size, 
are  found  in  the  East  and  "West  Indies,  among 
the  Pacific  islands,  and  on  the  coast  of  South 
America,  where  their  flesh  is  eaten ;  in  some 
the  three  anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal  are  de- 
tached and  far  forward,  forming  two  dorsals. 

RAZOR  SHELL  (solen,  Linn.),  the  type  of  the 
lamellibranchiate  family  of  solenidce.  The  ge- 
nus is  characterized  by  two  adductor  muscles, 
the  mantle  open  anteriorly  and  produced  into 
two  short  united  siphons,  the  branchiae  at- 
tached to  the  lower ;  the  foot  is  long  and  club- 
shaped  ;  the  shells  are  elongated,  equivalve, 
and  gaping  at  both  ends ;  the  hinge  has  two 
or  three  compressed  teeth  in  each  valve,  and 
is  nearly  terminal ;  the  ligament  is  long  and 
external.  The  common  razor  shell  of  our 


Common  Eazor  Shell  (Solen  ensis). 

coast  is  the  8.  ensis  (Linn.),  of  a  scabbard 
shape,  about  6  in.  long  and  an  inch  high,  with 
rounded  ends,  white  within  and  covered  out- 
side by  a  glossy  yellowish  or  brownish  green 
epidermis.  It  is  found  on  sandy  beaches  near 
low-water  mark,  where  it  burrows  beneath 
the  surface,  whence  it  is  sometimes  displaced 
by  storms ;  it  descends  into  the  sand  with  as- 
tonishing rapidity;  the  animal  is  cylindrical, 
longer  than  the  shell,  and  is  often  used  as  food 
under  the  names  of  long  claw,  knife  handle, 
and  razor  fish.  The  S.  siliqua  and  8.  curtits 
of  Europe  have  similar  habits,  sinking  verti- 
cally in  the  sand,  foot  downward;  their  bur- 
rows are  sometimes  2  ft.  deep,  and  they  as- 
cend and  descend  in  them  very  quickly  by 
widening  or  narrowing  the  foot.  They  are 
used  as  food,  and  as  bait  for  cod  and  had- 
dock ;  their  burrows  may  be  known  by  small 
orifices  like  keyholes,  into  which  the  fisher- 
men put  a  little  salt;  this  so  irritates  the 
tubes  that  the  animal  ascends  near  the  sur- 
face, and  is  dragged  out  with  an  iron  hook. 
They  are  found  in  almost  all  seas. 

RAZZI,  Giovanni  Antonio,  called  IL  SODOMA,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  in  Vercelli,  Piedmont, 
about  1479,  died  in  Siena,  Feb.  14,  1554.  He 
formed  his  style  on  that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
and  was  early  employed  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
to  execute  a  series  of  works  in  the  Vatican, 
afterward  in  part  obliterated  to  make  room 
for  frescoes  of  Raphael.  In  the  Chigi  palace, 
now  Farnesina,  he  painted  in  fresco  the  "Mar- 
riage of  Alexander  and  Roxana  "  and  the  "  Fam- 
ily of  Darius."  His  best  works  are  at  Siena, 
including  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  in  the 
church  of  S.  Agostino,  and  the  "  Flagellation  " 
in  the  convent  of  S.  Francisco. 


226 


Rfi 


RE,  or  Rhe,  an  island  of  France,  in  the  bay 
of  Biscay,  forming  part  of  the  department  of 
Charente-Inferieure,  and  separated  from  La 
Kochelle  by  a  channel  about  2  m.  wide  ;  area, 
about  30  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  18,000.  The  isl- 
and is  inaccessible  on  the  S.  W.,  but  the  N. 
E.  coast  is  strongly  indented  and  forms  sev- 
eral harbors.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
commerce  and  the  fisheries,  the  production 
of  salt,  and  the  manufacture  of  wine,  brandy, 
and  vinegar.  The  chief  town,  St.  Martin  de 
Re,  on  the  N.  E.  coast  (pop.  in  1872,  2,740), 
is  strongly  fortified.  From  its  commanding 
position  near  La  Rochelle,  the  isle  of  R6 
was  of  great  military  importance  in  Richelieu's 
final  struggle  with  the  Huguenots.  In  1627  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  led  a  powerful  expedition 
against  it.  He  landed  on  July  20,  and  con- 
tinued the  attack  for  more  than  three  months, 
but  was  finally  forced  to  abandon  it. 

REACH,  Angus  Bethnne,  a  British  author,  born 
in  Inverness,  Scotland,  Jan.  23,  1821,  died 
Nov.  25,  1856.  He  became  about  1850  a  re- 
porter on  the  staff  of  the  London  "  Morning 
Chronicle,"  composed  much  for  the  stage,  and 
published  "  Claret  and  Olives :  from  the  Ga- 
ronne to  the  Rh&ne"  (1852);  two  romances, 
"Clement  Lorimer"  (1849),  and  "Leonard 
Lindsay,"  a  story  of  a  buccaneer  (1850) ;  "Men 
of  the  Hour,  in  three  Parts  :  Bores,  Tuft 
Hunters,  the  Bui  Masqu6"  (1856),  &c. 

READ,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Cecil  co.,  Md.,  Sept. 
18,  1733,  died  in  New  Castle,  Del.,  Sept.  21, 
1798.  He  studied  law  at  Philadelphia,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  19,  began 
practice  at  New  Castle,  and  in  1763  was  ap- 
pointed attorney  general  for  the  three  lower 
counties  on  the  Delaware,  the  designation  by 
which  the  present  state  of  Delaware  was  then 
known.  In  1774  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
of  which  ho  continued  to  be  a  member,  with  a 
brief  interval,  till  near  the  close  of  the  revo- 
lution. "When  the  question  of  independence 
was  first  agitated,  Mr.  Read  opposed  it  as 
premature,  but  was  afterward  among  its  most 
zealous  supporters.  In  1776  he  was  president 
of  the  convention  that  formed  the  first  con- 
stitution of  Delaware,  of  which  he  was  the 
author,  and  under  which  he  was  chosen  vice 
president,  and  served  for  a  short  time  as 
president  during  the  captivity  of  the  regu- 
lar incumbent.  In  1782  he  was  made  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  of  appeals  in  ad- 
miralty cases.  He  represented  Delaware  in 
the  convention  that  framed  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States,  was  the  first  senator 
chosen  under  it  for  that  state,  and  retained 
his  seat  till  1793,  when  he  was  made  chief 
justice  of  Delaware. 

READ,  Nathan,  an  American  inventor,  born 
at  "Warren,  "Worcester  co.,  Mass.,  July  2,  1759, 
died  near  Belfast,  Me.,  Jan.  20,  1849.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1781,  and  was 
tutor  there  for  four  years.  In  1796  he  estab- 
lished, with  others,  the  Salem  iron  foundery, 


READE 

and  invented  a  machine,  patented  in  January, 
1798,  for  cutting  and  heading  nails  at  one 
operation.  From  1800  to  1803  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  congress.  In  1807  he  removed  to  Bel- 
fast, Me.,  and  for  many  years  was  chief  jus- 
tice in  the  court  of  Hancock  co.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  inventions,  was  one  of  the 
first  to  experiment  with  steam  for  navigation, 
and  invented  multitubular  boilers  and  high- 
pressure  engines.  He  also  invented  a  method 
of  equalizing  the  action  of  windmills,  by  ac- 
cumulating the  force  of  the  wind  by  winding 
up  a  weight ;  a  plan  of  using  the  force  of  the 
tide  by  means  of  reservoirs  alternately  filled 
and  emptied  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a 
constant  stream;  different  forms  of  pumping 
engines  and  threshing  machines;  and  a  plan 
for  using  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
metals,  multiplied  by  levers,  for  winding  up 
clocks  and  other  purposes.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  arts  and  sciences. — See 
"Nathan  Read,  his  Inventions,"  &c.,  by  his 
nephew  David  Read  (1870). 

READ,  Thomas  Buchanan,  an  American  artist 
and  poet,  born  in  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  March  12, 
1822,  died  in  New  York,  May  11,  1872.  At 
the  age  of  17  he  entered  the  studio  of  a  sculp- 
tor in  Cincinnati.  In  1841  he  removed  to  New- 
York,  and  after  a  few  months  to  Boston,  where 
he  began  his  career  as  a  painter.  He  contrib- 
uted poems  to  the  Boston  "Courier"  in  1843 
and  1844,  and  in  1846  settled  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1850  he  went  to  Florence,  and  with  occa- 
sional visits  to  America  resided  in  Italy  till 
the  spring  of  1872,  when  he  returned  to  Amer- 
ica, but  died  soon  after  his  arrival.  His  most 
popular  pictures  are  portraits.  He  published 
"Lays  and  Ballads"  (Philadelphia,  1848); 
"The  New  Pastoral"  (1855);  "The  House 
by  the  Sea"  (1856);  "The  Wagoner  of  the 
Alleghanies"  (1862)  ;  "A  Summer  Story,  and 
other  Poems  "  (1865) ;  and  "  Poetical  Works  " 
(3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1866). 

READE.  I.  Charles,  an  English  novelist,  born 
at  Ipsden,  Oxfordshire,  in  1814.  He  graduated 
in  1835  at  Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  where  he 
was  elected  to  one  of  the  Vinerian  fellowships 
in  1842.  In  1843  he  was  called  to  the  bar  by 
the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  soon  after  gave 
his  attention  wholly  to  literature.  In  1847  he 
received  the  degree  of  D.  0.  L.  from  his  uni- 
versity. Among  his  earliest  literary  efforts  was 
a  drama  in  five  acts,  entitled  "  Gold,"  which 
appeared  in  1850.  In  1852  he  published  his 
first  story,  "  Peg  Woffiagton,"  which  imme- 
diately gave  him  rank  as  a  writer  of  fiction, 
and  in  the  following  year  "Christie  John- 
stone,"  which  met  with  still  greater  favor. 
These  stories  are  simple  in  plot  and  unpre- 
tentious in  design,  but  are  full  of  dramatic 
force,  rich  in  incident,  and  marked  by  a  pecu- 
liar tenderness  and  pathos.  In  1854,  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Tom  Taylor,  he  published 
a  volume  of  plays,  containing  "  Masks  and 
Faces,"  the  plot  of  which  is  identical  with  that 
of  "  Peg  Woffington,"  "  Two  Loves  and  a  Life," 


KEADE 


READING 


227 


and  "  The  Zing's  Rival."  "  Clouds  and  Sun- 
shine "  and  "Art,  a  Dramatic  Tale,"  two  novel- 
lettes,  appeared  in  1855.  All  these  works  were 
received  with  a  flattering  welcome,  and  in  1856 
he  published  a  more  ambitious  novel,  entitled 
"It  is  Never  too  Late  to  Mend,"  in  which  he 
aimed  to  show  the  possibility  of  the  reforma- 
tion of  a  criminal.  This,  which  was  the  first 
of  a  series  of  romances,  each  written  to  illus- 
trate some  social  or  public  wrong,  aroused  at- 
tention to  the  brutalities  of  the  English  prison 
system,  and  was  instrumental  in  effecting  their 
amelioration.  His  later  works  are :  "  The 
Double  Marriage,  or  White  Lies,"  "  The  Course 
of  True  Love  never  did  run  Smooth,"  "Pro- 
pria  Quae  Maribus,  and  the  Box  Tunnel "  (1857) ; 
"  Cream  :  Jack  of  all  Trades,"  and  the  "Auto- 
biography of  a  Thief"  (1858)  ;  "  Love  me  Lit- 
tle, Love  me  Long,"  and  "A  Good  Fight  and 
other  Tales  "  (1859) ;  "  The  Eighth  Command- 
ment "  (1860)  ;  "  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth, 
or  Maid,  Wife,  and  Widow  "  (1861)  ;  "  Hard 
Cash  "(1863);  "Griffith  Gaunt,  or  Jealousy " 
(1866);  "Foul  Play,"  in  connection  with  Dion 
Boucicault  (1868) ;  "  Put  Yourself  in  his 
Place"  (1870);  "A  Terrible  Temptation" 
(1871);  "  The  Wandering  Heir"  (1872);  "A 
Simpleton:  a  Story  of  a  Day"  (1874);  and 
"A  Hero  and  a  Martyr"  (1875).  Of  these, 
"  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth  "  incorporates 
the  greater  part  of  a  previous  story,  "A  Good 
Fight,"  but  the  plot  soon  changes  and  justi- 
fies the  secondary  title  of  "  Maid,  Wife,  and 
Widow."  The  chief  characters,  Gerard  and 
Margaret,  are  the  parents  of  Erasmus.  "  Hard 
Cash  "  was  written  with  the  object  of  calling 
attention  to  the  abuses  of  lunatic  asylums; 
and  so  forcibly  did  he  put  the  facts  which  he 
had  gathered  that  it  awakened  official  investi- 
gation and  led  to  a  change  in  the  English  luna- 
cy laws.  "Put  Yourself  in  his  Place  "  is  an 
exposure  of  the  system  of  terrorism,  vulgarly 
called  "rattening,"  practised  by  the  trades 
unions  in  English  manufacturing  towns  for  the 
intimidation  of  independent  workmen.  Many 
of  Mr.  Reade's  stories  have  been  successfully 
dramatized,  and  nearly  all  of  them  have  been 
translated  into  the  different  languages  of  Eu- 
rope. Mr.  Reade's  style  is  characterized  by 
great  terseness  and  vigor,  and  by  a  wealth  of 
incident  which  few  writers  of  fiction  have  pos- 
sessed ;  and  though  marred  by  occasional  pe- 
culiarities, which  in  some  instances  degener- 
ate into  literary  trickery,  it  has  won  him  great 
popularity  and  a  place  among  the  foremost 
Novelists  of  the  age.  II.  William  Winwood,  an 
English  traveller,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Ipsden,  Oxfordshire,  in  1839,  died  at 
Wimbledon,  April  24,  1875.  He  visited  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  first  in  1862-'3,  and  on  his 
return  published  "Savage  Africa:  a  Narrative 
of  a  Tour  in  Equatorial,  Southwestern,  and 
Northwestern  Africa  "  (1863).  In  1868-'70  he 
again  visited  the  west  coast,  penetrated  inland 
by  a  new  route  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  source 
of  the  Niger,  established  friendly  relations  be- 


tween that  colony  and  the  native  powers  450 
m.  from  the  coast,  and  proved  that  the  Niger 
has  its  rise  in  the  same  range  of  mountains 
as  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  (See  NIGER.) 
He  soon  after  published  "  The  Martyrdom  of 
Man  "  (1872)  and  "  The  African  Sketch  Book  " 
(1873).  In  1873-'4  he  accompanied  the  Ashan- 
tee  expedition  as  special  correspondent  of  the 
London  "  Times,"  and  incurred  the  disease 
which  resulted  in  his  death.  His  "  Story  of 
the  Ashantee  Campaign"  was  published  in 
1875.  Mr.  Reade  was  also  the  author  of  sev- 
eral novels :  "  Charlotte  and  Myra  "  and  "  Lib- 
erty Hall,  Oxon."  (1859)  ;  "  The  Veil  of  Isis, 
or  the  Mysteries  of  the  Druids  "  (1861)  ;  "  See- 
Saw,  by  Francesco  Abati,  edited  by  W.  W. 
Reade"  (1865);  and  "The  Outcast"  (1875). 

READING;  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Berks  co., 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill  river,  here  crossed  by  three  bridges,  and  on 
the  Schuylkill  and  Union  canals,  at  the  in- 
tersection of  several  branches  of  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading  railroad  with  the  Wilming- 
ton and  Reading  line,  54  m.  E.  of  Harrisburg 
and  58  m.  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia;  pop.  in  1800, 
2,385  ;  in  1810,  3,463  ;  in  1820,  4,352  ;  in  1830, 
5,859;  in  1840,  8,410;  in  1850,  15,743;  in 
1860,  23,162  ;  in  1870,  33,930,  of  whom  3,871 
were  foreigners.  It  is  very  pleasantly  situated 
on  an  elevated  and  ascending  plain,  backed  on 
the  east  by  Penn's  Mount,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Neversink  mountain,  from  both  of  which 
flow  streams  of  pure  water,  abundantly  sup- 
plying the  city.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  well 
built,  and  kept  neat  and  cleanly.  The  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  in  the 
centre  is  a  square  on  which  are  the  chief  hotels 
and  stores.  The  court  house  is  a  very  hand- 
some edifice  with  a  fine  portico,  sustained  by 
six  columns  of  red  sandstone.  Other  public 
buildings  are  the  city  hall,  county  jail,  opera 
house,  and  academy  of  music.  Of  the  church- 
es the  most  conspicuous  are  Trinity  (German 
Lutheran),  an  antique  building  with  a  spire  210 
ft.  high,  and  Christ  (Episcopal),  an  imposing 
Gothic  edifice  of  red  sandstone  with  a  spire 
202  ft.  high.  Reading  is  surrounded  by  a  rich 
farming  country,  with  which  it  has  a  very  im- 
portant trade.  The  inhabitants  of  this  dis- 
trict are  chiefly  of  German  origin,  and  a  dia- 
lect of  German,  known  as  Pennsylvania  Dutch, 
prevails  extensively  among  them.  The  city  is 
especially  noted  for  its  manufactures,  among 
which  the  production  and  working  of  iron  hold 
the  first  rank.  Much  of  the  ore  is  obtained 
from  Penn's  Mount.  The  chief  establishments 
are  6  furnaces,  2  forges,  7"  founderies,  5  roll- 
ing mills,  a  nail  factory,  15  machine  shops,  3 
manufactories  of  iron  ware  of  various  sorts, 
3  of  steam  boilers,  2  of  nuts  and  bolts,  and  3 
of  iron  pipe.  There  are  also  a  cotton  mill,  13 
shoe  factories,  8  tanneries,  6  breweries,  9  brick 
factories,  9  manufactories  of  furniture,  80  of 
cigars,  one  of  spokes,  one  of  rope,  one  of  car- 
pets, one  of  spectacles,  10  of  wool  hats,  6  of 
cooperage,  2  distilleries,  3  paper  mills,  and  5 


228 


READING 


REALTY 


planing  mills.  The  shops  of  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading  railroad  employ  2,800  men. 
Reading  contains  three  national  banks  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $700,000,  a  savings  bank 
with  $100,000  capital,  and  four  fire  insurance 
companies.  It  is  divided  into  nine  wards,  and 
is  governed  by  a  mayor,  a  select  council  of  nine 
members  (one  from  each  ward),  and  a  common 
council  of  28.  There  are  an  efficient  fire  de- 
partment and  a  police  force.  The  principal 
charitable  associations  are  a  dispensary  and  a 
female  orphan  asylum.  The  public  schools  and 
departments  comprise  1  normal  school,  1  high 
school,  II  grammar,  18  secondary,  and  33  pri- 
mary departments,  and  1  colored  school.  The 
number  of  teachers  in  1874  was  121 ;  pupils 
enrolled,  6,457 ;  average  attendance,  5,32(5. 
The  Reading  library  contains  3,000  volumes. 
Three  daily  (one  German)  and  eight  weekly 
(six  German)  newspapers,  and  one  semi-month- 
ly (German)  periodical  are  published.  There 
are  31  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  1  Church  of 
God,  2  Episcopal,  3  Evangelical  Association,  1 
Friends',  5  Lutheran,  4  Methodist,  3  Presbyte- 
rian, 5  Reformed,  2  Roman  Catholic,  1  United 
Brethren,  1  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  and  1 
Universalist. — Reading  was  laid  out  in  1748. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1783,  and 
as  a  city  in  1847. 

READING,  a  borough  of  England,  county  town 
of  Berkshire,  on  the  Kennet,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Thames,  39  m.  "W.  by  S.  of  London ; 
pop.  in  1871,  32,824.  It  has  greatly  improved 
within  the  past  20  years,  and  is  now  an  impor- 
tant centre  of  railways  and  of  trade.  There 
are  several  fine  churches.  A  working  men's 
hall  was  opened  in  1862,  the  town  hall  was  en- 
larged in  1863,  and  the  elegant  station  of  the 
Great  Western  railway  was  completed  in  18G8. 
Flour  and  grain  are  largely  exported  to  Lon- 
don. Silk  and  agricultural  implements  are 
manufactured,  and  there  are  iron  founderies, 
breweries,  and  extensive  biscuit  bakeries. — 
Reading  is  very  ancient,  has  returned  two 
members  to  parliament  since  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  and  has  been  the  scene  of  important 
historical  events. 

REALTY  (law  Lat.  rfalitas,  from  ret,  a  thing), 
in  law,  property  in  lands,  tenements,  and  here- 
ditaments. The  common  law  of  real  property 
is  distinctively  and  almost  entirely  English, 
founded  on  the  rules  and  customs  which  in 
the  feudal  period  governed  the  tenure  of  lands. 
It  is  the  theory  of  the  English  law  that  no 
occupant  of  lands,  not  even  a  freeholder,  has 
absolute  ownership  of  them ;  he  has  only  an 
estate.  The  king  is  lord  paramount,  and  all 
the  land  in  the  realm  is  holden  mediately  or  im- 
mediately of  him.  The  chief  estates  in  lands 
of  the  present  time  originated  no  doubt  in  the 
various  forms  of  feudal  tenure.  Life  feuds  were 
probably  earlier  than  feuds  of  inheritance;  for 
as  feuds  were  granted  in  consideration  of  a 
return  of  military  services,  and  as  this  consid- 
eration was  to  be  furnished  by  a  certain  indi- 
vidual whose  already  known  valor  or  fidelity 


induced  the  gift,  lands  were  without  doubt 
primarily  limited  to  the  first  donee;  that  is  to 
say,  they  could  neither  be  aliened  by  him  to  a 
stranger  nor  transmitted  to  his  heirs.  But  as 
the  lords  became  strong  in  their  possessions, 
or  when  the  times  were  more  secure,  it  became 
safe  and  possible  to  grant  estates  of  inheritance 
in  feuds ;  namely,  to  the  first  taker  and  certain 
of  his  heirs  or  to  his  heirs  in  general.  From 
these  modes  of  tenure  came  the  modern  estates 
respectively,  for  life,  in  tail,  and  in  fee.  Each 
of  these  is  a  freehold  and  a  real  interest,  but 
no  estate  less  than  one  for  life  (and  a  lease  to 
A  for  1,000  years  is,  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  law,  a  smaller  interest  than  a  grant  for  the 
term  of  his  life)  is  a  freehold  or  an  estate  in 
realty.  But  besides  lands,  things  real,  as  the 
tautological  phrase  of  the  law  is,  comprise  also 
tenements  and  hereditaments;  and  these  are 
embraced  in  this  term,  because  they  possess 
some  of  the  characteristic  qualities  of  lands,  as 
they  may  be  holden  on  tenure  or  are  inherita- 
ble. These  terms  may  include  things  incor- 
porate. Land  includes  only  tangible  or  corpo- 
real property:  the  ground  or  soil,  and  every- 
thing which  is  attached  to  it  naturally,  as  trees, 
stones,  or  herbage,  or  by  art,  as  houses  or  oth- 
er structures.  Growing  timber,  therefore,  and 
standing  grass  or  grain,  so  long  as  they  are 
rooted  in  and  supported  by  the  soil,  are  parts 
of  the  realty,  though  they  become  personalty 
immediately  on  severance.  But  when  corn  or 
any  other  annual  product  of  the  soil  is  ripe  and 
fit  to  be  gathered,  though  not  yet  severed,  it 
is  personal  property.  A  permanent  building 
erected  on  one's  land  becomes  his  property, 
even  though  the  materials  for  it  were  wrong- 
fully taken  from  another.  But  a  building  erect- 
ed on  another's  land,  by  his  permission,  may 
remain  the  personal  property  of  the  builder. 
(See  FIXTURE.) — Besides  the  incidents  and  ele- 
ments of  land  which  we  have  already  men- 
tioned, and  which  are  examples  of  corporeal 
hereditament,  there  may  be  also  incorporeal 
hereditaments,  that  is,  rights  annexed  to  and 
issuing  out  of  lands,  as  rights  of  common  and 
of  way,  easements,  and  rents.  These  rank  next 
in  dignity  and  extent  to  lands.  (See  COMMON, 
RIGHTS  OF,  EASEMENT,  LEASE,  and  LICENSE.) 
A  right  of  way  is  the  right  of  passage  over 
another  man's  ground.  It  may  be  founded  in 
an  actual  grant  by  the  owner  of  the  soil,  or  may 
be  claimed  by  prescription,  which  supposes  a 
grant,  or  it  may  arise  immediately  from  neces- 
sity; as  where  one  sells  a  lot  surrounded  by 
other  land  of  his,  here,  as  a  right  of  passage  is 
necessary  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  lot  granted, 
the  grantor  is  conclusively  presumed  to  have 
granted  it  to  the  purchaser.  If  the  way  thus 
granted  and  ordinarily  used  become  impassa- 
ble, it  seems  just  that  the  purchaser  shall  have 
the  right,  founded  on  the  same  presumption,  of 
passing  over  the  adjacent  lands  of  the  grantor. 
Not  so,  however,  if  the  way  be  a  private  one, 
lying  in  actual  grant,  for  here  the  grantor  pre- 
sumptively bound  himself  to  repair.  The  right 


REAPING  MACHINES 


RECAMIER 


229 


of  the  public  in  the  highway  is,  ordinarily,  only 
an  easement.  The  fee  in  the  soil  belongs  to  the 
abuttors,  and  the  complete  use  of  the  ground  re- 
turns to  them  whenever  it  becomes  discharged 
of  the  easement.  The  road  bed  of  railways  is 
generally  subject  to  the  same  rules.  The  right 
of  soil  in  land  bounded  by  navigable  rivers 
where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  belongs  to  the 
owner  of  the  land  as  far  as  low-water  mark. 
The  right  to  navigate  such  waters  belongs,  in 
all  states  of  the  tide,  to  the  public.  Grants 
upon  streams  above  the  flow  of  the  tide  con- 
vey not  only  the  banks  but  the  beds  of  the 
streams  and  the  islands  in  them  to  the  middle 
line  of  the  water  (ad  filum  medium  aquce). 
But  the  right  of  the  grantee  is  qualified  by 
the  right  of  the  public  to  use  the  stream  as  a 
highway  if  it  be  navigable. 

REAPING  MACHINES.  See  MOWING  AND  HEAP- 
ING MACHINES. 

RKVnutt,  Rene  Antoine  Forehault  de,  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  La  Rochelle,  Feb. 
28,  1683,  died  Oct.  18,  1757.  He  studied  law 
at  Bourges.  but  went  to  Paris  in  1703,  gained 
distinction  by  his  philosophical  researches,  and 
in  1708  was  admitted  to  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences. In  his  L'Art  de  convertir  le  for  forge 
en  acier,  et  Tart  d'adoucir  leferfondu  (1722), 
he  first  made  known  in  France  the  process  of 
manufacturing  steel.  For  this  he  received  a 
pension  of  12,000  livres,  which  he  applied  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  industrial  arts.  He 
invented  a  process  for  tinning  iron,  and  made 
experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain ; 
an  opaque  white  glass  which  he  made  is  known 
as  "  Reaumur's  porcelain."  He  also  discov- 
ered the  means  of  preserving  eggs,  and  made 
experiments  in  artificial  incubation.  In  1731 
he  invented  the  thermometer  which  is  called 
after  him,  and  is  still  largely  used  in  Germany 
and  other  parts  of  the  European  continent, 
taking  as  the  extremes  the  freezing  and  boiling 
points  of  water,  and  dividing  the  interval  into 
80  degrees.  He  investigated  many  curious 
topics  in  natural  history,  especially  the  mode 
of  formation  and  growth  of  the  scales  of  fishes, 
the  development  of  the  shells  of  testaceous 
animals,  the  reproduction  of  the  claws  of  lob- 
sters and  crabs,  and  the  mode  of  motion  of 
star  fishes  and  various  mollusks  and  zoophytes. 
He  discovered  a  species  of  mollusk  that  fur- 
nishes a  purple  dye  nearly  equal  to  that  used 
by  the  ancients.  His  most  thorough  investiga- 
tions were  in  the  department  of  entomology, 
to  which  he  devoted  several  years.  He  pub- 
lished Memoires  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  natu- 
relle  des  insectes  (6  vols.  4to,  1734-'42),  and  a 
variety  of  papers  in  the  transactions  of  the 
academy  of  sciences. 

REBEKAH.     See  ISAAC,  and  JACOB. 

REBOLLEDO,  Bernardino,  count  de,  a  Spanish 
author,  born  in  Leon  in  1597,  died  in  Madrid 
in  1676.  He  served  in  Italy  and  against  the 
Turks,  took  part  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  was 
created  by  Ferdinand  II.  a  count  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  and  received  the  government  of 


the  Lower  Palatinate.  He  was  several  years 
ambassador  to  Denmark,  and  from  1662  till 
his  death  was  president  of  the  board  of  war 
at  Madrid.  He  wrote  Ocios  ("  Leisure  Hours," 
Antwerp,  1650);  Selvas  militares  y  pol'iticas, 
poems  on  the  arts  of  war  and  civil  govern- 
ment (Copenhagen,  1652) ;  Sefaas  ddnicas  (4to, 
1665),  a  compendium  in  verse  of  the  history 
and  geography  of  Denmark ;  and  some  minor 
writings.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that 
of  Madrid  (4  vols.  8vo,  1778). 

RECA9IIER,  Jeanne  Franfoise  Julie  Adelaide,  a 
French  leader  of  society,  born  in  Lyons,  Dec. 
4,  1777,  died  in  Paris,  May  11,  1849.  Her 
father  was  M.  Bernard,  a  banker,  connected 
with  the  postal  service;  his  receptions  were 
attended  by  distinguished  people,  who  greatly 
admired  her  extraordinary  beauty,  modesty, 
and  accomplishments.  In  1793  she  married  M. 
Recamier,  a  rich  banker  of  middle  age,  for 
whom  she  felt  only  respect.  He  purchased  in 
1798  the  hotel  Necker,  which  led  to  her  life- 
long intimacy  with  Mme.  de  Stael.  This  dis- 
pleased Napoleon,  and  she  gave  him  further 
offence  by  declining  in  1803  to  become  a  lady 
attendant  on  the  empress  Josephine.  The 
bankruptcy  of  her  husband  made  her  in  1804 
accept  the  hospitality  of  Mme.  de  Stael  at  Cop- 
pet,  where  she  met  Prince  Augustus  of  Prus- 
sia. She  had  accepted  with  indifference  the 
homage,  though  not  the  friendship,  of  the 
brothers  Montmorency,  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
Benjamin  Constant,  and  other  celebrities ;  the 
only  man  whose  affection  she  seems  to  have 
returned  was  the  Prussian  prince,  but  she  re- 
frained from  urging  a  divorce  to  enable  her  to 
accept  his  proposal  of  marriage.  Napoleon 
objecting  in  1811  to  her  residing  in  Paris,  she 
spent  some  years  in  Burgundy,  Lyons,  and 
Italy.  Her  patriotism  remained,  however,  un- 
abated, and  when  in  1815  the  duke  of  "Welling- 
ton paid  his  respects  to  her  and  exulted  over 
Waterloo,  she  forbade  him  her  house.  New 
reverses  obliged  her  to  occupy  modest  apart- 
ments in  the  abbaye  aux  Bois,  formerly  a  con- 
vent, in  the  faubourg  St.  Germain.  In  1817, 
at  the  death  of  Mme.  de  Stael,  she  first  met 
Chateaubriand,  in  whose  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion she  took  great  pride.  His  wife  dying  in 
1846,  he  offered  to  marry  Mme.  R6camier, 
whose  husband  had  died  in  1830 ;  she  declined, 
but  he  remained  to  the  last  her  faithful  friend 
and  correspondent.  (See  Chateaubriand's  Me- 
moires d*  outre  tombe.)  Her  partiality  for  royal- 
ists and  for  ultramontane  writers  of  the  ro- 
mantic school,  and  the  occasionally  intolerant 
character  of  her  brilliant  receptions,  did  not 
escape  criticism  amid  the  general  admiration 
which  she  inspired  to  the  last. — See  Souvenirs 
et  correspondance  tires  des  papiers  de  Madame 
Recamier,  edited  by  her  niece  and  adopted 
daughter,  Mme.  Lenormant  (2  vols.,  Paris,  3d 
ed.,  1860;  English  translation  by  Isaphene  M. 
Luyster,  Boston,  1867),  and  Madame  Recamier, 
les  amis  de  sajeunesse,  by  the  same  (1872 ;  Eng- 
lish translation  by  I.  M.  Luyster,  Boston,  1875). 


230 


RECIFE 


RECOGNIZANCE 


RECIFE,  or  Pernambneo,  a  maritime  city  of 
Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  Pernambuco, 
1,150  m.  N.  E.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  lat.  8°  4'  8., 
Ion.  34°  50'  W. ;  pop.  about  100,000.  It  is  at 
the  common  mouth  of  the  rivers  Beberibe  and 
Capibaribe,  which  form  a  delta  comprising  sev- 
eral islands,  and  is  divided  into  three  quarters, 
Boa  Vista,  Sao  Antonio,  and  Recife  proper, 
united  by  bridges.  Many  of  the  streets  are 
regular,  particularly  in  Boa  Vista,  well  paved, 
and  lighted  with  gas ;  and  the  houses  are  part- 
ly of  brick,  with  three  and  four  stories.  Be- 
sides handsome  parish  churches,  there  are  sev- 
eral others,  mostly  attached  to  convents ;  the 
remaining  edifices  of  note  are  the  governor's 
and  bishop's  palaces,  the  city  hall  and  provin- 
cial government  buildings,  the  arsenal,  custom 
house,  lazaretto  and  other  hospitals,  and  be- 
nevolent institutions.  There  are  a  lyceum,  a 
law  school,  and  a  provincial  gymnasium.  The 
port,  defended  by  several  forts,  is  protected 
by  a  reef  (whence  the  name  Recife),  to  which 
masonry  has  been  added.  A  breach  in  the 
reef  forms  the  entrance  to  the  river  port, 
which,  though  very  commodious,  is  inaccessi- 
ble to  craft  of  over  700  tons,  owing  to  a  sand 
bank.  Recife  has  three  banks,  flourishing  to- 
bacco, soap,  and  paper  factories,  and  two  ma- 
chine shops.  The  total  value  of  the  exports 
in  the  year  1872-'3  was  $12,808,788,  the  sta- 
ples being  cotton,  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  and 
hides.  The  Pernambuco  and  Sao  Francisco 
railway  extends  S.  E.  from  the  city.  The' 
town  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  subma- 
rine cable  from  Lisbon,  completed  in  June, 
1874.  It  was  founded  about  1530,  by  Duarte 
Coelho,  and  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1676. 
The  English  occupied  it  in  1595 ;  it  was  seized 
by  the  Dutch  in  1629;  and  it  has  repeatedly 
been  the  scene  of  insurrections,  particularly 
in  1661  and  1710. 

KECITiTIVE  (Lat.  recitare,  to  recite ;  called 
by  the  Italians  musica  parlante,  speaking  mu- 
sic), a  species  of  artificial  declamation  adapted 
to  musical  notes,  imitating  the  inflections  of 
natural  speech,  and  forming  a  medium  between 
ordinary  recitation  or  speaking,  which  it  near- 
ly resembles,  and  measured  air  or  song.  It 
was  first  introduced  at  Rome  by  Emilio  del 
Cavaliere  in  1600,  and  is  now  a  recognized  and 
indeed  an  essential  form  of  vocal  composition 
in  the  grand  Italian  opera,  oratorios,  and  can- 
tatas, serving  to  express  some  action  or  pas- 
sion, to  relate  a  story,  or  to  connect  scenes 
and  situations,  without  injuring  the  effect  of 
the  performance  by  resorting  to  spoken  words. 
Although  written  in  common  time,  the  recita- 
tive may  be  delivered  by  the  singer  according 
to  his  fancy,  subject  of  course  to  the  laws  of 
prosody,  the  lengths  of  the  notes  as  given  by 
the  composer  being  mere  approximations.  The 
accompaniment  generally  consists  of  a  few  oc- 
casional chords  struck  by  the  pianoforte  to  in- 
dicate the  harmony,  although  sometimes  the 
violoncellos  take  the  chords  in  arpeggio.  This, 
the  simplest  form  of  recitative,  is  called  reci- 


tative secco  ;  when  besides  the  bass  the  recita- 
tive is  accompanied  by  other  instruments  of 
the  orchestra,  it  is  recitative  istrumentato  ; 
when  interrupted  by  interjected  passages  per- 
formed by  the  orchestra,  it  is  said  to  be  ollli- 
gato.  The  more  modern  composers  have  given 
great  attention  to  elaborating  the  recitative, 
Wagner  having  gone  so  far  as  to  banish  the 
aria  and  substitute  in  its  place  a  kind  of  mu- 
sical recitation,  between  recitative  and  song. 

RECLL'S,  Jean  Jacqnes  EUsee,  a  French  geogra- 
pher, born  at  Ste.  Foy  la  Grande,  department 
of  Gironde,  March  15,  1830.  He  studied  under 
Carl  Ritter  in  Berlin,  and  travelled  in  Great 
Britain  and  North  and  South  America  from 
1851  to  1857,  when  he  returned  to  France  and 
published  a  series  of  books  of  travel.  For 
continuing  to  serve  in  the  national  guard  of 
Paris  after  the  establishment  of  the  commune 
he  was  sentenced  to  death  (1871);  but  the  sen- 
tence was  commuted  to  banishment,  and  he 
was  finally  pardoned.  His  principal  works  are: 
La  terre  (2  vols.,  1867-'8;  English  translation, 
"  The  Earth,"  edited  by  B.  B.  Woodward,  2 
vols.,  New  York,  1871);  Les  phenomenes  ter- 
restres,  le»  mers  et  le»  meteor  e*  (1872 ;  English 
translation,  "The  Ocean,  Atmosphere,  and 
Life,"  by  B.  B.  Woodward,  edited  by  Henry 
Woodward,  New  York,  1872);  Voyage  aux 
regiont  minieres  de  la  Transylvanie  occiden- 
tals (1873);  and  Nouvelle  geographic  univer- 
telle  (part  i.,  1875). 

RECOGNIZANCE  (law  Fr.  reconisaunce ;  law 
Lat.  recognitio)^  an  obligation  of  record  en- 
tered into  before  a  court  of  record  or  magis- 
trate duly  authorized  to  take  it,  with  condition 
to  perform  some  specified  act ;  as  to  appear  at 
the  assizes  or  criminal  courfc,  to  keep  the  peace, 
to  pay  a  debt,  or  some  other  thing  of  a  like 
description,  upon  the  performance  of  which 
condition  the  obligation  is  to  become  null  and 
void.  The  state  or  person  in  whose  favor  or 
to  whom  the  recognizance  is  made  is  called 
the  cognizee,  and  the  person  who  enters  into 
it  the  cognizor.  The  word  recognizance  is 
given  to  this  kind  of  obligation,  because,  gen- 
erally, the  form  of  it  is  this :  the  clerk  or  oth- 
er proper  officer  says  to  the  cognizor :  "  You 
acknowledge  yourself  bound  to,"  &c. ;  to  which 
the  cognizor  assents  ;  and  it  is  then  made 
matter  of  record. — Recognizances  are  of  sev- 
eral kinds  and  descriptions,  and  are  used  for 
various  purposes  both  civil  and  criminal.  Of 
the  former  kind  was  a  recognizance  of  debt  at 
common  law,  in  the  nature  of  a  deed  to  charge 
or  encumber  lands.  This  was  very  similar  in 
form  and  effect  to  an  ordinary  bond,  the  main 
distinction  being  that  while  a  bond  is  the  cre- 
ation of  a  fresh  debt  or  obligation,  a  recog- 
nizance was  the  acknowledgment  of  a  debt 
already  existing  upon  record.  It  was  certified 
to  or  taken  by  the  officer  of  some  court,  and 
witnessed  only  by  the  record  of  such  court, 
instead  of  having  the  cognizor's  seal  affixed  to 
it.  It  was  not  strictly  a  deed,  though  in  effect 
it  was  of  greater  force  and  obligation,  and  was 


RECOGNIZANCE 


RECORD 


231 


allowed  a  priority  of  payment,  and  bound  the 
lands  of  the  cognizor  from  the  time  of  its  en- 
rolment on  record.  It  operated  as  a  lien  upon 
all  the  lands  which  the  cognizor  possessed  at 
the  time  he  acknowledged  it,  and  also  upon 
all  those  which  he  afterward  acquired,  so  that 
no  alienation  of  them  made  by  him  while  his 
recognizance  remained  in  force  would  defeat 
the  claim  of  the  cognizee  or  prevent  his  ex- 
tending such  lands.  Recognizances  for  debt 
may  still  be  taken  in  this  country  under  statu- 
tory provisions,  but  they  operate  merely  as 
evidences  of  debt  in  the  nature  of  a  judgment, 
upon  which  execution  may  issue,  and  do  not 
generally  create  a  lien  upon  the  cognizor's  land 
or  other  property. — There  were  also,  at  com- 
mon law,  two  other  recognizances  of  a  private 
sort,  said  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  statute  sta- 
ple and  a  statute  merchant.  The  undertaking 
of  special  bail  in  a  civil  action,  of  which  the 
bail  piece  (a  slip  of  parchment  so  called,  on 
which  it  was  transmitted  to  court)  was  a  mem- 
orandum, was  a  recognizance  entered  into  by 
the  cognizors  before  the  court  or  judge  for  a 
sum  equal  (or  in  some  cases  double)  to  that 
which  the  plaintiff  had  sworn  to,  by  which 
they  undertook  that  if  the  defendant  was  con- 
demned in  the  action  he  should  pay  the  costs 
and  condemnation,  or  render  himself  a  pris- 
oner, or  that  they  would  pay  it  for  him. — In 
criminal  practice  recognizances  are  used  both 
as  a  means  of  securing  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  justice  by  compelling  the  appearance 
of  a  party  accused  before  a  magistrate  for  fur- 
ther examination,  or  for  trial  at  some  superior 
court,  and  of  securing  the  attendance  of  wit- 
nesses by  binding  them,  with  sufficient  sure- 
ties, to  appear  and  testify.  They  are  used 
also  as  a  means  of  preventing  the  commission 
of  crimes,  by  obliging  the  persons  suspected 
of  an  intent  to  commit  them  to  recognize  in 
some  penal  sum,  with  pledges  or  sureties,  to 
keep  the  peace  and  be  of  good  behavior  for 
a  certain  time.  A  recognizance  to  keep  the 
peace  may  be  taken  by  any  justice  of  the  peace, 
from  any  one  who  creates  an  affray  or  disturb- 
ance in  his  presence,  or  goes  about  with  unu- 
sual attendance  or  weapons  to  the  terror  of 
the  people,  or  is  brought  before  him  by  a  con- 
stable for  a  breach  of  the  peace ;  and  he  is 
bound  to  grant  it  in  favor  of  any  person  who 
can  show  just  cause  to  believe  that  he  is  in 
danger  of  bodily  harm  at  the  hands  of  another. 
A  recognizance  for  this  purpose  is  an  obliga- 
tion in  the  nature  of  a  bond  with  one  or  more 
sureties,  entered  of  record,  with  condition  that 
if  its  requirements  are  fulfilled  and  the  cogni- 
zor  keeps  the  peace  for  the  time  therein  speci- 
fied, it  shall  be  void  and  of  no  effect.  If  on 
the  contrary  it  is  broken  by  any  breach  of  the 
peace,  it  becomes  forfeited  or  an  absolute  debt, 
and  the  cognizor  and  his  sureties  may  be  sued 
for  the  sums  in  which  they  are  respectively 
bound.  If  it  is  a  special  recognizance,  as  to 
keep  the  peace  toward  any  particular  person, 
it  may  be  forfeited  by  any  actual  violence,  or 


even  an  assault  or  menace,  to  such  person,  and 
to  such  person  only.  If  it  is  a  general  recog- 
nizance, it  is  forfeited  by  any  act  which  tends 
to  break  the  peace,  done  to  any  person  or  thing 
in  general. — A  recognizance  may  be  discharged 
by  the  death  of  the  principal  party  bound 
thereby,  or  by  the  order  of  the  court  to  which  it 
is  certified  by  the  justice,  if  they  see  sufficient 
cause.  If  granted  upon  private  account,  it  may 
be  discharged  if  the  person  at  whose  request 
it  was  granted  will  consent  to  release  it,  or 
does  not  make  his  appearance  to  pray  that  it 
may  be  continued. — At  the  common  law  a  peer 
or  peeress  could  not  be  bound  to  recognize  in 
any  other  place  than  the  court  of  king's  bench 
or  chancery ;  but  a  justice  of  the  peace  had 
power  to  require  sureties  from  any  person, 
not  a  lunatic  and  under  the  degree  of  nobility, 
whether  such  person  were  a  fellow  justice 
or  other  magistrate  or  merely  a  private  man. 
"Wives  may  demand  it  against  their  husbands, 
and  husbands,  if  necessary,  against  their  wives ; 
but  at  common  law  married  women  and  in- 
fants should  find  security  by  their  friends,  be- 
cause they  are  incapable  of  engaging  them- 
selves to  answer  any  debt.  Some  exceptions 
are  made  by  statute,  and  the  sweeping  enlarge- 
ment of  the  legal  capacities  of  married  women 
by  the  legislation  of  some  states  has  probably 
removed  this  disability. — In  old  practice  the 
verdict  of  an  assize,  or  strictly  the  act  of  the 
jury  in  inquiring  into  the  case  in  order  to  make 
up  their  verdict,  was  called  a  recognizance. 

RECOLLECTS.     See  FRANCISCANS. 

RECORD  (Lat.  recordari,  Fr.  recorder,  to  re- 
member). L  An  official  contemporaneous  mem- 
orandum in  writing,  drawn  up  by  the  proper 
officer  of  a  court  of  justice,  and  containing  a 
summary  statement  of  the  proceedings  in  an 
action  at  law  brought  before  that  court.  This 
statement  comprises  a  short  history  of  the  case 
and  the  proceedings  consequent  thereon;  as 
the  nature  of  the  action,  the  names  of  the  par- 
ties and  the  time  of  their  appearance  in  court, 
and  the  acts  of  the  court  itself  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  pleadings,  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  occurrence,  and  sometimes  connected 
by  peculiar  entries  called  continuances,  the 
whole  concluding  with  the  judgment  of  the 
court  with  respect  to  the  question  at  issue. 
These  continuances  were  adjournments  of  the 
case  from  one  day  or  term  to  another,  which 
the  law  allowed  for  certain  purposes,  and 
which  were  entered  with  the  pleadings  and 
other  proceedings  on  the  roll  or  record,  and 
gave  the  whole  a  complete  and  connected  form. 
These  records  were  always  written  upon  rolls 
of  parchment,  which  indeed  was  an  essential 
characteristic  of  a  record.  In  the  United 
States  paper  is  universally  used  as  a  substitute 
for  parchment,  and  the  roll  form  has  conse- 
quently been  abolished,  but  otherwise  the  forms 
of  the  English  records  have  been  generally 
adopted.  Records  in  this  technical  sense  are 
peculiar  to  the  common  law ;  and  as  they  form 
the  only  strict  and  proper  proof  of  the  pro- 


232 


RECORD 


ceedings  of  the  courts  in  which  they  are  pre- 
served, they  are  regarded  with  particular  con- 
sideration, and  are  generally  a  proof  of  such  a 
high  and  absolute  nature  as  to  admit  of  no  con- 
tradiction. In  Sir  Edward  Coke's  words,  they 
"import  in  themselves  such  uncontrollable 
credit  and  verity,  as  they  admit  of  no  aver- 
ment, plea,  or  proof  to  the  contrary."  The 
existence  of  a  record  can  only  be  tried  by 
itself ;  that  is,  if  in  any  action  the  existence 
of  any  matter  on  record  is  alleged,  and  the  ad- 
verse party  pleads  nul  tiel  record,  or  that  there 
is  no  such  record,  the  issue  arising  thereon 
is  determined  merely  by  the  inspection  of  the 
record  itself  by  the  court,  without  witnesses  or 
jury,  because  no  issue  can  be  joined  upon  it  to 
be  tried  by  a  jury  as  upon  matters  of  fact ;  and 
the  record  is  conclusive  proof  without  further 
evidence.  The  peculiar  privilege  of  some  courts 
to  have  these  memorials  has  of  itself  created 
the  great  leading  distinction,  equally  recog- 
nized in  English  and  American  law,  between 
courts  of  record  and  courts  not  of  record. 
Though  courts  not  of  record  may  keep  minutes 
or  memorials  of  their  proceedings,  such  min- 
utes are  not  properly  records.  Legally,  the 
term  records  applies  to  the  rolls  of  such  only 
as  are  courts  of  record,  and  not  to  the  rolls  of 
inferior  or  any  other  courts  which  proceed  not 
secun/lum  legem  et  comuetudinem  Anglm,  or 
according  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  England. 
During  that  term  of  the  court  in  which  any 
judicial  act  is  to  bo  done,  or  before  the  case 
pending  is  concluded,  the  record  is  said  to  re- 
main in  the  breast  of  the  judges  of  the  court, 
and  in  their  remembrance,  and  therefore  it  may 
be  altered  during  that  term  in  such  manner  as 
the  judges  shall  direct.  But  as  soon  as  that 
term  is  ended  the  record  is  closed,  and  it  is 
then  said  to  admit  of  no  change,  alteration,  or 
proof  to  the  contrary.  But  some  courts  claim 
and  exercise  the  right  to  make  amendments 
therein  whenever  the  record  is  found  not  to 
conform  to  the  facts. — The  practice  of  record- 
ing is  said  to  bo  of  Norman  origin.  It  existed 
in  the  French  law,  generally,  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  if  not  earlier,  and  in  the 
same  form  as  that  which  it  bore  in  Normandy. 
In  the  Assises  de  Jerusalem,  which  was  a  code 
of  feudal  jurisprudence  compiled  as  early  as 
1099,  and  intended  for  the  kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem then  newly  established,  litigants  were  di- 
rected to  collect  as  many  of  their  own  friends 
as  possible  in  court,  and  request  them  to  attend 
to  what  was  said,  so  that  they  might  retain  and 
record  it  properly  at  the  time  of  judgment  or 
trial.  They  were  further  directed,  if  there 
should  be  an  adjournment  or  further  day  ap- 
pointed for  the  hearing,  that  both  plaintiff  and 
defendant  should  put  down  in  writing  the  nature 
of  the  claim  and  other  particulars,  in  order  that 
they  might  testify  to  them  at  the  adjourned 
meeting  if  necessary,  and  thereby  assist  or  con- 
firm the  recollection  of  the  judges.  This  practice 
finally  became  developed,  from  the  mere  pri- 
vate memoranda  of  the  pleaders,  into  an  official 


contemporaneous  minute  of  the  proceedings. 
"Whether  this  change,"  says  Mr.  Stephens, 
"  had  fully  taken  place  at  the  date  of  Glanvil's 
treatise  (in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.),  that  work 
does  not  enable  us  accurately  to  decide.  How- 
ever, we  find,  at  least  very  shortly  after  that 
period,  the  practice  of  recording,  in  the  present 
sense  of  the  term,  was  in  full  operation."  Next 
to  Domesday  Book,  which,  though  not  a  legisla- 
tive record,  has  all  the  validity  of  one,  is  the 
"Exchequer  Register"  (Pipe  Roll)  of  31  Hen- 
ry I.  The  series  of  legal  records  in  the  court 
of  king's  bench,  now  extant,  reach  from  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.  to  the  present  day.  The 
peculiar  construction  of  the  record,  showing  as 
it  did  every  proceeding  in  the  action  precisely 
as  it  took  place,  gave  it  at  a  very  early  period 
the  highest  authority  as  a  judicial  memorial ; 
and  its  importance  in  this  particular  led  to 
a  suitable  degree  of  care  in  framing  and  pre- 
serving it.  Its  language  gradually  reached 
the  highest  degree  of  precision  and  uniformity, 
and  the  whole  instrument  settled  at  last  into  a 
fixed  form  of  expression,  which  neither  admit- 
ted of  nor  required  any  variation.  When  writ- 
ten pleadings  took  the  place  of  oral,  they  were 
framed  in  the  same  manner  as  they  had  previ- 
ously appeared  on  the  record,  and  were  in  fact 
simply  extracts  from  it,  the  same  concise  and 
technical  forms  of  expression  being  always  used. 
From  this  arose  a  leading  principle  of  practice, 
viz.,  that  every  proceeding  in  an  action  in- 
tended or  required  to  appear  on  the  record,  must 
bo  framed  in  the  language  of  the  record,  and 
with  the  same  exactness  as  the  record  itself. 
Two  other  circumstances  united  to  give  the 
record  the  unchangeable  character  which  has 
accompanied  it  down  to  modern  times,  and  al- 
most to  the  present  day.  One  was,  that  it  was 
kept  in  Latin,  a  language  which  admitted  of 
no  variation ;  and  the  other  was  its  inviolable 
character,  which  preserved  it  from  the  slight- 
est alteration  after  being  once  made  up.  The 
substitution  of  the  English  for  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, and  of  ordinary  writing  for  the  "  an- 
cient and  immutable  court  hand,"  took  place  in 
the  reign  of  George  II.,  and  was  considered  by 
competent  judges  of  that  time  as  a  dangerous 
innovation.  It  has  been  certainly  followed  by 
other  important  alterations  and  modifications, 
which  have  greatly  impaired  the  original  char- 
acter of  the  record  as  a  complete  and  immutable 
memorial  of  all  the  proceedings  in  an  action. 
The  old  continuances  and  the  formal  commence- 
ments and  conclusions  of  the  pleadings  are  now 
omitted,  the  language  of  the  pleadings  them- 
selves is  greatly  modified,  and  the  present  ten- 
dency undoubtedly  is  to  deprive  the  record  in 
a  great  measure  of  the  high  dignity  and  impor- 
tance which  it  anciently  possessed.  II.  Record, 
as  the  title,  or  rather  evidence  of  title  to  real 
estate,  by  the  record  or  register  of  title  deeds, 
is  of  American  origin.  The  usage  has  prevailed 
from  the  early  settlement  of  New  England, 
and  is  now  universal  throughout  the  United 
States.  By  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  in  1641 


RECOKDE 


RECUSANT 


233 


all  deeds  of  conveyance,  whether  absolute  or 
conditional,  were  required  to  be  recorded,  that 
"neither  creditors  might  be  defrauded  nor 
courts  troubled  with  vexatious  suits  and  end- 
less contentions."  The  statutes  of  the  various 
states  differ  in  some  immaterial  respects  as  to 
the  time  and  manner  of  registry,  and  as  to 
what  deeds  or  instruments  must  be  recorded ; 
but  the  principle  in  all  is  the  same,  and  all 
make  such  record  absolutely  necessary  in  order 
to  complete  the  purchaser's  title,  and  render  it 
valid  against  creditors  and  subsequent  lona 
fide  purchasers.  If  the  deed  is  not  recorded, 
the  sale  is  nevertheless  good  and  the  title 
passes  as  between  the  immediate  parties  and 
their  heirs  and  devisees,  but  it  is  void  as  against 
subsequent  bonafide  purchasers  and  mortgagees 
whose  deeds  are  first  recorded.  In  some  of 
the  states  a  specified  time  is  allowed  in  which 
the  deed  may  bo  recorded,  but  in  general  the 
grantee  is  left  to  put  his  conveyance  on  record 
whenever  he  sees  fit,  the  risk  of  delay  being 
that  his  title  may  be  lost  by  another  convey- 
ance from  his  grantor  to  a  bonafide  purchaser. 
In  1830  the  real  property  commissioners  in 
England  recommended  the  establishment  in 
that  country  of  a  general  registry  of  deeds  and 
instruments  relating  to  land,  as  contributing  to 
the  security  of  title  and  the  cheapness  and  fa- 
cility of  transfers  of  land,  and  in  1862  such  a 
registry  was  provided  for ;  but  hitherto  it  has 
not  come  into  general  use.  Heritable  but  not 
leasehold  property  is  recorded  in  Scotland  in 
a  public  register,  and  the  deed  must  be  recorded 
within  60  days  to  render  it  valid  against  cred- 
itors and  purchasers.  A  very  simple  system 
for  the  registration  of  land  titles  prevails  in 
Australia,  corresponding  to  the  registration  of 
vessels. — It  has  sometimes  been  a  question 
whether  notice  of  the  transfer  of  property  to  a 
subsequent  purchaser  was  equivalent  to  a  rec- 
ord of  the  prior  deed,  and  whether  the  deed  of 
a  subsequent  purchaser  with  such  notice,  duly 
recorded,  would  be  valid  against  the  prior  un- 
recorded conveyance.  The  record  of  a  title 
deed  is  not  considered  as  conferring  title  in 
itself,  but  merely  as  evidence  of  notice  or  as 
constructive  notice  to  the  public  of  the  title 
passed  by  the  deed  of  conveyance  of  which  it 
is  an  official  and  certified  copy ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore a  general  rule  that  notice,  actual  or  im- 
plied, to  a  subsequent  purchaser  of  a  prior  con- 
veyance, is  as  effectual  to  defeat  his  claim  as  a 
l>ona  fide  purchaser  as  a  due  record  of  such 
conveyance  would  be;  for  so  long  as  he  re- 
ceives notice  of  the  prior  encumbrance,  it 
makes  no  difference  whether  such  notice  is  de- 
rived from  a  record  or  from  any  other  authen- 
tic source,  and  he  purchases  thereafter  at  his 
peril.  In  other  words,  if  he  knows  that  the 
land  he  buys  has  already  been  conveyed  to  an- 
other person  who  has  neglected  to  record  the 
deed,  he  cannot  claim  the  rights  of  a  bonafide 
purchaser. 

RECORDE,  Robert,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Tenby,  Pembrokeshire,  about  1500, 


died  in  London  in  1558.  He  entered  Oxford 
university  in  1525,  was  elected  a  fellow  of  All 
Souls'  college  in  1531,  and  taught  rhetoric, 
mathematics,  music,  and  anatomy.  In  1545  he 
received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  Cambridge 
university,  removed  to  London,  and  was  phy- 
sician to  Edward  VI.  and  to  Queen  Mary. 
He  died  a  prisoner  in  the  king's  bench,  proba- 
bly for  debt,  though  he  left  some  property. 
He  wrote  the  "  Gate  of  Knowledge  "  and  the 
"  Treasury  of  Knowledge,"  both  of  which  are 
lost.  His  extant  works  are:  "The  Ground 
of  Artes,  teaching  the  Woorke  and  Practice  of 
Arithmetike"  (1540),  his  most  popular  work; 
"  The  Vrinal  of  Physick  "  (1548) ;  "  The  Path- 
way to  Knowledge"  (1551),  a  compendium 
of  geometry ;  "  The  Castle  of  Knowledge  " 
(1556);  and  "The  Whetstone  of  Witte,"  a 
mathematical  work  (1557). 

RECORDER,  an  obsolete  wind  instrument,  re- 
sembling the  flageolet,  though  by  some  writers 
it  has  been  confounded  with  the  flute.  It  is 
said  to  have  had  six  vents.  Its  tone  was  soft 
and  pleasing,  whence  Milton  speaks  of  "flutes 
and  soft  recorders." 

RECCSAAT  (Lat.  reciisare,  to  refuse),  a  term 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  English  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  used  to  designate  those  persons 
in  general  who  refused  or  neglected  to  attend 
divine  service  on  Sundays  or  holidays  in  the 
established  church,  or  to  worship  God  accord- 
ing to  its  forms.  The  use  of  the  word  to  desig- 
nate a  legal  offence  is  traced  to  the  first  year 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  it  was  enacted  that 
all  persons  who,  without  reasonable  excuse, 
failed  to  attend  some  usual  place  of  prayer, 
should  be  censured  and  fined  for  every  omis- 
sion 12  pence.  In  23  Elizabeth  the  fine  or  for- 
feiture was  made  for  every  month  20  pounds ; 
and  in  35  Elizabeth  it  was  enacted  that  if  re- 
cusants failed  to  submit  within  three  months 
after  conviction,  they  might,  upon  the  requisi- 
tion of  four  justices  of  the  peace,  be  compelled 
to  abjure  and  renounce  the  realm ;  and  if  they 
did  not  depart,  or  if  they  returned  without 
license  of  the  crown,  they  were  guilty  of  felony 
and  should  suffer  death  without  benefit  of 
clergy.  In  the  case  of  recusants  who  professed 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  who  were 
designated  popish  recusants,  the  laws  were 
more  severe ;  in  addition  to  the  above  general 
penalties,  they  were  disabled  from  taking  lands, 
either  by  descent  or  purchase,  after  the  age  of 
18,  until  they  renounced  their  errors,  and  were 
incapacitated  in  several  minor  rights  of  the 
subject.  "  Popish  recusants  convict,"  as  they 
were  called  after  being  convicted,  were  vir- 
tually outlaws.  Protestant  dissenters  were  re- 
lieved from  the  penalties  of  recusancy  at  the 
revolution  by  the  toleration  act.  This  statute 
contained  a  proviso  depriving  of  its  benefit 
any  papist  or  popish  recusant,  or  any  person 
who  should  deny  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ; 
but  Roman  Catholics  were  exempted  from 
prosecution  by  31  George  III.  in  1791,  and 
more  fully  by  the  Catholic  emancipation  act  of 


234 


RED 


REDEMPTORISTS 


1829.  In  1813,  by  53  George  III.,  relief  was 
extended  to  those  who  denied  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity ;  but  the  statutes  against  recusancy 
still  exist,  though  they  are  seldom  enforced, 
against  persons  who  absent  themselves  from 
church,  being  neither  Roman  Catholics  nor 
Protestant  dissenters. 

BED.  See  LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  p.  440,  and  PIG- 
MENTS. 

RED  BIRD.     See  CARDINAL  BIRD. 

REDBREAST.     See  ROBIN. 

REDDING,  Cyras,  an  English  journalist  and 
author,  born  in  Penryn,  Cornwall^  in  1786, 
died  in  London,  May  28,  1870.  He  went  to 
London  in  1806,  was  engaged  upon  the  staff 
of  "  The  Pilot,"  and  established  and  conduct- 
ed the  "  Plymouth  Chronicle."  From  1815  to 
1818  he  resided  in  France,  where  he  edited 
"  Galignani's  Messenger."  He  was  editor  of 
the  "New  Monthly  Magazine"  from  1820  to 

1830,  jointly  with  the  poet  Campbell,  with 
whom  in  the  latter  year  he  began  the  "Me- 
tropolitan," which  proved  unsuccessful.     Sub- 
sequently he  edited  for  two  years  the  "  Bath 
Guardian,"  and  in  1836  established  the  "  Staf- 
fordshire Examiner,"  both  liberal  in  politics. 
He  returned  to  London  in  1840.     His  works 
include  a  collection  of  poems  published  under 
the  title  of  "  Gabrielle  "  (1829) ;  "  History  and 
Description  of  Modern  Wines"  (1833),  which 
has   been    many   times   republished ;    "  Fifty 
Years'  Recollections,  Literary  and  Personal " 
(3  vols.,  1858) ;  "  Keeping  up  Appearances,"  a 
novel  (1860) ;  "  French  Wines  and  Vineyards, 
and  the  Way  to  Find  them"  (1860);  "Liter- 
ary Reminiscences  and  Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Campbell"  (2  vols.,  1860),  originally  contrib- 
uted to  the  "New  Monthly"  soon  after  the 
poet's  death;    "All's  Well  that  Ends  Well" 
(1862);   "Memoirs  of  Remarkable  Misers"  (2 
vols.,  1863);  "Yesterday  and  To-day"  (1863); 
and  "Past  Celebrities  whom  I  have  Known" 
(2  vols.,  1865). 

REDEMPTION,  Eqnlty  of.    See  MORTGAGE. 

REDEMPTORISTS,  or  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Redeemer,  known  also  aa  Liguorians,  a 
society  of  missionary  priests  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  founded  by  St.  Alfonso  Maria 
.da  Liguori.  The  foundation  of  the  society 
dates  from  Nov.  9,  1782,  when  Alfonso,  with 
twelve  priests,  two  candidates  for  orders,  and 
a  rich  gentleman  who  volunteered  to  serve 
them  as  lay  brother,  united  in  community  at 
Scala,  in  the  Neapolitan  province  of  Benevento. 
After  laboring  together  successfully  for  some 
time,  Alfonso  deliberated  with  his  companions 
on  the  choice  of  a  rule  of  life ;  but  the  diver- 
sity of  opinions  among  them  became  irrecon- 
cilable, and  they  dispersed,  one  priest  and  the 
lay  brother,  Vito  Curzio,  remaining  with  Al- 
fonso. As  Alfonso  continued  his  labors,  new 
members  nocked  to  him,  several  houses  were 
established,  and  the  rules  drawn  up  by  him  for 
the  government  of  the  society  were  approved 
in  1749  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  Alfonso  him- 
self being  chosen  superior  general  for  life. 


The  rule  of  the  Redemptorists  prescribes,  be- 
sides the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  a  fourth, 
which  obliges  the  members  to  accept  outside 
of  the  order  no  dignity,  office,  or  benefice, 
except  upon  an  express  order  of  the  pope  or 
the  superior  general,  and  not  to  leave  the  order 
unless  by  special  permission  of  the  pope.  The 
principal  sphere  of  action  of  this  order  has 
been  the  conducting  of  what  is  called  a  "  mis- 
sion," lasting  one,  two,  or  more  weeks,  during 
which  time  the  missionaries  endeavor  to  pre- 
vail upon  all  the  members  of  a  church  to  de- 
vote their  time  principally  to  religious  exer- 
cises and  a  thorough  reformation  of  their  lives. 
St.  Alfonso  and  his  companions  followed  in 
this  the  method  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in 
Italy.  When  the  Jesuits  were  suppressed  by 
Clement  XIV.,  Alfonso  aimed  at  replacing  them 
by  his  order  as  popular  instructors.  This  cir- 
cumstance, and  Alfonso's  known  love  for  the 
suppressed  order,  caused  the  Redemptorists  to 
be  not  unf requently  confounded  with  the  Jesu- 
its. The  order  spread  early  from  Naples  into 
Sicily  and  the  Papal  States;  but  even  before 
the  death  of  the  founder  all  the  houses  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  were  excluded  from  the 
order,  because  they  had  procured  a  ratification 
from  the  government  at  the  expense  of  impor- 
tant and  unauthorized  alterations  of  their  rule. 
The  division  lasted  till  1790,  when  a  reunion 
was  effected.  The  first  German  members  es- 
tablished missions  in  Courland  and  at  Warsaw, 
but  both  succumbed  to  the  wars  arising  out  of 
the  French  revolution.  In  Austria  they  have 
had  since  1808  many  influential  patrons,  and  it 
has  ever  since  remained  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant provinces  of  the  order.  In  France  they 
suffered  some  losses  from  the  interference  of 
the  government  in  1830,  and  again  in  1861. 
They  have  found  an  important  sphere  of  ac- 
tion in  the  United  States,  whither  they  first 
came  .in  1841,  and  where  they  principally  la- 
bor among  the  German  population.  In  1858 
a  number  of  American  Redemptorists  left  the 
order  and  established  with  the  pope's  sanction 
an  independent  missionary  congregation.  (See 
PAUUSTS.)  In  1874  they  were  called  to  Cana- 
da and  placed  in  charge  of  St.  Patrick's  church, 
Quebec.  In  1870  the  Redemptorists  were  in- 
volved with  the  Jesuits  in  the  decree  of  the 
Italian  parliament  suppressing  all  religious  or- 
ders in  Italy ;  in  1373  their  central  residence 
in  Rome  was  also  suppressed.  In  the  latter 
year  the  German  parliament  decreed  their  ex- 
pulsion from  Germany,  and  on  May  31,  1875, 
another  decree  sequestrated  their  property  and 
deprived  them  of  all  civil  rights  in  Prussia.  A 
similar  proscription  swept  away  their  houses 
in  Switzerland  and  banished  their  members. 
In  France,  where  they  possessed  eleven  houses 
in  1869,  their  numbers  have  not  increased  since 
the  war,  the  French  government  refusing  the 
Redemptorists  exiled  from  Germany  permis- 
sion to  settle  there.  These  have  taken  refuge 
principally  in  the  British  empire  and  colonies, 
and  in  the  United  States.  In  this  country 


REDFIELD 


RED  JACKET 


235 


they  have  (1875)  houses  in  Maryland,  Massa- 
chusetts, Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Illinois. — 
A  congregation  of  Redemptorist  nuns,  which 
was  likewise  founded  hy  Liguori  in  1732,  has 
never  extended  itself  widely. 

REDFIELD,  Isaac  Fletcher,  an  American  ju- 
rist, born  in  Weathersfield,  Vt.,  April  10, 1804. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1825, 
studied  law,  and  practised  at  Derby  and  after- 
ward at  Windsor,  Vt.  From  1835  to  1860  he 
was  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  being  chief 
justice  from  1852;  and  from  1858  to  1862 
he  was  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  in 
Dartmouth  college.  In  1861  he  removed  to 
Boston,  where  he  still  resides  (1875).  From 
January,  1867,  he  was  for  two  years  special 
counsel  of  the  United  States  in  Europe,  hav- 
ing charge  of  many  important  suits  and  legal 
matters  in  England  and  France.  He  received 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Trinity  college  in 
1848,  and  from  Dartmouth  in  1855.  He  has 
published  "The  Law  of  Railways"  (1857;  5th 
ed.,  2  vols.,  1873);  "The  Law  of  Wills"  (3 
vols.,  1864) ;  "The  Law  of  Carriers  and  Bail- 
ments" (1869);  "Leading  American  Railway 
Cases"  (2  vols.,  1870);  and  with  W.  A.  Her- 
rick,  "  A  Treatise  on  Civil  Pleading  and  Prac- 
tice "  (1868).  Since  1862  he  has  been  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "  American  Law  Register " 
(Philadelphia) ;  and  he  has  also  edited  Story 
"  On  Equity  Pleadings  "  and  "  Conflict  of 
Laws,"  and  Greenleaf  "  On  Evidence,"  and 
has  contributed  very  largely  to  periodicals. 

REDFIELD,  William  C.,  an  American  meteor- 
ologist, born  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  March  26, 
1789,  died  in  New  York,  Feb.  12,  1857.  In 
early  life  he  was  a  mechanic.  In  some  pedes- 
trian journeys  he  observed  the  course  of  the 
hurricane  in  September,  1821,  long  known  as 
the  "great  September  gale,"  and  became  con- 
vinced that  the  storm,  instead  of  moving  in  a 
straight  line,  according  to  what  was  then  sup- 
posed to  be  the  law  of  such  storms,  had  rota- 
ted around  a  central  point,  and  that  its  move- 
ment had  been  in  curved  lines.  Having  es- 
tablished a  line  of  steam  tow  boats  on  the  Hud- 
son, and  taken  up  his  residence  in  New  York, 
he  investigated  the  ^connection  of  steam  with 
navigation,  and  in  pamphlets,  essays,  and  pub- 
lished letters  discussed  the  causes  of  steamboat 
explosions,  the  means  of  safety,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  careful  and  frequent  inspection.  In 
1828  he  published  a  pamphlet  urging  the  im- 
portance of  a  system  of  railways  to  connect 
the  waters  of  the  Hudson  with  those  of  the 
Mississippi ;  and  he  was  largely  engaged  in 
promoting  railroad  construction.  In  1831  he 
first  gave  to  the  public  his  "  Theory  of  Storms," 
and  three  years  later  an  elaborate  article  on 
the  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies.  After  1836 
he  devoted  much  time  to  the  investigation  of 
the  fossil  fish  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and 
the  sandstones  of  the  Atlantic  coast  in  New 
Jersey,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina,  and  made 
a  very  large  collection  of  them ;  and  he  read 
before  the  American  association  for  the  ad- 


vancement of  science  several  papers  on  those 
fossils.  He  published  during  his  life  62  essays, 
of  which  40  pertain  to  meteorology ;  the  best 
known  are  accounts  of  hurricanes.  (See  HUR- 
RICANE, and  METEOROLOGY.) 

RED  FIN.     See  DACE. 

REDGRAVE,  Richard,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London,  April  30,  1804.  He  studied  at  the 
royal  academy,  and  in  1837  exhibited  his  first 
successful  work,  representing  "  Gulliver  on  the 
Farmer's  Table."  His  subsequent  genre  pic- 
tures delineate  the  sufferings  of  the  poor,  and 
at  a  later  period  he  painted  landscapes.  His 
most  celebrated  pieces  are  "  Country  Cousins," 
"Cinderella,"  "Ophelia,"  "The  Governess," 
and  "  Bolton  Abbey."  He  was  elected  to  the 
royal  academy  in  1857,  and  holds  (1875)  the 
offices  of  inspector  general  of  art  schools,  for 
which  he  has  prepared  a  system  and  course  of 
instruction,  and  surveyor  of  crown  pictures. 
He  has  published  "An  Elementary  Manual  of 
Colors"  (London,  1863),  and  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  Samuel  Redgrave,  "A  Cen- 
tury of  Painters  of  the  English  School "  (1866). 
The  latter  has  also  published  "A  Dictionary 
of  Artists  of  the  English  School  "  (1874). 

REDI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  in 
Arezzo,  Feb.  18,  1626,  died  in  Pisa,  March  1, 
1698.  He  was  physician  to  successive  grand 
dukes  at  Florence,  and  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  his  profession,  and  also  as  a  naturalist, 
classical  scholar,  and  poet.  He  belonged  to 
the  school  of  Galileo,  and  his  writings  are  alike 
distinguished  for  depth  of  scientific  inquiry 
and  philosophic  acumen.  He  first  clearly  enun- 
ciated the  doctrine  that  all  living  organisms 
must  have  originally  sprung  from  preexisting 
germs,  and  contended  that  in  all  cases  of  the 
apparent  production  of  organized  beings  from 
dead  matter,  as  in  putrefactions  and  animal 
and  vegetable  infusions,  the  previous  existence 
or  subsequent  introduction  of  such  germs  must 
be  presumed.  He  openly  attacked  the  doc- 
trines of  the  abiogenists,  or  defenders  of  the 
theory  of  spontaneous  generation,  opposing 
their  assertions  by  a  series  of  simple  and  for 
the  time  almost  conclusive  experiments,  which 
still  serve  modern  naturalists  as  a  basis  in  sim- 
ilar researches.  (See  SPONTANEOUS  GENERA- 
TION.) His  most  important  works  are  Osser- 
vazioni  intorno  alle  viper e  (4to,  Florence,  1664 ; 
Latin  translation,  Amsterdam,  1678);  Esperi- 
eme  intorno  alia  generazione  degV  insetti  (1668 ; 
Latin,  1671),  which  had  many  editions ;  and  Os- 
servazioni  agli  animali  viventi  che  si  trovano 
negli  animali  viventi  (1684).  The  finest  of  his 
poems  is  Bacco  in  Toscana  (1685),  a  eulogy  of 
the  wines  of  Tuscany.  He  also  wrote  lives 
of  Dante  and  Petrarch.  The  latest  edition  of 
his  complete  works  was  published  at  Milan  in 
1809,  in  9  vols.  8vo. 

RED  JACKET  (SA-GO-YE-WAT-HA),  a  principal 
chief  of  the  Senecas,  of  the  Wolf  tribe,  born 
at  Old  Castle,  near  the  foot  of  Seneca  lake, 
in  1752,  died  at  Seneca  Village,  near  Buffa- 
lo, N.  Y.,  Jan.  20,  1830.  His  original  In- 


236 


REDOUTE 


RED  RIVER 


dian  name  was  O-te-ti-ani,  "Always  Ready," 
that  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  "He  keeps  them 
awake,"  having  been  conferred  upon  him  on 
his  election  to  the  dignity  of  a  sachem.  The 
name  of  Red  Jacket  arose  from  a  richly  em- 
broidered scarlet  jacket  presented  to  him  by 
a  British  officer,  which  he  always  took  great 
pride  in  wearing.  Of  his  early  history  little 
is  known  except  that  he  was  remarkably  swift 
in  the  chase,  and  was  often  employed  as  a 
messenger,  first  among  his  own  people,  and 
during  the  revolution  as  a  runner  for  the  Brit- 
ish officers  on  the  border.  In  1784,  in  a  com- 
cil  held  at  Fort  Stanwix  to  negotiate  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Six  Nations  for  the 
cession  of  lands,  he  spoke  very  eloquently 
against  the  treaty,  but  with  no  avail.  A  few 
years  later  Red  Jacket  had  an  interview  with 
Washington,  who  gave  him  a  silver  medal.  In 
1809  he  gave  information  to  Erastus  Granger, 
the  Indian  agent,  of  the  organization  by  To- 
cumseh  of  an  extensive  league  by  which  the 
Senecas  were  to  be  drawn  into  a  combination 
against  the  United  States.  In  1810  he  visited 
Washington,  and  delivered  an  able  speech  upon 
this  subject  before  the  secretary  of  war.  In 
the  war  of  1812  he  on  several  occasions  gave 
advice  which  proved  of  essential  service  to 
the  American  array,  especially  on  the  eve  of 
the  battle  of  Chippewa.  In  1829  Red  Jacket 
visited  New  York  on  his  way  to  Washington, 
and  while  there  sat  for  his  portrait  to  Robert 
W.  Weir.  Although  in  his  77th  year,  he  was 
still  strong  and  vigorous.  In  his  later  years 
he  was  grossly  intemperate,  but  invariably  ab- 
stained from  fire  water  for  a  season  before  a 
council.  Red  Jacket  was  upon  the  war  path 
during  both  conflicts  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  in  the  first  on  the  British 
and  in  the  second  on  the  American  side ;  but  in 
neither  did  he  win  the  right  to  wear  the  eagle 
plume.  His  character  was  marked  by  striking 
contradictions.  He  lacked  firmness  of  nerve, 
but  possessed  unbending  firmness  of  purpose 
and  great  moral  courage.  His  intellectal  pow- 
ers were  of  a  very  high  order.  He  was  a  states- 
man of  sagacity,  and  an  orator  of  surpassing 
eloquence,  yet  capable  of  practising  the  lowest 
cunning ;  but  he  was  still  a  patriot,  and  loved 
his  nation  and  his  race.  His  life  has  been  writ- 
ten by  W.  L.  Stone  (8vo,  Albany,  1867). 

HKIMH  IK,  Pierre  Joseph,  a  French  painter  of 
flowers,  born  at  St.  Hubert,  near  Liege,  July 
10,  1759,  died  in  Paris,  June  19,  1840.  He 
belonged  to  a  family  of  painters,  and,  having 
settled  in  Paris,  painted  some  of  the  most  ele- 
gant flowers  in  the  series  known  as  the  col- 
lection des  velins,  commenced  under  Louis 
XIV.  In  1822  he  became  professor  of  vege- 
table iconography  at  the  jardin  da  planter. 
His  magnificent  works,  Lea  liliacees  (8  vols. 
fol.,  Paris,  1803-' 16),  and  Les  roses  (8  vols. 
fol.,  1817-'24),  are  the  finest  known  specimens 
of  botanical  illustration.  A  copy  of  the  for- 
mer on  vellum,  with  the  original  drawings, 
was  purchased  by  the  empress  Josephine  for 


84,000  francs.  He  invented  a  method  of  paint- 
ing in  colors,  for  which  he  received  a  medal 
from  the  society  for  the  encouragement  of 
national  industry. 

REDPOLL.     See  LINNET. 

RED  RIVER,  a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  last  of  considerable  size  which  it  re- 
ceives. It  rises  in  N.  W.  Texas,  in  about  lat. 
34°  40'  N.  and  Ion.  102°  10'  W.,  and  flows  E. 
to  the  100th  meridian.  Thence  it  follows  a 
direction  a  little  S.  of  E.,  separating  Texas 
from  Indian  territory  and  Arkansas,  and  en- 
tering the  latter  state,  bends  at  Fulton  to  the 
south,  passes  into  Louisiana,  and  afterward 
flows  8.  E.,  catering  the  Mississippi  341  m. 
above  its  mouth.  Its  length  is  about  1,200 
m.,  and  its  basin  is  about  97,000  sq.  m.  in  ex- 
tent. Its  sources  are  in  the  fissures  of  an 
elevated  and  barren  plain,  the  Llano  Esta- 
cado,  2,450  ft.  above  the  sea.  For  about  60 
m.  the  banks  rise  perpendicularly  from  500 
to  800  ft.  After  leaving  the  Llano  Estacado 
it  flows  over  a  broad  bed  of  light  shifting 
sands  through  an  arid  prairie  country  to  the 
"  cross  timbers,"  a  belt  of  woodland  between 
the  98th  and  97th  meridians.  Below  this  the 
river  flows  through  rich  and  densely  wooded 
alluvial  bottoms.  "Here  the  borders  con- 
tract, and  the  water  for  a  great  portion  of  the 
year  washes  both  banks,  carrying  the  loose 
alluvium  from  one  side  and  depositing  it  on 
the  other,  -  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce 
constant  changes  in  the  channel,  and  to  ren- 
der navigation  difficult.  This  character  con- 
tinues throughout  the  rest  of  its  course;  and 
in  this  section  it  is  subject  to  heavy  inunda- 
tions, which  often  flood  the  bottoms  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  destroy  the  crops,  and  occa- 
sionally leave  a  deposit  of  white  sand,  ren- 
dering the  soil  barren  and  worthless."  From 
its  source  to  Fulton,  Ark.,  about  600  m.,  the 
stream  falls  2,208  ft. ;  thence  to  its  mouth,  595 
m.,  the  fall  is  only  188  ft.  The  width  between 
the  banks  8  m.  below  the  point  where  it  issues 
from  the  Llano  Estacado  is  2,700  ft. ;  just  be- 
low the  mouth  of  the  North  fork,  2,000 ;  50 
m.  lower  down,  2,100;  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Big  Wichita,  600 ;  at  Alexandria,  La.,  720  ;  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Black  river,  785  ;  and  at  the 
entrance  into  the  Mississippi,  1,800.  "The 
depth  varies  inversely  as  tne  width,  being 
only  6  or  8  ft.,  even  in  floods,  throughout  the 
desert,  while  it  is  some  50  ft.  in  the  fertile 
region.  In  extreme  low  water  a  depth  of  8 
ft.  may  be  depended  upon  below  Alexandria, 
about  4  ft.  thence  to  the  head  of  the  raft,  and 
1  ft.  thence  to  Fort  Towson  (Indian  territory). 
Steamers  of  4  ft.  draught  can  ascend  to  Shreve- 
port,  La.  (330  m.  above  its  mouth),  at  any 
time  except  in  extreme  low  water,  but  to  Fort 
Towson  or  even  Fulton  for  only  about  three 
months  in  the  year,  and  frequently  only  run 
in  one  direction  during  a  single  rise."  The 
river  is  generally  highest  from  December  to 
June  or  July,  the  rest  of  the  year  being  the 
season  of  low  water.  The  raft  has  teen  a 


EED  RIVER 


RED  RIVER  OF  THE  NORTH    237 


serious  obstacle  to  navigation,  as  it  required 
the  boats  to  leave  the  channel  and  pass  through 
lakes  and  bayous.  The  "great  raft,"  an  im- 
mense collection  of  trees  and  drift  wood,  ex- 
tended from  near  Grand  Ecore  to  a  little  be- 
low Shreveport  when  the  United  States  first 
undertook  its  removal.  Capt.  Shreve  opened 
a  navigable  channel  through  it  in  1835-'9. 
Meanwhile,  from  continued  accessions  of  drift 
timber,  the  head  of  the  raft  was  carried  above 
Shreveport  to  near  Hurricane  bluff.  This  por- 
tion was  opened  by  Gen.  Williamson  and  Capt. 
Linnard  from  1841  to  1%845.  In  1871  the  foot 
of  the  raft  was  at  Carolina  bluff,  a  few  miles 
above  Hurricane  bluff,  and  its  head  near  Spring- 
bank,  about  45  m.  above  its  foot.  Operations 
were  begun  on  this  raft,  under  the  direction  of 
Lieut.  Woodruff,  on  Dec.  1, 1872,  which  result- 
ed in  opening  a  navigable  channel  through  its 
whole  length  in  November,  1873.  At  a  small 
annual  expense  for  a  few  years  the  renewal  of 
the  raft  may  be  prevented,  and  an  excellent 
cotton  region  between  Shreveport  and  Fulton 
developed.  Red  river  receives  its  name  from 
its  peculiar  color,  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
the  red  clay  of  the  gypseous  formation  through 
which  its  upper  course  lies.  The  chief  tribu- 
taries on  the  left  bank  are  the  North  fork 
(a  little  W.  of  the  99th  meridian)  and  the  Wa- 
shita,  in  Indian  territory ;  Little  river,  in  Ar- 
kansas ;  and  Black  river,  formed  by  the  Wa- 
shita  and  Tensas,  which  enters  in  Louisiana 
not  far  from  the  Mississippi.  On  the  right 
bank  the  chief  tributaries  are  the  Pease  and 
Big  Wichita  rivers,  which  enter  from  W.  Tex- 
as. In  Louisiana  Red  river  sends  off  numer- 
ous bayous,  which  find  their  way  back  again 
to  the  main  stream,  forming  frequent  lakes. 
— In  the  spring  of  1864  an  immense  expedi- 
tion of  combined  land  and  naval  forces,  the 
former  under  Gen.  Banks  and  the  latter  under 
Admiral  Porter,  was  sent  up  the  Red  river  to 
capture  Shreveport  and  thus  open  up  the  great 
cotton  districts  of  Texas.  It  was  unsuccessful, 
Banks's  defeat  at  Sabine  Cross  Roads  by  Gen. 
Kirby  Smith  (April  8)  compelling  also  the  re- 
treat of  the  fleet  down  the  river.  This  was 
effected  with  great  difficulty  and  loss,  the  river 
being  very  low  and  still  falling,  and  the  gun- 
boats and  transports  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the 
confederate  forces  from  the  banks.  On  reach- 
ing the  falls,  near  Alexandria,  further  progress 
would  have  been  impossible  but  for  the  bold 
conception  and  construction  of  a  dam  by  Lieut. 
Col.  Bailey  of  Wisconsin.  (See  ALEXANDRIA, 
La.)  The  main  dam  still  remains  intact,  and  the 
river  has  formed  a  new  channel  on  the  W.  shore. 
RED  RIVER.  I.  A  N.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
intersected  by  Red  river,  and  bounded  E.  by 
Black  river;  area,  325  sq.  m.  It  has  been 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870.  The  surface 
is  level,  and  the  soil  fertile  and  productive  of 
cotton  and  corn.  Capital,  Coushatta  Chute. 
II.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  separated  from 
the  Indian  territory  by  Red  river,  and  bound- 
ed S.  by  Sulphur  river,  one  of  its  branches ; 


area,  872  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,653,  of 
whom  4,148  were  colored.  It  has  an  undu- 
lating surface  and  fertile  soil.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  385,840  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  13,444  of  oats,  and  3,069  Ibs.  of 
wool.  There  were  2,522  horses,  1,242  mules 
and  asses,  3,813  milch  cows,  868  working 
oxen,  9,547  other  cattle,  1,739  sheep,  and  20,- 
131  swine.  Capital,  Clarksville. 

RED  RIVER  OF  THE  NORTH,  a  stream  rising 
in  Elbow  lake,  1,680  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the 
border  of  Becker  and  Beltrami  counties,  Min- 
nesota, in  about  lat.  47°  10'  N.  and  Ion.  95° 
25'  W.  It  flows  S.  for  about  100  m.  through 
several  small  lakes  to  Otter  Tail  lake  in  the 
county  of  the  same  name,  and  thence  W.  100 
m.  to  Breckinridge,  Wilkin  co.  (lat.  46°  15', 
Ion.  96°  35%  whence  it  runs  N.  about  550  m., 
separating  Dakota  from  Minnesota  and  divi- 
ding Manitoba  into  two  unequal  parts,  and 
empties  into  the  S.  extremity  of  Lake  Winni- 
peg (628  ft.  above  the  sea)  through  six  mouths, 
amid  extensive  marshes,  about  lat.  50°  30'  and 
Ion.  96°  50'.  It  is  very  tortuous,  its  length 
being  about  twice  that  of  straight  lines  fol- 
lowing its  three  principal  directions.  The 
portion  between  Breckinridge  and  Otter  Tail 
lake  is  also  called  Otter  Tail  river,  the  term 
Red  river  being  sometimes  restricted  to  the 
portion  below  Breckinridge.  It  is  sluggish, 
except  at  the  rapids  or  chutes,  flowing  through 
a  very  flat  prairie,  between  clay  banks  vary- 
ing from  20  to  60  ft.  in  height.  The  area  with- 
in the  United  States  drained  by  it  is  about 
82,000  sq.  m.,  in  which  the  annual  rainfall  is 
comparatively  small.  The  water  is  muddy  but 
agreeable  to  the  taste.  The  river  is  subject  to 
annual  spring  freshets,  very  variable  in  dura- 
tion and  height,  which  are  due  to  ice  gorges. 
Its  valley  is  but  thinly  settled.  The  principal 
towns  along  its  banks,  all  of  which  are  small, 
are  Breckinridge,  McCauleyville,  and  Moor- 
head  in  Minnesota,  Fargo  and  Pembina  in 
Dakota,  and  Winnipeg  or  Fort  Garry  in  Mani- 
toba. Between  Moorhead  and  Fargo,  50  m. 
N.  of  Breckinridge,  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road crosses  it.  The  business  on  the  river 
consists  principally  in  carrying  supplies  for 
the  settlements  in  Manitoba  and  bringing  back 
furs.  Two  or  three  small  steamers  ply  in 
summer  between  Moorhead  and  Fort  Garry, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  freight  is  floated 
down  in  flats.  At  Breckinridge  the  Red  riv- 
er receives  the  Bois  de  Sioux  or  Sioux  Wood 
river,  flowing  N.  from  Lake  Traverse.  The 
chief  tributaries  from  the  west  are  the  Wild 
Rice,  Cheyenne,  Elm,  Goose,  Turtle,  Big  Salt, 
Little  Salt,  and  Pembina  rivers  in  Dakota, 
and  the  Scratching  and  Assiniboin  rivers  in 
Manitoba,  the  latter  being  its  largest  affluent. 
From  the  east  the  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Buffalo,  Sand  Hill,  Red  Lake,  Snake  Hill,  and 
Two  rivers  in  Minnesota,  and  the  Roseau  or 
Reedgrass  river  and  the  riviere  Seine  in  Mani- 
toba. These  streams  drain  an  immense  num- 
ber of  small  lakes. 


238 


RED  SEA 


BED  SEA,  an  inlet  of  the  Indian  ocean,  ex- 
tending from  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  lat. 
12°  40'  N.,  nearly  N.  N.  W.  to  Suez,  lat.  29° 
57'  30",  and  separating  Arabia  on  the  east  from 
Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia  on  the  west.  Its 
length  is  about  1,400  m.,  its  greatest  breadth, 
near  lat.. 16°,  200  m.,  and  its  total  area  about 
185,000  sq.  m.  At  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Man- 
deb,  by  which  it  is  joined  to  the  Indian  ocean, 
it  is  but  18  m.  wide,  at  Hodeida  about  95  m., 
and  at  Jiddah  about  120  m.  At  Eas  Moham- 
med, lat.  27°  45',  it  is  divided  into  two  branches 
by  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Mt.  Sinai  or  Jebel 
Musa.  The  western  branch,  the  gulf  of  Suez, 
which  is  the  continuation  proper  of  the  Red 
sea,  is  about  180  m.  long,  and  has  an  average 
breadth  of  20  m.  It  has  the  same  general 
course  as  the  main  part  of  the  sea,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  the  strait  of  Jubal.  At  its 
N.  extremity  the  Sue,z  canal  connects  it  with 
the  Mediterranean,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  isthmus  of  Suez.  The  eastern  branch, 
the  gulf  of  Akabah,  extends  N.  N.  E.  from 
its  mouth  at  the  strait  of  Tiran,  about  100  m., 
and  has  an  average  breadth  of  about  12  m. 
The  Red  sea  varies  greatly  in  depth.  In  the 
middle  of  the  gulf  of  Suez  it  is  from  250  to  800 
ft.  deep,  but  shoals  gradually  to  18  or  20  ft.  in 
the  harbor  of  Suez,  where  it  has  been  filled  up 
by  the  sand.  The  gulf  of  Akabah  varies  from 
700  to  1,500  ft.  in  depth.  The  deepest  sound- 
ing obtained  is  in  the  Red  sea  proper,  in  lat.  22° 
80',  where  the  depth  is  6,324  ft.  In  the  S.  part 
it  is  shallower,  and  below  lat.  16°  its  depth 
ranges  from  250  to  750  ft.  A  section  through 
the  middle  of  the  sea  from  the  straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb  to  Suez  represents  a  series  of 
rounded  submarine  hills,  covered  with  silt, 
mud,  and  sand.  The  sand,  which  is  blown  in 
from  the  neighboring  deserts,  constitutes  the 
only  distinctive  feature  between  this  ooze  and 
that  of  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic.  Near  the 
shores  on  both  sides  the  water  is  generally 
shallow,  and  navigation  is  rendered  dangerous 
by  many  rocky  islands,  shoals,  and  coral  reefs. 
The  principal  islands  are  the  Farsan  group  on 
the  Arabian  coast,  about  lat.  17°,  and  the  Dah- 
lac  group  on  the  W.  side,  in  lat.  16°,  each  con- 
sisting of  large  islands  surrounded  by  many 
smaller  ones  connected  by  reefs.  In  lat.  15° 
40'  is  Jebel  Teir,  having  an  active  volcano,  the 
summit  of  which  is  more  than  1,000  ft.  above 
the  sea.  Nearly  S.  of  it  is  the  Zebayer  group. 
Kamaran  island,  off  the  coast  of  Yemen,  is 
claimed  by  the  British.  In  lat.  14°  is  Jebel 
Zugur,  and  in  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
commanding  the  entrance  from  the  Indian 
ocean,  is  Perim,  a  fortified  British  possession. 
(See  PERIM.)  At  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of 
Akabah  is  the  island  of  Tiran,  dividing  it  into 
two  channels,  of  which  only  the  western  one, 
called  the  strait  of  Tiran,  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels ;  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  of  Suez 
are  Shadwan  island  and  several  smaller  ones. — 
The  Red  sea  occupies  the  bottom  of  a  longi- 
tudinal valley  lying  between  the  highlands  of 


Arabia  on  the  east  and  the  mountain  range  on 
the  west,  which  borders  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and 
Egypt.  On  the  N.  side,  between  the  gulf  of 
Suez  and  the  Mediterranean,  the  country  is  low 
and  flat,  and  exhibits  indications  that  a  com- 
munication once  existed  between  the  two  seas. 
The  mountains  are  in  sight  on  both  sides  of  the 
sea,  but  a  considerable  part  of  each  coast  is  low 
and  flat  or  covered  with  undulating  hills,  the 
mountain  range  being  in  some  places  20  or  80 
m.  from  the  shore.  It  is  probable  that  the  sea 
once  covered  the  entire  basin,  but  has  been 
filled  up  in  part  by  the  growth  of  cosal  and  the 
accumulation  of  sand.  The  Arabian  town  of 
Muza,  marked  as  a  seaport  in  the  Periplus  of 
Arrian,  is  now  several  miles  inland.  The  coral 
reefs,  which  are  more  extensive  than  in  any 
other  sea  of  equal  size,  lie  generally  in  long 
lines  parallel  to  the  shores,  and  from  500  yards 
to  a  mile  distant  from  them.  The  banks  are 
usually  from  4  to  6  ft.  below  the  surface,  and 
the  water  on  their  outer  edge  is  very  deep,  but 
on  the  inner  side  they  are  sometimes  connect- 
ed with  the  land.  Where  they  are  unconnect- 
ed with  the  shore  there  is  generally  a  channel 
within  them  navigable  for  small  vessels  and 
having  good  anchorage.  The  native  vessels 
make  great  use  of  these  inner  straits,  where 
the  heavy  winds  of  the  open  sea  affect  them 
but  little.  There  is  no  surf  on  the  reefs,  as  the 
porous  coral  permits  the  passage  of  the  waves 
through  them.  The  reefs  are  more  numerous 
on  the  E.  than  on  the  W.  side.  The  growth 
of  continental  coral  reefs  in  the  Red  sea  in 
a  more  northerly  latitude  than  elsewhere  is 
accounted  for  by  the  absence  of  rivers  on  the 
coast,  and  by  the  high  temperature  of  the 
water,  which  is  seldom  below  80°  F.  In 
March  and  April  it  is  sometimes  84°,  and  in 
May  90°.  The  genera  of  coral  are  nearly  the 
same  as  in  the  central  Pacific,  and  consist  of 
most  of  the  reef -forming  species.  Some  of  the 
meandrinas  and  favias  are  from  6  to  9  ft.  in 
diameter.  The  coral  is  generally  white,  but 
often  red,  and  a  black  variety  is  found  along 
the  Arabian  coast  for  50  m.  N.  and  S.  of  Jid- 
dah. Sponges  of  fine  quality  are  taken  in 
abundance  along  the  E.  shore  of  the  gulf  of 
Suez,  and  pearl  oysters  are  found  in  various 
places.  As  the  Red  sea  receives  but  little  water 
from  the  atmosphere  or  from  the  surrounding 
country,  and  the  sun's  rays  generally  fall  on 
it  from  a  cloudless  sky,  it  may  be  considered 
merely  a  basin  for  evaporation,  which  proceeds 
at  the  rate  of  about  four  fifths  of  an  inch  a  day, 
or  28  ft.  in  a  year.  From  a  little  more  than 
89  parts  of  salt  in  1,000  at  the  straits  of  Bab- 
el-Mandeb,  the  proportion  rises  in  the  N.  part 
to  48,  a  degree  of  saltness  found  elsewhere  only 
in  inland  salt  lakes.  As  the  concentration  of 
so  much  salt  through  evaporation  would  tend 
in  time  to  fill  up  the  sea,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  waters  most  charged  with  salt  flow  out 
through  the  straits  in  an  undercurrent,  while 
the  lighter  and  less  saline  waters  flow  in  above 
it. — The  winds  are  generally  pretty  constant. 


EED  SEA 


REDSTART 


239 


From  October  to  May  they  blow  from  S.  S.  E., 
being  strongest  in  February ;  the  rest  of  the 
year  they  are  from  N.  N.  W.,  and  the  strong- 
est in  June  and  July.  Sailing  vessels  find  great 
difficulty  in  beating  up  against  the  wind  from 
May  to  November,  and  the  pilgrim  ships  from 
India  are  often  obliged  to  put  in  at  Hodeida 
and  forward  their  passengers  to  Mecca  and 
Medina  by  land.  The  tidal  wave  enters  but  a 
little  way  into  the  Red  sea,  and  no  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  tide  is  noticeable  at  the  N.  ex- 
tremity. The  currents  seem  to  be  governed 
entirely  by  the  winds.  When  the  S.  wind 
blows  the  water  flows  toward  the  gulf  of  Suez, 
and  the  surface  is  2  ft.  higher  than  when  the 
N.  wind  prevails ;  and  after  long  continued  N. 
winds  the  upper  part  of  the  gulf  of  Suez  is 
sometimes  fordable.  In  general  the  waters 
are  at  the  same  level  with  those  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  atmosphere  of  the  Red  sea  is 
very  oppressive  during  the  hot  months.  In  the 
latitude  of  Jiddah  the  average  day  temper- 
ature from  December  to  March  is  76° ;  from 
March  to  the  end  of  May,  87°;  during  June, 
93° ;  in  July,  August,  and  September,  100° ; 
and  in  October  and  November,  85°.  When 
the  S.  wind  blows  in  summer  the  temperature 
is  frequently  107°,  and  during  the  simoom, 
which  blows  from  N.  E.  and  E.  N.  E.,  but  gen- 
erally for  a  few  hours  only,  it  sometimes  rises 
to  132°. — The  principal  ports  of  the  Red  sea 
are :  on  the  gulf  of  Suez,  Suez  and  Tor ;  on  the 
African  coast,  Kosseir,  Suakin,  and  Massowa ; 
and  on  the  Arabian  coast,  Yambo,  the  port  of 
Medina,  Jiddah,  the  port  of  Mecca,  Loheia, 
Hodeida,  and  Mocha.  There  are  many  other 
small  harbors  and  inlets,  frequented  by  the 
Arabs,  who  carry  on  most  of  the  local  com- 
merce, and  who  from  long  experience  are  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  intricacies  of  the  coast 
navigation.  There  are  several  lighthouses :  one 
on  Perim,  one  on  the  Dsedalus  shoal,  about 
200  m.  N.  of  Jiddah,  one  at  Ras  Sharib  on  the 
W.  side  of  Jubal  strait,  and  three  in  the  gulf 
of  Suez.  There  is  a  submarine  telegraph  ca- 
ble from  Aden  to  Suez  through  the  Red  sea, 
which  since  the  completion  of  the  canal  has 
become  once  more  the  highway  of  travel  and 
commerce  between  the  Mediterranean  and  In- 
dia. (See  CANAL,  and  SUEZ.) — The  Red  sea  is 
often  referred  to  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
under  the  name  of  Yam  Suph,  the  sea  of 
weeds,  so  called,  it  is  supposed,  from  a  small 
seaweed  thrown  up  by  its  waters,  probably 
the  rytiphlosa  pinastroides.  The  name  Red  is 
generally  traced  directly  from  the  Latin  Ru- 
~brum  and  Greek  'EpvdpA,  which  were  applied 
to  this  sea  in  common  with  the  Persian  gulf 
and  Indian  ocean  by  Herodotus  and  other 
ancient  writers.  (See  ERYTHR^AN  SEA.)  Its 
origin  has  been  variously  deduced  from  the 
redness  of  the  surrounding  hills,  of  the  coral 
reefs,  of  the  seaweed,  and  of  the  water  from 
the  presence  of  animalcules,  from  early  Phce- 

Inician  (Gr.  $oivi%,  red)  dwellers  on  the  shores 
of  the  Erythrrean,  and  from  Edom,  "red," 
700  TOL.  xiv.— 16 


the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  name  of  a  country 
adjoining  the  gulf  of  Akabah.  Himyar,  the 
name  of  the  founder  of  the  Himyarite  king- 
dom of  S.  W.  Arabia,  is  supposed  also  to  be 
derived  from  the  Arabic  ahmar,  "  red."  The 
most  interesting  historical  incident  connected 
with  the  Red  sea  is  the  passage  of  the  Israel- 
ites across  it  in  their  flight  from  Egypt.  (See 
EXODUS.)  By  the  Red  sea  in  ancient  times 
the  trade  between  India  and  the  countries  on 
the  Mediterranean  was  carried  on ;  and  upon 
this  sea  and  the  other  inland  gulfs  and  seas  of 
this  part  of  the  old  world  the  earliest  commer- 
cial operations  were  conducted,  and  the  first  ex- 
perience in  navigation  was  gained.  The  Egyp- 
tians and  Phoenicians  established  this  trade  with 
India,  and  so  important  was  it  to  the  former 
people,  that  the  Pharaoh  whom  the  Greeks  call 
Sesostris  is  related  to  have  had  upon  the  Ara- 
bian gulf  a  fleet  of  400  long  vessels  or  ships  of 
war,  by  means  of  which  he  protected  it  and 
subjugated  the  people  on  the  borders  of  the 
sea  who  interfered  with  it.  King  Solomon 
built  "a  navy  of  ships  in  Ezion-geber,  which 
is  beside  Eloth,  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  sea,  in 
the  land  of  Edom."  (1  Kings  ix.  26.)  Ezion- 
geber  was  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Akabah, 
and  these  ships  constituted  the  fleet  which 
went  to  Ophir.  For  a  long  time  the  Heroopo- 
lite  gulf  or  gulf  of  Suez  was  the  chief  avenue 
of  the  Egyptian  traffic ;  but  the  shoaling  of  the 
water  at  the  head  rendered  navigation  danger- 
ous, and  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
this  route  was  nearly  abandoned  in  favor  of 
that  by  way  of  the  new  port  of  Berenice,  near 
lat.  24°,  which  was  connected  by  a  well  con- 
structed road  with  Ooptos  on  the  Nile,  whence 
boats  conveyed  the  merchandise  to  Alexandria. 
Myos-Hormos,  about  lat.  27°  20',  was  also  an 
important  port  under  the  Ptolemies  and  the 
Romans,  and  according  to  Strabo  120  ships  left 
it  annually  for  India.  After  the  Mohammedan 
conquest  of  Egypt,  a  large  commerce  was  car- 
ried on  by  the  Arabs  through  the  Red  sea  with 
India  and  China.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Gen- 
oese and  Venetians  were  largely  engaged  in 
this  trade,  until  the  discovery  by  the  Portu- 
guese of  the  route  by  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
when  the  Red  sea  lost  its  commercial  impor- 
tance. This  was  in  part  revived  when  the 
English  established  the  overland  route  to  India, 
via  the  Cairo  and  Suez  railway ;  and  since  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  canal  this  ancient  route 
has  once  more  assumed  its  former  importance. 

REDSHID  PASHia     See  RESHID  PASHA. 

REDSTART,  the  common  name  of  an  Ameri- 
can and  a  European  genus  of  birds  of  the 
warbler  family.  In  the  American  genus,  se- 
tophaga  (Swains.),  the  bill  is  as  in  the 'fly- 
catchers (in  which  family  they  are  included 
by  some  authors),  and  abruptly  curved  and 
notched  at  the  tip ;  the  wings  rounded,  with 
the  second  to  fourth  quills  longest ;  tail  long, 
graduated,  and  broad ;  tarsi  and  toes  short. 
There  are  many  species,  mostly  in  South  and 
Central  America,  brilliantly  marked  with  red, 


24:0 


REDSTART 


REED 


yellow,  and  black;  the  South  American  spe- 
cies have  more  or  less  yellow  in  their  plumage, 
and  the  Mexican  are  usually  black  and  red. 
The  best  known  species  in  North  America  is 
the  common  redstart  (S.  ruticilla,  Swains.),  of 
the  subfamily  syhicolince ;  it  is  about  5£  in. 


American  Redstart  (Setophaga  ruticilla). 

long  with  an  alar  extent  of  8  in. ;  in  the  male 
the  prevailing  color  is  black,  with  the  base  of 
the  wings  and  tail  and  sides  of  breast  reddish 
orange ;  abdomen,  under  tail  coverts,  and  cen- 
tral line  on  breast  white;  in  the  female  the 
black  is  replaced  by  olive-green  above  and 
brownish  white  below,  the  head  is  ashy,  and 
the  red  is  changed  to  yellow.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  eastern  United  States  to  the 
plains  of  the  Missouri,  and  sometimes  wan- 
ders to  the  West  Indies  in  winter ;  it  is  very 
handsome,  always  in  motion  on  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees  in  search  of  insects  and 
larvae,  jumping  quickly  from  side  to  side,  dis- 
playing the  brilliant  tail  at  every  movement, 
and  now  and  then  darting  off  after  an  insect 
on  the  wing,  or  descending  to  the  ground  in  a 
spiral  or  zigzag  manner ;  it  pursues  other  birds 
as  if  in  sport,  snapping  the  bill  violently.  The 
nest  is  placed  in  a  low  bush,  suspended  to  the 
twigs,  and  is  of  delicate  structure ;  the  eggs  are 
four  to  six,  white,  with  ash-gray  and  blackish 
spots ;  a  single  brood  is  raised  in  a  season. — 
The  European  redstart  belongs  to  a  different 
subfamily  of  the  warblers,  that  of  the  erytha- 
cince,  and  to  the  genus  ruticilla  (Brehm), 
peculiar  to  the  old  world.  The  E.  phcenicura 
(Brehm)  is  a  little  more  than  5  in.  long;  in  the 
male  the  bill,  legs,  feet,  cheeks,  and  throat  are 
black ;  the  breast,  rump,  and  sides  red ;  fore- 
head white ;  crown,  hind  neck,  and  back  deep 
blue-gray.  It  occurs  all  over  Europe,  and  is  a 
visitor  to  Great  Britain  from  April  to  Septem- 
ber; it  is  a  very  fine  songster,  heard  the  sum- 
mer long  in  orchards,  hedge  rows,  gardens,  and 
ivy-covered  walls ;  the  male  is  very  affection- 
ate, and  sometimes  sings  to  his  mate  as  late  as 


ten  at  night  and  as  early  as  three  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  it  feeds  on  insects,  worms,  and  berries ; 
the  eggs,  four  to  six,  are  greenish  blue,  and 
laid  in  holes  of  trees  or  in  a  nest  on  the 
ground.  It  is  much  prized  as  a  cage  bird ;  if 
taken  young,  it  may  be  taught  to  imitate  the 
notes  of  most  other  birds,  and  even  to  whistle 
a  tune.  The  name  in  both  hemispheres  is 
derived  from  the  constant  jerking  motions  of 
the  bird,  displaying  the  red  of  the  tail. 

RED  WILLOW,  a  S.  county  of  Nebraska,  bor- 
dering on  Kansas,  formed  since  the  census  of 
1870;  area,  720  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Republican  river  and  its  branches.  The 
surface  is  undulating  or  level. 

REDWOOD.    See  SANDAL  WOOD,  and  SEQUOIA. 

REDWOOD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Minnesota  river,  and  in- 
tersected by  the  Redwood,  Sleepy  Eye,  and 
Big  Cottonwood  rivers;  area,  about  1,100  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,829.  The  surface  is  un- 
even and  consists  largely  of  prairies;  the  soil 
is  good.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
5,409  bushels  of  wheat,  2,240  of  Indian  corn, 
6,978  of  oats,  1,880  of  potatoes,  and  882  tons 
of  hay.  Capital,  Redwood  Falls. 

REED  (A.  S.  hreod),  a  name  of  tall  coarse 
grasses,  especially  of  the  genera  phragmitet 
and  arundo.  The  common  reed  of  this  country 
and  England  was  called  arundo  phragmites  by 
Linnaeus,  but  later  botanists  have  considered 
it  sufficiently  distinct  to  form  a  new  genus 
phragmites  (Gr.  ^pay^ref,  growing  in  hedges, 
though  the  plant  is  an  aquatic),  but  some  still 
retain  it  in  arundo  ;  in  recent  American  works 
it  is  given  as  P.  communis.  It  is  a  stout  per- 


Common  Reed  (Phragmites  coaunnnis). 

ennial  grass,  6  to  12  ft.  high,  with  numerous 
broad  leaves,  and  bearing  a  large  terminal, 
purplish  brown  panicle,  which  is  sometimes  a 
foot  long,  very  loose  and  nodding ;  each  spike- 
let  consists  of  three  to  seven  flowers,  surround- 
ed by  long  silky  hairs.  This  is  found  over  a 


REED 


241 


large  part  of  both  continents,  on  the  edges  of 
ponds,  in  ditches  and  marshes,  and  where  it 
occurs  abundantly  looks  at  a  distance  like  a 
field  of  broom  corn.  In  Europe  the  reed  is 
utilized  in  various  ways ;  it  is  planted  by  the 
margin  of  streams  in  order  that  its  long  and 
branching  rootstocks  may  bind  the  soil  and 
prevent  the  encroachment  of  the  water  upon 
the  banks ;  animals  will  eat  the  herbage  when 
quite  young,  but  it  soon  becomes  too  tough 
for  them.  In  northern  Europe  the  stems  are 
valued  for  thatching,  being  much  more  dura- 
ble than  straw,  and  rude  huts  are  sometimes 
constructed  from  them ;  and  they  are  used  for 
making  hurdles  and  for  other  domestic  pur- 
poses, among  which  is  that  of  weaving  mats 
for  screening  wall  fruit,  covering  hotbeds,  and 
protecting  plants  in  various  ways ;  it  is  said 
that  the  flower  panicles  are  used  in  Sweden 
to  afford  a  greenish  dye.  As  the  plants  form 
dense  and  tall  thickets,  they  afford  protection 
to  various  water  and  marsh  birds  and  quadru- 
peds. In  ornamental  grounds  where  there  is 
a  moist  locality,  the  reed  may  be  introduced 
with  good  effect  as  an  ornamental  plant. — The 
Cyprus  reed,  arundo  donax,  is  a  much  more 
robust  plant,  growing  15  ft.  or  more  high, 
with  abundant  leaves  and  very  large  terminal 
panicles  of  a  brownish  white  color ;  it  is  found 
in  southern  Europe,  eastern  Asia,  western 
Africa,  and  on  this  continent  in  Mexico  and 
Texas ;  and  it  is  apparently  the  reed  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  It  is  used  as  supports  for  vines, 
for  fishing  poles,  and  various  other  purposes. 
There  is  a  variegated  form,  A.  donax  versico- 
lor,  in  which  the  leaves  are  marked  with  very 
distinct  bands  of  white  and  green ;  it  is  one 
of  the  best  of  variegated  plants,  holding  its 
markings  under  the  hottest  sun,  but  it  does 
not  grow  so  tall  as  the  green  kind.  Both 
forms  are  occasionally  seen  in  northern  gar- 
dens, where  it  is  necessary  to  give  their 
roots  a  good  covering  of  litter  when  winter 
Bets  in. — The  large  reed  or  cane  of  the  south- 
ern states  is  described  under  OANEBEAKE. — 
Sea  reed  is  calamagrostis  arenaria  (ammophila 
of  some  authors),  a  coarse  rigid  grass  2  to  8 
ft.  high,  with  abundant  firm  running  root- 
stocks  ;  it  is  frequent  on  the  coast  of  Europe, 
and  on  our  shores  from  New  Jersey  to  Maine, 
and  along  the  great  lakes.  The  plant  is  capa- 
ble of  being  utilized  to  retain  blowing  sands. 
Besides  the  names  above  given,  it  has  been 
called  psamma  and  maram  by  authors. 

REED,  Andrew,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London,  Nov.  27,  1788,  died  there,  Feb.  25, 
1862.  He  studied  at  Hackney  college,  and  in 
1811  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Independent 
congregation  in  New  Road  chapel.  In  1831 
he  removed  with  his  congregation  to  Wycliffe 
chapel,  Stepney,  where  he  continued  till  his 
death.  In  1834  he  was  deputed,  with  the  Rev. 
James  Matheson,  by  the  Congregational  union 
of  England  and  Wales,  to  visit  the  United 
States  and  report  on  the  state  of  religion  and 
education  there;  and  on  his  return  he  pub- 


lished with  Mr.  Matheson  "  Visit  to  the  Amer- 
ican Churches  "  (2  vols.,  New  York  and  Lon- 
don, 1836).  He  founded  the  London  orphan 
asylum  in  1813,  the  infant  orphan  asylum  in 
1827,  the  asylum  for  fatherless  children  at 
Croydon,  the  asylum  for  idiots  at  Reigate,  and 
the  royal  hospital  for  incurables,  and  left  be- 
quests to  these  institutions.  He  published 
"  No  Fiction  "  (London,  1818 ;  24th  ed.,  1860); 
"Martha"  (1836);  "The  Day  of  Pentecost" 
(1839) ;  "  The  Revival  of  Religion,"  and  "  Ear- 
nest Piety  essential  to  Eminent  Usefulness" 
(1839);  and  "Advancement  of  Religion  the 
Claim  of  the  Times"  (1847).— See  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  and  Labors  of  Andrew  Reed,  D.  D." 
(1863),  by  his  sons  Charles  and  Andrew.  The 
former  is  a  proprietor  of  the  London  "  Daily 
News"  and  president  of  the  Sunday  school 
union  of  England  and  "Wales ;  he  was  elected 
to  parliament  in  1872,  and  in  1873  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  conference  of  the  evangelical  alli- 
ance in  New  York. 

REED,  Henry,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  11, 1808,  died  Sept.  27,  1854. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1825,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829, 
and  in  1835  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  in  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, retaining  this  post  till  his  death.  In 
the  spring  of  1854  he  visited  Europe,  and  on 
his  return  voyage  was  lost  in  the  steamer  Arc- 
tic. He  wrote  the  life  of  his  grandfather  Jo- 
seph Reed,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biogra- 
phy;" "Lectures  on  English  Literature  from 
Chaucer  to  Tennyson"  (1855);  "Lectures  on 
English  History  and  Tragic  Poetry,  as  illustra- 
ted by  Shakespeare"  (1855);  and  "Lectures 
on  the  British  Poets  "  (1857). 

REED,  Joseph,  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  27,  1741,  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, March  5,  1785.  He  graduated  at  the 
college  of  New  Jersey  in  1757.  In  1763  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  studied  law  until 
the  troubles  produced  by  the  stamp  act  began, 
when  he  returned  to  Trenton,  entered  upon 
the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  in  1767  was 
appointed  deputy  secretary  of  New  Jersey. 
Revisiting  England  in  1770,  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Mr.  Dennis  De  Berdt,  agent  for 
the  province  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  on  his 
return  settled  at  Philadelphia,  took  an  active 
part  on  the  side  of  independence  in  the  po- 
litical struggles  of  the  time,  and  through  his 
English  connections  opened  a  lengthened  cor- 
respondence on  the  subject  with  Lord  Dart- 
mouth, secretary  for  the  colonies.  In  1774  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
correspondence,  and  in  January,  1775,  presi- 
dent of  the  first  provincial  convention  held  in 
Pennsylvania;  and  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
continental  congress  which  met  in  May.  On 
the  formation  of  the  army  he  was  appointed 
aide-de-camp  and  secretary  to  Gen.  Washing- 
ton. In  1776  he  was  made  adjutant  general, 
and  by  his  local  knowledge  contributed  to  the 
successes  at  Trenton  and  Princeton.  In  1777 


242 


REED  BIRD 


REED  INSTRUMENTS 


he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  named  by  congress  a  brigadier  general; 
but  he  declined  both  offices,  and  continued  to 
serve  in  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  without  rank 
or  pay.  He  was  present  at  most  of  the  engage- 
ments in  the  northern  and  eastern  portions  of 
the  Union.  In  1778  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, and  signed  the  articles  of  confederation. 
About  this  time  he  was  approached  by  one  of 
three  British  commissioners,  Gov.  Johnstone, 
with  an  offer  of  £10,000  and  the  most  valua- 
ble office  in  America,  if  he  would  exert  him- 
self to  promote  a  reconciliation  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  colonies.  His  answer  was :  "  I 
am  not  worth  purchasing ;  but,  such  as  I  am, 
the  king  of  Great  Britain  is  not  rich  enough 
to  buy  me."  He  was  president  of  the  supreme 
executive  council  of  Pennsylvania  in  1778-'81, 
and  was  efficient  in  suppressing  an  armed  in- 
surrection that  occurred  in  Philadelphia,  and 
a  revolt  of  the  Pennsylvania  line.  Ho  aided  in 
founding  the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  His 
"  Life  and  Correspondence  "  was  published  by 
his  grandson  W.  B.  Reed  (2d  ed.,  Philadelphia, 
1847);  and  his  grandson  Henry  Reed  wrote 
his  life  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography " 
(2d  series,  vol.  viii.,  1848). 

REED  BIRD.    Seo  BOBOLIXK. 

REED  INSTRl  .HUNTS,  among  musical  contri- 
vances, a  numerous  and  diverse  class,  inclu- 
ding all  those  the  tones  of  which  are  due  to 
vibrations  imparted  to  a  body  of  air  in  a  tube, 
throat,  or  chamber,  by  moans  of  the  pulsa- 
tions of  a  thin  lamina  or  tongue  of  wood  or 
metal  having  one  end  fixed  and  the  other  lying 
over  or  within  an  aperture,  and  actuated  by 
forcibly  directing  through  this  a  current  of  air. 
Technically,  such  a  lamina  is  termed  a  reed. 
It  has  two  general  forms.  In  the  first,  seen  in 
the  clarinet,  the  reed  is  larger  than  the  open- 
ing through  which  the  air  is  to  pass,  and  in 
pulsating  alternately  closes  and  opens  it,  beat- 
ing against  its  margins.  This  form,  among  Eu- 
ropean nations  doubtless  the  earliest  known, 
is  distinguished  aa  the  beating  reed.  In  the 
second,  seen  in  the  accordion,  the  dimensions 
of  the  reed  are  slightly  less  than  those  of  the 
aperture,  so  that,  in  pulsating  in  consequence 
of  an  impulse  and  of  its  own  elasticity,  it  moves 
within  the  current  of  air  only,  alternately  al- 
lowing and  interrupting  its  passage ;  this  is 
hence  termed  the  free  reed.  It  is  proposed  to 
consider  in  this  place  only  those  instruments 
involving  the  free  reed. — A  small,  short,  me- 
tallic tube,  containing  a  single  tongue  or  reed 
of  this  form,  fitted  to  yield  upon  blowing  into 
one  end  the  note  A  or  0,  has  long  been  known, 
and  probably  first  in  Germany  and  Holland, 
and  is  termed  a  pitch  pipe.  Pere  Amiot,  a 
French  missionary  to  China,  early  described 
the  crieng,  or  Chinese  organ,  a  small  instru- 
ment consisting  of  a  series  of  tubes,  each  hav- 
ing its  free  lamina  or  tongue,  and  acted  on  by 
the  breath  of  the  performer ;  and  this  appears 
to  have  been  in  common  use  in  that  country 
from  an  early  period.  The  accordion  was  in- 


vented in  Germany  about  1829.  The  first  reed 
organs,  though  imperfect,  were  made  in  the 
United  States  about  1818.  Indeed,  as  early  as 
1812  Aaron  Merrill  Peasley  obtained  a  patent 
for  reed  instruments ;  the  wording  of  his  claim 
was  sufficiently  general  to  include  any  form  of 
instrument  in  which  the  tones  are  produced 
by  free  reeds  caused  to  vibrate  by  a  bellows 
and  played  by  a  keyboard.  This  patent  is  now 
in  possession  of  the  Mason  and  Hamlin  organ 
company.  Mr.  J.  H.  Bazin  of  Canton,  Mass., 
in  1821,  is  named  as  the  second  inventor.  At 
first  the  instruments  attracted  but  little  atten- 
tion, owing  to  their  defective  construction. 
Wherever  the  free  reed  may  have  been  first 
applied  to  the  making  of  a  small  or  hand  in- 
strument, the  modifications  thence  arising,  es- 
pecially between  about  1825  and  1835,  were  in 
rapid  succession  and  numerous.  Among  the 
earliest  of  these  were  Wheatstone's  oeolina  and 
concertina,  the  latter  in  form  of  a  bellows  with 
two  hexagonal  faces,  on  the  upper  of  which 
were  four  rows  of  finger  stops  or  studs ;  by 
pressing  down  the  latter,  air  was  admitted  to 
act  on  the  corresponding  tongues  within.  The 
attempts  to  improve  the  accordion,  by  enlarg- 
ing it  and  extending  its  scale,  naturally  ren- 
dered it  unwieldy,  and  thus  led  to  a  form  of 
organ  with  free  reeds  only,  and  without  pipes, 
the  bellows  being  worked  by  the  foot.  Such 
were  Mr.  Green's  seraphine  and  the  French 
melodium  (in  England  and  the  United  States, 
melodeon),  one  form  of  which  latter,  also 
termed  the  harmonium,  appears  to  have  been 
the  invention  of  M.  Debain  of  Paris,  and  im- 
proved by  MM.  Alexandre,  father  and  son. 
The  most  improved  form  of  this  instrument  is 
noV  known  in  France  as  the  orgue-melodium, 
or  piano  Liszt;  in  this  country,  as  the  Alex- 
andre organ.  Other  French  instruments,  of 
the  earlier  date  above  spoken  of,  were  the 
poikilorgue  and  vymphonium ;  of  the  German, 
some  of  which  were  small,  and  probably  all 
ephemeral,  were  the  ceolophon,  phy«-harmo- 
nica,  eeolo-mv«icon^  &c.  In  1841  Mr.  Evans  of 
Cheltenham,  England,  produced  a  harmonium 
of  two  banks  of  keys  and  2  J  octaves  of  pedals ; 
but  the  instrument  was  not  brought  promi- 
nently forward  till  1859.  The  objects  of  this 
inventor  were  to  overcome  the  nasal  and  harsh 
quality  of  tone,  and  the  slow  speaking,  then 
characterizing  the  French  and  English  instru- 
ments ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  produced  ulti- 
mately a  pure  tone  of  fine  quality,  with  rapid 
utterance,  and  without  loss  of  power.  This 
is  the  form  of  harmonium  described  in  Eng- 
lish works.  In  it  the  several  rows  or  series 
of  reeds  designed  to  give  the  different  regis- 
ters or  parts  in  the  harmony  performed  are, 
as  in  the  Alexandre  organ,  placed  horizon- 
tally across  the  instrument,  at  the  same  level, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  partitions ; 
the  arrangement  being  such  that  the  particu- 
lar compartments  or  series  to  which  the  air 
shall  be  admitted  in  performing  are  determined 
by  the  knobs  or  stops  that  have  been  drawn 


HEED  INSTRUMENTS 


243 


out  at  the  time.  (See  OHGAN.)  In  the  Eng- 
lish, as  in  the  French  instruments,  also,  the 
tardy  response  of  the  reeds  to  the  action  of 
air  is  corrected  in  most  instances  by  a  device 
known  as  the  percussion,  by  which,  the  proper 
stop  being  drawn,  the  touching  of  any  key 
instantly  causes  the  blow  of  a  small  hammer 
on  the  reed,  its  vibration,  thus  promptly  be- 
gun, being  then  continued  by  the  current  of 
air.  In  all  these  forms,  moreover,  the  agi- 
tation of  the  reeds  is  produced  by  means  of 
more  dense  or  compressed  air  forced  out  of  a 
bellows  across  the  reeds,  and  acting  of  course 
against  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  on 
the  opposite  side ;  and  generally  the  reeds 
themselves  are  placed  low  in  the  instrument, 
often  beneath  the  keyboard,  so  that  the  sound 
is  liable  to  be  somewhat  smothered  or  inter- 
fered with.  Some  radical  improvements  were 
invented  by  Mr.  J.  Carhart  (see  MELODEON), 
the  changes  introduced  by  him  having  been 
worked  out  as  early  as  1836,  and  his  instru- 
ments being  manufactured  in  large  numbers 
in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  the  year  1846.  In  the 
application  for  his  patent  Mr.  Peasley  had 
stated  that  the  reeds  might  be  caused  to  vi- 
brate by  a  force  or  an  exhaust  bellows,  but 
that  he  preferred  the  latter.  The  instrument 
did  not  however  come  into  extensive  use  until 
improved  by  Mr.  Carhart.  On  the  principle 
of  the  superior  fulness  and  sweetness  of  those 
tones  in  the  accordion  made  when  the  air  is 
drawn  into  the  bellows,  as  compared  with 
those  formed  by  forcing  the  air  out,  he  so 
constructed  the  bellows  of  the  melodeon  that 
it  should  expel  the  air  from  the  chamber  into 
which  the  reed  passages  opened ;  this  chamber 
and  the  space  within  the  bellows  freely  com- 
municating, and  being  maintained  while  play- 
ing in  the  condition  of  a  partial  vacuum  by 
means  of  stout  springs,  which  gradually  dis- 
tend the  bellows  as  often  as  force  has  been 
used  to  compress  and  empty  it  of  the  entering 
air.  This  required  that  the  reeds  also  should 
be  reversed,  the  passages  admitting  air  into 
the  exhausted  chamber,  and  the  reeds  being 
acted  on  by  the  in-flowing  streams  of  air.  As 
a  result  of  this  arrangement,  all  the  registers 
open  directly  into  the  one  exhausted  chamber ; 
and  they  are  conveniently  placed  in  rows  one 
over  the  other  in  the  manner  of  shelves  or  suc- 
cessive segments,  each  horizontal  row  divided 
in  the  middle  to  form  two  registers.  The  con- 
struction of  this  part  of  the  instrument  finally 
adopted  and  now  in  use  is  the  invention  of 
Mr.  E.  P.  Needham.  Again,  to  open  the  regis- 
ters, complicated  connections  and  slides  are 
not  required,  but  simply  for  each  a  narrow 
horizontal  door  hinged  on  its  lower  edge,  and 
directly  pulled  down  by  a  wire  making  a  sin- 
gle angle  with  the  draw-knob.  The  chamber 
being  during  performance  partially  exhausted, 
if  the  edges  of  the  several  upright  shelves  or 
segments  and  of  the  horizontal  doors  to  the 
registers  are  properly  adapted  and  faced  with 
soft  leather,  the  external  atmospheric  pressure 


completes  the  connection  of  these  parts,  and 
secures  air-tightness  and  strength  of  the  whole ; 
while  in  other  instruments  the  condensed  air 
within  operates  continually  to  strain  and 
weaken  the  connections.  Thus,  in  this  instru- 
ment, the  parts  are  readily  removed  for  re- 
pairs, being  stayed  by  pins  only,  and  as  quickly 
put  together  again;  and  the  reeds  are  thus 
directly  accessible.  The  closing  of  any  regis- 
ter is  made  to  open  a  small  valve  within  it, 
called  a  pneumatic  stop,  by  which  communi- 
cation with  the  exhausted  chamber  is  at  once 
made  both  above  and  below  the  reeds,  and  the 
latter  are  then  within  the  exhausted  chamber ; 
but  upon  opening  the  register,  this  valve  closes, 
and  thus  other  communication  is  cut  off  above, 
and  the  reeds  have  the  exhausted  space  now 
only  within,  the  atmosphere  acting  from  with- 
out. The  touching  of  any  key  is  made  to  open 
(if  the  instrument  has  but  one  bank  of  keys) 
the  corresponding  valve  in  every  register. 
When  all  the  registers  are  open,  all  the  reeds 
so  uncovered  are  caused  by  the  entering  air  to 
sound  ;  if  some  of  the  registers  only  are  open, 
only  the  reeds  in  these  can  sound.  With  two 
banks  of  keys,  couplers  are  required  in  order 
to  put  all  the  registers  at  pleasure  under  com- 
mand of  one.  When  by  couplers  the  keys 
have  thus  been  connected  with  valves  in  all 
the  registers,  the  drawing  of  the  knob  grand 
jeu,  or  grand  organ,  opens  all  the  registers,  and 
affords  remarkable  power  of  tone  and  effect. 
These  arrangements  are  more  common  in  the 
larger  instruments  or  harmoniums. — The  art  of 
voicing  reeds  by  variously  curving  and  twisting 
them  was  invented  about  1848,  by  Mr.  Emmons 
Hamlin  of  Eome,  N.  Y.,  and  first  applied  by 
the  Mason  and  Hamlin  organ  company  of  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  and  Chicago.  This  invention 
has  greatly  contributed  to  the  present  perfec- 
tion of  these  instruments,  increasing  the  volume 
and  improving  the  quality  of  the  tones,  and 
producing  some  of  the  differences  required  for 
the  different  registers.  It  is  indeed  asserted 
by  the  German  makers  that  it  was  previously 
known  in  Europe ;  but  it  was  not  successfully 
employed  there  until  after  the  Paris  exposi- 
tion of  1855,  where  the  American  reed  organs 
created  a  lasting  sensation.  In  any  reed,  the 
rapidity  of  vibration,  and  hence  the  pitch,  de- 
pend on  several  particulars,  chiefly  the  length 
and  weight  of  the  reed,  and  its  relative  thick- 
ness at  the  two  ends.  If  the  reed  is  thick  at 
the  free  end  and  thin  at  the  fixed,  its  tone  is 
deep  ;  if  the  reverse,  acute.  Hence,  the  reeds 
are  roughly  attuned  by  giving  them  certain 
lengths  and  thicknesses,  and  then  more  accu- 
rately by  scraping  off  a  little  as  may  be  required 
from  the  free  or  the  fixed  extremity.  The  Alex- 
andre  organ  is  made  of  different  sizes,  the 
largest  corresponding  to  a  16-ft.  pipe  organ, 
and  by  combinations  giving  seven  octaves.  Its 
usual  stops  are  the  English  horn  and  flute,  and 
again  the  bassoon  and  hautboy,  forming  the 
ordinary  diapasons,  and  answering  to  the  com- 
pass from  an  8-ft.  pipe;  drone  and  clarinet, 


244 


REES 


REFORMATION 


an  octave  below ;  clarion  and  fife,  an  octave 
above ;  two  forte  stops,  to  increase  the  volume 
of  sound ;  a  principal,  which  opens  all  the 
stops  at  once ;  the  two  stops  first  named  also 
actuating  the  percussion;  and  two  stops,  ex- 
pression a  la  main  and  expression  of  pedals, 
by  which  superior  power  of  expression,  or 
swell  and  diminuendo,  is  secured  by  merely 
varying  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  or  of  the 
feet.  With  these  are  also  introduced  the  sour- 
dine, modifying  the  tone  of  certain  stops,  voix 
celeste,  voix  humaine,  musette,  forte,  tremolo, 
and  combination  swell.  In  1870  nearly  30,000 
of  these  instruments  were  manufactured  in  the 
United  States. 

REES,  Abraham,  a  British  scholar,  born  at 
Llanbrynmair,  Wales,  in  1743,  died  June  9, 
1825.  He  studied  for  the  ministry  at  Hoxton 
academy,  near  London,  and  was  appointed 
tutor  there  in  his  19th  year,  which  post  ho 
retained  for  more  than  22  years.  In  1768  he 
became  also  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congre- 
gation in  Southwark,  and  in  1783  in  the  Old 
Jewry.  From  1786  to  1795  he  was  also  pres- 
ident of  the  dissenting  academy  at  Hackney. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of  Lon- 
don, and  of  the  Linnamn  society.  Many  of 
his  sermons  were  published.  In  1776  he  was 
engaged  to  edit  a  new  edition  of  Chambers's 
"  Cyclopaedia,"  which  was  completed  in  1786 
(4  vols.  fol.) ;  and  in  1802  he  began  "  Rees's 
Cyclopaedia,"  which  was  completed  in  45  vols. 
4to  in  1819. 

REEVE.     See  RUFF. 

REEVES,  Sims,  an  English  singer,  born  in 
Woolwich  in  1821.  He  received  his  earliest 
instruction  from  his  father,  from  H.  C;illcott 
lessons  in  harmony,  from  J.  B.  Cramer  on  the 
piano,  and  from  Hobbs  and  T.  Cooke  in  sing- 
ing. His  early  vocal  instructors  mistook  the 
character  of  his  voice,  developing  it  as  a  bari- 
tone, and  at  19  Reeves  made  his  debut  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  as  Rudolpho  in  La  sonnambula. 
Later  he  took  lessons  of  Bordogni  in  Paris, 
who  corrected  the  mistake  as  to  the  quality  of 
his  voice,  and  brought  out  its  true  character, 
that  of  a  tenor  of  great  range.  He  completed 
his  musical  education  under  Mazzucato  at  Mi- 
lan, and  before  leaving  that  city  appeared  at 
La  Scala  as  Edgardo  in  Lucia  dl  Lammermoor, 
He  made  his  debut  in  London,  at  Drury  Lane, 
Dec.  6,  1847,  in  the  same  r61e.  At  the  Nor- 
wich musical  festival  in  the  autumn  of  1848 
he  showed  a  faculty  for  interpreting  the  works 
of  Handel,  Haydn,  and  Mendelssohn,  which 
has  made  him  the  leading  oratorio  tenor  in 
England.  He  continued  to  sing  with  increas- 
ing reputation  in  Italian  and  English  opera  and 
in  concert  and  oratorio  till  1856,  since  which 
he  has  sung  chiefly  in  the  concert  room. 

REFORMATION,  the  historical  name  for  the 
great  religious  movement  of  the  16th  century, 
which  divided  the  Latin  Catholic  church  into 
two  opposing  sections,  and  resulted  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  various  ecclesiastical  organ- 
izations of  evangelical  or  Protestant  Christen- 


dom. There  were  many  "reformers  before 
the  reformation,"  and  almost  every  doctrine 
of  Luther  had  its  advocates  long  before  him. 
The  whole  struggling  of  mediaeval  Catholicism 
toward  reform  and  liberty;  the  long  conflict 
between  the  German  emperors  and  the  popes; 
the  reformatory  councils  of  Pisa,  Constance, 
and  Basel ;  the  Waldenees  and  Albigenses  in 
France  and  northern  Italy;  Wycliffe  and  the 
Lollards  in  England,  Huss  and  the  Hussites  in 
Bohemia,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  Savonarola 
with  his  politico-religious  reform  movement, 
in  Italy ;  the  spiritualistic  piety  and  theology 
of  the  mystics  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries ; 
the  theological  writings  of  Wesel,  Goch,  and 
Wessel  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands ;  the 
rise  of  the  national  languages  and  letters  in 
connection  with  the  feeling  of  national  inde- 
pendence ;  the  invention  of  the  printing  press ; 
the  revival  of  letters  and  classical  learning 
under  the  direction  of  Agricola,  Reuchlin,  and 
Erasmus ;  all  these  and  many  similar  per- 
sons and  movements  were  so  many  prepara- 
tions for  the  reformation  of  the  16th  century. 
The  reformation  was  originally  neither  a  po- 
litical nor  a  philosophical  nor  a  literary,  but 
a  religious  and  moral  movement.  It  started 
with  the  practical  question :  How  can  the 
troubled  conscience  find  pardon  and  peace,  and 
become  sure  of  personal  salvation?  It  re- 
tained from  the  Catholic  system  all  the  objec- 
tive doctrines  of  Christianity  concerning  the 
Holy  Trinity  and  the  divine-human  character 
and  work  of  Christ — in  fact,  all  the  articles 
of  faith  contained  in  the  apostles'  and  other 
oecumenical  creeds  of  the  early  church.  But 
it  joined  issue  with  the  prevailing  system  of 
religion  in  soteriology,  or  in  the  doctrines  re- 
lating to  subjective  experimental  Christianity, 
especially  the  justification  of  the  sinner  be- 
fore God,  the  true  character  of  faith,  good 
works,  the  rights  of  conscience,  and  the  rule 
of  faith.  It  asserted  the  principle  of  evangel- 
ical freedom  as  laid  down  in  the  epistles  of 
Paul  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  system  of  outward  legalistic  au- 
thority which  held  the  individual  conscience 
and  private  judgment  bound.  It  brought  the 
believer  into  a  direct  relation  and  union  with 
Christ  as  the  one  and  all-sufficient  source  of 
salvation,  in  opposition  to  traditional  ecclesi- 
asticism,  and  priestly  and  saintly  intercession. 
The  Protestant  goes  directly  to  the  word  of 
God  for  instruction,  and  to  the  throne  of  grace 
in  his-  devotions ;  while  the  pious  Catholic 
always  consults  the  teaching  of  his  church, 
and  often  prefers  to  offer  his  prayers  through 
the  medium  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  saints. 
From  this  general  principle  of  evangelical  free- 
dom and  direct  individual  relationship  of  the 
believer  to  Christ  proceed  the  two  fundamen- 
tal doctrines  of  Protestantism,  the  absolute  su- 
premacy of  the  word  of  Christ,  and  the  abso- 
lute supremacy  of  the  grace  of  Christ.  The 
one  is  called  the  formal  principle,  or  princi- 
pium  cognoscendi;  the  other  the  material  prin- 


REFORMATION 


245 


ciple,  or  principium  essendi.  The  former  pro- 
claims the  canonical  Scriptures  (to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament), 
and  more  particularly  the  word  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles,  to  be  the  only  and  sufficient  in- 
fallible source  and  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
and  asserts  the  right  of  private  interpretation 
of  the  same;  in  distinction  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  view,  which  declares  the  Bible  and 
tradition  or  church  authority  to  be  two  coor- 
dinate sources  and  rules  of  faith,  and  makes 
tradition,  especially  the  decrees  of  popes  and 
councils,  the  only  legitimate  and  infallible  in- 
terpreter of  the  Bible.  In  its  extreme  form 
Chillingworth  expressed  this  principle  of  the 
reformation  in  the  well  known  formula  :  "  The 
Bible,  I  say,  the  Bible  only,  is  the  religion  of 
Protestants."  Genuine  Protestantism,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  despises  or  rejects  church 
authority  as  such,  but  only  subordinates  it  to 
and  measures  its  value  by  the  Bible,  and  be- 
lieves in  a  progressive  interpretation  of  the 
Bible  through  the  expanding  and  deepening 
consciousness  of  Christendom.  Hence,  besides 
having  its  own  symbols  or  standards  of  pub- 
lic doctrine,  it  retained  all  the  articles  of  the 
ancient  Catholic  creeds  and  a  large  amount 
of  disciplinary  and  ritual  tradition,  and  re- 
jected only  those  doctrines  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Catholic  church  for  which  it  found  no 
clear  warrant  in  the  Bible,  or  which  it  thought 
contradicted  its  letter  or  spirit.  The  Cal- 
vinistic  branches  of  Protestantism  went  fur- 
ther in  their  antagonism  to  the  received  tra- 
ditions than  the  Lutheran  and  the  Anglican 
reformation ;  but  all  united  in  rejecting  the 
authority  of  the  pope  (Melanchthon  for  a 
while  was  willing  to  concede  this,  but  only 
jure  humano,  as  a  limited  disciplinary  super- 
intendency  of  the  church),  the  meritoriousness 
of  good  works,  the  indulgences,  the  worship 
of  the  holy  Virgin  and  of  the  saints  and  relics, 
the  seven  sacraments  with  the  exception  of 
baptism  and  the  eucharist,  the  dogma  of  tran- 
substantiation  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass, 
purgatory  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  the 
use  of  the  Latin  language  in  public  worship, 
for  which  the  vernacular  languages  were  substi- 
tuted. The  other  fundamental  doctrine  of  the 
reformation  has  reference  to  the  personal  ap- 
propriation of  the  Christian  salvation,  and  has 
for  its  object  to  give  all  glory  to  Christ  by  de- 
claring that  the  sinner  is  justified  before  God, 
i.  «.,  acquitted  of  guilt  and  declared  righteous, 
solely  on  the  ground  of  the  all-sufficient  merit 
of  Christ  as  apprehended  by  a  living  faith ;  in 
opposition  to  the  theory,  then  prevalent  and 
substantially  sanctioned  by  the  council  of  Trent, 
which  makes  faith  and  good  works  the  two 
coordinate  sources  of  justification.  Genuine 
Protestantism  does  not,  on  that  account,  by 
any  means  reject  or  depreciate  good  works; 
it  only  denies  their  value  as  sources  or  condi- 
tions of  justification,  but  insists  on  them  as  the 
necessary  fruits  of  faith  and  evidence  of  justi- 
fication. To  these  two  prominent  principles 


of  the  reformation,  which  materially  affect 
its  theology  and  religious  life,  must  be  added 
the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood  of 
believers,  and  the  right  and  duty  of  the  laity 
not  only  to  read  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  but  also  to  take  part  in  the  govern- 
ment and  all  the  public  affairs  of  the  church. 
— We  now  present  an  outline  of  the  history 
of  the  reformation  in  the  various  countries  in 
which  it  finally  succeeded,  leaving  out  Bohe- 
mia, Italy,  and  Spain,  where  it  was  suppressed 
by  the  combined  opposition  of  the  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  I.  THE  REFORMA- 
TION IN  GERMANY.  The  movement  in  Ger- 
many was  directed  by  the  genius  and  energy 
of  Luther  and  the  learning  and  moderation 
of  Melanchthon,  assisted  by  princes,  especially 
the  electors  of  Saxony,  and  sustained  by  the 
majority  of  the  people  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  bishops  and  the  imperial  govern- 
ment. It  commenced  in  the  university  of 
Wittenberg  with  the  protest  against  the  traffic 
in  indulgences,  Oct.  31,  1517  (ever  since  cele- 
brated in  Protestant  Germany  as  the  festival 
of  the  reformation),  and  soon  became  a  pow- 
erful popular  movement.  At  first  it  moved 
within  the  bosom  of  Catholicism.  Luther 
shrunk  in  holy  horror  from  the  idea  of  a  sepa- 
ration from  the  religion  of  his  fathers.  He 
only  attacked  a  few  abuses,  taking  it  for  grant- 
ed that  the  pope  himself  would  condemn  them 
if  properly  informed.  But  the  irresistible 
logic  of  events  carried  him  far  beyond  his 
original  intentions,  and  brought  him  into  irre- 
concilable conflict  with  the  central  authority 
of  the  church.  Pope  Leo  X.,  in  June,  1520, 
pronounced  the  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  Luther,  who  burned  the  bull  togeth- 
er with  the  canon  law  and  several  books  of 
his  opponents.  The  diet  of  Worms  in  1521, 
where  he  made  his  memorable  defence,  added 
to  the  excommunication  of  the  pope  the  ban 
of  the  emperor.  But  the  dissatisfaction  with 
the  various  abuses  of  Rome  and  the  desire  for 
the  free  preaching  of  the  gospel  were  so  ex- 
tensive, that  the  reformation  both  in  its  nega- 
tive and  positive  features  spread  in  spite  of 
these  decrees,  and  gained  a  foothold  before 
1530  in  the  greater  part  of  northern  Germa- 
ny, especially  in  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Hesse, 
Pomerania,  Mecklenburg,  Luneburg,  Friesland, 
and  in  nearly  all  the  free  cities,  as  Hamburg, 
Liibeck,  Bremen,  Magdeburg,  Frankfort,  and 
Nuremberg;  while  in  Austria,  Bavaria,  and 
along  the  Rhine  it  was  persecuted  and  sup- 
pressed. Among  the  principal  causes  of  this 
rapid  progress  were  the  writings  of  the  re- 
formers, Luther's  German  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  the  evangelical  hymns,  which  intro- 
duced the  new  ideas  into  public  worship.  The 
diet  of  Spire  in  1526  left  each  state  to  its  own 
discretion  concerning  the  question  of  reform 
until  a  general  council  should  settle  it  for  all, 
and  thus  sanctioned  the  principle  of  territo- 
rial independence  in  matters  of  religion  which 
prevails  in  Germany  to  this  day,  each  sover- 


246 


REFORMATION 


eignty  having  its  own  separate  ecclesiastical 
establishment  and  organization  in  close  union 
with  the  state.  But  the  next  diet  of  Spire,  in 
1529,  prohibited  the  further  progress  of  the 
reformation.  Against  this  decree  of  the  Cath- 
olic majority  the  evangelical  princes  entered, 
on  the  ground  of  the  word  of  God,  the  in- 
alienable rights  of  conscience,  and  the  decree 
of  the  previous  diet  of  Spire,  the  celebrated 
protest,  dated  April  19,  1529,  which  gave  rise 
to  the  name  of  Protestants.  The  diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1530,  where  the  Lutherans  offered 
their  principal  confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  by 
Melanchthon  and  named  after  that  city,  threat- 
ened the  Protestants  with  violent  measures  if 
they  did  not  return  shortly  to  the  old  church. 
Here  closes  the  first  and  most  eventful  period 
of  the  German  reformation.  The  second  pe- 
riod embraces  the  formation  of  the  Protestant 
league  of  Smalcald  for  the  armed  defence  of 
Lutheranism,  the  various  theological  confer- 
ences of  the  two  parties  for  an  adjustment 
of  the  controversy,  the  death  of  Luther,  the 
imperial  interims  or  compromises  (the  Ratis- 
bon,  Augsburg,  and  Leipsic  interims),  and  the 
Smalcaldian  war,  and  ends  with  the  success  of 
the  Protestant  army  under  Maurice  of  Saxony 
and  the  peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555,  which 
secured  to  the  Lutheran  states  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  but  with  a  restriction  on 
its  further  progress.  The  third  period,  from 
1555  to  1580,  is  remarkable  for  the  violent  in- 
ternal controversies  of  the  Lutheran  church  : 
the  Osiandrian  controversy,  concerning  justi- 
fication and  sanctification ;  the  adiaphoristic, 
arising  originally  from  the  fruitless  compro- 
mises or  interims ;  the  synergistic,  concerning 
faith  and  good  works ;  and  the  crypto-Oalvin- 
istic  or  sacramentarian  controversy  about  the 
real  presence.  These  theological  disputes  led 
on  the  one  hand  to  the  full  development  of  the 
doctrinal  system  of  Lutheranism  as  laid  down 
in  the  "Book  of  Concord"  (first  published  in 
1580),  which  embraces  all  the  symbolical  books 
of  that  church,  namely,  the  three  oecumenical 
creeds,  the  Augsburg  confession  and  its  "Apol- 
ogy" by  Melanchthon,  the  two  catechisms  of 
Luther  and  the  Smalcald  articles  drawn  up 
by  him  in  1537,  and  the  "Formula  of  Con- 
cord," composed  by  six  Lutheran  divines  in 
1577.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  fanatical 
intolerance  of  the  strict  Lutheran  party  against 
the  Calvinists  and  the  moderate  Lutherans, 
called  after  their  leader  Melanchthonians  or 
Philippists,  drove  a  large  number  of  the  latter 
over  to  the  Reformed  church,  especially  in  the 
Palatinate  (1560),  in  Bremen  (1561),  Nassau 
(1582),  Anhalt  (1596),  Hesse-Cassel  (1605),  and 
Brandenburg  (1614).  The  German  Reformed 
communion  adopted  the  Heidelberg  catechism, 
drawn  up  by  two  moderate  Calvinistic  divines, 
Zacharias  Ursinus  and  Kaspar  Olevianus,  in 
1562,  by  order  of  the  elector  Frederick  III.  or 
the  Pious,  as  their  confession  of  faith.  The 
16th  century  closes  the  theological  history  of 
the  German  reformation ;  but  its  political  his- 


tory was  not  brought  to  a  final  termination 
until  after  the  terrible  thirty  years'  war,  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  which  secured 
to  the  Lutherans  and  the  German  Reformed 
churches  (but  to  no  others)  equal  rights  with 
the  Roman  Catholics  within  the  limits  of  the 
German  empire.  Those  two  denominations, 
either  in  their  separate  existence  or  united 
in  one  organization  (as  in  Prussia  and  other 
states  since  1817),  are  to  this  day  almost  the 
only  forms  of  Protestantism  recognized  and 
supported  by  the  German  governments,  all 
others  being  small  self-supporting  sects,  regard- 
ed with  little  sympathy  by  the  popular  mind. 
But  within  those  ecclesiastical  establishments 
Germany  has  bred  and  tolerated  during  the 
present  century  almost  every  imaginable  form 
of  theoretic  belief,  from  the  strictest  old  school 
orthodoxy  to  the  loosest  rationalism  and  skepti- 
cism. Since  the  third  jubilee  of  the  reforma- 
tion (1817),  however,  there  has  been  a  gradual 
and  steady  return  from  neology  to  the  original 
evangelical  Protestantism.  II.  THE  REFOB- 
MATION  IN  SWITZERLAND.  This  was  contem- 
poraneous with,  but  independent  of,  the  Ger- 
man reformation,  and  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  the  Reformed  communion  as  distinct  from 
the  Lutheran.  In  all  the  essential  principles 
and  doctrines,  except  that  on  the  mode  of 
Christ's  presence  in  the  eucharist,  the  Ilelvetic 
reformation  agreed  with  the  German ;  but  it 
departed  further  from  the  received  traditions 
in  matters  of  government,  discipline,  and 
worship,  and  aimed  at  a  more  radical  moral 
and  practical  reformation  of  the  people.  It 
naturally  divides  itself  into  three  periods  :  the 
Zwinglian,  from  1516  to  1531 ;  the  Calvinistic, 
to  the  death  of  Calvin  in  1564 ;  and  the  pe- 
riod of  Bullinger  and  Beza,  to  the  close  of  the 
16th  century.  The  first  belongs  mainly  to  the 
German  cantons,  the  second  to  the  French, 
the  third  to  both  jointly.  Zwingli  began  his 
reformatory  preaching  against  various  abuses 
at  Einsiedeln  in  1516,  and  then  with  more  en- 
ergy and  effect  at  Zurich  in  1519.  His  object 
was  to  "preach  Christ  from  the  fountain," 
and  to  "  insert  the  pure  Christ  into  the  heart." 
At  first  he  had  the  consent  of  the  bishop  of 
Constance,  who  assisted  him  in  putting  down 
the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Switzerland,  and 
ho  stood  even  in  high  credit  with  the  papal 
nuncio.  But  a  rupture  occurred  in  1522,  when 
Zwingli  attacked  the  fasts  as  a  human  inven- 
tion, and  many  of  his  hearers  ceased  to  observe 
them.  The  magistrates  of  Zurich  arranged  a 
public  disputation  in  January  and  another  in 
October,  1523,  to  settle  the  whole  controversy. 
On  both  occasions  Zwingli,  backed  by  the  au- 
thorities and  the  great  majority  of  the  people, 
triumphed  over  his  papal  opponents.  In  1526 
the  churches  of  the  city  and  the  neighboring 
villages  were  cleared  of  images  and  shrines, 
and  a  simple,  almost  puritanic  mode  of  wor- 
ship took  henceforward  the  place  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  mass.  The  Swiss  diet  took  a  hos- 
tile attitude  to  the  Reformed  movement,  similar 


REFORMATION 


247 


to  that  of  the  German  diet,  with  a  respectable 
minority  in  its  favor.  To  settle  the  controver- 
sy for  the  republic,  a  general  theological  con- 
ference was  arranged  and  held  at  Baden,  Aar- 
gau,  in  May,  1526,  with  Dr.  Eck,  the  famous 
antagonist  of  Luther,  as  the  champion  of  the 
Roman,  and  (Ecolampadius  of  the  Reformed 
cause.  Its  result  was  in  form  adverse,  but  in 
fact  favorable  to  the  cause  of  the  reformation. 
It  was  now  introduced  in  the  majority  of  the 
cantons,  at  the  wish  of  the  magistrates  and  the 
people ;  by  (Ecolampadius  in  Basel  and  Haller 
in  Bern,  also  in  part  in  St.  Gall,  Schaff  hausen, 
Glarus,  Appenzell,  Thurgau,  and  the  Grisons ; 
while  in  the  French  portions  of  Switzerland 
"William  Farel  and  Viret  prepared  the  way 
for  Calvin.  But  the  small  cantons  around  the 
lake  of  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwytz,  Unterwalden, 
Lucerne,  and  Zug,  steadfastly  opposed  every 
innovation.  At  last  it  came  to  an  open  war 
between  the  Reformed  and  Catholic  cantons. 
Zwingli's  policy  was  overruled  by  the  appa- 
rently more  humane,  but  in  fact  more  cruel 
and  disastrous  policy  of  Bern,  to  force  the  poor 
mountaineers  into  measures  by  starvation.  The 
Catholics,  resolved  to  maintain  their  rights,  at- 
tacked and  routed  the  small  army  of  Zurichers 
in  the  battle  of  Cappel,  October,  1531.  Zwingli, 
who  had  accompanied  his  flock  as  chaplain  and 
patriot,  met  a  heroic  death  on  the  field  of  bat- 
tle, and  CEcolampadins  of  Basel  followed  him  in 
a  few  weeks.  Thus  the  progress  of  the  ref- 
ormation was  suddenly  arrested  in  the  German 
portions  of  Switzerland,  and  one  third  of  it 
remains  Catholic  to  this  day.  But  it  took  a 
new  start  in  the  western  or  French  cantons, 
and  rose  there  to  a  higher  position  than  ever. 
Soon  after  this  critical  juncture  the  great  mas- 
ter mind  of  the  Reformed  church,  who  was  to 
carry  forward,  to  modify,  and  to  complete  the 
work  of  Zwingli,  and  to  rival  Luther  in  in- 
fluence, began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
public.  John  Calvin,  a  Frenchman  by  birth 
and  education,  but  exiled  from  his  native  land 
for  his  faith,  found  providentially  a  new  home 
in  1536  in  the  little  republic  of  Geneva,  where 
Farel  had  prepared  the  way.  Here  he  devel- 
oped his  extraordinary  talents  and  energy  as 
the  greatest  divine  and  disciplinarian  of  the 
reformation,  and  made  Geneva  the  model 
church  for  the  Reformed  communion,  and  a 
hospitable  asylum  for  persecuted  Protestants  of 
every  nation.  His  theological  writings,  espe- 
cially the  "Institutes"  and  "  Commentaries," 
exerted  a  formative  influence  on  all  Reformed 
churches  and  confessions  of  faith;  while  his 
legislative  genius  developed  the  presbyterian 
form  of  government,  which  rests  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  ministerial  equality  and  of  a  popu- 
lar representation  of  the  congregation  by  lay 
elders,  aiding  the  pastors  in  maintaining  disci- 
pline and  promoting  the  spiritual  prosperity 
of  the  people.  Calvin  died  after  a  most  active 
and  devoted  life  in  1564,  and  left  in  Theodore 
Beza  (died  1605)  an  able  and  worthy  successor, 
who  partly  with  Bullinger,  the  faithful  suc- 


cessor of  Zwingli  in  Zurich,  and  author  of  the 
second  Helvetic  confession  (1566),  labored  to 
the  close  of  the  16th  century  for  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Swiss  reformation  and  the  spread 
of  its  principles  in  France,  Holland,  Germa- 
ny, England,  and  Scotland.  III.  THE  REFOR- 
MATION IN  FRANCE.  While  the  reformation  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland  carried  with  it  the 
majority  of  the  population,  it  met  in  France 
with  the  united  opposition  of  the  court,  the 
hierarchy,  and  the  popxilar  sentiment,  and  had 
to  work  its  way  through  severe  trial  and  per- 
secution. The  tradition  in  that  country  was 
favorable  to  a  change,  as  France  had  always 
maintained  a  certain  degree  of  independence 
of  Rome,  and  as  the  university  of  Paris,  once 
the  centre  of  European  intelligence  and  culture, 
had  strongly  urged  a  thorough  reformation  in 
capite  et  membris  on  the  councils  of  the  15th 
century.  The  first  professed  Protestants  in 
France  were  Lefevre,  Wolmar,  Farel,  Viret, 
Marot,  Olivetan,  Calvin,  and  Beza,  all  men  of 
distinguished  learning  and  ability ;  but  most  of 
them  had  to  seek  safety  in  exile.  It  was  only 
after  the  successful  establishment  of  the  refor- 
mation in  French  Switzerland  that  the  move- 
ment became  serious  in  the  neighboring  king- 
dom. Calvin  and  Beza  may  be  called  the  fathers 
of  the  French  Reformed  church.  Their  pupils 
returned  as  missionaries  to  their  native  land. 
The  first  Protestant  congregation  was  formed 
at  Paris  in  1555,  and  the  first  .synod  held  in  the 
same  city  in  1559.  In  1561  the  theological  con- 
ference at  Poissy  took  place,  where  Theodore 
Beza  eloquently  but  vainly  pleaded  the  cause 
of  the  Protestants  before  the  dignitaries  of  the 
Roman  church,  and  where  the  name  Reformed 
originated.  In  1571  the  general  synod  at  La 
Rochelle  adopted  the  Gallican  confession  and 
a  system  of  government  and  discipline  essen- 
tially Calvinistic,  yet  modified  by  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  a  church  not  in  union  with 
the  state,  as  in  Geneva,  but  in  antagonism  with 
it.  The  movement  here  unavoidably  assumed 
a  political  character,  and  led  to  a  series  of  civil 
wars  which  distracted  France  till  the  close  of 
the  16th  century.  The  Roman  Catholic  party, 
backed  by  the  majority  of  the  population,  was 
headed  by  the  dukes  of  Guise,  who  derived 
their  descent  from  Charlemagne  and  looked 
to  the  throne,  then  occupied  by  the  house  of 
Valois.  The  Protestant  (or  Huguenot)  party, 
numerically  weaker,  but  containing  some  of 
the  noblest  blood  and  best  talent  of  France, 
was  headed  by  the  princes  of  Navarre,  the 
next  heirs  to  the  throne  and  descendants  of 
Hugh  Capet.  The  queen  regent  Catharine, 
during  the  minority  of  her  sons,  Francis  II. 
and  Charles  IX.,  although  decidedly  Roman 
Catholic  in  sentiment,  tried  to  keep  the  rival 
parties  in  check  in  order  to  rule  over  both. 
But  the  champions  of  Rome  took  possession 
of  Paris,  while  the  prince  of  Conde  occupied 
Orleans.  Three  civil  wars  followed  in  rapid 
succession,  when  the  court  and  the  duke  of 
Guise  resorted  to  treason,  and  concerted  a 


248 


REFORMATION 


wholesale  slaughter  of  the  Huguenots,  Aug. 
24,  1572,  the  leaders  of  the  party  having  been 
expressly  invited  to  Paris  to  attend  the  mar- 
riage of  Prince  Henry  of  Navarre  with  a  sister 
of  Charles  IX.  as  a  general  feast  of  reconcilia- 
tion. (See  BARTHOLOMEW,  SAINT,  MASSACRE 
OF,  and  HUGUENOTS.)  But  the  party  was  only 
diminished  in  number,  by  no  means  annihila- 
ted. Other  civil  wars  followed  with  varying 
fortune,  and  terminated  at  last  in  the  victory 
of  Prince  Henry  of  Navarre,  who,  after  the 
assassination  of  Henry  III.  in  1589  by  a  Do- 
minican monk,  became  king  of  France  as 
Henry  IV.  This  seemed  to  decide  the  tri- 
umph of  Protestantism  in  France.  But  the 
Roman  party,  still  more  numerous  and  pow- 
erful, and  supported  by  Spain  and  the  pope, 
elected  a  rival  head  and  threatened  to  plunge 
the  country  into  new  bloodshed.  Then  Henry, 
from  political  and  patriotic  motives,  but  appa- 
rently not  from  religious  conviction,  abjured 
the  Protestant  faith,  in  which  he  had  been 
brought  up,  and  professed  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic religion  (1593),  saying  that  Paris  and  the 
peace  of  France  were  "  worth  a  mass."  At 
the  same  time,  however,  he  secured  to  his  for- 
mer associates,  then  numbering  about  760  con- 
gregations throughout  the  kingdom,  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrance  of  the  pope  and  the  bishops, 
ft  legal  existence  and  the  right  of  the  free  ex- 
ercise of  religion,  by  the  celebrated  edict  of 
Nantes  in  1598,  which  closes  the  stormy  pe- 
riod of  the  French  reformation.  But  the  Re- 
formed church  in  France,  after  flourishing  for 
a  time,  was  overwhelmed  with  new  disasters 
under  the  despotism  of  Richelieu,  and  finally 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1685  reduced  it  to  a  "church  of  the 
desert ;"  yet  it  survived  the  most  cruel  per- 
secutions at  home,  and  enriched  by  thousands 
of  exiles  the  population  of  every  Protestant 
country  in  Europe  and  America.  IV.  THE 
REFORMATION  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS  was  kin- 
dled partly  by  Lutheran  influences  from  Ger- 
many, but  mostly  by  Reformed  and  Calvinistic 
influences  from  Switzerland  and  France.  Its 
first  martyrs,  Esch  and  Voes,  were  burned  at 
Antwerp  in  1523.  The  despotic  arm  of  Charles 
V.  and  his  son  Philip  II.  resorted  to  the  seve- 
rest measures  for  crushing  the  rising  spirit  of 
religious  and  political  liberty.  The  duke  of 
Alva  surpassed  the  persecuting  heathen  em- 
perors of  Rome  in  cruelty,  and,  according  to 
Grotius,  destroyed  the  lives  of  100,000  Dutch 
Protestants  during  the  six  years  of  his  regency 
(1567-'73).  Finally  the  seven  northern  prov- 
inces formed  a  federal  republic,  first  under  the 
leadership  of  William  of  Orange,  and  after  his 
assassination  (1584)  under  his  son  Maurice,  and 
after  a  long  and  heroic  struggle  accomplished 
their  severance  from  the  church  of  Rome  and 
the  Spanish  crown.  The  southern  provinces 
remained  Roman  Catholic  and  subject  to  Spain. 
The  first  Dutch  Reformed  synod  was  held  at 
Dort  in  1574,  and  in  the  next  year  the  univer- 
sity of  Leyden  was  founded.  The  Protestant- 


ism of  Holland  is  predominantly  Calvinistic, 
and  adopts  as  its  doctrinal  and  disciplinary 
standards  the  Heidelberg  catechism  as  pub- 
lished (in  Latin  and  German)  in  1563,  the  Bel- 
gic  confession  of  1561,  and  the  articles  of  the 
synod  of  Dort  of  1618-'19.  This  important 
synod  was  held  in  consequence  of  the  Armin- 
ian  controversy,  which  violently  agitated  the 
country  at  that  time.  The  Arminians  or  Re- 
monstrants, differing  in  five  points  from  the 
Calvinists,  arid  holding  to  the  freedom  of  the 
will  and  a  conditional  predestination,  were  con- 
demned by  the  synod  of  Dort,  but  continued 
as  a  tolerated  sect,  and  exerted,  through  the 
writings  of  their  distinguished  scholars  and 
divines,  Arminius,  Hugo  Grotius,  Episcopius, 
Limborch,  and  Le  Clerc  (Clericus),  consid- 
erable influence  upon  Protestant  theology  in 
England,  France,  and  Germany  during  the 
18th  century.  The  orthodox  church  of  Hol- 
land has  been  represented  in  the  United  States 
since  1609  by  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch 
church  (now  the  "Reformed  church  in  Ameri- 
ca "),  the  oldest  save  one  of  the  denominations 
in  the  United  States.  V.  THE  REFORMATION 
IN  HUNGARY.  This  country  was  first  brought 
into  contact  with  the  reform  movement  by  dis- 
ciples of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  who  had 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  after  1524.  Ferdinand 
I.  granted  to  some  magnates  and  cities  liberty 
of  worship,  and  Maximilian  II.  (1564-'76)  in- 
creased it.  The  synod  of  Erdod  in  1545  or- 
ganized the  Lutheran,  and  the  synod  of  Csen- 
ger  in  1557  the  Reformed  church.  The  Ger- 
man settlers  mostly  adopted  the  Augsburg 
confession,  the  national  Magyars  the  Helvetic. 
Rudolph  II.  having  suppressed  religious  liber- 
ty, Prince  Stephen  Bocskay  of  Transylvania, 
strengthened  by  his  alliance  with  the  Turks, 
reconquered  by  force  of  arms  (1606)  full  toler- 
ation for  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  in  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania,  which,  under  his  suc- 
cessors Bethlen  Gabor  and  George  Rak6czy 
I.,  was  confirmed  by  the  treaties  of  Nikolsburg 
(1622)  and  Linz  (1645).  In  Transylvania  So- 
cinianism  also  found  a  refuge,  and  has  main- 
tained itself  to  this  day.  VI.  THE  REFORMA- 
TION IN  POLAND.  Fugitive  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren or  Hussites  and  the  writings  of  the  Ger- 
man reformers  started  the  movement  in  Po- 
land. King  Sigismund  Augustus  (1548-'72)  fa- 
vored it  and  corresponded  with  Calvin.  The 
most  distinguished  Protestant  of  that  coun- 
try was  Jan  Laski,  or  John  a  Lasco,  a  Cal- 
vinist,  who  fled  from  Poland  for  his  faith, 
was  called  back  by  the  Protestant  nobility, 
aided  by  several  friends  translated  the  Bible, 
and  labored  for  the  union  of  the  Reformed  and 
Lutherans  (died  1560).  A  compromise  between 
the  two  parties  was  effected  by  the  general 
synod  of  Sandomir  (Consentus Sandomiriensis) 
in  1570 ;  but  subsequently  internal  dissensions, 
the  increase  of  Socinianism,  and  the  efforts  of 
the  Jesuits  greatly  interfered  with  the  prosper- 
ity of  Protestantism  in  that  country.  The 
German  provinces  now  belonging  to  Russia, 


REFORMATION 


249 


Courland,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  opened  like- 
wise the  door  to  the  reformation,  and  adopted 
the  Augsburg  confession.  VII.  THE  REFOR- 
MATION IN  SCANDINAVIA.  The  reformers  of 
Sweden  were  two  brothers,  Olaf  and  Lars 
Peterson,  or  Petri,  disciples  of  Luther,  who 
after  1519  preached  against  the  existing  state 
of  the  church.  Gustavus  Vasa,  who  delivered 
the  country  from  the  Danes  and  became  king 
in  1523,  favored  Protestantism  from  political 
and  mercenary  motives;  the  whole  country, 
including  the  bishops,  followed  without  much 
difficulty.  He  appropriated  a  large  portion  of 
the  wealth  of  the  church  to  meet  the  expenses 
of  his  wars  and  administration.  The  synod  of 
Orebro  in  1529  sanctioned  the  reform,  and 
the  synod  of  Upsal  in  1593,  after  a  fruitless  at- 
tempt to  reconcile  the  country  to  Rome,  con- 
firmed and  completed  it.  Sweden  adopted  the 
Lutheran  creed,  to  the  exclusion  of  every  oth- 
er, and  retained  the  episcopal  form  of  govern- 
ment in  the  closest  union  with  the  state.  It 
did  great  service  to  the  cause  of  Protestant- 
ism in  Europe,  through  its  gallant  king  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus,  in  the  thirty  years'  war ;  and 
recently  the  intolerant  laws  against  dissenters 
have  been  almost  completely  abolished.  Den- 
mark became  likewise  an  exclusively  Lutheran 
country,  with  an  episcopal  form  of  state-church 
government,  under  Christian  III.  A  diet  at 
Copenhagen  in  1536  destroyed  the  political 
power  of  the  Roman  clergy,  and  divided  most 
of  the  church's  property  between  the  crown 
and  the  nobility.  >  The  remaining  third  was 
devoted  to  the  new  ecclesiastical  organization. 
Bugenhagen  of  Wittenberg  was  then  called  to 
complete  the  reform.  From  Denmark  the  ref- 
ormation passed  over  to  Norway  about  1536. 
The  archbishop  of  Drontheim  fled  with  the 
treasures  of  the  church  to  Holland;  another 
bishop  resigned ;  a  third  was  imprisoned ;  and 
the  lower  clergy  were  left  the  choice  between 
exile  and  submission  to  the  new  order  of  things, 
which  most  of  them  preferred.  Iceland,  then 
subject  to  Danish  rule,  likewise  submitted  to 
the  Danish  reform.  VIII.  THE  REFORMATION 
IN  ENGLAND.  The  struggle  between  the  old 
and  the  new  religion  lasted  longer  and  raged 
more  fearfully  in  England  and  Scotland  than 
on  the  continent,  and  continued  in  successive 
shocks  even  down  to  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, for  Puritanism  was  a  second  reforma- 
tion ;  but  it  left  in  the  end  a  very  strong  im- 
pression upon  the  character  of  the  nation, 
and  affected  deeply  its  political  and  social  in- 
stitutions. In  theology  English  Protestantism 
was  dependent  upon  the  continental  reform, 
especially  the  ideas  and  principles  of  Calvin ; 
but  it  displayed  greater  practical  energy  and 
power  of  organization.  It  was  from  the  start 
a  political  as  well  as  a  religious  movement, 
and  hence  it  afforded  a  wider  scope  to  the 
corrupting  influence  of  selfish  ambition  and 
violent  passion  than  the  reformation  in  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland;  but  it  passed  also 
through  severer  trials  and  persecutions.  In 


the  English  reformation  we  distinguish  five  pe- 
riods. The  first,  from  1527  to  1547,  witnessed 
the  abolition  of  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
papacy  under  Henry  VIII.  This  was  merely 
a  negative  and  destructive  process,  which  re- 
moved the  outward  obstruction  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  reform.  Henry  VIII.  quar- 
relled with  the  pope  on  purely  personal  and 
selfish  grounds,  because  the  pope  properly  re- 
fused consent  to  his  divorce  from  Catharine 
of  Aragon  and  his  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn. 
"  The  defender  of  the  faith,"  a  title  given  him 
by  the  pope  for  the  defence  of  the  seven 
sacraments  against  Luther,  remained  in  doc- 
trine and  religious  sentiment  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic to  the  end  of  his  life ;  and  at  his  death  the 
so-called  "  bloody  articles,"  which  enjoined 
under  the  severest  penalties  the  dogma  of 
transubstantiation,  auricular  confession,  pri- 
vate masses,  and  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood, 
were  yet  in  full  force.  The  only  point  of 
radical  difference  was  the  royal  supremacy. 
He  simply  substituted  a  domestic  for  the 
foreign,  and  a  political  for  an  ecclesiastical 
papacy,  and  punished  with  equal  severity  Prot- 
estant as  well  as  Roman  Catholic  dissenters 
who  dared  to  doubt  his  supreme  headship  of 
the  church  of  England.  But  while  he  thus 
destroyed  the  power  of  the  pope  and  of  mo- 
nasticism  in  England,  a  far  deeper  and  more 
important  movement  went  on  among  the  peo- 
ple under  the  influence  of  the  revived  tradi- 
tions of  Wycliffe  and  the  Lollards,  the  wri- 
tings of  the  continental  reformers,  and  the 
English  version  of  the  Scriptures  commenced 
by  Tyndale,  carried  on  by  Coverdale  and  Ro- 
gers, and  revised  by  Cranmer.  The  second 
period  embraces  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
from  1547  to  1553,  and  contains  the  positive 
introduction  of  the  reformation  by  the  coop- 
eration mainly  of  the  duke  of  Somerset,  pro- 
tector and  regent  during  the  king's  minority, 
and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who 
by  his  pliable  conduct  and  subserviency  to  the 
will  of  Henry  had  preserved  the  idea  and  hope 
of  a  reformation  through  that  reign  of  terror. 
Cranmer  was  assisted  in  the  work  by  Ridley 
and  Latimer,  and  by  several  Reformed  divines 
from  the  continent  whom  he  called  to  England, 
especially  Martin  Bucer  of  Strasburg,  now 
elected  professor  at  Cambridge,  and  Peter  Mar- 
tyr of  Zurich  (originally  from  Italy),  for  some 
time  professor  at  Oxford.  The  most  important 
works  of  this  period,  and  in  fact  of  the  whole 
English  reformation,next  to  the  English  version 
of  the  Bible,  are  the  42  articles  of  religion 
(subsequently  reduced  to  39),  or  a  new  and 
moderately  Calvinistic  confession  of  faith,  and 
the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer,"  or  a  new  di- 
rectory of  worship  in  the  vernacular  tongue, 
on  the  basis  of  the  old  Latin  service,  but  with 
essential  changes.  The  third  period  is  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  from  1553  to  1558,  and 
presents  to  us  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  that 
queen  and  her  friend  Cardinal  Pole,  now  made 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  after  the  deposition 


250 


REFORMATION 


of  Cranmer,  to  undo  the  reformation  and  to 
restore  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  and  the 
authority  of  the  pope.  This  Catholic  interim 
did  more  to  consolidate  the  reformation  in 
England  than  Henry,  Edward,  and  Elizabeth. 
Hundreds  were  martyred  in  this  short  reign, 
among  them  the  three  British  reformers,  Rid- 
ley, Latimer,  and  Cranmer,  who  were  publicly 
burned  at  Oxford  in  1555  and  1556.  Many 
others  fled  to  the  continent,  especially  to  Ge- 
neva, Zurich,  Basel,  and  Frankfort,  where  they 
were  hospitably  received  and  brought  into 
closer  co.ntact  with  the  Reformed  churches  of 
Switzerland  and  Germany.  The  fourth  period 
is  the  restoration  and  permanent  establishment 
of  the  Anglican  reformation  during  the  long 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558  to  1603.  The  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  was  replaced  by  a  Protes- 
tant, and  the  articles  of  religion  and  the  com- 
mon prayer  book  of  fhe  reign  of  Edward  were 
introduced  again,  after  a  revision.  The  eccle- 
siastical supremacy  of  the  crown  was  likewise 
renewed,  but  under  a  modified  form,  the  queen 
refusing  the  title  "supreme  head"  of  the 
church  of  England,  and  choosing  in  its  place 
the  less  objectionable  title  "  supreme  governor." 
The  convocation  and  parliament  readily  sanc- 
tioned all  these  changes;  but  the  Anglican 
church  as  established  by  Elizabeth  was  semi- 
Catholic  in  its  form  of  prelatical  government 
and  liturgical  worship,  a  sort  of  via  media 
between  Rome  and  Geneva.  It  suited  the 
policy  of  the  court  and  the  taste  of  the  major- 
ity of  the  English  people,  but  was  offensive 
to  the  severer  school  of  strict  Calvinists  who 
had  returned  from  their  continental  exile. 
Hence  the  agitation  in  the  bosom  of  the  re- 
formed church  of  England,  and  the  growing 
conflict  between  the  Episcopalian  majority  and 
the  puritanic  minority.  Elizabeth's  reign  was 
as  intolerant  against  Puritan  as  against  papal 
dissenters,  and  passed  the  severest  penal  laws 
against  both.  But  while  the  Catholic  party 
was  almost  annihilated  in  England,  the  Puritan 
party  grew  more  powerful  under  the  succes- 
sors of  Elizabeth,  and  overthrew  the  dynasty 
of  the  Stuarts,  and  even  the  Episcopalian  es- 
tablishment, although  the  latter  revived  from 
the  shock.  These  troubles  and  agitations  con- 
stitute the  fifth  period  in  the  history  of  Eng- 
lish Protestantism,  which  in  some  respects  is 
the  most  important  and  interesting,  but  lies 
beyond  the  age  of  the  reformation  proper. 
IX.  THE  REFORMATION  IN  SCOTLAND.  The 
first  impulse  to  the  reformation  in  Scotland 
proceeded  from  Germany  and  Switzerland. 
Copies  of  the  writings  of  the  continental  re- 
formers and  of  Tyndale's  English  Testament 
found  their  way  to  the  far  north.  The  first 
preacher  and  martyr  of  Protestantism  in  that 
country  was  Patrick  Hamilton,  a  youth  of  royal 
blood,  and  for  some  time  a  student  at  Witten- 
berg and  Marburg,  who  was  condemned  to 
death  by  Archbishop  Beaton  and  burned  at  the 
stake.  The  movement  gradually  increased  in 
spite  of  persecution,  especially  after  the  rup- 


ture of  England  with  the  pope,  and  was  car- 
ried to  a  successful  conclusion  under  the  gui- 
dance of  John  Knox.  He  was  a  disciple  and 
admirer  of  John  Calvin,  with  whom  he  spent 
several  years.  He  returned  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  to  his  native  country,  resolved  to 
reform  the  Scotch  church  after  the  model  of 
the  church  of  Geneva.  After  a  short  civil  war 
the  parliament  of  1560  introduced  the  refor- 
mation, and  adopted  a  Calvinistic  confession  of 
faith,  drawn  up  by  Knox,  Spottswood,  Row, 
and  others  (superseded  afterward  by  the  West- 
minster standards),  and  prohibited  under  severe 
penalties  the  exercise  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
worship.  In  1561  the  first  "  Book  of  Disci- 
pline "  was  issued,  and  gave  the  new  church  a 
complete  presbyterian  organization,  culmina- 
ting in  a  general  assembly  of  ministers  and 
elders.  The  mode  of  worship  was  reduced  to 
the  greatest  simplicity,  with  a  decided  predom- 
inance of  the  didactic  element.  When  the  un- 
fortunate Mary  Stuart,  of  French  education, 
tastes,  and  manners,  and  in  no  sympathy  with 
the  public  opinion  of  Scotland,  began  her  reign 
in  August,  1561,  she  made  an  attempt  to  re- 
store the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  to  which 
she  was  sincerely  devoted.  But  her  own  im- 
prudences and  the  determined  resistance  of  the 
nation  frustrated  her  plans,  and  after  her  flight 
to  England  (1568)  Protestantism  was  again 
declared  the  only  religion  of  Scotland,  and  re- 
ceived formal  legal  sanction  under  the  regency 
of  Murray. — Among  the  numerous  historians 
of  the  reformation,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the 
following  deserve  special  mention :  SleidaiK 
De  Statu  Religionis  et  Reipullicce  Carolo  V. 
Ccesare  (Strasburg,  1555) ;  Beza,  ISHistoire 
ecclesiastique  de»  egliset  reformtes  au  royaume 
de  France,  &c.  (3  vols.,  Lille,  1580) ;  Burnet, 
"Reformation  in  England"  (3  vols.  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1679-1714);  Seckendorf,  Commentariut 
Historicus  et  Apologeticus  de  Lutheranismo  (3 
vols.  fol.,  Leipsic,  1686-'92);  Strype,  "Annals 
of  the  Reformation"  (4  vols.  fol.,  London, 
1709-'31),  and  "Ecclesiastical  Memorials"  (3 
vols.  fol.,  1721),  and  his  lives  of  Cranmer,  Par- 
ker, Knox,  McCrie,  Hetherington,  and  others; 
Schr6ckh,  Chrittliche  Kirchengeschichte  seit 
der  Reformation  (10  vols.,  Leipsic,  1804-'12); 
Marheineke,  Getchichte  der  deutschen  Refor- 
mation (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1816-'84)  ;  Hottinger, 
Getchichte  der  sehweizerischen  Kirchentren- 
nung  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1825-'7);  Ruchat,  Jlis- 
toire  de  la  reformation  de  la  Suitse  (6  vols., 
Geneva,  1727) ;  Merle  d'Aubign6,  Histoire  de 
la  reformation  au  XVI'  siecle  (5  vols.,  Paris, 
1835-'53),  and  Histoire  de  la  reformation  au 
tempt  de  Calvin  (5  vols.,  1862-'8 ;  vol.  vi., 
1875),  both  works  translated  into  English;  the 
English  translation  of  vol.  iv.  of  Gieseler's 
Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (New  York, 
1858),  valuable  for  its  extracts  from  original 
authorities;  L.  Hausser,  Geschichte  des  Zeital- 
ters  der  Reformation  (Berlin,  1868 ;  English 
translation,  1874) ;  and  George  P.  Fisher,  "  His- 
tory of  the  Reformation"  (New  York,  1873). 


REFORMATORIES 


251 


REFORMATORIES,  institutions  for  the  refor- 
mation of  juvenile  offenders,  and  for  the  care 
and  correctional  education  of  neglected  chil- 
dren. This  duty,  hut  recently  assumed  by  the 
government  in  most  countries,  was  previously 
left  to  the  philanthropic  efforts  of  individuals. 
The  oldest  and  the  largest  reformatory  in  the 
United  States  is  the  house  of  refuge  on  Ran- 
dall's  island,  New  York  city,  which  was  open- 
ed in  1825.  (See  NEW  YOKK,  vol.  xii.,  p.  397.) 
The  Boston  house  of  refuge  was  opened  in 
1827,  that  in  Philadelphia  in  1828,  and  that  in 
New  Orleans  in  1847.  But  these,  though  sup- 
ported in  whole  or  in  part  by  grants  from  the 
public  revenue,  were  not  managed  directly  by 
the  state.  The  importance  of  making  juvenile 
reformatories  a  part  of  the  public  penal  sys- 
tem was  recognized  by  Massachusetts  in  1848, 
when  the  state  reform  school  at  Westborough 
was  established.  Similar  institutions  were  or- 
ganized by  other  states,  so  that  in  1873  not 
less  than  34  reformatories  for  juvenile  offend- 
ers were  maintained  and  managed  by  the 
states,  or  largely  aided  by  them,  as  follows : 


NAME  OF  INSTITU- 
TION. 

Where  situated. 

When  opened. 

Average  number 
of  inmates  daring 
the  year. 

City  and  county  indus- 
trial school  

San  Francisco,  Cal.  .  .  . 

1858 

456 

State  reform  school  .  .  . 
Industrial    school    for 
girls  

West  Meriden,  Conn.. 
Middletown,  Conn.  .  .  . 

1854 
1870 

816 
75 

State  reform  school  .  .  . 

Pontiac,  111  

1ST1 

175 

House  of  refuge  
Keformatory     institu- 
tion (for  women  and 
girls)  

Plainfleld,  Ind  
Indianapolis,  Ind  

1868 
18T3 

200 
44 

State  ref.  school,  boys 
State  ref.  school,  girls 

Eldorado,  Iowa  
Salem,  Iowa  

1868 

146 
11 

House  of  refuge  

Louisville,  Ky  

1865 

161 

House  of  refuge  
State  reform  school  .  . 

New  Orleans,  La  
Portland,  Me  

1847 
1852 

109 
184 

House  of  refuge  

Baltimore,  Md  

1855 

286 

House  of  reformation 
Boston  house  of  ref 

Rosary  ville,  Md  

1873 

1827 

60 
801 

State  industrial  school 
for  girls  

Lancaster,  Mass  

1856 

121 

State  reform  school.  .  . 
State  reform  school.  .  . 

Westborough,  Mass.. 
Lansing,  Mich  

1848 
1856 

289 
211 

House  of  refuge  

St.  Louis,  Mo  

1854 

92 

State  reform  school.  .  . 
State  reform  school  .  .  . 
State  industrial  school 
for  girls  

Manchester,  N.  H  
Jamesburg,  N.  J  

Trenton,  N.  J... 

1855 
1867 

1871 

101 
158 

25 

House  of  refuge  
Juvenile  asylum  
Catholic  protectory  .... 
Western  house  of  ref- 
uge   
Girls'  industrial  home. 
House  of  refuge  
Reform  farm  school.  .  . 
House  of  refuge  (white 
department)  

Randall's  Island.  N.  Y. 
New  York,  N.  Y  
West  Chester,  N.  Y... 

Rochester,  N.  Y  
Lewis  Centre,  Ohio.  .  . 
Cincinnati,  Ohio  
Lancaster,  Ohio  

Philadelphia,  Pa.  .  . 

1825 
1851 
1863 

1849 
1869 
1861 
1857 

1828 

555 
617 
1,629 

882 
131 
207 
430 

445 

House  of  refuge  (col- 
ored department).  .  . 
Pennsylvania     reform 
school  

Philadelphia,  Pa  
Allegheny,  Pa  

1850 

1854 

126 
264 

Providence         reform 
'  school  , 

Providence,  R  I  

1850 

202 

State  reform  school.  .  . 

Waterbury,  Vt  

1866 

127 

Industrial    school   for 
boys  

W  ankesha,  Wis  

1860 

271 

Reform  school  

Washington,  D.  C.... 

1870 

108 

In  all,  about  100,000  boys  and  girls  have  been 
committed  to  these  institutions.  The  time  of 
sentence  is  generally  during  minority,  though 
in  a  few  states  it  is  for  a  specified  period.  The 
boys  and  girls  are  required  to  learn  trades,  and 
to  receive  secular  and  religious  instruction. 
The  average  number  of  inmates  in  1873  was 
8,924,  of  whom  7,743  were  boys  and  1,481 
girls;  the  average  cost  of  maintaining  each 
inmate  in  1872  was  $152 ;  the  average  earn- 
ings of  each  were  $37 ;  average  stay  in  the  in- 
stitution, 1  year  and  11  months  for  the  boys 
and  3  years  and  4J  months  for  the  girls ;  con- 
sidered reformed,  73  per  cent,  of  those  dis- 
charged. "Where  necessary,  those  discharged 
are  provided  with  homes  or  employment,  or 
indentured ;  and  in  some  cases  they  are  liber- 
ated on  probation.  Fifteen  per  cent,  of  those 
detained  in  1873  had  been  vagrants,  and  39 
per  cent,  truants. — The  reformatory  system 
of  Great  Britain  has  been  under  the  control 
of  the  government  for  but  a  comparatively 
brief  period.  The  work  of  reforming  juvenile 
delinquents  was  begun  as  early  as  1788  by  the 
philanthropic  society,  which  founded  the  first 
English  reform  school  near  London.  Similar 
institutions  were  established  in  London  and 
elsewhere;  that  in  Warwickshire,  opened  in 
1818,  was  the  first  in  which  farm  and  outdoor 
labor  was  made  a  part  of  the  training  of  the 
inmates.  In  1838  an  act  was  passed  for  the 
establishment  of  a  separate  prison  at  Park- 
hurst,  Isle  of  Wight,  for  offenders  under  the 
age  of  16  years.  The  discipline  here  was  in- 
tended to  be  specially  educational  and  refor- 
matory. The  greatest  reformatory  in  England 
is  that  established  at  Redhill,  Surrey,  under 
the  direction  of  Sidney  Turner.  It  was  mod- 
elled after  the  famous  colony  of  Mettray  in 
France,  and  is  conducted  on  the  principles  of 
domestic  management,  absence  of  walls  and 
wardens,  and  outdoor  labor.  Similar  institu- 
tions were  soon  afterward  opened  at  Hard- 
wicke  in  Gloucestershire,  near  Birmingham,  at 
Bristol,  and  in  Hampshire.  In  1854  the  secre- 
tary of  state  was  empowered  to  license  refor- 
matory schools  in  Great  Britain  approved  by 
him,  and  to  make  an  allowance  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  young  offenders  committed  to 
them.  Certain  courts  and  magistrates  were 
authorized  to  commit  to  such  institutions  ju- 
veniles under  16  years  of  age  for  not  less  than 
two  nor  more  than  five  years.  At  the  same 
time  provision  was  made  for  the  establishment 
of  industrial  schools  in  Scotland  for  destitute 
and  vagrant  children  under  14  years  of  age. 
An  industrial  schools  act  was  passed  for  Eng- 
land in  1857,  and  in  1861  industrial  schools  in 
both  England  and  Scotland  were  placed  undei 
the  home  office,  with  provision  for  an  allow 
ance  from  the  treasury  for  their  maintenance, 
similar  to  that  given  to  reformatory  schools. 
Reformatories  are  intended  for  correction,  and 
industrial  schools  for  prevention.  Only  those 
boys  and  girls  are  sent  to  a  reformatory  who 
have  been  convicted  of  some  offence  punish- 


252 


REFORMATORIES 


REFORMED  CHURCH 


able  by  imprisonment  or  penal  servitude,  and 
who  have  been  committed  to  jail  in  the  first 
instance  for  not  less  than  10  days ;  they  must 
be  between  10  and  16  years  of  age,  unless  pre- 
viously convicted  or  sentenced  by  a  superior 
court.  Industrial  schools  are  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children  under  14  years  of  age ;  they 
are  sent  directly  to  the  institution,  and  do 
not  pass  through  the  jail.  Children  under  12 
years  of  age,  guilty  of  any  petty  offence,  may 
also  be  sent  to  them  instead  of  being  committed 
to  prison  and  a  reformatory.  Reformatories  or 
industrial  schools  may  be  established  in  connec- 
tion with  any  religious  organization.  The  num- 
ber of  reformatories  in  Great  Britain  on  Jan. 
1, 1873,  was  65,  of  which  45  were  for  boys  and 
20  for  girls.  The  total  number  of  inmates  at 
that  date  comprised  4,424  boys  and  1,151  girls. 
The  number  of  certified  industrial  schools  was 
100,  in  which  were  7,598  boys  and  2,587  girls, 
besides  720  children  'who  were  under  deten- 
tion.— In  France  the  establishments  for  the 
correctional  education  of  juvenile  delinquents 
receive  boys  and  girls  16  years  of  age  and 
under.  The  penitentiary  colonies  and  correc- 
tional colonies  are  for  boys.  To  the  former 
are  sent:  1,  children  acquitted  as  having  acted 
without  knowledge,  but  who  are  not  sent  back 
to  their  parents ;  2,  young  prisoners  sentenced 
for  more  than  six  months  and  not  exceed- 
ing two  years.  Some  of  these  are  public  in- 
stitutions, founded  and  directed  by  the  state; 
others  have  been  established  and  are  man- 
aged by  individuals  with  the  authorization  of 
the  government.  The  correctional  colonies, 
which  are  all  public,  receive  young  prisoners 
sentenced  for  more  than  two  years,  and  those 
from  the  penitentiary  colonies  who  have  been 
declared  insubordinate.  A  similar  classification 
is  made  for  girls,  for  whom  there  are  20  es- 
tablishments, of  which  one  is  directed  by  the 
state.  There  are  32  establishments  for  boys, 
including  3  public  colonies,  4  correctional 
wards,  and  25  private  colonies.  The  most  suc- 
cessful of  the  French  reformatories  for  boys 
is  the  agricultural  colony  at  Mettray,  five 
miles  from  Tours.  (See  MKTTRAT.)  The  prin- 
ciples of  family  groups  and  agricultural  labor 
were  copied  from  the  Rauhes  Haus,  near  Ham- 
burg, which  was  established  by  Dr.  Wichern 
in  1833,  and  has  long  been  one  of  the  most 
noted  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Europe. — 
Belgium  has  a  highly  successful  institution  for 
the  reformation  of  juveniles,  not  criminals, 
but  vagrants,  truants,  street  beggars,  &c.  It 
comprises  three  different  schools,  two  for  boys 
and  one  for  girls;  the  former  are  at  Ruys- 
selede  and  Wynghene,  within  sight  of  each 
other,  and  the  latter  is  at  Beernem,  two  or 
three  miles  distant.  The  chief  occupation  of 
the  boys  is  farm  work,  though  during  the  win- 
ter they  are  employed  in  a  variety  of  trades. 
The  girls  are  engaged  chiefly  in  lace  making, 
sewing,  and  laundry  work.  This  institution 
is  noted  for  the  class  of  neglected  children  it 
is  intended  for,  and  is  self-sustaining. 


REFORMED  CHURCH.  The  Protestants  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  were  divided,  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,  into  two  main 
bodies,  known  as  the  Lutheran  church  and  the 
Reformed  church.  Though  these  designations 
are  insufficient  to  include  all  the  subsequent 
divisions  and  sects,  yet  they  mark  two  dis- 
tinct types  of  theology  and  polity,  which  have 
been  ever  since  perpetuated.  The  so-called 
Reformed  churches  are  those  nurtured  under 
the  influence  of  what  is  popularly  known  as  the 
Calvinistic  system.  This  system  is  contrasted 
with  Lutheranism  in  several  marked  particu- 
lars. Its  keynote  is  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  sovereignty,  held  not  as  a  philosophical 
speculation,  but  as  a  religious  tenet.  Luther 
indeed  agreed  with  Calvin,  using  even  stronger 
forms  of  statement,  as  to  the  servitude  of  the 
fallen  human  will,  and  the  doctrine  of  elec- 
tion. But  the  Lutheran  theology,  under  Me- 
lanchthon's  influence,  and  in  the  Formula 
Concordice,  renounced  the  decree  of  uncondi- 
tional election ;  nor  did  its  divines  defend  the 
supralapsarian  scheme.  Another  theological 
difference  was  upon  the  theory  of  the  Lord's 
supper.  Luther,  though  denying  transubstan- 
tiation,  affirmed  a  supernatural  union  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  with  the  consecrated 
elements,  and  advocated  a  literal  interpretation 
of  the  words,  "This  is  my  body,"  holding  to 
the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  in 
such  a  sense  that  the  communicant,  worthy  or 
unworthy,  actually  receives  the  body  of  Christ 
into  the  mouth,  "in,  with,  and  under  the  form 
of  the  bread."  The  Lutheran  divines  asserted 
the  ubiquity,  though  not  in  the  common  sense, 
of  Christ's  body,  resulting  from  the  union  of 
the  divine  and  human  natures  in  his  person. 
Calvin,  on  the  contrary,  maintained  the  real 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  supper  only  in  a 
spiritual  sense,  and  a  spiritual  reception  on 
the  part  of  the  communicant,  the  body  of 
Christ  meanwhile  remaining  in  heaven,  and 
imparting  its  virtue  by  a  wonderful  spiritual 
process.  (See  Julius  Muller,  Lutheri  et  Cal- 
vini  Sententics  de  Sacra  Ccena  inter  te  com- 
parafa,  Halle,  1858.)  But  in  contrast  with 
Zwingli,  Calvin  held  that  the  sacraments  were 
seals  and  pledges,  and  not  merely  signs,  of  di- 
vine grace.  Montesquieu  says  that  the  Luther- 
an and  Reformed  communions  each  believed 
itself  to  be  most  perfect :  "  The  Calvinists 
believe  themselves  to  be  most  conformed  to 
what  Jesus  has  said,  the  Lutherans  to  what  the 
apostles  have  done."  "  The  Calvinists,"  says 
Schweizer,  "contended  against  the  paganism 
of  Rome,  and  the  Lutherans  against  its  Juda- 
ism." The  latter  have  been  more  practical,  tho 
former  more  speculative ;  the  one  communion 
most  absorbed  in  the  reconciliation  of  sover- 
eignty with  free  will,  the  other  most  devoted 
to  the  problem  of  the  relation  of  the  divine  tp 
the  human,  especially  in  the  pet-son  of  Christ. 
The  Lutheran  paid  more  deference  to  tradi- 
tion, the  Calvinist  relied  more  on  the  exclu- 
sive authority  of  Scripture,  often  not  distin 


REFORMED  CHURCH 


253 


guishing  between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
Both  adopted  the  presbyterian  polity ;  but  the 
Lutherans  insisted  more  on  the  territorial 
rights  of  princes,  while  the  Reformed  empha- 
sized the  rights  of  the  people. — The  Reformed 
movement  began  in  Switzerland,  under  the 
lead  of  Zwingli,  the  hero  of  Zurich,  as  early 
as  1516;  in  Basel  it  was  headed  by  CEcolam- 
padius;  Geneva  was  aroused  by  the  intrepid 
Farel,  and  taught  and  organized  by  Calvin, 
who  came  thither,  a  refugee  from  France,  in 
1536.  Switzerland  was  revolutionized  by  a 
grand  popular  movement.  The  same  form 
of  faith  was  planted  in  the  Palatinate,  where 
was  formed  the  German  Reformed  church, 
under  the  elector  Frederick  III.,  combining 
the  spirit  of  Melanchthon  with  that  of  Cal- 
vin. It  was  accepted  in  Bremen,  1561-'81 ; 
in  Nassau,  1582;  in  Anhalt,  1596;  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  1605;  and  even  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, John  Sigismund,  adopted  it  in  1614. 
Its  churches  were  also  scattered  in  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  and  Poland.  The  first  reforms  in 
Spain  and  Italy,  soon  suppressed,  were  nour- 
ished in  part  under  its  teachings.  In  France 
it  attained  such  vigor  that  in  1559  a  general 
synod  was  formed  at  Paris,  and  its  churches 
numbered  about  2,000.  But  here  they  were 
decimated  by  religious  wars,  and  by  the  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew's,  1572,  and  en- 
feebled by  the  abjuration  of  Protestantism 
by  Henry  IV.  The  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  Oct.  22,  1685,  deprived  2,000,000 
French  Protestants  of  their  religious  securi- 
ty, and  drove  out  half  a  million  into  all  parts 
of  Europe  and  America  before  the  close  of 
the  century.  The  Reformed  system  was  also 
introduced  into  Holland,  where  the  reforma- 
tion found  martyrs  as  early  as  1523.  The 
fierce  struggle  of  the  United  Netherlands  with 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  (1555-'98)  was  both  for 
civil  and  religious  freedom.  The  peace  of 
"Westphalia  in  1648  confirmed  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  Dutch  church.  In  England 
the  reformation  at  first  advanced  more  slow- 
ly. Cranmer  gave  it  shape,  mainly  in  the 
sense  of  the  Reformed  symbols,  under  Ed- 
ward VI.  The  persecutions  under  Mary  sent 
the  most  ardent  of  England's  reformers  to 
Zurich  and  Geneva,  whence  they  brought  back 
the  seeds  of  Puritanism.  But  the  Anglican 
church,  though  allied  to  the  Reformed  faith 
in  its  articles  of  religion,  retained  the  epis- 
copate, and  in  its  prayer  book  taught  the  ele- 
ments of  the  sacramental  system.  The  act  of 
uniformity  (1559)  led  to  a  strong  Puritan  re- 
sistance ;  and  the  conflict  passed  over  into 
the  17th  century,  coming  to  its  height  in  the 
civil  war  of  1642-'9,  and  the  beheading  of 
Laud  and  of  King  Charles.  But  the  success 
under  Cromwell  was  of  short  duration;  and 
the  strength  of  the  Reformed  influence  was 
removed  from  England  to  America.  In  Scot- 
land it  was  firmly  established  under  Knox's 
influence  after  his  return  from  the  continent 
in  1559,  and  organized  by  the  "  Solemn  League 


and  Covenant ;"  and  this  land  has  never  swerved 
from  its  loyalty  to  the  faith  of  Geneva.  In 
the  form  of  Congregationalism,  the  same  sys- 
tem of  faith  was  transplanted  to  the  new 
world  by  the  pilgrims  who  landed  on  Plymouth 
rock,  and  by  large  subsequent  immigrations ; 
in  the  form  of  Presbyterianism  (including  the 
German  and  Dutch  Reformed  churches),  it  was 
established  in  the  middle  and  southern  colonies 
by  emigrants  from  Scotland,  Ireland,  England, 
and  Holland ;  and  at  no  period  since  has  it 
ceased  to  exert  a  strong  and  vital  influence 
upon  the  principles  and  history  of  this  coun- 
try. The  Baptist  churches  of  England  and 
America  adopt  in  the  main  the  same  system 
of  faith.  In  other  parts  of  the  world,  by  colo- 
nization and  emigration,  the  Reformed  church 
is  also  widely  diffused. — In  correspondence  and 
harmony  with  this  wide  geographical  diffusion, 
the  Reformed  church  has  also  shown  great 
productive  power  in  respect  to  confessions 
of  faith  and  systems  of  theology,  which,  while 
retaining  the  same  essential  features,  have  set 
forth  different  types  of  doctrine.  In  this  re- 
spect it  is  distinguished  from  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  the  (orthodox)  Lutheran  communions. 
At  the  very  beginning  of  the  Reformed  move- 
ment we  find  Zwingli  and  Calvin  differing 
in  their  modes  of  expounding  the  common 
faith,  the  former  resolving  original  sin  into  a 
natural  defect,  and  cultivating  theology  more 
in  the  spirit  of  the  man  of  letters.  Even 
in  Switzerland,  besides  the  stricter  traditional 
and  scholastic  method,  exemplified  by  Heideg- 
ger, and  brought  to  its  consummation  in  Tur- 
retin,  Stapfer  also  taught,  in  his  able  "Po- 
lemics," the  mediate  and  not  exclusively  im- 
mediate imputation  of  Adam's  sin.  The  fa- 
mous school  of  Saumur  in  France,  under  the 
impulse  of  the  Scotchman  Cameron  and  the 
guidance  of  Amyraut,  abandoned  the  dog- 
ma of  a  limited  atonement  in  favor  of  the 
scheme  of  a  hypothetical  universalism  of  di- 
vine grace.  But  the  most  fruitful  seminary  of 
these  Calvinistic  systems  in  the  17th  century 
was  Holland.  Its  divines  were  at  first  divi- 
ded between  the  supralapsarian  and  the  infra- 
lapsarian  schemes.  The  great  Arminian  con- 
troversy led  to  the  convocation  of  the  synod 
of  Dort,  1618-'! 9,  at  which  representatives 
attended  from  the  English  church  as  well  as 
from  other  reformed  communions ;  and  where, 
against  the  Remonstrants,  the  five  points  of 
Calvinism  were  articulately  defined,  viz. :  1, 
unconditional  election ;  2,  particular  redemp- 
tion ;  3,  total  depravity ;  4,  grace  irresistible ; 
5,  the  perseverance  of  the  saints.  Three  prom- 
inent types  of  theology  were  represented  in 
the  subsequent  religious  development  in  the 
Netherlands :  1,  the  scholastic,  advocated  by 
Maresius,  Wendelin,  Gomarus,  and  Voetius ;  2, 
the  federal  theology,  or  the  theology  which 
takes  the  idea  of  covenants  as  its  central  con- 
ception, which  received  its  fullest  exposition 
in  the  works  of  Cocceius  and  Witsius,  modify- 
ing the  rigidity  of  the  scholastic  formulas  by 


254 


EEFOKMED  CHURCH 


a  more  Biblical  and  historical  method;  and 
8,  the  Cartesian  type,  which  made  use  of  the 
principles  of  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  to 
expound  and  vindicate  the  Christian  system, 
and  rendered  good  service  in  giving  a  more 
systematic  form  to  natural  theology  as  the 
logical  basis  of  revealed  theology,  and  in  the 
attempt  to  harmonize  the  rights  of  reason  with 
the  demands  of  faith.  The  Reformed  theology 
of  the  Palatinate  found  its  best  expression  in 
the  Heidelberg  catechism  (1563)  drawn  up  by 
Ursinus  and  Olevianus,  and  adopted  as  a  symbol 
by  the  German  Reformed  and  Dutch  churches. 
In  England,  Scotland,  and  America  this  sys- 
tem of  faith  is  expressed  in  the  "Westminster 
confession  of  faith  and  catechisms,  adopted  by 
the  long  parliament  in  1646,  by  the  kirk  of 
Scotland  in  1647,  by  the  Cambridge  synod  of 
New  England  in  1648,  and  by  the  Presbyterian 
church  of  America  in  1729.  The  subsequent 
divisions  in  the  Scotch  church  were  chiefly 
upon  the  question  of  the  relation  of  the  church 
to  the  civil  power  (Associate  presbytery,  1783 ; 
Covenanters,  1743 ;  Burghers  and  Anti-Burgh- 
ers, 1747;  Relief  Secession,  1761).  In  the 
"  marrow  controversy  "  (Fisher's  "  Marrow  of 
Modern  Divinity  ")  five  propositions  were  con- 
demned in  1720,  which  were  supposed  to  have 
an  Antinomian  tendency.  The  Scottish  ortho- 
doxy was  upheld  in  the  last  half  of  the  18th 
century  by  Erskine,  Hill,  and  others ;  though 
somewhat  enfeebled  by  the  lukewarmness  of 
the  Robertson  administration,  1758-'82.  It 
has  been  revived  in  the  present  century,  chiefly 
through  the  zealous  advocacy  of  Chalmers. 
In  the  Anglican  church  there  have  always  re- 
mained some  able  advocates  of  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  of  the  Reformed  system,  as  Da- 
venant,  Leighton,  Ezekicl  Hopkins,  and  John 
Edwards ;  but  it  has  chiefly  flourished  among 
the  nonconformists  of  England,  represented  by 
such  men  as  Thomas  Watson,  Baxter,  Owen, 
Howe,  Ridgeley,  Matthew  Henry,  and  Isaac 
"Watts,  not  to  name  men  of  later  date.  In  the 
writings  of  Tobias  Crisp  it  is  Antinoraian  in 
its  tendency. — Nearly  contemporaneous  with 
the  decline  of  the  Calvinistic  system  in  its  pro- 
ductive vigor  upon  the  continent  of  Europe, 
was  the  rise  of  its  most  elaborate  and  philo- 
sophical defender  in  our  own  land,  in  the  per- 
son of  the  elder  Edwards.  (See  EDWABDS, 
JONATHAN.)  He  stands  at  the  head  of  a  school, 
that  of  the  so-called  New  England  theology, 
which  may  well  vie  with  any  European  type  of 
this  system  in  ingenuity,  comprehensiveness, 
and  moral  vigor.  Denying  a  limited  atone- 
ment, insisting  upon  the  distinction  between 
natural  ability  and  moral  inability,  making  the 
essence  of  virtue  to  consist  in  holy  love,  and 
opposing  the  dogma  of  immediate  imputation, 
it  has  exerted  a  prevailing  influence  upon  the 
tone  of  theological  speculation,  and  borne  per- 
manent fruits  in  the  writings  of  Bellamy,  Hop- 
kins, Smalley,  the  younger  Edwards,  and  Em- 
mons.  The  later  representatives  of  the  Re- 
formed dogmatics  upon  the  continent  of  Eu- 


REFORMED  (DUTCH)  CHURCH 

rope,  as  Schleiermacher,  Ebrard,  Schnecker- 
burger,  Schweizer,  and  Vinet,  have  advocated 
it  in  a  historical  and  philosophical,  rather  than 
a  traditional  and  scholastic  spirit. — In  estima- 
ting the  influence  of  this  system,  we  ought  not 
to  pass  unnoticed  the  fact  that  a  large  portion 
of  the  denominations  and  sects  of  modern 
Christendom  have  sprung  into  being  from  its 
impulse,  or  in  opposition  to  it.  This  was  the 
case  with  the  Arminians;  in  part  also  with 
the  Unitarians  of  Poland,  Transylvania,  Eng- 
land, and  New  England ;  with  the  Baptists  in 
their  various  ramifications ;  and  with  the  Wes- 
leyans  or  Methodists  of  England  and  Ameri- 
ca. The  Reformed  church  has  been  fruitful 
in  sects.  The  Lutheran  church  of  Europe  has 
always  been  under  bonds  to  the  state ;  the  Re- 
formed churches  have  more  frequently  claimed 
their  own  rights,  and  demanded  a  relative  in- 
dependence. The  presbyterian  polity  was  es- 
sentially a  representative  system ;  its  lay  elders 
(chosen  for  life  in  Scotland  and  Geneva,  and 
for  a  limited  period  in  Holland,  France,  and 
Germany)  gave  it  vitality.  Its  presbyterial 
and  synodal  constitution,  aristocratic  in  France 
and  Geneva,  and  more  democratic  in  Holland 
and  Scotland,  has  made  it  efficient.  It  has 
also  been  zealous  in  administering  discipline. 
The  power  of  the  laity  was  still  further  en- 
hanced in  the  congregational  or  independent 
form  of  polity,  so  largely  adopted  in  England 
by  the  nonconformists,  including  the  Baptists, 
and  prevalent  in  New  England.  Thus  fitted  to 
be  a  working  church,  it  has  in  most  of  its 
branches  been  zealous  in  domestic  and  foreign 
missions,  and  has  led  the  way  to  the  progres- 
sive reforms  that  characterize  modern  society. 
REFORMED  (1)11(11)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  (for- 
merly REFORMED  PROTESTANT  DCTOH  CHURCH), 
a  religious  body  which  arose  in  the  Nether- 
lands early  in  the  16th  century,  and  attained 
its  form  and  organization  during  the  struggle 
against  Philip  II.  under  the  leadership  of  the 
princes  of  Orange.  For  a  long  time  those  who 
embraced  the  evangelical  doctrines  could  wor- 
ship only  with  the  utmost  privacy,  and  they 
denominated  their  assemblies  "the  churches  of 
the  Netherlands  under  the  cross."  In  1561  a 
confession  of  faith  was  published  by  Guido  de 
Bres,  called  the  Belgic  confession,  modelled 
after  that  of  the  Calvinistic  church  of  France. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  first  synod  held  in  1568 
at  Wesel  on  the  Rhine.  Public  field  preach- 
ing was  introduced  about  the  same  time,  and 
also  singing  in  the  native  language.  Church- 
es were  formed  after  the  Genevan  presbyte- 
rian model,  and  at  the  synod  of  "Wesel  rules  of 
church  order  were  adopted,  and  the  scattered 
churches  were  organized  as  one  body.  Soon 
afterward  the  yoke  of  Spain  was  formally 
thrown  off  by  the  provinces,  and  the  Protes- 
tant faith  became  the  religion  of  the  state.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  17th  century  the  famous 
Arminian  controversy  distracted  the  church. 
Arminius,  professor  of  theology  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Leyden,  advanced  sentiments  which 


REFORMED  (DUTCH)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA 


255 


were  thought  by  his  colleague  Gomarus  to  be 
at  variance  with  the  standards  of  the  church. 
A  controversy  arose,  in  which  ministers  and 
church  members  throughout  the  country  took 
sides,  the  larger  portion  by  far  sympathizing 
with  the  Gomarists,  while  those  who  were 
high  in  political  power  for  the  most  part  fa- 
vored the  Arminians.  In  a  remonstrance  to  the 
states,  the  views  of  the  Arminians  on  the  fa- 
mous five  points  of  predestination,  redemption, 
depravity,  conversion,  and  perseverance  were 
defined.  From  this  paper  they  were  called 
Remonstrants,  and  their  opponents  were  from 
their  reply  called  Contra-Remonstrants.  The 
(Sontra-Remonstrants  urged  the  call  of  a  na- 
tional synod  to  decide  on  the  new  opinions, 
and  the  Remonstrants  opposed  it.  The  former 
contended  for  the  independence  of  the  church 
in  matters  of  discipline;  the  latter  deferred 
much  to  the  authority  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment. At  length,  after  a  protracted  contro- 
versy under  the  stadtholder  Maurice,  a  national 
synod  met  at  Dort  in  1818,  and  continued  in 
session  six  months.  By  it  the  doctrines  of 
the  Remonstrants  were  condemned,  and  those 
who  had  taught  them  were  deposed  from  the 
ministry  and  deprived  of  all  ecclesiastical  and 
academical  offices.  The  decision  of  the  synod 
was  followed  by  the  action  of  the  states  for- 
bidding all  assemblies  of  the  Remonstrants, 
and  banishing  many  of  the  deposed  ministers. 
The  Remonstrants  were  afterward  tolerated, 
and  have  continued  as  a  small  sect  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, while  their  doctrines  have  spread 
widely  into  other  countries.  By  this  last  na- 
tional synod  of  the  church  in  the  Netherlands 
her  doctrines  and  order  were  finally  settled. 
Through  the  remainder  of  the  century  she  was 
greatly  prospered,  was  zealously  carried  into 
all  the  Dutch  colonies  east  and  west,  and  was 
known  especially  for  her  tolerant  spirit.  The 
church  and  republic  of  the  Netherlands  fur- 
nished an  asylum  for  the  oppressed  of  every 
creed  and  nation.  Of  late,  however,  the  min- 
isters and  members  of  the  national  church  have 
to  a  great  extent  departed  from  the  evangel- 
ical doctrines  of  the  standards,  and  rational- 
istic and  Socinian  ideas  greatly  prevail  among 
them. — The  church  was  introduced  into  Amer- 
ica early  in  the  17th  century.  The  first  per- 
manent agricultural  settlement  in  New  Neth- 
erland  was  made  in  1623,  and  soon  the  col- 
onists enjoyed  the  services  of  two  TcranTcbe- 
soeclcers  or  consolers  of  the  sick,  who  were 
officers  of  the  church,  and  whose  duty  it  was 
to  visit  and  pray  with  the  sick,  and  conduct 
public  worship  in  the  absence  of  a  minister. 
These  read  the  Scriptures  and  creeds  to  the 
people  assembled  in  an  upper  room  over  a 
horse  mill.  In  1628  the  Rev.  Jonas  Michae- 
lius  arrived  at  Manhattan,  organized  a  consis- 
tory, administered  the  sacraments,  and  per- 
formed all  the  functions  of  the  ministry.  He 
was  succeeded  in  1633  by  the  Rev.  Everardus 
Bogardus,  who  was  accompanied  by  the  first 
schoolmaster,  Adam  Roelandsen.  Bogardus 
701  VOL.  xiv. — 17 


married  the  widow  Annetje  Jansen,  whose 
farm  has  now  become  the  valuable  property 
held  by  the  corporation  of  Trinity  church. 
In  his  time  a  plain  wooden  building  was  put 
up  for  worship  in  Broad  street,  between  Pearl 
and  Bridge.  The  second  building  was  erected 
under  the  administration  of  Director  Kieft 
in  1642,  and  stood  within  the  walls  of  Fort 
Amsterdam  on  the  Battery.  After  the  sur- 
render of  New  Amsterdam  to  the  English  in 
1664,  this  church  was  used  by  the  military 
chaplains  when  not  occupied  by  the  consis- 
tory ;  and  after  the  Dutch  people  removed 
into  their  new  edifice  in  Garden  street,  it 
was  used  by  the  English  garrison  for  wor- 
ship down  to  1741.  Public  worship  was  com- 
menced at  Albany  perhaps  as  early  as  at  New 
Amsterdam,  but  the  first  minister  there  of 
whom  we  have  knowledge  was  Johannes  Me- 
gapolensis,  who  soon  after  his  arrival  in  1 643 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  Indians  who  came 
to  Fort  Orange  to  trade.  During  the  Dutch 
rule  churches  were  also  established  at  Esopus 
(Kingston,  N.  Y.),  Flatbush  and  Flatlands, 
and  Brooklyn.  New  Amsterdam  at  the  time 
of  its  surrender  contained  only  about  1,500 
inhabitants,  and  in  the  entire  province  of  New 
Netherland  there  were  five  churches  and  six 
ministers.  From  that  time  until  recently  the 
progress  of  the  church  in  America  has  been 
necessarily  slow,  for  the  following  reasons : 
1.  The  emigration  from  the  Netherlands  al- 
most entirely  ceased,  and  many  families,  will- 
ing to  live  only  under  their  native  government, 
retiirned  to  the  Netherlands.  2.  Government 
patronage  was  removed  on  the  transfer  of  the 
province  to  the  British  and  the  introduction  of 
the  English  church,  to  which  church  also  ad- 
vantages were  given  amounting  to  its  virtual 
establishment  by  law  in  New  York,  "Westches- 
ter,  Queens,  and  Richmond.  3.  The  Dutch  lan- 
guage was  used  exclusively  in  worship  down  to 
the  year  1763;  consequently  the  church  could 
not  gather  within  her  fold  those  who  used  an- 
other language,  nor  extend  herself  to  new  set- 
tlements. Meanwhile  the  English  language  was 
used  in  schools  and  in  public  business,  and 
had  at  last  become  the  prevailing  and  popular 
tongue.  Although  English  preaching  was  in- 
troduced in  1763,  the  Dutch  continued  to  be 
the  prevailing  language  in  the  various  pulpits 
down  to  the  present  century,  but  after  that  it 
rapidly  gave  way  to  the  English,  and  now  is 
no  more  heard  in  public  worship,  save  in  the 
churches  composed  of  recent  emigrants  from 
Holland.  The  minutes  of  the  general  synod 
began  to  be  kept  in  English  in  1794.  4.  The 
church  suffered  from  a  deficiency  of  ministers, 
and  the  obstacles  that  were  in  the  way  of  ob- 
taining a  supply.  She  had  no  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  no  church  judicatory  with  pow- 
er of  ordination ;  her  ministers  all  belonged  to 
the  classis  of  Amsterdam,  and  to  that  classis 
she  applied  for  ministers,  and  to  it  she  sent 
her  candidates  to  receive  ordination.  By  these 
means  the  congregations  were  often  subjected 


256 


REFORMED  (DUTCH)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA 


to  great  delay  and  expense.  Then  arose  the 
noted  coetus  and  conferentie  controversy.  The 
coetus  was  a  body  formed  in  1747,  which  pos- 
sessed no  ecclesiastical,  but  only  advisory  pow- 
ers. From  this  sprang  the  coetus  party,  who 
proposed  that  this  assembly  should  be  changed 
into  a  regular  classis,  that  an  educational  in- 
stitution should  be  established,  and  that  the 
church  should  thus  boldly  undertake  to  supply 
herself  with  a  ministry.  This  was  opposed 
by  the  conferentie,  who  zealously  advocated 
a  continuance  of  the  state  of  dependence  on 
Holland. .  At  last,  through  the  agency  of  the 
Rev.  John  H.  Livingston,  D.  D.,  the  breach  was 
healed,  and  in  1771  an  independent  church  or- 
ganization was  effected.  A  convention  of  min- 
isters and  elders  met  in  New  York  in  October 
of  that  year,  by  which  three  objects  were  se- 
cured: 1,  the  internal  arrangement  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  churches,  embracing  the  or- 
ganization of  superior  church  judicatories  and 
measures  for  the  establishment  of  a  professor- 
ship of  theology;  2,  healing  of  dissensions; 
3,  correspondence  with  the  church  in  Holland. 
The  acts  of  the  convention  were  soon  followed 
by  the  approbation,  good  wishes,  and  prayers 
of  the  classis  of  Amsterdam.  The  church  in 
Holland  made  it  an  express  condition  of  the 
independence  of  the  church  in  America  that 
she  should  at  once  initiate  measures  for  the 
training  of  a  learned  ministry.  The  classis  of 
Amsterdam  was  therefore  petitioned  to  send 
over  a  professor  of  theology,  but  instead  of 
this  they  recommended  the  appointment  of 
Dr.  Livingston.  On  account  of  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolutionary  war,  his  appointment 
was  delayed  till  1784.  During  the  war  the 
congregations  in  New  York  were  scattered, 
the  houses  of  worship  desecrated,  and  of  the 
four  pastors,  three  never  returned  to  their  field 
of  labor.  The  church  now  completed  her  or- 
ganization by  the  formation  of  a  general  synod, 
which  at  first  met  triennially,  but  after  1812 
annually.  A  constitution,  compiled  by  Drs. 
Livingston  and  Romoyn  from  the  acts  of  the 
synod  of  Dort,  and  adapted  to  the  church  in 
this  country,  was  adopted.  In  1770,  through 
efforts  of  the  coetus  party,  a  charter  had  been 
obtained  for  a  college,  to  be  called  Queen's, 
which  was  established  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
A  chief  object  of  this  college  was,  as  its  charter 
declares,  to  prepare  young  men  for  the  minis- 
try of  the  Reformed  Dutch  church,  and  it  was 
required  that  its  president  should  be  a  member 
of  that  church.  From  fear  of  awakening  old 
prejudices,  the  professorship  of  theology  was 
kept  separate  from  the  college  till  1810,  when 
Dr.  Livingston  removed  to  New  Brunswick, 
and  in  addition  to  his  professorship  held  th* 
office  of  president  of  Queen's  college.  In  1825 
the  college,  whose  exercises  had  for  some  years 
been  suspended,  was  revived  under  the  name 
of  Rutgers,  and  a  new  covenant  was  framed 
between  the  synod  and  board  of  trustees.  (See 
NEW  BRUNSWICK,  and  RUTGERS  COLLEGE.) — 
Members  of  the  Dutch  church  cooperated  in 


1793  with  many  from  other  churches  in  form- 
ing the  New  York  missionary  society.  Min- 
isters were  also  sent  on  missionary  tours  to 
Kentucky  and  Canada,  and  some  churches  were 
established,  but  by  reason  of  distance  and  in- 
herent weakness  they  were  soon  lost.  The 
efforts  at  extension  were  afterward  mainly  di- 
rected to  western  New  York,  and  about  the 
year  1830,  when  the  present  board  of  domes- 
tic missions  was  organized,  a  number  of  im- 
portant posts  were  occupied.  In  1836  mis- 
sions to  the  western  states  were  commenced. 
At  present  there  are  76  churches  in  the  west- 
ern states,  of  which  a  large  number  are  com- 
posed of  emigrants  from  Holland.  There  ar8 
no  churches  in  New  England,  and  none  south 
of  Philadelphia.  Five  sixths  of  the  churches 
are  in  the  states  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
Two  thirds  of  all  the  churches  in  the  connec- 
tion have  been  organized  within  the  past  50 
years,  and  during  that  time  the  ministry  has 
increased  more  than^  fourfold.  In  1817  the 
general  synod  cooperated  with  the  Associate 
Reformed  and  Presbyterian  churches  in  the 
formation  of  the  united  foreign  missionary  so- 
ciety, which  in  1826  was  merged  in  the  Amer- 
ican board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  mis- 
sions. In  1832  the  synod  made  An  arrange- 
ment with  the  American  board,  under  which 
in  1836  a  band  of  missionaries  went  forth  from 
the  Dutch  church  destined  for  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  Stations  were  begun  on  the  island 
of  Borneo,  and  soon  a  part  of  the  band  was 
sent  to  establish  a  mission  at  Amoy  in  China. 
On  account  of  a  diminution  of  the  numbers  of 
the  missionaries  and  a  lack  of  reinforcements, 
the  stations  in  Borneo  were  after  a  few  years 
abandoned.  The  missionaries  at  Amoy  have 
been  eminently  successful.  In  southern  India 
are  several  churches  forming  the  classis  of  Ar- 
cot,  which  at  first  were  ministered  to  by  five 
sons  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Scudder.  The  ar- 
rangement with  the  American  board  contin- 
ued in  force  till  1857,  when  an  amicable  sepa- 
ration was  effected,  and  the  missions  of  Amoy 
and  Arcot  were  transferred  to  the  Reformed 
Dutch  church.  In  1859  missionaries  were  sent 
to  Japan,  where  they  have  done  an  admirable 
work,  especially  in  education.  Mission  work 
is  also  to  a  limited  extent  conducted  among 
the  Indian  tribes  in  the  far  west.  Besides  the 
boards  of  domestic  and  foreign  missions,  the 
general  synod  established  a  board  of  Sabbath 
school  union,  which  has  since  been  abolished ; 
a  board  of  education  for  the  aid  of  pious  indi- 
gent young  men  in  preparing  for  the  ministry; 
a  board  of  publication,  which  aims  to  spread  a 
sound  religious  literature ;  a  relief  fund  for  the 
aid  of  disabled  ministers  and  the  families  of 
deceased  ones ;  and  a  f nnd  for  church  exten- 
sion.— In  1822  the  Rev.  Solomon  Froeligh,  D. 
D.,  of  Hackensack  and  Schraalenburgh,  N.  J., 
and  a  few  other  ministers,  seceded  with  their 
congregations  from  the  Dutch  church,  on  the 
alleged  ground  of  a  prevailing  laxness  in  doc- 
trine and  discipline,  and  organized  the  "  True 


REFORMED  (DUTCH)   CHURCH  IN  AMERICA 


257 


Reformed  Dutch  church."  It  has  only  a 
few  congregations. — The  doctrinal  standards 
of  the  church  are:  1,  the  Belgic  confession  of 
faith  ;  2,  the  Heidelberg  catechism  ;  3,  the 
canons  of  the  synod  of  Dort.  The  Belgic 
confession  of  faith  was  published  in  1561,  and 
adopted  as  a  standard  by  the  synod  of  Wesel 
in  1568.  This  was  the  basis  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Reformed  church  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  its  37  articles  presents  a  com- 
plete systematic  view  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
reformation.  The  Heidelberg  catechism  was 
received  about  the  same  time.  It  had  been 
composed  by  order  of  the  elector  Frederick 
III.  for  the  Palatinate,  by  Ursinus,  a  professor 
in  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  and  Olevianus, 
a  court  preacher.  It  was  intended  by  the  elec- 
tor to  be  a  harmonizing  symbol  of  faith,  to  be 
received  by  both  the  Lutherans  and  Reformed 
in  his  dominions.  The  church  in  the  Nether- 
lands heartily  adopted  it,  divided  it  into  62 
Lord's  days,  and  ordered  that  it  should  not 
only  be  taught  to  the  youth,  but  expounded 
once  in  the  course  of  every  year  from  the  pul- 
pit. The  canons  were  adopted  by  the  synod 
of  Dort  in  1619,  and  framed  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  five  points  of  the  Arminians 
which  were  condemned  by  that  synod.  In  the 
church  of  the  Netherlands,  forms  of  prayer 
were  at  first  used  in  ordinary  public  worship 
in  connection  with  extemporaneous  prayers. 
Such  forms  are  now  found  in  the  liturgy  of 
the  Reformed  church  in  America,  but  their  use, 
though  allowed,  is  not  enjoined.  Practically 
they  are  regarded  as  directories  for  the  per- 
formance of  that  part  of  the  service.'  There 
are  other  portions  of  the  liturgy  the  use  of 
which  is  made  obligatory  by  th'e  constitution, 
viz.,  forms  for  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, for  the  ordination  and  installation  of 
ministers,  elders,  and  deacons,  and  for  the  ex- 
communication and  readmission  of  members. 
This  liturgy  in  its  essential  parts  was  composed 
for  the  church  in  London  in  1551  by  Jan  Laski 
or  John  &  Lasco,  who  used  the  labors  of  Cal- 
vin, Polanus,  and  others.  This  church  in  Lon- 
don was  composed  of  Protestant  refugees  from 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  who  in  Britain 
under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  found  an  asy- 
lum from  persecution.  Driven  back  to  the 
continent  on  the  accession  of  Mary,  they  car- 
ried their  liturgy  with  them.  It  was  rear- 
ranged by  Dathenua  and  adopted  substantially 
by  the  synod  of  Wesel  in  1568.  It  was  after- 
ward revised  and  confirmed  by  the  synod  of 
Dort.  The  English  translation  now  in  use  in 
this  country  was  first  published  by  the  con- 
sistory of  the  collegiate  church  of  New  York 
in  1767.  In  1853  a  movement  ivas  made  for 
the  revision  and  amendment  of  the  liturgy. 
This  subject  was  under  consideration  till  1858, 
when  it  was  decided  that  no  alterations  should 
be  made.  The  synod  of  1874  adopted  a  re- 
vised liturgy,  the  use  of  which  is  optional. 
The  prescribed  order  of  public  worship  in  the 
morning  is  as  follows:  1,  after  a  space  for 


private  devotion,  invocation  ;  2,  salutation ;  3, 
reading  the  ten  commandments  or  some  other 
portion  of  Scripture,  or  both;  4,  singing;  5, 
prayer;  6,  singing;  7,  sermon;  8,  prayer;  9, 
collection  of  alms;  10,  singing;  11,  benedic- 
tion. In  the  other  services  the  reading  of  the 
commandments  is  omitted,  and  the  last  service 
is  always  to  be  concluded  with  the  doxology. 
Formerly  the  apostles'  creed  was  recited,  and 
a  clerk  (voorlezer),  who  was  also  chorister, 
conducted  the  opening  services  from  his  desk 
below  the  pulpit  by  reading  the  command- 
ments and  a  chapter,  and  announcing  and  lead- 
ing in  the  singing  of  a  psalm.  The  minister 
had  an  hour  glass  standing  on  the  pulpit,  to 
measure  the  time  to  be  occupied  by  the  ser- 
mon, which  was  recommended  not  to  exceed 
an  hour.  On  some  part  of  every  Sabbath  a 
portion  of  the  Heidelberg  catechism  was  ex- 
pounded. Children  were  almost  universally 
baptized,  and  provision  was  made  for  their 
instruction  in  Christian  doctrine  by  parents, 
church  officers,  and  schoolmasters.  The  school 
was  an  appendage  of  the  church,  taught  by  a 
schoolmaster  appointed  by  the  consistory,  and 
was  constantly  visited  by  the  minister  and 
elders.  The  school  came  with  the  church  into 
this  country,  but  the  continued  connection  be- 
came in  time  impracticable.  Interest  has  lately 
been  reawakened  in  this  subject,  and  parochial 
schools  have  been  established  in  some  congre- 
gations. In  public  worship  only  such  psalms 
and  hymns  are  sung  as  have  been  recom- 
mended by  the  general  synod.  Singing  in  the 
English  language  was  introduced  in  1767.  In 
1813  the  Rev.  Dr.  Livingston,  by  order  of  the 
general  synod,  compiled  the  "Book  of  Psalms 
and  Hymns  "  now  in  use,  to  which  large  addi- 
tions of  hymns  have  been  made.  Another 
book  called  "  Hymns  of  the  Church,"  with 
tunes,  was  authorized  in  1869,  and  is  in  use  in 
many  of  the  churches.  The  observance  of  the 
principal  feast  days,  as  Christmas,  Easter,  As- 
cension, and  Whitsuntide,  was  denounced  by 
the  early  synods  in  the  Netherlands ;  but  as  it 
was  found  that  the  people  would  otherwise  de- 
vote them  to  their  pleasures,  it  was  afterward 
ordained  that  public  worship  should  be  con- 
ducted on  them.  In  accordance  with  this  they 
were  for  a  long  time  carefully  observed  by  the 
church  in  America,  nor  has  respect  for  them 
ceased  in  some  of  the  congregations  to  this 
day. — The  government  of  the  church  is  accord- 
ing to  the  Genevan  presbyterian  model.  The 
officers  are  ministers,  elders,  and  deacons,  to 
whom  may  be  added  professors  of  theology. 
The  elders  have  in  connection  with  the  min- 
isters the  spiritual  oversight  of  the  church. 
They  receive,  watch  over,  dismiss,  and  disci- 
pline members.  The  board  of  elders  corre- 
sponds to  the  session  in  the  Presbyterian 
church.  The  deacons  collect  and  administer 
alms.  The  minister,  elders,  and  deacons,  or 
the  elders  and  deacons  if  there  be  no  minis- 
ter, compose  the  consistory,  to  which  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  individual  church  belongs. 


258  KEFORMED  pUTCH)  CHURCH 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  they  are  also 
the  trustees  to  whom  the  management  of  the 
temporalities  is  committed.  The  elders  and 
deacons  are  elected  on  the  organization  of  a 
church  by  the  male  communicants,  and  subse- 
quently either  by  the  consistory  or  the  com- 
municants, and  in  both  cases  their  names  are 
published  to  the  congregation  for  approval. 
They  hold  office  for  two  years,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  which  term  they  may  be  reSlected. 
The  classis  corresponds  to  the  presbytery  in 
the  Presbyterian  church,  and  is  composed  of 
ministers,  'with  elders  delegated,  one  from  each 
church  within  a  certain  district.  The  classis  is 
a  court  of  appeal  from  the  judicial  decisions  of 
consistories.  It  approves  of  calls,  dissolves  pas- 
toral connections,  and  ordains  and  deposes  min- 
isters. The  particular  synods,  of  which  there 
are  four,  New  York,  Albany,  New  Brunswick, 
and  Chicago,  are  delegated  bodies  composed  of 
four  ministers  and  four  elders  from  each  classis 
within  the  bounds  of  the  synod.  These  are 
courts  of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the  clas- 
ses; they  form  new  classes,  and  transfer  con- 
gregations from  one  classis  to  another.  The 
general  synod  is  the  highest  court  of  appeal, 
and  is  composed  of  three  ministers  and  three 
elders  from  every  classis  in  the  connection.  In 
a  few  instances  of  large  classes,  four  ministers 
and  four  elders  are  delegated.  It  constitutes 
particular  synods,  appoints  theological  profes- 
sors, has  the  management  of  the  theological 
seminary  and  the  various  boards,  and  exercises 
a  general  supervisory  power  over  the  concerns 
of  the  church.  It  cannot  alter  or  amend  the 
constitution  of  the  church,  but  may  recom- 
mend alterations,  which  can  be  adopted  only 
by  the  votes  of  a  majority  of  the  classes.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  general  synod  held  at  Ge- 
neva, N.  Y.,  in  June,  1867,  it  was  voted  to 
drop  the  word  Dutch  from  the  corporate  name 
of  the  body,  it  being  alleged  that  many  were 
repelled  by  this  foreign  designation  from  join- 
ing the  church.  The  question  was  submitted 
to  the  classes,  assented  to,  and  the  action  com- 
pleted at  an  extra  session  of  the  general  synod 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  20  of  the  same  year.  A 
revised  constitution  was  adopted  in  1874.  The 
reports  of  1874  give  the  following  statistics : 
particular  synods,  4;  classes,  34;  churches, 
489;  ministers,  520;  communicants,  69,149; 
contributions,  $276,464.  "The  Christian  In- 
telligencer," which  is  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  the  church  and  mainly  supported  by  its 
members,  is  the  oldest  religious  weekly  in  the 
city  of  New  York  next  to  the  "  New  York  Ob- 
server," having  been  established  in  1828.  The 
boards  publish  a  semi-monthly  paper  called  the 
"Sower  and  Gospel  Field."  There  are  two 
theological  seminaries,  one  at  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  the  other  in  connection  with  Hope  col- 
lege at  Holland,  Mich.,  the  professors  of  which 
are  appointed  and  the  course  of  studies  pre- 
scribed by  the  general  synod,  and  which  all 
students  in  theology  contemplating  eatrance 
into  the  ministry  of  this  church  are  by  the  con- 


REF.  CHURCH  IN  UNITED  STATES 

/ 

stitution  required  to  attend.  Much  has  been 
done  recently  for  the  completion  of  the  en- 
dowment of  the  seminary  at  New  Brunswick, 
and  for  furnishing  it  with  the  necessary  build- 
ings and  library.  The  James  Suydam  hall  con- 
tains a  gymnasium,  chapel,  museum,  and  lec- 
ture rooms.  The  Gardner  A.  Sage  library  is  a 
spacious  fire-proof  building.  Many  thousands 
of  dollars  have  been  contributed  by  various 
friends  of  the  church  for  books,  by  the  expen- 
diture of  which  a  theological  library  will  be 
secured  second  in  value  to  none  in  the  country. 
REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE  IMTED  STATES 
(formerly  GEBMAN  RKFOEMKD  CHURCH  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA),  a  religious  body 
which  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Reformed  church 
of  Germany.  The  first  minister  was  the  Rev. 
George  Michael  Weiss,  who,  aided  by  the  clas- 
sis of  Amsterdam,  emigrated  with  about  400 
people  of  the  Palatinate  in  1727.  They  settled 
along  the  Skippach,  in  Montgomery  co.,  Pa., 
and  built  a  wooden  church.  The  majority  of 
the  immigrants  who  followed  these  pioneers  set- 
tled in  Pennsylvania,  E.  of  the  Susquehanna ; 
smaller  numbers  settled  in  New  York,  along 
the  Hudson,  in  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  and  even  extended  into  the  Carolinas. 
But  though  the  members  of  the  church  were 
soon  counted  by  thousands,  no  effort  was  made 
to  establish  an  ecclesiastical  organization,  and 
until  the  middle  of  the  century  the  number 
of  ministers  was  at  no  time  more  than  three 
or  four.  In  1746  the  Rev.  Michael  Schlatter 
was  commissioned  by  the  synods  of  North 
and  South  Holland  to  visit  their  German  mis- 
sions in  America,  and  to  regulate  their  ecclesi- 
astical relations.  After  visiting  all  the  Ger- 
man congregations,  he  assembled  in  Philadel- 
phia the  first  synod  (or,  as  it  was  then  call- 
ed, eoetui)  of  the  German  Reformed  church, 
Sept.  29,  1747.  It  consisted  of  31  members, 
5  ministers  and  26  elders,  who  represented  46 
churches  and  a  population  estimated  at  30,000. 
Schlatter  not  only  organized  the  church,  but 
greatly  promoted  its  growth  by  inducing  cler- 
gymen in  Germany  to  come  as  missionaries  to 
America,  and  by  collecting  in  England,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  Switzerland  a  large  fund 
for  the  support  of  ministers  and  teachers.  The 
German  Reformed  coetus  continued  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  synod  of  Holland,  sending 
its  acts  and  proceedings  to  it  for  revision,  till 
1793,  when  it  resolved  to  assume  the  right  of 
self-government.  It  adopted  a  constitution, 
entitled  Synodal-  Ordnung  der  hochdeutschen 
Beformirten  Synode  imd  der  mit  ihr  verbunde- 
nen  Gemeinden  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  von 
Nord-AmeriTca  ("  Constitution  of  the  High 
German  Reformed  Synod  and  of  the  congre- 
gations connected  with  it  in  the  United  States 
of  America  ").  The  church,  which  was  called 
High  German  in  distinction  from  the  Low 
German  or  Dutch,  had  at  this  time  at  least  150 
churches,  but  only  22  ordained  ministers.  It 
increased  rapidly  in  membership  and  congre- 
gations, but  as  the  influx  of  clergymen  who 


REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


259 


had  received  their  education  at  European  uni- 
versities ceased,  and  as  the  church  had  as  yet 
no  theological  school  of  its  own,  the  standard 
of  ministerial  education  was  considerably  low- 
ered. Here,  as  in  the  Reformed  church  of 
Germany,  there  was  a  general  indifference  to 
the  original  faith  of  the  church,  as  embodied  in 
the  Heidelberg  catechism.  A  reaction  against 
this  indifference  began  about  1815,  and  in  1820 
the  synod  enjoined  on  all  ministers  to  use  no 
other  book  but  the  Heidelberg  catechism  in  the 
instruction  of  youth  preparatory  to  confirma- 
tion. The  first  theological  seminary  of  the 
church  was  opened  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1825.  It 
was  removed  to  York  in  1829,  to  Mercersburg 
in  1835,  and  to  Lancaster  in  1871.  In  1830  a 
high  school  was  opened  at  York,  which  in  1835 
was  also  removed  to  Mercersburg,  and  in  1836 
received  the  name  of  Marshall  college.  In  1853 
it  was  united  with  Franklin  college  at  Lancaster. 
The  first  religious  paper  in  English  was  estab- 
lished in  1828,  the  first  German  in  1836.  Church 
boards  for  missions  and  beneficiary  education 
were  also  organized.  The  German  language, 
in  which,  with  only  two  or  three  exceptions, 
all  the  pastors  had  conducted  public  worship 
till  1825,  began  in  some  districts  to  give  way  to 
the  English,  a  transition  which  caused  no  little 
dissension  and  confusion,  but  was  finally  ac- 
complished. The  spread  of  the  English  lan- 
guage and  the  establishment  of  theological  and 
classical  schools  led  to  a  closer  connection  with 
other  Protestant  churches  of  the  United  States ; 
and  many  ministers  and  congregations,  chiefly 
those  using  the  English  language,  showed  a 
tendency  to  abandon  some  peculiar  customs  of 
the  church,  as  catechization,  confirmation,  and 
the  observance  of  great  festivals,  and  to  assim- 
ilate their  church  to  the  other  Protestant  de- 
nominations. But  a  powerful  counter  move- 
ment set  in,  which  received  its  first  impulses 
from  the  philosophical  teachings  of  Dr.  Rauch, 
first  president  of  Marshall  college,  and  found  its 
ablest  and  most  influential  expounder  in  Dr. 
John  Nevin.  The  controversy  was  long  and 
animated.  The  organism  of  the  church  under- 
went considerable  changes.  In  1819  the  con- 
stitution had  been  revised  and  amended.  The 
territory  was  divided  into  classes  (correspond- 
ing to  the  presbyteries  of  other  churches),  and 
the  synod,  instead  of  being  a  convention  of  all 
the  ministers  and  one  lay  delegate  from  each 
parish,  hecame  a  delegated  body  of  ministers 
and  elders  elected  -by  the  classes.  In  1824  the 
classes  of  Ohio  became  an  independent  body, 
assuming  the  name  of  the  "Synod  of  Ohio," 
which  in  1837  was  changed  into  "Synod  of 
Ohio  and  Adjacent  States."  The  new  synod, 
which  in  1842  divided  its  territory  into  six 
classes,  sympathized  with  the  opponents  of 
Dr.  Nevin,  who  was  sustained  by  the  eastern 
synod.  Both  synods,  however,  felt  the  need 
of  creating  a  higher  body  that  should  have 
jurisdiction  over  the  whole  church,  and  con- 
sequently agreed  upon  the  organization  of  a 
triennial  general  synod,  which  met  for  the  first 


time  in  Pittsburgh,  in  November,  1863.  In 
the  same  year  the  church  celebrated  the  300th 
anniversary  of  the  publication  and  adoption  of 
the  Heidelberg  catechism.  The  second  general 
synod,  held  in  Dayton,  O.,  in  1866,  author- 
ized the  organization  of  two  more  synods,  the 
northwestern  and  the  Pittsburgh.  The  general 
synod  of  1869  resolved  to  drop  the  word  Ger- 
man from  the  name  of  the  church.  The  gen- 
eral synod  of  1872  appointed  a  committee  to 
confer  with  the  Reformed  church  in  America, 
formerly  called  the  Protestant  Reformed  Dutch 
church,  with  a  view  to  forming  a  union.  The 
joint  committee  of  the  two  churches,  at  a 
meeting  held  in  November,  1874,  agreed  upon 
a  report  declaring  that  the  rite  of  confirmation 
and  the  observance  of  festal  religious  days  in 
the  Reformed  church  in  the  United  States 
were  no  serious  obstacles  to  a  union ;  but  that, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the  Reformed 
church  in  America  does,  and  the  Reformed 
church  in  the  United  States  does  not,  regard 
the  Belgic  confession  and  the  canons  of  the 
synod  of  Dort  as  standards  of  faith,  was  a 
discrepancy  seeming  to  preclude  any  further 
present  negotiation  in  the  direction  of  organic 
union.  The  growth  of  the  church  in  the  west- 
ern states  appears  to  have  given  to  what  has 
been  called  the  "  Low  Church "  party  the  as- 
cendancy in  the  church;  for  at  the  general 
synod  of  1872  the  appeal  of  a  prominent  leader 
of  that  party,  Dr.  Bomberger,  president  of 
Ursinus  college,  against  a  resolution  of  the 
eastern  (high  church)  synod  censuring  him  for 
assuming  the  office  of  teacher  of  theology  and 
giving  theological  instruction  independently  of 
any  proper  ecclesiastical  supervision  and  direc- 
tion, was  sustained  by  a  vote  of  100  to  78. — 
The  Heidelberg  catechism  is  the  only  standard 
of  doctrine.  As  this  hook  was  intended  to 
harmonize  the  Melanchthonian  and  Calvinistic 
tendencies,  it  has  been  construed  hy  theolo- 
gians of  these  two  schools  in  different  ways. 
In  the  German  Reformed  church  the  Melanch- 
thonian element  has  heen  predominant,  and  in 
the  American  hranch  of  the  church  this  ele- 
ment was  more  fully  developed,  so  that  many 
representative  theologians  incurred  the  charge 
of  Romanizing  tendencies.  This  was  especial- 
ly the  case  with  the  doctrine  of  the  church, 
which  is  thus  explained  by  a  leading  theolo- 
gian of  this  (the  "  High  Church  ")  school,  Pres- 
ident E.  V.  Gerhart :  "  The  German  Reformed 
church  denies  that  the  church  is  an  associa- 
tion of  converted  individuals;  that  the  Bible 
is  the  foundation  of  the  church ;  that  this  re- 
lation of  the  contents  of  the  Bible  to  the  in- 
dividual is  immediate ;  that  Protestantism  has 
its  ground  immediately  in  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures. On  the  contrary,  the  church  affirms 
that  the  person  of  Christ  is  the  true  principle 
of  sound  theology ;  that  the  Christian  church 
is  an  organic  continuation  in  time  and  space  of 
the  life  powers  of  the  new  creation  in  Christ 
Jesus;  that  private  judgment  is  subordinate 
to  the  general  judgment  of  the  church,  as  ex- 


260 


REFRIGEEATION 


KEGGIO 


pressed  particularly  in  the  oecumenical  creeds; 
that  the  individual  comes  to  a  right  apprehen- 
sion of  the  contents  of  the  Bible  through  the 
teaching  of  the  church ;  that  Protestantism  is 
a  historical  continuation  of  the  church  cath- 
olic, in  a  new  and  higher  form  of  faith."  The 
worship  of  the  church  is  liturgical.  The  first 
ministers  in  America  brought  with  them  the 
liturgies  of  those  sections  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland  from  which  they  emigrated,  a 
preference  being  generally  given  to  the  Palat- 
inate liturgy.  A  new  liturgy  prepared  by  Dr. 
Mayer,  and  adopted  in  1840,  did  not  suffi- 
ciently satisfy  the  theological  (high  church) 
school  which  had  gained  predominance  in  the 
church,  and  in  1847  a  new  one,  known  as  the 
provisional  liturgy,  was  reported  by  a  special 
committee  to  the  eastern  synod,  and  by  the 
latter  recommended  to  the  churches  for  trial. 
As  it  evoked  an  animated  controversy,  it  was 
referred  for  revision  to  a  committee  which  in- 
cluded Dr.  Nevin,  Dr.  Schaff,  Dr.  Gerhart,  Dr. 
Harbaugh,  and  Dr.  Bomberger.  This  com- 
mittee in  1866  reported  a  book,  entitled  "  An 
Order  of  Worship  for  the  Reformed  Church." 
The  eastern  synod  authorized  its  use  by  a  vote 
of  53  to  14,  while  the  general  synod  approved 
it  by  only  a  small  majority  (66  to  55)  as  "  an 
order  of  worship  proper  to  be  used." — The 
government  of  the  church  is  presbyterian. 
Each  congregation  is  governed  by  a  consistory 
composed  of  the  pastor,  elders,  and  deacons. 
The  elders  and  deacons  are  chosen  by  the  com- 
municant members,  and  are  ordained  by  laying 
on  of  hands.  The  consistory  is  subordinate  to 
the  classis,  which  consists  of  all  the  ministers 
and  one  elder  from  each  parish  of  a  district. 
The  synod  is  composed  of  ministerial  and  lay 
delegates  of  several  classes,  and  meets  annually. 
The  general  synod,  which  meets  triennially,  is 
made  up  of  delegates,  ministerial  and  lay,  from 
all  the  classes  of  the  church.  It  is  the  duty  of 
each  pastor  to  catechise  all  the  children  and 
youth  regularly,  and  reception  into  the  full 
communion  of  the  church,  which  is  preceded 
by  an  examination  of  the  candidates  in  the 
presence  of  the  elders,  takes  place  by  the  rite 
of  confirmation.  Christmas,  Good  Friday, 
Easter,  and  Whit  Sunday  are  regarded  as  high 
church  festivals,  and  are  observed  with  much 
solemnity. — The  reports  for  1874  give  the  fol- 
lowing statistics :  particular  synods,  5 ;  classes, 
38;  ministers,  597 ;  congregations,  1,325;  com- 
municants, 135,792  ;  unconfirmed  members, 
82,249;  Sunday  schools,  1,137;  scholars  in  the 
same,  69,132;  amount  of  benevolent  contribu- 
tions, $86,238.  Eleven  English  and  five  Ger- 
man papers  are  published  in  the  interest  of 
the  church;  and  there  are  16  theological  and 
literary  institutions  under  its  control. — See 
Dr.  E.  V.  Gerhart,  "The  German  Reformed 
Church  "(1863). 

REFRIGERATION.     See  FREEZING,  ARTIFICIAL. 

REFRIGERATOR  (Lat.  refrigere,  to  make  cool), 
an  apparatus  by  which  various  articles,  gen- 
erally meats  and  drinks,  are  kept  cool  or  are 


reduced  in  temperature.  The  ordinary  food 
refrigerator  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a  chest 
which  has  a  compartment  for  ice  and  one  or 
more  compartments  for  the  food.  Most  of  the 
older  forms  of  refrigerators  did  not  completely 
separate  the  ice  from  the  food  compartment, 
and  many  of  them  were  merely  chests  with 
double  sides  separated  by  some  non-conducting 
substance,  as  charcoal,  in  which  the  ice  as  well 
as  the  articles  to  be  kept  cool  were  placed  on 
shelves  indiscriminately.  In  either  case  the 
moisture  from  the  evaporating  ice  filled  the 
whole  apparatus,  and  caused  the  contents  to 
begin  decaying  soon  after  their  removal,  and 
indeed  prevented  their  being  preserved  long 
while  they  were  within  it.  In  the  presence 
of  moisture,  particularly  when  it  contains  the 
effluvia  from  various  meats  and  articles  of 
food,  decomposition  will  go  on  even  at  a 
temperature  considerably  below  the  freezing 
point,  and  this  cannot  be  secured  by  the  pres- 
ence of  ice.  In  a  dry  atmosphere,  like  that 
of  the  Andes  or  the  California  coast,  meats 
may  be  preserved  without  ice.  If  a  current  of 
air  is  made  to  circulate  in  a  chamber  surround- 
ing an  ice  box,  much  of  the  moisture  of  the 
air  will  be  condensed  upon  the  box,  and  there 
will  also  be  a  constant  collection  of  impurities 
contained  in  the  air.  To  make  such  a  refriger- 
ator efficient,  the  air  must  be  first  dried  by 
passing  it  through  a  vessel  containing  chloride 
of  calcium  or  some  substance  which  will  rapid- 
ly absorb  moisture.  In  either  case  the  caloric 
absorbed  by  the  ice  to  cool  a  continuous  cur- 
rent causes  it  to  melt  rapidly.  An  efficient 
method  is  to  place  a  tight  ice  box  within  a 
tight  meat  box,  or  surround  the  latter  with 
an  ice  chamber,  the  meats  to  be  first  cooled  in 
the  open  air. 

REFt'GIO,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  on  the  gnlf 
of  Mexico,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Guadalupe 
river  and  Espiritu  Santo  bay,  and  S.  W.  by  the 
Aransas,  and  intersected  by  the  San  Antonio, 
Mission,  and  other  rivers;  area,  1,310  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,824,  of  whom  246  were  colored. 
It  has  a  level  surface  and  a  generally  fertile 
soil.  Aransas  bay  lies  chiefly  in  the  S.  part. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  41,555 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  20,504  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  18,955  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  9,949 
horses,  1,002  mules  and  asses,  101,925  cattle, 
4,858  sheep,  and  4,838  swine.  Capital,  Refugio. 

REGATTA.    See  ROWING. 

REGELATION.     See  ICE,  vol.  ix.,  p.  146. 

RK(;K\SBIRG.     See  RATISBON. 

REGGIO  (REGGIO  NELL'  EMILIA).  I.  A  N". 
province  of  Italy,  bordering  on  Cremona,  Man- 
tua, Modena,  Massa  e  Carrara,  and  Parma; 
area,  877  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  240,635.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Po,  which  forms  the 
N".  W.  boundary,  and  its  affluent  the  Enza. 
The  mountains  toward  the  south,  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  Apennines,  are  barren,  but  the 
less  elevated  parts  and  the  valleys  are  very 
fertile.  It  comprises  the  districts  of  Reggio 
d'  Emilia  and  Guastalla. — Formerly  the  prin- 


EEGGIO  DI  CALABRIA 


REGIOMONTANUS 


261 


cipal  parts  of  it  formed  a  duchy,  successively 
ruled  by  the  houses  of  Este,  Correggio,  Gon- 
zaga,  Visconti,  and  others,  and  from  about 
1527  to  1859  by  the  dukes  of  Este  (afterward 
of  Modena),  excepting  during  the  French  dom- 
ination (1796-1814).  Marshal  Oudinot  was 
made  duke  of  Reggio.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Be- 
gium  Lepidi),  capital  of  the  province,  16  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Modena;  pop.  about  21,000  (as 
a  commune,  in  1872,  50,657).  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  has  broad  streets,  some  lined 
with  arcades,  a  fine  cathedral  and  several  oth- 
er churches,  convents,  a  museum  and  public 
library,  and  trade  in  wine,  silk,  cheese,  and 
hemp.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Ariosto,  whose 
400th  anniversary  was  celebrated  in  1874. — 
Regium  Lepidi  is  supposed  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  TEmilius  Lepidus,  the  constructor  of  the 
JEmilian  way.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Goths 
in  409,  and  refounded  by  Charlemagne. 

REGGIO  DI  CALABRIA.  I.  Or  Calabria  Mtc- 
rlore  I.,  a  province  forming  the  S.  extremity 
of  Italy,  bordering  on  the  Ionian  sea,  the  strait 
of  Messina,  the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  and  the  prov- 
ince of  Catanzaro;  area,  1,515  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  353,608.  It  is  traversed  by  many  moun- 
tains and  numerous  small  rivers.  The  country 
is  not  favorable  to  pasturage  and  agriculture, 
but  is  rich  in  timber,  oil,  silk,  and  minerals. 
(See  CALABBIA.)  The  province  is  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Reggio,  Gerace,  and  Palmi. 
II.  A  city  (anc.  Rhegium),  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, on  the  strait  and  9  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Messina;  pop.  about  18,000  (as  a  commune, 
in  1872,  35,235).  It  is  situated  in  a  most 
beautiful  region,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
and  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  a  theological 
seminary,  a  gymnasium  and  public  library,  an 
active  trade  in  local  products,  and  manufac- 
tories of  silks,  linens,  and  pottery.  Its  bay 
presents  the  remarkable  optical  phenomenon 
known  as  fata  morgana. — The  ancient  Rhe- 
gium was  an  important  city  of  Magna  Greecia, 
colonized  by  Eubceans  and  Messenians  about 
740  B.  C.  It  was  governed  under  an  aristo- 
cratic constitution  by  a  body  of  1,000.  Under 
Anaxilaus,  who  gained  supreme  power  in  the 
early  part  of  the  5th  century  B.  0.,  it  became 
very  prosperous.  His  sons,  however,  were 
expelled  by  the  people.  -In  427  the  Rhegians 
supported  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse,  but 
in  415  remained  neutral.  In  388  Dionysius 
the  Elder  besieged  the  city,  which  was  despe- 
rately defended  by  Phyton.  After  11  months 
of  resistance  it  was  compelled  by  famine  to 
surrender.  Phyton  and  his  family  were  put 
to  death,  the  inhabitants  were  sold  as  slaves, 
and  the  walls  were  razed  to  the  ground.  It 
was  partially  rebuilt  by  Dionysius  the  Young- 
er. On  the  arrival  of  Pyrrhus  in  Italy  in  280 
it  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  and  re- 
ceived a  garrison  of  4,000  Campanian  troops. 
The  soldiers,  taking  advantage  of  an  alleged 
defection,  massacred  the  male  inhabitants,  took 
possession  of  their  property,  and  made  slaves 
of  their  wives  and  children.  In  271  the  Ro- 


mans reduced  the  city  after  a  long  siege,  exe- 
cuted all  the  surviving  soldiers,  and  Rhegium 
came  again  into  the  hands  of  its  former  in- 
habitants. During  the  Punic  wars  it  remained 
faithful  to  Rome.  After  the  fall  of  the  west- 
ern empire  it  was  subject  to  the  emperors  of 
the  East.  It  was  taken  by  Totila  in  A.  D.  549, 
by  the  Saracens  in  918,  by  Robert  Guiscard  in 
1060,  and  by  Pedro  III.  of  Aragon  in  1283 ; 
and  during  the  16th  century  it  was  three  times 
sacked  by  the  Turks.  The  modern  city  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the.  earthquake 
of  1783,  and  rebuilt  on  a  larger  and  finer 
scale ;  and  it  was  again  much  damaged  by  an 
earthquake  in  1841. 

REGILLES,  Lake,  a  small  body  of  water  in 
Latium,  where,  according  to  the  historical 
legends  of  ancient  Rome,  was  fought  the  bat- 
tle which  decided  the  fate  of  the  last  Roman 
king  (about  498  B.  C.).  Its  site  has  been  con- 
sidered doubtful,  but  it  is  now  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  the  lake  of  Cornu- 
felle,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  stands 
the  town  of  Frascati  (the  ancient  Tusculum), 
about  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Rome;  this  lake  was 
formed  by  a  volcanic  crater  about  half  a  mile 
in  diameter,  and  was  artificially  drained  in  the 
17th  century.  Here  Tarquin  the  Proud,  hav- 
ing after  the  failure  of  Porsena's  expedition 
enlisted  the  Latins  in  his  cause,  with  his  son- 
in-law  Octavius  Mamilius  gave  battle  to  the 
Romans  under  the  dictator  Albums  Postumius, 
was  wounded  and  utterly  defeated,  and  fled 
alone  from  the  field.  The  chiefs  on  both  sides 
were  nearly  all  killed  or  wounded.  According 
to  the  tradition,  the  Romans  owed  their  vic- 
tory to  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  were  seen  to 
charge  at  the  head  of  their  cavalry,  and  who 
first  made  it  known  in  the  forum  at  Rome. 
There  a  temple  was  dedicated  to  them,  where 
the  day  (July  15)  was  afterward  annually  cele- 
brated. 

REGIMENT,  a  body  of  troops,  whether  in- 
fantry, cavalry,  or  artillery,  numbering  from 
800  to  2,400  men,  and  commanded  by  a  colo- 
nel and  one  or  more  lieutenant  colonels  and 
majors,  according  to  the  number  of  battalions 
into  which  it  is  divided.  The  battalions  are 
subdivided  into  companies,  each  of  which  is 
commanded  by  a  captain  and  one  or  more  lieu- 
tenants. The  regiment  forms  the  third  sub- 
division of  an  army  corps,  or,  where  the  di- 
vision by  corps  is  omitted,  of  an  army,  two 
or  more  regiments  constituting  a  brigade,  and 
two  or  more  brigades  a  division.  It  origina- 
ted in  the  French  service  about  1560. 

REGIOMONTANFS,  or  Johann  Mtiller,  a  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Konigsberg,  Franconia 
(whence  his  Latin  name),  June  6,  1436,  died 
July  6,  1476.  He  completed  his  studies  un- 
der Purbach  at  Vienna,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1461  as  professor  of  mathematics.  Subse- 
quently he  lectured  on  astronomy  at  Padua, 
spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  Matthias  Cor- 
vinus  in  Hungary,  and  resided  at  Nuremberg 
from  1471  to  1474,  when  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 


262 


REGIS 


REGNAULT 


called  him  to  Rome  to  reform  the  calendar, 
and  not  long  before  his  death  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Ratisbon.  According  to  some  au- 
thorities, he  was  assassinated  by  the  sons  of 
George  of  Trebizond,  in  whose  translations 
Regiomontanus  had  detected  grave  errors ; 
according  to  other  accounts,  he  died  of  the 
plague.  He  was  the  first  in  Europe  to  publish 
an  astronomical  almanac,  improved  the  knowl- 
edge of  algebra,  introduced  decimal  fractions, 
greatly  promoted  the  science  of  trigonometry, 
and  was  the  most  eminent  astronomer  that 
Europe  had  produced.  His  works  include 
Calendafium  (in  Latin  and  German,  Nurem- 
berg, about  1473);  Ephemerides  from  1475 
to  1506,  continued  by  Bernhard  Walther  and 
published  in  1544  by  Schonerus;  De  Refor- 
matione  Calendarii  (Venice,  1489);  De  Come- 
tce  Magnitudine,  Longitudineque  (Nuremberg, 
1531);  De  Triangulis  (1533) ;  and  Tabulae  Di- 
rectionum  Profectiortumque  in  Nativifatibut 
multum  utiles  (Veaice,  1585). — See  Regiomon- 
tanus als  geistiger  Vorldufer  des  Columbus,  by 
Alex.  Ziegler  (Langensalza,  1874). 

REGIS,  Jean  Baptist*  de,  a  French  geographer, 
born  at  Istres  in  Provence  about  1665,  died  in 
China  about  1737.  He  was  a  Jesuit,  and  was 
sent  to  China  as  a  missionary  about  1700.  His 
scientific  attainments  gained  him  a  place  at 
court  and  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Hang-he, 
who  in  1707  placed  him  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
mission of  Jesuits  for  making  a  survey  and 
drawing  up  a  map  of  the  Chinese  empire.  Be- 
ginning with  the  great  wall  and  the  adjacent 
provinces,  ho  completed  a  15  ft.  map  of  them, 
which  he  presented  to  Hang-he  in  January, 
1709.  He  then  drew  up  maps  of  Mantchooria, 
Pecheli,  and  the  region  drained  by  the  Black 
river  (1710);  in  1711-'13  he  surveyed  and 
mapped  Shantung,  Honan,  Nanking,  Chekiang, 
and  Fokien.  The  health  of  his  companions 
failing,  he  accomplished  alone  the  survey  of 
Yunnan,  and,  assisted  by  Father  Fridelli,  he 
finished  the  maps  of  Kweichow  and  How- 
kwang  (nowjjlupeh  and  Hunan).  While  thus 
completing  surveys  of  extraordinary  magni- 
tude, he  also  wrote  a  full  history  of  his  labors, 
which  is  in  part  condensed  in  the  preface  to 
Du  Halde's  Description  de  la  Chine  (4  vols.  fol., 
Paris,  1735).  Of  the  copious  memoirs  which 
he  composed  on  the  topography  of  the  various 
provinces,  their  resources,  and  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  inhabitants,  only  two  frag- 
ments are  published  by  Duhalde  in  vol.  iv.  of 
his  Description,  one  relating  to  Corea  and  the 
Coreans,  and  the  other  on  Thibet  and  the  hi- 
erarchy of  the  lamas.  His  knowledge  of  Chi- 
nese enabled  him  to  translate  into  Latin  the 
Yih-king,  with  copious  notes  and  dissertation* 
(edited  by  Julius  Mohl,  2  vols.,  Stuttgart  and 
Tubingen,  1834),  the  manuscript  of  which  is 
in  the  national  library  of  Paris.  His  labors 
were  interrupted  in  1724,  when  the  emperor 
Yung-ching  proscribed  the  Christian  religion. 

REGXARD,  Jean  Francois,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  February,  1655,  died  Sept.  4, 


1709.  He  inherited  great  wealth  arid  led  a 
roving  life.  In  Bologna  he  fell  in  love  with  a 
lady  whom  he  made  the  heroine  of  his  novel, 
La  Protencale.  She  and  her  husband,  whom 
he  designates  as  M.  de  Prade,  left  Genoa  on 
the  same  boat  with  him  in  1678,  and  they 
were  all  captured  by  Algerine  pirates.  He 
and  the  lady  were  ransomed,  and  together 
went  to  Paris  in  the  belief  that  the  husband 
was  dead ;  but  on  finding  him  alive  after 
reaching  that  capital,  Regnard  in  despair  re- 
sumed his  wandering  life.  After  exploring 
Lapland,  and  travelling  through  Poland,  Tur- 
key, Hungary,  and  other  countries,  he  returned 
to  France  about  1683;  and  for  most  of  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  was  prominently 
connected  with  the  ministry  of  finance,  and 
his  house  in  the  rue  Richelieu  was  a  resort 
of  wits.  He  was  one  of  the  best  followers  of 
Moliere,  and  excelled  as  a  satirical  poet.  His 
Le  joueur  (1696)  is  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  French  stage.  The  French  academy 
in  1857  awarded  a  prize  for  the  best  eulogy  of 
him.  The  best  of  the  numerous  editions  of 
his  works  are  by  Crapelet  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1822) 
and  by  Alfred  Michiels,  with  an  essay  and  bio- 
graphical notices  (2  vols.,  1854). 

REGYULT,  Ellas  Georges  Sonlange  OUya,  a 
French  historian,  born  in  London,  April  22, 
1801,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  4,  1868.  The  son  of 
a  French  physician,  he  studied  law  in  Paris, 
and  became  an  advocate.  In  1848  he  was  a 
prominent  official  in  the  ministry  of  the  inte- 
rior, and  subsequently  in  that  of  finance.  He 
published  histories  of  Ireland  and  England ; 
ffistoire  de  Napoleon  (4  vols.  18mo,  1846-'7)  ; 
ffistoire  de  huit  ans  (3  vols.,  1851-'4),  as  a 
continuation  of  the  ffistoire  de  dix  ans  by 
Louis  Blanc,  who  however  disputed  its  char- 
acter as  such  ;  a  history  of  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities, &c.  He  also  translated  works  of 
Bentham  and  Wordsworth,  and  in  conjunction 
with  others  Carlyle's  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution  "  (3  vols.,  1866-7). 

REGMILT,  Henri  Victor,  a  French  physicist, 
born  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  July  21,  1810.  He 
studied  at  the  polytechnic  school  of  Paris  from 
1830  to  1832,  and  was  professor  at  Lyons  till 
1840,  when  his  Memoire  sur  faction  du  More 
sur  fether  chlorhydrique  secured  his  admis- 
sion to  the  academy  of  sciences  and  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  chair  of  physical  sciences 
in  the  polytechnic  school,  and  in  1841  in  the 
college  de  France.  He  was  chief  engineer 
of  mines  from  1847  to  1854,  when  he  became 
director  of  the  porcelain  works  at  Sevres.  In 
1848  he  received  the  Rumford  medal  from  the 
royal  society  of  London  for  his  "  Experiments 
to  determine  the  Laws  and  the  Numerical  Data 
which  enter  into  the  Calculation  of  Steam 
Engines,"  and  subsequently  became  one  of  the 
50  foreign  members  of  that  body,  which  pre- 
sented him  with  the  Copley  medal  in  Novem- 
ber, 1869.  His  attention  has  been  devoted 
chiefly  to  heat,  and  he  was  the  first  to  demon- 
strate that  the  latent  heat  of  steam  diminishes 


REGNAULT 


REICIIENBACH 


263 


as  the  sensible  heat  increases,  but  in  a  slower 
ratio.  He  has  also  verified  the  law  of  Mari- 
otte  and  Boyle  on  the  compressibility  of  the 
gases.  Accounts  of  his  investigations  on  these 
subjects  fill  the  21st  and  26th  volumes  of  the 
Memoires  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences. 
His  Cours  elementaire  de  chimie  (2  vols.  in  4 
parts,  Paris,  1847-'9  ;  5th  ed.,  4  vols.,  1859-'60) 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages. 
Among  his  other  works  is  an  abstract  of  the 
preceding,  Premiers  elements  de  chimie  (1850; 
4th  ed.,  1861). 

REGNAULT,  Jean  Baptiste,  baron,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  October,  1754,  died 
there  in  November,  1829.  He  began  life  as  a 
sailor,  and  subsequently  studied  in  Paris  and 
in  Borne,  where  he  was  enabled  to  spend  sev- 
eral years  by  winning  in  1776  a  first  academi- 
cal prize.  His  "Education  of  Achilles"  and 
other  works  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
the  French  school.  He  was  professor  at  the 
school  of  fine  arts  from  1795  to  1818,  when 
he  was  transferred  to  the  polytechnic  school. 

REGNIER,  Mathnrin,  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Chartres,  Dec.  21,  1573,  died  in  Rouen,  Oct. 
22,  1613.  He  was  the  son  of  Jacques  Regnier, 
who  established  a  tennis  court  in  Paris,  known 
as  the  tripot  Regnier.  He  was  educated  for 
the  church,  and  in  1593  went  with  the  cardi- 
nal Joyeuse  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  about 
eight  years,  and  subsequently  returned  with 
the  duke  de  B6thune,  French  ambassador. 
After  a  life  of  dissipation  he  became  in  1609 
canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Chartres.  He  was 
called  the  good  Regnier  on  account  of  his 
amiability.  Boileau,  although  objecting  to  his 
broad  cynicism,  characterized  him  as  the  sa- 
tirical poet  who  before  Moliere  gave  the  best 
insight  into  manners  and  life.  Numerous  edi- 
tions of  his  works  have  appeared.  The  best 
are  by  Brossette  (Amsterdam,  1729;  London, 
2  vols.,  1736),  Viollet-Leduc  (1822 ;  new  ed., 
1853),  and  Ed.  de  Barth61emy  with  additional 
poems,  but  not  all  well  authenticated  (1862). 

REGULAR  CLERKS  OF  ST.  PAUL.     See  BAR- 

NABITES. 

REGULUS,  Mareus  Atilins,  a  Roman  general, 
died  about  250  B.  0.  He  was  consul  in  267, 
when  he  defeated  the  Sallentini,  took  Brun- 
dusium,  and  received  a  triumph.  In  256,  the 
ninth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war,  he  was  a 
second  time  consul,  and  in  conjunction  with 
his  colleague  Manlius  set  out  with  a  fleet  of 
330  vessels  to  invade  Africa,  defeated  the  Car- 
thaginian fleet  of  350  sail  under  Hanno  and 
Hamilcar,  landed  at  Clypea,  and  ravaged  their 
territory.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year,  by 
order  of  the  senate,  Manlius  returned  to  Rome 
with  his  division  of  the  forces.  Regulus  now 
defeated  the  three  Carthaginian  generals  in  a 
great  battle  in  the  mountains,  and  captured 
town  after  town,  including  Tunis.  The  Car- 
thaginians sued  for  peace,  but  when  the  en- 
voys protested  against  the  extravagance  of 
his  demands,  Regulus  replied:  "Men  who  are 
good  for  anything  should  either  conquer  or 


submit  to  their  betters."  The  negotiations 
were  broken  off,  and  Xanthippus,  a  Spartan, 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Carthaginian 
army,  who  defeated  the  Romans  and  took 
Regulus  prisoner.  After  five  years'  captivity 
he  was  sent  in  250  to  Rome  along  with  an 
embassy,  on  condition  that  he  would  return 
if  the  negotiations  were  unsuccessful.  He 
persuaded  the  senate  to  refuse  to  make  peace, 
and  returned  to  Carthage.  The  story  of  his 
execution  under  the  most  barbarous  tortures 
is  now  generally  disbelieved. 

REICHENBACH,  Heinrlch  Gottlieb  Luchvig,  a  Ger- 
man naturalist,  born  in  Leipsic,  June  8,  1793. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  took  the  degree  of  M.  D., 
and  in  1820  became  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory in  the  medical  and  surgical  school  of 
Dresden.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
Flora  Germanica,  accompanied  by  an  Icono- 
grapJiia  Botanica  (21  vols.,  Leipsic,  1823-'67). 
He  has  also  published  Regnum  Animate 
(1834-'6,  incomplete),  Vollstdndigste  Natur- 
geschichte,  devoted  to  mammalia  and  birds 
(1845  et  seq.),  and  other  works. — His  brother 
ANTON  BENEDICT,  born  in  1807,  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Leipsic  till  1866,  and  his  son 
HEINEICH  GUST  A  v,  born  in  1822,  professor  of 
botany  there,  have  also  published  works  on 
zoology  and  botany. 

REICHENBACH,  Karl,  baron,  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Stuttgart,  Feb.  12,  1788,  died  in 
Leipsic,  Jan.  19,  1869.  He  was  educated  at 
Tubingen.  At  the  age  of  16  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  establishing  a  new  German  state  in  one 
of  the  South  sea  islands ;  and  for  three  years 
he  devoted  himself  to  this  project,  and  had 
secretly  formed  a  large  association  in  Wilrtem- 
berg,  when  it  was  suppressed  by  the  French 
authorities  on  suspicion  that  its  real  objects 
were  political,  and  Reichenbach  was  impris- 
oned. In  1821  he  became  connected  with 
Count  Hugo  of  Salm  in  the  management  of 
chemical  works,  iron  furnaces,  and  machine 
shops  at  Blansko,  Moravia,  from  which  he 
soon  secured  an  ample  fortune ;  and  about 
this  time  the  king  of  Wurtemberg  made  him 
a  baron.  From  1830  to  1834  he  was  engaged 
in  the  investigation  of  the  complicated  pro- 
ducts of  the  distillation  of  organic  substances, 
and  discovere'd  among  them  several  compounds 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the  existence  and  use- 
ful properties  of  which  were  before  entirely 
unknown ;  among  these  are'  creosote,  paraffine, 
eupion,  pittacal,  and  capnomor.  He  afterward 
entered  upon  an  investigation  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  human  system  is  affected  by 
various  substances,  and  was  led  to  conceive 
the  existence  of  a  new  imponderable  agent,  al- 
lied to  electricity,  magnetism,  and  heat,  which 
emanates  from  most  substances,  and  to  the 
influence  of  which  different  persons  are  vari- 
ously sensitive.  Although  he  had  given  no 
attention  to  animal  magnetism,  the  subject  was 
inevitably  encountered  by  him  in  these  re- 
searches; which,  however,  he  pursued  inde- 
pendently of  all  experiments  and  theories  that 


264 


REICHENBERG 


had  been  made  in  that  department.  He  applied 
the  term  od  to  the  new  force,  the  existence 
of  which  he  believed  he  had  established,  and 
published  Physikalisch-physiologische  Unter- 
suchungen  fiber  die  Dynamide  des  Magnetis- 
mus,  &c.  (2ded.,  3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1849-'50; 
translated  into  English) ;  Odisch-magnetische 
Brief e  (Stuttgart,  1852  and  1856;  French 
translation,  Paris,  1854;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Drs.  Ashburner  and  Gregory) ;  Der 
sensitive  Mensch  und  sein  Verhalten  zum  Od 
(2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1854) ;  and  Wer  ist  sensi- 
tiv,  wer  nicht?  (Brunswick,  1856). 

REICIIEVBERG,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Neisse,  55  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Prague;  pop.  in 
1870,  22,394.  Next  to  Prague  and  Pilsen  it  is 
the  most  populous  city  of  Bohemia,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  centres  of  Austri- 
an industry.  It  has  a  castle,  several  industrial 
and  other  schools,  and  a  new  theatre.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  woollen,  cotton, 
and  linen  stuffs  and  yarn. 

REICHSTADT,  Duke  of.  See  BONAPARTE,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  48. 

REID,  Mayne,  a  British  novelist,  born  in  the 
north  of  Ireland  in  1818.  Ho  is  the  son  of  a 
Presbyterian  minister,  and  was  educated  for 
the  church,  but,  being  fonder  of  adventure 
than  of  theology,  set  out  in  1838  for  America. 
Arriving  at  New  Orleans,  ho  engaged  in  tra- 
ding and  hunting  excursions  up  the  Red  and 
Missouri  rivers,  and  travelled  through  nearly 
every  state  of  the  Union.  Subsequently  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  joined  the  army  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  wounded  in  the  assault 
upon  Chapultepec.  In  1849  he  set  out  to  fight 
for  the  Hungarians  during  their  struggle  with 
Austria ;  but  by  the  time  he  reached  Paris  the 
revolution  had  been  suppressed.  He  has  since 
resided  chiefly  in  London,  and  has  written  a 
series  of  very  popular  books  for  boys.  Among 
his  works  are:  "The  Rifle  Rangers"  (1849), 
"The  Scalp  Hunters"  (1850),  "The  Quad- 
roon" (1856),  "Osceola"  (1858),  "Ran  Away 
to  Sea"  (1861),  "The  Maroon"  (1862),  "The 
Cliff  Climbers"  (1864),  "Afloat  in  the  Forest" 
(1866),  "Quadrupeds"  (1867),  "The  Child 
Wife"  (1868),  "The  Castaways"  (1870),  and 
"  The  Finger  of  Fate."  In  1869  he  established 
in  New  York  a  short-lived  monthly  magazine 
entitled  "  Onward." 

REID,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  metaphysician,  born 
at  Strachan,  Kincardineshire,  April  26,  1710, 
died  in  Glasgow,  Oct.  7,  1796.  He  graduated 
at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  in  1726,  was 
librarian  of  the  college  till  1736,  and  in  1737 
was  presented  to  the  neighboring  living  of  New 
Machar.  In  1748  he  published  a  paper  in  the 
London  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  in  which 
he  opposed  the  introduction  of  mathematical 
formulas  into  metaphysical  and  moral  specula- 
tions. He  was  elected  in  1752  professor  of 
philosophy  in  King's  college,  his  department 
comprehending  logic,  ethics,  mathematics,  and 
physics.  His  "  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind 
on  the  Principles  of  Common  Sense  "  (London, 


REIL 

1763)  aimed  at  the  refutation  of  HumVs  skep- 
tical theory.  He  introduced  the  doctrine  of 
an  original  instinct  or  common  sense  as  the 
ground  of  belief.  In  1764  he  was  transferred 
to  the  university  of  Glasgow  as  professor  of 
moral  philosophy,  and  retired  in  1781.  In 
1785  he  published  his  "Essays  on  the  Intel- 
lectual Powers  of  Man,"  consisting  of  his  acad- 
emical lectures  (new  edition  by  the  Rev.  James 
Walker,  D.  D.,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1850),  and  in 
1788  his  "Essays  on  the  Active  Powers  of 
Man."  In  1863  a  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  with  preface,  notes,  and  supplementary 
dissertations  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  a 
memoir  by  Dugald  Stewart,  was  published  in 
Edinburgh  (2  vols.  8vo). 

REID,  Sir  William,  a  British  meteorologist, 
born  at  Kinglassie,  Fifeshire,  in  1791,  died  in 
London,  Oct.  3*1,  1858.  He  entered  the  army 
as  lieutenant  of  royal  engineers  in  1809,  served 
under  the  duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsula, 
was  in  America  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  again 
served  under  the  duke  in  Belgium  in  1815, 
being  present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In 
1816  he  took  part,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
in  the  attack  on  Algiers.  He  subsequently  be- 
came adjutant  of  the  corps  of  sappers  and 
miners,  and  in  1839  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  royal  society.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Bermuda  in  1838,  and  by  his  tact  and  skill 
greatly  improved  the  agriculture  of  the  island, 
its  products  being  introduced  through  his  efforts 
into  the  New  York  market.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Windward  islands  in  1846,  and 
in  1848  returned  to  England,  and  was  appointed 
commanding  engineer  at  Woolwich.  During 
the  great  exhibition  of  1851  he  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  promotion  of  its  objects,  and 
succeeded  Robert  Stephenson  as  chairman  of 
the  executive  committee.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Malta,  and  was 
knighted.  He  held  that  post  through  the  Cri- 
mean war,  was  made  a  major  general  in  1856, 
and  returned  to  England  in  1858.  Having 
been  detailed  to  superintend  the  repairs  of  the 
injury  done  by  a  severe  hurricane  in  Barba- 
does  in  1831,  he  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  meteorology.  He  published  "  An  At- 
tempt to  develop  the  Law  of  Storms  by  means 
of  Facts,  arranged  according  to  Place  and 
Time"  (1838),  and  "The  Progress  of  the  De- 
velopment of  the  Law  of  Storms,"  &c.  (1849). 

REIGATE,  a  market  town  of  Surrey,  Eng- 
land, 21  m.  S.  by  W.  of  London,  on  the  Lon- 
don and  Brighton  and  Southeast  railways;  pop. 
in  1871,  15,916.  It  has  a  church  containing 
several  costly  monuments,  a  grammar  school, 
and  the  remains  of  a  castle,  with  a  cave 
where  the  barons  are  said  to  have  met  to 
arrange  the  articles  of  Magna  Charta.  It  car- 
ries on  a  brisk  trade  in  fuller's  earth  and  fine 
sand  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 

REIL,  Joliann  Christian,  a  German  anatomist, 
born  in  East  Friesland,  Feb.  28,  1759,  died  in 
Berlin,  Nov.  22,  1813.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Gottingen  and  Halle,  taking  hia 


EEIMAKUS 


REINKENS 


265 


degree  at  the  latter  in  1782.  In  1787  he  was 
made  professor  of  clinical  medicine  at  Halle, 
and  in  1810  was  called  to  Berlin  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  university  in  that  city.  His 
name  is  perpetuated  in  connection  with  the 
"island  of  Reil,"  an  isolated  cluster  of  cere- 
bral convolutions,  situated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  between  the  anterior 
and  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  Reil  con- 
ducted for  20  years  a  periodical  entitled  Archiv 
fiir  Physiologic,  and  left  various  works  on  the 
structure  of  the  nerves,  clinical  medicine,  &c. 

REIMARUS,  Hermann  Samuel,  a  German  schol- 
ar, born  in  Hamburg,  Dec.  22,  1694,  died  there, 
March  1,  1768.  He  was  educated  at  Jena  and 
at  Wittenberg,  made  a  journey  through  Belgium 
and  a  great  part  of  England  in  1720,  became 
rector  in  Wismar  in  1723,  and  in  1727  received 
the  professorship  of  Hebrew  in  the  gymnasium 
of  Hamburg,  afterward  united  with  that  of 
mathematics,  which  he  held  till  his  death.  He 
married  in  1728  the  daughter  of  J.  A.  Fabri- 
cius,  and  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
"  Wolfenbuttel  Fragments,"  published  by  Les- 
sing  in  l774-'8.  These  productions,  which 
challenge  the  supernatural  origin  of  Christian- 
ity, had  been  imparted  by  Reimarus  only  to 
his  intimate  friends ;  and  Leasing,  who  had  ob- 
tained a  copy,  edited  them  as  manuscripts  be- 
longing to  the  Wolfenbuttel  library. 

REIMS.     See  RHEIMS. 

REINDEER  (rangifer  tarandus,  Gray),  the 
name  usually  given  to  the  old  world  species  of 
Tangerine  deer,  of  which  the  American  wood- 
land and  barren  ground  caribou  are  believed 
to  be  mere  varieties.  The  description  and  fig- 
ure given  under  CARIBOU  will  answer  for  the 
European  animal,  which,  like  its  American  va- 
riety, differs  greatly  in  size ;  the  large  Siberian 
variety  is  ridden  by  the  Tungusians,  who  also 
use  it  for  draught,  as  the  Laplanders  do  their 
smaller  animal.  The  tame  reindeer  of  the  Lap- 
lander does  not  exceed  in  size,  and  often  does 
not  equal,  the  English  red  deer  orstag.  After 
the  casting  of  the  coat  the  hair  is  brownish 
yellow,  but  as  the  dog  days  approach  it  be- 
comes whiter,  until  it  is  at  last  almost  entire- 
ly white.  Round  the  eye  the  color  is  always 
black.  The  longest  hair  is  under  the  neck. 
The  mouth,  tail,  and  parts  near  the  latter,  are 
white,  and  the  feet  at  the  insertion  of  the  hoof 
are  surrounded  with  a  white  ring.  The  hair 
of  the  body  is  so  thick  that  the  skin  cannot  be 
seen  when  it  is  put  aside.  When  the  hair  is 
cast,  it  does  not  come  away  with  the  root,  but 
breaks  at  the  base.  The  horns  are  cylindrical, 
with  a  short  branch  behind,  compressed  at  the 
top,  and  palmated  with  many  segments,  begin- 
ning to  curve  back  in  the  middle,  and  are  an 
ell  and  a  quarter  long.  A  single  branch  some- 
times, but  seldom  two,  springs  from  each  horn 
in  front,  very  near  the  base,  frequently  equal- 
ling the  length  of  the  head,  compressed  at  the 
top  and  branched.  The  domestic  reindeer  of 
Lapland  feeds  wholly  on  a  species  of  lichen 
peculiar  to  the  country,  for  which  he  roots 


under  the  snow  with  his  nose,  after  the  fash- 
ion of  swine.  He  will  eat  no  dried  fodder, 
unless  it  be  perhaps  the  river  horsetail,  equise~ 
turn  flumatile.  To  the  Laplander  the  reindeer 
is  invaluable,  being  in  fact  his  ox,  his  sheep, 
and  his  horse,  in  one  animal.  He  is  too  valu- 
able to  kill  in  general,  although  his  meat  is  de- 
licious; the  milk  of  the  herds  is  the  principal 
support  of  the  owner  and  his  family ;  while, 
as  an  animal  of  draught,  its  speed,  endurance, 
and  particular  adaptation  to  travelling  on  snow, 
render  it  the  most  valuable  of  creatures  to  men 
dwelling  in  the  frozen  latitudes.  The  ordinary 
weight  drawn  by  this  animal  is  240  Ibs.,  but  he 
can  travel  with  300.  Its  speed  and  endurance 
are  very  great ;  it  has  been  known  to  run  at 
the  rate  of  nearly  19  m.  an  hour,  and  it  is  not 
unusual  for  it  to  travel  150  m.  in  19  hours. 
— During  prehistoric  times,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  palteolithic  division  of  the  stone  age, 
the  reindeer  inhabited  southern  France,  and 
formed  one  of  the  objects  of  chase  of  the  cave 
men  of  central  Europe.  Its  coexistence  there 
with  the  musk  ox  and  other  arctic  species 
shows  that  the  climate  was  then  much  colder 
than  at  present,  probably  owing  to  the  great- 
er extent  of  the  glaciers  descending  from  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees.  Ca?sar  in  his  "  Commen- 
taries" refers  to  the  reindeer  in  central  Eu- 
rope ;  it  probably  lived  in  the  north  of  Scot- 
land as  late  as  the  12th  century,  and  in  Den- 
mark as  late  as  the  16th. 

It  KIM  10 M),  Karl  Leonhard,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Vienna,  Oct.  26,  1758,  died  in 
Kiel,  April  10,  1823.  He  was  partially  educa- 
ted by  the  Jesuits,  and  after  the  suppression 
of  that  order  became  teacher  of  philosophy 
and  mathematics  and  master  of  the  novitiates 
in  a  Benedictine  convent  at  Vienna.  In  1783 
he  escaped  by  flight,  and  in  1784  turned  Prot- 
estant at  Weimar  and  married  Wieland's  daugh- 
ter. In  1787  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  which  chiefly  through  his 
influence  became  a  stronghold  of  the  Kantian 
philosophy.  In  1794  he  was  transferred  to 
Kiel.  Reinhold's  chief  merit  is  that  of  an 
interpreter  and  popular  advocate  of  Kant's 
views.  His  works  are  numerous. 

REINRENS,  Joseph  Hubert,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Burtscheid,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
March  1,  1821.  He  studied  theology  at  Bonn, 
was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  and  became  lecturer  on  church  his- 
tory at  Breslau.  He  was  cathedral  preacher 
in  1852-'3,  and  in  1857  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  In  1870  he  cooperated 
with  D6llinger  in  the  Old  Catholic  movement, 
opposing  the  dogma  of  infallibility,  and  pub- 
lished Papst  und  Papstthum  nach  der  Zeich- 
nung  des  heiligen  Bernhard  von  Clairvaux. 
He  was  suspended  by  the  bishop  of  Breslau, 
and  the  students  of  the  university  were  for- 
bidden to  attend  his  lectures.  He  also  pub- 
lished Ueber  papstliche  Unfehlbarkeit  (1870), 
which  the  bishop  endeavored  to  suppress.  On 
Aug.  11,  1873,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  at 


266 


REISKE 


RELIGIOUS  ORDERS 


Rotterdam,  by  the  Jansenist  bishop  of  Deven- 
ter.  Soon  afterward  he  took  an  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  government,  and  received  from 
the  emperor  of  Germany  a  patent  of  recogni- 
tion, requiring  his  acknowledgment  in  all  re- 
spects as  a  Catholic  bishop.  He  issued  a  pas- 
toral letter  to  the  Old  Catholics  of  Germany, 
and  a  second  pastoral  in  reply  to  the  papal 
encyclical  of  Nov.  21.  He  has  also  published 
De  Clemente  Pretbytero  Alexandrine  (Breslau, 
1851)  ;  Hilarius  von  Poitiers  (Schaffhausen, 
1864)  ;  Martin  von  Tours  (Breslau,  1866)  ; 
Aristoteles  uber  Kunst,  besondera  fiber  Trago- 
die  (Vienna,  1870);  and  Die  pdpstlichen  De- 
crete  vom  18  Juli  1870  (Munich,  1871). 

REISKE,  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Zorbig,  near  Leipsic,  Dec.  25,  1716, 
died  in  Leipsic,  Aug.  14,  1774.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  where  ho 
acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  Arabic. 
He  afterward  went  to  Leyden  and  became  a 
corrector  of  the  press,  while  his  leisure  hours 
were  spent  in  ransacking  the  oriental  treasures 
of  the  university  library.  He  also  studied 
medicine,  and  after  remaining  in  Leyden  eight 
years  returned  to  Leipsic  in  1746.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Arabic  in  1748,  and  in  1758 
was  made  rector  of  the  St.  Nicholas  school  in 
Leipsic.  He  edited  a  large  number  of  Greek 
and  Arabic  works,  and  translated  Demosthenes 
and  JEschines.  His  life,  partly  autobiographi- 
cal, was  published  by  his  wife  (1785),  and  his 
correspondence  with  Moses  Mendelssohn  and 
Lessing  appeared  at  Berlin  in  1789. 

REISSIGER,  Karl  Gottlieb,  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Belzig,  near  Wittenberg,  Jan.  31, 1798, 
died  in  Dresden,  Nov.  7,  1859.  He  was  in- 
tended for  the  church,  but  devoted  himself  to 
music,  became  professor  at  the  musical  institu- 
tion of  Berlin,  and  on  the  death  of  Weber  suc- 
ceeded him  as  chapelmaster  at  Dresden.  His 
most  successful  operas  are  Die  Fehenmuhle, 
Libella,  Turandot,  Adele  de  Foix,  and  Der 
Schiffbruch  der  Medusa.  He  is  better  known 
by  the  oratorio  David,  and  his  minor  pieces, 
particularly  his  songs  for  the  bass  voice,  such 
as  Heine's  Zwei  Grenadiere. 

RELIGIOUS  ORDERS,  the  term  applied  to  as- 
sociations of  men  or  women  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  and  the  oriental  churches, 
whose  members  live  in  common  in  convents. 
The  history  of  these  associations  is  given  in 
the  article  MONAOHISM.  The  common  bond 
of  union  among  all  the  religious  orders,  and 
which  distinguishes  them  from  other  classes 
of  associations,  is  retirement  from  the  world, 
celibacy,  and  their  organization,  by  means  of 
religious  vows,  into  communities  of  an  entirely 
ecclesiastical  character.  The  official  list  in  the 
Gerarchia  Cattolica  of  1875,  published  in  the 
Vatican,  divides  religious  orders  into  six  class- 
es :  1,  the  regular  canons,  comprising  the  reg- 
ular canons  of  the  Most  Holy  Saviour  of  the 
Lateran,  those  of  the  basilica  of  Santa  Croce, 
and  the  Premonstratensians ;  2,  regular  clerks, 
embracing  Theatines,  Barnabites,  Somaschians, 


Jesuits,  minor  clerks,  ministers  of'the  infirm, 
fathers  of  the  Mother  of  God,  and  fathers  of 
the  pious  schools,  or  Piariste ;  3,  religious  con- 
gregations, including  the  Passionists  and  Re- 
demptorists ;  4,  ecclesiastical  congregations,  in- 
cluding the  Doctrinarians,  Lazarists  or  priests 
of  the  mission,  pious  laborer's,  oblates  of  Mary 
Immaculate,  missionaries  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
institute  of  charity  (Rosmini's),  priests  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  priests  of  the 
society  of  missions,  priests  of  the  resurrection, 
priests  of  the  Holy  Cross  (of  Le  Mans),  broth- 
ers of  the  Christian  schools,  and  brothers  of 
mercy ;  5,  monks,  including  the  Basilians,  Ben- 
edictines, Carnaldules,  hermits  of  Tuscany,  her- 
mits of  Monte  Corona,  hermits  of  Vallombrosa, 
Cistercians,  Trappists,  Trappists  of  the  Ranee 
reform,  Benedictines  of  Monte  Vergine,  Olive- 
tans,  Silvestrines,  Chartreux,  Antonians  (com- 
prising Chaldeans,  Maronites,  and  Armenians 
of  Mt.  Lebanon),  Mekhitarists  or  Armenian 
Benedictines,  and  Basilians  of  the  Greco-Mel- 
chite  rite,  comprising  the  Joanites  of  Pales- 
tine ;  6,  mendicants,  including  the  Dominicans, 
minor  Observants  (comprising  the  reformed 
Observants,  the  minor  Recollects,  and  Alcan- 
tarines),  minor  Conventuals,  minor  Capuchins, 
third  order  of  St.  Francis,  Augustinians  and 
discalced  Augustinians,  Carmelites  of  the  prim- 
itive observance  and  reformed  Carmelites,  Ser- 
vites  or  servants  of  Mary,  Minims,  Mercedari 
or  fathers  of  the  redemption  of  slaves,  Trinita- 
rians (primitive  and  reformed),  Hieronymites 
or  order  of  St.  Jerome,  hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  God,  and  fathers  of  penitence.  This  classi- 
fication is  founded  on  the  original  distinction 
between  the  clergy  or  ordinary  ministers  of 
religion  and  the  monks,  who  in  the  beginning 
were  mostly  or  exclusively  laymen,  or  who 
when  priests  lived  in  seclusion,  and  had  no 
share  in  the  ministrations  of  the  clergy.  The 
partly  or  wholly  monastic  forms  adopted  af- 
ter the  4th  century  in  the  East,  and  especially 
in  the  West,  by  the  cathedral  and  parochial 
clergy,  caused  them  to  be  generally  designated 
as  clerici  canonici.  But  this  designation,  par- 
ticularly during  the  reign  of  feudalism,  came 
to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  clergy  of  cathe- 
dral or  collegiate  churches,  who  lived  in  com- 
mon under  some  such  rule  as  that  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. This  gave  rise  to  the  institution  of  can- 
ons regular.  The  parochial  clergy  were  organ- 
ized in  this  way  by  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Vercelli 
(died  370),  by  St.  Ambrose  (died  397)  in  Mi- 
lan, and  by  St.  Augustine  (died  430)  at  Hippo. 
This  quasi-monastic  form  was  propagated  by 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  Sicily  and  in  Rome 
before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy,  and  accord-, 
ing  to  Lingard  it  was  established  in  England  by 
Augustin,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  pre- 
vailed in  the  chief  churches  there  till  supplant- 
ed by  the  strict  Benedictine  rule.  The  whole 
clergy  of  the  British  islands,  as  well  as  of  sev- 
eral continental  countries,  continued  at  least 
during  the  missionary  epoch  to  live  in  estab- 
lishments called  monasteries  by  contemporary 


RELIGIOUS  ORDERS 


REMAINDER 


267 


writers,  though  distinguished  by  them  into 
clerical  and  monastic  houses.  Thus  the  first 
great  class  of  religious  associations  embraces 
those  anciently  designated  as  the  "regular 
clergy,"  that  is,  persons  who  were  by  vocation 
clergymen  and  embraced  a  monastic  form  of 
life ;  while  the  second  class,  or  monks  proper, 
comprises  persons  who  are  devoted  to  a  life 
of  seclusion,  and  are  supposed  to  engage  only 
by  accident  in  the  active  ministrations  of  the 
parochial  clergy.  Hence  both  in  time  and 
in  dignity  the  regular  clergy  are  first.  The 
canons  regular  of  all  denominations  were  al- 
ways held  by  their  rule  to  the  public  recitation 
or  chanting  of  the  divine  office.  The  regular 
clerks  of  the  society  of  Jesus  were  the  first 
to  deviate  from  this  custom ;  and  their  ex- 
emption from  choral  service  caused  them  to 
be  bitterly  assailed  by  other  religious  orders, 
who  for  this  very  reason  refused  for  a  long 
time  to  acknowledge  them  as  one  of  the  mo- 
nastic brotherhoods.  The  third  group  of  reg- 
ular clerks,  consisting  of  the  Passionists  and 
Redemptorists,  are  called  in  the  list  "religious 
congregations,"  because  their  vows  have  less 
of  solemnity  than  those  of  the  Jesuits,  and  are 
more  binding  than  those  of  the  following 
groups.  They  are,  besides,  held  to  recite  the 
office  in  common.  The  members  of  the  "  ec- 
clesiastical congregations  "  are  held  together  by 
simple  vows  of  obedience  and  poverty,  or  by 
promises  of  fidelity  to  their  respective  rules, 
and  aim  at  discharging  the  clerical  functions, 
or  some  duties  closely  connected  therewith, 
such  as  the  instruction  of  youth. — The  monks 
proper  are  subdivided  into  two  great  families. 
The  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  first  are 
a  life  of  seclusion,  varied  in  some  groups,  like 
the  Benedictines,  by  devotion  to  literary  cul- 
ture, and  in  others,  like  the  Trappists,  by  a 
seeking  after  penitential  austerity.  The  men- 
dicants originally  aimed  at  combining  the  con- 
templative and  austere  retirement  of  the  monk 
with  the  active  ministrations  of  the  canons 
regular.  They  obtained  their  early  reputation 
and  popularity  by  living  in  poverty,  prayer, 
and  self-abnegation  in  the  midst  of  the  people 
to  whose  spiritual  needs  they  ministered. — To 
most  of  the  religious  orders,  soon  after  their 
formation,  nuns  of  the  same  rule  attached 
themselves.  They  were  often  called  the  sec- 
ond branch  of  the  order,  and  their  convents 
were  generally  under  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction of  the  priests  of  the  order.  Besides 
the  nuns,  most  of  the  orders  received  numer- 
ous additions  by  admitting  lay  brothers  (fra- 
>  tres  conversi)  or  lay  sisters  (sorores  conversed), 
who  were  charged  with  the  performance  of 
the  housework  and  with  keeping  up  com- 
munication with  the  world. — The  Protestant 
churches  in  general  have  declared  themselves 
opposed  to  the  fundamental  principle  of  mo- 
nastic institutions;  but  in  modern  times  sev- 
eral such  communities,  living  in  common  and 
binding  themselves  to  the  observance  of  a  rule, 
have  been  formed.  In  the  church  of  England 


an  institution  of  sisterhoods  has  been  consid- 
erably extended  under  the  auspices  of  the  so- 
called  high  church  party.  More  recently  an 
Anglican  clergyman,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Lyne,  as- 
suming the  name  of  Father  Ignatius,  endeav- 
ored to  establish  an  Anglican  branch  of  the 
Benedictine  order ;  but  the  first  monastery  at 
Norwich,  after  the  trial  of  a  few  years,  had  to 
be  abandoned.  Another  clergyman  tried  to 
revive  the  canons  regular  of  the  Augustinian 
order,  but,  although  the  number  of  those  who 
advocate  the  revival  of  monasticism  in  the 
church  of  England  has  considerably  increased, 
notable  results  have  not  yet  been  obtained.  In 
the  Evangelical  church  of  Germany  communi- 
ties of  women,  called  deaconesses,  were  estab- 
lished for  charitable  purposes,  especially  for 
nursing  the  sick.  This  institution  has  assumed 
large  dimensions  and  established  branches  in 
many  other  countries.  (See  DEACONESSES.) 
The  most  curious  example  of  a  Protestant  reli- 
gious order  is  found  in  the  United  States, 
among  the  Seventh -Day  German  Baptists  or 
Seventh-Day  Dunkers.  (See  DUNKEES.) 

REMAINDER,  in  law,  an  interest  in  that  which 
remains  of  a  whole  estate,  after  a  partial  or 
particular  estate,  as  it  is  called,  which  was  re- 
served out  of  the  whole,  has  been  determined. 
Like  many  other  branches  of  the  common  law, 
it  had  its  foundation  in  the  feudal  polity.  In 
the  long  lapse  of  time,  and  under  the  influence 
of  other  branches  of  the  English  real  proper- 
ty law,  the  learning  of  remainder  has  been 
wrought  out  into  manifold  distinctions  and  re- 
finements. Sir  Edward  Coke  says  a  remainder 
is  "  a  remnant  of  an  estate  in  land,  depending 
upon  a  particular  prior  estate,  created  at  the 
same  time  and  by  the  same  instrument,  and 
limited  to  arise  immediately  on  the  determina- 
tion of  that  estate,  and  not  in  abridgment  of 
it."  Thus,  if  a  man  who  is  seized  in  fee  of 
lands  grant  them  to  A  for  20  years,  and,  after 
that  term  has  expired,  to  B  and  his  heirs  for 
ever,  A  is  tenant  for  years,  and  B  has  remain- 
der in  fee.  But  the  residue  of  the  estate  after 
A's  term  may  be  still  subdivided;  for  example, 
the  limitation  to  B  may  be  for  life,  then  a  limi- 
tation to  C  in  tail,  remainder  over  to  D  in  fee. 
It  matters  not  how  many  partial  estates  may 
be  thus  successively  reserved  or  carved,  as  the 
phrase  is,  out  of  the  fee;  all  together,  with 
the  final  limitation,  form  one  whole  estate. — 
It  is  one  of  the  cardinal  rules  respecting  re- 
mainders, that  no  remainder  can  be  limited 
upon  or  after  the  grant  of  an  estate  in  fee,  for 
the  fee  is  the  whole  and  there  can  be  nothing 
left.  Nor  can  there  be  a  remainder  without  a 
prior  partial  estate.  This  partial  or  particular 
estate  is  also  essential  to  the  existence  of  any 
subsequent  remainder  that  amounts  to  a  free- 
hold ;  for,  by  an  old  rule  of  the  common  law, 
a  freehold  cannot  be  created  to  commence  in 
future,  but  must  commence  at  the  time  of  the* 
grant ;  and  inasmuch  as,  with  all  partial  estates, 
the  remainder  forms  but  one  whole,  delivery 
of  possession  to  the  first  particular  tenant  vests 


268       REMBRANDT  VAN  RYN 


REMSCHEID 


possession  in  the  freehold  tenant  also.  The 
seisin  which  the  grantor  gives  to  the  first  taker 
is  transmitted  by  him,  and  by  each,  to  his  suc- 
cessor, until  it  passes  at  last  to  the  first  re- 
mainderman. Each  estate  supports  that  which 
follows  it.  Hence  arises  another  cardinal  rule, 
that  the  remainder  must  vest  in  the  grantee 
during  the  continuance  of  the  partial  estate,  or 
on  the  instant  that  it  is  determined.  Thus,  if 
A  and  B  be  joint  tenants  for  life,  remainder  to 
the  survivor  in  fee,  on  the  death  of  A  the  joint 
estate  is  severed;  B  becomea  in  the  moment 
of  A's  death  the  designated  remainderman,  and 
the  remainder  is  good.  But  if  the  limitation 
be  to  A  for  life,  remainder  to  the  son  of  B  in 
tail,  and  A  die  and  so  his  estate  determine 
before  B  have  a  son,  then  the  remainder  fails. 
— Remainders  are  either  vested  or  contingent. 
They  are  vested  when  there  is  an  immediate 
right  of  present  enjoyment,  or  a  present  fixed 
right  of  future  enjoyment,  it  being  the  present 
capacity  of  taking  effect  in  possession  if  the 
possession  were  to  become  vacant,  and  not  the 
certainty  that  the  possession  will  become  va- 
cant before  the  estate  limited  in  remainder  de- 
termines, that  distinguishes  A  vested  remainder 
from  one  that  is  contingent.  Thus  a  limita- 
tion to  A  for  years,  remainder  to  B  and  the 
heirs  of  his  body,  gives  B  a  vested  remainder, 
for  ho  is  capable  of  taking  should  the  particu- 
lar estate  fall  in,  though  it  is  not  certain  that 
he  will  not  die  without  heirs  before  A's  death. 
A  contingent  remainder  depends  on  an  event 
or  condition  which  may  either  never  happen 
or  be  performed,  or  not  till  after  the  determi- 
nation of  the  preceding  estate ;  or,  to  use  the 
definition  of  the  New  York  statute,  which 
Chancellor  Kent  commends  for  its  brevity  and 
precision,  a  remainder  is  contingent  while  the 
person  to  whom  or  the  event  upon  which  it  is 
limited  to  take  effect  remains  uncertain.  An 
example  of  a  remainder  contingent  as  to  the 
person  would  be  a  limitation  to  A  for  life,  re- 
mainder to  B's  oldest  son  (as  yet  unborn)  in 
tail.  This  last  limitation  is  contingent,  because 
it  is  uncertain  whether  a  son  will  be  born  to 
B ;  and  if  A  dies  before  that  happens,  the  re- 
mainder is  gone.  A  case  of  contingency  in 
respect  to  the  event  would  be  presented  by  a 
limitation  to  A  for  life,  and  in  case  B  survives 
him,  then  to  B  in  fee.  Here  the  uncertainty 
of  B's  surviving  A  is  that  which  renders  the 
remainder  a  contingent  one. — The  English 
doctrine  of  remainders,  that  is,  the  common 
law  doctrine,  remains  unaltered  in  most  of  the 
United  States.  In  one  or  two  states  slight 
changes,  and  in  New  York  some  which  are 
quite  material,  have  been  made  by  statute. 

REMBRANDT  VAN  RYN,  Panl  Humus,  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  Leyden,  July  15,  1607,  died  in 
Amsterdam,  Oct.  8,  1669.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  miller,  and  the  suffix  van  Ryn  was  derived 
from  his  birth  in  a  windmill  on  the  bank 
of  the  Old  Rhine  (Oude  Ryn).  He  was  first 
placed  with  Jacob  van  Swanenburch  of  Leyden, 
and  afterward  studied  under  Pieter  Lastman  at 


Amsterdam.  About  1623  he  fitted  up  a  studio 
in  his  father's  mill.  It  is  supposed  that  from 
noticing  the  effects  produced  upon  surround- 
ing objects  by  the  one  ray  admitted  into  the 
lofty  chamber  of  the  mill  from  the  small  win- 
dow which  formed  its  ventilator,  he  derived 
those  notions  of  color  and  powerful  contrasts 
of  light  and  shadow  which  made  him  the  great 
master  of  chiaroscuro.  He  produced  his  first 
great  work,  a  portrait  of  his  mother,  in  1628, 
and  in  1630  he  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His 
pictures  brought  large  prices,  pupils  flocked  to 
him  from  all  parts  of  northern  Europe,  for  the 
instruction  of  each  of  whom  he  received  100 
florins  a  year,  and  from  his  etchings,  which  he 
produced  in  great  numbers  and  which  were 
esteemed  as  highly  as  his  paintings,  his  profits 
were  also  considerable.  He  married  Saskia 
van  Ulenburgh  in  1634,  and  had  four  children, 
none  of  whom  survived  him.  He  mingled  lit- 
tle in  society,  but  passed  hours  at  the  ale  house. 
A  second  marriage  involved  him  in  difficulties ; 
he  was  declared  a  bankrupt  in  1656,  and  the 
remainder  of  his  years  were  spent  in  pover- 
ty. As  a  historical  painter  Rembrandt  held 
that  the  imitation  of  vulgar  nature  was  pref- 
erable to  the  cultivation  of  ideal  beauty ; 
and  his  manner  depends  upon  the  elaboration 
of  a  single  element  in  art,  that  of  light  and 
shade.  His  merits  and  defects  are  equally 
striking.  Among  his  portraits,  that  of  "  Nich- 
olas Tulp  dissecting  in  the  Presence  of  his 
Pupils,"  the  Staalmeesters,  or  council  of  one 
of  the  guilds  of  Amsterdam,  the  "  Ship  Build- 
er and  his  Wife,"  the  "Jew  Merchant,"  and 
the  "  Night  Watch  "  are  most  esteemed.  Of 
his  historical  pictures  the  most  remarkable 
are  "  Duke  Adolphus  of  Gueldres  threatening 
his  Father,"  "  Moses  destroying  the  Tables  of 
the  Law,"  u  The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,"  "  The 
Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "  The  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  "  The  Nativity,"  "  Christ  in 
the  Garden  with  Mary  Magdalene,"  and  "  The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi."  His  peculiar  style  is 
perhaps  more  strikingly  displayed  in  his  etch- 
ings than  in  his  paintings.  They  were  a  great 
source  of  profit  to  him,  and  one,  "  Christ  heal- 
ing the  Sick,"  was  called  the  "  Hundred  Guil- 
ders," from  the  fact  that  he  refused  to  sell  it  for 
less  than  that  sum.  In  1868  a  second-state  im- 
pression of  this  plate  was  sold  in  London  for 
£1,180.  His  paintings,  of  which  640  are  speci- 
fied in  Smith's  Catalogue  raisonne,  are  vari- 
ously valued  at  from  $500  to  $20,000.  The 
best  of  them  are  still  owned  in  Holland. — The 
most  authentic  account  of  his  life  is  in  French 
by  C.  Vosmaer  (2  vols.,  the  Hague,  18(!9).  See- 
also  Rembrandt,  discours  sur  sa  tie  et  son  genie, 
&c.,  translated  from  the  Dutch  of  P.  Scheltem* 
(Paris,  1866). 

REMONSTRANTS.    See  ARMINIANS. 

REMORA.    See  SUOKIJJO  FISH. 

REMORINO.    See  RAMORINO. 

REHSCHEID,  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  6  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  Elberfeld ;  pop.  in  1871,  22,017.  It 
is  celebrated  for  manufactures  of  iron  and 


EEMUS 


KENAN 


269 


steel,  especially  locks,  nails,  and  cutlery,  which 
have  grown  up  within  the  past  60  years,  the 
population  in  1816  being  but  about  7,000.  The 
immediate  region  yields  neither  iron  nor  coal, 
but  its  numerous  streams  furnish  abundant 
water  power.  The  number  of  different  arti- 
cles manufactured  is  said  to  be  not  far  from 
2,000,  which  are  known  in  Germany  as  Bem- 
sche  icier  Waaren. 

REMUS.     See  ROMTTLUS. 

It  KM  I  SAT.  I.  Claire  Elisabeth  Jeanne  Gravion 
de  Vergennes,  countess  de,  a  French  authoress, 
born  in  Paris,  Jan.  5,  1780,  died  there,  Dec. 
16,  1821.  She  was  a  grandniece  of  Vergen- 
nes, prime  minister  under  Louis  XVI.  In  her 
youth  she  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  un- 
der the  name  of  Clary,  and  was  a  friend  and 
neighbor  of  Mme.  d'Houdetot  at  Sannois.  She 
married  Count  de  R6musat,  afterward  cham- 
berlain of  Napoleon,  in  1796,  and  became  an 
intimate  friend  and  lady-in-waiting  of  Jose- 
phine. Among  her  writings  is  an  Essai  sur 
^education  des  femmes,  which  was  published 
by  her  son  (1824;  new  ed.,  1842).  II.  Charles 
Francois  Marie  de,  count,  a  French  author  and 
statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris, 
March  14,  1797,  died  there,  June  6,  1875.  In 
1830  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties, where  he  became  a  follower  of  Guizot. 
He  held  office  in  1836  under  Mole,  and  in  1840 
as  minister  of  the  interior  under  his  life-long 
friend  Thiers;  and  he  was  a  member  of  the 
chamber  till  1848,  and  of  the  subsequent  as- 
semblies till  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851, 
when  he  was  banished,  returning  in  Septem- 
ber, 1852.  In  1871  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  1873  he  was  defeated  as 
a  candidate  for  the  national  assembly  by  the 
workmen  of  Paris,  and  soon  afterward  he  re- 
tired with  Thiers  (May  24).  He  was  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  academy,  and  Royer-Col- 
lard  described  him  as  '.'  the  first  of  amateurs  in 
everything."  His  principal  works  are :  Essais 
de  philosophic  (2  vols.,  1842) ;  Abelard  (2  vols., 
1845);  Passe  et  present  (2  vols.,  1847);  Saint- 
Anselme  de  Cantorbery  (1853);  Bacon,  sa  vie, 
son  temps  et  sa  philosophie  (1857) ;  L'Angle- 
terre  au  XVIIP  siecle  (2  vols.,  1856);  Histoire 
de  la  philosophie  en  Angleterre  depuis  Bacon 
jusqu'a  Locke  (2  vols.,  1875) ;  and  Lord  Her- 
bert de  Cherbury,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres,  ou  Les 
origines  de  la  philosophie  du  sens  commun  et 
de  la  theologie  naturelle  en  Angleterre  (1875). 

REMFSAT,  Jean  Pierre  Abel,  a  French  oriental- 
ist, born  in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1788,  died  of  chol- 
era, June  4,  1832.  While  a  laborious  student 
of  medicine  he  taught  himself  Chinese  and 
several  Tartar  languages,  of  the  latter  making 
his  own  vocabulary.  In  1811  he  published 
two  works,  the  results  of  his  studies.  In 

1813,  while  he  was  in  active  practice  as  a 
surgeon,   two   more  volumes    appeared.      In 

1814,  a  chair  of  Chinese  and  Mantchoo  hav- 
ing been  founded  in  the  college  de  France, 
he  was  made  professor.     Remusat'a  scientific 
studies  aided  his  linguistic  labors;    but  his 


Tableau  complet  des  connaissances  des  Chinois 
en  histoire  naturelle  was  never  finished.  His 
chief  works  are :  Plan  d'un  dictionnaire  chinois 
(1814);  Eecherches  sur  les  langues  tartares,  ou 
Memoires  sur  differents  points  de  la  grammaire 
et  de  la  litterature  des  Mantchoux,  des  Mongols, 
des  Ouigours  et  des  Thibetains  (1820) ;  and 
Elements  de  la  grammaire  chinoise  (1822). 

REMY,  or  Remi  (Lat.  REMIGIUS),  Saint,  called 
the  apostle  of  the  Franks,  born  at  Cerny,  near 
Laon,  about  439,  died  in  Rheims,  Jan.  13,  533. 
He  was  elected  bishop  of  Rheims,  where  he 
had  studied,  in  his  22d  year,  and  with  the  aid 
of  King  Clovis,  whom  he  baptized,  spread  the 
knowledge  of  Christianity  among  the  people. 
Apollinaris  Sidonius,  his  contemporary,  says 
he  was  the  most  eloquent  man  of  the  age.  He 
established  bishops  in  the  cities  of  Tournay, 
Laon,  Arras,  Therouanne,  and  Cambrai.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  Oct.  1.  His  shrine  is  in 
the  beautiful  abbatial  church  of  St.  Remy  at 
Rheims.  See  Butler's  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
and  lives  of  St.  Remy  by  Armand-Prior  (Paris, 
1846)  and  Aubert  (1849).— There  are  two  oth- 
er saints  of  the  same  name :  a  bishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  who  died  in  803,  and  an  archbishop  of 
Lyons,  who  died  in  875. 

RENAISSANCE  (Fr.,  new  birth),  the  designa- 
tion of  a  peculiar  style  of  architecture  and 
ornamentation,  founded  on  the  antique,  which 
took  its  origin  in  Italy  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  15th  century  (see  ARCHITECTURE, 
vol.  i.,  p.  664) ;  also  of  the  period  commencing 
with  the  14th  and  ending  with  the  first  half  of 
the  16th  century,  which  witnessed  the  revi- 
val of  classical  literature  and  the  fine  arts  in 
southern  Europe. — See  Pater,  "  Studies  in  the 
History  of  Renaissance"  (London,  1873),  and 
John  Addington  Symonds,  "  Renaissance  in 
Italy"  (London,  1875). 

RENAN,  Joseph  Ernest,  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Tr6guier,  department  of  C6tes-du-Nord, 
Feb.  27, 1823.  He  was  destined  for  the  church, 
studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Syriac  in  Paris, 
and  in  1847  obtained  the  Volney  prize  for  a 
treatise  on  the  Semitic  languages,  afterward 
published  as  the  first  part  of  an  Histoire  gene- 
rale  et  systeme  compare  des  langues  semitiques 
(8vo,  1855;  4th  ed.,  enlarged,  1864).  He  was 
sent  by  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and  belles- 
lettres  in  1849  on  a  literary  mission  to  Italy,  and 
brought  back  materials  for  a  historical  essay  on 
the  philosopher  Averroes,  which  was  published 
under  the  title  Averroes  et  Paverro'isme  (1852). 
In  1851  he  was  attached  to  the  department  of 
manuscripts  in  the  national  library,  and  in  1856 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of  in- 
scriptions and  belles-lettres.  In  1858  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  hook  of  Job,  with 
an  essay  on  the  age  and  character  of  the  poem ; 
and  in  1860  a  translation  of  the  book  of  Can- 
ticles. On  the  occupation  of  Syria  by  the 
French  in  1860,  he  was  sent  with  the  army  at 
the  head  of  a  scientific  commission,  and  ex- 
plored the  sites  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  the  Leba- 
non, and  other  localities.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 


270 


KENDEL 


pointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  college  do 
France ;  but  his  opening  lecture  excited  such 
intense  opposition  that  his  appointment  was 
not  confirmed,  and  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
chair  in  1864.  In  connection  with  this  subject 
he  published  a  pamphlet  which  passed  through 
five  editions.  In  1863  his  Vie  de  Jesus  ap- 
peared, treating  the  gospel  narrative  as  little 
more  than  a  legendary  romance.  It  passed 
through  13  editions  in  five  years,  and  was 
immediately  translated  into  the  different  lan- 
guages of  Europe  (English  translation  by 
Charles  E.  Wilbour,  New  York,  1863).  This 
work  was  intended  to  be  the  first  of  a  series 
under  the  general  title  Histoire  des  originet  du 
Christianisme,  which  he  has  continued  in  Lea 
apotres  (1866),  Saint  Paul  (1869),  and  UAnte- 
christ  (1873),  to  be  followed  by  a  fifth  work 
entitled  Let  derniers  hommes  apostoliques.  He 
has  also  published  fyudes  d'histoire  religiense 
(1857;  revised  ed.,  1864);  De  Vorigine  du  Ian- 
gage  (1858) ;  Essais  de  morale  et  de  critique 
(1859;  English  translation  by  O.  B.  Frothing- 
ham,  New  York,  1864);  Nourelles  considera- 
tions sur  le  caractere  general  des  peuples  semi- 
tiques  (1859);  Mission  de  Phenicie  (1864  et 
seq.)\  Nouvelles  observations  d'epigraphie  he- 
Iralque  (1867);  Rapport  sur  les  progres  de  la 
litterature  orientale  (1868);  La  reforme  intel- 
lectuelle  et  morale  (1872) ;  and  De  la  part  dcs 
peuples  semitiques  dans  la  civilisation  (7th 
ed.,  1875). 

RENDEL,  James  Meadows,  an  English  engineer, 
born  near  Dartmoor,  Devonshire,  in  1799,  died 
in  London,  Nov.  21,  1856.  He  was  early  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  bridges,  and 
from  1824  to  1827  was  engaged  upon  that 
across  the  Laira  within  the  port  of  Plymouth. 
In  1831  he  introduced  a  new  system  of  cross- 
ing rivers  by  means  of  floating  bridges  and 
steam  power.  His  most  celebrated  achieve- 
ments are  the  harbors  of  refuge  at  Holyhead 
and  Portland. 

RENDSBl'RG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Schleswig-Holstein,  on  the  Eider,  54 
m.  N.  W.  of  Hamburg;  pop.  in  1871,  11,514. 
The  old  town  stands  on  an  island  in  the  chan- 
nel of  the  Eider,  and  the  now  on  the  8.  arm 
of  the  river.  Beyond  the  N.  arm  is  another 
part  of  the  town  called  Schleuskuhle  or  Kron- 
werk.  During  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  of 
1848-'51  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans. 
The  strong  fortifications  were  razed  by  the 
Danes  in  1852. 

REftfe  I.,  surnamed  the  Good,  duke  of  Anjou, 
count  of  Provence,  and  titular  king  of  Naples, 
born  in  Angers,  Jan.  16, 1409,  died  in  Aix,  July 
10,  1480.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Louis  of 
Anjou  (crowned  king  of  Naples  in  1384)  and 
Yolande,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Aragon. 
Louis  was  never  able  to  make  good  his  rights, 
although  his  eldest  son  Louis  III.,  having  been 
adopted  by  the  queen  Joanna  II.,  gained  pos- 
session of  the  throne.  He  died  Nov.  15, 1484, 
and  left  Anjou  and  Provence,  together  with 
his  claims  upon  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Jerusalem, 


RENFREWSHIRE 

to  his  brother  Rene,  whom  Joanna  IT.,  dying 
in  1435,  also  appointed  her  heir.  In  1430 
Rene,  as  the  successor  of  his  maternal  great- 
uncle,  had  become  duke  of  Bar,  and  in  1431, 
on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Duke  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  had  been  confirmed  by  the  estates 
in  the  possession  of  that  duchy.  But  his 
claims  were  contested  in  the  same  year  by  the 
count  of  Vaudemont,  nephew  of  Charles,  by 
whom  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  deci- 
sion of  the  question  of  succession  was  left  by 
the  nobility  of  Lorraine  to  the  emperor  Sigis- 
inund.  Ren6  was  released  for  a  year,  but  com- 
pelled to  give  his  sons  as  hostages.  The  em- 
peror finally  decided  in  his  favor.  Vaudemont 
would  not  submit,  and  Rene  was  compelled  to 
return  to  prison.  A  few  weeks  afterward  a 
deputation  brought  to  him  the  crown  of  Na- 
ples and  Sicily.  Unable  to  obtain  release,  he 
appointed  his  wife  Isabella  regent  of  Anjou, 
Provence,  Naples,  and  Sicily.  She  arrived  in 
Italy  on  Oct.  18,  1435,  but  found  herself  at 
once  in  conflict  with  the  party  of  King  Al- 
fonso of  Aragon.  In  1437  Rene  purchased 
his  freedom  and  the  acknowledgment  of  his 
right  to  Lorraine  for  400,000  pieces  of  gold, 
and  led  an  army  to  Naples,  but  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  kingdom  to  his  opponent  and  return 
in  1442  to  Provence.  Having  restored  order 
in  Lorraine,  he  gave  it  over  to  his  eldest  son, 
John,  titular  duke  of  Calabria,  and  devoted 
himself  to  letters  and  the  arts.  In  1467  the 
Aragonese  offered  him  the  sovereignty  of  their 
country,  which  he  declined  for  himself  but  ac- 
cepted for  his  son,  the  duke  of  Calabria,  who 
died  soon  after  entering  Aragon.  The  only 
companion  of  Reno's  closing  years  was  his 
exiled  daughter,  Queen  Margaret  of  England, 
wife  of  Henry  VI.  King  Ren6  was  promi- 
nent ns  a  patron  of  letters  and  the  arts.  Many 
paintings  and  pieces  of  sculpture  were  for- 
merly attributed  to  his  own  hand,  but  have 
been  shown  to  have  been  done  only  under  his 
auspices.  A  considerable  number  of  his  wri- 
tings still  remain,  the  chief  of  which  were  edit- 
ed by  the  count  de  Quatrebarbes,  (Euvres  du 
roi  Rene  (4  vols.  4to,  Paris  and  Angers,  1845- 
'6).  See  also  Le  Roi  Sene,  sa  tie  et  ses  travaux, 
by  De  Lecoy  de  la  Marcha  (Paris,  1875). 

RENFREW,  an  E.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Ottawa  river  above  Ot- 
tawa ;  area,  2,389  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  27,977, 
of  whom  13,565  were  of  Irish,  6,147  of  Scotch, 
2,882  of  French,  2,658  of  English,  and  2,318  of 
German  origin  or  descent.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Bonnechere  and  Madawaska  rivers.  The 
surface  is  rough  and  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Capital,  Pembroke. 

RENFREWSHIRE,  a  W.  oounty  of  Scotland, 
bounded  N.  by  the  river  Clyde,  and  W.  by  the 
frith  of  Clyde;  area,  254  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
216,947.  The  chief  towns  are  Paisley,  Gree- 
nock,  Renfrew,  and  Port  Glasgow.  The  whole 
county  is  included  in  the  basin  of  the  Clyde, 
and  its  E.  part  is  within  the  great  coal  district 
of  the  west  of  Scotland.  Alum  and  iron  are 


RENI 


RENVILLE 


271 


produced  in  large  quantities.  The  Stuart  fam- 
ily had  their  earliest  known  patrimonial  inher- 
itance in  the  parish  of  Renfrew  in  this  county. 

RUM,  Guide.     See  GUIDO  RENI. 

REMELL,  James,  an  English  geographer,  born 
near  Chudleigh,  Devonshire,  Nov.  3,  1742,  died 
in  London,  March  29,  1830.  He  entered  the 
navy,  served  in  India,  became  engineer  in  the 
East  India  company's  service,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaigns  of  Lord  Clive,  and 
was  made  surveyor  general  of  Bengal,  return- 
ing to  England  in  1782.  In  1795  he  assisted 
Mungo  Park  in  the  preparations  for  his  jour- 
ney in  Africa,  and  afterward  contributed  geo- 
graphical illustrations  to  his  travels.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey.  The  works  by 
which  Rennell  is  best  known  are  "The  Geo- 
graphical System  of  Herodotus  Examined  and 
Explained  "  (4to,  1800),  and  "  Observations  on 
the  Topography  of  the  Plain  of  Troy"  (4to, 
1814).  Among  his  other  works  are :  an  atlas  of 
Bengal  (1781),  and  a  map  of  Hindostan,  with 
an  explanatory  memoir  (1783);  "Elucidations 
of  African  Geography"  (l793-'8);  "Illustra- 
.tions  of  the  Expedition  of  the  Younger  Cyrus, 
and  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand"  (1816) ; 
"  Comparative  Geography  of  Western  Asia  " 
(1831);  and  "An  Investigation  of  the  Cur- 
rents of  the  Atlantic  Ocean"  (1832). 

REMES,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Ille-et- Vilaine,  at  the 
junction  of  the  rivers  Ille  and  Vilaine,  190  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1872,  52,044.  The 
court  house  is  an  ancient  edifice,  in  which  the 
estates  of  Brittany  used  to  meet.  There  is  a 
library  of  45,000  volumes,  and  also  a  gallery 
of  art.  The  town  contains  an  academy  with 
faculties  of  law,  sciences,  and  literature,  a  sec- 
ondary school  of  medicine,  a  theological  semi- 
nary, and  a  normal  college.  Linen,  woollen, 
leather,  and  pottery  are  manufactured.  The 
Vilaine  is  navigable  for  barges,  and  canals  lead 
to  Brest,  St.  Malo,  and  Nantes. — The  ancient 
name  of  the  town  was  Condate,  and  the  mod- 
ern appellation  of  Rennes  was  derived  from  an 
Armorican  tribe  called  by  the  Romans  Re- 
dones.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Breton  dukes,  till  it  became  united  to 
France  by  the  marriage  of  Anne  of  Brittany 
to  Charles  VIII.  (See  BRITTANY.)  It  with- 
stood several  sieges,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  was  that  of  the  English  under  the  duke 
of  Lancaster  (1356),  who  was  obliged  to  retire 
after  six  months. 

RENNET.     See  CHEESE,  vol.  iv.,  p.  349. 

RENNIE,  John,  a  British  engineer,  born  at 
Phantassie,  Haddingtonshire,  June  7,  1761, 
died  in  London,  Oct.  16,  1821.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  millwright,  studied  mathema- 
tics two  years,  settled  in  London  in  1783, 
and  engaged  in  the  construction  of  steam  en- 
gines and  machinery.  He  planned  and  super- 
intended the  stone  bridge  at  Kelsor  below  the 
junction  of  the  Tweed  and  Teviot,  the  Water- 
loo and  other  bridges  over  the  Thames  at  Lon- 
don, the  Kennet  and  Avon  canal  from  Bath 
702  VOL.  xiv. — 18 


to  Newbury,  the  London  docks,  the  East  and 
West  India  docks  at  Blackwall,  the  Plymouth 
breakwater,  and  many  other  great  works. — 
GEORGE,  his  aon  (1791-1866),  also  a  distin- 
guished engineer,  published  "Experiments  on 
the  Strength  of  Materials,"  "  The  Frictions  of 
Solids,"  and  "The  Frictions  of  Fluids."  Sir 
JOHN  (1794-1874),  brother  and  partner  of  the 
preceding,  knighted  on  the  opening  of  the 
new  London  bridge  in  1831,  was  the  author 
of  "  The  Theory,  Formation,  and  Construc- 
tion of  British  and  Foreign  Harbors  "  (2  vols. 
fol.,  1854). 

RENO,  a  S.  county  of  Kansas,  intersected  in 
the  N.  E.  corner  by  the  Arkansas  river,  and 
watered  by  several  of  its  affluents;  area,  1,512 
sq.  m.  It  is  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870.  Capital,  Hutchinson. 

RENOORD,  Antoine  Austin,  a  French  bibli- 
ographer, born  in  Paris,  Sept.  21,  1765,  died  at 
St.  Valery,  Dec.  15,  1853.  He  was  originally 
a  manufacturer  of  gases,  but  in  1797  became  a 
bookseller  and  publisher  in  Paris,  retiring  in 
1824.  His  principal  works  are:  Annales  de 
Vimprimerie  des  Aide  (2  vols.,  1803),  which 
passed  through  several  editions ;  Annales  de 
Vimprimerie  des  Estienne  (1837-'8;  2d  ed., 
1843) ;  and  valuable  annotated  catalogues. 

RENSSELAER,  an  E.  county  of  New  York, 
bordering  on  Vermont  and  Massachusetts, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Hudson  river,  and  drained 
by  the  Hoosick  and  Little  Hoosick  rivers,  and 
Kinderhook  creek ;  area,  690  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  99,549.  Two  ranges  of  mountains,  the 
Taghkanick  and  Petersburg,  traverse  it  from 
N.  to  S. ;  they  have  an  elevation  of  from  1,000 
to  2,000  ft.,  with  precipitous  declivities,  stud- 
ded with  numerous  small  lakes.  The  soil  is 
generally  hard  and  sterile,  but  much  of  it  is 
under  cultivation,  yielding  liberal  crops.  Sev- 
eral railroads  pass  through  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,527  bushels 
of  wheat,  187,383  of  rye,  211,968  of  Indian 
corn,  717,845  of  oats,  49,762  of  buckwheat, 
1,504,209  of  potatoes,  108,214  tons  of  hay, 
235,496  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,271,128  of  butter,  365,- 
416  of  cheese,  43,286  of  hops,  774,773  of  flax, 
and  54,513  of  maple  sugar.  There  were  9,372 
horses,  16,813  milch  cows,  1,358  working  oxen, 
8,585  other  cattle,  54,928  sheep,  and  9,276 
swine.  The  county  contained  792  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  employing  15,588  hands, 
and  having  an  invested  capital  of  $12,354,181, 
with  annual  products  amounting  to  $28,550,- 
306.  The  principal  manufactures  are  iron  and 
iron  ware  of  many  kinds,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, bells,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  brick, 
linen  and  paper  collars,  carriages  and  wagons, 
machinery,  marble  and  stone  work,  flour,  lum- 
ber, paper,  and  leather.  Capital,  Troy. 

RENVILLE.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Minnesota  river,  and 
drained  by  its  branches;  area,  about  1,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,219.  The  surface  consists 
mostly  of  rolling  prairies,  and  the  soil  is  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  43,289 


272 


RENWICK 


bushels  of  wheat,  6,537  of  Indian  corn,  27,659 
of  oats,  9,731  tons  of  hay,  1,735  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  40,185  of  butter.  There  were  993  milch 
cows,  1,759  other  cattle,  833  sheep,  and  285 
swine.  Capital,  Beaver  Falls.  II.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Dakota,  bordering  on  British  Amer- 
ica, recently  formed,  and  not  included  in  the 
census  of  1870;  area,  about  1,800  sq.  m.  The 
S.  W.  part  is  occupied  by  the  Plateau  du  Co- 
teau  du  Missouri ;  the  rest  is  watered  by  Mouse 
river.  The  surface  is  generally  undulating, 
and  the  county  is  well  adapted  for  grazing. 

REWICK.  I.  James,  an  American  physicist, 
born  in  New  York  in  1792,  died  there,  Jan. 
12,  1863.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  college 
in  1809,  was  professor  of  chemistry  and  phys- 
ics there  from  1820  to  1854,  and  in  1838  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  ex- 
plore the  N.  E.  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  New  Brunswick.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  "  Outlines  of  Natural  Philosophy  "  (2 
vols.  8vo,  Now  York,  1822-'3),  the  earliest  ex- 
tended work  on  that  subject  published  in  the 
United  States;  "Treatise  on  the  Steam  En- 
gine "  (8vo,  1830),  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages ;  "  Elements  of  Mechanics  "  (8vo,  Phila- 
delphia, 1832) ;  and  "  Applications  of  the  Sci- 
ence of  Mechanics  to  Practical  Purposes " 
(12mo,  New  York,  1840).  He  privately  print- 
ed for  the  use  of  his  classes  "  First  Principles 
of  Chemistry  "  and  "  Outlines  of  Geology  " 
(1838),  the  latter  preceding  by  several  years 
any  other  school  treatise  on  the  subject.  II. 
James,  an  American  architect,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Ne\v  York  in  1819.  lie  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  college  in  1830,  was  an  en- 
gineer on  the  Erie  railway  and  the  Croton  aque- 
duct for  about  five  years,  and  superintended 
the  construction  of  the  distributing  reservoir. 
At  the  age  of  23  he  won  in  competition  the 
commission  for  the  building  of  Grace  church, 
in  Broadway,  and  has  since  built  the  new  St. 
Patrick's  cathedral  in  New  York,  Calvary 
church,  the  second  Presbyterian  church,  the 
Smithsonian  institution  in  Washington,  vari- 
ous hospitals  on  Blackwell's,  Ward's,  and  Ran- 
dall's islands,  and  Vassar  college. 

REPLEVIN  (law  Lat.  re,  back,  and  plegium, 
pledge),  a  redelivery  of  a  thing  to  the  owner, 
upon  pledges  or  security ;  the  taking  from  some 
holder  property  which  the  taker  claims,  he 
giving  back  pledges  to  establish  his  right,  or,  if 
he  fails  in  this,  to  return  the  property.  The 
institution  of  this  very  important  action  is  as- 
cribed to  Glanvil,  chief  justice  to  Henry  II. ; 
and  it  was  originally  the  peculiar  and  exclusive 
remedy  in  cases  of  wrongful  distress.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  prevent  the  beasts  of  the  plough, 
cattle,  and  other  goods  of  the  tenant  in  arrear 
from  being  unjustly  or  excessively  distrained 
by  the  landlord,  lest,  as  Littleton  'observes, 
"  the  husbandry  of  the  realm  and  men's  other 
trades  might  thereby  be  overthrown  or  hin- 
dered." At  the  common  law  a  distress  (which 
implies  both  the  thing  taken  and  the  manner 
of  taking  it)  was  considered  merely  as  a  pledge 


REPLEVIN 

i 

or  security  for  the  rent,  for  damage  feasant, 
or  for  service  due  from  the  tenant  to  his  supe- 
rior lord,  and  a  means  of  enforcing  its  pay- 
ment or  performance.  It  could  not  be  sold  or 
disposed  of  by  the  distrainor,  but  he  was  com- 
pelled to  hold  it  as  a  pledge  until  payment  or 
other  satisfaction  was  made.  For  this  reason 
beasts  of  the  plough  and  the  tools  of  a  man's 
trade  could  not  be  distrained,  lest  by  depri- 
ving him  of  these  he  should  also  be  deprived  of 
the  ability  to  redeem  them ;  but  the  statute  2 
William  and  Mary,  1,  c.  5,  authorized  the  dis- 
trainor, with  the  assistance  of  the  sheriff,  to 
have  the  distress  appraised  by  competent  ap- 
praisers, and  sold  for  the  highest  price  which 
it  would  bring,  unless  regularly  replevied  by 
the  tenant  or  owner  within  five  days  after 
seizure.  There  were  two  ways  in  which  a 
distress  could  bo  replevied,  one  according  to 
the  common  law,  and  the  other  by  a  statute. 
The  common  law  allowed  the  owner  a  writ  de 
replegiuri  facias,  which  was  sued  out  of  the 
court  of  chancery  and  directed  to  the  sheriff  of 
the  county  in  which  the  distress  was  taken, 
commanding  him  to  redeliver  it  to  the  owner 
upon  receiving  sufficient  sureties  therefor,  and 
afterward  to  determine  the  ownership  and  do 
justice  as  to  the  matter  in  dispute  between 
the  parties,  in  his  county  court.  The  statute 
of  Marlbridge,  on  the  other  hand  (52  Henry 
III.,  c.  21),  provided  that,  without  suing  out 
a  writ,  the  sheriff  or  any  of  his  deputies  (of 
whom  four  were  appointed  in  each  county 
for  the  express  purpose  of  making  replevins) 
should,  immediately  upon  complaint  being 
made  to  him,  proceed  to  replevy  the  goods. 
The  owner  was  then  obliged  to  give  satisfac- 
tory security  to  two  ends :  first,  plegios  de 
prosegttendo,  or  pledges  to  prosecute  his  suit 
to  final  judgment ;  and  second,  jtlegios  de  re- 
torno  habendo,  or  pledges  to  return  the  distress 
again  to  the  distrainor,  if  the  right  should  be 
determined  against  him.  These  pledges  were 
discretionary,  and  the  sheriff  was  responsible 
for  their  sufficiency ;  and  in  addition  to  them 
the  statute  required  a  bond  with  two  sureties 
for  double  the  value  of  the  goods  taken,  also 
conditioned  to  prosecute  the  suit  and  return 
the  goods.  This  bond  was  to  be  assigned  to 
the  avowant  or  person  making  cognizance,  on 
request  to  the  officer,  and  if  forfeited  it  could 
be  sued  by  the  assignee.  If  the  sheriff  neg- 
lected to  take  a  bond,  or  if  he  accepted  in- 
sufficient pledges,  the  party  might  have  an  ac- 
tion against  him  and  recover  double  the  value 
of  the  goods  distrained,  but  no  more.  The 
owner  of  goods  distrained  might  replevy  them 
although  his  grant  by  deed  contained  a  special 
condition  that  the  distress  should  be  irreple- 
visable,  and  that  the  landlord  should  keep  it 
as  a  gage  or  pledge  until  the  rent  were  paid ; 
because  it  was  held  to  be  incompatible  with 
the  nature  of  a  distress  that  it  should  be  irre- 
plevisable.  The  sheriff,  on  receiving  the  re- 
quired security,  was  at  once  to  cause  the  dis-' 
tress  to  be  returned  to  the  party  from  whom 


KEPLEYIN 


REPTILES 


273 


it  was  taken,  unless  the  distrainor  himself 
claimed  the  goods  as  his  property  ;  for  if  they 
were,  the  law  permitted  him  to  keep  them,  ir- 
respective of  the  manner  in  which  he  had  re- 
gained possession.  If  therefore  the  distrainor 
claimed  any  such  right  or  property,  the  party 
replevying  was  obliged  to  sue  out  another  writ 
called  a  writ  de  proprietate  probanda,  by  which 
the  sheriff  was  to  determine,  by  an  inquest, 
who  was  really  the  owner  of  the  property  be- 
fore the  distress  was  levied  thereon.  If  it  was 
decided  against  the  claim  of  the  distrainor,  the 
sheriff  proceeded  to  replevy  as  if  no  such  claim 
had  been  made ;  but  if  his  claim  was  found 
to  be  good  and  valid,  the  sheriff  could  proceed 
no  further,  but  was  to  return  the  claim  to 
the  court  of  king's  bench  or  common  pleas,  to 
be  there  prosecuted  and  finally  decided.  The 
goods,  in  ordinary  cases,  being  delivered  back 
by  the  sheriff  to  the  party  replevying,  he  was 
then  compelled  to  prosecute  his  suit  or  action 
of  replevin  in  the  county  court,  though  either 
party  might  remove  it  to  the  superior  court  of 
king's  bench  or  common  pleas ;  and  indeed,  to 
save  trouble  and  delay,  it  was  usually  carried 
up  in  the  first  instance  to  the  courts  of  West- 
minster hall,  because  if,  in  the  course  of  pro- 
ceeding in  the  county  court,  any  right  of  free- 
hold came  in  question,  the  sheriff  could  proceed 
no  further.  Upon  action  being  brought,  the 
distrainor,  who  was  now  the  defendant,  made 
avowry ;  that  is,  he  avowed  taking  the  dis- 
tress, and  set  forth  the  right  in  which  and  the 
cause  for  which  he  took  it,  as  for  rent  in  ar- 
rears, damage  done,  or  other  cause ;  or  if  he 
justified  in  another's  right,  as  bailiff  or  servant, 
he  was  said  to  make  cognizance ;  that  is,  he 
acknowledged  the  taking,  and  claimed  that  it 
was  legal  as  being  done  at  the  command  of  one 
who  had  a  right  to  levy  the  distress  ;  and  upon 
the  legal  merits  of  this  avowry  or  cognizance 
the  cause  was  determined.  If  the  action  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  and  the  dis- 
tress declared  to  be  wrongful,  he  was  entitled 
to  keep  the  goods  which  he  had  already  got 
back  into  his  possession,  and  in  addition  should 
recover  damages  for  the  wrongful  seizure  and 
detention ;  but  if  the  defendant  prevailed,  he 
should  have  a  writ  de  retorno  habendo,  by  which 
the  distress  was  returned  into  his  possession 
irreplevisable,  to  be  sold  or  otherwise  disposed 
of,  as  if  it  had  never  been  replevied.  If  the 
debtor  had  in  the  mean  time  disposed  of  or 
concealed  the  distress,  so  that  it  could  not  be 
found,  execution  issued  against  his  other  goods, 
and  for  want  of  them  against  his  body  in  the 
nature  of  a  writ  of  capias.  While  distresses 
continued  to  be  held  as  mere  pledges,  if  the 
former  owner,  after  judgment  against  him,  of- 
fered the  distrainor  the  arrearages  or  other 
damages  due,  and  he  refused  thereupon  to  de- 
liver up  the  distress,  the  plaintiff  might  bi'ing 
an  action  of  detinue,  and  by  that  means  re- 
cover its  possession.  If,  while  a  replevin  for  a 
former  distress  was  pending,  a  man  distrained 
again  for  the  same  rent  or  service,  the  party 


was  not  obliged  to  bring  another  action  of  re- 
plevin for  the  second  distress,  but  could  have  a 
writ  of  recaption  and  recover  the  goods  with 
damages  for  the  distrainor's  contempt  of  the 
process  of  the  law. — Formerly  a  mere  posses- 
sory right  was  not  sufficient  to  entitle  a  party 
to  maintain  replevin ;  but  now  it  is  sufficient  if 
the  plaintiff  can  prove  a  general  or  special 
property  in  the  goods,  with  the  right  of  imme- 
diate and  exclusive  possession,  either  as  mort- 
gagee, owner,  agent,  or  bailee,  without  actual- 
ly having  such  possession  at  the  time.  Though 
replevin  was  formerly  confined  to  cases  of 
wrongful  distress,  it  is  now  the  proper  form  of 
action  by  which  to  recover  the  specific  thing 
taken,  in  all  cases  where  goods  have  been  tor- 
tiously  taken  or  detained,  whether  by  distress 
or  in  any  other  manner,  together  with  damages 
for  the  detention,  unless  the  taking  and  deten- 
tion can  be  justified  or  excused  ;  and  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  frequently  used 
modes  of  legal  remedy.  The  forms  and  man- 
ner of  proceeding,  with  some  slight  alterations, 
remain  the  same  now  as  formerly,  as  far  as  the 
redelivery  of  the  goods  to  the  party  claiming 
them,  the  giving  of  bonds  with  sureties  in 
double  the  value  of  the  goods,  the  prosecution 
of  the  action,  and  the  final  judgment  and  exe- 
cution are  concerned.  This  action  will  lie  for 
goods  taken  in  execution,  provided  the  person 
bringing  it  against  the  officer  who  takes  the 
goods  from  another  by  virtue  of  the  execution 
has  a  property,  general  or  special,  in  them,  and 
a  right  to  reduce  them  into  his  actual  posses- 
sion ;  but  no  replevin  will  lie  in  favor  of  the 
defendant  in  execution  or  attachment,  to  re- 
cover possession  of  goods  seized  under  such 
execution,  unless  they  are  exempted  by  law 
from  being  so  taken.  In  some  cases  replevin 
for  property  taken  for  taxes  is  forbidden. 

REPTILES  (Lat.  sing,  reptilis,  from  repere,  to 
creep),  a  class  of  vertebrated  animals  interme- 
diate between  fishes  and  birds.  Linna3us  uni- 
ted the  oviparous  quadrupeds  and  the  serpents 
of  Aristotle  under  the  erroneous  name  of  am- 
phibia ;  until  within  a  recent  period  batrachi- 
ans,  as  well  as  serpents,  lizards,  and  tortoises, 
were  included  among  reptiles,  but  now  the 
first  are  regarded  as  a  distinct  class.  As  thus 
limited,  reptiles  do  not  undergo  metamorpho- 
sis, are  always  air  breathers,  though  cold- 
blooded, and  have  neither  mammae,  hair,  nor 
feathers.  By  the  first  two  peculiarities  they 
are  distinguished  from  fishes  and  batrachians, 
and  by  the  third  from  mammals  and  birds. 
Although  they  breathe  air  by  lungs  like  birds 
and  mammals,  the  pulmonary  circulation  is  in- 
complete, only  a  part  of  the  blood  being  sent 
to  them,  and,  from  the  communication  of  the 
ventricles  of  the  heart  or  the  great  vessels,  a 
mixed  arterial  and  venous  blood,  principally  the 
latter,  is  sent  to  the  organs.  Eeptiles  have  been 
divided  into  chelonians  or  tortoises,  saurians  or 
lizards,  and  ophidians  or  serpents,  whose  char- 
acters are  given  under  their  respective  orders, 
families,  and  popular  names.  The  various  sys- 


REPTILES 


terns  of  classification  will  be  found  under  HER- 
PETOLOGY  ;  the  batrachians  have  been  treated 
under  AMPHIBIA,  and  the  anatomical  peculiari- 
ties of  the  order  under  COMPARATIVE  ANAT- 
OMY. The  number  of  species  of  reptiles  is 
about  2,000,  or  less  than  that  of  mammals  or 
birds ;  most  of  them  are  terrestrial,  but  some 
(as  the  dragons)  can  sustain  themselves  in  the 
air  like  the  flying  squirrels,  and  the  extinct 
pterodactyl  probably  winged  its  way  like  the 
bats ;  some  live  habitually  in  the  water,  swim- 
ming by  means  of  flattened  tins  (as  the  turtles), 
or  by  a  laterally  compressed  tail  (as  in  croco- 
dilians) ;  the  amphisbama  and  other  ophisau- 
rians  dwell  in  subterranean  burrows.  They 
present  every  degree  of  speed,  from  the  agility 
of  the  lizard  to  the  slowness  of  the  tortoise ; 
some  are  fitted  for  running  over  dry  sand, 
others  for  climbing  trees,  others  for  ascending 
smooth  surfaces ;  the"  limbs  are  not  generally 
adapted  for  rapid  or  graceful  motions,  being 
short,  almost  at  right  angles  with  the  npine, 
and  hardly  raising  the  body  during  locomotion . 
enough  to  prevent  the  ventral  surface  from 
dragging  on  the  ground ;  the  anterior  limbs 
are  the  shortest,  and  the  knees  and  elbows  are 
constantly  flexed  and  far  apart  longitudinally ; 
the  feet  are  not  adapted  for  prehension  (the 
chameleon  excepted),  so  that  they  display  lit- 
tle skill  in  preparing  retreats  for  themselves  or 
places  for  their  eggs.  They  are  naturally  cold- 
blooded for  reasons  given  ttelovv,  and  are  found 
in  greatest  abundance  and  of  largest  size  in 
warm  climates;  under  the  influence  of  cold 
they  pass  into  a  lethargic  state,  and  according 
to  Ilumboldt  a  similar  condition  befalls  the 
South  American  orocodilians  during  the  hot- 
test season  of  the  equatorial  regions.  The 
tortoise  and  the  crocodile  are  sufficiently  pro- 
tected against  ordinary  enemies ;  the  lizard 
darts  into  its  hole,  perhaps  at  the  expense  of 
a  part  of  its  tail,  which  is  soon  reproduced; 
the  great  boas  prevail  over  every  foe  but 
man;  many  serpents  are  armed  with  poison- 
ous fangs,  rarely  used  however  except  on  the 
defensive ;  some  are  covered  with  bristling 
spines,  like  the  horned  lizards,  and  are  thus 
saved  from  predaceous  animals.  They  are  of 
great  use  to  man  in  destroying  noxious  insects 
and  other  animals ;  some,  like  the  chelonians, 
furnish  a  wholesome  and  abundant  food,  and 
others  supply  various  articles  useful  in  the 
arts.  They  are  preyed  upon  by  carnivorous 
birds,  as  eagles,  storks,  cranes,  and  the  ibis, 
and  by  such  mammals  as  the  ichneumon,  hog, 
and  the  smaller  carnivora ;  they  are  themselves 
essentially  carnivorous,  and  feed  on  living 
prey  which  they  swallow  whole,  but  the  ma- 
rine turtles  are  principally  herbivorous. — The 
osteology  of  reptiles  has  been  given  sufficient- 
ly in  the  various  articles  above  referred  to. 
Except  in  chelonians,  the  form  is  generally 
elongated,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  with  a  very 
long  tail ;  the  feet  are  absent  in  serpents  and 
in  some  saurians,  and  four  in  the  others ;  the 
skeleton  is  always  osseous,  the  cranium  small, 


and  the  facial  bones  and  jaws  greatly  devel- 
oped, the  latter  usually  armed  with  sharp, 
hooked  teeth ;  the  toes  are  freely  movable, 
and  usually  with  strong  claws,  webbed  in  the 
crocodiles  and  turtles.  The  body  is  covered 
with  scales,  generally  appendages  of  the  truo 
skin  ;  the  overlying  epidermis  is  cast  off  peri- 
odically ;  the  scales  are  converted  into  bony 
plates  in  the  chelonians  and  crocodiles,  and  in 
lizards  and  serpents  are  often  brilliant  with 
metallic  reflections;  in  the  chameleon,  anolis, 
&c.,  the  surface  modifications  of  the  skin  pre- 
sent very  rapid  changes  of  color,  sometimes 
expressing  the  anger  or  fear  of  the  animal,  and 
in  some  cases  enabling  them  to  avoid  detection 
by  their  enemies.  The  muscles  of  reptiles  are 
red,  though  paler  than  in  mammals  and  birds; 
they  preserve  their  irritability  for  a  long  time 
after  the  death  of  the  animal,  in  chelonians 
even  after  many  days ;  tortoises  have  been 
known  to  live  for  18  days  after  the  removal  of 
the  brain,  groping  blindly  about.  The  brain 
is  small,  with  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  and  me- 
dulla oblongata ;  they  have  also  a  spinal  system 
of  nerves,  and  a  sympathetic  or  ganglionic 
chain  ;  in  most  the  spinal  marrow  is  relatively 
much  more  developed  than  the  brain,  the  lat- 
ter being  smooth,  without  convolutions,  the 
cerebral  lobes  being  the  largest ;  the  cerebral 
hemispheres  contain  lateral  ventricles,  and  are 
larger  than  the  optic  lobes,  which  in  fishes 
constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  brain ;  there 
is  no  pon«  Varolii,  and  the  cerebellum  is  more 
developed  than  in  fishes.  Life  seems  in  a  re- 
markable degree  independent  of  the  brain,  the 
class  rather  vegetating  than  living,  and  being 
comparatively  insensible  to  pain  ;  they  grow 
slowly  and  live  long,  and  are  exceedingly  tena- 
cious of  life ;  the  intelligence  is  hardly  greater 
than  in  fishes.  The  sense  of  touch  is  dull,  both 
active  and  passive,  and  whether  exercised  by 
the  skin,  toes,  lips,  tongue,  or  tail ;  taste  must 
also  be  dull,  as  the  food  is  swallowed  without 
mastication,  and  the  sense  of  smell  must  be 
still  less.  The  organ  of  hearing  is  less  devel- 
oped than  in  birds  and  mammals ;  there  is  no 
external  ear ;  the  tympanum,  where  it  exists,  is 
bare  and  almost  external,  and  the  internal  ear 
is  less  developed  than  in  fishes.  The  eyes  are 
usually  small,  occasionally  absent,  flat,  with 
incomplete  bony  orbits,  with  lids  (except  in 
serpents),  and  with  lachrymal  glands.  The 
nasal  cavities  are  large,  and  always  communi- 
cate with  the  mouth,  and  in  the  crocodiles  are 
very  far  back.  The  lungs  are  sometimes  large, 
extending  even  through  the  whole  length  of 
the  ventral  cavity,  which  has  no  diaphragm ; 
in  the  long-bodied  snakes  only  one  lung  is 
active,  the  other  being  very  rudimentary  or 
absent;  these  organs  are  comparatively  free, 
the  trachea  not  divided  into  bronchi,  and  the 
air  cells  few,  large,  and  freely  communicating 
with  each  other ;  in  lizards  and  serpents  the 
ribs  serve  for  respiration,  and  in  tortoises  the 
scapular  arch  performs  the  office  of  ribs,  ac- 
cording to  Van  der  Hoeven,  respiration  not 


REPTILES 


275 


being  effected  by  deglutition.  Only  a  small 
portion  of  the  blood  is  sent  to  the  lungs,  and 
this  is  feebly  oxygenated,  as  the  respiration  is 
performed  slowly  and  the  lung  is  of  loose 
texture  and  small  capacity ;  hence  a  low  de- 
gree of  animal  heat,  languid  movements,  and 
a  slow  performance  of  the  nutritive  functions. 
They  have  no  true  epiglottis  and  no  proper 
voice,  though  some  emit  a  hissing  sound  (as 
the  ophidians)  formed  in  the  mouth.  The 
heart  has  four  cavities,  but  the  ventricles  com- 
municate, except  in  the  crocodilians,  where  an 
admixture  of  the  arterial  and  venous  bloods 
takes  place  in  the  great  vessels ;  there  is, 
therefore,  a  partial  circulation  independent  of 
respiration,  enabling  them  to  remain  long  un- 
der water  and  in  irrespirable  gases.  The  lym- 
phatic system  is  greatly  developed,  having 
I'egular  pulsating  organs'  or  lymphatic  hearts 
for  the  propulsion  of  their  fluid.  Reptiles 
eat  and  drink  comparatively  little,  and  are 
able  to  go  a  long  time  without  food ;  not  hav- 
ing movable  and  fleshy  lips,  they  cannot  per- 
form the  act  of  suction,  as  was  once  popularly 
believed  of  serpents ;  the  mouth  is  generally 
large,  and  the  lower  jaw  articulated  by  a  dis- 
tinct bone,  the  homologue  of  the  os  quadratum 
of  birds.  The  tongue  is  generally  free,  and 
the  oes'ophagus  very  wide  and  distensible  to 
accommodate  large  prey ;  the  intestine  is  short 
and  straight  in  proportion  to  the  carnivorous 
disposition,  being  longest  in  the  herbivorous 
chelonians  and  shortest  in  the  snakes ;  there 
is  a  certain  division  into  small  and  large  in- 
testine, though  the  latter  in  most  is  properly 
the  rectum  ;  the  alimentary  canal  opens  below 
into  a  cloaca,  or  cavity  common  to  the  diges- 
tive, urinary,  and  reproductive  organs,  as  in 
birds  ;  all  the  nutritive  elements  are  extracted 
from  the  food,  the  indigestible  matters  being 
ejected  in  a  mass  at  long  intervals ;  the  vent  is 
transverse  in  snakes  and  lizards,  but  longitudi- 
nal in  chelonians  and  crocodiles,  corresponding 
to  remarkable  differences  in  the  male  external 
reproductive  organs,  these  in  the  former  being 
double  and  placed  in  a  cavity  behind  the  anus, 
and  in  the  latter  single  and  within  the  cloaca. 
Salivary  glands,  which  are  absent  in  fishes  and 
batrachians,  are  present  in  reptiles ;  the  liver 
is  always  present  and  large,  receiving  much 
venous  blood,  especially  that  from  the  posterior 
part  of  the  body ;  the  gall  bladder  is  common- 
ly found,  though  small ;  the  spleen  is  generally 
very  small,  removed  from  the  liver  and  stomach, 
rounded,  and  deep  red;  the  pancreas  is  con- 
stant, often  large  at  the  beginning  of  the  intes- 
tine, and  of  various  forms ;  the  kidneys  are 
situated  along  the  spine,  showing  no  distinc- 
tion of  cortical  and  medullary  portions ;  the 
ureters  open  into  the  cloaca,  and  the  urine  is 
a  whitish  mass,  more  or  less  hard,  containing 
salts  of  lime  and  ammonia;  the  supra-renal 
capsules  are  usually  present,  small,  and  often 
remote  from  the  kidneys ;  there  are  one  poste- 
rior and  two  anterior  venje  cavro.  The  power 
of  reproducing  lost  parts  is  less  than  in  batra- 


chians, and  is  noticed  especially  in  the  tails  of 
certain  lizards  and  serpents.  In  this  class  there 
is  no  durable  union  of  the  sexes  as  hi  birds  and 
mammals,  and  nothing  which  exerts  any  in- 
fluence on  the  social  condition  of  the  individ- 
uals ;  after  the  instinctive  act  of  reproduction 
they  separate  and  become  perfect  strangers. 
Most  are  oviparous,  leaving  their  eggs  to  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  young 
when  born  are  able  to  provide  for  themselves 
and  are  generally  indifferent  to  the  mother; 
the  female  rarely  makes  a  nest,  but  deposits 
her  eggs  in  a  safe,  warm,  and  dry  place;  croc- 
odiles and  some  lizards  watch  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  place  where  their  eggs  are  con- 
cealed, and  the  python  has  been  seen  in  mena- 
geries coiling  herself  around  her  eggs  in  "a 
conical  form,  closing  the  top  with  her  head. 
Some  of  the  serpents  are  viviparous,  the  young 
being  sorfar  developed  before  the  exclusion  of 
the  eggs  as  to  be  born  alive ;  in  the  viviparous 
snakes  the  young  are  said  to  take  refuge  within 
the  mouth  of  the  mother.  The  eggs  have  gen- 
erally a  more  or  less  calcareous  shell,  globular 
or  rounded  equally  at  each  end;  in  serpents 
they  are  often  joined  together  in  chaplets ; 
their  number  varies  from  20  to  100.  The  em- 
bryo is  completely  enveloped  by  the  amnios, 
and  after  it  has  attained  a  considerable  degree 
of  development  a  second  membranous  covering 
appears,  for  the  first  time  in  vertebrates,  the 
allantois,  richly  supplied  with  vessels  and  en- 
closing embryo  and  amnios. — As  reptiles  are 
generally  despised  and  hated  by  man,  and  com- 
paratively little  under  his  influence,  their  ori- 
ginal geographical  distribution  has  been  but 
slightly  changed  by  him.  Most  of  the  serpents, 
especially  the  venomous  kinds,  belong  to  warm 
regions. — The  secondary  geological  epoch,  com- 
prising the  trias,  Jurassic,  and  chalk,  has  been 
called  the  age  of  reptiles ;  during  this  period 
air-breathing  animals  first  appeared  in  consid- 
erable numbers,  and  reptilian  forms  predom- 
inated. Reptiles  are  connected  with  birds, 
especially  those  of  the  former  called  sympliy- 
poda  by  Cope;  dinosaurians,  progressing  by 
leaps,  with  very  small  anterior  limbs,  have 
made  many  of  the  bird-like  tracks  described  by 
Hitchcock  in  the  sandstone  of  the  Connecticut 
valley.  The  gigantic  and  uncouth  forms  of  the 
secondary  age  had  disappeared  in  the  tertiary, 
and  the  reptiles  of  the  latter  were  more  like 
the  present  ones,  except  in  geographical  distri- 
bution, and  were  in  about  the  same  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  creation  as  now.  The  study  of 
fossil  reptiles  shows  the  limited  duration  of 
species;  before  the  diluvial -epoch  there  is  not 
a  single  reptile  that  can  be  referred  to  living 
species  and  hardly  to  an  existing  genus;  the 
reptiles  of  each  age,  triassic,  Jurassic,  and  cre- 
taceous, have  a  special  facies,  unlike  any  which 
preceded  or  followed  them ;  the  difference  be- 
tween the  fossil  and  living  forms  is  always 
greater  as  we  go  back  in  time.  This  study 
also  proves  that  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
has  varied,  as  the  great  reptiles  above  named 


276 


REPTON 


RESINA 


lived  in  parts  of  Europe  nearer  the  frigid  than 
the  torrid  zone.  All  the  fossil  forms,  how- 
ever odd,  were  constructed  on  the  same  rep- 
tilian vertebrate  type  as  at  present,  in  some 
instances  with  ornithic  (pterodactyl)  or  mam- 
malian affinities  (ichthyosaurus).  In  the  most 
ancient  fauna  of  reptiles,  chelonians  and  sau- 
rians,  the  highest  in  the  class,  are  represented, 
and  some  forms  then  existing  were  in  certain 
respects  more  perfect,  or  at  any  rate  more 
complex,  than  some  present  members  of  the 
class;  each  fauna  had  its  type  of  perfection, 
without  regard  to  the  superiority  or  inferior- 
ity of  that  which  preceded  or  followed  it ;  we 
find  no  transition  species  leading  to  or  from 
ichthyosaurus,  plesiosaurus,  pterodactyl,  and 
the  like,  unless  we  ascend  to  cetacean  mam- 
mals in  the  first  and  to  bats  in  the  last.  Rep- 
tiles (including  batrachians  even)  are  very  rare, 
and  to  some  questiopable,  in  the  Devonian; 
there  are  a  few  amphibians  in  the  carbonifer- 
ous ;  the  class  abounds  in  the  divisions  of  the 
trias,  and  is  most  numerous  in  the  Jurassic, 
becoming  less  abundant  in  the  oolite  and  chalk. 
For  details  on  fossil  reptiles  see  the  various 
articles  on  the  genera  above  mentioned.  Pro- 
fessors Cope  and  Marsh  have  described  several 
new  forms  of  reptiles  from  the  western  terri- 
tories, in  the  "  American  Naturalist,"  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences," 
Philadelphia,  and  the  "American  Journal  of 
Science." 

REPTOX,  Humphry,  an  English  landscape  gar- 
dener, born  in  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  May  2,  1752, 
died  in  Essex,  March  24,  1818.  Having  failed 
in  mercantile  business,  he  adopted  the  profes- 
sion of  landscape  gardening,  and  was  hence- 
forth uninterruptedly  prosperous.  At  the  pe- 
riod of  his  death  there  was  scarcely  a  county 
in  England  which  did  not  have  some  "places" 
adorned  by  his  skill.  His  works  on  landscape 
gardening,  with  an  account  of  the  author's  life, 
were  reprinted  by  J.  0.  Loudon  (8vo,  1840). 

REPUBLIC,  a  N.  county  of  Kansas,  bordering 
on  Nebraska,  and  intersected  by  the  Republican 
river;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,281. 
It  has  an  undulating  prairie  surface.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  8,626  bushels  of 
wheat,  16,820  of  Indian  corn,  4,705  of  pota- 
toes, 13,790  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,079  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  463  horses,  1,039  cattle,  325 
sheep,  and  181  swine.  Capital,  Belleville. 

REPUBLICAN  RIVER.  See  KANSAS,  vol.  ix., 
p.  747. 

RESACA  DE  LA  PALM  A,  a  ravine,  as  its  name 
imports,  thickly  grown  with  palm  trees,  that 
crosses  the  Matamoros  road,  in  Texas,  about  3 
m.  from  the  place  where  the  road  opens  upon 
the  Rio  Grande  opposite  Matamoros.  In  a 
battle  fought  here,  May  9,  1846,  2,000  United 
States  troops  under  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  de- 
feated 6,000  Mexicans  under  Gen.  Arista. 

RESHID  PASHA,  Mustapha  Mrhemrd.  a  Turkish 
statesman,  born  in  Constantinople  in  1802, 
died  there,  Jan.  7,  1858.  He  was  educated  by 
Ali  Pasha,  who  had  married  his  sister,  and  was 


governor  of  a  province  in  Asia  Minor.  "When 
Ali  as  grand  vizier  was  sent  to  suppress  the 
Greek  insurrection  in  1822,  Reshid  accompa- 
nied him ;  and  in  the  campaign  against  the 
Russians  in  1828-'9  he  was  private  secretary 
to  Selim  Pasha.  He  took  part  in  the  negotia- 
tion of  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  and  was  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha 
of  Egypt.  In  1833  he  assisted  in  negotiating 
the  treaty  of  Kutaieh.  In  1837  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  but  held  the  post 
only  for  a  year,  going  as  special  envoy  to  Lon- 
don and  Paris.  In  1839,  after  the  reopening 
of  the  Egyptian  war,  he  was  recalled  by  Sul- 
tan Abdul-Mediid,  who  had  succeeded  Mah- 
moud  II.,  to  take  charge  again  of  the  foreign 
ministry.  He  caused  the  promulgation  of  the 
hatti-sherif  of  Gulhane,  raising  the  Christians 
to  a  civil  equality  with  the  Mussulmans,  and 
brought  about  the  quadruple  alliance  by  which 
Egypt  was  compelled  to  evacuate  the  Turk- 
ish provinces.  In  1841  he  was  again  envoy 
to  England  and  France.  He  was  made  grand 
vizier  in  1846,  but  lost  his  post  six  years  later, 
and  retired  to  private  life,  only  to  be  recalled 
very  soon  to  his  high  office,  which  he  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  in  1857  through  an  illness  that 
shortly  proved  fatal.  His  influence  was  always 
exerted  for  the  maintenance  of  peace.  He  dis- 
countenanced polygamy,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  literary  and  scientific  attainments. 

RESHT,  or  Reshd,  a  city  of  Persia,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Ghilan,  about  5  m.  inland  from 
the  bay  of  Murd-ab  or  Enzeli  in  the  Caspian 
sea,  and  142  m.  N.  W.  of  Teheran;  pop.  about 
20,000.  It  is  well  paved,  and  the  houses  are 
uncommonly  neat  and  of  superior  construction. 
There  are  extensive  bazaars,  and  a  large  trade 
is  carried  on  in  raw  silk,  embroideries,  fruits, 
and  fish.  It  has  of  late  greatly  decreased  in 
importance  and  population,  partly  from  fre- 
quent visitations  of  cholera.  The  population 
embraces  Persians,  Russians,  Turks,  Armeni- 
ans, Jews,  and  Hindoos,  and  the  streets  and 
bazaars  swarm  with  fakirs,  dervishes,  and  oth- 
er mendicants.  Enzeli,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
gulf  of  Murd-ab,  is  its  port,  but  the  sea  is 
there  so  boisterous  and  the  surf  so  high  that 
the  steamers  plying  between  Astrabad  and 
Baku  are  nt  times  not  able  to  land  their  pas- 
sengers. Treaties  of  peace  between  Persia  and 
Russia  were  signed  at  Resht  in  1729  and  1732. 

RESINA  (anc.  Retina),  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province,  on  the  gulf,  and  6m.  S.  E.  of 
the  city  of  Naples,  at  the  W.  base  of  Vesuvius ; 
pop.  about  12,000.  It  covers  a  large  part  of 
the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  and  the  sinking  of 
a  well  here  in  1709  led  to  the  excavation  of 
relics  and  to  the  first  discovery  of  the  real 
site  of  the  latter  city.  Resina  is  the  place 
from  which  the  ascent  of  Vesuvius  is  gene- 
rally made,  and  has  many  villas,  which  extend 
almost  to  the  neighboring  Portici.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  is  the  villa  La  Favorita, 
built  on  the  lava  of  1631,  and  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  prince  of  Salerno.  Silk  is  woven 


RESINS 


RESPIRATION 


277 


to  some  extent,  and  the  renowned  Lacrjmae 
Christ!  wine  is  produced  in  the  vicinity.  The 
ancient  Retina  was  supposed  to  have  been  a 
naval  station  and  the  port  of  Herculaneum. 

RESLKS,  a  class  of  proximate  principles  exist- 
ing in  almost  all  plants,  and  appearing  upon 
the  external  surface  of  many  of  them  in  the 
form  of  exudations;  also  the  oxidized  and  con- 
creted juice  of  several  species  of  coniferous  and 
other  trees.  They  are  produced  by  certain  fam- 
ilies in  considerable  abundance,  and  in  smaller 
quantities  by  a  very  large  number  of  plants. 
When  not  exuding  spontaneously,  they  often 
escape  from  punctures  in  the  bark  made  by  in- 
sects, or  may  be  obtained  by  making  incisions 
into  the  wood.  They  appear  in  the  form  of  a 
viscid  liquid  consisting  of  the  resin  in  solution 
in  the  essential  oil  of  the  plant.  (See  BAL- 
BAMB,  and  TURPENTINE.)  It  is  possible  that  the 
resins  never  exist  as  such  in  plants,  but  it  is 
certain  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  they  are 
formed  by  the  oxidation  of  the  essential  oils 
contained  in  the  plants.  They  are  sometimes 
extracted  by  boiling  the  sawdust  of  the  wood 
with  alcohol,  from  which  they  are  precipita- 
ted by  the  addition  of  water,  and  as  the  alco- 
hol is  distilled  off  the  particles  agglomerate. 
Resins  are  so  variously  composed  of  numer- 
ous principles,  that  no  little  diversity  is  ob- 
served in  their  general  properties,  and  they 
are  therefore  arranged  by  different  authorities 
under  several  heads.  1.  Resins  which  exude 
spontaneously  from  plants,  or  from  incisions 
in  the  stems  and  branches,  and  harden  on  ex- 
posure to  air;  these  sometimes  contain  con- 
siderable quantities  of  gum  or  mucilage  (gum 
resins),  or  of  volatile  oil  (balsams).  This  class 
includes :  a,  resins  containing  benzoic  or  cin- 
namic  acid,  such  as  benzoin,  storax,  and  balsam 
of  Peru  or  tolu ;  and  &,  resins  not  containing 
those  acids,  such  as  asafcetida,  copaiba,  copal, 
jalap,  lac,  mastic,  and  common  turpentine.  2. 
Oxidized  fossil  resins,  such  as  amber,  and  others 
occurring  in  beds  of  coal  or  lignite.  3.  Resins 
extracted  from  plants  by  alcohol,  such  as  the 
resins  of  cubebs,  buchu,  and  squills.  In  gen- 
eral the  resins  are  solid  bodies  of  vitreous  frac- 
ture, and  brittle,  so  as  to  be  readily  pulverized 
when  cold.  Others  are  soft  and  greasy,  and 
some  are  elastic.  They  are  usually  transpa- 
rent or  translucent,  rarely  colorless,  but  either 
brown,  red,  or  green.  Their  specific  gravity 
is  from  0-92  to  T2.  They  occasionally  have  a 
decided  taste  or  odor,  derived  from  some  es- 
sential oil  or  other  foreign  substance  present; 
and  to  the  same  cause  is  probably  owing  the 
occurrence  of  some  of  the  resins  in  a  soft  state. 
The  solid  resins  are  non-conductors  of  electri- 
city, and  by  friction  they  assume  the  electric 
state  known  as  negative  or  resinous.  They 
melt  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  form  a  thick  vis- 
cid liquid ;  on  cooling  this  becomes  a  shining 
solid  mass  of  vitreous  fracture,  which  occasion- 
ally, when  scratched  with  a  sharp  point  after 
sudden  cooling,  flies  off  into  pieces  like  Prince 
Rupert's  drops.  They  readily  take  fire,  and 


burn  with  a  white  or  yellow  flame  and  much 
sooty  smoke.  Some  are  soluble  in  ether,  and 
others  in  volatile  oils,  boiling  alcohol,  or  fixed 
oils  with  the  aid  of  heat.  The  alcoholic  solu- 
tions of  some  of  them  possess  acid  properties ; 
others  are  neutral.  These  acid  resins  combine 
with  the  alkalies  and  form  lyes,  which  when 
agitated  produce  a  lather  like  that  of  soap, 
differing  from  it,  however,  in  not  being  pre- 
cipitated or  becoming  hard  on  addition  of  com- 
mon salt.  (See  ROSIN.)  Many  of  the  natural 
resins  are  mixtures  of  two  or  more  resins, 
which  may  often  be  separated  from  each  other 
through  their  different  solvents.  "When  de- 
composed at  a  high  heat  in  close  vessels,  the 
resins  are  resolved  into  carbonic  acid,  different 
gaseous  hydrocarbons,  empyreumatic  oil,  a  lit- 
tle acidulous  water,  and  a  very  little  shining 
charcoal. — Chemically  the  resins  consist  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  often  in  such  pro- 
portions as  to  indicate  a  product  of  the  oxida- 
tion of  a  multiple  of  CBH8.  As  they  slowly 
absorb  oxygen,  with  or  without  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid  or  water,  or  both,  they  are  very 
unstable.  Very  few  can  be  crystallized,  and 
hence  it  is  only  with  extreme  difficulty  that 
they  can  be  obtained  in  a  condition  of  purity. 
In  the  case  of  gamboge,  myrrh,  and  others  less 
frequently  met,  an  atom  of  oxygen  appears  to 
be  substituted  for  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  in 
the  essential  oil;  but  mastic,  elemi,  and  oth- 
ers appear  not  only  to  exchange  hydrogen  for 
oxygen,  but  also  to  take  up  water.  Some  of 
them  may  therefore  be  considered  to  be  oxides 
and  others  hydrates  of  the  essential  oils.  As 
the  resins  have  not  yet  been  formed  artificially 
from  the  essential  oils,  these  views  have  not 
been  proved  correct. — Solutions  of  resins  in 
alcohol,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  fixed  drying  oils 
form  varnishes.  Spirit  varnishes  are  at  the 
same  time  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  brit- 
tle; their  elasticity  may  be  increased  by  the 
addition  of  oil  of  turpentine.  The  resins  com- 
monly used  for  varnishes  are  copal,  elemi,  lac, 
mastic,  and  sandarach. 

RESPIRATION  (Lat.  respirare,  to  breathe), 
the  function  by  which  oxygen  is  absorbed  by 
the  living  organism  for  the  maintenance  of 
vitality,  and  by  which  carbonic  acid  is  dis- 
charged as  a  product  of  disintegration  or  waste 
of  the  materials  of  the  tissues.  Respiration 
in  some  form  is  common  to  all  living  beings. 
Even  in  vegetables  none  of  the  more  active 
phenomena  of  life  can  go  on  unless  the  plant 
be  constantly  supplied  with  oxygen ;  and  the 
intensity  with  which  these  phenomena  are 
manifested  is  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  oxygen  is  absorbed  by  its  tissues 
and  carbonic  acid  exhaled.  In  animals  the 
process  of  respiration  is  still  more  marked; 
and  it  is  more  active  in  the  warm-blooded 
birds  and  mammalia  than  in  the  cold-blooded 
reptiles  and  fishes.  Animals  which  inhabit  the 
water  and  breathe  by  gills  absorb  through 
them  the  oxygen  which  is  in  solution  in  wa- 
ter, and  discharge  carbonic  acid  by  the  same 


278 


RESPIRATION 


RESTIGOUCriE 


channel.  In  man  and  the  air-breathing  an- 
imals, the  atmospheric  air,  which  consists  of 
21  volumes  of  oxygen  mixed  with  79  vol- 
umes of  nitrogen,  is  drawn  by  the  movement 
of  inspiration  into  the  lungs,  and  discharged 
by  the  movement  of  expiration.  During  its 
stay  in  the  pulmonary  cavities  it  is  changed 
in  composition.  The  first  and  most  important 
change  is  a  diminution  of  its  oxygen.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  air  loses  in  this  way,  by  the 
effect  of  a  single  respiration,  5  per  cent,  of 
its  volume  in  oxygen.  As,  on  the  average, 
20  cubic,  inches  of  air  are  taken  into  and  dis- 
charged from  the  lungs  by  each  respiratory 
act,  the  quantity  of  oxygen  thus  removed  from 
the  air  at  each  respiration  is -one  cubic  inch. 
The  movements  of  respiration  follow  each 
other  usually  at  the  rate  of  18  or  20  a  minute, 
and  are  accelerated  by  any  active  muscular 
exertion.  The  total  .quantity  of  air  thus  used 
for  respiration  in  24  hours  is  not  far  from 
350  cubic  feet ;  and  accordingly  the  daily  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  taken  from  the  air  and  con- 
sumed by  a  healthy  adult  man  is  about  17$ 
cubic  feet,  or  more  than  four  times  the  volume 
of  the  whole  body.  The  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  given  off  at  each  respiration  in  man  is 
rather  less  than  one  cubic  inch.  The  expired 
air  usually  contains  about  4  per  cent,  of  its 
volume  of  carbonic  acid  ;  this  amounts,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  to  about  14  cubic  feet 
a  day.  Although  the  volume  of  the  carbonic 
acid  exhaled  is  less  than  that  of  the  oxygen 
absorbed,  its  weight  is  considerably  greater; 
the  whole  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  during 
24  hours  being  about  10,000  grains,  or  rather 
less  than  1$  Ib.  avoirdupois,  while  that  of  car- 
bonic acid  exhaled  during  the  same  time  is  over 
11,000  grains,  or  rather  more  than  1$  Ib.  A 
certain  amount  of  watery  vapor  is  discharged 
with  the  expired  breath.  This  vapor  is  invisi- 
ble at  moderately  warm  temperatures,  since  it 
is  then  in  the  completely  gaseous  form ;  but  if 
it  be  cooled  below  a  certain  point,  as  by  com- 
ing in  contact  with  cold  air  or  cold  metallic 
or  glass  surfaces,  it  becomes  condensed,  and 
is  then  rendered  visible  as  a  cloudy  vapor  or  as 
a  deposit  of  moisture.  The  amount  of  watery 
vapor  thus  discharged  with  the  breath  during 
24  hours  is,  on  the  average,  rather  more  than 
one  pound  avoirdupois.  The  oxygen  absorbed 
from  the  air  in  the  lungs  is  taken  up  by  the 
blood,  and  carried  away  in  the  arterial  cir- 
culation. At  tlie  same  time  the  blood  loses 
the  dark  purple  color  which  it  presents  before 
entering  the  lungs,  and  assumes  a  bright  scar- 
let hue.  This  process  is  the  most  immediate 
effect  and  the  main  purpose  of  respiration,  and 
constitutes  the  principal  distinction  between 
arterial  and  venous  blood.  Venous  blood  is 
dark  because  it  is  deficient  in  oxygen ;  arte- 
rial blood  is  bright  red  because  it  contains  an 
abundant  supply  of  this  necessary  ingredient. 
The  brilliant  color  of  arterial  blood  is  therefore 
an  indication  that  it  has  absorbed  its  requisite 
quantity  of  oxygen,  and  is  fit  to  provide  for 


the  stimulus  and  nutrition  of  the  tissues.  As 
the  arterial  blood  is  disseminated  throughout 
the  body  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tissues,  it  gives  up  to  them  its 
oxygen  and  resumes  a  dark  purple  hue ;  it  is 
thus  reconverted  into  venous  blood.  At  the 
same  time  it  absorbs  from  the  tissues  a  certain 
proportion  of  carbon,  which  has  been  set  free 
in  their  substance,  and,  loaded  with  this  pro- 
duct of  disintegration,  it  returns  to  the  right 
side  of  the  heart,  to  be  thence  distributed  to 
the  lungs.  There  are  accordingly  two  oppo- 
site and  complementary  changes  taking  place 
in  the  blood,  during  its  passage  through  the 
lungs  and  the  tissues  respectively.— Since  the 
air  by  respiration  is  deprived  of  a  portion  of 
its  oxygen  and  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  it 
will  be  incapable  of  supporting  respiration 
continuously,  unless  renovated  as  rapidly  as  it 
is  consumed.  This  renovation  is  provided  for 
by  the  alternate  movements  of  inspiration  and 
expiration,  by  which  the  air  already  in  the 
lungs,  which  has  given  up  its  oxygen  to  the 
blood  and  become  mingled  with  carbonic  acid, 
is  discharged  externally  and  replaced  by  afresh 
supply.  The  expired  air  is  at  once  dissemi- 
nated in  the  external  atmosphere  and  carried 
away  by  the  currents  which  are  always  in  mo- 
tion ;  so  that,  while  in  the  open  air,  the  lungs 
are  constantly  supplied  with  the  materials  of 
respiration  in  a  state  of  purity.  But  if  res- 
piration be  carried  on  in  a  confined  space,  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  gradually  diminishes  in  quan- 
tity, and  carbonic  acid  accumulates  in  a  corre- 
sponding degree.  The  air  is  thus  at  the  same 
time  impoverished  and  vitiated,  and  after  a 
time  its  deterioration  becomes  so  marked  that 
it  is  no  longer  capable  of  supporting  life.  Air 
is  completely  unfit  for  respiration  when  its 
natural  proportion  of  oxygen  has  been  reduced 
one  half,  and  when  it  has  become  contami- 
nated with  carbonic  acid  to  the  extent  of  one 
fifth  of  its  volume.  But  although  the  most 
serious  results  follow  when  the  air  has  been 
vitiated  to  this  extent,  a  much  smaller  amount 
of  deterioration  is  unwholesome.  This  is  of 
the  greater  importance  because,  besides  its  loss 
in  oxygen  and  its  mixture  with  carbonic  acid, 
the  air  in  respiration  is  also  contaminated  by 
certain  organic  vapors  which  may  be  distin- 
guished by  their  odor,  and  which  are  exhaled 
in  the  breath  at  the  same  time  with  the  car- 
bonic acid. 

RESTIGOCCHE,  a  N.  county  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  bordering  on  Quebec  and  the 
bay  of  Chaleurs ;  area,  2,889  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  5,575,  of  whom  2,695  were  of  Scotch, 
1,143  of  French,  1,133  of  Irish,  and  483  of 
English  origin  or  descent.  It  is  intersected  by 
branches  of  the  Restigouche  river,  which  part- 
ly separates  it  from  Quebec.  The  surface  is 
diversified  with  mountains  and  valleys.  The 
soil  is  well  timbered;  large  quantities  of  tim- 
ber are  exported.  Capital,  Dalhonsie. 

RESTIGOrCHE,  a  river  of  Canada,  rising  in 
Madawaska  co.,  in  the  N.  "\V.  part  of  New 


RETHEL 


RETRIEVER 


279 


Brunswick.  It  flows  N.  E.  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Mistouche,  and  thence  a  little  N.  of  E., 
forming  the  boundary  between  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Quebec,  to  the  bay  of  Chaleurs, 
which  it  enters  at  Dalhousie,  N.  B.  It  is  3 
m.  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  is  navigable  by 
the  largest  ships  for  18  m.  to  Cainpbellton, 
N.  B.  The  scenery  along  its  course  is  grand 
and  beautiful.  With  its  tributaries  it  drains 
an  area  of  about  5,000  sq.  m.  of  fertile  and 
.well  timbered  country.  It  abounds  in  salmon. 
Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  "Wetomkegewick, 
Mistouche,  and  Matapediac  from  the  north, 
and  the  Upsalquitch  from  the  south. 

R ETHEL,  Alfred,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816,  died  in  Diisseldorf, 
Dec.  1,  1859.  He  studied  under  Schadow  and 
Veit,  visited  Italy,  and  became  insane  in  1852. 
His  principal  works  are  the  frescoes  illustrating 
the  history  of  Charlemagne  in  the  town  hall 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  his  designs  of  "Hannibal 
crossing  the  Alps,"  and  those  of  the  "  Dance 
of  Death."  His  large  cartoons  of  "  Charle- 
magne at  the  Council  of  Frankfort  "  and  "  The 
embassy  of  the  Caliph  Haroun  al-Rashid  to 
Charlemagne  "  are  at  Diisseldorf. 

RETINA.     See  EYE. 

RETINISPORA  (Gr.  prjriv^  resin,  and  cirop&, 
seed),  a  name  proposed  by  Siebold  and  Zucca- 
rini  in  their  Flora  Japonica  for  a  genus  of 
coniferce,  which  has  been  accepted  until  with- 
in a  few  years;  but  it  has  since  been  shown 
that  the  resinous  coating  of  the  seed,  all  that 
distinguishes  it  from  cupressus,  is  found  on 
undoubted  species  of  that  genus ;  hence  it  fol- 
lows that  the  retinisporas  cannot  be  kept  dis- 
tinct from  the  cypresses.  As  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  supersede  an  established  name,  no  doubt 
these  Japanese  species,  having  been  introduced 
as  retinisporas,  will  long  retain  that  name  in 
the  catalogues  and  among  arboriculturists.  For 
their  botanical  characters,  see  CYPRESS.  The 
species  and  varieties,  though  of  comparative- 
ly recent  introduction,  have  proved  especially 
suited  to  the  climate  of  the  northern  states. 
In  Japan  they  are  100  ft.  or  more  high,  but 
in  our  gardens  they  are  thus  far  only  1  to 
6  or  8  ft.  high.  Like  the  arbor  vita3  and  re- 
lated plants,  the  foliage  assumes  very  distinct 
forms,  according  to  the  age  of  the  tree ;  and 
some  good  observers  are  disposed  to  regard  the 
15  or  20  named  sorts  of  our  gardens  as  all  forms 
of  a  single  species.  For  small  places,  these 
plants  are  especially  valuable ;  they  naturally 
assume  a  good  form,  and  may  be  cut  into  any 
desired  shape ;  they  are  generally  upright,  but 
there  is  one  positively  pendulous ;  some  have 
the  leaves  small,  blunt,  and  scale-like,  others 
sharp  and  spreading;  there  are  the  darkest 
greens,  and  varieties  with  silver  and  golden 
variegation,  and  a  collection  of  these  forms 
presents  wide  contrasts  in  habit  and  color. 
The  plants  are  for  the  most  part  propagated 
readily  from  cuttings ;  these  are  taken  in  the 
autumn,  set  in  sand  at  a  greenhouse  tempera- 
ture all  winter,  and  as  the  heat  increases  in 


spring  root  rapidly.  The  leading  varieties  are 
here  enumerated  by  the  names  given  in  the 
catalogues,  without  reference  to  botanical  ac- 
curacy. Eetinispora, 
obtusa  has  very  dark 
green,  small,  blunt, 
appressed  leaves,  and 
there  are  several  va- 
rieties. E.  pisifera 
is  more  slender,  and 
has  a  golden  and  sil- 
ver variety.  E.  eri- 
coides  is  a  handsome 
heath-like  plant.  E. 
fycopodioidesismuch 
like  a  club  moss.  E. 
Jilicoides  has  fern- 
like  branches.  E. 
plumosa  is  one  of 
the  most  valued  of 
all,  remarkably  com- 
pact, with  very  nu- 
merous small  branch- 
lets  which  give  the 
tree  a  plume-like  ap- 
pearance ;  the  gold- 
en variety  of  this,  E. 
plumosa,  var.  aurea, 
is  of  great  beauty, 
and  is  destined  to  be  Plumy  EettaifPora  (Ketini- 

„  ,,  spora  plumosa). 

one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular of  all  conifers  ;  it  has  the  plumose  habit 
of  the  green  form,  but  the  branchlets  and  all 
the  spray  are  of  a  bright  golden  hue,  and  hold 
this  color  during  the  winter  months ;  being 
easily  propagated,  it  may  be  used  for  edgings 
and  for  a  great  variety  of  ornamental  planting. 

RETORT.     See  DISTILLATION,  and  GAS. 

RETRIEVER,  a  name  given  to  several  breeds 
of  sporting  dogs,  from  their  being  taught  to 
retrieve  or  recover  game  which  has  fallen  be- 


Ketriever. 


yond  the  reach  of  the  sportsman,  or  where  he 
does  not  choose  to  go  for  it.  The  largest  and 
best  known  is  a  cross  between  the  Newfound- 


280 


RETZ 


REUCHLIN 


land  dog  and  the  setter,  best  for  game  as  large 
as  a  hare  or  pheasant ;  it  stands  nearly  2  ft. 
high,  with  powerful  frame  and  stout  limbs; 
the  hair  is  moderately  long  and  curly,  and 
should  be  black ;  the  sense  of  smell  is  very 
acute.  They  are  very  difficult  to  train.  The 
smaller  retrievers  are  a  cross  between  the 
water  spaniel  or  beagle  and  the  terrier,  smooth 
English  or  rough  Scotch ;  they  are  less  noisy 
and  more  companionable  than  the  larger  breed. 

RETZ,  GiDes  de  Laval,  seigneur  de,  marshal  of 
France,  born  about  1396,  put  to  death  in  1440. 
Under  Charles  VII.  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  English,  and  fought  at  the 
side  of  the  maid  of  Orleans.  Money  troubles 
obliged  him  to  retire  to  his  castle  near  Nantes. 
In  consequence  of  rumors  of  shameful  deeds 
practised  by  him,  the  bishop  of  Nantes  sum- 
moned him  to  be  tried  before  a  mixed  com- 
mission. It  was  proved  that  during  14  years 
the  seigneur  de  Retz  had  enticed  into  his  castle 
several  hundred  children,  had  practised  magic, 
and  had  paid  worship  to  the  devil,  in  which 
his  victims  were  obliged  to  take  part  as  priests 
and  priestesses.  He  was  handed  over  to  the 
civil  power,  and  by  a  decree  of  Oct.  25,  1440, 
he  was  condemned  to  the  stake,  but,  as  a  no- 
ble, was  strangled. 

RETZ,  Jean  Francois  Pan!  de  Gondi,  cardinal  de, 
a  French  politician,  born  at  Montmirail  in 
1614,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  24,  1679.  He  was  a 
younger  son  of  Philippe  Emmanuel  de  Gondi, 
the  general  of  the  galleys  under  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIII.,  and  was  intended  for  the  church; 
but,  with  the  design  of  establishing  a  reputa- 
tion that  would  debar  him  from  that  employ- 
ment, he  entered  on  a  career  of  intrigue  and 
licentiousness,  participating  in  every  conspiracy 
against  Richelieu.  His  family  proved  immov- 
able, and  at  length  he  turned  his  attention  to 
theological  studies.  He  took  rank  among  the 
most  distinguished  members  of  the  church,  and 
when  not  30  years  old  became  coadjutor  to 
his  uncle  the  archbishop  Henri  do  Gondi.  His 
winning  manners,  eloquence,  and  seeming 
Christian  virtues  secured  for  him  unparalleled 
popularity  among  the  Parisians.  When  the 
troubles  of  the  Fronde  broke  out,  he  offered 
his  services  to  the  regent,  Anne  of  Austria; 
but  being  coldly  received,  he  used  his  popu- 
larity to  cause  the  people  of  the  metropolis  to 
rise  in  arms  against  Mazarin,  and  became  in 
effect  the  leader  of  the  revolt.  In  1651  he 
secured  a  cardinal's  hat  through  hia  temporary 
alliance  with  the  court,  but  he  finally  lost 
credit  with  all  parties.  Previous  to  the  ter- 
mination of  the  troubles,  he  was  arrested  by 
order  of  the  queen,  and  was  first  taken  to  Vin- 
cennes,  then  to  the  castle  of  Nantes,  whence 
he  escaped.  He  took  refuge  in  Spain,  then  in 
Italy,  where  his  rank  as  a  cardinal  and  his  dig- 
nity of  archbishop  of  Paris,  in  which  he  had 
nominally  succeeded  his  uncle  in  1654,  secured 
him  some  respect.  His  return  to  France  was 
permitted  in  1661,  but  on  condition  of  resign- 
ing his  archbishopric,  which  he  exchanged  for 


the  abbacy  of  St.  Denis,  the  richest  preferment 
in  France.  He  now  gave  up  politics  entirely, 
lived  for  the  most  part  on  an  estate  in  Lor- 
raine, and  paid  up  his  old  debts,  which  amount- 
ed to  more  than  3,000,000  livres.  His  per- 
sonal memoirs  were  printed  for  the  first  time 
in  1717  (3  vols.  12mo,  Nancy),  and  have  been 
often  reprinted,  with  the  addition  of  those 
of  Guy-Joly  and  the  duchess  de  Nemours,  by 
which  they  are  completed.  They  are  included 
in  Petitot's  and  Michaud  and  Poujoulat's  Col- 
lections de  memoirea  pour  tercir  d  Vhistoire  de 
Prance.  The  most  complete  edition  is  that  of 
Aime-Champollion  (4  vols.  12mo,  1859),  with 
annotations  and  index. — See  also  CEuvret  du 
cardinal  de  Retz,  edited  by  Alphonse  Feillet 
(vols.  i.  and  ii.,  Paris,  1872). 

RETZSCH,  Frledrieh  Ansrast  Horltz,  a  German 
designer,  born  in  Dresden,  Dec.  9,  1779,  died 
near  that  city,  June  11,  1857.  He  studied  at 
Dresden,  and  in  1824  was  appointed  professor 
of  painting  there.  His  reputation  rests  upon 
his  outline  etchings  illustrating  "  Faust "  and 
the  ballads  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Burger, 
and  Shakespeare's  plays. 

imnil.lN  (Hellenized  into  CAPNIO), 'Johann, 
a  German  scholar,  born  in  Pforzheim  in  1455 
(Feb.  22,  according  to  Geiger),  died  in  Stuttgart, 
June  80,  1522.  On  account  of  the  sweetness 
of  his  voice  he  was  admitted  into  the  chapel 
of  the  margrave  of  Baden,  and  he  was  chosen 
by  that  prince  to  accompany  his  son  Frederick 
in  1473  to  the  university  of  Paris.  At  the  age 
of  20  he  taught  at  Basel  philosophy  and  Greek 
and  Latin.  He  studied  law  in  Orleans,  and  in 
1481  was  made  teacher  of  jurisprudence  and 
belles-lettres  in  the  university  of  Tflbingen. 
He  received  from  the  emperor  Frederick  III. 
the  title  of  imperial  councillor,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  diplomacy.  After  the  death  of  his 
patron  Duke  Eberhard  of  Wiirtemberg  he  went 
to  the  court  of  the  elector  palatine  Philip  at 
Heidelberg,  where  ho  made  valuable  additions 
to  the  library ;  and  when  the  elector  fell  under 
the  papal  ban,  Reuchlin  went  to  Rome  and 
obtained  his  absolution.  For  11  years  he  was 
president  of  the  Swabian  confederate  tribunal, 
but  found  time  for  the  study  of  the  eastern 
languages,  and  was  constantly  collecting  Greek 
and  Hebrew  manuscripts.  About  1509  a  con- 
verted Jew  named  Pfefferkorn  persuaded  the 
inquisition  of  Cologne  to  solicit  from  the  em- 
peror Maximilian  an  order  that  nil  Hebrew 
books  with  the  exception  of  the  Bible  should 
be  burned.  The  emperor  yielded,  but  subse- 
quently asked  the  opinion  of  Reuchlin,  who 
remonstrated  strenuously,  and  the  order  was 
superseded.  The  inquisitors  raised  a  furious 
cry  against  Reuchlin,  charging  him  with  being 
secretly  inclined  to  Judaism.  Reuchlin  in 
1511  published  a  defence  under  the  title  Spe- 
culum Oculare,  in  1512  a  German  translation 
entitled  Auyenspiegel,  and  in  1513  his  Defen- 
tio  contra  Calumniatores.  In  revenge  tin-  in- 
quisitor Hoogstraaten  formed  a  tribunal  at 
Mentz,  by  the  order  of  which  the  writings  of 


REUNION 


EEUSS 


281 


the  German  scholar  were  committed  to  the 
flames.  An  appeal  was  made  to  Pope  Leo  X., 
who  referred  the  whole  matter  to  the  bishop 
of  Spire,  and  that  prelate  declared  Reuchlin 
innocent,  and  ordered  the  monks  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  investigation.  Hoogstraaten 
appealed  to  the  pope,  who  issued  a  mandate 
to  suspend  the  proceedings  against  Eeuchlin. 
The  opening  of  the  reformation  prevented  the 
matter  from  being  revived ;  but  the  contest  re- 
sulted really  in  favor  of  the  advocates  of  clas- 
sical literature,  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew 
from  that  time  becoming  general  among  the 
Germans.  (See  EPISTOL^;  OBSCCBOEUM  VIBO- 
EUM.)  In  the  war  between  Franz  von  Sickin- 
gen  and  TJlric,  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  Reuchlin 
was  obliged  to  leave  Stuttgart,  and  in  1520  was 
made  professor  in  the  university  of  Ingol- 
stadt  by  Duke  William  of  Bavaria.  He  re- 
ceived an  invitation  to  go  to  Wittenberg,  and 
recommended  in  his  place  his  cousin  Philip 
Melanchthon.  Although  suspected  of  a  lean- 
ing toward  Protestantism,  he  never  renounced 
his  connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
When  in  1522  the  plague  broke  out  in  Ingol- 
stadt,  he  retired  to  Tubingen  with  the  intention 
of  devoting  himself  wholly  to  his  studies,  but 
soon  sickened  and  died.  Among  his  philologi- 
cal works  are  Hicropcedia,  sive  Grammatical, 
GrcBca  (Orleans,  1478) ;  Breviloqum,  sive  Dic- 
tionarium  singulas  Voces  Latinas  fireviter  Ex- 
plicans,  which  has  been  called  the  first  Latin 
dictionary  (Basel,  1478) ;  Rudimenta  Hebraica 
(Pforzheim,  1506)  ;  and  De  Accentibus  et  Or- 
thographia  Hebrceorum  Libri  III.  (Hagenau, 
1518).  His  edition  of  the  seven  penitential 
psalms  (Tubingen,  1512)  is  thought  to  have 
been  the  first  Hebrew  work  printed  in  Ger- 
many. For  the  system  of  Greek  pronuncia- 
tion which  he  established,  and  which  is  known 
as  iotacism  or  Reuchlinism,  see  GEEECE  (LAN- 
GUAGE AND  LITEEATUEE),  vol.  viii.,  p.  209. — 
See  Johann  Reuchlin,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
Werjce,  by  Ludwig  Geiger  (Leipsic,  1871). 

REUNION,  lie  de  la,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
ocean,  belonging  to  France,  between  lat.  20° 
60'  and  21°  24'  S.,  and  Ion.  52°  56'  and  53° 
34'  E.,  120  W.  S.  W.  of  Mauritius  and  about 
410  m.  E.  of  Madagascar;  area,  about  970  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1868,  212,536,  about  one  sixth 
whites,  and  the  rest  chiefly  negroes  and  cool- 
ies. The  island  is  formed  of  two  volcanic 
mountain  ranges.  The  high  central  plateaus 
are  known  as  la  plaine  des  Psalmistes  and 
la  plaine  des  Cafres.  The  highest  and  north- 
ernmost peak,  the  Piton  des  Neiges,  is  more 
than  10,000  ft.  high.  In  the  south  is  the  Piton 
de  Fournaise,  an  active  volcano,  about  7,000 
ft.  high ;  the  Gros  Morne  volcano  is  extinct. 
The  climate  is  salubrious  despite  the  great 
summer  heats,  violent  hurricanes,  and  fevers. 
A  girdle  road  finished  in  1854  extends  over 
100  m.  in  the  interior  of  the  island.  There 
are  no  navigable  rivers,  but  many  torrents 
and  several  lakes.  The  staple  product  is  su- 
gar, besides  which  the  chief  exports  are  mo- 


lasses, coffee,  cacao,  and  cloves.  Horses,  cat- 
tle, grain,  rice,  wines,  beer,  oils,  salt  fish,  and 
other  articles  are  imported.  The  chief  com- 
merce is  with  France.  Since  August,  1873, 
all  foreign  goods  except  tobacco  are  liable  to 
only  the  same  duties  as  those  from  France. 
The  arrivals  in  1873  comprised  185  French 
and  21  foreign  vessels,  and  the  total  trade 
with  France  is  estimated  at  about  36,000,000 
francs. — The  island  was  discovered  in  1505  by 
the  Portuguese  Mascarenhas,  whose  name  it 
bore  till  1642,  when  the  French  took  it  and 
called  it  Bourbon.  The  English  occupied  it 
from  1810  to  1815,  when  it  was  restored  to 
France.  It  was  called  Reunion  during  the 
revolution  and  the  first  empire,  and  Bourbon 
from  the  restoration  till  1848,  since  which  it 
has  again  been  called  Reunion.  Slavery  was 
abolished  in  1848.  The  island  is  administered 
by  a  governor  and  a  council  of  30  members, 
the  latter  elected  by  the  resident  French.  It 
is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  du  Vent 
and  sous  le  Vent.  The  chief  towns  are  St. 
Denis,  the  capital,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Benoit. 

ItEtS,  a  city  of  Catalonia,  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  11  m.  W.  of  the  city  of  Tarragona; 
pop.  about  25,000.  It  is  situated  on  a  gently 
sloping  plain  near  the  base  of  a  low  mountain 
range,  and  was  formerly  fortified.  It  consists 
of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  former  dating 
from  1151,  and  the  latter  from  the  last  cen- 
tury. There  are  11  public  squares  and  several 
subterranean  aqueducts.  The  parish  church  of 
San  Pedro  is  a  stately  Gothic  pile  with  an  im- 
posing tower.  Outside  the  town  are  two  sanc- 
tuaries, one  of  which  contains  a  gorgeous  im- 
age of  the  Virgin,  which  is  visited  by  large 
numbers  of  worshippers.  The  city  has  over 
100  cotton  and  silk  factories,  and  numerous 
oil  mills,  distilleries,  and  soap  and  earthen- 
ware factories.  The  commercial  prosperity 
of  Reus  dates  from  the  establishment  there 
of  English  manufacturers  in  1750. 

REUSS,  a  river  of  Switzerland,  tributary  to 
the  Aar,  rising  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  near  Mt. 
St.  Gothard,  within  the  small  district  where 
the  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Ticino  also  have  their 
source.  It  flows,  fed  by  glaciers,  in  a  north- 
erly direction  into  the  lake  of  Lucerne,  and 
after  leaving  it  follows  a  winding  course,  at 
first  N.  N".  W.  to  the  junction  of  the  Emme, 
then  1ST.  E.,  and  then  crosses  in  a  N.  N.  W.  di- 
rection the  canton  of  Aargau,  joining  the  Aar 
at  Windisch,  east  of  Bragg.  The  total  length 
of  the  river  is  about  100  m.  Above  Lake  Lu- 
cerne it  falls  4,500  ft.,  with  many  magnifi- 
cent cascades;  below  it  is  navigable.  The 
new  road  (built  1820-'32)  over  the  St.  Got- 
hard crosses  the  Reuss  eight  times,  one  of  the 
bridges  being  the  celebrated  Devil's  bridge. 
(See  DEVIL'S  BBIDGE.) 

REUSS,  a  territory  of  central  Germany,  be- 
tween lat.  50°  and  51°  K,  and  Ion.  11°  and  13° 
E.,  enclosed  by  Saxe-Meiningen,  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, Saxe-Weimar,  Altenburg,  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  and  Bavaria ;  area,  443  sq.  m. ;  pop. 


282 


REUTER 


REVERE 


in  1871,  134,126,  nearly  all  Protestants.  It 
consists  of  two  unequal  portions,  separated  by 
the  southern  part  of  Weimar.  It  is  a  part  of 
what  was  formerly  known  as  Voigtland,  most- 
ly hilly,  and  traversed  by  the  upper  courses  of 
the  White  Elster  and  Saale.  Cattle  and  sheep 
are  reared,  and  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  are 
manufactured.  The  territory  forms  now  two 
sovereign  principalities  of  the  German  empire, 
Reuss-Greiz  and  Reuss-Schleiz.  The  former 
division  (area,  123  sq.  in.)  is  the  patrimony 
of  the  elder  branch  of  the  reiguing  family; 
its  capital  is  Greiz,  on  the  Elster.  The  lat- 
ter (area.  320  sq.  m.),  which  is  ruled  by  the 
younger  line,  comprises  the  principalities  of 
Schleiz,  Lobonstein-Ebersdorf,  and  Gera,  the 
capital  being  Schleiz.  The  house  of  lieuss 
had  its  origin  in  the  12th  century.  All  the 
male  members  of  the  princely  family  have 
from  the  beginning  b*een  named  Henry,  at  first 
distinguished  by  surnames  and  afterward  by 
numbers,  the  elder  line  beginning  a  new  series 
after  reaching  0.  (100),  and  the  younger  with 
each  century.  The  present  reigning  princes 
(1875)  are  Henry  XXII.  of  the  elder  line,  son 
of  Henry  XX.,  and  Henry  XIV.  of  the  younger 
line,  son  of  Henry  LXVII. 

REUTER,  Fritz,  a  German  novelist,  born  at 
Stavenhagen,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Nov.  7, 
1810,  died  in  Eisenach,  July  12,  1874.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  where  he  joined  the  Burschen- 
scluiften,  and  was  in  1834  sentenced  to  death, 
but  reprieved  after  being  imprisoned  seven 
years.  lie  was  afterward  a  teacher  at  Trep- 
tow,  and  acquired  celebrity  as  a  writer  of 
works  in  Platt-Doutsch  (complete  ed.,  12  vols., 
Wismar,  1863-'6).  A  collection  of  his  post- 
humous works  was  commenced  at  Wismar  in 
1875. — See  Fritz  Renter  und  seine  Gedichte, 
by  O.  Glogau  (Berlin,  1875). 

REUTLI.\GE.\,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg,  capital 
of  the  Black  Forest  circle,  on  the  Echatz,  20 
ra.  S.  of  Stuttgart;  pop.  in  1871,  14,237.  It 
has  a  poinological  school,  several  other  special 
schools,  and  a  well  endowed  hospital.  St. 
Mary's  church,  witli  a  tower  about  350  ft. 
high,  which  was  erected  in  the  14th  century 
and  restored  in  1844,  is  considered  the  most 
beautiful  church  of  Wurtemberg.  In  1863  a 
monument  was  erected  here  to  Friedrich  List, 
who  was  a  native  of  the  town.  There  are  im- 
portant manufactures  of  cloth,  hats,  powder, 
soap,  &c.  Reutlingen  was  in  1240  made  a  free 
imperial  citv,  and  in  1803  united  with  Wur- 
temberg.  It  has  always  been  strongly  Protes- 
tant, having  subscribed  the  Augsburg  confes- 
sion in  1530. 

REVEL,  or  Rtval,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  Esthonia,  situated  on  the 
bay  of  Revel  on  the  S.  side  of  the  gulf  of  Fin- 
laud,  200  in.  AV.  S.  W.  of  St.  Petersburg ;  pop. 
in  18(37,  27,325.  The  town  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  older  and  larger  of  which  stands  upon 
a  rocky  eminence,  and  the  other  is  built  along 
the  beach.  Buildings  deserving  notice  are  the 
provincial  assembly  house  of  the  nobles,  and 


the  imperial  palace  of  Katharinenthal,  founded 
by  Peter  the  Great,  with  a  beautiful  park  now 
open  to  the  public.  The  town  contains  a  gym- 
nasium, a  school  of  midwifery,  several  benev- 
olent institutions  and  associations,  Lutheran, 
Roman  Catholic,  and  Greek  churches,  and  pub- 
lic libraries.  It  is  much  resorted  to  as  a  water- 
ing place.  A  brisk  export  trade  is  carried  on 
in  corn,  spirits,  hemp,  flax,  timber,  and  other 
Baltic  goods.  Revel  was  founded  by  Walde- 
mar  II.  of  Denmark  about  1218,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  towns  of  the  Hanseatic 
league.  It  subsequently  fell  under  the  sway 
of  the  knights  sword-bearers  of  Livonia  and 
under  that  of  Sweden.  Peter  the  Great  ob- 
tained possession  of  it  in  1710. 

REVELATION,  Book  of  the.    See  APOCALYPSE. 

REVERE,  Paul,  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
Boston,  Jan.  1,  1735,  died  there,  May  10, 1818. 
He  was  of  Huguenot  descent,  and  was  brought 
up  to  his  father's  trade  of  goldsmith.  In  1756 
he  was  a  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  the  colonial 
army,  and  was  stationed  at  Fort  Edward  near 
Lake  'George.  On  his  return  he  established 
himself  as  a  goldsmith,  and  by  his  own  unaid- 
ed efforts  learned  the  art  of  copperplate  en- 
graving, and  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revo- 
lutionary war  was  one  of  the  four  engravers 
then  living  in  America.  In  1766  he  engraved 
a  print  emblematic  of  the  repeal  of  the  stamp 
act,  which  was  very  popular,  as  was  likewise 
another  called  "  The  Seventeen  Rescinders." 
In  1770  he  published  a  print  of  "The  Boston 
Massacre,"  and  was  one  of  the  grand  jury  which 
refused  to  serve  because  of  the  action  of  parlia- 
ment in  making  the  judge  independent  of  the 
people.  In  1776  he  engraved  the  plates,  made 
the  press,  and  printed  the  bills  of  the  paper 
money  ordered  by  the  provincial  congress  of 
Massachusetts.  By  that  body  he  was  sent  to 
Philadelphia  to  learn  the  art  of  making  pow- 
der, and  on  his  return  set  up  a  mill.  lie  was 
one  of  those  engaged  in  the  destruction  of  the 
tea  in  Boston  harbor  (1773),  and  was  sent  to 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  to  carry  to  those 
places  the  news  of  what  had  been  done. 
When  the  decree  for  closing  the  port  of  Boston 
reached  that  city,  he  was  again  sent  to  those 
places  to  invoke  their  sympathy  and  coopera- 
tion. When  Gen.  Gage  prepared  an  expedi- 
tion to  destroy  the  military  stores  of  the  colony 
at  Concord,  Warren,  at  10  o'clock  on  the  night 
of  April  18,  1775,  despatched  William  Duwes 
through  Roxbury  to  Lexington,  and  Revere 
by  way  of  Charlestown,  to  give  notice  of  the 
event.  Five  minutes  before  Gen.  Gage's  order 
was  received  to  prevent  any  American  from 
leaving  Boston,  he  was  rowed  across  Charles 
river,  and  escaping  the  British  officers  rode  in 
the  still  night  to  Lexington,  rousing  every  house 
on  his  way.  A  little  after  midnight  both  mes- 
sengers reached  Lexington,  roused  llanopck 
and  Adams,  and  then  pushed  on  to  Conconl, 
but  were  afterward  taken  prisoners,  brought 
to  Lexington,  and  there  released.  Revere  lie- 
came  a  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  defence  of  the 


REVOLVER 


REYNOLDS 


283 


state  of  Massachusetts,  and  after  the  war  cast 
church  bells  and  cannon.  He  built  the  cop- 
per-rolling works  at  Canton,  Mass.,  now  con- 
ducted by  the  Revere  copper  company. 

REVOLVER.     See  PISTOL. 

REYBACD,  Marie  Roeh  Louis,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Marseilles,  Aug.  15,  1799.  He  was 
brought  up  as  a  merchant,  made  several  com- 
mercial voyages,  and  in  1828  settled  in  Paris. 
He  wrote  for  various  liberal  journals,  and  con- 
ducted the  Histoire  scientijique  et  militaire 
de  ^expedition  francaise  en  Egypte  (10  vols. 
8vo,  with  an  atlas  of  2  vols.,  l830-'36),  edit- 
ing more  particularly  the  six  volumes  relating 
to  the  expedition  under  Bonaparte,  Kleber, 
and  Menou.  From  1837  to  1840  he  published 
in  the  JRevue  des  Deux  Mondes  a  review  of 
Utopian  theories,  under  the  title  of  Etudes  sur 
Us  reformateurs  et  socialistes  modernes  (2  vols., 
1840-'43 ;  7th  ed.,  1864),  for  which  he  received 
from  the  French  academy  the  grand  Montyon 
prize.  His  most  popular  work,  Jerome  Patu- 
rot  d  la  recherche  d^une  position  sociale  (3  vols. 
8vo,  1843),  was  followed  by  Jerome  Paturot  d 
la  recherche  de  la  meilleure  des  republiques  (4 
vols.  18mo,  1848).  He  has  also  written  La 
Syric,  V  Egypte  et  la  Palestine  (4to,  with  plates, 
1834  et  seq.),  in  conjunction  with  Baron  Tay- 
lor; La  Polynesie  (8vo,  1843);  and  IS  Industrie 
en  Europe  (1856).  M.  Reybaud  was  elected  to 
the  legislature  as  a  democrat  in  1846,  as  a  re- 
publican in  1848,  and  as  a  conservative  in  1849 ; 
and  he  was  a  member  of  the  consultative  com- 
mission after  the.  coup  d'etat  of  1851. 

REYER,  Louis  Etienne  Ernest,  a  French  com- 
poser, whose  real  name  is  Rey,  born  in  Mar- 
seilles, Dec.  1,  1823.  He  was  employed  in  the 
civil  service  at  Algiers  till  1848.  His  Le  Se- 
lam,  for  which  Gautier  wrote  the  words,  was 
successfully  performed  in  1850,  and  in  1854 
appeared  his  comic  opera  Maitre  Wolfram. 
His  subsequent  works  comprise  Sacountala,  a 
ballet,  and  the  opera  of  La  statue.  His  Ero- 
strate  was  less  successful.  His  latest  work  is 
Souvenirs  d'Allemagne  (1875). 

REYKJAVIK  (Icel.  Reikjavig),  a  seaport  town 
and  the  capital  of  Iceland,  at  the  head  of  a 
bay  opening  into  Faxafiord,  on  the  S.  W.  coast ; 
lat.  64°  8'  24"  K,  Ion.  21°  55'  15"  W. ;  pop. 
about  1,400.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor and  the  seat  of  the  althing  or  legisla- 
ture and  of  the  supreme  court.  It  has  a  ca- 
thedral church,  a  college  with  six  professors, 
a  school  of  theology  and  other  schools,  an  ob- 
servatory, a  public  library  of  10,000  volumes, 
and  two  political  newspapers.  An  important 
annual  fair  is  held  here.  During  summer  reg- 
ular steam  communication  is  maintained  with 
Leith  and  Copenhagen. — Reykiavik,  founded 
in  874,  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  in 
Iceland.  Its  1,000th  anniversary  was  cele- 
brated on  Aug.  7,  1874;  and  on  the  same  day 
the  municipality  of  Copenhagen  voted  6,000 
rixdalers  for  the  erection  of  a  monument  there 
in  honor  of  Thorwaldsen,  whose  father  was  a 
native  of  Iceland. 


REYNOLDS,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  drain- 
ed by  the  head  waters  of  the  Big  Black  river ; 
area,  about  700  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  3,756, 
of  whom  11  were  colored.  It  has  an  undu- 
lating surface  and  fertile  soil.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  13,382  bushels  of  wheat, 
168,255  of  Indian  corn,  17,680  of  oats,  13,385 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  6,607  of  wool,  and  48,000  of 
butter.  There  were  1,075  horses,  3,585  cat- 
tle, 4,810  sheep,  and  9,953  swine.  Capital, 
Centreville. 

REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  an  English  painter, 
born  at  Plympton,  Devonshire,  July  16,  1723, 
died  in  London,  Feb.  23,  1792.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  free  grammar  school  of  Plympton, 
of  which  his  father,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Reynolds, 
was  master.  In  his  18th  year  he  was  placed 
with  Hudson,  the  principal  portrait  painter  of 
the  time,  and  while  with  him  made  many  care- 
ful copies  of  drawings  by  Guercino,  which  prob- 
ably disqualified  him  in  after  life  for  drawing 
correctly  from  the  living  model.  About  the 
age  of  20  he  settled  as  a  portrait  painter  in 
Plymouth,  and  through  the  assistance  of  Lord 
Mount  Edgecombe,  Captain  (afterward  Lord) 
Keppel,  and  other  naval  officers,  commenced 
his  career  with  considerable  success.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1746  he  removed  to 
London.  In  1749  he  accompanied  Keppel  in 
his  ship,  the  Centurion,  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  for  three  years  and  a  half  studied  his  pro- 
fession in  various  cities  of  Italy.  In  the  Vati- 
can he  caught  a  severe  cold  which  resulted  in 
permanent  deafness.  He  was  unable  at  first 
to  appreciate  the  paintings  of  Raphael,  and 
they  never  had  much  influence  upon  his  style, 
which  naturally  imitated  that  of  the  great  Ve- 
netian masters  more  than  any  others.  He  re- 
turned in  the  latter  part  of  1752  to  London, 
and  by  a  full-length  portrait  of  Commodore 
Keppel,  executed  not  long  after  his  arrival, 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  profession  in 
England,  and  in  public  estimation  almost  on 
a  level  with  Vandyke.  Thenceforth  until  the 
close  of  his  life  he  enjoyed  unvarying  pros- 
perity. He  was  soon  obliged  to  employ  several 
assistants  to  paint  the  draperies  and  other  ac- 
cessories of  his  pictures.  His  paintings  were 
very  numerous,  244  being  sent  to  the  academy 
for  exhibition.  Dr.  Johnson  mentions  in  1762 
that  his  professional  income  was  6,000  guineas 
a  year,  and  it  must  subsequently  have  reached 
a  much  higher  sum,  as  his  price  for  heads  was 
increased  gradually  from  10  guineas  in  1752  to 
50  in  1779,  the  other  sizes  being  in  proportion. 
Of  his  portraits,  which,  as  Macaulay  has  ob- 
served, "  have  preserved  to  us  the  thoughtful 
foreheads  of  so  many  writers  and  statesmen, 
and  the  sweet  smiles  of  so  many  noble  ma- 
trons," the  number  is  very  considerable,  and 
the  technical  merits,  especially  with  respect  t<? 
color  and  chiaroscuro,  are  of  the  first  order. 
His  portraits  of  women  and  children  are  among 
the  most  admired  productions  of  modern  art. 
Amongfthe  portraits  of  distinguished  persons 
painted  by  him'  may  be  mentioned  those  o/ 


284: 


REYNOLDS 


Gen.  Elliot  (Lord  Heathfield),  Lord  Ligonier 
on  horseback,  Sterne,  Goldsmith,  Dr.  John- 
son, Burke,  Boswell,  Wyndham,  Earl  Camden, 
Fox,  Erskine,  George  III.  and  his  queen,  Hor- 
ace Walpole,  Beattie,  John  Hunter,  Garrick 
between  Tragedy  and  Comedy  (for  which  in 
1762  he  received  300  guineas),  Mrs.  Siddons 
as  the  tragic  muse  (a  picture  which  he  valued 
at  1,000  guineas),  the  celebrated  Georgiana, 
duchess  of  Devonshire,  the  earl  and  countess 
of  Bute,  and  himself.  His  productions  in  his- 
tory are  generally  admitted  to  be  much  infe- 
rior to  his  portraits,  though  many  of  them 
have  been  greatly  admired.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  are  his  "  Count  Ugolino  and  his 
Sons,"  painted  in  1773,  and  purchased  by  the 
duke  of  Dorset  for  400  guineas ;  the  designs 
of  the  cardinal  and  Christian  virtues  and  the 
Nativity  for  the  window  of  New  college  chap- 
el, Oxford;  the  "Infant  Hercules  strangling 
the  Serpents"  (1784),  now  in  St.  Petersburg, 
for  which  the  empress  Catharine  paid  his  ex- 
ecutors 1,500  guineas ;  the  "  Cauldron  Scene 
from  Macbeth,"  "  Puck,"  and  the  "  Death  of 
Cardinal  Beaufort,"  for  which  he  received  re- 
spectively 1,000,  100,  and  600  guineas;  the 
"  Holy  Family,"  in  the  British  national  gal- 
lery ;  and  "  Cymon  and  Iphigenia,"  and  the 
"  Death  of  Dido,"  both  in  the  queen's  private 
collection.  His  "  Strawberry  Girl,"  formerly 
in  the  collection  of  Samuel  Rogers,  "  Samuel 
Kneeling  in  Prayer,"  the  portrait  piece  in 
the  national  gallery  representing  three  ladies 
as  the  Graces  decorating  a  terminal  statue  of 
Hymen,  and  the  "Puck"  above  mentioned, 
illustrate  very  happily  his  taste  and  fancy  in 
painting  women  and  children.  But  many  of 
these  pictures  are  hastening  to  decay,  owing  to 
the  introduction  of  wax  and  other  incongru- 
ous mixtures,  and  the  use  of  asphaltum  glazes. 
Burnet  says :  "  So  anxious  was  he  to  combine 
the  luminous  qualities  of  the  Venetian  style 
with  the  rich  transparency  of  Correggio  and 
Rembrandt,  that  half  his  life  was  spent  in  try- 
ing experiments  on  the  various  modes  of  pro- 
ducing this  union,  and  which  has  occasioned  the 
decay  and  destruction  of  many  of  his  works;" 
and  Northcote  tells  us  that  he  deliberately 
scraped  away  and  destroyed  Venetian  paint- 
ings of  value  in  order  to  discover  their  tech- 
nical secrets.  On  the  foundation  of  the  royal 
academy  in  1768,  Reynolds  was  chosen  its 
president  and  knighted.  He  retained  this  of- 
fice until  the  close  of  his  life,  delivering  within 
that  period  15  annual  discourses  on  art,  which 
have  been  translated  into  various  languages. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  literary  works  forms 
vols.  Ixviii.  and  Ixx.  of  Bonn's  "  Standard  Li- 
brary," and  contains  his  lectures,  some  contri- 
butions to  the  "  Idler,"  remarks  upon  the  works 
of  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters  during  a  tour 
through  the  Netherlands  in  1781,  and  other 
miscellaneous  pieces,  together  with  a  life  of  the 
painter  by  Beechey.  In  private  life  Sir  Joshua 
was  remarkable  for  amiability  and  his  varied 
and  instructive  conversation.  Johnson,  Gold- 


RH^TIA 

i 

smith,  Burke,  Garrick,  and  other  distinguished 
literary  men  were  his  intimate  associates,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Literary 
Club,"  of  which  they  were  prominent  mem- 
bers. In  the  latter  part  of  1791  he  was  threat- 
ened with  loss  of  sight  in  consequence  of  a  tu- 
mor over  his  left  eye,  and  at  once  resigned 
the  practice  of  his  art,  the  last  effort  of  his 
pencil  being  a  portrait  of  Fox.  He  died,  af- 
ter a  painful  illness,  of  a  disease  of  the  liver. 
He  was  never  married,  and  his  fortune,  es- 
timated at  £80,000,  was  bequeathed  to  his 
niece,  Miss  Palmer,  subsequently  marchioness 
of  Thomond. — There  is  a  life  of  him  by  North- 
cote,  valuable  as  a  record  of  his  conversation 
and  aphorisms,  and  'one  by  "William  Cotton. 
A  biography  left  unfinished  by  C.  R.  Leslie 
was  completed  and  published  under  the  edito- 
rial supervision  of  Tom  Taylor  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1864-'o).  See  also  "  English  Children 
as  painted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,"  by  F.  G. 
Stephens  (1866) ;  "  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  a 
Portrait  Painter,"  illustrated  with  autotype 
reproductions  from  engravings  by  Green,  Wat- 
son, and  others,  by  J.  Churton  Collins  (fol., 
1873);  and  "A  Catalogue  Raisonne  of  the 
Engraved  Works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  from 
1765  to  1820,"  by  Edward  Hamilton  (1874). 

Illl  It; IMS.    See  RABANCS. 

KH  U)AM  wnil'S.  in  Greek  mythology,  one 
of  the  three  infernal  "judges,  the  others  being 
Minos  and  ^Eacus.  Rnadamanthus  judged  the 
people  of  Asia  and  Africa,  ^Eacus  those  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  judgments  of  both  were  revised 
by  Minos.  Rhadamanthus  was  reputed  the 
son  of  Jupiter,  and  sometimes  of  Vulcan,  and 
was  said  to  have  been  born  at  Cnossus  in 
Crete,  and  to  be  the  brother  of  Minos  I.,  king 
of  that  island.  At  Thebes  he  married  Alcme- 
na,  the  widow  of  Amphitryon,  and  subsequent- 
ly made  a  descent  upon  the  Cyclades,  which 
he  conquered  and  over  which  he  reigned. 

Itll  £TI  t,  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire, 
which  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  was  bounded 
N.  by  Vindelicia,  E.  by  Noricum,  S.  by  Gallia 
Cisalpina,  and  W.  by  the  country  of  the  Hel- 
vctii.  Later  Vindelicia  was  added  to  it,  and 
the  province  extended  as  far  N.  as  the  Danube. 
At  a  still  later  period  it  was  divided,  the  origi- 
nal province  being  called  Rhtetia  Prima,  and 
Vindelicia,  Rhsetia  Secnnda.  Rhrotia  proper 
corresponded  to  the  modern  Grisons,  Tyrol, 
and  some  of  the  northern  parts  of  Lombardy. 
The  valleys  formed  by  the  rivers  Athesis  (now 
Adige)  and  (Enus  (Inn)  furnished  fine  lands 
for  cultivation ;  but  the  inhabitants  were  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  the  raising  of  flocks.  They 
were  a  mountain  race,  fond  of  freedom,  fight- 
ing, and  plunder.  They  were  subdued  by  the 
Romans  under  Drusus  and  Tiberius  in  15  B.  C.T 
although  they  fought  with  desperate  courage. 
Two  roads  were  made  through  the  province, 
the  one  leading  from  Augusta  Vindelicorum 
(Augsburg)  to  Comum  (Como),  and  the  other 
from  the  same  place  to  Verona.  Their  chief 
city  was  Tridentum  (Trent),  and  the  inhab- 


RHAMADAN 


RHEUMATISM 


285 


itants  were  divided  into  tribes.  Their  de- 
scendants in  Tyrol  speak  Romansh,  which  is  a 
corruption  of  Latin  intermixed  with  German 
and  Celtic  elements,  and  a  number  of  words  of 
a  different  origin,  considered  Etruscan.  (See 
ETRUEIA,  and  ROMANSH.)  During  the  latter 
years  of  the  empire  the  province  became  al- 
most depopulated,  but  after  the  death  of  The- 
odoric  it  was  settled  by  the  Boioarii. 

KUAN  Aim.     See  RAMADAN. 

RHE.     See  RE. 

RHEA,  in  Greek  mythology.     See  CTBELE. 

RIIEA,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordered 
S.  E.  by  the  Tennessee  river,  drained  by  its 
branches,  and  intersected  by  a  range  of  the 
Cumberland  mountains ;  area,  about  500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,538,  of  whom  531  were 
colored.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
32,639  bushels  of  wheat,  187,970  of  Indian 
corn,  36,034  of  oats,  1,332  tons  of  hay,  10,276 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  9,088  of  wool,  and  9,041  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,152 
horses,  1,455  milch  cows,  3,026  other  cattle, 
5,306  sheep,  and  9,239  swine;  and  3  wool- 
carding  and  cloth -dressing  establishments. 
Capital,  Washington. 

RHEA  SILVIA.     See  ROMULUS. 

RHEGIU9I.    See  REGGIO  DI  CALABRIA. 

RHEIMS.  or  Reims  (anc.  Durocortorum,  after- 
ward Remi),  a  city  of  Champagne,  France, 
in  the  department  of  Marne,  on  the  Vesle,  a 
tributary  of  the  Aisne,  near  the  Marne  and 
Aisne  canal,  82  m.  E.  a.  E.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in 
1872,  71,994  (in  1851,  45,754).  The  cathedral, 
built  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century,  and 
completed  in  the  15th,  is  one  of  the  finest 
Gothic  edifices  in  Europe;  in  it  the  French 
kings  were  crowned  for  many  centuries,  the 
last  coronation  being  that  of  Charles  X.,  when 
the  oil  in  the  fragment  of  the  holy  ampulla 
was  exhausted.  (See  AMPULLA.)  Among  the 
many  other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  arch- 
bishop's palace  and  the  hotel  de  ville.  There 
are  several  schools  of  high  grade,  a  museum, 
and  a  library.  A  university  existed  here  from 
1547  to  1793.  Rheims  is  a  centre  of  the  trade 
in  Champagne  wine,  and  of  woollen,  cotton, 
and  other  manufactures.  The  annual  transac- 
tions in  woollen  goods  are  estimated  at  75,- 
000,000  francs. — Under  the  Romans  Rheims 
was  the  capital  of  Belgica  Secunda.  Its  bish- 
ops, dating  from  the  4th  century,  and  its  arch- 
bishops, from  the  8th,  were  down  to  the  revo- 
lution among  the  primates  of  France.  After 
many  sieges  during  the  middle  ages,  it  with- 
stood one  by  the  English  under  Edward  III. 
(1359),  but  was  occupied  by  them  from  1421 
to  1429,  when  they  were  expelled  by  Joan  of 
Arc.  The  Germans  occupied  the  city  on  Sept. 
4,  1870. — See  Rheims,  la  mile  de»  sacres,  by 
Baron  Taylor  (1854 ;  new  ed.,  1860). 

RHENISH  CONFEDERATION  (Ger.  Rheinlund), 
a  confederacy  formed  in  1806  by  the  kings 
of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg,  the  elector  arch 
chancellor  of  the  empire,  the  elector  of  Baden, 
the  duke  of  Berg,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse 


Darmstadt,  the  princes  of  Nassau-Usingen, 
Nassau  -  Weilburg,.  Hohenzollern  -  Hechingen, 
Hohenzollern  -  Sigmaringen,  Salm  -  Salm,  and 
Salm-Kyrburg,  the  duke  of  Arenberg,  the 
princes  of  Isenburg-Birstein  and  of  Liechten- 
stein, and  the  count  von  der  Leyen.  They 
communicated  to  the  federal  diet  their  with- 
drawal from  the  empire,  Aug.  1,  1806,  assign- 
ing as  the  reason  for  the  separation  the  defects 
of  the  imperial  constitution.  At  the  same 
time  Napoleon,  the  instigator  of  this  movement, 
officially  declared  to  the  diet  that  he  would 
no  longer  acknowledge  a  German  empire. 
Francis  II.  consequently,  on  Aug.  6,  abdicated 
as  emperor  of  Germany,  and  took  the  title  of 
emperor  of  Austria.  Napoleon  constituted 
himself  "  protector  of  the  Rhenish  confedera- 
tion," the  members  of  which  bound  themselves 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  enemies  of  France. 
The  confederacy  was  subsequently  joined  by 
the  elector  of  Wiirzburg,  the  king  (former- 
ly elector)  of  Saxony,  the  five  Saxon  dukes, 
the  two  princes  of  Schwarzburg,  the  three 
dukes  of  Anhalt,  the  new  king  of  Westphalia, 
and  many  minor  princes;  so  that  by  the  end 
of  1808  the  confederacy  extended  over  125,000 
sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of  nearly  15,000,000. 
The  reverses  of  Napoleon  in  1813  put  an  end 
to  its  existence,  and  its  members  were  soon 
after  merged  in  the  Germanic  confederation. 
RHENISH  PRUSSIA.  See  RHINE,  PEOVINCE 

OF  THE.  . 

RHENISH  WINES.     See  GERMANY,  WINES  OF. 

RHEUMATISM  (Gr.  pApa,  a  flow,  discharge). 
Acute  rheumatism  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
joints,  characterized  by  general  fever,  by  pain, 
heat,  redness,  and  swelling  of  the  joints  affect- 
ed, and  by  a  tendency  to  leave  one  joint  sud- 
denly and  fasten  upon  another.  The  affection 
sometimes  commences  by  chills  and  fever,  and 
general  uneasiness ;  and  these  symptoms  (rheu- 
matic fever)  may  last  for  24  hours  or  more  be- 
fore the  local  manifestations  show  themselves. 
More  frequently  the  local  symptoms  make  their 
appearance  at  the  same  time  with  the  fever, 
and  occasionally  they  are  present  some  little 
time  before  it  supervenes.  The  pain  in  the 
joint  or  joints  affected,  commonly  but  little 
felt  while  the  patient  is  perfectly  quiet,  be- 
comes intense  on  the  slightest  motion,  so  that 
he  is  rendered  completely  helpless.  The  super- 
ficial joints  become  swollen  and  tense,  they 
are  hotter  than  natural,  and  the  skin  covering 
them  is  generally  more  or  less  reddened.  The 
swelling  is  sometimes  mainly  caused  by  effu- 
sion within  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  joint 
itself,  at  others  by  the  inflammation  and  thick- 
ening of  the  fibrous  tissues  external  to  the 
joint.  The  pulse  is  generally  full,  strong,  and 
moderately  frequent,  rarely  rising  over  100 
beats  in  a  minute ;  the  skin  is  warm,  and  co- 
pious sour  perspirations  are  commonly  pres- 
ent ;  sweating  was  present  in  rather  more  than 
four  fifths  of  the  cases  noted  by  M.  Louis. 
The  tongue  is  thickly  coated,  the  bowels  some- 
what constipated,  and  the  appetite  completely 


286 


RHEUMATISM 


RHINE 


lost.  The  inflammation  at  first  affects  one  or 
two  joints,  rarely  three ;  after  a  variable  time 
it  commonly  leaves  the  joints  first  affected  as 
suddenly  as  it  attacked  them,  and  fastens  on 
some  other  articulation ;  often  however  new 
joints  are  attacked  without  the  disease  leaving 
its  original  seat.  As  a  rule,  the  larger  joints 
are  the  ones  most  liable  to  be  attacked,  the 
knees,  elbows,  ankles,  wrists,  and  hips;  more 
rarely  the  smaller  joints  of  the  toes  and  fin- 
gers become  affected.  Besides  the  articula- 
tions, acute  rheumatism  frequently  attacks  the 
heart,  not  by  metastasis,  or  transference  of 
the  inflammation  from  one  part  to  the  other, 
but  by  seizing  on  the  fibrous  textures  of  the 
heart  as  on  one  of  the  series  of  textures  liable 
to  the  disease.  Sometimes  the  pericardium  is 
attacked  (pericarditis),  sometimes  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  heart's  cavities  (endocarditis). 
(See  HEART,  DISEASES'OF  THE.)  The  younger 
the  patient,  tho  more  liable  is  the  heart  to 
be  affected ;  so  that  when  rheumatism  occurs 
previous  to  adult  age,  tho  heart  is  attacked  in 
a  large  majority  of  cases.  The  rheumatic  con- 
stitution is  frequently  hereditary,  and  rheuma- 
tism h  peculiarly  a  complaint  of  cold,  damp 
seasons  and  climates;  but  beyond  this  we  know 
but  little  of  tho  causes  which  induce  it.  The 
disease  sometimes  disappears  in  10  or  12  days, 
sometimes  lasts  for  months,  while  in  other 
cases  again  it  may  lapse  into  a  subacute  or 
chronic  state  and  continue  indefinitely.  Rheu- 
matism, when  uncomplicated,  is  rarely  attend- 
ed with  immediate  danger  to  life ;  but  by 
damaging  tho  heart  it  often  lays  the  founda- 
tion for  incurable  disease.  Occasionally  fatal 
cases  are  met  with. — Acute  rheumatism  has 
been  treated  in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 
Bleeding,  mercurials,  mercurials  with  purga- 
tives, opium,  sulphate  of  quinine,  and  nitrate 
of  potassa  in  large  doses  have  been  at  various 
times  resorted  to.  Of  these  methods,  those 
by  large  doses  of  sulphate  of  quinine  and  by 
nitrate  of  potassa  have  seemed  to  have  an  in- 
fluence in  controlling  and  cutting  short  the 
disease,  and  the  treatment  by  quinine  appears 
to  be  successful  in  the  acutest  and  most  vio- 
lent attacks ;  but  they  are  both  subject  to  in- 
convenience and  dangers  which  counterbalance 
their  advantages.  The  treatment  which  is  most 
generally  relied  on  is  the  alkaline.  Tartrate 
of  potash  and  soda  (Rochelle  salt)  or  acetate 
of  potash  is  given  in  full  doses  short  of  pro- 
ducing purgation,  until  the  urine  is  rendered 
alkaline.  Occasionally  a  purgative  may  be  re- 
quired, or  an  opiate  may  be  given  at  night  to 
produce  sleep.  The  treatment  by  lemon  juice, 
advocated  by  Dr.  Garrod,  is  in  truth  an  alka- 
line treatment,  the  acid  citrate  of  potash  con- 
tained in  the  lemon  juice  being  eliminated  by 
the  kidneys  as  a  carbonate. — Chronic  rheuma- 
tism presents  itself  under  two  forms.  In  one 
the  joints  are  swollen  and  painful,  the  pain 
being  aggravated  by  motion  ;  there  is  no  gen- 
eral fever,  and  the  appetite  may  be  good  and 
the  digestion  sound.  The  affection  is  exceed- 


ingly obstinate,  attacking  new  joints  without 
leaving  those  first  affected  ;  it  frequently  at- 
tacks the  smaller  joints,  rendering  them  per- 
manently swollen  and  deformed,  while  the  im- 
mobility to  which  the  joints  are  sometimes  re- 
duced may  cause  atrophy  of  the  muscles  con- 
nected with  them.  The  treatment  is  unsatis- 
factory ;  sometimes  alkalies  or  diuretics  are  of 
service,  sometimes  iodide  of  potassium  seems 
of  use ;  while  the  native  sulphur  waters,  such 
as  those  of  Sharon,  St.  Catharine's,  the  Vir- 
ginia sulphur  springs,  &c.,  used  both  externally 
and  internally,  are  frequently  of  great  service. 
In  the  second  variety  of  chronic  rheumatism, 
sometimes  termed  passive  rheumatism,  the 
joints  are  neither  red  nor  swollen,  but  sim- 
ply stiff  and  painful,  the  pain  being  increased 
by  motion,  but  not  preventing  labor  or  exer- 
cise. It  is  aggravated  by  cold  and  damp  and 
relieved  by  heat.  Warm  salt  water  baths,  and 
the  use  of  flannel  and  stimulating  liniments, 
afford  some  relief.  Where  it  is  possible,  re- 
moval to  a  warm  climate  is  advisable. 

RUIN,  Bas.     See  ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

Kill  V  Hani.     See  1 1  .\r  i  -  Unix. 

RHINE  (Ger.  Rhein ;  Dutch,  Rijn  or  Ryn ; 
Fr.  Rhin  ;  anc.  Ithenug),  one  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  Europe,  having  its  sources  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Orisons,  and  flowing  into  the 
North  sea  by  an  extensive  delta  of  five  mouths 
in  Holland,  after  a  circuitous  but  general  N. 
N.  W.  course  of  about  800  m.  The  Rhine  is 
usually  divided  into  three  parts,  the  upper, 
middle,  and  lower,  the  first  lying  within  and 
along  part  of  the  boundary  line  of  Switzerland, 
the  second  between  Basel  and  Cologne,  and 
tho  third  between  Cologne  and  the  sea.  The 
river  originates  in  the  Lepontine  Alps  in  three 
branches,  the  Vorder,  Mittel,  and  Hinter  Rhein, 
the  first  and  most  western  of  which  is  con- 
sidered tho  principal  source.  It  rises  in  lat. 
46°  38'  N.,  Ion.  8°  48'  E.,  in  the  small  lake 
of  Toma,  on  the  E.  side  of  a  mountain  of  tho 
St.  Gothard  group,  7,687  ft.  above  tho  sea, 
runs  as  a  torrent  for  about  12  m.,  during 
which  it  descends  nearly  4,000  ft.,  and  is 
joined  at  Dissentis  by  the  Mittel  Rhein  from 
the  right.  It  then  flows  in  a  general  E.  by  N. 
direction  for  about  86  m.  to  Reichenau,  where 
it  receives  the  Hinter  Rhein,  also  from  the 
right,  and  becomes  about  180  ft.  wide,  and 
navigable  for  river  boats.  Having  continued 
the  same  course  to  Coire,  it  thence  flows 
through  a  valley  about  50  in.  long  and  from 
1  to  2  m.  wide  in  a  northerly  direction  to  the 
lake  of  Constance,  and  for  part  of  the  dis- 
tance forms  the  boundary  line  separating  tho 
principality  of  Liechtenstein  and  the  Austrian 
district  of  Vorarlberg  from  Switzerland.  Af- 
ter issuing  from  the  lake  at  Constance  it  flows 
for  a  few  miles  in  a  westerly  direction,  till 
it  enters  the  .Untersee,  which  is  about  30  ft. 
lower  than  the  lake  of  Constance.  It  con- 
tinues its  course  in  the  same  direction  to  the 
falls  of  Schaffhausen,  a  little  way  below  the 
town  of  that  name,  where  the  surface  of  the 


RHINE 


287 


river  is  1,280  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  falls 
vary  from  60  to  75  ft.  in  height.  Below  these 
falls  the  general  course  is  still  westerly,  but 
very  tortuous;  and  the  river  flows  between 
mountains  for  about  50  m.  to  Laufenburg, 
where  the  navigation  is  again  interrupted  by 
a  cataract.  The  bed  is  here  narrowed  to 
about  50  ft.,  and  boats  ascend  and  descend 
by  means  of  ropes  after  being  unloaded. 
About  10  m.  below  Laufenburg  there  is  a  rapid 
of  considerable  length,  which  is  exceeding- 
ly dangerous,  though  it  does  not  stop  navi- 
gation. This  is  the  last  impediment  to  the 
navigation  of  the  upper  Rhine.  Below  this 
rapid  the  level  of  the  river  is  850  ft.  above 
the  sea,  and  it  is  only  50  ft.  less  at  Basel. 
Above  this  point  the  Rhine  receives  numerous 
tributaries,  the  most  important  being  the  Aar, 
which,  emptying  about  12  m.  above  Laufen- 
burg, brings  the  drainage  of  the  greater  part 
of  Switzerland.  From  the  lake  of  Constance 
to  Basel  the  Rhine  forms  the  boundary  line 
between  Baden  and  Switzerland. — Where  the 
middle  Rhine  begins  at  Basel,  the  river  has 
left  the  mountainous  region,  and  changed  its 
course  to  a  northerly  direction.  It  flows  for 
about  200  m.,  to  Mentz,  through  a  valley  from 
30  to  50  m.  wide,  extending  between  the  Black 
Forest  and  other  mountains  on  the  east,  and 
the  Vosges  and  the  Hardt  mountains  on  the 
west,  forming  the  boundary  line  between  Ba- 
den and  Alsace,  and  Baden  and  Rhenish  Ba- 
varia, and  passing  through  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
Between  Basel  and  Strasburg,  about  80  m., 
the  fall  of  the  river  is  4J-  ft.  per  mile,  and  the 
current  very  rapid.  The  bed  is  wide  and  ob- 
structed by  numerous  movable  sand  banks  and 
small  islands,  which  render  the  navigation  in- 
tricate and  dangerous.  For  the  next  60  m.,  to 
Germersheim,  the  islands  increase  in  size  and 
are  less  liable  to  shift  their  position.  Gold  is 
washed  from  the  sand  and  gravel  along  this 
part  of  its  course,  but  not  in  paying  quantities. 
Below  Germersheim  islands  are  rare,  and  the 
river  flows  sluggishly  in  large  bends  to  Mentz, 
where  its  surface  is  only  about  250  ft.  above 
the  sea.  Many  of  the  isthmuses  formed  by 
these  bends  have  been  cut  through  of  late 
years,  so  as  to  shorten  its  course.  Between 
Strasburg  and  Mentz  it  is  navigable  for  boats 
of  about  100  tons  burden,  which  descend  with 
the  current,  but  in  going  up  are  tracked  chief- 
ly by  horses.  Between  Mentz  and  Cologne, 
about  120  m.,  the  course  of  the  river  is  first 
"W.,  then  N.  1ST.  W.,  and  afterward  mostly  N.  W. 
It  first  forms  the  boundary  between  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse- 
Nassau,  and  then  between  the  latter  and  the 
Prussian  Rhine  province,  which  it  enters  near 
Coblentz.  This  part  of  the  river  runs  be- 
tween two  mountain  regions,  where  in  many 
places  the  hills  come  so  close  to  the  banks  of 
the  river  that  there  is  scarcely  room  for  a  road. 
The  produce  of  the  extensive  vineyards  in  this 
neighborhood  is  known  as  Rhenish  wines. 
There  is  a  ledge  of  rocks  at  Bingen  which  pre- 
703  VOL.  xiv.— 19 


vents  steamers  and  barges  from  passing  during 
foggy  weather  or  at  night.  The  surface  of  the 
water  at  Cologne  is  120  ft.  above  the  sea. 
During  its  middle  course  the  Rhine  receives 
many  tributaries ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Moselle,  those  from  the  west  are  all  short 
and  not  navigable.  On  the  right  or  E.  side 
the  tributaries  are  much  larger  and  more  nu- 
merous, the  most  important  being  the  Neckar, 
Main,  Lahn,  and  Sieg. — The  lower  Rhine  ex- 
tends for  about  300  m.  from  Cologne  to  its 
mouths,  and  flows  through  a  low  level  country, 
with  the  hills  of  Sauerland  near  its  E.  bank 
between  Cologne  and  Dusseldorf.  From  Co- 
logne to  Wesel  its  course  is  mostly  N.  N.  W., 
though  very  tortuous.  From  Wesel  to  the 
frontiers  of  Holland  it  flows  N.  W.  Below 
Cologne  the  Rhine  is  navigable  for  sea-going 
vessels,  and  the  fall  from  thence  to  its  mouth 
is  only  about  4  in.  in  a  mile,  and  the  current 
extremely  sluggish.  Shortly  after  entering 
Holland,  near  the  village  of  Pannerden,  the 
Rhine  divides  into  two  arms,  the  southern  of 
which  takes  the  name  of  Waal,  the  northern 
preserving  that  of  Rhine.  The  Waal,  which 
joins  the  Maas,  is  here  210  yards  broad,  while 
the  Rhine  is  only  114  yards,  and  about  two 
thirds  of  the  volume  of  water  runs  into  the 
former.  After  the  separation  the  Rhine  flows 
N.  N.  W.,  and  near  Arnhem,  12  m.  lower 
down,  it  again  divides  into  the  Yssel,  which 
runs  N.  to  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  Rhine, 
which  flows  W.  At  Wyck,  about  §0  m.  lower 
down,  the  Rhine  divides  for  the  third  time, 
into  the  Leek  and  Kromme  Ryn  (Crooked 
Rhine),  the  former  of  which  is  the  larger. 
The  Kromme  Ryn  runs  N.  W.  to  Utrecht, 
where  the  last  division  takes  place,  into  the 
Vecht,  which  flows  to  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and 
the  Oude  Ryn  (Old  Rhine),  which  continues 
westward  past  Leyden.  The  mouth  of  the 
Oude  Ryn  was  formerly  obstructed  by  dunes 
or  sand  hills,  and  the  river  did  not  reach  the 
sea ;  but  in  1807  a  canal  was  cut  through  them, 
and  it  now  communicates  with  the  North  sea 
at  Katwyk,  a  few  miles  N.  W.  of  Leyden.  Be- 
fore it  begins  to  form  the  delta  the  lower 
Rhine  is  augmented  by  the  Erft,  Ruhr,  and 
Lippe,  all  of  which  are  navigable.  The  Yssel 
was  originally  a  canal  cut  by  Drusus  to  unite 
the  Rhine  with  the  river  now  called  Oude 
Yssel  (Old  Yssel).  The  Leek,  or  middle  branch 
of  the  Rhine,  was  also  originally  a  canal  made 
by  the  Roman  general  Corbulo ;  but  in  A.  D. 
839  its  bed  was  so  much  enlarged  by  a  flood 
that  it  became  the  main  stream.  The  delta  of 
the  Rhine  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Zuyder  Zee, 
E.  by  the  Yssel,  S.  by  the  Waal  and  Maas,  and 
W.  by  the  North  sea ;  it  comprehends  the  three 
Dutch  provinces  of  North  and  South  Holland 
and  Utrecht,  and  about  two  thirds  of  Gelder- 
land,  all  of  which  country  would  be  subject 
to  inundations  were  it  not  protected  by  em- 
bankments. These  embankments  begin  in  the 
Prussian  district  of  Dusseldorf,  extend  along 
the  banks  of  the  different  arms  of  the  Rhine 


288 


RHINE 


RHINOCEROS 


to  the  sea,  and  are  generally  from  25  to  80  ft. 
above  the  lowest  level  of  the  river. — The  basin 
of  the  Rhine  is  estimated  at  80,000  sq.  m.,  of 
which  13,000  belong  to  the  upper,  40,000  to  the 
middle,  and  27,000  to  the  lower  Rhine.  The 
river  is  generally  covered  with  ice  for  from  six 
weeks  to  two  months  in  winter;  and  when 
snow  accumulates  and  a  thaw  suddenly  sets  in, 
the  lowlands  are  liable  to  inundations  that  are 
sometimes  attended  with  great  loss  of  life  and 
property.  The  different  arms  of  the  Rhine  are 
united  by  numerous  canals,  and  the  river  itself 
is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Sa6ne  and 
Rh3ne,  the  Scheldt,  Haas,  and  Danube;  and 
an  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  upon  all  these 
as  well  as  the  chief  navigable  tributaries,  the 
Moselle,  Main,  Ruhr,  and  Neckar.  The  annual 
traffic  is  of  great  importance,  and  is  regulated 
by  treaties  between  the  different  states  through 
which  it  runs,  all  of*  which  lay  toll  duties  on 
vessels  and  goods  passing  their  boundaries. — 
The  Rhine  is  celebrated  for  the  picturesque 
beauty  of  the  scenery  in  the  upper  and  middle 
part  of  its  course,  and  is  annually  visited  by  a 
multitude  of  tourists.  More  than  1,000,000 
passengers  are  conveyed  up  and  down  annual- 
ly. Steam  vessels  ply  between  the  principal 
towns  on  its  banks.  It  is  crossed  at  several 
points  by  pontoon  bridges,  and  many  of  the 
principal  places  on  either  side  are  connected  by 
railways.  There  is  great  discrepancy  among 
ancient  writers  with  regard  to  the  number 
of  mouths  by  which  the  waters  of  the  Rhine 
formerly  flowed  into  the  sea.  Some  speak 
only  of  two;  others  say  there  were  three; 
and  Offisar  says  there  were  several  branches. 

RHINE,  Province  of  the,  or  Rhenish  Prussia  (Ger. 
Rheinprovin*,  Rheinpreusaen,  or  Rheinland),  a 
W.  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  bordering  on 
the  provinces  of  Westphalia  and  Hesse-Nas- 
sau, the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  Bavaria,  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and  Holland  ; 
area,  10,416  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  3,579,347,  of 
whom  about  74  per  cent,  were  Roman  Catho- 
lics, 25  per  cent.  Protestants,  and  the  remain- 
der Jews.  The  N.  part  of  the  province  is 
level,  the  E.  and  S.  parts  mountainous.  The 
principal  mountain  ranges  are  the  Hohe  Ven- 
ne,  the  Eifel  (about  2,500  ft.  high),  and  the 
Hunsruck,  W.  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  Siebenge- 
birge,  E.  of  it.  The  chief  river  next  to  the 
Rhine  is  its  western  affluent  the  Moselle.  The 
province  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  is  fertile  and 
well  cultivated.  The  manufactures  are  exten- 
sive, and  comprise  almost  every  species  of 
industry.  It  is  divided  into  the  administra- 
tive districts  of  Cologne,  Dusseldorf,  Coblentz, 
Troves,  and  Aix-la-Ohapelle,  and  contains  be- 
sides the  cities  of  those  names  Bonn,  Crefeld, 
Elberfeld,  Jiilich,  Wesel,  Berg,  and  Cloves. 
Capital,  Coblentz. 

RHINOCEROS  (Gr.  #v,  nose,  and  ntpa^  horn), 
an  ungulate  mammal,  surpassed  in  size  among 
present  terrestrial  animals  only  by  the  elephant, 
and  perhaps  by  the  hippopotamus.  The  head 


is  long  and  triangular,  and  from  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  end  of  the  nose  springs  a  single  or 
double  horn,  composed  of  a  solid  mass  of  agglu- 
tinated hairs  or  horny  fibres;  this  is  support- 
ed on  the  nasal  bones,  though  not  connected 
with  them,  belonging  entirely  to  the  skin  and 
removed  with  it;  it  is  often  more  than  3  ft. 
long,  and  gently  curved  backward,  and  so 
sharp  as  to  make  it  a  very  formidable  weapon ; 
when  there  are  two  horns,  the  hinder  is  gener- 
ally much  the  shorter.  There  are  no  canine 
teeth,  and  the  incisors  sometimes  fall  out  when 
the  animal  is  full-grown;  the  molars  are  ]'], 
with  lunate  ridges;  the  nose  is  blunt  and 
rounded,  and  the  upper  lip  elongated  and  very 
movable ;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  the  ears  mod- 
erate, tipped  with  rigid  hairs;  the  body  is  very 
bulky,  the  legs  short  and  strong,  and  the  feet 
three-toed  with  as  many  broad  hoofs ;  the  tail 
is  short,  round  at  the  base,  compressed  lateral- 
ly toward  the  end,  and  hairy  at  the  tip ;  on  the 
hind  feet  are  sebaceous  glands  opening  on  the 
posterior  surface,  in  a  sacculated  inversion  of 
the  skin,  as  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  feet 
of  sheep ;  the  mamma'  are  two,  and  inguinal. 
The  skin  is  naked,  very  rough  and  hard,  divided 
into  large  folds  which  give  to  the  animal  a 
shielded  appearance;  it  is  impervious  to  the 
claws  of  the  lion  and  tiger,  will  turn  the  edge 
of  a  sword,  and  is  impenetrable  to  ordinary 
musket  bullets.  The  stomach  is  large  and  sun- 
pie,  the  intestinal  canal  eight  times  as  long  as 
the  body,  the  villi  of  the  small  intestine  greatly 
developed,  the  large  intestine  very  wide,  and 
the  caecum  sacculated.  The  ribs  are  19  pairs, 
the  iliac  bones  very  wide,  and  the  femur  with 
a  prominent  ridge  on  the  outer  border  termi- 
nating in  a  hook-like  process  and  with  the 
great  trochanter  exceedingly  prolonged;  the 
incisor  teeth  seem  to  be  developed  in  an  inverse 
ratio  to  the  horns ;  the  brain  is  large,  but  the 
relative  size  of  the  cerebrum,  especially  the 
upper  and  anterior  portion,  is  less  than  in  the 
elephant.  The  rhinoceros  is  found  in  the  warm 
regions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  living  with  the  ele- 
phant in  forests,  and  feeding  on  herbage  and 
leafy  twigs  and  shrubs.  It  is  peaceable  unless 
irritated ;  it  then  charges  upon  its  enemy  with 
the  head  down  and  the  horn  forward ;  though 
not  very  active,  its  great  weight  and  strength 
make  it  a  formidable  assailant,  and  a  match 
even  for  the  elephant.  The  senses  of  smell 
and  hearing  are  so  acute  that  the  hunter  must 
approach  against  the  wind  and  in  perfect  si- 
lence; it  is  hunted  for  sport  by  Europeans, 
and  the  natives  eat  the  flesh,  and  sell  the  skin 
to  traders  for  the  manufacture  of  canes,  whips, 
and  defensive  armor,  and  the  horns  for  boxes 
and  cups.  In  its  native  forests  the  rhinoceros 
has  a  tortoise-like  appearance,  with  its  stolid 
expression,  slow  movements,  thick  armor,  short 
legs  and  tail,  and  curved  upper  lip. — Several 
species  have  been  described,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  the  single-horned  or  Indian  rhinoce- 
ros (R.  unicornis,  Linn. ;  R.  Indicus,  Cuv.). 
This  animal  measures  about  12  ft.  in  length, 


EHINOCEEOS 


289 


with  a  circumference  of  the  same,  and  a  height 
of  6  ft. ;  the  skin  is  very  thick,  arranged  in 
broad  folds  in  many  parts,  rough  and  tubercu- 
lated,  and  deep  purplish  gray.  It  was  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  generally  believed 
to  be  the  unicorn  or  reem  of  the  sacred  wri- 
tings, though  not  of  the  Arabian  poets,  which 
was  either  a  wild  bull  or  an  antelope.  It  leads 
a  quiet  indolent  life,  wallowing  on  the  marshy 
borders  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  bathing  in 
their  waters ;  it  moves  slowly,  the  head  carried 
low  as  in  the  hog;  its  strength  enables  it  to 
pass  with  ease  through  the  thickest  jungles ;  it 
is  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  continental 
India.  In  captivity,  especially  if  taken  young, 
it  is  gentle,  obedient,  and  grateful  for  kind 
treatment,  with  occasional  paroxysms  of  rage 
without  apparent  cause;  it  is  fond  of  bread, 
fruit,  and  particularly  sweets,  collecting  and 
holding  its  food  by  the  long  upper  lip ;  it  is  not 
uncommon  in  menageries,  and  has  been  trained 
to  perform  simple  tricks,  but  its  intelligence  is 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  elephant;  though 
these  two  animals  are  said  to  have  a  natural 
antipathy  to  each  other,  they  agree  very  well 
together  in  confinement.  The  Java  rhinoceros 
(R.  Sondaicus,  Horsf.),  with  a  single  horn,  is 
confined  to  Java ;  the  epidermis  is  arranged  in 
pentagonal  shields.  The  Sumatran  rhinoceros 
(R.  Sumatrensis,  Cuv.)  is  a  smaller  species  with 
two  horns  and  a  comparatively  smooth  skin. 
For  an  account  of  its  breeding  see  Maunder's 
"  Treasury  of  Natural  History"  (London,  1874). 
— The  black  African  rhinoceros  (It.  Mcornis, 
Linn. ;  R.  Africanus,  Camper),  the  borele  of 
the  S.  African  aborigines,  has  two  horns,  and 
a  smoother  skin,  wrinkled  instead  of  folded; 


Black  African  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  bicornis). 

the  incisors  are  either  latent  or  fall  away  early ; 
the  horns,  which  as  in  the  other  species  occur 
in  both  sexes,  are  brightly  polished  by  rubbing 
against  the  trees,  and  the  posterior  is  only  one 
third  the  length  of  the  anterior,  the  latter  be- 
ing rarely  more  than  18  in.  The  general  color 


in  the  male  is  black,  in  the  female  pale  yellow- 
ish brown  with  purplish  tints  on  the  head,  and 
the  groins  flesh-colored;  the  head  seems  too 
deep  in  proportion  to  its  length,  giving  it  a  very 
clumsy  appearance ;  the  upper  lip  is  scarcely  at 
all  prolonged;  the  neck  short  and  thick,  with 
a  deep  furrow  where  it  joins  the  head,  and  a 
rudimentary  hump  on  the  shoulder.  In  size 
and  habits  it  resembles  the  Indian  species ;  it 
was  formerly  found  even  on  the  slopes  of  Table 
mountain,  but  has  now  been  driven  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  Cape  Colony  into  the  interior, 
where  it  is  seldom  molested.  They  keep  con- 
cealed by  day,  wandering  at  night  in  search  of 
water  and  food,  especially  the  branches  of  the 
wait-a-bit  thorns;  the  gait  is  equal  to  that  of 
a  good  horse,  and  when  disturbed  the  head  is 
carried  high ;  they  are  usually  seen  singly  or 
in  pairs.  They  are  suspicious  and  savage,  at- 
tacking the  traveller,  and  so  lean  that  the  flesh 
is  rarely  eaten;  wherever  the  footprints  are 
seen,  the  ground  and  bushes  are  found  torn 
up ;  this  they  do,  not  from  rage,  but  in  a  mere 
wanton  display  of  strength ;  they  also  dig  the 
ground  with  the  fore  feet,  throwing  it  back- 
ward in  the  manner  of  a  dog.  Dr.  A.  Smith, 
in  his  "Zoology  of  South  Africa,"  makes  three 
species;  Dr.  Livingstone  considers  that  all 
the  species  made  by  naturalists  beyond  two 
are  based  on  mere  differences  in  size,  age, 
and  direction  of  horns,  which  vary  much  within 
the  limit  of  a  single  species.  The  JR.  Tceitloa 
(A.  Smith)  is  a  rather  smaller  species,  with  two 
horns  nearly  equal  in  length,  with  more  slen- 
der head  and  longer  neck  than  in  the  borele; 
the  general  color  is  pale  brownish  yellow,  with 
a  black  mark  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs ;  the 
upper  lip  is  elongated ;  it  is  swift,  fierce,  and 
dangerous,  comparatively  rare,  and  not  found 
further  south  than  lat.  25°. — The  white  rhi- 
noceros (R.  simus,  Burch.),  the  moTioolioo  of 
the  Bechuanas,  is  the  largest  of  the  genus ;  the 
color  is  pale  brownish  white,  with  purplish 
tints  on  the  shoulders  and  posterior  parts ;  the 
head  is  comparatively  long  and  slender,  the 
face  concave,  forehead  convex,  neck  long  with 
three  well  marked  wrinkles  on  nape,  the  nose 
truncated,  the  upper  lip  perfectly  square  and 
ox-like,  and  the  shoulders  with  a  distinct 
hump ;  the  horns  are  two,  the  first  very  long 
and  pointed,  the  second  just  behind  it,  short 
and  obtuse.  This  is  a  rare  species,  timid,  un- 
suspecting, easily  captured  on  account  of  its 
slow  movements,  and  much  prized  by  the  na- 
tives for  its  fat  flesh ;  the  food  is  principally 
grass.  The  Bechuanas  call  the  rhinoceros  by 
the  general  name  of  chukuroo.  The  best  friend 
of  this  animal  is  a  bird  of  the  genus  luphaga, 
known  as  the  rhinoceros  bird,  which  warns  it 
of  the  approach  of  danger.  It  makes  a  harsh 
cry  in  the  ear  of  the  sleeping  rhinoceros,  which 
awaking  rushes  off  into  the  forest  to  escape 
the  hunter ;  it  perches  on  the  animal's  back, 
returning  when  frightened  or  swept  off  by 
the  branches,  and  remains  with  it  all  night. 
Gumming  says  he  has  often  shot  the  rhinoceros 


290 


RHINOCEROS 


at  midnight  at  fountains,  and  that  these  birds, 
imagining  "chukuroo"  was  asleep,  would  re- 
main until  morning,  and  on  his  approaching, 
before  taking  flight,  would  try  to  awaken  him 
from  his  deep  sleep. — The  rhinoceros  played 
an  important  part  among  the  animals  of  the  ter- 
tiary and  diluvial  epochs,  numerous  species  of 
great  size  occupying  cold  countries  of  Europe, 
where  they  now  could  not  exist.  Since  1781 
many  fragments  have  been  found  in  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  England,  and  Russia.  A  few  spe- 
cies have  been  detected  in  the  lower  miocene  of 
France,  of  which  the  R.  tapirinua  (Pomel),  of 
the  size  of  a  tapir,  belonged  to  Kaup's  group 
of  acerotherium,  characterized  by  two  large 
incisors  in  each  jaw,  four  toes  on  the  anterior 
feet,  and  probably  a  very  small,  if  any,  nasal 
horn.  In  the  upper  miocene  of  France  and 
Germany  occur  many  species  which  De  Blain- 
ville  has  united  into-  the  single  R.  inci«ivu«, 
without  bony  partition  between  the  nostrils, 
with  two  large  incisors  in  each  jaw  and  three 
toes  on  each  foot.  In  the  pliocene  of  France 
and  England  are  species  without  bony  nasal  par- 
tition and  with  moderate  incisors,  like  the  R. 
megarhinug  (Cuv.).  The  best  known  fossil 
species  is  the  R.  tichorhinus  (Cuv.),  of  the  di- 
luvial deposits  of  Siberia  and  the  most  of  Eu- 
rope, contemporary  with  the  mammoth.  The 
most  remarkable  specimen  was  found  in  1731  in 
arctic  Siberia  by  a  hunter ;  the  body  was  well 
preserved  and  half  buried  in  the  frozen  sand, 
in  lat.  64°  N. ;  it  was  11$  ft.  long,  with  a  skin 
like  leather  covered  with  short  hair ;  the  na- 
sal bones  were  curved  in  front  of  the  nose  to 
unite  with  the  intermaxillaries,  and  the  par- 
tition between  the  nostrils  was  bony  to  the 
extremity,  giving  greater  solidity  to  the  nose 
for  the  support  of  the  two  large  horns,  which 
were  further  separated  than  in  the  living  spe- 
cies; the  incisors  fell  out  in  the  adults,  and 
the  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw  was  very  long ; 
coming  nearest  to  the  R.  bicornis  of  Africa, 
it  had  a  longer  and  narrower  cranium,  more 
bulky  body,  and  shorter  and  stouter  limbs.  It 
occurs  in  diluvial  sands,  in  caverns,  and  in 
bone  breccia.  This  genus  has  also  been  found 
in  the  tertiary  and  diluvial  deposits  of  Asia; 
Cautley  and  Falconer  describe  four  species 
among  the  Sivalik  hills  of  northern  Hindostan. 
The  most  singular  fact  in  connection  with 
the  geological  distribution  of  the  rhinoceros 
is  its  occurrence  during  the  diluvial  period  in 
America,  like  the  elephant  not  now  existing  on 
this  continent;  several  species  differing  from 
R.  tichorhinus  are  described  by  Profs.  Leidy, 
Marsh,  and  others,  from  the  tertiary  of  Ne- 
braska, Texas,  the  upper  Missouri,  California, 
and  the  neighoring  territories.  The  genus  ela»- 
motherium  of  Fischer  probably  comes  near  if 
not  in  the  rhinoceros  family ;  judging  from  the 
teeth,  and  the  size,  form,  and  thickness  of  jaw, 
it  must  have  been  an  animal  of  heavy  propor- 
tions, with  the  size  and  habits  of  the  rhinoce- 
ros, and  essentially  herbivorous ;  it  was  found 
in  Siberia.  The  family  brontotheridcs,  so  fully 


described  by  Profs.  Marsh  and  Cope,  from  the 
miocene  of  Colorado  and  the  adjoining  terri- 
tories, seems  to  have  combined  some  of  the 
characters  of  the  rhinoceros  and  elephant, 
which  succeeded  them  in  the  pliocene  period. 

RHINOCEROS  HORNBILL.     See  HORNBILL. 

RHINOPLASTY.     See  AUTOPLASTY. 

RHIZOPODS.  See  FOBAMINIFERA,  GLOBIQB- 
1:1  N  A,  and  PROTOZOA. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union  and  one  of  the 
New  England  states,  the  smallest  of  the  37  of 
which  the  Union  is  now  composed.  It  is 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Massachusetts,  S.  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  W.  by  Connecticut,  and 
lies  between  lat.  41°  9'  and  42°  3'  N.,  and  Ion. 
71°  8'  and  71°  53'  W. ;  extreme  length  N.  and 
S.  47i  m.,  greatest  breadth  E.  and  W.  40  m. ; 
area,  1,306  sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  five  coun- 
ties :  Bristol,  Kent,  Newport,  Providence,  and 
Washington.  These  are  subdivided  into  two 
cities,  Providence  (pop.  in  1876,  100,675)  and 


State  Seal  of  Rhode  Island. 

Newport  (pop.  14,028),  and  84  towns.  Provi- 
dence and  Pawtucket,  which  had  68,904  and 
6,619  inhabitants  respectively  in  1870,  have 
since  received  territory  from  North  Provi- 
dence. The  largest  towns  are  Pawtucket  (pop. 
in  1875,  18,464),  Woonsocket  (18,576),  War- 
wick (11,614),  Lincoln  (11,565),  Bristol  (5,829), 
Cranston  (5,688),  Westerly  (5,408),  Burrillville 
(5,249),  Johnston  (4,999),  Coventry  (4,580), 
and  South  Kingstown  (4,240).  The  population 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1730  was  17,935 ;  in  1755, 
40,414;  in  1770,  59,678.  According  to  the 
federal  enumerations,  it  has  been  as  follows : 


CENSUSES. 

Whit.. 

Frw, 

colored. 

Slave. 

Aggregate. 

1790  

64,470 
6MM 

78,214 
79.418 
98,621 
105.&S7 
148,878 
170,649 
212,219 

8,407 
8,804 
8,609 
8,554 
8,561 
8,288 
8,670 
8,952 
4,980 

948 
880 
108 
4S 
17 
6 

03,825 
69,122 
76.981 
88,059* 
97,199 
108,880 
147,545 
174,620 
217,858 

1800    

1810  

1820  

1880  ,... 

1840  

1850  

I860  

1870  

*  Including  44  persons  not  classified. 

RHODE  ISLAND 


291 


The  aggregate  included  19  Indians  in  1860,  and 
154  in  1870.  The  gain  in  population  from  1860 
to  1870  was  24*47  per  cent.  Rhode  Island  at 
the  latter  date  had  166'43  inhabitants  to  a 
square  mile,  being  next  to  Massachusetts  the 
most  densely  populated  state  in  the  Union. 
The  total  population  in  1875,  according  to  the 
state  census,  was  258,239.  Of  the  population 
in  1870,  161,957  were  natives  and  55,396  for- 
eigners, 104,756  males  and  112,597  females. 
.  Of  the  natives,  125,269  were  born  in  the  state, 
18,719  in  Massachusetts,  5,524  in  Connecticut, 
3,932  in  New  York,  1,875  in  Maine,  and  1,242 
in  New  Hampshire.  There  were  45,371  per- 
sons born  in  the  state  living  in  other  parts  of 
the  Union.  Of  the  foreigners,  42,984  were 
natives  of  the  United  Kingdom  (31,534  Irish, 
9,291  English,  and  1,948  Scotch),  10,242  of  Brit- 
ish America,  and  1,201  of  Germany.  There 
were  in  the  state  27,834  males  and  27,941  fe- 
males between  5  and  18  years  of  age,  44,377 
males  between  18  and  45,  and  58,752  males 
21  years  old  and  upward,  of  whom  43,996 
were  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  14,756 
unnaturalized  foreigners.  There  were  46,133 
families,  with  an  average  of  4'7l  persons  to 
each,  and  34,828  dwellings,  with  an  average  of 
6*24  to  each ;  15,416  persons  10  years  old  and 
upward  who  could  not  read,  and  21,921  who 
could  not  write,  of  whom  4,444  were  native 
and  17,477  foreign  born,  2,531  between  10  and 
15  years  of  age,  2,588  between  15  and  21,  and 
16,802  21  and  upward,  of  whom  6,218  were 
males  and  10,584  females.  The  number  of 
blind  persons  was  121 ;  of  deaf  and  dumb,  64 ; 
of  insane,  312 ;  of  idiotic,  123.  The  number 
of  paupers  supported  during  the  year  ending 
June  1,  1870,  was  1,046,  at  a  cost  of  $97,702 ; 
receiving  support  on  that  date,  634,  of  whom 
192  were  foreigners;  persons  convicted  of 
crimes  during  the  year,  209  ;  in  prison  on  June 
1,  180,  of  whom  55  were  foreigners.  Of  the 
88,574  (66,859  males  and  21,715  females)  per- 
sons 10  years  old  and  over  returned  as  engaged 
in  all  occupations,  11,780  were  employed  in 
agriculture,  19,679  in  professional  and  per- 
sonal services,  10,108  in  trade  and  transpor- 
tation, and  47,007  in  manufactures,  including 
20,504  cotton  and  woollen  mill  operatives. 
The  number  of  deaths,  according  to  the  census 
of  1870,  was  2,741,  of  which  552  were  from 
consumption  and  169  from  pneumonia.  Rhode 
Island  was  formerly  the  abode  of  the  Narra- 
gansett  Indians,  a  large  and  powerful  tribe,  of 
which  there  is  a  small  remnant.  In  1709  the 
sachem  Ninegret  gave  a  quitclaim  to  the  colony 
of  all  the  Indian  lands,  except  a  reservation 
in  the  town  of  Charlestown,  portions  of  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  sold.  Of  this 
reservation  there  remains  2,685  acres,  637  of 
which  are  arable,  and  the  remainder  swamp 
and  timber  lands.  The  tribe  now  consists  of 
fewer  than  150  persons,  all  of  whom  are  of  mix- 
ed blood.  They  possess  a  church  and  a  school 
house,  and  about  a  third  of  the  tribe  can  read 
and  write. — The  surface  of  the  state  is  gen- 


erally rough  and  hilly,  but  has  no  elevations 
which  can  with  propriety  be  called  mountains. 
Mt.  Hope,  the  seat  of  the  famous  Indian  king 
Philip,  near  Bristol,  is  a  considerable  eleva- 
tion, but  the  hills  near  "Woonsocket  in  the 
north,  and  Hopkins  hill  near  the  centre  of  the 
state,  have  a  greater  height  above  the  sea. 
Narragansett  bay,  which  divides  the  state  into 
two  unequal  parts,  leaving  far  the  greater  por- 
tion on  the  west,  extends  N.  from  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean  a  distance  of  28  m.  It  is  from  3  to 
12  m.  wide,  and  holds  in  its  embrace  the  isl- 
ands of  Aquidneck,  or  Rhode  island,  Canoni- 
cut,  Prudence,  and  several  smaller  ones.  The 
first  named,  which  has  been  called  the  "  Eden 
of  America,"  is  15  m.  long,  from  3  to  3^  m. 
wide,  and  contains  about  50  sq.  m.  It  com- 
prises the  city  of  Newport,  the  town  of  Mid- 
dletown,  and  the  greater  part  of  Portsmouth. 
Newport,  near  its  S.  end,  is  a  celebrated  wa- 
tering place.  Newport  harbor,  which  lies  be- 
tween Canonicut  and  Rhode  island,  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  and  has  a  depth  of  wa- 
ter sufficient  for  the  largest  ships.  Canonicut 
is  7  m.  long  and  about  1  m.  wide,  and  forms 
the  town  of  Jamestown.  Prudence  island  lies 
N.  E.  of  Canonicut,  and  is  of  less  extent;  it 
forms  a  portion  of  the  town  of  Portsmouth. 
Projecting  southward  from  the  mainland  on 
the  east  is  a  peninsula  which  divides  Narra- 
gansett  bay  and  forms  Mt.  Hope  bay,  at  the 
head  of  which  Taunton  river  enters.  In  the 
Atlantic,  about  10  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Point  Ju- 
dith (at  the  W.  entrance  of  Narragansett  bay), 
is  Block  island,  so  named  from  the  Dutch  cap- 
tain Adriaen  Block,  who  visited  it  in  1614; 
it  is  8  m.  long  by  from  2  to  5  m.  wide,  con- 
tains a  large  salt  pond,  and  forms  the  town  of 
New  Shoreham,  Newport  co.  The  islanders 
support  themselves  chiefly  by  fishing.  Sheep 
in  considerable  numbers  are  raised,  and  ex- 
cellent butter  and  cheese  are  made  there. — 
The  rivers  in  the  state  are  small,  but  have  con- 
siderable falls,  and  their  waters  are  used  over 
and  over  again  during  their  whole  course  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  The  Pawtucket  or 
Blackstone  river  rises  in  Massachusetts,  runs 
S.,  and  flows  into  Providence  river.  At  Paw- 
tucket  it  has  a  fall  of  from  30  to  40  ft.,  below 
which  it  bears  the  name  of  Seekonk  river. 
The  Woonasquatucket  and  Mooshassuck  flow 
into  a  cove  within  the  city  of  Providence  which 
is  connected  with  Providence  river.  Pawtuxet 
river  enters  Narragansett  bay  5  m.  below 
Providence.  It  courses  through  the  central 
parts  of  the  state  and  abounds  with  falls: 
hence  it  is  used  to  its  full  extent  for  mills  and 
various  kinds  of  manufacturing  establishments, 
Pawcatuck  river  waters  the  S.  W.  section  of 
the  state,  and  falls  into  Stonington  harbor ; 
along  its  course  are  many  thriving  manufactur- 
ing villages.  Providence  river  is  the  northern 
arm  of  Narragansett  bay,  and  is  navigable  to 
Providence  for  ships  of  1,500  tons  burden. — 
The  western  portions  of  the  state  are  very  uni- 
form and  simple  in  their  geological  character, 


292 


RHODE  ISLAND 


the  primary  stratified  and  unstratified  rocks 
generally  prevailing  with  great  uniformity. 
Cumberland  in  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  is 
a  very  complicated  geological  district.  As  a 
general  thing  it  may  be  said  that  the  geologi- 
cal formation  which  distinguishes  S.  E.  Mas- 
sachusetts extends  to  the  N.  parts  of  Ehode 
Island.  The  S.  section  is  chiefly  of  a  later  era. 
Anthracite  coal  of  an  inferior  quality  exists  in 
Cumberland  and  on  Rhode  island,  in  both  of 
which  localities  it  has  been  mined  to  a  consid- 
erable extent.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  several 
places.  Limestone  abounds  in  the  N.  section, 
and  there  are  some  excellent  quarries  of  mar- 
ble, freestone,  and  granite.  Serpentine  is  also 
abundant. — The  climate  of  the  whole  state  is 
mild,  owing  to  its  proximity  to  the  sea.  New- 
port and  its  vicinity,  more  affected  by  the  va- 
pors from  the  Atlantic,  is  milder  than  the  N. 
parts  of  the  state.  The  soil  is  moderately  fer- 
tile, but  rough  in  many  parts  and  difficult  of 
cultivation.  The  island  of  Rhode  Island  was 
formerly  well  wooded,  but  it  was  entirely  de- 
nuded of  its  forest  trees  while  in  possession 
of  the  British  in  the  revolutionary  war.  It  is 
now  noted  for  its  fine  cattle,  sheep,  butter,  and 
cheese.  The  soil  of  the  islands  is  slaty,  yet 
they  are  the  most  productive  portions  of  the 
state.  There  is  very  little  alluvial  land.  Pine 
plains  are  found  in  several  places.  Oak,  wal- 
nut, and  chestnut  are  the  prevailing  growth, 
with  some  pine.  In  the  S.  parts  are  some 
large  cedar  swamps.  Indian  corn,  rye,  and 
oats  are  the  principal  cereals.  Wheat  is  rare- 
ly sown.  On  the  whole  the  lands  are  better 
adapted  to  grazing  than  to  the  cultivation  of 
cereals.  The  number  of  acres  of  improved 


land  in  farms  in  1870  was  289,030  ;  of  farms, 
5,368,  of  which  440  contained  less  than  10 
acres  each,  719  between  10  and  20,  1,960  be- 
tween 20  and  50,  1,488  between  50  and  100, 
750  between  100  and  500,  and  11  more  than 
500;  cash  value  of  farms,  $21,574,968;  of 
farming  implements  and  machinery,  $786,246 ; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  value  of 
board,  $1,124,118;  estimated  value  of  all  farm 
productions,  including  betterments  and  addi- 
tions to  stock,  $4,761,163;  value  of  orchard 
products,  $43,036 ;  of  produce  of  market  gar- 
dens, $316,133;  of  forest  products,  $254,683; 
of  home  manufactures,  $37,847;  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $755,552 ; 
of  live  stock,  $3,135,132.  The  productions 
were  784  bushels  of  wheat,  20,214  of  rye, 
311,957  of  Indian  corn,  157,010  of  oats,  33,- 
559  of  barley,  1,444  of  buckwheat,  9,920  of 
peas  and  beans,  669,408  of  Irish  potatoes,  142 
of  sweet  potatoes,  954  of  clover  seed,  1,988  of 
grass  seed,  796  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  77,328  of  wool, 
941,199  of  butter,  81,976  of  cheese,  249  of 
hops,  498  of  wax,  6,290  of  honey,  20  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses,  765  of  wine,  1,944,044 
of  milk  sold,  and  89,045  tons  of  hay.  The 
live  stock  on  farms  included  7,770  horses, 
43  mules  and  asses,  18,806  milch  cows,  5,821 
working  oxen,  9,748  other  cattle,  23,938  sheep, 
and  14,607  swine;  besides  which  there  were 
3,343  horses  and  5,730  cattle  not  on  farms. — 
Manufacturing  is  the  most  important  interest 
of  the  state.  The  chief  water  power  is  in 
Providence  and  Kent  counties.  The  city  of 
Providence  is  largely  engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing by  steam  power.  The  following  table  is 
compiled  from  the  last  three  federal  censuses : 


TEAR. 

Number 
of  eiUl.ll.h- 
m«oU. 

Number  of 

h»mli 
employed. 

Amount  of 
capital  Inverted. 

Annul 
wage*. 

Vain*  of 
material*  nwd 
during  7*ar. 

Value  of 
annual 
product. 

1850... 

864 

•J".'.»'.7 

$12.935,676 

$5,047,030 

$18,186,708 

$22,117,688 

I860  

1,191 

82,490 

24,278,295 

8,760,125 

19,858,515 

40,711,296 

18TO... 

1.850 

49.417 

60.557.822 

19,854,256 

78,154,109 

111.418,854 

Of  the  hands  employed  in  1870,  28,804  were 
males  above  16,  14,752  females  above  15,  and 
5,861  youth.  The  motive  power  was  furnished 
by  402  steam  engines  of  23,546  horse  power, 
and  456  water  wheels  of  18,481  horse  power. 
In  that  year,  though  32d  among  the  states  in 
population,  Rhode  Island  was  10th  in  the  value 


of  manufactures.  In  proportion  to  population 
it  ranked  first,  averaging  $512  61  of  manu- 
factured products  to  each  inhabitant.  The 
following  table  gives  the  statistics  for  1870 
of  the  leading  branches,  together  with  the 
rank  of  Rhode  Island  and  the  states  that  sur- 
pass it  in  value  of  products  in  each  branch : 


INDUSTRIES. 

Ert.bll.h- 
m.nu. 

Hands. 

Capital. 

Vain*  of 
material  i. 

Vain*  of 
product!. 

Rank. 

State*  superior  la  value  of 
product*. 

Cotton  goods  

140 

16,872 

fl-  vj;?:>rMi 

$18,286,815 

$22,072,208 

2 

Mass. 

Woollen  poods  

65 

f,  :fiM 

8,167.600 

8.089.948 

12,668,117 

5 

Mass.,  Pa.,  Conn.,  N.  T. 

Worsted  goods  

11 

1581 

•_'.:;.  MI.  u  "i 

1,786.210 

2,885.950 

8 

Mass.,  Pa. 

All  textiles*  

219 

25054 

30  :;.VJ  MIO 

28,280,096 

87,907,670 

8 

Mass.,  Pa. 

Printing   cotton   and  woollen 

9 

2,996 

6770000 

14  604  962 

17  842,480 

1 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  

18 

790 

1  474000 

18,842.0-26 

15.188.728 

2 

Mass. 

Cotton  and  woollen  machinery 
Jewelry  

70 
71 

8,087 
1  679 

8.5S8.060 

1  0>  1"" 

1,412,715 
1  858881 

4,816.876 
8,048,846 

2 
8 

Mass. 
N.  Y.,  N.  J. 

Plated  ware  »  . 

| 

880 

*684,700 

564900 

1  212,240 

2 

Conn. 

Screws 

2 

972 

7.0-1  Mil  III 

718465 

1  882  81  8 

1 

India-rubber  and  elastic  goods 

2 

845 

408,000 

901,058 

1,804,868 

6 

Conn.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J. 

*  Including  cotton,  woollen,  worsted,  and  linen  goods. 


RHODE  ISLAND 


293 


— Khode  Island  is  divided  into  three  customs 
districts,  Bristol  and  Warren,  Newport,  and 
Providence.  The  direct  foreign  commerce  is 
not  extensive,  but  there  is  a  large  coasting 
trade.  The  statistics  of  the  foreign  commerce 


for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1875,  including 
imports  and  exports  and  entrances  and  clear- 
ances, with  the  number  and  tonnage  of  ves- 
sels belonging  in  the  different  districts  on  that 
date,  are  contained  in  the  following  table : 


DISTRICTS. 

Imports. 

Ezportt. 

ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

BELONGING. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tom. 

Bristol  and  Warren  

$5,100 
11,632 

28,088 

"6 

148 

eir 

22,590 

1 
5 
125 

191 
620 
19,636 

20 
187 
182 

1,265 
6,848 
86,485 

Newport  

$1,750 
812,960 

Providence  

State  

$814,700 

$89,820 

154 

23,207 

181 

20,447 

289 

44,598 

Of  the  vessels  belonging  in  the  state,  48,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  21,570,  were  steamers. 
Cod  and  mackerel  fishing  for  the  New  York 
and  other  markets  is  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  chiefly  from  Newport.  The  num- 
ber of  vessels  engaged  in  this  business  on  June 
30,  1875,  was  105,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  1,547.  Menhaden,  scup,  and  bluefish  are 
also  extensively  caught,  while  clams  and  other 
shellfish  are  abundant  on  the  shores  of  Narra- 
gansett  bay.  The  latest  published  statistics  of 
the  coasting  trade,  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1875,  are  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

No. 

Toni. 

No. 

Toni. 

Bristol  and  Warren  

89 
880 

844 

5,471 
601,948 
748,765 

61 

827 
157 

60,661 
806,089 
118,023 

Newport  

Providence  

State.... 

1.218 

1.556.184 

545 

969.623 

Rhode  Island  is  well  supplied  with  railroads. 
The  particulars  of  the  different  lines  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1875  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


LINES. 

TERMINI. 

Length 
In  state. 

Total  length 
wh«n  different 
from  preceding. 

Boston  and  Providence  

Boston,  Mass.,  to  Providence  

10*  m. 

44    m. 

Boston,  Hartford,  and  Erie  (Woonsocket  division) 

Brookline,  Mass.,  to  Woonsocket  

j    7T 

88f     • 

Fall  River,  Warren,  and  Providence  

Warren  to  Fall  River,  Mass  

2     " 

5f     ' 

Hartford,  Providence,  and  Fishkill  

Providence  to  Waterbury,  Conn  

26J   " 

122i     ' 

Newport  and  Wickford  

Wickford  Junction  to  Wickford,  opposite  Newport 

8|  " 

New  York,  Providence,  and  Boston  

Groton,  opp.  New  London,  Conn.,  to  Providence  . 

45     " 

62i     ' 

Old  Colony  

Boston,  Mass.,  to  Newport  

16}  " 

67J    ' 

Pawtuxet  Valley  

River  Point  to  Hope  

8J  " 

Providence  and  Springfield 

Providence  to  Pascoag  

23     « 

Providence  and  Worcester  

Providence  to  Worcester,  Mass  

18     " 

44}   " 

Providence,  Warren,  and  Bristol  

Providence  to  Bristol  

181-  " 

Warwick  

gl      U 

Wood  River  branch  

Wood  River  Junction  to  Locustville  

6*  » 

Total... 

176   m. 

There  are  62  national  banks,  which  on  Oct.  2, 
1874,  had  an  aggregate  capital  of  $20,504,800 ; 
outstanding  circulation,  $12,990,605  ;  individ- 
ual deposits,  $7,930,653  64;  total  assets,  $49,- 
008,801  37.  The  number  of  state  banks  is  15 
(12  in  Providence  and  3  in  Newport),  which 
on  Dec.  2,  1874,  had  an  aggregate  paid-in  cap- 
ital of  $3,210,000,  and  deposits  to  the  amount 
of  $1,537,701  22;  total  assets,  $5,229,253  46. 
The  institutions  for  savings,  37  in  number,  on 
the  same  date  had  98,359  depositors  and  de- 


posits to  the  amount  of  $48,771,501  86.  The 
aggregate  assets  amounted  to  $50,540,703  19. 
The  condition  of  the  Rhode  Island  Hospital 
trust  company  in  Providence,  the  only  one  in 
the  state,  was  as  follows:  capital,  $500,000; 
deposits,  $1,935,520  59  ;  moneys  in  trust, 
$3,696,344  43 ;  total  assets,  $6,694,862  65. 
The  following  are  the  statistics  of  the  fire, 
fire  and  marine,  and  life  insurance  companies 
authorized  to  transact  business  in  the  state  on 
Jan.  1,  1875 : 


COMPANIES. 

Number. 

Capital  paid  up. 

Gross  agiets. 

Liabilities,  Inclu- 
ding reinsurance. 

Surplus  as  to 
policy  holders. 

(  Rhode  Island  companies  

23 

$1,300,000 

$8,108,200 

$1,272,271 

$1.880,929 

Fire,  &c.  •<  Companies  of  other  states  

102 

82,132,270 

79,720,055 

81,966,194 

47,753,861 

18 

14,595,821* 

7,204.276* 

7,891,044* 

Life  companies  of  other  states  

81 

4,476,000 

831,078,845 

292,853,781 

88,725,064 

— The  official  designation  of  the  state  is  "the 
state  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Planta- 
tions." The  government  is  vested  in  a  gov- 
ernor (salary  $1,000),  lieutenant  governor 


($500),  secretary  of  state  ($2,500  and  fees), 
attorney  general  ($2,500),  treasurer  ($2,000), 


*  In  the  United  States. 


294 


RHODE  ISLAND 


and  a  general  assembly  consisting  of  a  sen- 
ate and  house  of  representatives.  They  are 
all  elected  annually  by  the  qualified  voters 
on  the  first  Wednesday  of  April.  An  audi- 
tor (salary  $1,500)  is  chosen  annually  by  the 
general  assembly.  The  senate  consists  of  the 
lieutenant  governor  and  one  member  from 
each  city  and  town  in  the  state.  The  gov- 
ernor, and  in  his  absence  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, presides,  voting  only  in  case  of  a  tie. 
The  secretary  of  state  is  ex  officio  secretary  of 
the  senate.  The  house  of  representatives  can- 
not exceed  72  members,  apportioned  among  the 
cities  and  towns  according  to  population  after 
each  census;  but  each  town  is  entitled  to  at 
least  one  representative,  and  none  can  have 
more  than  12 ;  the  latter  number  is  sent  by 
the  city  of  Providence.  The  pay  of  the  mem- 
bers is  $1  a  day  and  8  cents  for  every  mile 
travelled.  The  present  number  of  senators  is 
86  and  of  representatives  72.  Rhode  Island 
has  two  capitals,  Providence  and  Newport,  the 
general  assembly  holding  annually  its  regular 
session  in  the  latter  city  commencing  on  the 
last  Tuesday  of  May,  and  a  session  by  adjourn- 
ment in  the  former.  The  pardoning  power  is 
vested  exclusively  in  the  governor,  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  senate.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  and  courts 
of  common  pleas.  The  supreme  court  has 
general  appellate  and  original  jurisdiction,  and 
consists  of  a  chief  justice,  with  a  salary  of 
$4,500,  and  three  associate  justices  with  sala- 
ries of  $4,000  each ;  they  are  elected  by  the 
general  assembly,  and  hold  office  until  removed 
by  a  resolution  of  both  houses.  The  court  of 
common  pleas  in  each  of  the  five  counties  is 
held  by  a  single  judge  of  the  supreme  court. 
It  has  jurisdiction  of  appeals  from  justices' 
and  other  inferior  courts,  of  crimes  not  pun- 
ishable by  imprisonment  for  life,  and  of  civil 
cases  involving  $100  and  upward,  or  the  title 
to  real  estate.  Justices'  courts  are  held  in 
each  town  and  city  by  a  trial  justice  select- 
ed from  the  qualified  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  town  councils  are  courts  of  probate  with- 
in their  respective  towns,  though  in  each  a 
special  judge  of  probate  may  be  elected,  who 
then  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  probate  mat- 
ters. In  the  city  of  Providence  the  muni- 
cipal court  is  the  court  of  probate.  Voters 
must  be  male  citizens  of  the  United  States  21 
years  old  and  upward.  Naturalized  citizens 
must  also  be  possessed  of  a  freehold  of  $184 
or  renting  for  $7  per  annum,  and  have  resided 
one  year  in  the  state  and  six  months  in  the 
town  or  city  in  which  they  offer  to  vote.  Na- 
tive-born citizens  may  vote  upon  the  same 
qualifications;  they  may  also  vote,  without 
the  property  qualification,  if  they  have  resided 
two  years  in  the  state  and  six  months  in  the 
town  or  city,  have  been  registered  on  or  before 
the  last  day  of  December  preceding  the  elec- 
tion, and  have  within  a  year  paid  taxes  amount- 
ing to  $1  or  served  at  least  one  day  in  the 
militia.  But  no  person  can  vote  "  upon  any 


proposition  to  impose  a  tax,  or  for  thfe  expen- 
diture of  money  in  any  town  or  city,  unless  he 
shall,  within  the  year  next  preceding,  have  paid 
a  tax  assessed  upon  his  property  therein,  valued 
at  least  at  $134."  The  distinction  between 
native  and  naturalized  citizens  is  not  expressly 
stated  in  the  constitution,  but  rests  upon  a 
reference  in  that  instrument  to  the  act  calling 
the  convention  to  frame  it.  The  voting  for 
general  state  officers  and  for  representatives  in 
congress  must  be  by  ballot ;  voting  for  senators 
and  representatives  in  the  general  assembly 
and  for  town  or  city  officers  is  by  ballot  when 
demanded  by  any  seven  persons  entitled  to 
vote  for  those  officers.  In  all  elections  a 
majority  of  all  the  electors  voting  is  necessary 
to  a  choice.  If  there  be  no  choice  for  gover- 
nor or  other  state  officers,  the  election  is  made 
by  the  general  assembly  in  joint  session  from 
the  two  candidates  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes.  In  the  case  of  senators  and  rep- 
resentatives, a  new  election  is  held  by  the 
people  until  some  candidate  receives  a  major- 
ity. Amendments  to  the  constitution  must  be 
adopted  by  a  majority  of  all  the  members 
elected  to  each  house  of  two  successive  legis- 
latures, and  subsequently  by  a  three-fifths  vote 
of  the  people.  Rhode  Island  is  entitled  to  two 
representatives  and  in  common  with  the  other 
states  to  two  senators  in  congress,  and  has 
thus  four  votes  in  the  electoral  college. — The 
valuation  of  the  real  and  personal  property  of 
the  state  according  to  the  federal  censuses  has 
been  as  follows : 


AJ 

MESSED  TALU 

E. 

True  mine  of 

Reel  Mteto. 

Penoiul  ttUt*. 

Total. 

ion»l  eiUte. 

I860... 



$80,508,794 

I860.... 
1870.  .  .  . 

$88.778&>4 

wjgnjSK 

$4i,82«,ioi 

111,402,278 

$125,104,805 
244.278,854 

185,387,588 
296,966,646 

The  total  taxation  not  national  in  1870  was 
$2,170,152,  of  which  $489,253  was  state  and 
$1,680,899  town,  city,  &c. ;  total  public  debt. 
$5,938,642,  of  which  $2,913,500  was  state  and 
$3,025,142  town,  city,  &c.  The  receipts  and 
payments  into  and  from  the  state  treasury  du- 
ring the  year  ending  April  80,  187,5,  were  as 
follows : 

Balance  in  treasury  May  1, 1874 $294,806  08 

RECEIPTS. 

State  tax $492,418  77 

Institutions  for  savings 112,928  17 

State  insurance  companies 18,889  91 

Foreign  insurance  agents 88,405  90 

Courts  and  justices 84,90588 

Jailers 4,158  69 

Auctioneers 1,810  02 

Town  councils 8,069  78 

Peddlers' licenses 8,70000 

Dividends  on  the  school  fund 22,1)02  50 

Charters 6.750  00 

Interest  on  deposits  of  revenue..  16,412  62 

Miscellaneous 9,248  98 

$763,276  07 

Total .' $1,057,582  16 


KHODE  ISLAND 


295 


PAYMENTS. 

Salaries $58,908  81 

Expenses  of  general  assembly —  21,582  76 

Courts  and  justices 54,825  51 

Public  printing.. 10,170  88 

Charities  and  corrections 65,000  00 

Public  schools 90,000  00 

Special  appropriations 6,276  83 

Insane  and  other  dependents. ...  9,902  71 

Jailers 1,520  08 

Reform  school 20,955  43 

Military 19,896  11 

Normal  school 10,000  00 

Law  library 1,592  01 

Court  houses  and  jails 2,072  89 

Interest  on  state  debt 160,530  00 

Inland  fisheries 1,263  48 

Mileage,  state  normal  school 1,477  80 

Evening  schools 2,218  00 

New  state  prison 10,000  00 

Miscellaneous 84,045  17 


$581,731  92 
Balance  in  treasury  April  80, 1875 $475,850  23 

The  funded  debt  of  the  state  at  the  above  date 
amounted  to  $2,563,500.— The  state  institu- 
tions are  the  state  prison  in  Providence,  and 
the  workhouse  and  house  of  correction,  the 
state  asylum  for  the  incurable  insane,  and  the 
state  almshouse  on  the  state  farm  (418  acres) 
in  Cranston.  The  state  prison  and  Providence 
county  jail  (on  the  same  premises)  are  under 
the  management  of  a  board  of  seven  inspec- 
tors appointed  annually  by  the  governor,  who 
serve  without  pay.  The  labor  of  the  prisoners 
is  let  to  contractors,  and  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  and  wire  goods  and 
in  chair  seating.  The  number  of  convicts  in 
prison  during  the  year  ending  Jan.  1,  1875, 
was  101 ;  remaining  on  that  date  67 ;  number 
of  persons  in  jail  during  the  year,  2,618;  re- 
maining at  the  close,  147.  The  receipts  of 
these  institutions  amounted  to  $23,428  93,  of 
which  $14,715  42  were  from  labor;  ordinary 
expenses,  $22,967  46.  The  institutions  on  the 
state  farm  are  under  the  management  of  a 
board  of  state  charities  and  corrections,  con- 
sisting of  six  members  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  senate  for  six  years  (one  retiring 
annually).  These  serve  without  pay,  and  ap- 
point a  secretary,  who  is  ex  officio  a  member 
of  the  board.  The  board  appoints  a  superin- 
tendent of  state  charities  and  corrections.  The 
state  almshouse,  for  paupers  not  having  a  legal 
settlement  in  any  town,  was  opened  on  Aug. 
1,  1874.  The  following  statistics  are  for  the 
year  ending  Jan.  1,  1875  : 


Inmates 

Inmate* 

INSTITUTIONS. 

during 

at  close 

year. 

of  year. 

Workhouse  and  house  of  correction  

735 

199 

Asylum  for  incurable  insane  

207 

172 

Almshouse  (five  months)  

196 

141 

the  insane  in  the  asylum  on  Jan.  1,  1875, 
62  were  supported  wholly  by  the  state;  the 
board  of  the  others  was  paid  by  the  towns  or 
by  friends  of  the  patients  at  from  $2  to  $4  per 
week.  The  average  number  of  paupers  in  the 
town  asylums  during  the  year  ending  June  1, 


1874,  was  472,  and  they  were  supported  at  the 
cost  of  $32,082  89,  exclusive  of  the  income  of 
the  farms  connected  with  the  asylums.  The 
Butler  hospital  for  the  insane  in  Providence  is 
a  corporate  institution,  but  some  poor  patients 
are  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  state  or  of 
the  towns.  It  was  opened  in  1848.  A  fine 
farm  is  connected  with  it.  The  number  under 
treatment  during  1874  was  234;  remaining  at 
the  close  of  the  year,  127.  The  greater  num- 
ber are  supported  from  private  means.  The 
number  of  public  patients  during  the  year  was 
40,  at  the  close  16 ;  toward  the  maintenance 
of  these  $1,630  18  was  paid  by  the  state  and 
$1,817  28  by  the  towns.  The  entire  net  ex- 
penditure of  the  institution  was  $55,217  44. 
The  Providence  reform  school  is  a  city  institu- 
tion, but  it  receives  children  and  youth  from 
all  parts  of  the  state.  It  was  opened  in  1850. 
The  number  of  inmates  during  the  year  end- 
ing Nov.  30,  1874,  was  369  (314  boys  and  55 
girls);  remaining  on  that  date,  220  (179  boys 
and  41  girls).  The  receipts  during  the  year 
were  $41,699  79,  of  which  $20,955  71  were 
from  the  state;  expenditures,  $41,295  38.— The 
public  schools  are  under  the  management  of  a 
board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  governor 
and  lieutenant  governor  ex  officio,  and  six 
members  elected  by  the  general  assembly  for 
three  years  (two  retiring  annually).  The  mem- 
bers serve  gratuitously.  The  board  elects  an- 
nually a  commissioner  of  public  schools  (salary 
$2,500),  who  also  acts  as  its  secretary.  A 
school  committee,  varying  in  number,  is  elected 
in  each  town  by  the  qualified  voters  for  three 
years.  "Women  are  eligible  to  the  committees. 
There  is  a  board  of  trustees  for  each  district, 
elected  by  the  qualified  voters.  The  schools 
in  the  city  of  Providence  are  governed  by 
ordinances  and  regulations  adopted  by  the  city 
authorities.  The  public  schools  are  free,  and 
are  supported  by  state,  town,  and  district  taxes. 
The  following  are  the  statistics  for  1873-'4 : 

Number  of  school  districts 429 

"  of  day  schools 782 

Average  length  of  schools 8  mos.  19  days 

Number  of  different  teachers  (201  males  and  821 

females) 1,022 

Number  of  teachers  necessary 805 

Estimated  number  of  children  in  state  between 

5  and  15 48,800 

Number  of  different  pupils  enrolled 89,401 

Average  attendance 24,484 

Number  of  evening  schools 62 

Average  length  of  schools 18J  weeks 

Number  of  different  teachers  (89  males  and  119 

females) 208 

Number  of  different  pupils  enrolled 6,088 

Average  attendance 2,980 

Amount  of  permanent  school  fund $250,876  87 

Number  of  teachers  reported  in  schools  other 

than  public  (80  males  and  76  females) 156 

Number  of  pupils  in  do 8,827 

RECEIPTS   FOR  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 

State  appropriation  for  day  schools $90,000  00 

"              "             for  evening  schools 8,814  CO 

Town  appropriations 828,822  87 

From  registry  taxes  and  other  sources 210,855  40 

District  taxes 66,881  59 

Balance  unexpended  last  year 46,896  24 

Total  receipts  from  all  sources $745,709  60 


296 


RHODE  ISLAND 


EXPENDITURES. 

Paid  teachers  in  day  schools $356,525  90 

Paid  for  other  purposes   connected  with  day 

schools 76.01 6  80 

Expended  for  evening  schools 22,127  50 

Expended  for  school  houses 287,181  88 


Total  expenditures . $690,851  68 

More  than  half  of  the  schools  are  graded.  The 
following  cities  and  towns  have  high  schools, 
or  schools  of  an  equal  grade,  either  public  or 
private :  Providence,  Newport,  Woonsocket, 
Pawtucket,  Bristol,  Warren,  Westerly,  Lin- 
coln, East  Greenwich,  Barrington,  Scituate, 
and  East  Providence.  Children  under  15  years 
of  age  employed  in  manufactories  are  required 
to  attend  school  at  least  three  months  in  the 
year.  The  state  normal  school  is  in  Provi- 
cbnce.  Tuition  is  free  to  such  as  intend  to 
tsach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  The 
number  of  instructors  is  8 ;  number  of  pupils 
in  1873-'4,  141.  The  most  important  institu- 
tion of  learning  in  the  state  is  Brown  univer- 
sity at  Providence,  founded  in  1764.  By  a 
legislative  act  of  1862  it  received  the  congres- 
sional land  grant  of  120,000  acres  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  college  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts.  This  has  been  sold  for  $50,- 
000,  and  entitles  the  state  to  the  gratuitous 
tuition  of  30  students  in  those  branches.  In 
1874-'5  the  university  had  11  professors,  4  in- 
structors, 253  students,  and  a  library  of  upward 
of  40,000  volumes.  (See  BBOWN  UNIVERSITY.) 
The  number  of  libraries,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1870,  was  759,  with  693,387  volumes,  of 
which  425,  with  383,691  volumes,  were  private, 
and  334,  with  309,696  volumes,  not  private, 
viz. :  1  state,  1,500  volumes;  10  town,  city,  &c., 
15,198;  5  court  and  law,  2,147;  12  school, 
college,  &c,,  97,500;  248  Sabbath  school,  116,- 
441 ;  26  church,  11,160;  32  circulating,  65,750. 
There  were  32  newspapers  and  periodicals, 
having  an  aggregate  circulation  of  82,050,  and 
issuing  9,781,500  copies  annually,  viz.:  6 
daily,  circulation  23,250 ;  1  semi-weekly,  1,200  ; 
19  weekly,  43,950;  and  6  monthly,  18,650. 
The  statistics  of  churches,  according  to  the 
census,  are  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Ornmnl- 

utloni. 

EdldcM. 

Sitting!. 

Vain*  of 
Property. 

Baptist,  regular.  

75 

78 

28695 

$719400 

"       other  

84 

84 

11  191 

1  .">  -  000 

Christian  

12 

19 

8050 

;<;{  ',(i(| 

Congregational  

27 

27 

18500 

620  1  loi  i 

Episcopal  

42 

89 

17155 

785  100 

Friends  

17 

17 

6514 

58600 

Jewish  

1 

Lutheran  

1 

1 

400 

1  500 

Methodist  

88 

80 

14,605 

D7l  '<<»() 

New  Jerusalem  (Sweden- 
borgian)  

8 

2 

675 

fiivtft 

Presbyterian  

1 

1 

600 

10  IK  Ml 

Roman  Catholic  

22 

20 

1910S 

910  100 

Second  Advent  

17 

14 

g'87o 

23  700 

Spiritualist  

1 

Unitarian  

4 

4 

8,450 

''•'i  IIIHI 

Universalist  

4 

4 

2770 

•J-JII  IMIII 

Unknown  (local  mission) 
Unknown  (union)  

1 

1 
4 

500 
700 

10,000 
6,500 

Total  

295 

288 

125188 

$4,117  200 

— Geographers  have  recently  fixed  upo*n  Rhode 
Island  as  the  ancient  Vinland,  said  to  have 
been  discovered  by  the  Northmen  about  A.  D. 
1000  (see  NORTHMEN);  indeed,  if  reliance  is 
to  be  placed  on  the  Icelandic  sagas,  a  criti- 
cal examination  of  them  leads  to  this  result. 
In  1524  Verrazzani,  coasting  eastward  from  a 
bay  which  has  been  identified  as  that  of  New 
York,  passed  up  an  opening  into  a  large  bay 
where  he  remained  a  fortnight.  There  is  lit- 
tle doubt  that  this  was  Narragansett  bay,  and 
that  he  first  came  to  anchor  in  Newport  har- 
bor. He  held  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the 
natives,  who  visited  his  vessel  in  great  num- 
bers. The  country  was  then  very  thickly 
populated.  Many  have  believed  that  the  "  old 
stone  mill,"  an  interesting  ruin  in  Newport, 
long  the  puzzle  of  antiquaries,  was  the  work 
of  some  of  the  early  European  navigators 
who  followed  Verrazzani,  while  the  Danish 
antiquaries  claim  it  as  a  work  of  the  North- 
men. It  was  used  for  a  grist  mill  by  the 
settlers  who  accompanied  Williams  and  Cod- 
dington  to  Rhode  Island,  and  was  probably 
erected  by  them  for  that  purpose.  The  cele- 
brated Dighton  rock,  on  Taunton  river,  a  few 
miles  from  Mt.  Hope  bay,  bearing  a  variety  of 
strange  figures,  has  been  claimed  by  the  Danish 
antiquaries  as  a  memorial  of  the  visit  of  the 
ancient  Northmen  under  Thorfin  in  the  10th 
century.  They  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
attempt  to  trace  out  the  name  of  this  hero 
among  the  rude  sculptures  on  the  rock.  Rhode 
Island  was  first  settled  at  Providence  (so  called 
in  grateful  acknowledgment  of  "  God's  merci- 
ful providence  to  him  in  his  distress  ")  in  tho 
year  1636  by  Roger  Williams,  who  had  been 
banished  from  Massachusetts  for  maintaining 
opinions  in  political  and  religious  matters  at 
variance  with  those  of  the  rulers  in  that  col- 
ony. He  immediately  put  into  practice  the 
doctrine  of  liberty  of  conscience.  In  1638 
William  Coddington  and  some  others,  who 
wore  also  persecuted  and  forced  to  leave  Mas- 
sachusetts for  religious  opinions,  deemed  to  be 
heresies  there,  purchased  from  the  Indians  the 
island  of  Aquidneck  or  Aquiday,  afterward 
called  Rhode  island,  and  effected  a  settlement 
there,  from  which  sprung  the  towns  of  New- 
port and  Portsmouth.  A  third  settlement 
was  formed  at  Warwick  in  1643,  by  a  party 
among  whom  John  Greene  and  Samuel  Gorton 
were  prominent.  The  same  year  Williams 
went  to  England  and  obtained  a  patent  for  the 
united  government  of  the  settlements,  dated 
March  14,  1643-'4,  which  did  not  go  into  ope- 
ration till  1647.  This  patent  remained  in  force 
till  1663,  when  a  charter  was  obtained  from 
Charles  II.,  incorporating  the  colony  of  "  Rhode 
Island  and -Providence  Plantations,"  which  was 
the  only  constitution  of  government  for  180 
years.  The  great  war  between  the  English 
settlers  and  the  Indian  tribes  of  New  England 
broke  out  in  June,  1675.  Rhode  Island  suf- 
fered severely  from  it.  Many  towns,  villages, 
and  farm  houses  were  burned,  and  families 


EHODE  ISLAND 


297 


butchered.  Providence,  among  others,  was 
burned.  The  war  only  terminated  with  the 
death  of  Philip,  king  of  the  Wampanoags,  a 
powerful  tribe  which  dwelt  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Narragansett  bay,  in  August,  1676. 
But  the  great  contest  in  this  war,  and  which 
decided  the  fate  of  the  Indians,  took  place  in 
December  previous  in  the  "  Narragansett  coun- 
try," so  called,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  state,  the 
seat  of  the  great  and  powerful  tribe  of  Narra- 
gansetts.  Here  the  Indians  had  collected  in 
great  numbers  and  fortified  themselves,  on  a 
rising  ground  in  the  centre  of  a  dense  swamp. 
A  considerable  force  was  sent  against  them 
from  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  and  Connecti- 

t.  The  Indians  were  defeated  with  great 
oss,  many  perishing  in  the  flames  that  de- 

royed  their  village.  The  loss  of  the  colonists 
was  also  severe.  Khode  Island  was  opposed  to 
this  exterminating  war,  and  was  not  even  con- 
sulted in  regard  to  it  by  the  other  colonies. 
In  January,  1687,  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  hav- 
ing been  commissioned  as  governor  of  New 
England,  New  York,  &c.,  abrogated  the  char- 
ter of  Khode  Island,  with  those  of  other  colo- 
nies, which  then  became  a  mere  county,  gov- 
erned by  civil  officers  appointed  by  him,  till 
he  was  seized  and  sent  to  England  in  1689. 
Rhode  Island  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
struggle  between  Great  Britain  and  France 
for  empire  in  America.  She  furnished  large 
numbers  of  troops  for  the  expeditions  against 
Louisburg,  Crown  Point,  Oswego,  and  Cana- 
da ;  but  it  was  on  the  ocean  that  she  rendered 
the  most  important  service.  In  1756  she  had  50 
privateers  at  sea,  manned  by  upward  of  1,500 
men,  which  cruised  along  the  coast  and  among 
the  West  India  islands,  making  many  cap- 
tures. In  the  war  of  the  revolution  the  first 
naval  squadron  sent  against  the  enemy  was 
fitted  out  and  sailed  from  Providence  under 
command  of  Commodore  Hopkins,  who  was 
styled  admiral.  Commodores  Whipple  and 
Talbot  also  sailed  from  and  belonged  to  Rhode 
Island.  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene  was  a  native 
of  and  began  his  military  career  in  this  state. 
In  December,  1776,  Rhode  Island  was  invaded 
by  the  British,  who  occupied  Newport  several 
years.  Gen.  Sullivan,  aided  by  a  French  fleet 
under  Count  d'Estaing,  made  several  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  dislodge  the  enemy,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  1778  laid  siege  to  Newport, 
but  was  finally  obliged  to  abandon  the  project. 
Toward  the  close  of  1779  the  British  troops 
were  withdrawn,  and  the  following  year  Ro- 
chambeau  arrived  with  6,000  French  auxilia- 
ries. Rhode  Island  was  the  last  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  that  accepted  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  her  assent  being  given  on  May 
29,  1790.  In  the  war  of  1812  with  Great 
Britain  the  state  was  made  conspicuous  by  the 
victory  on  Lake  Erie  of  Commodore  O.  H. 
Perry,  a  native  of  this  state,  won  by  the  aid 
of  a  party  of  seamen  and  shipwrights  from 
Rhode  Island.  Under  the  charter  as  in  force 
at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  the  low- 


er house  of  the  legislature  consisted  of  six 
deputies  from  Newport,  four  each  from  Prov- 
idence, Portsmouth,  and  Warwick,  and  two 
from  each  of  the  other  towns.  The  right  of 
suffrage  was  restricted  to  owners  of  a  free- 
hold worth  £40  or  $134,  or  renting  for  40#. 
or  $7  a  year,  and  to  their  eldest  sons.  In  pro- 
cess of  time  the  property  qualification  and  the 
inequality  of  representation,  which  continu- 
ed to  increase,  caused  much  dissatisfaction. 
In  1840  Providence  with  only  four  represen- 
tatives had  23,171  inhabitants,  while  New- 
port with  six  representatives  had  only  8,333 
inhabitants.  Of  the  72  representatives  elect- 
ed in  that  year,  38  were  chosen  from  towns 
having  only  29,026  inhabitants  and  2,846  vo- 
ters, while  the  remaining  34  were  chosen  from 
towns  having  79,804  inhabitants  and  5,776 
voters.  Various  attempts  to  obtain  reform 
from  the  legislature  having  failed,  suffrage 
associations  were  organized  in  the  latter  part 
of  1840  and  the  early  part  of  1841,  which,  at 
a  mass  convention  held  at  Providence  on  July 
5  of  the  latter  year,  authorized  their  state 
committee  to  call  a  convention  to  frame  a  con- 
stitution. Delegates  were  elected  on  Aug.  28, 
and  on  Oct.  4  the  convention  assembled  at 
Providence.  A  constitution  was  framed  and 
submitted  to  the  people  on  Dec.  27,  28,  and 
29,  when,  it  was  asserted,  about  14,000  votes 
were  cast  for  its  adoption,  being  a  majority  of 
the  adult  male  citizens  of  the  state.  It  was 
also  asserted  that  a  majority  of  those  entitled 
to  vote  under  the  charter  voted  in  its  favor. 
An  election  for  state  officers  under  this  constitu- 
tion was  held  on  April  18,  1842,  when  Thomas 
Wilson  Dorr,  the  most  prominent  leader  in 
the  movement,  was  chosen  governor.  On  May 
3  Mr.  Dorr's  government  attempted  to  organ- 
ize at  Providence  and  to  seize  the  reins  of 
power.  They  were  resisted  by  the  legal  state 
government,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Gov. 
Samuel  W.  King.  On  May  18  a  portion  of  the 
suffrage  party  assembled  at  Providence  under 
arms,  and  attempted  to  seize  the  arsenal,  but 
dispersed  on  the  approach  of  Gov.  King  with 
a  military  force.  They  assembled  again  to  the 
number  of  several  hundred,  June  25,  at  Che- 
pachet,  10  m.  from  Providence,  but  upon  the 
approach  of  the  state  forces  they  dispersed 
without  resistance,  and  the  affair  was  over  on 
the  28th.  Mr.  Dorr  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
convicted  of  high  treason,  and  on  June  25, 
1844,  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  In 
1847  he  was  released  under  an  act  of  general 
amnesty,  and  in  1851  he  was  restored  to  his 
civil  and  political  rights.  In  1854  an  act  was 
passed  to  reverse  and  annul  the  judgment  in 
his  case,  on  the  ground  that  the  proceedings 
against  him  had  been  illegal  and  unjust;  but 
the  supreme  court  subsequently  declared  it 
unconstitutional,  as  an  assumption  of  judicial 
authority  by  the  legislature.  In  the  mean  time 
the  legislature  on  Feb.  6,  1841,  called  a  con- 
vention to  frame  a  new  constitution.  The  del- 
egates were  elected  in  August,  and  the  con- 


298 


RHODES 


vention  assembled  in  November  and  adjourned 
to  February,  1842,  when  they  agreed  upon  a 
constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  the  peo- 
ple on  March  21,  22,  and  23,  and  rejected.  In 
June  the  legislature  called  another  convention, 
which  met  at  Providence  in  September  and 
subsequently  adjourned  to  East  Greenwich, 
where  on  Nov.  5  it  agreed  upon  the  present 
constitution,  which  was  ratified  by  the  people 
almost  unanimously.  It  went  into  effect  on 
the  first  Tuesday  of  May,  1843.  In  1861  a  con- 
troversy respecting  the  boundary  with  Massa- 
chusetts, transmitted  from  colonial  times,  was 
settled  by  the  cession  on  the  part  of  Rhode 
Island  of  that  portion  of  the  town  of  Tiver- 
ton  containing  the  village  of  Fall  River,  in  ex- 
change for  the  town  of  Pawtucket  and  a  part 
of  Seekonk  (now  known  as  East  Providence). 
In  1861  Rhode  Island  sent  off  a  body  of  troops 
for  the  defence  of  "Wfashington  three  days  after 
President  Lincoln  issued  his  proclamation  call- 
ing upon  the  states  for  troops.  During  the 
war  she  furnished  23,711  men  to  the  federal 
armies,  equivalent  to  17,878  for  three  years. 

RHODES  (ancient  and  modern  Gr.  Rhodes, 
from  £<Wov,  a  rose).  I.  An  island  of  Turkey  in 
the  Mediterranean,  off  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  chan- 
nel 10m.  wide.  It  is  between  lat.  35°  50'  and 
36°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  27°  40'  and  28°  20'  E. ; 
area,  about  452  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  84,000,  of 
whom  about  7,000  are  Turks,  2,000  Jews,  and 
the  remainder  Greeks,  with  a  few  hundred 
Franks  or  Europeans.  It  is  ruled  by  a  pasha, 
who  holds  office  for  life,  governing  also  the 
adjoining  islands  belonging  to  Turkey,  and 
who  farms  the  revenues.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop  of  the  Greek  church.  The  island 
is  divided  lengthwise,  N.  and  S.,  by  a  mountain 
chain  or  ridge.  The  loftiest  summits  are  Ar- 
tamiti,  the  ancient  Atabyris,  about  6,000  ft. 
high,  and  Attairo,  4,000  ft.  The  most  consid- 
erable river  is  the  Fisco.  The  well  watered 
and  fertile  valleys  are  not  fully  cultivated. 
Some  cotton  is  grown,  and  a  tract  of  low  bills 
next  to  the  coast  district  still  produces  the 
perfumed  wine  for  which  the  island  was  once 
celebrated.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  the  finest 
in  the  Mediterranean.  Commerce  is  carried  on 
in  oil,  oranges,  citrons,  coral,  sponges,  leather, 
and  marble. — The  earliest  historical  inhabitants 
of  Rhodes  were  of  Doric  race,  and  the  three 
most  ancient  towns  of  the  island,  Lindus,  laly- 
sus,  and  Camirus,  formed,  together  with  Cos, 
Cnidus,  and  Halicarnassus  on  the  mainland, 
the  confederation  called  the  Doric  hexapolis. 
At  a  remote  period  Rhodes  was  populous  and 
prosperous.  It  was  one  of  the  stations  of 
Phoenician  commerce,  and  though  in  a  state  of 
decadence  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Sidon,  it 
continued  for  several  centuries  to  be  one  of 
the  principal  centres  of  trade,  and  sent  colonies 
to  Spain,  Italy,  and  .Sicily,  as  well  as  to  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  In  conjunction  with 
Asiatic  Greeks  and  Cnidians,  the  Rhodians  es- 
tablished in  578  B.  C.  a  colony  on  the  N.  E. 


coast  of  Spain,  to  which  was  given  the  name 
of  Rhoda  (now  Rosas.)  The  island  did  not 
take  a  prominent  position  among  the  Grecian 
states  till  408,  when  the  three  cities  before 
named  joined  in  building  the  city  of  Rhodes, 
which  thenceforth  became  the  capital.  The 
island  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  but  after  his  death  the  Macedonian 
garrison  was  expelled,  and  Rhodes  entered 
upon  the  most  glorious  epoch  of  her  history, 
during  which  her  power  was  admitted  by  all 
the  surrounding  nations,  and  her  dominion,  in 
consequence  of  her  alliance  with  Rome  against 
Antiochus  the  Great  and  others,  established 
for  a  time  over  a  portion  of  the  adjacent  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  Rhodians  remained  faith- 
ful to  Rome  during  the  Mithridatic  wars,  en- 
tered actively  into  her  civil  wars,  and  their 
adhesion  to  the  party  of  Cresar  was  severely 
punished  by  the  capture  and  plunder  of  the 
city  of  Rhodes  in  42  B.  C.  From  this  period 
the  island  rapidly  declined  in  political  power, 
though  it  long  continued  to  be  famous  as 
a  seat  of  learning.  It  was  finally  deprived 
of  its  autonomy  by  the  emperor  Vespasian. 
In  330  the  city  was  made  the  metropolis  of  the 
Provincia  Insularum.  Upon  the  ruin  of  the 
empire  of  the  East  the  island  fell  successively 
into  the  hands  of  the  caliphs,  the  crusaders, 
and  the  Genoese;  and  in  1309  the  knights  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  who  had  been  compelled 
to  evacuate  Palestine,  landed  at  Rhodes,  and 
under  the  grand  master  Foulque  de  Villaret 
vanquished  the  Moslems  and  Greeks  in  several 
encounters,  and  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  city  and  the  island.  The  knights  held  the 
place  for  two  centuries,  and  in  1522  Sultan 
Solyman  tho  Magnificent  advanced  against  it 
with  an  army  numbering  upward  of  200,000. 
There  was  on  the  island  to  oppose  this  only  a 
force  of  6,000,  headed  by  the  grand  master 
Villiers  de  1'Isle-Adain.  After  a  siege  that 
lasted  through  the  whole  summer,  almost  in- 
numerable assaults,  and  a  most  heroic  defence, 
the  city  capitulated  in  October,  and  has  ever 
since  remained  under  its  present  masters.  The 
surviving  defenders  were  allowed  to  leave 
the  island.  (See  SAINT  JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM, 
KNIGHTS  OF.)  Rhodes  has  many  times  been 
visited  by  earthquakes;  that  of  April  22, 1863. 
ruined  hundreds  of  dwellings  and  destroyed 
thousands  of  lives.  There  are  now  on  the 
island  about  44  villages,  thinly  populated.  II. 
The  chief  city  and  capital  of  the  island,  on  the 
N.  E.  coast ;  pop.  about  20,000,  Turks,  Greeks, 
and  Jews.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  am- 
phitheatre upon  a  bay  between  two  capes,  and 
is  surrounded  by  ancient  walls  and  towers 
built  by  the  knights  of  St.  John.  There  are 
two  harbors,  separated  by  a  narrow  quay.  The 
palace  of  the  grand  master  was  a  large  and 
handsome  building  and  commanded  the  city; 
it  was  much  injured  by  the  explosion  of  a  pow- 
der magazine  in  1856,  and  the  earthquake  of 
1863  completely  destroyed  it,  as  well  as  the 
once  magnificent  church  of  St.  John,  then  f- 


RHODES 


>  Turkish  mosque.  There  are  no  considerable 
remains  of  an  earlier  time  than  the  residence 
of  the  knights  of  St.  John,  among  which  is  a 
moated  castle  of  great  size  and  strength,  con- 
taining the  cloisters  of  the  knights.  The  city 
of  Rhodes,  which  in  304  B.  0.  withstood  a 


RHODIUM 


299 


famous  siege  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  is  de- 
scribed by  Strabo  as  superior  to  all  other  cities 
for  the  beauty  and  convenience  of  its  ports, 
streets,  walls,  and  public  edifices,  all  of  them 
profusely  adorned  with  works  of  art.  There 
are  said  to  have  been  about  3,000  statues  in 


Rhodes,  from  the  hill  northwest  of  the  city. 


the  city.  It  contained  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  ancient  world  in  its  brazen  statue 
of  Apollo,  commonly  called  the  colossus  of 
Rhodes.  (See  COLOSSUS.) 

RHODES,  Inner  and  Onter.    See  APPENZELL. 

RHODEZ.    See  RODEZ. 

RHODIUM,  a  metal  belonging  to  the  platinum 
group,  discovered  by  Wollaston  in  1803.  He 
found  0'4  per  cent,  in  ore  from  Brazil,  and  in 
a  specimen  from  another  locality  as  much  as  3 
per  cent.  It  usually  forms  about  one  half  of 
one  per  cent,  of  the  ore.  It  may  be  extracted 
from  the  solution  from  which  platinum  and 
palladium  have  been  separated  in  the  manner 
which  has  been  described.  (See  OSMIUM,  PAL- 
LADIUM, and  PLATINUM.)  The  solution  is  mixed 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness,  and  the  residue  is  treated  with  alcohol  of 
sp.  gr.  0'837  ;  this  dissolves  everything  except 
the  double  chloride  of  sodium  and  rhodium, 
which  remains  behind  as  a  red  powder.  This 
is  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  rhodium  precipi- 
tated by  the  action  of  metallic  zinc,  or  the  salt 
may  be  reduced  by  heating  it  in  a  current  of 
hydrogen  gas.  Rhodium  is  white  and  very 
hard.  When  quite  pure  it  is  malleable  after 
fusion  upon  lime,  and  is  then  of  sp.  gr.  12'1. 
"Wollaston's  estimate  was  11,  but  he  experi- 
mented on  the  unfused  metal.  The  fusing 
point  of  rhodium  is  higher  than  that  of  plati- 
num, and  it  will  only  melt  in  the  voltaic  arc 


or  in  the  oxyhydrogen  furnace ;  the  precise 
degree  cannot  be  estimated.  Its  symbol  is 
Ro ;  its  atomic  weight  104  or  104-3.  It  is  un- 
alterable in  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
but  oxidizes,  and  also  combines  with  chlorine, 
at  a  red  heat.  It  resists  the  action  of  the 
strongest  acid,  singly  or  combined,  unless  al- 
loyed with  some  other  metal,  when  it  will  dis- 
solve in  nitro-muriatic  acid.  Rhodium  forms 
four  oxides :  a  monoxide,  RoO ;  a  sesquioxide, 
RoaOs ;  a  dioxide,  RoOa ;  and  a  trioxide,  RoO$. 
The  principal  oxygen  salts  are  the  acetate,  ni- 
trate, phosphate,  sulphate,  and  sulphite.  There 
are  two  sulphides,  RoS  and  RosS3.  According 
to  Berzelius,  there  are  three  chlorides,  RoCla, 
Ro»016,  and  Rods ;  but  more  recent  investi- 
gations by  Glaus  make  it  probable  that  there  is 
only  one,  the  trichloride,  Rods,  which  forms 
double  chlorides  with  the  alkalies.  The  best 
known  salt  of  rhodium  is  the  sodic  rhodic 
chloride,  which  is  obtained  in  the  extraction 
of  the  metal  as  described  above.  The  rhodic 
salts  generally  form  rose-colored  solutions,  and 
are  decomposed  by  metallic  iron  or  zinc,  with 
precipitation  of  metallic  rhodium.  Potassic 
and  sodic  hydrates  added  to  rhodic  salt  solu- 
tions slowly  precipitate  a  yellow  hydrated 
rhodic  oxide,  which  is  soluble  in  excess  of  al- 
kali as  well  as  in  acids.  Potassic  iodide  pre- 
cipitates a  sparingly  soluble  yellow  tri-iodide 
of  rhodium.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  hot 


300 


RHODODENDRON 


solutions  slowly  forms  a  brown  sulphide. 
Rhodium  salts  heated  in  a  current  of  hydrogen 
gas  are  reduced  to  the  metallic  state. 

RHODODENDRON  (Gr.  fio666evdpov,  rose  tree, 
the  ancient  name),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
order  ericacece  or  heath  family,  to  which  the 
name  rose  bay  has  been  given,  but  the  botani- 
cal name  is  in  more  common  use.  The  rhodo- 
dendrons are  shrubs  or  low  trees  with  ever- 
green, entire,  alternate  leaves,  and  (usually) 
large  showy  flowers  in  close  terminal  clusters, 
from  large  scaly-bracted  buds.  The  bell-shaped 
or  funnel-shaped  corolla  is  five-lobed,  and 
often  somewhat  irregular ;  the  ten  stamens 
(rarely  less)  are  usually  declined  or  bent  down- 
ward, as  is  the  elongated  style ;  anthers  short, 
opening  by  terminal  pores;  pod  five-celled, 
five-valved,  and  many-seeded.  The  genus  is 
widely  distributed,  some  species  occurring  in 
the  arctic  zone,  others  in  the  temperate  por- 
tions of  North  America,  still  others  in  Europe 
and  China,  while  in  the  mountains  of  India 
they  are  very  numerous.  Four  species  are 
found  east  of  the  Mississippi,  one  of  which, 
the  Lapland  rhododendron  (R.  Lapponicum), 
belongs  to  the  arctic  flora  of  both  continents, 
and  with  us  is  found  only  on  the  alpine  sum- 
mits of  the  mountains  of  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  New  York ;  it  is  a  little,  dwarf, 
prostrate  species,  with  branches  only  a  few 
inches  long,  its  stems  and  leaves  dotted  with 
rusty  scales ;  the  flowers  are  open,  bell-shaped, 
violet  purple  and  dotted.  The  great  rhodo- 
dendron (R.  maximum),  aUo  called  great  lau- 
rel, is  found  sparingly  from  Maine  to  Ohio, 
but  is  very  common  in  the  mountains  of  the 


Hybrid  of  Rhododendron  Catawbiense. 

middle  states,  and  along  the  watercourses  as 
far  south  as  Georgia;  it  flourishes  best  in 
deep,  damp  woods,  and  in  cedar  swamps  it 
often  forms  the  principal  undergrowth.  It  is 
from  6  to  20  ft.  high,  with  the  habit  of  a 
shrub  rather  than  of  a  tree.  The  leaves  are 


very  thick  and  leathery,  from  4  to  10  in.  long, 
elliptical-oblong,  acute,  narrowed  toward  the 
base,  somewhat  revolute  or  turned  over  on  the 
margins,  very  smooth,  and  dark  green.  The 
flowers  appear  in  July  in  large  clusters,  with 
somewhat  viscid  stalks ;  the  corolla  is  an  inch 
broad,  white  or  pale  rose-colored,  and  green- 
ish at  the  throat  on  the  upper  side  and  spot- 
ted with  yellow  or  reddish  dots ;  a  variety  is 
sometimes  met  with  having  pure  white  and 
one  with  purplish  flowers.  This  species  is  not 
common  in  cultivation,  and  succeeds  best  in 
a  shaded  situation ;  some  hybrids  have  been 
produced  from  it,  but  very  few  in  number 
compared  with  those  from  the  next.  The 
Catawba  rhododendron  (R.  Catawliense)  grows 
on  the  higher  Alleghanies  from  Virginia  to 
Georgia.  It  is  a  compact  shrub,  from  3  to  6 
ft.  high ;  its  oval  or  oblong  leaves  are  rounded 
at  both  ends,  pale  beneath,  and  8  to  5  in.  long; 
the  broadly  bell-shaped  flowers  are  lilac  pur- 
ple, and  on  (usually)  rusty-downy  stalks.  This 
species,  hybridized  with  tender  exotic  species, 
is  the  original  of  the  fine  ornamental  rhodo- 
dendrons to  be  mentioned  presently.  The 
dotted  rhododendron  (R.  punctatum)  com- 
pletes the  list  of  the  eastern  native  species ; 
this  is  found  from  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina  southward,  a  small-leaved  form  oc- 
curring in  West  Florida.  It  grows  4  to  6  ft. 
high,  has  leaves  2  to  4  in.  long,  and,  though 
evergreen,  thinner  than  in  the  other  species, 
and  their  lower  surface,  as  well  as  branchlcts, 
and  outside  of  the  flowers,  sprinkled  with 
rusty  dots;  the  flowers  are  rather  small  and 
rose-colored. — Two  species,  both  first  described 
and  figured  by  Sir  William  Hooker,  occur  in 
the  far  west.  The  white-flowered  rhododen- 
dron (R.  alliflorum),  first  found  on  the  Rocky 
mountains,  and  since  on  the  Cascade  range, 
is  a  low  shrub  with  drooping  cream-colored 
flowers,  unlike  those  of  others  in  appearance. 
The  Calif ornian  species  (R.  Caltfornicum), 
from  the  mountains  of  California,  has  proved 
hardy  in  England,  and  is  described  as  of  mod- 
erate size,  good  habit,  and  having  very  showy 
rose-colored  flowers. — The  most  important  ex- 
otic species  is  the  Pontic  rhododendron  (R. 
Ponticum),  from  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor ;  it  is 
sometimes  20  ft.  high,  but  usually  less  than 
half  that  height.  Its  obovate-lanceolate  leaves 
taper  to  the  base,  and  its  large,  very  open  bell- 
shaped  corolla  is  purple,  opening  in  early 
spring.  This  is  the  common  rhododendron  of 
European  gardens,  and,  though  not  generally 
hardy  in  our  northern  states,  sometimes  suc- 
ceeds if  kept  as  a  low  bush  and  given  a  slight 
protection,  without  which  its  flower-buds  will 
be  winter-killed.  Its  chief  use  in  this  country 
is  to  furnish  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  har- 
dier kinds,  as  it  grows  readily  from  seeds. 
In  Europe  it  has  produced  a  number  of  vari- 
eties, some  of  which  are  hardier  than  the  spe- 
cies. The  tree  rhododendron  (R.  arboreum) 
is  a  noble  species  from  Nepaul,  and  still  more 
tender  than  the  Pontic ;  the  dark  green  leaves 


RHODODENDRON 


RHONE 


301 


are  silvery  white  beneath,  and  the  large  clus- 
ters of  flowers  are  scarlet,  varying,  even  in 
the  wild  state,  through  various  shades  to  pure 
white.  The  catalogue  of  varieties  is  a  long 
one,  but  they  can  only  be  cultivated  in  the 
northern  states,  as  in  England,  under  glass, 
where,  when  room  can  be  afforded,  they  make 
a  most  brilliant  show.  Other  exotic  species 
seen  in  rare  collections  are  the  yellow-flowered 
(R.  chrysanthum),  from  the  Caucasus ;  the 
hairy  (R.  hirsutum),  very  dwarf,  with  pale 
red  flowers ;  and  the  Daurian  (R.  Dauricum), 
from  Siberia,  a  dwarf  species  with  bright  rose- 
purple  and  very  early  flowers ;  these  three  are 
hardy.  A  magnificent  group  of  rhododen- 
drons is  found  in  the  Himalaya,  presenting 
a  great  variety  in  foliage  and  flowers,  as  well 
as  habit  of  growth,  some  of  them  being  epi- 
phytes ;  they  require  to  be  cultivated  under 
glass,  both  here  and  in  Europe ;  the  majority 
of  these  were  first  made  known  by  Dr.  J.  D. 
Hooker,  to  whose  work,  "  The  Rhododendrons 
of  the  Sikkim  Himalaya,"  reference  may  be 
made  for  descriptions  and  colored  plates  of 
these  wonderfully  beautiful  plants. — The  rho- 
dodendrons of  our  gardens  are  known  as  hy- 
brids of  R.  Catawbiense ;  European  horticul- 
turists have  long  practised  hybridizing  this 
species  with  R.  arboreum,  R.  Ponticum,  and 
possibly  others;  among  these  hybrids  are 
many  very  beautiful  varieties  which  do  not 
endure  northern  winters,  requiring  to  be 
housed ;  but  there  are  several  perfectly  hardy 
varieties,  which  some  experienced  cultivators 
think  are  not  hybrids  at  all,  but  merely  seed- 
ling variations  of  R.  Catawbiense.  Especial 
attention  is  given  to  these  plants  in  England, 
and  their  popularity  in  this  country  is  in- 
creasing. For  beauty  of  form  and  foliage 
and  profusion  and  variety  in  flowers  no  oth- 
er shrubs  can  equal  them.  Their  general  cul- 
tivation has  been  hindered  by  the  supposition 
that  they  require  a  peat  soil;  but  the  plants, 
at  least  those  raised  in  this  country,  will 
flourish  perfectly  well  in  any  good  garden  soil 
that  is  not  calcareous ;  they  will  not  succeed 
in  a  heavy  clay  or  on  a  limestone  soil.  The 
varieties  are  numbered  by  hundreds ;  twelve 
well  tested  sorts  are :  grandiflorum,  album 
elegans,  roseum  elegans,  Everestianum,  album 
grandiflorum,  giganteum,  Lee's  dark  purple, 
gloriosum,  macranthum,  purpureum  elegam, 
candidmimum,  and  speciosum.  The  rhodo- 
dendrons are  exceedingly  manageable  plants ; 
they  may  be  taken  up  at  almost  any  time  with- 
out injury,  and  when  in  full  bloom  may  be 
lifted  and  used  for  the  decoration  of  rooms, 
and  set  out  again  without  showing  the  effects 
of  the  disturbance.  In  England  the  common- 
er seedlings  are  largely  planted  to  form  game 
coverts. — But  little  positive  is  known  about 
the  active  properties  of  our  native  rhododen- 
drons; narcotic  powers  are  attributed  to  R. 
maximum,  while  others  regard  it  as  a  simple 
astringent ;  Michaux  says  that  R.  punctatum 
yields  a  honey  that  is  deleterious,  but  this 


statement  needs  confirmation.  The  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  exotic  species  is  hardly  more 
definite ;  the  yellow-flowered  rhododendron  is 
said  to  be  narcotic  and  dangerous.  In  India 
the  natives  eat  the  flowers  of  R.  arbor  eum,  and 
European  residents  prepare  a  conserve  from 
them  ;  this  species  secretes  honey  in  such 
quantities  that  when  the  bush  is  shaken  it  falls 
like  rain  in  large  drops. 

RHODOPE.    See  THBAOE. 

RHODORA  (Gr.  f>66ov,  a  rose,  from  the  color 
of  the  flowers),  a  native  shrub  of  which  the 
botanical  and  common  names  are  the  same. 
R.  Canadensis  is  the  only  species,  and  is  by 
some  botanists  appended  to  rhododendron, 
from  which  it  differs  in  its  deciduous  leaves 
and  its  very  irregular  flowers,  the  corolla  be- 
ing two-lipped,  the  upper  lip  three-lobed,  and 
the  lower  two-parted,  or  of  two  distinct 
spreading  petals.  The  shrub  is  1  to  3  ft.  high, 
with  copper-colored  stems  and  oblong  leaves, 


Bhodora  Canadensis. 

revolute  on  the  margin,  pale  glaucous  green 
above,  and  whiter  and  downy  beneath.  The 
flowers,  in  umbel-like  clusters,  or  little  tufts, 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  appear  just  before 
the  leaves,  and  are  of  a  bright  rose-purple 
and  showy ;  occasionally  white-flowered  speci- 
mens are  met  with.  It  is  found  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  New  England  and  northward  and 
eastward ;  it  sometimes  grows  in  damp  cold 
mountain  woods,  but  more  abundantly  in  wet 
marshes,  where,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston,  it  sometimes  covers  acres  in  April  or 
May,  with  its  bright  yet  modest  bloom.  Like 
many  other  plants,  which  when  growing  wild 
are  always  found  in  very  wet  places,  the  rho- 
dora  succeeds  well  when  transferred  to  or- 
dinary garden  soil,  and  is  a  shrub  eminently 
worthy  of  cultivation. 

RHONE  (anc.  Rhodanus),  a  river  of  Europe, 
rising  in  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  Swiss  canton 
of  Valais,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
Rhine,  and  flowing  into  the  gulf  of  Lyons  in 


302 


RHONE 


RHUBARB 


the  Mediterranean  sea  by  two  mouths,  after 
a  circuitous  but  general  W.  and  S.  course  of 
about  600  ra.,  350  of  which  are  in  France.  It 
originates  at  the  foot  of  the  Mayenwand,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  St.  Gothard,  near  the  Furca 
pass,  but  can  scarcely  be  called  a  river  until  its 
junction  with  several  other  streams  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Rh6ne  glacier,  about  5,500  ft.  above 
the  sea.  Thence  it  traverses  Valais  in  a  S.  W. 
and  then  N.  W.  direction  aa  a  mountain  tor- 
rent, passing  by  Sion,  till  it  enters  the  lake  of 
Geneva  near  its  E.  extremity,  where  it  has  de- 
scended upward  of  4,000  ft.  In  this  part  of  its 
course  it  receives  many  small  tributaries,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  the  Dranse.  When 
the  Rhdne  enters  the  lake  of  Geneva  its  waters 
are  exceedingly  turbid ;  but  on  issuing  from 
the  S.  W.  extremity  of  that  lake  the  river  is  of 
a  clear  blue  color,  which,  however,  is  changed 
to  brown  by  the  accession  of  the  Arve,  a  mud- 
dy stream,  about  1-J  m.  below  Geneva.  It  flows 
S.  W.  for  about  15m.  till  it  enters  France,  when 
it  turns  S.  through  a  narrow  pass  between  the 
Alps  and  the  Jura.  A  little  way  below  this 
place  is  the  Perte  du  Rh6ne,  where  the  river 
descends  into  a  deep  chasm  partly  covered  over 
with  massive  fragments  of  rock.  The  Valse- 
rine,  a  fine  stream  from  the  Jura,  joins  here 
from  the  right.  At  St.  Genix,  where  the 
Rh6ne  receives  the  Guiers  from  the  south,  it 
turns  abruptly  N.  W.  and  afterward  more  to 
the  west,  till  it  reaches  Lyons,  receiving  du- 
ring this  part  of  its  course  the  Ain  from  the 
north ;  and  at  Lyons  it  is  joined  by  the  Sa6ne, 
also  from  the  north.  The  Rh6ne  is  here  a 
considerable  river,  and  flows  almost  due  S.  to 
Aries,  through  a  beautiful  and  fertile  country, 
but  the  rapidity  of  the  current  and  the  shifting 
sands  in  its  bed  render  navigation  dangerous 
and  tedious.  The  most  important  tributaries 
in  this  part  of  its  course,  from  the  Cevennes 
on  the  right,  are  the  Doux,  Ardeche,  Oeze, 
and  Gard ;  and  on  the  left,  from  the  Alps,  the 
Isere,  Drdme,  and  Durance.  At  Aries  the 
river  separates  into  two  branches,  the  princi- 
pal one,  called  the  Grand  Rh6ne,  flowing  S.  E. 
to  the  sea,  while  the  other,  called  the  Petit 
Rh&ne,  flows  S.  W.,  enclosing  between  them 
the  deltoid  island  of  Camargae.  The  Grand 
Rh6ne  enters  the  gulf  of  Lyons  below  the  Tour 
St.  Louis,  and  has  there  commenced  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  delta ;  and  the  Petit  Rh6ne 
has  its  mouth  a  little  W.  of  the  village  of 
Saintes  Maries.  Both  these  mouths  are  so 
much  obstructed  by  bars,  that  vessels  from 
the  Mediterranean  enter  the  river  by  the  Etang 
de  Berre,  a  shore  lake  or  lagoon  to  the  east, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Rhone  by  the 
Martigues  canal,  and  by  the  Beaucaire  canal, 
which  leads  from  Aries  to  the  lagoons  to  the 
west  on  the  coasts  of  the  departments  of  Gard 
and  Herault.  Steamers  sometimes  ascend  the 
Rh6ne  as  far  as  Seyssel,  and  by  means  of  the 
Sa6ne  it  is  navigated  to  Chalon;  while  by 
canals  it  is  connected  with  the  Garonne,  Seine, 
Loire,  and  Rhine.  The  Rh6ne  is  of  great 


commercial  importance,  and  below  Lyons  is 
navigated  by  numerous  steamers.  The  Paris 
and  Marseilles  railway  runs  along  its  left  bank 
between  Lyons  and  Aries;  and  in  this  part 
of  its  course  the  river  passes  many  consid- 
erable towns,  the  principal  of  which  are  Vi- 
enne,  Tournon,  Valence,  Avignon,  Beaucaire, 
Tarascon,  and  Aries.  Some  of  the  finest  wines 
of  France  are  produced  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rh6ne  below  Lyons. 

RHONE,  a  S.  E.  department  of  France,  formed 
from  the  old  province  of  Lyonnais,  bordering 
on  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  Ain,  Isere,  and  Loire ;  area, 
1,077  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  670,247.  The  de- 
partment is  traversed  in  a  N.  and  S.  direc- 
tion by  a  continuation  of  the  Cevennes ;  Mont 
Tarare,  the  highest  summit,  is  about  3,300  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  Rh6ne  and  Sa6ne  form 
the  E.  boundary.  The  soil  is  not  fertile,  and 
only  about  half  the  surface  is  arable ;  the  vine 
is  grown,  and  some  of  the  wines  are  excellent. 
It  i>  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Lyons 
and  Villefranche.  Capital,  Lyons. 

RHUBARB  (Lat.  rha,  or  rhcu  barbarum,  a 
name  given  by  the  early  writers),  in  medicine, 
the  root  alone  of  rheum  officinale  and  some 
other  species,  but  in  horticulture  the  name  of 
the  plants  of  several  species.  The  genus  rheum 
(either  from  Gr.  0«i>,  to  flow,  in  reference  to 
its  purgative  properties,  or  from  Rha,  the  an- 
cient name  of  the  Volga,  upon  the  banks  of 
which  it  grew)  belongs  to  Asia  and  southern 
Russia ;  and  growing  in  localities  from  which 
Europeans  have  been  excluded,  there  has  been 
much  confusion  as  to  the  species,  of  which  ac- 
cording to  Meisner  there  are  about  20.  They 
are  all  perennials,  with  large  woody  rootstocks, 
from  which  proceed  radical  leaves  with  long, 
thick  petioles,  the  blade  of  the  leaf  usually  very 
broad,  entire,  or  variously  lobed,  and  with 
strong  palmate  ribs ;  the  annual  stem  is  erect, 
large,  and  hollow,  bearing  smaller  leaves,  and 
spikes  or  panicles  of  flowers;  all  the  leaves 
have  large  sheathing  stipules,  but  those  of  the 
stem  leaves  are  very  conspicuous ;  the  apeta- 
lous  flowers  have  a  white,  greenish  or  pinkish, 
six-parted  calyx;  nine  stamens;  a  triangular 
ovary,  surmounted  by  three  styles,  and  becom- 
ing a  three-winged  fruit.  The  common  rhu- 
barb of  the  gardens,  or  pie  plant,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,  is  a  familiar  representative  of 
the  genus ;  this  species,  R.  Rhaponticum  (with 
several  synonymes),  a  native  of  Siberia  and  tho 
country  along  the  Volga,  was  introduced  into 
England  as  early  as  1573,  and  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth  its  leaves  were  in  use  as  a  pot  herb, 
like  spinach.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  gardens 
solely  for  its  acid  petioles  or  leaf  stalks,  which 
are  used  as  a  substitute  for  fruit,  a  custom  un- 
known until  early  in  the  present  century.  Com- 
ing early  in  spring  (and  they  may  be  had  by 
forcing  at  any  time  during  the  winter),  at  a 
season  when  fruit  is  scarce,  the  leaf  stalks  are 
in  great  demand;  their  consumption  in  England 
is  even  more  general  than  with  us.  The  rapid- 
ly grown  stalks  contain  but  little  woody  fibre, 


RHUBARB 


303 


and  cook  readily  to  a  pulp,  which  with  sugar 
is  used  for  pies,  tarts,  and  other  culinary  prep- 
arations ;  their  acidity  is  due  in  part  to  oxalic, 
but  more  largely  to  malic  acid,  both  acids  be- 
ing in  combination  with  potash  as  acid  salts; 
it  disagrees  with  some,  but  its  large  consump- 
tion indicates  that  it  is  not  especially  deleteri- 
ous. About  1860  great  efforts  were  made  to 
establish  its  use  as  a  wine  plant,  but  the  pro- 
duct proved  inferior,  and  was  by  many  con- 
sidered injurious.  There  are  several  garden 
varieties,  as  at  one  time  many  seedlings  were 
raised  with  a  view  to  produce  plants  with  the 
greatest  development  of  leaf  stalk ;  the  Gaboon 
has  stalks  3  in.  or  more  in  diameter  and  often 

2  ft.  long,  but  it  is  coarse  and  harsh  in  flavor ; 
the  best  variety  is  Myatt's  Linnaeus,  very  early, 
of  medium  size,  tender,  and  of  excellent  flavor ; 
Tobolsk  is  a  small  kind,  very  early  and  good. 
For  field  culture  the  plants  are  raised  in  a  seed 
bed,  and  when  a  year  old  are  transplanted  to 

3  or  4  ft.  each  way;  they  yield  the  third  year; 
small  plantings  are  made  by  dividing  the  old 
roots  into  as  many  pieces  as  they  have  buds, 
and  setting  out  the  pieces ;  the  soil  can  hardly 
be  too  rich.     Rhubarb  is  readily  forced  by 
placing  the  plants  in  winter  in  boxes  or  barrels 
with  earth  in  a  warm  cellar,  or  on  a  larger 
scale  in  frames.     In  the  present  style  of  sub- 
tropical gardening  the  rhubarbs  are  employed 
on  account  of  their  vigor  of  growth  and  pic- 


Himalayan  Rhubarb  (Rheum  nobile). 

turesqueness ;   an  isolated  plant  of  the  com- 
mon rhubarb  is  very  effective,  but  the  Nepaul 
rhubarb  (S.  Emodi)  is  much  finer ;  the  leaves 
704  VOL.  xiv.— 20 


are  a  yard  across,  and  have  red  veins ;  this  is 
cultivated  in  England  by  gardeners  for  the 
sake  of  its  large  leaves,  which  are  used  for 
covering  baskets  of  fruit.  The  finest  of  all 
the  species  is  the  Himalayan  (R.  nobile),  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker ;  it  forms  a  pyra- 
mid a  yard  and  more  high,  the  base  of  which 
is  of  shining  green  leaves  with  red  petioles  and 
nerves,  and  the  upper  parts  of  delicate  straw- 
colored  bracts  with  pink  edges. — Rhubarb  as 
a  drug  has  been  known  from  very  early  times, 


Medicinal  Rhubarb  (Rheum  officinale). 

and  it  is  said  to  be  treated  of  in  a  Chinese  her- 
bal written  about  2700  B.  C.  European  natu- 
ralists early  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  exact 
species  that  produced  the  excellent  kinds  of 
rhubarb  procured  through  Russia  and  Turkey, 
and  distinguished  by  the  name  of  either  one 
of  these  countries.  Several  species  of  rheum 
have  from  time  to  time  been  regarded  as  fur- 
nishing the  better  sorts;  it  is  probably  pro- 
duced by  different  species,  one  of  which  is  R. 
officinale;  this  is  much  larger  than  the  gar- 
den rhubarb,  differing  among  other  characters 
in  having  nearly  cylindrical  petioles,  and  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf  being  covered  with 
short,  erect  hairs.  Formerly  the  best  variety 
was  known  as  Turkey  rhubarb,  being  brought 
by  caravans  from  Tartary  by  way  of  Persia 
to  the  Levant  ports,  whence  it  reached  Eu- 
rope ;  but  rhubarb  from  this  source  disap- 
peared from  the  trade  about  a  quarter  of  a 
century  ago.  A  similar  article  entered  com- 
merce by  way  of  Russia,  and  was  known  as 
Russian  rhubarb.  It  was  brought  to  the  fron- 


804 


RHUBARB 


tier  town  of  Kiakhta,  where  it  was  rigorously 
inspected  by  the  agent  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. Every  piece  of  the  root  was  perforated 
to  the  centre  in  order  to  prove  its  soundness, 
and  all  the  defective  pieces  were  destroyed; 
those  accepted  were  sent  to  St.  Petersburg. 
The  roots  were  of  irregular  shape,  and  appear 
to  have  been  sliced  on  the  surface  with  knives, 
probably  for  removing  the  bark,  and  marked 
with  the  large  holes  going  partly  through  which 
were  made  for  inspection.  On  account  of  the 
superior  quality  of  the  Russian  rhubarb  it  com- 
manded a  high  price,  and  to  secure  this  other 
varieties  were  made  to  imitate  it.  The  open- 
ing of  various  ports  in  northern  China,  and 
the  rebellion  beginning  in  1851,  exerted  a  de- 
pressing influence  on  the  trade  at  Kiakhta,  and, 
the  Chinese  being  very  willing  to  avoid  the 
great  severity  of  the  Russian  inspection,  the 
quantity  of  rhubarb  delivered  there  became 
so  small  that  the  rhuoarb  office  was  abolished 
in  1863,  so  that  Russian  rhubarb  has  become 
a  thing  of  the  past.  Most  of  the  rhubarb  that 
comes  to  the  United  States  is  from  China, 
shipped  from  Canton.  Some  of  this  is  very 
good,  though  still  inferior  to  the  Russian. 
The  roots  are  more  cylindrical  and  smoother, 
as  if  scraped ;  they  are  not  of  so  bright  a 
color,  and  the  powder  has  a  reddish  brown 
tinge.  Defective  pieces  are  mixed  in  with 
the  best,  and  as  all  are  usually  powdered 
together  the  medicine  must  be  of  inferior 
efficacy.  The  Chinese  sometimes  attempt  to 
give  it  the  appearance  of  the  Russian  variety 
by  cutting  it  into  angular  shapes,  and  filling 
up  with  powdered  root,  in  order  to  conceal 
the  little  holes  that  have  been  made  through 
the  roots  for  suspending  them  on  strings  to 
dry.  It  is  believed  that  both  the  Russian  and 
Chinese  come  from  the  same  regions  in  Chi- 
nese Tartary  and  China  proper,  but  there  be- 
ing in  the  Chinese  market  no  such  stringent 
regulations  about  the  preparation  of  the  drug, 
the  inferior  qualities  are  sent  there.  The  roots 
are  allowed  to  grow  six  years  before  they  are 
sufficiently  mature ;  and  after  they  are  dug 
the  bark  is  removed  and  the  root  cut  in  pieces 
for  drying,  which  is  done  in  the  sun  and  by 
the  aid  of  fire  heat.  Owing  to  the  risk  and 
expense  of  land  transport,  rhubarb  was  in  an- 
cient times  considerably  more  costly  than  opi- 
um. It  is  now  purchased  for  the  European 
market  chiefly  at  Hankow  on  the  upper  Yang- 
tse.  From  1866  to  1872  the  average  exports 
of  rhubarb  from  Hankow  were  over  8,000 
pectils  (1  pecul  =  133£  Ibs.).  The  cultivation 
of  rhubarb  for  its  root  has  been  attempted  in 
various  European  countries,  and  was  at  one 
time  carried  on  by  order  of  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment in  southern  Siberia;  some  is  produced 
in  Hungary,  Moravia,  and  Silesia;  in  France 
the  cultivation,  which  in  former  years  was 
considerable,  has  ceased  except  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Avignon  and  in  a  few  other  locali- 
ties. In  England  the  cultivation  of  rhubarb 
for  commerce  commenced  about  a  century  ago, 


and  is  still  continued,  the  product  being  known 
in  our  commerce ;  it  was  formerly  called  Cri- 
mean rhubarb,  and  is  sometimes  fraudulent- 
ly sold  as  the  Turkey  drug;  in  England  it  is 
known  as  Banbury  rhubarb,  from  the  locality 
of  the  plantations.  The  root  is  simply  pared, 
sliced,  and  dried  in  a  kiln ;  though  very  hand- 
some in  appearance,  English  rhubarb  is  of  very 
inferior  character.  The  species  is  mainly  the 
common  garden  rhubarb  (B.  Rhaponticum). 
The  medicinal  qualities  of  the  root  are  much 
affected  by  soil  and  climate,  and  those  species 
known  to  give  a  valuable  drug  in  their  native 
localities  yield  in  the  cooler  and  moister  climate 
of  Europe  a  much  deteriorated  product.  The 
rhubarb  as  imported,  while  hardly  subject  to 
adulteration,  varies  greatly  in  quality,  unsound 
and  poor  being  mixed  with  the  good,  and  the 
inferior  pieces  being  covered  with  a  yellow 
powder  to  conceal  the  surface.  In  the  pow- 
dered state  there  is,  as  with  other  drugs,  ample 
room  for  adulteration,  and  a  large  share  of 
that  sold  is  of  inferior  quality. — The  taste  of 
rhubarb  is  a  bitter  astringent,  the  smell  aromat- 
ic, though  to  most  persons  disagreeable ;  when 
chewed  it  crackles  in  the  teeth  from  the  pres- 
ence of  minute  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime,  and 
it  imparts  a  yellow  color  to  the  saliva.  The 
best  sorts  are  recognized  by  the  bright  yellow 
color  of  the  powder.  Its  chemical  composition 
is  very  complicated,  and  chemists  have  failed 
to  discover  any  peculiar  principle  in  the  drug 
which  fully  accounts  for  its  purgative  proper- 
ties. Brandos  found  in  100  parts  of  Chinese 
rhubarb  2  of  pure  rhubarbaric  acid,  7*5  of  the 
same  impure,  2-5  of  gallic  acid,  9  of  tannin,  3-5 
of  coloring  extractive,  11  of  uncrystallizable 
sugar  with  tannin,  4  of  starch,  14'4  of  gummy 
extractive,  4  of  pectic  acid,  I'l  of  malate  and 
gallate  of  lime,  11  of  oxalate  of  lime,  1'5  of 
sulphate  of  potassa  and  chloride  of  potassium, 
1  of  silica,  0'5  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  oxide 
of  iron,  25  of  lignine,  and  2  of  water.  The 
analyses  of  Schlossberger  and  Dopping  are 
still  more  elaborate,  introducing  a  variety  of 
new  principles,  among  which  the  chrysophanic 
acid,  resembling  the  rhubarbaric  acid  of  Bran- 
des,  is  the  most  interesting.  It  is  a  beautiful 
yellow  substance,  emitting  yellow  vapors  when 
heated,  soluble  in  alcohol,  its  alkaline  solution 
of  a  fine  red  color,  and  those  with  potassa 
changing  by  evaporation  to  a  violet  and  then 
to  blue.  It  is  a  purgative,  but  less  powerful 
than  rhubarb  itself.  Magnificent  purples  also 
are  obtained  from  the  yellow  coloring  matter 
produced  by  treating  rhubarb  with  nitric  acid 
and  then  with  alkalies;  and  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  apply  these,  called  erythose,  in  the 
arts  as  a  dyestuff.  The  still  more  recent  ex-- 
animations  of  Kubly  (1867)  do  not  materially 
change  the  aspect  of  the  question. — The  med- 
ical properties  of  rhubarb  are  very  pecul i;ir. 
Its  first  effects  upon  the  system  are  cathartic, 
and  to  these  succeeds  an  astringent  action, 
checking  the  excessive  operation  of  the  pur- 
gative. The  medicine  is  at  the  same  time 


RIAD 


RIBBON 


305 


tonic  and  stomachic.  As  a  purgative  its  ac- 
tion is  moderate,  and  affects  rather  the  mus- 
cular fibre  than  the  secretory  vessels.  Its  use 
is  obviously  indicated  for  relaxed  conditions 
of  the  bowels,  when  the  stomach  is  enfeebled, 
and  a  gentle  cathartic  is  required,  as  in  cer- 
tain cases  of  dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  dysentery, 
&c.  It  is  much  used  in  combination  with 
magnesia,  calomel,  and  other  cathartics,  when 
greater  purgative  action  is  required.  This  ac- 
tion may  be  reduced  by  roasting  or  long  boil- 
ing. It  is  exhibited  in  powder,  sometimes 
made  into  pills  with  soap,  also  in  infusion, 
sirup,  and  tincture. 

RIAD.     See  KIYAD. 

RIANZARES,  Duke  of.     See  Muffoz. 

Rl  A/AX,  or  Riezan.  I.  A  central  government 
of  European  Russia,  bordering  on  Vladimir, 
Tambov,  Tula,  and  Moscow ;  area,  16,249  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,477,433.  The  most  important 
river  is  the  Oka,  which  enters  it  in  the  north, 
and  is  connected  with  the  Don  by  the  Upa  and 
the  Ivanov  canal.  The  soil  is  fertile  in  the 
south,  but  marshy  in  the  north.  There  are  ex- 
tensive pastures;  the  principal  products  are 
grain,  fruits,  hops,  and  tobacco.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  nearly  all  Russians,  but  there  are  a 
few  Mordvins  and  Tartars.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  coarse  linen  and  woollen  goods  and 
of  glass  and  iron.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
government,  on  the  Oka,  110  m.  S.  W.  of  Mos- 
cow, with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail ;  pop. 
in  1867,  17,950.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop,  and  has  a  theological  seminary,  a 
gymnasium,  a  school  for  young  noblemen,  and 
manufactories  of  cloth,  linen,  and  iron  ware. 

RIB.     See  SKELETON. 

RIBACLT,  Jean,  a  French  navigator,  born  in 
Dieppe,  killed  in  Florida  in  1565.  When  Ad- 
miral Coligni  had  obtained  from  Charles  IX.  a 
patent  authorizing  him  to  send  an  expedition 
to  Florida,  two  vessels  under  command  of  Ri- 
bault  sailed  from  Dieppe  Feb.  18,  1562,  and, 
leaving  the  usual  track  so  as  not  to  touch  at 
any  of  the  islands  held  by  the  Spaniards,  came 
on  April  30  in  sight  of  the  coast  of  Florida. 
Sailing  northward  along  the  coast,  Ribault  an- 
chored in  Port  Royal  harbor  in  the  present 
state  of  South  Carolina.  A  fort  was  built, 
probably  not  far  south  of  the  present  site  of 
Beaufort,  and  named  Fort  Charles  in  honor  of 
the  king  of  France,  and  26  colonists  were  left 
to  keep  possession  of  the  country.  Returning 
home,  Ribault  found  France  distracted  by  a 
civil  war,  and  no  aid  could  be  procured  for  the 
new  colony,  the  members  of  which  were  soon 
reduced  by  violence  and  starvation,  and  at  last 
the  few  survivors  set  sail  for  their  native  coun- 
try in  a  crazy  bark  and  were  picked  up  by  an 
English  ship.  A  new  expedition  under  Ren6 
de  Laudonniere  sailed  in  April,  1564,  and  made 
a  settlement  on  the  river  May,  now  called  the 
St.  John's,  building  a  fort  which  they  called 
Caroline.  Affairs  were  mismanaged,  no  ground 
was  cultivated,  some  engaged  in  depredations 
upon  the  Spaniards,  and  all  were  on  the  point 


of  returning  to  France  when  Ribault,  who  had 
sailed  from  Dieppe  on  May  22, 1565,  arrived  with 
a  fleet  of  seven  vessels,  and  superseded  Laudon- 
niere in  the  government  of  the  colony.  Scarcely 
had  he  anchored  when,  on  Sept.  4,  five  Span- 
ish vessels  under  Don  Pedro  Menendez  de  Aviles 
made  their  appearance.  His  name  and  objects 
were  demanded.  "I  am  Menendez  of  Spain," 
was  the  haughty  answer,  "  sent  with  strict 
orders  from  my  king  to  gibbet  and  behead  all 
the  Protestants  in  these  regions.  The  French- 
man who  is  a  Catholic  I  will  spare ;  every 
heretic  shall  die."  The  French  fleet,  unpre- 
pared for  battle,  cut  its  cables ;  and  the  Span- 
iards after  an  ineffectual  chase  entered  the 
harbor  of  St.  Augustine.  Against  the  advice 
of  his  officers,  especially  Laudonniere,  Ribault 
determined  to  sail  for  St.  Augustine  with  all 
the  available  forces  of  the  colony,  and  there  at- 
tack the  Spaniards.  He  had  scarcely  reached 
the  open  sea  when  a  terrible  storm  arose,  by 
which  his  squadron  was  all  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Florida  not  far  from  Cape  Canaveral. 
In  the  mean  time  Menendez  marched  over  land, 
surprised  Fort  Caroline,  and  massacred  nearly 
200  of  both  sexes.  Ignorant  of  this,  Ribault 
and  more  than  500  men  set  out  for  their  fort, 
travelling  through  an  unknown  country.  They 
divided  into  two  parties,  the  first  of  which, 
consisting  of  200  men,  went  in  advance  of  the 
others,  and  after  coming  within  a  few  leagues 
of  St.  Augustine  surrendered  to  Menendez  at 
discretion,  and  were  executed.  Ribault  was 
with  the  second  party,  most  of  which  also  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Menendez,  who  massacred 
nearly  all  of  them,  among  them  their  com- 
mander, "not  as  Frenchmen,  but  as  Luther- 
ans." The  French  and  Spanish  accounts  differ 
in  some  particulars,  but  agree  in  the  leading 
facts.  In  London  a  volume  of  42  pages,  now 
extremely  rare,  consisting  of  an  English  trans- 
lation of  the  report  of  his  first  voyage  made  by 
Ribault  to  Coligni,  was  published  under  the  title 
of  "  The  whole  and  true  Discoverye  of  Terra 
Florida  (Englished  the  Florishing  Land),  con- 
teyning  as  well  the  wonderful  straunge  Na- 
tures and  Maners  of  the  People,  with  the  mer- 
veylous  Commodities  and  Treasures  of  the 
Country;  as  also  the  pleasaunt  Fortes  and 
Havens,  and  Wayes  thereunto  never  found  out 
before  the  last  year,  1562.  Written  in  French, 
by  Captain  Ribauld,  the  fyrst  that  whollye  dis- 
covered the  same,  and  now  newly  set  forthe  in 
Englishe,  the  xxx.  of  May,  1563." 

RIBBON  (formerly  spelled  riband  and  riban ; 
Fr.  rubari),  a  narrow  strip  of  woven  silk,  either 
plain  or  ornamented.  The  manufacture  of  rib- 
bons first-attained  great  importance  in  the  17th 
century.  About  1680  embossed  ribbons  were 
much  in  fashion,  as  they  are  again  becoming 
(1875).  They  are  stamped  with  hot  plates  of 
steel,  each  piece  having  a  portion  of  the  pattern 
engraved  upon  it.  Figured  ribbons  were  made 
chiefly  at  Paris,  but  Lyons  and  Avignon  were 
also  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  until 
after  1723,  when  the  former  had  secured  most 


306 


RIBBON  FISH 


of  the  trade.  Before  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  there  were  about  3,000 
ribbon  looms  in  Tours ;  but  that  measure,  which 
banished  the  Protestants,  broke  up  the  indus- 
try. The  city  of  St.  Etienne,  the  chief  town 
in  the  department  of  Loire,  is  now  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  ribbon  manufacture  in  the 
world.  The  annual  consumption  of  silk  there 
is  about  435,000  kilogrammes,  and  the  manu- 
factured product  is  worth  about  65,000,000 
francs.  Four  fifths  of  all  the  ribbons  in  France, 
and  the  finest  and  heaviest  in  the  world,  are 
made  here,  and  about  28,000  workmen  and 
15,000  looms  are  employed.  Basel  in  Switzer- 
land is  the  second  place  in  importance  for  the 
manufacture  of  ribbons,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  medium  grades  imported  to  the  United 
States  come  from  here.  Most  of  the  Basel  rib- 
bons are  plain  or  simply  striped.  In  France 
and  Switzerland  all  ribbons  as  well  as  dress 
silks  are  made  on  hand  looms,  which  is  the 
principal  reason  for  the  superiority  in  the 
French  goods.  It  requires  frequent  manipula- 
tion in  silk  weaving  to  preserve  a  perfect  even- 
ness of  tension  and  disposition  of  the  threads, 
and  all  power-woven  silk  fabrics  are  disposed 
to  "cockle"  or  crimp  in  places.  Crefeld  in 
Rhenish  Prussia  is  another  important  place 
of  manufacture,  but  nearly  all  its  ribbons  are 
black  and  plain.  The  ribbon  industry  is  spread 
through  the  country,  and  is  divided  into  small 
establishments,  averaging  from  20  to  50  looms 
each,  and  power  is  sometimes  employed.  In 
England  ribbons  are  mostly  made  at  Coventry, 
and  with  power  looms.  The  warp  of  the  best 
ribbons  is  made  from  the  best  organzine, 
thrown  from  the  best  Italian  and  French  raw 
silk.  For  inferior  sorts,  silk  from  China,  Ja- 
pan, and  Bengal  is  used,  the  last  being  the 
poorest.  In  the  fancy  ribbon  called  chine  the 
watered  effect  is  produced  by  an  irregularity 
in  the  surface  caused  by  passing  two  ribbons 
laid  together  between  two  cylinders,  one  of 
which  is  heated. — Galloons,  strong  thick  rib- 
bons, the  tilling  composed  of  cotton,  are  most- 
ly made  in  England  on  power  looms. 

RIBBON  FISH,  the  common  name  of  several 
genera  of  acanthopterygian  fishes  of  the  family 
tceniida.  They  are  characterized  by  a  com- 
pressed, elongated,  ensiform  body,  with  very 
small  or  no  scales ;  the  bones  are  of  loose  tex- 
ture ;  the  eyes  large,  and  teeth  small  or  none. 
To  this  ribbon-like  body  is  attached  a  dorsal 
commencing  close  to  or  upon  the  head,  and  com- 
pletely furnished  with  membrane ;  the  caudal 
when  present  is  distinct  from  the  perpendicular 
fins,  and  in  some  is  set  on  at  a  right  angle,  like 
a  fan  extended  upward ;  the  ventrals  are  often 
wanting,  or  are  placed  beneath  the  pectorals. 
They  are  all  marine  species. — Among  the  gen- 
era having  a  protractile  mouth  with  a  small 
aperture  belongs  ttylephorit*  (Shaw),  having 
neither  teeth,  scales,  nor  ventrals,  and  the  cau- 
dal standing  upward,  its  last  ray  continuous 
with  the  tail  and  produced  into  a  filament  long- 
er than  the  body.  In  trachypterut  (Gouan) 


there  are  a  few  teeth,  thoracic  ventrals,  a  dor- 
sal the  whole  length  of  the  body,  and  an  erect 
caudal;  the  northern  ribbon  fish  or  vaagmeer 
(T.  bogmarus,  Val.),  from  the  polar  seas,  attains 
a  length  of  3  or  4  ft.,  sometimes  much  more ; 
the  skin  is  covered  with  a  silvery  envelope 
like  the  shining  covering  of  the  choroid  of  the 
fish's  eye,  consisting  of  minute  needle-shaped 
crystals  (see  "Annals  and  Magazine  of  Nat- 
ural History,"  vol.  iii.,  London,  1849);  it  looks 
like  a  silvery  ribbon  in  the  water ;  the  lateral 
line  is  armed  with  hooked  scales.  The  T.fulx 
(Cuv.)  of  the  Mediterranean  has  168  rays  on 
the  dorsal  and  plumes  of  rays  on  the  head  and 
tail ;  the  color  is  brilliant  silvery,  with  large, 
round,  black  spots. — In  the  genus  gymnetrut 
(Bloch)  the  ventrals  are  reduced  to  a  single 
ray,  very  long  and  dilated  at  the  end ;  the  cau- 
dal is  very  small  and  continuous  with  the  dor- 
sal. Of  the  eight  species,  the  best  known  is 
the  ribbon  fish  of  the  Mediterranean  ( G.  gla- 
diu*,  Val.),  attaining  a  length  of  6  or  8  ft. ;  the 
rays  of  the  dorsal  over  the  head  are  elongated 
and  curve  backward  like  a  crest ;  the  silvery 
skin  is  studded  with  smooth  osseous  warts,  and 
the  fins  are  rosy  red ;  like  all  the  rest  of  the 
family,  it  is  very  easily  broken ;  it  lives  in  still 
deep  waters,  and  is  rarely  seen  except  when 
thrown  ashore  after  storms  in  a  mutilated 


Bibbon  Flab  (Gymnctnu  Ilawkenii). 

condition.  The  0.  JlawTcenii  (Bloch)  is  occa- 
sionally seen  on  the  English  coasts,  and  with  its 
narrow,  long,  and  shining  body,  and  sinuous 
movements,  has  been  the  basis  of  more  than 
one  story  of  the  sea  serpent. — In  the  genera 
with  non-protractile  mouth,  with  large  gape 
and  ascending  lower  jaw,  belongs  lophotes 
(Giorna) ;  this  has  on  the  head  a  vertical  cor- 
neous crest  sustaining  a  strong  spine,  which  is 
the  first  dorsal  ray;  the  dorsal  extends  the 
whole  length  of  the  body  and  has  numerous 
simple  rays,  the  anal  and  caudal  small,  and  the 
ventrals  near  the  pectorals.  The  L.  Cepedia- 
nus  (Giorna)  of  the  Mediterranean  attains  a 
length  of  more  than  4  ft.,  and  is  rarely  seen. 
In  cepola  (Linn.)  the  body  is  covered  with 
small  scales;  there  is  a  single  row  of  teeth  in 
each  jaw ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  are  very  long, 
and  the  caudal  small.  The  red  ribbon  fish  (0. 
rubescens,  Linn.)  occurs  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  English  coasts;  it  is  about  18  in.  long, 


EIBBON  WORMS 


EICE 


307 


brilliant  red,  with  indistinct  dark  bands,  and 
the  dorsal  saffron  yellow  bordered  with  rose. 

RIBBON  WORMS,  the  common  name  of  the 
family  nemertidas,  with  the  planarians  consti- 
tuting the  order  turbellaria.  They  are  found 
on  the  seashore,  are  worm-like  in  shape,  have 
a  distinct  anus,  and,  in  many  cases,  no  exter- 
nal opening  to  the  water- vascular  system.  The 
larvffi  are  generally  free-swimming  and  ciliated, 
a  small  portion  only  producing  the  adult,  the 
rest  being  cast  away.  (See  PLANABIANS.) 

RIBERA,  Jose.     See  SPAGNOLETTO. 

RICARDO,  David,  an  English  political  econ- 
omist, born  of  Jewish  parentage  in  London, 
April  19, 1772,  died  at  Gatcomb  park,  Glouces- 
tershire, Sept.  11,  1823.  He  received  a  com- 
mercial education  in  Holland,  and  was  associ- 
ated with  his  father  in  his  business  of  stock 
broker.  He  became  a  Christian,  and  in  1793 
married  against  his  father's  wishes.  The  part- 
nership was  dissolved,  but  the  younger  Ricardo 
in  a  few  years  realized  a  fortune.  He  studied 
mathematics,  chemistry,  and  mineralogy,  and 
was  one  of  the  promoters  of  the  London  ge- 
ological society.  In  1819  he  was  elected  to 
parliament  by  the  Irish  borough  of  Portarling- 
ton,  which  he  continued  to  represent  till  his 
death.  His  first  publication  was  a  tract,  "  The 
High  Price  of  Bullion  a  Proof  of  the  Deprecia- 
tion of  Bank  Notes"  (1809).  His  principal 
work  is  "  On  the  Principles  of  Political  Econ- 
omy and  Taxation  "  (1817).  His  works  with 
an  account  of  his  life  have  been  collected  and 
edited  by  J.  R.  McCulloch  (8vo,  London,  1846). 
(See  POLITICAL  ECONOMY.) 

RICAREES.     See  RICKAEEES. 

RICASOLI,  Bettino,  baron,  an  Italian  states- 
man, born  in  Florence,  March  9,  1809.  He 
became  known  in  1847  as  an  advocate  of  con- 
stitutional liberty,  and  was  chosen  mayor  of 
Florence.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Tus- 
can parliament.  He  opposed  the  extreme  radi- 
cals, and  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Novara 
(March  23,  1849)  he  favored  the  restoration  of 
the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  as  a  barrier  against 
Austrian  invasion ;  but  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  latter  soon  drove  him  from  political  life. 
In  1859  he  hastened  the  overthrow  of  the 
grand  duke,  and  as  a  member  of  the  provi- 
sional government  he  brought  about  the  union 
of  Tuscany  with  Sardinia,  and  became  Victor 
Emanuel's  chief  representative  and  afterward 
governor  general  at  Florence.  On  the  death 
of  Cavour  in  June,  1861,  he  succeeded  him  as 
prime  minister,  with  several  portfolios,  hold- 
ing the  post  till  March,  1862;  and  he  was 
again  premier  in  1866-'7.  He  was  reflected 
to  the  Italian  parliament  in  September,  1874, 
having  first  entered  that  body  in  1861. 

RICACT,  or  Ryeant,  Sir  Panl,  an  English  diplo- 
matist, died  in  London,  Dec.  16,  1700.  He 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  accompanied  the  earl 
of  Winchelsea  to  Constantinople,  was  British 
consul  at  Smyrna  for  11  years,  accompanied 
the  earl  of  Clarendon  in  1685  to  Ireland,  and 
was  for  10  years  minister  to  the  Hanse  towns. 


He  wrote  "  The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire"  (1668);  "The  Present  State  of  the 
Greek  and  Armenian  Churches"  (1679);  and 
"History  of  the  Turkish  Empire  from  1623 
to  1679"  (1680),  a  continuation  of  Knolle's 
"  General  History  of  the  Turks." 

RICCI,  Federigo,  an  Italian  composer,  born  in 
Naples  about  1809.  He  studied  with  his  elder 
brother  Luigi  (who  died  in  1859)  at  the  con- 
servatory of  Naples,  and  jointly  with  him  com- 
posed Crispino  e  la  comare.  He  has  been  di- 
rector of  the  operas  at  Madrid,  Lisbon,  and 
St.  Petersburg. 

RICCIO,  Domenico.     See  BKTTSASOBCI. 

RICCIOLI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  astron- 
omer, born  in  Ferrara,  April  17,  1598,  died  in 
Bologna,  June  25, 1671.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  society  of  Jesus,  taught  in  the  Jesuit  col- 
leges of  Parma  and  Bologna,  and  finally  de- 
voted himself  to  astronomy  and  geography. 
He  undertook,  though  in  a  friendly  spirit,  to 
refute  Copernicus  in  the  Almagestum  Novum 
(2  vols.  fol.,  Bologna,  1651).  His  Astronomia 
Reformata  (2  vols.,  1665)  is  a  completion  of 
the  former  work.  Madler  says  that  Riccioli's 
work  "  would  have  been  forgotten  had  he  not 
been  led  by  vanity  to  find  a  place  for  his  own 
name  on  the  moon,  an  arrangement  which  he 
only  achieved  by  displacing  all  the  names  used 
by  Hevelius,  at  the  risk  of  causing  perplexity 
and  confusion  to  later  astronomers."  He  also 
published  Geographies  et  Hydrographies  Refor- 
mat® Libri  XII.  (fol.,  1661)  and  Chronologia 
Reformata  (1669). 

RICE  (Gr.  6pv£a,  Lat.  oryza,  Fr.  riz),  one  of 
the  cereal  grains,  oryza  sativa,  of  the  grass 
family.  The  genus  is  the  type  of  a  small 
tribe  of  graminece,  the  oryzece,  in  which  the 
one-flowered  spikelets  have  the  glumes  very 


Bice  (Oryza  eativa),  bearded  and  beardless  varieties.    Sepa- 
rate Spikelet  enlarged. 

much  reduced,  or  wanting  altogether,  and  the 
palets,  which  in  most  grasses  are  more  delicate, 
are  in  these  firm  and  prominently  nerved.  In 
rice  itself,  an  annual  2  to  4  ft.  high,  the  lance- 


308 


RICE 


linear  leaves  are  rough  on  the  upper  surface ; 
the  flowers  are  in  panicles  with  somewhat  erect 
branches ;  the  one-flowered  spikelets  have  very 
minute  glumes,  not  one  fourth  as  long  as  the 
palets,  which  are  much  flattened  laterally,  the 
upper  strongly  three-  and  the  lower  five-nerved 
and  pointed  or  bearing  an  awn;  the  palets 
grow  with  the  grain,  and  completely  invest  it 
when  ripe ;  stamens  six.  Rice  has  been  culti- 
vated from  the  earliest  times  in  India,  and  the 
Chinese  records  state  that  it  was  introduced 
into  that  country  in  2822  B.  0. ;  it  is  found 
growing  spontaneously  in  various  parts  of  In- 
dia, but  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  where 
it  may  have  been  carried  from  cultivation,  and 
there  is  much  doubt  as  to  the  place  of  its  origin. 
In  the  wild  state  and  in  cultivation  there  are 
numerous  varieties,  differing  in  the  size,  shape, 
and  color  of  the  grain ;  in  India  a  wild  variety 
found  on  the  .borders  of  certain  lakes  is  pre- 
ferred by  the  rich  Hindoos  to  all  others,  but  as 
its  yield  is  very  small  it  is  not  cultivated.  The 
improvement  of  rice  by  selection  has  long  been 
practised  by  the  Chinese;  an  early  imperial 
edict  enjoined  the  selection  of  the  largest  seed 
for  sowing;  the  most  valued  kind  cultivated 
in  this  country  was  obtained  by  a  planter  in 
South  Carolina,  who,  noticing  some  remarkably 
long  grains  upon  a  head,  selected  these,  and 
thus  obtained  the  variety  known  as  the  long 
grain;  in  Ceylon  161  varieties  are  enumerated. 
Ordinary  rice  requires  irrigation  for  its  suc- 
cessful culture,  but  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
India,  in  northern  China,  and  in  Japan,  an  up- 
land variety  (or  species?)  is  in  common  culti- 
vation, which  is  only  8  ft.  high  and  is  grown 
like  ordinary  grain.  Rice  is  in  some  parts  of 
India  the  chief  article  of  produce,  and  in  some 
districts,  particularly  in  the  marshy  lands  along 
the  coast  of  Orissa,  it  is  almost  the  only  ob- 
ject of  agricultural  labor.  In  China  and  the 
islands  of  the  eastern  archipelago  it  is  the  prin- 
cipal support  of  the  vast  population  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  globe.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
parts  of  Africa,  in  southern  Europe,  and  in  the 
tropical  countries  of  North  and  South  America. 
Various  accounts  are  given  of  its  introduction 
into  this  country.  Gov.  Alston  of  South  Car- 
olina in  an  agricultural  address  (1854)  says: 
"Rice,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  was  introduced  into  Carolina 
and  America  at  once,  toward  the  close  of  the 
17th  century."  One  account  states  that  a  ves- 
sel from  Madagascar  "  put  into  Carolina  "  and 
left  some  seed  there.  Gov.  Alston  gives  no 
particulars,  but  says  that  a  few  grains  of  this 
Madagascar  rice  were  sown  in  a  garden,  which 
is  now  one  of  the  thickly  built  parts  of  Charles- 
ton, and  that  from  this  came  the  seed  which 
has  made  South  Carolina  the  great  rice-grow- 
ing state.  Another  account  says  that  rice  was 
grown  in  Virginia  by  Sir  William  Berkeley  as 
early  as  1647,  but  gives  no  particulars.  There 
are  three  principal  varieties  in  the  rice-grow- 
ing states:  1.  White  rice,  valued  for  its  earli- 
ness  and  for  growing  upon  uplands ;  the  husk 


is  cream-colored ;  an  ounce  contains  960  grains. 
2.  The  gold-seeded,  which  has  a  deep  yellow 
husk  and  a  large,  fine,  white  grain  ;  an  ounce 
contains  896  grains.  3.  The  long-grain,  a  sub- 
variety  of  the  gold-seeded,  obtained  as  already 
described  ;  it  has  840  grains  in  the  ounce ;  the 
grains  are  longer  than  any  other,  and  it  is  the 
most  valued  for  exportation.  For  home  use  a 
long-awned  variety  called  the  white-bearded 
is  often  sown. — The  best  lands  for  the  culti- 
vation of  rice  are  on  the  banks  of  rivers  hav- 
ing a  deep  soil,  chiefly  of  decomposed  vegetable 
matters,  and  so  situated  as  to  be  overflowed 
by  the  opening  of  tide  gates.  They  must  be 
above  the  salt  or  brackish  water,  and  below 
the  reach  of  the  freshets,  so  as  not  to  be  flooded 
at  unseasonable  times.  Other  low  lands  not 
in  the  tide  region  may  bear  good  crops  if  so 
situated  that  they  can  be  drained  and  flooded 
at  will.  The  land  is  prepared  by  a  thorough 
system  of  embankments  and  ditches,  so  laid 
out  as  to  form  independent  fields,  the  size  of 
which  is  limited  by  the  number  of  hands  that 
can  finish  any  one  operation  connected  with 
the  culture  in  one  day ;  they  usually  consist  of 
from  14  to  20  acres.  The  ditches  are  of  vari- 
ous dimensions,  often  5  ft.  wide  and  as  many 
deep,  and  sometimes  the  principal  one  is  large 
enough  to  be  used  as  a  canal  for  transportation 
between  the  fields  and  the  barns.  Early  in 
the  winter  the  land  is  either  ploughed  or  dug 
over  with  the  hoe,  and  in  the  warm  changes 
of  the  weather  it  is  covered  with  water.  In 
March  it  is  kept  dry,  the  drains  are  cleansed, 
the  clods  broken,  and  the  surface  smoothed  off 
with  the  harrow  or  hoe,  and  trenches  for  the 
seed  are  made  with  a  4-inch  trenching  hoe  at 
right  angles  with  the  drains  12  to  15  in.  apart. 
In  April  and  till  the  middle  of  May  the  seed  is 
scattered  in  these  trenches  at  the  rate  of  2  J  to 
3  bushels  to  the  acre.  Great  attention  is  given 
to  selecting  the  seed ;  and  sometimes  the  rice 
for  this  purpose  is  threshed  by  hand  over  a  log 
or  barrel,  so  as  to  throw  out  only  the  full- 
sized  grains.  "Volunteer"  rice,  the  product 
of  scattered  seeds  that  have  remained  in  the 
ground  from  the  crop  of  the  preceding  year,  is 
treated  as  a  weed,  and  all  that  appears  outside 
of  the  drills  is  cut  up  with  the  hoe.  As  the 
seed  is  sown  it  is  covered  lightly  with  soil,  and 
the  water  is  then  let  in  through  the  gates  and 
kept  upon  the  land  for  four  to  six  days,  till 
the  grain  swells  and  begins  to  sprout.  If  the 
seed  is  not  to  be  covered  in  the  drills,  it  is 
previously  prepared  by  stirring  it  in  clayey 
water,  and  being  then  dried  enough  clay  ad- 
heres to  insure  its  remaining  in  the  trenches 
when  the  water  is  let  on.  With  the  first  meth- 
od the  water  has  to  be  let  on  a  second  time 
when  the  plants  sprout  and  appear  like  needles 
above  the  ground,  while  with  the  latter  orie 
flooding  answers.  The  water,  after  standing 
four  to  six  days  on  the  sprouts,  is  drained  off, 
and  when  the  plant  is  five  or  six  weeks  old 
the  earth  is  stirred  with  the  hoe;  this  is  re- 
peated ten  days  afterward,  and  the  "long 


PJCE 


309 


water "  is  then  put  on  for  about  two  weeks, 
deep  for  four  days,  and  then  gradually  dimin- 
ishing. After  the  water  has  been  drawn  off 
about  eight  days  and  the  field  is  dry,  it  is  hoed 
to  a  good  depth.  On  the  appearance  of  a  joint 
in  the  plant  the  land  is  lightly  hoed  again,  and 
is  then  "laid  by,"  that  is,  the  "joint  water" 
is  put  on  to  remain  until  the  grain  is  matured, 
which  may  be  two  months.  A  few  days  be- 
fore cutting,  the  water  is  run  off  and  the 
ditches  are  washed  out  by  the  succeeding  tide. 
The  rice  is  cut  with  a  sickle,  and  is  carefully  laid 
across  the  high  and  thick  stubble  to  cure.  The 
day  after  cutting,  when  the  dew  is  off,  it  is  bound 
in  sheaves,  and  either  borne  on  the  heads  of 
the  laborers  or  packed  in  large  flats,  each  one 
carrying  the  product  of  five  to  seven  acres,  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  barn  yard.  It  is  there  stacked 
in  small  ricks,  and  when  thoroughly  cured  it  is 
put  away  in  large  stacks,  each  of  which  holds 
enough  to  make  200  to  400  bushels  of  threshed 
grain.  The  threshing  is  done  with  a  machine 
invented  by  Calvin  Emmons  of  New  York, 
which  is  generally  in  use ;  this  separates  the 
grain  by  the  action  of  toothed  beaters  revolv- 
ing at  the  rate  of  750  to  800  turns  per  minute. 
The  grain  comes  from  the  threshing  mills  as 
rough  rice  or  paddy,  which  requires  milling  or 
grinding  to  free  it  from  the  hulls ;  but  it  is 
often  shipped  in  this  state,  in  which  it  is  well 
protected  against  damage,  to  be  hulled  in  Eu- 
rope or  in  New  York,  the  rice  being  delivered 
fresh  and  clean  to  the  consumers.  The  old 
method  of  removing  the  hulls  was  by  pound- 
ing in  hand  mortars  made  of  pitch  pine  blocks 
and  holding  about  a  bushel;  it  is  at  present 
hulled  by  steam  power ;  an  elevator  takes  the 
grain  to  the  top  of  the  building,  where  a  screen 
frees  it  from  sand ;  it  then  passes  between  a 
pair  of  heavy  stones  5  ft.  across,  which  re- 
move the  outer  husk ;  thence  it  goes  into  large 
wooden  mortars,  the  iron-shod  pestles  to  which 
weigh  250  to  350  Ibs.  each,  and  is  pounded  for 
about  two  hours,  when  it  is  ready  for  screen- 
ing. There  are  some  mills  which  clean  the 
rice  by  means  of  wire  cards,  without  pounding. 
Finally  the  rice  is  passed  through  an  inclined 
revolving  cylindrical  wire  screen,  the  gratings 
of  which  grow  coarser  toward  the  lower  end. 
It  is  thus  assorted  into  a  number  of  products. 
At  the  upper  end  of  the  screen  the  flour  passes 
through,  next  the  eyes  and  small  pieces  of 
broken  rice,  then  the  "middling  rice,"  which 
consists  of  larger  fragments  and  of  the  small- 
er grains,  and  lastly  the  "prime  rice,"  or 
best  and  mostly  unbroken  grains.  The  head 
rice  or  largest  grains  of  all,  together  with  the 
rough  that  escaped  the  mill,  pass  out  at  the 
lower  end  and  are  thence  returned  to  the  mill. 
The  prime  rice  as  it  falls  through  the  screen 
descends  to  the  "  polishing "  or  "  brushing 
screen,"  which  is  a  vertical  cylinder,  laid  up 
and  down  with  shreds  of  sheepskin,  and  made 
to  revolve  rapidly  within  a  wire  screen.  The 
rice,  falling  down  in  the  space  between  these, 
is  swept  clean  of  the  flour  that  adheres  to  it, 


and  is  discharged  below  in  a  perfectly  clean 
and  polished  condition.  It  is  received  in  bar- 
rels holding  about  6  cwt.  each,  and  is  then 
ready  for  the  market.  The  middling  and  small 
rice,  being  cleaned  by  a  fan,  are  kept  for  home 
consumption. — The  average  of  several  analyses 
gives  as  the  proximate  composition  of  rice: 
albuminoids  7'5,  carbo-hydrates  76'5,  water 
14'6,  ash  0'5.  It  will  be  seen  that,  as  com- 
pared with  wheat,  rice  is  deficient  in  albumi- 
noids, or  flesh-forming  principles ;  it  is  a  very 
easily  digestible  food,  and  especially  adapted 
to  use  in  warm  climates.  New  rice  is  said  to 
produce  indigestion  and  diarrhoea,  and  it  should 
not  be  used  until  six  months  old.  It  is  said 
that  in  some  parts  of  India  it  is  regarded  as 
fit  for  food  only  when  it  has  been  kept  three 
years.  Some  southern  physicians  assert  that  a 
diet  consisting  largely  of  rice  produces  near- 
sightedness,  and  that  there  are  ten  times  as 
many  persons  with  'disordered  eyes  in  the  rice- 
consuming  districts  as  elsewhere.  The  com- 
mon method  of  cooking  rice  is  to  boil  it  in 
water  properly  salted,  the  rice  being  intro- 
duced into  the  water  after  this  is  boiling  hot. 
In  four  or  five  minutes  the  water  is  drained  off, 
and  the  pot  covered  is  left  20  minutes  longer 
on  the  coals.  The  rice  is  then  ready  to  be 
served  up  as  a  vegetable,  in  which  state  the 
grains  should  be  thoroughly  cooked,  but  still 
retain  their  identity.  In  tropical  countries  it 
is  much  eaten  in  curries,  which  consist  of  rice, 
meat,  and  various  aromatics.  It  is  also  made 
into  puddings,  as  is  the  ground  rice  or  rice 
flourf  of  which  are  made  varieties  of  bread  and 
of  griddle  cakes.  Parched  rice  is  one  of  the 
many  substitutes  for  coffee.  Eice  flour  or  rice 
starch  is  found  in  the  stores  put  up  in  packages 
as  rizena  and  under  other  trade  names.  In  med- 
ical practice  a  decoction  known  as  rice  water 
is  often  prescribed  as  a  nutritive  drink  in  fe- 
vers and  inflammatory  affections  of  the  bow- 
els, lungs,  and  kidneys.  Its  decoction  ferment- 
ed and  distilled  produces  the  spirituous  liquor 
known  as  arrack.  A  useful  cement  is  readily 
prepared  from  rice  by  mixing  the  flour  with  cold 
water  and  boiling.  It  dries  nearly  transparent, 
and  is  used  in  making  many  articles  in  paper. 
If  made  with  little  water,  it  may  be  mould- 
ed into  models,  busts,  &c.  Although  so  rich 
in  starch,  it  has  not  been  found  an  economi- 
cal material  for  supplying  that  article. — The 
total  production  of  rice  in  the  United  States  in 
1870,  according  to  the  federal  census,  was  73,- 
635,021  Ibs.,  of  which  South  Carolina  produced 
32,304,825  Ibs.,  Georgia  22,277,380,  Louisiana 
15,854,012,  North  Carolina  2,059,281,  Florida 
401,687,  Mississippi  374,627,  Alabama  222, 945, 
Arkansas  73,021,  Texas  63,844,  and  Tennessee 
3,399.  There  has  been  a  marked  decrease  in 
the  production  since  the  civil  war ;  the  total 
yield  in  1850  was  215,313,497  Ibs.,  and  in  1860 
187,167,032.  A  small  quantity  is  annually  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States,  amounting  du- 
ring the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  to  558,922 
Ibs.,  valued  at  $27,075.  The  imports  during 


310 


KICE 


RICE  PAPER  TREE 


the  same  year  amounted  to  73,257,716  Ibs., 
valued  at  $2,083,248 ;  38,716,980  Ibs.  were  im- 
ported from  England,  29,218,123  from  China, 
2,443,601  from  the  British  East  Indies,  and 
1,087,785  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

RICE.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota, 
drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Cannon  river ; 
area,  about  575  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,025. 
The  surface  is  uneven  ;  the  soil  is  productive. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
531,206  bushels  of  wheat,  227,931  of  Indian 
corn,  348,543  of  oats,  36,773  of  barley,  57,862 
of  potatoes,  33,615  tons  of  hay,  20,607  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  364,260  of  butter.  There  were 
8,775  horses,  4,240  milch  cows,  7,603  other 
cattle,  7,907  sheep,  and  7,324  swine ;  1  manu- 
factory of  agricultural  implements,  3  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  6  of  cooperage,  4  of  furni- 
ture, 4  of  saddlery  and  harness,  6  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  8  Hour  mills,  9  saw 
mills,  and  1  distillery.  Capital,  Faribault.  II. 
A  central  county  of  Kansas,  intersected  by  the 
Arkansas  river,  and  watered  by  Low  creek  and 
the  Little  Arkansas ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka,  and  Santa  F6  railroad.  The  surface  con- 
sists of  undulating  prairies,  which  have  a  fer- 
tile soil.  The  bottom  lands  are  well  timbered. 
Capital,  Brookdale. 

RICE,  Indian,  also  called  water  rice,  Min- 
nesota rice,  and  water  oats  (zizania  aquatica, 
the  generic  name  being  the  ancient  Greek  one 
for  some  wild  grain),  an  annual  aquatic  grass, 
with  stems  from  3  to  10  ft.  high,  growing  in 
the  swampy  margins  of  streams,  where  it  fre- 
quently forms  the  sole  vegetation  of  extensive 
tracts.  The  genus  belongs  to  the  same  tribe 


Indian  Rice  (Zizania  aquatica).     Panicle,  and  a  separate 
Pistillate  and  Staminate  Flower. 

with  rice,  but  differs  in  having  separated  flow- 
ers, the  staminate  and  pistillate  being  upon  the 
same  plant ;  the  lower  branches  of  the  ample 
panicle  are  spreading,  and  bear  staminate  flow- 


ers, which  have  six  stamens,  and  fall  soon  after 
shedding  their  pollen ;  the  upper  branches, 
with  the  pistillate  flowers,  are  erect ;  the  pedi- 
cels to  the  flowers  club-shaped ;  glumes  rudi- 
mentary ;  lower  palet  long-awned ;  the  grain 
slender,  cylindrical,  nbout  half  an  inch  long, 
and  purplish.  The  seeds  of  this  plant  afford 
abundant  food  for  birds,  especially  water  fowl ; 
they  are  a  favorite  food  of  the  reed  bird,  and 
when  the  grain  is  ripe  the  birds  are  shot  in 
great  numbers,  especially  along  the  Delaware 
river.  The  grain  was  formerly  an  important 
article  of  food  with  the  Indians  of  the  north- 
west, who  collected  their  winter  supplies  by 
pushing  their  canoes  through  the  thickets,  and 
shaking  off  the  grain,  which  falls  when  ripe 
with  the  slightest  touch  into  the  canoes.  Every 
few  years  there  has  been  an  attempt  to  bring 
this  plant  into  notice  as  a  valuable  cereal ;  but 
were  there  no  other  obstacle  to  its  cultivation, 
the  remarkable  readiness  with  which  the  grain 
drops  would  prevent  its  coming  into  use.  As 
a  food  the  grain,  according  to  Dr.  Bachman, 
ranks  with  oats,  an  estimate  which  probably 
refers  to  the  taste  rather  than  to  nutritious 
qualities.  Recently  the  plant  has  been  men- 
tioned in  English  journals  as  a  highly  valuable 
paper  stock,  and  some  very  coarse  paper  has 
been  made  from  it ;  if  the  experiment  should 
prove  successful,  the  supply  in  our  northwest- 
ern states  and  in  Canada  would  be  found  prac- 
tically inexhaustible. — Another  species,  Z.  mi- 
liacea,  is  common  southward ;  it  differs  from 
the  foregoing  in  being  a  perennial,  is  some- 
what smaller,  and  has  the  staminate  and  pistil- 
late flowers  intermixed,  and  not  on  separate 
branches  of  the  panicle ;  the  grain  is  ovate. 

RICE,  Lnther,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Northborough,  Mass.,  March  25,  1788,  died 
in  Edgefield  district,  8.  C.,  Sept.  25,  1836.  He 
graduated  at  Williams  college  in  1810,  and 
after  studying  at  Andover  theological  semi- 
nary sailed  in  1812  for  India  as  a  missionary 
under  the  American  board.  On  the  voyage 
Mr.  Rice,  like  his  friend  the  Rev.  Adoniram 
Judson,  changed  his  views,  accepting  those  of 
the  Baptists.  He  consequently  returned,  and 
spent  several  years  in  organizing  missionary 
societies  and  raising  funds  among  that  body. 
He  also  projected  the  establishment  of  the 
Columbian  college  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
was  for  many  years  its  financial  manager. 

RICE  BIRD,  or  Java  Sparrow.  See  FINCH,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  190. 

RICE  BUNTING.     See  BOBOLINK. 

RICE  PAPER  TREE.  Beautifully  executed 
paintings  of  flowers  and  insects  upon  a  delicate 
semi-transparent  material,  and  the  material  it- 
self, were  brought  from  China  in  the  early 
days  of  commerce  with  that  country ;  for  the 
want  of  a  better  name  it  was  called  rice  paper, 
but  the  microscope  showed  that  rice  did  not 
enter  into  its  composition,  and  that  it  was 
some  kind  of  pith.  Various  plants,  among 
others  the  breadfruit,  were  suggested  as  the 
source  of  this  material,  but  it  was  not  until 


EICE  PAPER  TREE 


RICH 


311 


1852  that  its  history  was  made  out;  in  that 
year  Sir  William  Hooker  in  the  "Journal  of 
Botany"  gave  an  account  of  the  rice  paper 
plant,  which  he  referred  to  the  genus  aralia 


Rice  Paper  Tree  (Fatsia  papyrifera). 

and  called  A.  papyrifera.  In  a  revision  of 
aralia  and  related  plants  Decaisne  and  Plan- 
chon  in  1854,  for  botanical  reasons,  separated 
this  from  aralia,  and  made  a  new  genus,  Fat- 
sia ;  and  though  the  plant  will  be  found  in  most 
current  botanical  and  horticultural  works  as 
aralia  papyrifera,  its  proper  botanical  name  is 
Fateia  papyrifera.  The  tree  is  a  native  of 
Formosa,  rarely  growing  more  than  20  ft.  high, 
and  branching  above ;  the  young  stems,  leaves, 
and  inflorescence  are  covered  with  a  copious 
down  of  stellate  hairs;  the  leaves,  on  long 
petioles,  are  often  a  foot  across,  round-heart- 
shaped,  and  five-  to  seven-lobed.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  greenish,  and  are  produced  in 
pendulous  panicles,  1  to  3  ft.  long  at  the  end  of 
the  branches.  The  plant  has  such  ample  leaves 
and  so  stately  an  aspect  that  it  is  a  favorite  in 
subtropical  planting;  a  single  young  and  vig- 
orous specimen  as  a  centre  to  a  bed  of  low- 
growing  plants  produces  a  fine  effect.  It  must 
be  kept  in  a  greenhouse  or  dry  cellar  during 
winter,  though  if  left  out  the  roots  would  no 
doubt  prove  hardy,  as  the  writer  had  numer- 
ous young  plants  come  up  in  the  spring  from 
fragments  of  the  roots  left  in  the  soil  on  ta- 
king up  a  large  plant  the  previous  autumn.  The 
vigorous  stems  have  a  pith  which  is  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter  and  of  a  snowy  white- 
ness; after  the  woody  exterior  is  removed, 
the  Chinese  cut  the  pith  into  sheets,  by  paring 
with  a  sharp  knife  from  the  circumference  to- 
ward the  centre,  unrolling  it,  as  it  were,  and 
then  flattening  it  out  and  pressing  it  under 
weights  until  dry,  when  it  remains  as  a  flat 
sheet.  It  is  imported  in  sheets  a  few  inches 


square,  and  in  dry  weather  it  is  exceedingly 
fragile.  It  is  used  solely  for  fancy  ornamental 
work;  some  of  the  pith  is  exported  in  the 
stem  for  artificial  flower  makers,  who  find  in 
its  tissue  a  material  which  more  closely  than 
any  other  imitates  the  petals  of  the  most  deli- 
cate flowers. 

RICH,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Utah,  bordering  on 
Idaho  and  Wyoming,  and  intersected  by  Bear 
river;  area,  about  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,955.  The  E.  part  is  mountainous.  It  is  gen- 
erally well  timbered,  and  adapted  to  the  rais- 
ing of  grain,  stock,  and  vegetables.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  3,782  bushels  of 
wheat,  6,175  of  oats,  2,530  of  barley,  4,660  of 
potatoes,  and  775  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $26,015.  Capital,  St.  Charles. 

RICH,  Claudius  James,  an  English  traveller, 
born  near  Dijon,  France,  March  28,  1787, 
died  in  Shiraz,  Persia,  Oct.  5, 1821.  When  15 
years  old  he  was  familiar  with  Arabic,  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Persian,  and  Turkish.  In  1803  he  be- 
came a  cadet  of  the  East  India  company,  and 
in  1804  a  writer  at  Bombay.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  to  Mr.  Lock,  consul  general  to  Egypt, 
and  after  perfectly  acquiring  the  Turkish  and 
Arabic  languages,  travelled  over  a  great  part 
of  Palestine  and  Syria  as  a  Mameluke,  and 
finally  reached  Bassorah,  whence  he  sailed  to 
Bombay.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  by  the 
East  India  company  resident  at  Bagdad,  where 
he  remained  about  six  years.  In  1811  he  vis- 
ited the  site  of  Babylon,  and  published  a  "Me- 
moir on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon."  After  a  sec- 
ond journey  to  that  place,  he  published  a 
"  Second  Memoir  on  Babylon  "  (1818).  In  1820 
he  travelled  in  Kurdistan,  going  as  far  east  as 
Sinna.  His  widow  published  his  "Narrative 
of  a  Residence  in  Kurdistan  "  (1839).  His  col- 
lections are  in  the  British  museum. 

RICH,  Edmund,  Saint  (called  by  the  French 
Saint  Edme),  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born 
in  Abingdon,  Berkshire,  about  1190,  died  at 
Soissy,  France,  Nov.  16,  1242.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  graduated  in  theology  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris,  and  lectured  for  some  time 
there  on  Scripture.  From  1219  to  1226  he 
taught  philosophy  at  Oxford,  being  the  first 
there  to  expound  the  logic  of  Aristotle.  He 
accepted  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Salis- 
bury, but  gave  nearly  all  the  revenues  to  the 
poor ;  and  on  April  2,  1234,  he  was  consecra- 
ted archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  king  per- 
mitted him  to  enforce  discipline  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  his  clergy,  his  chapter,  and  even 
his  own  relatives.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  sent  him 
a  bull  empowering  him  to  appoint  to  all  vacant 
benefices  not  filled  within  six  months  after  the 
decease  of  the  former  occupant ;  but  the  king 
persuaded  the  pope  to  revoke  the  bull,  and  the 
pope  then  appointed  Italians  to  the  vacancies. 
Edmund,  deeming  this  an  abuse  of  the  papal 
power,  about  1239  retired  to  the  Cistercian 
abbey  of  Pontigny  in  France.  On  account  of 
enfeebled  health  he  went  to  Soissy  in  Cham- 
pagne, where  he  died.  His  remains  were  taken 


312 


RICHAED   I. 


back  to  Pontigny.  He  was  canonized  by  In- 
nocent IV.  in  1246.  (See  PILGRIMAGE,  and 
PONTIGNY.)  Among  his  works  are :  "  Consti- 
tutions "  in  36  canons,  extant  in,  among  other 
collections,  Labbe's  editions  of  the  councils ; 
Speculum  Ecclesice,  published  in  vol.  iii.  of  the 
Bibliotheca  Patrum ;  and  several  manuscript 
treatises  on  moral  subjects,  preserved  in  the 
Bodleian  library.  A  manuscript  life  of  St. 
Edmund,  by  his  brother  Robert,  is  preserved 
in  the  Cottonian  collection ;  another  by  Ber- 
trand,  his  secretary  and  companion  in  exile 
and  afterward  prior  of  Pontigny,  was  published 
in  Martenne's  Thesauru*  Anecdotorum. 

RICHARD  I.,  surnamed  CCEUR  DE  LION  (the 
lion-hearted),  second  king  of  England  of  the 
line  of  Plantagenet,  born  in  Oxford,  Sept.  13, 
1157,  died  near  Limoges,  France,  April  6, 
1199.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Henry  II.  and 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine-,  and  great-grandson  in 
the  female  line  of  Henry  I.  He  became  cel- 
ebrated for  his  proficiency  in  arms  and  his 
fondness  for  music  and  poetry.  He  engaged 
with  his  brothers  Henry  and  Geoffrey  in  a 
revolt  against  Henry  II.  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  16th  year,  and  fled  to  France,  where 
he  was  knighted  by  Louis  VII.  Claiming 
Aquitaine  and  Poitou,  ho  was  compelled  to 
give  way  before  his  father,  to  whom  he  sur- 
rendered, and  by  whom  he  was  forgiven.  He 
was  then  known  as  the  count  of  Poitou,  but 
claimed  to  be  duke  of  Aquitaine,  and  having 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the 
rebels  there,  the  duchy  was  ceded  to  him  by 
his  father.  The  last  rebellion  in  Aquitaine 
was  aided  by  Richard's  brother  Henry,  whose 
death  brought  it  to  an  end,  and  made  Richard 
heir  apparent.  The  king  then  desired  that 
Richard  should  give  up  Aquitaine  to  his  broth- 
er John,  which  he  refused  to  do,  and  by  their 
father's  orders  John  and  Geoffrey  ravaged  his 
territories,  which  Richard  punished  by  inva- 
ding Brittany,  of  which  Geoffrey  was  ruler. 
Richard  subsequently  surrendered  Aquitaine 
to  his  mother,  but  it  was  shortly  after  restored 
to  him,  and  by  his  father's  orders  he  entered 
upon  a  successful  war  with  the  count  of  Tou- 
louse. After  a  violent  but  brief  rupture  with 
his  father,  caused  by  his  intimacy  with  Philip 
Augustus,  Richard  took  the  cross  in  the  third 
crusade ;  but  in  spite  of  his  vow  he  had  to  re- 
new the  war  with  the  count  of  Toulouse.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  next  contest  between 
Henry  and  Philip  ;  but  a  report  prevailing  that 
his  father  intended  to  exclude  him  from  the 
succession,  and  confer  the  crown  upon  Prince 
John,  Richard  did  homage  to  Philip  for  his 
English  territories  in  France.  In  the  war  that 
followed,  Philip  and  Richard  were  victorious, 
and  dictated  terms  to  Henry,  who  soon  after 
died  of  mortification,  July  6,  1189,  cursing  his 
sons.  Richard  was  present  at  his  burial,  and 
was  greatly  affected.  He  was  crowned  at 
"Westminster,  Sept.  3.  The  people  having 
risen  against  the  Jews  on  the  occasion  of  his 
coronation,  he  protected  them.  In  the  sum- 


mer of  1190  the  French  and  English  armies 
destined  for  the  crusade,  under  their  respec- 
tive kings,  met  on  the  plains  of  Vezelay,  on 
the  borders  of  Burgundy,  100,000  strong,  and 
in  September  arrived  in  Sicily,  where  they 
passed  the  autumn  and  winter.  This  led  to 
much  trouble,  Richard  becoming  involved  in 
quarrels  with  the  king  of  Sicily  and  his  sub- 
jects, in  which  the  French  favored  the  latter. 
While  they  were  at  Messina  a  treaty  was 
made  which  set  Richard  free  from  his  be- 
trothal to  Philip's  sister  Alice,  and  enabled 
him  to  arrange  for  his  marriage  with  Beren- 
garia, daughter  of  Sancho,  king  of  Navarre, ' 
who  arrived  in  Sicily  in  company  with  his 
mother.  Leaving  Messina  in  April,  1191,  his 
fleet  encountered  rough  weather ;  some  of  his 
ships  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Cyprus, 
and  their  crews  were  inhospitably  treated  by 
the  ruler  of  that  island,  Isaac  Comnenus,  who 
endeavored  to  get  possession  of  the  persons 
of  Berengaria  and  of  Richard's  sister  Joan, 
dowager-  queen  of  Sicily.  Richard  conquered 
the  island  in.  a  fortnight,  and  made  Isaac  a 
perpetual  prisoner.  While  at  Cyprus  he  mar- 
ried Berengaria.  On  June  4  he  sailed  for  Acre, 
capturing  a  Saracenic  ship  on  his  way.  He 
found  the  French  king  at  Acre,  and  that  rival- 
ry which  defeated  the  object  of  the  crusaders 
soon  broke  out,  Philip  favoring  the  faction  of 
Conrad  of  Montferrat,  while  Richard  supported 
Guy  of  Lusignan.  Philip  wished  to  assault 
Acre  immediately,  to  which  Richard  objected, 
as  all  his  troops  had  not  arrived,  and  he  was 
himself  suffering  from  the  pestilence  that  was 
raging  in  the  Christian  host.  Philip  made  the 
attack,  and  was  beaten.  During  his  illness  Rich- 
ard is  said  to  have  received  many  courtesies 
from  their  enemy,  Sultan  Saladin.  He  slowly 
recovered,  and  the  siege  was  prosecuted,  every 
attempt  of  Saladin  to  relieve  the  place  failing. 
Acre  was  surrendered  on  July  12,  and  soon 
afterward  Philip  sailed  for  France.  On  Aug. 
20  Richard  caused  his  Saracen  prisoners  to  be 
butchered,  because  the  terms  of  the  surrender 
of  Acre  had  not  been  fulfilled ;  and  the  next 
day  he  began  his  march  toward  Jerusalem, 
suffering  much  from  the  active  operations  of 
the  light  troops  of  Saladin.  He  completely  de- 
feated the  Saracens  at  Arsnf  Sept.  7,  and  took 
Jaffa;  and  after  much  opposition  from  his  as- 
sociates, he  proceeded  with  a  portion  of  the 
crusading  force  to  Ascalon,  which  he  reached 
in  January,  1192,  and  where  he  was  joined  by 
most  of  the  French  troops.  He  rebuilt  the 
walls,  and  hoped  to  invest  Jerusalem  ;  but  the 
renewed  dissensions  of  the  Christians  marred 
his  plans.  The  news  from  England,  too,  re- 
quired that  he  should  return  home.  Still  he 
adhered  to  the  purpose  of  the  crusade,  and 
made  arrangements  to  proceed  to  Jerusalem, 
but  Saladin  had  so  fortified  that  city  that  it 
was  considered  impregnable.  Richard  returned 
to  Acre  in  July,  and  was  about  to  embark 
for  England,  when  he  heard  that  Jaffa  was  in 
danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Sara- 


EICHAKD  II. 


313 


cens.  Hastening  to  its  relief,  at  the  head  of  a 
small  force,  he  defeated  Saladin,  and  afterward 
defended  the  place  against  an  attack  by  the 
Mohammedans.  A  truce  soon  followed,  and 
Kichard  left  Acre  in  October.  He  was  ship- 
wrecked at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
while  seeking  to  continue  his  journey  by  land 
became  the  prisoner  of  Leopold,  duke  of  Aus- 
tria, whom  he  had  insulted  and  struck  in  Pal- 
estine. Surrendered  by  Leopold  to  the  em- 
peror Henry  VI.,  he  was  held  in  confinement 
at  various  places,  but  was  finally  released  for 
a  ransom,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  his 
brother  John  and  the  French  king  for  his  de- 
tention, and  reached  England  March  13,  1194. 
The  greater  part  of  the  latter  years  of  his 
reign  was  passed  in  France,  where  he  car- 
ried on  almost  constant  warfare  with  Philip 
Augustus,  in  which  he  won  brilliant  success- 
es, that  do  not  seem  to  have  produced  any 
permanent  effect.  In  1199  he  laid  siege  to 
the  castle  of  Chalus,  to  compel  the  viscount 
of  Limoges  to  surrender  a  treasure  that  had 
been  found  in  one  of  his  fields,  which  Kich- 
ard claimed  as  sovereign  lord  of  the  soil. 
Here  he  received  a  wound  from  which,  as  it 
was  unskilfully  treated,  he  died.  He  left  no 
legitimate  children,  and  his  wife  Berengaria, 
who  survived  him  many  years,  never  visited 
England.  Besides  his  reputation  for  soldierly 
valor  and  strength,  he  was  renowned  in  his 
own  day  for  wit,  eloquence,  and  song,  ranking 
as  one  of  the  best  troubadours.  Some  of  his 
poems  in  Romance  have  been  preserved. 

RICHARD  II.,  eighth  king  of  England  of  the 
house  of  Plantagenet,  born  in  Bordeaux  in 
1366,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  at 
Pontefract  castle  in  February,  1400.  He  was 
the  second  and  only  surviving  child  of  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward 
III.,  by  Joan,  sister  of  the  last  earl  of  Kent. 
The  prince  dying  June  8, 1376,  Richard  became 
heir  apparent,  and  succeeded  to  the  crown,  June 
21,  1377.  His  coronation  took  place  July  16. 
A  council  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  busi- 
ness of  government,  from  which  the  king's 
unpopular  uncles  were  formally  excluded,  but 
its  members  were  in  pait  under  their  influ- 
ence. The  war  between  England  and  France 
was  continued,  to  the  disadvantage  of  Eng- 
land. Scotland  was  hostile ;  and  the  ambi- 
tion of  Richard's  uncles,  the  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter (John  of  Gaunt)  and  the  earl  of  Cam- 
bridge (afterward  duke  of  York),  who  by 
right  of  their  wives  expected  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  Spain,  was  the  cause  of  trouble 
between  England  and  the  peninsula.  It  was 
found  necessary  to  lay  new  and  heavy  taxes, 
which  were  rigorously  collected.  The  first 
poll  tax,  which  bore  upon  persons  in  good 
circumstances,  was  submitted  to ;  but  when 
the  tax  was  extended  to  persons  of  every 
condition,  three  groats  being  levied  on  each 
male  and  female  above  the  age  of  15  years, 
the  returns  were  small.  This  was  attributed 
to  negligent  collection,  and  a  commission  was 


appointed  to  enforce  the  tax.  Its  proceedings 
were  odious,  and  resistance  was  made  in  Essex 
and  Kent.  At  Dartford,  in  Kent,  one  Walter 
the  Tiler,  having  struck  dead  a  tax  gather- 
er who  had  insulted  his  daughter,  was  made 
chief  of  the  insurgents,  and  hence  the  popu- 
lar rising  is  known  as  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion. 
The  insurrection  spread  over  nine  counties, 
and  partook  of  the  character  of  the  Jacquerie 
that  had  occurred  in  France  23  years  before. 
The  insurgents  marched  upon  London,  and 
assembled  to  the  number  of  100,000  on  Black- 
heath,  June  12,  1381.  The  city  was  entered, 
the  tower  seized,  and  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, the' treasurer,  and  several  other  per- 
sons of  eminence,  were  put  to  death.  There 
was  some  plundering,  and  the  palace  of  the 
duke  of  Lancaster  was  destroyed.  The  early 
demands  made  upon  the  king  were  deemed 
reasonable,  such  as  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
the  commutation  of  the  dues  of  villenage,  free 
trade  in  the  market  towns,  &c. ;  and  Richard 
promised  that  they  should  all  be  complied  with, 
whereupon  many  of  the  people  returned  to 
their  homes.  Tyler  now  became  insolent,  and 
made  further  demands  upon  the  king,  com- 
pliance with  which  was  impossible ;  and  in 
an  interview  with  Richard  he  behaved  so  ar- 
rogantly that  he  was  slain  by  Sir  William  Wai- 
worth,  lord  mayor  of  London.  The  king,  who 
was  in  his  16th  year,  immediately  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  rebels,  thereby  saving 
his  own  life  and  the  lives  of  his  attendants. 
They  accepted  him,  and  he  led  them  into  the 
country,  and  allowed  them  to  depart  without 
molestation.  The  promises  made  to  the  people 
were  not  kept,  and  they  were  punished  with 
merciless  severity.  Richard  married  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles  IV.,  em- 
peror of  Germany.  An  invasion  of  Scotland 
was  made  in  1385,  the  king  heading  a  large 
army,  which  accomplished  little.  Lancaster 
being  absent  in  Spain,  the  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, another  of  the  king's  uncles,  made  him- 
self master  of  the  kingdom,  but  Richard  was 
induced  by  his  favorite,  the  earl  of  Oxford, 
to  attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke.  In  the  en- 
suing contest  Gloucester  triumphed,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  council  of  regency  in 
1386,  which  held  sovereign  power.  In  1387 
the  king,  who  was  aided  by  the  judges,  sought 
to  recover  his  power,  but  Gloucester  defeated 
his  soldiers,  and  slaughtered  or  banished  his 
immediate  supporters.  Two  years  later  Rich- 
ard was  more  successful,  and  changed  his  min- 
isters, Gloucester  himself  being  removed.  The 
French  war  languished,  and  that  with  Scotland 
was  remarkable  only  for  the  battle  of  Otter- 
burn,  in  which  the  Scotch  were  victorious.  A 
truce  for  25  years  was  concluded  with  France, 
and,  Queen  Anne  having  died  in  1394,  it  was 
provided  that  Richard  should  marry  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  in  1396,  though  the 
princess  was  a  mere  child.  Gloucester  endeav- 
ored to  recover  his  former  power,  but  failed, 
the  king  being  supported  by  parliament,  and 


RICHARD  III. 


crushing  his  enemies,  some  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  whom  were  banished  or  put  to  death. 
Richard  banished  Henry  of  Bolingbroke,  duke 
of  Hereford,  son  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  in 
1398,  for  ten  years ;  and  on  the  death  of  Lan- 
caster he  made  the  term  of  banishment  per- 
petual, and  seized  the  estates  of  the  exile. 
Richard  had  now  become  very  unpopular,  and 
in  July,  1399,  Henry,  now  duke  of  Lancaster, 
during  the  king's  absence  in  Ireland,  landed 
at  Ravenspur,  accompanied  by  a  few  eminent 
Englishmen.  He  was  joined  by  several  pow- 
erful nobles  and  great  numbers  of  people  of  all 
degrees.  Richard  returned,  but  was  seized  and 
imprisoned,  and  deposed  by  parliament,  after 
a  renunciation  of  the  crown  had  been  obtained 
from  him.  Lancaster  was  called  to  the  throne, 
and  became  king  as  Henry  IV.  Parliament 
thus  set  aside  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  throne, 
Roger  Mortimer,  earl  of  March  (grandson  of 
Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.),  upon  whom  an  earlier  parliament 
had  settled  the  crown,  in  accordance  with  the 
received  laws  of  inheritance.  Richard  was 
imprisoned  in  Pontefract  castle,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  he  was  there  murdered  by  his 
keeper,  Sir  Piers  Exton.  A  corpse,  purport- 
ing to  be  that  of  the  ex-king,  was  exhibited  in 
London  for  two  days,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster abbey;  but  the  tomb  having  been  ac- 
cidentally opened  long  afterward,  no  marks 
of  violence  were  found  on  the  skull.  One 
story  was  that  he  was  starved  to  death.  It 
has  been  plausibly  maintained  that  he  escaped 
from  Pontefract  and  fled  to  the  Western  isl- 
ands, was  there  recognized,  and  carried  to  the 
Scotch  court,  where  he  died  in  1419,  and  was 
buried  at  Stirling.  Richard  was  a  weak  prince, 
and  owed  his  fall  to  his  fondness  for  favor- 
ites, to  the  vehemence  of  his  despotism  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  and  to  the  wantonness 
of  his  expenditures,  which  England  was  then 
ill  able  to  bear.  lie  was  fond  of  literature, 
like  most  of  the  Plantagenets,  and  appreciated 
and  enjoyed  the  works  of  Chaucer,  Gower, 
and  Froissart.  In  the  16th  year  of  his  reign 
(1393)  the  statute  oiprcemunire  was  enacted. 

RICHARD  III.,  last  king  of  England  of  the 
Plantagenet  line,  born  at  Fotheringay  castle, 
Oct.  2,  1452,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bos  worth 
field,  Aug.  22,  1485.  He  was  the  eleventh 
child  and  eighth  son  of  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  and  of  his  wife  Cecily  Neville,  daughter 
of  the  earl  of  Westmoreland.  The  duke  of 
York  was  descended  in  the  female  line  from 
Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Edward 
III.,  and  the  English  throne  was  held  by  Henry 
VI.,  great-grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke 
of  Lancaster,  Edward  Hl.'g  fourth  son.  York 
became  the  chief  of  that  party  which  sought 
to  set  aside  the  line  of  Lancaster,  but  was  de- 
feated and  captured  at  Wakefield  at  the  close 
of  1460,  and  was  immediately  executed.  His 
son  Richard  was  a  prisoner  at  the  age  of  eight. 
On  his  father's  death  Richard  was  sent  by  his 
mother  to  Utrecht.  When  his  eldest  brother 


became  king  of  England,  in  1461,  as  Edward 
IV.,  Richard  was  brought  home  and  made 
duke  of  Gloucester,  and  afterward  lord  high 
admiral  and  chief  constable  of  England  for 
life,  and  chief  justice  of  South  Wales.  In 
1470,  during  the  rebellion  of  the  earl  of  War- 
wick and  tlie  duke  of  Clarence  (the  king's 
brother  George),  the  duke  of  Gloucester  was 
appointed  commissioner  of  array  in  Glouces- 
tershire, Devonshire,  and  Cornwall,  and  in  the 
same  year  warden  of  the  northern  marches. 
In  September  he  accompanied  the  king  when 
he  fled  to  Flanders  because  of  the  triumph 
of  Warwick  at  the  head  of  the  Lancastrian 
party,  and  he  was  attainted  and  outlawed 
by  parliament.  When  Edward  returned  Glou- 
cester was  in  his  train,  and  had  the  princi- 
pal part  in  effecting  that  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  king  and  Clarence  which  restored 
the  throne  to  the  house  of  York.  At  the 
battle  of  Barnet,  April  14,  1471,  Gloucester 
commanded  the  van  of  the  Yorkist  army,  be- 
ing in  immediate  opposition  to  Warwick,  and 
by  his  conduct  proved  himself  a  skilful  leader 
and  a  brave  soldier,  and  contributed  to  the 
victory.  The  same  post  was  assigned  to  him 
at  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  20  days  later. 
In  reward  for  his  services,  the  king  created 
him  lord  high  chamberlain  of  England  for 
life,  and  endowed  him  with  a  large  number 
of  manors  and  lordships  that  had  belonged  to 
the  Nevilles,  and  several  forfeited  estates.  He 
sought  and  found  the  lady  Anne  Neville.  War- 
wick's youngest  daughter,  who  had  been  be- 
trothed to  Prince  Edward  of  Lancaster  and 
concealed  by  her  relatives,  and  married  her 
about  the  month  of  March,  1472.  He  was  a 
second  time  appointed  lord  high  constable  of 
England,  and  shortly  afterward  "  keeper  of  all 
the  king's  forests  beyond  the  Trent  for  life," 
and  justiciary  of  North  Wales,  and  took  up  his 
official  residence  at  Pontefract  castle,  as  chief 
seneschal  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  Glouces- 
ter exerted  his  influence  with  the  king  to  miti- 
gate the  horrors  of  the  contests  of  those  times, 
and  especially  in  behalf  of  the  Nevilles.  In 
1475  he  accompanied  Edward  IV.  in  his  inva- 
sion of  France,  and  was  the  only  Englishman 
of  note  in  the  army  who  was  neither  corrupted 
nor  cajoled  by  Louis  XL  On  the  execution  of 
his  brother  Clarence,  with  which  he  had  no 
connection,  he  received  his  possession  of  Bar- 
nard castle  in  Durham  and  his  office  of  cham- 
berlain; and  he  was  constituted  admiral  of 
England,  Ireland,  and  Aquitaine,  and  "  one  of 
the  triers  of  petitions "  in  the  parliament  that 
met  in  1478.  War  breaking  out  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  Gloucester  was  created  lieu- 
tenant general  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1482  he  took  possession  of  Berwick,  and 
penetrated  to  Edinburgh,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  and  compelled  the  Scotch  to  accede  to 
the  terms  of  peace  he  proposed.  One  of  the 
king's  last  acts  was  to  bestow  upon  his  brother 
the  wardenship  of  the  west  marches  of  Eng- 
land, the  lordship  of  Carlisle  with  everything 


RICHARD  III. 


EICHARDSON 


315 


connected  therewith,  and  a  large  sum  of  money. 
Edward  IV.  died  April  9,  1483,  and  Richard, 
who  was  then  in  the  north,  prepared  to  go  to 
London,  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  his 
nephew,  Edward  V.,  and  compelled  all  who 
were  under  him  also  to  take  it.  Hastening 
south,  he  seized  the  young  king's  person,  and 
escorted  him  to  the  capital,  having  imprisoned 
Lords  Rivers  and  Grey,  and  some  other  per- 
sons of  the  queen  mother's  party.  Glouces- 
ter was  appointed  "  protector  and  defender 
of  the  realm"  by  the  council  of  state,  which 
act  parliament  confirmed.  He  now  resolved 
to  make  himself  king,  as  the  only  alternative 
to  becoming  a  victim  of  the  queen  moth- 
er's party.  His  proceedings  are  involved  in 
much  obscurity,  but  on  June  13  Lord  Hastings, 
the  lord  chamberlain,  was  suddenly  seized  at 
the  tower  by  Gloucester's  order  and  put  to 
death,  without  even  the  form  of  a  trial,  on 
the  charge  of  being  concerned  in  a  conspiracy 
against  the  protector  and  for  the  seizure  of  the 
government.  Hastings,  to  whom  Gloucester 
was  attached,  was  probably  murdered  because 
the  latter  knew  that  he  would  never  be  false 
to  Edward  V.  The  children  of  Edward  IV. 
were  declared  illegitimate,  because  their  father 
had  entered  into  a  contract  with  Lady  Elinor 
Butler  before  he  married  Elizabeth  Grey.  The 
young  king  was  set  aside  by  the  estates  of  the 
realm,  by  whom  Gloucester  was  requested  to 
ascend  the  vacant  throne.  He  complied,  and 
became  king  June  26,  1483,  with  the  style  and 
title  of  Richard  III.  No  opposition  was  made 
to  him,  and  his  coronation  took  place  July  6. 
But  the  people  soon  began  to  murmur  because 
of  the  fate  of  the  young  princes.  (See  EDWARD 
V.)  The  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  had  been 
the  chief  agent  in  Richard's  elevation  to  the 
throne,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  for  his  over- 
throw. The  earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  re- 
garded as  the  head  of  the  Lancastrian  party, 
was  to  be  made  king,  on  condition  that  he 
espoused  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.  This  conspiracy  failed,  and  Buckingham 
was  executed.  The  queen  dowager  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  leave  sanctuary,  in  which  she 
had  taken  refuge,  and  to  place  herself  and 
family  in  Richard's  hands.  The  parliament  of 
1484  confirmed  the  king's  title,  and  settled  the 
crown  on  his  son  Edward,  prince  of  Wales ; 
but  that  prince  died  immediately  after.  Ed- 
ward, earl  of  Warwick,  son  of  the  late  duke  of 
Clarence,  was  then  named  heir  to  the  crown, 
but  was  soon  set  aside,  and  the  earl  of  Lin- 
coln, eldest  son  of  the  king's  eldest  living  sis- 
ter, the  duchess  of  Suffolk,  was  substituted  for 
him.  Richard  had  now  become  very  unpopu- 
lar, because  of  the  forced  loans  he  had  made, 
though  his  general  legislation  was  good.  The 
earl  of  Richmond,  after  several  failures,  re- 
solved to  make  another  attempt  to  gain  the 
English  crown.  Assisted  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment and  by  the  duke  of  Brittany,  he  land- 
ed at  Milford  Haven  Aug.  7,  1485.  Richard 
had  assembled  a  large  army,  and  would  have 


easily  crushed  his  rival  but  for  the  infidelity 
of  some  of  his  nobles.  The  two  armies  met 
on  Bosworth  field,  Aug.  22,  and  Lord  Stanley 
went  over  to  Richmond  in  the  heat  of  the 
battle,  while  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who 
commanded  the  second  line  of  the  royal  army, 
stood  aloof.  Even  then  the  king  might  have 
retrieved  his  fortune  but  for  the  conduct  of 
Sir  William  Stanley,  who  had  remained  neutral 
until  Richard  had  hewn  his  way  to  where 
Richmond  stood,  when  he  joined  the  Lancas- 
trians at  the  head  of  3,000  men.  This  decided 
the  result  of  the  battle.  Richard  fell  fighting 
bravely,  declaring  that  he  would  die  king  of 
England.  His  body  was  basely  treated  by  the 
victors,  and  was  begged  and  buried  by  the 
nuns  of  Leicester  in  their  chapel.  Richard  III. 
was  the  last  of  the  Plantagenets,  whose  dynas- 
ty was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Tudors. 

RICHARD  DE  BURY.     See  AUNGEEVTLE. 

RICHARD  PLANTAGENET,  earl  of  Cornwall,  a 
German  emperor  (known  in  English  history 
as  king  of  the  Romans),  born  in  Winchester 
in  January,  1209,  died  April  2,  1272.  He  was 
the  younger  son  of  King  John  of  England,  was 
engaged  with  his  brother  Henry  III.  in  his 
French  wars,  and  fought  with  the  crusaders  in 
Palestine.  He  availed  himself  of  the  distract- 
ed state  of  Germany,  which  followed  the 
death  of  Conrad  IV.,  to  put  himself  forward 
as  a  candidate  for  the  imperial  throne,  and  his 
immense  wealth  secured  him  a  partial  election 
(1256),  while  the  adverse  party  chose  Alfonso 
of  Castile.  Richard  was  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  May,  1257,  but  achieved  no  gen- 
eral recognition.  He  took  part  in  the  troubles 
of  England,  and  was  made  prisoner  by  Simon 
de  Montfort  at  the  battle  of  Lewes,  May  13, 
1264.  He  finally  quitted  Germany  in  1269. 
The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  made  him  the  rich- 
est prince  in  Christendom. 

RICHARDSON,  the  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska, 
separated  from  Missouri  on  the  east  by  the 
Missouri  river,  bordering  S.  on  Kansas,  and 
watered  by  the  Nemaha  and  other  streams ; 
area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,780. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Atchison  and  Nebraska 
railroad.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  the 
soil  very  fertile.  There  are  extensive  prairies 
and  numerous  groves.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  140,143  bushels  of  wheat,  1,003,- 
010  of  Indian  corn,  143,006  of  oats,  98,056  of 
potatoes,  10,749  Ibs.  of  wool,  164,358  of  but- 
ter, and  15,398  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,924 
horses,  3,829  milch  cows,  6,077  other  cattle, 
3,712  sheep,  and  12,743  swine;  3  brick  njanu- 
factories  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Falls  City. 

RICHARDSON,  iJenjanrin  Ward,  an  English  phy- 
sician, born  at  Somerby,  Leicestershire,  Oct. 
31,  1828.  He  took  his  degree  in  1854  at  the 
university  of  St.  Andrews,  became  a  member 
of  the  royal  college  of  physicians  in  1856,  and 
gained  the  Astley  Cooper  prize  of  £300  for 
his  treatise  on  the  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
and  the  Fothergillian  gold  medal  for  his  dis- 
quisition on  the  diseases  of  the  fcetus.  He 


316 


RICHARDSON 


RICHELIEU 


was  the  first  to  employ  ether  spray  for  local 
pain  (1866),  and  in  1867  he  introduced  methy- 
lene  bichloride  as  a  general  anaesthetic.  He 
has  published  "Discourses  on  Practical  Phys- 
ic," and  many  monographs  in  periodicals,  and 
edited  the  "  Journal  of  Public  Health,"  found- 
ed by  him,  and  the  "  Social  Science  Review." 

RICHARDSON,  Charles,  an  English  philologist, 
born  in  July,  1775,  died  at  Feltham,  Middlesex, 
Oct.  6,  1865.  In  1815  appeared  his  "Illustra- 
tions of  English  Philology,"  in  which  he  advo- 
cated the  principles  set  forth  by  Home  Tooke. 
He  undertook  the  lexicographical  portion  of  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana,"  the  first  part 
appearing  in  January,  1818  ;  but  after  the  issue 
of  the  fourth  part  the  work  was  suspended  for 
some  years.  The  publication  of  the  dictionary 
as  a  separate  work  was  commenced  in  January, 
1835,  and  finished  at  the  end  of  1837  (2  vols. 
4to).  He  also  publfshed  a  volume  "  On  the 
Study  of  Languages"  (12mo,  1854),  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  "  Diver- 
sions of  Purley." 

RICHARDSON,  James,  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  Nov.  8,  1809, 
died  at  Ungurutua,  central  Africa,  March  4, 
1851.  He  early  visited  Algeria  and  the  Bar- 
bary  states,  and  in  1845  travelled  across  the 
desert  of  Sahara  as  far  as  Ghadames  and  Ghat, 
and  after  his  return  published  "Travels  in 
the  Great  Desert  of  Sak'ara"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1849).  The  English  government  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  a  new  expedition,  and,  joined  by 
Barth  and  Overweg,  he  left  Tripoli  in  1850, 
and  was  the  first  European  visitor  of  the  stony 
desert  of  Hammadah,  whence  he  proceeded 
to  Bornoo,  where  he  died.  Bayle  St.  John 
edited  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Central 
Africa"  (2  vols.,  1853). 

RICHARDSON,  Sir  John,  a  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  in  Dumfries,  Nov.  5,  1787,  died  near  Gras- 
mere,  June  5,  1805.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1801  as  an  assistant  surgeon,  and  subsequently 
became  acting  surgeon  in  the  Hercules,  74. 
In  1819-'22  and  1825-'7  he  accompanied  Sir 
John  Franklin  in  his  arctic  expeditions  as  sur- 
geon and  naturalist,  and  in  the  second  with 
one  detachment  of  the  party  explored  the  coast 
E.  of  the  Mackenzie  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cop- 
permine river.  In  1848  he  commanded  one  of 
the  three  expeditions  which  went  out  in  search 
of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  returned  in  Novem- 
ber, 1849.  In  1855  he  retired  from  the  naval 
service.  His  most  important  work  is  the 
Fauna  Boreali- Americana  (4  vols.  4to,  Lon- 
don. 1829-'37),  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
Swamson  and  Kirby.  He  also  published  "  The 
Arctic  Searching  Expedition,  a  Journal  of  a 
Boat  Voyage  through  Rupert's  Land  and  the 
Arctic  Sea,"  &c.  (2  vols.  8vo,  1851),  and  "The 
Polar  Regions"  (8vo,  Edinburgh,  1861). 

RICHARDSON,  Samuel,  an  English  author,  born 
in  Derbyshire  in  1689,  died  in  London,  July  4, 
1761.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  of 
London,  with  whom  he  remained  several  years 
in  the  capacity  of  foreman.  He  then  set  up  a 


printing  office  for  himself,  and  obtained  the 
employment  of  printing  the  journals  of  the 
house  of  commons.  In  1754  he  was  master 
of  the  stationers'  company.  To  his  avocation 
of  printer  he  gradually  united  that  of  prepar- 
ing indexes,  prefaces,  or  dedications  to  the 
works  which  he  printed ;  and  finally,  after  he 
was  50  years  old,  he  wrote  his  novel  "Pame^ 
la"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1741),  five  editions  of  which 
were  published  within  a  year.  He  afterward 
wrote  two  additional  volumes,  which  are  con- 
sidered greatly  inferior  to  the  first.  The  ridi- 
cule of  Fielding  is  well  known.  Richardson 
was  deeply  hurt  by  it,  and  predicted  for  Field- 
ing a  speedy  fall  into  oblivion.  In  1748-'9 
appeared  "  The  History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe  " 
(8  vols.),  which,  besides  passing  through  sev- 
eral editions  at  home,  was  speedily  translated 
into  French  and  German.  His  last  work  of 
fiction  was  "  The  History  of  Sir  Charles  Gran- 
dison"  (6  vols.,  1753-'4).  He  also  published 
"./Esop's  Fables  with  Reflections,"  and  "Fa- 
miliar Letters  to  and  from  several  Persons 
upon  Business  and  other  Subjects,"  out  of 
which  the  project  of  "Pamela"  had  arisen. 
His  "  Correspondence  "  was  published  by  Mrs. 
Barbauld  in  1804  (6  vols.  12mo).  A  con- 
densed edition  of  "  Clarissa  Harlowe "  ap- 
peared in  New  York  in  1874. 

RICHELIEU,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, bounded  N.  W.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river; 
area,  189  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  20,048,  of  whom 
19,317  were  of  French  origin  or  descent.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  Richelieu  river,  and  bound- 
ed S.  E.  by  the  Yamaska.  Capital,  Sorel. 

RICHELIEU,  Armand  Jean  Daptessis,  cardinal 
and  duke  de,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris, 
Sept.  5,  1585,  died  there,  Dec.  4,  M42.  Ho 
was  first  destined  to  the  career  of  arms,  and 
began  his  military  education  as  marquis  du 
Chillon ;  but  his  elder  brother  having  resigned 
the  bishopric  of  Lucon,  he  decided  to  take  holy 
orders  in  order  to  succeed  to  that  office.  He 
studied  theology,  and  was  consecrated  bishop 
on  April  16,  1607.  In  1614  he  was  one  of  the 
deputies  of  the  clergy  to  the  states  general, 
and  ingratiated  himself  with  Maria  de'  Medici, 
assisted  by  Barbin,  then  comptroller  of  the 
treasury,  and  by  Marshal  d'Ancre.  lie  was 
appointed  almoner  of  the  queen  mother,  and 
in  November,  1616,  he  entered  the  council  as 
secretary  of  state.  When,  after  the  murder 
of  Marshal  d'Ancre,  Maria  de'  Medici  was  ex- 
iled to  Blois,  Richelieu  accompanied  her,  ac- 
tuated less  by  gratitude  than  by  self-interest. 
His  efforts  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  king  and  his  mother  resulted  only 
in  his  own  banishment  to  his  diocese  of  Lu- 
con, which  was  followed  in  1618  by  a  removal 
to  Avignon,  where  he  produced  among  othef 
works  one  entitled  De  la  perfection  du  Chre- 
tien, a  book  of  exalted  asceticism.  "When  Maria 
de'  Medici  was  recalled  to  the  court,  she  rein- 
stated Richelieu  in  favor.  From  that  period  his 
credit  constantly  increased.  Having  strength- 
ened his  position  by  the  marriage  of  his  niece 


RICHELIEU 


31T 


with  the  nephew  of  the  duke  de  Luynes,  con- 
stable of  France,  he' received  the  cardinal's  hat 
(1622),  reentered  the  state  council,  and  soon 
after,  in  spite  of  the  unabated  dislike  of  Louis 
XIII.,  rose  to  the  premiership.  His  policy 
comprised  three  principal  designs  for  the  con- 
solidation of  the  monarchy  and  the  greatness 
of  France :  1,  the  consummation  of  the  work 
of  Louis  XI.  by  the  extinction  of  the  last  re- 
mains of  feudalism,  and  the  full  subjection  of 
the  high  nobility  to  the  royal  power;  2,  the 
subjugation  of  Protestantism  in  France,  where 
it  had  assumed  a  character  as  much  political 
as  religious ;  3,  the  abasement  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  by  crushing  its  ambition  for  uni- 
versal domination,  and  consequently  the  ele- 
vation of  the  power  of  France  abroad.  As 
a  preliminary  step,  he  took  from  Austria  the 
passes  of  the  Valtellina,  and  secured  them  by 
treaty  (1626)  to  Switzerland ;  and  in  the  same 
year  he  set  on  foot  the  war  against  the  Prot- 
estants and  England,  which  extended  to  them 
her  protection.  Richelieu  determined  to  strike 
at  once  a  decisive  blow,  by  taking  from  the 
Protestants  their  most  important  stronghold. 
The  siege  of  La  Rochelle  was  begun,  and 
prosecuted  with  an  activity  to  which  the  pres- 
ence of  the  cardinal  himself  added  a  new  im- 
pulse. The  besieged  made  so  desperate  a  re- 
sistance that  the  population  of  the  city  was 
reduced  by  war  and  famine  from  30,000  to 
5,000  souls,  when  they  surrendered  on  Oct. 
28,  1628.  This  event,  followed  by  the  treaty 
of  Alais  and  the  edict  of  Nimes,  put  an  end 
to  the  political  power  of  Protestantism  in 
France,  and  one  of  Richelieu's  designs  was 
accomplished.  The  other,  against  the  high 
nobility,  had  already  been  attained  by  the  im- 
prisonment in  the  castle  of  Vincennes  of  the 
marshal  d'Ornano,  confidant  and  favorite  of 
Gaston  of  Orleans,  brother  of  the  king.  On 
hearing  of  that  bold  measure,  the  lords  .has- 
tened to  Fontainebleau,  and  there  laid  the  first 
plot  against  the  life  of  the  cardinal,  who,  being 
informed  of  it,  decided  at  once  to  make  such 
an  example  as  would  strike  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  his  enemies.  The  count  de  Chalais 
of  the  house  of  Perigord,  a  giddy  young  man, 
led  away  far  more  by  his  love  for  the  duchess 
de  Chevreuse  than  by  any  political  hatred,  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Am- 
boise.  It  is  said  that  he  was  there  seduced 
into  disclosures  against  the  queen  by  promises 
of  mercy,  but  he  was  beheaded  in  1626,  his 
accomplices  being  either  detained  in  prison  or 
dispersed.  But  Richelieu  meant  to  bring  the 
nobility  to  practical  obedience  and  submission 
to  the  royal  power.  In  order  to  stop  a  bloody 
mania  which  threatened  to  deprive  the  coun- 
try of  the  flower  of  its  young  noblemen,  the 
penalty  of  death  had  been  proclaimed  against 
those  who  should  fight  duels.  In  defiance  of 
the  ordinance,  in  1627  Francois  de  Montmo- 
rency,  seigneur  de  Bouteville,  and  the  count  des 
Chapelles,  young  nobles  of  the  highest  rank, 
fought  in  Paris,  in  the  Place  Royale  itself,  and 


both  paid  the  penalty  with  their  lives.  The 
consolidation  of  the  government  at  home  did 
not  divert  the  cardinal  from  carrying  out  his 
plans  abroad.  Charles  de  Gonzague,  duke  of 
Nevers,  legitimate  heir  to  the  duchy  of  Mantua, 
without  any  help  but  the  protection  of  France, 
was  maintained  in  possession  of  his  inheri- 
tance by  force  of  arms.  This  war  set  at  vari- 
ance for  the  first  time  the  cardinal  and  Maria 
de'  Medici,  who  now  joined  Anne  of  Austria  in 
opposition  to  the  prime  minister.  The  misun- 
derstanding soon  became  a  deep  hatred.  The 
queen  mother  determined  to  destroy  her  for- 
mer favorite,  and  the  cardinal  was  informed  of 
his  dismissal.  There  was  great  exultation  at 
court,  but  Richelieu  went  to  Versailles,  where 
Louis  XIII.  had  gone  to  hunt,  and  in  a  brief  in- 
terview fairly  frightened  him  into  a  reconcilia- 
tion. This  event  is  known  under  the  name  of 
lajournee  des  dupes.  Richelieu,  more  power- 
ful than  ever,  took  revenge  at  once  upon  his 
declared  opponents.  Marillac,  who  had  been 
selected  as  his  successor,  was  exiled  to  Lisieux, 
while  his  more  important  brother,  the  marshal 
de  Marillac,  was  imprisoned  and  afterward  put 
to  death.  Maria  de'  Medici  did  not  yet  con- 
sider herself  defeated,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  Gaston  of  Orleans  laid  new  plots  against 
the  cardinal.  This  proved  her  ruin ;  she  was 
exiled  from  France  in  1631,  while  her  parti- 
sans either  shared  her  fate  or  were  cast  into 
prison,  and  for  years  she  wandered  about,  pur- 
sued by  the  implacable  resentment  of  Riche- 
lieu. In  1631,  the  year  when  Richelieu  was 
elevated  to  the  dukedom  and  peerage,  her  for- 
mer associate  the  duke  of  Orleans  and  the 
marshal  duke  of  Montmorency  organized  a  new 
rebellion,  but  were  overthrown  at  Castelnau- 
dary,  and  Montmorency  was  executed.  The 
thirty  years'  war  was  then  raging  in  Ger- 
many. Richelieu  did  not  hesitate  to  side  with 
the  Protestants  against  the  house  of  Austria, 
and  assisted  Gustavus  Adolphus  by  subsidies. 
The  power  of  Richelieu  had  now  attained  its 
highest  prosperity  at  home  and  abroad,  both 
his  domestic  and  foreign  policy  being  crowned 
with  success.  "While  the  power  of  Germany 
was  assailed  through  the  sword  of  the  king  of 
Sweden,  the  revolution  was  at  the  same  time 
encouraged  in  England,  whose  court  had  been 
a  refuge  for  Maria  de'  Medici.  When  Gustavus 
Adolphus  fell  at  Liitzen  (1632),  Richelieu  con- 
trived to  secure  to  France  new  possessions  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  services  of 
the  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  with  his  army.  He 
now  declared  war  against  Spain,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  capture  of  Perpignan  (1642).  At 
last  Austria  was  humiliated,  Portugal  was  sep- 
arated from  Spain  (1640),  French  influence  pre- 
dominated in  Catalonia,  England  was  in  full 
revolution,  and  France  quiet  and  prosperous. 
Still,  the  administration  of  Richelieu  was  again 
threatened  by  intrigues  at  court  or  treason  in 
the  camps.  An  attempt,  based  upon  a  passion 
of  Louis  XIII.  for  Mile,  de  Lafayette,  had  no 
result  but  the  retirement  of  the  intended  mis- 


318 


EICHELIEU 


RICHLAND 


tress  to  the  convent  of  Chaillot,  and  the  dis- 
missal of  the  king's  ordinary  confessor.  Nor 
was  the  rebellion  of  the  count  de  Soissons, 
prince  of  the  blood,  any  more  successful,  its 
leader  being  killed  in  his  first  battle  against 
the  royal  troops  at  Sedan  (1641).  The  last 
of  these  conspiracies  of  the  nobility  was  the 
secret  treaty  of  alliance  concluded  with  Spain 
by  the  dukes  of  Bouillon  and  Orleans.  The 
young  marquis  de  Cinq-Mars,  although  in- 
debted to  Richelieu  for  the  high  favor  and 
the  high  offices  that  he  enjoyed  at  court,  was 
one  of  the  first  among  the  conspirators.  He 
was  executed  at  Lyons,  with  his  friend  De 
Thou,  Sept.  12,  1642.  After  this  last  vindi- 
cation of  his  power,  Richelieu,  an  invalid,  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  triumph,  carried  on  a  litter 
by  his  guards,  escorted  by  an  army,  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  utmost  pomp.  Two  months 
after,  his  unrivalled  fortune  being  at  its  very 
zenith,  he  died.  Richelieu  was  the  founder 
of  the  French  academy.  He  also  founded 
the  jardin  du  roi,  now  the  jardin  des  plantet, 
and  enlarged  the  Sorhonno.  He  wrote  two 
plays,  Mirame,  a  comedy,  and  La  grande  pas- 
torale, neither  of  any  value.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  author  of  Memoires  du  cardinal  de  Ri- 
chelieu, first  published  complete  by  Petitot  in 
his  collection  of  memoirs  relating  to  French 
history  (Paris,  1823) ;  of  the  Testament  poli- 
tique  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (2  vols.,  1764) ; 
and  of  the  Journal  du  cardinal  de  Riche- 
lieu, qit'il  a  fait  durant  le  grand  orage  de  la 
cour  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1649).  The  Lettres, 
instructions  diplomatiques,  &c.,  of  Richelieu 
have  been  edited  by  Avenel  (6  vols.,  Paris, 
1853-'68).  See  also  Martineau,  Le  cardinal 
de  Richelieu  (1865  et  seq.). — The  cardinal's 
elder  brother,  ALPHONSK  Louis  DUPLESSIS,  who 
had  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Lucon  to  retire 
to  a  Carthusian  convent,  was  reluctantly  com- 
pelled to  resume  high  offices  in  the  church. 
Archbishop  of  Aix  in  1626,  archbishop  of 
Lyons  in  1629,  grand  almoner  of  France  in 
1632,  he  died  in  1653,  71  years  of  age.  Riche- 
lieu had  two  sisters,  of  whom  Francoise,  the 
elder,  married  linn'-  de  Vignerod,  and  had 
a  son  who  died  in  1646,  leaving  two  sons, 
the  elder  of  whom,  Louis  FuANgois  ARMAXD 
DUPLESSIS,  known  as  the  marshal  de  Riche- 
lieu, born  March  13,  1696,  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  of  his  great-uncle,  commanded  in  the 
seven  years'  war,  was  one  of  the  most  notori- 
ous roues  and  worthless  characters  in  French 
history,  and  died  Aug.  8,  1788.  His  grandson, 
ABMAND  EMMANUEL  DUPLESSIS,  duke  de  Riche- 
lieu, born  in  Paris,  Sept.  25,  1766,  was  active 
as  an  agent  of  the  French  royal  family  during 
the  revolution,  entered  the  Russian  civil  ser- 
vice, was  governor  of  Odessa,  which  he  em- 
bellished, under  Alexander  I.,  refused  to  serve 
Napoleon,  and  was  prime  minister  under  Louis 
XVIII.  He  succeeded  in  procuring  from  the 
great  European  powers,  at  the  congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818),  terms  much  less  severe 
than  they  had  required  from  the  French  gov- 


ernment in  1815.  Though  poor,  he  refused  a 
national  recompense  from  the  chambers,  and, 
when  a  pension  of  50,000  francs  was  con- 
ferred on  him,  gave  it  to  found  a  hospital  at 
Bordeaux.  He  died  March  16,  1822,  and  was 
succeeded  in  his  titles  by  his  sister's  son,  Ar- 
mand  Francois  Odet  de  Chapelle  de  Jumilhac. 

RICHER,  Edonard,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Noirmoutiers,  department  of  Vendee,  June  12, 
1792,  died  in  Nantes,  Jan.  21,  1834.  His  fa- 
ther fell  in  battle  with  the  Austrians  in  1798. 
The  national  convention  by  a  special  decree 
adopted  him,  but  from  delicate  health  he  did 
not  follow  his  father's  profession.  He  pub- 
lished in  1816  a  poem  entitled  Victor  et  Amelie, 
and  in  1821  a  history  of  Brittany.  He  became 
a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  and 
wrote  La  religion  du  bon  sens,  La  clej  du  mys- 
tere,  &c.  A  collection  of  his  Swedenborgian 
writings  appeared  at  Nantes  in  8  vols.  (1832- 
'6),  and  his  literary  remains  were  edited  in 
1836,  with  a  biography,  by  Emile  Souvestre. 

RICHERi.Vl),  Antbelme,  baron,  a  French  phys- 
iologist, born  in  Belley,  Feb.  4,  1779,  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  25,  1840.  He  graduated  at  the 
Paris  school  of  medicine  in  1799,  and  at  first 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  physiology. 
He  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  hospital  St. 
Louis,  and  in  1807  professor  of  surgical  pa- 
thology in  the  faculty  of  medicine.  When  the 
allied  troops  occupied  Paris  on  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon, Richerand  was  distinguished  by  the  vigor 
and  devotion  with  which  he  cared  for  the  sick 
and  wounded  of  all  nationalities,  for  which  ho 
received  many  honors  from  foreign  govern- 
ments, and  the  French  government  made  him 
a  baron  and  surgeon-in-chief  to  the  three  first 
legions  of  the  national  guard  of  Paris.  His 
principal  works  are :  Nouveaux  elements  de 
physiologic  (Paris,  1801),  which  passed  through 
ten  editions  and  was  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages ;  Lecons  sur  les  maladies  des  os  (1805) ; 
Nosographie  et  therapeutique  chirurgicales 
(1805);  De  Tenteignement  actuel  de  la  mede- 
cine  et  de  la  chirurgie  (1816)  ;  Dea  officiers  de 
sante  et  des  jurys  medicaux  (1884)  ;  and  De  la 
population  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  nature 
des  gouternements  (1837). 

RICHLAND,  the  name  of  counties  in  six  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of 
South  Carolina,  bordered  W.  and  S.  W.  by  the 
Congaree  river  and  E.  by  the  Wateree,  and 
drained  by  their  branches ;  area,  465  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  23,025,  of  whom  15,177  were 
colored.  It  has  a  somewhat  hilly  surface,  with 
pine  forests,  and  a  fertile  soil.  Several  rail- 
roads terminate  at  Columbia.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  121,495  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  12,805  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,565  tons 
of  hay,  5,453  bales  of  cotton,  26,823  Ibs.  of 
rice,  and  1,082  of  wool.  There  were  623 
horses,  990  mules  and  asses,  1,367  milch  cows, 
2,623  other  cattle,  1,068  sheep,  and  5,579 
swine ;  1  manufactory  of  railroad  cars,  3  of 
iron  castings,  5  of  machinery,  1  of  cotton-seed 
oil,  7  flour  mills,  and  4  saw  mills.  Capital. 


HIGHLAND 


RICHMOND 


319 


Columbia,  which  is  also  the  capital  of  the 
state.  II.  A  N.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana,  drained 
by  Bayou  Boeuf  and  other  streams ;  area,  about 
550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,110,  of  whom  2,705 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  low  and  level 
and  the  soil  highly  productive.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  North  Louisiana  and  Texas  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  95,225 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  3,235  of  peas  and 
beans,  19,839  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  6,051 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  958  horses,  653 
mules  and  asses,  2,829  milch  cows,  2,968  other 
cattle,  1,843  sheep,  and  11,094  swine.  Capital, 
Kayville.  III.  A  N.  county  of  Ohio,  drained 
by  the  head  waters  of  the  Walhonding  river ; 
area,  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  32,516. 
It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
Several  railroads  centre  at  the  county  seat. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  588,575 
bushels  of  wheat,  621,381  of  Indian  corn, 
700,830  of  oats,  113,877  of  potatoes,  36,740 
tons  of  hay,  269,981  Ibs.  of  wool,  833,005  of 
butter,  and  58,543  of  maple  sugar.  There 
were  8,580  horses,  8,979  milch  cows,  10,091 
other  cattle,  71,093  sheep,  and  25,116  swine; 

5  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 

6  of  brick,  24  of  carriages  and  wagons,  12  of 
men's  clothing,  12  of  furniture,  3  of  machinery, 
4  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  10  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  9  of  woollen  goods,  8 
iron  founderieSj  14  tanneries,  3  breweries,  22 
flour  mills,  and  11  saw  mills.     Capital,  Mans- 
field.    IV.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Illinois,  drained 
by  tributaries  of  the  Wabash  river ;  area,  about 
375  sq.  m. ;   pop.  in  1870,  12,803.     It  has  a 
nearly  level  surface  and  a  fertile  soil.     It  is 
intersected  by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rail- 
road.    The  chief  productions  in   1870   were 
150,268  bushels  of  wheat,  482,594  of  Indian 
corn,  204,634  of  oats,  11,422  tons  of  hay,  2,000 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  31,612  of  wool,  87,166  of  but- 
ter, and  8,080  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  3,254  horses,  2,723   milch  cows, 
4,054  other  cattle,  12,447  sheep,  and  12,256 
swine  ;  3  manufactories  of  furniture,  2  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  4  saw  mills,  and  2   flour 
mills.     Capital,  Olney.     V.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Wisconsin,  bordered  S.  by  Wisconsin  river  and 
drained  by  Pine  river  and  Knapp's  and  Mill 
creeks;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,731. 
It  has  a  generally  level  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  railroad 
skirts  the  S.  border.     The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  189,900  bushels  of  wheat,  345,- 
787  of  Indian  corn,  183,952  of  oats,  108,926 
of  potatoes,  17,349  tons  of  hay,  9,126  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,   68,573   of  wool,  316,734  of  butter, 
25,544  of  cheese,  and  350,436  of  hops.     There 
were  3,719   horses,  4,668   milch   cows,  1,117 
working  oxen,  5,715  other  cattle,  21,014  sheep, 
and  13,113  swine;  2  manufactories  of  furni- 
ture, 6  of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  flour  mills, 
and  8   saw  mills.     Capital,  Richland  Centre. 
VI.  An  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently  formed 
and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870  ;  area, 
about  1,400  sq.  m.     It  is  separated  from  Min- 

705  VOL.  xiv. — 21 


nesota  by  Red  river,  and  is  watered  by  its 
affluents.  The  river  bottoms  are  fertile ;  the 
rest  of  the  county  consists  of  rolling  prairies. 

RICHMOND,  the  name  of  counties  in  four  of 
the  United  States.  I.  The  southernmost  coun- 
ty of  New  York,  comprising  Staten  island, 
Shooter's  island  at  the  entrance  of  Newark 
bay,  and  the  islands  in  Staten  Island  sound ; 
area,  68£  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  33,029.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  35,083  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  12,001  of  oats,  34,863  of  pota- 
toes, and  7,610  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2 
bleaching  and  dyeing  establishments,  4  manu- 
factories of  brick,  7  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
1  of  machinery,  1  of  linseed  oil,  1  of  lead 
and  zinc,  5  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  4  ship 
yards,  2  flour  mills,  and  5  distilleries.  Capital, 
Richmond.  (See  STATEN  ISLAND.)  II.  An 
E.  county  of  Virginia,  bordered  S.  W.  by  the 
Rappahannock  river;  area,  about  175  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,503,  of  whom  3,028  were  col- 
ored. It  has  a  nearly  level  surface  and  fertile 
soil.  There  are  extensive  forests  of  pine,  and 
the  waters  abound  with  oysters.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  29,769  bushels  of 
wheat,  121,680  of  Indian  corn,  9,781  of  oats, 
1,736  bales  of  cotton,  and  1,913  Ibs.  of  wool. 
There  were  552  horses,  993  milch  cows,  1,063 
working  oxen,  1,274  other  cattle,  1,100  sheep, 
and  4,032  swine ;  3  flour  mills,  and  2  saw  mills. 
Capital,  "Warsaw.  III.  A  S.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  South  Carolina,  and 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Lumber  river  and  W.  by  the 
Yadkin ;  area,  about  730  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,882,  of  whom  6,598  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  productive. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Carolina  Central  rail- 
road. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
19,604  bushels  of  wheat,  131,855  of  Indian 
corn,  21,350  of  oats,  11,970  of  peas  and  beans, 
43,364  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  5,130  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  871  horses,  768  mules  and 
asses,  2,346  milch  cows,  3,295  other  cattle, 
2,247  sheep,  and  19,088  swine.  Capital,  Rock- 
ingham.  IV.  An  E.  county  of  Georgia,  sepa- 
rated from  South  Carolina  by  the  Savannah 
river;  area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
25,724,  of  whom  12,565  were  colored.  It  has 
an  uneven  surface,  and  the  soil  is  fertile  near 
the  streams.  It  is  intersected  by  several  rail- 
roads terminating  in  Augusta.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  3,610  bushels  of 
wheat,  77,895  of  Indian  corn,  18,544  of  sweet 
potatoes,  4,286  Ibs.  of  rice,  and  2,017  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  342  horses,  507  mules 
and  asses,  739  milch  cows,  1,334  other  cattle, 
378  sheep,  and  3,718  swine;  2  manufactories 
of  cotton  goods,  4  of  iron  castings,  8  of  ma- 
chinery, 2  of  marble  and  stone  work,  2  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  woollen  goods,  5 
flour  mills,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Augusta. 

RICHMOND.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  drained  by  the  St.  Francis  river,  an 
affluent  of  the  St.  Lawrence ;  area,  525  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  11,213,  of  whom  3,718  were  of 
French,  2,935  of  English,  2,463  of  Irish,  and 


320 


RICHMOND 


1,872  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  Capital, 
Richmond  East.  II.  A  county  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia, Canada,  occupying  the  S.  portion  of  Cape 
Breton  island,  with  Madame  and  smaller  isl- 
ands adjacent ;  area,  623  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
14,268,  of  whom  6,965  were  of  French,  4,902 
of  Scotch,  1,437  of  Irish,  and  746  of  English 
origin  or  descent.  Capital,  Arichat,  on  Ma- 
dame island. 

RICHMOND,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Virginia  and  of  Henrico  co.,  the 
largest  city  in  the  state,  on  the  N.  hank  of 
James  river,  here  crossed  by  five  bridges,  at 
the  head  of  tide  water,  and  at  the  lower  falls, 
about  150  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  95  m.  S.  S. 
W.  of  Washington;  lat.  37°  32'  17"  N.,  Ion. 
77°  27'  28"  W. ;  pop.  in  1790,  3,761 ;  in  1800, 
5,737;  in  1810,  9,785;  in  1820,  12,067;  in 
1830,  16,060;  in  184Q,  20,153;  in  1850,  27,- 
570;  in  1860,  37,910;  in  1870,  51,088,  of 
whom  3,778  were 
foreigners  and  23,- 
110 colored;  in  1874, 
60,705.  The  city  is 
built  on  Richmond 
and  Shockoe  hills, 
which  are  separated 
by  Shockoe  creek, 
and  is  surrounded  by 
beautiful  scenery.  It 
is  regularly  laid  out 
and  well  built;  the 
streets,  which  are 
lighted  with  gas, 
cross  each  other  at 
right  angles.  There 
is  a  line  of  horse  cars. 
On  Shockoe  hill  are 
the  state  capitol  and 
other  public  build- 
ings. The  capitol, 
in  the  centre  of  a 
park  of  eight  acres, 
is  a  large  and  im- 
posing edifice,  having  at  one  end  a  handsome 
portico ;  it  contains  in  its  central  hall  Hou- 
don's  celebrated  statue  of  Washington,  and 
near  by  a  marble  bust  of  Lafayette.  On 
the  east  of  the  capitol  square  is  the  gover- 
nor's mansion.  On  the  esplanade  leading 
from  the  mansion  toward  the  W.  gate  of  the 
square  stands  a  monument  by  Crawford,  con- 
sisting of  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington rising  from  a  pedestal  of  granite  sur- 
rounded by  bronze  figures  of  Patrick  Henry, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Marshall,  George  Ma- 
son, Thomas  Nelson,  and  Andrew  Lewis.  The 
square  also  contains  a  marble  statue  of  Hen- 
ry Clay.  Among  the  principal  public  build- 
ings, in  different  parts  of  the  city,  are  the  state 
penitentiary,  state  armory,  court  house,  jail, 
custom  house  (also  occupied  by  the  post  office), 
theatre,  and  two  markets.  There  are  several 
cemeteries,  the  handsomest  of  which  is  Holly- 
wood. The  falls  of  James  river  afford  im- 


mense water  power.  Vessels  drawing  16  ft. 
can  ascend  to  within  a  mile  of  the  centre  of 
the  city,  at  a  place  called  Rockets,  and  those 
of  18  ft.  draught  to  Warwick,  3  m.  below.  A 
canal  has  been  built  around  the  falls,  and  above 
them  there  is  navigation  for  over  200  m.  Im- 
provements are  in  progress  in  the  river,  which 
are  expected  to  render  the  docks  accessible  by 
vessels  drawing  19  ft.  The  James  River  and 
Kanawha  canal  extends  to  Buchanan,  196£  m. 
Richmond  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  five 
lines  of  railroad,  viz. :  Chesapeake  and  Ohio ; 
Richmond,  Danville,  and  Piedmont;  Richmond, 
Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac;  Richmond  and 
Petersburg;  and  Richmond,  York  River,  and 
Chesapeake.  The  value  of  its  foreign  com- 
merce for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1874,  was 
as  follows:  imports,  $156,260;  exports,  $3,- 
463,626.  The  number  of  entrances  was  33, 
tonnage  9,032 ;  clearances  74,  tonnage  36,305 ; 
number  of  vessels  belonging  in  the  district,  31, 


State  Capitol  of  Virginia. 

tonnage  2,528.  The  chief  articles  of  export 
are  tobacco  and  flour.  The  latter  is  noted  for 
its  excellent  quality,  and  is  mostly  shipped  to 
Brazil.  Great  quantities  of  tobacco  are  shipped 
to  the  north.  The  number  of  entrances  in  the 
coastwise  trade  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1873,  was  719,  tonnage  512,613;  clearances, 
579,  tonnage  487,004.  Regular  lines  of  steam- 
ers run  to  Norfolk,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia, 
and  New  York.  The  manufactures  give  em- 
ployment to  more  than  4,000  men.  The  prin- 
cipal establishments  are  13  iron  works,  ma- 
chine shops,  and  founderies,  producing  all 
kinds  of  wrought-  and  cast-iron  work,  steam 
engines,  agricultural  implements,  tobacco  ma- 
chinery, «Scc. ;  one  sugar  refinery,  one  tannery, 
four  manufactories  of  plug  and  smoking  to- 
bacco, four  of  cigars,  three  of  coaches  and 
wagons,  one  each  of  saws,  files,  &c.,  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  of  sheetings  and  shirtings, 
of  stoneware,  sumach,  cedar  ware,  bedding  and 


RICHMOND 


321 


corn  husks,  furniture,  and  paper  boxes ;  a  type 
foundery,  a  stone-cutting  establishment,  and 
five  flouring  mills,  capable  of  producing  2,000,- 
000  barrels  annually.  The  Tredegar  company 
has  a  capital  of  $1,000,000  and  employs  1,200 
hands,  producing  spikes,  axles,  bar  iron,  freight 
cars,  &c.,  to  the  annual  value  of  $3,250,000. 
There  are  several  granite  quarries  in  the  vicin- 
ity. The  city  contains  four  national  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,400,000,  six  state 
banks  and  savings  institutions,  with  $1,000,- 
000  capital,  and  ten  insurance  companies.  It 
is  divided  into  six  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  council.  The  police  force  on  Feb. 
1,  1875,  consisted  of  82  men.  The  fire  depart- 
ment comprises  five  steam  engine  companies, 
two  hook  and  ladder  companies,  and  one  hose 
company,  with  a  total  of  100  men,  and  has  a 
telegraphic  alarm.  The  city  is  supplied  with 
water  from  two  reservoirs,  with  an  aggregate 
capacity  of  50,000,000,  gallons,  which  are  filled 
from  the  river  by  force  pumps.  The  assessed 
value  of  real  estate  in  1874  was  $41,600,000. 
The  receipts  during  the  year  ending  Feb.  1, 
1875,  amounted  to  $1,574,355  37,  including 
$68,670  84  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period;  disbursements,  $1,495,717  56;  balance, 
$78,637  81.  The  bonded  debt  on  Feb.  1, 1875, 
amounted  to  $4,239,727  97;  floating  debt, 
$82,379  18;  total,  $4,322,107  15.  The  whole 
number  of  persons  admitted  to  the  city  alms- 
house  during  the  year  ending  on  that  date  was 
812;  average  number  of  inmates,  245.  One  of 
the  state  insane  asylums  is  situated  here.  There 
are  several  orphan  asylums  and  other  charitable 
institutions.  The  public  schools  are  under  the 
charge  of  a  board  of  nine  members,  besides  the 
mayor,  who  is  president  ex  qfficio.  There  are 
seven  school  houses  for  white  children,  with 
an  aggregate  seating  capacity  of  3,093,  and  five 
for  colored  children,  with  a  seating  capacity  of 
1,758.  The  number  of  schools  in  operation 
during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was  92, 
of  which  59  (1  high,  21  grammar,  and  37  pri- 
mary) were  white,  and  33  (5  grammar  and  28 
primary)  were  colored;  whole  number  of  teach- 
ers, 105,  of  whom  10  were  colored;  pupils  en- 
rolled, 4,959  (3,041  white  and  1,918  colored) ; 
average  daily  attendance,  3,595  (2,228  white 
and  1,367  colored).  The  expenditure  for  school 
purposes  during  the  year  ending  Aug.  1,  1874, 
amounted  to  $80,932  52,  of  which  $50,542  90 
were  for  teachers'  wages  and  $19,108  26  for 
construction  and  furniture;  value  of  school 
property  on  the  above  date,  $207,537  75. 
There  are  numerous  private  schools.  Rich- 
mond college,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists, 
founded  in  1840,  has  a  library  of  6,000  volumes 
and  a  law  department  organized  in  1868.  The 
Richmond  institute  (Baptist),  for  theological 
instruction,  was  founded  in  1868;  it  has  a 
library  of  1,200  volumes.  The  medical  college 
of  Virginia  was  established  in  1851.  Seven 
daily  (two  German),  four  semi- weekly,  and  ten 
weekly  newspapers,  and  two  semi-monthly  and 
seven  monthly  periodicals  are  published.  There 


are  49  churches,  viz. :  15  Baptist  (7  colored), 
1  Disciples',  6  Episcopal,  1  Friends',  4  Jewish, 

3  Lutheran,  11  Methodist  (1  colored),  4  Pres- 
byterian, 3  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Unitarian. 
— Richmond  was  founded  by  William  Byrd  in 
1737.     It  was  incorporated  in  1742,  and  be- 
came the  state  capital  in  1779,  at  which  period 
it  was  a  small  village.     On  the  night  of  Dec. 
26,  1811,  the  theatre  took  fire  while  crowded 
with  spectators,  of  whom  upward  of  70  per- 
ished, among  them  the  governor  of  the  state. 
A  church,  known  as  the  "  Monumental "  church, 
has  been  erected  on  the  site.     In  May,  1861, 
Richmond  was  made  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  "  Confederate  States  of  America,"  and  it  so 
continued  until  their  overthrow  in  April,  1865. 
Although  geographically  near  the  N.  E.  fron- 
tier, it  was  practically  the  military  centre  of 
the   confederacy.      If  the   railroads  meeting 
here,  and  extending  to  every  part  of  the  south 
and  southwest,  had  been  planned  for  military 
purposes,    they  could  not  have  been  better 
placed.     The  defensive  position  of  the  city  is 
excellent.     On  two  sides  it  is  covered  by  the 
James ;  on  the  other  sides  the  Chickahominy 
and  swamps  form  a  natural  line  of  exterior 
defence.     Here  also  were  mills,  manufactories, 
and  founderies.     When  McClellan  landed  on 
the  peninsula  in  the  spring  of  1862,  the  imme- 
diate capture  of  Richmond  was  apprehended  ; 
and  even  while  he  was  held  in  check  at  York- 
town  a  panic  arose.     On  April  21  the  con- 
federate congress  hastily  adjourned ;  the  gov- 
ernment archives   were  packed  up,  and  the 
railroads  were  crowded  with  fugitives.      The 
panic  increased   when   Yorktown  was  aban- 
doned, Norfolk  seized,  and  the  Merrimack  de- 
stroyed.    But  the  state  legislature  resolved 
that  the  city  should  be  defended  to  the  last 
extremity ;  the  governor  ordered  that  all  busi- 
ness except  the  filling  of  government  contracts 
should  be  suspended  at  2  o'clock ;  the  militia 
was  to  assemble  at  3  and  drill  till  sunset.     At 
this  time  there  were  no  fortifications,  and  no 
attempt  was  made  to  obstruct  the  passage  of 
the  Chickahominy;  and  a  determined  attack 
at  any  time  during  the  campaign  would  have 
had  good  chances  of  success.     From  August, 
1862,  to  June,  1864,  while  the  war  was  car- 
ried on  in  northern  Virginia,  Maryland,  and 
Pennsylvania,  Richmond  was  held  only  by  a 
few  thousand  militia ;  and  several  expeditions, 
mostly  of  cavalry,  were  undertaken  rather  with 
the  design  of  liberating  the  Union  prisoners 
and  destroying  the  public  works  than  of  per- 
manently holding  the  city,  which  might  have 
been  easily  retaken  by  the  confederates,  who 
were  in  force  between  it  and  the  Union  army 
of  the  Potomac.     In  March,  1864,  Kilpatrick, 
with  4,000  cavalry,  came  on  the  north  within 

4  m.  of  the  city,  penetrating  two  lines  of  de- 
fences, but  was  stopped  at  the  third,  and  aban- 
doned the  enterprise.     At  the  same  time  Dahl- 
gren  with  a  few  hundreds  reached  the  inner 
line  from  the  south,  but  was  repulsed,  himself 
killed  in  the  retreat,  and  his  command  dis- 


322 


RICHMOND 


Sersed.  Meantime  the  defences  of  Richmond 
ad  been  made  too  strong  to  be  assailed  in 
front,  and  the  operations  of  Grant,  although 
really  directed  against  that  city,  took  the  form 
of  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  (See  PETERSBURG, 
SIEGE  OF.)  Although  several  strong  demon- 
strations were  made  against  Richmond  during 
the  siege,  the  exterior  lines  were  never  car- 
ried, the  interior  lines  were  never  even  seen, 
and  in  the  city  itself  there  was  nothing  to 
show  that  it  was  beleaguered.  The  only  gar- 
rison was  the  militia  of  the  city,  under  Ewell, 
and  little  was  known  of  what  was  passing  in 
the  army.  When,  on  the  morning  of  April 
2,  1865,  Gen.  Lee  informed  Jefferson  Davis 
that  the  army  would  abandon  Petersburg  and 
Richmond  that  night,  there  was  a  universal 
panic.  The  government  archives  were  hastily 
packed  up  and  taken  to  the  station  of  the  Dan- 
ville railroad,  by  which  the  president  and  cab- 
inet set  off  in  a  special  train,  and  every  possi- 
ble effort  was  made  by  the  people  to  escape. 
As  night  fell  the  disorder  rose  to  tumult,  riot, 
and  general  pillage.  Toward  midnight  the 
last  of  the  troops  had  crossed  the  James,  and 
Ewell,  who  commanded  the  rear  guard,  ordered 
the  bridges  to  be  burned,  the  ironclads  in 
the  river  blown  up,  and  everything  destroyed 
which  could  be  of  use  to  the  enemy.  In  the 
very  heart  of  the  city  were  four  great  govern- 
ment warehouses  filled  with  tobacco,  which, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  mayor, 
Ewell  ordered  to  be  set  on  fire.  Close  by 
were  the  Gallego  flour  mills,  said  to  be  the 
largest  in  the  world,  and  the  arsenals  filled 
with  loaded  shells.  The  flames  spread  from 
street  to  street,  covering  acres  of  the  business 
part  of  the  city,  and  the  tumult  and  pillage 
continued  all  night.  Early  the  next  morning 
the  federal  general  Weitzel  entered  the  city 
with  20  horsemen,  finding  before  the  abatis 
in  his  front  a  line  of  torpedoes,  still  marked 
by  flags,  followed  by  three  lines  of  works, 
each  of  the  inner  ones  commanding  that  ex- 
terior to  it.  The  whole  Union  army  soon 
marched  in.  Gen.  Shepley,  who  had  filled 
the  same  post  at  New  Orleans,  was  made 
military  governor.  The  conflagration  was  still 
spreading,  and  every  effort  to  suppress  it  was 
unavailing  till  toward  evening,  when  the  wind 
veered,  and  the  flames  died  out.  Fully  one 
third  of  Richmond  had  been  burned,  compri- 
sing nearly  all  its  business  portion. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
"Wayne  co.,  Indiana,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  east 
branch  of  Whitewater  river,  68  m.  E.  of  Indian- 
apolis; pop.  in  1850,  1,443;  in  1860,  6,608; 
in  1870,  9,445  ;  in  1875,  11,579,  of  whom  1,581 
were  Germans  and  422  Irish.  It  is  built  on 
rolling  ground  700  ft.  above  tide  water,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  agricultural  district, 
with  which  it  has  an  important  trade.  There 
is  a  good  fire  department.  Horse  cars  traverse 
the  principal  streets.  In  the  N.  E.  corner 
of  the  city  are  fair  grounds  33  acres  in  extent. 
Richmond  is  an  important  railroad  centre,  the 


Little  Miami,  the  Cincinnati,  Richmond,  and 
Fort  Wayne,  and  the  Cincinnati,  Eaton,  and 
Richmond  railroads,  as  well  as  several  divisions 
of  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis 
railroad,  centring  here.  There  is  good  water 
power.  The  number  of  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  1874  was  127 ;  number  of  hands 
employed,  1,507;  capital  invested,  $1,807,785; 
value  of  raw  materials  used,  $795,784 ;  of  pro- 
ducts, $2,729,846.  The  chief  articles  of  manu- 
facture are  threshing  machines,  portable  en- 
gines, ploughs,  flour  and  saw  mill  works,  school 
and  church  furniture,  and  burial  caskets  of 
wood.  The  slaughtering  of  hogs  is  extensively 
carried  on,  the  number  slaughtered  in  1874 
being  27,700.  There  are  three  banks,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $900,000.  The  tax- 
able value  of  property  in  1875  was  $8,383,767. 
The  principal  charitable  institutions  are  the 
orphans'  home  and  the  home  for  friendless 
women.  There  are  nine  public  school  houses, 
with  a  high  school  and  inferior  grades,  having 
37  teachers  and  an  enrollment  of  1,900  pupils. 
There  are  also  two  Lutheran  and  two  Roman 
Catholic  schools  and  a  business  college.  The 
Friends'  academy  is  an  important  institution. 
Earlham  college,  also  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Friends,  was  founded  in  1859.  It  has  prepar- 
atory and  collegiate  departments,  and  admits 
both  sexes.  In  1874-'5  it  had  14  instructors, 
221  students,  and  a  library  of  3,500  volumes. 
The  buildings  are  about  half  a  mile  W.  of  the 
city.  Richmond  has  two  theatres,  two  daily 
and  six  weekly  (two  German)  newspapers, 
a.  public  library  of  10,000  volumes,  and  20 
churches:  2  Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Episcopal, 
1  Evangelical  Association,  3  Friends',  2  Lu- 
theran, 4  Methodist,  1  New  Jerusalem,  2  Pres- 
byterian, 2  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Wesleyan. 

RICHMOND,  a  town  of  Surrey,  England,  10  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  St.  Paul's,  London ;  pop.  in  1871, 
15,113.  It  is  built  on  the  side  and  summit 
of  an  eminence  on  the  Thames,  and  is  famous 
for  its  scenery.  It  is  well  paved,  lighted  with 
gas,  accessible  by  rail  and  steamboats  hourly 
from  the  capital,  and  connected  by  bridge  with 
Twickenham.  It  has  a  theatre,  lecture  hall, 
and  numerous  places  of  worship  ;  and  near  by 
are  Pembroke  lodge,  the  seat  of  Earl  Russell, 
within  the  park,  and  many  other  splendid  resi- 
dences. The  Wesleyan  theological  seminary, 
on  the  hill,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Tudor 
style.  The  parish  church  contains  monuments 
to  Thomson,  Edmund  Kean,  Dr.  John  Moore, 
Gilbert  Wakefield,  and  other  noted  men  who 
are  buried  here.  The  Star  and  Garter  hotel, 
near  the  park,  is  celebrated  alike  for  its  din- 
ners and  for  the  unrivalled  prospect  it  com- 
mands. Originally  built  in  1788,  it  has  been 
repeatedly  enlarged,  was  partially  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1870,  and  was  rebuilt  in  1872.  Here 
the  annual  dinners  of  the  bank  of  England 
directors  and  of  many  of  the  great  commercial 
companies  of  London  are  given. — Richmond 
was  originally  called  Schene  or  Scheen,  after- 
ward Sheen,  and  was  a  royal  residence  under 


RICHMOND 


RICKAREES 


323 


Edward  I.  and  II.  Edward  III.  died  here  in 
1377.  Chaucer  was  surveyor  of  the  works 
of  the  palace  in  1389.  Anne,  queen  of  Rich- 
ard II.,  died  here  in  1394.  In  1414  Henry  V. 
founded  a  Carthusian  priory,  which  was  appro- 
priated by  Henry  VIII.  in  1540,  restored  by 
Mary  in  1557,  and  suppressed  by  Elizabeth  in 
1559.  The  palace  was  burned  down  in  1498, 
but  was  rebuilt  immediately  after  by  Henry 
VII.,  who  changed  the  name  of  Sheen  to  Rich- 
mond, from  his  title  of  earl  of  Richmond  in 
Yorkshire  before  his  coronation,  and  he  died 
here  in  1509.  Mary  temporarily  imprisoned 
here  Elizabeth,  who  afterward  made  it  her  fa- 
vorite residence,  and  died  here  in  1603.  Rich- 
mond park,  originally  New  park,  comprising 
2,253  acres,  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall  8  m.  in 
circumference,  was  enclosed  by  Charles  I.  about 
1636,  and  was  thrown  open  to  the  public  in 
1752.  The  palace  was  partially  destroyed  un- 
der the  commonwealth,  and  was  pulled  down 
in  the  next  century.  George  III.  joined  the  old 
palace  park  to  Kew  gardens.  Sir  W.  Cham- 
bers built  the  Richmond  observatory  in  1769. 

RICHMOND,  Countess  of.  See  BEAUFORT,  MAR- 
GARET. 

RICHMOND,  Legh,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Liverpool,  Jan.  29,  1772,  died  at  Turvey, 
Bedfordshire,  May  8,  1827.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in  1794,  was  or- 
dained in  1797,  became  a  curate  in  the  Isle  of 
"Wight,  and  in  1805  chaplain  of  the  Lock  hos- 
pital, London,  and  in  the  same  year  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Turvey.  He  wrote 
"  Annals  of  the  Poor,"  including  the  celebrated 
story  of  the  "Dairyman's  Daughter,"  of  which 
separately  more  than  4,000,000  copies  in  19 
different  languages  have  been  circulated.  He 
also  published  "The  Fathers  of  the  English 
Church,  or  a  Selection  from  the  Writings  of 
the  Reformers  and  Early  Protestant  Divines 
of  the  Church  of  England  "  (8  vols.  8vo,  1807- 
'11),  and  "  Domestic  Portraitures,"  consisting 
of  memoirs  of  his  three  children. 

RICHTER,  Johann  Paul  Friedrich,  popularly 
"known  as  JEAN  PAUL,  a  German  author,  born 
at  Wunsiedel,  near  Baireuth,  March  21,  1763, 
died  in  Baireuth,  Nov.  14,  1825.  He  studied 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Hof  and  in  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  and  published  his  first  work  in 
l783-'4.  Poverty  drove  him  from  Leipsic, 
and  during  ten  years  he  taught  in  private 
families.  Subsequently  he  resided  at  Hof  un- 
til his  mother's  death  in  1797,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Leipsic,  and  in  1798  joined  Herder 
at  Weimar.  In  1801  he  married  Karoline 
Mayer  in  Berlin,  and  removed  to  Meiningen, 
and  next  to  Coburg,  and  in  1804  to  Baireuth, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  the  en- 
joyment of  a  pension  of  1,000  florins.  The 
death  in  1820  of  his  only  son  gave  a  blow  to 
his  health  from  which  he  never  recovered.  His 
writings  abound  in  a  bewildering  variety  of 
playful,  witty,  pathetic,  childlike,  and  sublime 
thoughts,  and  are  pervaded  by  a  high  moral 
tone ;  but  his  style  is  so  incongruous  and  intri- 


cate that  Reinhold  published  in  1810  a  special 
work  to  unravel  his  meaning.  His  principal 
works  are:  Die  unsichtbare  Loge,  a  novel  (2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1793);  Hesperus  (4  vols.,  1794; 
translated  into  English  by  Charles  T.  Brooks, 
Boston,  1865) ;  Blumen-,  Frucht-  und  Dornen- 
stucke  (4  vols.,  1796-'7 ;  translated  into  English 
by  E.  H.  Noel,  with  a  memoir  of  the  author  by 
Carlyle,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1863)  ;  Das  Kampaner- 
thal  (Erfurt,  1797;  English  translation,  "The 
Campaner  Thai  and  other  Writings,"  Boston, 
1863);  Titan  (Berlin,  1800-1803;  translated 
by  C.  T.  Brooks,  2  vols.  12mo,  Boston,  1862); 
Flegeljahre  (4  vols.,  Tubingen,  1804-'5);  Vor- 
scJiule  der  Aesthetik  (3  vols.,  Hamburg,  1804); 
and  Levana,  oder  Erziehungslehre  (Brunswick, 
1807;  4th  ed.,  enlarged  from  his  posthumous 
papers,  Stuttgart,  1861 ;  English  translation, 
Boston,  1863).  The  last  two  express  his  views 
on  philosophy,  in  which  he  sympathized  with 
Herder  and  Jacobi,  and  opposed  Fichte.  His 
complete  works  comprise  65  vols.  (Berlin, 
1826-'38).  E.  Forster  and  Christian  Otto  pub- 
lished Wahrheit  aus  Jean  Paul's  Leben,  partly 
founded  upon  his  autobiography  (8  vols.,  Bres- 
lau,  1826-'33),  and  Forster  was  the  sole  author 
of  DenkwurdigJceiten  aus  Jean  PauVs  Leben 
(7  vols.,  Munich,  1863).  Among  the  published 
correspondence  of  Jean  Paul  are  his  Brief e  an 
eine  Jugendfreundinn  (Brandenburg,  1858). 
Carlyle  was  the  first  in  1827  to  familiarize 
the  English  with  Jean  Paul's  genius.  In  the 
United  States  appeared  a  biographical  sketch 
after  the  German,  and  extracts  from  Flegel- 
jahre, translated  by  Eliza  Buckminster  Lee 
(Boston,  1842;  new  ed.,  1864). 

RICLMS.     See  CASTOR  OIL. 

RICKAREES,  or  Riearees,  called  also  Aricaras, 
Rees,  and  Black  Pawnees,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of 
the  Pawnee  family,  living  on  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri. They  are  said  to  call  themselves  Star- 
rahh6  and  also  Pauani.  They  are  an  offshoot  of 
the  Pawnees  of  Platte  valley,  Nebraska,  from 
whom  they  separated  about  a  century  ago. 
They  were  originally  ten  large  tribes,  but  were 
reduced  by  smallpox  in  1791  and  by  the  hos- 
tility and  oppression  of  the  Tetons  and  other 
Sioux.  They  were  warlike,  the  men  generally 
going  naked,  their  heads  adorned  with  feath- 
ers. They  came  into  collision  with  the  whites 
before  1810.  Twelve  years  after  they  were 
near  Cannon  Ball  river,  in  two  palisaded  vil- 
lages of  141  lodges.  On  June  2,  1823,  they 
attacked  Gen.  Ashley's  party  of  traders,  kill- 
ing and  wounding  23.  Col.  Leavenworth  was 
sent  against  them,  and  defeated  them  in  a 
severe  battle,  Aug.  9.  They  made  peace,  but 
fled  during  the  night  of  the  13th,  and  their 
towns  were  fired  by  the  traders.  The  Ricka- 
rees  went  to  the  Platte,  and  as  the  Sioux  seized 
their  country  became  wanderers.  By  1825 
they  were  again  on  the  Missouri,  where  a 
treaty  was  made  with  them,  July  11.  As  they 
still  remained  hostile,  all  trade  with  them  was 
closed  in  1831,  when  they  again  became  wan- 
derers. Some  years  later  they  returned  from 


324 


RICKETS 


RIDOLFI 


the  Platte  and  united  with  the  remnants  of 
the  Mandans,  and  have  since  lived  with  them 
and  the  Minnetarees,  engaging  largely  in  agri- 
culture. In  1862  they  removed  to  Fort  Ber- 
thold.  During  the  civil  war  a  number  served 
as  scouts  in  the  army.  By  the  treaty  of  July 
27,  1866,  $75,000  a  year  is  to  he  expended 
for  the  three  tribes ;  and  by  executive  order 
of  April  12,  1870,  a  reservation  of  8,640,000 
acres  in  N.  W.  Dakota  and  E.  Montana  was 
assigned  to  them.  They  have  begun  to  erect 
log  huts  instead  of  earth  lodges,  and  have  been 
assigned  to  the  care  of  the  American  board  of 
foreign  missions,  but  up  to  1875  had  no  mis- 
sionary or  school.  They  were  reported  in 
1874  at  975,  though  Dr.  Matthews  estimates 
them  at  only  800. 

RICKETS  (Lat.  raehitia,  from  Gr.  ^a^f,  the 
back  bone),  a  disease  of  children  characterized 
by  an  arrest  of  ossification,  and  leading  to  de- 
formity, chiefly  of  the  lower  limbs.  Rickets 
rarely  occurs  before  the  child  is  12  months 
old,  and  commonly  first  shows  itself  in  the 
second  year.  It  is  most  frequent  among  those 
who  inherit  unhealthy  constitutions,  and  who 
are  ill  fed  or  confined  to  a  damp  and  badly 
ventilated  atmosphere.  According  to  Trous- 
seau, 90  out  of  every  100  children  affected  with 
rickets  have  been  either  brought  up  entirely  by 
hand  or  have  been  prematurely  weaned.  Very 
frequently  the  disease  supervenes  on  some  ex- 
hausting and  long  continued  illness.  Trousseau 
thinks  the  tardy  evolution  of  the  first  teeth  is 
indicative  of  a  tendency  to  rickets.  The  first 
symptom  of  the  complaint  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  joints,  the  wrists,  knees,  &c.  After- 
ward the  long  bones,  particularly  those  of  the 
lower  extremities,  give  way  under  the  weight 
of  the  body,  and  become  bent,  sometimes  in 
one,  sometimes  in  another  direction ;  often  the 
ribs  are  pressed  in  and  the  sternum  pushed  out- 
ward, making  the  child  what  is  termed  chicken- 
breasted;  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  and  those  of 
the  spine  become  variously  bent  and  deformed. 
This  is  due  to  a  deficiency  in  the  proportion  of 
calcareous  matter  in  the  bones,  which  renders 
them  less  rigid  than  natural  and  liable  to  yield 
to  the  increasing  weight  of  the  body.  The  de- 
formity of  the  chest  produced  in  this  manner 
may  be  so  great  as  to  seriously  interfere  with 
the  functions  of  the  heart  and  lungs.  The 
bones  of  the  head  are  never  deformed,  though 
rachitic  children  have  frequently  large  heads, 
and  the  fontanelles  are  late  in  closing.  Du- 
ring the  progress  of  the  disease  the  patient  is 
pale  and  languid,  and  has  a  deficient  or  irregu- 
lar appetite.  It  is  very  rarely  fatal ;  after  an 
uncertain  period  the  appetite  returns,  the  child 
recovers  strength  and  flesh,  and  the  bones  at- 
tain their  natural  firmness;  in  after  life  the 
bones  affected  are  found  to  be  unusually  hard 
and  compact.  —  The  treatment  of  rickets  is 
mainly  by  a  nutritious,  digestible  diet,  fresh 
air,  suitable  clothing,  and  passive  exercise. 
Tonics  and  chalybeates  may  be  employed,  and 
the  tepid  salt-water  bath  may  be  found  useful. 


RICORD,  Philippe,  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  10,  1800.  His  father 
had  come  to  the  United  States  in  1790.  In 
1820  the  son  went  to  Paris,  where  he  received 
his  medical  degree  in  1826.  He  first  practised 
at  Olivet,  near  Orleans,  and  later  at  Crouy-sur- 
Ourcq.  From  1831  to  1860  he  was  surgeon-in- 
chief  of  the  hopital  du  midi  in  Paris.  He  has 
specially  devoted  himself  to  venereal  diseases, 
his  works  on  which  have  a  wide  reputation. — 
ALEXANDER,  his  brother,  born  in  Baltimore  in 
1798,  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Paris  in 
1824,  and  is  author  of  several  works  on  medi- 
cine and  natural  history. 

RIDLEY,  Nicholas,  an  English  bishop,  born  at 
Wilmontswick,  Northumberland,  about  1500, 
burned  at  the  stake  in  Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555. 
He  graduated  at  Pembroke  hall,  Cambridge,  in 
1518,  and  in  1524  took  holy  orders.  In  1527 
he  went  to  study  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  was 
afterward  at  Louvain  till  1529.  On  his  return 
to  Cambridge  he  was  chosen  under  treasurer 
of  the  university.  He  became  domestic  chap- 
lain to  Archbishop  Cranmer  in  1537,  vicar  of 
Herne  in  Kent  in  1538,  and  master  of  his  col- 
lege in  1540.  He  preached  against  the  use  of 
images  and  holy  water,  and  gradually  became 
a  strenuous  supporter  of  Protestant  doctrines. 
At  the  instigation  of  Bishop  Gardiner  he  was 
accused  of  preaching  against  the  six  articles, 
but  the  accusation  being  referred  to  Cranmer, 
he  was  acquitted.  In  1545  he  was  made  a  pre- 
bendary of  Westminster,  and  in  1547  bishop 
of  Rochester.  He  sat  on  the  commission  that 
deprived  Bonner  of  the  bishopric  of  London, 
and  in  1550  was  appointed  his  successor;  he 
also  shared  in  the  deposition  of  Bishop  Gardi- 
ner. He  assisted  Cranmer  in  preparing  the  41 
articles.  Having  sought  an  interview  with  the 
princess  Mary,  he  expressed  his  views  very 
freely,  and  requested  permission  to  preach 
before  her,  which  was  peremptorily  refused. 
Moved  by  a  sermon  of  Ridley's,  Edward  VI. 
converted  Grey  Friars  and  St.  Bartholomew's 
priories,  with  their  revenues,  into  charitable 
institutions,  and  his  own  house  of  Bridewell 
into  a  compulsory  workhouse  for  such  as  were 
in  distress  through  wilful  idleness.  In  a  ser- 
mon preached  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  Ridley  es- 
poused the  cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and 
warned  the  people  of  the  evil  that  would  fol- 
low to  Protestantism  if  Mary  should  come  to 
the  throne.  On  Mary's  accession  he  was  at 
once  arrested  and  committed  to  the  tower 
(July,  1553),  and  in  April,  1554,  was  taken  to 
Oxford,  to  attend  a  discussion  on  the  real 
presence.  At  its  close  he  was  with  Cranmer 
and  Latimer  adjudged  an  obstinate  heretic, 
and  confined  at  Oxford ;  and  after  many  at- 
tempts to  induce  him  to  recant,  he  was  led  to 
the  stake  with  Latimer.  His  works  were  col- 
lected by  the  Parker  society  (1  vol.  8vo,  1841). 

RIDOLFI,  Roberto,  an  Italian  conspirator,  born 
in  Florence  about  1520.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
don as  a  merchant  and  banker  in  1554,  acted 
there  as  secret  agent  for  the  pope  and  other 


RIEDESEL 


RIENZI 


325 


continental  princes,  and  was  engaged  in  sev- 
eral conspiracies  against  Queen  Elizabeth.  In 
1569  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  month  and 
fined.  In  1571  he  visited  Brussels,  Paris, 
Rome,  and  Madrid,  bearing  credentials  of  dis- 
puted authenticity  from  Mary  queen  of  Scots 
and  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  empowering  him  to 
solicit  aid  to  dethrone  Elizabeth,  and  a  papal 
decree  annulling  the  forced  marriage  of  Mary 
with  Bothwell.  The  duke  of  Alva  received 
him  coldly ;  the  pope  gave  him  money  and 
recommended  him  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  At 
Madrid,  where  he  arrived  July  3,  1571,  he  laid 
before  the  king  and  six  of  his  chosen  council- 
lors a  plan  for  assassinating  Queen  Elizabeth, 
which  he  declared  to  have  been  entertained 
by  the  English  Catholics  and  approved  by  the 
pope.  This  assertion,  to  which  the  pope's 
letter  of  commendation  gave  some  color,  in- 
duced the  king  to  give  a  partial  assent  to  the 
plot  in  spite  of  Alva's  urgent  objections.  But 
meanwhile  the  intrigue  was  discovered  in  Eng- 
land and  the  chief  conspirators  were  brought 
to  punishment.  In  December,  1874,  on  occa- 
sion of  the  Gladstone-Manning  controversy, 
Lord  Acton  accused  Pius  V.  of  complicity  in 
the  contemplated  assassination  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, while  writers  on  the  opposite  side  have 
labored  to  show  that  the  pope  merely  ap- 
proved of  her  being  dethroned,  but  knew 
nothing  of  the  plot  against  her  life.  Ridolfi, 
after  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  of 
Mary  queen  of  Scots,  continued  his  intrigues 
on  the  continent ;  but  little  is  known  of  his 
subsequent  career. 

RIEDESEL.  I.  Friedrich  Adolph  Ton,  baron,  a 
German  general  in  the  British  service,  born 
at  Lauterbach  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse, 
June  3,  1738,  died  in  Brunswick,  Jan.  6,  1800. 
He  left  his  studies  at  Marburg  to  join  the 
Hessian  regiment  in  the  British  service,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Minden 
in  1759,  and  in  1776  was  major  general  in 
command  of  the  division  of  4,000  Bruns- 
wickers  which  formed  part  of  the  German 
mercenary  force  employed  by  England  in  the 
American  revolutionary  war.  Landing  at  Que- 
"bec  June  1,  he  spent  a  year  in  Canada,  exer- 
cising his  men  in  the  Indian  mode  of  war- 
fare. Having  accompanied  Burgoyne  on  his 
inarch  to  Albany,  he  rendered  efficient  service 
in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga,  and  secured 
the  British  victory  the  day  following  at  Hub- 
bardton  by  bringing  up  reinforcements.  In 
the  first  action  at  Saratoga,  Sept.  19,  1777,  by 
a  timely  forced  march  through  the  woods,  he 
saved  the  army  of  Burgoyne  from  annihila- 
tion. After  the  second  engagement,  Oct.  7, 
he  advised  a  retreat,  and  had  his  counsel  been 
taken  Burgoyne's  escape  into  Canada  might 
have  been  effected.  After  the  surrender  Rie- 
•desel  accompanied  his  commander-in- chief  to 
Albany.  With  the  other  German  prisoners 
te  reached  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  7,  1777, 
whence  in  the  following  year  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Virginia.  On  being  exchanged  in 


the  autumn  of  1780,  he  was  placed  by  Clinton 
in  command  of  Long  Island.  In  August,  1783, 
he  returned  to  Germany.  Having  been  made 
lieutenant  general  in  1787,  he  commanded  the 
Brunswick  contingent  sent  to  Holland  to  sup- 
port the  cause  of  the  stadtholder.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  commandant  of  the 
city  of  Brunswick.  His  "  Letters  and  Military 
Journals  in  America,"  edited  by  Max  von  Eel- 
king,  has  been  translated  by  William  L.  Stone, 
with  a  memoir  by  the  translator  (2  vols.  8vo, 
Albany,  1868).  II.  Friederike  Charlotte  Lnlse, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Brandenburg  in 
1746,  died  in  Berlin,  March  29,  1808.  She 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Prussian  minister  Mas- 
sou,  and  was  married  at  the  age  of  16.  She 
followed  her  husband  to  America,  joining  him 
in  Canada,  and  was  his  constant  companion 
during  his  stay  in  this  country.  In  her  fre- 
quent correspondence  with  her  mother  her 
adventures  were  graphically  and  minutely  de- 
scribed. These  letters  were  published  by  her 
son-in-law  Count  Reuss,  under  the  title  of 
Voyage  de  mission  en  Amerique,  ou  Lettres 
de  Mme.  de  Riedesel  (Berlin,  1799  ;  English  by 
William  L.  Stone,  8vo,  Albany,  1867). 

KIEL,  Louis     See  MANITOBA,  vol.  xi.,  p.  114. 

RIENZI,  Nicola  Gabrin),  commonly  called  COLA 
m  RIENZI,  "the  last  of  the  Roman  tribunes," 
born  in  Rome  about  1312,  assassinated  Oct.  8, 
1354.  He  was  a  notary,  but  claimed  illegiti- 
mate descent  from-  the  imperial  house  of  Lux- 
emburg, was  well  educated,  of  imposing  pres- 
ence, and  gifted  with  extraordinary  powers  of 
eloquence.  The  removal  of  the  papal  see  to 
Avignon  in  1309  had  left  Rome  a  prey  to  con- 
tending factions  of  nobles,  whose  houses  were 
fortified  castles,  and  whose  armed  dependants 
kept  the  city  in  a  constant  turmoil.  On  the 
accession  of  Clement  VI.  in  1342,  Rienzi  was 
included  in  the  deputation  sent  to  Avignon  to 
urge  the  pope  to  return  to  his  see.  Petrarch, 
who  headed  the  deputation,  conceived  an  ad- 
miration for  Rienzi,  to  whom  he  afterward 
addressed  the  ode  commencing  Spirto  gentil. 
The  pope  showed  no  disposition  to  revisit 
Rome,  and  Rienzi,  despairing  of  any  allevia- 
tion of  the  public  calamities  through  the  eccle- 
siastical power,  and  eager  to  lead  the  people 
to  liberty,  proceeded  by  flattering  and  deceiv- 
ing the  nobles  to  disarm  their  suspicions.  He 
submitted  to  various  kinds  of  indignity  to 
advance  his  end,  and  imitating  Brutus,  in  his 
own  words,  "  made  himself  a  simpleton  and  a 
stage  player,  and  was  by  turns  serious  or  silly, 
cunning,  earnest,  and  timid,  as  the  occasion 
required."  On  the  day  after  Ash  Wednesday, 
1347,  he  caused  a  scroll  to  be  affixed  to  the 
doors  of  the  church  of  San  Giorgio  in  Velabro, 
on  which  was  inscribed :  "  Ere  long  Rome  will 
return  to  her  good  estate."  On  the  succeed- 
ing vigil,  of  Pentecost  the  people  were  sum- 
moned to  repair  to  the  capitol  on  the  follow- 
ing day.  Rienzi  passed  the  night  in  the  church 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  where  he  heard  the  thirty 
masses  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  whom  he  said 


326 


RIENZI 


his  acts  were  inspired,  and  at  10  in  the  morn- 
ing issued  forth  in  complete  armor,  bare-head- 
ed, and  surrounded  by  25  sworn  confederates. 
By  his  side  was  the  bishop  of  Orvieto,  the 
pope's  vicar,  and  he  was  followed  by  a  guard 
of  100  men-at-arms.  The  procession,  escorted 
by  shouting  multitudes  of  citizens,  ascended 
the  capitol,  where  the  "  laws  of  the  good  es- 
tate" were  read  to  the  people,  providing  for 
the  public  security  in  general.  A  guard  was 
established  for  the  protection  of  the  citizens, 
and  of  the  shipping  and  commerce  on  the  Ti- 
ber; the  right  of  the  nobles  to  keep  strong- 
holds within  the  city  was  abolished  ;  all  places 
of  defence  were  to  be  delivered  to  the  dele- 
gates of  the  people;  granaries  were  to  be 
opened;  the  poor  were  assured  of  alms,  and 
the  magistrates  were  bound  to  administer  jus- 
tice according  to  law.'  The  people  adopted 
the  constitution  by  acclamation,  and  Rienzi, 
being  invested  with  power  to  establish  the 
good  estate,  assumed  the  title  of  tribune  in 
the  following  words :  "  Nicholas,  by  the  grace 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  severe  and  merciful,  tri- 
bune of  freedom,  peace,  and  justice,  the  de- 
liverer of  the  Roman  republic.  The  nobles, 
awed  by  this  sudden  revolution,  surrendered 
their  fortresses,  and  gave  in  their  submission. 
Embassies  from  Florence,  Perugia,  Siena,  and 
many  other  cities  of  Italy  were  sent  to  Rome 
to  congratulate  Rienzi  on  his  good  work,  and 
to  offer  substantial  assistance;  and  several 
powerful  Christian  sovereigns  paid  him  equal 
deference.  He  himself  sent  an  embassy  to 
the  pope  to  ask  his  approbation;  and  as  an 
evidence  of  his  submissive  reverence  for  the 
papal  authority,  he  associated  the  bishop  of 
Orvieto  in  office  with  him,  taking  care  how- 
ever that  the  honor  should  not  be  accompanied 
by  any  control  of  the  affairs  of  government. 
Rienzi  strove  to  augment  his  importance  by 
processions,  pageants,  and  public  spectacles; 
spared  nothing  which  would  minister  to  his 
pomp  and  private  luxury ;  and  caused  himself 
and  his  wife  to  be  waited  upon  by  the  lords 
and  ladies  of  his  court.  On  Aug.  1  he  was 
knighted  in  the  Lateran  church,  and  after  the 
ceremony  summoned  all  potentates,  ecclesias- 
tical or  secular,  who  presumed  to  contest  the 
prerogative  of  Rome  to  elect  the  emperor,  to 
appear  in  the  city  at  the  ensuing  Pentecost. 
On  Aug.  15  he  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  in 
the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  with  seven 
crowns,  symbolizing  the  seven  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  under  whose  special  influence  he 
still  claimed  to  act.  His  splendid  processions 
gradually  palled  upon  the  public  taste,  and  the 
populace  began  to  murmur  at  the  large  expen- 
ditures from  the  public  treasury  to  support 
the  extravagance  of  their  tribune.  The  nobles, 
whom  he  alternately  threatened  and  caressed, 
finally  banded  together,  and,  having  recovered 
several  of  their  strongholds,  appeared  in  arms 
before  the  city.  By  the  imprudence  of  his 
enemies  he  gained  a  victory  as  surprising  to 
himself  as  to  others,  and  more  than  20  of  the 


Colonnas,  Orsinis,  Savellis,  and  other  noble 
families  perished  in  battle  or  in  flight.  Instead 
of  following  up  his  advantage,  he  allowed  his 
enemies  to  gather  strength  while  he  wasted 
his  time  in  idle  pageantries.  The  pope  de- 
clared against  him,  and  the  people,  alarmed  by 
their  rapidly  increasing  taxes,  broke  forth  into 
open  murmurs,  which  he  was  unable  to  quell, 
notwithstanding  he  restricted  his  extravagance 
and  dropped  his  most  ostentatious  titles.  At 
this  juncture  the  freebooting  count  of  Minor- 
bino  entered  the  city  and  fortified  himself  in 
one  of  the  palaces  of  the  Colonnas,  whence  he 
refused  to  retire  when  summoned  by  Rienzu 
The  latter  called  the  armed  citizens  to  his  assis- 
tance, and,  meeting  with  no  response,  solemn- 
ly abdicated  his  power,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  Dec.  15,  1347,  whence 
he  escaped  in  the  disguise  of  a  monk.  He 
took  refuge  among  the  Franciscans  in  the  fast- 
nesses of  the  southern  Apennines,  with  whom 
he  remained  two  years  and  a  half  as  a  tertiary 
of  the  order.  During  the  jubilee  celebrated 
in  1350  he  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  the  dis- 
guise of  a  pilgrim  among  the  multitudes  who- 
flocked  to  Rome ;  and  soon  after,  at  the  insti- 
gation, he  tells  us,  of  Fra  Angelo,  an  inspired 
hermit,  who  informed  him  that  the  Father  and 
the  Son  had  ceased  to  rule  in  the  world,  and 
that  the  age  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  at  hand,  he 
went  to  the  court  of  Charles  IV.  at  Prague,  and 
exhorted  him,  in  accordance  with  the  prophecy 
of  Fra  Angelo,  to  undertake  the  conquest  of 
Italy,  in  which  he  assured  him  none  could  be 
of  so  much  service  as  himself.  The  emperor, 
amazed  at  the  ambitious  schemes  and  hereti- 
cal doctrines  of  Rienzi,  ordered  him  into  cus- 
tody, and  finally  sent  him  a  prisoner  to  the 
pope  at  Avignon.  A  commission  of  ecclesi- 
astics was  appointed  to  try  him,  but  their  la- 
bors seem  never  to  have  been  prosecuted  with 
energy.  Meanwhile  Rome  had  returned  to 
its  former  state  of  anarchy,  and  Innocent  VI., 
the  successor  of  Clement,  determined,  as  a 
means  of  restoring  the  papal  authority  in  the 
city,  to  send  Rienzi  thither.  In  the  summer  of 
1854  he  regntered  Rome  in  the  capacity  of  a 
senator,  by  the  appointment  of  Cardinal  Al- 
bornoz,  the  papal  legate.  Unwarned  by  ad- 
versity, he  returned  to  his  old  pomp  and  lux- 
ury, and  established  an  unmitigated  tyranny^ 
He  was  defied  by  the  refractory  Colonnas  in 
their  castle  of  Palestrina,  against  which  he 
conducted  a  tedious  and  expensive  but  unavail- 
ing siege.  The  execution  of  Fra  Moneale,  a 
well  known  captain  of  a  free  company,  from 
whose  family  he  had  received  pecuniary  assis- 
tance, and  whose  property  he  appropriated  to- 
his  own  use,  filled  the  citizens  with  horror; 
and  on  his  attempting  to  levy  a  fresh  tax  to  pay 
his  troops,  a  popular  insurrection  burst  forth. 
Rienzi  took  refuge  in  the  capitol,  and,  being- 
deserted  by  his  guards,  appeared  upon  a  bal- 
cony in  armor,  grasping  the  standard  of  the 
people,  but  was  driven  back  by  a  shower  of 
stones.  Finally,  in  the  disguise  of  a  door- 


RIESENGEBIRGE 


RIFLE 


327 


keeper,  he  was  arrested  and  led  to  the  foot 
of  the  capitol  stairs,  where,  while  in  the  act 
of  addressing  the  people,  he  was  run  through 
the  body  by  Cecco  del  Vecchio,  an  artisan, 
and  was  forthwith  despatched  by  a  hundred 
weapons,  his  head  cut  off,  and  his  body  treat- 
ed with  shameful  indignities. — An  important 
series  of  letters,  addressed  by  Rienzi  to  the 
emperor  and  the  archbishop  of  Prague  after 
his  first  fall,  and  vividly  illustrating  his  charac- 
ter, was  discovered  by  Pelzel,  the  historian  of 
Bohemia,  in  the  last  century,  and  was  in  1841 
published  in  German  by  Dr.  Papencordt,  under 
the  title  of  Cola  di  Riemi  und  seine  Zeit  (Ham- 
burg and  Gotha).  Some  of  them  are  given  in 
Hobhouse's  "  Illustrations  to  Childe  Harold." 
The  story  of  Rienzi  forms  the  groundwork  of 
one  of  Bulwer's  best  known  novels. 

RIESENGEBIRGE  (Giant  mountains),  a  range 
of  mountains  partly  separating  Prussian  Silesia 
from  Bohemia,  and  with  the  Lusatian  range 
forming  a  continuation  E.  of  the  river  Elbe  of 
the  Erzgebirge  range  W.  of  that  river.  The 
Riesengebirge  belong  to  the  N.  W.  division 
of  the  Sudetic  mountain  system,  and  pursue 
a  S.  E.  course  from  the  sources  of  the  Bober 
to  those  of  the  southern  Neisse  until  they  are 
merged  in  the  Glatzergebirge,  of  the  Sudetic 
mountains  proper.  The  range  extends  about 
To  m.,  with  a  breadth  of  30  m.,  and  is  of 
the  same  general  geological  structure  with  the 
Erzgebirge,  the  rocks  being  chiefly  metamor- 
phic  slates  and  granites,  and  productive  in  a 
similar  variety  of  valuable  ores.  Those  of  iron 
are  especially  abundant,  and  some  of  the  ear- 
liest establishments  for  producing  that  metal 
were  in  this  region.  The  highest  summits 
are  the  Schneekoppe,  which  rises  to  an  alti- 
tude of  upward  of  5,000  ft.,  and  the  Hohes 
Rad,  and  the  Grosse  and  Kleine  Sturmhaube, 
all  of  which  are  about  4,500  ft.  high. 

RIETSCHEL,  Ernst  Friedrieh  August,  a  German 
sculptor,  born  in  Pulsnitz,  Saxony,  Dec.  15, 
1804,  died  in  Dresden,  Feb.  21,  1861.  He 
studied  under  Rauch  and  in  Italy,  settled  in 
Dresden,  and  was  appointed  professor  in  the 
academy  of  fine  arts.  Among  his  works  are 
a  colossal  group  of  "  Mary  weeping  over  the 
Body  of  Christ;"  statues  of  Lessing,"  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  "Weber;  "Love  taming  a  Pan- 
ther;" "Love  borne  by  a  Panther;"  the 
"Four  Hours  of  the  Day;"  and  busts  of  Lu- 
ther and  Augustus  II.  of  Poland  and  Saxony 
for  the  Walhalla. 

RIFLE  (Dan.,  Rifle  or  Eiffel,  a  chamfer;  Ger. 
reifeln  or  riffeln,  to  chamfer  or  groove),  a  term 
applied  solely  until  within  the  past  25  years 
to  small  arms,  the  surfaces  of  whose  bores  are 
spirally  grooved  to  increase  the  accuracy  of 
their  fire.  Rifles  are  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  centu- 
ry, by  Gaspard  Zollner  of  Vienna.  They  are 
known  to  have  been  used  in  target  firing  at 
Leipsic  in  1498.  The  first  rifles  were  made 
with  their  grooves  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
bore,  and  although  no  increased  accuracy  was 


given  to  the  fire  by  such  grooving  in  theory, 
yet  in  practice  the  firing  was  better,  because 
the  grooves  allowed  the  windage  to  be  dimin- 
ished, and  formed  receptacles  for  the  residuum 
of  the  firing,  which  in  smooth-bores  lodged 
on  the  surface  of  the  bore,  causing  wild  shoot- 
ing after  a  few  discharges.  The  effect  of  spi- 
ral grooving  was  probably  discovered  acciden- 
tally, and  the  date  of  the  discovery  cannot  be 
determined.  In  1563  a  law  of  the  Swiss  can- 
ton of  Bern  prohibited  the  use  of  arms  with 
spiral  rifling  in  target  shooting,  on  account  of 
the  discord  which  such  arms  produced  among 
the  competitors.  Some  accounts  name  as  the 
inventor  Augustin  Kutter  of  Nuremberg,  who 
died  in  1630.  The  advantages  of  rifling  were 
first  discussed  scientifically  in  "  New  Princi- 
ples of  Gunnery"  (1742),  by  Benjamin  Robins, 
an  English  mathematician,  who  died  in  1Y51. 
He  mentions  breech-loading  arms  as  in  use  in 
Europe  at  that  time. — That  length  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  bore  in  which  the  spiral  rifling 
would  make  one  turn  is  called  the  "twist," 
the  parts  cut  out  of  the  surface  of  the  bore 
are  the  "grooves,"  and  the  spaces  between  the 
grooves  are  the  "lands."  The  grooves  are  as 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other  as  they  can  be 
made,  and  generally  have  a  constant  inclina- 
tion to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  In  this  case  the 
twist  is  said  to  be  uniform.  There  is  another 
kind  of  twist,  in  which  the  groove  starts  from 
the  breech  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and 
gradually  inclines  from  this  line  until  it  attains 
the  required  angle,  where  it  remains  constant. 
This  is  called  a  "gaining  twist."  It  is  now 
only  used  in  small  pistols,  and  has  little  if 
any  advantage  over  the  uniform  twist.  The 
centres  of  gravity  and  of  figure  of  a  lead  or 
iron  ball  do  not  generally  coincide,  and  the 
diameter  of  the  ball  of  a  smooth-bore  is  neces- 
sarily smaller  than  that  of  the  bore  of  the 
piece.  It  follows  from  the  first  fact  that  the 
line  of  direction  of  the  force  exerted  upon  the 
ball  by  the  powder  does  not  generally  pass 
through  its  centre  of  gravity,  causing  a  ten- 
dency to  revolve  about  an  axis  passing  through 
that  centre,  which  axis  will,  not  coincide  with 
the  axis  of  the  bore  or  the  tangent  to  the  tra- 
jectory, thus  forming  one  source  of  deviation 
of  the  projectile  from  the  theoretic  trajectory. 
It  follows  from  the  second  fact  that  the  ball 
as  it  advances  through  the  piece  will  bounce 
against  the  surface  of  the  bore,  causing  a  mo- 
tion of  rotation  about  some  unknown  axis ; 
this  is  another  source  of  deviation.  If  these 
sources  of  deviation  be  removed,  the  projectile 
will  move  in  the  theoretic  trajectory,  and  will 
strike  the  point  aimed  at,  if  the  other  condi- 
tions to  attain  this  end  have  been  complied 
with.  If  a  barrel  be  rifled,  and  the  ball  so 
made  that  projections  on  its  surface  precisely 
fit  the  grooves  of  the  rifling,  the  ball  in  pass- 
ing through  the  barrel  must  receive  a  motion 
of  rotation  about  the  axis  of  the  bore;  and  as 
the  axis  of  rotation  will  then  nearly  or  quite 
coincide  with  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory  du- 


'328 


RIFLE 


ring  its  flight,  the  sources  of  deviation  above 
mentioned  will  have  been  removed.  No  ac- 
count is  here  taken  of  the  tendency  of  the  axis 
of  rotation  to  continue  parallel  to  its  origi- 
nal direction,  which  (as  the  path  of  the  ball 
after  it  leaves  the  gun  is  a  curve)  gives  some 
deviation  from  the  desired  point,  as  such  a 
discussion  involves  an  abstruse  mathematical 
investigation.  If  a  lead  ball  be  pushed  down 
the  bore  of  a  muzzle-loader  until  it  reaches 
the  powder,  and  then  by  some  means  be  so 
expanded  that  the  lead  is  squeezed  into  the 
grooves  of  the  rifling,  such  a  ball  will  receive 
in  passing  through  the  bore  the  required  mo- 
tion of  rotation.  In  a  breech-loader  the  lead 
ball  is  slightly  larger  than  the  bore,  and  the 
explosion  of  the  powder  upsets  it,  and  forces 
the  lead  into  the  grooves,  thus  destroying  all 
windage,  and  giving  the  necessary  motion  of 
rotation  about  the  axis  of  the  bore.  Of  two 
balls  of  the  same  weight  projected  from  guns, 
it  is  evident  that  that  one  which  presents  the 
smaller  surface  to  the  direction  of  the  motion 
will  be  less  resisted  by  the  air.  Hence,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  smaller  the  bore  of  the 
gun  within  practical  limits,  the  less  resistance 
is  there  to  the  motion  of  the  ball,  or  in  other 
words  the  further  the  ball  will  be  carried,  or 
technically  the  flatter  will  be  the  trajectory. 
Formerly  the  difficulty  of  loading  pieces  with 
small  bores  prevented  the  use  of  small  calibres 
in  military  arms ;  but  the  general  introduction 
of  breech-loaders,  in  which  small  calibres  can 
be  loaded  as  easily  and  quickly  as  large  ones, 
has  caused  the  advantages  of  small  calibres 
with  cylindrical  bullets  to  be  recognized,  and 
the  calibres  of  all  breech-loading  military  small 
arms  manufactured  within  the  past  ten  years 
range  between  '5  in.  and  -4  in.  The  great 
majority  range  between  '45  in.  and  '4  in.  It 
has  been  mathematically  determined  that  the 
larger  and  denser  the  projectile,  the  less  in 
proportion  is  the  resistance  of  the  air.  It  fol- 
lows therefore  that  for  the  same  calibre  an 
oblong  projectile  is  less  retarded  than  a  spher- 
ical one,  and  that  for  the  same  initial  velo- 
city the  oblong  projectile  will  have  a  greater 
range  than  the  spherical  one.  It  has  also  been 
mathematically  determined  that  the  length  of 
trajectory  of  a  projectile,  in  which  the  ve- 
locity is  reduced  by  any  definite  amount,  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  product  of  the 
diameter  and  density  of  the  projectile,  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  density  of  the 
air.  Hence  greater  ranges  are  obtained  by  the 
use  of  large  and  heavy  projectiles,  in  prefer- 
ence to  small  and  light  ones,  solid  shot  instead 
of  shells,  lead  instead  of  any  lighter  metal,  and 
long  instead  of  short  projectiles.  These  prin- 
ciples have  all  been  applied  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  modern  rifled  small  arms ;  but  it  is 
only  within  the  past  30  years  that  the  rifle  has 
come  into  general  use  as  a  military  weapon. — 
Various  styles  of  rifling  have  been  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  military  arms,  the  differ- 
ence being  in  the  number  and  shapes  of  the 


grooves  and  the  lengths  of  the  twists.  But  in 
general,  the  grooves  are  flat,  in  number  from 
three  to  seven,  and  the  breadth  of  the  lands 
less  than  that  of  the  grooves.  In  muzzle-load- 
ers the  depth  of  the  grooves  diminishes  from 
the  breech  to  the  muzzle,  but  in  breech-load- 
ers that  depth  is  constant.  In  muzzle-loaders 
too,  as  a  very  great  range  was  not  consid- 
ered attainable,  the  twist  was  gentler  than  it 
is  in  breech-loaders.  In  the  former  the  twist 


FIQ.  1.— Whitworth's  Small-arm  Projectil6. 

was  generally  one  turn  in  60  in.  or  more ;  in 
the  latter  it  is  usually  one  turn  in  22  in.,  and 
in  some  arms  it  is  a  little  greater  than  that. 
The  intensity  of  the  twist  is  limited  by  the 
danger  of  causing  the  ball  to  "  strip  "  in  pass- 
ing through  the  bore.  About  5  per  cent,  of 
the  force  of  the  powder  is  taken  up  in  gener- 
ating the  enormous  velocity  of  rotation  made 
necessary  to  attain  the  long  ranges  of  modern 
arms.  Whitworth's  rifling  consisted  in  ma- 
king the  bore  of  the  barrel  hexagonal  in  sec- 
tion, with  rounded  angles,  and  giving  the  bore 
a  twist.  The  effect  of  this  was  good,  but  the 
difficulty  of  its  manufacture,  or  rather  the  ease 
of  manufacture  of  the  cylindrical  bore,  has 
caused  its  general  rejection  in  military  small 
arms.  Henry's  rifling,  which  was  adopted  by 
the  British  government  for  all  its  small  arms, 
has  produced  excellent  results.  Although  the 
section  looks  as  if  it  might  be  difficult  to  bore 


.01*' 

Fio.  2.— Henry's  Rifling. 

it  correctly,  yet,  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
arrangement  of  grooves,  it  is  no  more  diffi- 
cult to  make  than  ordinary  rifling. — As  small 
arms  became  lighter  and  of  more  general  use 
in  armies,  the  necessity  for  a  light  arm  of 
long  range  for  the  use  of  light  troops,  sharp- 
shooters, &c.,  became  more  apparent.  The 
fire  of  the  ordinary  musket  or  arquebus  was 
too  wild  for  such  troops,  and  the  rifle  came 
gradually  into  use,  but  the  slowness  of  its  fire 


RIFLE 


329 


prevented  its  general  adoption.  In  Germany, 
during  the  thirty  years'  war,  organized  com- 
panies of  riflemen  were  used  with  advantage 
by  William  V.,  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  In 
1645  three  regiments  were  organized  in  Ba- 
varia, and  in  1674  the  elector  Frederick  Wil- 
liam of  Brandenburg  had  riflemen  distribu- 
ted among  his  infantry  regiments.  In  1740 
Frederick  the  Great  organized  a  small  body 
of  light  infantry  of  60  men  armed  with  rifles, 
which  finally  grew  into  a  regiment.  France 
also  early  made  use  of  sharpshooters  or  rifle- 
men. In  1689  a  French  organization  existed 
in  which  the  men  were  armed  with  two  pis- 
tols, a  sword,  and  a  rifle  called  escopette.  But 
the  rifle,  on  account  of  the  difficulties  in  its 
manipulation,  did  not  grow  in  favor,  and  at  the 
commencement  of  the  French  revolution  no 
rifle  regiments  or  companies  existed  in  France. 
The  Swiss  and  Austrians  paid  much  attention 
to  their  military  rifle  organizations  during  the 
last  half  of  the  18th  century,  being  forced 
into  that  direction  by  the  passionate  fondness 
for  the  arm  which  existed  in  the  Swiss  moun- 
tains and  in  Tyrol.  During  the  war  of  the 
American  revolution  the  Americans,  who  were 
obliged  to  bring  every  weapon  into  requisi- 
tion, made  excellent  use  of  their  hunting  rifles, 
and  were  really  the  first  sharpshooters.  The 
British,  taught  by  their  dearly  bought  expe- 
rience, adopted  rifles  as  an  important  part  of 
their  armament  in  1794.  Rifled  carbines  are 
mentioned  in  Smith's  "  Military  Dictionary  " 
(1779)  as  arms  "  used  by  the  hunters  or  light 
infantry."  In  the  new  organization  the  left 
flank  company  of  each  battalion  of  ten  com- 
panies was  composed  of  light  infantry  or  rifle- 
men, and  received  special  instruction,  the  right 
flank  company  being  grenadiers.  The  French 
about  the  same  time  (1792),  following  the 
same  example,  introduced  new  model  rifles  into 
their  infantry  and  cavalry  armaments.  Their 
accuracy  for  short  ranges  was  superior  to  that 
of  the  musket ;  but  the  shortness  of  the  range, 
the  slowness  of  loading,  the  necessity  for  a 
peculiar  patched  ball  and  for  using  a  mallet, 
and  the  fact  that  no  bayonets  were  used  with 
them,  soon  caused  their  abandonment.  The 
consequence  was  that  under  Napoleon  I.  rifles 
were  little  used  in  the  French  army.  But 
although  Napoleon  had  a  low  opinion  of  the 
rifle  as  it  existed  in  his  day,  he  had  great  faith 
in  the  improvement  of  the  musket.  He  there- 
fore designated  Col.  Pauly  at  Paris  to  improve 
the  musket,  who  in  1812  patented  in  France 
what  has  since  been  known  as  the  Pauly  gun. 
The  cartridge  in  this  gun  contained  its  own 
means  of  ignition.  In  Pauly's  shop  Dreyse 
worked.  Pauly's  gun  having  been  thrown 
aside  on  account  of  its  alleged  want  of  sim- 
plicity, Dreyse  worked  on  in  the  direction 
of  the  bolt  gun,  and  in  1836  made  the  first 
breech-loading  needle  gun.  As  Pauly's  was 
the  parent  gun  of  all  breech-loaders  which 
close  the  breech  with  a  swinging  block,  so 
Dreyse's  needle  gun  is  the  parent  of  all  breech- 


loaders which  close  the  breech  with  a  bolt. 
In  1826  Lieut.  Delvigne  of  the  French  artil- 
lery invented  a  rifle  with  a  chamber  smaller 
than  the  bore.  The  chamber  was  connected 
with  the  bore  by  a  spherical  surface  of  the 


tea* 


FIG.  8. — Pauly  Breech-loader.    1.  Vertical  section.    2.  Ele- 
vation.   8.  Cartridge. 

same  radius  as  that  of  the  ball.  The  powder 
having  been  poured  into  the  chamber  from 
the  muzzle,  the  ball  was  dropped  into  the 
bore,  and  rested  on  the  top  of  the  chamber. 
A  few  blows  of  the  ramrod,  with  its  head 
hollowed  to  fit  the  bullet,  squeezed  the  lead 
into  the  rifling  grooves  without  disturbing  the 
powder,  and  when  the  piece  was  fired  it  was 
found  that  the  range  and  accuracy  were  ma- 
terially increased,  an  effect  due  to  the  rifling. 
This  idea  of  Delvigne's,  viz.,  getting  the  ball 
to  its  place  on  top  of  the  powder  in  the  cham- 
ber without  other  force  than  its  own  weight, 
and  then  causing  it  to  take  the  rifling  by  the 
action  of  ramming,  was  the  mother  idea  of 
all  improvements  in  muzzle-loading  military 
rifles  from  that  time  onward,  and  in  fact  may 
be  said  to  be  the  first  step  in  modern  im- 
provements of  rifles.  In  1842  France  armed 
ten  battalions  of  chasseurs  with  rifles  made 
on  Delvigne's  principle,  and  at  the  same  time 
instituted  the  school  of  firing  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  sharpshooters.  This  school  has 
been  imitated  by  nearly  all  other  nations.  The 
cartridge  for  Delvigne's  arm  was  special,  and 


FIG.  4.— Breech  of  Delvigne's  Kifle  (1842). 

therefore  objectionable ;  hence  Col.  Thouve- 
nin  invented  the  carabine  d  tige,  in  which  the 
bore  is  of  the  same  diameter  from  the  muz- 
zle to  the  breech.  From  the  breech  projects 
into  the  bore  a  steel  rod  about  ^  in.  in  diame- 
ter, the  axis  of  which  is  coincident  with  that 
of  the  bore,  and  its  length  such  that  the  front 
end  of  the  rod  reaches  to  the  top  of  the  pow- 
der charge.  The  rifle  was  loaded  precisely  as 
was  the  old  musket.  The  middle  part  of  the 
ball  rested  on  the  front  end  of  the  rod,  and  a 
few  blows  of  the  ramrod  squeezed  the  lead  into 
the  rifling.  This  rifle  made  a  good  target  at 
500  yards.  The  next  step  in  the  improvement 
of  rifled  small  arms  was  the  introduction  of  the 
elongated  projectile  of  Capt.  Mini6  about  1845. 


330 


RIFLE 


FIG.  6. — Breech   of  Carabine   a 
tige  (1846). 


The  carabine  d  tige  was  still  used,  but  the  rifling 
was  made  more  abrupt,  having  a  twist  of  6£ 
ft.  instead  of  20  ft.,  an  increase  necessary  on 
account  of  the  greater  weight  of  the  new  pro- 
jectile, and  the  greater  range  attained.  The 
rod  at  the  breech  (tige)  was  left  out.  Ranges 
of  more  than  1,300 
yards  were  ob- 
tained, and  accu- 
rate shooting  was 
done  at  ranges  of 
900  yards.  Grooves 
had  been  made  in 
the  rear  part  of  the  bullet  to  hold  the  lubri- 
cant. In  order  to  simplify  the  shape  of  the 
ball  these  grooves  were  afterward  left  off ;  but 
the  shooting  was  materially  diminished  in  ac- 
curacy by  the  omission,  and  the  experiment 
showed  that  such  greoves  made  the  very  re- 
sistance which  was  necessary  to  keep  the  axis 
of  the  long  projectile  coincident  with  the  tan- 
gent of  the  trajectory  through  its  flight ;  or  in 
other  words,  they  kept  the  bullet  from  turning 
end  over  end.  About  1849  Capt.  Minie  in- 
vented a  bullet  which  had  in  its  rear  a  recess 
of  a  truncated  conical  form  lined  with  a  tin 
cup  something  like  a  small  thimble.  This  re- 
cess made  the  sides  of  the  bullet  thin,  so  that 
the  effect  of  firing  the  charge  was  to  press  the 
tin  cup  into  the  bullet,  forcing  the  lead  into 
the  grooves  of  the  ri- 
fling. This  invention 
caused  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  rod  in  the 
carabine  d  tige,  and 
gave  an  impetus  to 
the  introduction  of 
rifles  into  all  Euro- 
pean armies,  so  that 
by  1855  the  infantry 
tin-arm  in  those  ar- 
mies was  the  rifle ;  the 
old  smooth-bore  mus- 
kets were  rifled,  and  used  the  Minie"  bullet,  be- 
coming rifles  in  all  respects,  and  retaining  the 
ease  of  loading  of  the  smooth-bore.  The  Uni- 
ted States  had  for  30  years  before  that  time 
kept  a  small  supply  of  military  rifles,  manufac- 
tured at  the  Harper's  Ferry  armory.  Their 
calibre  was  '54  in.,  and  their  weight  about  9f  Ibs. 
The  rifling  was  in  three  grooves,  each  '36  in. 
broad,  with  a  constant  twist,  making  one  turn 
in  10  ft.  The  depth  of  the  grooves  was  '005  in. 
at  the  muzzle  and  '008  in.  at  the  breech.  The 
ball,  which  was  spherical  and  patched,  weighed 
i  oz.  or  220  grs.,  and  the  powder  charge  weighed 
75  grs.  These  rifles  were  used  in  some  fron- 
tier campaigns,  and  by  a  few  regiments  in  the 
Mexican  war.  They  were  altered  about  1855 
by  increasing  the  calibre  to  -58  in.,  and  by  ma- 
king the  grooves  -3  in.  broad,  -005  in.  deep  at 
the  muzzle,  and  -013  in.  deep  at  the  breech.  In 
1855  the  United  States  adopted  a  new  model 
rifle  musket,  which  has  been  known  since  as 
the  Springfield  rifle.  The  calibre  was  -58  in., 
and  the  weight  with  bayonet  about  10  Ibs. 


FIG.  7. 
Mini.-'s  Bullet 

Of  1-1'.'. 


The  rifling  was  in  three  grooves,  each  -3  in. 
wide,  '005  in.  deep  at  the  muzzle,  and  -015  in. 
deep  at  the  breech.  The  twist  was  uniform, 
making  one  turn  in  6  ft.  The  bullet  was  cylin- 
dro-conical  with  expanding  base,  and  weighed 
500  grs.  The  powder  charge  weighed  60  grs. 
From  this  date  the  rifle  became  the  infantry 
arm  of  the  United  States,  although  the  sudden- 
ness of  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  of  1861-'6 
made  it  necessary  to  bring  into  use  all  the  small 
arms  then  belonging  to  the  -United  States, 
smooth-bores  as  well  as  rifles. — All  attempts  to 
improve  muzzle-loading  small  arms  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  ceased  after  1861,  the  fact  that 
breech-loaders  were  soon  to  supersede  them  as 
infantry  arms  having  become  apparent  to  all 
military  authorities.  In  1814  Pauly's  inven- 
tion was  examined  by  a  commission  of  which 
Brillat-Savarin  was  president,  and  an  exhaus- 
tive series  of  experiments  was  made.  The 
commission  reported  that  troops  armed  with 
these  guns  would  have  a  very  great  advantage 
over  an  enemy  armed  with  muzzle-loaders,  be- 
cause the  Pauly  guns  could  be  loaded  and  fired 
without  slackening  the  march  ;  that  they  could 
be  fired  more  rapidly  than  muzzle-loaders, 
would  carry  further,  and  required  less  powder; 
that  rain  or  dampness  would  not  affect  the  fire ; 
that  they  never  hung  fire  ;  that  the  charge  was 
easily  withdrawn  ;  that  a  ramrod  was  not  re- 
quired ;  and  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
range  was  greater  than  that  of  a  muzzle-loader. 
Add  to  these  the  further  advantage  that  they 
could  be  loaded  while  the  soldier  was  lying 
down,  and  we  have  all  the  merits  claimed  for 
the  breech-loaders  of  the  present  day.  But 
Europe  was  at  that  time  exhausted  with  the 
wars  of  Napoleon,  and  little  attention  was 
given  to  the  invention.  About  1811  a  breech- 
loading  rifle  was  invented  in  the  United  States 
by  John  H.  Hall,  and  after  trial  at  the  Wash- 
ington arsenal  and  at  Fortress  Monroe  in 
1818-'19,  a  large  number  were  ordered  to  be 
made  at  the  Harper's  Ferry  armory.  They 
were  manufactured  there  under  the  direction 
of  the  inventor,  who  first  introduced  the  sys- 
tem of  making  the  parts  of  the  arm  inter- 
changeable, and  was  the  first  or  among  the  first 
to  use  the  drop-hammer  for  stamping  out  the 
parts  by  one  or  two  blows.  Carbines  were 
made  after  the  same  invention,  which  were  used 
by  the  mounted  troops  of  the  United  States 
until  about  the  time  of  the  Mexican  war.  Al- 
though these  rifles  were  very  strong  shoot- 
ers, there  were  some  elements  of  danger  about 
them,  and  they  never  were  favorites  with  the 
troops.  This  is  the  first  instance  of  the  suc- 
cessful introduction  of  a  breech-loader  into  a 
military  service.  The  Hall  rifle  was  made  to 
use  both  the  flint  and  the  percussion  locks. 
Taking  an  ordinary  muzzle-loader,  and  cutting 
the  barrel  in  two  about  6  in.  or  less  in  front  of 
the  breech,  and  arranging  the  rear  piece  on  a 
hinge  or  trunnions  so  that  it  may  be  raised 
high  enough  to  expose  the  bore,  we  have  near- 
ly the  Hall  rifle.  This  movable  piece  could  be 


RIFLE 


331 


clamped  so  that  its  bore  and  that  of  the  barrel 
were  coincident,  and  it  made  the  chamber. 
To  load  the  piece,  the  front  end  of  the  chamber 


Fio.  8.— Hall's  Rifle. 

was  thrown  up  by  a  trigger  under  the  stock. 
The  cartridge  was  then  inserted,  the  chamber 
pressed  back  to  its  place,  where  it  was  held 
by  a  trigger  and  spring,  and  after  priming  or 
capping,  the  piece  was  ready  for  firing.  A 
breech-loading  rifle  was  invented  in  Norway 
about  1838,  and  between  1839  and  1845  ex- 
tensive preparations  were  made  with  it  by  the 
government  of  Sweden, 
resulting  in  the  conclu- 
sion that  it  was  superior 
in  all  respects  to  muz- 
zle -  loading  arms.  —  In 
1841  Prussia  decided  to 
arm  the  troops  with  the 
Zundnadelgewehr  or  nee- 
dle gun,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  its  whole 
army  was  furnished  with 
this  arm.  Its  first  uses 
in  actual  service  were  in 
the  revolution  of  1848 
and  the  first  Schleswig- 
Holstein  war,  where  its 
superiority  to  the  muz- 
zle-loader was  demon- 
strated. The  decisive  Prussian  victory  of  Sa- 
dowa  in  the  Austrian  war  of  1866  was  at 
first  attributed  wholly  to  the  fact  that  the 
Prussians  had  the  needle  gun,  while  the  Aus- 
trians  had  only  muzzle-loaders ;  and  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  the  introduction  of 
breech-loaders  in  all  European  armies.  In 
France  a  needle  gun  was  adopted  which  was 


a  bolt  to  which  is  attached  a  handle  which  acts 
in  keeping  the  breech  closed,  precisely  as  does 
the  handle  of  a  door  bolt  in  keeping  the  bolt 
in  place  when  it  is  shot.  The  bolt  traverses 
forward  and  back  in  an  iron  receiver  which 
is  screwed  to  the  barrel.  The  lock  and  needle 
are  enclosed  in  the  bolt.  The  spring,  like  that 
in  nearly  all  bolt  guns,  is  of  spiral  steel  wire. 
Supposing  the  piece  unloaded,  to  load  it,  the 
needle  is  pulled  back  by  the  thumb  piece  in 
rear ;  then  the  handle  is  turned  to  the  left, 
the  bolt  withdrawn,  and  the  cartridge  insert- 
ed. The  bolt  is  pushed  forward,  the  handle 
turned  to  the  right  against  its  stop  in  the  re- 
ceiver, and  after  cocking  by  pushing  forward 
the  thumb  piece,  it  is  ready  for  firing.  The 
fulminate  is  just  in  rear  of  the  wad  at  the  base 
of  the  bullet,  so  that  the  needle  passes  through 
the  whole  powder  charge  before  it  strikes  the 
fulminate.  The  cartridge  envelope  is  papier 
mach6.  The  calibre  of  the  rifle  is  about  '6  in., 


1.   Gun  complete. 


Fia.  9.— Prussian  Needle  Gun. 

1.  Gun  complete.    2.  Section  showing  working  parts  of  lock,  gun  ready  to  fire. 
3.  Cartridge. 

in  all  respects  an  improvement  on  that  of  the 
Prussians,  called  the  Chassepot  after  the  inven- 
tor. The  needle-gun  breech  action  consists  of 


FIG.  10.—  French  Chassepot. 

2.  Section  showing  lock  and  rifling  of  gun  ready  to  fire. 
S.  Cartridge. 


and  the  number  of  grooves  is  four.  There  is 
a  great  leak  of  gas  from  this  rifle.  The  gas 
check  is  made  by  the  contact  between  the 
bolt  and  the  rear  part  of  the  chamber,  and  is 
not  sufficient,  particularly  as  this  contact  be- 
comes more  imperfect  as  the  gun  is  used.  In 
the  Chassepot,  or  French  military  rifle,  the 
breech  action  is  in  several  respects  like  that 
of  the  preceding,  having 
a  bolt  handle  by  which 
the  bolt  is  held  in  place, 
the  latter  containing  the 
lock  and  needle.  The 
fulminate  is  in  a  paper 
wad  which  forms  the 
rear  of  the  cartridge  en- 
velope. The  gas  check 
is  a  cylindrical  ring  of 
vulcanized  India  rubber, 
which  is  pressed  against 
the  surface  of  the  cham- 
ber when  the  explosion 
takes  place,  and  theoret- 
ically forms  an  efficient 
obstacle  to  the  passage  of  the  gas.  The  car- 
tridge envelope  is  silk  or  linen,  and  the  cali- 
bre is  '433  in.  (11  millimetres).  The  num- 


332 


RIFLE 


ber  of  grooves  is  four.  These  are  the  two 
principal  breech-loaders  in  use  which  do  not 
employ  the  metallic  envelope  cartridge,  and 
it  is  notable  that  the  greatest  war  of  modern 
times  was  fought  with  these  two  arms,  me- 
tallic cartridge  arms  having  been  scarcely  used 
in  any  of  its  great  battles. — The  civil  war  in 
the  United  States  stimulated  the  invention  of 
breech-loading  arms.  Nearly  all  of  these  used 
the  metallic  cartridge,  and  some  displayed  great 
inventive  talent.  Shortly  before  the  war  sev- 
eral breech-loaders  were  tested  by  the  United 
States  which  used  the  detached  percussion  cap. 
Among  these  are  the  Burnside,  Cosmopolitan, 
Gallagher,  Joslyn,  Merrill,  Maynard,  Smith, 


FIG.  11.— 8p«ncer  Magazine  Gun. 

Lindner,  and  Sharps.  The  last  named  has  been 
altered  to  use  the  metallic  cartridge,  and  is  still 
in  use.  The  others  have  generally  been  dis- 
carded, and  are  not  in  use  as  military  arms. 
During  the  civil  war  the  Spencer  rifle,  a  maga- 
zine gun,  was  intro- 
duced, and  was  exten- 
sively used  by  the  Union 
cavalry.  It  contains  a 
magazine  in  the  butt 
of  the  stock,  holding 
seven  cartridges,  and 
by  the  movement  of 
the  trigger  guard  used 
as  a  lever  the  cartridges 
are  admitted  to  the 
chamber  one  by  one. 
The  same  movement 
ejects  the  shell  of 
the  exploded  cartridge. 
When  the  magazine  is 
exhausted,  it  can  be  re- 


also  be  used  as  a  single  breech-loader  by  shut- 
ting off  the  magazine.  This  gun  has  been  al- 
tered by  O.  F.  Winchester,  and  is  now  called 


Fio.  13.— Remington  Kim-lire  Rifle. 


the  Winchester  gun.  The  Ball,  Fogarty,  and 
Gardner  guns  are  also  magazine  guns.  The 
Remington  gun  is  a  single  breech-loader  using 
metallic-cased  cartridges.  An  iron  receiver 
made  to  correspond  externally  to  the  shape  of 
a  gunstock  is  screwed  to  the  breech  of  the 
barrel ;  in  this  are  contained  the  breech  block 
and  lock.  Supposing  the  piece  to  have  been 
discharged,  it  is  loaded  as  follows:  1,  it  is 
cocked ;  2,  the  breech  block  is  pulled  back  by 
the  handle  at  its  right  side,  ejecting  the  shell 
of  the  exploded  cartridge  ;  3,  the  cartridge  is 
inserted ;  4,  the  breech  block  is  pushed  back 
to  its  place,  closing  the  breech.  The  gun  is 
then  ready  for  firing.  The  hammer  has  a  pro- 


Fio.  H.— Springfield  Breech-loader. 
L  Vertical  Section  of  Breech -loading  System.    2.  Gun  complete.    8.  Cartridge. 


placed  by  another,  or  be  reloaded,  or  the  rifle 
may  be  used  as  a  single  breech-loader,  the 
magazine  being  previously  shut  off.  In  the 
Henry  gun,  an  American  invention,  the  mag- 
azine is  under  the  barrel,  and  parallel  to  it. 


Fio.  12.— Winchester  Repeating  Arm. 

It  contains  17  metallic-cased  cartridges,  which 
can  be  brought  successively  into  the  chamber 
by  moving  the  lever  under  the  stock.  It  can 


jection  which  passes  under  the  breech  block 
when  it  is  down,  or  closing  the  breech,  and 
prevents  the  block  from  flying  back  when  the 
explosion  takes  place.  The  firing  pin  passes 
through  the  breech  block  from  the  nose  of 
the  hammer  to  the  percussion  cap  in  the  base 
of  the  cartridge  shell.  This  rifle  is  used  by 
the  United  States  navy,  and  has  been  adopt- 
ed by  Egypt,  Spain,  and  some  other  nations. 
It  has  various  calibres  and  riflings,  and  is  ar- 
ranged for  rim-fire  and  central-fire  cartridges. 
The  Springfield  breech-loader,  which  has  been 
adopted  by  the  United  States  for  the  army 
and  militia,  is  in  external  appearance  like  the 
Springfield  muzzle-loader,  having  nearly  the 
same  stock  and  side  lock.  The  breech  action 
consists  of  a  receiver  screwed  to  the  breech  of 
the  barrel,  and  a  breech  block  which  when  it 


KIFLE 


333 


closes  the  breech  lies  in  the  receiver.  To  open 
the  breech,  the  breech  block  moves  upward 
and  forward  about  a  hinge  in  its  front  and  on 
top  of  the  barrel.  The  movement  of  the 
hinge  in  opening  the  breech  block  ejects  the 
shell  of  the  exploded  cartridge  by  a  combined 
cam  and  spring.  In  the  rear  of  the  breech 
block  is  a  cam  with  an  eccentric  handle  used 
for  lifting  the  block,  and  so  arranged  that 
unless  the  block  is  closed  the  hammer  cannot 
strike  the  firing  pin,  but  will  merely  strike  the 
handle.  The  firing  pin  goes  through  the  breech 
block  in  an  inclined  direction  from  the  nose  of 
the  hammer  at  the  side  to  the  centre  of  the 
rear  of  the  chamber,  where  it  strikes  the  head 
of  the  cartridge,  exploding  the  fulminate  when 
its  rear  end  is  struck  by  the  hammer.  This 
rifle  was  selected  by  a  board  of  officers  of  the 
army  in  1873  from  about  100  competitors.  Its 
calibre  is  -45  in.,  and  it  has  three  grooves  equal 
in  width  to  the  lands,  and  a  twist  of  22  in. — 


FIG.  15.— Martini-Henry  Gun. 

The  rifle  adopted  for  the  military  service  by 
the  British  government  is  the  Martini-Henry, 
in  which  the  breech  action  is  the  invention 
of  Martini,  and  the  rifling  that  of  Henry  (not 
the  inventor  of  the  Henry  gun),  which  has 
already  been  described.  The  Martini  breech 
action  appears  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
Peabody  gun,  an  American  invention.  In  the 
latter  the  breech  block  revolves  about  an  axis 
at  its  rear  end,  and  the  front  end  falls  to  open 
the  breech.  In  the  act  of  falling  it  moves  a 
bent  lever  which  ejects  the  shell.  The  motion 
of  the  breech  block  in  the  Martini  is  the  same 
as  that  in  the  Peabody ;  but  the  Martini  breech 
block  contains  the  lock,  differing  in  this  re- 
spect from  the  Peabody,  in  which  the  ordinary 


FIG.  16.— Peabody  Rifle. 

side  lock  is  used.  Turkey  has  adopted  the  Mar- 
tini-Henry gun.  The  calibre  of  this  rifle  is  -45 
in.,  the  rifling  the  Henry,  with  seven  grooves. 


The  twist  is  22  in.  The  first  step  made  by  the 
British  government  in  the  direction  of  breech- 
loading  small  arms  was  in  the  alteration  of  the 


FIG.  17.— Snider  Breech  Action  Rifle. 


Enfield  muzzle-loader  to  the  breech-loading 
system  by  the  Snider  plan,  about  1866.  The 
breech  block  in  this  system  revolves  about  an 
axis  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  at  its 
right.  The  firing  pin  passes  obliquely  from 
the  nose  of  the  hammer  through  the  breech 
block  to  the  centre  of  the  base  of  the  cartridge. 
In  1869  Kussia  ordered  from  the  United  States 
30,000  metallic-cartridge  rifles,  consisting  of 
a  combination  of  the  Springfield  breech-loader 
and  a  spiral  spring  lock.  This  was  the  first 
movement  in  arming  an  enormous  army  like 
that  of  Kussia  with  metallic-cartridge  arms. 
The  questions  of  the  kind  of  cartridge  and 
diameter  of  bore  and  rifling  were  carefully 
studied  by  the  Russian  officers  in  the  United 
States  under  Maj.  Gen.  Gorloff,  and  their  re- 
sults were  adopted  by  the  Russian  government. 
The  calibre  adopted  was  '42  in. ;  the  ball 


FIG.  18.— Gorloff  Russian  Breech-loader. 

weighed  380  grs.,  the  powder  77  grs. ;  and  the 
cartridge  case  was  brass,  central  fire.  There 
were  six  grooves,  each  -175  in.  broad,  and  the 
twist  was  22  in.  Major  Pieri  of  the  French 
army  has  adopted  the  same  calibre  in  a  breech- 
loading  rifle  lately  invented  by  him.  In  this 
arm  the  rifling  is  peculiar,  and  there  is  no 
trigger  nor  trigger  guard  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  stock.  The  rifle  is  fired  by  touching  a 
thumb  piece  on  the  upper  side  of  the  stock, 
behind  the  breech  action.  In  other  respects 
it  is  similar  to  the  Chassepot.  Afterward 
Russia  adopted  in  place  of  the  Gorloff  a  bolt 
gun  which  takes  the  same  cartridge,  the  in- 
vention of  the  American  Col.  Hiram  Berdan. 
Since  the  Franco-German  war,  Germany  has 
changed  her  needle  gun,  with  paper  or  linen 


334 


RIFLE 


RIGA 


envelope  cartridges,  for  another  with  calibre    it  available  for  use  with  the  metallic  cartridge. 


•433  in.,  using  a  metallic-shell  cartridge ;  and 
France  has  commenced  the  introduction  of  an 
altered  form  of  the  Chassepot  which  will  make 


It  may  be  said  therefore  that  all  civilized  na- 
tions are  now  using  breech-loading,  metallic- 
cartridge  arms. 


TABLE    SHOWING    THE    VARIETIES   OF    BREECH-LOADING   RIFLES    USED    IN    THE    MILITARY    SERVICES   OF   THE 

NATIONS    NAMED. 


NAME  OF  NATION. 

NAME  OF 

UIKI.E. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   BREECH 
ACTION. 

Shoti 
per 

tnin- 

Weight 
of  car- 
tridge, 
«*•• 

Weight 
of  rifle 
without 
bayonet, 
Ibt. 

Range, 

vtrdi. 

Calibre, 
InchM. 

REMARKS. 

Great  Britain,  and  1 
Turkey  ) 

Martini-Henry 
WerndJ  

j  Block  opens  breech  by  fall- 
(     ing  at  forward  end  

12 

9 
11 

>r 

19 

8 
19 

5 

T 

8 
10 

19 

10 

689 

602 
648 

625 
627 

642 

602 

626 

669 
698 
600 

611 
585 

9-82 

8-98 
9-71 

9-81 
9-69 

10-21 
8-9 

11-47 

10-54 
9-06 
9-5 

9-18 
9-25 

1,200 

1,000? 
900 

i,2<J6 

600 
1,200 

600 

900 
1,000 
1,000 

1,000 
800 

•45 

•40 

•488 

:488 
•60 

•60 
•42 
•488 

•46 

•50 

Sweden    and    Den- 
mark    have     the 
Remington      rifle 
in   their   services 
experimentally. 

Changed  to  metallic 
cartridge. 
Changed  to  metallic 
cartridge,    calibre 
•488  Inch. 

Block  opens  breech  by  turn- 
ing around  axis  of  bore  .  . 
Falling  breech  block  

Werder  

Alblni  

Breech  block  opens  upward 
and  forward  

Holland  

Beaumont  
Carcano  

Sygttme  d  brocfie  
Transformed     arm,    needle 
system  

Italy  

France  

«• 
Chassepot  

Dreyse  

Needle  system  
Needle  system  

Prussia 

Russia  

Karl  

Transformed     arm,    needle 
system  

Gorloff.  

Block    lifting    upward   end 
forward  

Egypt  and  Spain  

United  States  army  I 
and  militia  f 

Remington  — 

Springfield  
Remington  — 

Block    falling    down    and 
backward  

{Block  moving  upward  and 
forward  

United  States  nary.  . 

The  extreme  accurate  range  of  military  breech- 
loading  rifles  now  in  use  by  nearly  all  nations 
is  about  1,000  yards.  An  expert  shot  will 
strike  a  man  at  this  distance  three  times  out 
of  four.  It  is  claimed  for  the  Russian  rifle  de- 
scribed above,  that  an  expert  will  place  every 
bullet  within  a  space  3  ft.  high  by  1$  ft.  broad 
at  1,000  yards  distance.  The  range  of  maga- 
zine or  repeating  rifles  does  not  in  general  ex- 
ceed 500  yards.  In  order  to  place  a  large  num- 
ber of  charges  in  the  magazine,  the  charge  is 
kept  small,  in  some  degree  sacrificing  range  to 
rapidity  of  fire.  The  range  of  rifled  pistols  is 
about  100  yards.  Thirty  years  ago  the  range 
of  the  musket,  which  was  the  infantry  arm  in 
use  in  all  armies,  was  200  yards,  and  the  tactics 
of  the  three  arms,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artil- 
lery, dimensions  of  forts,  &c.,  were  all  deter- 
mined upon  that  basis.  It  is  evident  that  the 
great  increase  of  range  due  to  the  present  style 
of  breech-loading  weapons  must  materially  in- 
crease the  distances  at  which  the  fire  of  hostile 
bodies  of  infantry  becomes  deadly,  and  must 
therefore  involve  a  radical  change  in  tactics. 
This  change  is  now  a  subject  of  discussion 
among  the  most  accomplished  soldiers,  but  has 
not  yet  been  determined. — See  Robins,  "  New 
Principles  of  Gunnery  "  (London,  1742) ;  Thi- 
roux,  Instruction  theorique  et  pratique  cCartil- 
lerie  (Paris,  1842);  Roret,  Manuel  de  Varmu- 
rier  (1852) ;  Chesney,  "  Observations  on  Fire- 
arms" (London,  1852);  Wilcox,  "Rifles  and 
Rifle  Practice"  (New  York,  1859);  L'Haridou, 
Catalogue  du  musee  d'artillerie  (Paris,  1864); 
Greener,  "Modern  Breech-loaders"  (London, 
1870) ;  Fave,  Etudes  sur  le  paste  et  Tavenir  de 


Vartilleric  (Paris,  1871);  Mattenheimer,  Die 
Ruckladungsgewehre  (Darmstadt  and  Leipsic, 
1872);  andWingate,  "Manual  for  Rifle  Prac- 
tice "  (New  York,  1875).  (For  rifled  cannon, 
see  ABTILLKKY,  and  CANNON.) 

RIGA,  a  city  of  Russia,  capital  of  Livonia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  I  >una,  about  8  in.  from 
the  gulf  of  Riga,  and  300  m.  S.  W.  of  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  pop.  in  1867,  102,048,  of  whom  47,000 
were  Germans,  25,000  Russians,  and  the  rest 
chiefly  Letts.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  authorities 
of  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  next  to  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Odessa  the  greatest  commercial  em- 
porium of  Russia.  The  walls  of  the  city  were 
in  1857  converted  into  promenades;  the  cita- 
del was  razed  in  1867,  and  no  fortifications 
remain  excepting  Fort  Dunamunde  for  the 
protection  of  the  harbor.  There  are  three 
suburbs:  the  Moscow  suburb,  inhabited  chief- 
ly by  Russians;  the  St.  Petersburg,  by  Ger- 
mans ;  and  the  Mitau  suburb.  St.  Peter's, 
the  principal  of  the  nine  Lutheran  churches, 
has  a  tower  470  ft.  high,  and  there  are  four 
Greek  and  several  other  churches  and  a  syna- 
gogue. There  are  two  gymnasiums,  a  new 
polytechnic  institute  and  school  of  navigation, 
and  various  other  schools,  and  a  conservatory 
of  music  was  established  in  1875.  One  of  the 
finest  public  buildings  is  the  exchange.  The 
arrivals  of  vessels  in  1873  were  3,177,  and  the 
departures  3,181.  The  imports  amounted  to 
19,611,660  rubles,  including  coal,  salt,  iron, 
and  miscellaneous  articles ;  the  exports  to  20,- 
153,453  rubles,  consisting  chiefly  of  flax,  hemp, 
timber,  grain,  and  tobacco.  The  registered 
shipping  is  about  100  vessels,  about  one  fourth 


RIGDON 


RIMINI 


335 


steamers.  There  are  in  Riga  and  vicinity  near- 
ly 100  manufactories  of  woollen,  cotton,  and 
other  goods,  and  many  ships  are  built. — The 
city  was  founded  in  1201  by  the  Livonian  bish- 
op Albert  von  Apeldern,  who  here  established 
the  order  of  knights  sword-bearers,  which 
in  1237  united  with  that  of  the  Teutonic 
knights,  and  the  latter  for  a  considerable  time 
wielded  supreme  authority  together  with  the 
see  of  Riga,  which  was  early  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  an  archbishopric.  The  city,  however, 
paid  but  limited  obedience  to  its  rulers,  having 
grown  prosperous  and  become  a  member  of 
the  Hanseatic  league.  The  last  of  the  arch- 
bishops, the  margrave  William  of  Branden- 
burg, favored  the  reformation,  which  had  been 
introduced  under  his  predecessor  (about  1530). 
The  city  was  subsequently  a  protectorate  of 
Poland,  excepting  from  1561  to  1581,  when 
it  was  free.  In  1621  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Swedes,  and  in  1710  by  Russia,  but  without 
losing  any  of  its  ancient  privileges. 

RIGDON,  Sidney.  See  MOEMONS,  vol.  xi.,  p. 
833. 

RIGG,  James  II,,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1821.  He  entered 
the  "Wesleyan  ministry  in  1845,  and  soon  ex- 
erted great  influence.  In  1852  he  published 
a  series  of  papers  entitled  "  Wesleyan  Con- 
nectionalism  and  Congregational  Independency 
Contrasted,"  and  was  appointed  editor  of  the 
"  London  Quarterly  Review,"  the  Wesleyan 
organ;  some  of  his  contributions  to  which 
were  collected  under  the  title  "  Modern  Angli- 
can Theology  "  (8vo,  1857).  Since  1868  he  has 
been  principal  of  the  Wesleyan  normal  college 
at  Westminster,  and  since  1870  a  member  of 
the  London  school  board.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  conference  of  the  evangelical  alliance  in 
New  York  in  1873,  and  has  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.  D.  from  Dickinson  college,  Pa.  His 
principal  works  are:  "The  Sabbath  and  the 
Sabbath  Law,  before  and  after  Christ ;"  "  The 
Relations  of  Wesley  and  Wesleyan  Methodism 
to  the  Church  of  England  ;"  "  Wesley's  Char- 
acter and  Opinions  in  Early  Life ;"  "  John 
Wesley  in  Mature  and  Later  Life;"  "Essays 
for  the  Times"  (8vo,  1866);  and  "National 
Education  in  its  Social  Conditions  and  As- 
pects, and  Public  Elementary  School  Educa- 
tion, English  and  Foreign  "  (8vo,  1873). 

RIGHINI,  Vineenzo,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Bologna,  Jan.  22,  1756,  died  there,  Aug.  19, 
1812.  He  studied  counterpoint  under  Marti- 
ni, and  commenced  as  a  singer  at  Parma ;  but 
his  reputation  as  a  composer  soon  surpassed 
that  as  a  vocalist,  and  after  three  years  at 
Prague  he  entered  the  service  of  Joseph  II.  at 
Vienna,  remaining  eight  years.  He  was  after- 
ward successively  chapelmaster  to  the  elector 
of  Mentz,  and  director  of  music  at  the  royal 
theatre  in  Berlin.  He  composed  20  operas, 
mostly  on  classical  subjects,  and  one  entitled 
Don  Giovanni,  ossia  il  convitato  di  pietra, 
having  a  libretto  similar  to  that  afterward  used 
by  Mozart.  He  also  wrote  many  arias  and 
706  VOL.  xiv. — 22 


cantatas,  a  mease  solennelle,  and  some  instru- 
mental works.  His  operas  have  fallen  into 
disuse,  but  many  of  their  arias  are  still  sung. 

RIGI,  or  Righl,  an  isolated  mountain  of  Switz- 
erland, in  the  canton'  of  Schwytz,  between  the 
lakes  of  Zug  and  Lucerne.  The  highest  point, 
the  Rigi  Kulm,  is  5,902  ft.  above  the  sea,  or 
about  4,500  ft.  above  the  lake  of  Lucerne.  The 
view  from  this  summit  is  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive in  the  Alps,  embracing  most  of  E.  and 
N.  Switzerland  and  the  Jura  mountains,  and 
extending  far  into  Swabia.  There  are  numer- 
ous hotels  and  sanitariums  on  the  mountain, 
which  attract  as  many  as  40,000  visitors  annu- 
ally. The  summit  is  accessible  by  roads  from 
various  points  at  the  base.  In  1873  a  railway 
on  the  plan  of  the  one  at  Mt.  Washington,  N. 
H.,  was  completed  to  the  Rigi  Kulm.  It  starts 
from  Vitznau,  on  Lake  Lucerne,  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  mountain,  and  its  grades  range  from  7 
to  about  30  in  100. 

It  I  LEY,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Kansas,  bounded 
E.  by  the  Big  Blue  river,  and  S.  and  S.  W.  by 
the  Kansas  and  Republican  rivers ;  area,  654 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,105.  The  Kansas  Pa- 
cific railroad  passes  along  the  S.  border.  The 
surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  fertile.  Lime- 
stone and  sandstone  are  found.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  78,166  bushels  of 
wheat,  405,277  of  Indian  corn,  57,730  of  oats, 
43,086  of  potatoes,  111,590  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
15,740  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,299  horses, 
2,192  milch  cows,  4,458  other  cattle,  2,190 
sheep,  and  1,758  swine ;  1  flour  mill,  3  saw 
mills,  2  breweries,  3  manufactories  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  and  3  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware.  Capital,  Manhattan. 

RILKY,  Charles  Valentine,  an  American  ento- 
mologist, born  in  London,  England,  Sept.  18, 
1843.  At  17  he  came  to  America,  and  after 
farming  for  three  years  was  for  nearly  five 
years  editor  of  the  entomological  department 
of  the  "  Prairie  Farmer  "  at  Chicago.  In  1868 
he  was  made  state  entomologist  of  Missouri, 
and  has  since  then  made  annual  reports  on  its 
insects.  In  the  same  year  he  began  with  Ben- 
jamin D.  Walsh,  state  entomologist  of  Illinois, 
the  "  American  Entomologist,"  a  monthly  mag- 
azine. Among  the  more  noteworthy  results 
of  his  labors  are  the  tracing  of  the  history  of 
the  Colorado  potato  beetle  (1863) ;  the  dis- 
covery of  a  13-year  brood  of  the  17-year  or 
periodical  cicada  (1868) ;  the  discovery  of  the 
grape  phylloxera  in  American  vines,  and  of  its 
identity  with  the  destructive  insect  of  southern 
France  (see  PHYLLOXERA);  the  recommenda- 
tion to  use  diluted  Paris  green  against  the  Col- 
orado potato  beetle  (1871)  and  the  cotton  worm 
(1873) ;  and  the  discovery  of  the  yucca  moth 
(pronuba  yuccasclla),  by  which  the  North  Ame- 
rican yuccas  are  fertilized.  In  1873  he  was  pre- 
sented with  a  grand  gold  medal  by  the  French 
minister  of  agriculture  and  commerce  "  for  ser- 
vices rendered  to  French  grape  culture." 

RIMINI  (anc.  Ariminum),  a  town  of  central 
Italy,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Marecchia  in  the 


336 


RIMOUSKI 


RING 


Adriatic,  in  the  province  and  30  m.  S.  E.  of 
the  city  of  Forli,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway;  pop.  in  1872,  83,886.  It  contains 
celebrated  antiquities,  especially  a  bridge  of 
the  finest  white  marble  built  under  Augus- 
tus and  Tiberius  at  the  junction  of  the  Via 
Flaminia  and  Via  .Emilia.  The  church  of  San 
Francesco  is  of  remarkable  architecture,  and 
was  built  by  Pandolfo  Malatesta,  whose  family 
were  the  local  rulers  from  the  beginning  of 
the  13th  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  16th. 
Rimini  possesses  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
theatres  of  Italy. — See  Storia  Riminese,  by 
Tonini  (2  vols.,  Rimini,  1860). 

RIMOISKI,  an  E.  county  of  Quebec,  Cana- 
da, bounded  N.  W.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
near  its  mouth ;  area,  4,932  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  27,418,  of  whom  25,957  were  of  French 
and  880  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  It  is 
watered  by  streams  flowing  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  into  the  Restigouche  river  and  bay 
of  Chaleurs,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Interco- 
lonial railway.  Capital,  Rimouski. 

RINDERPEST.    See  MURRAIN. 

RLVEUART,  William  Henry,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Frederick  co.,  Md.,  Sept.  13, 1825, 
died  in  Rome,  Italy,  Oct.  28,  1874.  Ho  was 
apprenticed  to  a  stone  cutter,  attended  the 
night  school  of  design  of  the  Maryland  in- 
stitute in  Baltimore,  became  foreman  of  the 
establishment  in  which  he  was  employed,  and 
was  noted  for  his  fine  monumental  and  mantel 
work.  Opening  a  small  studio,  ho  devoted  his 
leisure  hours  to  modelling,  and  executed  one 
of  his  earliest  works,  "The  Woodman."  Ho 
was  in  Florence  from  1855  to  1858,  and  on 
his  return  to  Baltimore  brought  his  bass  re- 
liefs "  Night "  and  "  Morning."  He  established 
a  studio  there,  but  soon  afterward  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  resided  till  his  death,  lie 
completed  the  double  bronze  door  in  the  capi- 
tol  at  Washington,  left  unfinished  by  Craw- 
ford. His  best  works  are  a  "Nymph,"  "Wo- 
man of  Samaria,"  "  Indian  Maiden,"  "  Re- 
becca," "Endymion,"  "Atalanta,"  "Hero," 
"Leander,"  "Antigone,"  and  "Latona."  His 
masterpiece,  "  Clytie,"  is  in  the  Peabody  insti- 
tute, Baltimore ;  his  statue  in  bronze  of  Roger 
B.  Taney  is  at  Annapolis.  He  executed  more 
than  100  portrait  busts. 

RIXG  (Ang.  Sax.  hring),  a  circular  orna- 
ment worn  on  the  finger.  The  finger  ring  has 
been  more  intimately  associated  with  the  most 
important  interests  of  life  than  any  other  or- 
nament. In  ancient  times  it  was  a  symbol 
of  authority,  and  power  was  delegated  by 
means  of  it.  When  "Pharaoh  took  off  his 
ring  from  his  hand,  and  put  it  upon  Joseph's 
hand,"  he  intrusted  to  him  the  government  of 
Egypt.  Ahasuerus  gave  his  ring  to  Haman  as 
his  warrant  for  exterminating  the  Jews ;  and 
when  he  ordered  Mordecai  to  write  letters 
annulling  the  decree,  he  took  the  ring  from 
Hainan  and  gave  it  to  him  to  seal  them  with. 
Signet  rings  and  rings  for  ornament  were  worn 
by  all  classes  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Many 


gold  ones  have  been  found  in  the  tombs,  and 
some  of  silver  and  of  bronze,  the  latter  mostly 
signet  rings.  Those  worn  by  the  lower  class- 
es were  usually  of  ivory  or  of  blue  porcelain. 
The  favorite  rings  of  the  rich  were  plain  cir- 
clets of  gold,  bearing  either  a  scarabteus  or  a 
stone  engraved  with  the  name  of  some  deity 
or  king,  or  with  a  sacred  emblem  and  legend. 
Frequently  many  were  worn,  sometimes  two 
or  three  on  each  finger  and  on  the  thumbs. 
Among  the  Hebrews  the  signet  ring  was  an 
indispensable  article  of  dress,  and  was  per- 
haps handed  down  from  father  to  son  as  a 
mark  of  rank  and  authority  (Luke  xv.  22). 
The  Hebrew  ladies  wore  rings  adorned  with 
precious  stones,  valuing  most  those  set  with 
rubies,  emeralds,  and  chrysolites.  As  Homer 
makes  no  mention  of  rings,  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  introduced  into  Greece 
from  Asia  subsequent  to  his  time.  In  the 
days  of  Solon  every  freeman  wore  a  signet 
ring  of  gold,  silver,  or  bronze,  and  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  right  was  ever  restricted  to 
any  class  of  the  Athenians.  At  a  later  period 
rings  were  set  with  precious  stones,  and  were 
worn  as  ornaments,  some  persons  displaying 
several  on  each  hand.  Women  wore  ivory 
and  amber  rings.  Among  the  Lacedaemonians 
only  did  the  law  attempt  to  repress  the  luxury 
of  wearing  gold  and  jewelled  rings,  and  every 
Spartan  took  pride  in  the  use  of  a  plain  iron 
ring. — According  to  Pliny,  the  Romans  derived 
the  custom  of  wearing  rings  from  the  Greeks, 
but  Livy  ascribes  its  introduction  to  the  Sa- 
bines,  and  Florus  to  the  Etruscans.  At  first 
all  rings  were  of  iron,  and  such  continued  to 
be  worn  by  many  noble  families  as  a  distin- 
guishing mark  after  gold  rings  had  come  into 
common  use.  For  a  long  time  not  even  the 
Roman  senators  wore  rings  of  gold,  but  they 
were  given  to  ambassadors  at  the  public  ex- 
pense as  a  part  of  their  official  dress,  to  be 
used  only  on  ceremonial  occasions.  Afterward 
the  privilege  was  extended  to  senators,  to  chief 
magistrates,  and  to  those  of  the  equestrian  or- 
der, who  were  said  to  enjoy  the  jut  annuli 
aurei  or  jus  annulorum.  After  the  battle  of 
Cannro  Hannibal  sent  to  Carthage  three  modii 
of  gold  rings  which  had  been  stripped  from 
the  fingers  of  the  slain  Roman  knights.  Under 
the  empire  the  right  of  granting  the  annultit 
aureus  was  assumed  by  the  emperors,  and  oven 
magistrates  and  governors  of  provinces  con- 
ferred the  privilege  of  wearing  it  upon  infe- 
rior officers  and  those  whom  they  desired  to 
honor.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  many  pro- 
tected themselves  from  the  consequences  of 
the  infraction  of  certain  laws  on  the  plea  that 
they  wore  the  gold  ring,  in  consequence  of 
which  an  ordinance  was  passed  directing  that 
it  should  be  worn  only  by  freemen  whose 
fathers  and  paternal  grandfathers  had  pos- 
sessed a  property  of  400,000  sesterces.  Aure- 
lian  gave  the  right  to  all  the  soldiers  of  the 
empire,  and  under  Justinian  every  citizen  was 
entitled  to  it.  With  the  increase  of  luxury  the 


RING 


337 


Romans,  like  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  cov- 
ered their  fingers  with  rings,  wearing  one  on 
each  joint,  not  excepting  even  the  thumb.  Ac- 
cording to  Martial,  Charinus  wore  60  rings,  or 
six  on  each  finger.  Fops  had  rings  to  suit 
the  seasons,  light  ones  for  summer  and  heavi- 
er ones  for  winter.  The  Romans  introduced 
from  Egypt  the  custom  of  engraving  animals 
on  their  signets;  afterward  the  portraits  of 
heroes  and  of  princes  took  their  place ;  and 
later,  indelicate  symbols  were  frequently  dis- 
played. Rings  were  often  of  immense  value ; 
that  of  the  empress  Faustina  is  said  to  have 
cost  $200,000,  and  that  of  Domitia  $300,000. 
Plain  rings  were  worn  originally  by  the  Ro- 
mans on  either  hand,  but  when  gems  were 
added  they  were  worn  on  the  left  hand.  The 
Jews  wore  the  signet  ring  always  on  the  right 
hand,  on  the  middle  or  the  little  finger ;  but 
with  the  Egyptians  the  fourth  finger  of  the  left 
hand  was  the  ring  finger. — The  early  Chris- 
tians adopted  the  use  of  rings.  At  first  they 
wore  simple  circles  of  ivory,  bronze,  iron,  or 
some  other  cheap  material,  and  great  numbers 
of  these  have  been  found  in  the  Roman  ceme- 
teries ;  but  soon  this  custom  degenerated  into 
such  an  abuse  that  the  fathers  of  the  church, 
particularly  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Jerome, 
were  obliged  to  inveigh  with  severity  against 
the  prodigality  of  rings  of  gold  and  precious 
stones.  Many  of  the  Christians  adorned  their 
rings  with  symbols  connected  with  their  faith, 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


such  as  the  cross,  the  monogram  of  Christ 
(fig.  1),  the  fish  (1^0{»f ;  see  CEOSS),  the  dove, 
anchor,  ship  (fig.  2),  palm  branch,  &c. ;  some 
with  the  portrait  and  name  of  Christ,  or  the 
images  of  the  apostles  or  saints ;  and  others 
with  simple  religious  phrases,  among  the  most 
common  of  which  was  VIVAS  IN  DEO  or 


FIG.  8. 


SPES  IN  DEO.  Rings  to  be  used  as  seal  rings 
alone  were  fitted  with  a  plate  of  metal,  which 
usually  bore  the  owner's  name  together  with 
some  sacred  symbol.  This  often  took  the 


FIG.  4 


form  of  the  bottom  of  a  sandal  or  of  the  hu- 
man foot  (fig.  3),  an  outgrowth  probably  of 
the  ancient  tradition  which  made  this  image 
the  symbol  of  possession. 
Among  the  rings  found  in 
the  catacombs  are  some 
with  a  key,  and  some  with 
both  a  key  and  a  seal  (fig. 
4),  the  latter  for  both  lock- 
ing and  sealing  a  casket. 
A  ring  was  worn  by  the 
early  Christian  bishops, 
and  the  custom  still  pre- 
vails in  the  Roman  church. 
At  the  consecration  of  a 
bishop,  this  ring,  called 
the  episcopal  or  pastoral 
ring,  is  blessed  and  put 
upon  the  fourth  finger  of 
his  right  hand,  as  a  sign  of  his  alliance  'with 
the  church.  Pope  Gregory  IV.,  who  was 
elected  in  827,  in  his  work  De  Cultu  Pontifi- 
cum,  says  the  ring  is  not  put  on  the  left  hand, 
because  it  would  seem  to  give  credence  to  the 
pagan  notion  that  a  vein  ran  directly  from  the 
fourth  finger  of  the  left  hand  to  the  heart; 
but  on  the  more  worthy  right  hand,  which 
gives  the  holy  benedictions.  The  episcopal 
ring  is  always  of  gold  set  with  an  un engraved 
precious  stone,  usually  an  amethyst,  but  some- 
times a  sapphire,  ruby,  emerald,  or  crystal. 
In  1875,  in  the  course  of  excavations  in  the 
chapter  house  of  Durham  cathedral,  England, 
sapphire  rings  were  found  in  the  coffins  of  the 
bishops  Ralph  Flambard,  who  occupied  the  see 
from  1099  to  1128,  Geoffrey  Rufus,  who  died 
in  1140,  and  William  de  Sancta  Barbara,  who 
died  in  1152.  The  ring  of  a  cardinal  is  set 
with  a  sapphire.  The  seal  ring  of  the  pope  is 
of  steel,  and  is  in  the  keeping  of  the  cardinal 
chamberlain  or  chancellor ;  since  the  15th  cen- 
tury it  has  been  used  for  sealing  the  apostolic 
briefs.  On  the  death  of  a  pope  his  ring  is 
broken,  and  a  new  one  is  made  for  his  suc- 
cessor. In  England  it  is  customary  for  ser- 
geants at  law  on  being  sworn  in  to  present 
gold  rings  to  the  law  officers,  certain  other 
officials,  and  those  who  come  to  the  inaugura- 
tion feast.  In  1737  1,409  rings,  of  the  value 
of  £773,  were  given  away  on  the  occasion  of 
the  admission  of  14  sergeants.  Rings  were 
also  formerly  given  away  at  weddings.  Ed- 
ward Kelly,  the  famous  alchemist  of  Queen 
Elizbeth's  days,  is  said  to  have  given  away  at 
the  marriage  of  one  of  his  maid  servants  gold 
wire  rings  to  the  value  of  £4,000.  It  was 
with  a  golden  ring  that  the  doge  of  Venice 
wedded  the  Adriatic  on  Ascension  day,  cast- 
ing it  into  the  waters  with  these  words  :  "We 
espouse  thee,  0  sea,  as  a  token  of  our  perpetual 
dominion  over  thee." — The  wedding  ring  is 
supposed  to  be  of  Roman  origin,  and  to  have 
sprung  from  the  ancient  custom  of  using  rings 
in  making  agreements,  grants,  &c.  It  was 
usually  given  at  the  betrothal  as  a  pledge  of 
the  engagement,  and  its  primitive  form  was 


338 


RING 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO 


probably  that  of  a  seal  or  signet  ring.  In 
Germany  it  has  been  common  for  the  wife 
to  wear  the  betrothal  ring  after  marriage,  and 
the  husband  the  wedding  ring.  Widows  for- 
merly wore  the  wedding  ring  on  the  thumb, 
as  an  emblem  of  widowhood.  Betrothal  rings 
were  frequently  exchanged  in  ancient  times  by 
lovers.  Gimmal,  jimmal,  gimbal,  or  gimmon 
rings  are  twin  (gemelli)  or  double  rings,  made 
of  gold  wire  twined  together ;  but  sometimes 
three  and  four  rings  were  thus  joined.  It  is 
also  believed  that  the  Romans  originated  the 
custom  Of  giving  rings  with  mottoes  or  posies 
engraved  on  them  to  their  lady  loves.  In  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  the  posy  was  usually 
inscribed  on  the  outside  of  the  ring,  but  after- 
ward on  the  inside.  Among  the  most  com- 
mon posies  on  old  rings  are  the  following : 
"Let  lyking  laste;"'"Let  us  share  in  joy  and 
car"e;"  "I  like  my  choice;"  "A  faithful  wife 
preserveth  life ;"  "  Love  and  live  happy ;" 
"United  hearts  death  only  parts;"  "I'll  win 
and  wear  you ;"  "  In  Christ  and  thee  my  com- 
fort be;"  "This  and  the  giver  are  thine  for 
ever ;"  "  Knit  in  one  by  Christ  alone ;"  "  As 
God  decreed,  so  we  agreed."  Sometimes 
stones  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  posy,  tho 
first  letter  of  each  being  read  like  an  acros- 
tic, thus:  L  apis  lazuli,  O  pal,  V  erde  antique, 
E  inerald. — Many  superstitions  have  been  con- 
nected with  wedding  rings.  The  once  preva- 
lent notion  that  an  artery  or  nerve  extended 
from  tho  ring  finger  to  the  heart  is  of  very 
ancient  origin,  and  is  probably  due  to  the 
Egyptians.  It  has  been  thought  too  that  the 
wedding  ring  is  possessed  of  curative  powers, 
and  some  persons  still  believe  that  a  stye  on 
the  eyelid  will  disappear  after  being  rubbed 
with  a  gold  ring.  Other  rings  than  wedding 
rings  were  also  used  to  cure  diseases ;  a  gold 
ring  was  supposed  to  be  efficacious  against  St. 
Anthony's  fire,  and  one  made  of  silver  col- 
lected at  the  communion  was  good  against 
convulsions  and  fits.  They  sometimes  owed 
their  virtue  to  the  stones  with  which  they 
were  set :  thus  diamond  was  believed  to  be  an 
antidote  against  all  poisons ;  ruby  changed  its 
color  if  any  evil  was  about  to  befall  the  wear- 
er of  it ;  sapphire  and  the  bloodstone  checked 
bleeding  at  the  nose ;  amethyst  was  an  antidote 
against  drunkenness;  coral  hindered  the  de- 
lusions of  the  devil ;  topaz  cured  and  prevent- 
ed lunacy ;  and  the  toadstone  was  considered 
a  sovereign  remedy  against  many  disorders. 
Rings  were  also  believed  to  possess  magical 
virtues  and  to  be  full  of  occult  significance. 
Plato  records  that  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  pos- 
sessed a  ring  which  rendered  him  invisible 
when  the  stone  was  turtied  inward.  The  same 
story  is  told  of  Midas,  the  mythical  king  of 
Phrygia.  The  Arabians  have  a  book  called 
Salcuthat,  which  treats  of  magic  rings.  Among 
them  is  mentioned  Solomon's  ring  with  which 
he  sealed  up  refractory  jinns  in  jars  before 
they  were  cast  into  the  sea.  Magic  rings  were 
manufactured  in  great  numbers  in  Athens,  and 


endowed  with  whatever  charm  the  purchaser 
required.  The  Gnostics  engraved  ring  gems 
with  mystic  symbols,  names,  monograms,  and 
legends,  which  were  supposed  to  have  peculiar 
values ;  and  in  the  early  ages  the  names  of 
Jesus,  Mary,  and  Joseph  on  rings  were  deemed 
to  be  preservatives  against  the  plague.  Rings 
were  sometimes  made  hollow  to  contain  poi- 
son. Hannibal  died  of  poison  which  he  car- 
ried in  his  ring.  The  ring  of  Ca3sar  Borgia  had 
a  slide  within  which  he  is  said  to  have  carried 
the  poison  that  he  sometimes  dropped  into  the 
wine  of  his  guests;  and  it  is  said  that  his  fa- 
ther Alexander  VI.  possessed  a  key  ring  which 
had  a  concealed  poisoned  needle  within  it,  and 
which,  when  he  desired  to  rid  himself  of  a 
person,  he  gave  him  to  unlock  a  casket. 

RINGGOLD,  a  S.  county  of  Iowa,  bordering 
on  Missouri,  and  intersected  by  Platte  river 
and  by  the  E.  and  W.  forks  of  Grand  river ; 
area,  576  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  5,691.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  40,381  bushels 
of  wheat,  340,735  of  Indian  corn,  79,159  of 
oats,  27,894  of  potatoes,  52,856  Ibs.  of  wool, 
163,485  of  butter,  and  14,325  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,612  horses,  2,306  milch  cows, 
4,112  other  cattle,  14,219  sheep,  and  8,764 
swine.  Capital,  Mount  Ayr. 

BIXGWORM.    See  EPIPHYTES,  vol.  vi.,  p.  689. 

RIO  ARRIBA,  a  N.  W.  county  of  New  Mex- 
ico, bordering  on  Arizona,  and  intersected  in 
the  southeast  by  the  Rio  Grande ;  area,  about 
5,500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  9,294.  The  E. 
part  is  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  the  "W.  part  by  affluents  of  tho  San 
Juan,  and  it  is  crossed  by  several  mountain 
chains.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
5,249  bushels  of  wheat,  10,351  of  Indian  corn, 
and  19,663  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  399 
horses,  749  mules  and  asses,  547  milch  cows, 
1,532  working  oxen,  1,573  other  cattle,  40,772 
sheep,  and  256  swine.  Capital,  Los  Luceros. 

RIO  BRAVO  DEL  NORTE.     See  Rio  GRANDE 

DEL  NORTB. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO.  I.  A  province  of  Brazil, 
lying  between  lat.  20°  50'  and  23°  25'  S.,  and 
Ion.  40°  50'  and  44°  40'  W.,  bounded  N.  by  Es- 
pirito  Santo,  N.  W.  by  Minas  Geraes,  S.  W.  by 
Sao  Paulo,  and  E.  and  S.  by  the  Atlantic ;  area, 
about  18,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,050,000, 
of  whom  306,000  were  slaves.  (These  num- 
bers, and  some  others,  are  according  to  the 
Almanack  de  Gotha  for  1875  and  other  recent 
authorities,  those  in  the  article  BRAZIL  hav- 
ing been  derived  from  earlier  sources.)  The 
surface  of  the  province  is  mountainous,  being 
traversed  by  the  Serra  dos  Orgaos  (the  local 
name  of  the  Serra  do  Mar),  and  bounded  W. 
by  the  Serra  Mantiquiera.  In  the  latter  chain, 
about  5  m.  from  the  N".  W.  corner  of  the  prov- 
ince, is  Itatiaiossu,  the  highest  peak  in  Bra- 
zil (10,300  ft.)  Many  isolated  hills  rise  from 
tho  plains,  which  are  low  and  marshy.  The 
only  important  river,  the  Parahyba  do  Sul, 
rises  near  Paraty,  and,  after  a  circuitous  and 


KIO  DE  JANEIRO 


339 


precipitous  course  of  400  m.  between  the  two 
mountain  chains  (partly  through  the  province 
of  Sao  Paulo),  empties  near  the  N.  limit  of 
Kio  de  Janeiro;  it  is  navigable  for  only  50 
m.  from  its  mouth.  Numerous  salt  lakes  bor- 
der the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  are  exten- 
sive sheets  of  fresh  water.  There  are  many 
islands  on  the  coast,  the  largest  of  which  are 
Ilha  Grande  and  Marambaya.  The  principal 
ports  are  Angra  dos  Keis,  Sao  Joao,  Mangara- 
tiba,  Frio,  Macahe',  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The 
last,  the  only  one  of  importance,  is  in  the  bay 
of  the  same  name,  and  is  one  of  the  best  in 
the  world.  It  is  an  irregular  basin  penetra- 
ting inland  15  m.,  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
2  to  9  m.  The  entrance,  only  1,700  yards  in 
width,  is  between  steep  hills,  the  eastern  about 
1,000  ft.,  the  western  1,270  ft.  in  height.  The 
latter  is  a  conical  isolated  mass  of  gneiss,  called 
Pao  de  Assucar.  At  its  base  is  a  fort,  and  on 
its  opposite  side  another,  forming  the  salient 
points  of  a  system  of  fortifications  designed 
to  be  impregnable.  Just  within  and  nearly 
midway  of  the  entrance  is  an  isolated  rock, 
also  fortified.  The  basin  soon  widens,  and  the 
shores  trending  in  deep  curves  form  beautiful 
bays  and  coves.  Many  islands  and  islets  are 
scattered  over  its  surface,  the  largest  of  which 
are  cultivated  and  many  of  them  fortified. 
Numerous  streams  empty  into  the  basin,  fresh- 
ening its  waters  and  forming  banks  on  which 
grow  large  oysters.  The  greatest  depth  of 
water  is  150  ft.,  just  within  the  entrance; 
thence  northward  it  shoals  gradually,  and  in 
the  head  of  the  basin  there  is  only  6  or  8  ft. 
The  tides,  owing  to  local  causes,  are  irregular. 
The  climate  of  the  province  is  agreeable  and 
salubrious  on  the  high  lands,  but  warm  and 
unhealthy  on  the  low  lands  and  near  the  sea. 
Vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  crops  are  abun- 
dant. The  forests  contain  varied  and  excel- 
lent timber,  and  almost  all  kinds  of  tropical 
and  temperate  plants  are  found.  Coffee,  sugar 
cane,  cotton,  mandioca,  and  tobacco  are  exten- 
sively cultivated ;  tea,  rice,  cacao,  and  potatoes 
moderately.  Coffee  is  the  great  staple,  and  its 
cultivation  is  steadily  increasing.  Nearly  all  the 
vegetables  of  temperate  climes  may  be  raised. 
Every  variety  of  tropical  fruit  abounds,  and 
flowers  of  rare  beauty  and  fragrance  adorn  the 
gardens  and  forests.  Among  the  native  ani- 
mals are  the  ounce,  tapir,  wild  hog,  and  mon- 
key. There  are  immense  herds  of  cattle.  The 
forests  swarm  with  birds  of  brilliant  plumage, 
and  there  is  a  large  variety  of  beetles,  butter- 
flies, and  other  insects,  many  of  them  of  great 
beauty.  Fish  of  many  varieties  are  found  in 
all  the  waters.  There  is  gold  in  the  Cantagallo 
region  near  Minas  Geraes,  and  garnets  and 
amethysts  are  found.  Iron  is  abundant,  but  no 
mines  are  worked ;  and  granite,  a  great  variety 
of  marble,  and  several  kinds  of  clay  suitable 
for  earthenware  and  porcelain  abound.  The 
province  is  divided  into  17  districts,  which 
are  subdivided  into  municipalities,  and  these 
into  parishes.  Primary  education  is  obliga- 


tory. The  state  provides  164  primary  and  4 
advanced  schools,  and  there  are  about  200 
private  schools  in  the  province.  The  largest 
city,  Campos,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Para- 
hyba,  about  35  m.  from  the  sea,  is  said  to  con- 
tain 40,000  inhabitants.  Nictheroy  or  Nithe- 
roy,  the  capital,  contains  25,000  inhabitants, 
but  owing  to  its  situation  near  Rio  de  Janeiro 
it  is  practically  a  suburban  town.  Petropolis, 
in  a  valley  of  the  Orgaos,  contains  the  summer 
palace  of  the  emperor  and  many  villas.  Rail- 
ways are  constructing  throughout  the  prov- 
ince, but  the  "  Dom  Pedro  II."  is  the  only 
completed  road  of  importance.  The  chief  cit- 
ies are  connected  by  telegraph.  The  com- 
merce of  the  province  is  absorbed  by  the  city 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  IL  A  municipality  (Muni- 
cipio  Neutro)  enclosed  by  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  bounded  N.  by  the  rivers  Guandu- 
Minin  and  Mirity,  W.  by  the  Guandii,  S.  by 
the  Atlantic,  and  E.  by  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro, the  islands  therein  forming  a  part ;  ex- 
treme length  from  E.  to  "W.  36  m.,  extreme 
breadth  24  m. ;  area,  about  540  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  274,972,  of  whom  48,939  were  slaves. 
There  are  several  groups  of  mountains  with- 
in its  limits,  among  the  highest  peaks  of  which 
are  Tijuca,  3,447  ft.,  Gavia,  2,575  ft.,  and 
Corcovado,  2,272  ft.  These,  viewed  from  the 
sea,  present  a  remarkable  outline  known  as 
the  "sleeping  giant."  Large  bowlders  are  scat- 
tered everywhere.  In  the  plains  and  valleys 
are  lakes  of  considerable  size,  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  and  there  are  numerous 
small  streams  and  torrents,  and  many  mineral 
springs.  The  coast  is  bordered  with  islands. 
Agricultural  industry  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
cultivation  of  fruit,  vegetables,  cereals,  and 
grass  to  supply  the  markets  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ; 
but  there  are  several  extensive  coffee  and  su- 
gar plantations,  and  large  fields  of  mandioca. 
The  municipality,  which  embraces  the  capital 
of  the  empire  with  a  number  of  small  com- 
munes, is  governed  directly  by  the  executive 
and  legislative  authorities  of  the  empire ;  it 
is  divided  into  19  parishes,  and  sends  three 
deputies  to  the  national  assembly.  There  are 
185  public  and  private  schools  for  primary 
education,  with  an  average  daily  attendance 
of  nearly  15,000.  III.  The  capital  of  Brazil, 
and  the  largest  city  of  South  America,  situ- 
ated in  the  Municipio  Neutro,  on  the  "W.  shore 
of  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  lat.  22°  54' 
S.,  Ion.  43°  10'  W. ;  pop.  about  260,000.  It  is 
of  irregular  shape,  being  built  chiefly  on  a 
narrow  undulating  plain  extending  for  6  m. 
along  the  bay.  Several  rocky  hummocks, 
which  rise  from  the  low  ground,  give  the  city 
a  picturesque  appearance.  The  older  streets 
are  very  narrow,  and  the  older  houses,  gen- 
erally of  two  stories  and'  without  architectu- 
ral beauty,  are  badly  arranged  and  poorly  ven- 
tilated. The  newer  streets  are  wider,  and  the 
houses  are  of  improved  design,  but  wanting 
in  modern  conveniences.  Many  are  painted  in 
gaudy  colors,  some  are  ornamented  with  varie- 


340 


EIO  DE  JANEIRO 


gated  tiles,  and  others  are  covered  with  stucco ; 
only  a  few  are  of  granite  or  brick.  The  sub- 
urban dwellings  are  usually  surrounded  with 
gardens.  The  business  streets  are  paved  with 
cobblestones,  and  the  others  macadamized.  Ex- 
tensive sewers,  of  the  aggregate  length  of  75 
m.,  have  recently  been  constructed  through- 
out the  city.  At  their  three  outlets  attempts 
are  made  to  disinfect  and  filter  the  sewage  be- 
fore it  passes  into  the  bay.  Water  is  brought 
from  Mt.  Corcovado  by  means  of  an  aqueduct 
which  is  more  than  100  years  old.  It  is  12 
m.  long,  and  crosses  a  valley  90  ft.  deep  and 
740  ft.  wide,  upon  two  tiers  of  arches,  one 
above  the  other.  The  water  is  distributed 
throughout  the  city  to  fountains,  from  which 
it  is  drawn  for  use.  The  supply  is  insufficient 
for  the  increasing  demand.  The  streets,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  suburbs,  are  lighted  bet- 
ter than  those  of  any^)ther  city  in  the  world. 
The  principal  public  edifices  are  the  chamber 
of  deputies  and  city  palace  of  the  emperor, 
in  one  spacious  unattractive  building  fronting 
Palace  square ;  the  imperial  chapel,  of  no  ar- 
chitectural merit  and  unadorned,  on  the  same 
square ;  the  exchange,  a  low  building  divided 
into  stalls  which  are  rented  to  brokers,  and  con- 
taining a  good  reading  room ;  the  post  office, 
unworthy  of  the  business  transacted  through 
it ;  the  custom  house,  perhaps  the  finest  struc- 
ture in  the  city;  and  the  marine  arsenal,  also 
a  fine  building,  at  the  end  of  the  rua  Direita, 
in  which  are  all  the  preceding.  The  rua  Ou- 
vidor,  leading  out  of  this,  is  the  principal 
street  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  from  it  leads  the 
largo  do  Sao  Francisco,  on  one  side  of  which 
is  the  church  of  the  same  name  and  on  the 
other  the  military  academy.  A  narrow  street 
leads  thence  into  the  largo  do  Rocio,  in  which 
is  the  theatre  of  Sao  Pedro  d' Alcantara.  In 
the  middle  of  this  square  is  an  equestrian  statue 
of  Dom  Pedro  I.,  the  pedestal  of  which  is  or- 
namented with  Indian  figures  emblematic  of 
the  great  rivers  of  Brazil.  The  Campo  San- 
ta Anna,  the  largest  square  of  the  city,  is  un- 
adorned and  filthy ;  on  one  side  of  it  is  the 
senate,  on  another  are  military  barracks  and 
the  offices  of  the  minister  of  war,  on  a  third 
those  of  the  minister  of  commerce,  and  on  the 
fourth  the  Italian  opera  house  and  a  museum. 
Among  the  remaining  public  buildings  are  the 
hospital  of  Misericordia,  the  mint,  the  acade- 
my of  fine  arts,  the  observatory,  and  the  pal- 
ace of  Sao  Christovao.  Among  the  charitable 
institutions  are  several  hospitals  for  natives, 
one  for  Portuguese,  one  for  English,  and  oth- 
ers for  French  and  Spaniards.  The  educational 
institutions  are  a  national  college,  a  military 
and  engineering  school,  a  naval  academy,  a 
commercial  school,  a  school  of  medicine  and 
surgery,  a  geographical  and  historical  insti- 
tute, a  polytechnic  and  an  agricultural  school, 
several  night  schools  for  adults,  and  many 
other  schools.  The  city  contains  30  churches 
and  chapels,  and  six  convents  and  monasteries. 
Besides  an  Anglican  chapel  there  are  several 


congregations  of  other  Protestant  denomina- 
tions, composed  chiefly  of  foreigners,  the  na- 
tives being  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics.  The 
hotels,  with  one  exception,  furnish  wretched 
accommodations.  There  are  several  libraries, 
only  one  of  which,  the  imperial,  contains  books 
in  different  languages,  the  others  being  small 
and  purely  local.  The  imperial  library,  for- 
merly the  royal  library  of  Portugal,  brought 
from  Lisbon  by  the  emigrating  royal  family, 
has  now  upward  of  100,000  volumes.  Among 
other  treasures  it  possesses  the  only  complete 
series  of  Durer's  woodcuts  of  the  "  Passion 
of  Christ."  There  are  a  government  printing 
establishment  and  about  50  private  publish- 
ing and  printing  houses ;  70  native  periodicals 
of  little  merit,  a  well  conducted  English  daily 
newspaper,  and  a  French  and  a  German  daily. 
There  is  one  large  market,  plentifully  supplied 
with  great  varieties  of  fish,  poultry,  fruit,  and 
vegetables,  but  deficient  in  good  meat  and 
game.  Of  the  two  public  gardens,  the  Passeio 
Publico  is  within  the  city,  and  the  botanical 
just  beyond  its  limits.  Several  lines  of  street 
railway  traverse  the  city  and  its  suburbs ;  om- 
nibuses run  to  all  the  neighboring  villages; 
two  lines  of  steam  ferry  boats  cross  the  bay ; 
the  Dom  Pedro  railway  connects  with  the  Pa- 
rahyba  river ;  and  a  steamer  runs  to  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Petropolis  railway  at  the  head 
of  the  bay.  Steam  communication  with  the 
seaports  of  the  empire  is  frequent,  European 
steamships  arrive  and  depart  almost  daily,  and 
there  is  telegraphic  connection  with  Europe. 
A  sea  wall  is  now  (1875)  under  construction 
along  the  water  front  of  the  city,  beside  which 
the  largest  vessels  may  lie.  On  the  N.  side  of 
the  Ilha  das  Cobras,  off  the  N.  E.  extremity  of 
the  city,  is  a  dry  dock  excavated  from  the  solid 
rock,  capable  of  admitting  a  vessel  280  ft.  long 
and  of  28  ft.  draught ;  and  a  much  larger  one 
is  in  course  of  construction  near  it.  There  are 
numerous  ship  yards,  and  factories  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  cotton,  tobacco,  paper,  soap,  glass, 
and  carriages,  but  none  of  the  factories  are 
very  extensive.  The  climate  is  damp  and  un- 
heulthf ul,  and  the  city  is  seldom  free  from  yel- 
low fever,  but  this  rarely  assumes  a  malignant 
form.  Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs  are 
very  common.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  82°  F. ;  the  mean  annual  rainfall.  42*5  in. 
— The  trade  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  hampered 
by  the  national  export  tax,  which  averages  13 
per  cent,  on  all  articles  of  home  production. 
The  exports  for  the  fiscal  year  1872-'3  were 
valued  at  $52,643,275,  as  follows :  coffee,  $48,- 
048,725;  gold  in  bars  and  dust,  $2,108,462; 
diamonds,  $587,424 ;  tobacco,  $521,990;  hides, 
$484,080;  cotton,  $408,480 ;  timber,  $275,165; 
sugar,  $133,559;  rum,  $68,784;  horse  hair, 
India  rubber,  and  wool,  $6,606.  The  United 
States  takes  about  58  per  cent,  of  the  coffee 
and  half  of  the  timber  (fancy  woods) ;  Great 
Britain  takes  about  half  of  the  remaining  ex- 
ports; the  residue  is  chiefly  sent  to  France 
and  Germany.  The  imports  are  very  varied ; 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO 


RIO  GRANDE  DEL  NORTE     341 


the  value  for  the  fiscal  year  1872-'3  was  $36,- 
511,450;  more  than  one  half  are  from  Great 
Britain,  about  one  fourth  from  France,  the  re- 
mainder chiefly  from  the  Plata,  Germany,  and 
Portugal.  Flour,  kerosene  oil,  lumber,  lard, 
rosin,  and  turpentine  are  almost  the  only  arti- 
cles received  from  the  United  States,  the  value 
of  which  in  1873  was  $2,415,000.  The  cus- 
toms receipts  of  'the  port  for  the  two  finanr 
cial  years  1870-'72  were  $27,648,429.  The 
import  tax  ranges  from  40  to  60  per  cent. 
The  arrivals  from  foreign  ports  during  the 
year  1873  were  4,431  vessels,  of  2,639,362 
tons;  the  departures  3,358,  of  2,807,299  tons. 
The  arrivals  from  Brazilian  ports  were  6,421 
vessels,  of  1,051,928  tons;  departures,  7,203, 
of  1,345,648  tons.  The  total  movement  of 
shipping  for  1873  was  7,844,237  tons.  The 
trade  of  the  port  increases  slowly,  owing  to  ex- 
orbitant charges  and  unnecessary  delay,  which 
greatly  diminish  legitimate  profits. — Although 
the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  undoubtedly 
visited  soon  after  the  discovery  of  Brazil,  and 
as  early  as  1502,  it  remained  without  name 
until  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  entered  it  on  Jan.  1, 
1516 ;  thinking  it  the  entrance  to  a  river,  he 
named  it  Rio  de  Janeiro  (river  of  January). 
The  first  settlement  was  in  1531,  but  it  was 
abandoned  at  the  end  of  four  months.  The 
province  having  been  conferred  by  John  III. 
of  Portugal  as  a  gift  on  Martina  Affonso  de 
Souza,  a  small  fort  was  built  and  a  settlement 
formed  near  the  entrance  by  him  in  1552. 
This  was  neglected  and  appears  to  have  been 
abandoned,  for  some  French  Huguenots  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Villegagnon  formed 
the  first  permanent  settlement  in  1555,  and 
erected  a  fort  on  the  islet  which  now  bears  the 
name  of  their  leader.  The  French  were  well  re- 
ceived by  the  Indians,  the  Tamoyes,  who  were 
at  enmity  with  the  Portuguese ;  they  carried 
on  a  lucrative  trade  with  them,  and  named 
the  colony  Henriville,  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
try Antarctic  France.  John  III.  ordered  their 
expulsion,  which  was  accomplished  in  1565  by 
the  governor  of  Bahia,  who  in  1567  founded 
another  Portuguese  colony  near  the  present 
site  of  the  Misericordia  hospital,  naming  it  Sao 
Sebastiao.  The  history  of  the  first  century  of 
the  colony  is  replete  with  wars  of  extermina- 
tion against  the  Indians,  civil  dissension  among 
the  colonists,  and  cruelty,  oppression,  and  as- 
sassination. In  1710  the  French  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  take  possession  of  the 
bay ;  their  commander  was  taken  prisoner  and 
assassinated.  The  attempt  was  renewed  in 
1711  with  success,  but  the  commander,  Duguay- 
Trouin,  accepted  a  ransom  and  abandoned  the 
bay.  In  spite  of  mismanagement  and  diffi- 
culty, the  colony  as  well  as 'the  whole  prov- 
ince prospered;  and  in  1763  Rio  de  Janeiro 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  viceroyalty.  In 
the  beginning  of  1808  the  royal  family  of  Por- 
tugal came  to  Brazil  on  account  of  the  occu- 
pation of  the  mother  country  by  the  French ; 
their  presence  gave  an  impetus  to  the  growth 


of  the  city,  which  has  ever  since  remained 
the  first  in  commercial  importance  in  Brazil. 
After  the  return  of  King  John  VI.  to  Portu- 
gal (1821)  the  Brazilians  declared  their  inde- 
pendence and  established  an  empire,  with  Dom 
Pedro  I.,  the  son  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  as 
emperor  (1822).  Thenceforward  the  history 
of  the  city  is  that  of  the  empire.  The  capital 
of  the  province  was  transferred  to  Nictheroy 
and  the  municipality  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  cre- 
ated in  1834. 

RIO  DE  LA  PLATA.     See  PLATA,  Rio  DE  LA. 

RIO  GRANDE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Colorado, 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870,  intersected 
by  the  Rio  Grande ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  the  San  Juan  being 
the  principal  range.  There  are  valuable  gold 
mines.  Capital,  Del  Norte. 

RIO  GRANDE,  or  Gnapey,  a  river  of  Bolivia, 
which  rises  in  the  S.  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tains near  Cochabamba,  and  flows  in  a  S.  E. 
direction  through  the  plains  of  the  province 
to  Ion.  62°  W.  Here  it  bends  abruptly  N.,  and 
after  a  semicircular  sweep  round  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Sucre  mountain  chain,  holds  a  N. 
W.  course  to  its  junction  with  the  Mamor6, 
S.  of  Trinidad,  about  lat.  15°  S.  Exclusive  of 
its  numerous  sinuosities,  it  has  a  total  length 
of  about  700  m.,  the  lower  half  being  easily 
navigable  by  small  steamers.  Almost  its  en- 
tire course  is  through  a  densely  wooded  coun- 
try. Among  its  affluents,  most  of  which  are 
from  the  west,  is  the  Flores,  a  stream  of  con- 
siderable magnitude. 

RIO  GRANDE  DEL  NORTE,  or  Rio  Bravo  del 
Norte,  commonly  called  simply  the  Rio  Grande, 
a  river  of  North  America,  rising  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Colorado,  between  the  La  Plata  and 
San  Juan  mountain  ranges.  It  flows  E.  for 
about  150  m.,  then  bends  abruptly  S.,  entering 
New  Mexico  between  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the 
main  chain  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  flows 
through  that  territory  to  the  Mexican  border ; 
thence  it  pursues  a  general  S.  E.  course,  separa- 
ting Texas  from  Mexico,  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
Its  entire  length  is  estimated  at  1,800  m.  The 
upper  part  of  its  course  is  obstructed  by  rocky 
ledges  and  cataracts,  and  the  lower  part  by 
sand  banks  and  numerous  wooded  islands ;  but 
small  steamers  have  ascended  to  Kingsbury's 
rapide,  about  450  m.  from  the  sea.  The  Rio 
Grande  is  subject  to  periodical  floods,  which 
commence  in  April,  are  at  their  greatest  height 
in  the  beginning  of  May,  and  fall  toward  the 
end  of  June.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
it  is  fordable  almost  everywhere  above  the 
influence  of  the  tide.  The  only  important 
tributary  is  the  Rio  Pecos,  which  rises  on  the 
E.  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  in  N.  E. 
New  Mexico,  flows  S.  through  the  E.  part  of 
the  territory  to  the  Texas  border,  and  thence 
S.  E.  to  the  Rio  Grande,  which  it  enters  about 
500  m.  above  the  gulf.  Its  entire  length  is 
estimated  at  700  m.  At  certain  seasons  its  bed 
becomes  dry.  Both  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Pecos  flow  for  the  most  part  through  an  arid 


342      RIO  GRANDE  DO  NORTE 


RIO  NEGRO 


region ;  but  their  valleys,  which  are  generally 
from  1  to  4  m.  wide,  that  of  the  Rio  Grande 
expanding  in  places  to  10  or  15  m.,  are  pro- 
ductive when  irrigated.  The  principal  towns 
on  the  Rio  Grande  are  Brownsville,  Texas, 
about  35  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  Matamoros, 
Mexico,  opposite  Brownsville. 

RIO  GRANDE  DO  NORTE,  a  maritime  province 
of  Brazil,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  Atlantic, 
S.  by  Parahyba,  and  W.  by  Ceani;  area  about 
18,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  about  230,000,  of 
whom  about  13,500  were  slaves.  The  coast  is 
bordered  by  a  chain  of  dangerous  reefs  and 
shoals,  and  the  only  good  port  is  that  of  Natal, 
an  irregular  bay  commonly  called  Rio  Grande. 
Two  watersheds  running  N.  and  S.  divide  the 
province  into  three  almost  equal  parts,  and  give 
rise  to  many  streams.  The  only  important 
river  is  the  Piranhas,  .which  rises  in  Parahyba, 
passes  through  the  middle  of  the  province,  and 
empties  through  five  mouths,  forming  a  large 
delta.  It  is  navigable  for  25  m.,  as  far  as  the 
town  of  Assu,  on  the  left  bank.  The  Apody, 
passing  through  the  western  part,  is  navigable 
by  canoes.  Branches  of  the  Borborema  moun- 
tains extend  into  the  province.  The  surface 
is  sandy  near  the  sea,  and  arid  in  the  interior, 
except  on  the  high  lands  and  bordering  the 
rivers,  where  there  are  extensive  pastures  and 
some  forests.  Gold,  silver,  and  iron  are  found 
in  small  quantities,  amianthus,  limestone,  crys- 
tals, and  salt  exist,  and  sulphur  is  met  with. 
Good  timber  is  abundant;  gums,  resins,  bal- 
sams, Brazil  wood,  medicinal  roots,  wild  honey, 
cochineal,  and  wax  are  among  the  natural  pro- 
ductions. The  carnahuba  palm  is  extensively 
cultivated  for  a  great  variety  of  nses.  Many 
tropical  fruits  abound ;  sugar,  cotton,  mandi- 
oca,  rice,  beans,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated. 
The  native  animals  are  few,  the  reptiles  nu- 
merous, many  of  them  venomous.  Largo  herds 
of  cattle  are  raised.  Sea  salt  is  extensively  ex- 
tracted along  the  N.  coast.  The  climate  is  very 
warm,  dry,  and  unhealthy,  severe  droughts 
being  frequent  in  the  interior.  The  province 
is  divided  into  eight  districts.  There  are  62 
public  primary  schools  (41  for  boys,  21  for 
girls),  with  an  average  daily  attendance  of 
2,622,  five  secondary  schools,  and  three  pri- 
vate schools.  The  foreign  exports  of  the  prov- 
ince in  1873  were:  cotton,  $385,844;  sugar, 
$165,552;  hides,  $13,824;  timber,  $135.  The 
chief  towns  are  Natal,  the  capital,  Imperatriz, 
Assu,  and  Macau. 

RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL.  See  Slo  PEDRO  DO 
SFL. 

RIOJA,  La.  I.  A  W.  province  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by  Cata- 
marca,  E.  by  Cordova,  S.  by  San  Luis,  S.  W. 
by  San  Juan,  and  W.  by  Chili,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Andes;  area,  85,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  48,498.  Besides  the  Andes,  the 
province  is  traversed  in  a  generally  N.  and  S. 
direction  by  the  Jague",  Famatina,  and  Velasco 
or  Rioja  ranges,  the  second  containing  the 
Nevado  peak,  17,050  ft.  above  the  sea.  Be- 


tween these  chains  are  vast  plateaus  and  val- 
leys. The  only  important  river  is  the  Ber- 
mejo,  descending  from  the  Andes  in  the  north- 
west, and  draining  the  valley  of  Jagft6.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  tin,  and  quartz  occur  ex- 
tensively in  the  Famatina  chain,  precious  stones 
in  that  of  Velasco,  and  nickel,  lead,  antimony, 
carbonate  of  soda,  salt,  nitrate  of  potash,  and 
nitrate  of  soda  elsewhere.  There  are  now 
(1875)  in  operation  two  gold,  seven  silver, 
and  two  copper  mines.  Maize,  wheat,  cotton, 
olives,  grapes,  and  various  other  fruits  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated;  and  timber,  gums,  honey, 
wax,  and  cochineal  and  other  dyes  are  very 
abundant.  Cattle  rearing  is  one  of  the  chief 
occupations.  The  manufactures  comprise  leath- 
er, cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  laces,  rum,  cor- 
dials, and  preserved  fruits,  all  of  which,  with 
vicufia,  guanaco,  and  puma  skins,  are  largely 
exported.  In  1869  there  were  3,000  children 
attending  school.  The  province  is  divided  into 
the  departments  of  La  Rioja,  Arauco,  Fama- 
tina, Vinchina,  Guandacol,  Independencia, 
Costa  Alta,  San  Martin,  and  Belgrano.  II.  A 
city,  capital  of  the  province,  near  the  E.  base 
of  the  Rioja  mountains,  650  m.  N.  W.  of 
Buenos  Ayres;  pop.  in  1869,  4,489.  It  is 
situated  in  a  vast  plain,  and  has  good  streets 
and  houses,  with  a  parish  church  and  three 
churches  attached  to  convents.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  remarkably  fertile,  and  wheat 
and  the  vine  are  extensively  cultivated.  La 
Rioja  was  founded  in  1591. 

KIOM,  a  city  of  Auvergne,  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Puy-de-D6me,  near  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ambdne,  8  m.  N.  of  Clermont-Ferrand ; 
pop.  in  1872, 10,770.  It  contains  several  hand- 
some public  edifices  and  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient ducal  palace.  It  has  a  college,  an  insane 
asylum,  and  a  monument  to  Desaix,  who  was 
born  near  this  town.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  linen,  distilled  spirits,  and  articles  of  wax. 
There  is  trade  in  grain,  wine,  hemp,  leather, 
preserved  fruits,  and  oil.  In  the  14th  century 
Riom  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Auvergne. 

RION.     See  PHASIS. 

RIO  NEGRO.  I.  A  river  of  South  America, 
an  affluent  of  the  Amazon,  which  rises  in  the 
Sierra  Tunuhy,  an  isolated  group  of  hills  in 
the  state  of  Cundinamarca,  United  States  of 
Colombia.  Above  the  Cassiquiare  it  is  called 
the  Guainia,  and  a  portion  of  its  lower  part  is 
known  as  the  Parana  Pishuna.  After  flowing 
E.  about  200  m.  from  its  source,  it  turns  S.  to 
lat.  2°  N.,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Cassiquiare, 
whose  mouth  is  600  yards  wide,  and  which 
connects  it  with  Orinoco.  (See  CASSIQUIARE.) 
About  50  m.  below  this  it  enters  Brazil,  and 
at  the  equator  is  joined  by  the  Uaupes  or 
Ucayari,  which  rises  in  the  same  hills  as  the 
Negro,  -but  pursues  a  widely  divergent  course. 
After  the  junction  the  Negro  descends  over  a 
series  of  rapids  to  Sao  Gabriel,  about  600  m. 
from  its  mouth  at  Manaos,  and  then  becomes 
navigable,  with  a  current  of  3  or  4  m.  an  hour, 
flowing  E.  about  250  m.  and  receiving  many 


RIOT 


343 


tributaries.  About  Ion.  63°  W.  it  receives  the 
Eio  Branco,  after  which  it  turns  S.  E.,  widens 
in  some  parts  to  12  or  15  m.,  and  becomes 
deep  and  sluggish,  its  waters  sometimes  flow- 
ing backward  during  the  annual  rise  of  the 
Amazon.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  1,200 
m.  Steamers  ascend  to  Sao  Gabriel.  The 
Negro  was  discovered  by  Favella  in  1637,  and 
soon  after  the  Portuguese  founded  a  settle- 
ment near  the  present  site  of  Manaos.  IL  A 
river  of  South  America,  forming  the  bounda- 
ry between  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Pata- 
gonia. It  rises  between  lat.  38°  and  89°  S.,  on 
the  E.  slope  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  descending 
in  four  streams  which  unite  and  flow  south- 
ward to  lat.  40°  30',  where  it  turns  N.  E.  and 
flows  over  a  series  of  rapids  to  about  Ion.  69° 
W.  Here  it  receives  the  Neuquen  from  the 
north,  after  which  it  flows  E.  to  Ion.  66°, 
where  it  forms  two  islands,  Rosas  and  Chole- 
chel,  the  latter,  which  is  210  m.  from  the  sea, 
being  27  m.  long  by  3  m.  broad.  It  then  pur- 
sues a  general  S.  E.  course  to  its  mouth  in 
lat.  41°  2'  S.,  Ion.  62°  45'  W.  Navigation  to 
Cholechel  island  is  always  unimpeded.  The 
lands  along  the  river  are  well  adapted  to  gra- 
zing and  agriculture,  and  many  kinds  of  valu- 
able timber  abound.  Carmen  de  Patagones,  a 
flourishing  town  of  6,000  inhabitants,  is  situ- 
ated on  both  banks  about  20  m.  from  the  sea. 
The  river  banks  near  this  place  are  thickly 
settled  by  Scotch  and  English  farmers ;  the 
most  distant  settlement  is  about  100  m.  from 
the  sea.  The  value  of  the  exports  in  1873  was 
$430,000.  The  Negro  was  first  explored  by 
Villarmo,  who  after  encountering  great  diffi- 
culties reached  the  base  of  the  Andes.  In 
1873  the  Argentine  government  sent  up  an 
exploring  party  in  a  steamer,  but  after  many 
mishaps  the  expedition  was  abandoned. 

RIOT  (Norman  law  Lat.  riota,  riotum ;  Fr. 
riotte,  a  brawl),  in  law,  a  tumultuous  disturb- 
ance of  the  peace  by  three  persons  or  more, 
who  have  assembled  together  of  their  own  au- 
thority, for  the  purpose  of  assisting  one  anoth- 
er in  the  execution  of  some  private  enterprise, 
and  in  resisting  any  one  who  shall  interfere 
with  or  oppose  their  proceedings,  and  after- 
ward actually  carrying  out  that  purpose  in  a 
violent  and  turbulent  manner  to  the  terror  of 
the  people.  It  is  wholly  immaterial  whether 
the  act  intended  is  lawful  or  unlawful ;  for  it 
is  not  the  act  itself,  but  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  done,  which  creates  this  particular  offence. 
Two  persons  alone  may  be  guilty  of  a  con- 
spiracy, Tbut  it  requires  three  to  make  a  riot ; 
and  where  three  persons  were  indicted  for  a 
riot,  and  the  jury  found  only  one  of  them  guilty, 
it  was  held  that  this  verdict  was  void  because 
one  alone  could  not  make  a  riot.  Women  may 
be  punished  as  rioters,  but  infants  under  14 
years  of  age  cannot.  The  object  of  assembling 
is  commonly  a  private  quarrel  or  wrong ;  for 
the  proceedings  of  a  riotous  assembly  to  re- 
dress public  grievances  or  resist  the  officers  of 
the  king  or  state  may  amount  to  overt  acts  of 


high  treason,  by  levying  war  against  the  sov- 
ereign. In  the  latter  case,  the  indictment  gen- 
erally charges  that  the  defendants  were  armed 
and  arrayed  in  a  warlike  manner,  and,  where 
the  case  admits  it,  with  swords,  drums,  colors, 
and  the  like.  But  the  question  of  riot  or  trea- 
son does  not  turn  singly  on  any  of  these  cir- 
cumstances ;  the  true  criterion  is :  With  what 
intent  did  the  parties  assemble — whether  for 
a  private  and  particular,  or  a  public  and  gen- 
eral purpose  ?  Numbers  may  supply  the  want 
of  military  arms  and  discipline,  as  experience 
has  often  shown,  and  such  was  the  opinion  of 
five  of  the  judges  in  the  weavers'  case  in  1675. 
In  this  case  the  weavers  in  and  about  London 
riotously  assembled  to  destroy  certain  looms 
and  machinery  which  had  enabled  those  of 
their  trade  who  used  them  to  undersell  the 
rest ;  and  the  defendants  were  indicted  for 
treason,  but  were  finally  only  proceeded  against 
for  a  riot ;  the  remainder  of  the  court  holding 
that  their  proceedings  did  not  amount  to  a 
levying  of  war,  as  the  motive  was  a  mere  pri- 
vate quarrel  between  different  parties  of  the 
same  trade,  and  related  to  no  public  or  general 
object.  On  the  trial  of  Lord  George  Gordon, 
the  leader  and  instigator  of  the  celebrated  "  no 
popery  riots"  in  London  in  1781,  it  was  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  king's  bench  that  an 
attempt  by  intimidation  and  violence  to  force 
the  repeal  of  a  law  was  a  levying  of  war  against 
the  king.  So,  too,  in  the  case  of  Demaree  and 
Purchase,  indicted  severally  in  1719,  "  for  that 
they  with  a  great  multitude  of  people,  to  the 
number  of  500,  armed  and  arrayed  in  warlike 
manner,  &c.,  did  traitorously  levy  war,  &c.,"it 
appeared  that  the  rabble,  with  cries  of  "  Down 
with  the  Presbyterians,"  "  Down  with  the 
meeting  houses,"  &c.,  undertook  by  force  and 
violence  to  carry  their  threats  into  execution, 
and  actually  did  destroy  a  great  deal  of  prop- 
erty, and  resisted  the  officers  sent  to  disperse 
them ;  and  the  judges  agreed  that  this  was  a 
declaration  against  the  "  act  of  toleration,"  and 
an  attempt  to  render  it  ineffectual  by  numbers 
and  open  force,  and  amounted  to  high  treason. 
In  every  riot  there  must  be  such  circumstances 
of  actual  force  and  violence,  or  an  apparent 
tendency  thereto,  as  will  naturally  strike  ter- 
ror into  the  people ;  though  it  is  not  necessary 
that  actual  force  or  violence  should  have  been 
committed.  The  violence  and  tumult  must 
also  be  premeditated ;  for  if  they  arise  acci- 
dentally from  some  cause  not  likely  to  produce 
them,  it  is  but  an  affray.  Thus,  if  several  are 
assembled  together  for  a  lawful  purpose  and  a 
quarrel  happens  among  themselves,  it  is  not  a 
riot,  but  only  a  sudden  affray,  and  none  in  the 
assembly  are  guilty  but  those  who  actually 
participate.  But  even  though  the  persons  as- 
semble in  the  first  instance  for  a  lawful  pur- 
pose and  with  peaceable  intent,  yet  they  may 
afterward  be  guilty  of  a  riot.  For  instance,  if 
a  dispute  arise  among  them,  and  they  form 
themselves  into  parties  or  factions,  with  prom- 
ises of  mutual  assistance,  and  then  make  an 


344 


RIPARIAN 


affray,  it  is  a  riot ;  for  the  fact  of  forming  such 
factions  or  parties  and  then  acting  with  a  defi- 
nite and  unlawful  intention  is  constructive 
evidence  of  premeditation.  If  three  or  more 
persons,  lawfully  assembled,  quarrel  among 
themselves,  and  the  party  falls  upon  one  or 
more  of  their  own  number,  this  is  a  simple 
affray ;  but  if  they  attack  a  stranger,  the  very 
moment  the  quarrel  begins  it  becomes  an  un- 
lawful assemblage,  and  it  is  a  riot  in  all  those 
who  join  the  affray,  but  only  in  them.  So  a 
person  seeing  a  riot  and  joining  therein  be- 
comes a  rioter  himself,  though  he  did  not  go 
there  premeditating  the  act,  and  is  liable  as  a 
principal  with  the  rest.  The  inciting  persons 
to  assemble  in  a  riotous  manner  is  also  indict- 
able. The  law  will  not  allow  individuals  to 
seek  redress  for  private  grievances  by  disturb- 
ing the  public  peace," though  in  some  cases  the 
justice  of  the  quarrel  in  which  they  are  en- 
gaged may  be  a  great  mitigation  of  the  offence. 
— By  the  common  law,  riots  were  punished  by 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and  if  enormous  by  the 
pillory.  But  these  penalties  being  found  in- 
sufficient, statutory  provisions  were  early  made 
for  their  suppression.  The  first  English  statute 
enacted  for  this  purpose  was  84  Edward  III., 
c.  1,  E.  II.,  which  gave  justices  of  the  peace 
very  extensive  authority  in  such  cases,  and 
visited  the  offence  with  severe  punishment. 
The  statute  1  George  I.,  commonly  called  the 
"  riot  act,"  made  it  a  capital  felony  for  per- 
sons riotously  assembled  to  the  number  of 
12  or  more  to  continue  so  assembled  for  one 
hour  after  proclamation  by  a  justice  of  the 
peace  requiring  them  to  disperse ;  thus  leaving 
the  offence,  if  committed  by  more  than  3  and 
fewer  than  12  persons,  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment  only,  but  if  by  12  or  more  by 
death.  Subsequent  statutes  made  other  specific 
offences  felonious,  such  as  riotously  demolishing 
any  church  or  chapel,  or  any  house  or  other 
building,  or  any  machinery  or  manufactory,  or 
forcibly  obstructing  the  export  of  corn  from 
any  part  of  the  kingdom.  Principals  in  the 
second  degree  and. accessories  before  the  fact 
were  also  punishable  as  felons.  In  the  United 
States  the  statutory  provisions  respecting  riots 
follow  in  a  great  measure  those  of  England, 
but  are  milder  in  their  punishments  and  more 
qualified  in  their  application. 

RIPARIAN  (Lat.  ripa,  the  bank  of  a  river), 
in  law,  a  term  relating  to  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  persons  who  own  lands  lying  upon  or 
bounded  by  streams  or  rivers.  At  the  com- 
mon law  all  bays  and  arms  of  the  sea,  and 
all  rivers  wherein  the  tide  ebbed  and  flowed, 
were  considered  navigable,  or  public  highways ; 
and  all  rivers,  irrespective  of  size,  where  the 
tide  did  not  ebb  and  flow,  were  unnavigable. 
The  owner  of  land  lying  upon  an  unnavigable 
stream  (in  the  common  law  sense)  owns  the 
bed  of  such  stream  to  its  centre,  or  thread ; 
and  the  grant  of  a  piece  of  land  bounded  by  a 
river  will  carry  the  exclusive  right  and  title  of 
the  grantee  to  the  middle  of  the  river,  unless 


the  grant  certainly  expresses  the  intention  of 
the  grantor  to  convey  only  to  the  bank  or  mar- 
gin. If  a  person  owns  the  land  lying  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  he  also  owns  the  whole  river 
as  far  as  his  land  extends  along  it ;  and  the 
owner  in  fee  of  land  lying  under  an  unnaviga- 
ble river,  whether  he  owns  the  whole  bed  or 
only  to  the  centre  on  one  side,  may  sell  and 
convey  such  land  separate  from  the  upland  to 
which  it  is  attached.  "Where  a  river  is  actually 
navigable  for  boats  and  rafts,  the  public  have 
an  easement  in  the  water  for  this  purpose,  and 
are  entitled  to  a  right  of  passage  up  and  down, 
which  the  riparian  proprietors  cannot  interfere 
with  or  prevent ;  and  all  obstructions  or  im- 
pediments to  the  free  use  of  the  river  in  this 
manner  are  public  nuisances,  which  the  public 
may  lawfully  abate.  The  owners  hold  the  land 
under  the  water  subject  to  the  public  right  of 
passage  over  it.  The  proprietors  of  adjoining 
banks  are  entitled  to  use  the  water  of  the 
river,  and  the  land  under  it,  as  regards  the 
public,  in  any  manner  or  for  any  purpose  what- 
ever, not  inconsistent  with  this  easement ;  and 
neither  the  state  nor  any  private  individual 
has  a  right  to  alter  the  course  or  character  of 
the  stream,  or  to  render  it  by  any  means  less 
useful  to  the  owner  of  the  soil. — When  a  piece 
of  land  in  a  conveyance  lies  upon  and  is  bound- 
ed by  a  navigable  pond  of  water,  it  is  generally 
held  that  the  grant  only  extends  to  the  margin 
of  the  pond,  and  the  grantee  acquires  no  right 
to  the  soil  beneath  it.  So  riparian  owners  on 
technically  navigable  rivers,  that  is,  on  rivers 
in  which  the  tide  flows,  are  not  entitled,  as  a 
matter  of  right,  to  the  soil  under  the  water  in 
front  of  their  uplands,  because  it  belongs  to  the 
state.  The  land  covered  by  navigable  ponds 
and  lakes  also  belongs  to  the  state  when  these 
are  not  private  property,  but  a  grant  of  the 
bed  of  such  a  pond  or  lake  could  only  be  made 
to  the  owner  of  the  adjoining  shore. — If  the 
water  running  between  the  lands  of  separate 
owners  gains  gradually  and  imperceptibly  upon 
one  side  or  the  other,  the  title  of  each  con- 
tinues as  before  to  the  middle  of  the  stream 
regardless  of  the  change.  But  if  the  change 
takes  place  suddenly  and  visibly,  the  owner- 
ship remains  unchanged,  and  the  boundary  line 
continues  as  previous  to  the  alteration,  at  what 
then  was  the  middle  of  the  stream.  If  there- 
fore the  river  should  suddenly  and  entirely 
forsake  its  natural  channel,  and  make  for  itself 
a  new  one  in  the  lands  of  the  proprietor  on 
one  side,  he  would  thereby  become  the  exclu- 
sive owner  of  the  soil  under  the  whole  river  so 
far  as  it  was  enclosed  in  his  land.  If  soil  be 
formed  by  alluvium  or  the  washing  up  of  earth 
out  of  the  river,  by  slow  and  imperceptible 
accretion,  or  by  the  dereliction  of  waters  which 
have  gradually  receded  and  left  the  land  be- 
neath them  bare  and  dry,  it  belongs  to  the 
owner  of  the  adjoining  land.  Islands  formed 
in  the  same  manner  are  subject  to  the  same 
rule.  If  they  are  formed  near  the  shore,  they 
belong  to  the  person  who  owns  the  land  on 


345 


that  side  of  the  stream  to  which  they  are  near- 
est ;  if  they  are  formed  in  the  middle  of  the 
stream  on  both  sides  of  the  dividing  line  or 
centre,  they  belong  to  the  proprietors  on  both 
sides  in  proportion  to  the  extent  which  may 
lie  on  their  respective  sides  of  the  line.  Lands 
and  islands  formed  out  of  the  sea,  or  in  naviga- 
ble, i.  e.,  tide  rivers,  belong  to  the  sovereign  or 
state,  and  not  to  the  proprietors  of  the  adjoin- 
ing shore.  By  the  common  law  the  seashore, 
being  that  part  between  high  and  low  water 
mark  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  belonged 
to  the  sovereign  or  state,  and  was  common  to 
all  the  public,  the  possession  of  the  adjoining 
proprietors  extending  only  to  high- water  mark ; 
but  in  this  respect  the  common  law  has  been 
changed  in  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  as  to 
owners  on  bays  and  arms  of  the  sea,  by  the 
colony  ordinance  of  1641  and  the  usage  arising 
therefrom,  and  the  proprietorship  goes  to  low- 
water  mark,  subject  to  the  public  easement, 
and  not  exceeding  100  rods  below  high- water 
mark.  And  now,  in  other  states  which  lie  on 
tide  waters,  the  owner  of  land  has  some  right 
to  use  it  as  far  as  low  water,  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  a  wharf  or  similar  building  there. 
— The  common  law  definition  of  a  navigable 
river,  being  one  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows, 
has  been  considered  and  judicially  adjudged  to 
be  inapplicable  to  the  great  rivers  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Alabama,  and  other  states.  These 
rivers  are  declared  to  be  navigable,  and  the 
boundaries  of  adjacent  lands  extend  not  to  the 
middle  of  the  stream,  but  only  to  low-water 
mark.  But  this  question,  where  not  particu- 
larly regulated  in  the  several  states  by  statute 
or  judicial  decisions,  is  still  somewhat  unset- 
tled ;  and  even  where  navigable  waters  are  de- 
clared to  be  common  highways,  and  as  such 
for  ever  free  to  the  public,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  common  law  principle,  that  he  who 
owns  the  land  on  both  sides  owns  the  entire 
river,  and  he  who  owns  the  land  on  one  side 
only  owns  to  the  middle  of  the  river,  in  both 
cases  subject  only  to  the  easement  of  naviga- 
tion, is  thereby  abolished. — While  every  ripa- 
rian proprietor  has  an  equal  right  to  the  free 
use  of  the  water  which  passes  his  land,  as  it  is 
accustomed  to  flow,  without  any  diminution  or 
alteration  as  to  quantity  or  quality,  he  has  no 
exclusive  property  in  the  water  itself,  but  a 
simple  usufruct  while  it  passes  along ;  and  he 
cannot  appropriate  it  to  his  exclusive  use,  or 
divert  it  from  its  natural  channel,  without  the 
consent  of  the  adjoining  proprietors,  who  have 
an  equal  right  to  its  use  with  himself.  If  he 
does  divert  it  on  his  own  premises,  he  must  re- 
turn it  to  its  ordinary  course  when  it  leaves 
his  estate.  He  may  use  it  to  irrigate  his  lands 
or  to  water  his  cattle,  or  he  may  use  the  whole 
force  of  it  in  any  reasonable  manner  he  chooses, 
so  long  as  such  use  does  not  interfere  with  the 
rights  of  his  neighbors.  But  he  cannot  use  it 
to  the  prejudice  of  any  adjoining  proprietor, 
unless  he  has  a  prior  right  to  divert  it,  or  a 
right  by  grant  or  by  prescription  (which  sup- 


poses a  grant)  to  some  exclusive  enjoyment 
of  it.  Whether,  without  such  right,  his  use 
is  reasonable,  depends  upon  the  circumstances 
of  each  case.  The  natural  title  which  riparian 
owners  thus  have  to  the  reasonable  use  of  the 
waters  may  be  restricted,  altered,  or  enlarged 
by  such  grants  or  prescriptions ;  otherwise 
streams  of  running  water  could  never  be  effec- 
tually applied  either  to  agricultural  or  manu- 
facturing purposes.  Twenty  years'  exclusive 
occupation  and  use  of  water  in  any  particular 
manner  raises  the  presumption  of  a  grant  for 
that  purpose  from  the  adjoining  proprietors ; 
and  owners  whose  land  lies  above  or  below 
must  take  the  stream  subject  to  such  adverse 
right.  But  nothing  short  of  an  express  grant, 
or  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  the  water  so  di- 
verted or  obstructed,  or  materially  changed  in 
its  course  and  character,  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  raise  the  legal  prescription  of  a  grant, 
will  justify  the  owner  as  against  any  other 
owner  to  whom  such  alterations  may  prove  in- 
jurious.— By  the  common  law  the  proprietor 
of  land  lying  upon  an  unnavigable  river  pos- 
sesses the  exclusive  right  to  fish  therein,  as  far 
as  the  middle  of  the  stream ;  and  if  he  owns 
both  sides  he  has  exclusive  right,  for  fishing 
purposes,  to  the  whole  river,  as  far  as  his  land 
extends,  subject  only  to  the  rights  of  the  pub- 
lic in  the  same  as  a  highway  for  navigation. 
But  this  right  is  qualified  by  the  same  general 
rule  which  regulates  his  other  riparian  rights  ; 
it  must  be  so  used  as  not  to  injure  or  interfere 
with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  others.  There- 
fore he  cannot  erect  dams,  weirs,  or  other  ob- 
structions for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
ascent  or  passage  of  fish.  Such  impediments 
were  regarded  by  the  common  law  as  a  nui- 
sance, and  in  Massachusetts  the  party  offending 
in  this  manner  is  subject  to  a  penalty  provided 
by  statute.  The  common  law  right  of  fishing 
may  be  controlled  or  modified  by  the  munici- 
pal law  of  the  land,  and  in  many  of  the  states 
it  is  regulated  by  statute  provisions.  On  nav- 
igable rivers  and  tide  waters,  however,  the 
adjoining  proprietors  do  not  possess  this  ex- 
clusive right  of  fishing  opposite  to  their  own 
lands ;  it  is  a  public  and  common  privilege  in 
which  every  one  is  equally  entitled  to  share. 
But  this  public  right  of  fishing  in  the  water 
does  not  extend  to'  permitting  a  stranger  to 
pass  over  the  land  of  another  in  order  to  reach 
the  water.  Neither  are  persons  claiming  and 
enjoying  this  common  right  entitled  to  draw 
the  seine,  or  to  fish,  or  build  fishing  huts,  or 
dry  their  nets,  upon  the  land  of  the  adjoining 
owner,  or  upon  islands  which  are  private  prop- 
erty ;  this  privilege  belongs  exclusively  to  the 
owner  of  the  soil.  The  civil  law  declared  that 
the  right  of  fishing  was  common  in  rivers,  as 
well  as  in  the  sea,  and  gave  the  use  of  the  ad- 
joining banks  for  this  purpose  to  the  public. 
This  principle  is  acknowledged  where  the  civil 
law  prevails,  and  has  been  adopted  by  some 
of  the  states  in  regard  to  their  large  navigable 
rivers,  but  it  is  unknown  to  the  common  law. — 


346 


RIPLEY 


RIPON 


A  question  which  has  been  much  discussed  nnd 
variously  regulated  by  different  nations  is  that 
relating  to  the  public  right  to  a  foot  or  tow 
path  along  the  banks  of  navigable  rivers,  and 
the  use  of  the  banks  for  the  assistance  or  con- 
venience of  navigation.  The  civil  law  allowed 
such  a  right,  and  held  that  all  persons  had  the 
same  right  to  bring  their  vessels  to  land  and 
fasten  ropes  to  the  banks  of  the  river  that  they 
had  to  navigate  the  river  itself.  The  same 
doctrine  is  held  in  Louisiana,  where  it  has 
been  decided  that,  though  the  banks  of  naviga- 
ble rivers  are  the  property  of  those  who  own 
the  adjoining  lands,  yet  they  are  so  far  subject 
to  the  public  use,  that  vessels  may  make  fast 
to  the  shore  and  to  the  trees  upon  it,  and  may 
unload  and  deposit  their  goods  there.  The 
rule  in  Illinois,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri  seems 
to  be  substantially  the  same.  In  New  York, 
Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Mississippi, 
Indiana,  and  perhaps  some  other  states,  it  has 
been  adjudged  that  the  public  have  no  such 
right  as  against  the  will  of  the  owner.  The 
common  law,  according  to  Bracton,  was  an- 
ciently the  same  as  the  civil  law,  but  the  point 
remained  unsettled  till  1789,  when  it  was  de- 
cided that  there  was  not  any  right  at  common 
law  for  the  public  to  tow  on  the  banks  of  navi- 
gable rivers. — Another  unsettled  question  in 
the  United  States  is  that  respecting  the  right 
of  ferriage  which  attaches  to  riparian  owner- 
ship. This  matter  is  generally  regulated  by 
statute,  and  the  state,  by  virtue  of  the  law  of 
eminent  domain,  claims  the  rjght  to  establish 
ferries  wherever  the  legislature  may  consider 
them  necessary  for  the  public  accommodation, 
regardless  of  the  ownership  of  the  soil,  except 
as  giving  a  claim  for  just  compensation.  But 
the  statutes  usually  authorize  the  grant  of  the 
franchise  by  way  of  preference  to  the  owners 
of  the  land  on  each  side  of  the  river  where  the 
ferry  is  established.  It  has  been  held  that  the 
riparian  owner  has  not,  as  a  matter  of  right, 
the  privilege  of  keeping  a  ferry,  and  that  it 
can  only  arise  from  a  grant,  actual  or  implied. 
This  was  probably  the  rule  of  the  common  law. 
But,  in  the  United  States,  we  should  say  that 
it  is  the  prevailing  rule  that  the  right  to  a 
ferry  attaches  to  the  riparian  proprietor ;  that 
it  cannot  be  taken  from  him  without  compen- 
sation ;  that  he  may  convey  the  soil  excepting 
the  right  of  ferriage,  which  then  becomes  an 
incorporeal  hereditament,  and  may  be  granted 
in  the  same  way  as  a  rent ;  and  the  grantee 
will  have  a  right  to  use  the  adjoining  soil  so 
far  as  may  be  necessary  for  ferry  ways,  but 
not  otherwise. 

RIPLEY.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  in- 
tersected by  L'anghery  creek ;  area,  about  450 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,977.  It  has  a  generally 
level  surface,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  and  the  In- 
diana, Cincinnati,  and  Lafayette  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  204,995  bush- 
els of  wheat,  441,645  of  Indian  corn,  131,771 
of  oats,  84,189  of  potatoes,  19,504  tons  of  hay, 


5,104  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  48,912  of  wool,  880,911 
of  butter,  22,511  of  hops,  and  46,713  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  6,439  horses, 
6,127  milch  cows,  7,860  other  cattle,  18,358 
sheep,  and  18,554  swine ;  4  manufactories  of 
brick,  16  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of  saddle- 
ry and  harness,  8  tanneries,  10  flour  mills,  and 
21  saw  mills.  Capital,  Versailles.  II.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Missouri,  bordering  on  Arkansas,  in- 
tersected by  Current  river,  and  drained  by  nu- 
merous creeks ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,175,  of  whom  10  were  colored.  It 
has  a  rough  and  hilly  surface  and  a  soil  fertile 
near  the  streams.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  17,725  bushels  of  wheat,  142,485 
of  Indian  corn,  14,214  of  oats,  4,105  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  41,961  of  butter.  There  were  1,068 
horses,  937  milch  cows,  2,357  other  cattle,  2,989 
sheep,  and  10,470  swine.  Capital,  Doniphan. 

RIPLEY,  Henry  Jones,  an  American  i  clergy- 
man, born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  28,  1798, 
died  at  Newton  Centre,  May  21,  1875.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college'  in  1816,  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  was  ordained  in  Boston 
in  1819,  and  became  pastor  of  the  North  New- 
port Baptist  church,  in  Liberty  co.,  Ga.  In 
1826  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Biblical 
literature  and  pastoral  duties  in  the  Newton 
theological  institution,  Mass. ;  in  1833,  when 
the  duties  of  the  professorship  were  divided, 
he  became  professor  of  Biblical  literature  and 
interpretation,  and  afterward  of  sacred  rheto- 
ric and  pastoral  duties.  He  resigned  in  1860. 
He  published  "  Memoir  of  Rev.  Thomas  S. 
Winn"  (Boston,  1824);  "An  Examination  of 
Prof.  Stuart's  Essay  on  the  Mode  of  Baptism  " 
(1838) ;  "  Notes  on  the  Four  Gospels"  (2  vols., 
1837-'8) ;  "  Notes  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  " 
(1844) ;  "  Sacred  Rhetoric,  or  Composition  and 
Delivery  of  Sermons"  (1849);  "Notes  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans"  (1857);  "Exclusive- 
ness  of  the  Baptists"  (1857);  "Church  Pol- 
ity "  (1867)  ;  and  "  Notes  on  Hebrews  "  (1868). 

RIPLEY,  Roswell  Sablne,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Ohio  about  1823.  He  graduated  at  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point  in  1843,  and 
was  appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  in  the 
artillery.  He  served  during  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico, and  was  brevetted  as  captain  and  major  for 
gallant  conduct  at  Cerro  Gordo  and  Chapulte- 
pec.  He  subsequently  served  in  Florida,  and 
in  1858  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army, 
taking  up  his  residence  at  Charleston.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the 
confederate  service,  rose  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier general,  and  was  wounded  at  Antietam. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  War  with 
Mexico  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1849). 

RIPON,  George  Frederiek  Samuel  Robinson,  earl 
de  Grey  and  marquis  of,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  London,  Oct.  24,  1827.  He  was 
a  member  of  parliament  from  1852  to  1859, 
and  became  prominent  as  a  liberal  under  the 
name  of  Viscount  Goderich.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  the  first  earl  of  Ripon,  Jan.  28, 
1859,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  lords, 


RIPPLE  GRASS 


RITTENHOUSE 


347 


and  on  Nov.  14  of  the  same  year  he  inherited 
his  uncle's  title  of  earl  de  Grey.  He  was  un- 
der secretary  of  state  for  war  from  June,  1859, 
to  February,  1861,  and  again  from  July,  1861, 
to  April,  1863,  and  secretary '  thenceforward 
till  February,  1866 ;  and  he  was  connected 
with  the  India  board  from  February  to  July, 
1861,  and  from  February  to  June,  1866.  At 
the  close  of  1868  he  became  president  of  the 
council.  In  1871  he  went  to  Washington  as 
.chairman  of  the  high  joint  commission  which 
concluded  the  treaty  of  Washington  in  regard 
to  the  Alabama  claims,  and  was  for  his  ser- 
vices made  marquis,  June  23.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  for  the  third  time  grand  master  of  the 
freemasons  in  England,  which  post  he  resigned 
in  1874  on  joining  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

RIPPLE  GRASS.     See  PLANTAIN. 

RISTORI,  Adelaide,  marchioness  del  Grille, 
an  Italian  actress,  born  at  Cividale  in  Friuli 
in  1821.  Her  parents  were  comedians,  and 
brought  her  up  for  the  stage.  Previous  to 
her  marriage  in  1847  with  the  marquis  Capran- 
ica  del  Grillo  she  excelled  chiefly  in  comedy. 
Subsequently  she  became  celebrated  in  tragedy, 
especially  as  Myrrha,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  Pia 
dei  Tolomei,  Mary  Stuart,  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. She  first  appeared  in  Paris  in  1855,  and 
in  1867  and  1875  she  visited  the  United  States. 

RITCHIE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
intersected  by  Hughes  river,  a  branch  of  the 
Little  Kanawha ;  area,  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,055,  of  whom  63  were  colored.  It 
has  a  hilly  surface,  covered  with  forests,  and 
the  soil  is  fertile  near  the  streams.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Parkersburg  division  of  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  25,510  bushels  of  wheat, 
35,635  of  rye,  146,235  of  Indian  corn,  40,033 
of  oats,  4,732'  tons  of  hay,  9,907  Ibs.  of  to- 
bacco, 26,828  of  wool,  116,094  of  butter,  and 
29,257  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  1,970  horses,  5,334  cattle,  11,607  sheep, 
and  4,617  swine.  Capital,  Harrisville. 

RITCHIE,  Anna  Cora  Mowatt.     See  MOWATT. 

RITCHIE,  Thomas,  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Tappahannock,  Va.,  Nov.  5, 1778,  died 
in  Richmond,  July  12,  1854.  After  teaching 
four  years  at  Frederick sburg,  he  removed  to 
Richmond  in  1803,  and  in  1804  became  edi- 
tor of  the  Richmond  "Examiner,"  the  name 
of  which  he  changed  to  "  Enquirer."  He  con- 
tinued its  editor  and  proprietor  for  40  years, 
exercising  an  unsurpassed  influence  over  the 
politics  of  Virginia  and  the  Union.  In  1845 
he  relinquished  the  "Enquirer"  to  his  sons, 
and  removed  to  Washington,  where  he  edited 
for  four  years  the  "  Union,"  a  journal  estab- 
lished as  the  organ  of  President  Folk's  admin- 
istration. He  subsequently  returned  to  Rich- 
mond, and  spent  his  latter  years  in  retirement. 

RITES,  Congregation  of,  the  name  of  a  com- 
mittee of  cardinals  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  established  by  Sixtus  V.,  and  original- 
ly composed  of  six  cardinals,  with  a  number 
of  secretaries  and  consultors.  The  number  of 


members  depends  on  the  will  of  the  reigning 
pope.  In  1875  it  comprised  17  cardinals,  25 
consultors,  and  11  officials,  including  secreta- 
ry, promoters  of  the  faith,  and  assessors,  be- 
sides the  papal  masters  of  ceremonies.  The 
matters  exclusively  within  its  cognizance  are 
the  liturgy,  the  rites  of  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  the  rubrics  of  the  missal  and 
breviary,  the  ceremonial  of  the  church  in  all 
public  functions,  and  the  proceedings  in  the 
beatification  and  canonization  of  saints.  The 
congregation  meets  once  a  month  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  prefect,  who  is  always  the  senior 
cardinal  of  the  board. 

RITSON,  Joseph,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Stockton,  Oct.  2,  1752,  died  Sept.  23,  1803. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  literary  pursuits.  His  numerous  writings 
are  marked  by  great  accuracy,  honesty,  and 
learning,  and  by  their  abusive  spirit.  His 
harshness  led  to  controversies,  in  which  he 
seems  to  have  been  constantly  engaged  until 
his  death.  An  "  Essay  upon  Abstinence  from 
Animal  Food  as  a  Moral  Duty"  was  fiercely 
attacked  by  the  "  Edinburgh  Review  "  (April, 
1803),  in  an  article  written  by  Sydney  Smith 
and  Lord  Brougham.  Ritson's  chief  works 
are :  "  Remarks  Critical  and  Illustrative  on 
the  Text  of  the  last  Edition  of  Shakspeare" 
(1783),  an  attack  upon  Johnson  and  Steevens; 
"A  Select  Collection'  of  English  Songs"  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1783;  2d  ed.,  1813);  "Ancient 
Songs  from  the  time  of  King  Henry  III.  to 
the  Revolution"  (1790;  2d  ed.,  1829);  "The 
English  Anthology"  (3  vols.,  l793-'4) ;  "A 
Collection  of  Scottish  Songs,  with  the  Ori- 
ginal Music"  (2  vols.,  1794;  new  ed.,  18mo, 
1866) ;  "  Robin  Hood,  a  Collection  of  all  the 
Ancient  Poems,  Songs,  and  Ballads  now  ex- 
tant relating  to  that  Outlaw  "  (2  vols.,  1795 ; 
3d  ed.,  1858);  "Ancient  English  Metrical  Ro- 
mances, with  Dissertation  and  Glossary "  (3 
vols.,  1802);  "  Bibliographia  Poetica,"  an  ac- 
count of  English  poets  from  the  12th  to  the 
16th  century,  never  completed,  but  forming  a 
treasury  from  which  many  others  have  drawn. 
— See  "Letters  of  Joseph  Ritson,  Esq.,  with  a 
Memoir,"  by  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  (2  vols.,  1833). 

RrTTEJfHOUSE,  DaTid,  an  American  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Germantown,  Pa.  (near  which 
his  great-grandfather,  William  Rittinghuysen, 
a  Hollander,  had  established  about  1690  the 
first  paper  mill  in  America),  April  8, 1732,  died 
in  Philadelphia,  June  26,  1796.  During  his 
youth  he  came  into  possession  of  the  tools  and 
mathematical  books  of  a  deceased  uncle,  made 
clocks  without  any  instruction,  and  followed 
the  occupation  of  clock  making.  He  was  com- 
missioned by  the  proprietary  government  in 
1763  to  determine  the  initial  portion  of  the 
boundary  line  since  known  as  Mason  and  Dix- 
on's ;  and  although  his  instruments  were  all 
of  his  own  construction,  the  official  surveyors 
adopted  his  measurements.  He  was  subse- 
quently employed  in  determining  the  boun- 
daries between  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 


348 


PJTTER 


RITUALISM 


Pennsylvania,  and  other  states.  He  calculated 
the  transits  of  Venus  of  June  3, 1769,  and  Dec. 
8,  1874,  and  made  a  'successful  observation  of 
the  former  in  his  observatory  at  Norriton.  In 
1770  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  in  1775 
was  elected  to  the  provincial  legislature.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  called  to  form 
a  state  constitution,  state  treasurer  from  1776 
to  1789,  and  director  of  the  United  States  mint 
from  1792  to  1795.  In  1791  he  succeeded 
Franklin  as  president  of  the  American  philo- 
sophical society,  to  whose  "Transactions"  he 
had  contributed  many  papers,  and  in  1795  he 
was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of 
London. — See  his  life  by  William  Barton  (8vo, 
Philadelphia,  1813),  and  by  Prof.  James  Ren- 
wick  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography." 

BITTER,  Ctrl,  a  Gecman  geographer,  born  in 
Quedlinburg,  Aug.  7,  1779,  died  in  Berlin, 
Sept.  28,  1859.  He  completed  his  studies  at 
Halle,  and  in  1798  became  tutor  in  the  Beth- 
mann-Hollweg  family  at  Frankfort,  and  ac- 
companied his  pupils  to  the  academy  of  Gene- 
va, and  to  various  countries.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  history  at  the  gymnasium  of  Frankfort 
in  1819-'20,  and  subsequently' of  geography  at 
the  university  and  military  academy  of  Berlin. 
He  created  the  science  of  general  comparative 
geography.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  Die 
Erdkunde  im  Verhaltnisse  zur  Natur  und  Ge- 
schichte  des  Menschen.  At  first  it  appeared 
in  two  volumes  (Berlin,  1817-'! 8),  but  in  the 
second  edition  the  first  volume  (1822  et  seq.) 
relates  exclusively  to  Africa,  and  18  volumes 
(1832-'59)  to  Asia.  W.  L.  Gage  has  translated 
some  of  Ritter's  work  into  English,  under  the 
titles  "Comparative  Geography "  (Edinburgh, 
1865)  and  "  The  Comparative  Geography  of 
Palestine  and  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  "  (4  vols., 
1866).  Ritter  also  published  Europa,  ein  geo- 
graphisch-historiscJi-statutischei  Gemalde  (2 
vols.,  Frankfort,  1807);  Die  Stupas  (Berlin, 
1838) ;  and  Einleitung  und  Abhandlungen  zu 
einer  mehr  wissenschaftlichen  Behandlung  der 
Erdkunde  (1852).  After  his  death  were  pub- 
lished his  Geschichte  der  Erdkunde  und  der 
Entdeckungen  (1861),  Allgemeine  Erdkunde 
(1862),  and  Europa  (1863).  Among  his  biog- 
raphers are  Kramer  in  German  (Halle,  1864) 
and  Gage  in  English  (New  York,  1867). 

BITTER,  Ileinric h,  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Zerbst  in  1791,  died  in  Gottingen,  Feb.  3, 
1869.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Halle, 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  and  was  professor  suc- 
cessively at  all  of  them,  at  Gottingen  for  the 
last  32  years  of  his  life.  He  was  an  eclectic  in 
philosophy.  His  principal  work  is  Getehichte 
der  Philotophie  (12  vols.,  Hamburg,  1829-'53 ; 
the  part  relating  to  ancient  philosophy  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Tissot,  4  vols.,  Paris, 
1836-'7,  and  into  English  by  A.  J.  W.  Mor- 
rison, 4  vols.,  Oxford,  1838-'46 ;  additional 
French  translation  by  Trullard,  2  vols.,  1843- 
'4).  Among  his  other  writings  are:  System 
der  Logik  und  Metaphysik  (2  vols.,  Gottingen, 
1856);  Die  christliche  Philotophie  (2  vols., 


1858-'9)  ;   and  Encylclopadie  der  philosophi- 
schen  Wissenschaften  (3  vols.,  1862-'4). 

RITUALISM,  the  science  of  the  rites  embodied 
in  a  ritual  or  book  of  rites.  The  term  is  pop- 
ularly, though  inaccurately,  applied  to  a  move- 
ment in  churches  of  the  Anglican  communion, 
the  three  successive  periods  of  which  have 
been  called  by  its  opponents  "  Puseyism," 
"  Tractarianism,"  and  "Ritualism;"  but  its 
adherents  assert  it  to  be  a  catholic  revival. 
The  principles  of  ritualism  as  described  by  the 
latter  are  three.  They  say,  in  the  first  place, 
that  it  rests  on  the  declaration  set  forth  in 
1571  by  the  same  convocation  of  Canterbury 
which  first  required  subscription  to  the  thirty- 
nine  articles:  "that  preachers  should  in  the 
first  place  be  careful  never  to  teach  anything 
from  the  pulpit,  to  be  religiously  held  and  be- 
lieved by  the  people,  but  what  is  agreeable  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and  collected  out  of  that  very  doctrine  by  the 
catholic  fathers  and  ancient  bishops."  This  is 
held  to  establish  the  doctrinal  identity  of  the 
church  of  England  with  the  primitive  church, 
and  has  led  to  elaborate  commentaries  by  rit- 
ualistic writers  on  Holy  Scripture,  and  to  the 
reproduction  of  patristic  teaching  on  all  lead- 
ing points  of  faith  and  practice.  The  apostolic 
episcopate  and  sacramental  grace  are  specially 
insisted  on ;  baptismal  regeneration  is  strenu- 
ously asserted;  and  the  holy  eucharist  has 
been  made  the  central  object  of  teaching  and 
the  highest  act  of  worship.  The  frequency  as 
well  as  the  splendor  of  eucharistic  celebrations 
has  steadily  increased,  and  a  fasting  reception 
has  been  encouraged  by  early  celebrations. 
The  real  presence  of  Christ  in  that  sacrament — 
a  presence  spiritual  as  opposed  to  carnal,  ob- 
jective as  opposed  to  the  idea  that  it  is  only  in 
the  heart  of  the  believer,  and  supralocal  as  op- 
posed to  the  notion  that  it  is  contained  within 
and  limited  to  the  species  of  bread  and  wine — 
has  been  incessantly  advocated,  until  eucharistic 
adoration  is  now  openly  taught  and  practised. 
The  voluntary  use  of  private  confession  and 
absolution,  as  a  preparation  for  the  reception 
of  the  holy  communion,  has  also  made  consid- 
erable progress.  The  second  great  principle 
of  the  ritualists  is  thus  stated  in  the  30th  canon 
of  the  English  church:  "So  far  was  it  from 
the  purpose  of  the  church  of  England  to  for- 
sake and  reject  the  churches  of  Italy,  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  or  any  such  like  churches,  in 
all  things  which  they  held  and  practised,  that, 
as  the  apology  of  the  church  of  England  con- 
fesseth,  it  doth  with  reverence  retain  those  cer- 
emonies which  do  neither  endamage  the  church 
of  God  nor  offend  the  minds  of  sober  men; 
and  only  departed  from  them  in  those  particu- 
lar points  wherein  they  were  fallen  both  from 
themselves  in  their  ancient  integrity,  and  from 
the  apostolical  churches  which  were  their  firsl 
founders."  This  principle,  it  is  alleged,  estab- 
lishes the  fraternal  readiness  of  the  church  of 
England  for  visible  reunion  with  other  branches 
of  the  apostolic  church.  The  ritualists  assert, 


EITUALISM 


349 


therefore,  that  they  are  willing  to  do  any  and 
everything  lawful  to  approximate  toward  the 
continental  churches,  from  which  the  Anglican 
communion  is  now  severed.  The  third  funda- 
mental principle  of  ritualism  is  found  in  the 
ornaments  rubric,  which  has  stood  in  the  Eng- 
lish prayer  book,  almost  unaltered,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  English  reformation:  "The 
chancels  shall  remain  as  they  have  done  in 
times  past.  And  here  it  is  to  be  noted,  that 
such  ornaments  of  the  church  and  of  the  min- 
isters thereof,  at  all  times  of  their  ministration, 
shall  be  retained  and  be  in  use  as  were  in  this 
church  of  England,  by  the  authority  of  parlia- 
ment, in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King 
Edward  the  Sixth."  By  this  law,  it  is  thought, 
the  chancels  as  well  as  the  vestments  and  "  or- 
naments of  the  church  and  of  the  ministers 
thereof"  should  be  precisely  the  same  now  as 
they  were  before  the  reformation,  no  change 
in  them  having  been  made  in  the  second  year 
of  Edward.  In  the  case  of  Liddell  «.  Wester- 
ton,  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil interpreted  the  law  to  refer  to  the  rubrics 
of  Edward  the  Sixth's  first  book,  which  did 
not  come  into  use  till  Whitsunday  in  the  third 
year  of  his  reign.  That  rubric,  in  the  "Or- 
der for  administering  the  Supper  of  the  Lord 
and  the  Holy  Communion,  commonly  called 
the  Mass,"  reads  as  follows:  "Upon  the  day 
and  at  the  time  appointed  for  the  ministration 
of  the  holy  communion,  the  priest  that  shall 
execute  the  holy  ministry  shall  put  upon  him 
the  vesture  appointed  for  that  ministration, 
that  is  to  say,  a  white  albe  plain,  with  a  vest- 
ment or  cope.  And  where  there  be  many 
priests  or  deacons,  there  so  many  shall  be  ready 
to  help  the  priest  in  the  ministration  as  shall 
be  requisite ;  and  shall  have  upon  them  like- 
wise the  vestures  appointed  for  their  ministry, 
that  is  to  say,  albes  with  tunicles."  A  further 
rubric  of  the  same  book  orders :  "  Whensoever 
the  bishop  shall  celebrate  the  holy  communion, 
or  execute  any  other  public  office,  he  shall 
have  upon  him,  besides  his  rochet,  an  albe  and 
cope  or  vestment,  and  also  his  pastoral  staff  in 
his  hand,  or  else  borne  by  his  chaplain."  As, 
in  the  opinion  of  ritualists,  the  three  leading 
principles  of  the  so-called  catholic  revival  thus 
bind  together  the  present  church  of  England 
with  the  primitive,  the  mediaeval,  and  the  con- 
tinental churches,  they  profess  to  give  promi- 
nence to  everything  which  helps  to  make  this 
union  real,  without  violating  their  clear  ob- 
ligations as  members  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land. There  are  six  chief  points  depending 
more  or  less  closely  on  the  principles  laid  down : 
1,  the  eastward  position  of  the  celebrant  in 
the  sacrament  of  the  holy  communion,  with 
his  back  to  the  people;  2,  the  eucharistic  vest- 
ments ;  3,  lights  burning  at  the  time  of  the 
celebration ;  4,  incense ;  5,  the  mixed  chal- 
ice, a  little  water  being  added  to  the  wine ;  6, 
unleavened  (or  wafer)  bread.  The  opponents 
of  these  usages  have  attempted  to  proscribe 
them  through  prosecutions  in  the  English  ec- 


clesiastical courts.  In  the  case  of  Liddell  c. 
Westerton  (1867),  it  was  decided  "that  the 
same  dresses  and  the  same  utensils,  or  articles, 
which  were  used  under  the  first  prayer  book  of 
Edward  the  Sixth,  may  still  be  used ;"  which  left 
the  ritualists  in  possession  of  the  field.  Suits 
were  subsequently  instituted  against  Mr.  Mac- 
konochie  (1868)  and  Mr.  Purchas  (1870),  the 
latter  of  which  was  not  defended.  All  the  six 
above  mentioned  usages  and  some  others  were 
condemned  by  the  highest  court  of  appeal. 
The  advocates  of  ritualism  protested  against 
the  decision,  which  in  their  view  impaired  the 
authority  of  the  court,  and  parliament  has 
since  provided  for  the  establishing  of  a  differ- 
ent tribunal  for  the  hearing  of  ecclesiastical 
appeals.  One  decision,  condemning  the  east- 
ward position,  was  protested  against  in  writing 
by  about  5,000  of  the  clergy  of  the  established 
church.  Of  more  importance  than  these  cases 
was  that  of  the  Eev.  W.  J.  E.  Bennett,  vicar 
of  Frome,  who  published  a  sermon  in  which 
he  taught  "  the  real  and  actual  presence  of  our 
Lord,  under  the  form  of  bread  and  wine,  upon 
the  altars  of  our  churches."  He  stated  "the 
three  great  doctrines  on  which  the  Catholic 
church  has  to  take  her  stand  "  to  be :  "1,  the 
real  objective  presence  of  our  blessed  Lord  in 
the  eucharist;  2,  the  sacrifice  offered  by  the 
priest ;  3,  the  adoration  due  to  the  presence  of 
our  blessed  Lord  therein;"  adding:  "I  am  one 
of  those  who  burn  lighted  candles  at  the  altar 
in  the  .daytime ;  who  use  incense  at  the  holy 
sacrifice ;  who  use  the  eucharistic  vestments ; 
who  elevate  the  blessed  sacrament;  who  my- 
self adore,  and  teach  the  people  to  adore,  Christ 
present  in  the  sacrament,  under  the  form  of 
bread  and  wine ;  believing  that  under  their 
veil  is  the  sacred  body  and  blood  of  my  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  The  court  of  arch- 
es, through  Sir  Robert  Phillimore  (who  said 
that  if  he  pronounced  otherwise  he  "should 
be  passing  sentence,  in  his  opinion,  upon  a 
long  roll  of  illustrious  divines"),  having  de- 
cided in  Mr.  Bennett's  favor,  his  prosecutors 
appealed  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council  (1872),  which,  although  manifesting 
a  strong  animus  against  Mr.  Bennett  and  Sir 
Kobert  Phillimore,  dismissed  the  appeal.  En- 
couraged by  this  doctrinal  victory,  the  Eng- 
lish ritualists  have  announced  their  determi- 
nation to  persevere 'until  they  have  recover- 
ed what  they  consider  their  rightful  heritage 
as  a  true  branch  of  the  Catholic  church,  in 
accordance  with  the  professed  principles,  can- 
ons, and  rubrics  of  the  reformed  church  of 
England,  as  illustrated  by  the  facts  of  her  his- 
tory. While  devoting  close  study  to  holy  writ, 
they  have  investigated  the  questions  of  litur- 
gies and  ritual  in  all  ages  of  the  church,  espe- 
cially the  reformation  era,  have  taken  the  lead 
in  hymnology,  and  have  produced  many  manu- 
als and  catechisms  for  the  promotion  of  per- 
sonal devotion.  They  have  encouraged  the 
revival  of  religious  orders,  mainly  for  works 
of  charity ;  and  there  are  many  communities 


350 


EIVAROL 


RIVINGTON 


of  women  who  under  their  rule  have  devoted 
themselves  to  life-long  labor  in  hospitals  and 
similar  institutions,  for  the  love  of  God  and 
their  neighbor.  An  evangelist  brotherhood  of 
preachers  has  also  been  formed,  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  holding  of  missions  in  cities 
and  towns.  In  this  country  there  is  more  or 
less  of  sympathy  with  the  English  ritualistic 
movement,  but  with  much  less  development  of 
detail.  The  attempts  made  in  the  general  con- 
ventions of  1868,  1871,  and  1874  to  legislate 
against  various  usages  regarded  as  ritualistic, 
were  all  defeated.  In  1874  a  general  canon 
was  passed  (by  many  considered  to  be  uncon- 
stitutional), which  was  regarded  as  a  nearly 
unanimous  expression  of  opinion  unfavorable 
to  ritualistic  extremes;  but  no  occasion  has 
arisen  in  any  diocese  for  putting  it  in  force. 

RIYAUOL,  Antoine,  A  French  author,  born  at 
Bagnols,  Languedoc,  June  26,  1753,  died  in 
Berlin,  April  13,  1801.  After  preparing  him- 
self for  the  church  he  became  a  private  tutor 
at  Lyons.  In  1777  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
assumed  after  his  mother  the  name  of  chevalier 
de  Parcieux,  and  next  that  of  Count  Rivarol. 
He  led  a  dissipated  and  adventurous  life,  and 
acquired  celebrity  as  a  wit,  satirist,  journalist, 

Eoet,  and  miscellaneous  writer.  lie  defended 
ouis  XVI.,  who  had  given  him  a  pension  of 
4,000  livres,  and  in  1792  fled  to  Brussels.  He 
afterward  went  to  London  and  Hamburg,  and 
in  1800  to  Berlin  on  a  mission  from  the  future 
Louis  XVIII.  His  principal  works  are:  Dis- 
cours  sur  Vuniveraalite  de  la.  langue  francaise 
(1784) ;  Petit  almanack  de  nos  grand*  homines 
(1788) ;  and  Vie  politique  de  Lafayette  (1792). 
Ch&nedolle  and  Fayolle  edited  his  works  under 
the  title  Esprit  de  Rivarol  (5  vols.,  1808).— 
His  wife,  an  English  woman,  wrote  Notice  sur 
la  vie  et  la  mort  de  M.  de  Rivarol  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1802).  See  also  Rivarol,  sa  vie  et  sea 
outrages,  by  M.  de  Lescure,  accompanying  a 
select  edition  of  his  works  (1862). 

BIVAS,  Angel  de  Saavedra,  duke  of,  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  in  Cordova,  March  1,  1791.  After 
advocating  constitutional  government  in  the 
cortes,  he  was  exiled  from  1823  to  1834.  In 
1836  he  became  minister  of  the  interior  in 
the  government  of  Isturiz,  which  was  soon 
driven  from  power  by  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment of  La  Granja.  He  was  again  banished 
by  Espartero  in  1837,  but  returned  with  Queen 
Maria  Christina  in  1843,  and  was  ambassador 
to  Naples  till  1848.  In  1854  he  belonged  to 
the  short-lived  cabinet  which  was  overthrown 
by  O'Donnell.  Next  he  was  ambassador  in 
Paris,  and  in  1864  he  presided  for  some  time 
over  the  council  of  state.  His  principal  works 
include,  besides  tragedies  and  comedies,  Ensa- 
yos  poeticos  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1813) ;  Florinda, 
an  epic  poem  on  the  Moorish  conquest  (1824- 
'5);  Romances  historicos  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1840- 
'41)  ;  El  Moro  espbsito,  an  epic  poem  (2  vols., 
1844)  ;  and  Hittoria  de  la  tublevacion  de  Nd- 
poles  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1848;  French  transla- 
tion by  D'Hervey  de  Saint-Denys,  Paris,  1849). 


RIYE-DE-CIER,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Loire,  on  the  Gier,  an  affluent  of 
the  Rhone,  12  m.  N.  E.  of  St.  Etienne ;  pop. 
in  1872,  13,946.  It  has  blast  furnaces  and 
forges,  and  steam  engines,  steel,  glass  (chiefly 
bottles  of  fine  quality),  and  ribbon  are  manu- 
factured. Near  it  are  silk  mills,  extensive  coal 
fields,  and  the  reservoir  of  the  Givors  canal. 

KIVER  I10G.     See  WABT  HOG. 

RIVES,  William  Cabell,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Nelson  co.,  Va.,  May  4,  1793,  died 
near  Charlottesville,  Va.,  April  26,  1868.  He 
was  educated  at  Hampden  Sidney  and  William 
and  Mary  colleges,  and  studied  law.  In  1816 
he  was  a  member  of  the  state  constitutional 
convention ;  and  from  1817  to  1819,  and  in 
1822  of  the  state  legislature.  In  1823-7  he 
was  a  representative  in  congress,  and  in  1829- 
'32  minister  to  France.  He  was  elected  Uni« 
ted  States  senator  in  1832,  and  resigned  in 
1834,  but  was  reflected  in  1835  and  again  in 
1840,  serving  till  1845.  He  was  again  minister 
to  France  from  1849  to  1858.  In  1861  he  was 
a  member  of  the  peace  conference  which  met 
at  Washington  in  February,  and  before  the 
inauguration  of  Mr.  Lincoln  as  president  he 
with  others  had  a  special  interview  with  him 
to  consult  upon  the  means  of  averting  civil 
war.  After  the  secession  of  Virginia  Mr. 
Rives  became  a  member  of  the  confederate 
provisional  congress  at  Montgomery,  Ala.  He 
published  "  Life  and  Times  of  James  Madison  " 
(3  vols.,  Boston,  1859-'69). 

RIYUVGTON,  James,  a  royalist  printer  of  New- 
York  during  the  revolution,  born  in  London 
about  1724,  died  in  New  York  in  July,  1802. 
Early  in  life  he  was  a  bookseller  in  London, 
and  acquired  a  fortune,  which  he  lost  at 
Newmarket.  In  17CO  he  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1761  opened  a  book  store  in 
New  York.  On  April  22, 1773,  he  established 
the  "  New  York  Gazetteer,  or  the  Connecti- 
cut, New  Jersey,  Hudson's  River,  and  Quebec 
Weekly  Advertiser,"  in  which  he  advocated  the 
cause  of  the  English  government  with  great 
zeal.  In  November,  1775,  in  consequence  of 
his  constant  assaults  upon  Capt.  Isaac  Sears 
and  other  republicans,  that  officer  came  from 
Connecticut  with  75  horsemen  to  New  York, 
destroyed  Rivington's  press,  and  converted  the 
types  into  bullets.  In  October,  1777,  the  city 
being  occupied  by  the  British,  he  resumed 
the  publication  of  his  paper  under  the  old 
title,  which  was  not  long  after  changed  to 
"Rivington's  New  York  Royal  Gazette,"  and 
on  Dec.  13  to  the  "  Royal  Gazette."  About 
1781,  when  the  success  of  the  British  was 
becoming  very  doubtful,  he  placed  the  part  of 
a  spy,  furnishing  Washington  with  important 
information.  His  communications  were  writ- 
ten on  very  thin  paper,  and  conveyed  to  the 
American  camp  in  the  covers  of  books.  After 
the  evacuation  of  New  York  Rivington  was 
allowed  to  remain,  much  to  the  general  sur- 
prise. He  took  down  the  royal  arms  from  his 
paper  and  changed  the  title  to  "Rivington's 


KIVOLI 


EOACH 


351 


New  York  Gazette  and  Universal  Advertiser." 
His  business  however  having  rapidly  declined, 
his  paper  was  soon  stopped  (1783),  and  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  poverty. 

RIVOLI,  a  village  of  Venetia,  Italy,  in  the 
province  and  12  m.  N".  W.  of  the  city  of  Verona, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Adige  ;  pop.  about  1,000. 
It  is  memorable  for  the  victory  gained  here 
by  Bonaparte,  Jan.  14,  15,  1797,  over  the  Aus- 
trian general  Alvinczy,  who  was  marching  to 
the  relief  of  Mantua.  This  action,  in  which 
Joubert  and  Mass6na  bore  an  important  part, 
decided  the  campaign.  The  Austrians  lost 
20,000  prisoners,  Mantua  surrendered,  and  the 
French  were  enabled  to  dictate  terms  at  Cam- 
po  Formio.  For  his  services  in  this  battle 
Massena  was  in  1807  made  duke  of  Rivoli. 

RIYAD,  or  Riad,  a  city  of  Arabia,  capital  of  the 
sultanate  of  Nedjed,  in  the  province  of  Aared, 
lat.  24°  88'  34"  N.,  Ion.  46°  41'  48"  E. ;  pop.  es- 
timated by  Palgrave  in  1862  at  40,000.  It  is  a 
nearly  square  walled  town,  lying  in  an  open 
valley,  and  surrounded  by  green  fields,  palm 
groves,  and  well  watered  gardens.  It  is  divi- 
ded into  four  quarters,  but  there  is  no  sepa- 
ration otherwise  than  by  broad  streets.  The 
N.  E.  quarter  contains  the  palaces  of  the  royal 
family  and  the  houses  of  state  officers  and  of 
the  richer  class  ;  the  N.  W.,  an  irregular  mass 
of  houses,  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  those  who 
are  not  strict  Wahabees ;  the  S.  W.,  which  is 
spacious  and  clean,  is  the  chosen  abode  of 
the  Wahabee  orthodoxy;  and  the  S.  E.,  called 
Khazik  (crowded),  the  worst  built  part  of  the 
town,  is  the  home  of  the  lower  classes.  The 
central  point  where  these  divisions  meet  is  the 
market  place,  with  the  royal  palace  on  one 
side  and  the  great  mosque  on  the  other,  the 
two  being  connected  by  a  covered  way.  The 
remainder  of  the  square  is  surrounded  by  the 
shops  of  tradesmen  and  artisans.  Besides  the 
great  mosque,  a  large  flat-roofed  building  ca- 
pable of  holding  2,000  persons,  there  are  30 
or  more  smaller  mosques  in  the  several  quar- 
ters. The  palace  is  a  mass  of  buildings,  gener- 
ally three  stories  in  height,  occupying  a  par- 
allelogram surrounded  by  high  walls,  defend- 
ed by  bastions  and  towers,  and  having  a  dry 
moat  around  two  thirds  of  its  circuit.  The 
walls  of  the  city,  which  vary  from  20  to  30 
ft.  in  height,  are  massive  and  strong,  and  are 
defended  by  a  deep  trench  and  embankment. 
Biyad  is  the  great  centre  of  Wahabitism,  and 
all  its  residents  are  obliged  to  conform  to 
the  strict  rules  of  the  faith.  Every  morning 
and  evening  the  names  of  those  whom  vicinity 
obliges  to  attend  prayers  are  read  over  in  the 
several  mosques,  so  as  to  insure  presence  and 
detect  absentees.  The  pilgrim  route  from  Per- 
sia to  Mecca  and  Medina  passes  through  Riyad. 
It  has  been  the  capital  of  Nedjed  since  1818, 
when  Derayeh,  the  ancient  capital,  was  de- 
stroyed by  Ibrahim  Pasha. 

R1ZZIO,  Ritzio,  Riecio,  or  Ried,  David,  a  favor- 
ite of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  born  in  Piedmont 
about  1533,  assassinated  in  Edinburgh,  March 
707  VOL.  xiv.— 23 


9,  1566.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  musician 
of  Turin,  went  to  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Sa- 
voy, and  thence  to  Scotland  in  the  suite  of  an 
ambassador,  who  selected  him  because  he  was 
a  good  linguist.  He  was  made  by  Mary  one 
of  her  pages,  and  after  the  removal  of  Raulet 
he  became,  in  December,  1564,  her  secretary 
for  the  French  language.  All  her  foreign  cor- 
respondence passed  through  his  hands,  and 
upon  her  marriage  with  Darnley  he  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  privy  purse.  Darnley 
attributed  Mary's  unwillingness  to  give  him 
the  power  as  well  as  name  of  king  to  the 
influence  of  Rizzio,  with  whom  she  was  also 
suspected  of  an  illicit  intimacy.  The  favor- 
ite's rapid  promotion,  his  arrogance,  avarice, 
and  low  birth,  had  aroused  the  envy  and  anger 
of  the  nobles.  By  the  Protestants  he  was 
viewed  with  disfavor  on  account  of  his  reli- 
gion. An  agreement,  partly  written  and  part- 
ly verbal,  was  entered  into  by  Darnley,  Mor- 
ton, Maitland,  Ruthven,  Lindsay,  and  others, 
for  putting  Rizzio  to  death.  Just  before  the 
execution  of  the  design,  Darnley  was  required 
to  sign  another  bond  in  which  he  gave  his  as- 
sent to  whatever  they  should  do.  In  the  eve- 
ning, while  the  queen  was  at  supper  in  com- 
pany with  the  countess  of  Argyll,  a  few  cour- 
tiers, her  French  physician,  and  Rizzio,  the 
apartment  was  filled  by  the  armed  conspira- 
tors. Darnley  held  the  queen,  who  was  in  an 
advanced  state  of  pregnancy ;  Rizzio  cowered 
behind  her  and  held  on  to  her  dress.  One  or 
two  of  the  assassins  stabbed  him  in  the  body, 
and  then  dragging  him  into  the  antechamber 
despatched  him  with  more  than  50  wounds. 

ROACH,  a  fish  of  the  carp  family  (eyprinidce) 
and  genus  leuciscus  (Klein).  The  generic  char- 
acters have  been  given  under  DACE.  The  com- 
mon roach  of  Europe  (L.  rutilus,  Klein)  at- 
tains a  length  of  10  to  15  in.;  the  upper  part 
of  the  head  and  back  is  dusky  green  with  blue 
reflections,  lighter  on  the  sides,  and  silvery 
white  below  and  on  the  cheeks ;  the  pectorals 
orange  red,  ventrals  and  anal  bright  red,  and 
the  dorsal  and  caudal  pale  brown  tinged  with 
red.  The  muzzle  is  rather  sharp,  and  the 


European  Roach  (Leuciscus  rutilus). 

mouth  small  with  soft  lips ;  there  are  hooked 
teeth  in  the  pharynx,  and  the  abdomen  behind 
the  ventrals  is  somewhat  keeled ;  there  ia  a 
single  dorsal  in  the  middle  of  the  back,  over 
the  ventrals,  which,  with  the  anal,  has  no  bony 
ray ;  the  nape  and  back  rise  suddenly ;  the 


352 


KOAD 


scales  are  large,  with  concentric  and  radiating 
lines,  43  on  the  lateral  line,  which  falls  by  a 
curve  from  the  upper  part  of  the  gill  cover 
below  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  thence  is 
nearly  straight  to  the  tail.  It  is  found  in  large 
shoals  in  the  still  rivers  and  lakes  of  temper- 
ate Europe,  and  feeds  on  worms  and  aquatic 
plants ;  it  is  caught  abundantly  in  the  Thames, 
going  high  up  the  river  in  May  or  June  to 
spawn,  but  is  best  for  food  and  finest  in  color 
in  October ;  yet  it  is  not  much  esteemed.  The 
beautiful  dace  of  New  England  (L.  [leucoso- 
mu«]  pulchellus,  Girard)  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean fish,  and  hence  is  often  called  roach ; 
this  name  is  also  applied  to  the  bream  (porno- 
tis  vulgaris,  Cuv.). 

ROAD,  a  solid  pathway  for  the  transportation 
of  passengers  and  commodities.  Koads  are 
of  various  kinds,  the  degree  of  perfection  to 
which  they  have  been  carried  generally  cor- 
responding to  the  degree  of  civilization  of  the 
country  where  they  are  situated.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  must  have  had  hard  paved  roads 
on  which  to  transport  the  immense  blocks  of 
stone  used  in  building  the  pyramids  and  oth- 
er structures.  The  Hebrews  had  roads  at  a 
very  early  period ;  the  song  of  Deborah  speaks 
of  abandoned  highways  (Judges  v.  6).  The 
Greeks  paid  much  attention  to  roads,  but  the 
greatest  improvements,  such  as  permanent 
pavements,  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  the 
more  commercial  Carthaginians.  The  Via  Ap- 
pia,  called  by  Statius  the  queen  of  roads  (see 
APPIAN  WAY),  the  Via  Aurelia  (the  Tyrrhe- 
nian coast  road),  and  the  Via  Flaminia  (see 
FLAMINIAN  WAY)  were  the  first  great  Roman 
roads,  and  the  Roman  empire  soon  became 
intersected  with  numerous  paved  roads  con- 
structed with  great  care  at  enormous  expense. 
In  many  parts  they  have  lasted  till  the  present 
day.  During  the  last  Punic  war  a  paved  road 
was  constructed  from  Spain  through  Gaul  to 
the  Alps.  Similar  roads  were  afterward  made 
in  every  part  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  through  II- 
lyricum,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace,  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  along  the  Danube  to  its  mouths 
on  the  Black  sea;  and  the  islands  of  Sar- 
dinia, Corsica,  Sicily,  and  Great  Britain  were 
crossed  by  them.  Under  Antoninus  Pius  (A. 
D.  138-'61)  all  the  Roman  military  roads  were 
surveyed,  including  six  great  roads  in  Egypt. 
In  India  good  roads  were  made  at  an  early 
period,  connecting  Agra  with  Lahore,  and  La- 
hore with  Cashmere;  but  after  the  death  of 
Aurungzebe  they  fell  into  decay,  and  the  only 
good  roads  in  India,  it  is  said,  have  since  been 
constructed  by  the  British,  who  have  carried 
a  good  and  metalled  road,  called  the  Grand 
Trunk,  from  Calcutta  to  Peshawer  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Afghanistan.  The  "  metalling  "  (pave- 
ment of  stone  or  concrete)  of  these  roads  is 
mostly  composed  of  a  calcareous  nodule  called 
Jcunkur  found  there,  which  when  moistened 
and  pounded  into  a  crust  nine  inches  or  a 
foot  deep  forms  an  excellent  pavement.  The 
kunkur  is  sometimes  ferruginous,  which  im- 


proves its  quality.  In  ancient  Peru  tfie  Incas 
built  great  roads,  the  remains  of  which  still  at- 
test their  magnificence.  The  most  remarkable 
were  the  two  which  extended  from  Quito  (or 
in  fact  nearly  100  m.  N.  of  Quito)  to  Cuzco, 
and  on  toward  Chili,  one  passing  over  the 
grand  plateau,  the  other  bordering  on  the 
ocean.  Humboldt,  in  his  "  Aspects  of  Nature," 
says  of  the  mountain  road :  u  But  what  above 
all  things  relieves  the  severe  aspect  of  the 
deserts  of  the  Cordilleras  are  the  remains,  as 
marvellous  as  unexpected,  of  a  gigantic  road, 
the  work  of  the  Incas.  ...  In  the  pass  of  the 
Andes  between  Mausi  and  Loja  we  found  on 
the  plain  of  Puttal  much  difficulty  in  making 
a  way  for  the  mules  over  a  marshy  piece  of 
earth,  while  for  more  than  a  German  mile  our 
sight  continually  rested  on  the  superb  remains 
of  a  paved  road  of  the  Incas,  20  ft.  wide,  which 
we  marked  resting  on  its  deep  foundations,  and 
paved  with  well  cut,  dark  porphyritic  stone. 
This  road  was  wonderful,  and  does  not  fall 
behind  the  most  imposing  Roman  ways  which 
I  have  seen  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  By 
barometrical  observation  I  found  that  this  co- 
lossal work  was  at  an  elevation  of  12,440  ft." 
Prescott  says :  u  Galleries  were  cut  for  leagues 
through  living  rock ;  rivers  were  crossed  by 
means  of  bridges  that  swung  suspended  in  the 
air ;  precipices  were  scaled  by  stairways  hewn 
out  of  the  native  bed ;  ravines  of  hideous  depth 
were  filled  up  with  solid  masonry;  in  short,  all 
the  difficulties  that  beset  a  wild  and  mountain- 
ous region,  and  which  might  appal  the  most 
courageous  engineer  of  modern  times,  were 
encountered  and  successfully  overcome.  The 
length  of  the  road,  of  which  scattered  frag- 
ments only  remain,  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  1,500  to  2,000  in.  Its  breadth  scarcely 
exceeded  20  ft.  It  was  built  of  heavy  flags  of 
freestone,  and  in  some  parts  at  least  covered 
with  a  bituminous  cement,  which  time  has 
made  harder  than  the  stone  itself.  In  some 
places,  where  the  ravines  had  been  filled  up 
with  masonry,  the  mountain  torrents,  wearing 
on  it  for  ages,  have  gradually  eaten  a  way 
through  the  base,  and  left  the  superincumbent 
mass — such  is  the  cohesion  of  the  materials — 
still  spanning  the  valley  like  an  arch." — The 
Britons  failed  to  keep  up  the  roads  made  by 
the  Romans,  or  to  construct  new  ones,  and  for 
centuries  they  used  bridle  paths,  or  at  most  nar- 
row passages  for  small  carts ;  and  not  till  the 
16th  year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  was  there 
any  attempt  by  the  government  to  improve 
the  roads.  The  first  turnpike  road  was  then 
established  by  law ;  but  it  was  not  till  about  a 
century  ago  that  a  system  of  good  roads  was 
established.  Up  to  that  time  goods  were  con- 
veyed in  Scotland  on  pack  horses.  In  1770 
the  journey  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester,  ac- 
cording to  the  account  of  Arthur  Young,  was 
not  a  little  perilous  from  the  bad  condition  of 
the  road.  But  within  the  next  60  years,  when 
the  manufacturing  resources  of  the  country, 
through  the  introduction  of  the  steam  engine 


ROAD 


353 


and  the  extensive  use  of  coal,  were  developed, 
the  progress  in  road  making  was  rapid.  In 
the  United  States  the  importance  of  roads  for 
military  purposes,  leading  into  the  interior  ter- 
ritories and  to  the  frontier,  was  early  appreci- 
ated, and  some  important  routes  were  opened 
by  the  general  government;  as  the  national 
road  from  Baltimore,  through  Wheeling  and 
Cincinnati,  to  St.  Louis,  and  that  from  Bangor 
to  Houlton  in  Maine.  The  making  of  turn- 
pike roads  by  chartered  companies,  before  the 
general  introduction  of  railroads,  often  yield- 
ed much  profit  to  capitalists.  Most  of  the 
paved  road  was  constructed  upon  the  Macadam 
principle.  Several  public  turnpikes  have  been 
constructed  in  parts  of  New  York  and  in  the 
western  states  with  planks ;  but  they  have  not 
proved  successful,  as  the  exposure  to  air  and 
moisture  causes  them  to  decay  rapidly. — In 
laying  out  a  new  road,  the  general  system  re- 
sembles that  for  the  construction  of  railways, 
but  an  equal  expense  in  securing  level  grades 
is  not  usually  justifiable.  It  is  found  that  upon 
a  slope  of  1  in  44,  or  about  120  ft.  to  the  mile, 
a  horse  can  draw  only  three  fourths  as  much 
as  he  can  upon  a  level ;  on  a  slope  of  1  in  24, 
or  220  ft.  to  the  mile,  only  half  as  much ;  and 
on  a  slope  of  1  in  10,  or  528  ft.  to  the  mile, 
only  one  fourth  as  much ;  but  these  propor- 
tions vary  with  the  condition  of  the  road,  be- 
cause when  the  road  is  soft  the  grade  is  vir- 
tually increased.  The  harder  and  firmer  and 
smoother  the  surface  of  a  road  is,  the  less  re- 
sistance it  will  offer  to  a  passing  wheel ;  and 
for  this  reason  elastic  road  beds  are  inferior 
for  the  transportation  of  heavy  loads.  It  is 
usually  estimated  that  the  greatest  inclination 
down  which  horses  may  trot  with  safety  is,  for 
roads  paved  with  blocks,  1  in  60 ;  for  mac- 
adamized roads,  1  in  35  or  40 ;  and  for  gravel 
or  dirt  roads,  1  in  15.  In  regard  to  the  sur- 
face of  a  transverse  section  of  a  road,  there 
has  been  considerable  debate,  some  maintain- 
ing that  it  should  be  nearly  straight,  and  that 
the  drainage  should  be  secured  when  practica- 
ble by  longitudinal  grading,  the  reason  being 
that  ease  of  draught  on  a  convex  road  requires 
the  wagon  to  be  in  the  middle  of  the  track. 
The  weight  of  authority  seems  to  be  in  favor 
of  raising  the  track  in  the  middle,  but  not  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  cause  much  inclination  of 
the  wagon.  On  roads  where  there  is  much 
traffic,  so  that  wagons  are  continually  meeting 
and  passing,  inclination  may  be  avoided  by 
having  two  tracks,  each  raised  in  the  middle. 
To  allow  the  water  to  run  longitudinally  upon 
a  road  bed  for  any  considerable  distance  will 
certainly  cause  any  macadamized  or  stone 
pavement  to  get  out  of  order,  from  washing 
or  undermining,  unless  it  is  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement,  or  asphalt  of  sufficient  firmness  to 
resist  the  action  of  a  rapid  current  of  water. 
In  regard  to  the  formation  of  the  road  bed 
there  are  two  systems,  that  of  Telford  and 
that  of  Macadam.  The  system  of  Telford  is 
principally  a  revival  of  that  employed  by  the 


old  Romans,  and  also  adopted  by  Tr6saguet  in 
France  in  1760,  but  discarded  in  1816  by  Mac- 
adam, who  substituted  small  angular  broken 
stones,  laying  them  directly  upon  the  earth. 
(See  PAVEMENT.)  Telford  made  a  return  to 
the  system  of  laying  heavy  stones  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bed  and  covering  them  with  a  coat- 
ing of  broken  stones.  Several  excellent  roads 
were  constructed  by  him  in  Great  Britain,  the 
permanence  of  which  is  evidence  of  his  engi- 
neering wisdom,  such  as  that  between  Holy- 
head  and  Shrewsbury,  and  the  Glasgow  and 
Carlisle  road.  Macadam  preferred  a  yielding 
to  a  rigid  foundation,  and  even  laid  broken 
stone  upon  boggy  ground.  The  angular  shape 
of  the  stones  caused  them  to  bind  together 
somewhat,  but  the  superiority  of  roads  having 
large  stones  or  concrete  (which  is  preferable 
since  the  manufacture  of  hydraulic  cements 
has  become  so  general)  for  a  foundation  is 
now  generally  conceded.  The  kind  of  stone 
most  suitable  for  a  road  bed  is  a  matter  of  im- 
portance; for  macadamized  roads,  granite  or 
basaltic  rock,  covered  with  sandstone  or  argil- 
laceous shale,  is  to  be  preferred.  Slate  rock 
in  various  degrees  of  hardness  may  often  be 
employed  with  advantage  as  a  surface  cover- 
ing as  well  as  a  filling  in  many  kinds  of  pave- 
ment where  hydraulic  cement  is  not  relied  on 
to  produce  firmness.  Of  the  drainage  of  a 
road  not  much  need  be  said,  as  it  is  evident 
that  it  should  be  comparatively  dry,  and  not 
subject  to  inundation.  A  ditch  at  one  or  both 
sides,  when  the  land  does  not  slope  away,  is 
almost  always  necessary,  and  culverts  to  lead 
the  water  from  one  side  to  the  other.  In  car- 
rying a  road  over  a  hilly  country  it  is  usual 
to  wind*  around  the  sides  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains, and  an  inclined  plane  of  considerable 
length  often  becomes  necessary.  A  ditch  upon 
one  side,  with  frequent  culverts,  should  be 
constructed ;  but  it  is  sometimes  the  practice 
on  turnpikes  built  by  companies,  and  where 
the  income  of  the  road  would  not  justify  the 
outlay  for  construction  and  repair  of  culverts, 
to  make  diagonal  elevations  across  the  track  at 
frequent  intervals  to  direct  the  water  off  the 
road.  If  they  are  placed  too  far  apart,  the 
water  is  suffered  to  gather  too  much  headway 
and  thus  wear  away  the  road  bed.  It  is  this 
accelerated  movement  of  water  in  the  ditches 
of  a  road  running  down  hill  that  makes  it  so 
difficult  to  construct  culverts  which  shall  re- 
ceive the  current  and  conduct  it  away  without 
damage  to  the  banks  along  the  roads. — Pub- 
lic roads  are  laid  out,  constructed,  regulated, 
and  kept  in  repair  by  public  authority.  Pri- 
vate property  is  taken  for  the  construction  of 
roads  upon  allowance  of  just  compensation  to 
the  owner.  The  system  of  making  assessments 
for  repairs  varies  in  the  different  states.  Gen- 
erally a\\  property  owners  in  the  town  or  coun- 
ty where  the  road  lies  are  assessed.  In  many 
of  the  states  all  male  inhabitants  21  years  old 
or  over  are  required  to  labor  on  the  roads 
a  specified  number  of  days  each  year,  but  a 


354 


ROANE 


substitute  may  be  furnished  or  commutation 
be  made  in  money.  Females  are  subject  to  a 
property  but  not  to  a  labor  assessment.  In 
large  cities  special  regulations  generally  pre- 
vail.— Among  the  most  important  works  rela- 
ting to  roads  are  Macadam's  "  System  of  Road- 
making"  (London,  1825);  Parnell's  "Treatise 
on  Roads"  (1838);  Telford's  reports  to  par- 
liament on  the  Holyhead  road  ;  Penfold  "  On 
Making  and  Repairing  Roads  "  (1835) ;  Ponce- 
let,  Mecanique  industrielle  (Paris,  1841);  Mo- 
rin,  Aide-memoire  de  mecanique  (1843);  Gayf- 
fier,  Manuel  des  ponts  et  chaussees  (1844) ;  and 
Gillespie,  "Roads  and  Railroads:  a  Manual 
for  Roadmaking"  (10th  ed.,  New  York,  1871). 

ROANE.  I.  A  W.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
intersected  by  branches  of  the  Kanawha  and 
De  Kalb  rivers ;  area,  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,232,  of  whom  23  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  generally  hilly,  and  in  the  N.  part 
mountainous,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Iron  ore 
and  coal  are  found.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  24,087  bushels  of  wheat,  160,912  of 
Indian  corn,  28,489  of  oats,  4,732  tons  of  hay, 
9,907  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  26,828  of  wool,  116,094 
of  butter,  6,922  of  flax,  and  28,836  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,540  horses, 
1,858  milch  cows,  8,477  other  cattle,  12,973 
sheep,  and  7,112  swine.  Capital,  Spencer.  II. 
An  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  intersected  by  the 
Tennessee  river  and  drained  by  its  branches, 
the  Clinch  and  Holston ;  area,  about  600  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,622,  of  whom  2,128  were 
colored.  Along  the  W.  border  is  a  range  of 
the  Cumberland  mountains.  The  soil  is  gener- 
ally fertile.  The  East  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and 
Georgia  railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  74,814  busjhels  of 
wheat,  504,590  of  Indian  corn,  112,029  of  oats, 
1,671  tons  of  hay,  14,027  Ibs.  of  wool,  163,394 
of  butter,  and  13,080  gallons  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses. There  were  8,390  horses,  8,064  milch 
cows,  5,623  other  cattle,  10,552  sheep,  and  17,- 
661  swine ;  1  manufactory  of  cotton  goods,  1  of 
pig  iron,  9  of  tanned  and  8  of  curried  leather, 
4  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establish- 
ments, and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Kingston. 

KOIN\K,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire, 
40  m.  N.  W.  of  Lyons ;  pop.  in  1872,  20,037. 
It  is  well  built,  and  has  fine  promenades,  a 
wide  quay,  and  a  stone  bridge  620  ft.  long, 
with  seven  arches.  The  town  has  a  college 
with  a  library  of  about  10,000  volumes,  a 
church  of  the  15th  century,  a  city  hall,  dye- 
ing establishments,  tanneries,  flax  and  cotton 
mills,  and  hat  shops.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
mineral  waters.  A  canal  connects  it  with  Di- 
goin.  It  is  the  great  entrepot  for  the  pro- 
duct of  the  Loire  coal  fields.  It  contains  nu- 
merous Gallo-Roman  antiquities. 

ROANOKE,  a  S.  county  of  Virginia,  inter- 
sected by  Staunton  river,  bordered  S.  E.  by 
the  Blue  Ridge  and  N.  W.  by  a  ridge  of  the 
Alleghanies;  area,  about  200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,350,  of  whom  3,132  were  colored.  It 


ROBBERY 

occupies  part  of  the  great  Virginia  valley,  and 
has  a  very  fertile  soil.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Virginia  and  Tennessee  division  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  203,226  bushels  of 
wheat,  86,943  of  Indian  corn,  89,558  of  oats, 
3,481  tons  of  hay,  280,550  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
4,365  of  wool,  120,980  of  butter,  and  4,600 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
1,846  horses,  5,075  cattle,  2,208  sheep,  and 
7,344  swine.  Capital,  Salem. 

ROA1VOKE  RIVER.  See  NORTH  CAROLINA, 
vol.  xii.,  p.  489. 

ROBBERY,  in  law,  a  felonious  taking  of  mon- 
ey or  goods,  of  any  value,  from  the  person  of 
another  or  in  his  presence,  against  his  will,  by 
violence  or  putting  him  in  fear.  The  charac- 
teristic feature  of  this  offence,  and  that  which 
makes  the  distinctive  difference  between  it  and 
simple  larceny  from  the  person  (or  between  a 
robber  and  a  cutpurse  or  common  thief),  is  the 
violence  and  fear  attending  its  perpetration; 
and  therefore  it  makes  no  material  difference 
whether  the  thing  taken  be  of  great  or  small 
value,  though  it  must  be  of  some  real  value,  for 
otherwise  it  is  no  larceny  and  consequently  no 
robbery ;  and  there  must  also  be  an  actual  ta- 
king of  something,  for  the  violence  and  putting 
in  fear  alone  would  amount  only  to  an  assault. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  money  or  property 
should  be  taken  directly  from  the  person  or 
manual  possession  of  the  owner  in  order  to  con- 
stitute this  offence.  If  it  be  taken  in  the  ac- 
tual presence  of  the  owner,  and  violence  be 
offered  to  his  person,  or  he  be  put  in  fear  for 
the  purpose  of  accomplishing  such  a  taking, 
this  amounts  to  the  same  thing;  as  if,  for  in- 
stance, a  robber  should  assault  a  man  and  com- 
mand him  to  deliver  up  his  purse,  but  instead 
of  doing  so  the  owner  should  throw  it  away 
from  him,  and  the  robber  should  then  pick  it 
up  and  carry  it  off  in  his  presence,  this  would 
be  as  much  a  robbery  as  if  he  had  taken  it  from 
the  owner's  person.  The  robber  must  have  ob- 
tained actual  possession  of  the  property,  but  it 
is  not  material  that  such  possession  should  con- 
tinue ;  and  though  for  any  reason  the  robber 
should  return  the  money  stolen  the  next  mo- 
ment after  receiving  it,  either  absolutely  or  con- 
ditionally, yet  this  will  not  alter  the  crime,  or 
render  its  consummation  less  complete.  A  sud- 
den snatching  of  a  thing  from  the  hand  or  per- 
son of  another  is  not  such  a  taking  by  force 
and  through  fear  as  will  constitute  robbery, 
unless  it  occasions  either  an  injury  to  the  party 
from  whom  it  is  snatched,  or  a  struggle  for  the 
possession  of  the  property  taken ;  for  here  there 
is  no  putting  in  fear;  and  though  a  certain  de- 
gree of  force  may  be  used,  the  theft  is  accom- 
plished rather  without  than  against  the  consent 
of  the  owner,  and  more  by  the  dexterity  of  the 
thief  and  the  sudden  surprise  of  the  party  than 
by  open  force  and  terror.  But  where  an  ear 
ring  was  so  suddenly  pulled  from  a  lady's  ear 
that  she  had  neither  time  nor  opportunity  for 
resistance,  it  being  done  with  such  violence 


ROBBERY 


355 


that  her  ear  was  entirely  torn  through,  the 
perpetrator  was  held  guilty  of  robbery.  The 
violence  and  putting  in  fear,  moreover,  must 
precede  the  taking.  If  a  man  quietly  steal 
anything  from  the  person,  though  he  after- 
ward retain  possession  of  it  by  violence  or  by 
intimidating  the  owner,  this  is  not  robbery ; 
for  the  fear  is  subsequent  to  the  larceny,  and 
no  violence  subsequently  used,  even  with  re- 
spect to  the  same  thing,  will  operate  so  as  to 
convert  that  into  robbery  which  was  before 
only  larceny.  But  if  a  man  be  knocked  down 
without  any  previous  warning,  and  then  strip- 
ped of  his  property  while  senseless,  though  he 
could  not  properly  be  said  to  have  been  previ- 
ously put  in  fear,  yet  it  would  be  a  robbery.  If 
the  violence  be  fraudulently  used  under  color 
of  some  legal  proceeding ;  or  if  money  be  forci- 
bly extorted  under  pretence  of  a  purchase  or 
sale ;  or  if  a  man  beg  in  a  menacing  manner, 
as  with  a  drawn  sword  in  his  hand,  and  re- 
ceive alms  from  the  party  through  the  appre- 
hensions regarding  his  personal  safety  which 
the  appearance  and  actions  of  the  beggar  natu- 
rally excite  in  his  mind ;  in  all  these  cases  it 
will  still  be  robbery.  Thus,  where  the  prison- 
er forcibly  took  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  wheat 
worth  8s.  from  a  woman,  and  compelled  her  to 
accept  13d.  for  it,  threatening  to  kill  her  if 
she  refused,  this  was  held  to  be  robbery  by  all 
the  judges  in  England.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  delivery  of  the  money  or  goods  should  be 
contemporary  with  the  violence  or  the  imme- 
diate effect  of  it ;  as,  if  a  robber,  finding  but  a 
small  sum  of  money  about  a  man's  person,  com- 
pel him  to  swear  under  a  threat  of  death  in  case 
of  non-compliance  to  bring  him  a  larger  sum, 
which  the  man  does,  this  is  robbery,  because 
the  terror  caused  by  such  a  menace  is  upon  him 
at  the  time  of  his  making  the  payment,  and 
was  the  cause  of  his  doing  so. — The  payment 
of  money  or  delivery  of  goods  by  the  owner, 
under  the  fear  of  having  his  property  destroyed, 
is  robbery  in  the  receiver.  And  it  is  an  im- 
portant rule  that  the  violence  is  sufficient  to 
make  the  crime  robbery,  although  it  consist 
entirely  of  a  threat  to  disgrace  a  person.  The 
fear  arising  from  a  menace  of  accusing  one  of 
a  dreadful  crime  which  would  endanger  his 
personal  safety,  or  lead  to  the  loss  of  his  char- 
acter or  situation,  is  equivalent  to  the  fear  of 
personal  and  immediate  violence ;  and  to  ex- 
tort money  by  such  means  is  robbery.  But  the 
fear  thus  excited  must  not  only  be  such  as  will 
suffice  to  influence  or  even  to  constrain  the  or- 
dinary action  of  the  will ;  it  must  entirely  and 
immediately  control  and  overpower  it,  and  ren- 
der the  person  incapable  through  terror  or  con- 
fusion of  resisting  the  demand.  For  this  rea- 
son, in  a  case  where  the  prosecutor,  who  was 
threatened  with  having  such  a  charge  made 
against  him  unless  he  complied  with  the  pris- 
oner's demand,  did  not  part  with  his  money 
immediately  upon  the  threat  being  made  to 
him,  but  on  the  contrary  did  so  after  the  per- 
son making  the  threat  had  left  him,  and  af- 


forded him  sufficient  time  in  which  to  consider 
the  matter,  and  apply  for  assistance  if  he  de- 
sired so  to  do,  and  after  he  had  consulted  with 
a  friend  who  was  actually  present  when  he 
paid  the  money,  here  it  is  considered  that  the 
prosecutor  was  not  impressed  with  such  ter- 
ror as  to  render  him  incapable  of  resisting  the 
demand;  that  there  was  not  the  continuing 
fear  which  could  operate  in  constantem  virum 
from  the  time  when  the  money  was  demanded 
until  it  was  paid ;  and  consequently  there  was 
neither  the  actual  nor  constructive  violence 
which  was  necessary  to  constitute  the  crime  of 
robbery.  Further,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
fear  should  be  of  violence  to  the  person  robbed. 
If  the  threat  is  made  against  a  man's  wife  or 
child,  or  other  person  to  whom  he  is  bound 
by  ties  of  blood  and  affection,  and  he  gives 
money  to  the  robber  for  the  sake  of  saving 
such  person  from  immediate  danger  or  violence, 
this  would  be  as  much  a  robbery  as  if  the  vio- 
lence were  offered  to  himself.  Neither  is  it 
necessary  that  the  robbery  should  be  the  sole 
and  original  motive  of  the  person  making  use 
of  the  violence,  if  the  violence  so  used  led  to 
this  result;  as,  where  a  man  feloniously  as- 
saulted a  woman,  who,  without  any  demand  on 
his  part  to  that  effect,  offered  him  money,  which 
he  took,  yet  continued  to  treat  her  with  vio- 
lence, for  the  accomplishment  of  his  original 
purpose,  until  interrupted  by  the  approach  of 
others,  this  was  held  to  be  a  robbery  ;  for  the 
woman,  terrified  by  the  prisoner's  behavior, 
offered  the  money  to  save  herself  from  further 
violence,  which  otherwise  she  would  not  have 
given  voluntarily. — It  was  a  principle  of  the 
common  law  that  no  restitution  of  stolen  goods 
could  be  awarded  upon  an  indictment,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  at  the  suit  of  the  king  only,  and  the 
owner  could  only  obtain  restitution  by  an  ap- 
peal of  robbery,  which  was  the  suit  of  the  par- 
ty; but  this  has  long  fallen  into  disuse,  and 
subsequent  statutes  have  remedied  the  defect. 
Formerly,  when  a  robbery  or  other  felony  had 
been  committed  in  England,  a  hue  and  cry 
should  be  raised,  which  was  the  old  common 
law  process  of  pursuing  with  horn  and  with 
voice  all  felons.  In  this  hue  and  cry  all  per- 
sons, both  officers  and  private  individuals,  were 
called  upon  to  join ;  and  no  hue  and  cry  was 
deemed  sufficient  unless  made  with  both  horse- 
men and  footmen.  In  order  that  such  hue  and 
cry  should  be  more  effectually  made,  the  hun- 
dred was  bound  to  answer  for  all  robberies 
therein  committed  unless  they  captured  the 
felon;  and  this  responsibility  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  ancient  action  against  the  hundred 
for  any  loss  by  robbery.  If  the  robber  was 
taken,  the  hundred  stood  excused ;  but  other- 
wise the  party  robbed  was  entitled  to  prose- 
cute it  by  a  special  action  on  the  case  for 
damages  equivalent  to  his  loss.  In  order  fur- 
ther to  encourage  the  apprehending  of  robbers, 
certain  rewards  were  offered  to  such  as  would 
bring  them  to  justice,  by  various  acts  of  par- 
liament, one  of  which  enacted  "  that  such  as 


356 


ROBERT   GUISCARD 


ROBERTSON 


apprehend  a  highwayman  and  prosecute  him 
to  conviction  shall  receive  a  reward  of  £40 
from  the  public,  to  be  paid  to  them  by  the 
sheriff,  together  with  the  horse,  furniture,  arms, 
money,  and  other  goods  taken  upon  the  person 
of  such  robber,  saving  only  the  rights  of  any 
persons  from  whom  the  same  may  have  been 
stolen.": — Robbery  has  always  been  considered 
an  aggravated  crime,  especially  when  commit- 
ted with  dangerous  or  deadly  weapons,  and 
was  formerly  punished  with  great  rigor  and 
severity.  Until  comparatively  recent  times  it 
was  indeed  punished  with  death,  here  as  well 
as  in  England,  even  though  the  amount  stolen 
would,  if  unaccompanied  by  violence,  have 
constituted  only  petit  larceny.  This  was  the 
rule  of  the  common  law  ;  but  the  progress  of 
civilization,  restricting  capital  punishment  to  a 
few  crimes,  has  modified  the  penalty  for  rob- 
bery, as  a  general  thing,  to  imprisonment  for 
life,  or  for  a  term  of  years,  according  to  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  and  degree  of  the  crime. 

ROBERT  GUISCARD.     See  GUISOARD. 

ROBERT  I.,  king  of  Scotland.     See  BRUCE. 

ROBERT,  Louis  Leopold,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  La  Ohaux-de-Fonds,  Switzerland,  May  13, 
1794,  died  in  Venice,  March  20,  1835.  At  first 
he  applied  himself  to  engraving,  and  subse- 
quently to  painting  under  the  instruction  of 
David  and  Gerard.  In  1818  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  pursued  his  art  with  singular  enthu- 
siasm. He  was  a  laborious  painter,  rejecting 
picture  after  picture  which  seemed  to  him  un- 
equal to  the  subject,  and  occupying  in  some 
instances  years  upon  a  single  work.  His  pro- 
ductions are  few,  but  in  the  delineation  of  Ital- 
ian life  are  unrivalled  in  modern  art.  His 
masterpieces  are  the  "  Reapers,"  the  "  Nea- 
politan Improvisatore,"  the  "Madonna  dell' 
Arco,"  and  the  "  Fishermen  of  the  Adriatic." 
He  conceived  a  romantic  but  hopeless  passion 
for  a  beautiful  woman  of  rank,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  which  he  committed  suicide. — See 
Leopold  Robert,  »a  vie,  set  auvres  et  sa  corres- 
pondence, by  Feuillet  de  Conches  (Paris,  1862). 

ROBERT,  Louis  Valentin  Ellas,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Etampes  about  1818.  He  studied  un- 
der David  d' Angers,  and  has  produced  "France 
crowning  Art  and  Industry,"  a  colossal  group  on 
the  palace  in  the  Champs  Elysees  (1855),  four 
caryatides  for  the  opera  at  Philadelphia  (1857), 
several  for  the  new  Paris  opera  opened  in 
1875,  a  bust  of  Houdon  in  the  Louvre,  a  statue 
representing  the  drama,  busts  for  the  Chatelet 
theatre,  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Justice  which 
decorates  the  fountain  of  St.  Michel  in  Paris. 

ROBERT-FLEURY,  Joseph  Mrolas.  a  French 
painter,  whose  real  name  is  Fleury,  born  in 
Cologne,  Aug.  8, 1797.  He  studied  under  Ver- 
net  and  Gros,  and  exhibited  his  first  piece  in 
1824.  Among  his  works  are:  "Tasso  in  the 
Convent  of  St.  Onofrio,"  "  An  Incident  of  the 
St.  Bartholomew  Massacre,"  "The  Last  Mo- 
ments of  Montaigne,"  "The  Entrance  of  Clo- 
vis  into  Tours,"  and  "Jane  Shore."  One  of 
his  finest  productions,  "  Charles  V.  at  the  Mon- 


astery of  San  Yuste,"  was  again  exhibited  in 
1867.  He  has  been  professor,  and  for  five 
years  director,  of  the  school  of  fine  arts  in 
Paris,  and  in  1865-'6  of  the  French  academy 
in  Rome.  His  son  Tony  is  a  historical  painter. 

ROBERTS,  David,  a  British  artist,  born  at 
Stockbridge,  near  Edinburgh,  Oct.  24,  1796, 
died  in  London,  Nov.  25,  1864.  In  early  life 
he  was  a  house  painter,  and  upon  removing  to 
London  in  1821  he  devoted  himself  for  several 
years  to  scene  painting.  In  1832-'3  he  visited 
Spain,  and  upon  his  return  published  a  vol- 
ume of  lithographic  copies  of  "Picturesque 
Sketches  in  Spain  "  (1837).  In  1838-'9,  during 
a  tour  through  Syria  and  Egypt  and  other  east- 
ern countries,  he  made  a  number  of  drawings, 
published  as  "  The  Holy  Land,  Syria,  Idumroa, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Nubia"  (4  vols.  fol.,  1842- 
'8).  In  1841  he  was  elected  a  royal  academi- 
cian, and  subsequently  produced  a  number  of 
views  of  celebrated  places,  with  architectural 
and  other  accessories,  including  "  Ruins  of  the 
Great  Temple  of  Karnak,"  "Jerusalem  from 
the  Mount  of  Olives,"  "  Rome,"  "  Interior  of 
the  Cathedral  at  Burgos,"  "The  Chancel  of 
the  Collegiate  Church  of  St.  Paul  at  Ant- 
werp," &c.  His  works  also  include  such  sub- 
jects as  the  "  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,"  and 
the  "  Inauguration  of  the  Exhibition  of  all  Na- 
tions," painted  for  the  queen.  At  his  death 
he  left  in  his  studio  73  oil  paintings  and  sketch- 
es and  800  water-color  pieces,  which  were 
exhibited  in  1865  and  subsequently  sold  for 
£16,000.— See  "Life  of  David  Roberts,  R.  A.," 
by  James  Ballantine,  illustrated  with  sketches 
by  the  artist  (4to,  Edinburgh,  1866). 

ROBERTSON.  I.  A  central  county  of  Texas, 
bordered  E.  by  the  Navasoto  river  and  W.  by 
the  Brazos,  and  drained  by  their  branches; 
area,  840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,990,  of  whom 
4,530  were  colored.  It  has  a  rolling  surface, 
covered  with  forest  and  prairie,  and  a  gener- 
ally fertile  soil,  with  some  very  rich  bottom 
lands.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Houston  and 
Texas  Central  railroad.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  140,083  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
1,385  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  4,833  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  897  horses,  1,854  milch  cows,  8,648 
other  cattle,  5,156  sheep,  and  7,817  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Calvert.  II.  A  N.  county  of  Tennessee,  bor- 
dering on  Kentucky,  and  drained  by  tributaries 
of  Cumberland  river ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  16,166,  of  whom  4,813  were  col- 
ored. It  has  an  uneven  surface  and  a  gener- 
ally fertile  soil.  The  St.  Louis  and  Southeast- 
ern railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  161, 114  bushels  of  wheat, 
559,020  of  Indian  corn,  149,019  of  oats,  19,295 
of  Irish  and  27,455  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,103,322 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  19,387  of  wool,  and  155,643  of 
butter.  There  were  3,908  horses,  2,461  mules 
and  asses,  3,000  milch  cows,  3,290  other  cat- 
tle, 11,146  sheep,  and  29,817  swine;  8  flour 
mills,  14  saw  mills,  and  12  distilleries.  Capi- 
tal, Springfield.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ken- 
tucky, bounded  N.  by  Shannon  creek  and  S.  W. 


ROBERTSON' 


ROBERVAL 


357 


by  Licking  river,  and  drained  by  several  tribu- 
taries of  the  Licking;  area,  about  175  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,399,  of  whom  257  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  rolling  and  in  some  parts  hilly; 
the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  9,913  bushels  of  wheat,  11,176  of 
rye,  242,426  of  Indian  corn,  16,667  of  oats, 
1,648,201  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  84,675  of  butter,  and 
769  tons  of  hay.  There  were  1,931  horses, 
961  milch  cows,  1,213  other  cattle,  2,289  sheep, 
and  5,412  swine.  Capital,  Mount  Olivet.. 

ROBERTSON,  Frederick  William,  an  English 
clergyman,  born  in  London,  Feb.  3,  1816,  died 
in  Brighton,  Aug.  15,  1853.  His  early  inclina- 
tions were  toward  military  life,  but  he  entered 
Brasenose  college,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
in  1840,  and  the  same  year  took  orders.  He 
was  curate  successively  at  Winchester,  Chel- 
tenham, and  Oxford ;  and  in  1847  he  became 
minister  of  Trinity  chapel,  Brighton,  where 
his  eloquence  and  originality  always  attracted  a 
crowded  and  intellectual  audience.  He  organ- 
ized a  working  men's  institute,  before  which  he 
delivered  several  lectures.  The  violent  denun- 
ciations of  some  of  his  religious  opinions,  act- 
ing on  a  naturally  feeble  constitution,  hastened 
his  death.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on 
the  Influence  of  Poetry  on  the  Working  Class- 
es "  (London,  1852 ;  republished  with  additions 
under  the  title  "  Lectures  and  Addresses  on 
Literary  and  Social  Topics,"  1858;  new  ed,, 
1861) ;  "  Sermons  preached  at  Trinity  Chap- 
el "  (four  series,  1855-'63 ;  new  ed.,  with  a 
memoir,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1870);  and  "Exposi- 
tory Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians"  (London,  1859).  His  "Life  and 
Letters"  have  been  edited  by  Stopford  A. 
Brooke  (2  vols.,  1865). 

ROBERTSON,  James  Cragie,  a  British  clergy- 
man, born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1813. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
in  1834,  took  orders  in  the  English  church,  in 
1846  became  vicar  of  Beaksbourne  near  Can- 
terbury, and  in  1859  was  appointed  canon  of 
Canterbury.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  ec- 
clesiastical history  in  King's  college,  London, 
in  1864,  which  chair,  in  conjunction  with  his 
canonry,  he  still  holds  (1875).  His  chief  work, 
the  first  volume  of  which  was  published  in 
1853,  is  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
from  the  Apostolic  Age  to  the  Reformation" 
(revised  ed.,  8  vols.  8vo,  1874-'5).  He  has 
also  published  "How  shall  we  conform  to  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England?"  (1843; 
8d  ed.,  1869)  ;  "  The  Bearings  of  the  Gorham 
Case"  (1850);  "Becket,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, a  Biography"  (1859);  and  "Church 
History  during  the  First  Six  Centuries  "  (12mo, 
1869).  He  has  edited  for  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory society  Heylin's  "History  of  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  Church  of  England"  (1849), 
and  for  the  Camden  society Bargrave's  "Alex- 
ander VII.  and  his  Cardinals"  (1866). 

ROBERTSON,  Thomas  William,  an  English  dra- 
matist, born  Jan.  9,  1829,  died  in  London  in 
February,  1871.  He  belonged  to  a  theatrical 


family,  and  began  life  as  an  actor  in  a  strolling 
company,  of  which  his  father  was  the  man- 
ager. His  first  original  drama,  "A  Night's 
Adventure,"  was  brought  out  at  the  Olympic 
in  1851.  He  settled  in  London  in  1860,  sup- 
porting himself  by  light  literature.  His  "Da- 
vid Garrick,"  adapted  from  the  French,  at- 
tracted general  notice  in  1864,  chiefly  owing 
to  the  acting  of  Sothern.  His  "  Society,"  pro- 
'  duced  at  the  opening  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
theatre  in  1865,  made  him  famous,  and  was 
followed  by  "Ours"  (1866),  "Caste"  (1867), 
"Play"  (1868),  "School"  (1869),  and  "M.  P." 
(1870).  His  last  play  was  "  War,"  produced 
at  the  St.  James's  Theatre. 

ROBERTSON,  William,  a  Scottish  historian, 
born  at  Borthwick,  Edinburghshire,  Sept.  19, 
1721,  died  at  Grange  house,  near  Edinburgh, 
June  11, 1793.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
of  Edinburgh  in  1741,  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  in  1743  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Gladsmuir  in  Haddingtonsbire.  In  1745  he 
volunteered  to  serve  in  the  army  against  the 
pretender.  In  the  general  assembly  of  the 
church  of  Scotland  he  was  one  of  the  leading 
advocates  of  lay  patronage,  which  at  that  time 
was  the  great  dividing  question.  In  1757  he 
defended  Home,  who  was  persecuted  by  the 
ultra  Calvinist  party  for  writing  the  tragedy  of 
"Douglas,"  and  also  the  clergymen  who  had 
attended  the  theatre  to  witness  its  representa- 
tion. In  1759  he  was  made  chaplain  of  the  gar- 
rison at  Stirling,  in  1761  a  dean  of  the  chapel 
royal,  in  1762  principal  of  the  university  of 
Edinburgh  and  minister  of  the  old  Greyfri- 
ars,  and  in  1764  historiographer  of  Scotland 
with  a  salary  of  £200.  About  this  time  he 
entertained  the  project  of  writing  the  history 
of  England ;  but  after  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Bute,  who  had  been  his  friend,  he  gave  it  up. 
His  histories  vie  with  those  of  his  contempo- 
raries Hume  and  Gibbon  in  diction  and  lib- 
eral sentiment,  and  surpass  them  in  impartial- 
ity. They  are  :  "  History  of  Scotland  during 
the  Reigns  of  Mary  and  James  VI."  (2  vols. 
4to,  1759) ;  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V."  (3  vols.  4to,  1769)  ;  and 
"History  of  America"  (2  vols.  4to,  1777);  be- 
sides "An  Historical  Disquisition  concerning 
the  Knowledge  which  the  Ancients  had  of 
India  "  (4to,  1791).  His  life  was  written 
by  Dugald  Stewart  (8vo,  1801),  and  by  Lord 
Brougham. 

ROBERYAL,  Gilles  Personne  or  Personier  de,  a 
French  mathematician,  born  at  Roberval,  near 
Beauvais,  Aug.  8,  1602,  died  in  Paris,  Oct. 
27,  1675.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1627,  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  college  of  Mai- 
tre  Gervais  and  of  mathematics  in  the  royal 
college,  and  was  one  of  the  members  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  its  foundation  in  1665. 
He  early  discovered  a  method  of  investigating 
problems  similar  to  the  "method  of  indivis- 
ibles," but  kept  it  to  himself  in  order  to  sur- 
pass his  contemporaries  in  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems, and  thus  lost  the  honor  of  originating 


358 


ROBESON 


ROBESPIERRE 


it.  A  method  of  determining  the  direction  of  a 
tangent  at  any  point  of  a  curve,  which  Torri- 
celli  claimed  to  have  made  in  1644,  Roberval, 
in  a  letter  to  Torricelli,  declared  was  known 
to  himself  in  1636.  Torricelli  gave  the  name 
of  Robervallian  lines  to  curves  with  infinite 
branches  which  admit  of  an  expression  for 
the  area  between  them.  Roberval  discovered 
rules  for  finding  the  volume  of  solids  formed 
by  the  revolution  of  a  cycloid  about  its  base1 
and  about  its  axis.  His  principal  works  were 
published  after  his  death  in  the  old  Memoirea 
d6  V academic,  vol.  vi.  (1693). 

ROBESON,  a  8.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  South  Carolina,  watered  by  the 
Lumber  and  Little  Pedee  rivers;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,262,  of  whom 
737  were  colored.  It- has  a  nearly  level  surface 
and  a  generally  sandy  soil.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Carolina  Central  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  5,838  bushels  of  rye, 
138,545  of  Indian  corn,  21,261  of  peas  and 
beans,  84,784  of  sweet  potatoes,  69,486  Ibs.  of 
rice,  14,081  of  wool,  25,199  of  honey,  and  2,109 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,152  horses,  741 
mules  and  asses,  2,915  milch  cows,  6,469  other 
cattle,  8,396  sheep,  and  18,751  swine ;  1  saw 
mill,  and  15  establishments  for  the  production 
of  tar  and  turpentine.  Capital,  Lumberton. 

ROBESPIERRE,  Maximilini  Marie  Isidore  de,  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  in  Arras,  May  6, 
1758,  executed  in  Paris,  July  28,  1794.  He 
was  supposed  to  be  of  remote  Irish  origin,  and 
his  ancestors  had  acquired  patents  of  nobility 
in  France.  His  mother  died  young,  and  his 
father  deserted  his  family  and  ended  his  life  in 
Germany.  His  grandfather  placed  him  at  the 
college  of  Arras,  and  M.  de  Conzie,  the  bish- 
op, sent  him  in  1770  to  the  college  of  Louis 
le  Grand  in  Paris.  Danton,  Desraoulins,  and 
Freron  the  younger  were  among  his  fellow 
pupils.  He  repeatedly  gained  honorable  dis- 
tinction in  his  studies,  and  remained  at  this 
institution  eight  years.  After  completing  his 
law  studies  he  returned  to  Arras,  where  his 
first  important  cause  was  a  defence  of  the  in- 
troduction of  Franklin's  lightning  rods  against 
the  charge  of  impiety  (1783).  He  became  a 
member  of  the  criminal  court  of  Arras,  and  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties  was  called  to  con- 
demn a  prisoner  to  death.  This  so  affected 
him  that  he  resigned  his  office  and  advocated 
the  abolition  of  capital  punishment.  He  was 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  theories  of  Rous- 
seau, and  gradually  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
people  in  opposition  to  the  clergy  and  nobility. 
On  the  convocation  of  the  states  general  in 
1789,  he  was  elected  deputy  of  the  third  estate. 
Lamartine  describes  his  figure  as  slight ;  limbs 
feeble  and  angular ;  voice  shrill  and  monoto- 
nous ;  forehead  small  and  projecting  over  the 
temples ;  eyes  blue  and  deeply  set ;  nose  straight 
and  small,  and  very  wide  at  the  nostrils ;  mouth 
large  and  lips  thin;  chin  small  and  pointed; 
complexion  yellow  and  livid.  There  was  a  pro- 
digious and  continual  tension  of  all  the  muscles 


of  his  face.  In  the  constituent  assembly  he 
strenuously  opposed  giving  the  king  a  suspen- 
sive veto  power,  resisted  the  decree  of  mar- 
tial law,  pleaded  for  the  remission  of  sundry 
disabilities  against  the  Jews  and  comedians, 
and  advocated  abolition  of  the  compulsory  cel- 
ibacy of  priests.  After  the  adoption  of  the 
declaration  of  the  rights  of  man  he  was  con- 
tinually recalling  the  assembly  to  the  princi- 
ples of  that  formula.  On  June  19,  1790,  he 
was  elected  one  of  its  secretaries.  He  had  no 
means  beyond  his  pay  as  deputy,  18  francs  a 
day,  of  which  he  sent  one  fourth  to  his  sister. 
He  occupied  a  retired  and  ill  furnished  lodging, 
and  Michelet  describes  him  as  entering  the  tri- 
bune dressed  in  a  threadbare  olive-green  coat, 
his  only  one.  After  Mirabeau's  death  (April  2, 
1791),  Robespierre  rose  to  a  more  command- 
ing position.  He  was  studious  and  abstemi- 
ous, and  constant  in  attendance  at  the  Jacobin 
club  and  the  assembly.  He  at  length  began  to 
be  feared.  Duport  and  Bigot,  who  had  been 
named  president  and  vice  president  of  the 
criminal  tribunal,  with  Robespierre  for  public 
accuser,  refused  to  serve  on  account  of  his  ex- 
treme views.  This  office  he  held  from  June, 
1791,  till  April,  1792.  He  thought  that  "in 
general  there  is  nothing  so  just  nor  so  good  as 
the  people,  when  not  irritated  by  the  excesses 
of  despotism."  He  still  advocated  the  aboli- 
tion of  capital  punishment,  and  the  admission 
of  all  citizens  into  the  national  guards  and  upon 
juries.  He  claimed  for  the  blacks  in  the  col- 
onies a  participation  in  political  rights,  and 
exclaimed :  "  Let  the  colonies  perish  rather 
than  a  principle."  He  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  mob  in  the  riot  of  July  14  and  17,  1791, 
intended  to  overawe  the  assembly  and  drive  it 
into  accepting  the  abdication  of  the  king,  and 
showed  himself  a  coward  on  this  occasion.  At 
the  close  of  the  constituent  assembly,  Sept.  80, 
1791,  the  people  of  Paris  received  him  with  rap- 
ture. By  a  decree  of  the  assembly,  proposed 
by  Robespierre,  no  member  was  eligible  to  the 
next  legislature  which  convened  on  the  disso- 
lution of  its  predecessor.  He  took  advantage  of 
the  occasion  to  revisit  his  native  town,  where 
he  was  welcomed  with  an  ovation.  After  seven 
weeks'  rest  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  during 
the  sitting  of  the  legislative  assembly  was  in 
constant  attendance  upon  the  meetings  of  the 
Jacobin  club.  When  the  assembly  voted  a  sum 
for  martial  preparations,  he  alone  opposed  the 
measure.  He  began  in  the  spring  of  1792  a 
journal  entitled  Le  defenseur  de  la  constitution, 
which  closed  with  the  12th  number.  In  the 
conspiracy  which  culminated  in  the  bloody 
events  of  Aug.  10  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
participated,  though  he  afterward  spoke  of 
that  day  as  one  of  the  most  glorious  in  the 
annals  of  the  world.  He  was  made  one  of  the 
new  municipality  following  this  insurrection, 
and  a  day  or  two  afterward  appeared  before 
the  assembly  as  the  spokesman  of  a  deputation 
from  the  commune  to  demand  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  criminal  court  for  the  summary 


KOBESPIERRE 


ROBIN 


359 


trial  of  the  enemies  of  liberty.  This  court,  af- 
terward remodelled  as  the  revolutionary  tribu- 
nal, was  promptly  organized,  and  Robespierre 
was  named  for  presiding  judge ;  but  he  de- 
clined, on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  just 
for  him  to  be  judge  of  those  whom  he  had 
already  denounced  as  enemies  of  the  coun- 
try. He  remonstrated  with  Danton  against 
the  frightful  massacres  in  the  prisons  on  Sept. 
2-5 ;  and  after  that  he  ceased  to  appear  at  the 
commune.  He  became  a  member  of  the  na- 
tional convention,  being  elected  to  represent 
Paris.  On  Oct.  29  Louvet  denounced  him  be- 
fore the  convention  as  aspiring  to  the  dicta- 
torship ;  but  he  defended  himself  triumphant- 
ly. He  published  every  Friday  a  newspaper, 
entitled  Lettres  de  Haximilien  Robespierre  d 
ses  commettants.  He  led  the  Jacobins  in  the 
condemnation  of  the  king  and  in  demanding 
his  death.  After  this  event  (Jan.  21,  1793) 
he  proposed  the  decree  establishing  the  com- 
mittee of  public  safety,  clothed  with  executive 
powers  above  the  convention.  He  was  not 
made  a  member  of  it  until  July  27  following, 
though  on  March  26  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  what  was  called  the  committee  of  general 
security,  which  was  only  an  auxiliary  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety.  His  first  great 
act  as  a  member  of  this  committee  was  the  in- 
stitution of  the  reign  of  terror.  The  condem- 
nation of  the  Girondists  he  defended  by  saying 
that  "there  are  periods  in  revolutions  when 
to  live  is  a  crime."  The  feast  of  reason,  de- 
creed by  the  convention,  disgusted  him  as  the 
degradation  of  the  revolution.  In  opposition 
to  Hebert  and  his  adherents,  he  seems  to  have 
sincerely  wished  the  reign  of  peace  and  justice, 
and  thereby  incurred  from  them  the  accusa- 
tion of  moderatism,  while  he  was  at  the  same 
time  preaching  terror  as  the  necessary  instru- 
ment of  the  revolution.  Fanatically  bent  on 
ridding  the  republic  of  its  enemies  and  waver- 
ing friends,  and  naturally  suspicious  and  en- 
vious, he  readily  caused  or  allowed  the  slaugh- 
ter of  innocent  victims.  He  sacrificed  Hebert 
and  others  of  "the  impure"  to  make  himself 
master  of  the  commune,  and  Danton  to  make 
himself  master  of  the  convention ;  while  at  the 
Jacobin  club  his  supremacy  had  long  been  un- 
disputed. The  knife  of  Charlotte  Corday  had 
delivered  him  of  an  unworthy  rival,  Marat. 
Though  he  formed  a  kind  of  triumvirate  with 
Saint- Just  and  Couth  on,  all  eyes  were  now 
riveted  upon  him.  His  commanding  influence 
was  signalized  by  the  extraordinary  spectacle 
of  June  8,  1794,  the  festival  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  decreed,  and 
in  which  he  was  the  principal  actor.  But  he 
lacked  the  courage  as  well  as  the  genius  to  or- 
ganize a  dictatorship.  On  June  10  he  proposed 
through  Couthon  the  law  for  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  his  object 
being  to  rid  the  nation  of  "  the  great  cul- 
prits" in  the  convention.  That  body  now  be- 
came alarmed  for  its  own  safety.  Being  un- 
able to  control  the  committees,  he  withdrew 


from  them  and  sought  to  overthrow  them. 
For  the  last  six  weeks  of  his  life  he  had  little 
voice  in  the  government.  In  his  speech  in  the 
convention  on  July  26  he  asked  if  in  that  in- 
terval "  faction  had  been  less  audacious,  or  the 
country  been  happier."  A  tumult  followed 
the  speech,  and  the  convention,  now  led  by 
Tallien  and  his  friends,  refused  to  publish  it. 
This  was  equivalent  to  his  overthrow.  He  re- 
turned to  the  Jacobins,  and  announced  him- 
self doomed.  They  rallied  round  him,  and 
besought  him  to  head  an  insurrection  against 
the  convention.  This  he  refused  to  do,  and 
on  the  following  day  (the  9th  Thermidor)  he 
reappeared  in  the  convention,  where  his  ar- 
rest, and  that  of  his  brother  Augustin,  Cou- 
thon, Lebas,  and  Saint-Just,  was  decreed.  The 
commune  instantly  organized  an  insurrection, 
and  rescued  him ;  but  the  insurrectionists  were 
soon  overpowered,  and  at  the  hotel  de  ville 
Robespierre  was  seized.  At  this  time  he  was 
wounded  in  the  face  by  a  shot  from  his  own 
pistol,  or,  as  some  assert,  from  one  of  the  sol- 
diers. The  form  of  trial  was  quickly  enacted, 
and  early  in  the  evening  of  July  28  the  guillo- 
tine terminated  his  existence  and  that  of  his 
most  devoted  supporters. — See  Histoire  de 
Robespierre,  by  Tissot  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1844); 
"  Life  of  Robespierre,"  by  Lewes  (London, 
1850) ;  Histoire  de  Robespierre,  by  Hamel  (3 
vols.,  Paris,  1865-'7);  and  Leben  Robespierre's, 
by  J.  Herzmann  (Berlin,  1871  et  seg.~). 

ROBIN,  a  name  applied  in  the  old  world  to 
several  small  dentirostral  birds  of  the  family  of 
warblers,  and  subfamily  erythacince.  In  these 
the  bill  is  short,  slender,  tapering,  depressed 
at  the  base,  slightly  curved  and  notched  at 
the  tip,  and  the  gape  and  basal  portion  of  the 
nasal  groove  covered  with  bristles;  the  tarsi 
are  long  and  slender,  covered  in  front  with 
an  entire  scale,  occasionally  showing  marks  of 
division ;  the  toes  are  moderate,  the  hind  one 
and  claw  usually  the  longest,  and  the  claws 
curved  and  sharp  ;  tail  usually  short  and  broad, 
and  wings  moderate  and  rounded.  Gray  men- 
tions 15  genera,  most  of  which  are  inhabitants 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  over  which  they  are 
very  generally  distributed ;  they  feed  on  worms, 
insects,  seeds,  and  fruits,  which  they  seek  on 
the  ground  or  in  trees,  and  when  hard  pressed 
approach  familiarly  human  habitations ;  the 
nests  are  large  and  carefully  lined  with  soft 
materials,  and  the  eggs  generally  pale  blue. 
The  only  genus  that  can  be  mentioned  here  is 
erythacus  (Cuv.),  and  the  single  species  the 
robin  redbreast  (E.  rubecula,  Cuv.).  It  is  about 
5|  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  9  in. ;  the 
prevailing  color  above  is  olive-green ;  the  fore- 
head, cheeks,  fore  neck,  and  part  of  breast, 
light  yellowish  red.  It  is  a  permanent  resident 
in  temperate  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  North 
Africa,  and  is  the  most  familiar  of  the  small 
birds.  The  song  is  sweetly  modulated,  plain- 
tive, and  not  loud,  heard  through  spring,  sum- 
mer, and  autumn,  and  even  in  dull  and  rainy 
weather  when  most  other  song  birds  are  silent ; 


360 


KOBIN 


it  is  one  of  the  latest  birds  to  retire  at  night, 
and  one  of  the  earliest  in  the  morning ;  it  never 
congregates  in  flocks;  the  food  consists  of 
worms  (which  it  beats  to  death  and  cleanses 


Robin  Redbreast  (Erythacus  rubecula). 

before  eating),  insects,  and  their  larvae.  Gen- 
erally, and  especially  in  the  breeding  season, 
it  is  very  pugnacious,  driving  off  all  small  birds 
coining  near  its  favorite  resorts,  and  attacking 
even  cats  and  large  birds.  The  nest  is  often 
made  in  outbuildings  which  are  daily  used, 
and  sometimes  in  situations  where  there  is 
great  confusion  and  noise ;  it  is  made  of  moss, 
leaves,  and  grasses,  lined  with  hair  and  feath- 
ers ;  the  eggs  are  five  or  six,  white,  with  pale 
reddish  brown  spots. — Birds  of  very  different 
families  in  various  parts  of  the  world  bear  this 
name,  as  is  the  case  with  the  American  robin, 
which  is  one  of  the  thrushes,  turdus  migrato- 
rius  (Linn.) ;  the  generic  characters  are  given 
under  THRUSH.  This  well  known  bird  is  near- 
ly twice  the  size  of  the  European  robin ;  the 
general  color  above  is  olive-gray,  with  the  top 
and  sides  of  the  head  black,  chin  and  throat 


American  Robin  (Turdus  migratorius). 

white,  black-streaked,  breast  red,  and  the  un- 
der parts  chestnut  brown ;  there  is  consider- 
able variation  in  the  plumage,  which  is  more 


or  less  marked  with  white,  even  to  albinism. 
It  is  distributed  over  North  America,  as  far  as 
Mexico  on  the  west  and  to  lat.  60°  N.,  breed- 
ing over  most  of  this  extent.  This  is  one  of 
the  first  birds  seen  in  the  spring,  a  few  in  shel- 
tered places  remaining  all  winter  as  far  north 
as  New  England,  and  many  arriving  there  from 
the  south  before  the  snow  has  disappeared ; 
but  most  migrate  during  winter  to  the  southern 
states,  where  they  are  very  common;  occurring 
in  flocks, and  killed  in  immense  numbers.  The 
food  of  this  robin,  in  spring,  consists  of  insects, 
worms,  and  grubs ;  in  summer,  of  the  smaller 
fruits,  like  cherries  and  strawberries,  whence 
its  persecution  ,•  and  in  autumn,  of  wild  berries 
and  insects.  The  song  is  simple  but  pleasing 
and  lively,  though  not  to  be  compared  to  that 
of  many  other  thrushes;  it  much  resembles 
that  of  the  European  blackbird  (71  merula, 
Linn.).  Much  of  the  regard  in  which  the  robin 
is  held  here  is  derived  from  that  accorded  to 
the  English  robin,  which  ours  resembles  in  its 
red  breast,  familiar  disposition,  and  cheerful 
notes ;  it  is  generally  protected,  except  during 
the  shooting  season  in  the  southern  and  middle 
states,  where  it  is  slaughtered  indiscriminately; 
in  Massachusetts  the  laws  forbid  its  destruction 
at  any  time  of  year.  The  nest  is  often  built 
near  houses  and  in  very  noisy  locations ;  a 
robin  has  been  known  to  build  on  the  timbers 
of  a  railroad  bridge  over  a  wide  sheet  of  water, 
on  which  trains  passed  at  least  every  honr. 
The  eggs  are  four  to  six,  bluish  green  and  un- 
spotted ;  they  are  rarely  molested ;  two  broods 
are  raised  in  a  season,  even  in  New  England ; 
the  parents  are  very  anxious  in  regard  to  the 
young,  uttering  a  shrill  and  plaintive  cry  when 
the  nest  is  approached  ;  they  sometimes  breed 
year  after  year  on  the  same  spot.  The  flight 
is  rapid,  and  at  times  high  and  long  sustained. 
It  is  often  kept  as  a  cage  bird ;  it  is  fed  on 
bread  soaked  in  milk  or  water,  fruits,  and  in- 
sects; it  is  long-lived  in  captivity,  but  liable 
to  suffer  and  die  during  moulting.  The  flesh 
is  tender,  savory,  and  easily  digested,  and  a 
favorite  article  of  food  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern states. — The  golden  robin  has  been  de- 
scribed under  BALTIMORE  BIRD. 

ROBIN,  Charles  Philippe,  a  French  physiologist, 
born  at  Jasseron,  department  of  Ain,  June  4, 
1821.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  won  in  1844 
a  prize  at  the  ecole  pratique  de  medecine,  where 
he  established  a  museum  of  natural  history 
and  anatomy,  for  which  he  was  deputed  by 
Orfila  to  collect  specimens  on  the  coast  of 
Normandy  and  in  the  island  of  Jersey.  He 
took  his  degree  in  1846,  and  in  1847  became 
professor  of  general  anatomy,  and  in  1862  of 
the  new  department  of  histology  in  the  faculty 
of  medicine.  He  is  regarded  as  the  leader,  if 
not  the  founder^  of  the  school  of  microscopic 
physiology,  and  has  greatly  promoted  anatom- 
ical, physiological,  and  pathological  researches. 
Since  1864  he  has  edited  the  Journal  de  Vana- 
tomie  et  de  la  physiologic.  In  1866  he  was 
elected  to  the  academy  of  sciences.  His  works 


ROBIN  HOOD 


ROBINSON 


361 


include  Du  microscope  et  des  injections  dans 
leur  application  d  Vanatomie  et  a  la  patholo- 
gie  (8vo,  1849 ;  2d  ed.,  1870) ;  Tableaux  d'ana- 
tomie  (4to,  1851);  Traite  de  chimie  anato- 
mique  et  physiologique,  normale  ou  patholo- 
gique,  written  by  him  jointly  with  Verdeil  (3 
vols.  4to,  with  atlas,  1853);  Histoire  naturelle 
des  vegetaux  parasites  (8vo,  1853) ;  Anatomie 
microscopique  (1868) ;  and  a  series  of  Lecons 
on  special  subjects  (1866-7).  With  Littr£  he 
recast  successive  editions  of  Nysten's  Diction- 
naire  de  medecine,  and  the  12th  edition  (1865) 
so  thoroughly  that  at  the  request  of  Nysten's 
widow  the  tribunal  of  the  Seine  decided  in  1866 
to  strike  out  her  husband's  name  as  its  author. 

ROBIN  HOOD.     See  HOOD,  K<>m.\. 

ROBINIi.     See  LOCUST. 

ROBINSON.  I.  Edward,  an  American  Biblical 
scholar,  born  at  Southington,  Conn.,  April  10, 
1794,  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  27,  1863.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
in  1816,  and  served  for  a  year  as  tutor  there. 
In  1821  he  went  to  Andover,  Mass.,  to  procure 
the  printing  of  an  edition  of  the  first  six  books 
of  the  Iliad,  which  he  had  prepared.  While 
there  he  assisted  Prof.  Stuart  in  his  Hebrew 
grammar  and  translations  from  the  German, 
and  was  finally  appointed  assistant  instructor. 
From  1826  to  1830  he  studied  and  travelled  in 
Europe,  and  on  his  return  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  sacred  literature  at 
Andover,  which  chair  he  resigned  in  1833  and 
removed  to  Boston.  In  1837  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  Biblical  literature  in  the  Union 
theological  seminary  in  New  York.  Before 
entering  upon  this  office  he  visited  Palestine, 
of  which,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Eli 
Smith,  he  made  a  minute  .survey,  and  pub- 
lished "  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  and 
in  the  Adjacent  Countries,  a  Journal  of  Travels 
in  the  Year  1838  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  Halle,  Lon- 
don, and  Boston,  1841).  He  entered  upon 
his  professorship  in  1840,  and  held  it  till  his 
death.  In  1852  he  again  visited  Palestine,  and 
published  the  results  of  this  tour  in  1856 
("Later  Researches,"  1  vol.  8vo),  with  a  re- 
vision of  his  previous  researches  (3d  ed.  of 
the  complete  work,  3  vols.,  London,  1867). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  American  geographi- 
cal, oriental,  and  ethnological  societies.  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Dartmouth 
college  in  1831  and  from  the  university  of 
Halle  in  1842,  and  that  of  LL.  D.  from  Yale 
college  in  1844.  In  addition  to  the  works 
above  enumerated,  he  published  a  translation 
of  Buttmann's  Greek  grammar  (Andover, 
1832  ;  new  translation  from  the  18th  German 
ed.,  New  York,  1850) ;  "A  Greek  and  English 
Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament"  (Boston, 
1836  ;  new  ed.,  entirely  rewritten,  New  York, 
1850)  ;  "  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels," 
in  Greek  (Boston,  1845),  and  in  English  (1846) ; 
and  a  memoir  of  his  father,  the  Rev.  William 
Robinson  (1859).  His  "  Physical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land"  was  published  posthumous- 
ly (8vo,  Boston,  1865).  He  edited  from  1831 


to  1834  the  "  Biblical  Repository,"  a  theologi- 
cal quarterly,  subsequently  united  with  the 
u  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  which  he  established  and 
edited  for  one  year  in  New  York.  He  also  edi- 
ted Calrnet's  "Biblical  Dictionary"  and  oth- 
er works,  and  published  several  revisions  of 
his  translation  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  lexicon. 
— See  his  "  Life,  Character,  and  Writings,"  by 
Henry  B.  Smith,  D.  D.,  and  Roswell  D.  Hitch- 
cock, D.  I).  (New  York,  1864).  After  his 
death  his  library  was  purchased  for  Hamilton 
college.  II.  Therese  Albertine  Louise  von  Jakob, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Halle,  Germany, 
Jan.  26,  1797,  died  in  Hamburg,  April  13, 
1869.  In  1807  she  accompanied  her  father 
(see  JAKOB,  LUDWIG  HEINRICH  VON)  to  Russia, 
where  she  studied  the  Slavic  languages  and 
literature,  and  wrote  her  first  poems.  In  1816 
she  returned  with  her  father  to  Halle,  and  in 
1822  published,  under  the  signature  of  Ernst 
Berthold,  translations  of  Scott's  "  Old  Mortali- 
ty "  and  "The  Black  Dwarf."  She  wrote  a 
few  tales,  which  were  published  in  1825  under 
the  title  of  "Psyche,"  and  others  appeared  un- 
der the  signature  of  "  Talvj  "  (Talvi),  formed 
from  the  initial  letters  of  her  maiden  name. 
She  translated  a  number  of  poems  from  the 
Servian  language,  which  were  published  under 
the  title  of  VolTcslieder  der  Serben  (2  vols., 
Halle,  1825-'6).  In  1828  she  was  married  to 
Prof.  Robinson,  and  in  1830  accompanied  him 
to  America.  Here  she  translated  into  German 
Mr.  John  Pickering's  work  on  the  Indian 
tongues  of  North  America  (Leipsic,  1834).  In 
1834  she  wrote  for  the  "  Biblical  Repository" 
a  "  Historical  View  of  the  Slavic  Languages," 
which  was  revised  and  published  as  "  Histori- 
cal View  of  the  Languages  and  Literature  of 
the  Slavic  Nations,  with  a  Sketch  of  their 
Popular  Poetry"  (1850).  During  her  hus- 
band's first  visit  to  Palestine  (1837-'40)  she 
was  in  Germany,  and  published  Versuch  einer 
geschichtlichen  CharaTcteristilc  der  Volkslieder 
germanischer  Nationen  (Leipsic,  1840),  and 
UntersucJiung  uber  die  AutJienticitat  des  Ossian 
(1840).  After  her  return  to  New  York  she 
wrote  a  history  of  Capt.  John  Smith  in  Ger- 
man, followed  by  Die  Colonisation  von  Neu 
England  (Leipsic,  1847),  of  which  work  the 
younger  Hazlitt  made  a  translation  into  Eng- 
lish (2  vols.,  London,  1851).  Her  other  works, 
originally  published  in  Germany  and  trans- 
lated into  English  by  her  daughter,  include 
"  Heloise,  or  the  UnreVealed  Secret"  (New 
York,  1850),  "Life's  Discipline,  a  Tale  of  the 
Annals  of  Hungary  "  (1851),  and  "  The  Exiles" 
(1853),  republished  in  1856  as  "  Woodhill,  or 
the  Ways  of  Providence."  After  the  death  of 
her  husband  she  resided  in  Hamburg,  where 
her  son  was  American  consul,  and  there  con- 
tinued her  literary  activity.  Her  last  work, 
"Fifteen  Years,  a  Picture  from  the  Last  Cen- 
tury," has  been  published  in  this  country  since 
her  death. 

ROBINSON,  E/ekiel  Gilman,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  March  23, 


362 


ROBINSON 


ROCHAMBEAU 


1815.  He  graduated  at  Brown  university  in 
1838,  at  Newton  theological  institution  in  1842, 
and  was  ordained  and  settled  as  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  church  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  in  November, 
1842.  In  1846  he  accepted  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Cov- 
ington,  Ky.,  but  lost  it  in  1848  when  during 
the  anti-slavery  troubles  the  legislature  changed 
the  charter.  In  1853  he  became  a  professor 
in  the  Rochester  theological  seminary,  of  which 
he  was  subsequently  made  president.  In  1872 
he  became  president  of  Brown  university, 
which  office  he  still  holds  (1875).  He  edited 
the  "  Christian  Review,"  quarterly,  from  1859 
till  1864,  when  it  was  merged  in  the  "Bib- 
liotheca  Sacra."  He  has  published  a  transla- 
tion of  the  fourth  edition  of  Neander's  church 
history  (8vo,  New  Ycwk,  1865),  and  "The  Re- 
lation of  the  Church  and  the  Bible"  (1866). 
He  is  noted  as  a  powerful  and  popular  preach- 
er and  an  effective  political  orator. 

KOBINS<>\,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  1575,  died  in  Leyden,  March  1,  1625.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  held  for  a 
time  a  benefice  near  Yarmouth  in  Norfolk,  but 
in  1602  became  pastor  of  a  dissenting  con- 
gregation at  Norwich.  In  1607  its  members, 
on  account  of  persecution,  attempted  to  leave 
England  for  Holland,  but  were  prevented  by 
the  civil  officers,  who  kept  the  whole  company 
under  arrest  for  a  month.  In  1608,  however, 
they  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  in  1609  removed 
to  Leyden.  Hero  they  remained  11  years,  and 
their  numbers  were  largely  increased  by  arri- 
vals from  England.  In  1613  Robinson  had  a 
controversy  on  free  will  with  Episcopius,  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Leyden.  In  1617 
another  removal  was  contemplated,  and  the 
pastor  favored  the  plan  of  forming  a  settle- 
ment in  America.  A  minority  of  the  congre- 
gation, under  the  lead  of  Brewster,  the  ruling 
elder,  set  out  in  1620  in  two  ships,  the  Speed- 
well and  the  Mayflower.  It  was  the  intention 
of  Robinson  to  follow  with  the  rest  of  the 
congregation,  but  he  died  before  the  consent 
of  the  association  of  English  merchants  who 
controlled  the  enterprise  could  be  obtained. 
The  remainder  of  his  church  emigrated  not 
long  after  his  death,  and  his  sous  John  and 
Isaac  followed  in  1629  or  1630.  He  was  an 
acute  controversialist,  and  highly  versed  in 
classical  learning.  He  published  "  A  Justifica- 
tion of  Separation  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land" (1610);  "Of  Religions  Communion" 
(1614);  Apologia  Justa  et  Necessaria  (1619), 
which  in  1644  was  translated  into  English; 
"  A  Defence  of  the  Doctrine  propounded  by 
the  Synod  of  Dort"  (1624);  "  Essays  or  Ob- 
servations, Divine  and  Moral"  (1628);  and 
"A  Treatise  of  the  Lawfulness  of  Learning 
of  the  Ministers  in  the  Church  of  England" 
(1634).  His  complete  works,  with  a  memoir 
by  Robert  Ashton  (3  vols.),  were  published  in 
London  and  at  Boston  in  1851. 

ROBISOX,  John,  a  Scottish  writer  on  natural 
philosophy,  born  at  Boghall,  Stirlingshire,  in 


1739,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Jan.  30,  1805.  He 
graduated  in  1756  at  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow, and  in  1758  went  to  London,  became 
private  tutor  to  the  son  of  Admiral  Knowles, 
and  entered  as  midshipman  on  board  the  Royal 
William,  his  pupil  being  lieutenant,  under 
whom  he  served  two  and  a  half  years.  He 
was  then  sent  to  Jamaica  to  test  Harrison's 
chronometer.  In  April,  1763,  he  resumed  his 
studies  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  in 
1766  succeeded  Dr.  Black  as  lecturer  in  chem- 
istry. In  1770  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg  as 
secretary  to  Admiral  Knowles,  who  had  been 
invited  thither  to  suggest  reforms  in  the  Rus- 
sian navy,  and  in  1772  he  was  made  inspector 
general  of  the  corps  of  marine  cadets  at  Cron- 
stadt.  From  1774  till  his  death  he  was  pro* 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  university 
of  Edinburgh.  His  works,  including  his  con- 
tributions to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
were  published  under  the  title  "  A  System  of 
Mechanical  Philosophy,"  with  notes  by  David 
Brewster  (4  vols.  8vo,  London,  1822) ;  besides 
which  he  was  the  author  of  numerous  scien- 
tific papers,  and  of  "  Proofs  of  a  Conspiracy 
against  all  the  Religions  and  Governments  of 
Europe  "  (8vo,  Edinburgh,  1797). 

ROB  ROY  (literally,  Robert  the  Red),  a  Scot- 
tish outlaw,  born  about  1660,  died  about  1738. 
His  true  name  was  Robert  Macgregor,  which, 
after  the  outlawry  of  the  clan  Macgregor  by 
the  Scottish  parliament  in  1693,  he  changed 
for  that  of  his  mother,  Campbell.  Previous  to 
the  rebellion  of  1715  he  was  a  dealer  in  cattle ; 
but  having  joined  the  pretender,  he  gave  his 
enemy,  the  duke  of  Montrose,  an  excuse  for 
seizing  his  lands.  He  retaliated  by  a  war  of 
reprisals  upon  the  duke.  For  many  years  he 
continned  to  levy  blackmail  upon  his  enemies 
in  spite  of  the  presence  of  a  British  garrison 
near  his  residence  at  Aberfoyle.  His  name 
and  exploits  have  survived  chiefly  through 
Scott's  novel,  "Rob  Roy." 

ROCHiMBEAU.  I.  Jean  Baptist?  Donatlen 
Yimcar,  count  de,  a  French  soldier,  born  in 
Vendome,  July  1,  1725,  died  at  Thor6,  near 
that  city,  May  10,  1807.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1742,  and  distinguished  himself  in  various 
campaigns,  reaching  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
general.  In  1780  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  French  army  sent  to  America,  and  in 
1781  he  actively  cooperated  with  Washington 
in  the  movements  which  led  to  the  capitula- 
tion of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  Congress 
presented  him  with  two  pieces  of  cannon  cap- 
tured from  the  English,  and  on  his  return  to 
France  in  1783  he  was  made  governor  of  Pi- 
cardy  and  Artois,  and  in  1791  marshal.  In 
1792  he  commanded  the  army  of  the  north, 
but  soon  resigned.  During  the  reign  of  ter- 
ror he  was  imprisoned,  and  only  escaped  the 
guillotine  by  the  death  of  Robespierre.  Bo- 
naparte named  him  grand  officer  of  the  new- 
ly created  legion  of  honor  and  pensioned  him. 
He  left  Memoires,  which  were  edited  by  Luce 
de  Lancival  (2  vols.,  1809 ;  translated  into  Eng- 


VII 

Tie 
gh 

de 


EOCHDALE 


ROCHEFORT-LUCAY 


363 


lish  bj  M.  W.  E.  Wright  (1838).  II.  Donatien 
Marie  Joseph  de  Vimeur,  viscount  de,  a  French 
soldier,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1750, 
killed  at  Leipsic,  Oct.  18,  1813.  He  early  en- 
tered the  army,  became  general  in  1792,  and 
fought  the  negroes  in  Santo  Domingo.  In 
the  following  year  he  defeated  the  allied  Eng- 
lish and  French  royalists  in  Martinique ;  but 
the  former  being  reenforced,  he  was  obliged 
to  surrender,  March  22,  1794,  after  holding 
out  for  nearly  two  months  at  St.  Pierre.  In 
1796  he  became  governor  general  of  Santo 
Domingo,  but  a  conflict  with  the  civil  authori- 
ties resulted  in  his  being  carried  as  a  prisoner 
to  France.  In  1800  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  a  division  in  Italy.  At  the  close  of  1801 
he  went  with  Leclerc  to  Santo  Domingo,  co- 
operated in  the  defeat  of  Toussaint  1'Ouver- 
ture,  and  on  Leclerc's  death  (Nov.  2,  1802) 
succeeded  him  as  governor.  He  imposed  on- 
erous taxes  upon  the  rich  to  enable  him  to 
put  down  the  insurgents,  but  was  overpow- 
ered and  obliged  to  return  to  France  in  1803. 
Contrary  to  a  convention  with  the  British 
squadron,  he  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  French 
coast  and  detained  in  England  till  1811.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  1813. 

ROCHDALE,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  England, 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  Roch,  10  m.  N.  N.  E. 
of  Manchester ;  pop.  in  1871,  44,559.  A  parlia- 
mentary act  in  1872  extended  the  municipal 
borough  over  the  district  comprised  within  the 
limits  of  the  parliamentary  borough,  making 
the  population  of  the  present  limits  63,485. 
Within  a  few  years  the  town  has  been  much 
improved,  the  new  parts  presenting  wide,  well 
paved  streets,  lighted  with  gas,  and  lined  with 
buildings  of  brick  and  stone.  There  are  more 
than  20  places  of  worship  and  numerous  schools, 
and  a  fine  town  hall  was  built  in  1865.  The 
parish  church  dates  from  the  12th  century. 
The  Roch  is  here  crossed  by  five  bridges. 
Woollen  manufacture  was  introduced  by  Flem- 
ish immigrants  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  and 
the  town  is  now  noted  for  its  extensive  manu- 
factories of  flannel,  baize,  blankets,  and  ker- 
seys. There  are  also  cotton  warp  and  yarn 
mills,  calico  printing  works,  hat  manufactories, 
machine  shops,  and  brass  and  iron  founderies. 
Coal  and  iron  are  mined,  and  slate,  flag,  and 
free  stones  are  quarried  in  the  vicinity.  Roch- 
dale is  the  seat  of  the  most  successful  of  the 
English  cooperative  associations,  called  the 
equitable  pioneers'  society ;  it  was  founded  in 
1844  by  a  few  flannel  weavers,  with  a  capital 
of  £28  to  start  a  small  store  for  supplying  the 
members  with  the  necessaries  of  life  at  cost; 
at  the  close  of  1870  it  had  5,560  members,  a 
share  capital  of  £81,232,  several  shops  and 
factories,  a  library  of  7,000  volumes,  and  a 
sick  and  burial  sbciety,  and  had  largely  in- 
vested in  cottages  for  members. 

ROCHEFORT,  or  Roehefort-sur-Mer,  a  fortified 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Cha- 
rente-Inferieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cha- 
rente,  about  9  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  18  m. 


S.  S.  E.  of  La  Rochelle  ;  pop.  in  1872,  28,299. 
It  was  a  place  of  no  importance  till  1666, 
when  it  was  made  a  naval  station  by  Louis 
XIV.,  the  harbor  was  enlarged,  and  the  city 
was  fortified  by  Vauban.  It  has  extensive 
docks,  magazines,  cannon  founderies,  and  a 
marine  hospital ;  and  it  ranks  among  the  first 
naval  establishments  of  France.  It  is  also  a 
commercial  centre  of  importance.  Napoleon 
here  surrendered  to  Capt.  Maitland,  of  the 
British  man-of-war  Bellerophon,  July  15, 1815. 
ROCHEFORT-LIJ^iY,  Victor  Henri,  count  de, 
popularly  known  as  HENEI  ROCHEFORT,  a 
French  journalist,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  30, 
1830.  In  early  life  he  was  one  of  the  wri- 
ters of  the  Charivari.  He  held  for  some  time 
an  office  in  the  department  of  fine  arts,  but 
after  1861  devoted  himself  wholly  to  journal- 
ism. After  contributing  to  various  papers,  he 
was  engaged  to  write  for  the  Figaro  at  an 
annual  salary  of  30,000  francs,  but  in  1868 
retired  to  save  that  journal  from  prosecu- 
tion, and  established  the  Lanterne,  which  was 
soon  stopped  by  the  government  on  account 
of  its  violent  attacks  upon  the  imperial  fam- 
ily. He  fled  to  escape  imprisonment,  and 
continued  to  publish  the  Lanterne  at  Brus- 
sels till  August,  1869,  when  on  his  election 
to  the  legislative  body  he  was  permitted  to 
return  to  Paris.  In  the  same  year  he  found- 
ed the  Marseillaise  newspaper,  in  which  Vic- 
tor Noir  was  a  collaborator.  After  the  as- 
sassination of  the  latter  by  Prince  Pierre  Bo- 
naparte, Jan.  10,  1870,  the  paper  was  seized, 
and  Rochefort  was  arrested.  On  the  procla- 
mation of  the  republic  (Sept.  4)  he  was  taken 
from  prison  by  the  populace.  For  a  short 
time  he  was  connected  with  the  government  of 
national  defence.  During  the  siege  of  Paris 
he  was  president  of  the  commission  of  bar- 
ricades, and  he  established  the  Mot  d'Ordre. 
On  Feb.  8,  1871,  he  was  elected  as  one  of  the 
representatives  of  Paris  in  the  national  assem- 
bly. At  the  establishment  of  the  commune 
(March  18)  he  was  in  Paris,  and  he  immedi- 
ately took  its  side  in  the  Mot  cPOrdre,  vehe- 
mently assailing  the  government  of  Versailles 
and  M.  Thiers  personally.  After  an  ineffec- 
tual attempt  to  escape  shortly  before  its  fall, 
he  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life. 
In  September,  1872,  he  was  temporarily  re- 
leased to  enable  him  to  legitimate  his  children 
by  marrying  their  mother,  who  was  dying, 
and  was  then  transported  to  New  Caledonia. 
He  escaped  in  March,  1874,  and  lectured  in 
New  York  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow  exiles. 
In  Ireland  he  was  rescued  by  the  police  from 
the  mob,  who  regarded  him  as  one  of  the 
murderers  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris.  He  at- 
tempted to  revive  the  Lanterne  in  London, 
and  then  in  Geneva,  but  with  no  success.  In 
conjunction  with  others  he  has  written  plays, 
and  he  is  the  author  of  many  pamphlets  and  of 
several  books,  chiefly  collections  of  his  news- 
paper articles.  In  1875  he  published  at  Ge- 
neva Les  depraves  and  a  satire  on  MacMahon. 


364 


ROCHEFOUCAULD 


ROCHESTER 


ROCHEFOUCAULD.     See  LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD. 

ROCHEJAQUELEIN.    See  LA  ROCHEJAQUELEIN. 

ROCHELLE,  La,  a  fortified  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Charente-Infe- 
rieure,  situated  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  oppo- 
site the  island  of  Re,  245  m.  S.  W.  of  Paris ; 
pop.  in  1872,  19,506.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  h6tel  de  ville,  and 
exchange.  The  place  cVarmes  is  considered 
one  of  the  finest  squares  in  France.  Ship 
building  is  carried  on,  and  pottery,  glass,  and 
cotton  goods  are  manufactured.  La  Rochelle 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Huguenots  in  1557, 
and  was  gallantly  defended  in  1573,  when  a 
favorable  peace  was  extorted  from  the  Catho- 
lics ;  it  continued  an  important  centre  of  the 
Protestants  till  1628,  when,  feebly  supported 
by  England,  they  surrendered  it  after  a  most 
obstinate  siege  of  l4  months.  The  mole  is 
still  visible  that  was  constructed  by  Richelieu 
to  close  the  harbor  on  this  occasion.  Vauban 
afterward  built  ex- 
tensive fortifications. 

ROCHELLE  SALT, 
or  Salt  of  Seiffnette 
(tartrate  of  potash 
and  soda,  sodic-po- 
tassic  tartrate),  a 
double  tartrate  of 
potassium  and  sodi- 
um, discovered  by 
Seignette,  an  apoth- 
ecary of  La  Ro- 
chelle. By  neutral- 
izing cream  of  tar- 
tar (bitartrate  of 
potash,  KlICJLO.) 
with  carbonate  of 
soda,  its  basylous 
atom  of  hydrogen 
may  bo  replaced  by 
sodium.  By  evapo- 
ration the  tartrate 
of  potash  and  soda 
separates  in  large 


are  each  4£  m. ;  area,  17^  sq.  m.  The  city  is 
divided  into  about  equal  portions  by  the  Gea- 
esee  river,  which  has  a  rapid  descent  soon  after 
it  enters  the  city,  a  perpendicular  fall  of  96 
ft.  near  the  centre,  and  two  others  of  25  ft. 
and  84  ft.  near  the  northern  limit.  The  site 
of  the  city  is  nearly  level,  and  below  the  great 
fall  the  river  flows  through  a  deep  narrow 
gorge.  The  streets  are  nearly  all  laid  out  at 
right  angles,  and  are  from  66  to  100  ft.  wide ; 
many  of  them  are  well  paved  with  stone,  and 
most  of  them  are  bordered  with  shade  trees. 
The  city  has  a  thorough  system  of  sewerage, 
and  is  lighted  with  gas.  There  are  six  public 
squares,  of  from  four  to  eight  acres  each.  Near- 
ly all  the  dwellings  are  built  separate  from  each 
other  and  surrounded  by  a  little  cultivated  or 
ornamented  ground.  The  New  York  Central 
railroad  passes  through  the  city,  with  two 
branches  to  the  east  (Syracuse  and  Auburn) 
and  two  to  the  west  (Buffalo  and  Niagara 


View  In  West  Main  Street,  Rochester. 


transparent  rhombic  prisms  of  the  formula 
KNaC4lI4O6  +  4Aq.  The  crystals  melt  in  this 
water  of  crystallization  between  160°  and  176° 
F.,  and  dissolve  in  2  parts  of  water  at  42°,  and 
in  0'3  part  at  100°.  Acids  precipitate  cream 
of  tartar  from  the  solution.  The  salt  is  a 
mild  cooling  purgative,  in  doses  of  from  two 
drachms  to  an  ounce.  In  small  and  repeated 
doses  it  does  not  purge,  but.  is  absorbed  and 
renders  the  urine  alkaline.  It  is  the  principal 
component  of  Seidlitz  or  Rochelle  powders. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Monroe  co.,  New  York,  on  the  Gen- 
esee  river,  7  m.  from  its  mouth  in  Lake  On- 
tario and  229  m.  by  railroad  W.  N.  W.  of  Al- 
bany; pop.  in  1815,  331;  in  1820,  1,502;  in 
1830,  9,207;  in  1840,  20,191  ;  in  1850,  36,403; 
in  1860,  48,204;  in  1870,  62,386;  in  1875,  81,- 
673.  Of  the  gain  in  population  during  the  last 
five  years,  8,136  were  brought  in  with  annexed 
territory.  The  extreme  length  and  breadth 


Falls),  and  has  also  a  branch  to  Charlotte,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  Genesee  Valley 
railroad  (a  branch  of  the  Erie)  enters  the  city 
from  the  south,  and  the  Rochester  and  State 
Line  railway,  now  (1875)  completed  from  Roch- 
ester to  Le  Roy,  will  ultimately  connect  the 
city  direct  with  the  bituminous  coal  region 
of  Pennsylvania.  The  Erie  canal  also  passes 
through  from  east  to  west,  crossing  the  river 
on  a  tine  aqueduct  of  ten  arches,  848  ft.  long, 
with  a  channel  45  ft.  wide,  which  cost  $600,- 
000.  The  Genesee  Valley  canal  here  unites 
with  the  Erie.  The  river  is  crossed  by  five 
highway  and  two  railroad  bridges.  Mount 
Hope  cemetery,  on  a  group  of  rounded  hills 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  contains  188 
acres,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
country.  The  new  city  hall  is  of  gray  lime- 
stone, with  interior  walls  of  brick,  fire-proof 
throughout ;  it  is  138  ft.  long,  80  ft.  wide,  and 
four  stories  high,  with  a  tower  175  ft.  high, 


ROCHESTER 


365 


and  cost  $335,000.  The  court  house  is  of 
brick,  with  limestone  trimmings,  three  stories 
high.  The  new  free  academy  is  136  ft.  long,  80 
ft.  wide,  and  four  stories  high,  huilt  of  brick, 
with  sandstone  trimmings,  and  cost  $125,000. 
Water  for  extinguishing  fires  is  pumped  from 
the  river  by  machinery  on  the  Holly  system. 
Works  designed  to  bring  pure  water  from 
Hemlock  lake,  28  m.  S.  by  E.  of  the  city, 
will  probably  be  completed  about  the  close  of 
1875.  The  cost  for  both  systems  has  been 
$3,200,000.  A  street  railroad  runs  through 
the  principal  avenues.  There  are  59  religious 
societies,  all  but  two  of  which  have  edifices 
of  their  own,  viz. :  5  Baptist,  1  Christadel- 
phian,  1  Congregational,  7  Episcopal,  5  Ger- 
man Evangelical,  2  Friends',  2  Jewish,  2  Lu- 
theran, 9  Methodist,  10  Presbyterian,  1  Re- 
formed church  in  America,  11  Roman  Catho- 
lic, 1  Second  Advent,  1  Unitarian,  and  1  Uni- 
versalist.  The  finest  church  edifice  is  St.  Pat- 
rick's cathedral  (built  in  1864-'9),  which  is  in 
Gothic  style,  of  red  sandstone  trimmed  with 
gray  limestone,  170  ft.  long,  112  ft.  wide  in 
the  transept,  and  76  ft.  high ;  it  cost  $150,- 
000.  The  city  hospital,  sustained  by  the  con- 
tributions of  Protestants,  has  property  to  the 
value  of  $105,000,  including  a  fine  building; 
it  can  accommodate  120  patients,  and  has  an 
average  of  60.  St.  Mary's  hospital  (Roman 
Catholic)  has  property  valued  at  $200,000,  in- 
cluding a  large  building  of  gray  sandstone ;  it 
accommodates  300  patients,  and  has  an  average 
of  200.  Other  charitable  institutions  are :  a 
Catholic  orphan  asylum,  with  property  valued 
at  $30,000 ;  Protestant  orphan  asylum,  $157,- 
000  ;  industrial  school,  $34,000 ;  home  for  the 
friendless,  $50,000  ;  church  home  (Episcopal), 
$40,000 ;  and  house  for  idle  and  truant  chil- 
dren, $40,000.  The  county  jail,  the  county 
psnitentiary,  a  state  arsenal,  and  the  western 
house  of  refuge  are  all  within  the  city  limits. 
The  last  named,  opened  in  1849,  has  real  estate 
to  the  value  of  $500,000,  including  a  farm  of 
42  acres.  It  was  opened  in  1850,  and  on  Dec. 
31,  1874,  had  386  inmates,  all  boys;  at  that 
date  it  had  received  in  all  4,083  boys,  and 
had  cost  the  state  $986,492.  A  department 
for  girls  has  recently  been  authorized,  and  will 
be  constructed  at  once.  There  are  20  public 
schools  (including  the  free  academy),  employ- 
ing 183  teachers  and  having  in  1875  11,275 
pupils,  and  two  public  libraries,  containing 
20,000  and  7,000  volumes  respectively.  The 
university  of  Rochester  was  established  in 
1850  by  the  Baptists,  and  in  1875  had  nine 
professors,  1GO  students,  and  about  600  grad- 
uates. It  discarded  the  dormitory  system  from 
the  beginning,  and  claims  no  control  over  the 
students  out  of  recitation  hours.  Several  de- 
nominations are  represented  in  the  faculty  and 
board  of  trustees.  It  has  both  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course.  It  is  situated  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  city,  where  it  has  23J  acres 
of  ground,  beautifully  laid  out,  and  occupies  a 
massive  building  of  dark  red  sandstone  (com- 


pleted in  1861),  which  is  150  ft.  long,  80  ft. 
in  extreme  width,  and  three  stories  high.  The 
library  contains  11,500  volumes;  and  the  geo- 
logical cabinets,  collected  by  Prof.  Henry  A. 
Ward,  are  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  coun- 
try. For  the  library  and  cabinets  a  fire-proof 
building,  140  by  80  ft.  and  two  stories  high,  is 
now  (1875)  nearly  completed ;  its  cost  will  be 
about  $100,000,  and  on  its  completion  the  li- 
brary is  to  be  free  to  the  public  for  consulta- 
tion. The  university  holds  property  to  the 
amount  of  $377,000,  and  has  productive  funds 
aggregating  about  $200,000.  The  Rochester 
theological  seminary,  founded  in  1850  by  the 
Baptists,  in  1875  had  7  professors,  80  students, 
and  upward  of  300  graduates.  Its  library  num- 
bers more  than  10,000  volumes,  including  4,000 
which  constituted  the  library  of  Neander,  the 
German  church  historian.  The  seminary  occu- 
pies a  fine  building,  erected  in  1869  at  a  cost 
of  $42,000,  which  is  four  stories  high  and  is  of 
brick  trimmed  with  limestone.  Another  build- 
ing has  recently  been  added  for  lecture  rooms 
and  a  gymnasium.  It  has  property  worth 
$100,000,  and  productive  funds  to  the  amount 
of  $260,000.— The  city  is  divided  into  16  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  common 
council  consisting  of  two  aldermen  from  each 
ward.  The  board  of  education  consists  of  one 
commissioner  from  each  ward,  chosen  by  the 
people  for  three  years.  There  are  a  paid  fire 
department,  a  fire  telegraph,  and  a  police  force 
of  80  men.  The  assessed  valuation  of  property 
in  1875  was  $61,351,700  ($905,000  of  this  be- 
ing personal),  which  is  about  three  fourths  of 
the  true  value.  The  rate  of  general  city  tax 
on  assessed  valuation  is  V33  per  cent.  The 
city  debt  in  March,  1875,  was  nearly  $5,000,- 
000,  and  the  city  owns  property,  exclusive  of 
water  works,  valued  at  $2,000,000.  The  ex- 
ports at  the  port  of  Genesee  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1875,  were  valued  at  $784,- 
979;  the  imports  at  $331,609;  entrances,  714 ; 
clearances,  705.  The  manufactures  of  Roches- 
ter are  extensive  and  varied,  including  nearly 
all  that  are  mentioned  in  the  article  on  Mon- 
roe county.  The  largest  industries  are  those  of 
clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  beer,  flour,  agricul- 
tural implements,  furniture,  cooperage,  steam 
engines  and  boilers,  locomotive  building  and 
repairing,  edge  tools,  garden  and  flower  seeds, 
and  trees.  The  regular  publications  include 
4  daily  newspapers  (1  German),  1  tri-week- 
ly,  2  semi-weekly,  7  weekly  (2  German),  and 
3  monthly  periodicals.  There  are  five  banks 
of  discount  and  circulation,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $850,000,  four  savings  banks,  and  a 
trust  company. — The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment on  the  site  of  Rochester  was  made  in 
1810.  In  1812  a  village  was  laid  out  by  Na- 
thaniel Rochester  and  two  associates  from 
Maryland.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  village 
in  1817,  and  as  a  city  in  1834.  It  owes  its 
rapid  growth  to  the  immense  water  power 
furnished  by  the  river,  the  facilities  for  trans- 
portation, and  the  remarkable  fertility  of  the 


366 


ROCHESTER 


ROCK 


surrounding  country,  which  is  now  largely  oc- 
cupied by  nurseries,  some  of  them  being  among 
the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  In  March, 
1865,  owing  to  encroachments  upon  the  bed 
of  the  river,  a  sudden  freshet  overflowed  the 
banks,  and  for  three  days  almost  the  entire 
business  portion  of  the  city  was  from  three 
to  six  feet  under  water.  Several  large  build- 
ings were  undermined  and  destroyed ;  the  to- 
tal damage  was  estimated  at  $250,000. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  of  Kent,  England,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Medway,  near  Chatham,  12 
m.  from  the  Nore,  and  28  m.  S.  E.  of  Lon- 
don; pop.  in  1871,  18,352.  On  an  abrupt  em- 
inence are  the  ruins  of  Rochester  castle,  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  river  are  works  con- 
necting with  the  Chatham  fortifications.  The 
city  has  no  manufactures  of  consequence,  but 
considerable  trade,  and  it  is  a  port  of  entry. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  find  employment  in 
the  adjoining  naval  establishments,  and  there 
is  some  ship  building.  Among  the  public 
institutions  are  a  cathedral  grammar  school, 
founded  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1542,  and  the  "  Poor 
Traveller's  House,"  founded  by  Richard  Watts 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  cathedral,  ori- 
ginally a  priory  founded  about  004,  rebuilt  about 
1076,  and  recently  restored,  is  principally  Nor- 
man and  early  English  in  style.  St.  Nicholas 
church  dates  from  1420,  and  was  partially  re- 
built in  1624.  Among  the  interesting  ruins  is 
Bishop  Gundulph's  keep. 

ROCHESTER,  John  Wilmot,  second  earl  of,  a 
wit  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  born  at  Ditch- 
ley,  Oxfordshire,  in  1647  or  1648,  died  July  26, 
1680.  He  travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and 
in  1665-'6  served  at  sea,  distinguishing  himself 
on  several  occasions ;  but  on  returning  to  Lon- 
don he  would  not  fight  duels  and  lost  reputa- 
tion. The  king  made  him  a  gentleman  of  the 
bedchamber  and  ranger  of  Woodstock  park. 
He  became  addicted  to  intemperance,  and  was 
famous  for  debauchery  and  buffoonery.  When 
prostrated  by  disease,  he  was  converted  from 
infidelity,  and  on  his  deathbed  directed  the 
destruction  of  all  his  profane  and  licentious 
writings.  But  shortly  after  his  death  appeared 
a  volume  of  his  "  Poems  on  several  Occasions  " 
(reprinted  in  1685,  '91,  and  '96),  followed  by  his 
"  Familiar  Letters  "  (1697).  In  the  edition  of 
1731-'2,  which  includes  poems  byRoscommon, 
Dorset,  and  others,  much  that  is  attributed  to 
Rochester  is  probably  spurious.  Dr.  Burnet 
published  "  Some  Passages  of  the  Life  and 
Death  of  John,  Earl  of  Rochester"  (1681), 
and  Dr.  Johnson  wrote  his  biography  in 
"Lives  of  the  Poets."  His  only  son  died  a 
minor  in  1681,  when  the  title  became  extinct. 

ROCHESTER,  Nathaniel,  an  American  pioneer, 
born  in  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  Feb.  21,  1752, 
died  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  May  17,  1831.  In 
early  life  he  became  a  merchant  at  Hillsboro, 
N.  C.,  and  was  a  major  of  militia.  In  1775, 
at  the  head  of  his  command,  he  captured 
the  British  Gen.  McDonald  and  the  thousand 
Scotch  recruits  whom  he  was  endeavoring  to 


embark  at  Wilmington.  In  1776  Rochester 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed 
the  constitution  of  North  Carolina,  and  was 
appointed  commissary  general.  After  the  war 
he  became  a  merchant  and  manufacturer  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.  About  1800  he  made  large 
purchases  of  land  in  the  Genesee  valley ;  and 
in  1818  he  removed  to  Rochester,  which  in 
1812  had  been  named  after  him. 

ROCHET,  Louis,  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris,  Aug.  24,  1813.  He  studied  under  David 
d'Angers,  and  exhibited  his  first  work  in  1835. 
Among  his  principal  works  are :  "  Madame  do 
S6vign6,"  at  Grignan  (1857) ;  a  colossal  statue 
of  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil,  unveiled  at  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro in  1862;  an  equestrian  statue  of  Charle- 
magne (1867);  and  "Raphael"  (1868). 

ROCHETTE,  Desire  Raonl  (called  RAOCL-RO- 
OHETTE),  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at  St. 
Amand,  near  Bourges,  about  1790,  died  in 
Paris,  July  5,  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  Bourges,  went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of 
21,  and  became  substitute  for  Guizot  in  the 
professorship  of  modern  history  at  the  faculty 
of  letters  in  1815,  member  of  the  academy  of 
inscriptions  and  editor  of  the  Journal  des  Sa- 
vants in  1816,  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  med- 
als in  the  royal  library  in  1818,  royal  censor 
of  newspapers  in  1820,  assistant  of  Quatre- 
mere  de  Quincy  in  the  chair  of  archroology  in 
1824,  and  his  successor  in  1826,  a  member  of 
the  scientific  commission  to  the  Morea  in  1828, 
and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of  fine 
arts  in  1839.  A  volume  of  his  lessons  was 
translated  into  English  by  H.  M.  Westropp 
("Lectures  on  Ancient  Art,"  London,  1854). 
Among  his  numerous  other  works  are:  Ilis- 
toire  critique  de  Vetablmement  de»  colonies 
grecquet  (4  vols.  8vo,  1815);  Lettres  sur  la 
Suisse  (3  vols.  8vo,  1820-'22,  and  fol.,  with 
plates,  1823-'7) ;  Monument*  inedits  d'anti- 
quitefiguree  grecque,  etrusque  et  romaine  (fol., 
1828) ;  Peintures  antiques  inedites  (4to,  1836) ; 
and  Sur  les  antiquites  chretiennes  des  cata- 
combes  (4to,  1839). 

KO<  k.  L  A  S.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bor- 
dering on  Illinois,  intersected  N.  and  S.  nearly 
in  the  middle  by  Rock  river,  and  drained  by 
its  branches ;  area,  about  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  39,030.  Its  surface  is  nearly  level,  with 
much  prairie,  especially  E.  of  Rock  river, 
which  is  nearly  all  occupied  by  Rock  prairie; 
and  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Wisconsin  division  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroad,  the  Western  Union, 
and  the  Prairie  du  Chien  division  of  the  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul  railroad.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  865,048  bushels  of 
wheat,  120,965  of  rye,  1,137,304  of  Indian 
corn,  1,173,714  of  oats,  204,998  of  barley,  26,- 
864  of  buckwheat,  442,151  of  potatoes,  52,- 
122  tons  of  hay,  645,508  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  264,- 
446  of  wool,  1,043,169  of  butter,  36,110  of 
cheese,  12,785  of  hops,  and  20,653  of  honey. 
There  were  13,995  horses,  12,852  milch  cows, 
14,861  other  cattle,  62,193  sheep,  and  23,438 


EOCKBEIDGE 


EOCKET 


367 


swine  ;  8  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 23  of  carriages  and  wagons,  6  of  cheese, 
5  of  furniture,  4  of  iron  castings,  3  of  machi- 
nery, 8  of  brick  and  stone,  3  of  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds,  3  of  woollen  goods,  8  flour  mills, 
and  4  distilleries.  Capital,  Janesville.  II. 
The  -S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota,  bordering  S. 
on  Iowa  and  W.  on  Dakota ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  138.  It  has  a  rolling  surface,  and 
is  drained  by  tributaries  of  the  Big  Sioux  and 
Eock  rivers. 

ROCKBRIDGE,  a  central  county  of  Virginia, 
intersected  by  North  river,  a  branch  of  the 
James,  and  bordered  S.  E.  by  the  Blue  Eidge ; 
area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,058, 
of  whom  3,890  were  colored.  It  has  a  moun- 
tainous surface  and  very  fertile  soil.  The 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroad  crosses  the  N. 
W.  corner.  The  county  derives  its  name  from 
the  natural  bridge  in  the  S.  corner.  (See 
BRIDGE,  NATURAL.)  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  214,800  bushels  of  wheat,  119,518 
of  Indian  corn,  85,564  of  oats,  6,022  tons  of 
hay,  186,469  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  9,156  of  wool, 
131,092  of  butter,  and  3,290  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses.  There  were  2,288  horses, 
2,378  milch  cows,  4,493  other  cattle,  3,481 
sheep,  and  6,986  swine ;  1  manufactory  of  ce- 
ment, 2  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4 
of  tanned  and  4  of  curried  leather,  and  16  flour 
mills.  Capital,  Lexington. 

ROCK.  CASTLE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Kentucky, 
bordered  S.  E.  by  Eock  Castle  river,  by  the 
branches  of  which  and  Dick's  river  it  is  drain- 
ed; area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,145,  of  whom  369  were  colored.  It  has  an 
uneven  surface  and  a  not  very  fertile  soil.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
and  Great  Southern  railroad.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  10,539  bushels  of  wheat, 
216,816  of  Indian  corn,  35,077  of  oats,  23,445 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,949  of  wool,  92,675  of  but- 
ter, and  11,702  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  1,638  horses,  1,648  milch  cows, 
2,314  other  cattle,  6,625  sheep,  and  7,189 
swine.  Capital,  Mount  Vernon. 

ROCKDALE,  a  N.  county  of  Georgia,  bound- 
ed S.  W.  by  South  river,  a  branch  of  the  Oc- 
mulgee,  and  drained  by  other  branches  of  that 
stream ;  area,  200  sq.  m.  It  has  been  formed 
since  the  census  of  1870.  The  Georgia  rail- 
road traverses  it.  The  surface  is  diversified, 
and  the  soil  good.  Iron,  gold,  and  other  min- 
erals are  found.  Capital,  Conyers. 

ROCKET,  a  projectile  which  is  set  in  motion 
by  a  force  residing  within  itself,  thus  perform- 
ing the  twofold  functions  of  piece  and  pro- 
jectile. Eockets  are  used  as  night  signals,  mis- 
siles of  war,  and  in  pyrotechnic  displays.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  invented  about  the  close 
of  the  9th  century,  and  to  have  been  used  for 
war  purposes  in  India  and  China  even  before 
the  invention  of  gunpowder.  Their  inferior 
f  orc«  and  accuracy  limited  their  use  by  Euro- 
peans to  incendiary  and  signal  purposes  till 
1804,  when  Sir  William  Congreve  turned  his 
708  VOL.  xiv.— 24 


attention  to  their  improvement.  He  substitu- 
ted sheet  iron  for  paper  cases,  made  the  guide 
stick  shorter,  and  attached  it  to  the  centre 
instead  of  the  side  of  the  base.  He  prepared 
and  used  them  successfully  at  the  siege  of  Bou- 
logne and  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  is  said  to 
have  increased  the  range  of  the  six-pounder 
rocket  from  600  to  2,000  yards.  Eockets  are 
now  constructed  of  cylindrical  cases  composed 
of  paper  or  wrought  iron,  according  to  the  use 
for  which  they  are  intended,  and  are  filled  with 
a  composition  of  nitre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur, 
like  gunpowder,  except  that  the  ingredients 
are  compounded  for  a  slower  rate  of  combus- 
tion. If  penetration  and  range  are  required, 
as  in  the  case  of  war  rockets,  the  head  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  solid  shot;  if  explosion  or  in- 
cendiary effect,  by  a  shell  or  a  case  shot  with 
a  fuse  attached,  which  is  ignited  by  the  flame 
of  the  composition.  The  base  is  perforated 
by  one  or  more  vents  for  the  escape  of  the  gas 
generated  within,  and  sometimes  with  a  screw 
hole  into  which  a  guide  stick  is  fastened.  A 
rocket  is  set  in  motion  by  the  reaction  of  a 
rapid  stream  of  gas  escaping  through  the  vents 
and  impinging  against  particles  of  the  air,  al- 
though the  reaction  of  the  escaping  gas  would 
cause  it  to  move  also  in  vacua.  The  velocity  of 
the  flight  depends  upon  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  vents  and  the  velocity  with  which  the 
gas  escapes,  and  it  has  been  found  in  practice 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  conical 
vents.  As  the  composition  burns  in  parallel 
layers  of  uniform  thickness,  the  amount  of  gas 
generated  in  a  given  time  or  the  velocity  of  its 
escape  from  the  case  depends  on  the  extent  of 
the  inflamed  surface;  and  experience  shows 
that  to  obtain  the  required  surface  of  inflam- 
mation it  is  necessary  to  form  a  long  cavity 
in  the  mass  of  the  composition.  This  cavity 
is  called  the  bore,  and  in  small  rockets  it  is 
obtained  by  driving  the  composition  around  a 
spindle,  which  is  afterward  withdrawn,  while 
in  large  rockets  -the  composition  is  driven  in 
solid,  and  afterward  bored  out;  the  bore  is 
made  concentric  with  the  case,  and  slightly 
conical.  The  propelling  force  of  a  rocket 
changes  its  direction  with  the  axis  along  which 
it  acts,  so  that  without  means  of  giving  sta- 
bility to  this  axis  the  trajectory  will  be  very 
irregular.  Instances  have  been  known  where 
these  projectiles  have  returned  to  the  point 
whence  they  started;  the  "serpent,"  a  species 
of  small  rocket,  owes  its  peculiarity  to  this 
fact.  The  two  means  used  to  give  steadiness 
to  the  flight  of  rockets  are  rotation,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  rifle  ball,  and  the  resistance  of  the 
air,  as  with  an  arrow.  The  first  is  exempli- 
fied in  Bale's  rockets,  where  rotation  is  pro- 
duced by  the  escape  of  the  gas  through  vents 
situated  obliquely  with  reference  to  the  axis. 
The  common  signal  rocket  is  guided  by  a  long 
stick  projecting  from  its  base  in  the  continua- 
tion of  its  axis,  or  by  four  shorter  ones  at- 
tached to  the  side  of  the  case  at  its  base, 
and  each  making  a  small  angle  with  the  axis. 


368 


ROCK  FISH 


ROCKINGHAM 


Congreve's  war  rocket  is  guided  by  a  long 
wooden  stick  attached  to  its  base.  Rockets 
are  generally  fired  from  wooden  tubes  or  gut- 
ters, but  where  they  have  four  sticks,  these, 
forming  a  pyramid,  permit  them  to  be  fired 
from  the  ground,  by  standing  them  on  end. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  war  rockets  over 
cannon  are  unlimited  size  of  projectile,  porta- 
bility, freedom  from  recoil,  rapidity  of  dis- 
charge, and  the  terror  which  the  noise  and 
fiery  trail  produce  upon  troops,  especially 
cavalry  or  mounted  infantry.  The  numerous 
conditions  to  be  fulfilled  in  the  construction 
in  order  to  obtain  accuracy  of  flight,  and  the 
difficulty  of  preserving  the  composition  un- 
injured, have  restricted  their  usefulness  for 
military  purposes.  They  were  not  used  at  all 
during  the  civil  war  in  America,  though  two 
sizes  are  prescribed  for  service,  namely,  the 
2-inch  (interior  space)  weighing  6  Ibs.,  and  the 
8-inch,  weighing  16  Ibs.,  and  having  with  an 
elevation  of  from  4°  to  5°  a  range  of  600  or 
690  yards,  and  with  an  elevation  of  47°  ranges 
of  1,760  and  2,200  yards  respectively.  They 
have  also  fallen  into  disuse  in  Europe,  and 
hereafter,  except  in  peculiar  cases,  they  will 
probably  be  confined  to  the  uses  of  signalling 
and  pyrotechny. — See  Benton's  "  Ordnance 
and  Gunnery"  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1867). 

ROCK  lisil.     See  BASS,  vol.  ii.,  p.  368. 

ROCKFORD,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Winnebago  co.,  Illinois,  on  both  sides  of  Rock 
river,  hero  crossed  by  a  fine  iron  bridge,  and 
at  the  intersection  of  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western railroad,  the  Kenosha  division  of  that 
line,  and  the  Chicago,  Rockford,  and  Northern 
railroad,  80  m.  in  direct  line  N.  W.  of  Chicago; 
pop.  in  1860,  6,976;  in  1870,  11,049,  of  whom 
8,041  were  foreigners;  in  1875,  estimated  by 
local  authorities  at  15,000.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  rich  agricultural  region,  and  has  a  healthy 
situation.  The  streets  and  private  grounds  are 
well  shaded,  and  there  are  many  fine  residen- 
ces. The  city  is  one  of  the  handsomest  in  the 
state.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is  supplied 
with  water  by  works  on  the  Holly  plan,  recent- 
ly completed  at  a  cost  of  about  $225,000.  The 
river  supplies  abundant  water  power,  which 
is  extensively  used  in  manufacturing.  There 
are  two  paper  mills,  four  extensive  flour  mills, 
two  cotton  factories  (producing  batting,  seam- 
less bags,  and  yarn),  five  reaper  and  mower 
factories,  two  machine  and  mill-casting  shops, 
two  pump  factories,  five  extensive  plough 
shops,  four  sock-knitting  establishments,  a  tack 
factory  (the  only  one  W.  of  Pittsburgh),  two 
furniture  factories,  extensive  malleable  iron 
works,  a  woollen  mill  (producing  cloth  and 
yarn),  and  various  manufactories  of  agricultu- 
ral implements.  An  extensive  watch  factory 
has  been  recently  established,  with  a  capital  of 
$150,000.  There  are  four  national  banks,  a 
state  bank,  and  a  private  bank,  with  private 
deposits  on  May  1,  1875,  to  the  amount  of 
$1,350,000.  The  city  has  two  high  and  seven 
ward  schools ;  a  female  seminary,  founded  in 


1849,  and  attended  by  about  200  pupils;  sev- 
eral private  schools ;  and  a  public  library  con- 
taining 6,500  volumes.  Five  weekly  newspa- 
pers and  a  monthly  periodical  are  published. 
There  are  16  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  2  Con- 
gregational, 1  Disciples',  1  Episcopal,  1  Liberal 
Christian  (church  of  the  Christian  Union),  4 
Methodist  Episcopal,  2  Presbyterian,  1  Roman 
Catholic,  1  Swedish  Lutheran,  and  1  Swedish 
Methodist. — Rockford  was  settled  in  1836,  and 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1852. 

ROCKCVGHAM.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  New 
Hampshire,  bordered  E.  by  the  Atlantic  and  S. 
by  Massachusetts,  and  separated  from  Maine 
on  the  northeast  by  the  Piscataqua  river;  area, 
about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  47,297.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Lamprey,  Exeter,  Beaver,  and 
Spiggot  rivers.  Great  bay,  a  body  of  water 
communicating  with  the  Piscataqua,  is  on  the 
N.  E.,  and  Massabesic  lake  on  the  W.  border. 
Its  surface  is  uneven,  and  the  soil  fertile.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  Manchester  and  Lawrence, 
the  Concord  and  Portsmouth,  the  Boston  and 
Maine,  the  Eastern,  and  the  Nashua  and  Roch- 
ester railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  8,065  bushels  of  wheat,  165,843  of 
Indian  corn,  51,816  of  oats,  21,003  of  barley, 
456,227  of  potatoes,  65,604  tons  of  hay,  28,240 
Ibs.  of  wool,  674,208  of  butter,  and  74,226  of 
cheese.  There  were  4,771  horses,  20,129  milch 
cows,  4,326  working  oxen,  7,836  other  cattle, 
7,960  sheep,  and  4,337  swine;  4  manufactories 
of  boats,  84  of  boots  and  shoes,  12  of  brick,  12 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  12  of  men's  clothing, 
4  of  cotton  goods,  5  of  hosiery,  3  of  engines 
and  boilers,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  5  of  woollen  goods,  2  flour  mills,  70  saw 
mills,  9  tanneries,  and  2  distilleries.  Capitals, 
Portsmouth  and  Exeter.  II.  A  N.  county  of 
Virginia,  bordered  S.  E.  by  the  Blue  Ridge 
and  N.  W.  by  the  Shenandoah  mountains, 
and  drained  by  the  Shenandoah  river  and 
its  branches;  area,  about  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  23,668,  of  whom  2,516  were  colored.  It 
occupies  part  of  the  great  valley  of  Virginia, 
and  has  an  uneven  surface  and  fertile  soil. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  375,688 
bushels  of  wheat,  36,251  of  rye,  251,754  of 
Indian  corn,  140,896  of  oats,  16,459  tons  of 
hay,  27,571  Ibs.  of  wool,  307,688  of  butter,  and 
16,540  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  6,505  horses,  5,401  milch  cows,  9,335 
other  cattle,  8,061  sheep,  and  17,949  swine; 
14  flour  mills,  1  distillery,  and  2  woollen  mills. 
Capital,  Harrisonburg.  III.  A  N.  county  of 
North  Carolina,  bordering  on  Virginia,  inter- 
sected by  the  Dan  and  drained  by  the  head 
waters  of  the  Haw  river ;  area,  about  600  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,708,  of  whom  6,215  were 
colored.  It  has  an  elevated  and  hilly  surface 
and  a  fertile  soil.  The  Richmond  and  Danville 
railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  53,295  bushels  of  wheat, 
218,469  of  Indian  corn,  103,528  of  oats,  16,159 
of  Irish  and  16,057  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,441,971 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  7,101  of  wool,  92,523  of  but- 


ROCKINGHAM 


ROCKLAND 


369 


ter,  and  29,457  of  honey.  There  were  1,237 
horses,  817  mules  and  asses,  2,722  milch  cows, 
3,082  other  cattle,  4,759  sheep,  and  12,474 
swine;  and  12  manufactories  of  chewing  to- 
bacco. Capital,  Wentworth. 

ROCKINGIIA9I,  Charles  Watson  Wentworth,  mar- 
quis of,  an  English  statesman,  born  May  13, 
1730,  died  July  1,  1782.  Distinguished  by 
wealth  and  character,  he  succeeded  in  1765 
George  Grenville  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
and  premier,  and  henceforth  was  the  leader  of 
the  liberal  branch  of  the  aristocracy.  Although 
his  ministry  contained  members  who  had  voted 
against  the  passage  of  the  stamp  act,  it  did  not 
undertake  to  repeal  it,  but  made  preparations 
to  execute  it  in  all  the  colonies ;  but  this  prov- 
ing impracticable,  the  repeal  took  place  in 
March,  1766,  accompanied  by  an  act  declaring 
the  supreme  power  of  parliament  over  America 
in  all  respects.  Rockingham  retired  from  the 
premiership  on  July  12,  but  resumed  it  in 
March,  1782,  on  the  resignation  of  Lord  North. 

ROCK  ISLAM),  a  N.  W.  county  of  Illinois, 
separated  from  Iowa  on  the  N.  W.  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  and  intersected  by  Eock  river; 
area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,783. 
The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  very  fertile. 
Coal  and  limestone  occur  in  large  quantities. 
Several  railroads  centre  at  the  city  of  Rock 
Island.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
245,820  bushels  of  wheat,  1,459,653  of  Indian 
corn,  276,575  of  oats,  36,980  of  barley,  192,531 
of  potatoes,  17,239  Ibs.  of  wool,  563,122  of 
butter,  and  31,299  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,985  horses,  7,471  milch  cows,  12,877  other 
cattle,  5,667 sheep,  and  26,625  swine;  7  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  implements,  10  of 
brick,  15  of  carriages  and  wagons,  16  of  cloth- 
ing, 12  of  cooperage,  3  of  iron  castings,  7  of 
lime,  1  of  paper,  18  of  saddlery  and  harness,  2 
of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  2  of  woollens,  2  tan- 
ning and  currying  establishments,  2  distiller- 
ies, 4  breweries,  10  flour  mills,  and  10  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Rock  Island. 

ROCK  ISLAND,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Rock 
Island  co.,  Illinois,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  at 
the  foot  of  the  upper  rapids,  opposite  Daven- 
port, Iowa,  3  m.  above  the  mouth  of  Rock 
river,  and  160  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago;  pop. 
in  1850,  1,711 ;  in  1860,  5,130;  in  1870,  7,890; 
in  1875,  estimated  by  local  authorities  at  12,000. 
It  is  opposite  the  W.  extremity  of  Rock  island, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name.  This  island, 
the  property  of  the  United  States,  is  3  m.  long, 
covering  960  acres,  is  well  timbered,  and  has 
graded  avenues  and  handsome  drives.  During 
and  previous  to  the  Black  Hawk  war  it  was 
the  site  of  Fort  Armstrong,  a  series  of  block 
houses,  and  during  the  civil  war  an  extensive 
prison  for  the  detention  of  confederate  prison- 
ers of  war  was  situated  upon  it.  Here  is  the 
Rock  Island  arsenal  and  armory,  intended  to 
be  the  central  United  States  armory.  The  de- 
sign embraces  ten  immense  stone  workshops, 
with  a  storehouse  in  the  rear  of  each,  besides 
officers'  quarters,  magazines,  offices,  &c.  Four 


of  the  workshops  are  already  completed  (1875). 
The  shops  will  be  supplied  with  motive  power 
from  the  Moline  water  power,  three  fourths  of 
which  is  owned  by  the  government.  The  main 
channel  of  the  Mississippi  is  N.  of  the  island. 
Across  the  S.  channel,  from  the  upper  end  of 
the  island  to  Moline,  111.,  a  dam  has  been  con- 
structed by  the  United  States  government,  af- 
fording extensive  water  power.  The  Moline 
water  power  is  2  m.  E.  of  the  city  of  Rock  Isl- 
and ;  the  Milan  water  power  in  Rock  river,  3 
m.  S.  of  it.  Rock  Island  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  Rockford,  Rock  Island,  and  St.  Louis 
railroad,  the  S.  W.  terminus  of  the  Western 
Union  railroad,  the  "W.  terminus  of  the  Peoria 
and  Rock  Island  railroad,  and  a  station  on  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Chi- 
cago and  Southwestern  railroads,  which  here 
cross  the  Mississippi  on  the  railroad  and  wagon 
bridge  built  by  the  government  in  connection 
with  the  arsenal.  The  railroads  and  river  af- 
ford excellent  facilities  for  shipment,  and  the 
abundant  water  power  gives  ample  opportuni- 
ty for  manufactures.  The  principal  establish- 
ments are  a  plough  and  cultivator  factory,  a 
stove  foundery,  a  window-glass  establishment, 
a  cotton  factory,  three  lumber  mills,  and  three 
breweries.  There  are  three  national  banks,  a 
private  bank,  four  large  public  school  buildings, 
four  denominational  schools,  two  newspapers 
with  daily  and  weekly  editions,  and  13  church- 
es, viz. :  African  Christian,  Baptist,  Christian, 
Episcopal,  German  Lutheran,  Methodist,  Pres- 
byterian (2),  Roman  Catholic  (2),  Swedish 
Baptist,  Swedish  Lutheran,  and  United  Pres- 
byterian. Augustana  college,  a  Swedish  Lu- 
theran institution,  is  situated  here. 

ROCKLAND,  a  S.  E.  county  of  New  York, 
bordered  E.  by  the  Hudson  river  and  S.  W.  by 
New  Jersey,  and  drained  by  the  Hackensack 
and  Ramapo  rivers  and  several  smaller  streams; 
area,  208  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,213.  It  has 
a  rough  and  mountainous  surface,  the  highest 
summits  having  an  elevation  of  1,000  ft.,  and 
the  soil  is  fertile.  Red  sandstone  is  extensively 
quarried,  and  immense  quantities  of  lime  and 
brick  are  made.  Rockland  lake,  about  £  m. 
from  the  Hudson,  and  160  ft.  above  the  river, 
is  noted  for  its  yield  of  ice.  The  county  is 
intersected  by  the  Erie  and  Northern  New  Jer- 
sey railroads.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  12,944  bushels  of  rye,  57,046  of  Indian 
corn,  30,781  of  oats,  11,987  of  buckwheat,  85,- 
694  of  potatoes,  11,188  tons  of  hay,  and  144,588 
Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were  1,604  horses,  2,271 
milch  cows,  and  1,420  swine;  5  manufactories 
of  boots  and  shoes,  34  of  brick,  1  of  cotton 
thread  and  twine,  1  of  gold  leaf  and  foil,  4  of 
iron  castings,  2  of  machinery,  4  of  brick  and 
stone,  1  of  wooden  ware,  1  of  woollen  goods, 
and  1  brewery.  Capital,  New  City. 

ROCKLAND,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Knox  co.,  Maine,  on  the  W.  side  of  Penobscot 
bay,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Knox  and  Lincoln 
railroad,  40  m.  S.  E.  of  Augusta,  and  50  m.  S.  S. 
W.  of  Bangor;  pop.  in  1870,  7,074.  The  har- 


370 


KOCKS 


tor  is  broad  and  deep,  and  there  is  a  very 
active  trade,  particularly  in  the  exportation  of 
lime,  made  from  immense  quarries  of  limestone 
in  the  vicinity.  There  are  about  80  kilns,  era- 
ploying  1,000  men,  and  producing  1,200,000 
barrels  annually.  Ship  building  is  also  carried 
on,  and  there  are  manufactories  of  boots  and 
shoes,  carriages,  cooperage,  edge  tools,  iron 
castings,  harness,  machinery,  trunks,  &c.  The 
city  has  a  fire  department,  water  works,  three 
hotels,  two  national  banks  with  a  joint  capital 
of  $250,000,  a  state  bank  with  a  capital  of 
$50,000,  a.  savings  bank  with  about  $900,000 
deposits,  graded  public  schools,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  eight  churches,  viz. :  Baptist 
(2),  Congregational,  Episcopal,  Freewill  Bap- 
tist, Methodist,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Univer- 
salist. — Rockland  was,«et  off  from  Thomaston 
and  incorporated  as  a  town,  with  the  name  of 
East  Thomaston,  in  1848.  The  name  was 
changed  in  1850,  and  in  1854  a  city  govern- 
ment was  organized. 

ROCKS,  in  geology,  the  solid  mineral  masses 
which  make  up  the  earth's  crust.  These  may 
be  considered  both  geologically  and  minera- 
logically ;  mineralogy  is  the  natural  history  of 
all  such  bodies  as  do  not  belong  to  the  organic, 
kingdoms  of  nature.  In  the  geological  investi- 
gation of  rocks  two  questions  arise :  first,  as  to 
their  structure  and  attitude  and  the  mode  of 
the.ir  arrangement  in  the  earth's  crust,  whether 
stratified  or  unstratified,  whether  occurring  in 
beds,  veins,  or  intruded  masses;  and  second, 
their  origin  and  mode  of  formation.  The 
geognostical  relations  of  rocks,  and  the  dis- 
tinctions of  crystalline  and  uncrystalline,  of 
stratified  and  unstratified,  of  indigenous,  ex- 
otic, and  endogenous  rocks,  have  been  defined 
in  the  article  GEOLOGY.  Mineralogically  rocks 
may  be  homogeneous  or  heterogeneous ;  that 
is  to  say,  they  may  consist  of  one  or  of  two  or 
more  mineral  species.  Thus  a  pure  white 
marble  is  made  up  entirely  of  calcite,  a  form 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  quartzite  consists  of 
the  mineral  quartz,  both  homogeneous ;  while 
granite  is  heterogeneous,  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  quartz  and  feldspar,  sometimes  with 
the  addition  of  mica  or  of  hornblende.  (See 
GRANITE.)  These  component  mineral  species 
are  sometimes  so  arranged  as  to  show  that 
the  rock  has  resulted  from  an  original  crystal- 
lization, as  in  the  case  of  granite  or  vitreous 
quartzite;  and  at  other  times,  as  in  the  case 
of  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  the  aggre- 
gate is  seen  to  be  composed  of  the  ruins  of 
such  rocks  rearranged  and  cemented  together. 
Hence  the  great  distinction  between  original 
and  derived  rocks,  the  former  including  all 
exotic  or  eruptive  rocks  and  all  endogenous 
rocks  or  veinstones,  as  well  as  the  crystalline 
indigenous  rocks.  Certain  rocks  owe  their 
origin  directly  to  the  accumulations  of  organic 
structures;  such  are  coal,  which  consists  of 
vegetable  remains,  many  limestones,  which 
are  made  up  of  corals,  shells,  or  encrinites, 
and  certain  silicious  beds  composed  of  the 


shields  of  diatoms.  "We  have  thus  a  distinc- 
tion, which  is  sometimes  made,  of  chemically, 
mechanically,  and  organically  formed  rocks. 
The  chief  mineral  species  of  original  rocks  are 
calcite,  dolomite,  gypsum,  anhydrite,  rock  salt, 
quartz,  orthoclase,  albite  and  the  related  tri- 
clinic  feldspars,  nepheline  and  certain  zeolites, 
the  micas,  chlorites,  talc,  serpentine,  olivine, 
pyroxene,  hornblende,  garnet,  epidote,  stauro- 
lite,  kyanite,  andalusite,  tourmaline,  graphite, 
magnetite,  hematite,  corundum,  and  pyrite. 
A  few  of  these  form  rocks  by  themselves; 
others  are  essential  ingredients  of  composite 
rocks ;  while  others  occur  as  accessory  though 
characteristic  minerals  in  certain  rock  masses. 
The  compound  or  heterogeneous  rocks  can  be 
accurately  defined  only  by  describing  the  com- 
ponent minerals,  their  proportions  and  mode 
of  arrangement,  and  the  texture  and  structure 
of  the  mass.  Arbitrary  names  have  been  given 
to  certain  types  of  composite  rocks,  but  the 
student  soon  learns  that  there  are  many  in- 
termediate varieties  and  admixtures  which  it 
is  difficult  to  name  or  to  classify.  In  de- 
scribing rock  masses  the  geognostical  distinc- 
tions of  indigenous,  exotic,  and  endogenous 
are  to  be  disregarded,  as  in  very  many  cases 
it  is  impossible  from  the  study  of  a  specimen 
to  say  to  which  division  it  belongs.  Thus  we 
have  indigenous  and  endogenous  crystalline 
limestones,  and  in  the  case  of  granitic  rocks 
the  characters  of  indigenous,  endogenous,  and 
exotic  are  often  so  similar  that  it  is  only  by 
study  of  the  rock  in  situ  that  it  can  be  deter- 
mined to  which  class  it  belongs.  The  struc- 
ture of  original  rocks  is  not  always  crystalline ; 
some,  like  pearlstono  and  obsidian,  being  glass- 
like  and  amorphous.  Others,  though  crys- 
talline, are  so  finely  grained  as  to  be  compact, 
and  are  designated  as  crypto-crystalline.  To 
rocks  in  which  distinct  crystals  are  imbedded 
in  a  compact  or  crypto-crystalline  base  the 
name  of  porphyry  is  given,  and  this  is  some- 
times extended  to  rocks  in  which  the  base  en- 
closing the  crystals  is  not  compact.  The  terms 
gneissic  and  granitic,  or  gneissoid  and  grani- 
toid, are  sometimes  employed  to  designate 
rocks  which,  although  unlike  in  composition, 
resemble  gneiss  or  granite  in  structure  and 
texture.  The  principal  homogeneous  original 
rocks  are  those  composed  of  quartz,  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  of  dolomite.  Gypsum, 
the  ores  of  iron,  and  occasionally  certain  sili- 
cates, such  as  labradorite,  serpentine,  talc,  and 
chlorite,  form  by  themselves  considerable  rock 
masses.  The  most  important  indigenous  rocks 
are  heterogeneous,  and  foremost  among  these 
may  be  named  those  essentially  made  up  of 
quartz  and  orthoclase  feldspar,  constituting  the 
granitic  rocks,  which  generally  include  mica 
or  hornblende  as  an  accessory  mineral.  The 
indigenous  banded  rocks  of  this  composition 
take  the  name  of  gneiss,  and  are  either  horn- 
blendic  or  micaceous,  the  latter  passing  into 
mica  schist,  so  common  with  gneiss  in  the 
Montalban  or  White  mountain  series.  By  the 


ROCKWALL 

admixture  in  the  hornblendio  varieties  of  a 
triclinic  feldspar  (albite,  oligoclase,  or  labra- 
dorite),  which  finally  replaces  the  orthoclase, 
and  the  disappearance  of  the  quartz,  we  get 
the  rock  known  as  diorite ;  and  the  substitu- 
tion in  such  a  rock  of  some  form  of  pyroxene 
for  hornblende  produces  what  are  known  as 
dolerite  and  diabase.  To  these  last  named 
three  rocks  belong  most  of  the  so-called  traps, 
basalts,  and  greenstones,  which  are  generally 
intrusive -or  exotic  rocks,  although  indigenous 
rocks,  composed  of  triclinic  feldspars  with  a 
greater  or  less  admixture  of  hornblende  or  of 
pyroxene,  are  abundant.  Chlorite  often  ac- 
companies the  hornblende  of  these  rocks,  or 
replaces  it,  especially  in  the  Green  mountain 
or  Huronian  series,  where  such  rocks  are  as- 
sociated with  strata  in  which  a  soft  hydrous 
mica  prevails,  forming  the  so-called  talcose 
slates,  which  seldom  contain  talc.  Rocks  com- 
posed chiefly  of  labradorite,  sometimes  with- 
out admixture,  and  at  other  times  with  small 
portions  of  hypersthene  or  of  pyroxene,  pre- 
dominate in  the  Norian  series.  Under  the 
title  VOLCANO  will  be  considered  the  history 
of  volcanic  rocks,  and  there  and  under  WATER 
will  be  discussed  the  chemical  agencies  which 
have  produced  the  various  rocks,  the  genesis 
of  which  cannot  be  well  understood  without 
a  reference  to  the  chemico-geological  effects 
of  fire  and  of  water.  Much  has  been  done  of 
late  in  the  minute  study  of  the  crystalline 
rocks,  and  here  the  microscope  has  been  used 
with  much  success. — Among  the  best  works 
on  the  subject  of  lithology  are  those  of  Bern- 
hard  von  Cotta,  Senft,  and  especially  Zirkel. 

ROCKWALL,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  wa- 
tered by  affluents  of  Trinity  and  Sabine  rivers, 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  undulating  prairies,  and  has  a  good 
soil.  Capital,  Rockwall. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST,  an  insect  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family  (locustidm  of  West- 
wood,  acrididce  of  later  authors)  as  the  locusts 
of  the  old  world  and  of  'Scripture.  It  is  the 
only  species  in  this  country,  E.  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  that  has  the  same  migratory  habit 
and  great  power  for  harm  which  character- 
izes those  whose  ravages  are  described  by  the 
prophet  Joel,  and  which  have  figured  so  large- 
ly in  the  history  of  southern  European  and 
Asiatic  nations.  A  species  often  complained 
of  on  the  Pacific  slope  is  probably  the  same,  or 
a  variety  of  the  same.  The  Rocky  mountain 
locust,  first  specifically  characterized  by  Prof. 
Cyrus  Thomas,  in  his  "Acrididse  of  North 
America"  (1873),  as  caloptenus  spretus,  is  pop- 
ularly known  as  the  grasshopper,  a  term  loose- 
ly applied  to  most  large  hopping  insects.  Du- 
ring 18.73,  1874,  and  1875  this  insect  attracted 
unusual  attention,  and  in  the  unprecedented 
amount  of  injury  and  suffering  which  it  en- 
tailed on  the  farmers  of  the  west  it  proved 
a  national  calamity.  In  1873  Minnesota  and 
Iowa  were  sorely  scourged  by  it  in  their  west- 
ern counties,  and  had  to  appeal  to  the  nation 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST    371 

for  assistance  to  relieve  the  consequent  suf- 
fering; in  1874  Nebraska  and  Kansas  suffered 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  efforts  of  the  state 
authorities  and  the  contributions  of  people 
from  all  parts  of  the  Union  were  insufficient 
to  prevent  a  vast  amount  of  distress ;  while  in 


FIG.  1. — Rocky  Mountain  Locust  (Caloptenus  spretus). 

the  spring  of  1875  parts  of  Missouri  and  Kan- 
sas were  again  terribly  smitten.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  $50,000,000  would  not  cover 
the  loss  occasioned  to  the  country  by  this  in- 
sect during  these  three  years.  The  species 
measures  on  an  average  about  1£  in-  from  the 
head  to  the  tip  of  the  closed  wings,  and  the 
wings  extend  about  one  third  their  length  be- 
yond the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  The  color  is 
variable,  but  the  more  common  specimens  are 
yellowish  white  beneath;  glaucous  across  the 
breast  and  about  the  mouth  parts ;  pale  bluish 
glaucous,  often  with  shades  of  purple,  on  the 
sides  of  the  head  and  thorax  and  on  the  front 
of  the  face;  olive-brown  on  the  top  of  head 
and  thorax;  pale  beneath,  more  or  less  blu- 
ish above  and  marked  with  black,  especially 
toward  base,  on  the  abdomen.  The  front  wings 
have  the  ground  color  pale  grayish  yellow, 
inclining  to  green,  and  their  spots  and  veins 
brown ;  the  hind  wings,  except  a  yellowish  or 
brownish  shade  at  apex  and  along  the  front 
edge  and  a  green  tint  at  base,  are  transparent 
and  colorless,  with  the  veins  brown.  The 
front  and  middle  legs  are  yellowish.  The  hind 
legs  have  the  thighs  striped  with  pale  glaucous 
and  reddish  on  the  outside  and  upper  half  of 
inside,  with  four  broad  black  or  dusky  marks  on 
the  upper  edge,  the  terminal  one  extending  be- 
neath around  the  knee.  The  shanks  are  coral- 
red  with  black  spines ;  the  feet  somewhat  paler, 
with  .black  claws;  antennre  pale  yellow ;  palpi 
tipped  with  black.  -  In  the  dead  specimens  all 
these  colors  become  more  dingy  and  yellow. 
It  very  closely  resembles,  and  is  often  con- 
founded with,  the  red-legged  locust  (caloptenus 
femur-nibrum,  De  Geer),  a  species  common 
to  the  whole  central  portion  of  the  continent 


FIG.  2.— Red-legged  Locust  (Caloptenus  femur-rubrum). 

from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  mountains, 
which,  though  capable  of  short  flights,  never 
commits  the  same  havoc.  This  last  is,  on  an 
average,  smaller,  darker,  with  shorter  and  less 
conspicuously  spotted  wings  (seldom  extend- 
ing more  than  one  sixth  of  their  length  fee- 


372 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST 


yond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen),  and  the  last 
abdominal  joint  of  the  male  is  bluntly  cut  off 
at  the  top,  and  not  tapering  and  notched  as  in 


Fio.  8.— Anal  Characters  of 
Male  of  Kocky  Mountain 
Locust:  a,  side  view  of 
tip;  b,  o,  hind  and  top 
views. 


FIG.  4. — Anal  Characters  of 
Male  of  Red-legged  Lo- 
cust :  a,  side  view  of  tip; 
t>,  c,  hind  and  top  views. 


spretiu.  There  is  a  third  species,  ealoptenut 
Atlantis  (Riley),  occurring  more  particularly 
in  the  mountain  regicfhs  of  the  Atlantic,  which 
in  many  respects  is  intermediate  between  the 
two,  and  which  often  migrates  in  large  swarms 
from  place  to  place,  and  proves  injurious  du- 
ring very  hot  dry  years.  All  three  approach 
each  other  so  closely  through  divergent  indi- 
viduals that  entomologists  are  at  variance  as 
to  whether  they  should  be  considered  distinct 
species,  or  mere  varieties  or  geographical  races 
of  the  same  species.  But  compared  with  the 
Rocky  mountain  species,  the  others  are  harm- 
less. This  species  seems  to  be  subalpine  by 
nature,  and  to  breed  and  flourish  only  in  the 
high  plains  and  plateaus  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tain region  ;  and  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley  is  of  opin- 
ion that  those  which  devastate  8.  W.  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  the  western  portions 
of  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri  (in  all  of 
which  country  the  species  is  not  indigenous), 
come  principally  from  the  mountain  regions 
of  Wyoming,  Dakota,  Montana,  and  British 
America.  According  to  his  seventh  annual 
"  Report  on  the  Insects  of  Missouri,"  "  the  in- 
sect is  at  home  in  the  higher  altitudes  of  Utah, 
Idaho,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  N.  W. 
Dakota,  and  British  America.  It  breeds  in  all 
this  region,  but  particularly  on  the  vast  hot  and 
dry  plains  and  plateaus  of  the  last  named  terri- 
tories and  on  the  plains  W.  of  the  mountains ; 
its  range  being  bounded,  perhaps,  on  the  east 
by  that  of  the  buffalo  grass.  William  N.  Byers 
of  Denver,  Colorado,  shows  that  they  hatch  in 
immense  numbers  in  the  valleys  of  the  three 
forks  of  the  Missouri  river  and  along  the  Yel- 
lowstone, and  how  they  move  on  from  there, 
when  fledged,  in  a  S.  E.  direction  at  about  10 
m.  a  day.  The  swarms  of  1867  were  traced,  as 
he  states,  from  their  hatching  grounds  in  W. 
Dakota  and  Montana,  along  the  E.  flank  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  in  the  valleys  and  plains  of 
the  Black  hills,  and  between  them  and  the 
main  Rocky  mountain  range.  (See  Hayden's 
"Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories,"  1870, 
pp.  282-'3.)  In  all  this  stretch  of  country,  as 
is  well  known,  there  are  vast  tracts  of  barren, 
almost  desert  land,  while  other  tracts  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  bear  only  a  scanty  vegetation, 
the  short  buffalo  grass  of  the  more  fertile  prai- 
ries giving  way,  now  to  a  more  luxurious  vege- 


tation along  the  watercourses,  now  to  the  sage 
bush  and  a  few  cacti.  Another  physical  pe- 
culiarity is  found  in  the  fact  that  while  the 
spring  on  these  plains  often  opens  as  early,  even 
away  up  into  British  America,  as  it  does  with 
us  in  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis,  yet  the  vegeta- 
tion is  often  dried  and  actually  burned  out  be- 
fore the  first  of  July,  so  that  not  a  green  thing 
is  to  be  found.  Our  Rocky  mountain  locust, 
therefore,  hatching  out  in  untold  myriads  in 
the  hot  sandy  plains,  5,000  or  6,000  ft.  above 
the  sea  level,  will  often  perish  in  immense 
numbers  if  the  scant  vegetation  of  its  native 
home  dries  up  before  it  acquires  wings ;  but  if 
the  season  is  propitious  and  the  insect  becomes 
fledged  before  its  food  supply  is  exhausted, 
the  newly  acquired  wings  prove  its  salvation. 
It  may  also  become  periodically  so  prodigiously 
multiplied  in  its  native  breeding  place  that, 
even  in  favorable  seasons,  everything  green  is 
devoured  by  the  time  it  becomes  winged.  In 
either  case,  prompted  by  hunger,  it  rises  in 
vast  clouds  in  the  air  to  seek  for  fresh  pas- 
tures. Borne  along  by  the  prevailing  winds 
that  sweep  over  these  treeless  plains  from  the 
northwest,  often  at  the  rate  of  60  or  60  m.  an 
hour,  the  darkening  locust  clouds  are  soon  car- 
ried into  the  more  moist  and  fertile  country 
to  the  southeast,  where  they  fall  upon  the 
crops  like  a  plague  and  a  blight.  Many  of  the 
more  feeble  or  of  the  more  recently  fledged 
perish,  no  doubt,  on  the  way;  but  the  main 
army  succeeds,  with  favorable  wind,  in  bridg- 
ing over  the  parched  country  which  offers  no 
nourishment.  The  hotter  and  drier  the  season, 
and  the  greater  the  extent  of  the  drought,  the 
earlier  will  they  be  prompted  to  migrate,  and 
the  further  will  they  push  on  to  the  east  and 
south."  These  vast  flights  never  extend  E.  of 
a  line  drawn  at  a  rough  estimate  along  the 
94th  meridian ;  nor  do  they  remain  permanent- 
ly in  the  low  Mississippi  valley  country.  The 
sudden  change  from  the  attenuated  and  dry 
atmosphere  and  general  climatic  conditions  of 
5,000  or  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  to  the  more 
humid  and  dense  atmosphere  of  1,000  ft.,  affects 
them  injuriously,  and  they  either  leave,  die,  or 
disappear  through  degeneration  or  miscegena- 
tion, until  no  trace  of  them  is  left  by  the  sec- 
ond or  third  generation.  These  incursions  into 
the  more  fertile  country  to  the  east  occur  at 
irregular  intervals,  and  are  most  frequent  in 
the  country  toward  the  northwest,  nearest  the 
native  home  of  the  species.  Thus,  locust  rav- 
ages are  more  to  be  feared  in  Colorado  and 
W.  Minnesota  than  in  Missouri  or  Texas.  A 
chronological  study  of  these  incursions  shows 
that  there  have  been  during  the  present  cen- 
tury only  three  as  extended  as  that  of  1874, 
when  the  insects  reached  into  the  western 
counties  of  Missouri.  But  we  find  records  of 
a  dire  visitation  in  Guatemala  as  far  back  as 
1632,  in  Gage's  "West  Indies,"  and  the  early 
Jesuit  missionaries  of  California  have  left  nu- 
merous records  of  locust  injuries  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast  during  the  present  and  preceding 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST 


373 


centuries. — The  natural  history  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  locust  is  similar  to  that  of  all  true 
locusts.     The  female  is  furnished  at  the  end 
of    her   abdomen   with 
two     pairs     of     horny 
valves,  which  open  and 
shut,  and  which  enable 
her  to  drill   a  hole  in 
I  I          Jlf  L,     J7       the  ground  in  which  to 

LIJ '({fJ^a^       deposit  her  eggs.   These, 

^* c     w  to  the  number  of  from 

50  to  100,  are  voided  in 
a  glutinous  fluid,  which 
hardens  and  holds  them 
together,  and  which,  in 

combination  with  particles  of  earth,  covers 
them  with  a  sort  of  pod.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  the  invaded  country  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  growing  season,  and  while  some 
few  may  hatch  prematurely  the  same  season, 


FIG.  5.— Anal  Characters  of 
Female  of  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Locust,  showing 
horny  valves. 


FIG.  6. — a.  Female  depositing  eggs.  b.  Egg  pod  with  end 
broken  open.  c.  i.ggs.  d,  e.  Earth  partially  removed, 
showing  an  egg  mass  in  place  and  one  being  placed. 
/.  Place  where  such  a  mass  has  been  covered  up. 

the  great  bulk  of  them  do  not  hatch  till  the 
following  spring.  The  young  locust  has  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  mature  insect, 
and  differs  principally  in  lacking  wings.  After 
shedding  its  skin  at  four  different  periods,  the 


FIG.  7. — a,  a.  Newly  hatched  larvae,    b.  Full-grown  larva. 
C.  Pupa. 

wings  are  acquired  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks 
from  the  time  of  hatching.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  in  their  native  home  the  insects  show 
any  tendency  to  migrate  except  when  forced 
by  necessity.  They  are  sluggish  in  the  cooler 
parts  of  the  day,  and  fly  principally  between 


the  hours  of  10  A.  M.  and  4  P.  M.,  and  then 
only  when  the  wind  is  in  the  direction  they 
wish  to  go.  Their  life  is  limited  by  the  spring 
and  autumn  frosts,  and  all  that  hatch  in  the 
spring  perish  at  the  approach  of  winter,  soon 
after  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  young  "  hoppers  " 
in  the  invaded  country  often  abound  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  totally  destroy  all  crops. 
In  the  spring  of  1875,  in  several  of  the  west- 
ern counties  of  Missouri,  especially  in  the  mid- 
dle portion  of  the  state,  and  in  the  adjacent 
part  of  Kansas,  the  ground  was  kept  as  bare 
as  in  midwinter  for  nearly  two  months  after 
spring  opened,  nothing  green  being  left  but 
the  leaves  on  the  forest  trees,  and  a  small 
glossy -leaved  plant,  the  amarantm  llitum, 
which  they  invariably  left  untouched.  "When 
not  too  hard  pressed  for  food,  they  will  pass 
by  most  species  of  milkweed  (asclepias),  as  also 
the  wild  grass  on  low  prairies.  The  distress 
caused  by  these  insects  in  the  part  of  Missou- 
ri mentioned,  combined  with  previous  short 
crops  from  drought  and  the  chinch  bug,  made 
public  measures  of  relief  necessary;  and,  al- 
though the  state  entomologist  insisted  that  the 
infliction  was  temporary  and  limited  to  its 
present  area,  many  persons  emigrated,  and  a 
day  of  fasting  and  prayer  was  appointed  by 
the  governor.  These  young  hoppers  travel 
during  the  hotter  hours  of  the  day  in  immense 
schools,  not  in  any  particular  direction,  but  in 
search  of  food.  They  walk  and  hop  alter- 
nately, moving  at  the  rate  of  about  three  yards 
a  minute.  Toward  evening  they  go  to  feed- 
ing, and  generally  collect  afterward  on  fences 
or  other  objects  away  from  the  ground,  so 
as  to  avoid  moisture.  As  they  grow  older 
their  numbers  are  continually  reduced,  not 
only  by  the  attacks  of  enemies  and  by  climatic 
influences,  but  by  devouring  one  another ;  for 
when  they  are  swarming  to  so  unnatural  an 
extent  this  cannibalistic  propensity  is  fully  de- 
veloped. Those  which  acquire  wings  instinc- 
tively go  toward  their  native  home,  or  in  the 
direction  whence  their  parents  had  come  the 
previous  year.  This  exodus  begins  in  Missouri 
early  in  June,  and  reaches  its  acme  about  the 
middle  of  that  month.  They  generally  leave 
in  time  to  enable  the  farmers  to  raise  a  good 
crop  of  corn  and  of  most  vegetables.  Indeed, 
the  distress  and  devastation  is  not  unfrequently 
followed,  as  in  1875,  by  great  abundance.  The 
incursions  generally  take  place  after  two  or 
three  years  of  excessive  drought,  and  are  likely 
to  be  followed  by  a  comparatively  wet  season. 
Aside  from  this  somewhat  uncertain  cause,  the 
total  destruction  of  the  vegetation  during  the 
first  six  or  eight  weeks  of  spring  well  nigh  ex- 
terminates many  other  insect  pests,  such  as  the 
chinch  bug ;  and  the  manure  left  by  the  locusts, 
in  the  very  best  condition  to  be  appropriated, 
increases  in  many  cases  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Not  only  is  there  no  danger  of  this  plague  rav- 
aging the  country  E.  of  the  94th  meridian,  but 
there  is  none  of  its  becoming  a  permanent  evil 
in  any  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley  proper. 


374  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


Some  curious  changes  often  follow  the  -wake 
of  these  locusts,  where  they  denude  a  country 
of  its  vegetation.  Thus,  the  common  purslane 
gets  a  start  over  other  weeds,  and  the  large 
green  and  black  larvae  of  a  common  and  pretty 
hawk  moth  (deilephila  lineata),  which  feed 
upon  it,  abound  to  such  an  extent  as  to  fre- 
quently cause  unnecessary  alarm.  But  the 
most  striking  change  is  the  appearance  of  a 
fine  grass  unnoticed  during  ordinary  seasons, 
which  furnishes  abundant  and  nutritious  food 
for  stock.  This  grass  ia  the  vilfa  vaginceflora, 
an  annual  which  is  common  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  locusts  kill 
out  the  blue  grass  by  gnawing  it  down  too 
closely,  and  the  changed  conditions  give  the 
vilfa  temporarily  the  advantage  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence ;  but  in  a  year  or  two  the 
normal  relations  between  species  are  restored. 
— The  parasites  which  aid  man  in  subjugating 


Fio.  8. — Locust  Mite, 
greatly  enlarged. 


Fto.  ».— SUky  Mtte. 
Natural  size  at  Bide. 


this  locust  consist  mainly  of  four  species,  two 
mites  and  two  flies.  The  silky  mite  (tronibi- 
dium  sericc.um),  a  small  scarlet  animal  about 
two  lines  long,  attacks  the  egg  underground ; 
while  the  locust  mite  (astoma  gryllaria),  a 
still  smaller  species,  of  similar  color,  fastens 
in  numbers  on  the  body  at  the  base  of  the 
wings  of  the  mature  insect.  The  anonymous 
tachina  fly  (tachina  anonyma),  an  insect  twice 


Fio.  10. — Sarcophaga  carnaria :  a.  Larva.  6.  Pnpa.  c.  Fly. 
(The  hair  lines  show  average  natural  lensrth*.)  d.  En- 
larged head  and  flrst  joint  of  larva,  showing  curved 
hooks,  lower  lip  (o),  arid  prothoractc  spiracles.  «.  End 
of  body  of  same,  showing  stigmata  (f)  and  prolegs  and 
vent.  h.  Tarsal  claws  of  fly,  with  protecting  pads.  i. 
Antenna  of  same,  enlarged. 

as  large  as  a  house  fly  but  somewhat  resem- 
bling it,  fastens  its  eggs  to  both  the  young 
and  the  mature  locusts ;  the  maggots  hatched 
from  these  penetrate  the  body  and  devour  the 
vitals  of  their  victim,  soon  causing  its  death. 
Finally  the  common  flesh  fly  (sarcophaga  car- 


naria) deposits  living  maggots  under  the  wings 
of  the  locust,  which  also  in  time  succumbs  to 
them. — A  partial  remedy  against  the  locust, 
in  regions  where  it  is  not  indigenous,  is  found 
in  natural  agencies.  Climatic  conditions  are 
often  unfavorable,  and  many  animals  and  in- 
sects prey  upon  it.  Almost  all  the  birds  of 
the  western  plains  feed  upon  the  locust  and 
its  eggs.  The  protection  of  the  prairie  chick- 
en and  quail  would  be  an  excellent  measure. 
A  better  means  of  preventing  its  ravages  is 
the  destruction  either  of  the  eggs  or  of  the  un- 
fledged young.  The  eggs  being  laid  in  mass- 
es just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil,  usu- 
ally on  high,  dry  ground,  simple  harrowing 
or  shallow  ploughing  will  break  up  the  mass- 
es and  expose  the  eggs  to  the  desiccating  and 
bleaching  effects  of  the  atmosphere,  which  are 
fatal  to  them.  If  deeply  turned  under  by  the 
plough,  many  of  the  eggs  will  rot,  and  the 
rest  will  hatch  too  late  for  the  young  to  do 
serious  damage.  Ground  thus  treated  should 
not  be  turned  again  in  the  spring.  A  few 
days'  excessive  moisture  is  also  fatal  to  the 
eggs,  and  where  irrigation  is  practised  they 
may  be  very  easily  destroyed.  The  eggs,  how- 
ever, are  often  placed  where  none  of  these 
means  can  be  employed.  After  hatching,  the 
young  hoppers  may  be  destroyed  by  heavy 
rolling,  by  collecting  them  into  heaps  and  burn- 
ing them  with  coal  oil,  or  into  windrows  of 
straw,  which  is  then  set  on  fire.  The  most  ef- 
fectual way  of  destroying  them  is  by  ditching, 
especially  where  there  is  no  hay  or  straw  in 
which  to  burn  them,  as  in  western  Missouri  in 
1875.  A  ditch  2  ft.  wide  and  2  ft.  deep,  with 
perpendicular  sides,  is  an  impassable  barrier  to 
the  young  insects.  They  tumble  in,  and  as 
they  accumulate  die  at  the  bottom.  To  pre- 
vent the  intolerable  stench,  pits  or  side  ditches 
should  be  dug  into  which  they  may  be  swept 
and  buried.  Hogs  and  poultry  may  also  be 
turned  out  to  feed  upon  them.  Prof.  Riley 
urges  as  a  possible  means  of  preventing  locust 
incursions,  that  a  thorough  study  of  the  insect 
in  its  Rocky  mountain  breeding  places  be  made 
by  the  national  government ;  for  "  by  learning 
just  when  and  how  to  strike  the  insect  so  as 
to  prevent  its  undue  multiplication  there,  .  .  . 
we  may  hope  to  protect  the  fertile  states  to  the 
east  from  future  calamity." — From  time  imme- 
morial locusts  have  been  used  as  food  in  ori- 
ental countries,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the 
Rocky  mountain  species  makes  a  very  good 
soup  or  bisque. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS,  a  name  applied  indefi- 
nitely to  a  long  series  of  mountain  ranges  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  of  a  great  variety  of  form  and 
structure.  The  term  Stony  mountains  was  ori- 
ginally used  without  the  intention  of  applying 
it  to  any  one  range  or  group  of  ranges.  From 
the  eastern  slope,  westward,  we  pass  over 
range  after  range  for  1,000  m.  or  more,  until 
we  descend  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast 
range  to  the  Pacific.  At  least  two  thirds  of 
the  United  States,  an  area  of  over  2,000,000 


EOCKY  MOUNTAINS 


375 


sq.  m.,  lies  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  this  vast 
area  may  be  defined  as  the  Rocky  mountain  re- 
gion. This  great  group  of  ranges  extends  south- 
ward through  Mexico  and  Central  America  to 
the  isthmus  of  Darien,  and  northward  into  Brit- 
ish America  and  Alaska  to  the  Arctic  ocean. 
The  great  chain  of  the  Andes  of  South  Ameri- 
ca is  an  extension  of  the  same  group,  and  in  a 
general  view  they  all  form  one  great  system. 
Not  till  within  the  present  century  was  there 
any  definite  understanding  of  the  geography 
of  the  Eocky  mountains.  Upon  the  old  maps 
the  mountain  ranges  were  shown  by  a  single 
line  of  hachures,  with  a  few  minor  ranges 
branching  off,  the  whole  trending  nearly  N. 
and  S.,  or  rather  W.  of  N.  and  E.  of  S.  The 
first  important  government  expedition  was  that 
of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  which  in  1804-'6  passed 
up  the  Missouri  river  to  its  source,  crossed  the 
main  divide  of  the  Eocky  mountains,  and  fol- 
lowed the  Columbia  to  its  entrance  into  the 
Pacific  ocean.  Although  this  expedition  was 
a  great  achievement  in  a  geographical  point  of 
view,  taking  into  consideration  the  time  and 
the  means  at  its  command,  yet  much  of  the 
information  it  obtained  was  very  vague  and 
limited  to  a  narrow  belt  across  the  northern 
portion  of  the  country.  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
however,  fixed  pretty  well  the  positions  of  the 
Missouri  and  Columbia  rivers.  The  next  ex- 
plorer was  Major  Z.  M.  Pike,  who  in  1805-'  7 
crossed  the  country  further  south,  and  discov- 
ered the  head  waters  of  the  Arkansas  and  the 
lofty  peak  which  now  bears  his  name.  He 
crossed  the  divide  into  the  Great  Basin.  In 
1819-'20  S.  H.  Long  was  sent  out  by  the  gov- 
ernment with  a  well  equipped  party,  compri- 
sing not  only  topographers,  but  also  geologists 
and  naturalists,  including  Thomas  Say.  After 
Long  came  Bonneville,  Eoss  Cox,  Schoolcraft, 
Nicollet,  Fremont,  and  others,  all  of  whom 
added  to  the  store  of  knowledge  in  regard  to 
this  great  area.  From  1844  to  1860  more 
than  20  expeditions  were  sent  out,  with  the 
object  of  determining  the  best  route  for  a  rail- 
road to  the  Pacific.  In  1853  congress  passed 
the  bill  making  appropriations  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  most  practicable  route  for  a 
railroad  from  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  No  expense  was  spared  in 
equipping  expeditions,  which  traversed  the 
country  from  E.  to  W.,  at  various  points  from 
lat.  49°  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.  The  information  thus  obtained  was 
embraced  in  a  large  series  of  maps  and  reports 
(13  vols.  4to).  Yet  up  to  1865  no  portion  of 
the  great  Eocky  mountain  region  had  been  ex- 
amined with  such  care  and  detail  as  to  render 
the  maps  anything  more  than  approximately 
correct.  The  information  thus  obtained  could 
only  be  placed  on  a  map  projected  on  a  small 
scale,  where  an  error  of  five  or  ten  miles  would 
be  overlooked.  Within  the  past  ten  years  sev- 
eral expeditions  have  been  organized  with  the 
object  of  working  out  certain  areas  with  con- 
siderable detail,  including  topography,  geology, 


and  natural  history ;  and  more  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  Eocky  mountain  region  has  been 
obtained  within  that  period  than  in  all  the  pre- 
vious years. — To  convey  an  idea  of  the  plan 
and  growth  of  the  development  of  the  great 
area  west  of  the  Mississippi,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  suppose  it  to  have  been  originally  a  vast 
plateau,  out  of  which  have  been  evolved  the 
different  ranges  of  mountains  as  if  they  had 
been  lifted  by  volcanic  action.  Indeed  they 
appear  as  wrinkles  on  the  earth's  surface,  and 
were  probably  produced  by  the  contraction  of 
its  crust  in  the  process  of  cooling.  This  may 
be  understood  more  clearly  by  examining  some 
of  the  barometrical  profiles  which  have  already 
been  constructed  across  the  continent.  In  pro- 
ceeding westward  along  the  Missouri  river,  the 
ascent  is  gradual,  at  first  not  more  than  one 
foot  in  a  mile,  but  steadily  increasing  until 
the  base  of  the  mountains  is  reached,  when 
the  rise  becomes  suddenly  50  to  100  ft.  or 
more  in  a  mile.  The  profile  of  the  Pacific 
railroad  shows  that  Omaha  on  the  Missouri 
river  is  1,060  ft.  above  sea  level,  while  at  Co- 
lumbus, 91  m.  by  rail  westward,  the  elevation 
is  1,470  ft.,  showing  an  ascent  of  about  4£ 
ft.  in  a  mile.  At  Cheyenne,  516  m.  W.  of 
Omaha,  the  elevation  is  6,075  ft.,  showing  an 
ascending  grade  from  Omaha  of  nearly  10  ft. 
in  a  mile.  This  entire  distance  is  over  an 
apparently  level  plain,  most  of  the  way  by  the 
valley  of  the  Platte.  From  Cheyenne  to  the 
highest  point  along  the  line  of  the  railroad, 
at  Sherman,  8,271  ft.,  the  distance  is  38  m., 
when  the  grade  suddenly  increases  to  over  66 
ft.  in  a  mile.  The  profile  along  the  Kansas 
Pacific  railroad,  from  Kansas  City  on  the  Mis- 
souri to  Denver,  shows  similar  results.  At 
Kansas  City  the  elevation  is  764  ft. ;  at  Den- 
ver, 639  m.  W.,  5,197  ft.,  making  an  average 
ascent  of  nearly  7  ft.  per  mile  across  an  ap- 
parently level,  treeless  plain.  A  few  miles  W. 
of  Denver,  the  great  Colorado  or  Front  range 
seems  to  rise  abruptly  out  of  the  plains,  its 
summits  reaching  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
— The  great  mass  of  the  Eocky  chain  lies  W.  of 
the  105th  meridian.  The  united  ranges  trend 
about  20°  W.  of  N.  Along  the  eastern  slope 
the  smaller  or  minor  ridges  have  a  trend  more 
to  the  northwest,  so  that  they  constantly  die 
out  in  the  plains,  giving  to  the  eastern  side 
the  appearance  of  an  echelon  arrangement. 
As  the  small  ridges  run  out,  they  often  present 
a  fine  example  of  an  anticlinal,  as  seen  on  the 
Cache  a  la  Poudre  river.  From  the  notches 
in  the  outline  of  the  ranges,  the  Platte,  Ar- 
kansas, and  many  other  rivers  open  into  the 
plains.  About  the  source  of  the  Missouri  the 
main  chain  is  9°  of  longitude  further  W.  than 
in  Colorado.  In  this  broad  space  and  to  the 
eastward  are  numerous  outliers,  as  the  Black 
hills,  Big  Horn,  Bear's  Paw,  Judith  groups, 
&c.,  all  more  or  less  distinctly  connected  with 
the  main  chain.  The  Black  hills  are  connected 
with  the  Laramie  range,  near  the  Eed  Bnttes, 
by  an  anticlinal  valley,  while  the  Big  Horn 


'376 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


is  related  in  the  same  way,  showing  that  they 
are  all  the  product  of  one  uniform  cause. 
The  Black  hills  are  in  Dakota  territory,  ex- 
tending into  Wyoming,  E.  of  the  Big  Horn 
range,  between  lat.  43°  and  45°,  and  Ion.  103° 
and  105°,  and  are  quite  isolated  from  the  main 
chain ;  they  are  a  sort  of  huge  puff  from  out 
of  the  plains,  occupying  an  area  of  about  100 
m.  in  length  and  60  m.  in  breadth.  The  mass 
is  elliptical,  and  the  major  axis  trends  about 
20°  W.  of  N.  The  base  of  the  hills  is  2,500 
to  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  while  the  highest 
peaks  are.  not  more  than  6,000  or  7,000  ft. 
They  are  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  pine, 
which  gives  them  a  black  appearance  in  the 
distance.  The  two  forks  of  the  Cheyenne  em- 
brace the  Black  hills,  and  have  their  origin  in 
the  plains  far  to  the,  westward ;  hence  they 
give  rise  to  no  important  stream.  The  nucleus 
of  the  hills  is  composed  of  feldspathic  granites 
and  slates  surrounded  with  the  full  series  of 
the  sedimentary  strata  known  in  this  region, 
inclining  at  various  angles  from  the  central 
mass,  as  if  originally  their  sedimentary  beds 
had  formed  an  unbroken  communication  across 
the  entire  area ;  or  in  other  words,  they  form 
a  fine  example  of  an  anticlinal  on  a  large  scale. 
There  is  some  good  pasture  and  timber  land  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Black  hills,  but  the  mineral 
resources  have  been  extravagantly  overrated. 
Like  the  Black  hills,  the  Big  Horn  range  does 
not  give  rise  to  any  important  stream.  The 
largest  river  in  this  region,  which  gives  name 
to  the  mountains,  rises  in  the  Wind  River 
range,  passes  through  the  Big  Horn  moun- 
tains, and  flows  into  the  Yellowstone  about  70 
m.  to  the  northward.  The  central  mass  of 
this  range  is  coarse  granite  also,  with  a  series 
of  Silurian,  carboniferous,  Jurassic,  cretaceous, 
and  tertiary  strata,  inclining  from  the  sides. 
The  highest  peak  is  Cloud  peak,  supposed  to  be 
about  7,300  ft.  We  may  separate  the  nuclei  of 
the  mountain  ranges  roughly  into  three  divi- 
sions :  those  with  a  granitic  and  those  with  an 
igneous  nucleus,  and  those  with  a  combination 
of  the  two.  Usually  the  volcanic  material  has 
come  up  through  the  granitic  mass  and  flowed 
over  it,  in  some  instances  almost  entirely  con- 
cealing it.  Still  further  W.  is  the  Wind  Riv- 
er chain,  the  loftiest  peak  of  which  Fremont, 
whose  name  it  bears,  found  to  be  18,570  ft. 
The  central  mass  of  the  mountains  is  also  a 
coarse,  massive  granite,  overlaid  by  metamor- 
phic  slates,  in  which  the  gold  mines  are  found. 
This  chain  forms  a  portion  of  the  main  divide. 
— To  the  north  of  the  Wind  River  mountains, 
in  the  N.  W.  corner  of  Wyoming  territory,  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  remarkable 
regions  in  the  world.  The  Yellowstone  na- 
tional park  occupies  an  area  of  65  m.  from  N. 
to  S.  and  55  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  or  3,575  sq. 
m.,  the  whole  of  which  is  more  than  6,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  Yellowstone  lake,  the 
source  of  the  Yellowstone  river,  is  22  m.  long 
and  12  to  15  m.  wide,  and  is  7,788  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  ranges  of  mountains  that  hem  it 


in  on  every  side  are  all  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
are  covered  with  snow  all  the  year.  There  is 
frost  here  every  month  of  the  year,  and  in 
June,  July,  and  August  the  thermometer  fre- 
quently sinks  to  25°.  (See  WYOMING.)  In  a 
geographical  point  of  view  this  park  will  al- 
ways be  of  the  highest  interest,  as  constituting 
the  apex  of  the  continent,  and  giving  origin  to 
three  of  the  largest  rivers  in  North  America. 
On  the  N.  side  are  the  sources  of  the  Yellow- 
stone; on  the  W.  those  of  the  three  forks  of  the 
Missouri ;  on  the  S.  W.  and  S.  those  of  Snake 
river,  flowing  into  the  Columbia  and  thence 
into  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  those  of  Green  river, 
rushing  southward  to  join  the  great  Colorado, 
and  finally  emptying  into  the  gulf  of  Califor- 
nia; while  on  the  E.  side  are  the  numerous 
sources  of  Wind  river. — Southward  from  the 
Wind  River  chain,  the  mountainous  character 
of  the  divide  is  interrupted  for  a  short  dis- 
tance by  comparatively  level  plateaus,  while  to 
the  east  are  the  Laramie  plains,  bounded  by 
a  comparatively  low  range,  of  which  Laramie 
peak  is  about  10,000  ft.  high,  and,  on  account 
of  its  isolation  and  the  insignificance  of  the 
mountains  in  the  vicinity,  is  one  of  the  great 
landmarks  of  the  west.  Still  further  S.  are 
the  remarkable  mountain  regions  and  the  parka 
of  Colorado.  The  Colorado  or  Front  range 
rises  up  before  the  traveller  on  the  plains  like 
a  gigantic  wall,  with  Long's  peak  at  the  north 
and  Pike's  peak  at  the  south,  as  high  bastions. 
West  of  this  range  are  three  great  depressions, 
North,  Middle,  and  South  parks.  In  the  Front 
range  are  several  peaks  over  14,200  ft.  high 
(according  to  the  latest  surveys) :  Long's,  14,- 
271  ft. ;  Evans,  14,330  ft. ;  Rosalie,  or  Rosa, 
14,340  ft. ;  and  Gray's  and  Torrey's,  twin  peaks 
with  an  interval  of  less  than  a  mile,  14,341 
and  14,836  ft.  In  this  range  are  the  oldest 
known  silver  and  gold  mines  of  Colorado.  On 
the  W.  side  of  the  parks  is  the  Park  range,  in 
which  are  several  peaks  of  over  13,000  ft.,  and 
a  few,  as  Mt.  Lincoln,  of  over  14,000  ft.  In 
this  range  are  many  important  gold  and  silver 
mines.  From  Mt.  Lincoln,  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  South  park,  one  can  look  down  into  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Arkansas  and  across  to  the 
Sahwatch  range,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
in  the  west.  At  its  N.  end  is  the  Holy  Cross 
group,  in  lat.  89°  30',  Ion.  106°  33',  composed  of 
gneiss  and  coarse  massive  granite.  For  80  m. 
to  the  southward  this  range  literally  bristles 
with  peaks,  many  of  which  rise  over  14,000  ft. ; 
Harvard,  Yale,  and  Princeton  are  respectively 
14,384,  14,150,  and  14,199  ft.,  and  many  others 
are  over  18,000  ft.  The  rocky  mass  is  mostly 
granite,  intersected  with  igneous  dikes.  The 
general  trend  of  this  range  is  about  20°  W.  of 
N.,  and  it  forms  one  of  the  most  gigantic  anti- 
clinals  in  the  entire  Rocky  mountain  region. 
Vast  ranges  of  massive  granitic  rock,  capped 
with  limestone  and  sandstone,  incline  from 
either  side,  with  broad  valleys  intervening. 
The  proofs  of  ancient  glacial  action  on  both 
sides  of  the  range  are  wonderful.  In  the  val- 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


377 


ley  of  Roches  Moutonn£s  creek,  which  flows 
into  Eagle  river  from  its  N.  E.  base,  are  very 
remarkable  rounded  masses  of  granite,  such 
as  have  long  been  called  sheep  backs  or  roches 
moutonnes  in  the  glacial  regions  of  central  Eu- 
rope. Here  they  are  shown  on  a  grand  scale. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  Gun- 
nison  are  marvellous  examples  of  lateral  and 
terminal  moraines,  and  there  are  numerous 
lakes  whose  basins  have  been  scooped  out  by 
some  extended  glacial  action.  The  Twin  lakes 
are  beautiful  sheets  of  water  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  Sahwatch  range,  2  to  3  in.  in  diameter 
and  about  80  ft.  deep.  These  are  true  glacial 
lakes.  The  proofs  of  glacial  action  are  com- 
mon throughout  the  Rocky  mountain  region, 
but  they  are  nowhere  shown  to  such  a  marked 
extent  E.  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  as  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Sahwatch  range.  From  the 
W.  side  of  this  range  flow  the  Gunnison  river 
and  southern  branches  of  the  Grand,  which, 
after  cutting  deep  canons  or  gorges,  unite 
near  the  western  boundary  of  Colorado ;  and 
cutting  a  still  deeper  cafion,  the  stream  flows 
into  the  great  Colorado  of  the  West. — West 
of  the  Sahwatch  or  great  "Mother"  (Madre) 
range  is  another  remarkable  group  in  the 
drainage  that  leads  to  the  great  Colorado, 
called  the  Elk  range.  It  is  about  50  m.  in 
length,  with  a  trend  about  N.  W.  and  S.  E., 
and  differs  from  any  of  the  others  mentioned 
both  in  form  and  structure.  In  this  range 
are  seven  peaks  of  the  first  order,  rising  to  an 
elevation  of  nearly  14,000  ft.,  and  many  others 
ranging  from  12,000  to  13,000  ft.  The  geolo- 
gical structure  is  very  peculiar.  It  appears  that 
the  vast  thickness  of  sedimentary  strata  once 
rested  upon  a  floor  of  igneous  granite  in  a  pasty 
or  semi-pasty  condition,  and  that  these  high 
peaks  were  thrust  up  through  the  overlying 
beds,  in  many  instances  completely  overturn- 
ing them  for  miles  in  extent.  There  are  faults 
2,000  ft.  in  extent,  and  dikes  without  number, 
where  the  igneous  material  seems  to  have  been 
squeezed  through  fissures  in  the  thousands  of 
feet  of  overlying  strata,  vertically  as  well  as 
horizontally.  Deep  gorges  and  amphitheatres 
meet  the  eye  on  every  side.  Snow  Mass  peak, 
13,961  ft.  high,  is  so  called  from  the  immense 
mass  of  perpetual  snow  on  its  sides.  At  its 
immediate  base,  on  all  sides,  are  beautiful  lakes. 
The  surface  is  remarkably  rugged,  an,d  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach  on  every  side  are  high 
peaks  with  deep  gorges  in  one  continuous  suc- 
cession, while  the  sedimentary  rocks  are  thrown 
into  chaos.  On  the  N.  W.  end  of  the  range  is 
a  remarkable  peak  which  forms  an  excellent 
landmark,  known  among  the  miners  and  pros- 
pectors for  years  as  Sopris  peak,  12,972  ft. 
high.  From  this  point  the  land  slopes  off  into 
the  remarkable  plateau  country  bordering  on 
the  Colorado  river,  literally  gashed  as  it  were 
by  the  little  streams  which  have  cut  innumera- 
ble canons  through  it.  There  is  probably  no 
country  in  the  world  that  presents  more  ob- 
struction to  the  traveller.— At  first  glance  the 


Park  range  appears  to  be  connected  with  the 
Sangre  de  Oristo  range,  which  bounds  the  E. 
side  of  the  San  Luis  valley,  but  the  former  is 
separated  from  the  latter  by  the  Arkansas  val- 
ley, and  really  lies  parallel  with  it.  It  begins 
in  lat.  38°  26',  Ion.  106°,  trends  S.  30°  E.,  and 
shows  on  its  summit  a  continuous  series  of 
sharp  peaks.  Parallel  to  it,  on  the  east  and 
bordering  the  plains,  is  the  Wet  mountain 
range.  The  interval  is  known  as  the  Wet 
mountain  valley  and  Huerfano  park,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  districts  in  Colo- 
rado. These  mountains  extend  far  down  into 
New  Mexico.  Southward  the  Sierra  Blanca 
and  Spanish  peaks  are  lofty  landmarks.  Fort 
Garland,  an  old  military  post  in  the  San  Luis 
valley,  is  near  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Blanca. 
The  San  Luis  valley,  though  nearly  surrounded 
with  high  ranges,  is  not  a  park,  but  a  valley 
30  to  50  m.  wide,  through  which  the  Rio 
Grande  flows  after  emerging  from  the  San 
Juan  mountains,  cutting  a  gorge  through  its 
basaltic  floor  1,000  to  1,500  ft.  in  depth  for 
60  to  80  m. — Immediately  W.  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  San  Luis  valley,  in  S.  W.  Colo- 
rado, is  a  most  interesting  as  well  as  lofty 
group  of  mountains,  forming  what  is  now 
called  the  San  Juan  district.  These  moun- 
tains form  the  sources  of  a  great  number  of 
streams.  On  the  north  are  many  branches 
of  the  Gunnison,  on  the  east  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  on  the  south  and  west  the  various  branch- 
es of  the  Rio  San  Juan,  which  flows  S.  W. 
and  W.  and  unites  with  the  Colorado.  Within 
an  area  of  about  4,000  sq.  m.  is  the  most  im- 
portant and  rugged  group  of  peaks  in  Colo- 
rado, and  probably  in  the  first  division  of  the 
Rocky  chain.  More  than  100  points  are  above 
13,000  ft.,  and  about  10  peaks  over  14,000  ft. 
On  the  N.  side  of  the  group  is  the  lofty  Un- 
compahgre  or  Uncapahgri  peak,  with  its  dome- 
shaped  summit  rising  to  a  height  of  14,235  ft. 
Large  areas  here  are  composed  entirely  of 
quartzites,  and  others  wholly  of  igneous  rocks. 
Toward  the  south,  in  southern  Colorado  and 
in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  the  volcanic  ac- 
tion seems  to  have  been  very  great,  and  the 
area  covered  with  igneous  rocks  increases ; 
sometimes  they  occupy  several  thousand  square 
miles,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  What  are 
called  the  broad  table  lands  or  mesas  of  New 
Mexico  are  simply  floors  of  basalt.  Colorado 
may  be  regarded  as  the  culminating  area  of 
lofty  points  in  the  eastern  division  of  the 
Rocky  chain,  as  California  is  in  the  western, 
in  its  Sierra  Nevada  ranges.  Within  the  limits 
of  Colorado  are  50  or  more  points  exceeding 
14,000  ft.  in  height,  and  more  than  250  of  over 
13,000  ft.,  while  the  number  reaching  12,000 
ft.  is  unknown.  The  average  elevation  of 
Colorado  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
state  or  territory  in  the  Union,  being  6,600  ft., 
while  California  with  its  magnificent  group  of 
peaks  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  averages  only  2,800 
ft. — To  the  west,  and  walling  in  the  great  in- 
terior basin  on  the  east,  is  the  Wahsatch  range, 


378 


KOCKY  MOUNTAINS 


which  is  unsurpassed  for  beauty  of  form.  The 
scenery  in  the  vicinity  of  this  range  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  its  grandeur  and  beauty. 
Mt.  Nebo,  one  of  its  prominent  peaks  and  a 
noted  landmark,  is  11,992  ft.  high.  The  trend 
of  the  range  is  nearly  N.  and  S.,  while  project- 
ing like  a  spur  toward  the  east  is  the  Uintah 
range,  with  a  trend  nearly  E.  and  W.  and  with 
a  number  of  peaks  over  13,000  ft.  high.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  symmetrical 
ranges  in  the  west.  The  nucleus  is  composed 
of  quartzites,  which  are  so  elevated  that  the 
central  mass  seems  to  have  been  lifted  up 
horizontally  or  nearly  BO.  The  entire  range 
is  a  remarkable  example  of  a  huge  anticlinal, 
and  on  either  side  of  the  axis  are  the  numerous 
pyramidal  peaks,  rising  far  above  the  timber 
line  and  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Three 
distinct  belts  may  be  noted  in  this  range :  one 
above  the  timber  line,  revealing  only  the  bare, 
bleak  rocks ;  below,  a  dense  belt  of  pine  tim- 
ber; and  near  the  base  and  sloping  off  into 
the  plains,  another  comparatively  barren  belt. 
The  Wahsatch  range  has  a  gray  granite  nucleus, 
with  a  great  thickness  of  sedimentary  beds 
lying  on  the  sides  and  often  rising  to  the  very 
summits.  In  the  Great  Basin,  between  the 
Wahsatch  mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
are  many  smaller  mountain  ranges  lying  nearly 
parallel  with  each  other,  some  of  which  seem 
to  rise  abruptly  out  of  the  surrounding  plateau. 
This  great  depression  was  undoubtedly  at  no 
remote  period,  geologically  speaking,  a  lake  of 
several  hundred  miles  in  extent,  out  of  whose 
waters  the  summits  of  the  mountains  projected 
like  islands.  In  the  Shoshone  basin,  forming 
the  E.  portion  of  Oregon  and  the  W.  part  of 
Idaho,  are  a  great  number  of  similar  ranges, 
all  lying  parallel  with  each  other,  appearing 
like  the  waves  of  the  sea  after  a  storm.  The 
Salmon  River  mountains,  Blue  mountains,  and 
many  others  are  composed  of  a  series  of  re- 
markable regular  ridges  trending  mainly  N. 
and  S.— The  second  division  comprises  the  Cas- 
cade, Coast,  and  Sierra  Nevada  ranges,  front- 
ing the  Pac-ific  ocean,  which  were  formerly 
included  under  the  general  term  Rocky  moun- 
tains, and  are  now  called  by  some  geographers 
the  Cordilleras.  These  mountains,  in  their  ex- 
tension S.  into  Mexico,  have  long  been  known 
as  the  Cordilleras  of  Mexico,  and  the  main 
ranges  of  South  America  bear  the  name  of 
Cordilleras  or  Andes.  Still,  as  all  the  moun- 
tains W.  of  Ion.  105°  are  plainly  a  unity  in  a 
geographical  view,  they  will  fall  under  the  gen- 
eral and  quite  indefinite  term  "  Rocky  moun- 
tains." North  of  lat.  49°  but  little  is  known 
of  these  western  ranges  ;  but  it  is  known 
that  they  extend  without  any  permanent  in- 
terruption to  the  Arctic  ocean,  with  here  and 
there  a  lofty  peak,  which  from  ignorance  of 
its  precise  character  has  been  assigned  what 
appears  a  greatly  exaggerated  elevation.  The 
latest  measurement  by  triangulation  makes  Mt. 
St.  Elias  17,500  ft.  high;  Mt.  Hood  in  Ore- 
gon and  Mt.  Baker,  both  of  which  are  enor- 


mous extinct  volcanic  cones,  have  an  elevation 
respectively  of  11,225  and  11,100  ft.  Tho 
Cascade  runge  is  a  continuation  northward  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  is  separated  only  by 
the  chasm  of  the  Klamath  river.  Through  the 
entire  length  of  Oregon  and  Washington  terri- 
tory, the  Cascade  range  runs  N.  and  S.  paral- 
lel to,  and  about  100  m.  from,  the  shore  of 
the  Pacific.  Near  the  49th  parallel  it  is  bent 
northwesterly,  conforming  with  the  trend  of 
the  coast,  and  in  British  Columbia  is  called  the 
Marine  range.  The  average  elevation  is  5,000 
to  6,000  ft.  It  obtained  its  name  from  the 
cascades  of  the  Columbia,  which  are  formed 
by  the  passage  of  that  river  through  it.  The 
country  along  the  immediate  coast  is  but  a 
narrow  belt,  much  broken,  while  the  shore  is 
indented  with  great  numbers  of  bays  or  inlets, 
of  which  the  estuary  of  the  Columbia,  Shoal- 
water  bay,  and  Gray's  harbor  are  noted.  Prom- 
ontories and  rocky  islets  are  visible  everywhere 
as  surviving  monuments  of  the  terrific  erosion 
which  has  swept  away  entire  mountain  ranges, 
leaving  at  this  time  only  the  single  group  of 
the  Cascade  range. — South  of  Cape  Mendocino, 
in  lat.  40°  30',  to  Point  Conception,  near  lat.  34° 
30',  the  Coast  range  of  California  is  composed 
of  a  succession  of  parallel  ranges,  with  inter- 
vening valleys  of  great  beauty  and  fertility. 
Between  the  Coast  range  and  the  Cascades  is 
a  longitudinal  depression  which  forms  the  val- 
ley of  the  Willamette,  extending  northward  to 
the  gulf  of  Georgia.  Similar  valleys  occur  in 
California,  as  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento. 
In  this  northern  region  the  forests  are  very 
dense,  and  the  undergrowth  so  thick  that  it  is 
difficult  to  penetrate  it.  Trees  occur  of  ma- 
jestic size,  of  which  the  yellow  fir  (abies  Dou- 
glassi)  predominates  over  all  others.  The 
cedar  (thuja  gigantea)  is  also  very  abundant. 
The  lumber  interests  of  this  country  are  im- 
mense. Between  the  Cascade  and  the  main 
Rocky  chain  lies  the  basin  of  the  Columbia, 
which  is  an  arid  plain  covered  with  artemisia 
and  bunch  grass.  The  surface  is  cut  through 
by  deep  cafions,  through  which  the  large  rivers 
flow  between  huge  walls  of  basalt.  Although 
there  are  great  varieties  of  climate  in  this  divi- 
sion, it  is  extremely  mild  on  the  immediate 
coast.  At  Puget  sound  snow  seldom  falls,  and 
remains  but  a  short  time.  Rains  are  very  abun- 
dant, reaching  60  inches  during  the  year.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  J.  D.  Whitney,  the  Coast  range 
inosculates  with  the  Sierra  Nevada  both  N. 
and  S.  Near  Tejon  pass,  in  lat.  35°,  the  ridges 
are  topographically  undistingnishable  from  each 
other,  and  it  is  only  by  carefully  studying  the 
position  of  the  strata  that  it  can  be  determined 
where  one  system  begins  and  the  other  ends. 
The  Coast  ranges  are  composed  of  newer  for- 
mations than  the  Sierra,  and  have  been  sub- 
jected to  greater  disturbances  up  to  a  recent 
period ;  and  they  contain  no  rocks  older  than 
the  cretaceous.  There  are  no  lofty  points  in 
the  Coast  ranges,  according  to  Whitney,  the 
central  portions  rarely  rising  above  4,000  ft., 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


•while  in  approaching  the  Sierra  N.  and  S.  the 
highest  points  are  as  much  as  8,000  ft.  The 
well  known  Monte  Diablo  is  only  3,856  ft. 
above  the  sea,  although  a  very  conspicuous  ob- 
ject from  San  Francisco. — The  Sierra  Nevada 
or  Snowy  range  forms  the  western  border  of 
the  great  continental  plateau,  corresponding 
with  the  main  Rocky  chain  on  the  east.  While 
the  base  of  the  eastern  mass  is  everywhere 
4,000  to  5,000  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  the  de- 
scent to  the  sea  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  the 
Sierra  slopes  rapidly,  so  that  the  sea  level  is 
reached  within  100  m.  So  far  as  now  known, 
the  highest  peak  of  the  United  States  is  in  the 
Sierra  group,  viz.,  Mt.  Whitney,  14,887  ft.  The 
scenery  of  the  Sierra  group  is  of  surpassing 
beauty  and  grandeur.  There  is  not  such  a 
vast  number  of  high  peaks  as  in  the  Colorado 
group,  but  it  may  fairly  claim  the  highest ;  and 
inasmuch  as  the  surrounding  country  has  a 
much  lower  altitude,  there  is  a  massiveness 
about  this  magnificent  range  that  even  the 
Sahwatch  of  Colorado  cannot  boast.  The 
Sierra  chain  is  about  450  m.  in  length,  and 
averages  about  80  m.  in  width,  supposing  its 
northern  terminus  to  be  at  Lassen's  butte,  lat. 
40°  30'.  The  central  mass  or  core  is  chiefly 
granite,  with  metamorphic  slates  on  either 
side,  capped  with  basaltic  and  other  kinds  of 
lava  and  heavy  beds  of  ashes  and  breccia.  All 
these  rocks  are  visible  from  the  Central  Pacific 
railroad  between  Truckee.  and  Sacramento. 
The  evidences  of  very  modern  volcanic  action 
are  visible  everywhere.  Even  now  there  are 
numerous  hot  springs  and  geysers,  as  well  as 
occasional  earthquake  shocks.  The  height  of 
some  of  the  dominating  peaks  is  as  follows : 
Mt.  Shasta,  14,442  ft. ;  Mt.  Tyndall,  14,386  ft. ; 
Mt.  Kaweah,  14,000  ft.;  Mt.  Brewer,  13,886 
ft. ;  Eed  Slate  peak,  13,400  ft. ;  Mt.  Dana,  13,- 
277  ft.  On  the  mountains  snow  falls  to  the 
depth  of  40  or  50- ft.,  and  much  of  it  remains 
all  the  year.  Enormous  glaciers  exist  here 
even  at  the  present  time,  and  tfie  evidences 
of  ancient  glacial  action  are  wonderful.  The 
worn  and  rounded  granites  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada were  well  adapted  to  preserve  the  rec- 
ords of  the  old  glaciers,  and  they  everywhere 
testify  to  the  intensity  of  their  former  power. 
These  glaciers  have  been  continued  down  to 
the  present  time  in  a  modified  condition.  All 
the  glaciers  occur  on  the  north  side  of  the 
mountains,  and  are  very  numerous,  now  esti- 
mated at  65.  The  number  known  in  the  Alps 
is  1,100,  of  which  about  100  may  be  consid- 
ered as  primary.  Some  of  the  Sierra  glaciers 
are  nearly  as  large  as  the  Alpine,  as  the  Lyell, 
North  Ritter,  and  others  not  yet  named.  Al- 
though the  existence  of  glaciers  in  the  Rocky 
mountains  is  a  very  modern  discovery,  enough 
is  already  known  about  them  to  invest  the  sub- 
ject with  the  highest  interest.  Moraines  and 
morainal  lakes  occur  in  the  Sierras  in  great 
numbers.  Lake  Tenaya,  at  the  head  of  the  Mer- 
ced river,  or  a  branch  of  the  same  name,  is  a 
conspicuous  example.  Traces  of  the  existence 


of  an  immense  flow  of  ice  are  shown  here  in  the 
valley  occupied  by  the  lake,  according  to  Whit- 
ney, and  the  ridges  on  either  side  of  the  trail 
are  so  worn  by  glacial  action  that  the  rocks 
are  slippery,  rendering  travel  dangerous.  Four 
pretty  well  marked  belts  of  forest  vegetation 
have  been  observed  by  Whitney.  The  lowest 
is  the  foot  hills,  with  oaks,  buckeyes,  and  small 
digger  pines;  the  second  belt  lies  between 
4,000  and  5,000  ft.,  and  consists  of  pitch  pine 
(pinus  ponderosa),  bastard  cedar,  and  Douglas 
spruce;  the  third  zone,  between  7,000  and 
9,000  ft.,  is  that  of  firs,  as  picea  grandis  and 
amabilis,  tamarack  pine,  &c. ;  and  on  the 
highest  belt,  above  9,000  ft.,  where  vegetation 
begins  to  dwindle,  a  dwarf  pine  (pimts  cris- 
tata)  is  seen  up  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow. 
There  are  great  numbers  of  beautiful  lakes  in 
the  Sierras,  fed  by  the  melting  of  the  snows, 
among  which  are  Lake  Tahoe  and  Donner  lake. 
The  Yosemite  valley,  so  remarkable  for  'its 
rugged  scenery,  and  which  has  been  set  apart 
by  legislative  action  as  a  pleasure  ground,  is 
in  the  Sierra.  Through  this  valley  flows  the 
Merced  river,  and  at  its  source  is  a  fine  group 
of  peaks,  13,000  ft.  high,  called  the  Merced 
group. — So  far  as  structure  and  topography  are 
concerned,  the  great  mountain  system  extend- 
ing along  the  western  borders  of  the  western 
hemisphere,  from  the  Arctic  ocean  to  Pata- 
gonia, may  be  regarded  as  a  unit,  and  due  to 
one  great  cause.  North  America  has  its  lofty 
Rocky  group  opposite  the  deep  North  Pacific 
ocean,  and  its  small  Appalachian  group  oppo- 
site the  shallower  North  Atlantic.  So  South 
America  has  its  still  higher  Andes  opposite  the 
deeper  South  Pacific,  and  the  smaller  Brazil- 
ian ranges  opposite  the  South  Atlantic.  This 
fact,  stated  by  Dana,  is  founded  on  a  deep- 
seated  structural  cause.  The  elevation  of  a 
portion  of  the  earth's  crust  requires  in  close 
proximity  a  corresponding  depression.  The 
Rocky  system  may  be  primarily  divided  into 
two  portions,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast 
ranges  fronting  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  the  main 
Rocky  chain  which  forms  the  great  water  di- 
vide of  the  continent.  Each  of  these  chains 
or  groups  is  made  up  of  a  great  number  of 
smaller  ranges,  in  the  aggregate  apparently 
possessing  a  considerable  degree  of  regularity, 
but  when  studied  in  detail  showing  very  little 
regularity  or  system.  Sometimes,  as  in  the 
Great  Basin,  the  main  ranges  seem  to  lie  par- 
allel for  the  most  part,  but  usually  the  minor 
ridges  branch  off  in  every  direction.  More 
commonly  the  trend  is  about  N.  E.  and  S.  W.-, 
but  sometimes  it  is  due  N.  and  S.  or  E.  and  W. 
The  Wahsatch  range  in  Utah  trends  nearly  N. 
and  S.,  while  the  Uintah  range,  which  seema 
to  branch  off  from  it,  trends  nearly  E.  and  W. 
The  area  W.  of  the  Mississippi  may  be  divided 
into  mountain  and  prairie  or  plain  country. 
The  belt  of  plains  on  the  E.  slope  averages 
about  500  m.  in  width,  and  gradually  rises  to 
the  base  of  the  mountains.  The  mountain  por- 
tion has  its  greatest  breadth  between  the  36th 


380 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


and  41st  parallels,  where  it  varies  from  800  to 
1,000  in.  In  this  belt  are  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  lofty  peaks,  including  the  highest  por- 
tion of  the  Sierra  Nevada. — Among  the  numer- 
ous ranges  of  the  Rocky  chain  are  many  val- 
leys and  plateaus,  varying  from  a  few  acres  to 
hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  square  miles. 
Sometimes  they  are  formed  by  erosion  or  by 
depression ;  many  of  them  are  ancient  lake 
basins.  In  all  the  great  mountain  districts  of 
the  west  are  thousands  of  these  openings,  into 
which  settlements  have  already  penetrated. 
In  the  San  Juan  mountains  is  Baker's  park, 
with  an  extensive  settlement  of  miners,  and  in 
the  surrounding  mountains  are  some  of  the 
richest  silver  mines  in  America.  The  North, 
Middle,  and  South  parks,  in  Colorado,  are  areas 
of  depression  underlaid  with  sedimentary  strata 
and  walled  on  every  side  by  lofty  mountain 
ranges ;  they  are  really  old  lake  basins.  The 
North  park  has  a  comparatively  level  surface, 
and  an  average  elevation  of  8,000  ft.  S.  of 
this,  and  only  separated  by  a  rather  low  moun- 
tain range,  is  the  Middle  park,  which  is  much 
larger  and  far  more  rugged;  indeed,  there  is 
very  little  of  what  might  be  called  plain  coun- 
try, but  a  succession  of  high  ridges,  many  of 
which  are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  average 
elevation  is  about  7,500  ft.  Still  further  S., 
but  separated  by  a  much  wider  belt  of  moun- 
tainous district,  is  the  South  park,  which  is 
mostly  a  plain,  with  an  average  elevation  of 
about  9,000  ft.  In  these  parks  there  is  frost 
every  month  of  the  year.  (See  COLORADO.) 
San  Luis  valley,  in  southern  Colorado  and 
northern  New  Mexico,  has  an  average  eleva- 
tion of  7,000  to  8,000  ft.  The  Llano  Estacado 
of  Texas  and  New  Mexico  averages  3,200  to 
4,700  ft.  above  sea  level;  the  Colorado  plateau 
in  Arizona,  5,500  ft. ;  Salt  Lake  valley,  Utah, 
4,200  to  4,500  ft.;  Laramie  plains,  Wyoming 
territory,  7,000  ft. ;  Snake  river  plain,  in  Ida- 
ho, 4,000  to  4,500  ft. ;  Sevier  lake  basin,  Utah, 
4,700  ft. ;  1 1  uniliul.lt  river  basin  (Lassen's  mea- 
dows), Nevada,  4,200  ft. ;  Carson  river  basin, 
8,800  ft. ;  Walker's  river  basin,  4,100  ft. ;  and 
Mojave  river  basin,  California,  1,100  ft.  Com- 
paring the  mountain  plateaus  or  basins  of  the 
Rocky  mountain  region  with  some  of  those  in 
the  Andean  region  of  South  America,  the  differ- 
ence of  elevation  is  very  great.  The  Antisana 
plateau  of  South  America  is  13,451  ft.;  the 
basin  of  Santa  F6  de  Bogota,  8,413  ft.;  and 
the  basin  near  Lake  Titicaca,  12,853  ft.  Per- 
haps as  great  an  extent  of  plateau  is  comprised 
in  the  belt  between  the  38th  and  44th  parallels 
of  latitude  as  in  any  other  portion  of  the  Rocky 
area.  Through  this  belt  the  Pacific  railroad 
passes.  From  Omaha  to  Cheyenne  the  track 
lies  nearly  all  the  way  on  the  most  modern 
tertiary  formations.  From  Cheyenne  west- 
ward the  road  crosses  the  Laramie  range,  the 
highest  point,  Sherman,  being  8,271  ft.  After 
passing  over  about  15  m.  of  granite  rocks,  it 
descends  into  the  Laramie  plains.  Thence  to 
the  Wahsatch  range  in  Utah  no  more  granitic 


rocks  are  met  with,  only  cretaceous  or  tertiary. 
In  crossing  the  water  divide  at  Creston,  7,030 
ft.  high,  the  stranger  would  not  suspect  that 
he  was  passing  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
slope.  The  road  runs  through  the  Wahsatch 
range  at  right  angles,  in  the  channel  of  the 
Weber  river,  with  only  4  m.  of  granitic  rocks, 
so  that  from  Omaha  to  Ogden  only  about  18 
m.  of  metamorphic  rocks  are  met  with.  Thence 
the  Central  Pacific  crosses  the  Salt  lake  basin, 
enters  the  Humboldt  valley,  and  really  meets 
with  no  mountains  until  it  reaches  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  a  most  formidable  obstacle  pre- 
sents itself  in  a  massive  granite  mountain  range, 
which  however  is  crossed  at  an  elevation  of  only 
7,042  ft. — According  to  Messrs.  Blake  and  King, 
there  are  seven  longitudinal  zones  or  belts  of 
mineral  deposits  in  the  west,  following  the  pre- 
vailing direction  of  the  mountain  ranges.  Mr. 
King  says :  "  The  Pacific  coast  ranges  upon  the 
west  carry  quicksilver,  tin,  and  chromic  iron. 
The  next  belt  is  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Oregon  Cascades,  which  upon  their  W. 
slope  bear  two  zones,  a  foot-hill  chain  of  cop- 
per mines,  and  a  middle  line  of  gold  deposits. 
These  gold  veins  and  the  resultant  placer  mines 
extend  far  into  Alaska,  characterized  by  the 
occurrence  of  gold  in  quartz,  by  a  small  amount 
of  that  metal  which  is  entangled  in  iron  sul- 
phurets,  and  by  occupying  splits  in  the  up- 
turned metamorphic  strata  of  the  Jurassic  age. 
Lying  to  the  east  of  this  zone,  along  the  E. 
base  of  the  Sierras,  and  stretching  southward 
into  Mexico,  is  a  chain  of  silver  mines,  con- 
taining comparatively  little  base  metal,  and  fre- 
quently included  in  volcanic  rocks.  Through 
middle  Mexico,  Arizona,  middle  Nevada,  and 
central  Idaho  is  another  line  of  silver  mines, 
mineralized  with  complicated  association  of 
the  base  metals,  and  more  often  occurring  in 
older  rocks.  Through  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and 
western  Montana  lies  another  zone  of  argentif- 
erous galena  lodes.  To  the  east  again  the  New 
Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana  gold 
belt  is  an  extremely  well  defined  and  continu- 
ous chain  of  deposits."  It  has  usually  been 
understood  that  there  is  no  coal  in  the  true 
coal  measures  in  the  Rocky  mountain  district ; 
but  of  late  years  a  few  thin  seams  have  been 
reported  as  occurring  in  the  south  and  south- 
west. In  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Montana, 
and  New  Mexico,  vast  areas  are  underlaid  by 
thick  beds  of  coal  belonging  to  the  cretaceous 
and  tertiary  groups.  In  southern  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  and  the  interior  of  Utah,  thick 
and  important  beds  of  coal  are  found  in  the 
cretaceous  group,  while  along  the  E.  slope  of 
the  Rocky  chain  in  Colorado,  as  at  Raton  hills, 
Cafion  City,  Colorado  Springs,  Golden  City, 
and  northward,  are  numerous  coal  beds  be- 
longing to  the  lignitic  group,  eocene  tertiary, 
which  are  now  wrought  to  a  large  extent.  In 
the  northwest  the  lignitic  area  covers  at  least 
100,000  sq.  m.  Along  the  Union  Pacific  rail- 
road are  coal  beds  of  the  same  age,  without 
which  the  railroad  could  not  exist.  Not  less 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


381 


than  20,000  tons  a  month  are  mined  at  Evans- 
ton,  Rock  Springs,  and  Carbon,  in  Wyoming 
territory,  for  the  use  of  this  road  alone.  From 
Coalville,  Utah,  E.  of  Salt  Lake  City,  no  re- 
markable beds  of  coal  are  found  along  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  Pacific  railroad  to  San 
Francisco.  The  scarcity  of  tree  vegetation  in 
the  Rocky  mountain  area  renders  this  coal  of 
vital  importance  to  the  present  and  future  in- 
dustries of  the  great  west. — The  timber  line  or 
highest  limit  of  tree  vegetation  does  not  vary 
much  in  the  main  chain  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. In  Colorado  and  Utah  it  is  from  11,000 
to  12,000  ft. ;  in  northern  Wyoming  and  Mon- 
tana, from  8,000  to  11,000  ft. ;  on  Mt.  Shasta, 
California,  8,000  ft. ;  while  as  far  south  as 
San  Francisco  mountain,  Arizona,  between  lat. 
35°  and  36°,  it  is  11,547  ft.  According  to  the 
observations  made  up  to  this  time  (1875),  the 
timber  line  is  lower  to  the  far  north.  Between 
lat.  45°  and  46°  in  Montana,  it  varies  from 
8,800  to  9,600  ft.,  while  from  lat.  40°  to  35°  it 
is  quite  uniformly  from  11,000  to  12,000  ft. 
These  statements  may  be  regarded  as  approx- 
imately accurate,  though  more  observations 
ought  to  be  made. — The  mean  elevation  along 
several  parallels  of  latitude  has  been  ascertained 
approximately.  For  instance',  along  the  32d 
parallel,  between  Ion.  95°  and  96°,  the  mean 
elevation  is  500  ft. ;  the  highest  mean  between 
108°  and  110°,  in  the  Sierra  Madre  plateau,  is 
6,000  ft. ;  35th  parallel,  first  mean  650  ft, 
highest  mean,  between  Ion.  107°  and  109°,  at 
Zufii  mountains,  7,000  ft. ;  39th  parallel,  first 
mean  1,000  ft.,  highest  mean,  between  Ion. 
105°  and  107°,  in  the  Colorado,  Sahwatch,  and 
Elk  ranges,  11,000  ft. ;  41st  parallel,  first  mean 
1,000  ft.,  highest  mean,  between  Ion.  105°  and 
107°,  Laramie  range  and  South  park,  8,000  ft.  ; 
45th  parallel,  first  mean  1,000  ft.,  highest  mean, 
between  Ion.  108°  and  110°,  Big  Horn  moun- 
tains and  Yellowstone  range,  7,000  ft. ;  48th 
parallel,  first  mean  1,500  ft.,  highest  mean, 
between  Ion.  113°  and  114°,  the  main  Rocky 
chain,  4,000  ft.  The  mean  elevation  of  Arizona 
is  4,200  ft. ;  of  California,  2,800  ft. ;  of  Colora- 
do, 6,600  ft. ;  of  Idaho,  3,800  ft. ;  of  Montana, 
3,950  ft. ;  of  Nevada,  4,900  ft. ;  of  New  Mexi- 
co, 5,400  ft. ;  of  Oregon,  2,700  ft. ;  of  Washing- 
ton territory,  1,800  ft.;  of  Wyoming,  6,450  ft. 
— In  almost  every  state  and  territory  W.  of  the 
Mississippi  old  lake  basins  exist,  and  from  the 
sediments  that  were  deposited  in  the  bottoms 
of  these  lakes  have  been  obtained  the  remains 
of  a  great  variety  of  extinct  animals,  including 
camels,  rhinoceroses,  elephants,  mammoths, 
crocodiles,  huge  saurians,  turtles,  birds,  &c. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  Black  hills  of  Dakota  is 
a  large  area  marked  on  the  maps  as  Mauvaises 
Terres,  or  Bad  Lands,  so  called  on  account  of 
its  ruggedness,  in  which  thousands  of  extinct 
vertebrate  animals  were  entombed.  It  was 
formerly  a  vast  fresh-water  lake,  probably 
dating  back  at  least  to  the  beginning  of  the 
miocene  period,  and  continuing  through  the 
pliocene  nearly  to  the  present  time.  During 


this  time  at  least  two  distinct  faunal  groups 
appeared  on  the  earth,  lived  out  the  period  of 
their  existence,  and  perished.  The  first  group, 
which  lived  during  the  miocene  period,  left  not 
a  single  species  to  the  pliocene,  and  the  fauna 
of  the  latter  furnished  no  species  for  our  pres- 
ent period.  In  the  Sweetwater  valley,  near 
the  three  forks  of  the  Missouri,  in  Oregon, 
California,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Colorado, 
are  similar  lake  basins  filled  with  the  remains 
of  these  extinct  animals.  On  the  Laramie 
plains,  about  Fort  Bridger,  and  far  S.  on  Green 
river,  are  lake  basins  of  older  date,  referred  to 
the  lower  miocene  or  upper  eocene,  in  the  de- 
posits of  which  have  been  discovered  the  abun- 
dant remains  of  hundreds  of  extinct  forms  of 
vertebrate  animals,  entirely  distinct  from  those 
just  mentioned  as  of  more  recent  age.  Great 
quantities  of  fossil  insects,  fishes,  and  plants 
are  found  in  these  lake  beds.  Over  500  species 
of  extinct  forms  of  plants  have  been  found, 
mostly  in  connection  with  the  coal,  indicating 
that  at  a  comparatively  modern  period,  geologi- 
cally speaking,  this  great  region,  occupied  with 
mountains  and  barren  plains,  was  covered  with 
forests  as  luxuriant  as  those  of  the  gulf  states. 
These  plants  belong  mostly  to  the  early  ter- 
tiary period.  The  present  scarcity  of  timber 
in  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent is  well  known.  The  principal  winds 
come  from  the  west  and  northwest,  and,  as 
they  pass  over  the  summits  of  the  different 
ranges  of  mountains  from  the  Pacific  coast 
eastward,  laden  with  moisture,  discharge  a  por- 
tion of  it  from  summit  to  summit,  until  on  the 
eastern  slope  the  air  is  almost  dry.  The  ab- 
sence of  timber  is  due  to  the  absence  of  moist- 
ure, and  the  inference  from  the  fact  of  the 
luxuriant  forests  existing  in  the  Rocky  region 
during  the  early  tertiary  period  is  that  these 
high  summits  did  not  then  exist. — The  drainage 
areas  of  the  west  are  well  marked  out.  The 
Missouri  river  and  its  great  branches,  the  Yel- 
lowstone and  Platte,  have  their  sources  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  Rocky  range,  and,  gath- 
ering their  waters  from  myriads  of  branches, 
flow  at  first  E.  across  the  dry  plains,  and  gradu- 
ally turn  S.  E.  and  join  the  Mississippi ;  the 
average  rainfall  in  the  upper  Missouri  drainage 
is  18  inches.  The  second  drainage  is  that  of 
the  Arkansas  further  S.,  which  rises  in  the 
Sahwatch  and  Park  ranges  of  Colorado,  flows 
S.  to  lat.  38°  80'  and  Ion.  106°,  then  bends  E. 
and  flows  across  the  plains  to  unite  with  the 
Mississippi ;  the  average  rainfall  is  28  inches. 
The  third  system  of  drainage  is  still  further 
S.,  that  of  the  Rio  Grande,  which  rises  in  the 
San  Juan  mountains  of  southern  Colorado, 
flows  S.  through  New  Mexico  and  between 
Texas  and  Mexico,  and  empties  into  the  gulf 
of  Mexico;  average  rainfall,  16  inches.  West 
of  the  last  is  the  drainage  of  the  great  Colo- 
rado of  the  West,  which,  rising  far  north  (in 
its  branches  the  Green  and  Grand  rivers),  near 
the  Yellowstone  national  park,  flows  S.  and  S. 
W.  across  Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Arizona,  and 


382 


RODENTIA 


empties  into  the  gulf  of  California ;  the  aver- 
age rainfall  in  this  vast  area  is  only  15  inches. 
N.  and  W.  of  the  Colorado  drainage  is  the 
great  interior  basin,  between  the  Wahsatch 
mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  with  no 
known  outlet,  the  great  rivers  sinking;  here 
the  average  annual  rainfall  is  only  12  inches. 
To  the  north  is  the  great  drainage  of  the  Co- 
lumbia, the  branches  of  which  rise  in  the  main 
chain  of  the  Rocky  mountains  far  to  the  east, 
in  Idaho;  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  only 
18  inches.  There  are  several  smaller  areas 
of  drainage  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  limited 
rainfall  in  all  these  regions  shows  that  success- 
ful agriculture  is  only  possible  with  the  aid  of 
irrigation.  E.  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  the  rains 
are  not  frequent,  the  snows  are  very  light,  and 
the  amount  not  great,  so  that  the  supply  of 
water  from  the  melting  of  the  snows  is  not 
extensive.  The  difference  between  high  and 
low  water  mark  is  very  great.  For  a  short 
time  in  May  and  June  the  streams  are  high 
and  large,  but  they  soon  dwindle  greatly,  and 
even  disappear  altogether.  So  little  snow  falls 
on  the  E.  ranges  that  the  streams  which  flow 
into  the  plains  from  the  E.  slope  will  not  sup- 
ply water  to  irrigate  more  than  one  fourth  of 
the  agricultural  area. 

RODE\T1A  (Lat.,  from  rodere,  to  gnaw),  an 
order  of  mammals  characterized  by  the  chisel 
shape  of  the  incisors,  adapted  for  gnawing  the 
hard  vegetable  substances  upon  which  they 
principally  feed,  such  as  the  wood  and  bark  of 
trees,  hard-shelled  nuts,  and  occasionally  bony 
structures  like  ivory.  Rodents  are  generally 
small,  numerous  in  species,  very  prolific,  and 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  They  are  un- 
guiculated,  and  in  most  the  hind  parts  of  the 
body  and  limbs  exceed  the  front  in  length,  so 
that  they  leap  rather  than  walk,  in  some  (as 
the  jerboa)  the  disproportion  being  so  great 
that  they  resemble  the  kangaroos  in  their  mode 
of  progression ;  the  skull  is  small  and  flat,  with 
the  jaws,  especially  the  lower  one,  strong; 
the  snout  is  usually  provided  with  long  mous- 
taches; the  opening  of  the  mouth  is  small,  but 


Rodent  Skull  and  Incisor.— a.  Enamel.    6.  Dentine  or  soft 
tooth  substance. 

the  cheeks  often  form  large  pouches  in  which 
they  convey  food  to  their  burrows;  the  legs 
are  short  in  most,  for  walking  or  climbing,  in 
the  flying  squirrels  provided  with  a  membrane 
extending  from  the  sides,  which  answers  the 
purpose  of  a  parachute ;  many,  like  the  beaver 


and  muskrat,  are  excellent  swimmers  and  di- 
vers ;  the  thumb  is  never  opposable,  when  pres- 
ent; the  skin  is  ordinarily  covered  with  soft 
fur,  but  sometimes  interspersed  with  bristles 
or  spines ;  tail  hairy,  or  naked  and  scaly.  It 
is  by  their  dental  character  that  the  rodentia 
are  most  clearly  defined  as  a  natural  order. 
The  bow-shaped  incisors,  usually  -Jc},  grow 
from  persistent  pulps,  and  are  covered  with  a 
coat  of  enamel  only  in  the  front ;  the  leporidce 
(hares  and  rabbits)  possess  an  additional  pair 
of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  situated  directly 
behind  the  first  and  larger  pair.  The  superior 
hardness  of  the  enamel,  which  much  more 
effectually  resists  the  action  of  gnawing  than 
the  comparatively  soft  dentine,  enables  the 
rodents  to  retain  unimpaired  a  sharp,  chisel- 
shaped  edge  to  their  cutting  teeth,  the  wearing 
away  of  the  crown  being  constantly  replaced 
by  growth  below.  The  loss  or  breaking  of  one 
of  these  incisors,  leaving  the  growth  of  the 
opposing  tooth  unchecked  by  a  resisting  me- 
dium, results  disastrously,  frequently  causing 
an  interlocking  of  the  jaws.  There  are  no 
canines.  The  grinders  vary  in  number  from 
four  to  twelve  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  from  four 
to  ten  in  the  lower.  When  the  number  in 
either  jaw  exceeds  six,  the  supernumerary  teeth 
immediately  preceding  the  last  triplet  must  be 
regarded  as  true  premolars,  supplanting  a  milk 
dentition ;  they  are  composed  of  cement,  den- 
tine, and  enamel,  and  either  form  roots  (thus 
limiting  the  duration  of  growth)  or  grow  from 
persistent  pulps  like  the  incisors.  The  sum- 
mits of  their  crowns  are  generally  traversed 
by  parallel  transverse  ridges,  placed  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  antero-posterior  movement  of  the 
lower  jaw,  thereby  greatly  facilitating  masti- 
cation.— The  order  comprises  such  animals  as 
the  capybara,  beaver,  porcupine,  squirrel,  mar- 
mot, dormouse,  rat,  hamster,  lemming,  jerboa, 
hare,  rabbit,  muskrat,  Guinea  pig,  agouti,  and 
chinchilla.  Waterhouse  divides  them  into  the 
five  families  of  leporidce,  hystricidce,  murida, 
tciuridcB,  and  saccomyidce,  all  represented  in 
North  America,  and  the  last  peculiar  to  it. 
Rodents  form  nearly  one  third  of  all  mam- 
mals, and  in  North  America  one  half  of  all 
the  land  mammals,  this  last  containing  about 
one  fifth  of  all  the  described  species;  of  the 
squirrels,  nearly  one  third  of  all  known  spe- 
cies are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States ;  the  pouched  rats  are  entirely  Ameri- 
can ;  of  the  rat  family,  the  field  mice  are  best 
represented  in  North  America ;  of  the  porcu- 
pine family,  more  than  seven  eighths  are  South 
American,  the  capybara,  the  largest  living  ro- 
dent, being  among  them,  itself  greatly  sur- 
passed in  size  by  the  extinct  castoroidet  Ohio- 
ensis  of  North  America ;  while  many  species 
of  hares  are  found  in  North  America,  only 
one  is  met  with  in  South  America. — This  or- 
der is  generally  considered  as  displaying  very 
little  intelligence,  though  manifesting  (as  the 
beaver)  some  of  the  most  remarkable  instincts ; 
but  the  rat  certainly  shows  an  adaptation  of 


KODERIC 

means  to  ends,  under  circumstances  often  the 
most  unnatural  and  unexpected,  which  makes 
it  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  animal  in- 
stinct and  intelligence.  There  is  in  many  an 
extraordinary  development  of  the  sexual  ap- 
pendages, some  of  which  are  very  complex 
and  peculiar  to  the  order ;  the  testes  are  gen- 
erally larger  than  the  kidneys,  and  in  most 
are  not  contained  in  a  scrotum,  but  beneath 
the  skin  of  the  perineum ;  the  intromittent 
organ  is  variously  directed,  with  an  internal 
bone,  and  in  some  armed  with  a  formidable 
apparatus  of  horns,  spines,  and  serrations ; 
the  preputial  glands  are  often  largely  devel- 
oped, secreting  in  the  beaver  the  drug  casto- 
reum,  once  much  used  as  an  antispasinodic ; 
the  uterus  is  two-horned ;  the  mammary  glands 
vary  from  4  in  the  Guinea  pig  to  12  or  14  in 
the  agouti.  Rodents  have  existed  from  the 
earliest  tertiary  epoch,  presenting  genera  some- 
times different  from,  and  sometimes  the  same 
as  the  present. 

RODERIC,  the  last  Visigothic  king  of  Spain, 
a  son  of  Theodefred,  duke  of  Cordova,  fell  in 
battle  about  the  close  of  July,  711.  He  be- 
came king  about  709,  after  driving  Witiza  from 
the  throne.  The  sons  of  the  latter  and  their 
uncle  Orpas,  archbishop  of  Seville,  invoked 
against  Roderic  the  assistance  of  the  Arabs, 
who  gained  possession  of  Ceuta  through  the 
treachery  of  Count  Julian,  governor  of  Anda- 
lusia. Roderic  roused  the  people  to  arms.  His 
forces  were  vastly  superior  in  number  to  those 
of  the  invaders  under  Tarik ;  but  in  the  battle 
of  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  which  is  said  to  have 
lasted  eight  days,  he  was  betrayed  by  the  sons 
of  Witiza,  whom  he  had  placed  in  command 
of  the  wings,  and  perished  on  the  field. 

RODEZ,  or  Rhodez,  a  city  of  S.  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Aveyron,  situated  upon  a 
lofty  promontory  surrounded  by  the  Aveyron, 
310  m.  8.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  11,662.  It 
has  an  institution  for  deaf  mutes,  a  normal 
school,  lyceum,  and  diocesan  seminary.  It  con- 
tains a  fine  Gothic  cathedral  begun  in  the  13th 
century,  a  monastery  of  the  Cordeliers,  hand- 
some modern  public  buildings,  manufactures 
of  linen  and  serge,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
cheese,  mules,  and  cattle. 

RODGERS,  John,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Harford  co.,  Md.,  in  1771,  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Aug.  4,  1838.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  lieutenant,  March  9, 1798,  and  as  executive 
officer  of  the  frigate  Constellation,  Com.  Trux- 
tun,  took  possession  of  the  French  ship  L'ln- 
surgente  captured  by  her  off  Nevis,  Feb.  9, 
1799.  In  March  he  was  commissioned  captain, 
and  made  a  cruise  in  the  Maryland,  20,  upon 
the  West  India  station.  In  June,  1803,  in  the 
John  Adams,  28,  in  company  with  the  Enter- 
prise, 12,  he  successfully  attacked  a  Tripolitan 
cruiser  of  22  guns  and  several  gunboats  at 
anchor  in  a  bay  near  Tripoli.  In  1804  he  com- 
manded the  frigate  Congress,  38,  in  the  squad- 
ron employed  against  Tripoli  under  Com.  Bar- 
ron,  whom  in  1805  he  succeeded  in  command. 
709  VOL.  xiv.— 25 


RODNEY 


383 


He  afterward  conducted  successful  negotiations 
with  Tripoli  and  Tunis.  In  the  spring  of  1811, 
while  lying  off  Annapolis  in  his  flag  ship,  the 
President,  44,  Capt.  Ludlow,  Com.  Rodgers, 
received  intelligence  that  a  seaman  had  been 
impressed  from  an  American  brig  off  Sandy 
Hook  by  an  English  frigate.  He  sailed  for  that 
point  without  delay,  and  on  May  16,  when  a 
few  leagues  to  the  southward  of  New  York, 
discovered  a  vessel  of  war  and  gave  chase 
to  her,  and  a  short  engagement  ensued.  He 
ceased  fire  when  his  antagonist  proved  to  be 
the  weaker  ship,  and  boarding  her  the  next 
morning  found  that  she  was  H.  B.  M.  ship  Lit- 
tle Belt,  of  22  guns,  Capt.  Bingham.  She  had 
suffered  severely,  but  declined  receiving  assist- 
ance, and  the  ships  parted.  The  accounts  of  this 
affair  given  by  the  two  commanders  differed 
materially,  particularly  as  to  the  firing  of  the 
first  gun,  and  it  widened  the  breach  which 
already  existed  between  the  two  nations.  On 
June  21,  1812,  on  the  declaration  of  war  by 
the  United  States  against  Great  Britain,  Com. 
Rodgers  sailed  from  New  York  in  command 
of  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  President,  the 
United  States,  44,  Congress,  38,  Hornet,  18,  and 
Argus,  16 ;  and  on  June  23  a  British  frigate  was 
discovered,  to  which  a  general  chase  was  given. 
The  President  came  at  4  P.  M.  within  gun-shot 
of  the  English  ship,  when  a  running  fight  took 
place,  in  the  course  of  which  a  gun  of  the 
President  burst,  killing  and  wounding  16,  Com. 
Rodgers  being  among  the  wounded;  and  the 
enemy's  ship  escaped.  It  was  afterward  found 
that  she  was  the  Belvidera,  36,  Capt.  Byron, 
which  had  7  killed  and  wounded,  Capt.  Byron 
among  the  latter.  The  loss  of  the  President 
was  22  killed  and  wounded.  Com.  Rodgers 
extended  this  cruise  for  about  70  days,  captur- 
ing seven  British  merchantmen.  He  subse- 
quently captured  the  British  packet  Swallow, 
with  a  large  amount  of  specie,  and  the  schooner 
Highflier.  In  June,  1814,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  new  frigate  Guerriere,  and  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  the  defence  of  Baltimore. 
At  his  death  he  was  senior  officer  of  the  navy. 

RODIGER,  Emil,  a  German  orientalist,  born 
at  Sangerhausen,  Thuringia,  Oct.  13, 1801,  died 
in  Berlin,  June  15, 1874.  He  studied  theology 
in  Halle,  and  taught  there  for  many  years,  be- 
coming in  1835  professor  of  oriental  languages. 
In  1860  he  was  called  to  Berlin,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  His  publications 
include  Syrische  Chrestomathie  (1838),  Him- 
jaritische  Schriftmonumente  (1841),  and  the 
continuation  of  Gesenius's  Thesaurus  Lingua 
Hebraic®  (1853).  After  the  death  of  Gesenius 
Rodiger  edited  his  Hebrew  grammar,  from  the 
13th  to  the  21st  edition  (1874). 

RODNEY.  I.  Caesar,  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  born  in  Dover,  Del., 
about  1730,  died  there  in  1784.  His  grand- 
father, William  Rodney,  came  from  Bristol  to 
Kent  co.,  Del.,  soon  after  Penn  became  propri- 
etary. Caesar  inherited  a  large  estate.  He 
was  sheriff  of  Kent  co.  in  1758,  and  soon  after 


384 


RODNEY 


became  a  member  of  the  provincial  assembly, 
in  which  he  served  till  1774,  being  speaker  in 
1769  and  thereafter.  In  1766  he  was  sent  to 
the  stamp  act  congress  at  New  York.  In  the 
colonial  assembly  he  earnestly  advocated  a  bill 
forbidding  the  importation  of  slaves,  which 
failed  by  only  two  votes.  The  colonies  enter- 
ing into  correspondence  upon  the  subject  of 
their  common  defence,  he  became  chairman  of 
the  committee  of  safety  for  Delaware ;  and  in 
1774,  meetings  of  the  people  having  been  held 
at  New  Castle  and  Dover  to  demand  the  assem- 
bling of  a  convention,  he  issued  a  call  as  speak- 
er of  the  assembly,  convoking  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people  at  New  Castle  on  Aug.  1. 
Ho  was  made  chairman  of  the  convention, 
and  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
congress,  in  which  he  was  a  member  of  the 
general  committee  to  draw  up  a  recital  of 
the  rights  and  grievances  of  the  colonies. 
In  March,  1775,  he  was  again  elected  to  con- 
gress. In  May  he  was  made  colonel,  and  soon 
afterward  brigadier  general  of  the  Delaware 
militia.  In  1776  ho  was  alternately  in  his  seat 
in  congress,  and  at  work  in  Delaware  stimula- 
ting the  patriots  and  repressing  the  loyalists. 
In  response  to  a  special  message,  he  rode  with 
all  speed  to  Philadelphia,  just  in  time  to  give 
Delaware's  vote  for  the  declaration.  After 
his  retirement  from  congress  he  went  to  Tren- 
ton, where  Gen.  Stirling  made  him  post  com- 
mandant, and  then  to  Morristown,  whence  by 
Washington's  permission  he  returned  home  in 
February,  1777.  He  suppressed  an  insurrec- 
tion in  Sussex,  and  when  in  August  the  British 
advanced  into  Delaware,  he  took  the  field  with 
what  militia  he  could  raise,  and  annoyed  the 
flank  of  the  enemy  as  they  faced  the  American 
position  on  Red  Clay  creek.  In  September  he 
was  made  major  general  of  militia,  and  in  De- 
cember he  was  again  elected  to  congress,  but 
did  not  take  his  seat.  A  few  days  later  he  was 
elected  president  or  executive  officer  of  the 
state,  which  post  he  filled  till  January,  1782, 
when  he  declined  reelection.  He  was  then 
chosen  to  congress,  and  again  in  1783,  but  did 
not  take  his  seat.  II.  Cxstr  Augnstns,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Dover,  Del.,  Jan.  4,  1772,  died  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  June  10,  1824.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  and  studied  law. 
In  1802  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a  demo- 
crat, and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means,  and  one  of  the  managers  in 
the  impeachment  of  Judge  Chase.  In  1807  he 
became  attorney  general  of  the  United  States, 
which  place  he  resigned  in  1811.  During  the 
war  of  1812  he  commanded  an  artillery  com- 
pany. In  1817  he  was  sent  to  South  America 
by  President  Monroe  as  one  of  the  commission- 
ers to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  propri- 
ety of  recognizing  the  independence  of  the 
Spanish- American  republics,  which  he  strongly 
advocated  after  his  return.  In  1820  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  house  of  representatives, 
and  in  1822  became  a  member  of  the  United 


States  senate,  being  the  first  democrat  who 
ever  sat  in  that  chamber  from  Delaware.  In 
1823  Monroe  appointed  him  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata. 
With  J.  Graham  he  published  "Reports  on 
the  Present  State  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
South  America"  (8vo,  London,  1819). 

RODNEY,  George  Brydges,  baron,  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  at  Walton-upon-Thames,  Surrey, 
Feb.  19,  1718,  died  in  London,  May  21,  1792. 
At  the  age  of  12  he  was  taken  from  Harrow 
school  and  sent  to  sea;  in  1739  he  became  a 
lieutenant,  in  1742  a  captain,  and  in  1748  went 
to  the  Newfoundland  station  as  governor  and 
commander-in-chief.  In  1752  he  returned  to 
England  and  was  elected  to  parliament,  and  in 
1759  he  was  created  rear  admiral.  In  1761 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  at  Bar- 
badoes  and  the  Leeward  islands,  and  reduced 
the  islands  of  Martinique,  Santa  Lucia,  and 
Grenada.  In  1762  he  was  made  vice  admiral, 
in  1764  a  baronet,  in  1765  master  of  Green- 
wich hospital,  and  in  1768  was  returned  to 
parliament.  He  resigned  his  governorship  of 
Greenwich  hospital  in  1771,  on  being  appointed 
commander-in-chief  at  Jamaica.  In  1774  he 
returned  to  England,  but  was  obliged  to  seek 
refuge  from  his  creditors  in  France.  Finally 
he  obtained  money  sufficient  to  pay  his  debts, 
and  with  the  rank  of  admiral  sailed  in  1779  for 
the  Barbadoes  station,  where  he  had  been  again 
appointed  commander-in-chief.  His  squadron 
consisted  of  22  ships  of  the  line  and  8  frigates, 
and  after  capturing  several  Spanish  transports 
and  ships  of  war,  he  fell  in  with  a  Spanish  fleet 
off  Cape  St.  Vincent  in  January,  1780,  under 
Don  Juan  de  Langara.  This  consisted  of  11 
ships  of  the  line  and  2  frigates,  and  of  these 
7  were  taken  or  destroyed.  On  April  17, 1780, 
he  came  up  with  the  French  fleet  near  Marti- 
nique, but  was  prevented  from  capturing  any 
of  their  vessels  by  the  refusal  ol  his  captains 
to  follow.  He  however  broke  through  the  en- 
emy's lines  with  a  portion  of  his  squadron,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  thanks  of  both  houses 
of  parliament  and  a  pension  of  £2,000.  The 
same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  house  of  com- 
mons from  Westminster,  and  made  a  K.  B.  In 
December,  1780,  he  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack upon  St.  Vincent.  War  breaking  out  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Holland,  he  took  the 
Dutch  island  of  St.  Eustatius  without  firing  a 
shot,  and  then  Demerara,  Esseqtiibo,  and  Ber- 
bice.  In  the  autumn  of  1781  he  returned  home, 
and  was  created  vice  admiral  of  England,  and 
assigned  the  command  of  the  West  Indies. 
Returning  thither,  he  went  in  pursuit  of  the 
French  fleet  under  the  count  de  Grasse.  A 
partial  action  took  place  on  April  9,  1782,  and 
a  general  engagement  on  April  12.  The  battle 
began  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  lasted 
till  6£  in  the  evening,  and  the  British  took  seven 
ships  of  the  line,  including  the  French  flag  ship, 
and  two  frigates.  The  whigs  meanwhile  had 
come  into  office,  and  as  Rodney  was  opposed 
to  that  party,  an  officer  was  sent  to  supersede 


RODRIGUEZ 


ROEBUCK 


385 


him ;  when,  however,  the  news  of  his  victory 
reached  England,  an  express  was  sent  to  bring 
back  his  successor,  but  failed  to  reach  him. 
Rodney  arrived  in  England,  Sept.  21, 1782,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  par- 
liament, with  an  additional  pension  of  £2,000, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Rod- 
ney of  Rodney  Stoke  in  Somersetshire. — See 
"Life  and  Correspondence  of  Lord  Rodney," 
by  his  son-in-law,  Gen.  Godfrey  Basil  Mundy 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1830). 

RODRIGUEZ,  Alfonso,  a  Spanish  religions  au- 
thor, born  in  Valladolid  in  1526,  died  in  Se- 
ville, Feb.  21,  1616.  He  received  his  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy  at  the  university  of 
Salamanca  in  1545,  and  soon  afterward  en- 
tered the  society  of  Jesus.  After  -teaching 
for  several  years  at  Salamanca,  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  college  of  Monterey  and 
professor  of  moral  theology,  which  post  he 
held  for  12  years,  his  fame  as  a  teacher  bring- 
ing him  pupils  from  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try. He  was  afterward  master  of  novices  at 
Valladolid  and  Montilla  for  30  years.  His 
"Practice  of  Christian  Perfection"  (4to,  Se- 
ville, 1640)  has  been  translated  into  all  the 
European  languages. 

RODRIGUEZ,  Island  of.     See  MAURITIUS. 

ROE,  Azd  Stevens,  an  American  novelist,  born 
in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1798.  After  serv- 
ing as  clerk  in  a  mercantile  house  in  New  York, 
he  engaged  in  business  as  a  wine  merchant,  and 
finally  retired  and  settled  at  Windsor,  Conn., 
where  he  has  since  resided.  His  works  include 
"James  Montjoy,  or  I've  been  Tbinking" 
(New  York,  1850);  "To  Love  and  to  be 
Loved"  (1852);  "Time  and  Tide,  or  Strive 
and  Win"  (1852);  "A  Long  Look  Ahead" 
(1855)  ;  "  The  Star  and  the  Cloud  "  (1856)  ; 
"  True  to  the  Last"  (1859);  "  How  Could  He 
Help  it?  "  (1860) ;  "  Looking  Around  "  (1865) ; 
"Woman  our  Angel"  (1866);  "Cloud  in  the 
Heart "  (1869)  ;  and  "  Resolution,  or  the  Soul 
of  Power  "  (1871). 

ROEBLING,  John  ingnstns,  an  American  en- 
gineer, born  in  Muhlhausen,  Prussia,  June  12, 
1806,  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  July  22,  1869. 
He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school  in 
Berlin,  and  emigrated  to  America  and  settled 
near  Pittsburgh  in  1831.  He  was  assistant 
engineer  on  the  slack-water  navigation  of  the 
Beaver,  and  on  the  Sandy  and  Beaver  canal 
and  a  feeder  of  the  Pennsylvania  canal,  after 
which  he  spent  three  years  in  surveying  the 
route  across  the  Alleghanies  adopted  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Central  railroad.  He  introduced 
the  manufacture  of  wire  ropes,  first  at  Pitts- 
burgh, afterward  removing  his  establishment 
to  Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  their  use  in  the  con- 
struction of  suspension  bridges,  his  first  work 
being  the  suspended  aqueduct  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania canal  "across  the  Alleghany  river, 
completed  in  May,  1845.  He  afterward  con- 
structed the  Monongahela  suspension  bridge 
at  Pittsburgh,  and  some  suspension  aqueducts 
on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal.  In  1851 


work  was  begun  upon  the  Niagara  bridge  (see 
BRIDGE,  vol.  Hi.,  p.  274),  and  in  1867  he  com- 
pleted the  Cincinnati  suspension  bridge,  which 
has  a  clear  span  of  1,057  ft.  His  last  design 
was  for  the  East  river  bridge,  connecting 
the  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  (See 
BEIDGE.)  Mr.  Roebling  published  "  Long  and 
Short  Span  Bridges  "  (New  York,  1869). 

ROEBUCK,  a  small  European  deer  of  the 
genus  capreolus  (H.  Smith),  the  C.  caprcea  of 
Gray,  and  the  chevreuil  of  the  French.  The 
horns  are  small,  nearly  erect,  cylindrical, 
slightly  branched,  with  a  very  short  peduncle 
and  three  short  branches ;  the  skull  has  a  very 
small,  shallow  suborbital  pit ;  the  muffle  broad 
and  naked ;  tear  bag  indistinct ;  hoofs  narrow 
and  triangular,  and  a  tuft  of  hair  rather  above 
the  middle  of  the  metatarsus.  The  color  in 
summer  is  reddish  brown,  in  winter  olive  with 
paler  shades;  inside  of  the  ears  fulvous,  and  a 
black  spot  at  the  angles  of  the  mouth ;  the  tail 


Roebuck  (Capreolus  caprea). 

is  short,  and  the  anal  disk  is  large  and  white  ; 
the  hair  in  winter  is  thick  and  harsh,  and  in 
summer  thinner  and  more  flexible.  It  is  about 
4  ft.  long,  2J  ft.  high  at  the  shoulder  and  2$ 
ft.  behind.  It  is  one  of  the  most  graceful 
and  active  of  the  deer  family,  frequenting  the 
woods  and  copses  of  the  rocky  regions  of  Eu- 
rope from  the  Scottish  highlands  to  the  Tyrol, 
but  in  less  wild  districts  than  the  stag.  Its 
agility  and  speed  are  astonishing,  20  ft.  being 
sometimes  cleared  at  a  single  bound.  They  are 
not  polygamous,  and  a  pair  generally  has  two 
young  at  a  birth,  which  are  treated  with  the 
utmost  tenderness  by  both  parents,  and  often 
remain  attached  to  each  other  after  quitting 
the  old  ones ;  they  congregate  in  small  families, 
but  not  in  herds,  feeding  on  herbage  and  the 
buds  and  tender  shoots  of  trees,  from  the  lat- 
ter habit  often  doing  much  mischief  in  a  forest. 
The  flesh  is  considered  better  than  that  of  the 
stag,  when  the  animal  is  properly  killed.  The 
horns  are  used  for  knife  handles,  &c. ;  they  are 


386 


ROEBUCK 


ROGER 


dropped  after  the  breeding  season  in  Novem- 
ber, and  are  reproduced  during  the  winter. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  five  months.  From 
their  strong  scent  they  are  easily  hunted, 
though  they  frequently  escape  by  their  speed, 
doublings,  springing  to  cover,  and  other  arti- 
fices to  baffle  the  hounds.  In  northern  Asia 
is  found  the  aha  or  Tartarian  roebuck  (C.  py- 
gargus,  Sundev.);  this  is  larger,  with  longer 
and  more  prickly  horns,  and  coarser  and  long- 
er hair ;  the  color  is  brownish  above  and  yel- 
lowish below ;  there  is  no  tail.  The  roebucks 
are  represented  in  North  America  by  the  Vir- 
ginia deer  (cariacus,  Gray),  and  in  South  Amer- 
ica by  the  brockets  (coassus,  Gray). 

ROEBUCK,  John  ArthBT,  an  English  politician, 
born  at  Madras  in  December,  1802.  From 
1815  to  1824  he  resided  in  Canada,  and  in  1832 
he  was  admitted  as  a  barrister  in  London.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  elected  to  parliament  for 
Bath,  and  he  soon  became  prominent  as  a  radi- 
cal reformer.  In  1835  he  was  appointed  agent 
for  the  assembly  of  Lower  Canada  during  the 
contest  between  that  house  and  the  executive. 
He  soon  after  published  a  series  of  political 
pamphlets,  which  involved  him  in  a  bloodless 
duel  with  the  editor  of  the  "  Morning  Chroni- 
cle," Nov.  19,  1835.  In  1837  he  lost  his  seat 
in  parliament  in  consequence  of  his  attack  upon 
the  wings,  but  was  reflected  in  1841.  In  1847 
he  was  defeated  again,  and  in  1849  was  elected 
for  Sheffield,  which  he  represented  till  1869. 
In  the  election  of  February,  1874,  he  was  again 
returned  as  a  liberal  from  Sheffield.  On  Jan. 
29,  1855,  the  passage  of  his  motion  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  caused 
the  resignation  of  the  Aberdeen  ministry ;  and 
he  was  chairman  of  the  committee  subsequent- 
ly appointed  for  that  purpose,  and  also  of  the 
short-lived  "  Administrative  Reform  Associa- 
tion," organized  in  1856.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Plan  for  the  Government  of  our  English 
Colonies"  (1849),  and  of  a  "History  of  the 
Whig  Ministry  of  1830  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1852). 

ROERMOXD  (Fr.  Rurcmonde),  a  town  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  Limburg,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Maas  and  Roer,  27  m.  N. 
N.  E.  of  Maestricht;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  a  handsome 
cathedral  of  the  middle  ages  and  a  parochial 
church  with  fine  works  of  art.  Its  manufac- 
tures include  woollens,  cotton,  and  paper,  and 
a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on.  The  town 
has  been  frequently  taken  in  various  wars. 

ROESKILDE.     See  ROSKILDE. 

ROGATION  DAYS  (Lat.  royare,  to  ask),  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  calendar, 
the  three  days  immediately  preceding  Ascen- 
sion day,  when  public  litanies  or  supplications 
are  made  for  a  blessing  on  the  fruits  of  the 
earth.  The  custom  of  assembling  in  public  to 
recite  litanies  or  solemn  supplications  existed 
in  the  primitive  church ;  but  Mamertus,  bishop 
of  Vienne  (died  about  474),  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  fixing  for  this  purpose  the  three 
days  before  Ascension,  and  in  giving  them 


an  unusual  degree  of  solemnity.  They  were 
thenceforward  called  litanioe  majores,  the  great 
litanies,  were  accompanied  with  solemn  pro- 
cessions, and  were  held  throughout  the  Latin 
church.  A  remnant  of  this  custom  in  the 
cities  and  towns  of  England  consists  in  the 
parochial  clergy's  visiting  some  part  of  the 
parish  boundaries  accompanied  by  the  church 
wardens  and  people. 

ROGER  I.,  count  of  Sicily,  12th  son  of  Tan- 
cred  de  Hauteville,  born  in  Normandy  in  1031, 
died  in  Mileto,  Calabria,  early  in  the  summer  of 
1101.  In  1058  he  undertook,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Robert  Guiscard,  the  conquest 
of  Calabria,  and  afterward  that  of  Sicily.  In 
1060  he  took  Messina,  and  in  1061  defeated  the 
Saracens  at  Enna  with  great  slaughter.  A  dis- 
agreement between  Roger  and  Robert,  owing 
to  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to  divide  the  coun- 
try, was  settled  in  1071  by  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  Roger  as  count  of  Sicily ;  but  it  was 
not  till  1072  that  he  came  into  possession  of 
the  island,  by  the  conquest  of  Catania  and  Pa- 
lermo. In  1085  he  succeeded  Robert  as  chief 
of  the  Normans  in  Italy.  In  1090  he  subdued 
Malta.  He  established  Christianity  throughout 
Sicily  in  1096,  but  allowed  his  Saracen  subjects 
liberty  of  conscience.  In  1098  Urban  II.  made 
him  apostolic  legate. 

ROGER  II.,  first  king  of  Sicily,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Mileto,  Calabria,  about  1095, 
died  Feb.  26,  1154.  He  succeeded  his  father 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother,  Adelaide 
of  Montferrat.  On  assuming  the  government, 
Roger  reduced  the  barons  to  obedience,  and 
brought  Malta  back  to  allegiance.  In  1121  he 
took  from  his  cousin  William,  duke  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria,  part  of  his  possessions,  and  on 
bis  death  in  1127  seized  all  his  dominions  in 
southern  Italy.  In  1130  he  sustained  his  broth- 
er-in-law Annclotus  as  antipope,  received  from 
him  the  title  of  king  of  Sicily,  and  was  crowned 
at  Palermo  the  same  year ;  and  he  established 
Anacletus  in  Rome,  driving  out  Innocent  II. 
In  1137  he  was  defeated  by  the  German  em- 
peror Lothaire  II.,  who  had  been  called  in  by 
his  revolted  vassals ;  but  he  at  once  recovered 
his  ground  on  the  emperor's  departure.  Inno- 
cent II.  falling  into  his  power  in  1139,  Roger 
compelled  him  to  remove  his  excommunication 
and  to  confirm  his  kingly  title,  in  return  rec- 
ognizing his  right  to  the  papacy.  He  took  Na- 
ples from  Duke  Sergius,  and  Capua  and  A  ver- 
sa from  Prince  Robert.  In  consequence  of 
insults  from  the  Greek  emperor  Manuel  Com- 
nenus  in  1146,  he  ravaged  Epirus  and  Dalma- 
tia,  captured  Corfu,  and  devastated  Greece, 
bringing  back  an  immense  booty.  In  1147  he 
attacked  the  empire  of  the  Zoraides  in  Africa, 
and  extended  his  sway  over  a  large  part  of  the 
Barbary  coast.  He  introduced  the  sugar  cane 
and  the  manufacture  of  silk  into  Sicily. 

ROGER,  Gnstave  Hippolyte,  a  French  singer, 
born  near  Paris,  Aug.  27,  1815.  He  studied 
at  the  conservatory,  and  was  engaged  as  a 
tenor  at  the  opera  comique  from  1838  to  1846, 


387 


after  which  he  accompanied  Jenny  Lind  to 
London.  Subsequently  he  appeared  in  grand 
operas,  but  not  as  successfully  as  on  the  comic 
stage.  In  Berlin  he  won  favor  in  Les  Hugue- 
nots and  in  La  dame  blanche,  in  Munich  in  La 
Juive,  and  in  Hamburg  in  Le  prophete,  when 
he  aang  in  German.  He  was  again  at  the 
grand  opera  in  Paris  from  1855  to  1859.  In 
the  latter  year  he  lost  an  arm  while  hunting ; 
and  though  he  subsequently  appeared  with  an 
artificial  arm,  he  never  recovered  his  former 
popularity.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  singing  at  the  conservatory. 

ROGERS,  Henry,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1810.  He  studied  at  Highbury  college, 
and  for  some  years  was  pastor  of  an  Indepen- 
dent church.  In  1839  he  became  professor  of 
the  English  language  and  literature  in  Univer- 
sity college,  London,  and  was  afterward  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Spring  Hill  Indepen- 
dent college,  Birmingham,  till  1858,  when  he 
became  president  of  the  Lancashire  Indepen- 
dent college,  Manchester.  He  has  published 
"Life  and  Character  of  John  Howe,  M.  A., 
with  an  Analysis  of  his  Writings"  (1836);  a 
"  General  Introduction  to  a  Course  of  Lectures 
on  English  Grammar  and  Composition  "  (1838) ; 
"  Essays  selected  from  Contributions  to  the 
1  Edinburgh  Eeview '  "  (4  vols.  8vo,  Edinburgh, 
1850-74);  "The  Eclipse  of  Faith"  (1853); 
"  Selections  from  the  Correspondence  of  R.  E. 
H.  Grayson"  (2  vols.,  1857);  "Vindication 
of  Bishop  Colenso"  (1863);  "Reason  and 
Faith"  (1866);  and  "  Essays "  reprinted  from 
"Good  Words"  (1869  and  1874). 

ROGERS.  I.  James  BIythe,  an  American  chem- 
ist, born  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  22,  1803,  died 
there,  June  15,  1852.  He  received  the  degree 
of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Maryland,  and  was 
successively  professor  of  chemistry  in  Washing- 
ton medical  college,  Baltimore,  the  medical  col- 
lege at  Cincinnati,  the  Franklin  medical  school 
of  Philadelphia,  and  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania. For  several  years  he  was  chemical 
and  geological  assistant  in  the  surveys  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Pennsylvania.  He  published  papers 
in  the  scientific  journals,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  last  American  reprint  of  Turn- 
er's "  Chemistry."  II.  William  Barton,  an  Amer- 
ican physicist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1805.  He  first  lectured  on 
science  in  the  Maryland  institute  in  1827,  and 
in  1829  succeeded  his  father,  Dr.  P.  K.  Rogers, 
in  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  and  chemis- 
try in  William  and  Mary  college.  From  1835 
to  1853  he  was  professor  of  natural  philoso- 
phy and  geology  in  the  university  of  Virginia. 
In  1853  he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  has 
since  resided.  He  examined  the  region  of  the 
mineral  springs  of  Virginia,  and  analyzed  their 
waters ;  and  in  1835  he  organized  the  state 
geological  survey,  at  the  head  of  which  he  re- 
mained till  it  was  discontinued  in  1842.  In 
1862  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  before 
the  Lowell  institute  on  the  application  of  sci- 
ence to  the  arts;  and  from  1862  to  1868  he 


was  president  of  the  Boston  institute  of  tech- 
nology. He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the 
"Strength  of  Materials"  (1838),  "Elements 
of  Mechanical  Philosophy"  (1852),  and  nu- 
merous scientific  papers.  In  1875  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  "  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science  "  for  the 
ensuing  year.  III.  Henry  Darwin,  an  American 
geologist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1809,  died  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, May  28,  1866.  He  became  professor  of 
physical  sciences  in  Dickinson  college,  Car- 
lisle, in  1831,  and  afterward  professor  of  ge- 
ology in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  which 
office  he  held  for  many  years.  He  made  a 
geological  survey  of  the  state  of  New  Jersey, 
of  which  he  published  a  report  and  map  in 
1835,  and  a  final  report  in  1840.  From  1836 
to  1855  he  was  engaged  in  the  survey  of  Penn- 
sylvania, publishing  during  the  first  years  an- 
nual reports  of  progress.  His  final  report,  in 
two  large  vols.  4to,  with  numerous  drawings 
and  illustrations,  and  an  atlas  (Edinburgh, 
1858),  is  especially  valuable  in  the  departments 
of  structural  and  dynamic  geology.  In  1857 
he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  geology 
and  natural  history  in  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow, Scotland.  He  contributed  many  impor- 
tant papers  to  the  transactions  of  philosophical 
societies,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Edinburgh  "New  Philosophical  Journal."  He 
published  a  geological  map  of  the  United  States 
and  a  chart  of  the  arctic  regions  in  the  "  Phys- 
ical Atlas,"  and  in  conjunction  with  W.  and 
A.  K.  Johnston  of  Edinburgh  a  geographical 
atlas  of  the  United  States.  IV.  Robert  Empie, 
an  American  chemist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Baltimore  in  1814.  He  took  the  de- 
gree of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  1844  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  chem- 
istry in  the  university  of  Virginia,  which  he 
held  till  1852,  when  he  succeeded  his  brother 
Prof.  J.  B.  Rogers  as  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
associated  with  the  latter  in  preparing  the 
amended  edition  of  Turner's  "Chemistry," 
and  has  since  edited  the  American  reprint  of 
Lehmann's  "Physiological  Chemistry."  He 
has  been  for  many  years  dean  of  the  medical 
faculty  of  the  university  of  Pennsylvania. 

ROGERS,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
about  1500,  burned  at  Smithfield,  Feb.  4,  1555. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  entered  into 
holy  orders  there,  and  was  chaplain  to  the 
English  factory  at  Antwerp  for  several  years. 
There  he  became  acquainted  with  Tyndale  and 
Coverdale,  and  from  the  manuscripts  of  the 
former,  the  published  version  of  the  latter,  and 
his  own  researches,  he  compiled  a  complete 
edition  of  the  Bible  in  English.  The  elaborate 
marginal  notes  and  index  are  entirely  his  work. 
It  was  published  in  folio  in  1537  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  Thomas  Matthew.  From  Ant- 
werp he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  was 
pastor  of  a  Dutch  congregation.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.  Bishop  Ridley  invited  him 


388 


ROGERS 


home,  and  made  him  prebendary  and  divinity 
reader  of  St.  Paul's.  On  the  Sunday  after  the 
triumphal  entry  of  Queen  Mary  into  London, 
in  August,  1553,  Rogers  preached  a  sermon  at 
St.  Paul's  cross,  in  which  he  exhorted  the  peo- 
ple to  adhere  to  the  doctrine  taught  in  King 
Edward's  days,  and  to  resist  the  forms  and 
dogmas  of  Catholicism.  He  was  summoned 
before  the  privy  council  for  this,  but  defended 
himself  ably,  and  was  released.  On  Aug.  18, 
however,  he  was  ordered  to  remain  a  prisoner 
in  his  own  house,  and  at  the  end  of  six  months 
was  removed  to  Newgate.  He  was  tried  in 
January,  1555,  before  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  condemned  to  be  burned.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  theological  works. 

ROGERS,  John,  an  American  sculptor,  born  in 
Salern,  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1829.  He  was  for  two 
years  a  merchant's  clerk  in  Boston,  and  after  a 
voyage  to  Spain  for  his  health  entered  in  1848 
a  machine  shop  in  Manchester,  N.  H.,  where 
he  remained  seven  years.  In  1856  lie  took 
charge  of  a  railroad  machine  shop  in  Hannibal, 
Mo.,  in  1857  visited  Paris  and  Rome,  and  then 
became  a  draughtsman  in  Chicago.  He  there 
modelled  a  group  called  "  The  Checker  Play- 
ers," and  another  called  "The  Slave  Auction," 
exhibited  in  New  York  in  1860.  Opening  a 
studio  in  New  York,  he  became  famous  for 
small  groups  illustrating  the  civil  war  and  com- 
mon life,  executed  in  a  brownish  gray  composi- 
tion. Among  the  best  known  of  these  groups 
are:  "The  Picket  Guard"  (1861);  "The  Re- 
turned Volunteer,"  "The  Wounded  Scout," 
and  "  Union  Refugees  "  (1864) ;  "  Taking  the 
Oath,"  "The  Charity  Patient,"  and  "Uncle 
Ned's  School"  (1866);  "The  Council  of  War" 
and  "Courtship  in  Sleepy  Hollow"  (1868); 
"The  Fugitive's  Story"  (1869);  "Coming  to 
the  Parson"  (1870);  a  series  illustrating  the 
story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  (1871);  and  "The 
Favored  Scholar"  (1872).  He  has  more  re- 
cently modelled  some  larger  statues  for  garden 
and  lawn  decoration,  executed  in  artificial  stone, 
and  has  also  made  some  anatomical  studies  of 
the  horse,  for  the  use  of  art  students. 

ROGERS,  Randolph,  an  American  sculptor, 
born  in  the  state  of  New  York  about  1825.  In 
early  manhood  he  spent  several  years  in  Rome 
studying  his  art.  On  his  return  home  lie 
soon  became  known  through  his  statue  of 
"Nydia,  the  Blind  Girl  of  Pompeii,"  his  "Boy 
and  Dog,"  and  other  compositions.  Return- 
ing to  Rome,  where  he  now  resides  (1875), 
he  executed  a  statue  of  John  Adams,  now 
in  Mt.  Auburn  cemetery.  In  1858  he  de- 
signed and  modelled  the  bronze  door  for 
the  capitol  at  Washington.  The  work,  which 
is  17  ft.  high  and  9  ft.  wide,  is  divided 
into  eight  panels,  each  of  which  represents 
in  alto  rilievo  a  scene  in  the  life  of  Colum- 
bus. Between  the  panels  and  on  the  sides  are 
16  statuettes  of  the  eminent  contemporaries 
of  Columbus.  After  this  he  was  employed 
for  several  years  in  finishing  the  designs 
for  the  Washington  monument  at  Richmond, 


begun  by  Crawford.  Since  the  civil  war  he  has 
designed  and  executed  large  memorial  monu- 
ments for  the  states  of  Rhode  Island  and  Mich- 
igan. The  former,  which  was  erected  in  Prov- 
idence in  1871,  is  50  ft.  high ;  the  crowning 
statue,  "  America,"  is  10  ft.  high ;  and  on  the 
angles  of  the  pedestal  are  statues  7  ft.  high 
representing  the  four  branches  of  the  service. 
The  latter,  erected  in  Detroit  in  1873,  is  similar 
in  design,  but  larger  and  more  elaborate ;  it 
is  surmounted  by  a  statue  representing  Mich- 
igan. Among  Rogers's  other  works  are  a  co- 
lossal bronze  statue  of  Lincoln,  unveiled  in . 
Philadelphia  in  1871,  a  statue  for  the  Colt 
monument  in  Hartford  entitled  "  The  Angel  of 
the  Resurrection,"  and  ideal  statues  of  "  Ruth  " 
and  "  Isaac." 

ROGERS,  Stntnel,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Newington  Green,  near  London,  July  30,  1763, 
died  in  London,  Dec.  18,  1855.  He  was  edu- 
cated by  private  tutors,  and  entered  his  father's 
banking  house  in  his  boyhood.  In  his  18th 
year  he  became  a  prose  contributor  to  the 
"  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  in  1786  published 
"An  Ode  to  Superstition,  with  some  other 
Poems,"  of  which  during  the  next  four  yeara 
only  about  20  copies  were  sold.  In  1792  he 
produced  his  "  Pleasures  of  Memory,"  which 
at  once  gave  him  a  place  among  the  poets  of 
England.  His  father  at  his  death  in  1793  left 
him  an  ample  fortune,  and  he  soon  after  retired 
from  active  participation  in  business,  though 
retaining  his  interest  as  a  partner.  In  1798 
appeared  his  "  Epistle  to  a  Friend,  and  other 
Poems;"  and  in  1803  he  established  himself  in 
a  house  (No.  22)  in  St.  James's  place,  which 
during  the  next  half  century  enjoyed  a  wide 
celebrity  as  a  resort  of  literary  men  and  the 
receptacle  of  choice  treasures  of  art.  Rogers's 
"  breakfasts,"  given  in  a  shady  apartment,  be- 
came in  time  famous  as  a  sort  of  social  rally- 
ing point.  His  collection  of  pictures,  books, 
vases,  &c.,  was  distinguished  by  its  exquisite 
tnste,  and  realized  after  his  death  upward  of 
£50,000,  a  sum  considerably  larger  than  the 
original  cost.  His  "Voyage  of  Columbus" 
was  first  published  in  a  new  edition  of  his 
poems  in  1812,  and  in  1813  his  "Jacqueline" 
appeared  in  a  volume  with  Byron's  "Lara." 
In  1819  he  published  a  didactic  poem  entitled 
"  Human  Life,"  and  in  1822  "  Italy,"  a  collec- 
tion of  pieces  in  blank  verse  and  in  prose. 
The  remainder  of  his  literary  life  was  devoted 
to  the  publication  of  illustrated  editions  of 
his  "  Italy "  and  his  "  Poems,"  the  designs  for 
which  were  furnished  by  Prout,  Turner,  and 
Stothard,  and  were  engraved  by  the  first  artists 
in  England.  He  is  said  to  have  expended  be- 
tween £10,000  and  £15,000  in  this  underta- 
king. On  the  death  of  Wordsworth  he  was 
offered  the  laureateship,  which,  in  considera- 
tion of  his  great  age,  he  declined.  He  retained 
his  physical  vigor  until  near  the  close  of  his 
life.  His  chief  personal  blemish  was  a  ten- 
dency to  ill-natured  satire  and  unreasonable 
antipathies.  Of  this  and  other  traits  some 


KOGET 


ROIILFS 


389 


idea  may  be  obtained  from  the  volumes  of  his 
"Table  Talk"  published  by  the  Rev.  Alexan- 
der Dyce  (1856),  and  a  similar  collection  by 
his  nephew  William  Sharpe  (1859). 

ROGET,  Peter  Mark,  an  English  author,  born 
in  London  in  1779,  died  there,  Sept.  13,  1869. 
He  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  university  of 
Edinburgh  in  1798,  and  after  a  tour  to  the 
continent  settled  in  1804  in  Manchester,  where 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  infirmary, 
lunatic  asylum,  and  fever  hospital.  In  1808  he 
went  to  London,  and  was  for  many  years  secre- 
tary of  the  royal  society,  and  one  of  the  Ful- 
lerian  lecturers  on  physiology  at  the  royal  in- 
stitution. His  best  known  work  is  the -"The- 
saurus of  English  Words  and  Phrases"  (1852; 
9th  ed.,  revised,  1860 ;  American  ed.  by  Barnas 
Sears,  D.  D.,  New  York,  1854).  He  also  wrote 
"  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  a  Bridge- 
water  treatise  (2  vols.  8vo,  1834;  3d  ed.,  1840), 
"  Electricity,  Galvanism,  Magnetism,  and  Elec- 
tro-magnetism "  (1848),  &c. 

ROHM,  Louis  Rene  Edonard,  prince  de,  a 
French  cardinal,  born  Sept.  25,  1734,  died  at 
Ettenheim,  Baden,  Feb.  17,  1803.  He  was  des- 
tined for  the  church,  and  became  while  very 
young  the  associate  of  his  uncle  the  bishop  of 
Strasburg.  In  1772  he  was  ambassador  from 
Louis  XV.  to  Vienna,  was  recalled  in  1774  on 
account  of  his  giving  offence  to  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  by  scandalous  luxury  and  polit- 
ical meddling,  aud  appointed  after  his  return 
to  various  places  of  distinction  and  emolument. 
In  1778  he  was  made  a  cardinal,  and  in  1779 
bishop  of  Strasburg.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
1785  for  his  part  in  the  affair  of  the  diamond 
necklace,  which  so  gravely  compromised  Marie 
Antoinette  (see  LAMOTTE-VALOIS),  and  was 
released  in  1786,  but  dismissed  from  court  ut- 
terly disgraced.  In  1789  he  was  a  deputy  of 
the  clergy  of  Hagenau  to  the  states  general ; 
but  being  accused  of  disloyal  conduct,  he  re- 
signed his  seat,  and  retired  to  his  estate  on  the 
Rhine  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  France.  In 
1801,  in  consequence  of  the  concordat,  he  re- 
signed the  bishopric  of  Strasburg. 

ROIHLCIM),  the  country  of  the  Rohillas,  in 
British  India,  TV.  of  Oude,  1ST.  and  E.  of  the 
Ganges,  and  S.  of  Kumaon  and  Gurhwal,  now 
comprised  in  a  commissionership  or  admin- 
istrative division  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
bearing  the  same  name,  and  in  the  native 
principality  of  Rampoor,  which  is  surrounded 
by  the  six  districts  composing  the  division. 
These  districts  are  Bareilly,  Bijnoor,  Budaon, 
Moradabad,  Shahjehanpoor,  and  Terai  (Kashi- 
poor) ;  total  area,  about  11,500  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  5,435,550.  The  country  is  drained  by 
several  tributaries  of  the  Ganges,  of  which  the 
Ramganga  is  the  largest.  Sugar,  cotton,  cot- 
ton cloth,  and  timber  are  the  principal  articles 
of  exportation.  A  good  deal  of  rice  is  raised 
in  the  Terai  region,  which  is  irrigated  by  a 
large  number  of  small  canals  and  hill  dams. — 
The  Rohillas,  from  whom  this  territory  derives 
its  name,  are  descendants  of  the  Afghan  sol- 


diery who  established  themselves  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Delhi,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Mo- 
gul empire  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
became  independent.  About  1770  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Mahrattas,  and  sought  assis- 
tance from  the  vizier  of  Oude,  who  afforded 
them  but  little  aid,  and  subsequently  demanded 
an  enormous  sum  in  payment  for  it.  In  1774 
British  troops  were  sent  against  the  Rohillas 
by  Warren  Hastings,  to  enforce  this  demand, 
and  the  country  was  brought  under  subjection 
to  the  vizier,  who  in  1801  ceded  to  the  English 
the  entire  territory  with  the  exception  of  Ram- 
poor. In  1857  the  sepoys  mutinied  at  every 
station  in  Rohilcund,  and  the  country  was  a 
prominent  seat  of  military  operations. 

ROIILFS,  Gerhard,  a  German  traveller,  born 
at  Vegesack,  near  Bremen,  April  14,  1834. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Heidelberg,  Wurzburg, 
and  Gottingen,  went  to  Algeria,  enlisted  in  the 
foreign  legion  of  the  French  army,  served  in 
the  conquest  of  Kabylia,  and  attained  the  high- 
est rank  open  to  a  foreigner.  Having  there 
learned  the  Arabic  language  and  the  mode  of 
life  of  the  inhabitants,  in  1861  he  went  to  Mo- 
rocco, where  in  the  character  of  a  Moham- 
medan physician  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
the  grand  sherif,  and  under  his  protection 
travelled  through  the  country,  traversing  the 
Morocco  portion  of  the  Sahara  from  W.  to  E., 
and  exploring  the  whole  course  of  the  wady 
Draa.  On  this  journey  he  was  treacherously 
attacked  by  his  guides,  robbed,  and  left  for 
dead  in  the  desert,  with  a  broken  arm.  In 
1864  he  travelled  still  further  in  Morocco,  and 
crossed  the  Atlas  mountains  to  the  oasis  of 
Tuat.  His  description  and  map  of  the  country 
were  the  first  ever  made  from  personal  obser- 
vation and  with  scientific  knowledge.  After  a 
short  visit  to  Germany  in  1865  he  returned  to 
Africa,  and  traversed  the  continent  disguised 
as  an  Arab  from  Tripoli  to  Lagos,  by  way  of 
Moorzook  in  Fezzan,  Bilma,  Kuka,  the  chief 
city  of  Bornoo,  the  river  Benoowe,  the  Niger, 
and  the  Gomba  country.  The  journey  occupied 
altogether  about  two  years,  and  obtained  him 
the  medal  of  the  royal  geographical  society  of 
London.  Rohlfs's  detailed  account  of  it  is  con- 
tained in  the  Ergdmungsheft  No.  34  to  Peter- 
mann's  Geographische  Mittheilungen  (Gotha, 
1872).  At  the  close  of  1867,  by  order  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  he  joined  the  English  expe- 
dition against  Abyssinia.  He  returned  to  Tri- 
poli in  1868,  and  in  1869  traversed  the  desert 
from  Tripoli  to  Alexandria,  visiting  the  oasis 
of  Siwah,  the  ancient  Ammonium.  In  1873, 
with  an  expedition  of  100  camels  and  90  men, 
organized  under  the  patronage  of  the  khedive 
of  Egypt,  he  explored  the  Libyan  desert  W. 
of  the  chain  of  oases  which  skirt  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  and  discovered  that  the  depression 
called  the  Bahr  Bela-ma  (river  without  water) 
marked  on  many  maps  of  the  desert  does  not 
exist.  The  progress  of  the  expedition  S.  W. 
of  the  oasis  of  Dakhel  was  stopped  by  hills  of 
loose  sliding  sand,  which  the  camels  were  un- 


390 


ROKITANSKY 


ROLAND  DE  LA  PLATIERE 


able  to  traverse;  and  in  lat.  25°  11'  N.,  Ion. 
27°  40'  E.,  the  party  turned  back.  In  1875  he 
visited  the  United  States,  and  lectured  on  his 
travels.  His  most  important  publications  are: 
Reise  (Lurch  Marokko  (2d  ed.,  Bremen,  1869); 
In  Abessinien  (1869) ;  Von  Tripoli*  nach  Alex- 
andria (1871);  Mein  erster  Aufenthalt  in  Ma- 
rokko (1873);  Quer  durch  Afrika:  Reise  vom 
Mittelmeer  nach,  dem  Tschad-See  und  zum  Golf 
ton  Guinea  (Leipsic,  1874  et  teq.~);  and  Drei 
Monate  im  libyschen  Wuste  (Cassel,  1875  et 
teg.).  Winwood  Reade  edited  his  "Adven- 
tures in  Morocco  and  Journeys  through  the 
Oases  of  Draa  and  Tafilet"  (London,  1874). 

ROKITA.VSK  Y,  Karl,  a  German  physician,  born 
in  K6niggratz,  Bohemia,  Feb.  19,  1804.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Prague  and  at  Vienna, 
where  in  1828  he  became  assistant  to  the  pa- 
thological and  anatomical  establishment.  In 
1834  he  became  extraordinary  and  in  1844 
ordinary  professor  of  pathological  anatomy,  in 
1848  honorary  rector  of  the  university  of 
Prague  and  member  of  the  Vienna  academy  of 
sciences,  in  1849  dean  of  the  medical  faculty, 
and  in  1850  rector  of  the  university  of  Vi- 
enna. He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1874. 
He  was  the  projector  of  the  great  hospital  of 
Vienna.  He  is  considered  in  Germany  as  the 
highest  authority  in  anatomy  and  pathology. 
His  principal  work  is  Handbnch  der  patholo- 
gischen  Anatomie  (3  vols.,  Vienna,  1842-'6 ; 
English  translation  by  the  Sydenham  society, 
4  vols.,  London,  1845-'52),  entirely  recast 
under  the  title  of  Lehrbuch  der  pathologischen 
Anatomie  (3  vols.,  1851-'61). 

ROLAND,  called  by  the  Italians  OBLANDO,  a 
paladin  of  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  and  one 
of  the  most  famous  heroes  of  the  chivalric  ro- 
mances of  the  middle  ages.  According  to  tra- 
dition, he  was  a  nephew  of  Charlemagne,  and 
was  slain  at  Roncesvalles.  The  narrative  of 
his  defeat  and  death  has  been  expanded  into  a 
history  full  of  picturesque  and  marvellous  de- 
tails ;  and  in  the  "  Romance  of  Roncesvalles," 
in  the  rhymed  chronicle  La  Spagna,  in  the 
"Grand  Chronicles,"  in  Turpin's  fabulous 
chronicle  De  Vita  Caroli  Magni  et  Rolandi, 
and  later  in  the  Orlando  innamorato  of  Boi- 
ardo,  the  Orlando  f  arioso  of  Ariosto,  and  the 
Morgante  Maggiore  of  Pulci,  he  figures  as  the 
great  exemplar  of  mediaeval  chivalry.  The 
"  Song  of  Roland,"  a  metrical  narrative  of  the 
hero's  chief  exploits,  was  a  favorite  with  min- 
strels of  the  middle  ages.  His  historical  ex- 
istence rests  upon  a  doubtful  passage  in  Egin- 
hard's  Vita  Caroli  Magni,  and  he  is  believed 
to  be  almost  wholly  the  creation  of  fiction. — 
See  Das  Rolandslied,  edited  by  Karl  Bartsch 
(Leipsic,  1874),  forming  vol.  iii.  of  Sammlung 
der  deutschen  Dichtungen  des  Mittelalters. 

ROLAND  DE  LA  I'l. fMKKK.,  Jean  Marie  and 
Marie  or  Manon  Jeanne,  French  revolutionists, 
whose  histories  are  so  interwoven  that  they  can 
be  best  treated  in  a  single  article.  M.  Roland 
(born  near  Villefranche,  Feb.  18,  1734,  died 
by  his  own  hand  near  Rouen  in  November, 


1793)  was  destined  for  the  church,  at  which 
he  revolted,  and  at  the  age  of  19,  without  re- 
sources, travelled  on  foot  over  the  greater  part 
of  France.  At  Rouen  he  obtained  employ- 
ment with  a  relative,  and  finally  received  the 
appointment  of  inspector  of  manufactures  at 
Amiens.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  scientific 
studies,  and  was  the  author  of  several  works 
on  manufactures  and  rural  economy  in  the 
series  of  Arts  et  metiers  published  by  the  acad- 
emy of  sciences  (1779-'83).  In  l776-'8  he 
travelled  in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  and  ad- 
dressed to  his  brother,  a  prior  in  Paris,  letters 
containing  detailed  accounts  of  manufactures 
and  commerce  in  those  countries,  which  were 
afterward  published  (G  vols.  12mo,  1782).  On 
a  visit  to  Paris  in  1776,  he  had  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Mile.  Manon  Jeanne  Phlipon 
(born  in  Paris,  March  17,  1754,  executed  Nov. 
9,  1793).  From  early  childhood  she  was  a 
diligent  reader  of  such  books  as  fell  in  her 
way,  among  them  the  "Confessions"  of  St. 
Augustine  and  Plutarch's  "Lives."  At  11 
years  of  age  she  obtained  permission  to  spend 
a  year  in  a  convent  preparatory  to  her  first 
communion,  and  there  formed  an  intimacy 
with  a  Mile.  Sophie  Canet,  with  whom  after 
their  separation  she  kept  up  a  correspon- 
dence for  eight  years  (published  in  1841  in  2 
vols.  8vo).  She  was  married  to  M.  Roland  in 
1780,  and  in  1784  they  visited  England,  and 
studied  together  the  workings  of  its  political 
system.  After  their  return  Roland  was  trans- 
ferred in  his  official  capacity  to  Lyons,  and 
there  finished  his  principal  work,  the  Diction- 
naire  des  manufactures  et  des  arts  qui  en  de- 
pendent, forming  part  of  the  Encyclopedic 
methodique  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1785).  His  wife 
shared  in  all  his  labors.  They  both  hailed  the 
revolution  with  enthusiasm.  Roland  became 
a  municipal  officer  of  Lyons,  and  his  wife  con- 
tributed to  a  new  democratic  journal.  In  1791 
they  removed  to  Paris,  Roland  having  been 
chosen  commissioner  to  the  national  assembly 
on  behalf  of  the  workmen  of  Lyons.  Mme. 
Roland's  saloon  in  Paris  became  the  rallying 
point  of  the  Girondist  leaders,  to  whom  her 
husband  attached  himself.  On  March  23,  1792, 
he  became  minister  of  the  interior  under  Du- 
mouriez.  It  is  said  that  his  most  important 
state  papers  were  drawn  up  by  his  wife,  though 
she  declares  that  she  exercised  little  influence 
npon  his  acts.  Louis  XVI.  having  refused  his 
signature  to  the  decrees  for  the  banishment  of 
the  priests  and  for  the  formation  of  a  camp 
of  20,000  men,  Roland  addressed  to  him  a 
letter  written  by  his  wife,  warning  him  that 
his  tenure  of  the  throne  depended  upon  his 
compliance  with  the  popular  will.  No  answer 
being  returned,  Roland  read  the  letter  in  full 
council  to  the  king,  who  by  the  advice  of  Dn- 
mouriez  dismissed  him  and  his  two  Girondist 
colleagues.  Roland  at  once  read  the  letter  to 
the  assembly,  and  it  was  ordered  to  be  printed 
and  distributed  to  all  the  83  departments.  The 
storm  thus  raised  broke  forth  in  the  insurrec- 


ROLETTE 


ROMANA 


391 


tion  of  June  20,  and  paved  the  way  for  that  of 
Aug.  10,  when  the  Girondists  were  restored  to 
the  ministry.  Danton,  who  was  made  minister 
of  justice,  incited  the  Jacobins  and  the  popu- 
lace against  Roland,  and  scandalous  reports 
were  spread  about  his  wife.  On  Dec.  7  Mme. 
Roland  appeared  before  the  convention  to  an- 
swer a  charge  of  treasonable  correspondence 
with  the  English  ministry.  The  triumphant 
manner  in  which  she  cleared  herself  at  once 
silenced  and  enraged  her  accusers.  During 
the  trial  of  the  king,  Roland  found  important 
documents  bearing  against  him  in  a  secret 
closet  of  the  palace,  and  submitted  them. to  the 
convention;  but  as  he  had  examined  them 
without  witnesses,  it  was  charged  that  he  had 
abstracted  some  of  them.  The  Girondist  min- 
isters resigned  Jan.  22,  1793,  and  on  May  31 
Roland  was  arrested  and  held  a  prisoner  in 
his  own  house.  Mme.  Roland  rose  from  a 
sick  bed  to  demand  his  release  at  the  bar  of 
the  convention ;  but  she  failed  to  get  a  hear- 
ing, and  on  her  return  found  that  he  had  es- 
caped. She  was  herself  arrested  on  June  2, 
and  during  her  imprisonment  wrote  her  me- 
moirs under  the  title  of  Appel  d  la  posterite, 
the  manuscript  of  which  was  preserved  by  her 
friend  Bosc,  who  also  adopted  her  daughter 
and  only  child,  then  12  years  old.  Her  con- 
duct was  heroic,  and  on  the  way  to  the  scaf- 
fold she  occupied  herself  in  comforting  a  de- 
spondent old  man  beside  her  in  the  cart.  Of 
her  (Euvres  completes  (3  vols.  8vo,  1800)  the 
first  two  volumes  contain  her  Memoires  (new 
editions  by  0.  A.  Dauban,  4  vols.,  1864,  and  by 
Prosper  Faugere,  2  vols.,  1864).  Besides  her 
correspondence  with  the  demoiselles  Canet, 
there  have  been  published  Lettres  autographes 
de  Mme.  Roland,  adressees  a  Bancal  des  Issarts, 
with  an  introduction  by  Sainte-Beuve  (8vo, 
1835).  On  Nov.  15, 1793,  a  week  after  her  exe- 
cution, the  body  of  M.  Roland  was  found  four 
leagues  from  Rouen  (in  which  city  he  had  lain 
concealed  for  five  months),  pierced  with  the 
blade  of  a  sword  cane  which  lay  beside  him, 
and  with  a  paper  in  his  pocket  protesting  his 
honesty  of  purpose  in  all  his  actions,  and  con- 
cluding: "When  I  heard  that  my  wife  had 
been  massacred,  I  would  not  remain  any  longer 
in  a  world  stained  with  crimes."  The  corpse 
was  carried  to  Paris  and  subjected  to  gross 
indignities. — See  Dauban's  tltude  sur  Mme. 
Roland  et  son  temps  (1864). 

ROLETTE,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  bor- 
dering on  British  America,  recently  formed, 
and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870  ;  area, 
about  1,850  sq.  m.  The  extreme  E.  part  is 
watered  by  a  stream  that  empties  into  Mini- 
wakan  or  Devil's  lake.  The  N.  W.  part  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  Turtle  mountains.  The  surface 
consists  chiefly  of  rolling  prairies. 

ROLFE,  Robert  Mousey.     See  CRANWOETH. 

ROLLIN,  Charles,  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  30, 1661,  died  there,  Sept.  14, 1741. 
He  was  gratuitously  admitted  to  a  school  the 
pupils  of  which  attended  classes  at  the  college 


de  Plessis.  He  next  studied  theology,  but  did 
not  take  orders,  and  became  professor  of  rhet- 
oric in  his  college,  and  in  1688  in  the  college  de 
France.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  the  university 
in  1694,  and  was  reflected  in  1695.  In  1696 
he  became  coadjutor  at  the  col!6ge  de  Beau- 
vais,  where  his  methods  of  instruction  subject- 
ed him  on  the  part  of  the  Jesuits  to  charges  of 
Jansenism,  especially  as  he  had  shown  sym- 
pathy with  the  Port  Royalists.  He  was  dis- 
missed from  his  rectorship  in  1712,  but  held  it 
again  for  a  short  time  in  1720.  Under  Cardi- 
nal Fleury  he  was  subjected  to  indignities  on 
account  of  his  enlightened  opinions,  and  on  his 
death  public  homage  to  his  memory  was  pro- 
hibited by  the  government.  His  most  popular 
work,  Histoire  ancienne  (13  vols.,  1730-'38), 
has  been  frequently  reprinted  in  French  and  in 
English ;  the  best  known  abridgment  is  by  the 
abbe  Tailhie  (5  vols.,  1853).  His  other  works 
include  Traite  des  etudes  (4  vols.,  1726-'8), 
also  often  reprinted  in  French  and  English, 
and  Histoire  romaine  (9  vols.,  1738  et  seq.,  the 
four  last  by  his  pupil  Crevier;  latest  ed.  by 
Didot  in  10  vols.,  1862 ;  abridged  by  the  abbe 
Tailhie,  5  vols.,  1863). 

ROLLIN,  Ledrn.     See  LEDRU-ROLLIN. 

ROLLO.     See  NORTHMEN. 

R09IAGNOSI,  Gian  Domenieo,  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  near  Piacenza  in  December,  1761,  died 
in  Milan,  June  8,  1835.  He  was  chief  civil 
magistrate  of  Trent,  and  the  Austrians  arrest- 
ed him  in  1799  on  account  of  his  alleged  sym- 
pathy with  the  French,  but  he  was  acquitted. 
During  his  detention  he  observed  the  deviation 
of  the  magnetic  needle  under  the  influence  of 
a  galvanic  current.  His  discovery,  published 
in  a  journal  of  Trent  in  1802,  attracted  little 
attention  until  the  discoveries  of  Oersted  in 
1819-'20.  He  was  successively  professor  of 
law  at  Parma,  Pavia,  and  Milan.  After  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  he  lost  his  position  at  the 
Milan  university,  but  continued  to  lecture  till 
1817.  In  1818  he  was  again  tried  for  trea- 
son at  Venice,  and  again  acquitted.  His  most 
celebrated  work  is  Introduzione  allo  studio 
del  diritto  puliblico  universale  (2  vols.,  Parma, 
1805;  5th  ed.,  Milan,  1836).  Complete  edi- 
tions of  his  writings  have  been  published  at 
Florence  (19  vols.,  1832  et  seq.}  and  Milan  (15 
vols.,  1836-'45). 

ROMAIC.  See  GREECE,  LANGUAGE  AND  LIT- 
ERATURE OF,  vol.  viii.,  pp.  208  and  210. 

KO.MAYl,  Pedro  Caro  y  Snreda,  marquis  de  la, 
a  Spanish  soldier,  born  in  Palma,  island  of 
Majorca,  in  1761,  died  in  Cartaxo,  Portugal, 
in  1811.  He  entered  the  naval  service,  and 
in  1782  participated  in  the  siege  of  Gibral- 
tar by  the  united  forces  of  France  and  Spain. 
When  the  war  broke  out  between  these  two 
powers,  he  joined  the  army.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  captain  general  of  Catalonia,  and 
then  a  member,  of  the  supreme  council  of  war. 
When  Napoleon  forced  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment to  place  an  army  at  his  disposal,  these 
troops,  15,000  in  number,  were  intrusted  to 


392 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


the  command  of  La  Romana,  and  sent  in  1807 
to  Poraeraniat;  but  the  general,  hearing  of  the 
conduct  of  Napoleon  toward  both  Charles  IV. 
and  Ferdinand,  determined  to  leave  at  once 
the  service  of  the  conqueror.  He  communi- 
cated with  the  commander  of  the  English  fleet 
cruising  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic,  and, 
availing  himself  of  the  troops  being  then  in 
the  island  of  Funen,  succeeded  in  embarking 
them  on  board  some  English  men-of-war,  Aug. 
17-20,  1808,  and  landed  them  safely  at  Corun- 
na.  He  was  subsequently  prominent  in  organ- 
izing the  bands  of  guerillas  which  proved  so 
terrible  to  the  French.  He  left  a  diary,  which 
was  published  with  some  of  his  letters  in  the 
supplementary  collection  of  the  French  Me- 
moiret  relatifa  d  la  revolution  franfawe  (8vo, 
Paris,  1825). 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  (III  RfH.  the  name  popu- 
larly given  to  the  body  of  Christians  through- 
out the  world  in  communion  with  the  bishop 
of  Rome.  It  is  not  assumed  by  the  church 
herself.  The  holy  Roman  church  is  under- 
stood of  the  local  church  of  Rome;  but  the 
term  Roman  is  used,  especially  in  French 
documents,  as  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  church,  which  is  styled  Catholic,  Apos- 
tolic, and  Roman,  because  the  see  of  Rome  is 
its  centre.  In  the  congress  of  Vienna  Cardinal 
Consalvi  objected  to  the  joint  use  of  the  terms 
"  Roman  Catholic,"  but  was  willing  that  they 
should  be  separately  applied  to  the  church, 
which  is  Roman  by  reason  of  its  necessary  de- 
pendence on  the  see  of  Rome,  and  Catholic  on 
account  of  its  universal  diffusion.  It  is  not 
confined  to  those  of  the  Latin  rite,  but  in- 
cludes all  of  every  rite  who  acknowledge  the 
bishop  of  Rome  as  their  head  under  Christ. 
Nearly  200,000,000  are  estimated  to  belong  to 
it.  About  183  archbishops,  693  bishops,  and  122 
vicars  apostolic  compose  the  hierarchy. — The 
chief  doctrines  of  the  church  regard  the  unity 
of  the  divine  nature  in  three  distinct  divine 
persons,  and  the  incarnation  of  the  second  di- 
vine person  through  the  mysterious  operation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  his 
death  on  the  cross  for  the  expiation  of  the  sins 
of  mankind.  The  belief  of  the  incarnation  is 
the  ground  and  motive  of  the  high  veneration 
which  is  entertained  for  the  Virgin,  who  is 
styled  Mother  of  God,  because  Christ  her  son 
is  God  incarnate.  To  her  is  ascribed  all  sanc- 
tity and  perfection  which  can  be  bestowed  on 
a  mere  creature,  and  she  is  held  to  have  been 
free  from  all  stain  of  sin  by  a  special  privilege 
granted  her  that  she  might  be  worthy  of  the 
dignity  for  which  she  was  divinely  chosen. 
The  mystery  of  the  redemption  is  prominent 
in  the  teaching  and  worship  of  the  church. 
Christ  suffered  and  died,  as  man,  to  atone  for 
the  sin  of  our  first  parents,  and  the  sins  of  all 
mankind.  As  all  humanity  fell  in  the  first 
Adam,  so  in  him,  the  second  Adam,  all  hu- 
manity is  restored.  His  death  fully  expiated 
the  guilt  of  sin,  and  presented  an  atonement 
in  every  respect  perfect.  Yet  all  men  are  not 


justified  and  saved,  but  those  only  to  whom 
the  redemption  is  applied  by  means  divinely 
prescribed.  Baptism  is  believed  to  be  chiefly  a 
remedy  for  original  sin,  applicable  even  to  in- 
fants. Adults  having  the  use  of  reason  must 
believe  in  Christ  and  repent  of  sin,  in  order  to 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  atonement.  From 
those  who  have  forfeited  baptismal  grace,  fruits 
of  penance  are  required  as  evidences  of  their 
sincere  conversion  to  God,  and  as  conditions 
to  entitle  them  to  the  application  of  the  merits 
of  Christ.  Nothing  that  man  can  do,  unas- 
sisted by  God's  saving  grace,  can  take  away 
the  guilt  of  sin,  or  prove  an  adequate  satis- 
faction for  it ;  but  God  requires  the  humilia- 
tion of  the  sinner,  and  accepts  his  penitential 
works,  which  derive  value  from  the  ransom 
offered  by  Christ.  They  add  nothing  to  it,  but 
they  become  acceptable  through  it.  Christ  is 
the  essential  Mediator,  through  whose  blood 
we  must  sue  for  pardon  and  salvation. — The 
worship  of  the  church  is  given  to  God  only, 
the  one  eternal  Being  in  the  three  divine  per- 
sons, and  the  incarnate  Word,  God  consub- 
stantial  to  the  Father.  Inferior  religious  hon- 
or, which  may  be  called  worship  in  a  qualified 
sense,  is  given  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  on  account 
of  the  gifts  and  graces  with  which  God  has  en- 
dowed her,  and  her  exalted  dignity  as  Mother 
of  God  incarnate.  The  angels,  that  is,  incor- 
poreal spirits  reigning  with  God,  are  honored 
as  his  creatures,  in  whom  his  perfections  are  re- 
flected, and  as  his  messengers,  through  whom 
he  has  manifested  his  will.  Saints,  those  who 
have  proved  faithful  in  the  divine  service  to 
the  end,  and  are  already  crowned  with  glory 
in  the  kingdom  of  God,  are  venerated  like- 
wise for  their  triumphant  virtue;  the  martyrs 
especially,  who  died  amid  torments  rather  than 
deny  Christ,  and  the  virgins,  who  throughout 
life  preserved  the  purity  of  their  affections, 
are  deemed  worthy  of  high  honor.  But  there 
is  an  essential  difference  between  the  honor 
given  to  the  creatures  of  God  and  that  which 
belongs  to  God  alone.  Ho  receives  the  sub- 
mission of  the  understanding  and  the  will,  the 
homage  of  the  affections.  He  is  acknowledged 
to  be  the  essential  Being,  the  supreme  Lord, 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  all  things.  Sac- 
rifice is  given  to  him  only,  in  token  of  his  be- 
ing the  sole  source  of  being  and  life.  Prayer, 
in  its  strict  acceptation,  can  be  addressed  to 
him  only,  the  Giver  of  every  good  gift.  Grace 
and  salvation  depend  on  his  bounty  and  mercy. 
Litanies  and  prayers  to  the  saints  are  only  ap- 
peals to  them  to  intercede  with  God  for  us 
through  Jesus  Christ.  They  are  not  supposed 
to  be  omniscient  or  omnipresent,  but  to  know 
in  God  the  pious  desires  as  well  as  the  peni- 
tential sighs  of  the  faithful.  Respect  is  paid 
to  the  crucifix,  which  recalls  to  our  mind  the 
sufferings  of  Christ  for  our  redemption,  but  it 
does  not  terminate  in  the  symbol  or  material 
object.  The  kissing  of  the  image,  the  bend- 
ing of  the  knee,  the  prostration  of  the  body  in 
the  ceremonial  of  Good  Friday,  are  all  directed 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


393 


to  Christ  the  Redeemer.  So  the  images  of  the 
saints  awake  the  remembrance  of  their  virtues. 
The  bowing  of  the  head  to  a  statue,  or  the  burn- 
ing of  incense  before  a  shrine,  is  referred  to  the 
saint  whose  memory  is  honored  for  his  love  of 
God  and  his  zeal  for  the  divine  glory.  Relics, 
that  is,  objects  used  by  the  saints,  or  particles 
of  their  remains,  are  venerated  for  the  relation 
they  bear  to  them. — The  fall  of  the  first  parents 
of  the  human  race  is  the  fundamental  doctrine 
on  which  the  belief  of  the  mystery  of  re- 
demption depends.  They  were  created  in  in- 
nocence, and  raised  to  a  state  beyond  the  pow- 
ers of  nature,  being  constituted  just  and  holy 
by  a  communication  of  divine  grace,  and  ren- 
dered capable  of  immortality.  The  prohibi- 
tion to  eat  of  a  certain  tree  in  the  garden  in 
which  they  were  placed  was  intended  to  ex- 
ercise their  obedience,  that  their  dependence 
on  the  Creator  might  be  manifested.  If  they 
had  been  faithful,  they  would  have  transmit- 
ted to  their  descendants  the  supernatural  gifts 
with  which  they  had  been  endowed  ;  but  their 
disobedience  involved  the  forfeiture  of  them 
for  their  posterity,  as  well  as  for  themselves. 
Original  sin  is  that  transgression  which  is  com- 
mon to  the  whole  human  family,  each  one  be- 
ing estranged  from  God  and  liable  to  his  wrath, 
in  consequence  of  the  act  of  the  heads  of  the 
race.  The  natural  powers  have  been  weak- 
ened by  the  fall.  The  freedom  of  the  human 
will  remains,  but  it  is  less  vigorous  than  in  our 
first  parents.  Our  nature  is  not  vitiated  and 
depraved,  but  it  is  prone  to  evil  and  exposed  to 
violent  temptation.  It  is  despdiled  of  super- 
natural gifts,  cast  down  from  the  exalted  posi- 
tion to  which  it  had  been  gratuitously  raised, 
and  deprived  of  the  special  providence  destined 
to  it  in  the  beginning.  A  redeemer  was  given 
us,  in  the  person  of  Christ,  who,  being  God- 
man,  atoned  by  his  sufferings  for  the  sin  of 
our  first  parents,  and  merited  for  us  all  grace 
by  which  temptation  may  be  overcome. — Ac- 
tual sin  is  the  wilful  transgression  of  the  di- 
vine law  by  individuals  having  the  use  of  rea- 
son. It  supposes  advertence  to  the  malice  of 
the  action  and  the  consent  of  the  will  deliber- 
ately given,  although  the  advertence  and  con- 
sent may  not  be  full,  since  sins  of  ignorance 
occur.  The  omission  to  perform  duties  posi- 
tively prescribed  is  also  sinful.  The  design  to 
do  evil  is  criminal  even  as  the  act,  and  the 
wilful  contemplation  of  forbidden  acts  may 
imply  guilt  on  account  of  the  danger  of  con- 
senting to  them.  Mortal  sin  is  any  act,  speech, 
desire,  or  thought  grievously  opposed  to  the 
natural  or  divine  law.  Sins  which  imply  no 
direct  or  grievous  opposition  to  the  law  of  God 
are  styled  venial,  because  their  pardon  is  easi- 
ly obtained,  since  they  do  not  separate  the 
soul  from  God.  Slight  impatience,  rash  words, 
vain  self-complacency,  may  be  venial.  Delib- 
erate hatred,  gross  calumny,  acts  of  violence, 
not  to  speak  of  drunkenness,  lust,  and  murder, 
are  mortal  sins.  The  distinction  of  sins  is  not 
derived  from  the  individual  who  commits  them, 


although  they  may  be  aggravated  by  his  per- 
sonal obligations.  Forgiveness  of  sins,  even 
the  most  heinous,  is  promised  to  the  penitent. 
Sorrow  for  having  committed  them  is  a  neces- 
sary disposition  in  order  to  obtain  it.  Perfect 
sorrow,  which  is  called  contrition,  springs  from 
divine  love,  and  leads  us  to  detest  sin  as  op- 
pjosed  to  the  goodness  of  God  and  to  his  essen- 
tial perfection.  Attrition  is  sorrow  of  a  less 
perfect  kind,  arising  from  an  experience  of  the 
evil  consequences  of  sin,  and  a  dread  of  the  pun- 
ishments which  await  it  hereafter.  If  it  weans 
the  heart  from  sin,  and  inspires  an  effectual 
detestation  of  it,  so  as  to  be  accompanied  with 
a  firm  resolution  of  amendment,  it  is  held  to 
be  useful  and  salutary,  and  such  as  may  dispose 
for  pardon  in  the  sacrament  of  penance.  No 
degree  of  anguish  of  mind  can  insure  our  rec- 
onciliation with  God  so  long  as  we  are  not 
firmly  determined  to  shun  sin  and  the  occa- 
sions of  relapse.  The  forgiveness  of  sin  prop- 
erly belongs  to  God,  who  is  offended.  Christ, 
as  God -man,  forgave  sin,  and  authorized  the 
apostles  to  impart  forgiveness  or  withhold  it. 
In  virtue  of  this  commission  the  power  of  for- 
giveness is  exercised  by  bishops  and  priests,  as 
delegates  of  Christ.  The  power  is  judicial, 
since  they  may  bind  or  loose,  retain  or  re- 
mit; on  which  account  a  confession  of  sin  is 
required  from  every  applicant  for  its  exercise. 
When  this  is  made  with  sincerity,  humility, 
sorrow,  a  willingness  to  repair  the  wrong 
committed,  and  a  determination  to  shun  the 
occasions  of  sin,  the  priest  absolves  the  peni- 
tent. This  absolution  is  a  judicial  sentence, 
deriving  its  force  from  the  divine  institution. 
— The  sacraments  are  rites  instituted  by  Christ 
our  Lord  as  instruments  and  means  of  grace, 
to  apply  to  our  souls  the  merits  of  his  suffer- 
ings and  death.  They  are  said  to  contain  and 
confer  grace,  technically  ex  opere  operato,  be- 
cause they  are  effectual  means  divinely  chosen 
to  impart  it,  where  no  obstacle  is  presented  by 
the  receiver.  Certain  dispositions,  however, 
are  required  on  the  part  of  adults  who  desire 
to  partake  of  them.  Faith  and  compunction 
are  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  applicant  for 
baptism.  Sorrow  with  a  firm  purpose  of 
amendment  is  likewise  required  from  the  pro- 
fessed penitent.  The  strengthening  grace  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  granted,  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands  with  prayer,  to  the  baptized  believer 
whose  heart  is  free  from  wilful  sin.  Sin  is 
forgiven  to  the  dying  man  who  with  penitence 
and  hope  receives  the  mystic  unction,  and  for 
whom  the  prayer  of  faith  is  offered  up.  The 
imposition  of  hands  is  available  for  the  com- 
munication of  sacerdotal  power,  even  to  the 
unworthy  candidate ;  but  grace  is  given  to  him 
who  is  called  by  God,  and  who  with  humility 
corresponds  to  the  divine  vocation.  Marriage 
is  a  great  mystery,  the  image  of  the  union  of 
Christ  and  the  church,  to  be  celebrated  with 
purity  of  affection.  The  eucharist,  the  chief 
sacrament,  is  to  be  approached  with  hearts 
cleansed  from  sin,  under  penalty  of  becoming 


394 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


guilty  of  the.body  and  blood  of  the  Lord,  and 
incurring  condemnation. — The  elevation  of 
.man  to  the  rank  of  adopted  child  of  God,  and 
coheir  with  Christ  to  God's  kingdom,  the  bea- 
tific vision  and  the  eternal  union  through  it 
with  the  Godhead,  form  a  destiny  transcend- 
ing the  conception  and  exigency  of  nature. 
All  help  vouchsafed  of  God  to  man  toward  the 
attainment  of  this  destiny  or  end  must  needs 
be  supernatural,  like  that  end  itself.  This 
help  is  called  grace.  It  is  God's  free  gift,  by 
which  the  mind  is  enlightened  and  the  will  is 
strengthened,  is  necessary  to  conceive  a  good 
thought,  and  still  more  to  undertake  or  per- 
form any  work  directed  to  salvation.  This  is 
proffered  to  all,  but  is  actually  dispensed  ac- 
cording to  a  just  yet  incomprehensible  dispo- 
sition of  Divine  Providence,  with  wonderful 
variety.  It  does  not  interfere  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  human  will,  which  it  moves  and 
aids,  without  imposing  necessity.  The  grace 
which  moves  to  prayer,  if  complied  with,  is 
usually  followed  by  the  grace  of  action,  which 
enables  us  to  perform  our  duty.  What  is  be- 
yond our  actual  strength  becomes  practically 
possible,  if  not  easy,  by  means  of  the  help 
thus  afforded.  To  God  properly  belongs  the 
glory  of  any  good  which  we  perform,  because 
our  sufficiency,  our  power,  is  from  him ;  but 
to  us  the  reward  is  promised,  inasmuch  as  we 
might  resist  his  impulse  by  abusing  our  free- 
dom. It  is  not  easy  to  reconcile  the  exercise 
of  free  will  with  the  divine  foresight.  We 
cannot  understand  how  it  is  possible  for  us  to 
act  independently,  and  of  our  own  determina- 
tion, when  God  from  eternity  has  foreseen 
our  action.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  know 
and  feel  our  freedom,  without  sounding  the 
depths  of  divine  knowledge.  The  church,  hav- 
ing declared  the  necessity  of  grace  for  all  su- 
pernatural acts,  and  for  the  beginning  or  first 
thought  directed  to  such  an  end,  has  abstained 
from  deciding  the  controversies  of  the  schools 
regarding  the  modes  of  reconciling  the  freedom 
of  the  human  will  with  such  necessity,  and 
with  the  divine  foreknowledge.  It  suffices 
then  to  admit  that  without  the  grace  of  Christ 
we  can  do  nothing,  and  to  hold  that  we  can  do 
all  things  in  him  who  strengthens  us.  The 
grace  of  God  is  not  given  to  the  elect  alone, 
since  Christ  did  not  die  for  them  only.  God 
wishes  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  grants  graces 
remotely,  if  not  proximately,  sufficient  for  this 
end.  The  divine  commandments  are  not  im- 
possible. If  great  difficulty  be  experienced  in 
their  fulfilment,  even  occasionally  by  just  men, 
grace  can  be  obtained  by  prayer  by  which  it 
may  be  removed,  so  that  what  may  appear  im- 
possible to  nature  may  be  rendered  easy  by 
grace. — Everlasting  beatitude,  consisting  in  the 
contemplation  and  enjoyment  of  God,  is  the  re- 
ward promised  by  him  on  condition  of  the  ful- 
filment of  his  commandments,  and  bestowed 
gratuitously  on  baptized  infants  or  others  inca- 
pable of  personal  acts.  The  punishment  of  griev- 
ous sin  is  eternal.  All  guilty  of  such,  who  die 


unrepentant,  are  for  ever  separated  from  God, 
and  suffer  torments.  Those  who  die  guilty  of 
slight  faults,  or  debtors  to  divine  justice,  are 
withheld  for  a  time  from  the  enjoyment  of 
heaven.  The  glory  of  heaven  is  immediately 
attained  by  baptized  infants  dying  before  the 
use  of  reason,  by  adults  dying  immediately 
after  baptism,  by  martyrs,  and  by  all  who  die 
with  perfect  love  of  God,  and  free  from  sin 
or  debt  of  punishment.  The  soul  only  is  ad- 
mitted to  happiness.  The  body  is  subject  to 
dissolution,  but  is  to  be  raised  at  the  end  of 
time,  in  order  to  be  reunited  to  the  soul  and 
made  partaker  of  its  glory.  The  degrees  of 
beatitude  vary  according  to  the  greater  or  less 
love  of  God  which  distinguishes  each  of  the 
elect,  even  as  star  differs  from  star  in  bright- 
ness. All  the  saints,  however,  will  be  perfect- 
ly happy,  because  free  from  all  suffering  or 
pain,  from  all  passion  or  inordinate  desire,  and 
rejoicing  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  divine  will. 
We  are  not  called  on  to  scrutinize  the  divine 
decrees  with  regard  to  election  to  glory.  Its 
attainment  supposes  cooperation  and  fidelity  to 
grace  on  the  part  of  adults.  It  is  imparted  as 
a  reward.  God  cannot  predestine  any  to  tor- 
ments without  reference  to  their  demerits  and 
offences,  since  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted  only 
for  transgression. — The  teaching  of  Christ  our 
Lord  becomes  known  to  us  especially  by  the 
preaching  of  the  ministry,  tracing  back  their 
commission  to  his  apostles.  Solemn  definitions 
of  faith  are  the  most  authoritative  forms  of 
this  preaching.  They  are  declarations  not  merely 
of  doctrines  contained  in  the  written  word,  but 
of  revealed  truths,  whether  written  or  unwrit- 
ten. Christ  himself  left  nothing  in  writing; 
several  of  his  apostles  wrote  much,  and  two 
other  sacred  writers  composed  narratives  of  his 
life  and  teaching ;  but  many  things  belong  to 
the  deposit  of  doctrine  which  were  not  expli- 
citly placed  on  record .  The  body  of  bishops  feel 
themselves  authorized  to  propose  as  revealed 
truth  whatever  has  come  down  from  the  begin- 
ning in  the  church,  and  been  generally  ac- 
knowledged to  appertain  to  doctrine.  In  cases 
of  difficulty,  when  doubts  have  been  raised 
with  regard  to  some  tenet,  they  feel  themselves 
competent  to  examine  the  evidence,  and  decide 
whether  the  doctrine  has  been  revealed.  After 
a  definition,  it  is  no  longer  allowed  to  question 
a  truth  sealed  with  their  approval.  Infallibil- 
ity in  judgment  is  claimed  for  the  body  of  bish- 
ops in  union  with  their  head,  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  By  it  is  meant  the  providential  gui- 
dance of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  which  they  are  di- 
rected and  enlightened  in  doctrinal  decisions, 
that  they  may  not  mistake  error  for  truth, 
or  propose  as  divinely  revealed  what  lacks 
the  seal  of  divine  authority.  The  same  infal- 
libility which  Christ  promised  to  the  church 
is  claimed  for  the  head  of  the  church,  when, 
in  the  performance  of  his  office  of  teacher 
and  pastor  of  the  whole  of  Christ's  flock,  he 
defines  ex  cathedra  a  doctrine  regarding  faith 
or  morals  to  be  held  by  the  universal  church. 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


395 


(See  INFALLIBILITY.)  These  doctrinal  defini- 
tions or  judgments  of  the  Roman  pontiff  are 
of  themselves  final,  and  irreformable  even  be- 
fore the  acquiescence  of  the  episcopal  body. 
— The  divine  Scriptures  are  acknowledged  by 
the  church  as  the  word  of  inspiration,  written 
under  the  impulse  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  to 
be  received  with  all  faith  and  reverence.  The 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  contained  in  the 
Jewish  canon  are  admitted,  to  which  are  added 
certain  other  books  written  before  the  com- 
ing of  Christ,  and  known  to  the  Jews,  espe- 
cially those  of  Alexandria,  but  not  fully  recog- 
nized as  of  binding  authority.  These  are  ac- 
cepted by  the  church  on  ancient  testimony, 
usage,  and  tradition  derived  from  the  apostles. 
The  books  of  the  New  Testament  contained  in 
the  canon  include  some  of  which  doubt  was 
entertained  in  the  early  ages.  The  canon  of 
the  council  of  Carthage  held  in  39V,  and  that 
of  Innocent  I.  and  Gelasius  in  the  following 
century,  are  followed  in  the  list  of  sacred  books 
adopted  by  the  council  of  Trent.  The  church 
claims  the  supreme  authority  of  determining 
the  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  in  conformi- 
ty with  the  general  teaching  of  the  fathers, 
that  is,  the  ancient  Christian  writers. — Faith, 
according  to  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  is  the 
assent  of  the  human  mind  to  divine  truth  pro- 
posed and  attested  by  the  church  of  God.  The 
fact  of  revelation  is  essential,  since  no  persua- 
'  sion,  however  strong,  can  give  to  opinion  the 
character  of  a  revealed  truth.  It  must  be  pro- 
pounded by  the  church,  in  order  to  be  regard- 
ed as  a  point  of  Catholic  belief.  Revelations 
made  to  an  individual  challenge  the  assent  of 
his  mind  to  the  truth  manifested  to  him ;  but 
an  authoritative  declaration  by  a  divinely  ap- 
pointed teacher,  the  church,  the  pillar  and 
ground  of  the  truth,  is  necessary  to  afford  cer- 
tainty of  the  fact  of  revelation  to  men  general- 
ly. The  assent  of  the  mind  must  be  given  to 
all  revealed  truth,  for  the  authority  of  God  is 
alike  vouchsafed  for  all,  and  the  testimony  of 
the  church  extends  to  all.  Faith  is  necessary 
to  salvation,  so  that  without  it  it  is  impossible 
to  please  God.  The  wanton  and  proud  rejec- 
tion of  a  single  point  of  revealed  doctrine  in- 
volves the  wreck  of  faith.  Want  of  opportu- 
nity of  instruction,  insufficiency  of  evidence 
proposed,  weakness  of  understanding,  and  un- 
avoidable prepossessions  arising  from  birth  and 
education  may  extenuate  or  excuse  the  denial 
of  some  doctrine,  not  recognized  as  revealed. 
Hence  invincible  ignorance  is  admitted  by  di- 
vines in  respect  to  many  not  actual  professors 
of  Catholic  doctrine,  although  God  only  can 
determine  with  certainty  the  individuals  for 
whom  such  plea  may  be  available.  The  exclu- 
sive language  of  church  formularies,  which  de- 
clare that  without  Catholic  faith  none  can  be 
saved,  receives  this  mild  interpretation.  All 
baptized  children  are  claimed  by  the  church 
as  her  own,  since  baptism  is  the  sacrament  of 
regeneration,  and  they  continue  such  until  by 
their  wilful  profession  of  condemned  error  they 


forfeit  their  birthright. — The  natural  law,  as 
manifested  by  reason  and  declared4  in  the  deca- 
logue, is  the  foundation  of  moral  theology.  The 
development  of  it  in  the  New  Testament  guides 
theologians  in  their  examination  of  duties  and 
rights.  The  writings  of  the  fathers  illustrate 
many  points.  The  decisions  by  popes  and  coun- 
cils of  matters  submitted  to  their  judgment  are 
necessarily  followed.  Moral  theology  is  the  sci- 
entific discussion  of  all  matters  appertaining  to 
conduct,  and  is  consequently  most  comprehen- 
sive, since  it  embraces  whatever  has  reference 
to  vice  or  virtue,  to  the  general  principles  of 
right,  to  the  obligations  of  every  station  in  life, 
and  to  the  infinite  variety  of  circumstances  in 
which  individuals  may  be  placed.  Much  is 
necessarily  left  open  for  dispute  in  a  science 
which  comprises  every  imaginable  case  that 
may  wear  a  moral  aspect,  on  which  account 
complaints  are  made  of  the  latitude  of  theologi- 
cal opinions,  favorable  to  relaxation  of  mor- 
als ;  but  it  is  considered  of  no  small  importance 
that  the  great  principles  of  morality  should  be 
broadly  stated  and  steadily  maintained.  Con- 
fessors study  casuistry,  as  physicians  study  mal- 
adies and  infirmities,  to  understand  human  dis- 
orders, and  apply  the  remedies. — The  principles 
of  the  Catholic  church  with  regard  to  civil  du- 
ties are  highly  conservative.  She  is  indifferent 
to  forms  of  government  and  social  institutions, 
and  is  content  to  exercise  a  salutary  influence 
on  society,  by  inculcating  those  maxims  of 
right  and  order  which  are  found  in  the  gospel. 
She  feels  bound  to  respect  established  authori- 
ty, and  to  enforce  by  moral  suasion  obedience 
to  those  in  high  station.  The  early  apologists 
of  Christianity  confidently  appealed  to  the  per- 
secutors themselves  as  witnesses  of  the  loyalty 
and  submission  of  the  faithful.  In  the  middle 
ages  the  church  was  occasionally  in  conflict 
with  the  civil  power,  because,  being  acknowl- 
edged by  princes  and  peoples  as  the  represen- 
tative of  God,  she  sought  to  restrain  the  pas- 
sions cf  rulers,  who  called  themselves  her  chil- 
dren, by  the  laws  and  maxims  of  Christ,  and 
to  regulate  society  by  the  divine  law.  In  the 
present  state  of  the  world,  divided  into  so 
many  independent  kingdoms  r.nd  states,  and 
into  opposite  sects,  she  confines  her  efforts  for 
the  moral  control  of  nations  to  proclaiming 
the  revealed  doctrines,  and  teaching  that  re- 
ligion is  the  only  secure  basis  and  strong  bond 
of  society. — By  discipline  Catholics  understand 
all  that  appertains  to  the  government  of  the 
church,  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
and  the  observances  and  practices  of  religion. 
The  essential  worship  consists  in  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass,  which,  although  mystical  and  com- 
memorative, is  real  and  propitiatory,  being  a 
bloodless  continuation  of  the  bloody  sacrifice 
of  the  cross.  Vespers,  that  is,  evening  pray- 
er, are  solemnly  sung,  the  psalms  of  David  be- 
ing employed  in  the  divine  praise,  with  the 
song  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  pious  hymns, 
and  prayers.  Other  portions  of  the  divine 
office  are  sung  in  the  cathedral  churches  of 


396 


Catholic  countries  at  various  hours  each  day, 
by  clergymen  called  canons,  devoted  to  this 
duty.  Besides  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday, 
which  from  the  apostolic  times  has  been  set 
apart  for  divine  worship,  in  place  of  the  Jew- 
ish sabbath,  festivals  are  celebrated  to  honor 
the  divine  mysteries,  and  present  them  to  the 
devout  contemplation  of  the  faithful.  Many 
are  solemnized  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
the  apostles,  martyrs,  confessors,  virgins,  and 
saints  of  every  class,  whose  virtues  are  thus  set 
before  the  faithful  for  their  imitation.  Fasting 
is  also  a  part  of  church  discipline.  Forty  days 
before  Easter  are  devoted  to  this  exercise,  in 
commemoration  of  the  fast  of  our  Lord  during 
that  period.  Ember  days,  namely,  Wednesday, 
Friday,  and  Saturday,  in  each  of  the  four  sea- 
sons, are  observed  asjfasts  to  obtain  the  divine 
blessing  for  the  seasons,  and  worthy  ministers 
for  the  church,  ordinations  being  held  at  those 
times.  The  eve  of  great  solemnities  is  observ- 
ed by  fasting,  in  order  to  prepare  by  penance 
for  their  celebration.  Abstinence  is  observed 
on  each  Friday  of  the  year,  and  in  many  coun- 
tries on  Saturday.  All  these  penitential  ob- 
servances are  matters  of  church  law,  which 
admits  of  dispensation.  The  rites  of  the  mass, 
and  the  ceremonie's  used  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  appertain  to  discipline, 
which  admits  of  variety  and  change,  although 
great  deference  is  shown  for  ancient  usage. 
This  serves  to  connect  ancient  and  modern 
times,  and  to  manifest  harmony  in  faith  and 
worship.  For  this  reason  the  Latin  liturgy, 
used  from  early  times  in  the  Roman  church,  is 
still  employed  by  the  celebrant,  although  in- 
structions are  given  in  the  vernacular  language, 
and  facilities  are  afforded  to  the  faithful  for 
praying  in  a  manner  suited  to  their  capacity. 
The  chief  points  of  practice  on  which  changes 
have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  ages  arg 
the  manner  of  administering  baptism  and  the 
eucharist,  as  also  penitential  discipline.  The 
solemn  mode  of  baptism  was  originally  by  im- 
mersion. The  candidates  used  to  descend  into 
fonts  or  streams,  or  rivers,  and  sink  beneath 
the  waters  under  the  pressure  of  the  hands 
of  the  minister.  In  cases  of  necessity  and 
danger,  less  solemn  modes  were  used,  which, 
from  being  frequent,  at  length  after  the  lapse 
of  ages  became  universal.  In  like  manner  the 
eucharist,  having  been  instituted  by  our  Lord 
under  the  forms  of  bread  and  wine,  was  gen- 
erally administered  under  both  kinds  for  many 
ages.  Exceptional  cases  were  always  admitted, 
which  at  length  proved  so  numerous  as  to 
supersede  altogether  the  ancient  usage.  The 
church  claims  the  right  to  regulate,  at  her  just 
discretion,  whatever  regards  the  manner  of 
administering  the  sacraments,  while  she  holds 
their  substance  to  be  inviolable.  Penance  for 
sin  was  always  enjoined,  and  was  proportioned 
to  the  degree  of  the  guilt.  It  became  a  regular 
system  about  the  3d  century.  In  the  East  it 
received  a  great  check  in  the  time  of  Nectarius, 
the  predecessor  of  St.  Chrysostom,  the  office  of 


public  penitentiary  having  been  abolished  at 
Constantinople  in  consequence  of  a  scandal. 
In  the  West  it  was  observed  with  more  or  less 
rigor  for  several  ages,  but  was  effectually  set 
aside  by  the  indulgences  granted  in  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries  to  volunteers  in  the  wars 
called  the  crusades.  The  penitential  canons 
ceased  to  be  applied  even  in  the  tribunal  of 
penance,  and  milder  remedies  were  offered  to 
those  who  were  found  unwilling  to  submit  to 
the  severe  injunctions  of  the  ancients.  Peni- 
tential discipline  is  now  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  sacrament.  Indulgence,  or  the 
relaxation  of  penitential  rigor  in  favor  of  fer- 
vent penitents,  was  granted  by  the  bishops  on 
certain  conditions  regulated  by  the  penitential 
canons.  After  the  change  of  discipline,  in- 
dulgences assumed  a  new  form.  They  were 
no  longer  necessary  to  release  from  the  obliga- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  law,  which  had  gone 
into  desuetude,  and  were  not  directed  to  the 
forgiveness  of  sin,  which  needed  the  sacra- 
mental remedy ;  but  they  were  offered  to  the 
penitents  to  aid  them  in  satisfying  divine  jus- 
tice, by  applying  to  them  the  superabundant 
satisfaction  of  Christ  and  his  saints.  They 
served  as  incentives  to  works  of  piety,  such  as 
almsgiving,  fasting,  and  prayer. — The  organi- 
zation of  the  church  consists  in  its'governrnent 
by  bishops,  each  in  charge  of  a  special  flock, 
or  portion  of  the  faithful,  with  subordination 
one  to  another,  and  the  dependence  of  all  on 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  as  shepherd  of  the  whole 
fold  of  Christ.  The  episcopal  character  is  the 
same  in  all  bishops,  but  governing  authority, 
which  is  called  jurisdiction,  is  possessed  in 
various  degrees — in  its  fulness  by  the  pope, 
who  is  the  fountain,  the  streams  of  which  flow 
to  all  others.  He  alone  has  apostolic  authority, 
which  may  be  everywhere  exercised,  with  due 
regard  to  the  local  prelate,  and  which  is  suited 
to  every  emergency.  During  the  vacancy  of 
the  Roman  see,  this  plenitude,.^  jurisdiction 
is  believed  to  reside  in  the  cardinals  governing 
ad  interim.  Each  bishop  governs  his  own 
diocese,  not  as  papal  vicar,  but  as  ordinary, 
that  is,  proper  ruler,  although  in  some  things 
his  authority  is  enlarged  as  delegate  apostolic. 
Several  dioceses  form  a  province,  which  is 
governed  by  an  archbishop,  who  however  is 
not  allowed  to  interfere  with  his  suffragans 
unless  when  appealed  to,  or  when  a  council 
over  which  he  presides  deems  a  visitation  ne- 
cessary. Many  ecclesiastical  provinces  some- 
times are  united  as  a  nation  by  means  of  a 
primate,  who  ranks  above  other  prelates.  The 
title  of  patriarch  was  given  in  the  early  church 
to  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  the  see  of  St. 
Mark  the  disciple  of  Peter,  and  to  the  bishop 
of  Antioch,  which  Peter  had  governed  for 
some  years.  Jerusalem  also  received  this  title, 
and  even  Constantinople.  At  present  there  is 
scarcely  a  vestige  of  patriarchal  power  in  these 
ancient  churches,  although  the  title  is  given 
to  some  bishops  in  partibus  infidelium,  but 
rather  with  a  view  to  keeping  up  the  remem- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


397 


brance  of  the  authority  than  to  its  exercise. 
Even  the  patriarchal  prerogative  of  the  pope 
is  swallowed  up  in  his  primacy,  so  that  he  sel- 
dom appears  as  patriarch  of  the  West,  choos- 
ing rather  to  rest  on  his  supreme  authority. 
The  six  senior  cardinals  derive  their  titles 
from  suburbicarian  churches.  There  are,  be- 
sides Rome,  nine  patriarchal  dignities,  viz., 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch  (where 
there  are  four,  for  the  Maronite,  Melchite,  Sy- 
rian, and  Latin  rites  respectively),  Jerusalem, 
Babylon  (of  the  Chaldean  rite),  Cilicia  (of  the 
Armenian  rite),  the  East  Indies,  Lisbon,  and 
Venice.  The  episcopal  sees  in  both  hemi- 
spheres are  technically  distinguished  as  belong- 
ing either  to  the  Latin  rite  or  to  the  oriental 
rites.  Of  the  former,  some  are  immediately 
subject  to  the  see  of  Rome  in  its  patriarchal 
capacity,  or  because  the  titulars  are  bishops 
in  partibtis  infidelium.  This  category  com- 
prises 10  archiepiscopal  sees  in  Europe,  Amalfi, 
Camerino,  Catania,  Cosenza,  Ferrara,  Gaeta, 
Lucca,  Rossano,  Spoleto,  and  Udine,  and  two 
in  Asia,  Babylon  and  Smyrna;  and  81  episco- 
pal sees,  together  with  Ispahan  in  Persia,  Port 
Louis  in  Africa,  St.  John  (Newfoundland)  and 
Harbor  Grace  in  America,  and  Auckland, 
Dunedin,  and  Wellington  in  Oceania.  Of  sees 
not  immediately  subject  to  Rome,  there  are 
in  Europe  84  metropolitan  sees,  the  heads 
of  so  many  ecclesiastical  provinces,  with  406 
suffragan  sees.  In  Asia,  the  Latin  metropoli- 
tan sees  of  Goa  and  Smyrna  have  respectively 
four  and  two  suffragans.  In  Africa,  Algeria 
forms  a  separate  province,  with  an  archbishop 
at  Algiers  and  suffragans  at  Constantine  and 
Oran.  The  African  sees  of  Angola,  Angra, 
Funchal,  Cape  Verd,  and  St.  Thomas  (Guinea) 
are  suffragan  to  Lisbon ;  the  bishopric  of  the 
Canaries  is  suffragan  to  Seville,  and  that  of 
Reunion  to  Bordeaux.  The  30  ecclesiastical 
provinces  of  North  and  South  America  com- 
prise 165  sees,  of  which  135  are  suffragan. 
British  America  has  22  bishops  with  o  metro- 
politans, and  the  United  States  have  56  dio- 
ceses, 10  metropolitan  sees,  and  6  vicariates 
apostolic.  The  episcopal  sees  of  Guadeloupe 
and  Martinique  are  suffragan  to  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Bordeaux.  Oceania  has  two  ecclesiasti- 
cal provinces,  that  of  Manila  with  4  suffragans, 
and  that  of  Sydney  in  Australia  with  9.  The 
churches  belonging  to  the  various  oriental  rites 
in  communion  with  the  Roman  pontiff  com- 
prise 13  Gra3co-Ruthenian  sees,  of  which  2  are 
in  Russia,  1  in  Prussia,  and  10  in  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy ;  one  Grseco-Roumanian 
metropolis,  with  3  suffragan  sees,  also  in  the 
Austro  -  Hungarian  monarchy;  an  Armenian 
metropolitan  see  at  Leopoldstadt  in  Hungary ; 
in  Asia,  the  Armenian  patriarchate  of  Cilicia, 
with  the  Armenian  metropolitan  sees  of  Alep- 
po, Cfesarea,  Marash,  Mardin,  and  Melitene  (Ma- 
latiah),  and  11  suffragan  dioceses;  the  Graco- 
Melchite  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  with  the  arch- 
bishoprics of  Aleppo,  Damascus,  Emesa  (Horns), 
and  Tyre,  and  9  suffragan  sees ;  the  patriarchate 


of  the  Syrian  rite  at  Antioch,  with  metropoli- 
tans at  Aleppo,  Babylon,  Damascus,  and  Mosul, 
and  8  suffragans  in  various  cities,  including 
Alexandria;  the  Syro-Chaldean  church,  with 
a  patriarch  at  Babylon,  4  archbishops,  and  7 
bishops ;  and  the  Syro-Maronites,  with  a  patri- 
arch at  Antioch,  5  archbishops,  and  3  bishops, 
including  one  in  Cyprus.  The  Egyptian  as 
well  as  the  Abyssinian  Copts  have  no  regular 
hierarchy,  but  depend  respectively  on  vicars 
apostolic  resident  among  them.  The  Bulgari- 
an Greeks  are  also  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
bishop  consecrated  in  1865,  with  the  title  of 
apostolic  administrator.  Of  the  Asiatic  Catho- 
lics, the  Melchites  are  the  most  energetic  and 
devoted.  Besides  the  above  episcopal  func- 
tionaries, there  is  a  large  class  of  bishops  called 
vicars  apostolic,  who  superintend  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  Catholics  wherever  it  is  not 
found  practicable  to  establish  sees  and  a  regu- 
lar hierarchy.  There  are  2  vicariates  in  the 
German  empire,  1  in  Gibraltar,  3  in  Scotland, 
1  in  Sweden,  21  in  the  Chinese  empire,  14  in 
the  adjacent  kingdoms,  23  in  India  and  Bur- 
mah,  and  others  in  Asia  Minor,  Abyssinia,  the 
Galla  country,  Madagascar,  and  among  the  va- 
rious tribes  and  settlements  along  the  entire 
seaboard  of  Africa.  In  America  there  are  vi- 
cariates apostolic  in  the  valley  of  the  Macken- 
zie, British  Columbia,  Lower  California,  the 
Antilles,  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  and  in  the 
territories  and  at  various  other  points  in  the 
United  States.  Vicars  apostolic  also  preside 
over  the  missionary  labors  of  the  chief  island 
groups  of  Oceania.  At  other  points  in  Euro- 
pean and  other  countries,  where  the  presence 
of  a  bishop  is  either  undesirable  or  unneces- 
sary, priests  with  special  faculties,  denomina- 
ted prefects  apostolic,  minister  to  the  wants  of 
scattered  Catholics.  They  are  to  be  found  in 
Iceland,  Norway,  Schleswig,  and  Switzerland, 
on  the  most  dangerous  Asiatic  and  African 
missions,  &c.  There  is  no  dependence  or  con- 
nection between  the  members  of  the  hierarchy 
in  the  various  portions  of  the  world,  under 
different  civil  rulers,  but  all  are  linked  togeth- 
er in  unity  by  means  of  Rome,  the  common 
centre.  The  general  government  of  the  church 
is  carried  on  at  Rome,  where  the  pope  is  assist- 
ed by  the  body  of  cardinals,  several  of  whom 
compose  standing  committees  to  examine  and 
prepare  the  matters  for  final  action.  Nearly 
30  belong  to  the  congregation  of  propaganda, 
which  is  charged  with  a  general  superinten- 
dence of  missionary  countries.  The  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  is  made  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  local  prelates,  with  the  advice  of 
the  cardinals.  In  several  monarchies  the  nom- 
ination is  given  to  the  sovereign,  with  a  pow- 
er of  rejecting  or  confirming  reserved  to  the 
pontiff. — The  religious  orders  in  the  church  are 
like  corporations  in  a  civil  government,  hav- 
ing special  exemptions  and  privileges.  They 
derive  them  from  the  pope,  who,  in  virtue  of 
Ms  apostolical  authority,  exempts  the  mem- 
bers from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  in 


398 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


what  regards  their  domestic  discipline,  but 
leaves  them  dependent  on  them  for  faculties  to 
be  exercised  in  behalf  of  the  faithful.  Their 
privileges,  however,  are  moderated  and  regu- 
lated in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  weaken  the 
diocesan  authority,  or  favor  insubordination, 
but  only  to  encourage  religious  discipline  and 
promote  piety.  The  superior  greatly  lightens 
the  burden  of  episcopal  solicitude  by  training 
and  watching  over  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity, who  themselves  are  rewarded  for  the 
restrictions  to  which  they  voluntarily  subject 
themselves,  by  the  security  which  is  given 
them  to  pursue  unmolested  the  path  they 
have  chosen.  (See  MONAOHISM.) — The  history 
of  the  church  begins  with  the  pastoral  com- 
mission given  after  Christ's  resurrection  to  the 
apostle  Peter,  who,  according  to  Catholic  eccle- 
siastical traditions,  sealed  his  apostolic  labors 
with  martyrdom  at  Rome  in  the  year  67,  on 
the  same  day  as  the  apostle  Paul.  This  event 
attached  his  office  to  this  see.  Clement,  bish- 
op of  Rome,  wrote  to  the  Corinthians,  in  the 
name  of  the  church,  at  the  close  of  this  cen- 
tury, while  St.  John  was  still  alive,  remon- 
strating with  them  on  a  schism  which  had 
broken  out  among  them.  The  labors  of  the 
several  apostles  are  not  known  in  full  detail. 
The  apostle  Paul  labored  more  than  all  oth- 
ers, and  with  marked  success.  St.  James,  who 
is  called  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  presided  as 
bishop  at  Jerusalem,  and  died  a  martyr.  St. 
John  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  Asia, 
and  terminated  his  course  at  Ephesus.  St. 
Mark,  the  evangelist,  founded  the  church  at 
Alexandria.  At  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age 
the  Christian  religion  was  widely  spread,  chiefly 
throughout  Asia  Minor  and  some  more  distant 
provinces,  Greece,  the  adjacent  islands,  Italy, 
and  Egypt.  Gaul  is  believed  to  have  been 
partially  evangelized  in  that  age,  and  Spain  is 
said  to  have  been  visited  by  the  apostle  Paul, 
who  purposed  making  this  journey,  and,  as  the 
national  tradition  will  have  it,  by  St.  James. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  2d  century  the  coun- 
tries on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  as  far  as 
Belgium,  had  received  the  gospel,  as  St.  Ire- 
najus  testifies.  This  bishop  succeeded  St.  Pho- 
tinus,  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp,  at  Lyons  in 
178.  Britain  received  missionaries  under  Eleu- 
therius,  bishop  of  Rome,  about  the  same  time. 
A  council  of  70  African  bishops  was  held  at 
Carthage  toward  the  end  of  the  century;  and 
90  bishops  assembled  in  Numidia.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  bishops  generally  to  Rome,  on  ac- 
count of  its  higher  chieftaincy,  are  distinctly 
stated  by  Iremeus,  who,  however,  earnestly 
remonstrated  with  Pope  Victor  on  his  deter- 
mination to  cut  off  various  Asiatic  churches 
from  communion  for  their  attachment  to  the 
usage  of  celebrating  Easter  on  the  same  day  as 
the  Jews.  In  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  a 
synod  of  Spanish  bishops  deposed  Martial  of 
Leon  and  Basilides  of  Astorga  for  criminal 
weakness  in  the  persecution  during  the  reign 
of  Decius.  The  acts  of  various  councils  of 


African  bishops  are  known,  especially  from 
the  writings  of  St.  Cyprian,  who  warmly  re- 
sisted the  decree  of  Pope  Stephen  by  which 
the  repetition  of  baptism  conferred  by  secta- 
ries was  forbidden.  The  controversy  finally 
resulted  in  the  following  century  in  the  acqui- 
escence of  the  church  generally  in  the  decree, 
which  was  supported  by  the  council  of  Nice. 
The  4th  century,  after  some  scenes  of  perse- 
cution, witnessed  the  triumph  of  Christianity 
by  the  conversion  of  the  emperor  Constantino. 
Although  he  decidedly  favored  it,  and  lent  his 
power  to  its  support,  nevertheless  he  is  be- 
lieved not  to  have  received  baptism  until  the 
approach  of  death.  By  his  mandate  a  council 
of  bishops  was  called  at  Nice,  where  about 
318  convened  in  the  year  325,  and  proclaimed 
Christ  to  be  God,  consubstantial  to  the  Father. 
Sylvester,  the  bishop  of  Rome,  was  prevented 
by  old  age  from  being  present,  but  Hosius,  bish- 
op of  Cordova,  and  two  priests  represented 
him.  The  Nicene  symbol  met  with  great  oppo- 
sition on  the  part  of  bishops  who  had  received 
the  doctrines  of  Arius,  and  were  supported  by 
Constantius,  the  successor  of  Constantine.  A 
council  of  bishops  at  Rimini,  under  imperial 
influence  and  constraint,  consented  to  suppress 
the  term  which  proved  so  offensive,  and  the 
occasion  of  so  much  strife ;  but  on  recovering 
their  liberty  they  retracted,  and  Pope  Liberius 
annulled  their  acts  by  the  authority  of  St.  Pe- 
ter. The  5th  century  was  illustrious  for  the 
pontificate  of  St.  Leo,  whose  prayers  were  be- 
lieved to  have  turned  away  the  wrath  of  Attila, 
advancing  to  destroy  Rome.  His  exposition 
of  the  mystery  of  the  incarnation  crowned 
the  efforts  of  his  predecessors  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  faith,  and  received  the  homage  of 
the  bishops  assembled  at  Chalcedon.  "  This," 
they  cried,  "  is  the  faith  of  the  fathers.  We 
all  have  this  faith.  Peter  has  spoken  by  the 
mouth  of  Leo."  At  Nice  the  fathers  devel- 
oped the  meaning  of  the  apostolic  symbol  by 
phrases  and  clauses  necessary  to  meet  the  sub- 
tleties of  innovators.  At  Constantinople  a 
special  statement  was  inserted  in  the  creed  to 
place  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  beyond 
dispute.  At  Ephesus  the  bishops  inflicted  ex- 
communication on  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, for  obstinacy  in  resisting  the  au- 
thority of  Pope  Celestine,  who  condemned 
his  errors.  At  Chalcedon  the  letter  of  St. 
Leo  was  adopted  as  the  symbol  of  orthodoxy, 
and  subscription  to  it  was  exacted,  under  the 
same  penalty.  Those  councils  served  to  define 
with  precision  the  revealed  mysteries,  and  were 
generally  subsidiary  to  the  papal  action.  The 
acts  of  those  of  Nice  and  Constantinople  are 
not  preserved  in  their  integrity,  but  the  extant 
records  of  those  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon 
show  that  the  legates  of  the  pontiff  led  the 
way,  and  the  fathers  followed  his  authority. 
At  the  close  of  the  6th  century  Gregory  the 
Great,  bishop  of  Rome,  conceived  the  idea  of 
evangelizing  the  Angles,  or  English,  who  had 
settled  in  Britain  without  adopting  the  Chris- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUECH 


399 


tian  faith  of  its  former  inhabitants.  The  mis- 
sion of  the  monk  Augustin,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  his  brethren,  proved  eminently  suc- 
cessful. A  see  was  founded  at  Canterbury, 
and  the  church  was  fully  organized  with  close 
dependence  on  the  chair  of  Peter.  The  7th 
century  was  marked  by  the  general  diffusion 
of  the  faith  in  England,  and  the  more  per- 
fect organization  of  the  English  hierarchy.  In 
the  8th  century  the  Germans  in  great  numbers 
were  brought  to  the  faith  by  the  preaching 
of  Boniface,  called  also  Winifrid,  an  English 
missionary.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
devoted  attachment  to  the  apostolic  see,  to 
which  he  made  a  solemn  oath  of  duty.  Vari- 
ous other  missionaries,  from  Ireland  especially, 
preached  the  faith  about  the  same  time  with 
like  success.  It  spread  also  toward  the  regions 
of  the  north,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Iceland.  The  scandals  of  the  10th  century  dis- 
figured the  church,  since  unworthy  men  strug- 
gled to  occupy  the  papal  chair,  or  to  place 
in  it  their  relatives  and  adherents.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  emperors  of  the  West  had  greatly 
declined,  and  some  Italian  nobles  aspired  to 
the  pontificate.  The  intrusion  of  one  or  two 
youths  and  of  several  men  of  licentious  habits 
disgraced  the  high  office ;  but  after  a  time  men 
of  wisdom  and  piety  were  once  more  at  the 
helm.  Hildebrand  attained  to  the  pontificate 
in  1073,  under  the  name  of  Gregory  VII. 
With  all  his  zeal  and  the  authority  of  his 
office,  he  condemned  the  marriage  of  the  cler- 
gy, which  from  toleration  had  become  not 
unfrequent.  He  resisted  the  emperor  Henry 
IV.,  who  disposed  of  bishoprics,  abbacies,  and 
other  high  offices,  for  corrupt  considerations. 
The  inveterate  character  of  these  abuses  and 
the  imperial  influence  involved  the  pontiff  in 
a  long  and  fierce  struggle,  in  which  he  seemed 
to  succumb,  dying  in  exile,  but  in  reality  over- 
came, leaving  his  successors  to  reap  the  fruits 
of  his  labors.  The  contest  between  the  popes 
and  the  emperors  continued,  with  intervals  of 
rest,  throughout  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 
Investitures  were  in  the  beginning  of  this  pe- 
riod the  chief  subject  of  disputes,  the  popes 
resisting  the  claims  of  the  emperors  to  invest 
bishops  with  the  temporalities  of  their  sees,  by 
delivering  to  them  the  ring  and  crosier,  chief 
symbols  of  episcopal  authority.  The  oppor- 
tunity thus  furnished  for  promoting  unworthy 
men,  courtiers,  and  favorites,  determined  the 
popes  to  vigorous  resistance ;  and  although 
Paschal  II.  yielded  for  a  moment  to  imperial 
violence,  on  the  recovery  of  his  liberty  he  re- 
tracted his  consent,  and  humbled  himself  for 
his  weakness.  Innocent  IV.,  in  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  in  the  council  of  Lyons  de- 
posed the  emperor  Frederick  II.  for  various 
acts  of  simony,  sacrilege,  and  tyranny,  fol- 
lowing out  the  principles  and  the  example  of 
Gregory  VII.,  who  was  the  first  to  proceed 
to  a  similar  deposition.  The  14th  century  is 
remarkable  for  the  removal  of  the  papal  chair 
to  Avignon  by  Clement  V.,  who,  in  the  dis- 
710  VOL.  xiv.— 26 


tracted  state  of  Rome,  accepted  the  protec- 
tion of  the  French  king.  His  example  was 
followed  by  his  successors  for  nearly  70  years, 
popularly  styled  by  the  Romans  the  Babylo- 
nish captivity.  These  French  popes  were  bish- 
ops of  Rome,  which  they  governed  by  cardinal 
vicars  acting  in  their  name.  The  restoration 
of  the  chair  to  that  city  was  followed  by  a 
schism,  formed  by  French  cardinals,  who  elect- 
ed Clement  VII.  in  opposition  to  Urban  VI., 
the  pope  residing  at  Rome.  An  attempt  to 
terminate  the  rupture  by  setting  aside  both 
claimants  resulted  in  the  election  of  Alexan- 
der V.  in  the  council  of  Pisa,  and  the  three 
pretendants  had  their  respective  followers.  At 
length,  in  the  council  of  Constance,  opened 
in  1414,  Martin  V.  was  chosen  (1417)  and  ac- 
knowledged. The  Greeks  returned  for  a  short 
time  to  the  communion  of  the  Roman  see  in 
the  council  of  Florence  held  in  1439,  but  were 
drawn  back  by  the  persevering  efforts  of  Mark, 
bishop  of  Ephesus,  who  resisted  every  influence 
employed  by  his  colleagues  and  by  the  Greek 
emperor  at  the  council.  Constantinople  a  few 
years  afterward  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  degradation  alike  of  the  eastern 
church  and  empire  was  consummated.  Some 
popes  of  doubtful  fame  appeared  in  the  de- 
cline of  the  15th  century,  and  one  of  acknowl- 
edged depravity  at  its  close.  The  warlike  ca- 
reer of  Julius  II.  and  the  golden  age  of  Leo  X. 
were  not  calculated  to  restore  the  high  charac- 
ter for  austerity  and  zeal  which  the  pontiffs 
had  generally  borne.  The  bold  monk  of  Wit- 
tenberg appeared  on  occasion  of  the  indul- 
gences which  Leo  offered  to  contributors  to 
the  grand  fabric  of  St.  Peter's.  The  rivalry 
of  two  religious  orders  added  fuel  to  theologi- 
cal disputes,  which  on  the  part  of  Luther  were 
marked  by  great  boldness.  He  soon  became  a 
leader,  and  before  he  was  fully  aware  he  was 
the  head  of  a  sect  inculcating  principles  sub- 
versive of  the  papal  authority,  and  more  suc- 
cessful than  its  predecessors  in  the  13th  and 
16th  centuries,  the  sects  of  Albigenses  and  Hus- 
sites. A  number  of  minor  sects  soon  appeared, 
and  a  vast  portion  of  the  Catholic  world,  per- 
haps fully  a  third,  was  drawn  away  from  obe- 
dience to  the  Roman  see.  Henry  VIII.,  king  of 
England,  from  a  champion  of  the  faith,  became 
an  enemy  when  his  desires  for  a  divorce  were 
thwarted  by  Clement  VII.  The  progress  of 
the  reformation  was  soon  arrested  by  the  zeal 
of  many  devoted  men,  founders  of  various  re- 
ligious institutes,  especially  by  the  followers  of 
Ignatius  Loyola,  whose  labors  caused  a  consid- 
erable reaction  in  favor  of  the  church  of  Rome. 
These  labors  proved  more  effective  than  the 
more  violent  intervention  of  Charles  V.,  Philip 
II.,  or  the  inquisition.  The  saintly  Pius  V., 
the  stern  Sixtus  V.,  and  others  of  less  marked 
character,  performed  well  the  duties  of  their 
office.  The  religious  wars  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  ended  with  the  triumph  of  Catholi- 
cism in  France  and  a  partial  victory  of  Prot- 
estantism in  the  Netherlands  and  Germany. 


'400        ROMANCE  LANGUAGES 


ROMANS 


The  subtleties  of  Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ypres, 
annoyed  the  church  in  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies, his  followers,  after  his  example,  employ- 
ing the  authority  of  Augustine  to  countenance 
doctrines  decidedly  Calvinistic.  The  French 
church  especially  was  harassed  by  these  doc- 
trinal disputes.  They  prevailed  throughout 
the  early  part  of  the  18th  century,  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  triumph  of  infidelity  in 
the  revolution.  In  the  present  century  there 
is  a  manifest  reaction.  The  church  of  France, 
after  much  persecution,  is  intimately  united 
with  the  see  of  Peter.  In  the  German  empire 
since  1870  a  serious  conflict  has  arisen  with 
the  civil  power;  but  now  (1875)  a  compro- 
mise seems  likely  to  be  made.  (See  GERMA- 
NY ;  also  ITALY,  SPAIN,  and  SWITZERLAND.) 

ROMANCE  LANGUAGES,  also  called  Romanic 
languages,  tongues  developed  from  Latin 
through  admixture  of  Germanic,  Celtic,  and 
other  idioms.  They  are  Provencal,  French, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Italian,  Wallachian  or 
Rouman,  and  perhaps  also  Romansh.  These 
languages  are  not  direct  descendants  of  the 
classic  Latin,  for  when  the  Germanic  races 
settled  in  the  Romance  countries  Latin  was 
spoken  only  by  the  clergy,  and  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury Boethius  and  Cassiodorus  were  the  only 
lay  writers  who  still  made  use  of  it.  Though 
Latin  proper  ceased  to  be  a  living  tongue  about 
the  beginning  of  the  6th  century,  the  lingua 
rustica,  or  vulgar  Latin,  the  speech  of  the 
populace  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  continued 
to  be  spoken  both  at  home  and  in  the  Latin- 
ized countries,  and  came  to  be  designated  as 
the  lingua  Romano,  or  Roman  language.  (See 
ITALIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES,  and  LATIN  LAN- 
GUAGE AND  LITERATURE.)  Raynouard  has  at- 
tempted to  show  that  this  lingua  Romana  was 
the  same  as  the  Provencal  of  southern  France, 
and  that  French,  Italian,  and  the  other  Ro- 
mance languages  were  its  daughters,  and  not 
its  sisters.  This  theory  was  at  once  assailed 
and  has  since  been  refuted,  with  different  lines 
of  research  and  argument,  by  French  as  well 
as  English  and  German  scholars. — See  Sir  G. 
Cornewall  Lewis's  "Essay  on  the  Origin  and 
Formation  of  the  Romance  Languages"  (2d 
ed.,  London,  1862);  Max  Mailer's  "Lectures 
on  the  Science  of  Language"  (1st  series,  Lon- 
don, 1861);  and  the  separate  articles  on  the 
languages  in  this  Cyclopaedia. 

ROMANIA.    See  ROUMELIA. 

ROMAN  LAW.     See  CIVIL  LAW. 

ROMANO,  Ginllo.     See  GIULIO  ROMANO. 

ROMANOFF.     See  RUSSIA. 

ROMANS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  the  canonical 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  epistle  was 
written  by  the  apostle  Paul,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  most  critics,  in  A.  D.  58,  during 
his  abode  at  Corinth,  where  he  stayed  about 
three  months  after  making  a  journey  through 
Macedonia  and  Achaia.  Paul  despatched  the 
letter  by  a  Cenchrean  woman  who  was  travel- 
ling to  Rome,  and  sent  greetings  from  an  inhab- 
itant of  Corinth.  Many  modern  commenta- 


tors suppose  that  the  debates  mentioned  in  ch. 
xiv.  and  xv.  called  forth  the  epistle.  Its  special 
bearings  are  particularly  manifest  in  ch.  xiii. 
to  xvi.,  in  which  Paul  shows  to  both  Jews  and 
gentiles  the  glory  of  Christianity  as  being  the 
only  true  religion,  and  especially  endeavors  to 
confirm  the  faith  of  the  converts  from  Juda- 
ism.— As  to  its  contents,  the  epistle  consists  of 
two  chief  divisions,  one  of  which  is  argumen- 
tative, the  other  hortatory.  In  the  former,  the 
apostle,  after  an  introduction  (i.  1-16)  express- 
ing his  desire  to  see  the  saints  at  Rome,  sets 
forth  the  gospel  plan  of  salvation.  The  gospel 
is  a  power  unto  salvation  to  every  one  who  be' 
lieves,  both  Jew  and  gentile ;  it  is  needed  by 
all,  for  none,  not  even  the  Jew  by  his  law,  are 
justified  before  God  (i.  1 6  to  iii.  20).  It  is  only 
faith  in  Christ  which  works  justification,  even 
as  Abraham  and  David  were  justified  by  faith 
(iii.  21  to  iv.  25).  Those  who  are  justified 
have  peace  with  God,  and  rejoice ;  for  through 
Christ,  the  reconciler,  a  new  life  has  begun  for 
mankind  (ch.  v.).  But  with  reconciliation  ho- 
liness must  be  connected,  not  under  law,  but 
under  grace  (vi.,  vii.).  The  spirit  of  life  in 
Christ  overcomes  sin  and  the  flesh,  and  all  earth- 
ly sufferings,  through  hope;  the  believer  lives 
already  here  below  in  security  (viii.).  The 
apostle  then  deplores  the  rejection  of  Jews,  but 
finds  some  consolation  in  the  assurance  that  it 
will  not  be  final  (ix.  to  xi.).  In  the  second  or 
hortatory  part  the  apostle  enjoins  various  du- 
ties (xii.),  in  particular  duties  to  magistrates 
(xiii.).  He  urges  mutual  forbearance  (xiv.), 
and  especially  admonishes  the  strong  to  bear 
with  the  weak  (xv.),  and  concludes  with  va- 
rious salutations  and  directions  (xvi.). — The 
authenticity  of  the  epistle  has  rarely  been  im- 
pugned, though  Bruno  Baur  has  denied  the 
genuineness  of  the  last  two  chapters,  and  Sem- 
ler,  David  Schultz,  Weisse,  and  Ewald  have 
maintained  that  ch.  xvi.  did  not  originally 
form  a  part  of  the  epistle.  Weisse  and  Ewald 
consider  it  a  fragment  of  an  epistle  addressed 
to  the  Ephesians.  Renan  has  supposed  that 
the  epistle  was  written  originally  as  a  circu- 
lar letter,  four  copies  being  made  with  dif- 
ferent endings,  and  sent  to  the  churches  in 
Rome,  Ephesus,  and  Thessalonica,  and  to  some 
church  not  known.  Lightfoot  maintains  that 
it  was  first  written  to  Rome,  but  afterward 
altered  by  Paul  in  the  address  and  salutations, 
and  sent  out  generally. — The  literature  on  this 
epistle  is  very  copious,  and  is  detailed  in  De 
Wette's  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament  (8th 
ed.,  Berlin,  1869),  and  in  the  American  edition 
of  Lange's  commentary.  It  is  treated  in  the 
general  commentaries  of  Estius  and  Cornelius 
a  Lapide,  written  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
standpoint,  and  of  Calvin,  Bengel,  Olshausen, 
De  Wette,  Meyer,  Alford,  Wordsworth,  and 
Ewald;  and  in  special  works  by  Reiche  (Got- 
tingen,  1833-'4),  Hodge  (Philadelphia,  1835; 
enlarged  ed.,  1864),  Fritzsche  (Leipsic,  1836- 
'43),  Riickert  (2d  ed.,  1839),  Turner  (New 
York,  1853),  Tholuck-  (5th  ed.,  Halle,  1855), 


ROMANS 

Van  Hengel  (Bois-le-Duc,  1855),  Umbreit  (Go- 
tha,  1856),  Brown  (Edinburgh  and  New  York, 
1857),  Stuart  (6th  ed.,  Andover,  1857),  Jowett 
(2d  ed.,  London,  1859),  Vaughan  (2d  ed.,  1861), 
Mangold  (Marburg,  1866),  Forbes  (Edinburgh, 
1868),  Ilofmann  (Nordlingen,  1868),  and  Pau- 
lus  (Zurich,  1875). 

ROMMS,  King  of  the.  The  coronation  of 
Otho  I.  of  Germany  by  Pope  John  XII.  at 
Rome  in  962  was  considered  as  having  trans- 
ferred the  imperial  dignity  bestowed  by  Leo 
III.  on  Charlemagne  (800)  from  his  Italian  to 
his  German  successors,  the  title  of  emperor  de- 
pending, however,  on  the  coronation  at  Rome. 
Before  that  coronation  the  German  monarchs, 
down  to  the  time  of  Maximilian  I.,  styled  them- 
selves kings  of  Germany  (though  by  historians 
indiscriminately  designated  as  emperors),  and 
improperly  also  kings  of  the  Romans.  In  a 
stricter  sense  the  latter  title  belonged  to  the 
princes  elected  in  the  lifetime  of  crowned  em- 
perors to  succeed  them;  Henry  VI.  was  thus 
elected  king  of  the  Romans,  or  future  emperor, 
in  the  lifetime  of  his  father  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  (1169).  Maximilian  I.  and  his  successors 
assumed  the  imperial  title,  and  were  crowned 
as  emperors  in  Germany  without  being  crown- 
ed in  Rome,  Charles  V.  alone  being  crowned 
by  the  pope.  Their  successors  elect  continued 
to  be  called  kings  of  the  Romans  down  to  Jo- 
seph II.,  who  was  elected  in  the  lifetime  of  his 
father  Francis  I.  (1764),  and  the  empire  con- 
tinued to  be  called  the  holy  Roman  empire 
down  to  its  dissolution  in  1806. 

ROMMSH,  or  Ronmansh,  also  called  Roma- 
nese  and  Rhffito-Romanic,  a  language  spoken 
in  the  Grisons,  Switzerland,  and  the  bordering 
districts  of  Tyrol,  comprising  a  portion  of  an- 
cient Rha?tia.  Though  it  is  commonly  grouped 
with  the  Romance  languages,  its  peculiar  con- 
struction and  the  great  degree  in  which  it 
has  been  subjected  to  foreign  influences,  as 
well  as  the  arbitrariness  with  which  it  has 
always  been  written,  have  so  obscured  its  ori- 
ginal character  as  to  render  it  very  doubtful 
whether  it  has  ever  been  a  direct  sister  of 
Provencal,  French,  or  Italian.  The  Germans 
call  the  language  Churwalsch  after  the  name 
Churewala  anciently  given  to  its  territory.  The 
term  Rhfeto-Romanic  is  a  modern  invention, 
never  used  by  the  people  speaking  the  lan- 
guage. The  natives  call  it  rumonsch,  the  Pro- 
vencals romans.  It  has  been  maintained  that 
the  Rhaetians  were  of  the  same  origin  with 
the  Etruscans,  but  this  view  cannot  be  said  to 
be  established.  (See  ETETIEIA.)  In  the  time 
of  Augustus  Rhaatia  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  and  the  original  language  was  in  a 
measure  displaced  by  Latin.  Several  centu- 
ries later  the  western  portion  was  occupied 
by  Alemanni  and  the  eastern  by  Boioarians, 
which  brought  about  a  greater  confusion  in 
the  Latin  elements,  and  produced  a  prepon- 
derance of  Germanic  forms.  Two  main  dia- 
lects are  now  distinguished,  Romansh  proper 
and  Latin,  each  of  which  has  several  varia- 


ROME 


401 


tions.  There  are  about  70,000  persons  who 
still  speak  it,  about  15,000  of  them  living 
in  Tyrol.  The  earliest  monument  of  the  lan- 
guage is  a  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
published  in  1560 ;  and  the  various  poetical 
and  theological  works,  all  of  a  minor  charac- 
ter, since  produced,  number  about  180  vol- 
umes by  150  authors.  The  language  is  now 
gradually  succumbing  to  German. — See  An- 
deer,  Ueber  Ursprungund  Geschichte  der  rhdto- 
romanischen  Sprache  (Coire,  1862),  and  Rausch, 
Geschichte  der  Literatur  des  rhato-romani- 
schen  Volkes  (Berlin,  1870). 

ROME,  a  city  and  one  of  the  county  seats  of 
Oneida  co..  New  York,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Mohawk  river  (which  here  changes  from  a  S. 
to  a  S.  E.  course),  at  the  junction  of  the  Erie 
and  Black  River  canals,  and  at  the  intersection 
of  the  New  York  Central,  the  Rome,  Water- 
town,  and  Ogdensburg,  and  the  Rome  and 
Clinton  railroads,  15  m.  W.  N.  "W.  of  Utica  and 
110  m.  by  rail  W.  N.  W.  of  Albany;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,000;  in  1875,  12,511.  It  is  laid  out 
with  wide  streets,  well  shaded  with  maples 
and  elms.  Public  and  private  parks  and  foun- 
tains add  to  its  beauty,  and  pure  water  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Mohawk.  The  city  contains 
200  wholesale  and  retail  stores,  three  banks, 
two  savings  institutions,  two  rolling  and  pud- 
dling mills,  a  knitting  mill,  sash,  blind,  and 
planing  mills,  locomotive  and  car  works,  and 
minor  manufacturing  establishments.  There 
are  ten  schools,  a  free  academy,  and  an  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  deaf  mutes,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  15  churches. — Fort 
Stanwix,  of  revolutionary  fame,  was  in  what 
is  now  the  heart  of  Rome,  and  the  battle  of 
Oriskany  was  fought  just  outside  of  its  limits. 
The  fort  was  besieged  by  the  British  in  July 
and  August,  1777.  Rome  was  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1S19,  and  as  a  city  in  1870. 

ROME,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Floyd 
co.,  Georgia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Etowah 
and  Oostenaula  rivers,  which  here  form  the 
Coosa,  60  m.  N.  W.  of  Atlanta ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,748,  of  whom  1,005  were  colored;  in  1875, 
including  the  suburban  villages  of  South  Rome, 
Forrestville,  and  De  Soto,  about  6,000.  The 
Selma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  railroad  passes 
through  it,  and  it  is  connected  by  the  Rome 
railroad  (20  m.  long)  with  the  Western  and 
Atlantic  railroad  at  Kingston.  The  Oostenau- 
la is  navigable  by  steamers  70  m.  above  this 
point,  and  the  Coosa  180  m.  below,  to  Green- 
port,  Ala.  Rome  is  situated  on  several  pic- 
turesque hills,  which  command  an  extensive 
view  of  mountain  scenery.  It  has  the  finest 
water  works  in  the  south.  It  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  rich  iron  ore  deposits  of  N.  W.  Geor- 
gia, and  is  the  nearest  town  to  six  blast  fur- 
naces now  in  operation.  It  contains  a  rolling 
mill,  a  nail  factory,  and  two  iron  founderies 
and  machine  shops.  There  are  three  private 
banks,  two  female  'colleges,  two  male  high 
schools,  seven  primary  schools,  two  newspa- 
pers (one  daily  and  weekly  and  one  tri-weekly 


402 


ROME 


and  weekly),  and  eight  churches. — Rome  was 
incorporated  in  1847.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
forces  of  Gen.  Sherman,  May  19,  1864,  during 
the  advance  on  Atlanta. 

ROME  (Lat.  and  It.  Roma),  the  chief  city  of 
ancient  Italy,  ultimately  the  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  now  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  Its  origin  is  lost  in  the  mists  of 
antiquity,  for  modern  criticism  has  dispelled 
nearly  all  belief  in  the  legends  which  for  many 
centuries  passed  as  historic  testimony  respect- 
ing the  primitive  city.  There  are  grounds  for 
the  supposition  that  small  fortified  towns  or 
villages  stood  on  each  of  the  seven  hills  now 
comprised  within  the  walls  of  Rome.  On  the 
Palatine  hill  there  were  probably  two  such 
fortresses  in  prehistoric  times,  one  Etruscan, 
the  other  either  Pelasglc  or  Sabine.  The  more 
fully  developed  city  and  state  seems  to  have 
risen  from  a  union  of  the  inhabitants  on  the 
Palatine  with  the  Etruscans,  Sabines,  and  Pe- 
lasgians,  and  perhaps  also  with  other  peoples, 


Plan  of  tbo  Boman  Hilte. 

long  previously  settled  on  the  adjacent  hills. 
(See  ITALIC  RACES  AXD  LANGUAGES.)  This 
union  seems  to  have  reached  a  state  of  politi- 
cal and  constitutional  perfection  about  5|  cen- 
turies B.  C.,  in  the  reign  of  that  monarch  who 
is  known  as  Servius  Tullius,  and  toward  the 
close  of  the  regal  period.  During  that  period 
a  Roman  state  hai  grown  up  (according  to  the 
legends,  ruled  successively  by  Romulus,  the  re- 
puted founder  about  753  B.  0.,  Numa  Pompi- 
iius,  Tullus  Hostilius,  Ancus  Martins,  Tarquin 
the  Elder,  Servius  Tullius,  and  Tarquin  the 
Proud),  which  seems  to  have  been  a  power- 
ful monarchy,  and  which  may  have  been,  as 
Milller  thinks  it  was,  in  the  times  of  the  Tar- 
quins  and  Servius,  ruled  by  an  Etruscan  dy- 
nasty, by  whom  Etruscan  usages  were  intro- 
duced into  Rome.  Its  mythology  resembled 
that  of  the  Greeks.  (See  MYTHOLOGY,  vol.  xii., 
p.  118.)  This  monarchy  embraced  a  portion 
of  southern  Etruria  and  the  whole  of  Latium. 


What  is  known  as  the  fall  of  the  Tarquins  was 
probably  the  overthrow  of  the  Etruscan  pow- 
er. The  population  of  Rome  then  consisted 
of  the  patricians  and  their  clients,  and  of  ple- 
beians. The  patricians  were  the  original  Ro- 
man people,  and  were  divided  into  three  tribes, 
the  Ramnenses,  the  Titienses,  and  the  Luceres, 
who  represented  the  Latin,  the  Sabine,  and  the 
Etruscan  elements  of  that  population.  The 
clients  were  the  dependants  of  the  patricians. 
The  plebeians,  or  commons,  were  freemen,  but 
had  originally  no  political  rights.  They  owed 
their  existence  to  conquest  and  other  causes, 
and  they  were  mostly  of  Latin  origin.  By 
the  Servian  constitution  they  were  incorpo- 
rated into  the  state.  This  change  was  long 
regarded  as  the  subversion  of  a  popular  con- 
stitution, by  the  substitution  of  an  aristocrati- 
cal  polity;  but  Servius,  or  whoever  it  was 
by  whom  the  change  was  made,  did  really,  by 
establishing  the  constitution  of  the  centuries, 
and  constituting  the  order  of  equites,  a  distinct 
political  body,  of  mixed  patrician  and  plebeian 
elements,  break  up  the  patrician  monopoly 
of  power,  and  prepare  the  way  for  those  fur- 
ther political  reforms  by  the  success  of  which 
Rome  became  mistress  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  change  was  liberal,  and  opposition  to  its 
facts  and  its  principles  was  never  permanently 
successful.  That  regal  Rome  was  powerful, 
and  possessed  an  extensive  territory  and  a 
large  population,  is  established  by  the  great- 
ness of  its  public  works,  some  of  which  en- 
dure to  this  day ;  and  also  by  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  which, 
made  in  the  first  year  of  the  republic,  shows 
that  the  whole  Latin  coast  was  subject  to 
Rome.  The  republican  polity  is  supposed  to 
have  been  established  about  the  year  510  B.  C. 
The  most  ancient  history  of  Rome  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge  was  written  in  Greek 
by  Fabius  Pictor,  a  Roman  citizen  who  served 
in  the  Gallic  war,  225  B.  0.  No  fragment  of 
it  remains.  We  know  only  by  vague  report 
of  a  similar  work  in  Greek  by  Timssus,  a  Si- 
cilian, who  brought  his  history  down  to  about 
261.  The  earliest  history  of  Rome  in  Latin  is 
by  Cato  the  Censor,  who  died  in  149.  The 
Servian  constitution,  as  a  whole,  was  lost  as 
one  of  the  effects  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
monarchy;  but  it  was  gradually  restored  in 
part,  its  principles  characterizing  all  the  sub- 
sequent struggles  of  the  plebeians  to  obtain 
power  in  the  republic.  Early  republican  Rome 
was  a  weak  state,  and  for  a  century  and  a 
half  it  exercised  little  influence  at  home,  and 
none  abroad.  Not  only  the  kings  fell,  but  the 
country  fell  with  them.  Rome  is  believed  by 
modern  historians  to  have  been  conquered  by 
Porsena,  and  when  she  recovered  her  freedom, 
she  was  no  longer  the  head  of  Latium;  and 
during  the  next  150  years  she  was  employed 
in  recovering  the  ground  she  had  lost.  This 
slow  advance  was  owing  to  internal  convul- 
sions. The  political  contests  between  the  pa- 
tricians and  the  plebeians  were  bitter,  and 


ROME 


403 


Homo  and  its  Vicinity,  Ancient  and  Modern. 


more  than  once  they  threatened  the  utter  de- 
struction of  the  state.  The  plebeians  seceded 
from  Rome  about  494,  with  the  intent  to  found 
a  new  city;  but  a  compromise  was  effected, 
and  plebeian  tribunes  were  created,  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  members  of  their  order 
against  the  cruel  and  unjust  action  of  patri- 
cian magistrates;  during  their  year  of  office, 
the  persons  of  these  tribunes  were  to  be  sa- 
cred and  inviolable.  The  number  of  tribunes 
was  increased,  until  they  became  ten ;  and 
they  possessed  the  veto  power,  which  enabled 
them  to  stop  any  law,  or  to  annul  'any  decree 
of  the  senate,  without  assigning  any  cause  for 
their  action.  They  were  the  representatives 
and  protectors  of  the  plebeians,  and  none  but 
plebeians  could  be  made  tribunes.  The  ple- 
beians were  at  the  same  time  allowed  to  elect 
two  sediles.  By  the  Publilian  law  it  was  pro- 
vided that  these  tribunes  and  sediles  should 
be  chosen  by  the  tribes  in  the  forum,  and  not 


at  the  assembly  of  the  centuries  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martins.  The  first  free  election  was  held 
about  470.  Spurius  Cassius,  who  was  finally 
put  to  death  by  the  patricians  because  he  had 
successfully  advocated  a  popular  agrarian  law, 
formed  leagues  with  the  Latins  and  Hernici, 
by  which  the  Volsci  and  ^Equi  were  prevented 
from  conquering  Rome  and  Latium.  The  le- 
gends of  the  elder  Brutus,  Lucretia,  Valerius 
Publicola,  Horatius  Codes,  Mucius  Scaevola, 
Menenius  Agrippa,  Coriolanus,  the  dictator 
Cincinnatus,  and  the  Fabii  belong  to  this  first 
period  of  the  republic.  Historically,  Cincin- 
natus appears  as  a  stern  oligarch.  The  decem- 
virate  was  established  in  451  (according  to  the 
commonly  adopted  chronology),  and  lasted  but 
two  years,  the  period  of  its  existence  being  a 
patrician  despotism,  to  which  belongs  the  le- 
gend of  Virginia.  The  consuls  elected  in  449 
(according  to  some  the  first,  the  supreme  magis- 
trates of  the  republic  having  previously  been 


404 


ROME 


called  praters)  were  L.  Valerias  Potitus  and  M. 
Horatius  Barbatus.  Several  popular  laws  were 
passed  under  their  lead,  by  which  an  appeal  to 
the  people  was  secured  to  every  citizen,  the 
people  including  the  plebeians,  and  the  assem- 
bly of  the  tribes  was  endowed  with  full  legis- 
lative power.  The  Canuleian  law  provided 
that  patricians  and  plebeians  might  inter- 
marry. A  proposition  to  throw  the  consulship 
open  to  the  plebeians  led  to  the  establishment 
of  military  tribunes,  to  which  offices  plebeians 
were  eligible.  The  censors  were  now  first  ap- 
pointed. The  qurestorship  was  thrown  open 
to  the  commons  in  421,  and  this  opened  the 
senate  to  them.  Veii  was  conquered  in  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  century  B.  C.  by  Camil- 
lus.  About  390  Rom&  was  taken  by  the  Gauls 
under  Brennus,  after  a  battle  on  the  banks  of 
the  Allia,  and  destroyed,  with  the  exception 
of  the  citadel  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  which 
was  bravely  defended  through  a  siege  of  seven 
months.  According  to  one  account,  the  dic- 
tator Furius  Camillus  defeated  Brennus  and 
totally  destroyed  his  army  ;  but  the  better  sus- 
tained tradition  is  that  the  Gaul  quitted  Rome 
as  a  conqueror,  after  receiving  1,000  Ibs.  of  gold 
as  a  ransom  for  the  defenders  of  the  fortress. 
The  people  then  wished  to  settle  at  Veii,  but 
their  design  was  prevented  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Camillas.  They  were  reduced  to 
great  misery,  and  to  this  time  belongs  the  story 
of  Manlius  Capitolinus,  who,  like  earlier  popu- 
lar leaders,  was  charged  by  the  patricians  with 
aspiring  to  kingly  power  and  put  to  death. 
The  Licinian  rogations  were  brought  forward 
in  376,  by  the  tribunes  C.  Licinius  Stolo  and 
L.  Sextius ;  they  provided  that  debtors  should 
be  relieved,  that  the  occupation  and  use  of  the 
public  domain  should  be  limited,  and  that  one 
of  the  consuls  should  be  a  plebeian.  After  a 
contest  of  about  ten  years,  these  rogations  be- 
came law ;  and  during  the  contest  a  law  was 
passed  committing  the  charge  of  the  sibylline 
books  equally  to  plebeians  with  patricians,  an 
invasion  of  the  monopoly  of  the  religious  min- 
istry of  the  state  which  the  latter  had  long 
held.  L.  Soxtius  was  the  first  plebeian  con- 
sul, chosen  at  the  election  next  following  the 
triumph  of  the  measures  of  himself  and  his 
colleague.  At  this  time  the  judicial  power 
was  taken  from  the  consuls,  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  praetor  urbanu*,  a  newly  created 
patrician  magistrate.  The  curule  redileship 
was  created,  to  which  members  of  both  orders 
were  eligible.  These  changes  were  the  most 
important  events  of  Roman  history.  Not  only 
did  they  go  far  to  unite  the  two  orders,  and  so 
put  an  end  to  those  civil  contests  which  had 
prevented  the  military  advance  of  the  Romans, 
but  by  enlarging  the  sphere  and  elevating  the 
spirit  of  citizenship,  they  created  the  citizen 
legions  by  whom  the  conquest  of  Italy  was 
effected.  But  for  this,  the  Samnites  would 
probably  have  become  masters  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.  The  patricians  did  not  immedi- 
,ately  submit  to  the  Licinian  laws,  both  con- 


sulships being  at  times  held  by  members  of 
their  order  down  to  343 ;  but  after  that  time 
they  were  divided  regularly.  In  172  both  con- 
sulships were  opened  to  the  plebeians.  The 
first  plebeian  dictator  was  C.  Marcius  Rutilus 
(356),  who  was  chosen  censor  five  years  after- 
ward. For  many  years  after  the  restoration 
of  Rome  under  Camillus,  the  wars  waged  by 
the  Romans  were  carried  on  against  Volscians, 
uEquians,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls,  and  were  suc- 
cessful contests,  the  victors  behaving  with 
much  liberality  to  those  of  the  vanquished 
whom  they  incorporated  into  the  state,  ma- 
king them  citizens,  and  increasing  the  number 
of  the  tribes.  Fears  of  the  Gauls  led  to  the 
renewal  of  the  Latin  league  in  358.  The  first 
Samnite  war  began  in  343,  and  the  immediate 
occasion  of  it  was  the  demand  for  assistance 
by  the  Capuans  against  the  Samnites,  they  sur- 
rendering their  city  to  Rome.  It  lasted  little 
more  than  a  year,  when  peace  was  made  in 
consequence  of  the  renewal  of  internal  trou- 
bles ;  and  the  settlement  of  those  troubles  was 
followed  by  the  Latin  war,  which  ended  (339) 
in  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Romans.  The 
second  Samnite  war  was  begun  in  326,  and 
lasted  about  22  years.  Its  fortunes  were  va- 
rious, including  the  disaster  of  the  Caudine 
forks,  but  the  Romans  were  finally  victorious. 
The  Etruscans  made  war  upon  Rome,  but  were 
defeated.  The  third  Samnito  war  opened  in 
298,  and  Samnium  submitted  to  Rome  in  290. 
The  Gauls  and  Etruscans  were  also  defeated 
in  the  same  war.  During  the  time  of  these 
wars  several  political  measures  were  carried  at 
Rome  which  tended  to  establish  equality  be- 
tween the  plebeians  and  patricians;  and  by 
the  Ogulnian  law  the  pontificate  and  the  au- 
gurate  were  opened  to  the  plebeians.  The 
passage  of  this  law,  in  300,  is  considered  as 
the  establishment  of  the  Roman  constitution. 
44  What  is  called  the  constitution  of  Rome," 
says  Arnold,  44as  far  as  regards  the  relations 
of  patricians  and  plebeians  to  each  other,  was 
in  fact  perfected  by  the  Ogulnian  law,  and 
remained  for  centuries  without  undergoing 
any  material  change.  By  that  law  the  com- 
mons were  placed  on  a  level  with  the  patri- 
cians, and  the  contests  between  these  two  or- 
ders were  brought  to  an  end  for  ever.  The 
comitia  too  had  assumed  that  form,  whatever 
it  was,  which  they  retained  to  the  end  of  the 
commonwealth ;  the  powers  of  the  magistrate 
as  affecting  the  liberty  of  the  citizen  under- 
went but  little  subsequent  alteration."  The 
subsequent  civil  troubles  were  social,  or  were 
brought  about  by  the  ambition  of  able  men 
who  sought  to  make  use  of  44  the  forum  popu- 
lace," a  class  entirely  distinct  from  the  ple- 
beians, with  whom  they  are  often  confounded ; 
or  they  were  caiised  by  attempts  to  effect  great 
reforms,  like  those  of  the  Gracchi,  which 
sought  the  restoration  of  the  old  constitution 
after  its  provisions  had  long  been  neglected  or 
violated  by  the  ruling  classes.  The  last  seces- 
sion of  the  plebeians  took  place  in  286,  and 


ROME 


405 


was  appeased  by  the  enactment  of  the  Horten- 
sian  laws,  which  reduced  debt,  divided  lands 
among  the  needy,  and  provided  that  all  the 
resolutions  of  the  tribes  should  be  law  for  the 
entire  people.  This  last  measure  clothed  the 
people  with  supreme  legislative  power,  and 
took  from  the  senate  its  veto  on  their  action. 
The  dictator  Hortensius  put  an  end  to  that  dis- 
pute in  which  the  'people  had  been  supported 
by  Curias  Dentatus,  one  of  the  most  popular 
Roman  characters,  both  with  his  contempora- 
ries and  in  history.  He  had  previously  con- 
quered the  Sabines  of  the  mountains.  The  ex- 
tension of  their  dominion  to  the  south  now 
brought  the  Romans  into  collision  with  the 
Italian  Greeks,  at  the  same  time  that  they  were 
defeating  the  Gauls  in  northern  Italy.  They 
aided  the  Thurians,  who  were  of  Greek  origin, 
against  the  Lucanians  and  others,  who  were 
believed  to  be  incited  by  the  people  of  Taren- 
tum,  one  of  the  most  opulent  and  powerful  of 
the  Hellenic  communities.  A  Roman  army 
was  marched  to  Tarentum,  and  the  Tarentines 
called  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to  their  aid. 
This  was  at  the  close  of  the  year  281.  Pyr- 
rhus landed  in  Italy  with  more  than  20,000 
men,  and  defeated  the  Romans  at  Heraclea, 
and  afterward  at  Asculum.  He  was  not  well 
supported  by  the  Italians ;  and  in  consequence 
of  an  alliance  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  he 
made  peace  with  the  Romans,  who  had  an  ex- 
cellent consul  in  Fabricius,  and  went  to  Sicily, 
where  he  pursued  a  brilliant  but  unsuccess- 
ful career  till  276,  when  he  returned  to  Italy, 
where  he  was  defeated  in  the  following  year 
by  Curius  Dentatus,  near  Beneventum.  The 
Romans  now  pursued  their  course  of  Italian 
conquest,  and  about  264  they  had  become  mas- 
ters of  all  ancient  Italy.  In  that  year  the  first 
Punic  war  broke  out.  The  Romans  resolved 
to  assist  a  body  of  mercenaries,  called  Mamer- 
tines,  who  had  possession  of  Messana  in  Sicily, 
against  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse.  Hiero  was 
defeated  and  retired,  but  the  victors  then  at- 
tacked a  Carthaginian  force,  which  also  had 
been  sent  to  the  assistance  of  the  Mamer- 
tines,  and  defeated  it.  War  was  then  declared 
against  Carthage.  It  lasted  23  years,  with 
various  fortune.  Though  ignorant  of  naval 
matters,  the  Romans  soon  learned  to  defeat 
the  Carthaginians  at  sea,  after  rapidly  effect- 
ing the  conquest  of  nearly  all  Sicily,  making 
peace  with  Hiero,  and  leaving  him  in  posses- 
sion of  his  small  but  rich  kingdom.  Their 
first  naval  victory  was  won  by  C.  Duilius  in 
260.  It  was  followed  by  other  successes,  and 
Sardinia  and  Corsica  we're  invaded.  The  Car- 
thaginians were  reduced  to  the  defensive  in 
Sicily,  holding  there  only  a  few  strong  places. 
In  256  M.  Regulus  and  his  colleague  Manlius 
defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  the  greatest  sea 
fight  of  those  days,  and  then  landed  in  Afri- 
ca, which  was  incapable  of  making  any  resis- 
tance. Regulus  was  left  to  continue  the  work 
of  conquest,  with  only  15,000  men;  he  was 
at  length  defeated,  and  his  army  destroyed  and 


himself  taken  captive,  by  an  army  commanded 
by  the  Greek  Xanthippus.  The  Romans  also 
lost  two  fleets  by  storms.  They  were  more 
fortunate  in  Sicily,  capturing  Panormus,  and 
totally  routing  the  Carthaginian  army  that 
sought  to  recover  the  town.  The  Romans 
began  the  siege  of  LilybaBum  in  250,  building 
a  third  fleet  to  blockade  it,  but  this  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Carthaginians.  Another  fleet 
was  lost  at  sea.  Hamilcar  now  took  com- 
mand of  the  Carthaginians,  and  though  but 
feebly  supported  he  carried  on  the  war  with 
considerable  success,  t"he  Romans  still  main- 
taining the  siege  of  Lilybeeum.  A  fourth  Ro- 
man fleet  was  prepared,  which  destroyed  that 
of  Carthage.  Peace  was  then  made,  on  harsh 
terms  to  Carthage,  and  Sicily  became  the  first 
Roman  province.  Taking  advantage  of  the 
war  that  Carthage  was  compelled  to  wage 
with  her  mercenary  soldiers,  Rome  demanded 
of  her  the  cession  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and 
the  sum  of  1,200  talents,  to  which  no  resistance 
could  be  made.  For  some  years  there  were 
but  few  campaigns,  and  in  235  the  temple  of 
Janus  was  closed.  Colonies  had  been  founded 
during  the  war  with  Carthage,  and  the  number 
of  tribes  was  increased  to  35.  The  Romans 
first  crossed  the  Adriatic  in  229,  when  they 
conquered  the  Illyrians,  and  sent  envoys  to 
Greek  states  to  explain  their  proceedings,  who 
were  well  received.  They  were  threatened 
with  a  Gallic  war,  which  was  to  them  always 
the  source  of  peculiar  terror,  and  it  was  ascer- 
tained that  the  whole  number  of  available  men 
was  750,000.  The  war  began  in  225  and  lasted 
four  years,  the  Gauls  being  beaten,  and  the 
Roman  arms  carried  far  toward  the  Alps.  At 
this  time  were  to  be  seen  the  beginnings  of 
that  popular  party  which  was  in  later  times  to 
have  so  important  a  place  in  the  republic,  but 
the  growth  and  action  of  which  were  stayed 
for  a  century  by  the  operation  of  external 
events.  A  new  war  with  Carthage  was  im- 
pending. The  conquests  of  Hamilcar  and  Has- 
drubal  in  Spain  alarmed  the  Romans;  and  in 
228  they  concluded  a  treaty  with  Hasdrubal, 
by  which  it  was  arranged  that  the  Carthagin- 
ians should  not  go  beyond  the  Ebro.  Hasdru- 
bal was  killed  seven  years  later,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother-in-law  Hannibal,  who 
completed  the  Carthaginian  empire  in  Spain 
to  the  south  of  the  Ebro  and  the  Douro.  He 
besieged  and  took  Saguntum,  a  Greek  city  in 
alliance  with  Rome.  The  Carthaginian  gov- 
ernment having  refused  to  deliver  up  Hanni- 
bal for  this  action,  Rome  declared  war  in  219. 
The  next  year  Hannibal  marched  to  Italy, 
through  Spain  and  Gaul,  and  reached  that 
country  in  about  seven  months,  with  26,000 
men,  having  lost  or  dismissed  nearly  three 
fourths  of  his  army,  but  many  Gauls  soon 
joined  him.  He  defeated  the  consul  Scipio  on 
the  Ticinus,  his  colleague  Sempronius  on  the 
Trebia,  and  in  217  Flaminius  at  Lake  Thrasy- 
menus.  He  made  captives  of  the  Romans  who 
were  taken,  but  dismissed  the  Italian  allies,  bis 


406 


ROME 


war  being  directed  against  Rome  only.  The 
Romans  made  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  prodictator, 
and  Hannibal,  who  marched  south,  was  baffled 
by  his  strict  defensive;  but  in  216  the  consuls, 
Varro  and  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus,  gave  battle  at 
Cannse,  and  were  routed  with  immense  slaugh- 
ter. The  Romans  showed  much  firmness,  and 
took  their  measures  with  such  promptitude 
and  vigor  that  immediate  danger  was  soon  re- 
moved; but  they  never  thereafter  dared  to 
meet  Hannibal  in  a  pitched  battle  while  he  re- 
mained in  Italy.  Most  of  southern  Italy  now 
declared  fdr  Hannibal.  The  great  city  of  Ca- 
pua, which  was  almost  capable  of  being  the 
rival  of  Rome,  opened  her  gates  to  him,  and 
welcomed  him  as  a  deliverer.  Had  he  been 
reinforced  from  home  his  purpose  might  have 
been  accomplished ;  btit  at  first  it  was  impos- 
sible to  send  him  assistance,  and  when  it  was 
sent  the  time  for  success  had  passed  away.  The 
Romans  gradually  recovered  ground.  They 
retook  Capua  after  a  long  siege,  which  Han- 
nibal could  not  raise,  though  he  marched  to 
Rome  for  that  purpose,  and  threatened  the 
city.  Marcellus  reconquered  Sicily.  In  Spain, 
which  they  had  invaded,  they  were  less  fortu- 
nate, the  brothers  Scipio  being  there  defeated 
and  slain.  Wherever  Hannibal  was  present  he 
was  almost  invariably  successful.  In  207  his 
brother  Hasdrubal,  following  his  route  from 
Spain,  entered  Italy,  but  he  was  defeated  and 
killed  on  the  Metaurns.  Hannibal  was  forced 
to  remain  in  Bruttium.  In  Spain  the  war  was 
renewed  with  great  vigor  and  complete  success 
by  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  then  a  young  man.  He 
was  elected  consul,  with  Sicily  for  his  prov- 
ince, and  had  permission  to  carry  the  war  into 
Africa,  in  accordance  with  the  policy  which 
he  supported,  but  which  was  opposed  by  the 
old  Roman  leaders.  Nothing  happened  in  his 
consulship,  but  at  its  close  he  was  appointed 
proconsul,  and  it  was  resolved  that  he  should 
retain  his  command  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
In  204  he  invaded  Africa,  and  his  successes 
were  so  decisive  that  Hannibal  was  recalled, 
and  the  war  was  ended  by  the  victory  of  the 
Romans  at  Zama  in  202.  Peace  was  then 
made,  Carthage  accepting  humiliating  terms 
(201). — Rome  had  now  become  a  conquering 
nation,  and  in  200  she  made  war  on  Mace- 
don,  the  king  of  which  country  had  endeav- 
ored to  assail  her  while  she  was  engaged  in 
the  contest  with  Hannibal.  She  was  victo- 
rious, Flamininus  routing  the  army  of  Philip 
at  Cynoscephalffl ;  she  granted  the  vanquished 
moderate  terms  of  peace,  and  nominally  re- 
stored the  Greeks  to  freedom,  but  really  es- 
tablished her  influence  over  Greece.  A  Syrian 
war  was  begun  in  191,  and  ended  with  the 
defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  at  Magnesia, 
the  Romans  having  entered  Asia  in  190.  The 
^Etolians  were  reduced  to  submission,  and  the 
Galatians  conquered  without  a  declaration  of 
war.  The  Italian  Ligurians  were  also  subdued, 
and  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  was  crea- 
ted. In  Spain  the  Roman  dominion  was  great- 


ly extended,  so  that  nearly  the  whole  peninsula 
acknowledged  it  for  many  years.  Istria  was 
reduced  in  177.  The  last  Macedonian  war  be- 
gan in  171,  and  was  closed  in  three  years,  by 
the  victory  of  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus  over  Perseus 
at  Pydna.  Rome  was  now  virtual  mistress  of 
the  East  and  the  West,  and  protected  Egypt 
against  Syria,  and  ruled  Greece  through  the 
tyrants  that  were-  established  in  her  states. 
The  legions  crossed  the  Maritime  Alps  in  166, 
and  took  the  first  step  toward  the  conquest 
of  Gaul  12  years  later.  The  Dalmatians  were 
subdued  in  155.  A  Macedonian  rebellion  was 
promptly  quelled.  The  Achaean  league  was 
conquered  in  146,  and  Corinth  taken  and  de- 
stroyed ;  and  Greece  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, called  Achaia.  The  third  Punic  war,  long 
urged  by  the  elder  Cato,  was  begun  in  149  and 
ended  in  146,  when  Carthage  was  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  second  Scipio  Africanus.  The 
wars  in  Spain,  renewed  in  149,  were  brought 
to  a  close  at  the  end  of  16  years,  by  the  siege 
and  destruction  of  Numantia,  the  work  of 
Scipio.  Lusitania,  too,  was  annexed  after  the 
assassination  of  its  gallant  defender  Viriathus 
in  140.  The  servile  wars  of  Sicily  broke  out 
in  134,  and  the  first  continued  two  years.  In 
Asia  the  Romans  gained  the  kingdom  of  Per- 
gamus,  by  will  of  its  last  monarch  Attalus  III. 
The  tribune  Tiberius  Gracchus  entered  upon 
his  course  of  agrarian  legislation  in  133.  His 
object  was  to  create  a  new  body  of  Roman 
commons,  by  reviving  the  Licinian  laws,  with 
some  modification.  Though  this  was  in  fact  a 
war  against  property  holders,  it  was  not  a  war 
against  property,  as  the  rich  had  obtained  a 
monopoly  of  the  public  lands  in  defiance  of 
law.  Some  of  the  best  of  the  Roman  states- 
men supported  Gracchus,  but  the  evil  he  wished 
to  cure  was  too  deep-seated  to  be  removed  by 
legal  means.  Nothing  less  than  a  revolution 
could  have  effected  the  proposed  change.  Du- 
ring the  long  time  that  had  elapsed  since  the 
passage  of  the  Hortensian  laws,  there  had 
grown  up  in  Rome  the  party  of  the  opti- 
mateSi  which  was  an  exclusive  aristocratical 
party,  composed  of  both  patricians  and  ple- 
beians, and  which  enjoyed  all  the  power  of 
the  state.  The  success  of  Gracchus  would 
have  been  the  destruction  of  this  party ;  and 
its  leaders  opposed  him  until  he  was  driven  to 
the  adoption  of  unconstitutional  means  of  re- 
sistance, when  he  was  slain  by  some  of  their 
number,  in  an  outbreak  which  they  had  caused. 
The  contest  between  the  aristocracy  and  the 
people  had  now  begun.  The  younger  Scipio 
for  a  time  acted  as  a  moderator  between  par- 
ties, but  he  was  assassinated ;  and  Caius  Grac- 
chus resumed  the  projects  of  his  brother,  with 
additions,  such  as  his  law  to  distribute  corn  to 
the  people,  and  another  to  transfer  the  judicial 
power  from  the  senate  to  the  equestrian  order. 
He  also  purposed  extending  the  Roman  fran- 
chise. But  he  too  failed,  and  was  murdered 
in  121,  while  his  adherents  were  put  to  death 
with  every  circumstance  of  illegality  and  cruel- 


ROME 


40T 


ty.  From  this  time  reform  became  impossible, 
and  revolution,  through  the  aid  of  the  legions, 
was  inevitable.  The  few  years  that  followed 
the  triumph  of  the  optimates  form  the  most 
corrupt  period  of  Roman  history.  The  effect 
of  this  corruption  of  the  aristocracy  was  seen 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Jugurthine  war  in 
111.  The  Roman  armies  were  baffled  through 
the  arts  of  Jugurtha,  who  found  their  com- 
manders accessible  to  his  bribes,  until  first  Me- 
tellus,  and  then  Caius  Marius,  were  appointed 
to  conduct  the  war  against  him.  The  election 
of  Marius  to  the  consulship  was  a  triumph  of 
the  people  over  the  optimates,  and  he  opened 
the  legions  to  a  lower  class  of  men,  which  was 
an  important  step  toward  that  change  which 
made  them  the  instruments  of  successful  lead- 
ers. Numidia  was  conquered  in  107,  and  Ju- 
gurtha was  starved  to  death  (104).  The  inva- 
sion of  the  Oimbrians  and  Teutons  led  to  the 
repeated  reelection  of  Marius ;  and  he  justified 
his  countrymen's  confidence  by  exterminating 
those  barbarians  (102,  101),  after  they  had  de- 
stroyed many  Roman  armies.  The  second  ser- 
vile war  in  Sicily,  after  lasting  three  years,  was 
brought  to  an  end  in  99.  The  political  con- 
tests of  Rome  now  assumed  a  decisive  charac- 
ter, and  the  failure  of  the  Italians  to  obtain 
enfranchisement  led  to  the  social  or  Marsic 
war  (90-88),  in  which  the  Romans  were  vic- 
torious, but  voluntarily  granted  the  franchise 
to  the  Italians.  The  appointment  of  Sulla  to 
the  command  in  the  war  against  Mithridates, 
king  of  Pontus,  caused  the  rivalry  between 
that  chief  and  Marius  to  assume  the  form  of 
a  bloody  civil  war,  the  result  of  which  was 
to  throw  the  whole  power  of  the  republic 
into  the  hands  of  Sulla,  who  was  appointed 
perpetual  dictator,  which  office  he  resigned 
after  reconstructing  the  constitution  accord- 
ing to  aristocratic  ideas.  Sertorius,  a  parti- 
san of  Marius,  having  fled  to  Spain,  for  years 
braved  there  the  best  Roman  generals,  until 
removed  by  assassination  (72).  Sulla  died  in 
78,  and  the  changes  that  he  had  made  lost  their 
vitality  with  their  creator.  In  the  mean  time 
the  conquests  of  the  Romans  had  been  carried 
on  in  the  East  by  Sulla,  and  subsequently 
by  Lucullus  and  Pompey,  who  overthrew  Mith- 
ridates, and  defeated  the  king  of  Armenia. 
Pompey  converted  Syria  into  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, and  made  Judea  virtually  dependent 
upon  the  republic.  The  great  servile  war,  in 
which  the  Thracian  gladiator  Spartacus  headed 
the  slaves,  began  in  73,  and  lasted  nearly  three 
years,  much  of  Italy  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
slaves ;  and  it  was  not  until  several  power- 
ful armies  had  been  beaten,  and  forces  of  the 
greatest  magnitude  had  been  employed,  that 
the  insurgents  were  overthrown.  Before  his 
expedition  to  the  East,  Pompey  subdued  the 
Mediterranean  pirates.  The  greatest  man  in 
Rome,  Pompey  had  soon  to  encounter  the  ri- 
valry of  Julius  Caesar,  while  Cicero's  services 
in  baffling  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  (63)  gave 
him  a  high  degree  of  consideration,  and  the 


wealth  and  civil  and  military  talent  of  Cras- 
sus  enabled  him  to  control  a  powerful  party. 
Through  a  coalition  known  as  the  first  trium- 
virate, Ceesar,  Crassus,  and  Pompey  became 
virtual  masters  of  their  country  (60)  ;  but  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Crassus,  in  an  expedition 
against  Parthia,  left  supreme  power  to  be 
struggled  for  by  his  associates.  Caesar  had 
been  appointed  to  the  command  in  Gaul,  the 
conquest  of  which  country  he  completed,  while 
he  also  invaded  Germany  and  Britain.  Nomi- 
nally as  the  champion  of  the  senate,  Pompey 
broke  with  Caasar,  who  in  49  advanced  upon 
Rome  at  the  head  of  some  of  his  legions,  and 
compelled  his  enemies  to  fly.  In  the  contest 
that  followed  Ca?sar  was  victorious,  defeat- 
ing his  enemies,  including  Pompey,  Ptolemy 
of  Egypt,  Pharnaces  of  the  Bosporus,  Juba  of 
Mauritania,  the  younger  Cato,  M.  Scipio,  and 
the  sons  of  Pompey,  in  Italy,  Spain,  Greece, 
Egypt,  Asia,  and  the  province  of  Africa.  He 
had  concentrated  all  power  in  his  person  when 
he  was  assassinated  in  44.  His  power  passed 
into  the  hands  of  his  nephew  Octavius,  who, 
with  the  aid  of  Lepidus  and  Antony,  triumphed 
over  the  republican  party,  whose  chief  leaders 
were  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Octavius  soon  mas- 
tered his  associates,  and  became  lord  of  the 
Roman  world,  the  most  important  addition  to 
which  made  by  himself  was  the  kingdom  of 
Egypt.  Drusus  and  Tiberius,  his  stepsons,  con- 
quered in  Germany,  but  Varus  perished  there 
with  his  legions.  Octavius  (or  Octavianus)  is 
generally  considered  the  first  of  the  emperors, 
and  his  undivided  rule  dates  from  30  B.  0.  He 
assumed  the  title  of  Augustus,  by  which  he  has 
ever  since  been  known.  All  the  powers  of  the 
state  were  vested  in  him.  His  reign,  which 
embraced  a  part  of  the  golden  age  of  Roman 
literature  (see  LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TUEE),  lasted  until  A.  D.  14,  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Tiberius,  his  adopted  son,  who  was 
of  the  Claudian  gens,  and  in  whose  reign  dis- 
appeared the  last  remnants  of  the  old  Roman 
constitution.  Tiberius  was  succeeded  in  37 
by  his  grandnephew  Caius,  known  as  Caligula. 
After  him  reigned  Claudius,  and  then  Nero 
(54-68),  the  last  of  the  emperors  who  could 
make  any  claim  to  connection,  either  by  blood 
or  by  adoption,  with  the  founder  of  the  Julian 
imperial  line.  Tyranny  and  shameless  corrup- 
tion had  reached  their  height.  In  the  reign 
of  Claudius  Britain  was  conquered.  The  em- 
perors Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius  followed  each 
other  in  rapid  succession,  until  the  throne  was 
occupied  by  the  Flavian  family  in  the  person 
of  Vespasian  (69),  who  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Titus  (79-81),  the  conqueror  of  Jerusa- 
lem, whose  successor  was  his  brother  Domi- 
tian.  On  this  tyrant's  assassination  (96),  the 
humane  Nerva  was  made  emperor.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Trajan  (98),  who  added  Dacia  to 
the  empire,  and  who  carried  the  Roman  arms 
to  the  Persian  gulf,  conquering  many  countries 
of  the  East;  but  these  conquests  were  aban- 
doned by  the  next  emperor,  Hadrian  (H7-'38), 


408 


ROME 


who  restored  the  Euphrates  as  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  empire.  Hadrian  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Antoninus  Pius,  whose  heir  was 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (161-'80).  The  84 
years  of  the  reigns  of  Nerva,  Trajan,  Hadrian, 
and  the  two  Antonines  are  considered  the  hap- 
piest period  of  the  Roman  empire ;  and  from 
the  year  of  the  accession  of  Commodus,  son 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  A.  D.  180,  Gibbon  dates 
the  commencement  of  that  empire's  decline. 
At  that  time  the  empire  consisted  of  Italy, 
Spain,  Gaul,  Britain,  Rhsetia,  Noricum  and 
Pannonra,  Dalmatia,  Moesia  and  Dacia,  Thrace, 
Macedonia,  and  Greece;  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Palestine;  Egypt  and  all  the 
north  of  Africa,  and  the  Mediterranean  with 
its  islands.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
120,000,000.  The  emperor  Commodus  became 
one  of  the  worst  of  the  imperial  tyrants,  and 
was  assassinated  (192).  His  successor,  Perti- 
nax,  was  murdered  by  the  prrotorians,  who 
sold  the  empire  to  Didius  Julianus,  to  whom 
succeeded  Septimius  Severus  (193).  Severus's 
son  Caracalla,  and  the  successor  of  the  latter, 
Elagabalus,  rivalled  Caligula  and  Nero  in  in- 
famy. Most  of  the  emperors  who  subsequent- 
ly reigned  were  men  of  little  ability  down  to 
Diocletian,  including  Maximin,  the  three  Gor- 
dians,  Philip,  Balbinus,  Valerian,  Gallienus, 
Claudius  II.,  Tacitus,  Probus,  Cams,  Carinus, 
Numerian,  and  others,  and  their  conduct  accel- 
erated the  decline  of  the  empire.  Alexander 
Severus  (222-'35),  Decius,  and  Aurelian  are 
the  principal  exceptions,  the  last  named  con- 
quering Zenobia  and  destroying  Palmyra  (273). 
Under  the  rule  of  Diocletian  (284-305)  the 
empire  was  so  strengthened  that  its  power 
enjoyed  a  certain  revival ;  but  its  constitution 
was  essentially  changed  by  that  sovereign.  The 
principles  of  a  despotism  yet  unknown  were 
adopted  and  carried  into  effect  by  him,  togeth- 
er with  the  usages  and  pomps  of  oriental  courts, 
totally  foreign  to  the  ancient  simplicity  with 
which  all  but  the  more  lascivious  and  vicious 
emperors  had  contented  themselves.  Diocle- 
tian associated  with  himself  a  colleague  on  the 
throne,  Maximianus;  and  subsequently  two 
others  with  the  subordinate  rank  of  Cresar, 
each  of  the  supreme  rulers  being  henceforth 
styled  Augustus.  Rome  then  ceased  to  be  the 
seat  of  government,  Diocletian  residing  prin- 
cipally at  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia,  and  Maximi- 
anus at  Milan.  The  senate  sunk  into  total 
insignificance,  and  from  this  period  the  empe- 
rors rarely  appeared  in  the  ancient  capital, 
except  on  occasions  of  grand  festivals  or  tri- 
umphs. Constantino  the  Great,  the  son  of 
Constantius  Chlorus,  the  first  of  the  Christian 
emperors,  after  the  death  of  the  associate  or 
rival  rulers  Maxentius,  Galerius,  Maximinus, 
and  Licinius,  formally  transferred  the  capital 
to  Byzantium,  thenceforth  called  Constantino- 
ple, though  its  founder  meant  that  it  should 
be  called  New  Rome.  From  that  time,  A.  D. 
330,  should  be  dated  the  cessation  of  the  Ro- 
man ascendancy,  though  the  remains  of  the 


empire  continued  to  influence  the  world  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  when  Con- 
stantinople fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 
The  Roman  element  was  little  known  in  the 
empire  after  the  abandonment  of  the  city  on 
the  Tiber,  and  that  abandonment  was  the  con- 
sequence of  the  change  that  had  come  over 
the  world  since  the  fall  of  the  republic.  Con- 
stantine  only  did  that  which  other  rulers  had 
contemplated,  in  transferring  the  seat  of  em- 

E're  permanently  to  some  other  place  than 
ome,  that  transference  simply  rounding  and 
completing  the  imperial  policy  which  had  been 
inaugurated  by  the  first  of  the  Caesars.  He 
divided  the  empire  on  his  death  between  his 
three  sons.  Constantino  II.  inherited  Gaul, 
and  attempted  to  seize  Italy,  which  had  fallen 
to  the  share  of  his  youngest  brother  Constans, 
but  was  slain  in  the  attempt,  and  Constans, 
master  now  of  both  Italy  and  Gaul,  was  subse- 
quently assassinated  by  his  general  Magnentius. 
The  whole  empire  finally  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  second  brother,  Constantius  (351), 
who  on  his  father's  death  had  been  assigned 
the  provinces  of  the  East.  The  northern  bar- 
barians, having  penetrated  into  northern  and 
eastern  Gaul,  were  driven  out  by  Julian,  who 
succeeded  to  the  purple  in  361,  restored  pagan- 
ism, and  fell  in  863  in  an  expedition  into  Per- 
sia. Paganism  fell  with  him.  The  army  con- 
ferred the  crown  upon  Jovian,  who  bought  a 
disgraceful  peace  and  died  before  he  reached 
Constantinople,  leaving  the  selection  of  an  em- 
peror again  to  the  soldiers.  The  choice  fell 
upon  Valentinian  I.,  who  appointed  his  brother 
Valens  his  colleague,  and  left  to  him  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  East,  with  a  part  of  Illyricum. 
The  weak  and  unfortunate  reign  of  Valens 
(364-378)  was  signalized  by  the  overthrow  of 
the  Goths  by  the  Huns,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  defeated  tribe  within  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  Revolting  in  consequence  of  their  ill 
treatment  by  the  Romans,  they  were  attacked 
by  Valens  in  person,  defeated  him  at  Adrian- 
ople,  and  forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  a  hut, 
where  he  perished  by  fire.  More  than  60,000 
Roman  soldiers  fell  in  this  battle,  and  the 
Goths  ravaged  the  whole  country  from  the 
scene  of  the  conflict  to  the  walls  of  Constanti- 
nople. In  this  moment  of  danger  the  hopes  of 
the  East  were  turned  on  the  court  of  Treves, 
where  Gratian,  the  son  of  Valentinian  I.,  ruled 
over  the  western  division  of  the  empire,  while 
his  younger  brother,  Valentinian  II.,  governed 
Italy  and  Africa.  Gratian  chose  as  his  col- 
league Theodosius,  and  caused  him  to  be  pro- 
claimed emperor  of  the  East  (379).  He  him- 
self, after  a  not  inglorious  reign  (367-'83),  was 
assassinated  in  a  military  insurrection,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  Maximus,  who  soon  turned  his  arras 
against  Valentinian  II.  and  drove  him  out  of 
Italy.  Theodosius  in  the  mean  time  had  re- 
stored peace  to  the  East,  and  was  now  enabled 
to  attack  the  usurper,  defeated  him  on  the  banks 
of  the  Save  (388),  and  caused  him  to  be  put 
to  death.  Valentinian  perished  soon  after  by 


77°    Longitude    82°   East  tnnu  87°  Wa-shiurfUm    5)2 


The  Idap  shows  th&  Roman  Empire, 
its  greatest  Krtrnt,in  the  krpin 
— *  -•**  *j»«*  •?»«<*  /'.. r. i ,.,..,  A  jy 


ROME 


409 


the  hand  of  a  Frankish  assassin,  and  Theo- 
dosius,  who  merited  from  posterity  the  sur- 
name of  Great,  was  acknowleded  in  394  with- 
out a  rival  or  colleague  throughout  the  whole 
Roman  empire.  His  death  the  following  year 
plunged  everything  again  into  confusion.  The 
sovereignty  was  divided  between  his  sons  Ar- 
cadius  and  Honorius,  and  thenceforth  there 
were  two  distinct  empires,  the  further  history 
of  which  will  be  found  in  the  articles  BY- 
ZANTINE EMPIRE  and  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  (For 
Roman  antiquities,  see  the  general  or  special 
articles  on  the  various  subjects,  such  as  AQUE- 
DUCT, ARMY,  AUGURS,  BATH,  CALENDAR,  CIR- 
CUS, CIVIL  LAW,  COMITIA,  CONSUL,  FORUM, 
&c.) — Description  of  Ancient  Rome.  The  an- 
cient city  of  Rome  was  situated  principally  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  about  16  m.  from 
the  sea,  and  just  on  the  N.  border  of  Latium. 
From  the  Palatine  hill,  where  it  was  originally 
founded,  it  spread  over  several  adjacent  emi- 
nences and  the  valleys  between  them,  and  be- 
came known  as  urbs  septicollis,  the  "city  of 
seven  hills;"  these  were  Mons  Palatinus,  Capi- 
tolinus,  Esquilinus,  Cealius,  Aventinus,  Quiri- 
nalis,  and  Viminalis.  The  Quirinal,  Viminal, 
and  Capitoline  hills  were  occupied  by  the  Sa- 
bines,  and  the  Cselian,  together  with  Mons  Cis- 
pius  and  Mons  Oppius,  which  are  parts  of  the 
Esquiline,  by  the  Etruscans.  The  Aventine 
hill  was  for  a  time  not  included  within  the  po- 
mcerium  (limits  which  could  not  be  built  upon, 
extending  along  the  walls  both  on  the  outer 
and  the  inner  sides,  and  in  which  auguries 
were  taken).  Ancus  Martius  is  said  to  have 
built  the  first  fortress  on  the  Janiculan  hill,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  the  ancient  city.  The  walls  ascribed  to 
Servius  Tullius  enclosed  all  the  seven  hills,  and 
were  about  seven  miles  in  circumference.  These 
fortifications  had,  as  generally  reported,  17 
gates,  though  ancient  writers  are  not  all  agreed 
concerning  the  number.  In  some  places  the 
steep  sides  of  the  hills  were  a  sufficient  pro- 
tection without  artificial  fortification ;  in  others 
the  wall  is  known  to  have  been  over  60  ft.  high 
and  50  ft.  wide,  faced  exteriorly  with  flag  stones 
and  bordered  by  a  ditch,  and  traces  of  it  are 
still  visible.  The  city  was  divided  by  Servius 
Tullius  into  four  regiones,  corresponding  to  the 
four  tribes  in  which  the  citizens  were  classed ; 
they  were  named  Suburana,  Esquilina,  Collina, 
and  Palatina.  The  Capitoline,  as  the  seat  of 
the  gods,  was  not  included  in  them.  Augustus 
increased  the  number  of  regiones  to  14,  com- 
prehending besides  the  city  of  Servius  Tullius 
the  suburbs  which  had  since  grown  up.  Each 
regio  was  subdivided  into  tici.  At  what  time 
the  Mons  Janiculus,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  was  encompassed  by  walls  seems  doubt- 
ful ;  it  was  fortified  and  connected  with  the 
left  bank  by  a  bridge  as  early  as  the  time  of  An- 
cus Martius.  The  emperor  Aurelian  (270-'75) 
began  the  new  walls,  which  were  completed 
under  Probus,  in  276.  These  fortifications, 
restored  and  perhaps  amplified  in  circuit  by 


Honorius  in  402,  formed  the  actual  defences 
of  the  city,  not  however  including  the  Trans- 
tiberian  quarter,  on  the  right  bank,  which 
was  first  enclosed  with  walls  by  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  (1623-'44).  The  region  called  Borgo, 
on  the  same  side,  which  contains  St.  Peter's 
church  and  the  Vatican,  was  protected  by  oth- 
er walls  built  long  anterior  by  Pope  Leo  IV. 
(847-'55) ;  and  this  quarter,  like  a  separate  city, 
was  called  after  him  Civitas  Leonina,  or  the 
Leonine  City.  The  walls  of  Aurelian  and  Ho- 
norius, as  they  now  exist,  are  between  11  and 
12  m.  in  circuit,  and  have  16  gates,  three  of 
which  are  now  walled  up  as  useless,  and  one, 
the  Porta  Septimiana,  on  the  Transtiberian 
side,  is  surrounded  by  streets.  "Within  this 
fortified  circuit  are  five  bridges  spanning  the 
Tiber  (besides  the  ruins  of  two  others),  three 
of  which  are  ancient :  the  ./Elian,  now  the 
Ponte  Sant'  Angelo ;  the  Fabrician,  now  the 
Ponte  Quattro  Capi ;  and  the  Cestian,  now 
the  Ponte  San  Bartolommeo.  The  last  two 
connect  the  small  island  in  the  Tiber,  now 
called  Isola  di  San  Bartolommeo,  with  the 
opposite  banks.  The  number  of  streets  is  said 
to  have  been  215,  the  principal  avenues  being 
called  vice  and  vici,  and  the  narrow  ways  angi- 
portus.  The  main  thoroughfare  was  the  Via 
Sacra,  which  began  in  the  valley  between  the 
CaBlian  and  Esquiline  mounts,  and  wound  in 
a  rather  devious  course  westward,  past  the 
Flavian  amphitheatre  and  under  the  arch  of 
Titus,  through  the  centre  of  the  city  to  the 
capitol.  The  Via  Lata  and  its  continuation 
the  Via  Flaminia  extended  from  the  N.  side 
of  the  capitol  to  the  Porta  Flaminia  near  the 
N.  W.  angle  of  the  city.  The  Vicus  Tuscus, 
running  out  of  the  Forum  Romanum,  con- 
tained many  of  the  shops,  and  was  celebrated 
by  Horace  for  the  rascally  character  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  Vicus  Sandalarius  was  the 
place  where  shoemakers  congregated,  and  also 
the  quarter  of  some  of  the  booksellers.  The 
whole  valley  between  the  Esquiline,  Viminal, 
and  Quirinal  hills,  a  little  N.  E.  of  the  cen- 
tre of  the  city,  was  called  the  Subura,  and 
through  it  ran  a  street  of  the  same  name. 
This  was  the  scene  of  most  of  the  bustle  and 
wickedness  of  the  city,  and  the  seat  of  the 
principal  shops  and  brothels.  The  Carinse,  a 
district  just  without  the  limits  of  this  noisy 
region,  was  the  residence  of  Pompey,  Cicero, 
and  many  other  distinguished  persons.  Here 
and  there  were  open  places  called  fora  and 
campi,  the  former  being  intended  for  the  trans- 
action of  business,  and  the  latter  for  pleasure 
grounds.  The  fora  were  level  oblong  spaces, 
paved,  and  surrounded  with  buildings  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  and  were  either  fora  civilia,  where 
justice  was  administered  and  other  public  mat- 
ters were  attended  to,  or  fora  venalia,  which 
answered  very  nearly  to  modern  market  places. 
The  Forum  Romanum,  sometimes  called  sim- 
ply the  forum,  or  forum  magnum  or  vetus,  oc- 
cupied a  space  between  the  Capitoline  and 
Palatine  hills,  and  was  the  most  important  of 


410 


ROME 


the  19  Roman  fora.  (See  FOBUM.)  Among 
the  others  were  the  Forum  Julium  or  Csesaris, 
close  behind  the  former ;  the  Forum  August! ; 
the  Forum  Nervro  or  tranxitorium,  intended 
merely  as  a  passageway  from  the  two  pre- 
ceding to  the  temple  of  Peace ;  and  the  Forum 
Trajani.  But  little  of  the  .splendid  forum  of 
Trajan  is  now  visible,  except  the  celebrated 
column.  Most  of  the  magnificent  buildings 
founded  by  that  emperor  within  the  limits  of 
his  forum  were  left  for  ages  in  ruin  and  buried 
under  earthworks.  Excavations  begun  by  the 
French  early  in  the  present  century,  and  con- 
tinued by  the  pontifical  government  after  the 
restoration  of  Pius  VII.,  resulted  in  the  dis- 
covery of  some  remains  of  the  Ulpian  basilica, 
so  called  from  the  family  name  of  the  founder 
(Ulpius  Trajanus),  and  other  fragments  of  an- 
tique structures,  strewn  over  an  area  not  more 
than  one  twelfth  of  the  space  occupied  by  Tra- 
jan's buildings.  In  this  narrow  place,  below 
the  level  of  the  surrounding  piazza  Traiana,  is 
all  that  now  remains  visible  of  the  ruins  of 
those  magnificent  structures.  The  Campus 
Martins,  at  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  ancient  city, 
was  almost  entirely  occupied  by  public  build- 
ings, temples  (among  which  was  the  Panthe- 
on), the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  and  plea- 
sure grounds.  This  region  is  now  covered  by 
the  modern  city,  and  contains  those  streets  and 
piazzas  whore  the  population  is  most  dense. 
(See  CAMPUS.)  The  Campus  Sceleratus  was 
the  spot  where  vestals  who  had  violated  their 
vows  were  buried  alive,  and  the  Campus  Esqui- 
linus  was  originally  used  for  the  execution  of 
criminals  and  the  burial  of  the  poor,  though 
the  greater  part  of  it  was  afterward  converted 
into  pleasure  grounds.  Besides  these  places 
of  public  resort,  there  were  beautiful  private 
parks  and  gardens  on  the  hills  around  the  city. 
— The  houses  of  Rome  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  domiu,  or  residences  of  the  nobles, 
corresponding  to  the  modern  palazzi,  and  the 
i inn  fir  or  dwellings  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes,  which  were  often  let  out  by  floors  or 
apartments  after  the  modern  fashion.  These 
imulce  were  sometimes  carried  up  so  many 
stories  that  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  any 
house  to  be  built  more  than  70  ft.  high — a 
regulation  all  the  more  necessary  as  every  house 
was  surrounded  by  an  open  space  of  at  least 
5  ft.  The  domus  had  porticoes  in  front  and 
inner  courts  called  atria.  The  iruula  perhaps 
had  smaller  courts  within,  and  in  place  of  the 
porticoes  they  had  open  spaces  which  served 
for  shops  and  workshops.  The  common  build- 
ing material  was  brick,  at  least  before  the  time 
of  Augustus;  the  upper  story  of  the  domiu 
was  generally  of  wood.  Under  the  emperors 
more  costly  materials,  sach  as  marble  and  oth- 
er stone,  came  into  frequent  use ;  and  when 
Nero  rebuilt  the  city  after  the  great  fire,  he 
employed  a  kind  of  volcanic  rock  now  called 
peperino,  formed  by  the  cementing  together 
of  sand  and  cinders.  He  also  dispensed  with 
the  wooden  upper  story,  and  took  pains  to 


make  the  streets  wide  and  straight.  Most  of 
the  domus  were  situated  at  the  E.  end  of  the 
city  on  the  Quirinal,  Viminal,  and  Esquiline 
hills ;  they  did  not  form  streets,  but  were  built 
in  the  midst  of  large  gardens  and  fields.  The 
city  is  supposed  to  have  reached  its  greatest 
size  in  the  time  of  Vespasian,  when  it  was  13 
m.  in  circuit,  and  embraced  a  population  prob- 
ably not  much -under  2,000,000,  of  whom  about 
half  were  slaves.  The  public  edifices  during 
the  palmiest  days  of  the  empire  were  of  almost 
unparalleled  magnificence.  The  high  grounds 
of  the  Quirinal,  Viminal,  Esquiline,  and  Aven- 
tine  hills  were  mostly  occupied  by  the  popu- 
lous quarters  of  the  ancient  city,  but  were 
covered  in  some  parts  by  private  gardens,  as 
those  of  Mecamas  on  the  Escmiline.  The  Cap- 
itoline  hill  was  almost  entirely  covered  by  pub- 
lic edifices,  with  the  arx  (citadel)  on  its  high- 
est point,  the  Tarpeian  rock.  The  most  splen- 
did of  the  many  temples  on  this  hill  was  that 
of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  the  exact  site  of  which 
is  still  in  dispute  among  antiquaries.  (See  CAP- 
ITOL.) Latin  writers,  when  using  the  name 
"  Capitolium,"  usually  imply  this  great  temple, 
the  most  important  and  magnificent  in  Rome. 
The  residence  on  the  Palatine  hill,  which  final- 
ly became  developed  into  the  vast  palace  of 
the  Oiesars,  was  originally  the  private  house 
of  the  orator  Hortensius,  which  was  inhabit- 
ed by  Augustus  and  rebuilt  for  his  use  at  the 
public  expense.  New  buildings  were  raised 
for  themselves  by  successive  emperors,  till  the 
greater  part  of  the  hill  was  covered  by  their 
splendid  structures.  Nero  built  more  than  any 
other  emperor,  and  after  his  first  great  palace 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  most  disastrous 
conflagration  that  ever  visited  Rome  (A.  D.  04), 
he  began  another,  the  edifices,  gardens,  and 
pleasure  grounds  of  which  extended  over  the 
Palatine,  Esqniline,  and  Crolian  hills,  and  the 
intervening  valleys.  This  immense  palace,  the 
Domus  Aurea  of  Nero,  was  almost  totally  de- 
molished by  Vespasian.  There  were  several 
cMrwB,  or  senate  houses,  and  the  senators  some- 
times assembled  in  temples,  especially  in  that 
of  Concord,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Cap- 
itoline  hill.  The  Curia  Hostilia,  the  most  an- 
cient senate  house,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Tullus  Hostilius,  was  burned  down  during 
the  tumultuous  funeral  of  the  tribune  Clodius 
in  52  B.  C.,  and  was  first  restored  by  Faustus, 
the  son  of  Sulla.  This  later  building  having 
been  taken  down,  a  new  curia  was  begun,  or 
at  least  projected,  by  Julius  Cfflsar,  and  after 
his  death  completed,  if  not  actually  founded, 
by  Augustus,  who  dedicated  it,  in  his  great  un- 
cle's name,  as  the  Curia  Julia.  Its  exact  site 
cannot  be  determined,  but  Roman  antiquaries 
recognize  it  in  the  ruins  of  a  large  structure, 
built  in  brickwork  like  that  of  the  Augustan 
age,  below  the  N.  E.  declivity  of  the  Palatine, 
and  therefore  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
forum  at  its  S.  W.  limit.  The  Curia  Pom- 
peiana,  which  was  abandoned  after  it  had  been 
stained  by  the  blood  of  Cresar,  who  was  there 


ROME 


411 


assassinated,  was  one  among  many  superb  edi- 
fices raised  by  Pompey  the  Great.  This,  to- 
gether with  a  theatre,  a  temple  of  Venus,  and 
a  portico  with  500  columns,  stood  between 
the  western  side  of  the  Campus  Martius  and 
the  Tiber.  A  few  remains  of  this  temple  and 
theatre  were  visible,  till  concealed  by  recent 
buildings,  in  the  cellars  of  a  modern  palace.  The 
basilicas  were  chief  courts  of  justice  presided 
over  by  the  urban  prefects,  in  which  the  em- 
perors themselves  often  heard  causes  and  ad- 
ministered justice.  Among  these,  the  most 
splendid  one  founded  under  the  republic  was 
the  Basilica  ^Emilia,  so  called  after  its  found- 
er .ZEurilius  Paulus,  179  B.  C.  It  is  supposed 
that  a  remnant  of  it  is  preserved  in  the  outer 
walls  of  Sant'  Adriano,  a  church  on  the  N. 
E.  side  of  the  forum.  Three  other  basilicas 
founded  under  the  republic  (in  the  2d  century 
B.  C.),  the  Porcian,  the  Sempronian,  and  the 
Opimian,  have  totally  disappeared.  The  Julian, 
founded  by  Augustus  and  dedicated  to  Julius 
Csesar,  still  exists  in  extensive  but  low  and 
roofless  ruins  on  the  "W.  side  of  the  principal 
forum.  These  ruins  were  brought  to  light 
through  works  undertaken  by  the  pontifical 
and  recently  finished  under  the  royal  govern- 
ment. Among  favorite  places  of  resort  for 
business  or  recreation  were  the  porticoes,  sev- 
eral of  which,  with  far-extending  colonnades, 
ornamented  ancient  Rome.  One,  built  by 
Agrippa  in  the  Campus  Martius,  was  called 
Porticus  Argonautarum/from  a  picture  or  se- 
ries of  pictures  on  its  walls  illustrating  the  Ar- 
gonautic  expedition.  The  only  one  of  these 
porticoes  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  considera- 
ble is  that  built  by  Augustus  and  named  after 
his  sister  Octavia.  Within  the  quadrangle  of 
colonnades  forming  this  portico  stood  temples 
of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  both  wholly  destroyed. 
We  find  mention  of  only  two  prisons  in  ancient 
Rome,  the  oldest  being  that  founded  by  Ancus 
Martius  and  said  to  have  been  enlarged  by  Ser- 
vius  Tullius.  Two  dark  subterranean  cham- 
bers of  these  ancient  prisons,  known  as  the 
Mamertine,  and  entered  below  a  church  on  the 
principal  forum,  were  long  ago  consecrated 
and  are  still  used  as  chapels,  because  supposed 
to  have  been  the  place  where  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  were  confined,  and  from  which  they 
were  led  to  death.  Five  other  vaulted  cham- 
bers, mostly  built  of  similar  stonework,  have 
recently  been  cleared  out  (one  of  them  had 
long  been  used  as  a  safe  for  butcher's  meat), 
and  are  now  recognized  as  pertaining  to  the 
same  prisons,  and  ascribable  therefore  to  the 
time  of  the  kings.  Another  ancient  prison 
was  destroyed  and  a  temple  of  Piety  raised 
on  its  site,  in  commemoration  of  the  act  of 
the  Roman  daughter  who  saved  the  life  of  a 
parent  condemned  to  die  in  that  dungeon ;  a 
well  known  story  narrated  by  Pliny  the  Elder 
and  by  Valerius  Maximus.  The  military  were 
quartered  in  two  great  camps,  walled  around 
and  defended  like  fortresses,  beyond  the  lim- 
its of  the  primitive  city,  the  castra  prcetoria 


at  the  K  E.  extremity  of  the  city,  beyond  the 
walls  of  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  castra  pere- 
grina,  on  the  Cselian  hill.  The  former,  built 
by  Tiberius,  was  occupied  by  the  prretorian 
guards,  and  the  latter  by  foreign  legions.  The 
aqueducts,  the  most  stupendous  works  of  their 
kind  in  the  world,  and  the  sewers,  the  chief 
of  which,  called  cloaca  maxima,  is  still  in  ex- 
cellent preservation,  are  described  elsewhere. 
(See  AQUEDUCT,  and  CLOACAE.)  Scarcely  sur- 
passed by  any  of  the  public  edifices  were  the 
thermce  or  baths,  whose  name  conveys  but  a 
very  imperfect  idea  of  the  various  uses  to 
which  they  were  devoted.  Besides  the  apart- 
ments for  bathing  (see  BATH),  they  contained 
places  for  athletic  exercises,  public  halls,  ves- 
tibules and  porticoes  for  lounging  and  conver- 
sation, shaded  walks  and  gardens,  fountains, 
libraries,  and  collections  of  paintings  and 
sculptures.  The  thermce  of  Antoninus,  built 
principally  by  Caracalla  and  completed  by 
Alexander  Severus,  had  accommodations  for 
2,300  bathers  at  the  same  time,  and  the  ther- 
mos of  Diocletian  for  3,000.  The  latter  was 
the  most  extensive  building  of  the  kind  in 
Rome.  Those  of  Agrippa  or  Alexander  Seve- 
rus, Nero,  Titus,  Trajan,  Commodus,  and  Con- 
stantino were  also  celebrated ;  and  there  were 
several  smaller  ones,  besides  a  great  number 
of  balnea  or  common  baths.  There  were  only 
three  theatres  proper,  those  of  Pompey,  Cor- 
nelius Balbus,  and  Marcellus.  The  first  was  in 
the  Campus  Martius,  and  had  seats  for  40,000 
spectators ;  the  second,  near  the  Tiber,  where 
the  Cenci  palace  now  stands,  could  contain 
11,600  people ;  and  the  third,  in  the  S.  part  of 
the  Campus  Martius,  between  the  Capitoline 
and  the  river,  could  hold  20,000.  The  first 
theatres  were  mere  temporary  structures  of 
wood,  though  even  these  were  sometimes  of 
extravagant  splendor,  like  that  upon  which 
M.  JEmilius  Scaurus  wasted  an  enormous  for- 
tune, and  which  was  large  enough  to  seat  80,- 
000  spectators.  The  stage  was  decorated  with 
360  columns,  arranged  in  three  stories,  the 
lowest  of  white  marble,  the  middle  of  glass, 
and  the  uppermost  of  gilt  wood.  The  odeum 
in  the  Campus  Martius  was  a  sort  of  music 
hall,  and  was  capable  of  accommodating  11,- 
000  persons.  The  circus  dates  its  introduction 
into  Rome  long  prior  to  the  erection  of  per- 
manent theatres.  (See  CIP.CUS.)  Amphithea- 
tres, for  gladiatorial  combats  and  shows  of 
wild  beasts,  were  at  first  built  of  wood  and  ta- 
ken to  pieces  after  the  performances  were  over 
(see  AMPHITHEATRE)  ;  the  first  stone  edifice  of 
the  kind  was  erected  by  Statilius  Taurus  in  30 
B.  C.  Another  was  begun  by  Caligula,  but 
never  finished.  The  great  Flavian  amphithea- 
tre, founded  by  the  emperor  Vespasian  (of  the 
Flavian  family)  about  A.  D.  72,  dedicated  by 
his  son  Titus  in  80,  and  called  the  Colosseum 
from  its  vast  size,  is  still  in  its  ruinous  state 
among  the  most  imposing  of  Roman  antiqui- 
ties. Excavations  carried  on  in  its  interior 
by  the  government  since  1873  have  brought 


412 


ROME 


to  light  many  complicated  structures,  elliptic 
arcades,  chambers,  and  long  vaulted  corridors, 
about  22  ft.  lower  than  the  level  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  the  ancient  arena.  (See 
COLOSSEUM.)  Among  the  numerous  temples 
of  the  city,  the  two  most  magnificent  were 
those  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  and  of  Venus 
and  Rome ;  the  former,  on  the  Capitoline  hill, 
founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  several 
times  rebuilt,  the  last  time  by  Domitian,  being 
undoubtedly  the  larger ;  the  latter,  founded  by 
Hadrian,  probably  the  richest  in  decoration. 
The  temples  still  conspicuous  in  ruin  in  the 
forum  and  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline  hill 
are  those  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  of  Saturn,  and 
of  Vespasian  and  Titus.  That  dedicated  by 
Antoninus  Pius  to  his  deceased  wife  Faustina 
still  partially  exists  in  a  magnificent  peristyle 
with  monolithic  columns,  and  the  massive 
stone  walls  of  the  cella,  or  sanctuary,  near 
the  S.  E.  angle  of  the  forum.  The  circular 
temple  with  a  graceful  marble  colonnade  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  close  to  the  Tiber,  which 
was  long  miscalled  the  temple  of  Vesta,  is 
now  generally  assigned  to  Hercules,  to  whom 
many  temples  in  Rome  were  dedicated.  The 
real  temple  of  Venus,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Nuina,  is  now  recognized  in  the  low, 
massively  constructed  remnant  of  a  circular 
building  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  forum, 
brought  to  light  by  excavations  made  in 
1873.  Most  interesting  is  another  discovery, 
in  the  same  vicinity,  of  an  edifice  so  ruinous 
that  even  the  style  of  its  architecture  is  not 
distinguishable,  but  which  may  be  recognized 
beyond  doubt  as  the  ^Edes  Ciesaris,  a  temple 
raised  by  Augustus  on  the  spot  where  the  body 
of  Julius  Cicsar  was  consumed  in  the  flames 
after  his  funeral.  In  front  of  this  building 
is  still  seen  the  Ros- 
tra Julii,  a  semicircular 
platform  of  stone  which 
Augustus  erected  be- 
fore the  threshold.  The 
temple  of  Pallas,  in  the 
forum  of  Nerva,  exist- 
ed, still  beautiful  in  ru- 
ins, till  1612,  when  it 
was  taken  down  in  or- 
der to  use  its  columns 
and  marbles  for  the 
construction  of  a  large 
fountain  erected  by 
Pope  Paul  V.  on  the 
Janiculan  hill.  The 
Pantheon  was  dedica- 
ted, according  to  com- 
mon belief,  to  all  the 
gods,  though  Dion  Cas- 
sins  says  it  was  sa- 
cred to  Mars  and  Ve- 
nus. (See  PANTHEON.) 
Prominent  among  the 

other  remarkable  features  of  the  city  were  the 
triumphal  arches  thrown  across  the  principal 
streets  in  commemoration  of  victories ;  21  are 


mentioned,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
the  arch  of  Titus,  on  the  Via  Sacra,  of  Pen- 
telic  marble,  built  to  celebrate  the  capture 


Arch  of  Titus. 


of  Jerusalem,  and  still  standing;  the  arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  of  the  same  material,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Via  Sacra  into  the  forum ; 


Arch  of  Constantino. 


the  arch  of  Constantino,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
valley  between  the  Palatine  and  Cajlian  hills, 
with  thr.ee  archways,  adorned  with  beautiful 


ROME 


413 


columns,  bass  reliefs,  and  statues,  erected  to 
commemorate  the  victory  over  Maxentius; 
and  the  arches  of  Dolabella,  Gallienus,  and 
Drusus.  The  most  interesting  of  the  columns 
erected  in  various  parts  of  the  city  is  that  of 
Trajan,  in  the  forum  of  Trajan,  which  was 
dedicated  to  that  emperor  by  the  senate  and 
Koman  people  in  commemoration  of  his  victory 
over  the  Dacians.  It  is  composed  of  34  pieces 
of  white  marble,  9  of  which  form  the  base,  23 
the  shaft,  and  2  the  torus  and  capital.  The 
height  of  the  entire  column,  exclusive  of  the 
statue  on  its  summit,  is  127i  ft.,  and  of  the 
shaft  alone,  97J  ft.  The  base  and  capital  are 
of  the  Tuscan  order,  the  shaft  Doric,  and  the 
mouldings  of  the  pedestal  Corinthian.  A  se- 
ries of  bass  reliefs  form  a  spiral  around  the 


Forum  and  Column  of  Trajan. 

shaft  from  the  base  to  the  summit,  repre- 
senting the  military  achievements  of  the  em- 
peror. There  are  2,500  human  figures  in  the 
sculptures,  and  many  horses,  military  engines, 
and  weapons.  The  column  was  formerly  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  Trajan,  but  its  place  is 
now  occupied  by  one  of  St.  Peter,  which  was 
erected  by  Sixtus  V.  In  the  interior  of  the 
column  is  a  spiral  staircase  of  184  steps.  The 
column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  in  the 
piazza  Colonna,  erected  A.  D.  174,  is  similar 
to  that  of  Trajan,  but  inferior  in  design  and 
execution.  Its  height  is  122  ft.  8  in.,  the  shaft 
being  97i  ft.  On  the  summit  is  a  statue  of  St. 
Paul,  placed  there  by  Sixtus  V.  Of  the  many 
obelisks  in  Borne,  the  highest  is  that  of  the 


Lateran,  the  shaft  of  which  is  105  ft.  7  in.  It 
was  brought  from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandria  by 
Constantino  the  Great,  and  removed  by  his  son 
Constantius  to  Rome.  The  obelisk  of  the  Vati- 
can was  brought  from  Heliopolis  by  Caligula. 
The  obelisk  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  is  one  of 
the  two  which  formerly  stood  at  the  entrance 
of  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus ;  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  brought  from  Egypt  by 
Claudius.  The  obelisk  of  the  piazza  del  Popo- 
lo  once  stood  before  the  temple  of  the  sun 
at  Heliopolis,  whence  it  was  removed  to  Rome 
by  Augustus.  Another  obelisk,  that  of  Monte 
Citorio,  was  also  brought  to  Rome  from  Helio- 
polis by  Augustus.  The  mausoleum  of  Augus- 
tus, in  the  Campus  Martius,  surrounded  by  a 
large  park,  was  built  by  that  emperor  as  the 
burial  place  of  the  imperial  family,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  edifices  of  his 
reign.  The  mausoleum  of  Hadrian  is  now  the 
castle  Sant'  Angelo.  The  tomb  of  the  Scipios 
was  discovered  in  1780;  and  among  the  other 
most  imposing  sepulchral  monuments  were  the 
tombs  of  Csecilia  Metella,  Cestius,  and  Septi- 
mius  Severus. — Modern  Rome,  The  modern 
city  occupies  very  nearly  the  same  space  as  the 
ancient ;  lat.  of  the  observatory  of  the  collegio 
Romano,  41°  53'  62"  K,  Ion.  12°  28'  40"  E. ; 
pop.  in  1846,  180,000;  in  1852,  175,838;  in 
1858,  180,359;  in  1872,  244,484.  Since  the 
change  of  government  in  1870,  the  population 
has  rapidly  increased,  but  many  new  streets 
opened  since  then  are  yet  scarcely  inhabited. 
The  Tiber  has  a  course  within  the  walls  of 
about  3  m.,  and  is  crossed  by  five  bridges, 
viz. :  the  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo,  the  ancient  Pons 
^Elius,  opposite  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  at 
the  N".  W.  end  of  the  city;  the  Ponte  Sisto, 
built  by  Sixtus  IV.  in  1474  on  the  ruins  of  the 
Pons  Janiculensis,  connecting  the  city  proper 
with  the  quarter  of  Trastevere ;  the  Ponte  di 
Quattro  Capi  (so  called  from  a  four-headed 
statue  of  Janus),  the  ancient  Pons  Fabricius, 
and  the  Ponte  San  Bartolommeo,  the  ancient 
Pons  Cestius,  connecting  the  Isola  di  San  Bar- 
tolommeo, the  former  with  the  city,  and  the  lat- 
ter with  the  Trastevere  ;  and  the  Ponte  Rotto, 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pons  ^Emilius ;  this 
last  was  partly  washed  away  in  1598,  and  a 
suspension  bridge  now  extends  from  the  re- 
maining portion  to  the  shore.  The  ruins  of 
the  old  Pons  Triumphalis  and  Pons  Sublicius 
are  visible  when  the  water  is  low.  The  walls 
are  nearly  13  m.  in  circuit,  those  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  following  the  line  of  the  wall 
of  Aurelian  ;  they  have  been  so  often  repaired 
that  it  is  difficult  to  assign  a  date  to  any  por- 
tion of  them.  On  the  outside  they  are  50  ft. 
high,  on  the  inside  generally  less  than  30. 
They  have  no  ditch,  but  are  crested  with  about 
300  towers  and  pierced  by  13  gates  still  in  use. 
The  general  level  of  the  city  has  been  con- 
siderably raised  by  the  rubbish  accruing  from 
long  habitation  and  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
edifices,  so  that  the  lower  parts  are  estimated 
to  be  at  least  15  ft.  higher  than  they  were  in 


414 


ROME 


the  days  of  the  Caesars.  The  modern  city  is 
chiefly  on  the  low  land,  the  hills  being  mostly 
covered  with  vineyards,  cornfields,  and  villas. 
The  closely  built  part  is  about  2  m.  in  length, 


Piazza  del  Popolo. 

with  a  breadth  of  from  1  to  1£  m.  Many  of 
the  streets  are  long,  but  they  are  mostly  nar- 
row and  crooked.  They  have  seldom  any  foot 
pavement,  and  are  often  filthy,  and  present  in 
their  architecture  a  mixture  of  magnificence 
and  meanness,  stately  palaces  and  churches 
alternating  with  mis- 
erable huts.  The  three 
finest  streets  diverge 
from  a  square  called  the 
piazza  del  Popolo  near 
the  N.  gate.  These  are : 
1,  the  Corso,  which  ex- 
tends to  the  foot  of  the 
capitol  and  is  a  mile 
long,  perfectly  straight, 
60  ft.  wide,  with  foot 
pavements  on  each  side ; 
it  is  the  great  public 
walk  of  the  city  ;  2,  the 
strada  del  Babbuino, 
which  runs  to  the  piaz- 
za di  Spagna;  3,  the 
strada  di  Ripetta,  which 
leads  to  the  Tiber.  The 
houses  of  Rome  are 
generally  lofty,  and  are 
mostly  built  of  brick  and 
tufa,  marble  being  less 
commonly  used  than 
in  the  cities  of  northern  Italy.  The  city  is 
divided  into  14  rioni  or  quarters,  correspond- 
ing to  the  14  regions  of  Augustus,  but  not 
resembling  them  in  size  or  situation ;  12  of 


these  divisions  are  on  the  left  bank  and  2  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river.  1.  The  rione  de' 
Monti  is  the  largest  quarter,  containing,  among 
other  public  buildings  and  monuments,  the 
column  of  Trajan ;  the 
church  of  St.  John  Lat- 
eran,  the  chief  church 
of  the  city  in  point 
of  antiquity  and  eccle- 
siastical dignity  (see 
LATEBAN);  the  church 
of  Sta.  Bibiana,  which 
covers  the  relics  of 
5,260  martyrs ;  the 
splendid  church  of  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore,  with 
the  Sistine  and  Bor- 
ghese  chapels ;  the  vil- 
las Albani  and  Bpr- 
ghese,  and  the  ruins 
of  the  baths  of  Titus 
and  Diocletian.  2.  The 
rione  di  Trevi  contains 
the  Oorso ;  the  piazza 
di  Monte  Cavallo,  in 
which  stand  two  colos- 
sal antique  statues  of 
horses;  the  Quirinal, 
formerly  the  pope's  or- 
dinary residence,  now 
the  royal  palace;  the 
palazzo  della  Consul- 

ta ;  and  the  magnificent  Barberini  palace,  rich 
in  treasures  of  art  and  literature.  3.  In  the 
rione  di  Colonna  stand  the  column  of  Anto- 
ninus, the  Pantheon,  the  palace  of  the  propa- 
ganda, and  the  piazza  di  Spagna,  one  of  the 
finest  squares  of  the  city.  4.  The  rione  di 


Ripetta 


Farnese  Palace. 


Carnpo  Marzo  comprises  most  of  the  area  of 
the  ancient  Campus  Martius,  the  porta  del  Po- 
polo  (the  chief  entrance  to  the  city  on  the  N. 
side),  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  the  Pinciau 


ROME 


415 


hill  with  the  public  gardens  on  its  terraced 
summit,  and  about  one  third  of  the  Corso.  5. 
The  rione  di  Ponte  contains  one  of  the  finest 
streets  in  Eome,  the  strada  Giulia.  6.  The 
rione  di  Parione  contains  the  Orsini  and  Pam- 
fili  palaces,  and  the  place  Pasquino,  where  for- 
merly stood  the  statue  of  Pasquin.  7.  The 
rione  della  Regola  contains  the  churches  of  San 
Girolamo  della  Caritd  and  San  Tommaso,  the 
English  college,  and  the  celebrated  Farnese  pal- 
ace. 8.  The  rione  di  Sant'  Eustachio  contains 
the  church  of  that  saint  and  the  university. 

9.  The  rione  della  Pigna  contains  the  beautiful 
Dominican  convent  and  church  of  La  Minerva. 

10.  The  rione  Campitelli  contains  the  forum, 
the  Colosseum,  the  basilica  of  Maxentius,  and 
the  Capitoline  hill,  on  which  stand  the  three 
modern  palaces  appropriated  for  the  assemblies 
of  the  magistrates,  the  observatory,  and  the 
fine  art  collections.     The  gallery  of  sculpture 
in  one  of  these  palazzi  contains  many  of  the 


most  precious  antiques,  among  which  are  the 
so-called  "  Dying  Gladiator,"  now  recognized 
as  a  Gallic  chief  dying  in  battle,  the  statues 
of  Marcellus  and  Agrippina,  the  Venus  of  the 
capitol,  and  the  complete  series  of  busts  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  11.  The  rione  Sant'  Angelo 
contains  the  beautiful  ruins  of  the  portico  of 
.Octavia,  and  the  Ghetto,  or  the  quarter  in 
which  the  Jewish  inhabitants  were  confined 
under  the  papal  government,  though  allowed  to 
have  shops  elsewhere.  12.  The  rione  Ripa  con- 
tains the  immense  thermce  of  Antoninus  (Cara- 
calla),  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  the  temple 
of  Hercules,  long  miscalled  that  of  Vesta,  the 
Tiber  island,  on  which  are  some  remains  of 
the  temple  of  ^Esculapius,  the  Monte  Testaccio, 
the  pyramid  of  Cestius,  and  the  burial  place 
of  Protestants.  13.  The  rione  Trastevere,  the 
ancient  Janiculum,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Ti- 
ber, contains  the  great  fountain  of  Aqua  Paula, 
a  botanical  garden,  the  villa  Corsini,  and  the 


Bridge  and  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  with  St.  Peter's  in  the  distance. 


church  of  San  Pietro  in  Montorio.  14.  The 
rione  di  Borgo  contains  the  castle  of  Sant'  An- 
gelo, the  citadel,  the  centre  or  nucleus  of  which 
was  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  This  castle  is 
now  of  little  importance  as  a  fortress,  and  is 
chiefly  used  as  a  state  prison.  It  communi- 
cates by  a  long  covered  gallery  with  the  palace 
of  the  Vatican,  an  immense  edifice,  almost  un- 
rivalled for  its  internal  splendor  and  magnifi- 
cence. Among  its  treasures  of  literature  and 
art  are  the  great  library,  chiefly  rich  in  rare 
manuscripts ;  the  tapestry  chambers,  hung  with 
tapestry  copied  from  the  cartoons  of  Raphael ; 
picture  and  sculpture  galleries  filled  with  mas- 
terpieces of  the  highest  order ;  the  camere  and 
loggie,  painted  in  fresco  by  Raphael  and  his 
pupils;  and  the  Sistine  and  Pauline  chapels, 
painted  in  fresco  by  Michel  Angelo.  (See 
VATICAN.)  Celebrated  statues  and  pictures 
also  adorn  other  palaces  and  churches  of  the 
city;  and  besides  the  great  collection  of  the 
Vatican  there  are  10  or  11  public  libraries, 
711  VOL.  xiv. — 27 


two  of  which,  the  Angelica  and  the  Casa- 
natense,  have  more  than  100,000  volumes  each 
and  many  valuable  manuscripts.  There  are  in 
the  city  about  360  churches  and  180  conven- 
tual edifices;  but  many  of  the  convents  and 
monasteries  have  been  suppressed  since  the 
occupation  of  the  city  by  the  Italian  govern- 
ment, and  the  buildings  converted  to  public 
uses.  Preeminent  among  the  Christian  temples 
of  the  world  is  St.  Peter's  church,  the  work  of 
many  popes  and  architects,  finally  consecrated 
by  Urban  VIII.  in  1626,  which  Gibbon  calls 
"the  most  glorious  structure  that  has  ever 
been  applied  to  the  use  of  religion."  (See 
CATHEDRAL.)  Externally  the  work,  though 
magnificent  in  materials  and  dimensions,  is 
disfigured  by  the  prominence  of  the  front 
added  by  Maderno,  which  almost  hides  from 
the  near  spectator  the  principal  feature,  the 
vast  and  towering  dome ;  while,  had  the  origi- 
nal plan  of  Bramante  and  Michel  Angelo  been 
followed,  the  whole  dome  would  have  been 


ROME 


St.  Peter' •  Church  and  the  Vatican  Palace. 


visible  from  the  square  before  the  church. 
But  the  dome  itself  and  the  interior  of  the  edi- 
fice are  held  to  be  unrivalled  in  magnitude, 
proportion,  and  decoration.  The  church  of  St. 
Paul  "  outside  the  walls,"  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1823  and  rebuilt  and  dedicated  in  1854,  is 
also  a  masterpiece  of  magnificence  in  architec- 
ture and  decoration.  Like  the  ancient  St.  Pe- 
ter's, it  was  originally  founded  by  the  empe- 
ror Constantino.  The  first  English  Protestant 
church  ever  erected  within  the  walls  of  Rome 
was  opened  Oct.  26,  1874.  It  is  a  handsome 
edifice,  built  of  pietra  terena  on  the  basilica 
plan,  but  without  aisles,  and  is  situated  on 
the  piazza  San  Silvestro,  E.  of  the  Corso. 
The  former  English  church,  outside  the  porta 
del  Popolo,  still  continues  its  services.  The 
palaces  of  the  Roman  nobles  are  numerous  and 
large,  but  are  generally  more  remarkable  for  in- 
ternal than  for  external  splendor.  Their  walls 
are  usually  of  brick  stuccoed,  and  their  chief 
external  ornament  is  a  rich  cornice.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these  mansions  are  the  palazzi  Doria, 
Ruspoli,  Corsini,  Orsini,  Giustiniani,  Altieri, 
Cicciaporci,  Farnese,  Barberinr,  and  Colonna. 
There  are  several  palaces  which,  from  being 
surrounded  by  extensive  gardens,  are  called 
villas.  Of  these  the  principal  is  the  villa  Bor- 
ghese,  whose  gardens,  nearly  8  m.  in  circuit, 
are  open  to  the  public,  and  form  the  most 
fashionable  promenade  in  Rome. — There  are 
many  squares  in  the  city,  consisting  of  small 
paved  areas,  generally  adorned  with  fountains 


and  monuments.  The  large  oval  area  in  front 
of  St.  Peter's  is  surrounded  by  a  superb  colon- 
nade, and  in  the  middle  between  two  foun- 
tains is  an  Egyptian  obelisk  78  ft.  in  height. 
The  square  next  in  size  is  the  piazza  Navona, 
which  is  about  840  ft.  in  length,  and  has  in 
the  centre  an  elegant  fountain,  the  finest  in 
Rome.  Fountains  are  numerous  throughout 
the  city,  and  form  one  of  its  most  striking 
and  attractive  features.  They  are  copiously 
supplied  with  water  by  three  aqueducts  which 
still  remain  in  operation,  of  the  many  that 
poured  their  streams  into  the  ancient  city. 
Among  the  most  curious  remains  of  ancient 
Rome  are  the  catacombs.  (See  CATACOMBS.) 
— The  manufactures  of  Rome  are  various, 
though  not  extensive.  The  principal  are  of 
woollens,  silks,  velvets,  hats,  gloves,  stockings, 
leather,  glue,  glass  bottles,  liqueurs,  pomade, 
artificial  flowers,  mosaics,  jewelry,  and  articles 
connected  with  the  fine  arts.  The  city  is  a 
great  resort  for  foreigners,  of  whom  the  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Americans  are  the  most  nu- 
merous, and  is  a  favorite  place  of  residence 
and  study  for  foreign  artists.  The  climate  is 
mild,  but  relaxing  and  oppressive  in  summer. 
Rains  are  frequent  and  heavy  in  November 
and  December,  and  there  is  usually  a  little 
snow  in  the  winter,  which  seldom  remains 
more  than  a  few  hours.  The  tramontane  a 
disagreeable  cold  north  wind,  sometimes  blows 
for  several  days  at  a  time.  The  malaria  fever, 
so  much  dreaded,  may  be  avoided  by  proper 


ROME 


417 


precautions,  and  may  be  expected  ultimately 
to  disappear,  through  the  cultivation  of  the 
Campagna,  improved  drainage,  and  increase 
of  population  both  within  the  walls  and  over 
the  surrounding  districts,  hitherto  left  uncul- 
tivated and  uninhabited.  (See  CAMPAGNA  DI 
ROMA,  LATIUM,  and  PONTINE  MARSHES.)  A 
new  city  is  now  springing  up  on  the  higher 
grounds  on  the  Esquiline  and  Viminal  hills. 
The  official  report  for  1873  shows,  that  the 
sanitary  condition  of  Rome  is  better  than  is 
generally  supposed,  the  average  death  rate  be- 
ing about  34  in  1,000.  The  people  of  Rome, 
at  least  the  middle  and  working  classes,  are 
stout  and  well  formed,  the  women  being  re- 
markable for  beauty  and  a  certain  majesty 
of  air  and  mien.  The  public  amusements  are 
theatrical  performances,  concerts,  and  religious 
celebrations.  The  most  noted  festival  is  the 
carnival,  which  immediately  precedes  the  sea- 
son of  Lent.  The  chief  educational  institution 
is  the  university,  which  has  professors  in  theo- 
logy, law,  medicine,  philosophy,  the  fine  arts, 
and  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Arabic 
languages.  It  had  470  students  in  1875.  The 
college  de  propaganda  fide  has  a  rich  library 
and  a  printing  office  which  contain  works  in 
30  languages.  There  are  several  other  colleges 
and  many  learned  societies,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  academies  of  Roman  history, 
of  geography,  of  ecclesiastical  history,  of  anti- 
quities, and  of  the  Arcadians.  Much  has  been 
done  for  public  education  by  the  new  govern- 
ment. At  the  close  of  1873  there  were  14,389 
pupils  in  the  new  elementary  schools.  A  fe- 
male seminary  was  opened  in  1874. — During 
the  turbulent  and  ignorant  ages  which  suc- 
ceeded the  downfall  of  the  western  empire 
(see  ITALY),  the  city  of  Rome  slowly  sank 
to  a  state  of  degradation  and  decay,  which 
reached  its  greatest  depth  about  the  end  of 
the  8th  century,  when  little  more  remained 
than  is  now  visible,  while  the  modern  city  had 
not  yet  begun  to  be  constructed.  The  popula- 
tion at  this  period  is  supposed  to  have  dwin- 
dled to  about  13,000.  The  popes,  however, 
soon  began  to  assert  their  supremacy  over  the 
potentates  around  them,  and  exerted  them- 
selves to  restore  and  enlarge  their  capital. 
(See  PAPAL  STATES,  and  POPE.)  Leo  IV. 
made  a  large  accession  to  the  city  about  850, 
and  under  the  influence  of  peace  and  stable 
government  the  population  rapidly  increased. 
In  the  llth  century  the  city  suffered  severely 
from  the  attacks  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
in  his  wars  with  Gregory  VII. ;  still  at  the 
end  of  this  century  its  population  had  grown 
to  35,000.  In  the  14th  century  the  prosperity 
of  the  city  was  checked  by  the  removal  of  the 
papal  see  to  Avignon,  and  was  not  materially 
promoted  by  the  brief  splendor  of  the  rule 
of  Rienzi.  After  the  return  of  the  popes  in 
1377,  a  long  period  of  turbulence  and  civil 
strife  succeeded,  in  which  the  Colonna  and 
Orsini  families  were  the  principal  actors ;  but 
at  length,  about  1417,  the  authority  of  the 


popes  prevailed,  and  during  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries  the  city  was  enlarged  to  nearly  its 
present  dimensions  and  adorned  with  its  prin- 
cipal churches  and  palaces.  By  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century  it  had  attained  its  highest 
state  of  population  and  magnificence  in  mod- 
ern times.  The  only  great  calamity  which 
•befell  it  during  these  last  three  centuries  was 
the  storming  and  pillaging  by  the  army  of  the 
constable  de  Bourbon  in  1528.  In  1798  Rome 
was  occupied  by  the  French,  who  sent  the 
pope  to  France,  and  proclaimed  a  republic, 
which  was  suppressed  by  the  allies  in  1799 
and  the  pope  restored.  In  1808  the  city  was 
again  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Napoleon,  and 
in  the  following  year  annexed  to  his  empire. 
The  pope  was  restored  on  the  downfall  of 
Napoleon  in  1814,  and  the  city  remained  in 
peace  till  in  1848  revolutionary  movements 
began,  which  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
pope  and  the  establishment  of  a  republic  in 
February,  1849,  at  the  head  of  which  were 
Mazzini,  Armellini,  and  Saffi.  The  new  re- 
public, though  bravely  defended  by  Garibaldi, 
was  speedily  suppressed  by  the  French  army, 
which,  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  compelled 
it  to  surrender  on  July  1.  The  French  occu- 
pation lasted  till  the  close  of  1866,  when  the 
troops  were  almost  entirely  withdrawn  from 
the  Papal  States  by  Napoleon  III.  In  1867  the 
occupation  was  resumed  in  consequence  of  an 
invasion  of  the  papal  territory  (reduced  since 
1860  to  little  more  than  one  third  of  its  pre- 
vious extent)  by  an  army  of  Italian  volunteers 
led  by  Garibaldi.  The  siege  and  capture  of 
Monte  Rotondo,  a  small  town  14  m.  from 
Rome,  by  Garibaldi,  was  soon  followed  by 
the  defeat  of  the  volunteers  at  Mentana,  Nov. 
3,  1867,  through  French  intervention,  which 
secured  victory  for  the  pontifical  cause,  and 
for  the  time  rescued  that  government  from  its 
opponents.  After  these  events  a  French  force 
continued  to  occupy  Civita  Vecchia,  but  not 
the  city  of  Rome,  until  1870,  when  the  troops 
were  again  withdrawn  on  account  of  the 
Franco-German  war.  Soon  after  the  deposi- 
tion of  Napoleon  III.,  Rome  was  occupied 
(Sept.  20,  1870)  by  an  Italian  army,  after  a 
very  brief  resistance.  A  plebiscitum  held  in 
the  following  October  declared,  by  an  immense 
majority,  the  will  of  the  citizens  to  submit  to 
the  constitutional  government  of  the  king  of 
Italy.  The  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope 
was  in  consequence  abolished.  (See  Pius  IX.) 
Rome  was  declared  the  capital  of  the  Italian 
kingdom,  and  became  thenceforth  the  seat  of 
the  new  government,  where  the  royal  court 
has  its  residence,  and  the  Italian  parliament 
holds  its  sessions.  The  first  session  of  parlia- 
ment was  opened  on  Nov.  27,  1871.  On  Sept. 
20,  1874,  a  stone  in  commemoration  of  the 
occupation  of  the  city  by  the  Italian  troops 
was  erected  near  the  porta  Pia.  It  contains 
the  names  of  33  soldiers  who  fell  in  the  con- 
flict with  the  papal  forces. — Among  the  prin- 
cipal modern  books  on  ancient  Roman  history 


418 


ROMILLY 


ROMULUS 


are  Niebuhr's  Romische  Geschichte  (3  vols., 
Berlin,  1811-'32;  2d  ed.,  1827-'42);  Arnold's 
"  History  of  Rome "  (3  vols.,  London,  1838- 
'42);  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,"  edited  by  Milman  (12  vols., 
1838-'9;  2d  ed.,  1845);  Merivale's  "Fall  of 
the  Roman  Republic  "  (1858)  and  "  History  of 
the  Romans  under  the  Empire  "  (7  vols.,  1850- 
'62);  Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte  (3  vols., 
Berlin,  1854-'6;  translated  into  English,  1862- 
'3) ;  and  Ihne's  Romische  Geschichte  (Leipsic, 
1868  et  seq.).  For  fuller  descriptions  of  the 
city  of  Rome  see  Franz  Reber,  Die  Ruinen 
Horns  und  der  Campagna  (Leipsic,  1863) ;  Rob- 
ert Burn,  "  Rome  and  the  Campagna,  an  His- 
torical and  Topographical  Description  of  the 
Site,  Buildings,  and  Neighborhood  of  Ancient 
Rome"  (Cambridge  and  London,  1871);  Au- 
gustus J.  0.  Hare,  "  Walks  in  Rome"  (London, 
1871);  Francis  Wey,  "Rome"  (1872);  and 
Charles  Isidore  Hemans,  "Historic  and  Monu- 
mental Rome"  (1874).  See  also  Gregorovius, 
Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  in  Mittelalter  (8 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1859-'72;  3d  ed.,  1874). 

ROMILLY.  I.  Sir  Sanel,  an  English  jurist, 
born  in  London,  March  1,  1757,  died  there 
by  his  own  hand,  Nov.  2,  1818.  He  was  de- 
scended from  French  Protestant  refugees,  was 
distinguished  as  a  chancery  lawyer,  and  in 
1806  was  appointed  solicitor  general.  He  was 
elected  to  the  house  of  commons,  and  for 
many  years  strenuously  advocated  parliamen- 
tary reform,  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade, 
the  emancipation  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
the  mitigation  of  the  criminal  code.  Down  to 
1818  he  had  represented  "pocket  boroughs." 
In  that  year  he  was  returned  for  Westmin- 
ster without  solicitation,  but  the  death  of  his 
wife  and  other  sorrows  deranged  his  mind, 
and  led  him  to  commit  suicide.  His  autobi- 
ography was  published  in  1840,  in  3  vols.  II. 
John,  baron,  an  English  jurist,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  London  in  1802,  died  there, 
Dec.  23,  1874.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1*826,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  Gray's  Inn  in  1824.  He  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  Bridport,  as  a  sup- 
porter of  Lord  Grey's  administration,  from 
1832  to  1835,  and  for  a  short  time  in  1846-'7, 
and  for  Devonport  in  1847-'52.  He  was  soli- 
citor general  from  1848  to  1850,  when  he  was 
knighted,  attorney  general  in  1850-'51,  and 
master  of  the  rolls  from  1851  to  1872.  He 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1866  as  Baron 
Romilly  of  Barry,  in  the  county  of  Glamorgan. 

ROMNKV,  George,  an  English  painter,  born  at 
Furnoss,  Lancashire,  Dec.  15, 1734,  died  at  Ken- 
dal,  Nov.  15,  1802.  At  the  age  of  28  he  began 
painting  at  York,  in  1762  established  himself 
in  London,  and  in  1763  obtained  the  second 
premium  of  50  guineas,  offered  by  the  soci- 
ety of  artists,  by  a  picture  of  the  "Death  of 
Gen.  Wolfe."  In  1773  he  went  to  Italy,  and 
studied  the  works  of  Michel  Angelo  and  Ra- 
phael. After  his  return  in  1775  he  was  a 
popular  painter  of  portraits.  He  did  not  be- 


long to  the  royal  academy,  and  sent  no  pic- 
tures to  its  exhibitions;  moreover  there  was 
an  ill  feeling  and  rivalry  between  himself  and 
its  president,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  In  1756 
he  had  contracted  marriage  with  a  young  wo- 
man at  Kendal,  but  on  going  to  London  he  left 
her  with  two  children,  and  during  his  prosper- 
ity never  called  her  to  share  his  fortune,  and 
even  concealed  the  fact  of  his  marriage.  But 
when  his  health  declined  in  1799  he  went  to 
live  with  her,  becoming  imbecile  a  year  later. 
ROMULUS,  the  legendary  founder  of  Rome. 
Amulius,  the  younger  son  of  Procas,  king  of 
Alba  Longa,  after  the  death  of  his  father  seized 
on  the  throne  rightfully  belonging  to  his  bro- 
ther Numitor,  and  made  the  daughter  of  the 
latter,  Rhea  Silvia,  a  vestal  virgin.  By  the  god 
Mars  she  had  two  children,  who  as  soon  as 
they  were  born  were  ordered  by  Amulius  to 
be  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The  river  had  over- 
flowed, and  the  basket  in  which  the  boys  Rom- 
ulus and  Remus  were  placed  was  carried  to 
the  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  and  left  on  dry 
land.  A  she  wolf  carried  them  to  her  cave, 
and  suckled  them;  and  they  were  found  by 
Faustulus,  the  king's  herdsman,  who  took  them 
home,  and  brought  them  up  with  his  own 
sons.  When  they  had  grown  up,  the  herds- 
men of  the  Palatine  hill  had  a  quarrel  with  the 
herdsmen  of  Numitor,  in  which  Remus  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  the  expedition  of  Romulus 
to  deliver  his  brother  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  their  birth,  the  killing  of  Amulius,  and  the 
elevation  of  Numitor  to  his  rightful  author- 
ity. The  two  brothers  determined  to  build  a 
city  on  the  Palatine,  and  to  decide  which  one 
should  give  it  his  name  they  resorted  to  au- 
gury. First  six  vultures  appeared  to  Remus, 
and  then  twelve  to  Romulus.  A  dispute  ari- 
sing, Romulus  came  off  victor,  and  began  build- 
ing the  city  (about  758  B.  C.).  Remus  leaped 
over  the  rampart,  saying,  "  Shall  such  defences 
as  these  keep  your  city  ?  "  and  was  instantly 
slain  by  his  brother.  Romulus  opened  a  place 
of  refuge,  and  thither  many  fled  from  the  coun- 
tries round  about ;  but  the  neighboring  people 
would  not  give  them  their  daughters  in  mar- 
riage. Hereupon  Romulus  announced  the  cel- 
ebration of  games  in  honor  of  Neptune,  which 
were  largely  attended  by  the  men  of  the  neigh- 
boring cities  with  their  families,  especially 
Sabines ;  while  they  were  looking  upon  the 
sports,  the  Roman  youth  rushed  out  and  car- 
ried off  the  women  to  be  their  wives.  In  con- 
sequence a  war  arose,  first  with  the  people  of 
Cffinina,  then  with  the  people  of  Crustumerium 
and  Antemnffl,  in  both  of  which  the  Romans 
were  successful;  and  lastly  with  the  Sabines, 
who  came  with  a  great  army  under  their  king 
Titus  Tatius.  Through  the  treason  of  Tarpeia, 
the  Sabines  got  possession  of  the  fortress  on  the 
hill  Saturnius,  and  a  battle  ensued  in  the  val- 
ley at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  While  it  was  raging 
fiercely,  the  women  who  had  been  carried  off 
ran  down  from  the  Palatine,  threw  themselves 
between  their  husbands  and  their  fathers  and 


ROMULUS  AUGUSTULUS 


RONSARD 


419 


brothers,  and  prayed  them  to  lay  aside  their 
quarrel.  A  peace  was  therefore  made,  and  the 
two  peoples  became  one,  the  Sabines  living  on 
the  Saturnius  or  Capitoline  and  the  Quirinal 
hills,  and  the  Romans  on  the  Palatine ;  and  the 
two  kings  and  their  counsellors  met  in  the  val- 
ley between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills, 
which  was  therefore  called  comitium,  "  the 
place  of  meeting."  Tatius  not  long  afterward 
was  slain  by  the  inhabitants  of  Laurentum,  and 
Romulus  reigned  over  the  whole  people.  These 
were  divided  into  three  tribes :  the  Ramnenses, 
from  his  own  name ;  the  Titienses,  from  that 
of  the  Sabine  king;  and  the  Luceres,  accord- 
ing to  some  from  Lucumo,  an  Etruscan  chief 
who  had  aided  him  in  previous  wars.  Romu- 
lus had  numerous  wars,  in  which  he  was  very 
successful.  After  he  had  reigned  a  long  time 
he  one  day  called  the  people  together  in  the 
field  of  Mars.  When  they  had  assembled,  a 
terrible  storm  arose,  and  in  the  midst  of  it 
Romulus  disappeared.  That  night  he  showed 
himself  to  one  Proculus  Julius  coming  from 
Alba  to  Rome,  and  said  to  him :  "  Go  and  tell 
my  people  that  they  weep  not  for  me  any 
more;  but  bid  them  to  be  brave  and  war- 
like, and  so  shall  they  make  my  city  the  great- 
est on  earth."  From  that  the  people  judged 
that  Romulus  had  become  a  god,  and  a  tem- 
ple was  built  to  him,  and  he  was  worshipped 
under  the  name  of  Quirinus.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Numa  Pompilius  (about  716). 

ROMULUS  AUGUSTULUS.   See  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

RONCESVALLES,  or  Roncmaux,  a  small  ham- 
let in  the  valley  of  Valcarlos  in  Navarre,  be- 
tween Pamplona  and  St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port  in 
France.  It  commands  the  entrance  to  one  of 
the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees.  Charlemagne,  re- 
turning from  an  invasion  of  Spain,  was  here 
attacked  by  the  Basque  mountaineers  and  lost 
his  whole  rear  guard,  A.  D.  778.  The  numer- 
ous local  ballads  and  romances  of  the  middle 
ages,  in  which  are  related  on  one  side  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  legendary  Spanish  hero,  Bernardo 
del  Carpio,  and  on  the  other  those  of  Roland, 
Oliver,  and  the  other  "peers  and  paladins"  of 
Charlemagne's  court  who  fell  in  the  encoun- 
ter, have  given  a  character  to  the  place  which 
history  cannot  easily  remove.  (See  ROLAND.) 
Through  this  pass  the  Black  Prince  led  his 
army  into  Spain  in  1367;  and  in  July,  1813, 
Soult  was  forced  from  a  strong  position  he 
had  taken  here  by  Wellington.  Here  Don 
Carlos  was  proclaimed  king  in  1833. 

RONDA  (anc.  Arunda),  a  city  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Malaga,  86  m.  W.  S. 
W.  of  Granada;  pop.  about  19,300.  It  is  built 
upon  a  high  rock,  nearly  surrounded  by  the 
river  Guadiaro,  which  separates  the  town  by  a 
deep  chasm,  crossed  by  two  bridges,  into  two 
parts.  Cotton  and  woollen  cloth,  cutlery,  and 
other  articles  are  manufactured,  and  there  is 
an  active  trade  in  horses,  mules,  and  especially 
in  crucifixes,  which  are  exported  from  here  to 
all  parts  of  Spain.  The  annual  fair  in  May 
is  one  of  the  most  animated  in  Spain.  Ronda 


is  of  great  antiquity.  Under  the  Moors  it 
was  the  principal  fortress  of  Granada,  and  it 
is  still  protected  by  a  Moorish  castle.  In  1485 
it  was  conquered  by  Spain. 

RONDO  (It.),  in  music,  a  composition  con- 
sisting of  three  strains,  the  first  of  which, 
forming  the  burden,  closes  in  the  original  key, 
•  while  the  others  lead  the  ear  easily  and  natu- 
rally back  to  it.  The  piece  derives  its  name 
from  the  melody  going  round  through  the  sec- 
ond and  third  strains  to  the  first. 

RONDOUT.     See  KINGSTON,  N.  Y. 

RONGE,  Johannes,  a  German  priest,  born  at 
Bischofswalde,  Prussian  Silesia,  Oct.  16,  1813. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  Breslau,  and  was 
chaplain  at  Grottkau  from  1840  to  1843 ;  but 
for  refusing  to  submit  to  the  discipline  of  the 
church  he  was  suspended  and  afterward  ex- 
communicated. In  1844  he  addressed  a  letter 
to  Bishop  Arnoldi  denouncing  the  exhibition 
of  the  holy  coat  at  Treves  as  idolatrous,  and 
next  he  called  upon  the  German  Catholics  to 
secede  from  Rome.  His  agitation  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  German  Catholic  denomina- 
tion, but  most 'of  its  members  in  1862  joined 
the  national  Protestant  church.  (See  GERMAN 
CATHOLICS.)  In  1847-'9  Ronge  was  a  promi- 
nent democrat,  and  subsequently  he  was  an 
exile  in  London  till  1861,  when  he  returned 
to  Germany,  where  for  some  time  he  contin- 
ued active  for  reform. 

RONSARD,  Pierre  de,  a  French  poet,  born  near 
Vend6aie,  Sept.  11,  1524,  died  near  Tours, 
Dec.  27,  1585.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  son  of 
Francis  I. ;  and  resuming  it  after  some  years' 
connection  with  the  court  of  James  V.  in  Scot- 
land, he  was  employed  by  the  duke  in  several 
confidential  missions  when  still  a  boy.  He  was 
subsequently  secretary  of  the  French  ambassa- 
dor at  the  diet  of  Spire,  and  of  Captain  Lan- 
gey  du  Bellay  in  Piedmont.  But  an  illness  re- 
sulting in  deafness  detained  him  in  Paris  about 
1541,  and  he  remained  for  several  years  at  the 
college  of  Coqueret  engaged  in  studies  for  im- 
proving the  French  language  and  literatvuo 
after  classical  models.  His  disciple  Joachim 
du  Bellay  published  in  1549  IS  Illustration  de 
la  langue  franfoise,  an  exposition  of  Ronsard's 
projected  improvements.  The  works  of  the 
Pleiad  (the  name  which  Ronsard  and  his  six 
friends,  Du  Bellay,  Baif,  Jamyn,  Belleau,  Jo- 
delle,  and  Ponthus  de  Thiard,  gave  \p  their 
literary  association)  appeared  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, and  were  very  popular,  excepting  with 
the  adherents  of  the  old  school.  The  poems 
of  Ronsard  were  hailed  with  enthusiasm,  and 
the  title  of  "the  French  poet"  was  bestowed 
on  him.  He  became  the  poet  laureate,  and 
Charles  IX.  desired  his  company  in  all  his 
travels,  bestowing  upon  him  pensions  and  gra- 
tuities. Many  complete  editions  of  his  works 
were  published  from  1567  to  1630.  Sainte- 
Beuve  published  in  1828  a  select  edition,  with 
a  biographical  sketch  and  comments. — See  Vie 
de  Ronsard^  appended  to  his  (Eutres  inedites, 


420 


ROOF 


by  Guillaume  Golletet  (Paris,  1854),  and  Es- 
tai  sur  Ronsard  et  «a  reforme  litteraire,  by  G. 
Scheffler,  Dresden,  1874). 

ROOF,  the  covering  of  a  building.  Roofs 
are  very  various  in  form,  material,  and  con- 
struction. The  rude  dwellings  of  barbarous 
tribes  are  usually  covered  with  the  branches 
of  trees.  In  tropical  climates,  the  long  and 
broad  leaves  of  palms  serve  well  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  Europe  the  huts  and  cottages  of  the 
poorer  classes  are  frequently  covered  with  a 
thick  layer  of  skilfully  arranged  straw,  called 
thatch,  supported  by  a  simple  framework. 
The  flat  roofs  of  the  dwellings  in  Palestine 
and  other  eastern  countries  are  often  made  of 
strong  timber  and  covered  with  earth ;  tem- 
ples and  palaces  are  built  of  stone  and  roofed 
with  slabs  of  marble.  Tiles  (sheets  of  earth- 
enware) have  been  used  for  coverings  of  roofs 
from  very  early  times,  and  are  still  extensive- 
ly employed  in  Europe.  Slate,  cut  into  rec- 
tangular shape  and  nailed  upon  the  boarding 
which  covers  the  framing  of  the  roof,  is  much 
used  on  the  larger  classes  of  dwellings  and 
on  public  buildings.  When  the  inclination  of 
the  roof  is  sufficient,  shingles — flat  rectangular 
pieces  of  wood,  either  pine  or  cedar,  varying 
in  thickness  from  three  eighths  of  an  inch  at 
one  end  to  an  eighth  or  less  at  the  other — are 
generally  used  on  the  roofs  of  wooden  build- 
ings throughout  the  United  States.  Roofs  of 
slight  inclination  are  frequently  covered  with 
sheet  tin  or  sheet  zinc.  A  layer  of  heavy  pa- 
per, covered  with  pitch  or  with  mineral  or  ve- 
getable tar,  is  becoming  common  as  a  roofing 
material ;  this  is  often  protected  from  the  sun 
and  from  wear  by  a  coating  of  gravel.  Many 
other  forms  of  mineral  roofing,  as  asbestus  and 
various  complex  preparations,  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  some  of  them  appear  to  find  favor 
with  architects  and  builders,  as  being  very 
cheap,  readily  applied,  and  moderately  durable 
substitutes  for  the  better  known  materials.  In 
some  cases  public  buildings,  railway  stations, 
and  similar  edifices,  are  covered  with  glass; 
this  was  done  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in 
the  so-called  "  crystal  palaces  "  in  which  inter- 
national exhibitions  were  held  in  London  in 
1851,  and  in  New  York  in  1853.— The  inclina- 
tion of  roofs  varies  from  60  degrees  in  exam- 
ples of  Gothic  architecture,  and  25  or  30  de- 
grees in  the  steeper  roofs  adopted  in  climates 
where  snow  falls  heavily,  to  10  degrees  in 
warm  climates  where  exposed  to  heavy  rain, 
and  to  a  perfectly  horizontal  position  in  dry 
countries.  In  carpentry,  the  framing  which 
supports  the  outside  covering  is  called  the 
roof ;  this  framing  is  generally  of  timber,  but 
iron  roofs  are  becoming  common,  and  are  now 
almost  universally  adopted  for  buildings  of 
great  width,  when  no  support  can  be  conve- 
niently obtained  between  the  side  walls.  This 
roof  often  serves  not  only  to  support  the  ex- 
terior covering,  but  to  bind  the  walls  together 
and  sustain  the  upper  floors.  The  design  and 
construction  of  such  roofs,  when  of  great  span, 


demands  the  highest  skill  of  the  architect  and 
the  builder.  When  a  roof  consists  of  two  in- 
clined planes  meeting  along  a  line  extending 
over  the  middle  of  the  building,  this  junction 
is  called  the  "  ridge,"  and  the  end  is  said  to 
be  "gabled."  When  several  inclined  planes  of 
roofing  meet,  forming  a  pyramid  or  a  frustum 
of  a  pyramid,  the  roof  is  called  a  "  hip  roof." 
When  the  roof  rises  steeply  from  each  side 
wall,  meeting  other  portions  extending  with 
less  inclination  to  the  middle  line  of  the  build- 
ing, there  forming  a  ridge,  the  roof  is  called 
a  "curb  roof,"  or  "gambrel  roof."  The  Man- 
sard consists  of  a  nearly  flat  roof,  extending 
back  from  the  front  of  the  building,  and  a  sec- 
ond part  at  the  front  rising  from  the  wall 
nearly  vertically,  permitting  the  construction 
of  windows,  as  in  the  walls  of  the  building. 
This  system  of  roof  construction,  introduced 
by  the  celebrated  architect  Mansard,  has  the 
advantage  also  of  permitting  the  upper  rooms 
to  be  made  with  vertical  side  walls,  and  of 
giving  thus  greater  capacity,  better  shape,  and 
superior  convenience,  while  giving  at  the  same 
time  a  fine  architectural  effect  which  cannot 
be  secured  with  the  ordinary  forms  of  roof. 
When  the  Mansard  roof  is  built  in  wood,  it  is 
a  source  of  danger  to  otherwise  comparatively 
fire-proof  buildings.  If  built,  as  is  now  com- 
mon, in  iron,  this  serious  demerit  is  avoided. 
The  strength  of  roof  framing  is  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  covering,  the  weight  of 
snow  to  be  expected,  the  pressure  of  the  wind, 
and  by  its  own  location  and  inclination.  Tin 
roofing  weighs  }  to  1J  lb.  per  square  foot,  in- 
cluding the  boarding ;  zinc  weighs  from  1J  to 
2  His. ;  slate  from  5  to  10  Ibs. ;  tiles  from  6  to 
7  Ibs.  as  a  minimum,  though  more  usually  10 
to  15  Ibs. ;  while  exceptionally  heavy  roofs, 
covered  with  flagging,  weigh  25  Ibs.  or  more. 
Snow,  when  freshly  fallen,  weighs  from  5  to  12 
Ibs.  per  cubic  foot ;  if  wet,  much  more.  Flat 
roofs  laden  with  snow,  in  the  United  States, 
are  sometimes  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  50  Ibs. 
per  square  foot.  In  Europe  an  allowance  of 
6  Ibs.  is  usually  made  for  snow  ;  in  the  United 
States  15  or  20  Ibs.  is  thought  a  better  allow- 
ance. The  pressure  of  the  wind  against  a  flat 
vertical  surface  is  equal  to  about  55  Ibs.  as  a 
'  maximum  per  square  foot ;  in  a  tornado,  the 
velocity  being  known,  the  formula  for  its  pres- 
sure is  very  nearly  P='005Va,  or  j^  of  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  P  is  the  pressure  in 
pounds  on  the  square  foot.  The  pressure  on  a 
cylindrical  tower  is  half  that  on  a  turret  of 
square  section,  having  a  thickness  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  tower.  On  any  inclined  surface 
the  pressure  may  be  estimated  as,  according  to 
Hutton,  P=P  sin  a1'**008"-1,  where  a  is  the 
angle  made  by  the  surface  with  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  As  it  frequently  acts  wholly  on 
one  side  of  the  structure,  this  is  often  a  serious 
addition  to  the  load  borne.  The  location  of 
the  structure  with  reference  to  surrounding 
objects  will  modify  the  allowance  to  be  taken 
for  the  pressure  of  the  wind.  When  building 


ROOF 


421 


in  exposed  situations,  as  in  constructing  light- 
bouses,  or  tall  chimneys,  or  houses  in  unpro- 
tected locations,  a  large  allowance  should  be 
made  ;  in  the  midst  of  cities,  in  sheltered 
valleys,  and  localities  in  which  heavy  gales 
are  unknown,  comparatively  little  attention  is 
given  by  builders  to  this  force.  A  usual  al- 
lowance is  40  Ibs.  per  square  foot  of  vertical 
surface. — In  roof  framing,  the  simplest  form 


FIG.  1.— King-post  Truss. 

of  truss  is  that  known  as  the  "king-post 
truss,". consisting  of  a  triangular  frame  (fig.  1), 
in  which  the  middle  portion  of  the  triangular 
piece,  or  tie  beam,  a  a,  is  secured  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  inclined  timbers,  or  main  rafters, 
b  ft,  by  a  vertical  post  called  the  "  king  post," 
•e.  Several  of  these  frames  are  placed  paral- 
lel with  each  other  to  support  the  roof  cover- 
ing, and  are  connected  by  longitudinal  pieces 
•called  "  purlins,"  e  e.  Over  the  latter,  and 
parallel  with  the  main  rafters,  are  the  common 
and  lighter  rafters,  //,  distributed  at  short  in- 
tervals ;  upon  these  the  boarding  is  laid,  and 
over  all  the  slate,  tin,  or  other  covering.  The 


FIG.  2.— Queen-post  Truss. 

*'  queen-post  truss  "  (fig.  2)  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal tie  beam,  D,  and  main  rafters,  e  e ;  the 
latter  do  not  meet,  but  abut  against  a  horizon- 
tal "  straining  beam,"  H,  which  is  also  held  at 
each  end,  and  at  the  proper  height  above  the 
tie  beam,  by  queen  posts,  B  B.  In  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture the  members  of  the  roof  trusses  are 
usually  exposed  to  view  from  below,  and  are 


FIG.  8. — Complete  Roof. 

frequently  carved  and  ornamented.  The  com- 
plete roof  is  shown  in  fig.  3,  in  which  a  is  the 
tie  beam,  6  b  are  the  main  rafters,  c  is  one  of 
two  short  rafters  abutting  against  the  straining 
beam  d  ;  e  and  /  are  king  and  queen  posts  in 


pairs ;  g  g  are  purlins  supporting  the  common 
rafters,  A.  The  tie  beam  is  sometimes  omit- 
ted, and  the  thrust  of  the  rafters  is  received 
by  the  side  walls,  which  are  often  buttressed 
to  enable  them  to  sustain  this  thrust  safely. 
Koof  trusses  are  often  given  peculiar  forms  to 
suit  special  designs.  The  large  spans  which 
are  sometimes  built  in  wood  are  often  con- 
structed of  built  arched  beams.  One  of  the 
largest  ever  designed,  but  which  was  never 
constructed,  was  planned  for  the  great  impe- 
rial riding  house  at  Moscow  in  1790  ;  this  was 
to  have  been  a  single  built  beam,  in  the  form 
of  an  arch  of  285  ft.  span,  with  a  tie  beam 
and  intermediate  trusses.  A  somewhat-similar 
structure  has  been  used  in  the  United  States, 
first  by  Wernwag  and  Burr,  and  in  Germany, 
by  Wiebeking,  for  spans  of  200  ft.  and  upward. 
In  France,  Philibert  de  Lorme  first  used,  and 
Col.  Erny  of  the  army  engineers  afterward 
constructed,  roof  trusses  in  which  planks  are 
bent  and  built  into  an  arched  beam;  trusses 
of  this  form  have  been  designed  for  roofs 
up  to  828  ft.  span.  Built  arches  of  polygonal 
form  are  frequently  used ;  where  the  struts  and 
ties  of  the  trusses,  and  the  points  of  support 
for  the  superstructure,  or  incumbent  load,  are 
properly  placed  at  the  angles  of  the  polygon, 
this  is  a  stronger  form  than  the  arched.  The 
roof  of  Westminster  hall,  London,  somewhat 
resembles  Erny's  construction.  Domed  roofs 
have  been  frequently  built  with  similar  fra- 
ming ;  that  of  the  halle  au  He  •  at  Paris,  by 
De  Lorme,  was  129  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the 
arched  beams  were  a  foot  thick.  All  roofs  of 
large  span  are  now  built  with  iron  trusses. 
One  of  the  earliest  iron  roofs  was  that  of  the 
British  house  of  parliament ;  one  of  its  trusses, 


FIG.  4. — Eoof  of  Parliament  House. 

composed  of  wrought  and  cast  iron,  is  shown 
in  fig.  4.  The  struts,  a  a,  are  of  cast  iron ;  the 
ties  or  suspension  rods,  &  &,  are  of  wrought 
iron ;  m  and  n  are  the  chords  or  tie  rods ;  e  e 
and  //  are  stay  rods.  The  roof  of  the  St.  Pan- 
eras  station,  of  the  Midland  railway  in  London, 
is  690  ft.  long,  240  ft.  wide,  and  contains  1,100 


422 


ROOK 


ROOT 


tons  of  iron.  The  roof  of  the  Grand  Central 
station  in  New  York  is  652  ft.  long  and  200  ft 
wide,  and  consists  of  32  wrought-iron  trusses, 
rising  in  semicircular  arches  94  ft.  above  the 
rails;  the  covering  is  of  iron  and  glass;  the 
trusses  weigh  40  tons  each ;  the  roof  contains 
.80,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass,  and  covers  nearly  three 
acres. — See  Rondelet,  DArt  de  bdtir  (Paris, 
1812-'! 7);  Ardant,  Etudes  sur  lea  charpentes 
d  grande  portee  (Paris,  1837) ;  Erny,  Traite 
de  la  charpenterie  (Paris,  1840) ;  Ritter,  Dach- 
und  Bruektnconstruction  (Hanover,  1869)  ; 
Unwin,  "  Iron  Bridges  and  Roofs "  (London, 
1869);  Tredgold,  "Carpentry"  (3d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1870) ;  Matheson,  "  Bridges  and  Roof 
Structures"  (London,  1871);  Bow,  "Econo- 
mics of  Construction  in  relation  to  Framed 
Structures"  (London,  1873);  Stoney,  "The- 
ory of  Strains  in  Girders"  (revised  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1873);  D.  H.  Mahan,  "Civil  Engineer- 
ing" (revised  ed.,  New  York,  1873);  and  De 
Volson  Wood,  "  Bridges  and  Roofs "  (New 
York,  1873),  and  "Resistance  of  Materials" 
(revised  ed.,  New  York,  1875). 

ROOK,  (corcutfrugilegut,  Linn.),  a  bird  of  the 
crow  family,  about  the  size,  form,  and  color 
of  the  common  crow,  from  which  it  differs 
principally  in  having  the  base  of  the  bill  cov- 
ered with  a  rough  scabrous  skin,  whitish  in  old 
birds.  It  is  about  20  in.  long  and  40  in.  in  alar 
extent,  the  bill  2£  in. ;  the  female  is  a  little 
smaller ;  the  color  is  black,  with  purple,  green- 
ish, and  bluish  reflections1,  the  feathers  of  the 
neck  blended,  and  on  the  fore  part  of  the  head 
abraded ;  the  head  is  entirely  feathered  in  the 
young;  albinos  sometimes  occur,  and  the  bill 
is  often  variously  distorted.  It  is  found  over 
most  of  Europe,  and  abundantly  in  many  parts 
of  Great  Britain.  Rooks  live  in  society  all  the 
year  round,  building  their  nests,  seeking  food, 
and  roosting  in  flocks;  their  resorts,  called 
rookeries,  are  often  very  extensive,  one  near 


tfeyii 


Rook  (Corvus  fhijrilegus). 

Edinburgh  in  1847  containing  2,660  nests  and 
about  80,000  inhabitants  of  all  ages.  The  nests 
are  made  on  tall  trees,  often  in  the  midst  of 
populous  towns,  and  the  same  are  used  year 
after  year ;  they  are  fond  of  the  groves  of  old 
family  mansions,  where  they  are  protected. 


They  are  very  early  risers,  going  in  search  of 
worms  in  the  fields  or  of  garbage  in  the  streets; 
they  sometimes  visit  the  beaches  and  flats  in 
search  of  shellfish  and  crustaceans;  they  eat 
also  grain,  seeds,  insects,  nuts,  and  lizards,  but 
rarely  if  ever  carrion ;  they  plunder  the  grain 
fields  only  when  forced  by  hunger;  they  feed 
with  birds  of  various  families  without  quarrel- 
ling. They  prefer  open  fields,  placing  a  senti- 
nel, and  flying  off  at  his  alarm  note  with  great 
noise ;  the  flight  is  generally  by  slow  and  reg- 
ular flappings,  without  undulations ;  they  often 
go  many  miles  in  search  of  food,  and  if  they 
return  in  the  forenoon  or  early  afternoon,  a 
storm  within  24  hours  may  be  confidently  ex- 
pected. They  begin  to  repair  their  nests  early 
in  spring,  and  lay  four  or  five  eggs,  light  green- 
ish blue,  spotted  and  clouded  with  grayish 
brown  and  light  purplish  gray ;  the  young  are 
hatched  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  leave 
the  nest  by  May  20;  great  numbers  of  the 
newly  fledged  birds  are  annually  shot  to  be 
eaten.  The  rook  has  been  taught  to  imitate 
the  sounds  of  animals,  but  is  less  intelligent  and 
docile  than  the  raven,  crow,  and  jackdaw. 

ROOKE,  Sir  George,  an  English  admiral,  born 
at  the  family  seat  near  Canterbury  in  1650, 
died  there,  Jan.  24,  1709.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  volunteer,  and  was  made  rear  admiral  of 
the  red  by  William  III.  In  the  battle  off  Cape 
La  Hogue,  May  19, 1692,  between  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  and  the  French  fleet, 
he  led  a  night  attack  in  the  boats  of  the  squad- 
ron, and  burned  six  French  three-deckers  and 
seven  other  ships  of  the  line,  with  a  loss  of 
only  10  men.  He  received  a  pension  of  £1,000, 
and  was  knighted.  He  was  twice  elected  to 
parliament,  and  on  the  accession  of  Queen 
Anne  in  1702  he  was  constituted  "  vice  admiral 
and  lieutenant  of  the  admiralty  of  England,  as 
also  lieutenant  of  the  fleets  and  seas."  The 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  having  begun, 
he  was  sent  with  a  fleet  against  Cadiz,  an  at- 
tack upon  which  place  was  made,  but  aban- 
doned ;  but  receiving  intelligence  that  the 
Plate  fleet,  under  convoy  of  a  French  squadron, 
had  taken  shelter  in  the  port  of  Vigo,  in  con- 
cert with  the  duke  of  Ormond  he  stormed  the 
town,  and  destroyed  17  ships,  capturing  specie 
and  goods  amounting  in  value  to  £1,000,000. 
In  August,  1704,  he  was  conspicuous  in  the 
capture  of  Gibraltar.  After  a  whole  day's 
battle  with  a  large  French  fleet  off  Malaga, 
Aug.  24,  which  got  away  in  the  night,  he  re- 
turned to  England  and  retired  from  service. 

ROOKS,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  inter- 
sected by  the  S.  fork  of  Solomon  river ;  area, 
900  sq.  in.  It  is  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870.  The  surface  is  gently  rolling,  and  con- 
sists chiefly  of  prairies. 

ROOT,  in  botany.  See  PLANT,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
576. 

ROOT,  in  mathematics,  a  term  used  in  two 
different  though  related  senses.  I.  In  arith- 
metic a  root  is  the  inverse  of  a  power ;  thu» 
16  is  the  fourth  power  of  2,  and  2  is  the  fourth 


KOPE 


423 


root  of  16;  9  is  the  second  power,  or,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  the  square  of  3,  and  «3  is  the 
second  or  square  root  of  9.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  a  root  of  a  given  number  is  a  num- 
ber which  being  taken  a  certain  number  of 
times  as  a  factor  will  produce  the  given  num- 
ber. An  arithmetical  root  of  a  number  is  in- 
dicated by  the  sign  \f  with  the  number  placed 
after  it,  and  the  number  indicating  the  degree 
of  the  root  placed  above  and  before  it ;  thus 

^16  is  read  "the  fourth  root  of  16."  The 
sign  is  a  modification  of  the  letter  r,  which  was 
formerly  used  for  this  purpose.  The  second 
or  square  root  is  indicated  by  the  sign  alone, 
the  figure  2  being  omitted ;  thus  y  9  means  the 
same  as  ^9.  The  first  root  of  a  number  is 
the  number  itself,  and  therefore  needs  no  sign. 
In  the  best  modern  works  on  algebra  the  sign 
\'  is  strictly  limited  to  the  designation  of  the 
arithmetical  root  of  a  quantity.  II.  In  algebra 
the  term  root  is  used  to  denote  any  value  of 
the  unknown  quantity  in  an  equation,  which 
being  substituted  for  that  quantity  will  satis- 
fy the  equation;  thus  the  equation  x*— 7x*  + 
27or1— 47a;  +  26=0  can  be  satisfied  by  substi- 
tuting for  x  any  one  of  four  different  values, 
two  of  which  are  real,  viz.,  1  and  2,  and  two  are 
imaginary,  viz.  (2  +  3^—1)  and  (2— 3V— 1). 
Any  given  number  has  only  one  arithmetical 
root  of  a  given  degree,  but  it  has  as  many  al- 
gebraical roots  as  there  are  units  in  the  num- 
ber denoting  the  degree  of  the  root ;  thus  3  is 
the  only  arithmetical  square  root  of  9,  but 
algebraically  9  has  two  square  roots,  +3  and 
—3,  because  either  of  these  will  satisfy  the 
equation  *2=9.  The  arithmetical  root  is  at 
the  same  time  one  of  the  algebraical  roots. 
Algebraical  roots  are  designated  by  means  of 
fractional  exponents  (see  EXPONENT)  ;  thus  9* 
may  be  considered  as  representing  either  +  3 
or  —3,  and  1*  means  either  1  (its  arithmetical 
value)  or  —1  or  ^  —  1  or  —  y—  1,  either  of 
which  will  satisfy  the  equation  x*=l.  "When 
the  numerator  of  the  fractional  exponent  is 
some  number  other  than  1,  it  indicates  that 
the  root  expressed  by  the  denominator  is  to 
be  raised  to  the  power  expressed  by  the  nume- 
rator ;  thus  a*  means  the  third  power  of  any 
one  of  the  five  fifth  roots  of  a. 

ROPE,  a  large  cord,  formed  by  twisting  to- 
gether a  collection  of  vegetable  or  animal 
fibres  or  metallic  wires.  The  smaller  cords 
are  called  twines  and  lines,  and  all  are  inclu- 
ded under  the  general  name  of  cordage.  The 
invention  of  ropes  or  cordage  dates  from  the 
earliest  times.  The  first  ropes  were  probably 
made  of  the  fibres  of  the  inner  bark  of  some 
kinds  of  trees  or  of  grasses,  and  of  thongs 
from  the  hides  of  animals.  There  are  sculp- 
tures among  the  relics  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians illustrating  the  manner  of  making  ropes 
more  than  4,000  years  ago,  and  their  most 
ancient  records  contain  representations  of  well 
made  ropes  capable  of  transmitting  the  enor- 
mous power  required  in  transporting  their 


colossal  statues  and  huge  blocks  of  stone.  It 
appears  that  they  made  use  of  flax,  and  also 
of  the  fibres  of  the  date  tree.  The  most  cele- 
brated ropes  known  to  history  are  the  ca- 
bles used  in  the  construction  of  the  bridges 
of  boats  on  which  the  army  of  Xerxes  cross- 
ed the  Hellespont  (Herodotus,  vii.  36).  There 
were  two  bridges,  and  six  cables  were  as- 
signed to  each  bridge.  Two  of  the  cables 
were  of  white  flax,  while  four  were  of  papy- 
rus. Both  sets  of  cables  were  of  the  same 
size  and  quality,  but  the  flaxen  were  the  heav- 
ier, weighing  not  less  than  a  talent  the  cubit. 
If  we  assume  the  talent  to  be  equal  to  about 
56  Ibs.  and  the  cubit  to  be  22  in.,  the  cables 
must  have  measured  about  28  in.  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  largest  hemp  cables  ever  made 
in  the  United  States  were  24  in.  in  circum- 
ference. The  ancient  Peruvians  twisted  to- 
gether the  strong  fibres  of  the  maguey  plant, 
forming  them  into  cables  as  large  as  a  man's 
body,  used  in  the  construction  of  the  suspen- 
sion bridges  by  which  their  paved  highways 
were  carried  over  ravines  and  rivers.  Many 
rude  savages,  especially  among  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans,  are  celebrated 
for  making  beautiful  cordage.  In  modern 
times,  among  civilized  nations,  the  principal 
materials  for  ropes  are  hemp,  flax,  manila 
hemp,  plantain  leaf,  jute,  and  metallic  wire. 
Hope  making  was  regarded  as  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  the  early  American  colonists, 
and  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  it  with 
other  branches  of  manufacture  in  Virginia, 
where  the  climate  and  soil  were  found  to  be 
favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  hemp  and  flax ; 
but  the  culture  was  neglected  for  that  of  to- 
bacco. In  New  England  it  was  regarded  with 
more  interest;  crops  were  raised  from  seeds 
of  the  plant  received  in  Salem  in  1629,  and 
in  1641  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts 
directed  attention  to  the  wild  hemp  which 
grew  in  the  province,  and  was  used  by  the 
Indians  for  making  nets,  mats,  and  lines.  In 
the  same  year  the  manufacture  of  cordage 
was  begun  in  Boston  by  John  Harrison,  and 
in  1662  in  Charlestown  by  John  Heyman. 
In  Connecticut  the  government  at  Hartford 
in  1642  gave  direction  for  the  sowing  of  hemp 
and  "  for  the  better  furnishing  of  the  riv- 
er with  cordage  toward  the  rigging  of  ships." 
In  the  "  History  of  Pennsylvania  and  West 
New  Jersey,"  by  Gabriel  Thomas  (London, 
1698),  there  is  a  notice  of  large  ropewalks  in 
Philadelphia,  several  of  which  were  owned  by 
Joseph  Wilcox. — Hope  Making.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  four  principal  kinds  of  rope  in 
common  use:  hemp  rope,  made  of  the  fibres 
of  the  cannabis  saliva  or  hemp  plant;  manila 
rope,  made  of  the  fibres  obtained  from  the 
leaves  of  the  musa  textilis,  or  wild  plantain ; 
hide  rope,  made  of  long  strips  of  green  ox- 
hide ;  and  wire  rope.  The  best  hemp  for  rope 
making  comes  from  Russia,  the  Eiga  Rein  be- 
ing the  brand  preferred.  One  reason  assigned 
for  tho  superior  quality  of  Russian  hemp  is  the 


424 


ROPE 


practice  of  water-rotting  it.  American  hemp 
is  dew-rotted.  Manila  hemp  comes  chiefly  from 
the  Philippine  islands,  taking  its  name  from 
Manila,  the  principal  town.  The  best  brand  is 
the  Cebu,  named  from  the  island  on  which  it 
is  grown ;  Quilot  is  another  good  brand ;  the 
Leyte  is  of  inferior  quality,  while  Lupis  is  very 
fine,  white  and  silky,  and  of  too  high  a  grade 
for  rope  making.  Hemp  purchased  for  gov- 
ernment use  is  first  tested  by  inspection.  It 
should  present  a  fair  appearance  to  the  eye,  be 
clear,  dry,  and  free  from  a  niusty  smell.  If  the 
appearance  is  satisfactory,  a  sample  is  selected 
at  random  from  the  cargo  or  lot  and  sent  to 
the  ropewalk  to  be  more  thoroughly  examined. 
A  lot  containing  about  140  Ibs.  is  given  to  the 
hackler,  and  divided  into  two  parts  of  70  Ibs. 
each.  One  part  is  hackled  sufficiently  fine  for 
the  smallest  yarn  or  that  used  for  bolt  rope ; 
the  other  part  for  larger  yarn  or  the  size  used 
for  cables.  After  hackling  the  hemp  is  again 
weighed  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  dressed 
hemp  produced  and  the  percentage  of  tow  and 
waste  taken  from  it;  this  should  not  exceed 
20  per  cent.  The  dressed  hemp  is  then  passed 
through  the  spreaders  and  drawing  machine 
and  taken  to  the  spinners,  where  it  is  spun  into 
yarns  of  20  s.  and  40  s.  The  yarns  are  then 
weighed  to  ascertain  the  waste  in  spinning  and 
the  quantity  of  yarn  produced.  Half  of 'the 
yarn  is  taken  to  the  "laying"  ground,  where 
it  is  laid  up  into  rope  1}  in.  in  circumference. 
The  other  half  is  first  tarred  and  then  laid  up 
into  ropes  of  each  sized  yarn,  making  in  ail  four 
ropes :  tarred  and  untarred  of  20  s.,  tarred  and 
untarred  of  40  s.  The  ropes  are  then  carefully 
weighed  to  ascertain  the  weight  per  fathom 
and  the  percentage  of  tar  absorbed.  The 
strength  of  the  rope  is  then  found  by  securing 
short  pieces,  cut  in  lengths  of  6  ft.  for  con- 
venience, in  a  testing  machine.  The  dry  or 
white  rope  should  sustain  a  strain  of  4,200  Ibs. ; 
the  tarred,  3,200  Ibs.  The  weight  should  be 
from  -5  to  '6  of  a  pound  per  fathom  for  the 
dry,  and  from  '6  to  *7  for  the  tarred.  The 
hemp  having  passed  the  required  inspection, 
the  first  step  in  the  process  of  preparing  it  for 
the  manufacture  of  rope  is  to  hackle  or  hatchel 
it.  The  hackle  or  hatchel  consists  of  a  strong 
board  in  which  are  inserted  long  steel  prongs 
sharply  pointed  and  polished.  The  hackler, 
taking  a  wisp  of  hemp  in  his  hand  by  one  end, 
throws  the  other  over  the  prongs  and  combs  it 
out,  cleaning  it  of  dirt  and  tow  and  straight- 
ening out  the  fibres.  Having  combed  it  out 
to  where  it  was  held,  he  reverses  the  wisp  and 
combs  out  the  other  end.  Much  of  the  tow 
that  is  thus  combed  out  is  again  hackled  and 
spun  into  yarn  for  inferior  kinds  of  rope.  Af- 
ter hackling,  the  hemp  is  passed  through  the 
spreading  and  drawing  machines,  care  being 
taken  to  regulate  the  supply  so  that  the  "  sli- 
ver" or  "roping "for  the  spinning  machines 
shall  be  of  suitable  size ;  if  too  small,  the  yarn 
is  liable  to  break  in  spinning;  if  too  large, 
the  spinning  machine  will  clog  up.  The  first 


of  the  "  preparation  machines  "  is  the  "  spread- 
er," which  is  in  fact  a  finer  method  of  hackling. 
Its  office  is  to  comb  out  and  straighten  the 
fibres.  The  largest  one  now  in  use  at  the  gov- 
ernment ropewalk  is  intended  especially  for 
the  very  long  manila  fibres,  being  17  ft.  long 
by  6  ft.  wide.  It  will  run  off  a  bale  of  270 
Ibs.  of  manila  in  nine  minutes,  or  60  bales  in  10 
working  hours,  taking  it  direct  from  the  bale, 
or  rather  with  the  intermediate  step  of  oiling. 
From  this  machine  the  manila  passes  to  a 
smaller  and  finer  one,  where  the  fibres  in  the 
sliver  are  still  further  straightened,  and  the 
sliver  itself  evened  and  drawn  down.  Thence 
it  passes  to  a  third,  called  the  drawing  frame,  a 
machine  built  on  precisely  the  same  principle, 
but  with  one  chain  instead  of  two  and  with 
finer  teeth,  through  which  it  is  usual  to  pass  it 
twice,  the  sliver  at  each  successive  step  being 
reduced  in  volume,  straightened  and  evened 
more  thoroughly,  to  prepare  it  for  the  spin- 
ners. The  course  of  preparation  for  the  hemp 
is  the  same,  though  if  the  machines  are  prop- 
erly geared  and  the  draught  correct,  it  will  be 
found  sufficient  to  run  the  hemp  through  the 
spreader  only  once,  and  through  the  drawing 
frame  twice.  From  the  preparation  machines 
the  hemp  passes  to  the  spinner,  where  it  is 
spun  into  yarn  and  at  the  same  time  wound  on 
a  bobbin  containing  about  300  fathoms.  In 
making  rope,  a  three-inch  rope  is  the  key  to 
the  sizing  of  the  yarn.  Yarns  of  20  s.  are  of 
such  a  size  as  to  require  20  to  make  one  strand 
for  a  three-inch  rope,  or  to  fill  a  tube  half  an 
inch  in  diameter ;  yarns  of  26  s.  require  26 
threads  to  fill  the  same  sized  tube,  and  so  on. 
If  manila  or  white  rope  is  to  be  made,  the 
bobbins  pass  from  the  spinning  room  to  the 
laying  ground ;  if  tarred  rope,  the  next  step 
is  tarring.  The  bobbins  containing  the  yarn 
are  taken  from  the  spinners  to  the  tar  house, 
where  they  are  placed  on  horizontal  rods  con- 
tained in  a  framework  conveniently  arranged 
with  reference  to  the  tar  box ;  160  bobbins  is 
about  the  capacity  of  the  frame.  The  end  of 
each  yarn  is  passed  through  a  board  or  gauge 
perforated  with  holes  sufficiently  large  to  al- 
low the  yarns  to  run  freely,  thence  through 
three  or  more  similar  gauges  so  arranged  over 
the  tar  box  that  when  all  is  ready  they  can  be 
lowered  to  the  bottom.  The  tar  box  should 
be  about  30  ft.  long,  2  ft.  wide,  and  8  ft.  deep. 
Steam,  admitted  to  copper  steam  pipes  at  the 
bottom,  keeps  the  tar  at  the  desired  tempera- 
ture. A  thermometer  is  so  arranged  that  the 
bulb  is  always  immersed  in  the  tar,  which, 
after  the  evaporation  of  the  watery  parts, 
should  be  maintained  at  220°  F.,  and  should 
never  be  allowed  to  get  below  212°  while  tar- 
ring. The  machinery  is  so  regulated  that  the 
yarn  is  drawn  through  the  tar  at  the  rate  of 
about  15  ft.  a  minute.  After  leaving  the  tar 
the  yarn  passes  between  two  metal  rollers  at- 
tached to  the  further  end  of  the  box,  the  up- 
per one  carrying  a  heavy  weight  to  press  out 
the  superfluous  tar.  Thence  the  yarn  passes 


ROPE 


425 


over  a  drum  to  cool  it,  when  each  separate 
yarn  is  led  to,  and  evenly  wound  upon,  its 
appropriate  bobbin.  After  tarring,  the  yarn 
should  before  use  be  allowed  a  few  hours  to 
harden,  and  attach  more  closely  to  the  fibre. 
Should  it  be  made  into  rope  immediately  after 
tarring,  the  tar  would  press  through  to  the 
surface,  giving  it  an  unsightly  appearance,  and 
decay  would  soon  set  in  at  the  centre  of  the 
rope.  The  passing  of  the  yarn  through  the 
boiling  hot  tar  at  a  certain  rate  is  necessary 
to  enable  it  to  take  up  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
tar,  the  rollers  pressing  out  and  returning  to 
the  trough  the  superfluity.  Enough  of  the  tar 
is  retained  in  the  yarn  to  coat  over  the  fibre 
and  preserve  it  from  decay.  Tarring  protects 
cordage  from  injury  by  exposure  to  rain  and 
immersion  in  water ;  but  it  makes  its  fibre  rigid 
and  impairs  its  strength.  This  fact  has  long 
been  known,  and  many  efforts  have  been  made, 
hitherto  unsuccessful,  to  improve  the  tar  or 
find  a  substitute  for  it.  It  has  been  shown 
by  experiment :  1,  that  white  cordage  in  con- 
tinual service  is  one  third  more  durable  than 
tarred ;  2,  that  it  retains  its  strength  much 
longer  when  kept  in  store ;  3,  that  it  resists 
the  ordinary  injuries  of  the  weather  one  fourth 
longer.  Manila  is  judged  by  inspection,  and 
is  not  tested  by  strain.  It  is  neither  hackled 
nor  tarred,  with  the  single  exception. of  the 
case  of  outside  yarns  of  large  hawsers,  which 
are  tarred.  Having  a  harsher  fibre,  it  is  oiled 
before  running  through  the  preparation  ma- 
chines, the  oil  softening  the  fibre  and  relieving 
the  machinery  of  much  of  the  work  it  would 
otherwise  have  to  perform.  Care  must  be 
exercised,  however,  not  to  use  too  much  oil, 
lest  the  manila  turn  yellow  and  the  yarn  be- 
come gummy.  It  should  be  well  prepared 
before  being  taken  to  the  spinners,  as  all  the 
work  required  of  them  should  be  to  put  the 
twist  into  the  yarn  and  wind  it  on  the  bobbin. 
The  yarn  having  been  spun  of  the  size  desired 
and  wound  up  on  bobbins,  it  is  taken  to  the 
laying  ground,  where  each  bobbin  is  placed 
on  an  iron  rod  in  frames  convenient  for  reel- 
ing off  in  the  process  of  forming  the  strands. 
The  frames  hold  from  200  to  300  bobbins,  one, 
two,  or  three  frames  being  used,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  rope  to  be  made.  The  number 
of  yarns  required  for  a  strand  are  passed  each 
through  its  proper  hole  in  a  metallic  plate, 
brought  together  through  a  closely  fitting  iron 
tube  in  the  tube  board,  and  attached  to  the 
proper  hook  in  the  "former,"  a  machine  so 
called  because  it  forms  and  equalizes  the  twist 
of  the  strand.  The  holes  in  the  plate  are  made 
on  concentric  circles.  The  tube  inserted  in  the 
tube  board  opposite  the  centre  of  the  plate  is 
so  made  as  to  compress  the  yarns  of  each  strand 
into  a  solid  mass  as  they  are  drawn  through  and 
twisted  into  a  strand.  Each  strand  has  a  sepa- 
rate plate  and  tube.  The  "  former  "  is  drawn 
down  the  ropewalk  by  steam  power,  and  is 
so  constructed  with  "whelps"  on  drums,  and 
gears,  that  at  whatever  rate  it  may  travel  the 


proper  rotary  motion  is  always  given  to  the 
spindle  to  twist  the  yarns  into  strands.  Pow- 
er is  applied  to  the  former  by  means  of  an 
endless  rope  passing  from  one  end  of  the  walk 
to  the  other.  The  tube  board  is  heated  du- 
ring cold  weather  by  steam  pipes,  thus  warm- 
ing the  tubes  and  keeping  the  tarred  yarns 
soft  and  pliable.  The  next  step  is  to  put  the 
strands  into  a  rope,  termed  "  closing."  Two 
machines  are  used  for  this  purpose,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  walk.  The  one  at  the  lower  end 
is  termed  a  layer,  as  it  lays  up  or  closes  the 
rope.  The  upper  machine  is  stationary,  and 
is  used  to  keep  the  proper  twist  in  the  strand 
while  laying.  The  strands  are  attached  to  the 
hooks  of  the  machines  separately.  The  ma- 
chines being  put  in  motion,  the  strands  are 
brought  to  a  proper  degree  of  tension  by  means 
of  a  press  attached  to  the  lower  or  laying  ma- 
chine. As  the  tnrn  or  twist  is  put  into  the 
strands  they  shorten  in  length  ;  this  is  termed 
"  hardening."  After  the  strands  become  hard, 
they  are  placed  on  one  hook  of  the  laying 
machine,  but  kept  separate  in  front  by  the 
insertion  of  the  ''top,"  a  wooden  cone  with 
grooves  cut  in  its  surface  of  a  size  to  admit 
the  strands.  The  top  has  attached  to  it  "rope 
tails,"  which  are  applied  to  the  rope  during 
the  process  of  closing  for  the  purpose  of  cre- 
ating friction.  The  more  turns  taken  with 
the  tails,  the  more  twist  is  given  the  rope,  and 
consequently  the  harder  it  becomes.  The  ma- 
chines are  so  geared  that  the  lower  one  makes 
two  revolutions  to  one  of  the  upper ;  that  is 
to  say,  it  requires  two  revolutions  of  the  rope 
to  one  of  the  strands,  the  additional  revolu- 
tion being  requisite  to  overcome  the  friction 
caused  by  the  top,  tails,  and  stake  heads,  which 
are  placed  at  every  five  fathoms  to  support 
the  strands  and  the  rope.  To  obviate  the  ne- 
cessity for  long  ropewalks,  a  machine  has  been 
devised  for  reeling  up  the  rope  as  it  is  made. 
In  private  establishments  rope  is  made  on  these 
layers  as  large  as  10-inch.  They  are  known 
as  "  Woodworth's  laying  machines."  The  gov- 
ernment ropewalk,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  is  1,360 
ft.  long.  Rope  can  be  made  there,  without  re- 
sorting to  unusual  means,  170  fathoms  (1,020  ft.) 
in  length. —  The  Quality  of  Rope.  The  strength 
of  rope  depends  mainly  upon  the  quality  of 
the  material  of  which  it  is  made.  Hemp  fibres 
vary  from  3  to  3£  ft.  in  length ;  the  manila 
averages  over  6  ft.,  and  is  often  found  as  long 
as  12  ft.  To  make  rope,  these  fibres  must  be 
overlapped  among  themselves,  and  compressed 
so  as  not  to  be  drawn  apart.  This  compression 
is  obtained  by  twisting,  the  fibres  being  contin- 
uously drawn  out  from  a  bundle  in  quantities 
sufficient  to  produce  the  thread  or  yarn,  as 
already  described.  It  is  customary  to  spin  the 
yarn  right-handed.  Yarns  are  then  combined 
by  twisting,  and  form  a  strand  which  becomes 
left-handed,  the  twist  being  reversed  at  each 
successive  step.  Three  or  more  strands  are 
then  combined  by  twisting,  forming  a  rope, 
which  in  its  turn  becomes  right-handed ;  and 


ROPE 


three  or  more  ropes  twisted  together  form  a 
left-handed  cable  of  nine  strands.  The  proper 
twist  to  give  the  yarn  averages  about  one  turn 
and  a  half  to  the  inch.  The  degree  of  twist 
to  the  rope  may  be  determined  by  constructing 
a  right-angled  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is 
the  circumference  and  the  height  the  length 
of  one  turn  of  the  strand  measured  parallel  to 
the  axis.  The  difference  between  this  height 
and  the  hypothenuse  is  the  quantity  by  which 
the  rope  is  twisted.  The  rope  maker's  rule 
for  a  three-strand  rope  is  to  have  one  turn  to 
as  many  inches  as  are  contained  in  the  circum- 
ference of  the  rope.  A  three-inch  rope,  for 
example,  should  have  one  turn  in  three  inches, 
measured  on  a  line  paralled  to  its  axis.  Three- 
stranded  right-hand  fope  is  commonly  called 
plain  laid.  Four-stranded  rope  is  made  with 
a  smaller  rope  in  its  centre,  called  a  heart. 
If  in  making  a  rope  the  twist  of  the  strands, 
instead  of  being  reversed,  is  made  the  same 
as  the  yarn,  right-handed,  then  the  rope  itself 
becomes  left-handed,  commonly  called  back- 
handed rope.  It  is  more  pliable  but  not  as 
strong  as  the  plain  laid.  The  continual  twist- 
ing necessary  to  bind  the  fibres  into  a  per- 
manent bundle  "  shortens  in  "  its  length.  Plain- 
laid  rope  takes  up  46  fathoms  of  the  original 
yarn  for  every  100  fathoms  of  rope.  It  re- 
quires 2,488'8  Ibs.  of  hemp  to  produce'  one 
ton  of  rope  of  20-thread  yarn,  or  about  11 
per  cent,  more  hemp  than  yarn.  The  size  of 
rope  is  designated  by  its  circumference;  thus 
a  six-inch  rope  measures  six  inches  in  cir- 
cumference.—  The  Strength  of  Rope.  The  ut- 
most strength  of  good  hemp  rope  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  about  6,400  Ibs.  to  the  square 
inch ;  but  9,200  Ibs.  is  nearer  the  average 
strength.  Tarred  hemp  ropes  of  3$  and  8  in., 
made  at  the  government  ropewalk,  on  a  trial, 
required  respectively  a  strain  of  14,622  and 
10/T25  Ibs.  to  break  them,  and  therefore  their 
utmost  strength  per  square  inch  was  15,000 
and  14,975  Ibs.,  considerably  more  than  double 
the  strength  ordinarily  assigned  to  good  hemp 
rope.  These  ropes  were  not  made  expressly  for 
the  trial.  Rope  stretches  from  one  seventh  to 
one  fifth,  and  its  diameter  is  diminished  from 
one  seventh  to  one  fourth  before  breaking.  A 
rough  but  safe  rule  for  finding  the  breaking 
strain  in  tons  of  plain-laid  rope  is  to  square 
half  the  circumference.  Thus,  in  a  six-inch  rope, 
the  square  of  three  is  equal  to  nine  tons,  the 
table  giving  ten.  A  fore-handed  rope  is  25  per 
cent,  stronger  than  one  laid  back-handed.  A 
plain-laid  rope  is  stronger  than  a  cable-laid  by 
about  one  sixth,  owing  to  its  having  less  twist. 
Four-stranded  rope  is  weaker  than  three,  about 
one  thirteenth  of  its  yarns  going  into  heart. 
The  heart  forms  the  centre  round  which  the 
strands  circle.  On  applying  a  breaking  strain, 
the  heart  breaks  first,  when  an  unequal  strain 
is  brought  on  the  strands,  and  they  part  in  de- 
tail. The  strength  of  manila  rope  is  about  one 
third  less  than  that  made  of  hemp.  Repeated 
experiments  show  that  there  is  a  great  varia- 


tion in  the  strength  of  rope  cut  from  the  same 
coil,  amounting  sometimes  in  large  ropes  to  sev- 
eral hundred  pounds. — Hide  Rope  is  made  of 
strips  of  green  oxhide.  The  hide  is  stretched 
on  frames,  and  when  partially  dry  is  placed  on 
a  revolving  table,  the  ragged  edges  stripped  off, 
and  the  entire  hide  cut  into  one  yarn  or  strip 
by  a  knife  placed  for  the  purpose,  the  table 
and  knife  being  worked  by  machinery.  Two 
or  more  strips  are  united  by  a  rope  yarn. 
These  strips  are  then  reeled  upon  bobbins 
placed  in  the  frames  on  the  laying  ground,  and 
without  giving  any  twist  to  the  hide  yarn  they 
are  laid  up  into  strands,  &c.,  just  as  in  making 
hemp  rope. —  Wire  Rope.  The  best  charcoal 
iron  wire  or  steel  is  used.  The  first  step  in 
the  process  of  manufacture  is  to  wind  the  wires 
on  bobbins,  the  ends  of  separate  pieces  of  wire 
being  joined  by  brazing  or  twisting.  Having 
seven  bobbins  filled,  six  are  put  in  a  small 
machine,  and  one  in  a  reel  stand  conveniently 
situated  for  leading  the  wire  down  through  a 
fair  leader  and  thence  up  through  the  vertical 
shaft ;  this  single  wire  is  for  the  heart,  around 
which  are  wrapped  the  six  wires  placed  on  the 
horizontal  disk.  As  the  disk  revolves  the  six 
bobbins  turn  on  their  own  centres  in  an  oppo- 
site direction,  so  as  to  avoid  twisting  the  wires. 
The  proper  tension  on  the  wire  is  maintained 
by  friction  bands  attached  to  the  bobbins.  The 
six  wires  with  the  single  wire  in  the  centre  are 
for  the  heart  of  the  strands.  Having  formed 
the  heart  (which  is  wound  up  on  a  bobbin 
as  it  is  made),  it  is  placed  in  a  reel  stand  as  be- 
fore. On  the  machine  to  form  the  strand  are 
twelve  bobbins  filled  with  wire;  the  machi- 
nery is  put  in  motion,  the  seven-wire  heart 
drawn  up  the  vertical  shaft,  and  the  twelve 
wires  wrapped  about  it.  As  the  strand  is 
formed  it  is  wound  up  on  a  bobbin,  which  at 
each  successive  step  increases  in  size.  When 
the  required  length  of  strand  is  on  the  bobbin, 
known  by  a  register  fitted  for  the  purpose,  the 
machinery  is  stopped,  the  strand  cut,  the  full 
bobbin  removed,  and  an  empty  one  put  in  its 
place.  When  seven  bobbins  are  filled  with 
strands,  six  are  placed  on  another  machine,  a 
bobbin  containing  the  heart  being  placed  in 
the  rear;  the  machinery  is  put  in  motion, 
the  heart  drawn 
through,  and  the 
six  strands  wrapped 
about  it.  The  six 
strands  of  19  wires 
each  contain  114 
wires,  to  which  the 
19  wires  in  the 
heart  must  be  add- 
ed, giving  133  wires 
to  a  rope.  There 
are  six  wire-rope 
machines,  made  by 
Jackson  and  Wat- 
kins,  London,  and  now  in  operation  in  the 
government  ropewalk,  known  as  A,  the  largest, 
B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  the  smallest.  A  and  B 


Wire  Hope  with  Hemp  Heart. 


KOPE 


BORIC  FIGURES 


427 


machines  are  for  forming  the  rope,  and  are 
placed  in  a  horizontal  position ;  the  others  are 
for  making  strands  and  hearts,  and  are  verti- 
cal. Wire  hearts  are  used  for  bridge  cables, 
&c.  Hemp  hearts  are  used  instead  of  wire  for 
standing  rigging,  as  it  makes  the  rope  more 
pliable.  The  amount  of  twist  to  give  to  the 
strand  and  to  the  rope  itself  varies  with  the 
size,  and  requires  much  care  and  judgment  on 
the  part  of  the  manufacturer.  The  numbers 
assigned  to  the  various  sizes  of  wires  run  from 
No.  22,  the  smallest,  to  No.  0,  the  largest.  The 
heart  of  the  strand  must  be  of  the  same  size 
as  the  single  wire,  and  the  heart  of  the  rope 
the  size  of  a  strand.  The  softer  hemp  permits 
the  inside  wires  to  become  imbedded,  as  in  the 
preceding  figure.  The  foregoing  description  of 
wire-rope  making  applies  to  the  fine  wire  of 
133  to  a  rope.  A  stiff er  kind  of.  rope  is  made 
of  coarser  wire  having  seven  to  a  strand  and 
49  to  the  rope.  The  sizing  of  the  wire  will  be 
understood  from  the  annexed  diagram.  "Wire 
rope  is  applicable  to  all  the  general  purposes 
of  ordinary  rope,  except  running  rigging  on 
board  ship,  and  has  many  advantages  over  that 


Wire  Rope  with  Wire  Heart. 

made  of  hemp  or  hide.  Its  first  cost  is  less 
than  that  of  hemp  rope  of  equal  strength,  the 
only  correct  mode  of  comparison;  and,  as  a 
general  rule,  it  will  last  three  times  longer 
than  hemp  rope.  Its  utility  and  economy  have 
been  fully  demonstrated  on  inclined  planes  and 
slopes,  to  which  purposes  its  application  has 
become  very  general,  and  for  hoisting,  in  ware- 
houses, machine  shops,  founderies,  mines,  &c. 
It  has  also  been  substituted  with  perfect  suc- 
cess for  staying  or  guying  derricks,  suspension 
bridges,  cranes,  shears,  masts,  chimneys,  &c., 
and  for  these  purposes,  not  being  affected  by 
the  weather,  it  never  requires  resetting,  saving 
thereby  a  large  amount  of  labor.  For  ferries, 
tow  lines,  tiller  ropes,  suspending  gasometers, 
lightning  conductors  on  vessels  or  houses,  haul- 
ing logs  in  saw  mills,  for  transmitting  power  to 


a  distance  in  place  of  belting,  and  for  all  other 
purposes  of  this  kind,  where  safety,  durability, 
and  economy  are  necessary,  wire  rope  is  far 
superior.  Wire  rope  must  not  be  coiled  or 
uncoiled  like  hemp  rope.  When  mounted  on 
a  reel,  the  latter  should  be  turned  on  a  spindle 
to  pay  off  the  rope.  When  in  a  coil  without 
reel,  roll  it  over  the  ground  like  a  wheel,  and 
run  off  the  rope  in  that  way.  All  untwisting 
or  kinking  must  be  avoided.  To  preserve  wire 
rope,  apply  raw  linseed  oil  with  a  piece  of 
sheepskin,  wool  inside,  or  mix  the  oil  with 
equal  parts  of  Spanish  brown  or  lampblack. 
To  preserve  wire  rope  under  water  or  under 
ground,  take  mineral  or  vegetable  tar,  add  a 
bushel  of  fresh  slacked  lime  to  a  barrel  of  tar 
(to  neutralize  the  acid),  and  boil  it  well,  then 
saturate  the  rope  with  the  boiling  tar.  The 
grooves  of  cast-iron  pulleys  and  sheaves  should 
be  filled  with  well  seasoned  blocks  of  hard 
wood,  set  on  end,  to  be  renewed  when  worn 
out ;  this  end  wood  will  save  the  rope  and  in- 
crease adhesion.  The  small  pulleys  or  rollers 
which  support  the  ropes  on  inclined  planes 
should  be  constructed  on  the  same  plan.  Steel 
wire  is  to  a  certain  extent  taking  the  place  of 
iron  wire  in  ropes,  where  it  is  a  special  object 
to  combine  lightness  and  strength. 

ROQUEPLAN,  Joseph  Etienne  Camille,  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Malleinort,  near  Aries,  in  1803, 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  29, 1855.  He  became  known 
in  1827  by  his  illustrations  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
romances.  In  1853  his  "  Amateur  Antiquary," 
painted  in  1834,  brought  30,000  francs.  His 
latest  and  best  painting  was  "The  Well  near 
the  tall  Fig  Tree  "  (1852). 

RORIC  FIGURES  (Lat.  ros,  dew),  a  name  ap- 
plied to  certain  curious  images  rendered  mani- 
fest upon  breathing  on  polished  solid  surfaces, 
when  these  have  been  previously  exposed  to 
contact  with  or  close  proximity  of  the  objects 
thus  represented,  and  usually  at  the  same  time 
acted  upon  by  light,  heat,  or  electricity.  The 
singularity  of  these  phenomena  is,  that  they 
consist  usually  in  the  production  at  the  first 
of  a  sort  of  latent  or  invisible  image,  which 
may  afterward  be  developed  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  photography.  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper,  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Magazine  "  for  September, 
1840,  mentioned  certain  facts  going  to  show 
that  an  insensible  molecular  change  may  be 
made  to  take  place  in  the  surface  of  bodies ; 
and  among  them  he  named  the  following  in- 
stance, as  long  known :  "  That  if  a  piece  of 
very  cold  clear  glass,  or,  what  is  better,  a  cold 
polished  metallic  reflector,  has  a  little  object, 
such  as  a  piece  of  metal,  laid  on  it,  and  the 
surface  be  breathed  over  once,  the  object  being 
then  carefully  removed,  as  often  as  you  breathe 
on  it  again,  a  spectral  image  of  it  [the  object] 
may  be  seen;  and  this  phenomenon  may  be 
exhibited  for  many  days  after  the  first  trial  is 
made."  Moser  of  Konigsberg  first  distinctly 
called  attention  to  these  figures ;  his  statement 
through  M.  Regnault  to  the  French  academy 
in  July,  1842,  being  to  the  effect  that  generally, 


428 


RORIC   FIGURES 


when  two  bodies  are  sufficiently  near,  they  im- 
press their  images  upon  each  other ;  or,  as  he 
elsewhere  says,  if  a  surface  has  been  touched  in 
any  parts  by  any  body,  it  acquires  the  proper- 
ty of  precipitating  all  vapors,  these  adhering 
to  or  combining  with  it  on  those  spots  differ- 
ently from  what  they  do  on  others.  Moser 
inferred  from  the  facts  that  there  is  a  latent 
light,  as  well  as  latent  heat;  and  that  bodies 
radiate  such  a  light,  even  in  complete  darkness. 
Write  with  a  dry,  blunt  wooden  point,  a  coil 
of  paper,  a  brush,  or  any  solid  that  does  not 
scratch  or  color,  on  a  clean  surface  of  glass,  or 
on  any  polished  solid;  no  visible  trace  may 
appear ;  but  breathe  on  the  surface,  and  the 
parts  that  were  touched  will  alone  condense 
the  breath,  or  they  will  condense  it  much 
more  completely  than,  or  differently  from, 
other  parts,  and  the  characters  traced  become 
visible  in  lines  of  moisture.  Or,  breathe  upon 
a  surface,  trace  upon,  and  then  dry  it ;  breath- 
ing upon  it  again,  the  figures  will  reappear. 
To  these  appearances  the  name  of  Moser's  im- 
ages has  been  given ;  while  some  German 
writers  term  them  Hauchfiguren,  breath  fig- 
ures; and  Mr.  Grove  has  designated  them  as 
"  molecular  impressions,"  a  name  truly  express- 
ing the  nature  of  only  a  limited  proportion  of 
the  cases.  Place  a  coin  on  a  clean  looking- 
glass,  and  leave  both  for  some  time  in  the  sun ; 
removing,  and  breathing  gently  on  the  glass,  a 
quite  distinct  image  of  the  coin  will  appear. 
Mr.  R.  Hunt  produces  similar  effects  by  heat ; 
and  he  ascribes  the  phenomena  directly  to 
thermic  agency,  though  he  seems  to  claim  also 
(what  more  recent  investigators  deny  the  neces- 
sity of)  a  galvanic  influence,  his  results  being 
best  when  the  metals  used  were  electrical  oppo- 
sites,  and  as  the  impressing  object  was  larger. 
He  placed  on  a  well  polished  copper  plate,  too 
hot  to  be  handled,  coins  and  medals  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, bronze,  and  copper,  and  allowed  the  whole 
to  cool ;  removing  the  objects,  exposing  the 
plate  to  the  vapor  of  mercury,  and  wiping  off 
any  non-adherent  mercury,  he  found  that  the 
coins  had  made  impressions  on  the  surface  that 
were  distinct  in  the  order  above  given,  those  of 
the  gold  and  silver  most  so;  and  these  were 
permanent.  Whatever  in  cases  of  this  kind  the 
change  may  be,  the  parts  of  any  device  affect 
the  surface  to  which  they  are  near  according 
to  the  relative  proximity  of  the  projecting  and 
depressed  portions.  By  exposure  over  night 
he  obtained  a  very  distinct  image  of  the  grain 
of  wood  placed  at  more  than  half  an  inch  dis- 
tance from  the  receiving  plate  ;  and  so,  images 
are  readily  obtained  with  objects  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  from  the  surface ;  a  very  good  plan  is, 
with  the  object  on  or  hung  near  the  plate,  to 
place  both  on  the  mantelpiece  over  a  fire,  the 
ascending  heat  radiations  being  thrown  back 
from  the  object,  and  affecting  the  polished  body. 
(See  the  chapter  on  "  Thermography "  in  R. 
Hunt's  "  Photography,1'  republished  in  New 
York,  1852. )  Karsten  placed  a  medal  on  a  gJass 
plate,  resting  on  one  of  metal  (a  coin  on  a  look- 


ing-glass coated  with  amalgam  may  be  used), 
and  allowed  a  few  sparks  from  an  electrical  ma- 
chine to  fall  on  the  medal ;  the  image  on  the 
glass  is  brought  out  by  vapor  of  mercury,  io- 
dine, or  the  breath.  Some  years  before,  Riess 
discharged  electric  sparks  on  glass  and  mica 
plates,  and,  breathing  on  these,  brought  out 
figures  of  the  traces  of  the  spark.  But  if  he 
first  cleaned  the  glass  by  boiling  in  nitric  acid 
and  washing  in  ammonia,  or  employed  plati- 
num foil  clean  enough  to  fire  gases,  or  fresh 
mica  surfaces  obtained  by  splitting  for  the  oc- 
casion, no  figures  appeared  after  applying  the 
electric  spark.  Karsten  concludes  that  sur- 
faces show  figures  after  the  electric  discharges 
only  when  they  have  previously  become 
"  weathered  "  over  with  minute  depositions  of 
fatty  and  other  organic  matters ;  the  spark 
burning  these  off  along  certain  lines,  which 
then  behave  differently  from  the  other  parts  to 
moisture  and  to  light.  This  doubtless  explains 
some  of  the  figures  due  to  electricity,  as  does 
the  supposition  of  Fizeau  some  of  those  oc- 
casioned by  heat.  The  latter  considers  that 
most  surfaces  are  slightly  coated  with  fatty  or 
organic  matters,  and  that  during  proximity 
these  are  transferred  in  minute  quantity  to  the 
receiving  surfaces.  It  is  known  that  mercurial 
vapor  condenses  in  a  manner  visibly  different 
on  a  surface  already  soiled  or  exposed  to  vapor, 
however  slightly.  But  there  are  instances  that 
appear  to  be  covered  by  neither  of  these  sup- 
positions, and  which  can  only  be  explained 
by  some  actual  change  in  the  molecular  con- 
stitution of  bodies,  affecting  their  subsequent 
behavior  toward  the  physical  forces.  If  wo 
modify  Karsten's  experiment  by  placing  eight 
or  ten  plates  beneath  the  coin,  and  afterward 
mercurialize  the  upper  surfaces  of  all  the 
plates,  the  figures  appear  upon  them  all,  but 
more  faintly  as  the  surfaces  were  further  re- 
moved. Electrical  discharges  render  evident 
impressions  long  apparently  obliterated  by 
polishing,  thus  showing  that  these  could  not 
have  been  superficial  merely.  The  surfaces 
may  be  impressed  in  the  dark,  and  without 
known  change  of  temperature.  Near  a  pol- 
ished silver  plate  fix  one  of  glass,  painted 
black,  with  characters  scratched  through  this 
coating,  and  expose  to  the  sun  for  some  days ; 
or  place  a  lattice-work  before  polished  granite 
in  the  sun  for  half  an  hour;  in  either  case  the 
images  can  be  afterward  developed.  The  elec- 
tric images  are  not  easily  obliterated  by  ordi- 
nary means  of  washing  and  rubbing.  Mr. 
Hunt,  observing  that  black  substances  in  case 
of  heat  leave  the  strongest  impressions,  ap- 
plied this  fact,  in  an  art  which  he  named  ther- 
mography,  to  the  copying  of  prints,  cuts,  wri- 
ting, &c.,  the  impression  obtained  on  amalga- 
mated copper  being  treated  with  mercury  to 
develop  the  light,  and  with  iodine  for  the  dark 
spaces.  The  art  in  this  form  has  not  been 
practically  introduced.  Breguet,  the  celebra- 
ted Parisian  watchmaker,  found  inscriptions  on 
the  inner  case  of  a  watch  reproduced  on  the 


RORIC  FIGURES 


RORQUAL 


429 


inner  surface  of  the  outer  case ;  and  engineers 
observe  examples  in  which  the  near  surfaces 
of  parts  of  machines  become  visibly  impressed 
the  one  on  the  other.  Without  doubt  these  are 
instances  of  mere  transfer  of  material ;  and  a 
sort  of  printing,  due  to  such  transfer  during 
long  contact,  is  obviously  the  explanation  of 
such  cases  as  those  of  the  images  which  picture 
framers  find  impressed  on  glass  or  paper  with 
which  a  print  has  been  long  in  contiguity. 
Photographic  negatives  or  positives  sometimes 
produce  latent  impressions  on  paper,  or  through 
it  on  sensitive  surfaces  with  which  they  are 
laid  away ;  and  a  sensitized  plate  from  which 
one  picture  had  been  apparently  discharged, 
receiving  a  second,  has  had  the  two  pictures 
then  developed  on  the  same  field.  These  and 
similar  phenomena  must  be  explained  on  sim- 
ply chemical  principles.  Mr.  C.  A.  Seely  of 
New  York  has  observed  that  a  sheet  of  sensi- 
tive paper,  having  been  enclosed  between  sev- 
eral folds  of  a  printed  circular,  and  left  within 
a  book,  of  course  in  the  dark,  for  about  a 
week,  impressions  became  visible  on  both  sides 
of  the  sheet,  and  the  printing  on  both  sides  of 
two  or  more  folds  of  the  circular  became  su- 
perposed on  the  sensitive  paper,  that  of  more 
distant  folds  being  sometimes  the  more  dis- 
tinct, and  usually  not  on  their  own,  but  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  sensitive  sheet.  Mr.  Grove 
observed  peculiar  spots  on  some  trout,  and 
placing  freshly  caught  fish  with  a  serrated  leaf 
on  each  side  in  the  sun,  found  that,  after  a 
while,  that  on  the  sunned  side  had  impressed 
its  image  on  the  skin  of  the  fish,  while  that  in 
the  dark  had  not.  Grove  experimented  also 
by  placing  paper  with  letters  cut  in  it  between 
glass  plates,  making  these  with  sheets  of  tin 
foil  into  a  Leyden  apparatus,  and  electrifying 
for  a  few  seconds  with  a  Ruhmkorff  coil ;  he 
then  breathed  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the 
glass,  and  images  of  the  letters  appeared ;  or 
by  exposure  to  hydrofluoric  acid,  these  were 
permanently  etched.  Pouring  over  a  plate 
holding  this  latent  image  a  film  of  iodized 
collodion,  treating  as  for  a  photograph,  and 
exposing  to  diffused  daylight,  another  image, 
also  insensible,  was  by  the  consequent  action 
on  light  induced  in  the  collodion  film ;  and  this 
being  dried,  removed,  and  submitted  to  devel- 
oping agents,  the  insensible  molecular  change 
by  which  characters  were  impressed  on  the 
glass  by  electricity  was  finally  rendered  mani- 
fest by  visibility  of  the  image  in  the  film.  The 
number  and  variety  of  the  ways  known  in 
which  the  luminous,  actinic,  and  thermal  rays, 
as  well  as  electric  perturbation  and  discharge, 
are  capable  of  modifying  the  condition,  and 
doubtless  the  molecular  constitution  of  bodies, 
have  been  since  the  time  of  the  announcements 
by  Draper  and  Moser  continually  on  the  in- 
crease; until  we  are  at  length  led  to  admit 
that  many  or  all  of  these  agents  must  modify 
molecularly  all  bodies  subjected  to  their  in- 
fluence, and  in  turn  their  subsequent  beha- 
vior to  many  of  the  physical  forces.  (See 


FLUORESCENCE,  PHOSPHORESCENCE,  and  PHO- 
TOGRAPHY.) Finally,  it  appears  no  longer  ne- 
cessary, with  Moser,  to  ascribe  these  actions 
to  latent  light ;  nor  with  Herschel,  to  claim  a 
peculiar  heat  or  set  of  "parathermic  rays." 

RORQUAL,  the  largest  of  the  whale  family, 
distinguished  from  the  Greenland  or  right 
whale  (balana  mysticetus,  Linn.)  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  dorsal  fin,  and  by  nearly  parallel  lon- 
gitudinal folds  extending  between  the  arches 
of  the  lower  jaw,  from  the  under  lip  along 
the  chest  and  abdomen.  The  name  rorqual 
is  of  Norwegian  origin,  meaning  "  whale  with 
folds;"  the  genus  was  named  lalcenoptera  by 
Lacepede  in  1804;  the  whalemen  give  to  it 
the  names  of  razorback  and  finback.  There 
are  no  teeth,  and  the  baleen  or  whalebone  is 
very  short.  The  largest  species  is  the  great 
northern  rorqual  (B.  [physalus]  hoops,  Flem.), 
probably  the  most  bulky  and  powerful  of  liv- 
ing animals.  The  head  is  about  one  fourth  the 
length  of  the  body,  which  is  longer,  more 
slender,  and  less  cylindrical  than  in  the  right 
whale ;  the  blubber  is  much  thinner,  rarely 
exceeding  6  in.,  and  usually  yields  less  than 


Great  Northern  Eorqual  ^Bklasnoptera  Loops). 

10  barrels  of  oil,  on  which  account,  and  also 
because  the  baleen  is  of  comparatively  little 
value,  whalemen  do  not  often  attack  this  bold, 
restless,  and  powerful  inhabitant  of  the  ocean. 
The  head  is  so  flat  that  the  longest  baleen 
plates  seldom  measure  4  ft. ;  there  are  many 
hundred  plates,  becoming  toward  the  side? 
mere  bristles;  the  posterior  arch  of  the  pal- 
ate is  large  enough  to  admit  a  man,  though 
the  opening  of  the  oasophagus  would  not  allow 
anything  larger  than  a  cod  to  pass ;  the  sieve 
is  coarser  and  the  swallow  larger  than  in  the 
right  whale,  indicating  a  totally  different  kind 
of  food,  the  rorqual  devouring  not  only  me- 
dusje  and  crustaceans,  but  immense  numbers 
of  herring,  pilchards,  salmon,  haddock,  and 
cod ;  Desmoulins  says  that  600  good-sized  cod, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  pilchards,  have  been 
found  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  individual. 
The  longitudinal  folds  of  the  under  surface 


430 


RORQUAL 


ROSA 


vary  in  width  from  ^  in.  to  3  in.,  and  allow  of 
the  distention  necessary  to  hold  the  water 
containing  its  prey,  which  is  strained  through 
the  baleen  during  the  shutting  of  the  mouth ; 
the  tongue  is  free  at  the  apex.  The  rorqual 
attains  a  length  of  100  to  110  ft.;  the  body 
is  compressed  on  the  sides  and  angular  on 
the  back ;  the  head  comparatively  small,  and 
the  tail  narrower  than  in  the  right  whale ;  the 
lower  jaw  is  longer  and  much  wider  than  the 
upper;  there  is  a  small  dorsal  opposite  the 
vent;  the  pectorals  are  distant  from  the  an- 
gle of  the  mouth,  slender,  straight,  and  point- 
ed. The  color  is  dark  bluish  gray,  lighter  be- 
low, the  lower  lip  and  the  folds  rosy  white. 
They  blow  so  violently  as  to  be  heard  a  great 
distance  in  calm  weather;  when  seen,  they 
are  almost  always  in  motion,  and  when  about 
to  descend  do  not  throw  the  tail  high  in  the 
air.  They  are  abundant  in  the  arctic  seas, 
especially  on  the  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  as  far 
as  lat.  80°  N.  in  open  summer  weather;  they 
generally  avoid  much  ice,  and  are  shunned  by 
the  right  whale,  and  their  appearance  is  con- 
sequently unfavorable  to  the  whalemen's  suc- 
cess. The  usual  rate  of  swimming  is  about  12 
m.  an  hour ;  they  are  bold,  but  not  revenge- 
ful or  mischievous,  though  like  other  whales 
they  will  often  attack  and  destroy  a  boat  when 
their  mates  or  young  are  wounded.  The 
Greenlanders  sometimes  take  small  specimens 
by  following  in  their  canoes,  and  throwing 
so  many  lances  that  the  animal  dies  from  loss 
of  blood;  they  are  also  occasionally  stranded 
in  their  pursuit  of  herring  and  other  fish  into 
shallow  water  on  a  retreating  tide.  In  a  skel- 
eton 78  ft.  long,  the  head  was  21  ft.,  and  the 
vertebral  column  57  ft. ;  there  were  7  cervicals 
and  13  dorsals,  the  longest  rib  (the  6th)  11  ft. 
long;  the  bodies  of  the  larger  vertebrae  were 
14  in.  in  diameter,  and  G  to  7  ft.  from  tip  to 
tip  of  the  transverse  processes;  the  skull  in 
some  parts  had  a  vertical  thickness  of  more 
than  3  ft.  In  a  female  95  ft.  long,  the  head  was 
22  ft.  and  the  lower  jaw  25  ft.  long,  and  the 
weight  of  the  skeleton  35  tons.  This,  with  the 
Mediterranean  rorqual  (mentioned  below)  and 
other  species,  Gray  places  in  a  distinct  genus 
physalus,  though  without  very  satisfactory  ge- 
neric characters.  The  lesser  rorqual,  consid- 
ered by  Bell  as  the  young  of  the  greater,  was 
made  into  a  separate  species  by  Dr.  Knox  with 
the  specific  name  of  minor,  and  is  the  B.  ros- 
trata  (Gray).  It  attains  a  length  of  25  ft.,  and 
has  15  fewer  vertebrae  than  the  preceding  spe- 
cies ;  the  baleen  is  short  and  white,  the  folds 
of  the  throat  rosy,  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
base  of  the  pectoral  is  marked  with  a  white 
spot.  It  frequents  the  rocky  bays  of  Green- 
land and  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Iceland, 
sometimes  descending  to  lower  latitudes;  it 
feeds  on  the  arctic  salmon  and  other  fish ;  it  is 
very  active  and  rarely  attacked,  though  its 
flesh  is  highly  estimated  in  northern  climates ; 
the  oil  is  also  very  delicate,  and  forms  an  im- 
portant article  of  Icelandic  materia  medica. — 


The  rorqual  of  the  southern  seas,  or  black 
whale  of  the  South  Pacific  (B.  australis,  Guv.), 
has  a  long  dorsal  immediately  over  the  pec- 
torals; it  is  black  above,  white  beneath,  and 
the  folds  roseous ;  the  vertebrae  are  52  in  all. 
It  rarely  approaches  the  cape  coasts,  and  from 
its  strength,  velocity,  and  small  yield  of  oil 
is  not  considered  worth  pursuing;  it  attains 
a  length  of  40  ft. ;  it  can  leap  entirely  out  of 
water,  and  is  fond  of  floating  perpendicularly, 
with  only  the  head  above  the  surface.  The 
rorqual  of  the  Mediterranean  (B.  antiquorum, 
Fisch.)  is  probably  the  one  called  mysticetus 
by  Aristotle,  and  miuculug  by  Pliny.  Some  of 
this  species  have  been  stranded  on  the  south- 
ern coasts  of  France,  60  to  80  ft.  in  length ; 
the  color  is  grayish  black  above,  lower  jaw  and 
folds  rosy,  rest  of  lower  parts  white.  Two 
specimens  of  rorqual  have  been  obtained  with- 
in a  few  years  on  the  New  England  coasts,  and 
the  skeleton  of  one  50  ft.  long  is  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Boston  society  of  natural  history. 
Other  species  are  described.  Some  small  spe- 
cies have  been  found  fossil  in  the  pliocene  of 
Piedmont,  far  from  and  high  above  the  present 
level  of  the  sea.  M.  Cortesi  discovered  two 
species,  named  by  Desmoulins  B.  Cuvieri  and 
B.  Cortetii,  respectively  21  and  12  ft.  long. 

ROSA,  Kuphrosyoe  Parepa,  an  English  soprano 
singer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1836,  died  in 
London,  Jan.  21,  1874.  Her  father  was  Geor- 
giades  de  Boyescu,  a  Wallachian  nobleman; 
her  mother  was  Elizabeth  Seguin.  The  latter, 
left  a  widow  at  the  age  of  21,  adopted  music 
as  a  profession,  and  trained  her  daughter  for 
it.  She  studied  under  Crescentini,  Panseron, 
and  Bordogni,  and  made  her  debut  at  Malta 
in  1855  as  Amina  in  La  sonnambula,  adopt- 
ing the  stage  name  of  Parepa.  After  sing- 
ing in  many  cities  of  southern  Europe,  in  1867 
she  went  to  London,  where  she  made  her  first 
appearance  in  /  Puritani.  In  1868  she  with- 
drew from  the  stage  and  married  Oapt.  Car- 
veil,  a  retired  officer  of  the  East  India  ser- 
vice, who  died  in  1865.  Having  lost  all  her 
property  by  an  unfortunate  investment,  she 
returned  to  the  profession,  and  joined  a  con- 
cert company  which  Mr.  H.  L.  Bateman  was 
organizing  for  the  United  States.  Her  first 
appearance  in  this  country  at  Irving  hall,  New 
York,  in  September,  1865,  was  exceedingly  suc- 
cessful. She  returned  with  the  same  manager 
in  1866-'7,  and  in  the  course  of  the  season 
married  the  violinist  Carl  Rosa.  In  New  York, 
Boston,  and  other  American  cities  she  sang 
frequently  in  oratorio,  winning  probably  in 
this  class  of  music  her  most  enduring  fame. 
She  appeared  also  from  time  to  time  in  Italian 
opera.  In  1869  she  and  her  husband  organ- 
ized an  English  opera  company,  with  which 
during  three  winters  they  made  tours  of  the 
principal  American  cities,  producing  for  the 
first  time  in  America  Weber's  "Oberon,"  and 
reviving  Mozart's  "  Marriage  of  Figaro."  Du- 
ring the  winter  of  1872-'3  she  was  a  member 
of  the  Italian  opera  company  at  the  khedive's 


ROSA 


ROSAPJO 


431 


theatre  in  Cairo.  The  next  season  M.  and 
Mme.  Rosa  formed  an  English  opera  company, 
with  which  after  a  tour  in  England  they  pro- 
posed returning  to  America.  Mme.  Rosa  was 
large  in  person,  with  a  handsome  countenance, 
and  a  physique  of  remarkable  endurance. 
ROSA,  Francisco  Martinez  de  la.  See  MARTINEZ 

DE   LA    ROSA. 

ROSA,  Monte,  a  mountain  group  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  on  the  frontier 
line  between  the  Swiss  canton  of  Valais  and 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  lat.  45°  55'  N.,  Ion. 
7°  62'  E.  It  is,  after  Mont  Blanc,  the  loftiest 
mountain  of  the  Alps,  the  highest  peak  being 
15,150  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  main  ridge 
stretches  S.  from  the  peak  known  as  Nordende 
to  the  Parrot-Spitze,  where  it  connects  with 
the  Lyskamm  range.  Between  these  points 
two  principal  branches  radiate,  one  westward, 
with  the  highest  summit  or  Hochste  Spitze  at 
its  junction  with  the  main  ridge,  and  the  other 
eastward  from  the  Signal-Kuppe,  somewhat  to 
the  south  of  the  middlemost  point.  Four  an- 
gles are  thus  formed ;  those  on  the  west  con- 
tain the  Monte  Rosa  and  Lys  glaciers,  and  give 
rise  to  the  great  Gorner  ice  stream,  and  those 
on  the  east  enclose  the  Macugnaga  and  Sesia 
glaciers.  Monte  Rosa  thus  forms  a  part  of  the 
watershed  between  the  basins  of  the  Rhone 
and  the  Po.  The  mountain  walls  are  most 
precipitous  in  the  N.  E.  angle  above  the  Ma- 
cugnaga glacier.  Along  the  crest,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Hochste  Spitze,  the 
edge  is  sometimes  so  sharp  as  to  allow  the 
climber  to  bestride  it.  All  the  summits  of  Monte 
Rosa  are  composed  of  gneiss  and  white  mica 
slate,  and  all  have  of  late  years  been  ascended. 

ROSA,  Saint,  commonly  called  St.  Rose  of 
Lima,  the  only  canonized  saint  of  American 
birth,  born  in  Lima  in  1586,  died  there,  Aug. 
24,  1617.  Her  parents  were  wealthy  Span- 
iards, and  gave  her  in  baptism  the  name  of 
Isabel ;  but,  it  is  said,  her  extreme  beauty  in 
childhood  made  them  call  her  Rosa.  Their 
fortune  having  been  swept  away,  Rosa  was 
taken  into  the  household  of  the  treasurer  Gon- 
salvo,  where  she  supported  her  parents  by  her 
labor,  while  following  her  bent  for  asceticism. 
She  refused  every  matrimonial  offer,  assumed 
the  habit  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Dominic, 
and  lived  a  recluse  in  the  garden  of  her  pro- 
tectors. She  was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement 
X.  in  1671,  and  her  feast  was  fixed  on  Aug.  30. 

ROSA,  Salvator,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Aranella,  near  Naples,  June  20,  1615,  died  in 
Rome,  March  15,  1673.  In  early  life  he  ex- 
plored the  wildest  regions  of  Calabria,  asso- 
ciating with  banditti,  in  the  interest  of  his  art. 
After  his  father's  death  he  supported  the  fam- 
ily by  making  drawings  on  primed  paper,  which 
brought  his  talent  into  notice;  and  he  after- 
ward studied  under  Spagnoletto  and  Aniello 
Falcone.  He  then  visited  Rome,  where  he 
became  celebrated  not  only  as  a  painter,  but 
also  as  a  poet,  musician,  and  actor.  In  1647 
he  took  part  in  the  insurrection  at  Naples  un- 
712  VOL.  xiv. — 28 


der  Masaniello,  after  whose  overthrow  he  fled 
to  Rome.  Incurring  there  the  displeasure  of 
the  authorities  by  satirical  pictures,  he  escaped 
to  Florence,  where  he  was  employed  in  the 
Pitti  palace ;  but  after  some  time  he  returned 
to  Rome.  Among  his  most  celebrated  works 
are  the  "  Catiline  Conspiracy,"  "  Saul  and 
the  Witch  of  Endor,"  "  Attilus  Regulus,"  and 
altarpieces.  He  is  best  known  as  a  landscape 
painter,  having  been  one  of  the  first  in  Italy 
to  practise  that  branch  with  success.  He  de- 
lighted in  gloomy  effects,  powerful  contrasts 
of  light  and  shade,  and  romantic  forms.  He 
also  excelled  in  portraits  and  as  an  engraver. 
See  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Salvator  Rosa," 
by  Lady  Morgan  (2  vols.,  London,  1824),  and 
Salvatore  Rom,  by  Cantu  (Milan,  1844). 

ROSAMOND,  a  Lombard  queen.     See  ALBOIX. 

ROSAMOND,  commonly  called  "Fair  Rosa- 
mond," a  favorite  of  King  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land, the  daughter  of  Walter,  Lord  Clifford, 
died  in  1177.  She  was  first  brought  to  the 
king's  notice  through  the  collusion  of  her 
brothers,  who  desired  to  advance  their  own 
fortunes  by  means  of  their  sister's  beauty. 
She  lived  at  Woodstock,  where  Henry  fre- 
quently visited  her,  and  bore  to  him  William 
Longsword,  earl  of  Salisbury,  and  Geoffrey, 
who  was  nominated  bishop  of  Lincoln.  She 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  Goodstone,  op- 
posite the  high  altar,  but  in  1191  Hugh,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  caused  her  bones  to  be  removed 
with  disgrace.  The  story  of  her  concealment 
in  a  labyrinth  and  being  poisoned  by  Queen 
Eleanor  lacks  historic  basis. 

ROSARIO,  a  city  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Parana,  170  m.  N.  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres ; 
pop.  about  40,000,  including  many  foreigners. 
In  1854,  when  it  contained  only  4,000  inhabi- 
tants dwelling  in  wooden  sheds  and  mud  huts, 
it  was  created  a  port  of  entry,  and  it  is  now 
the  second  commercial  city  of  the  republic. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthful,  the 
thermometer  averaging  78°  F.,  and  rarely  ri- 
sing to  100°.  The  city  is  well  laid  out;  the 
streets  are  paved,  lighted  with  gas,  and  trav- 
ersed by  cars.  There  are  several  handsome 
churches,  theatres,  banks,  hotels,  a  custom 
house,  exchange,  &c.,  and  docks  and  wharves 
are  in  course  of  construction.  The  river  here 
is  a  mile  wide,  and  vessels  of  any  size  may  lie 
alongside  of  the  steep  bluff,  50  to  60  ft.  high, 
on  which  the  city  stands.  Rosario  is  the  nat- 
ural receiving  and  distributing  centre  of  a 
vast  region.  It  is  the  starting  point  of  the 
railway  system  of  the  interior,  designed  to 
consist  of  two  main  stems  extending  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  with  branches  to  every  part  of 
the  republic;  one  line  is  completed  (1875)  for 
nearly  400  m.,  and  another  to  the  Rio  Cuarto. 
In  1874  the  official  value  of  merchandise  im- 
ported direct  was  $7,046,400 ;  of  the  exports, 
$2,101,100,  of  which  $1,073,540  consisted  of 
wool,  hides,  hair,  goat  skins,  &c.,  sent  to  the 
United  States.  The  movement  of  shipping  to. 


432 


ROSARY 


ROSCOE 


and  from  foreign  ports  was  230,209  tons,  69 
per  cent,  of  which  was  steam. 

ROSARY  (Lat.  ronarium),  the  name  given  by 
Roman  Catholics  to  a  certain  form  of  prayers 
recited  on  a  string  of  beads,  and  to  the  beads 
themselves.  This  form  of  prayer  was  institu- 
ted in  the  13th  century  by  St.  Dominic,  as  a 
popular  way  of  meditating  on  the  chief  mys- 
teries of  Christ's  life.  It  consists  of  15  times 
10  small  beads,  every  10  small  ones  being  pre- 
ceded by  one  larger  one.  At  each  large  bead 
the  Lord's  prayer  is  recited,  and  at  each  of 
the  smaller  ones  the  "Hail  Mary,"  the  10th 
"  Hail  Mary "  being  followed  by  the  doxol- 
ogy :  "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the 
Son,  and  to  the  ^loly  Ghost,"  &c.  In  each 
"Hail  Mary,"  after  the  word  "Jesus,"  which 
concludes  the  first  half  of  it,  a  few  words 
commemorative  of  a  mystery  in  the  life  of 
Christ  are  inserted.  The  rosary  was  intended 
to  be  for  the  laity  what  the  breviary  is  for  the 
priests;  and  as  the  number  of  "Hail  Marya" 
in  the  rosary  is  equal  to  the  number  of  psalms 
in  the  breviary,  it  is  often  called  psalterium 
Marianum.  The  name  rosarium  (in  mediaeval 
Latin)  is  probably  derived  from  the  appella- 
tion rosa  mystica,  by  which  the  Virgin  Mary 
is  frequently  designated  in  the  prayers  of  the 
church.  On  account  of  the  length  of  the 
original  rosary,  it  soon  became  and  still  is 
customary  to  take  for  common  use  only  one 
third  of  it,  which  is  also  called  "the  small 
rosary,"  and  popularly  the  crown  (corona)  or 
chaplet  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. — The  Bud- 
dhists and  Mohammedans  likewise  use  beads 
for  counting  their  prayers,  those  of  the  lat- 
ter being  commonly  formed  of  sacred  clay  of 
Mecca  or  Medina.  (See  BEAD.) 

ROSAS,  Joan  Munnrl  de.  See  ARGENTINE  RE- 
PUBLIC, vol.  i.,  p.  693. 

ROSCHER,  U'illirlm,  a  German  economist,  born 
in  Hanover,  Oct.  21,  1817.  He  graduated  at 
Berlin  in  1840,  and  was  professor  there  from 
1843  to  1846,  and  afterward  at  Leipsic.  His 
principal  works  are:  Syttem  der  Volkswirth- 
itehaft  (vol.  i.,  Die  Grundlagen  der  Nntional- 
okonomie,  Stuttgart,  1854;  9th  ed.,  1871;  vol. 
ii.,  Nationalukonomie  de»  Ackerbaues,  1859; 
6th  ed.,  1870);  and  GeachichU  der  National- 
okonomie  in  Deutschlmd  (Munich,  1874). 

ROSCIUS,  Qnintns  a  Roman  comic  actor,  born 
at  Soloniura,  near  Lanuvium,  died  in  62  B.  C. 
Sulla  gave  him  a  gold  ring,  the  symbol  of 
equestrian  rank.  He  is  frequently  spoken  of 
in  terms  of  the  highest  praise  and  affection  by 
Cicero,  who  in  his  youth  received  instruction 
from  him,  and  afterward  defended  him  in  a 
lawsuit.  Roscius  wrote  a  treatise  in  which 
he  compared  eloquence  and  acting.  Accord- 
ing to  Macrobius  he  received  1,000  denarii 
(about  $150)  every  day,  and  Pliny  says  that 
ho  yearly  gained  50,000,000  sesterces. 

ROSCOE.  I.  William,  an  English  historian, 
born  near  Liverpool,  March  8,  1753,  died  in 
Liverpool,  June  27,  1831.  In  1774  he  was 
admitted  an  attorney  of  the  court  of  king's 


bench,  and  commenced  practice  in  Liverpool. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  agitation  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  published 
"A  General  View  of  the  African  Slave  Trade  " 
(1787);  "A  Scriptural  Refutation  of  a  Pam- 
phlet lately  published  by  the  Rev.  Raymond 
Harris,  entitled  'Scriptural  Researches  on  the 
Licitness  of  the  Slave  Trade,'  in  four  Letters 
from  the  Author  to  a  Clergyman "  (1788) ; 
and  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  of  the  In- 
surrection of  the  Negroes  in  the  Island  of 
St.  Domingo"  (1792).  In  1796  he  published 
"The  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  called  the 
Magnificent"  (2  vols.  4to),  which  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  German,  and  Italian;  and 
in  1805  "The  History  of  the  Life  and  Pontifi- 
cate of  Leo  X."  In  a  supplementary  volume, 
"  Illustrations,  Historical  and  Critical,  of  the 
Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici "  (1822),  he  replied 
to  various  criticisms.  In  1806  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  parliament  from  Liverpool  in  the 
whig  interest,  and  after  the  dissolution  of  that 
parliament  in  1807  he  published  "  Occasional 
Tracts  relative  to  the  War."  He  was  also  the 
author  of  other  works  of  minor  importance, 
and  edited  Pope's  works  (10  vols.  8vo,  1824). 
—Three  of  his  sons  became  well  known  in  lit- 
erature. ROBERT  (1790-1850)  wrote  poems, 
and  completed  in  return  for  a  legacy  his  friend 
Mr.  Fitchett's  posthumous  epic  "  Alfred  "  (6 
vols.,  London,  1844).  THOMAS  (1791-1871) 
was  distinguished  especially  as  a  translator 
and  editor  of  Italian  works.  His  more  im- 
portant publications  are  :  a  translation  of  the 
"  Memoirs  of  Benvenuto  Cellini "  (2  vols., 
1822);  A  translation  of  Sismondi's  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe" 
(4  vols.  8vo,  London,  1823);  specimens  from 
Italian  novelists  (4  vols.,  1825),  from  German 
novelists  (4  vols.,  1826),  and  from  Spanish 
novelists  (3  vols.,  1832) ;  a  translation  of  the 
"Memoirs  of  Scipio  de  Ricci  "  (2  vols.,  1828); 
a  translation  of  Lanzi's  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy  "  (6  vols.,  1828) ;  and  a  "Life  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror"  (1846).  HENRY  (1799- 
1836),  barrister  at  law,  published  a  life  of  his 
father  (2  vols.  8vo,  1833),  and  wrote  also 
"Lives  of  Eminent  Lawyers  "for  "  Lardner's 
Oyclopajdia,"  besides  various  legal  works.  II. 
Henry  Knlicld.  an  English  chemist,  son  of  Henry, 
born  in  London,  Jan.  7,  1833.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  the  Liverpool  high  school,  University 
college,  London,  and  Heidelberg  university. 
While  at  Heidelberg  (1853-'7)  he  published  in 
conjunction  with  Bunsen  a  series  of  memoirs 
on  the  measurement  of  the  chemical  action 
of  light,  and  other  original  investigations.  In 
1867  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry 
in  Owens  college,  Manchester,  in  1863  became 
a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1873  re- 
ceived the  royal  medal  of  that  society.  He 
has  published  "  Elementary  Lessons  in  Chem- 
istry "  (1866),  translated  into  several  languages, 
and  "Lectures  on  Spectrum  Analysis"  (18G9), 
giving  the  first  connected  account  of  the  dis- 
coveries in  that  branch  of  science. 


R0800MMON 


ROSE 


433 


ROSCOMMON,  an  unorganized  county  of  N. 
Michigan,  drained  by  the  south  branch  of  the 
Au  Sable  and  some  of  the  head  waters  of  the 
Muskegon  and  Titibawasee  rivers ;  area,  625 
sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having  no  population  in 
1870.  It  contains  several  lakes,  the  largest 
of  which  are  Higgins's  and  Houghton's.  The 
surface  is  rolling,  and  the  soil  poor. 

ROSCOM9ION,  a  central  county  of  Ireland,  in 
Connaught,  bordering  on  Sligo,  Leitrim,  Long- 
ford, Westmeath,  King's,  Galway,  and  Mayo; 
area,  915  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  141,246.  The 
Curlew  and  Braulieve  mountains,  which  attain 
a  height  of  from  1,000  to  1,200  ft.,  lie  in  the 
north  of  the  county.  The  Shannon  and  its 
tributary  the  Suck  flow  on  about  two  thirds 
of  the  whole  boundary  line,  the  former  ex- 
panding in  several  lakes,  of  which  the  largest 
is  Lough  Ree.  The  Shannon  has  been  made 
navigable  by  means  of  short  canals,  and  the 
Suck  can  be  ascended  by  flat-bottomed  boats 
about  10  m.  above  its  junction  with  the  for- 
mer. Grazing  and  agriculture  are  the  chief 
occupations.  Coarse  woollen  goods  are  made, 
and  there  are  manufactories  of  tobacco  pipes 
and  earthenware.  The  principal  towns  are 
Roscommon,  the  capital,  Boyle,  and  Elphin. 

ROSCOBDION,  Wentworth  Dillon,  earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  in  Ireland  about  1634,  died 
Jan.  17,  1684.  He  was  the  nephew  of  the 
earl  of  Strafford,  after  whose  impeachment  he 
went  to  the  continent.  After  the  restoration 
he  held  various  offices  about  the  court.  An 
edition  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1717, 
and  in  the  same  year  his  "  Essay  on  Transla- 
ted Verse."  He  is  reputed  to  be  the  only 
popular  poet  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  whose 
writings  are  not  immoral. 

ROSE,  the  common  name  for  plants  of  the 
genus  rosa,  the  ancient  Latin  name,  which  has 
been  adopted  into  most  European  languages. 
The  genus  gives  its  name  to  the  family  rosa- 
cece,  which  includes  most  of  the  cultivated 
fruits  and  many  of  the  ornamental  plants  of 
northern  climates,  among  which  are  herbs, 
shrubs,  and  trees,  with  simple  or  compound, 
usually  alternate  and  stipulate  leaves ;  flowers 
usually  regular ;  the  sepals  mostly  united,  and 
often  adherent  to  the  ovary ;  petals  four  or 
five,  inserted  on  the  calyx,  as  are  the  usually 
numerous,  distinct  stamens ;  one  to  many  pis- 
tils, distinct  or  (in  the  pear  tribe)  united  with 
the  calyx  tube  ;  seeds  without  albumen.  About 
70  genera  are  included  in  this  family,  which 
are  grouped  in  several  tribes ;  the  characters 
of  the  important  tribes  are  given  in  describing 
the  plants  belonging  to  them ;  the  peach, 
cherry,  and  plum  represent  the  tribe  prunes  ; 
the  almond  represents  the  amygdalece  ;  spiraea 
stands  for  another  subtribe ;  the  rubece,  are  de- 
scribed under  RASPBERRY  ;  the  strawberry  rep- 
resents another  tribe ;  while  the  apple,  pear, 
quince,  and  thorn  are  familiar  representatives 
of  the  most  important  tribe,  pomece.  In  the 
tribe  rosece  the  only  genus  is  rosa,  which,  while 
widely  differing  in  appearance  from  the  genera 


just  referred  to,  has  all  the  essential  characters 
of  the  family  in  common  with  them.  The  spe- 
cies of  rose  are  all  shrubs,  sometimes  climbing, 
and  generally  prickly;  they  have  alternate, 
odd-pinnate,  and  generally  serrate  leaves,  with 
stipules  united  with  the  base  of  the  petiole ; 
flowers  solitary,  or  in  clusters  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches ;  calyx  with  an  urn-shaped  tube, 
contracted  at  the  mouth,  and  five  spreading, 
often  leafy  lobes;  petals  five,  spreading,  and 
with  the  numerous  stamens  inserted  on  the 
edge  of  the  hollow,  thin  disk  that  lines  the 
calyx  tube ;  pistils  numerous,  concealed  in  and 
attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  disk,  their 
hairy  ovaries  becoming  bony  akenes  in  fruit ; 
in  ripening,  the  enlarged  calyx  becomes  fleshy, 
often  colored,  and  forms  a  fruit  popularly 
known  as  hip  or  hep.  The  foliage,  steins,  and 
calyx  in  some  species  bear  aromatic  glands. 
There  are  few  genera  in  which  so  much  con- 
fusion exists  in  regard  to  species  as  in  the  rose, 
the  plants  being  very  variable  even  in  the 
wild  state;  about  180  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, and  many  more  enumerated,  but  the 
best  authorities  admit  only  about  30 ;  in  the 
limited  area  of  Great  Britain  some  botanists 
find  20  species,  while  others  reduce  these  all  to 
five.  Probably  the  next  revision  of  the  genus 
will  reduce  the  North  American  species  to  six 
or  eight,  though  several  more  have  been  de- 
scribed ;  of  these,  three  are  frequent  in  the 
northern  states.  Our  most  common  wild  rose 
on  dry  soils  is  the  dwarf  rose  (rosa  lucida) ;  it 
is  from  1  to  3  ft.  high,  the  stems  with  bristly 
prickles,  the  depressed-globular  hip  smooth 
when  ripe ;  this  varies  greatly  in  wet  soil,  and 
forms  of  it  have  been  described  as  distinct 
species  ;  it  blooms  from  May  to  July,  while  the 
swamp  rose  (R.  Carolina)  blooms  from  June 
to  September ;  this  has  stems  4  to  7  ft.  high, 
armed  with  stout  hooked  prickles,  and  the 
fruit  is  somewhat  bristly ;  it  is  found  in  low 
moist  grounds  as  well  as  in  swamps.  These 
two  are  the  common  wild  roses  in  the  eastern 
states,  and  extend  as  far  south  as  Florida.  The 
early  wild  rose  (R.  llanda),  1  to  3  ft.  high,  is 
nearly  unarmed,  or  has  a  few  straight  deciduous 
prickles;  the  flower  stalks  and  calyx,  which 
are  glandular  bristly  in  both  the  preceding,  are 
in  this  smooth  and  glaucous ;  this  is  a  northern 
species  found  as  far  as  Hudson  bay ;  it  extends 
from  Vermont  along  the  northern  border  to 
California,  and  has  been  described  under  sev- 
eral names.  The  prairie,  Michigan,  or  climb- 
ing rose  (R.  tetigera),  our  only  scandent  spe- 
cies, makes  shoots  15  to  20  ft.  long  in  a  sea- 
son ;  it  has  stout,  nearly  straight  prickles ; 
leaves  with  only  three  to  five  leaflets;  the 
abundant  flowers,  produced  in  July,  are  deep 
rose-colored,  changing  to  white;  unlike  any 
other  native  species,  this  has  its  styles  united 
in  a  column  and  projecting  beyond  the  calyx 
tube ;  common  in  rich  soil  from  western  New 
York,  westward  and  southward,  and  some- 
times cultivated,  though  not  so  often  as  the 
double  varieties  derived  from  it. — A  few  ex- 


434: 


HOSE 


otic  species  are  more  or  less  naturalized ;  the 
best  known  is  the  sweethrier  (B.  rubiginosa), 
which  is  here  used  to  illustrate  the  structure 
of  the  genus.  It  is  about  6  ft.  high,  but  may 
be  trained  much  higher ;  its  stems  have  strong, 
hooked  prickles,  with  some  smaller  awl-shaped 


Sweetbrier  Rose  (Section  of  Flower  and  the  Fruit). 

ones ;  the  doubly  serrate  leaflets  have  the  un- 
der surface  downy  and  clothed  with  russet 
glands,  which,  especially  when  bruised,  give  off 
a  characteristic  and  pleasant -fragrance;  the 
small  pink  flowers  are  mostly  solitary,  with  a 
pear-shaped  hip.  This  is  sometimes  called 
eglantine,  a  name  which  was  formerly  applied 
to  roses  in  general.  The  dog  rose  (Ji.  canina) 
of  Europe,  which  occurs  in  some  parts  of 
Pennsylvania,  is  the  common  brier  of  Eng- 
land, and  is  found  throughout  Europe  and 
Russian  Asia ;  it  is  close  to  the  sweetbrier,  but 
has  no  aromatic  glands ;  in  England  this  is 
largely  used  aa  a  stock  upon  which  to  bud  the 
finer  kinds  of  roses.  The  most  important  in- 
troduced species  is  the  Cherokee  rose,  which 
Michaux,  regarding  it  as  indigenous,  described 
as  R.  Icetigata,  but  it  is  now  certain  that  it  is 
a  Chinese  species  (R.  Sinica),  introduced  into 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina  before  the  revo- 
lution ;  it  has  every  appearance  of  a  foreign 
species,  and  is  found  in  China,  where  it  is  the 
common  wild  rose ;  it  is  a  vigorous  climber, 
reaching  the  tops  of  tall  trees,  and  hanging 
in  shoots  and  festoons  20  to  40  ft.  long ;  the 
otherwise  smooth  stems  have  strong,  sharp, 
curved  prickles,  and  its  leaves,  usually  of  only 
three  leaflets,  glossy  and  evergreen ;  the  flow- 
ers, which  appear  in  the  greatest  profusion 
in  early  spring,  are  large,  single,  and  of  a 
peculiarly  clear  and  pure  white.  This  has 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
hedge  plants  for  the  southern  states;  hedges 
made  over  50  years  ago  are  still  in  full  vigor. 
Cuttings  are  set  in  the  hedge  row,  3  ft.  apart ; 
the  growth  of  the  first  year  is  the  next  winter 
cut  back  to  within  a  foot  of  the  ground  ;  after 
this  the  long  and  vigorous  shoots  are  allowed 
to  grow  and  are  directed  on  the  line  of  the 


hedge,  where  they  pile  up  and  interlace  to  form 
an  impenetrable  barrier.  Cultivators  near  Bos- 
ton have  found  the  Cherokee  rose  admirable 
for  the  greenhouse,  the  great  abundance  of 
the  flowers  and  their  purity  compensating  for 
their  singleness.  Another  Chinese  rose  used 
in  the  southern  states  for  hedges,  and  some- 
what naturalized,  is  the  Macartney  rose  (R. 
bracteata),  introduced  into  England  by  Lord 
Macartney  in  1795 ;  it  is  barely  hardy  in  Eng- 
land, but  in  the  southernmost  states  is  ever- 
green, and  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  hav- 
ing the  stems  downy  as  well  as  prickly,  and  its 
calyx  covered  by  leafy  bracts ;  in  low  rich  soils 
it  is  preferred  as  a  hedge  plant  to  the  Chero- 
kee.— The  foregoing  wild  or  naturalized  roses 
are  botanical  species  in  their  normal  form, 
with  single  flowers ;  the  roses  of  our  gardens 
and  greenhouses  are  for  the  most  part  varie- 
ties obtained  by  selection  and  by  hybridizing 
and  crossing,  and  this  has  been  continued  so 
long  that  often  all  traces  of  their  original 
parentage  are  concealed.  Bud  variation  is  re- 
markably frequent  in  the  rose ;  a  bud  will  often 
produce  a  shoot  upon  which  the  flowers,  and 
even  the  leaves,  are  in  form  and  color  unlike 
those  upon  the  rest  of  the  plant ;  these  bud 
variations  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  or 
by  budding,  and  several  of  our  well  known 
kinds  were  thus  obtained.  The  most  prized 
garden  roses  are  double ;  i.  «.,  instead  of  the 
five  petals  of  the  wild  flower,  these  are  multi- 
plied indefinitely ;  some  roses  are  so  double 
that  no  stamens  can  be  seen,  while  others  are 
only  partly  double;  the  doubling  is  due  (in 
good  part,  at  least)  to  the  conversion  of  sta- 
mens into  petals  (see  PLANT)  ;  any  partly  dou- 
ble rose  will  show  the  gradual  metamorphosis 
from  the  proper  stamen  through  intermediate 
states  to  the  fully  developed  petal,  as  indicated 


Transformation  of  Stamens  into  Petals. 

in  the  accompanying  diagram. — In  the  enume- 
ration of  cultivated  roses,  a  garden  rather  than 
a  strictly  botanical  classification  is  most  con- 
venient. 1.  Climbing  Hoses.  The  prairie  rose 
(R.  setigera)  has  been  mentioned  as  a  native 
species ;  from  this  Samuel  Feast  of  Baltimore 
and  others  have  obtained  our  most  valuable 
climbers,  hardy  from  Canada  to  the  gulf,  and 
producing  a  great  profusion  of  showy  though 
scentless  flowers;  they  are  evidently  crossed 
with  foreign  kinds;  the  Queen  of  the  Prai- 
ries is  the  best  known  of  these,  and  will  grow 
in  any  soil ;  another  is  the  Baltimore  Belle ; 
and  there  are  several  others  of  the  prairie 
group  with  flowers  from  white  to  deep  rose. 
The  evergreen  rose  (R.  sempercirent)  has  given 


ItOSE 


435 


rise  to  another  race  of  climbers ;  it  is  the  wild 
rose  of  Italy,  where,  as  in  other  warm  climates, 
it  is  evergreen,  but  not  so  in  the  north,  where 
some  of  its  varieties  are  hardy  and  others  ten- 
der ;  it  has  very  bright  green  leaves,  and  in  its 
wild  state  produces  an  abundance  of  single 
white  flowers ;  its  best  double  variety  is  feli- 
cite  perpetuelle.  The  Ayrshire  roses,  of  which 
there  are  pink  sorts,  are  varieties  of  this ;  they 
grow  with  great  vigor,  producing  shoots  20  to 
30  ft.  long,  and  are  useful  for  covering  walls, 
banks,  and  other  objects.  The  musk  rose  (R. 
moschata)  is  a  native  of  Asia,  where  it  grows 
to  a  great  size ;  its  cultivated  varieties  are 
treated  as  climbers  by  training  up  their  shoots  ; 
the  flowers,  later  than  those  of  any  other,  are 
in  large  clusters,  white  or  yellowish  white,  and 
very  fragrant,  especially  in  the  evening;  the 
"  white  musk  cluster  "  is  the  best  known  vari- 
ety. The  many-flowered  rose  (R.  multiflora), 
from  Japan  and  China,  has  furnished  a  race  of 
climbers,  most  of  which  are  not  hardy  north 
of  the  middle  states ;  it  has  large  clusters  of 
small,  scentless,  white  and  pale  purple  flowers  ; 
the  Seven  Sisters,  or  Grevillei,  is  one  of  the 
best  varieties.  The  Boursalt  roses  are  sup- 
posed to  be  from  this,  crossed  with  some 
hardier  species ;  they  are  hardy,  rampant  grow- 
ers, with  long  red  stems,  and  produce  a  pro- 
fusion of  blush  or  crimson-purplish  flowers, 
which  are  odorless.  The  Banksia  or  Lady 
Banks's  rose  (R.  Banksice),  from  China,  is  (at 
the  north,  at  least),  only  a  greenhouse  climb- 
er; it  has  very  glossy  foliage,  and  umbels  of 
double  small  roses,  not  larger  than  the  flower 
of  a  double  cherry,  white  or  buff,  and  with 
a  violet  fragrance.  2.  Garden  Roses.  Under 
this  not  very  definite  title  are  included  those 
non-climbing  kinds  which,  without  regard  to 
their  origin,  bloom  but  once  in  the  season ; 
some  of  these  are  but  little  removed  from  their 
normal  form,  such  as  the  Scotch  roses,  which 
originated  from  the  Burnet  rose  (R.  pimpi- 
nellifolia)  of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia ;  they 
grow  from  1  to  2  ft.  high,  and  are  exceedingly 
prickly ;  their  leaflets  are  small,  roundish,  and 
smooth,  and  their  small  flowers,  abundantly  pro- 
duced all  along  the  stem,  are  about  two  weeks 
earlier  than  other  garden  roses.  The  first 
double  variety  was  found  near  Perth,  Scotland, 
and  has  been  reproduced  abundantly  by  seed, 
giving  white,  pink,  and  yellow  sorts ;  there  are 
between  200  and  300  named  varieties ;  among 
the  most  distinct  are  Countess  of  Glasgow,  pink, 
William  IV.,  pure  white,  and  Yellow  Scotch. 
The  yellow  brier  {R.  eglanteria),  closely  re- 
lated to  the  sweetbrier,  produces  double  yel- 
low, buff,  and  orange  varieties,  among  which 
are  Harrison's  yellow,  the  best  known  yellow 
rose,  but  inferior  to  the  Persian  yellow.  The 
yellow  rose  (R.  sulphured)  of  Persia  and  the 
far  East,  also  known  as  the  yellow  Provence, 
produces  large  full  double  flowers,  of  a  fine 
transparent  yellow ;  it  is  rarely  seen  in  our 
gardens,  it  being  of  doubtful  hardiness,  and 
very  difficult  to  cultivate,  the  buds  spoiling  be- 


fore opening.  The  cinnamon  rose  (R.  cinna- 
momea),  from  Europe,  is  rarely  met  with  ex- 
cept in  old  country  gardens,  from  which  it  has 
in  some  places  escaped  and  become  partially 
naturalized ;  it  has  brownish  red  bark,  a  few 
prickles,  and  small  double  but  badly  shaped 
flowers  with  a  cinnamon-like  fragrance ;  it  is 
closely  related  to  the  wild  R.  llanda.  The 
white  rose  (R.  alba),  from  central  Europe, 
is  very  near  the  dog  rose,  and  has  given  sev- 
eral white  and  blush  varieties.  The  common 
summer  or  June  roses  are  from  the  French  or 
Provence  {R.  Gallica),  the  hundred-leaved 
or  cabbage  (R.  centifolia),  and  the  damask 
rose  (R.  Damascena) ;  while  these  are  distinct 
in  their  typical  forms,  they  are  much  confused 
in  the  garden  varieties,  and  the  most  skilled 
rosarians  are  unable  to  trace  them  to  their 
original  species.  While  these  old-fashioned 
roses  have  been  largely  displaced  by  more  re- 
cent kinds,  none  exceed  them  in  beauty  and 
fragrance,  or  in  the  abundance  of  flowers 
during  their  short  season. — The  pompone  or 
button  roses  are  dwarf,  small-flowered  forms 
of  the  hundred-leaved.  The  most  striking  va- 
rieties are  those  known  as  moss  roses,  in  which 
the  glands  and  bristles  upon  the  flower  stalk, 
and  especially  upon  the  calyx,  are  developed  as 
a  substance  resembling  moss;  this  was  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  injury  by  insects,  until  it 
was  found  that  the  peculiarity  was  reproduced 
by  seeds.  The  first  moss  rose  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Holland  in  1596,  and  until 
early  in  the  present  century  it  was  the  only  va- 
riety known ;  and  although  more  than  100  oth- 
ers have  since  been  introduced,  the  old  or  com- 
mon moss  is  not  exceeded  by  any  in  the  abun- 
dance and  beauty  of  its  mossiness.  Celina  and 
Lane's  are  good  varieties,  and  some  of  the  new- 
er kinds  have  good  flowers  when  full-blown. 
A  favorite  sort,  the  crested  moss  (cristata  of 
the  catalogues),  unlike  the  others,  is  said  to  be 
a  variety  of  the  Provence  ;  its  calyx  lobes  are 
fringed  by  a  broad  and  much  cut  crest,  rather 
than  the  fine  mossiness  of  the  other  kinds.  3. 
Roses  blooming  more  than  once  in  the  season. 
The  most  popular  garden  roses  are  the  remon- 
tants,  more  generally  known  as  hybrid  perpet- 
uals,  an  incorrect  name,  as  they  are  not  per- 
petual bloomers,  but  produce  abundantly  in 
June,  and  after  a  season  of  rest  bloom  again  in 
autumn  ;  they  have  also  been  called  autumnal 
roses,  but  the  varieties  differ  greatly  in  their 
ability  to  flower  a  second  time,  and  the  French 
term  remontant  (growing  again)  is  adopted  by 
the  best  rosarians.  This  class  of  roses  is  the 
result  of  various  crossings  of  other  classes  de- 
rived from  the  China  or  India  rose  (R.  fndica), 
and  includes  also  a  strain  of  the  damask  rose ; 
they  have  great  size,  the  most  brilliant  colors, 
and  exquisite  fragrance,  with  perfect  hardiness ; 
the  great  show  roses  and  those  of  the  rose 
fanciers  are  found  here,  and  are  the  kinds  re- 
ferred to  as  having  so  generally  superseded 
the  old  June  roses ;  it  being  a  mixed  race,  va- 
rieties quite  unlike  in  appearance  are  com- 


436 


ROSE 


prised  in  it,  and  they  differ  according  to  the 
preponderance  of  one  or  another  parent.  They 
are  numbered  by  hundreds,  and  the  list  re- 
ceives annual  additions  through  the  labors  es- 
pecially of  the  French,  and  to  some  extent  of 
the  English  growers ;  Baron  Provost,  General 
Jacqueminot,  Giant  of  Battles,  Jules  Margot- 
tin,  and  La  Reine  are  well  known  and  tine 
examples  of  this  class.  There  are  a  few  moss 
roses  which,  having  a  tendency  to  bloom  a 
second  time,  are  classed  as  remontant  moss. — 
The  Bourbon  rose,  first  obtained  on  the  isle 
of  Bourbon  by  a  cross  between  the  China  and 
a  damask  variety,  is  a  race  including  some 
magnificent  kinds,  but  they  are  not  so  gen- 
erally hardy  as  tne  preceding ;  they  are  abun- 
dant bloomers,  and  are  useful  for  forcing;  the 
Souvenir  de  Malmaison,  everywhere  a  stan- 
dard of  perfection,  belongs  here,  as  does  Her- 
mosa,  so  much  valued  for  forcing.  4.  Ro»e« 
which  bloom  continuously  all  the  year.  The 
Bourbons  are  classed  among  the  ever-blooming 
roses,  but  they  are  less  constant  than  the  China 
roses,  which  are  varieties  of  7?.  Indica  and 
prized  for  the  abundance  and  brilliancy  of 
their  flowers ;  they  are  too  tender  for  northern 
winters,  but  are  easily  protected  by  bending 
down  the  stems  and  covering  them  with  sods, 
or  by  placing  them  in  a  frame  and  covering 
with  leaves ;  the  readiness  with  which  they 
may  bo  multiplied  makes  them  the  cheapest 
of  all  roses,  and  they  are  much  used  for  bed- 
ding out  in  summer,  where  they  flower  in  the 
hot  months ;  they  are  well  adapted  to  green- 
house culture,  and  are  the  easiest  of  all  to 
grow  in  the  window  garden ;  they  are  popu- 
larly known  as  monthly  roses,  and  are  given 
in  some  catalogues  as  Bengal  roses.  Agrippina, 
Daily  Blush,  Daily  White,  and  Mrs.  Bosanquet 
are  among  the  best  of  this  class. — The  Noisette 
roses  originated  with  M.  Noisette,  a  florist  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  who  in  1817  crossed  a  musk 
rose  (R.  moschata)  with  the  pollen  of  a  tea 
rose ;  they  are  for  the  most  part  climbers,  and 
have  the  habit  of  blooming  in  clusters  of  the 
musk  ;  these  have  been  again  crossed  with  the 
tea,  and  varieties  produced  which  are  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  classify.  Some  of  the  Noi- 
settes are  nearly  hardy  at  the  north,  while  oth- 
ers are  very  tender;  Lamarque  is  the  best 
known,  being  everywhere  popular  as  a  green- 
house climber ;  its  sulphur-yellow  flowers  are 
produced  in  great  abundance ;  Chromatella  and 
Solfaterra  are  choice  varieties,  both  darker 
yellow  than  Lamarque,  which  is  their  parent. 
— The  tea  or  tea-scented  roses  are  from  a  va- 
riety of  the  China  rose  (R.  Indica,  var.  odo- 
rata) ;  they  have  long  buds,  semi-double  flow- 
ers, and  a  fragrance  resembling  that  of  green 
tea.  A  blush  and  a  yellow  tea  rose  were 
brought  from  China  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury, and  from  these  have  proceeded  a  large 
and  increasing  class,  all  of  great  delicacy  of 
color ;  some  make  long  branches  and  are  adapt- 
ed for  pillars  or  rafters;  they  are  more  ten- 
der than  any  others,  and  require  the  same  pro- 


tection as  the  China  roses.  Buds  of  tea  roses 
are  in  great  request  for  winter  decorations, 
and  near  the  principal  cities  large  houses  are 
devoted  to  rose  forcing ;  the  colors  are  white, 
buff,  salmon,  and  various  shades  of  yellow  and 
rose,  with  combinations  of  these  in  the  same 


Double  Rose  (Noisette). 

flower.  Among  the  most  popular  of  the  tea 
roses  are  Bon  Silene,  Gloire  de  Dijon,  Isa- 
bella Sprunt,  Pactole,  Safrano,  and  White  Tea; 
the  grand  yellow  rose,  Marechal  Niel,  is  by 
some  classed  as  a  tea,  and  by  others  as  a  Noi- 
sette ;  it  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  produces 
freely  enormous  flowers  of  a  fine  golden  color, 
which  deepens  to  the  centre. — Propagation 
and  Cultivation.  New  varieties  of  roses  are 
sometimes  obtained  from  the  seed  of  flowers 
which  have  been  cross-fertilized,  but  cultiva- 
tors, knowing  the  tendency  of  flowers  so  far 
removed  from  their  normal  state  to  vary,  sow 
seeds  from  any  good  variety.  Though  in  very 
double  flowers  the  stamens  may  be  quite  ob- 
literated, the  pistils  usually  remain  serviceable, 
and  such  may  be  fertilized  with  other  pollen. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  and 
exposed  to  changes  of  weather,  and  the  plants 
which  appear  will  in  some  cases  flower  the 
same  year,  in  others  not  until  the  next.  Es- 
tablished varieties  are  multiplied  by  cuttings, 
by  layering,  by  suckers,  and  by  budding  or 
grafting.  Plants  which  have  been  potted  for 
the  purpose  are  forced  into  growth  by  the 
florists  in  early  spring,  and  cuttings  are  tuki-n 
of  the  young  and  slightly  hardened  wood ; 
another  set  of  cuttings  may  be  made  from 
the  tender  shoots  formed  by  roses  in  the  open 
ground  in  August,  and  still  another  from  the 
ripened  wood  in  October,  setting  them  in  a 
cold  frame,  and  when  freezing  weather  comes 
on  covering  them  with  leaves ;  the  majority 
of  such  cuttings  will  be  well  rooted  in  early 
spring.  Layering  is  a  ready  method  of  mul- 
tiplying hardy  roses.  (See  LAYERING.)  In 


HOSE 


437 


Europe,  where  the  climate  allows  rose  cul- 
ture to  reach  a  greater  perfection  than  with 
us,  it  has  been  found  that  the  finest  flowers 
are  obtained  when  the  rose  is  budded  on 
some  stock  with  vigorous  roots;  the  com- 
mon brier  or  dog  rose,  and  the  Manetti  rose, 
so  called  from  the  Italian  who  raised  it  from 
seed,  are  the  usual  stocks ;  the  bud  is  inserted 
in  the  ordinary  manner  (see  BUDDING),  near 
the  ground,  unless  standard  or  tree  roses  are 
wanted,  when  the  stocks  are  budded  at  4  or  5 
ft.  high.  Budded  roses  are  in  little  favor  in 
this  country,  as  in  our  severe  winters  the  plant 
may  be  killed  quite  to  its  insertion  in  the 
stock,  and  our  hot  summers  induce  the  stocks 
to  throw  up  abundant  suckers,  which  weaken 
the  growth  of  the  budded  rose  and  are  a  con- 
stant source  of  annoyance.  Our  rose  growers 
prefer  roses  on  their  own  roots,  except  for  the 
few  varieties  which  will  only  bloom  freely  on 
other  stocks.  The  tree  or  standard  roses  are 
imported  in  large  numbers  every  year,  but 
seldom  survive  the  first  winter.  Roses  may  be 
grafted,  but  this  is  rarely  done. — The  soil  for 
roses  can  hardly  be  too  rich  ;  the  hardy  kinds 
may  be  planted  in  autumn  or  in  spring;  the 
tender  kinds  may  be  set  out  as  soon  as  frosts 
are  over ;  in  planting,  all  weak  growth  should 
be  cut  out,  and  the  strong  stems  shortened 
to  a  few  buds.  Each  spring  the  hardy  sorts 
should  have  their  sterns  pruned  according  to 
their  vigor,  the  weakest  being  cut  out  alto- 
gether, and  the  others  shortened  from  one 
third  to  one  half.  Climbing  roses  need  only 
to  have  the  old  wood  thinned  out. — Few  flow- 
ering plants  have  so  many  enemies  as  the  rose. 
Aphides  or  plant  lice  may  be  killed  by  tobac- 
co water;  the  rose  slug,  the  larva  of  selandria 
rosm,  must  be  treated  to  frequent  syringing  of 
whale-oil  soapsuds,  or  infusion  of  white  hel- 
lebore ;  the  rose  bug  (macrodactylm  subspi- 
nosus),  which  eats  the  buds,  can  only  be  con- 
quered by  hand  picking. — The  China,  Noi- 
sette, tea,  and  other  tender  roses  are  grown  in 
greenhouses  and  window  gardens;  for  green- 
house management  reference  must  be  made 
to  works  on  floriculture.  Roses  for  house 
blooming  should  be  potted  by  September,  all 
the  flower  buds  being  removed  and  the  pots 
kept  in  a  cool  place  until  well  established ; 
only  the  China  and  tea  varieties  are  likely  to 
give  good  results,  and  these  will  need  con- 
stant care,  as  they  are  very  apt  to  be  in- 
fested by  plant  lice  and  the  red  spider;  to- 
bacco smoke  or  tobacco  water  is  the  remedy 
for  the  one,  and  frequent  showering  of  the 
leaves  with  water  on  both  sides  for  the  other. 
—  Uses.  Roses  have  long  been  used  in  medi- 
cine, and  two  kinds  of  rose  leaves  or  petals 
are  officinal  in  the  pharmacopoeias  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  Red  rose  leaves  are  the  unexpanded 
flowers  of  the  Provence  rose  (P.  Gallica)  col- 
lected and  dried ;  they  are  mildly  astringent ; 
their  infusion  by  the  addition  of  a  small  por- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  turns  a  brilliant  crim- 
son, and  is  used  as  a  medium  for  soluble  medi- 


cines. The  confection  or  conserve  of  rosee, 
formerly  prepared  by  beating  one  part  of  the 
fresh  petals  with  three  parts  of  sugar,  is  now 
made  from  the  powdered  dried  petals,  with 
honey  and  rose  water  ;  it  is  used  as  the  base  of 
blue  pill,  and  as  a  vehicle  for  other  medicines. 
The  hundred-leaved  rose  (JR.  centifolia)  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  preparation  of  rose 
water,  8  Ibs.  of  the  petals  and  two  gallons  of 
water  being  placed  in  a  still,  and  one  gallon  of 
rose  water  distilled  off.  The  petals  are  some- 
times preserved  by  heating  them  with  twice 
their  weight  of  salt,  to  be  distilled  when  re- 
quired. Most  of  the  rose  water  now  in  use  is 
prepared  from  the  oil  of  roses.  In  Europe 
the  ripe  hips  of  the  dog  rose  (B.  canina)  are 
used  to  prepare  a  confection  ;  the  hairy  akenes 
being  separated,  the  pulpy  portion,  beaten  up 
with  about  twice  its  weight  of  sugar,  forms 
the  confection  of  dog  rose,  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  conserve  of  roses.  Oil,  attar, 
or  otto  of  roses  is  by  far  the  most  important 
commercial  product  of  the  rose.  (See  ATTAR 
OF  ROSES.) — The  works  on  general  floriculture 
treat  of  the  rose ;  the  leading  special  works 
are:  "The  Book  of  Roses,"  by  Francis  Park- 
man  (Boston,  1866);  "Propagation,  Cultiva- 
tion, and  History  of  the  Rose,"  by  Samuel  B. 
Parsons  (New  York,  1869);  "A  Book  about 
Roses,"  by  S.  Reynolds  Hole  (London,  1870)  ; 
and  "  The  Amateur's  Rose  Book,"  by  Shirley 
Hibberd  (London,  1874). 

ROSE.  I.  Heinrleb,  a  German  chemist,  born 
in  Berlin  in  1795,  died  there,  Jan.  29,  1864. 
His  grandfather, -Valentin  Rose  the  elder,  and 
his  father,  Valentin  Rose  the  younger,  were 
distinguished  chemists.  He  first  devoted  him- 
self to  pharmacy,  studied  in  Berlin,  in  Stock- 
holm in  1819  under  Berzelius,  and  at  Kiel, 
where  he  took  his  degree.  In  1823  he  became 
extraordinary  and  in  1835  ordinary  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Berlin.  His  Handluch  der 
analytischen  Chemie  (Berlin,  1829)  has  obtained 
wide  celebrity.  In  1845  he  discovered  a  new 
metal  in  the  tantalites  of  Bavaria,  which  he 
called  niobium.  (See  COLUMBITJM.)  II.  Gustav, 
a  German  mineralogist,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  in  Berlin,  March  28,  1798,  died 
there,  July  15,  1873.  In  1820  he  took  his  de- 
gree in  Berlin,  in  1821  studied  under  Berzelius 
at  Stockholm,  in  1822  became  keeper  of  the 
mineralogical  collection  in  the  university  of 
Berlin,  and  in  1826  was  made  extraordinary 
and  in  1839  ordinary  professor  of  mineralogy 
there.  He  wrote  Elemente  der  Krystallogra- 
phie  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1838) ;  Uebtr  das  Krys- 
tallisationsystem  des  Quarzes  (1846)  ;  Ueber 
die  Krystallform  der  rhomboedrischen  Metalle 
(1850);  and  Das  Tcrystallochemische  Mineral- 
system  (Leipsic,  1852).  "With  Humboldt  end 
Ehrenberg  he  travelled  through  northern  Asia 
in  1829,  and  published  Seise  nach  dem  Ural, 
dem  Altai  wnd  dem  Kaspischen  Meer  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1837-'42). 

ROSE.  I.  Hugh  James,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Little  Horsted,  Surrey,  in  1795,  died 


438 


KOSE  BAY 


ROSECRANS 


in  Florence,  Italy,  Dec.  22,  1838.  He  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in  1817, 
was  ordained  there  in  1818,  and  in  1825  was 
chosen  select  preacher  of  the  university ;  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  rector  of  St. 
Thomas's,  Southwark.  In  1832  he  founded 
and  edited  the  "  British  Magazine,"  and  in 
1836  became  principal  of  King's  college,  Lon- 
don. Among  his  works  are :  Inscriptions 
GroBCte  Vetustistimce  (8vo,  1825) ;  "  Christian- 
ity always  Progressive  "  (1829)  ;  "  Farmers 
and  Clergy"  (1831);  "Answer  to  the  Case  of 
the  Dissenters"  (1834);  and  Concio  ad  Clerum 
(1835).  He  was  editor  of  the  "Encyclopae- 
dia Metropolitana,"  and  projected  the  "New 
General  Biographical  Dictionary,"  published 
after  his  death.  -  II.  Ilenry  John,  an  English 
author,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1801, 
died  in  Bedford,  Jan.  31,  1873.  He  gradua- 
ted at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  in  1821, 
became  fellow  of  his  college  in  1824,  Hul- 
sean  lecturer  in  1833,  rector  of  Houghton 
Conquest,  Bedfordshire,  in  1837,  and  arch- 
deacon of  Bedford  in  1866.  He  edited  the 
" Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana"  from  1839,  and 
also  the  first  volume  of  "  Rose's  Biographical 
Dictionary;"  translated  Neander's  "  History  of 
the  Christian  Religion  and  Church  during  the 
first  three  centuries"  (2  vols.,  1831;  2d  ed., 
1842);  contributed  one  of  the  essays  in  "Re- 
plies to  Essays  and  Reviews"  (1861);  edited 
in  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Burgon, 
Schnorr's  "  Bible  Prints,"  with  accompany- 
ing letterpress  (1864) ;  and  was  one  of  the  au- 
thors of  "The  Speaker's  Commentary."  He 
also  published  "The  Law  of  Moses  viewed  in 
Connection  with  the  History  and  Character 
of  the  Jews  "  (Hulsean  lectures,  1834),  and  re- 
printed from  the  "Encyclopaedia  Metropoli- 
tana" his  "History  of  the  Christian  Church 
from  1700  to  1858"  (1858). 

ROSE  BAY.  See  RHODODENDRON. 
ROSE  BUG,  a  diurnal  beetle  of  the  melolon- 
thian  group,  the  melolontha  tubspinota  (Fab.) 
or  macrodactylus  sub»pinosu»  (Lat.).  It  is  about 
•^  of  an  inch  long,  buff  yellow  above  and  white 
below,  with  a  slender  body  tapering  before 
and  behind,  entirely  covered  with  very  short 
ashy  yellow  down ;  thorax  angularly  widened 
in  the  middle  of  each  side,  which  suggested  the 
specific  name ;  the  legs  slender,  yellow  or  pale 
red,  with  the  joints  of  the  feet  very  long  and 
tipped  with  black.  This  insect,  one 
of  the  greatest  pests  in  gardens  and 
nurseries,  was  unknown  in  northern 
New  England  until  within  50  years; 
its  annual  appearance  coincides  with 
the  blossoming  of  the  rose,  whence 
the  common  name;  it  attacks  also 
grape  vines,  young  apples  and  other 
fruits,  garden  vegetables,  corn,  forest  trees,  and 
even  grass,  devouring  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit. 
They  arrive  in  swarms  unexpectedly,  and  dis- 
appear as  suddenly;  they  emerge  from  the 
ground  about  the  second  week  in  June,  and 
remain  30  or  40  days,  when  the  males  die,  and 


Rose  Bug. 


the  females  enter  the  earth,  lay  their  eggs,  and 
return  to  the  surface  to  perish ;  the  eggs  are 
about  30,  nearly  globular,  whitish,  ^  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  placed  from  1  to  4  in.  below 
the  surface,  and  hatched  in  20  days.  The  larva? 
begin  at  once  to  feed  on  tender  roots,  and  by 
the  autumn  are  nearly  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
long  and  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter ; 
they  are  yellowish  white,  bluish  toward  the 
posterior  end,  with  a  few  short  hairs;  there 
are  six  short  legs,  a  pair  to  each  of  the  first 
three  rings  behind  the  head,  the  last  part  cov- 
ered with  a  horny  shell  of  a  pale  rust  color ; 
in  October  they  defend  below  the  reach  of 
frost,  and  pass  the  v  inter  in  a  torpid  state ;  in 
the  spring  they  come  toward  the  surface  and 
form  little  shells  of  earth,  within  which  they 
are  transformed  during  May  into  pupa; ;  these 
are  yellowish  white,  with  stump-like  wings, 
legs,  and  antennae  folded  on  the  breast,  and 
the  whole  enclosed  in  a  filmy  skin  which  is 
rent  in  June,  and  the  perfect  beetle  digs  its 
way  to  the  surface.  As  they  are  beyond  reach 
during  the  egg,  larva,  and  pupa  states,  they 
can  only  bo  exterminated  as  perfect  insects ; 
they  are  destroyed  by  crushing,  scalding,  and 
burning,  after  being  shaken  daily  from  the  in- 
fested plants.  They  are  occasionally  found  in 
immense  numbers  on  the  flowers  of  the  worth- 
less whiteweed  (chrysanthemum  leucanthe- 
iii inn) ;  in  this  case  it  is  expedient  to  mow  it, 
and  consume  it  with  them  on  the  spot.  It  is 
said  that  they  never  infest  the  cinnamon  rose. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  insects, 
in  some  places  in  the  west  having  consumed 
year  after  year  the  crop  of  young  apples; 
choice  fruits  in  such  cases  can  only  be  pre- 
served by  covering  them  with  netting.  In- 
sectivorous birds  devour  these  beetles ;  moles 
and  various  predaceous  animals  and  insects 
also  eat  them ;  young  chickens  are  said  some- 
times to  be  killed  by  the  irritation  produced 
by  the  prickly  feet  and  sharp  claws  of  these 
insects  which  they  have  swallowed. — The  Eu- 
ropean rose  chafer  is  another  allied  lamelli- 
corn  beetle,  the  cetonia  aurata  (Fab.). 

ROSECRANS,  William  Starke,  an  American  sol- 
dier, born  at  Kingston,  Ohio,  Sept.  6,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  served  for  a 
year  as  assistant  engineer  in  the  construction 
of  fortifications  at  Hampton  Roads,  Va.  From 
1844  to  1847  he  was  assistant  professor  of 
engineering  and  natural  philosophy  at  West 
Point.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  1854, 
and  became  a  civil  engineer  and  architect  at 
Cincinnati,  was  superintendent  of  a  coal  com- 
pany, and  also  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
kerosene  oil.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war  he  became  voluntary  aide-de-camp  to 
Gen.  McClellan,  who  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Ohio,  and  was  soon  made  briga- 
dier general  of  the  regular  army.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  operations  in  Western 
Virginia,  and  was  put  in  command  of  that  de- 
partment when  McClellan  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  army.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  made 


ROSELLINI 


ROSENKRANZ 


439 


major  general  of  volunteers,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
fought  the  battles  of  luka  (Sept.  19)  and  Cor- 
inth (Oct.  3,  4),  in  both  of  which  he  was  vic- 
torious. In  October  he  was  made  commander 
of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  fought 
against  Gen.  Bragg  the  battle  of  Murfrees- 
borough  or  Stone  river,  Dec.  26,  1862,  to  Jan. 
2,  1863.  Crossing  the  Cumberland  mountains 
and  the  Tennessee  river,  he  was  defeated  by 
Bragg  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  Sept.  19, 
20,  and  was  relieved  from  the  command  and 
succeeded  by  Gen.  Thomas.  In  January,  1864, 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  department 
of  the  Missouri.  He  was  mustered  out  of  the 
volunteer  service  in  1866,  and  resigned  his 
commission  in  the  United  States  army  in  1867. 
In  1868-'9  he  was  for  a  few  months  minister 
to  Mexico. 

ROSELLINI,  Ippolito,  an  Italian  Egyptologist, 
born  in  Pisa,  Aug.  13,  1800,  died  in  Florence, 
June  4,  1843.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  oriental  languages  in  the  university 
of  Pisa.  He  became  a  disciple  of  Champollion 
in  the  study  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and 
when  in  1824-'6  that  scholar  examined  the 
Egyptian  monuments  in  the  capitals  of  Italy, 
Rosellini  attended  him,  and  returned  with  him 
to  Paris.  In  1827  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
Leopold  II.,  sent  him  and  six  companions  to 
explore  the  monuments  of  Egypt ;  and  he 
joined  Champollion's  party  sent  out  at  the 
same  time  by  the  government  of  France  on  a 
similar  expedition.  The  results  of  both  expe- 
ditions were  to  appear  conjointly ;  but  on  the 
death  of  Champollion  in  1832,  Rosellini  took 
sole  charge  of  the  publication,  the  last  volumes 
of  which  were  completed  after  his  death  by 
friends.  After  his  return  to  Pisa  he  was  ap- 
pointed librarian  of  the  university,  and  in  1839 
he  began  a  series  of  archa3ological  lectures ; 
but  in  1841  he  gave  up  all  other  labor  to  de- 
vote himself  to  Egyptology.  His  great  work 
is  entitled  /  monumenti  delV  Egitto  e  della 
Nubia,  (9  vols.  8vo  with  3  vols.  fol.  of  plates, 
Pisa,  1832-'43). 

ROSEMARY  (Lat.  rozmarinm,  dew  of  the  sea, 
the  plant  growing  wild  upon  the  Mediterranean 
coast),  a  genus  of  the  labiate  family,  consist- 
ing of  a  single  species,  rosmarinus  officinalis. 
Rosemary  is  a  shrub  4  or  5  ft.  high,  with  op- 
posite, sessile,  entire,  linear  leaves,  about  an 
inch  long,  which  are  rather  thick,  and  revolute 
on  the  margins,  the  upper  surface  smooth  and 
green,  the  under  side  white-hoary,  with  stel- 
late hairs;  the  pale  blue  flowers  appear  in  the 
axils  of  the  upper  leaves,  and  have  the  struc- 
ture common  to  the  monardice  tribe  of  labi- 
ates to  which  the  genus  belongs.  All  parts  of 
the  plant  have  an  aromatic  odor  and  taste 
due  to  an  essential  oil.  Its  aromatic  quali- 
ties were  known  to  the  ancients,  who  ascribed 
numerous  virtues  to  it ;  in  Europe  it  was  for- 
merly used  in  funeral  as  well  as  marriage  gar- 
lands, it  being  regarded  as  the  herb  of  re- 
membrance and  fidelity,  and  there  were  vari- 


Bosemnry  (Kosina- 
rinus  officinalis). 


ous  superstitions  connected  with  it.  The  Ger- 
mans appear  to  value  it  at  present,  and  the 
florists  near  large  cities  send  to  market  nu- 
merous pots  of  rosemary  each  spring  to  supply 
the. demand.  It  is  not  hardy  north  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  properties  of  rosemary  are  similar 
to  those  of  other  aromatics ; 
it  has  long  had  a  reputation 
as  a  useful  stimulant  for  the 
hair,  and  the  oil  is  still  em- 
ployed to  perfume  hair  wash- 
es. Dried  rosemary  tops  are 
sometimes  kept  in  the  shops, 
but  it  is  principally  used  in 
the  form  of  oil,  which  is  made 
in  considerable  quantities  on 
the  southern  coast  of  France 
an'd  that  of  Italy,  and  largely 
by  persons  who  travel  from 
place  to  place  with  a  rude 
still,  which  they  set  up  in  lo- 
calities where  the  plant  is 
abundant.  The  oil  of  com- 
merce is  much  adulterated ; 
when  pure  it  has  an  agree- 
able odor,  and  is  used  in  some 
kinds  of  perfumery,  and  as 
an  external  stimulant  in  lini- 
ments.— Marsh  rosemary  is 
the  common  name  for  statice 
limonium,  a  perennial  herb 
of  the  plumbaginacece,  the 
large  and  intensely  astringent  root  of  which  is 
often  used  in  domestic  practice. 

ROSEN,  Fried  rich  August,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  in  Hanover,  Sept.  2,  1805,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Sept.  12,  1837.  After  attending  the  gym- 
nasium in  Gottingen,  he  studied  in  Leipsic,  and 
subsequently  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  a  pupil 
of  Bopp.  In  1826  he  published  his  Corporis 
Radicum  Sanscritarum  Prolusio,  subsequently 
enlarged  under  the  title  of  Radices  Sanscritce 
(1827).  In  1829  he  became  professor  of  ori- 
ental languages  in  the  university  of  London, 
which  post  he  exchanged  for  the  professor- 
ship of  Sanskrit.  He  was  also  secretary  to 
the  oriental  translation  committee,  and  hon- 
orary foreign  secretary  to  the  royal  Asiatic 
society.  He  published  in  1831  an  Arabic  trea- 
tise on  mathematics  by  Mohammed  ben  Musa, 
and  wrote  the  oriental  articles  for  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopedia."  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
at  work  on  an  edition  of  the  Pug- Veda,  and 
the  Asiatic  society  published  in  the  following 
year  the  portion  completed  by  him.  He  re- 
vised the  Bengalee,  Sanskrit,  and  English  dic- 
tionary of  Sir  Graves  Haughton. 

ROSENKRANZ,  Johann  Karl  Friedrieh,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  in  Magdeburg,  April 
23,  1805.  He  graduated  at  Halle  in  1828,  and 
was  professor  there  from  1831  to  1833,  and 
subsequently  at  Konigsberg.  He  has  extended 
the  system  of  Hegel,  applying  it  to  all  spheres 
of  thought  and  life.  His  best  known  works 
are:  Psychologic  (Konigsberg,  1837;  3d  ed., 
1863)  ;  Geschichte  der  Kanfschen  Philotophie, 


440 


ROSENMttLLER 


ROSETTA 


forming  the  12th  and  last  volume  of  his  and 
F.  W.  Schubert's  complete  edition  of  Hegel's 
works  (1838-'40);  Studien  (5  vola.,  1839-'47); 
Die  Pddigogik  ah  System  (1848 ;  English  trans- 
lation by  Anna  0.  Brackett,  St.  Louis,  1873) ; 
Die  Wissenschaft  der  logischen  Idee  (2  vols., 
1858-'9);  Diderot's  Leben  und  Werke  (2  vols., 
1866);  HegeVs  Naturphiloaophie  (1868);  Hegel 
als  Nationalphilosoph  (1870 ;  English  transla- 
tion by  G.  S.  Hall,  London,  1874) ;  Von  Mag- 
deburg und  Konigsberg  (1873) ;  and  Neue  Stu- 
dien (1874-'5). 

ROSEXMULLER.  I.  Jolunn  Georc,  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Ummerstadt,  near  Hildburg- 
hausen,  Dec.  18,  1736,  died  in  Leipsic,  March 
14,  1815.  Ho  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Erlangen  in  1775,  at  Giessen  in  1783,  and  at 
Leipsic  in  1785,  and  also  superintendent  of  the 
Lutheran  church.  He  wrote  Religionsgeschichte 
far  Kinder  (1771 ;  10th  ed.,  1827) ;  Christlicher 
Unterricht  far  die  Jugend  (1773 ;  14th  ed., 
1822)  ;  Ilistoria  Interpretation^  Librorum 
Sanctorum  in  Ecclesia  Christiana,  ab  Aposto- 
lorum  jEtate  ad  Literarum  Instaurationem 
(5  parts,  8vo,  1795-1814) ;  and  Scholia  in  No- 
vum  Tettamentum  (6th  ed.,  6  vols.,  1815-'31). 
IL  Ernst  Friedrlrh  Karl,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  Dec.  10,  1768,  died  in  Leipsic,  Sept.  17, 
1835.  He  was  professor  of  oriental  languages 
at  Leipsic,  and  published  Scholia  in  Vetut  Te»- 
tamentum  (23  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1788-1835). 
A  "  Compendium  of  the  Scholia,"  containing 
the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  Job,  and  the  proph- 
ets, was  executed  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Lechner,  with 
the  cooperation  of  the  author,  in  5  vols.  (1828- 
'33).  He  also  wrote  a  Handbuch  der  biblitchen 
Alterthum*knnde  (4  vols.  8vo,  1823-'31). 

ROSE  OF  JERICHO,  a  trivial  name  for  an 
oriental  plant  of  the  cruciferce  or  mustard  fara- 


Eose  of  Jericho  (Anastatlca  hlerochnntina).     The  Dead 
Plant  and  a  Leafy  Branch. 


ily,  anastatica   Tiierochuntina   (Gr.  a 
resurrection),  the  only  species  of  the  genus, 


which  is  found  in  northern  Africa,  Syria,  and 
Arabia.  It  is  an  annual,  and  grows  in  sandy 
wastes;  its  main  stem  is  very  short,  and  its 
branches,  which  are  a  few  inches  long,  spread 
in  all  directions;  it  has  obovate  leaves,  and 
small,  sessile,  white  flowers,  succeeded  by  glo- 
bose pods,  each  of  which  has  two  rounded  ear- 
like  projections.  The  plant  in  flower  during 
the  growing  season  presents  no  unusual  ap- 
pearance, but  as  the  pods  begin  to  ripen  on  the 
approach  of  dry  weather,  the  branches,  which 
were  heretofore  succulent  and  spreading,  drop 
their  leaves,  and  become  hard  and  woody ;  at 
the  same  time  each  branch  curls  inward  from 
the  tip.  and  when  completely  ripe  the  whole 
plant  appears  like  a  ball  of  curious  wickerwork 
at  the  top  of  a  short  stem  ;  most  of  the  root 
dies  away,  and  the  fierce  autumn  wind  readily 
uproots  the  dead  plants,  which  are  rolled  along 
before  it  to  a  great  distance.  Should  the  plant, 
as  it  often  does,  reach  the  sea  or  other  body  of 
water,  or  should  it  be  lodged  somewhere  on 
dry  land  until  a  rain  falls,  then  the  curled  and 
dried  branches,  under  the  influence  of  moisture, 
unbend  and  resume  their  proper  position  ;  the 
pods  open  and  discharge  their  seeds,  it  may  be 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  locality  where  the 
plant  made  its  growth,  illustrating  one  of  the 
many  methods  by  which  the  distribution  of 
plants  is  effected.  In  its  native  country  the 
plant  is  surrounded  by  various  superstitions. 
Besides  rose  of  Jericho,  it  was  called  by  the 
monks  rosa  Maria,  and  in  Palestine  it  is  known 
as  raf  Maryam,  Mary's  flower,  it  being  assert- 
ed that  the  flower,  as  it  is  called,  expands  each 
year  on  the  day  and  hour  of  Christ's  birth. 
The  phenomenon  of  the  so-called  blooming, 
which  is  simply  a  hygrometric  change  of  form, 
may  be  repeated  as  often  as  the  plant  becomes 
dry  and  curls  into  a  ball.  It  is  said  that  wo- 
men in  the  countries  where  it  is  found  place 
the  plant  in  water  at  the  commencement  of 
labor,  hoping  that  the  expansion  may  be  the 
signal  of  their  deliverance.  Other  plants  have 
similar  hygrometric  properties;  this  is  some- 
times called  "  resurrection  plant,"  a  name  also 
given  to  a  still  more  striking  club  moss  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  (See  LYCOPODIUM.) 

ROSE  OF  SHARON.     See  HIBISCUS. 

ROSETTA  (Arabic,  Ra*hi<1\  a  town  and  sea- 
port of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  westerly  or  Ro- 
setta  branch  of  the  Nile,  36  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Alexandria,  and  (5  in.  from  the  Mediterranean 
by  way  of  the  river;  pop.  in  1872,  15,002.  It 
is  about  1^  m.  N.  of  what  is  supposed  to  be 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Bolbitine.  Rosetta  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  attractive  towns 
in  Lower  Egypt.  It  contains  many  beautiful 
gardens,  and  the  houses  are  well  built,  although 
numbers  of  them  have  been  allowed  to  fall  into 
ruin.  The  port  is  secure,  but  is  difficult  of 
entrance,  owing  to  a  shifting  sand  bar.  The 
trilingual  inscription  known  as  the  "  Rosetta 
stone,"  the  key  to  the  discoveries  of  Young 
and  Champollion,  was  found  here.  (See  EGYPT, 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF.) 


ROSEWOOD 


ROSIN 


441 


ROSEWOOD,  the  name  under  which  several 
costly  kinds  of  ornamental  wood  are  found 
in  commerce,  coming  from  different  countries 
and  afforded  by  various  known  and  unknown 
trees  of  different  species  and  families.  Usual- 
ly they  are  of  a  deep  rose  color,  veined  and 
clouded  with  dark  purple,  which  on  exposure 
becomes  nearly  black,  and  have  the  odor  of 
roses,  which  is  especially  manifested  when  the 
wood  is  worked.  The  best  known  rosewoods 
are  from  Brazil  and  other  parts  of  South 
America,  and  are  from  different  species  of 
Dalbergia  and  macharium,  of  the  order  legu- 
minoscB  ;  they  are  imported  in  semi-cylindrical 
slabs,  about  12  ft.  long  and  from  12  to  22  in. 
in  diameter ;  the  bark  is  removed,  and  the 
trunk  split  through  the  centre  in  order  that 
the  quality  of  the  wood  in  the  interior  may  be 
inspected,  as  it  varies  greatly  in  the  fineness 
of  grain ;  varieties  which  come  in  short  cylin- 
drical pieces,  known  as  violet  wood  and  king 
wood,  are  supposed  to  be  from  related  trees. 
African'  and  Burmese  rosewoods  are  from 
species  of  pterocarpus,  of  the  same  family. 
Other  countries  have  rosewoods  produced  by 
trees  of  other  families,  among  which  are  those 
of  Jamaica  afforded  by  species  of  amyris,  of 
the  burseracece,  and  Linociera,  of  the  olive 
family.  Rosewood  is  used  for  the  finer  kinds 
of  furniture  and  cabinet  work,  but  it  has  less 
strength  than  some  less  expensive  woods. — 
Under  the  name  of  oil  of  rosewood  or  oil  of 
rhodium  there  is  found  in  commerce  a  thick 
yellowish  oil,  used  in  perfumery,  especially  to 
adulterate  oil  of  roses,  and  by  fur  trappers  to 
scent  the  bait  of  their  traps;  this  has  been 
erroneously  supposed  to  be  from  the  ordinary 
rosewoods,  but  it  is  obtained  from  what  is 
known  in  French  commerce  as  bois  de  Rhodes, 
or  lignum  rhodium ;  it  is  in  sticks  of  3  or  4 
in.  diameter,  with  a  strong  odor  of  rose.  It 
is  the  stems  and  roots  of  two  species  of  rhodo- 
riza,  of  the  convolvulus  family,  a  genus  con- 
fined to  the  Canary  islands. 

UOSICIUCIAXS,  the  name  of  a  secret  society 
first  known  in  the  17th  century.  In  Chy- 
mische  Hochzeit  Christiani  Rosenkreuz  (1816), 
ascribed  to  J.  V.  Andrese,  there  is  a  story  of 
a  certain  Christian  Rosenkreuz,  a  German  no- 
ble of  the  14th  century,  who  had  spent  a  large 
portion  of  his  life  in  the  East  in  the  pursuit 
of  wisdom.  After  returning  to  Germany  he 
established  a  secret  society,  consisting  of  but 
few  members,  which  met  in  a  building  erected 
by  himself  and  celled  Domus  Sancti  Spiritus, 
wliere  he  died  at  the  age  of  106,  after  ordering 
the  following  words  to  be  inscribed  upon  one 
of  the  doors  of  the  edifice :  Post  CXX  annos 
patebo.  The  spot  where  he  was  buried  was 
kept  secret,  and  new  members  were  silently 
admitted  from  time  to  time  to  keep  up  the 
numbers  of  the  society.  In  the  "  Revelation 
of  the  Fraternity  of  the  Holy  Cross  to  the 
Learned  of  Europe,"  a  declaration  was  made 
that  the  order  had  no  intention  of  interfering 
with  the  religious  or  political  action  of  states, 


but  only  desired  the  improvement  of  mankind 
by  the  discovery  of  the  true  philosophy  ;  and 
that  meetings  were  held  once  a  year  to  admit 
new  members,  and  to  deliberate  upon  secret 
matters.  Whether  such  a  fraternity  ever  ex- 
isted, except  in  the  brain  of  the  author  of  the 
above  mentioned  works,  is  an  open  question ; 
but  the  impression  that  it  existed  gave  rise  to 
fraternities  that  spread  over  Europe,  and  the 
term  Rosicrucian  came  to  be  applied  to  all 
kinds  of  occult  skill.  The  fraternity  had  not 
been  heard  of  for  a  long  period,  when  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century  interest  in  them 
was  revived,  especially  by  Cagliostro,  who  pre- 
tended that  he  was  a  Rosicrucian. — See  J. 
G.  Buhle's  Ueber  den  Ursprung  und  die  vor- 
nehmsten  Schiclcsale  der  Orden  der  Rosen- 
kreuzer  und  Freimaurer  (Gottingen,  1804). 

ROSIN,  the  residue  after  the  distillation  of 
the  volatile  oil  from  the  turpentine  of  differ- 
ent species  of  pines.  It  is  rather  an  incidental 
product  of  the  preparation  of  the  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, which,  though  amounting  to  only  10  to 
25  per  cent,  of  the  turpentine  (and  the  rosin 
constituting  the  large  remainder),  is  by  far  the 
most  valuable  product.  (See  TURPENTINE.) 
The  rosin  while  still  liquid  is  drawn  off  into 
metallic  receivers  coated  with  whiting  to  pre- 
vent adhesion,  and  from  these  it  is  transferred 
to  the  casks  for  shipment.  When  the  distilla- 
tion is  stopped  at  the  proper  point,  the  pro- 
duct is  the  yellow  rosin,  which  contains  a  lit- 
tle water ;  or  this  may  be  expelled,  and  the 
product  is  then  transparent  rosin.  By  continu- 
ing the  heat  the  residue  in  the  stills  is  made 
brown  or  black,  a  variety  which  in  Europe  is 
sometimes  known  as  colophony.  Rosin  melts 
at  276°  F.,  and  becomes  completely  liquid  at 
806°  ;  at  316°  it  emits  bubbles  of  gas,  and  at  a 
red  heat  it  is  entirely  decomposed.  Its  specific 
gravity  varies  from  1'OY  to  T08.  It  is  insolu- 
ble in  water,  but  dissolves  easily  in  alcohol, 
ether,  wood  spirit,  and  both  fixed  and  volatile 
oils.  Strong  acids  dissolve  and  decompose  it. 
Chemically  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  mixture 
of  several  resinous  acids,  viz. :  picric,  which 
forms  the  principal  part,  sylvic,  and  colopholic ; 
sometimes  also  pimaric  acid.  These  acids  are 
isomeric,  having  a  common  formula,  CsoEUoOs. 
They  are  perhaps  formed  by  oxidation  of  oil 
of  turpentine.  When  quickly  heated  in  a  re- 
tort, it  distils  partly  undecomposed,  and  part- 
ly resolved  into  gases  and  volatile  oils,  leav- 
ing a  small  residue  of  carbonaceous  matter. 
When  the  distillation  is  performed  on  a  larger 
scale,  the  gases  evolved  are  air,  carbonic  acid, 
carbonic  oxide,  and  carbides  of  hydrogen ;  at 
a  higher  temperature  the  oxygen  disappears. 
The  first  portion  of  the  liquid  distillate  is  yel- 
low and  mobile ;  later  a  viscid,  fluorescent  oil 
passes  over,  called  rosin  oil.  At  a  red  heat 
rosin  yields  a  mixture  of  gases,  burning  with 
a  very  luminous  flame,  which  are  largely  used 
in  villages  and  isolated  buildings  instead  of 
coal  gas. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
bleach  the  common  sorts  of  rosin,  which  would 


442 


ROS1NI 


ROSS 


add  materially  to  their  value.  By  the  process 
of  Messrs.  Hunt  and  Pochin,  the  rosin  is  dis- 
tilled at  a  temperature  below  that  by  which 
it  would  be  decomposed,  the  process  being 
conducted  with  steam  under  a  pressure  of  ten 
atmospheres.  The  maximum  temperature  al- 
lowed is  about  600°.  The  rosin  and  steam  are 
collected  and  condensed  in  a  suitable  receiver 
kept  as  cold  as  possible  by  the  application  of 
water,  and  free  from  the  moisture  of  the  con- 
densed steam.  Instead  of  steam,  carbonic  acid, 
or  a  mixture  of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen, 
or  hydrogen  gas,  &c.,  is  introduced  to  decolor 
the  rosin.  The  product  is  white  and  almost 
transparent,  and  is  greatly  preferred  to  the 
crude  article  by  soap  and  varnish  makers. — 
Rosin  is  employed  for  a  variety  of  useful  pur- 
poses. It  is  an  ingredient  in  varnishes,  and  is 
united  with  tallow  in  the  preparation  of  cheap 
candles.  It  answers  to  some  extent  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  fixed  oil  or  fat  in  the  manufacture 
of  yellow  soap ;  but,  without  glycerine  in  its 
composition,  it  possesses  no  true  saponifying 
properties.  (See  SOAP.)  Rosin  is  also  used 
in  perfumery,  and  in  various  pharmaceutical 
preparations,  as  plasters  and  ointments.  In 
caulking  the  seams  of  ships  it  is  used  in  a 
melted  state  to  fill  them,  and  by  oakum  makers 
it  is  intermixed  in  a  pulverized  state  with  the 
oakum  to  increase  its  weight.  It  enters  into 
the  composition  of  some  fireworks,  and  is  used 
as  a  reducing  agent  in  soldering.  Another 
well  known  use  of  it  is  for  covering  the  bows 
of  violins,  to  prevent  them  from  slipping  over 
the  strings  without  producing  vibration.  In 
France  rosin  oil  is  largely  used  as  an  ingredi- 
ent in  printers'  ink,  and  elsewhere  in  the  com- 
position of  coarse  lubricating  oils.  Nearly  all 
the  rosin  of  commerce  is  furnished  by  North 
America. 

ROSIM,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  author,  born  at 
Lucignano,  Tuscany,  June  24,  1776,  died  in 
Pisa,  May  16,  1855.  He  became  in  1803  pro- 
fessor of  Italian  literature  at  the  university  of 
Pisa.  He  prepared  new  editions  of  Guicciar- 
dini's  Storia  <VItalia  (10  vols.,  1819-'20),  and 
of  Tasso's  works  (33  vols.,  1821-'32).  He 
wrote  the  novels  La  monaca  di  Monza  (3  vols., 
1829)  and  Luisa  Strozzi  (4  vols.,  1833),  Storia 
delta  pittnra  italiana  (2d  ed.,  7  vols.,  1848- 
'52),  and  other  works. 

ROSIN  WEED.     See  SILPHIUM. 

RO.SKILDE,  a  town  of  Denmark,  in  the  island 
of  Seeland,  on  a  branch  of  the  Issefiord,  20 
m.  "W.  by  S.  of  Copenhagen;  pop.  about  5,000. 
It  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom,  but 
ceased  to  be  a  royal  residence  in  1443.  The 
cathedral,  dating  from  1084,  is  the  largest  and 
finest  in  Denmark,  and  contains  more  than  70 
tombs  of  Danish  kings  and  members  of  the 
royal  family.  Outside  of  the  town  is  the  large 
lunatic  asylum,  called  Bidstrup,  belonging  to 
the  city  of  Copenhagen.  Charles  X.  (Gusta- 
vus)  of  Sweden,  after  several  victories  over 
Frederick  III.  of  Denmark,  concluded  a  treaty 
here  in  March,  1658. 


ROSMIM  SERBATI,  Antonio,  an  Italian  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Roveredo,  March  24,  1797, 
died  at  Stresa,  July  1,  1855.  He  took  priest's 
orders  at  the  age  of  24,  and  in  1827  published 
his  Introduzione  alia  Jilosofia,  followed  in  1829 
by  //  nuoto  saggio  sulV  origine  delle  idee.  In 
1828  he  founded  "  the  brethren  of  charity,"  a 
religious  order,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
pope  in  1839.  In  1836  he  became  abbot  of  San 
Michele  della  Chiusa,  where  he  founded  "  the 
sisters  of  Providence."  In  1848  Pius  IX.  nom- 
inated him  to  the  cardinalate ;  but  on  account 
of  his  work  on  church  government  and  re- 
form, Cinque  piaghe  della  tanta  chiesa  ("  Five 
Wounds  of  the  Church  "),  and  one  of  his  polit- 
ical tracts,  La  costituzione  secondo  la  giustizia 
sociale,  he  was  not  confirmed,  and  the  books 
were  put  upon  the  catalogue  of  the  Index  Ex- 
purgatorius.  His  published  works  amounted 
to  35  volumes,  14  being  posthumous.  Father 
Lockhart  published  a  memoir  of  Rosmini  in 
1856,  and  Vincenzo  Garelli  another  in  1861. 
(See  PHILOSOPHY,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  440.) 

ROSNY,  Leon  de,  a  French  orientalist,  born 
at  Loos,  department  of  Le  Nord,  Aug.  5,  1837. 
He  studied  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed  in  1863 
interpreter  of  the  Japanese  ambassadors  to  the 
European  courts.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  Japanese  at  the  special  school 
of  oriental  languages  in  Paris.  He  is  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Asiatic  society,  and  is  the 
founder  of  the  society  of  American  and  orien- 
tal ethnography.  He  has  published  treatises 
on  the  Semitic  languages  and  their  history, 
figurative  and  hieroglyphical  writing,  the  Co- 
rean  language,  text  books  for  learning  Japa- 
nese, Dictionnaire  des  signet  ideographiques  de 
la  Chine  (5  parts,  1864-'7),  fitiides  asiatiquea 
de  geographic  et  d'histoire  (1864),  &c. 

ROSS,  a  S.  county  of  Ohio,  intersected  by 
Scioto  river  and  drained  by  Paint  creek ;  area, 
about  650  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  87,097.  It 
has  a  diversified  surface,  and  the  soil,  espe- 
cially in  the  valley  of  the  Scioto,  is  very  fer- 
tile. It  is  intersected  by  the  Marietta  and 
Cincinnati  railroad,  and  by  the  Ohio  and  Erie 
canal.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
327,858  bushels  of  wheat,  2,313,529  of  Indian 
corn,  99,983  of  oats,  98,134  of  potatoes,  9,868 
tons  of  hay,  4,048  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  85,402  of 
wool,  334,391  of  butter,  and  24,191  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  8,035  horses, 
5,532  milch  cows,  14,258  other  cattle,  24,411 
sheep,  and  53,926  swine  ;  23  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  railroad  cars,  2  of 
iron  castings,  18  of  leather,  3  of  liquors,  10  of 
lumber,  1  of  engines  and  boilers,  2  of  paper, 
15  of  saddlery  and  harness,  10  flour  mills,  and 
5  woollen  mills.  Capital,  Chillicothe. 

ROSS,  a  county  of  Scotland.  See  Ross  AND 
CROMARTY. 

ROSS,  Alexander  Milton,  a  Canadian  naturalist, 
born  at  Belleville,  Ontario,  Dec.  13,  1832.  He 
was  educated  as  a  physician,  and  has  collected 
a  male  and  a  female  specimen  of  every  bird, 
native  or  migratory,  in  the  Dominion,  num- 


ROSS 


ROSS  AND  CROMARTY        443 


bering  323  distinct  species;  his  collection  in 
entomology  numbers  more  than  10,000  species; 
and  his  botanical  collection  comprises  620  va- 
rieties of  flowering  plants  native  to  Canada. 
He  has  published  "Birds  of  Canada"  (1871), 
and  "  Butterflies  and  Moths  of  Canada"  (1872). 

ROSS,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  born  in  New  Castle,  Del.,  in 
1730,  died  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  July,  1779. 
He  commenced  the  practice  of  Jaw  at  Lancas- 
ter in  1751,  and  was  a  member  of  the  colonial 
assembly  of  Pennsylvania  from  1768  to  1776; 
and  after  the-  substitution  for  the  legislature 
of  the  general  convention,  he  was  elected  to 
that  body  also.  In  1774  he  was  one  of  the 
committee  of  seven  who  represented  Pennsyl- 
vania in  the  continental  congress,  and  he  re- 
mained a  member  of  congress  till  January, 
1777.  In  April,  1779,  he  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  court  of  admiralty. 

ROSS.  I.  Sir  John,  a  British  navigator,  born 
at  Balsarroch,  Scotland,  June  24,  1777,  died  in 
London,  Aug.  30,  1856.  He  served  as  a  vol- 
unteer in  the  British  navy  from  1786  to  1791, 
after  which  for  several  years  he  was  in  the 
merchant  service.  In  1799  he  became  a  mid- 
shipman, and  in  1805  a  lieutenant.  The  next 
year  he  received  severe  wounds  in  a  desperate 
engagement,  for  which  two  years  later  he  was 
pensioned.  He  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Briseis  in  1812,  and  subsequently 
to  that  of  other  vessels.  On  April  25,  1818, 
he  set  sail  from  the  Thames  in  the  Isabella, 
the  larger  of  two  vessels  sent  out  to  settle  the 
question  of  a  northwest  passage,  accompanied 
by  Lieut.  Parry  in  the  Alexander.  (See  AKO- 
TIO  DISCOVERT.)  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  post  captain  on  his  return,  and  pub- 
lished an  account  of  his  voyage.  In  1829  he 
made  a  second  voyage  to  the  arctic  regions, 
in  a  badly  constructed  steamship  called  the 
Victory,  equipped  at  the  expense  of  Mr.  (after- 
ward Sir  Felix)  Booth,  a  distiller  of  London, 
and  accompanied  by  a  small  tender  of  16  tons, 
called  the  Krusenstern.  He  was  frozen  up  in 
the  ice  for  four  years,  and  was  finally  rescued 
with  his  crew  by  the  Isabella,  then  on  a  whaling 
voyage,  in  August,  1833,  after  abandoning  his 
ship  in  April,  1832.  In  1834  he  was  knighted. 
From  1839  to  1845  he  was  consul  at  Stock- 
holm. In  1850  he  went  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  in  a  vessel  of  90  tons,  and  remained 
one  winter  in  the  ice.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
rear  admiral  July  8,  1851.  He  published  "A 
Voyage  of  Discovery  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1819),  "A  Narrative  of  a  Second  Voyage"  (2 
vols.  4to,  1835-'6),  and  "A  Treatise  on  Navi- 
gation by  Steam"  (4to,  1828).  II.  Sir  James 
Clark,  a  British  navigator,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  London,  April  15,  1800,  died 
at  Aylesbury,  Buckinghamshire,  April  3, 1862. 
At  the  age  of  12  he  entered  the  navy  as  a  vol- 
unteer on  board  the  Briseis,  then  commanded 
by  his  uncle.  He  accompanied  Capt.  Ross  in 
1818  as  midshipman  on  his  first  arctic  voyage, 
was  an  officer  under  Parry  in  his  four  voyages 


between  1819  and  1827,  and  was  promoted 
while  absent  on  the  second  voyage  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant.  In  1827,  on  his  return  from 
the  fourth  voyage,  he  received  a  commission 
as  commander.  He  accompanied  his  uncle's 
'second  expedition,  1829-'33,  and  in  1834  was 
made  post  captain.  In  1835  he  again  visited 
Baffin  bay  to  search  for  some  missing  whale 
ships,  and  after  his  return  was  employed  for 
several  years  in  a  magnetic  survey  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  In  1839  he  commanded 
the  Erebus,  to  which,  with  the  Terror,  Com- 
mander Crozier,  was  assigned  the  duty  of  ex- 
ploring the  Antarctic  ocean.  In  this  voyage, 
which  occupied  four  years,  he  made  many  val- 
uable discoveries.  He  made  an  independent 
discovery  of  the  antarctic  continent,  which 
Commander  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.,  had  a  few 
months  before  discovered  and  traced  at  a  dif- 
ferent point,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Victoria 
Land;  a  volcano,  12,000  ft.  high,  was  named 
Mt.  Erebus  from  his  vessel.  He  returned  in 
1843,  and  in  1844  was  knighted.  In  1848  he 
was  appointed  to  the  Enterprise,  and  made  a 
voyage  as  far  as  Barrow  strait  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin.  His  only  published  work  is 
"A  Voyage  of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the 
Southern  and  Antarctic  Regions  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1847). 

ROSS,  John,  or  Kooweskoowe,  a  chief  of  the 
Cherokee  Indians,  born  in  the  Cherokee  coun- 
try, Georgia,  about  1790,  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  Aug.  1,  1866.  He  was  a  half-breed, 
and  at  an  early  age  had  acquired  a  good  Eng- 
lish education.  He  became  principal  chief  of 
the  Cherokees  in  1828.  In  1835  a  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Ma- 
jor Ridge,  his  son  John  Ridge,  Elias  Boudinot, 
and  about  600  other  Cherokee  Indians,  by 
which  they  agreed  to  surrender  their  lands  and 
remove  west  within  two  years.  Against  this 
treaty  Ross  and  over  15,000  of  his  tribe  pro- 
tested in  an  appeal  written  by  Ross  and  ad- 
dressed to  the  president  of  the  United  States. 
But  the  government  sent  a  force  to  compel  the 
fulfilment  of  the  treaty,  and  the  Cherokees 
removed  to  their  new  home.  Ross  continued 
to  be  the  principal  chief,  and  in  1861  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  seceding  states. 

ROSS,  Sir  William  Charles,  an  English  paint- 
er, born  in  London,  June  3,  1794,  died  there, 
Jan.  20, 1860.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  min- 
iature painter  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  in  1842 
he  was  knighted.  He  early  abandoned  his- 
torical for  miniature  painting,  but  he  prepared 
in  1842  a  fine  cartoon  for  the  new  houses  of 
parliament.  Among  his  original  paintings  is 
"The  Judgment  of  Solomon." 

ROSS  AND  CROMARTY,  two  N.  counties  of 
Scotland,  which,  being  politically  connected, 
are  generally  treated  under  one  head.  They 
border  on  Sutherland,  Inverness,  the  North 
sea,  and  the  Atlantic;  area,  including  the  N. 
portion  of  the  island  of  Lewis,  one  of  the 
Hebrides,  which  belongs  to  Ross,  3,151  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  80,909.  Both  coasts  are 


444 


ROSSANO 


ROSSETTI 


indented  with  numerous  bays  and  excellent 
harbors.  There  are  several  lakes,  of  which  the 
largest  is  Loch  Maree,  12  ra.  long.  The  gen- 
eral surface  is  mountainous,  some  peaks  reach- 
ing a  height  of  3,500  ft.  and  upward.  The 
scenery  is  remarkably  wild  and  romantic.  The' 
fisheries  employ  upward  of  20,000  hands.  Im- 
proved breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  exten- 
sively reared.  Numerous  plantations  of  trees 
have  been  formed  within  the  present  centu- 
ry, and  parts  formerly  bare  are  now  covered 
with  extensive  forests.  These  counties  con- 
tain many  remains  of  antiquity.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  Tain,  Dingwall,  and  Cromarty. 

ROSSANO  (anc.  Rotcianum),  a  town  of  S. 
Italy,  about  3  m.  from  the  gulf  of  Taranto, 
in  the  province  and  28  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Cosenza;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  built  upon 
a  rocky  hill  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  and 
surrounded  by  deep  precipices.  It  is  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  lino  cathedral,  a 
castle,  and  a  trade  in  oil,  capers,  and  saffron. 
During  the  Gothic  wars  the  ancient  Roscianum 
was  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  Bruttium. 

ROSSBACH,  a  village  of  Prussian  Saxony,  17 
m.  8.  by  W.  of  Halle,  celebrated  as  the  scene 
of  the  victory  of  Frederick  the  Great  over 
the  combined  French  and  imperial  army,  com- 
manded by  the  prince  do  Soubise,  Nov.  5, 1757. 
The  army  of  Frederick  numbered  only  half 
of  that  of  his  opponents,  the  French  being 
officered  by  noblemen  who  regarded  the  expe- 
dition as  a  pleasure  excursion.  Emboldened 
by  his  having  retired  from  before  the  duke 
do  Broglie's  camp  at  Muhlhausen,  the  French 
and  imperial  army  left  a  strong  position  to  at- 
tack Frederick  without  having  made  a  recon- 
noissance;  but  they  were  themselves  attacked 
by  surprise,  and,  though  but  one  wing  of  the 
Prussians  was  engaged,  soon  broke  and  fled  in 
the  utmost  disorder,  leaving  their  whole  artil- 
lery and  baggage  and  7,000  prisoners  in  the 
hands  of  the  victor. 

ROSSE,  \\  illi  tm  Parsons,  earl  of,  a  British  as- 
tronomer, born  in  York,  June  17,  1800,  died 
at  Parsonstown,  Ireland,  Oct.  31,  1867.  He 
graduated  at  Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  in  1822. 
From  1821  to  1884,  under  the  title  of  Lord 
Oxmantown,  he  represented  King's  county, 
Ireland,  in  parliament.  At  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1841  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage, 
and  in  1845  was  elected  one  of  the  repre- 
sentative peers  for  Ireland.  He  voted  with 
the  liberal  party.  In  1826  he  erected  upon 
the  grounds  of  his  residence,  Birr  castle,  near 
Parsonstown,  an  observatory  for  which  in- 
struments were  made  under  his  special  direc- 
tion. The  most  important  was  the  enormous 
reflecting  telescope,  finished  about  1844  at  a 
cost  of  about  $60,000 ;  it  has  an  aperture  of  6 
ft.  and  a  focus  of  53  ft.,  and  is  no\v  the  most 
powerful  reflector  in  the  world  as  far  as  great 
space-penetrating  capacity  is  concerned.  It 
has  been  of  especial  use  in  resolving  nebulas, 
for  which  it  was  in  great  measure  designed. 
In  1843  Lord  Rosse  was  made  president  of 


the  British  association.  He  was  elected  to  the 
astronomical  society  in  1824,  and  to  the  royal 
society  in  1831.  From  1849  to  1854  he  was 
president  of  the  royal  society.  During  the 
last  six  years  of  his  life  he  was  chancellor  of 
Trinity  college,  Dublin. 

ROSSEL,  Louis  Nathaniel,  a  French  soldier,  born 
in  St.  Brieuc,  department  of  C6tes-du-Nord, 
in  1844,  shot  at  Satory,  near  Versailles,  Nov. 
28,  1871.  He  graduated  at  the  school  of 
engineers  in  Paris,  and  became  first  lieuten- 
ant in  1860.  In  1870,  while  on  the  staff  of 
the  commander  of  the  city  of  Metz,  he  con- 
spired against  Bazaine,  who  had  him  arrested. 
He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans,  but 
escaped  and  was  made  colonel  by  Gambetta, 
took  part  in  the  campaign  of  the  Loire,  and 
next  organized  the  camp  of  Nevers.  He  re- 
signed to  join  the  commune,  and  was  made 
chief  engineer  of  a  legion,  but  was  arrested 
after  the  disastrous  operations  of  April  2-3. 
He  was  released  at  the  instance  of  Cluseret, 
who  placed  him  at  the  head  of  his  staff,  and 
v/hom  he  succeeded  on  May  1  as  delegate  for 
war  ;  but  in  less  than  ten  days  he  tendered  his 
resignation  in  a  letter  in  which  he  severely 
criticised  the  commune.  Ho  was  again  arrest- 
ed, and  escaped  only  to  be  captured  by  the 
Versailles  troops.  After  several  trials  he  was 
ultimately  executed  despite  the  general  sym- 
pathy expressed  for  him  at  home  and  abroad. 
A  select  edition  of  his  writings  (Papiers  pos- 
thumes)  was  edited  by  Jules  Amigue  (Paris, 
1871 ;  English  translation,  London,  1872).  His 
biography  has  been  written  by  M.  E.  Gers- 
pach  (Paris,  1873). 

ROSSETTI.  I.  Gabrielf,  an  Italian  poet,  born 
in  the  Abruzzi,  March  1,  1783,  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  26,  1854.  He  was  director  of  the 
museum  of  Naples  from  1814  to  1821,  when 
he  was  exiled,  and  in  1824  he  settled  in  Eng- 
land. He  was  professor  of  Italian  literature 
at  King's  college,  London,  from  1831  to  1845, 
when  he  became  blind  and  resigned  his  chair. 
He  published  Commento  analitico  sulla  1)1- 
vina  Commedia  (1826-'7);  Sullo  spirito  anti- 
papale  (1832)  •  II  mistero  delV  amor  platoni- 
co  svelato  (1840);  and  La  Beatrice  del  Dante. 
According  to  his  theory,  Dante  and  his  con- 
temporaries adopted  a  peculiar  idiom  to  veil 
their  aversion  for  the  papacy,  and  introduced 
a  woman  as  the  special  object  of  their  adora- 
tion to  symbolize  true  Christianity.  Rosset- 
ti's  poetical  works  include  Dio  e  Vuomo  (1840), 
II  veggente  in  tolitudine  (1843),  Poesie  (1847), 
and  L'Arpa  evangelica  (1852).  II.  Dante  Gabriel, 
an  English  artist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
London  in  1828.  He  studied  at  King's  col- 
lege, London,  and  contributed  designs  to  an 
illustrated  edition  of  Tennyson's  poems.  In 
1849  he  exhibited  "  The  Girlhood  of  the  Vir- 
gin," a  picture  in  the  pre-Raphaelite  style,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  promoters, 
and  in  1858  at  the  Liverpool  academy  three 
water-color  paintings  entitled  "  A  Christmas 
Carol,"  "The  Wedding  of  St.  George,"  and 


ROSSI 


EOSSINI 


445 


"Dante's  Dream  on  the  Day  of  the  Death 
of  Beatrice."  His  "  Fair  Rosamond "  was 
exhibited  at  the  Scottish  academy  in  1860. 
He  has  published  "  The  Early  Italian  Poets," 
translations  from  Dante  and  his  predecessors 
(London,  1861 ;  revised  ed.,  "  Dante  and  his 
Circle,"  1874),  and  a  volume  of  "Poems" 
(1870).  III.  Christina  Gabriella,  an  English  poet- 
ess, sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in 
December,  1830.  Her  publications  are :  "Gob- 
lin Market,  and  other  Poems"  (1862);  "The 
Prince's  Progress,  and  other  Poems"  (1866); 
"Commonplace,  and  other  short  Stories  in 
Prose  "  (1870)  ;  "  Sing-Song,  a  Nursery  Rhyme 
Book"  (1872);  and  "Speaking  Likenesses" 
and  "  Annus  Domini "  (1874). 

ROSSI,  Giovanni  Battista  de',  an  Italian  archae- 
ologist, born  in  Rome,  Feb.  23,  1822.  He  be- 
came celebrated  by  his  discoveries  in  the  cata- 
combs, an  account  of  which  he  is  publishing  in 
two  works.  The  first  is  to  be  a  complete  col- 
lection of  all  the  Christian  inscriptions,  amount- 
ing to  more  than  11,000,  of  which  a  folio  vol- 
ume, containing  1,374,  appeared  in  1861,  enti- 
tled Inscriptiones  Christian®  Urbis  Roma  sep- 
timo  Sceculo  antiquiores;  the  other  is  a  gen- 
eral work  called  Roma  sotteranea  cristiana,  of 
which  vol.  i.  appeared  in  1866.  He  is  also 
editor  of  the  Bollettino  di  Archeologia. 

ROSSI,  Pellegrino,  count,  an  Italian  statesman, 
born  in  Carrara,  July  13,  1787,  assassinated  in 
Kome,  Nov.  15,  1848.  Until  the  overthrow  of 
the  French  rule  in  Italy  he  taught  law.  at  Bo- 
logna. Removing  to  Geneva  in  1814,  he  be- 
came professor  of  law  there,  and  a  member  of 
the  council  and  of  the  diet,  where  he  advocated 
centralization.  While  on  a  mission  in  Paris 
he  found  a  patron  in  Guizot,  and  in  1834 
received  the  chair  of  political  economy  in  the 
college  de  France  and  of  public  law  in  the 
faculty  of  law.  Louis  Philippe  made  him  a 
peer  in  1839,  and  in  1845  sent  him  as  ambas- 
sador to  Rome.  He  first  favored  and  then,  by 
order  of  Louis  Philippe,  endeavored  to  check 
the  reformatory  policy  of  Pius  IX.  During 
the  revolution  of  1848  the  pope  appointed  him 
prime  minister  (Sept.  16),  and  he  aimed  to  es- 
tablish a  confederation  of  Italian  states.  While 
going  to  attend  the  opening  of  parliament,  he 
was  surrounded  by  a  crowd,  and  killed  with  a 
stiletto.  His  principal  work  is  a  Traite  du 
droit  penal  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1829). 

ROSSINI,  Gioacchino,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Pesaro,  Feb.  29,  1792,  died  in  Paris,  Nov. 
13,  1868.  His  parents  were  members  of  a 
strolling  operatic  company,  and  at  10  years  of 
age  he  played  the  second  horn  in  the  orchestra, 
his  father  playing  the  first.  Soon  afterward  he 
was  placed  with  Angelo  Tesei,  a  music  teacher 
in  Bologna,  under  whose  instructions  he  devel- 
oped a  soprano  voice  of  great  purity  and  com- 
pass ;  and  at  14  he  was  able  to  sing  at  sight 
any  piece  of  music  placed  before  him.  After 
being  for  several  years  a  chorister  in  the  Bo- 
lognese  churches,  and  occasionally  chorus  mas- 
ter in  provincial  theatres,  he  was  induced  in 


1807  by  the  breaking  of  his  voice  to  enter  the 
lyceum  of  Bologna,  where  he  was  instructed 
in  counterpoint  by  the  abbate  Mattei.  Hear- 
ing his  master  say  that  simple  counterpoint 
would  suffice  for  ordinary  stage  composition, 
he  left  the  school,  studied  the  works  of  the 
principal  opera  writers,  giving  especial  atten- 
tion to  Mozart,  and  at  18  years  of  age,  having 
tried  his  hand  at  some  minor  pieces,  produced 
his  first  dramatic  work,  La  cambiale  di  ma- 
trimonio,  an  operetta  performed  with  moder- 
ate success  at  the  theatre  San  Mose  in  Venice. 
His  Demetrio  e  Polibio,  produced  in  Rome  in 
1811,  is  said  to  have  been  written  two  years 
earlier.  In  1812  he  composed  five  operas,  all 
of  which,  with  the  exception  of  Ulnganno 
felice,  speedily  sank  into  oblivion.  In  the 
succeeding  year  he  appeared  before  the  Vene- 
tians with  three  operas,  one  of  which,  Tancredi, 
excited  an  enthusiasm  almost  without  a  parallel 
in  the  history  of  music,  and  within  three  years 
found  its  way  into  every  musical  theatre  of 
Europe  and  America.  Of  the  remaining  operas 
composed  in  1813,  ISItaliana  in  Algien  was 
almost  equally  successful,  and  with  Tancredi 
still  holds  possession  of  the  stage.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  produced  at  Milan  Aureliano 
in  Palmira  and  II  Turco  in  Italia,  the  latter 
of  which  is  still  frequently  performed;  and 
in  1815  Elisabetta  regina  d*  Inghilterra  for 
the  San  Carlo  theatre  of  Naples,  where  he  also 
accepted  an  engagement  as  musical  director. 
In  1816  his  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,  probably  the 
most  admirable  specimen  of  the  Italian  opera 
buffa  in  existence,  was  performed  in  Rome  du- 
ring the  carnival  with  a  success  which,  after  the 
lapse  of  more  than  half  a  century,  has  suffered 
no  diminution.  According  to  Manuel  Garcia, 
for  whom  the  Barbiere  was  written,  the  great- 
er part  of  it  was  composed  in  eight  days.  In 
1816-'l7  he  composed  for  the  San  Carlo  and 
other  theatres  seven  or  more  operas,  three  of 
which,  Otello,  La  Cenerentola,  and  La  gazza 
ladra,  -are  yet  standard  favorites — the  first  a 
striking  example  of  his  forcible  style,  and  the 
second  of  his  skill  in  producing  florid  embel- 
lishments. His  Mose  in  Egitto  (1818)  ranks 
among  the  author's  finest  serious  compositions. 
Within  the  next  few  years  were  produced  La 
donna  del  lago,  Maometto  Secondo,  Zelmira,  and 
a  number  of  minor  works,  showing  a  gradual 
increase  of  power  in  harmony  and  instrumen- 
tal effects,  with  no  loss  of  melodic  beauty.  In 
1821  he  married  Mile.  Colbran,  prima  donna 
at  the  San  Carlo,  for  whom  many  of  his  parts 
were  written.  With  her  he  went  the  same 
year  to  Vienna  to  direct  the  production  of 
his  Zelmira,  in  which  his  wife  took  part.  Re- 
turning to  Venice  in  1823,  he  took  leave  of 
the  Italian  stage  with  the  opera  Semiramide, 
the  most  elaborate  of  his  works  up  to  that 
period.  In  1824  he  visited  London  with  his 
wife  under  an  engagement  to  compose  an  opera 
for  the  king's  theatre.  An  indolent  careless- 
ness now  took  the  place  of  his  former  activity, 
he  neglected  his  duties,  failed  to  produce  his 


446 


ROSSINI 


ROSTOPTCIIIN 


promised  opera,  and  made  the  season  ruinous 
to  the  lessees  of  the  theatre.  But  his  visit  was 
profitable  to  himself,  and  he  left  England  with 
£10,000,  derived  principally  from  concerts  ar- 
ranged for  him  by  the  leaders  of  fashionable 
society  at  enormous  prices  of  admission.  Go- 
ing to  Paris,  he  accepted  the  post  of  director 
of  the  Italian  opera,  an  office  which  he  held  till 
1830,  with  little  increase  of  professional  celeb- 
rity, but  with  considerable  profit.  For  three 
years  he  composed  nothing  new  except  a  slight 
piece  called  //  xiaggio  a  Rheims,  a  portion  of 
which  was  reproduced  in  a  graceful  French 
opera  entitled  Le  comte  Ory ;  but  several  of 
his  former  works  were  brought  out  with  suc- 
cess, including  his  Maometto  under  the  title  of 
Le  siege  de  Corinthe.  In  1829  he  produced 
Guillaume  Tell,  generally  considered  his  mas- 
terpiece in  serious  composition,  a  work  abound- 
ing in  beautiful  melodies  and  in  rich  and  varied 
instrumentation,  but  so  different  in  style  from 
any  of  his  previous  operas  that  it  seems  the 
creation  of  another  mind.  With  this  work,  at 
the  ago  of  37  and  in  the  prime  of  his  powers, 
he  voluntarily  closed  his  career  as  a  dramatic 
composer ;  and  for  many  years  he  wrote  noth- 
ing with  the  exception  of  his  Stabat  Mater,  a 
pleasing  composition,  but  rather  operatic  than 
ecclesiastical.  During  his  residence  in  Paris 
he  was  appointed  by  Charles  X.  inspector  gen- 
eral of  singing,  with  a  liberal  salary,  from  the 
enjoyment  of  which  he  was  cut  off  by  the  rev- 
olution of  1830.  He  still  remained  several 
years  in  Paris,  claiming  compensation  for  losses 
he  had  sustained,  and  in  1836  retired  to  an 
elegant  villa  near  Bologna,  where  for  nearly 
20  years  he  principally  resided,  refusing  the 
most  tempting  offers  to  write  for  the  stage,  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  unwilling  to  endanger 
his  reputation  by  the  production  of  inferior 
works.  Disturbed  by  the  revolutionary  ex- 
citements of  1848,  he  retired  to  Florence,  but 
in  1855  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  chiefly 
resided  till  his  death.  During  this  interval  he 
composed  but  one  work  of  importance,  his 
Mutt  tolennelle,  which  he  wrote  in  1863  and 
scored  for  orchestra  in  1865.  It  was  first  per- 
formed at  the  Theatre  Italien  in  Paris,  Feb. 
28,  1869.  He  was  buried  in  Pere  Laehaise. 
He  left  a  widow,  his  second  wife.  His  ope- 
ras number  about  40.  He  also  wrote  cantatas, 
hymns,  and  miscellaneous  vocal  and  instru- 
mental pieces.  A  number  of  his  posthumous 
pianoforte  compositions  were  sold  in  1873  by 
his  widow  to  Baron  Grant,  who  proposes  to 
publish  them  in  England  and  to  devote  the 
proceeds  to  the  establishment  of  a  prize  at  the 
musical  academy  in  London.  His  larger  dra- 
matic compositions,  on  which  his  fame  chief- 
ly rests,  illustrate  the  richness  and  variety  of 
his  melodic  invention,  his  consummate  skill  in 
writing  for  the  voice,  and  the  intimate  and 
natural  association  of  florid  ornament  with  the 
body  of  the  music,  which  constitutes  his  pecu- 
liar style. — Many  biographies  of  Rossini  have 
been  written,  among  them  the  following :  Ros- 


sini e  la  sua  musica,  by  Bettoni  (Milan,  1824)  ; 
Vie  de  Rossini,  by  Beyle,  under  the  nom  de 
plume  of  Stendhal  (Paris,  1823-'4) ;  Rossini, 
sa  vie  et  scs  oeunres,  by  Azevedo  (Paris,  1865) ; 
"  Life  of  Rossini,"  by  Edwards  (London,  1869) ; 
Delia  vita  e  delle  opere  di  Gioacchino  Rossini, 
by  Silvestri  (Milan,  1875);  and  a  life  by  A. 
Ganolini  (Bolognaj  1875). 

ROSTAX,  Louis  Leon,  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  St.  Maximin,  department  of  Var,  March  16, 
1790,  died  Oct.  4,  1866.  He  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Paris  in  1812,  and  was  from  1833 
professor  in  the  faculty  of  medicine,  with  a 
chair  of  clinical  medicine  at  the  H6tel-Dien. 
His  principal  works  are :  Recherches  sur  le  ra- 
mollissement  du  cerveau  (1819  ;  2d  ed.,  1823)  ; 
Traite  elementaire  de  diagnostic  (3  vols.  8vo, 
1826-7;  2ded.,  1829);  Cours  elementaire  d'hy- 
giene  (2  vols.,  1828 ;  2d  ed.,  1838) ;  and  Ex- 
position des  principes  de  Vorganicisme  (1846 ; 
3d  ed.,  1864).  He  also  published  important 
papers  on  rupture  of  the  heart,  the  distinction 
of  aneurisms,  transposition  of  the  viscera, 
spontaneous  fracture  of  the  femur,  &c. 

ROSTOCK,  a  fortified  town  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Warnow, 
about  9  m.  above  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic  sea, 
and  95  m.  N.  E.  of  Hamburg;  pop.  in  1871, 
30,980.  It  has  a  university  founded  in  1419, 
which  in  1874  had  84  professors  and  teachers 
and  135  students,  with  a  library  of  80,000  vol- 
umes. There  are  also  a  school  of  navigation, 
a  gymnasium,  a  botanic  garden,  and  various 
literary  and  charitable  institutions.  Rostock 
is  a  place  of  great  antiquity ;  in  the  middle 
ages  it  was  a  member  of  the  Hansentic  league, 
and  its  commerce  is  still  very  extensive. 

ROSTOPTCHIN,  Fedor,  count,  a  Russian  sol- 
dier, born  in  the  government  of  Orel  about 
1765,  died  in  Moscow  in  January  or  February, 
1826.  He  became  a  page  of  Catharine  II.  and 
a  favorite  of  Paul  I.,  under  whom  he  was  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  and  received  the  title 
of  count.  Opposed  to  an  alliance  with  France, 
and  frequently  subjected  to  the  caprices  of 
Paul,  he  was  absent  from  St.  Petersburg  at 
the  time  of  his  violent  death  (1801).  In  1810 
Alexander  I.  made  him  grand  chamberlain, 
and  in  1812  military  governor  of  Moscow. 
He  displayed  much  activity  in  organizing  vol- 
unteer corps;  and  when  against  his  opinion 
the  evacuation  of  Moscow  was  decided  upon 
after  the  battle  of  Borodino,  he  withdrew  with 
the  whole  army  and  the  population,  leaving  for 
the  French  a  deserted  city.  He  set  fire  to  his 
own  suburban  palace,  but  in  his  La  verite  sur 
Vincendie  de  Moscou  (Paris,  1823),  he  denies 
having  burned  the  city,  though  he  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  author  of  the  conflagration. 
Despite  his  great  services,  he  was  removed  in 
1814  from  the  governorship  of  Moscow,  and 
resided  till  1823  in  Paris,  where  his  daugh- 
ter married  the  count  Eugene  de  Segur.  An 
incomplete  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1853.  One  of  his  sons  published  a 
universal  history  in  French. — See  Rostoptchine 


BOTH 

et  Koutousof,  ou  la  Rwsie  en  1812,  by  Schnitz- 
ler  (Paris,  1863). 

ROTH,  Rudolf,  a  German  orientalist,  born  in 
Stuttgart,  April  3, 1821.  He  studied  in  Tubin- 
gen, Berlin,  Paris,  and  London,  and  became 
in  1856  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  Tu- 
bingen. He  has  published  Zur  Literatur  und 
Geschichte  des  Veda  (1846) ;  an  edition  of 
Yaska's  Nirukta  (1852);  the  Atharva  Veda, 
in  conjunction  w;th  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney 
(1856-'7) ;  Ueber  den  Mythus  von  den  funf 
Menschengeschlechtern  (1860);  and  Ueber  die 
Vorstellung  vom  Schicksal  in  der  indischen 
SpracJiweisheit  (1866).  His  principal  work  is 
a  large  Sanskrit  dictionary,  prepared  in  con- 
junction with  Bohtlingk,  and  published  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  academy  of  sciences  (1853-'75). 

ROTHE,  Richard,  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Posen,  Jan.  28,  1799,  died  in  Heidelberg, 
Aug.  20, 1867.  He  studied  theology  in  Heidel- 
berg, Berlin,  and  Wittenberg,  was  chaplain  of 
the  Prussian  embassy  in  Rome  for  five  years, 
became  a  professor -in  the  Wittenberg  theo- 
logical seminary  and  its  director,  conducted  a 
theological  seminary  at  Heidelberg  for  twelve 
years,  and  was  a  professor  of  theology  in 
Bonn  and  Heidelberg.  His  religious  views 
are  tinged  with  the  philosophy  of  Schleier- 
macher  and  Hegel.  He  published  Die  An- 
fange  der  christlichen  Kirche  und  ihre  Ver- 
fassung  (1837);  Zur  Dogmatik  (1863);  and 
Theologische  Ethik  (3  vols.,  1845-'8).  A  re- 
vised edition  of  the  Ethik  by  Holtzman  (5 
vols.,  1867-'71)  contains  the  author's  posthu- 
mous notes.  His  university  lectures  on  dog- 
matics (Dogmatik,  1870),  a  collection  of  essays 
(Stille  Stunden,  1872),  and  his  lectures  on 
church  history,  edited  by  Weingarten  (1875), 
have  appeared  since  his  death.  The  best  ac- 
count of  his  life  is  Nippold's  Richard  Rothe, 
ein  christliches  Leben  auf  Grund  der  Briefe 
Rothe1  s  (Wittenberg,  1873). 

ROTHERMEL,  Peter  F.,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.,  July  8,  1817.  He 
was  educated  as  a  land  surveyor,  studied  paint- 
ing, and  about  1840  commenced  practice  as  a 
portrait  painter.  In  1856-'7  he  visited  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  and  painted  his  "  St. 
Agnes,"  now  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  "The 
Foscari."  Some  of  his  best  known  paintings 
are  "  De  Soto  discovering  the  Mississippi," 
"  Columbus  before  Isabella  the  Catholic,"  the 
"Noche  Triste,"  from  Prescott's  "Conquest 
of  Mexico,"  "  Patrick  Henry  before  the  Vir- 
ginia House  of  Burgesses,"  "  Christian  Mar- 
tyrs in  the  Colosseum,"  and  "The  Battle  of 
Gettysburg,"  in  the  state  capital  at  Harrisburg. 

ROTHESAY,  a  town  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
Buteshire,  at  the  head  of  Eothesay  bay  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  island  of  Bute,  30  m.  W.  of 
Glasgow  ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,800.  It  has  a  good 
harbor.  The  houses  are  built  of  greenstone, 
and  in  the  suburbs  are  numerous  villas  and 
gardens.  There  are  ship-building  yards,  tan- 
neries, a  distillery,  and  a  cotton  mill,  and  many 
of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  fishing  and 
713  VOL.  xiv. — 29 


ROTTECK 


447 


coasting.  It  has  lately  become  a  watering 
place  and  a  resort  for  consumptive  patients. 
The  ancient  castle  of  Rothesay,  now  in  ruins 
(having  been  burnt  by  the  duke  of  Argyle  in 
1685),  was  given  by  Robert  III.,  who  died  in 
it,  to  his  son  David,  with  the  title  of  duke  of 
Rothesay,  which  the  prince  of  Wales  still  holds. 

ROTHSCHILD,  Mayer  Anselm,  a  German  banker, 
born  in  Frankfort  in  1743,  died  there  in  Sep- 
tember, 1812.  He  belonged  to  a  poor  Jewish 
family,  and  was  a  clerk  in  Hanover  before  es- 
tablishing himself  at  Frankfort,  where  his  in- 
tegrity and  ability  brought  him  into  relations 
with  German  governments,  and  particularly 
with  that  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The  elector  Wil- 
liam, on  his  flight  in  1806  after  the  invasion 
of  his  states  by  the  French,  deposited  about 
$5,000,000  for  safe  keeping  with  Rothschild 
for  eight  years  without  interest,  and  subse- 
quently received  from  his  heirs  an  annual  in- 
terest of  2  per  cent.,  the  capital  being  repaid 
to  the  elector's  son  and  successor  in  1823. 
The  judicious  investment  of  this  capital  was 
the  source  of  the  colossal  fortune  of  the  Roth- 
schilds. Mayer  Anselm's  five  sons,  Anselm, 
Solomon,  Nathan,  Charles,  and  James,  re- 
spectively became  chiefs  of  houses  at  Frank- 
fort, Vienna,  London,  Naples,  and  Paris,  and 
all  were  made  barons  by  the  emperor  Francis ; 
and  they  acquired  world-wide  celebrity  by 
making  loans  to  governments  and  by  other 
financial  and  mercantile  operations.  The  firm 
is  continued  by  members  of  the  family  at  all 
these  places  excepting  Naples,  the  London  and 
Paris  houses  being  the  most  important ;  and 
special  agents  of  the  firm  are  established  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  eldest  son  of  the 
London  Rothschild,  Lionel  Nathan,  the  present 
head  of  the  firm  (1875),  was  elected  to  parlia- 
ment from  the  city  of  London  in  1847.  He 
declined  to  take  the  customary  oath  "  on  the 
true  faith  of  a  Christian,"  and  did  not  take 
his  seat,  although  regularly  reflected,  until 
the  removal  of  the  disabilities  of  the  Jews  in 
1858.  He  was  the  first  Jew  that  ever  sat  in 
the  house  of  commons. 

ROTIFEKA.    See  ANIMALCULES,  vol.  i.,  p.  517. 

ROTTECK,  Karl  von,  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Freiburg,  Baden,  July  18,  1775,  died  there, 
Nov.  26,  1840.  He  was  professor  of  history 
at  Freiburg  from  1798  to  1818,  and  subse- 
quently of  political  science,  and  long  repre- 
sented the  university  in  the  first  constitutional 
assembly  of  Baden,  where  he  advocated  the 
liberty  of  the  press.  This  displeased  the  au- 
thorities, who  stopped  the  journal  Der  Freisin- 
nige,  of  which  he  was  an  editor,  and  in  1832 
removed  him  from  his  professorship.  He  was 
repeatedly  elected  burgomaster,  but  did  not 
serve.  His  monument  at  Freiburg,  erected  in 
1848,  was  removed  in  1849  and  reerected  in 
1862.  His  principal  work  is  Allgemeine  Ge- 
schichte (9  vols.,  Freiburg,  1813-'27),  continued 
by  Steger  and  Hermes  to  11  vols.  (25th  ed., 
Brunswick,  1866  et  scq.}.  Several  translations 
of  this  work  and  of  an  abridgment  (4  vols., 


448 


ROTTERDAM 


ROUEN 


Stuttgart,  1830-'34;  7th  ed.,  6  vols.,  1860-'61) 
hare  appeared,  including  one  of  the  latter  by 
T.  Jones  (4  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1840,  reprinted 
in  London).  Conjointly  with  Welcker,  Rot- 
teck  began  to  publish  the  Staattlexikon  (12 
vols.,  Altona,  1834-'44 ;  8d  ed.,  14  vols.,  Leip- 
sic,  1856-'66). 

ROTTERDAM,  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  South  Holland,  on  the  Maas,  18  m. 
from  the  sea  and  86  m.  S.  W.  of  Amsterdam  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  116,232;  in  1873  (estimated), 
125,893.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  canals,  the 
most  recent  being  the  Nieuwe  Singel.  The 
finest  quay  (Boompjes)  is  lined  with  trees  and 
many  new  buildings  and  piers.  On  the  Groote 
Markt  (great  square)  is  a  bronze  statue  of 
Erasmus.  There  are  about  15  places  of  wor- 
ship, the  largest  being  the  groote  kerk  or  great 
church  of  St.  Lawrence.  Rotterdam  has  a 
famous  Latin  school,  a  school  of  navigation, 
an  industrial  school,  and  a  number  of  other  lit- 
erary and  charitable  institutions.  The  most 
notable  public  buildings  are  the  exchange,  the 
museum,  and  the  zoological  garden,  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe.  The  finest  promenade  is  the 
New  park.  The  annual  fair  begins  on  the  sec- 
ond Monday  in  August  and  lasts  a  week,  during 
which  the  city  presents  a  scene  of  uproar  and 
revelry.  Rotterdam  was  formerly  a  favorite  re- 
sort of  English  tourists  and  adventurers.  The 
improved  navigation  of  the  Rhine  and  traffic 
by  railway  and  steamers  have  greatly  increased 
its  trade,  and  there  are  new  docks  and  other 
improvements,  including  new  water  works 
completed  in  1872.  A  ship  canal  has  recently 
been  constructed  from  Rotterdam  to  Maassluis, 
through  which  nearly  900  vessels  passed  be- 
tween March  and  December,  1872.  The  Moer- 
dyk  railway  bridge,  finished  in  1871,  one  of  the 
longest  in  Europe,  carries  the  railway  to  Fyen- 
oord,  opposite  Rotterdam,  where  are  exten- 
sive ship  yards  and  new  docks  and  warehouses. 
The  total  number  of  vessels  entering  the  port 
in  1872  was  3,710,  tonnage  1,433,895,  including 
2,406  steamers,  tonnage  1,105,427.  The  ex- 
ports from  Rotterdam  to  the  United  States 
in  that  year  were  valued  at  $1,104,033.  Large 
quantities  of  refined  petroleum  are  imported, 
and  the  imports  of  cotton  in  1871  amounted 
to  115,595  bales.  A  direct  steamship  line 
from  Rotterdam  to  New  York  was  established 
in  October,  1872.  There  are  cotton  factories, 
sugar  refineries,  brandy  distilleries,  and  other 
manufactories. — Rotterdam  received  a  town 
charter  in  1272.  A  great  fire  occurred  in  1563, 
and  the  town  suffered  considerably  during  the 
struggle  with  the  Spaniards.  In  1580  it  had 
a  vote  in  the  states  of  Holland,  and  its  prog- 
ress has  been  remarkable  ever  since,  especially 
within  the  past  15  years. 

ROl'ARIE,  Around  Tiffin,  marquis  de  la,  a 
French  soldier,  born  near  Rennes  in  1756, 
died  near  Lamballe,  Jan.  30,  1793.  He  en- 
tered the  army  young,  was  dismissed  from  the 
king's  guard  in  consequence  of  a  duel,  came 
to  America,  and  received  from  congress  a  com- 


mission as  colonel  under  the  name  of  Charles 
Armand.  He  served  under  Gen.  Gates  against 
Cornwallis,  having  before  done  various  sorts 
of  duty  in  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Con- 
necticut. In  1781  he  visited  France  on  busi- 
ness for  the  army,  but  returned  in  time  to 
take  part  in  the  operations  before  Yorktown 
in  October.  In  1783  he  received  the  rank 
of  brigadier  general,  and  in  1784  returned  to 
France.  In  1788  he  was  one  of  twelve  depu- 
ties sent  to  Paris  by  Brittany  to  demand  the 
preservation  of  the  privileges  of  that  province, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile.  With  the 
approval  of  the  king's  brothers,  he  became  in 
1791  the  head  of  a  secret  organization  spread 
over  Brittany,  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  to  act  in 
conjunction  with  the  army  of  the  allies.  The 
design  was  betrayed,  and  Rouarie  became  a 
fugitive ;  and  for  several  months  before  his 
death  he  directed  from  his  various  retreats  the 
preparations  for  revolt. 

It'oi  IUI\,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Le  Nord,  6  m.  N.  E.  of  Lille;  pop. 
in  1872,  75,987.  The  population  in  1800  was 
only  8,700,  and  in  1834  18,187,  the  rapid  in- 
crease being  due  to  that  of  the  manufactures 
of  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  goods,  known  as 
"  Roubaix  articles."  Linen  yarns,  shawls, 
cloth,  carpets,  and  other  goods  are  also  made, 
the  annual  value  of  all  the  manufactures  ex- 
ceeding 150,000,000  francs.  The  Roubaix  or 
La  Marcq  canal,  15  m.  long,  commences  near 
Marquette  and  joins  the  Scheldt  in  Belgium. 

ROIBILIAC,  l.iniis  Franfols,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Lyons  about  1695,  died  in  London, 
Jan.  11,  1762.  After  completing  his  studies 
at  the  academy  in  Paris,  he  settled  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Walpole  fam- 
ily. His  works  include  monuments  of  the 
duke  of  Argyll  and  Handel  in  Westminster 
abbey,  a  statue  of  Shakespeare  for  Garrick, 
who  bequeathed  it  to  the  British  museum,  and 
one  of  Newton  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 

ROUEN  (anc.  Rotomagut),  a  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Seine-Inf6rieure, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  67  m.  N.  W.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  102,470.  It  stands  on  a 
gentle  acclivity  sloping  toward  the  south,  and 
is  connected  with  its  suburb  St.  Sever,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  by  three  bridges. 
Ramparts  formerly  extended  round  Rouen  on 
the  land  side,  and  their  site  is  now  occupied 
by  boulevards  bordered  with  shade  trees.  The 
Place  Royale  is  the  principal  square  ;  the  oth- 
ers are  all  small ;  that  of  La  Pucelle  contains  a 
statue  of  the  maid  of  Orleans.  The  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  constructed  chiefly  in  the  13th 
and  16th  centuries,  is  434  ft.  long  and  103  ft. 
broad,  with  transepts  174  ft.  in  length,  and  the 
nave  is  89  ft.  high.  The  front  is  richly  orna- 
mented, and  has  three  fine  portals  flanked  by 
lofty  towers.  The  central  tower  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  nave  and  transept  is  surmounted 
by  an  iron  spire  nearly  470  ft.  high.  The  dec- 
orations are  very  elaborate  and  profuse.  The 
interior  is  lighted  by  130  windows.  It  contains 


ROUGE 


ROUGE  ET  NOIR 


449 


many  tombs,  including  that  of  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion.  Near  the  cathedral  is  the  abbey  church 
of  St.  Ouen,  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
perfect  Gothic  edifices  in  the  world.  It  has 
a  tower  260  ft.  high,  composed  of  open  arches 
and  tracery  and  terminating  in  a  crown  of 
fleurs  de  Us.  Rouen  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  of  a  Protestant  and  an  Israelite 
consistory,  and  has  a  faculty  of  Catholic  the- 
ology and  a  large  theological  seminary,  a  mu- 
seum rich  in  masterpieces  of  painting,  a  library 
of  120,000  volumes,  an  academy  of  science  and 
arts,  and  several  special  schools.  Among  the 
public  monuments  is  that  of  Corneille,  who  was 
born  here.  Rouen  is  the  chief  seat  of  French 
cotton  manufacture.  Ship  building  is  carried 
on. — Under  the  Romans  Rotomagus  was  the 
capital  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis  Secunda.  In  the 
3d  century  it  was  made  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
and  afterward  was  successively  the  capital  of 
Neustria  and  of  the  duchy  of  Normandy.  In 
1204  Philip  Augustus  of  France  took  it  from 
John  of  England,  but  it  was  retaken  by  Henry 
V.  in  1419,  and  retained  by  the  English  till 
1449,  when  it  was  finally  annexed  to  France. 
The  maid  of  Orleans  was  burned  here  in  1431. 
Several  engagements  took  place  here  at  the 
end  of  1870,  and  the  Germans  occupied  the 
city  from  Dec.  5,  1870,  till  July  22,  1871. 

ROUGE.  I.  A  pink  cosmetic  for  the  cheeks. 
Varieties  are  prepared  from  carmine  and  from 
the  dried  leaves  of  the  safflower  or  carthamus. 
The  latter  furnish  the  delicate  sort  known 
as  vegetable  rouge.  The  leaves,  thoroughly 
washed,  are  dried,  and  then  pulverized  and 
digested  in  a  weak  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda.  Into  this  is  placed  some  finely  carded 
cotton,  and  the  alkaline  mixture  is  neutralized 
with  lemon  juice  or  vinegar.  The  red  coloring 
matter  collects  on  the  cotton,  and  this  being 
washed  with  water  to  remove  the  yellow  mat- 
ter, the  rouge  is  again  dissolved,  and  some 
finely  pulverized  talc  is  introduced  into  the 
solution  before  it  is  again  precipitated  with 
the  acid.  Upon  this  the  red  color  is  received, 
and  when  separated  from  the  liquid  the  two 
are  thoroughly  mixed  by  trituration,  a  little 
olive  oil  being  rubbed  in  to  add  to  the  smooth- 
ness. Sometimes  woollen  threads  are  placed 
in  the  second  solution  to  receive  the  rouge 
when  it  is  precipitated,  and  these,  called 
crepons,  are  used  to  rub  the  color  upon  the 
cheeks.  For  further  accounts  of  this  coloring 
material,  see  CARMINE,  COCHINEAL,  and  SAF- 
FLOWER. II.  In  the  arts,  a  pigment  known  as 
English  red,  also  used  as  a  polishing  powder, 
made  with  peroxide  of  iron.  As  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  specula  of  telescopes  depends  upon 
the  fineness  and  efficiency  of  the  rouge  used 
for  polishing  them,  the  preparation  of  this  ar- 
ticle has  received  much  attention  from  scien- 
tific men,  and  various  processes  are  employed 
to  insure  its  greatest  purity.  Lord  Rosse  gives 
the  following  as  his  method.  The  peroxide  of 
iron  is  precipitated  by  ammonia  from  a  pure 
dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  the 


precipitate  after  being  washed  is  compressed 
under  a  screw  press  until  nearly  dry,  and  then 
exposed  to  a  heat  which  in  the  dark  appears 
only  of  a  dull  low  red.  The  color  thus  ob- 
tained should  be  a  bright  crimson  inclining  to 
yellow.  If  potash  or  soda  is  used  instead  of 
ammonia  to  precipitate  the  oxide  of  iron,  a 
trace  of  the  alkali  always  remains,  injuring 
the  polishing  property  of  the  rouge. 

ROUGE,  Olivier  Charles  Camille  Emmanuel  dp, 
viscount,  a  French  Egyptologist,  born  in  Paris, 
April  11,  1811,  died  there  in  December,  1872, 
or  January,  1873.  He  was  professor  of  archae- 
ology in  the  college  de  France,  and  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Revue  archeologique.  He  pub- 
lished ISExamen  de  Vouvrage  de  M.  Bumen 
(1846);  Sur  les  elements  de  Tecriture  demo- 
tique  (1848) ;  Memoire  sur  V inscription  du 
tombeau  d'Ahmes  (1849);  Notice  sommaire  des 
monuments  egyptiens  exposes  dans  les  galeries 
du  mmee  du  Louvre  (1849);  Memoire  sur  la 
statuette  naophore  du  Vatican  (1851);  Expli- 
cation d'une  inscription  egyptienne,  prouvant 
que  les  anciens  egyptiens  ont  connu  la  genera- 
tion eternelle  du  Fils  de  Dieu  .(1851) ;  Notes 
sur  les  noms  egyptiens  des  planetes  (1856);  Le 
poeme  de  Pen-ta-Our  (1856);  Le  roman  des 
deux  freres  (1856);  jfitude  sur  une  stele  egyp- 
tienne  (1858) ;  fitude  sur  le  rituel  funeraire 
(1860) ;  Monuments  du  regne  de  Totmes  III. 
(1861)  ;  an  edition  of  the  Egyptian  "Book  of 
the  Dead  "  (1861-'3) ;  Inscription  Jiistorique 
du  roi  Pianchi-Meriamoun  (1863);  Recherches 
sur  les  monuments  qu'on  peut  attribuer  aux 
six  premieres  dynasties  de  Manethon  (1866) ; 
Chrestomathie  egyptienne  (1867-'8) ;  and  Mo'ise 
et  les  Hebreux  d'apres  les  monuments  egyptiens 
(1869). 

ROUGET,  Georges,  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1781,  died  in  1869.  He  assisted  David 
in  many  of  his  celebrated  works,  and  copied 
his  "  Coronation  of  Napoleon "  so  faithfully 
that  his  picture  has  been  sold  as  the  original. 
Among  his  best  known  works  are  "  The 
Death  of  St.  Louis,"  "Francis  I.  pardoning 
the  Insurgents  of  La  Rochelle,"  "  Henry  IV. 
at  the  Siege  of  Paris,"  "The  Abjuration  of 
Henry  IV.,"  "  The  Marriage  of  Napoleon  and 
Maria  Louisa,"  and  "  The  Death  of  Napoleon." 

ROUGE  ET  NOIR  (Fr.,  red  and  black),  Trente 
et  nn  (thirty-one),  or  Trente  et  Qnarante  (thirty 
and  forty),  a  game  of  chance  played  with  cards 
upon  a  table  marked  with  two  large  spots  of 
red  and  black  (whence  the  name),  of  a  dia- 
mond shape,  placed  opposite  to  each  other. 
The  banker,  or  tailleur  (dealer),  who  repre- 
sents him,  having  shuffled  six  packs  of  cards 
together,  draws  as  many  cards  as  will,  counted 
by  their  points  (the  ace  counting  1,  the  court 
cards  10  each,  and  the  others  according  to 
their  number  of  spots),  amount  to  at  least  31 ; 
so  that  if  he  should  happen  to  count  only  30, 
he  must  still  draw  another  card.  The  whole 
number  of  cards  drawn  must  be  more  than  30 
and  not  more  than  40.  These  he  places  in  one 
row  or  parcel,  and  designates  as  noir ;  and  he 


450 


ROUHEB 


ROUMANIA 


immediately  afterward  draws  in  the  same  man- 
ner another  parcel  of  cards  for  the  rouge.  The 
players,  who  play  against  the  tailleur,  and 
whose  number  may  be  unlimited,  have  pre- 
viously placed  their  stakes  on  the  red  or  black 
spots  upon  the  table,  and  as  the  rouge  or  the 
noir  parcel  of  cards  amounts  to  31  or  approach- 
es nearest  to  it,  they  win  or  lose;  i.  «.,  if  the 
rouge  counts  for  example  32  and  the  noir  33  or 
more,  the  money  placed  upon  the  red  wins. 
When  the  tailleur  deals  to  the  second  or  rouge 
parcel  of  cards  the  same  number  he  has  turned 
up  in  the  noir,  it  is  called  a  refait,  and  another 
deal  must  be  had.  There  are  two  other  chances, 
called  couleur  and  inverse,  which  are  deter- 
mined by  the  colo.r  of  the  first  card  turned  up 
and  the  success  of  rouge  or  noir;  those  playing 
on  the  couleur  winning  if  the  first  card  dealt 
is  of  the  successful  color,  and  those  on  the  in- 
verse if  the  contrary.  This  game,  with  rou- 
lette, was  forbidden  by  law  in  France  in  1838. 

ROII1KR,  Eigent,  a  French  politician,  born  in 
Riom,  Nov.  80, 1814.  He  became  an  advocate, 
and  was  returned  in  1848  to  the  constituent, 
and  in  1849  to  the  legislative  assembly.  He 
was  minister  of  justice  under  Louis  Napole- 
on as  president  from  Oct.  31  of  the  same  year 
to  January,  1851,  again  from  April  till  Octo- 
ber, and  from  Dec.  2  till  the  confiscation  of 
the  Orleans  estates  (Jan.  22,  1852),  which  he 
assigned  as  a  motive  for  his  resignation ;  but 
a  few  days  afterward  he  returned  to  office  as 
vice  president  of  the  council  of  state.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1855,  he  became  minister  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  public  works;  in  June,  1856, 
he  was  made  a  senator ;  and  he  was  president 
of  the  council  of  state  from  Oct.  18,  1863, 
till  Jan.  19,  1867,  when  he  resigned  in  conse- 
quence of  the  emperor's  announcement  of  a 
more  liberal  policy ;  but  he  was  at  once  rein- 
stated as  the  head  of  the  cabinet  with  the 
additional  portfolio  of  the  finances,  and  re- 
mained in  office  till  July  18,  1869,  a  few  days 
after  which  date  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  senate.  He  was  identified  with  all  the 
foreign  and  internal  affairs  which  proved  fatal 
to  the  second  empire,  and  after  its  downfall 
(Sept.  4,  1870)  he  fled.  When  he  ventured  to 
return  to  France  he  was  a  short  time  under 
arrest ;  yet  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly  at 
Versailles  in  February,  1872,  and  continued 
to  be  a  member  of  it  in  1875  as  a  champion 
of  Napoleon  IV. 

ROULETTE  (Fr.,  a  little  wheel),  a  game  of 
chance,  which  from  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury till  1838,  when  it  was  forbidden  by  law, 
was  the  principal  gambling  game  in  Paris.  It 
was  the  leading  game  in  the  German  spas  till 
publio  gambling  was  abolished  in  1873,  is  still 
popular  in  Italy,  and  is  played  to  some  extent 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  It 
is  played  on  a  cloth-covered  oblong  table,  in 
the  centre  of  which  is  a  round  cavity  having 
several  copper  bands  around  its  sides  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other.  The  sides  are 
fixed,  but  the  bottom  is  movable  round  an 


axis  in  the  centre  of  the  cavity,  and  around 
its  circumference  are  88  holes  painted  bluck 
and  red  alternately,  and  numbered  from  1  to 
86,  with  two  zeros  marked  0  and  00.  These 
numbers  and  zeros  are  painted  on  the  green 
cloth,  and  on  the  margin  of  the  table  are 
the  words  impair,  manque,  rouge,  pair,  passe, 
and  noir.  The  manager  turns  the  wheel,  at 
the  same  time  throwing  into  the  cavity  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  the  movement  given 
to  the  movable  bottom  an  ivory  ball,  which 
when  the  revolution  ceases  falls  into  one  of 
the  numbered  cells.  The  player  stakes  his 
money  upon  one  or  more  numbers,  and  if  the 
ball  falls  into  the  corresponding  number  or 
zero,  he  receives  for  one  number  his  stake  and 
85  times  more,  for  two  numbers  18  times  more, 
for  three  numbers  12  times  more,  and  so  on, 
the  gain  being  less  as  the  risk  is  reduced.  If 
the  player  stakes  upon  a  column,  or  12  num- 
bers, and  the  ball  enters  a  cell  corresponding 
to  one  of  them,  he  wins  three  times  the  amount 
of  his  risk.  Or  he  may  stake  upon  an  even 
number  (pair),  an  odd  number  (impair),  from 
1  to  18  inclusive  (manque),  from  19  to  36  inclu- 
sive (passe),  or  upon  the  colors  rouge  and  noir. 
If  he  ventures  upon  these  six  chances  and  the 
ball  falls  into  either  of  the  zeros,  the  stakes 
may  be  divided  between  the  banker  and  the 
player,  or  may  be  "put  into  prison"  for  an- 
other trial  to  determine  to  whom  they  belong. 
Some  tables  have  but  a  single  zero,  and  with  37 
cells  the  amount  returned  to  the  winners  is 
but  35  to  1,  the  bank  gaining  the  difference; 
with  two  zeros,  the  advantage  of  the  bank  is 
proportionately  greater ;  and  with  the  divided 
chances  on  pair,  impair,  &c.,  the  steady  gain 
of  the  bank  is  almost  certain,  and  is  estimated 
at  4  per  cent,  on  all  the  money  staked.  In 
American  roulette  a  28  instead  of  36  table  is 
often  used,  the  banker  paying  the  winner  but 
27  for  1,  thus  giving  a  greater  percentage 
against  the  player. 

ROUM.     See  SEIJUKS. 

ROUMANIA,  a  state  of  S.  E.  Europe,  tributa- 
ry to  Turkey,  consisting  of  the  united  Danu- 
bian  principalities  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  (in- 
cluding that  portion  of  Bessarabia  which  was 
annexed  from  Russia  in  1856),  situated  be- 
tween lat.  43°  88'  and  48°  16'  N.,  and  lou.  22° 
20'  and  30°  15'  E.  It  is  bounded  by  Hun- 
gary, Transylvania,  Bukowina,  the  Russian 
province  of  Bessarabia,  the  Black  sea,  Bul- 
garia, and  Servia ;  area,  46,708  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  4,500,000,  mainly  Roumans,  but  inclu- 
ding many  eastern  and  European  nationalities, 
besides  about  150,000  Jews  and  200,000  gyp- 
sies; capita],  Bucharest.  (For  a  description 
of  the  physical  geography,  see  MOLDAVIA,  and 
WALLACHIA  ;  see  also  WALLACHIAN  LANGUAGE 
AND  LITERATURE.)  About  two  thirds  of  the 
population  depend  on  agriculture  and  cattle 
breeding.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  yields 
rich  harvests,  but  of  the  total  area  only  68*7 
per  cent,  is  productive,  comprising  20'4  per 
cent,  in  farm,  garden,  and  wine  land,  7'6  per 


ROUMANIA 


451 


cent,  meadows,  16'6  per  cent,  forests,  and  24'1 
per  cent,  pastures.  The  chief  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  corn,  average  yield  about  122,000,000 
bushels ;  flax  and  hemp,  480,000  cwt. ;  tobac- 
co, 10,000  cwt. ;  and  wine,  39,000,000  gallons. 
The  number  of  cattle  in  1873  was  3,600,000,  of 
horses  600,000,  of  hogs  1,200,000,  and  of  sheep 
6,000,000.  Rock  salt,  a  monopoly  of  the  state, 
abounds  in  the  Carpathian  mountains ;  the  an- 
nual yield  is  about  1,370,000  cwt.  Much  petro- 
leum is  also  produced.  In  1872  the  imports 
amounted  to  $16,400,000,  and  the  exports, 
chiefly  grain  and  flour,  to  $30,700,000.  The 
principal  ports  are  Galatz  and  Braila.  The 
aggregate  movement  of  shipping  at  all  the 
Roumanian  ports  in  1873  was  13,003  arrivals, 
tonnage  1,818,371,  and  12,772  departures,  ton- 
nage 1,764,377.  The  aggregate  length  of  rail- 
ways in  1874  was  600  m. — The  constitution  of 
Roumania  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  head  of 
which  bears  the  title  of  prince,  with  male  suc- 
cession. The  legislative  body  consists  of  a  sen- 
ate and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  The  senate  con- 
sists of  the  heir  to  the  throne,  the  metropoli- 
tans and  eparchial  bishops,  representatives  of 
the  universities  of  Bucharest  and  Jassy,  depu- 
ties of  the  large  holders  of  real  estate,  and  33 
chosen  by  the  towns  paying  the  highest  amount 
of  taxes.  The  chamber  of  deputies  consists  of 
157  members,  82  for  Wallachia  and  75  for  Mol- 
davia. The  deputies  are  chosen  for  four  years, 
the  senators  for  eight  years ;  the  former  must 
have  completed  their  25th,  the  latter  their  40th 
year.  Every  tax  payer  has  the  right  to  vote ; 
but  the  electors  are  divided  into  several  groups, 
one  of  which,  containing  the  lowest  tax  pay- 
ers, chooses  its  deputies  by  indirect  election 
(through  electors),  while  the  others  vote  di- 
rectly. Each  of  the  two  chambers  elects  its 
own  president;  the  sessions  are  public.  In 

1874  the  ministry  consisted  of  the  depart- 
ments of  the  interior,  finances,  war,  foreign 
affairs,  justice,  agriculture,  commerce  and  pub- 
lic works,  and  public  instruction  and  worship. 
The  minister  of  the  interior  was  president  of 
the  council.    For  administration  purposes  the 
country  is  divided  into  33  districts,  each  of 
which  has  a  prefect  and  an  elective  district 
council;  the  districts  are  divided  into  162  sub- 
districts,  at  the  head  of  which  are  subpre- 
fects.   Every  commune  has  an  elective  commu- 
nal council ;  the  heads  of  communes  are  elect- 
ed in  the  rural  communities  by  the  people,  and 
in  the  cities  are  appointed  by  the  prince.    The 
judiciary,  as  reorganized  in  1865,  includes  the 
court  of  cassation  in  Bucharest,  the  courts  of 
appeal  in  Bucharest,  Jassy,  Krayova,  and  Fok- 
shani,  the  courts  of  assizes  for  criminal  affairs, 
32  tribunals  of  justice,  and  local  courts.     The 
finances  are  in  an  unsettled  condition,  and  the 
annual  deficits  are  much  larger  than  is  appar- 
ent from  the  official  records.     The  budget  for 

1875  estimated  the  expenditures  at  $18,700,- 
000,  and  the  revenue  at  only  $17,600,000.     An 
increased  revenue  is  expected  from  the  to- 
bacco  monopoly,   which   was  established  in 


1872.  The  public  debt  in  1874  amounted  to 
$37,000,000,  exclusive  of  $3,000,000  in  gov- 
ernment bank  notes.  The  military  forces,  re- 
organized in  1869  and  somewhat  modified  in 
1872,  consist  of  four  large  divisions:  1,  the 
standing  army  and  its  reserve ;  2,  the  territo- 
rial army  and  reserve;  3,  the  militia;  4,  the 
civic  guard  of  the  towns  and  the  gloata  (general 
levy)  of  the  rural  communities.  The  territo- 
rial army  comprises  those  from  21  to  29  years 
of  age  who  are  not  drafted  for  the  annual  con- 
tingent. The  militia  comprises  all  from  21  to 
37  years  who  have  not  been  called  to  either 
the  standing  or  the  territorial  army,  or  have 
completed  their  service  in  either.  The  fourth 
division,  comprising  men  from  37  to  46  (in  the 
cities,  from  36  to  45),  is  only  called  out  for  the 
defence  of  the  country.  The  standing  and  ter- 
ritorial armies  in  time  of  peace  number  about 
60,000 ;  on  the  war  footing,  95,000.  The  total 
active  national  force,  including  the  militia,  is 
150,000,  without  the  fourth  division,  which  is 
not  yet  fully  completed.  A  cadet  force  was 
organized  in  1874  in  all  the  public  schools. — 
About  90  per  cent,  of  the  people  belong  to 
the  Greek  church,  at  the  head  of  which  are 
the  metropolitan  and  primate  of  Roumania 
at  Bucharest,  the  metropolitan  of  Moldavia 
at  Jassy,  and  six  bishops.  The  number  of 
priests  is  about  9,700 ;  the  number  of  monks 
and  nuns  has  greatly  decreased  in  conse- 
quence of  the  secularization  in  1864  of  all  mo- 
nastic property.  The  Roman  Catholics,  rep- 
resented by  two  vicars,  are  estimated  at  from 
50,000  to  upward  of  100,000,  and  the  Protes- 
tants from  25,000  to  50,000 ;  there  are  but  few 
Mohammedans.  There  are  two  universities, 
at  Bucharest  and  Jassy,  each  with  faculties  of 
philosophy  and  literature,  law,  medicine,  and 
mathematical  and  natural  sciences.  There  are 
eight  Greek  theological  seminaries  and  one 
Catholic.  The  number  of  town  schools  in 
1873  was  2,616,  and  of  rural  schools  1,975. 
— For  the  history  of  the  country  previous  to 
the  union  in  1859  of  the  two  principalities 
under  the  name  of  Roumania,  see  MOLDAVIA, 
and  WALLACHIA.  Alexander  John  I.,  of  the 
house  of  Cuza,  elected  prince  of  Moldavia  on 
Jan.  17,  1859,  and  of  Wallachia  on  Feb.  5,  ob- 
tained the  recognition  of  the  sultan  in  1860, 
and  on  Dec.  23,  1861,  formally  proclaimed  the 
permanent  union  of  the  two  principalities.  He 
was  forced  to  abdicate  on  Feb.  23,  1866  (see 
ALEXANDER  JOHN  I.),  and  was  succeeded  by  a 
provisional  government.  Prince  Charles  I.  of 
Hohenzollern  was  elected  prince  by  the  people 
on  April  14,  and  confirmed  by  the  legislature 
on  May  12,  and  in  July  took  the  path  of  fidel- 
ity to  the  constitution.  His  reign  has  been 
disturbed  by  partisan  animosities  and  by  finan- 
cial troubles  arising  from  the  failure  of  the 
Prussian  railway  contractor  Strousberg  to  ful- 
fil his  obligations  in  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways for  which  the  government  had  given 
heavy  guarantees.  In  1871  the  Germans  at 
Bucharest  celebrated  the  restoration  of  peace, 


452 


ROUMELIA 


EOUSSEAU 


on  wliich  occasion  there  were  disturbances. 
The  prime  minister,  Prince  Ghika,  was  obliged 
to  resign  for  not  preventing  them,  and  Prince 
Charles  himself  would  have  resigned  if  the 
people  had  not  urged  him  to  remain.  Per- 
secutions of  the  Jews,  who  are  obnoxious  to 
the  poorer  classes  on  account  of  their  great 
success  in  trade,  led  to  remonstrances  from 
abroad,  and  in  1874  municipal  rights  were 
granted  them,  on  condition  of  having  attained 
the  grade  of  under  officer  in  the  army,  or  of 
producing  a  diploma  of  a  Roumanian  or  for- 
eign university,  or  of  owning  a  manufactory 
employing  not  fewer  than  50  persons ;  but  as 
hardly  any  of  the  Jews  can  comply  with  these 
conditions,  the  rights  conferred  are  purely 
nominal.  Roumania  pays  an  annual  tribute  to 
Turkey,  which  in  1874-'5  amounted  to  $181,- 
825,  of  which  $118,650  was  for  Wallachia,  and 
the  rest  for  Moldavia ;  but  in  most  other  re- 
spects the  country  is  virtually  independent. 
Yet  in  1875  the  sultan  and  his  allies  contested 
with  Prince  Charles  the  right  of  concluding 
commercial  treaties,  and  Roumania,  though 
diplomatic  and  consular  agents  are  accredited 
at  Bucharest,  is  not  permitted  to  appoint  min- 
isters at  foreign  courts.  The  relations  with 
the  Porte  are  extremely  delicate.  The  rela- 
tionship of  Prince  Charles  with  the  emperor 
of  Germany  imposes  a  certain  restraint  upon 
the  sultan ;  and  while  the  latter  is  jealous  of 
maintaining  his  suzerainty,  the  Roumanians 
avail  themselves  of  every  opportunity  to  claim 
and  to  exercise  sovereign  power. 

ROIMKLIA,  RnmHU,  or  Romitnla  (Turk.  Kn- 
mili,  Roman  land),  the  name  formerly  applied 
by  the  Turks  to  the  largest  of  their  European 
provinces,  comprising  their  most  important 
possessions  in  Greece  and  N.  of  it  as  far  as 
the  northern  ridges  of  the  Balkan,  and  subse- 
quently applied  by  them  to  a  territory  com- 
prising portions  of  Albania  and  Macedonia 
(capital,  Monastir  or  Bitolia),  now  embraced 
in  the  vilayets  of  Prisrend  and  Salonica.  By 
occidental  writers  the  name  is  generally  used 
to  designate  the  provinces  known  to  the  an- 
cients aa  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  and  in  a  more 
limited  sense  to  Thrace  alone.  In  this  limit- 
ed sense  Roumelia  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Bal- 
kan, E.  by  the  Black  sea,  8.  E.  and  8.  by  the 
Bosporus,  the  sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Gre- 
cian archipelago,  and  "W.  by  the  range  of  the 
Despoto  Dagh ;  it  is  watered  by  the  Marit- 
za  and  its  affluents  the  Tundja  and  Erkeneh, 
and  contains  among  others  the  cities  of  Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople,  Philippopoli,  Rodos- 
to,  Gallipoli,  and  Enos.  This  country,  cor- 
responding to  the  modern  vilayet  of  Adriano- 
Ele  or  Edirneh,  which,  however,  does  not  em- 
race  Constantinople  and  the  adjoining  ter- 
ritory, is  the  most  important  portion  of  the 
Turkish  .empire  in  Europe,  although  it  is  prin- 
cipally occupied  by  Bulgarians  and  Greeks, 
and  the  number  of  Ottomans  is  comparatively 
small.  (See  THRACE.) 

ROUND  WORMS.   See  ENTOZOA,  vol.  vi.,  p.  668. 


ROUSE'S  POINT,  a  village  in  the  town  of 
Champlain,  Clinton  co.,  New  York,  on  the  W. 
shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  at  the  head  of  the 
Richelieu  river,  \  m.  8.  of  the  Canada  line, 
and  21  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Plattsburgh ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,266.  It  is  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  and  the  Central 
Vermont  railroad  here  crosses  the  lake  on  a 
bridge  1  m.  long.  There  are  about  2,000  arri- 
vals and  departures  of  vessels  annually.  About 
seven  eighths  of  the  revenues  of  the  district 
of  Champlain  are  collected  here,  the  receipts 
amounting  to  $500,000  a  year.  Fort  Mont- 
gomery, guarding  the  outlet  of  the  lake,  is 
a  mile  distant.  The  village  contains  an  ex- 
tensive publishing  house. 

ROUSSEAU,  .Iran  Baptist*,  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Paris,  April  6, 1670,  died  in  Brussels,  March 
17,  1741.  His  first  play  was  performed  in 
1694  with  little  success,  and  his  last,  Le  capri- 
cieux,  in  1700,  was  still  less  successful.  Ascri- 
bing his  failure  to  jealous  authors,  he  sati- 
rized them  with  great  virulence,  and  made 
many  enemies ;  while  his  contempt  for  his 
father  because  he  was  a  shoemaker  gave  riso 
to  the  poem  Le  merite  personnel,  by  La  Motte, 
the  son  of  a  hatter,  who  was  elected  to  the 
academy  instead  of  Rousseau.  In  1712  he  was 
sentenced  for  licentious  and  slanderous  wri- 
ting, though  perhaps  unjustly,  to  perpetual 
banishment,  and  went  to  Switzerland,  and 
subsequently  settled  in  Brussels.  He  made  a 
fortune  by  publishing  his  works  in  England, 
but  lost  it,  and  was  suppported  by  the  duke 
of  Arenenberg,  who  gave  him  a  pension  and 
rooms  in  his  palace.  His  complete  works 
were  published  by  Amar-Durivier  (5  vols., 
Paris,  1820).  The  most  recent  edition  of  his 
(Euvres  lyriquet  is  by  Manuel  (1852). 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Geneva,  June  28,  1712,  died  at  Erme- 
nonville,  near  Paris,  July  2, 1778.  Ho  was  de- 
scended from  a  family  of  Paris  booksellers  and 
Protestant  refugees.  His  mother,  the  daughter 
of  a  clergyman,  died  when  he  was  born,  and 
he  afterward  mourned  her  death  as  the  first  of 
his  woes.  From  his  father,  a  watchmaker,  he 
inherited  a  visionary,  restless  disposition,  and 
a  great  fondness  for  works  of  fiction.  Before 
he  was  nine  years  old  he  had  spent  whole 
nights  with  him  in  reading  novels  and  Plu- 
tarch's "  Lives."  He  was  a  sickly  boy,  and  his 
life  was  saved  only  through  the  care  of  an  aunt. 
After  his  father's  departure  from  Geneva  he 
was  sent  to  school  in  the  neighboring  village 
of  Boissy ;  and  he  afterward  lived  for  several 
years  in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  an  engineer 
in  Geneva,  and  acquired  some  knowledge  of 
drawing  and  mathematics.  After  serving  in 
the  office  of  a  lawyer,  who  dismissed  him,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  from  whom 
he  ran  away  in  1728.  While  wandering  about 
penniless,  he  was  relieved  from  starvation  by 
the  proselytizing  priest  Pontverre  of  Con- 
fignon  in  Savoy,  who  presented  him  to  Mme. 
de  Warens  at  Annecy,  a  recent  convert  to 


ROUSSEAU 


453 


Catholicism.  She  sent  him  to  the  school  of 
catechumens  at  Turin  for  his  definitive  conver- 
sion, and  he  lost  no  time  in  nominally  going 
through  the  ceremony,  in  order  to  escape  from 
that  institution.  But  his  destitution  obliged 
him  to  become  a  lacquey  of  the  countess  de 
Vercellis,  and  after  her  death  of  the  count  de 
Gouvon  at  Turin,  who  taught  him  Latin,  and 
with  whom  his  prospects  were  improving  when 
an  old  comrade  tempted  him  to  lead  a  roving 
life,  which  in  the  autumn  of  1729  ended  in  his 
seeking  shelter  under  the  roof  of  Mme.  de 
Warens.  She  now  sent  him  to  a  theological 
seminary  at  Annecy,  from  which  he  was  dis- 
missed as  unfitted  for  the  priesthood.  Finally 
he  took  up  his  abode  in  her  house  at  Chambe>y, 
and  after  a  severe  illness  he  passed  several 
years  with  her  as  her  lover  in  the  neighbor- 
ing farmhouse  Les  Charmettes.  He  left  her 
in  1740  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  and  was  a  tutor  in 
the  family  of  M.  de  Mably  at  Lyons  till  the 
autumn  of  1741,  when  he  went  to  Paris.  He 
was  absorbed  at  that  time  in  the  study  of  mu- 
sic, after  attempting  to  teach  the  art,  and  he 
had  invented  a  new  system  of  musical  notation, 
which  he  submitted  in  1742  to  the  academy  of 
sciences  in  Paris,  under  the  auspices  of  R6au- 
mur,  but  without  success.  At  a  later  period 
he  published  a  Dictionnaire  de  musique.  He 
then  composed  Les  muses  galantes,  an  opera 
which  was  never  performed.  After  recover- 
ing from  a  new  attack  of  illness  he  was  secre- 
tary to  M.  de  Montaigu,  French  ambassador 
at  Venice,  for  about  18  months,  but  in  1745 
he  returned  to  Paris  disgusted  with  his  chief. 
Here  he  became  acquainted  with  Mme.  d'Epi- 
nay,  Diderot,  Grimm,  and  D'Holbach.  He 
now  lived  with  The>ese  Le  Vasseur,  whom 
he  had  first  met  at  a  squalid  hotel  where  she 
was  a  cook.  She  was  coarse  but  faithful,  and 
bore  him  five  children,  who  were  successively 
sent  to  the  foundling  hospital.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  life  he  took  her  as  his  wife,  in 
presence  of  two  witnesses.  He  struggled  with 
adversity  for  several  years,  receiving  little  or 
nothing  for  his  musical  and  literary  labors, 
and  only  a  small  income  as  secretary  to  Mme. 
Dupin,  and  next  as  cashier,  which  latter  em- 
ployment filled  him  with  anxiety  and  nearly 
ruined  his  health.  In  1750  he  received  the 
prize  offered  by  the  academy  of  Dijon  for  the 
best  disquisition  on  the  question  whether  the 
progress  of  science  and  the  arts  has  contribu- 
ted to  corrupt  or  improve  the  morals  of  man- 
kind. In  his  essay  he  declared  war  against  all 
civilization,  and  henceforward  he  set  himself 
up  as  a  censor  and  reformer  of  society,  dis- 
daining all  the  elegancies  of  life,  and  attract- 
ing attention  by  his  oddities.  In  1752  he  pro- 
duced Le  devin  du  village,  an  opera,  the  art- 
less melody  of  which  won  general  admiration, 
and  Lettre  sur  la  musique  francaise,  in  favor 
of  Italian  music,  which  exposed  him  to  the 
animosity  of  the  national  school.  He  caused 
a  still  greater  sensation  by  writing  in  1753 
another  essay  for  the  academy  of  Dijon  on 


"The  Origin  of  Inequality  among  Men,"  in 
which  he  attacked  the  existing  social  order. 
He  now  revisited  Geneva,  where  he  was  cor- 
dially received  and  regained  his  citizenship  by 
returning  to  Calvinism,  and  would  have  re- 
mained there  but  for  his  jealousy  of  Voltaire, 
who  resided  in  the  vicinity.  In  1756  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  the  Hermitage,  a  charming 
retreat  which  Mme.  d'Epinay  had  fitted  up  for 
him  and  his  family  in  the  valley  of  Montmo- 
rency;  and  here  he  wrote  most  of  Julie,  ou 
la  Nouvelle  Helo'ise  (6  vols.,  1760),  in  which 
he  idealized  Mme.  d'Houdetot,  and  his  Lettre 
sur  les  spectacles,  addressed  to  D'Alembert. 
But  his  love  for  Mme.  d'Houdetot  gave  um- 
brage to  Mme.  d'Epinay,  and  he  in  his  turn 
became  jealous  of  the  relations  of  the  latter 
to  Grimm,  Diderot,  and  D'Holbach.  His  do- 
mestic life  was  at  the  same  time  made  in- 
tolerable by  the  mother  of  The>ese,  and  after 
many  tribulations  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
Hermitage,  and  retired  to  Montmorency,  where 
he  found  friends  in  the  duke  and  duchess  de 
Luxembourg,  who  prevailed  upon  him  in  May, 
1759,  to  inhabit  one  of  their  chateaux.  Here 
he  met  the  prince  de  Conti,  the  marchioness  de 
Boufflers,  and  Malesherbes,  the  censor  of  the 
press.  At  Montmorency  he  wrote  Emile  and 
the  Contrat  social,  and  collected  materials  for 
his  Confessions.  His  Emile,  ou  de  V education,  a 
visionary  work  which  has  been  called  by  Goethe 
"nature's  gospel  on  education,"  was  printed 
in  Amsterdam  at  the  duke's  expense  (4  vols., 
1762) ;  and  being  also  published  in  Paris  against 
Rousseau's  wishes,  it  was  condemned  by  the 
parliament,  and  he  escaped  arrest  by  going  to 
Geneva  and  thence  to  the  canton  of  Bern. 
Expelled  everywhere,  he  finally  took  refuge  in 
the  then  Prussian  principality  of  Neufchatel, 
where  he  was  befriended  by  Lord  Keith,  the 
governor.  His  Contrat  social,  in  which  he 
proclaimed  the  principles  of  universal  suffrage 
and  popular  sovereignty,  appeared  in  the  same 
year,  and  made  him  still  more  obnoxious  to  the 
adversaries  of  progress.  He  effectively  replied 
to  the  fulminations  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris 
against  fimile,  and  in  his  Lettres  de  la  mon- 
tagne  (1764)  to  those  of  the  Genevan  authori- 
ties ;  but  as  the  departure  of  Lord  Keith  from 
Neufchatel  left  him  unprotected  against  the 
fanaticism  of  the  priests  and  the  populace  at 
Motiers,  to  which  place  he  had  retired,  he  fled 
at  the  end  of  1765,  intending  to  visit  Berlin, 
but  lingered  at  Strasburg  and  other  places, 
where  he  was  well  received.  Arriving  in  Paris, 
he  was  treated  with  much  distinction,  but  was 
not  permitted  to  remain.  Early  in  1766  he 
accompanied  David  Hume  to  England  at  his 
urgent  invitation,  but  soon  fell  out  with  him. 
The  correspondence  relating  to  this  quarrel 
was  deposited  in  the  British  museum  in  1874, 
together  with  Rousseau's  autograph  will.  He 
returned  to  France  in  May,  1767,  Snd  resided 
in  various  places  till  1770,  when  he  settled  in 
Paris.  His  health  was  utterly  broken  by  his 
imaginary  and  real  fears  of  his  enemies;  and 


454 


ROUSSEAU 


ROWAN 


the  police  having  interdicted  the  readings  of 
his  Confessions  at  the  house  of  Mme.  d'Epinay, 
at  that  lady's  own  request,  he  became  still 
more  despondent.  Early  in  1778  he  was  in- 
vited by  M.  de  Girardin  to  his  country  seat  at 
Ermenonville,  where  he  ended  his  life  so  sud- 
denly that  rumors  of  suicide  were  circulated, 
but  without  sufficient  evidence;  he  probably 
died  from  apoplexy.  In  1794  his  remains  were 
removed  to  the  Pantheon,  where  a  statue  of 
him  had  been  erected ;  and  in  1815  the  allied 
sovereigns  honored  his  memory  by  exempting 
Ermenonville  from  all  war  taxes. — No  writer 
has  been  more  bitterly  denounced  than  Rous- 
seau, on  account  of  his  subversive  theories 
and  the  errors  of  his  life.  But  despite  his  sick- 
ly sentimentality,  the  subtle  eloquence  of  his 
style  is  unrivalled  in  French  literature,  and  his 
social  and  political  theories,  crude  and  erratic 
as  they  were,  are  redeemed  by  an  all-pervading 
desire  to  increase  the  happiness  of  the  laboring 
masses,  and  they  paved  the  way  for  mighty 
reforms  and  revolutions.  The  most  celebrated 
of  his  posthumous  works  is  Les  confessions  (4 
vols.,  Geneva,  1782),  which  like  his  other  wri- 
tings has  been  translated  into  most  civilized 
languages.  One  of  the  best  complete  editions 
of  his  works  is  by  Musset-Pathay  (23  vols., 
Paris,  1823-'6);  and  there  are  many  earlier 
and  later  complete  and  select  editions,  besides 
(Etivret  et  correspondances  inedites,  by  G. 
Streckeison-Moulton  (Paris,  1861).  The  biog- 
raphy of  Rousseau  by  Musset-Pathay  (2  vols., 
1821),  though  superior  to  preceding  ones,  has 
been  eclipsed  by  John  Morley's  "  Rousseau " 
(2  vols.,  London,  1873).  See  also  Rousseau,  set 
amis  et  set  ennemis,  by  Streckeisen-Moulton 
(2  vols.,  Neufchatel,  1865);  Voltaire  et  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  by  G.  Desnoiresterres  (Paris, 
1875);  and  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  sa  vie  et 
ses  ouvrages,  by  Saint-Marc  Girardin  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1875). 

ROUSSEAU,  Philippe,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  about  1808.  He  first  exhibited  land- 
scapes, and  subsequently  pictures  of  still  life 
and  animals.  Among  the  most  remarkable  is 
"  The  Photographic  Ape,"  with  flowers  (1866). 
In  1868  he  exhibited  his  "Residence  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott." 

ROUSSEAU,  Theodorf ,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1812,  died  near  Fontainebleau  in 
December,  1867.  His  landscapes  representing 
French  scenery  were  greatly  admired,  and 
many  of  them  figured  at  the  exhibitions  of 
1855  and  1867.  His  "Sunset  in  Sologne" 
was  sold  in  1875  for  24,100  francs,  his  "Farm 
on  the  Bank  of  the  Oise"  for  28,100,  and 
"The  Gorges  of  Apremont"  for  16,100. 

ROUSSET,  Camllte  Felix  Mkhd,  a  French  histo- 
rian, born  in  Paris,  Feb.  15, 1821.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  Paris,  and  was  professor 
of  history  at  the  college  Bourbon.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are :  Histoire  de  Louvois  et  de 
son  administration  politique  et  militaire  (4 
vols.,  1861-'3),  and  Correspondance  de  Louis 
XV,  et  du  marechalde  NoailUs  (2  vols.,  1865). 


ROUSSILLON,  an  ancient  province  of  S. 
France,  now  forming  the  greater  part  of  the 
department  of  Pyrenees-Orientales.  It  took  its 
name  from  the  town  of  Ruscino,  afterward 
called  Rosciliona,  and  now  Tour  de  Roussillon. 
It  was  taken  from  the  Saracens  by  Pepin  the 
Short  in  759,  and  was  governed  by  Frankish 
counts  till  1172,  when  the  last  of  them  be- 
queathed it  to  Alfonso  II.  of  Aragon.  John 
II.  of  Aragon  ceded  it  in  1462  to  Louis  XI. 
of  France  as  security  for  borrowed  money. 
Charles  VIII.  restored  it  to  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  in  1493.  Louis  XIII.  conquered  it  in 
1642,  and  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  in 
1659  it  was  annexed  to  France. 

ROUSSY,  Girodet  de.     See  GIBODET-TBIOSON. 

ROIVILLE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Cana- 
da, bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Richelieu  river; 
area,  244  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  17,634,  of 
whom  16,954  were  of  French  origin  or  de- 
scent. It  is  intersected  by  the  Yamaska  river, 
and  by  the  Stanstead,  Shefford,  and  Ohambly, 
and  the  Montreal,  Chambly,  and  Sorel  rail- 
ways. Capital,  Ste.  Marie  de  Monnoir. 

KOVK.o.  I.  A  N.  E.  province  of  Italy,  in 
Venetia,  bordering  on  Verona,  Padua,  Venice, 
the  Adriatic,  Ferrara,  and  Mantua;  area,  651 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  200,835.  The  Po  and 
the  Adige  are  the  principal  rivers,  and  there 
are  three  other  navigable  streams  and  two 
canals.  The  chief  products  are  wheat,  maize, 
and  other  grains,  hemp,  flax,  wines,  and  wool. 
Silk  culture  is  increasing.  The  province  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Adria,  Ariano, 
Badia,  Lendinara,  Massa,  Occhiobello,  Pole- 
sella,  and  Rovigo.  II.  A  town,  capital  of 
the  province,  on  the  Adigetto,  35  m.  S.  W.  of 
Venice ;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  surrounded 
by  old  walls  flanked  with  towers,  and  pos- 
sesses a  dilapidated  castle.  The  river,  spanned 
by  four  bridges,  divides  the  town  into  two 
parts,  the  lower  being  called  San  Stefano  and 
the  upper  San  Giustino.  In  the  principal 
square  is  a  column  on  which  once  stood  the 
lion  of  St.  Mark.  Besides  the  fine  cathedral, 
there  are  26  churches,  but  none  of  them  re- 
markable. It  contains  also  a  seminary,  a  gym- 
nasium, an  academy  of  sciences  with  a  large 
library,  and  two  theatres.  The  bishop  of 
Adria  usually  resides  here.  The  annual  fair 
lasts  eight  days.  Leather  and  saltpetre  are 
the  chief  manufactures.  The  wine  of  the 
neighborhood  has  lost  its  ancient  reputation. 

ROVIGO,  Duke  of.     See  SAVARY. 

ROWAN.  I.  A  W.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordered  partly  on  the  E.  by  the  Yadkin,  and 
N.  E.  by  the  South  Yadkin ;  area,  about  600 
sq.  m.;  pop  in  1870,  16,810,  of  whom  5,307 
were  colored.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and  a 
generally  fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Richmond  and  Danville  and  the  Western  North 
Carolina  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  126,753  bushels  of  wheat,  289,400 
of  Indian  corn,  119,132  of  oats,  4,142  tons  of 
hay,  520  bales  of  cotton,  54,810  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
9,699  of  wool,  70,104  of  butter,  and  9,658  gal- 


ROWE 


ROWING 


455 


Ions  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  2,654 
horses,  899  mules  and  asses,  3,529  milch  cows, 
4,294  other  cattle,  7,669  sheep,  and  18,028 
swine ;  5  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 1  of  freight  and  passenger  cars,  1  of  chew- 
ing tobacco,  and  3  wool-carding  establish- 
ments. Capital,  Salisbury.  II.  A  N.  E.  coun- 
ty of  Kentucky,  bounded  "W.  by  Licking  riv- 
er, and  drained  by  several  tributaries  of  that 
stream ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,991,  of  whom  32  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  uneven  and  hilly,  and  a  large  portion  of 
it  is  covered  with  forests.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  2,786  bushels  of  wheat, 
112,040  of  Indian  corn,  15,950  of  oats,  56,275 
Ibs.  of  butter,  7,072  of  wool,  11,295  of  tobacco, 
and  552  tons  of  hay.  There  were  721  horses, 
720  milch  cows,  1,125  other  cattle,  3,521  sheep, 
and  2,900  swine.  Capital,  Morehead. 

ROWE,  Elizabeth,  an  English  authoress,  born 
in  Ilchester,  Sept.  11,  1674,  died  at  Frome, 
near  Bristol,  Feb.  20,  1737.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  dissenting  minister  named  Sing- 
er. She  published  "  Poems  on  Several  Oc- 
casions, by  Philomela"  (1696);  "Friendship 
in  Death,  or  Twenty  Letters  from  the  Dead 
to  the  Living  "  (1728) ;  "  Letters,  Moral  and 
Entertaining,  in  Prose  and  Verse"  (1729- 
'33);  "Joseph,  a  Poem"  (1736);  and  "De- 
vout Exercises  of  the  Heart,"  published  after 
her  death  by  Dr.  Isaac  Watts.  Her  "  Miscel- 
laneous "Works,  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  were 
published  in  1739  (2  vols.  8vo). 

ROWE,  Nicholas,  an  English  dramatist,  born 
at  Little  Barford,  Bedfordshire,  about  1673, 
died  Dec.  6,  1718.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster, and  studied  law.  When  25  years  old 
he  composed  a  successful  tragedy  called  "  The 
Ambitious  Stepmother."  In  1702  appeared 
his  tragedy  of  "Tamerlane."  In  1703  he 
brought  out  "  The  Fair  Penitent,"  founded 
upon  "The  Fatal  Dowry"  of  Massinger,  and 
in  1706  the  comedy  of  "The  Biter,"  which 
failed.  Afterward  he  produced  the  tragedies 
"Ulysses,"  "The  Royal  Convert,"  "Jane 
Shore,"  and  "  Lady  Jane  Grey,"  and  transla- 
ted the  Pharsalia  of  Lucan.  In  1709  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Shakespeare  (7  vols.  8vo), 
with  the  first  biography  of  the  poet.  In  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  Bowe  was  under  sec- 
retary of  state  for  a  short  time.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  George  I.  he  was  created  laureate. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

ROWING,  the  art  of  propelling  a  boat  by 
means  of  oars.  In  the  Greek  and  Roman 
galleys  the  oars  were  arranged  in  banks,  of 
which  different  galleys  had  from  2  to  12,  and 
more.  (See  GALLEY.)  In  all  civilized  coun- 
tries for  a  long  period  boating  was  merely  a 
means  of  living  to  those  who  rowed  people 
for  pleasure,  ferried  them  across  rivers,  or 
transported  goods.  It  was  not  till  the  18th 
century  that  boat  racing  became  popular,  es- 
pecially on  the  Thames,  the  watermen  test- 
ing their  superiority  in  rowing  in  the  clumsy 
boats  then  built.  In  1715  Thomas  Doggett, 


the  comedian,  offered  the  prize  still  known  as 
"  Doggett's  coat  and  badge  "  to  the  waterman's 
apprentice  between  Gravesend  and  Oxford 
who  was  the  fastest  sculler  of  the  year,  and 
this  prize  is  still  annually  conferred.  In  Eng- 
land 50  years  ago  the  racing  boat  was  85  ft. 
long  and  6  ft.  beam,  weighed  700  Ibs.,  and  car- 
ried two  oarsmen  of  200  Ibs.  weight  each,  with 
two  spare  men  to  act  as  ballast  and  assist  at 
the  oars.  Now  four  men  weighing  150  to  160 
Ibs.  each  propel  a  shell  of  17  in.  beam  and  41 
ft.  length,  weighing  but  94  Ibs.,  over  a  six-mile 
course,  at  the  rate  of  9  m.  an  hour.  The  first 
notable  improvement  in  racing  boats  was  re- 
moving the  oar  from  the  rowlock  on  the  gun- 
wales to  the  outriggers.  In  a  match  race  on 
the  Tyne  between  the  Fly  of  Scotswood  and 
the  Diamond  of  Ouseborn,  Anthony  Brown 
narrowed  the  Diamond,  and  by  placing  vari- 
ous pieces  of  wood  on  either  side,  now  known 
as  false  outriggers,  secured  an  easy  triumph. 
Harry  Clasper  of  Newcastle  substituted  for 
this  rude  device,  not  the  light  and  graceful 
outrigger  of  to-day,  with  its  rowlocks  tightly 
blocked  and  wired,  but  something  much  near- 
er it  than  the  original.  It  was  not  till  1844, 
when  he  won  the  £50  prize  of  the  Thames  na- 
tional regatta  in  a  four-oared  outrigged  gig  of 
his  own  building,  that  the  merits  of  the  out- 
rigger were  generally  acknowledged.  He  also 
remodelled  the  racing  oar.  Forty  years  ago  it 
was  an  unwieldy  stick  "  of  prodigious  size  and 
loaded  with  lead  at  the  loom  end,"  while  the 
blades  were  flat  and  straight,  like  those  of  the 
ash  oars  of  to-day,  and  very  wide.  A  London 
crew  on  the  Tyne,  with  scoop  or  spoon  oars, 
had  beaten  Clasper's  crew,  and  Clasper  did 
not  rest  until  he  had  improved  the  spoon  oar. 
"  The  progress  and  success  of  Tyne  boating 
now  became  universal;  crew  after  crew  sprang 
up ;  boats  underwent  still  further  alterations  ; 
light  men  were  substituted  for  the  rollicking, 
over-fed,  fourteen-stone  keelmen ;  and  the 
Clasper  crew  gained  a  notoriety  which  has 
long  since  been  developed."  The  Thames  Sub- 
scription club  threw  open  yearly  races,  and 
the  "  Sons  of  the  Thames  crew,"  "  Pride  of 
the  Tyne  crew,"  and  "  Pride  of  the  Thames 
crew "  soon  came  to  be  familiar  names. 
While  the  professional  rowers  were  thus  ad- 
vancing, the  amateurs  were  in  no  way  behind. 
For  some  time  prior  to  1825  eight-oared  row- 
ing had  been  in  vogue  at  Oxford,  while  the 
first  eight-oared  boat  at  Cambridge  belonged 
to  St.  John's  college,  and  was  built  in  1826  at 
Eton,  which  organized  its  boat  club  in  1825. 
On  June  10,  1829,  the  chosen  eights  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  first  met  on  the  course,  2J  m. 
long,  from  Hambledon  lock  to  Henley  bridge 
on  the  Thames,  and  Oxford  won  easily  by  60 
yards.  The  two  universities  next  met  in  1836, 
and  rowed  from  Westminster  bridge  to  Put- 
ney bridge,  Cambridge  noAv  being  the  winner. 
They  next  met  in  1839,  and  since  then  have 
nearly  every  year  kept  up  the  now  famous 
rivalry.  In  1874  Cambridge  had  won  15  times 


456 


ROWING 


and  Oxford  16,  but  in  1875  the  latter  made 
her  number  17.  At  Oxford  there  are  18  dis- 
tinct college  rowing  clubs,  and  one  university 
club.  Yet  one  of  the  two  large  boat-build- 
ing establishments  of  Oxford  keeps  350  boats 
for  hire,  among  which  are  40  eight-oared  out- 
riggers and  40  four-oared  outriggers,  and  in 
addition  builds  an  average  of  three  boats  a 
week.  At  Cambridge  there  are  19. rowing 
clubs  and  one  university  club.  In  1864,  when 
the  college  crews  were  in  training  with  a 
view  to  select  from  the  best  eight-oared  crews 
the  university  crew  with  which  to  meet  Ox- 
ford at  Putney,  a  writer  says  that  "the  col- 
lege eights  were  formed  for  practice  in  three 
divisions  of  20  boats  each,  thus  making  60 
eight-oared  outrigg&d  cutters,  or  nearly  500 
oarsmen  in  practice  on  the  Cam  at  the  same 
time,  day  by  day."  The  Henley-on-Thames 
royal  regatta,  rowed  late  in  June  each  year 
and  open  to  all  amateur  clubs  of  a  year's  stand- 
ing, has  flourished  since  1839;  and  among  the 
competitors  for  its  grand  challenge  cup  and 
ladies'  challenge  plate  for  eights,  its  steward's, 
visitors',  and  Wyfold  challenge  cups  for  fours, 
silver  wherries  and  goblets  for  pair-oars,  and 
diamond  sculls  for  scullers,  it  has  for  many 
years  brought  out  the  best  amateur  material 
in  England.  The  record  of  matches  in  Great 
Britain  for  1865,  as  far  as  known,  footed  up 
365.  There  are  also  many  clubs  formed  merely 
for  exercise  and  pleasure,  which  do  not  race, 
making  the  total  number  of  boating  clubs 
in  the  United  Kingdom  more  than  460. — In 
1850  there  was  no  boat  club  in  the  United 
States  of  more  than  a  local  reputation,  and 
there  had  been  no  racing  of  importance.  The 
boats  of  that  day  were  half  as  wide  and  not 
much  longer  than  the  English  wherry,  though 
not  so  heavy.  There  was  no  distinctive  class 
of  watermen,  and  little  rowing  except  in  the 
harbors  of  the  seaboard  places,  where  only 
heavy  boats  could  be  used ;  and  among  the 
stevedores,  longshoremen,  and  others  plying 
these,  racing  was  not  popular.  Apart  from 
the  credit  due  to  a  few  professionals  and  to 
local  amateur  clubs,  the  most  interesting  if  not 
most  important  racing  records  belong  to  the 
northern  and  eastern  colleges.  Rowing  as  a 
pastime  began  at  Yale  in  1843,  and  at  Har- 
vard in  1844.  The  first  intercollegiate  race 
took  place  on  Aug.  3,  1852,  at  Centre  Harbor, 
Lake  Winnepiseogee.  It  was  for  eight-oared 
barges  carrying  coxswains,  over  a  two-mile 
course.  Harvard  in  the  Oneida  defeated  the 
Halcyon  and  Undine  of  Yale,  leading  at  the 
finish  by  two  lengths.  The  boats  averaged 
about  37  ft.  in  length  and  3  ft.  in  breadth.  In 
1855  Yale  again  challenged  Harvard,  and  on 
July  21,  on  the  Connecticut  near  Springfield, 
over  a  three-mile  tideway  course,  the  six-oared 
Nereid  and  Nautilus  of  Yale,  each  carrying  a 
coxswain,  were  beaten  by  the  Harvard  four- 
oared  Y.  Y.  with  no  coxswain,  and  the  eight- 
oared  Iris  with  a  coxswain.  The  Iris  took  23 
m. ;  the  Y.  Y.,  after  deducting  an  allowance  of 


11  s.  an  oar,  22  m.  3  s. ;  the  Nereid,  23  m.  38 
s. ;  and  the  Nautilus,  24  m.  38  s.  In  1858 
Harvard  proposed  to  the  undergraduates  of  the 
principal  New  England  colleges  and  those  of 
New  York  city  to  establish  an  annual  inter- 
collegiate regatta.  Delegates  from  Harvard, 
Yale,  Brown,  and  Trinity  met  at  New  Haven, 
May  26.  The  course  was  fixed  at  three  miles. 
An  allowance  of  12s.  an  oar  was  to  be  given  to 
smaller  boats,  and  the  prizes  were  to  be  flags, 
not  to  exceed  $25  in  value,  and  to  be  paid  for 
by  the  entrance  fees  of  the  boats.  But  a  week 
before  the  time  appointed  for  the  race  the  Yale 
boat  was  overturned  by  a  collision,  and  her 
stroke  drowned.  This  broke  up  the  race.  The 
next  contest  was  at  Lake  Quinsigamond,  near 
Worcester,  Mass.,  July  26, 1859.  All  the  boats 
were  six-oared,  Brown  sending  the  lapstreak 
Atalanta,  Yale  the  shell  Yale,  and  Harvard  the 
lapstreak  Avon  and  the  shell  Harvard.  The 
Yale  and  Brown  boats  carried  coxswains.  The 
boats  were  several  feet  longer  than  in  former 
years,  had  narrowed  to  about  2  ft.  in  beam, 
and  had  been  materially  lightened.  Harvard 
won  easily  in  19  m.  18  s.,  Yale  being  60  s.  later, 
and  the  others  far  behind.  But  next  day,  in  a 
regatta  thrown  open  by  the  citizens  of  Wor- 
cester, Harvard  was  beaten  by  Yale  by  2  s. 
There  was  no  rudder  to  the  Harvard  boat, 
while  Yale  had  a  coxswain ;  and  the  next  year 
Harvard  introduced  a  device  which  by  dis- 
pensing with  coxswains  practically  revolution- 
ized American  rowing.  The  bow  oarsman,  by 
touching  with  his  foot  a  strip  of  wood  or 
iron,  moving  horizontally  on  a  pivot,  worked 
wires  running  to  a  parallel  strip  on  top  of  the 
rudder,  and  so  steered  the  boat.  This  con- 
trivance probably  won  Harvard  the  race  in 
1860  by  12J  s.,  while  Yale  carried  a  coxswain 
weighing  112  Ibs.  The  war  stopped  these 
races  till  1864,  when  Yale  won,  and  again  on 
July  28  and  29,  1865.  Harvard  took  the  flags 
for  the  following  five  years.  The  boats  were 
still  lengthening  and  narrowing,  the  climax 
being  reached  in  1866,  when  the  Harvard  craft 
was  57  ft.  long  and  but  19  in.  wide,  while  each 
rower,  instead  of  sitting  close  up  to  the  side 
of  the  boat  furthest  from  his  oar  blade,  sat  in 
the  middle,  rendering  her  much  steadier.  In 
1868  Harvard  rowed  the  three  miles  on  Lake 
Quinsigamond  in  17  m.  48|  s.  In  1869  Har- 
vard challenged  both  the  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge crews  to  a  friendly  race  over  their  own 
course  on  the  Thames,  from  Putney  to  Mort- 
lake.  Cambridge  declined  the  challenge,  but 
Oxford  accepted,  each  crew  to  consist  of  four 
rowers  and  a  coxswain.  When  the  day,  Aug. 
27,  came,  Harvard  was  obliged  to  supply  the 
places  of  two  of  her  best  oarsmen  with  com- 
paratively new  men.  She  was  also  over- 
matched by  Oxford  44  Ibs.  in  the  total  weight 
of  crew.  Yet  in  a  course  of  4  m.  3  fur.  Har- 
vard led  for  more  than  2  m.,  Oxford  finally 
winning  by  !•&•  length  in  22  m.  20-6  s.  of  time. 
In  1870,  owing  to  some  dissatisfaction  with 
regard  to  the  decision  of  the  umpire,  Yale 


ROWING 


457 


and  Harvard  resolved  to  row  no  more  races 
on  Lake  Quinsigamond,  and  the  12th  college 
regatta  took  place,  July  21,  1871,  on  the 
Connecticut  river,  6  m.  above  Springfield, 
when  Harvard  and  Brown  were  beaten  by  the 
Amherst  agricultural  crew,  which  made  the 
three-mile  course  in  16m.  47  s.  In  1872  the 
number  of  college  crews  increased  to  6,  in 
1873  to  11;  in  1874,  when  Columbia  won  in 
16  m.  32|  s.  on  Saratoga  lake,  it  fell  back 
to  9,  and  in  1875  increased  to  14.  In  the 
intercollegiate  race  on  Saratoga  lake,  July 
14,  1875,  12  colleges  competed  over  a  three- 
mile  course,  Cornell  winning  in  16  m.  53 J  s., 
Columbia  coming  in  second  in  17  m.  4J-  s., 
and  only  a  half  length  in  advance  of  Harvard. 
The  college  races  have  improved  every  year. 
Besides  lengthening  and  narrowing  the  boats, 
improving  the  oars,  and  introducing  foot  rud- 
ders, the  number  of  strokes  per  minute  has 
been  increased,  with  more  uniformity  and  pre- 
cision. The  more  powerful  men  are  placed  in 
the  waist  of  the  boat,  the  lighter  ones  at  the 
ends,  and  for  stroke  oar  a  medium  weight, 
tough,  wiry  man,  who  will  maintain  the  re- 
quired quickness  through  the  race  and  force 
the  heavy  men  behind  to  do  the  same.  In- 
stead of  turning  a  stake  boat,  the  races  are 
now  on  a  straight  course  from  start  to  finish. 
This  obviates  the  danger  of  collisions  at  the 
turning,  and  permits  the  introduction  of  more 
boats. — While  the  college  races  have  been 
mainly  instrumental  in  improving  and  making)* 
popular  rowing  in  the  United  States,  other 
amateur  clubs  and  professionals  have  not  been 
idle.  For  many  years  past,  on  July  4,  Boston 
has  held  a  rowing  regatta,  with  prizes  sufficient 
to  encourage  good  local  ability,  bring  out  fast 
work,  and  stimulate  rowing  in  New  England 
generally.  Occasionally  crews  from  St.  John, 
Portland,  and  Pittsburgh,  and  often  the  Wards, 
the  Biglins,  and  Harvard  men,  have  competed 
in  these  races.  Fast  single  scullers  sprang  up 
from  time  to  time,  the  names  of  R.  F.  Clark, 
M.  Smith,  John  Tyler,  jr.,  Fay,  Appleton,  and 
Walter  Brown  becoming  well  known,  and  these 
men  materially  reduced  the  time  formerly 
needed  to  cover  two  miles.  The  Atalanta  boat 
club  of  New  York  was  organized  in  1848,  and 
in  1874  it  was  the  oldest  of  91  clubs  in  the 
state.  Philadelphia  has  nearly  a  score  of  clubs, 
some  of  them  20  years  old,  while  Pittsburgh 
has  half  as  many ;  and  of  late  years  the  inter- 
est has  been  spreading  throughout  the  west  and 
south,  till  Georgia  has  12,  Michigan  and  Cali- 
fornia each  20;  and  in  1874  there  were  364 
known  rowing  clubs  in  the  United  States,  own- 
ing real  and  personal  property  to  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  more  than  $500,000.  It  was  not 
till  1859  that  there  was  any  formal  contest 
between  professionals  for  the  championship  at 
single  sculling.  Stephen  Roberts,  now  (1875) 
a  boat  builder  in  New  York,  had  for  many 
years  beaten  nearly  all  contestants;  but  in  a 
five-mile  race  off  Staten  island,  Oct.  11,  1869, 
Joshua  Ward  of  Cornwall  on  the  Hudson  won 


the  championship,  beating  three  good  men. 
On  Aug.  14,  1862,  James  Hamill  of  Pittsburgh 
wrested  it  from  him  on  the  Schuylkill  near 
Philadelphia,  but  in  less  than  a  year  Ward  won 
it. back  at  Poughkeepsie;  13  months  later,  at 
the  same  place,  it  went  again  to  Hamill;  and 
less  than  a  year  afterward  at  Pittsburgh  he 
once  more  defeated  Ward.  WT alter  Brown  of 
Portland  took  it  away  from  him  at  Pittsburgh, 
and  lost  it  to  him  again  at  Newburgh  a  few 
months  later,  in  a  race  for  $4,000.  In  1866 
Hamill  went  to  the  Tyne  to  contest  with  Harry 
Kelly,  the  English  champion,  and  was  twice 
badly  beaten.  Apart  from  these  contests  be- 
tween single  scullers,  another  class  of  profes- 
sionals were  competing.  In  1860,  at  Lake 
Quinsigamond,  "Josh"  Ward  with  five  oth- 
ers from  the  Hudson,  though  carrying  a  boy 
as  coxswain  weighing  40  Ibs.,  rowed  3  m.  in 
the  Gersh  Banker  in  18  m.  37  s.,  the  fastest 
time  then  on  record.  Many  times  during  the 
next  12  years  the  Biglin  brothers  of  New 
York  proved  their  claim  to  the  championship. 
Hamill  at  Pittsburgh,  Stevens  at  Poughkeep- 
sie, and  Coulter  at  Pittsburgh,  each  succeeded 
in  getting  together  a  fair  crew.  But  not  till 
Josh  Ward,  with  four  of  his  brothers  and  J. 
L.  Raymond,  in  July,  1868,  at  Worcester,  beat 
the  Harvard  crew  in  17  m.  40£  s.,  the  fastest 
time  ever  made  in  America  over  a  three-mile 
turning  course,  was  the  champion  crew  of 
America  generally  rated  very  fast.  In  1867, 
at  Springfield  on  the  Connecticut,  the  Wards 
had  easily  beaten  a  picked  crew  from  St.  John, 
N.  B.,  in  a  contest  for  $1,000  and  the  Ameri- 
can championship,  course  three  miles  to  stake 
boat  and  return,  the  Wards  winning  in  39  m. 
28  s.  In  October,  1868,  St.  John  sent  to  the 
same  course  its  "Paris  crew,"  which  in  the 
exposition  races  of  1867  had  beaten  the  picked 
crews  of  England  and  France,  and  now  won 
$3,000  and  the  championship,  covering  the  six 
miles  in  39  m.  28f  s.,  the  Wards  coming  in  60  s. 
behind.  In  1870  the  champion  English  four, 
with  Renforth  at  stroke,  met  these  St.  John 
men  at  Lachine,  Canada,  and  in  a  six-mile 
race  beat  them  by  half  a  minute.  In  1871 
the  Tyne  crew,  including  Renforth  and  Henry 
Kelly,  again  tried  the  St.  John  Paris  crew 
on  the  Kennebecasis  river,  N.  B.,  but  hardly  a 
mile  and  a  quarter  was  rowed  when  Renforth, 
dropping  his  oar,  fell  backward  into  the  boat, 
and  shortly  afterward  died.  Congestion  of 
the  lungs,  caused  by  over  exertion,  was  the 
coroner's  verdict.  A  few  days  later,  at  Hal- 
ifax, his  crew,  with  John  Bright  as  the  new 
man,  was  beaten  by  the  Biglins  of  New  York, 
who  were  third,  the  other  English  crew  being 
first  and  a  Halifax  boat  second.  But  on  Sept. 
11,  at  Saratoga  lake,  came  the  greatest  inter- 
national race  of  all,  the  course  being  two 
miles  to  line  of  flag  boats  and  return;  the 
prizes  were  $2,000,  $1,250,  and  $750.  The 
contestants  were  the  Ward  brothers,  the  Tyne 
crew,  the  Biglins,  another  Tyne  crew,  the  Ste- 
vens four  from  Poughkeepsie,  and  a  crew  from 


458 


ROWING 


Pittsburgh.  The  Wards  won,  making  time  to 
the  turn  in  11  m.  20  s.,  and  the  four  miles  in 
24  m.  40  s. — St.  Petersburg,  Paris,  Vienna, 
Pesth,  Marseilles,  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  Kot- 
terdam,  Hamburg,  and  many  other  European 
.cities  have  their  regularly  organized  rowing 
clubs.  Indeed,  as  a  popular  amusement,  row- 
ing is  now  nearly  universal. — In  the  matter  of 
training,  the  course  in  later  years  has  been 
uniformly  one  of  improvement.  Instead  of 
unnatural  sweating,  physicking,  and  living  on 
half -cooked  meat  and  scarcely  any  vegetables 
or  liquid,  the  preparation  for  the  race  is  now 
much  more  rational.  A  generous  supply  of 
vegetables,  a  fair  allowance  of  liquid,  and 
abundance  of  fresh  meats  have  been  found  to 
work  so  beneficially,  notwithstanding  the  free 
perspiration  which  this  diet  occasions,  that  it 
is  surprising  that  stinting  is  still  so  common. 
The  first  work  is  easy,  and  the  approach  to  the 
severe  is  careful  and  gradual.  A  bath  and  a 
short  walk  (no  running)  before  breakfast,  short, 
slow  pulls  before  dinner,  in  which  great  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  improving  and  perfecting  the 
style,  and  a  long,  careful  row  in  the  afternoon, 
followed  by  a  vigorous  rub-down,  soon  begin 
both  to  toughen  the  men  and  bring  uniformity 
in  their  rowing.  Then  the  fast  row  over  a 
part,  and  finally  over  the  whole  of  the  dis- 
tance, takes  the  place  of  the  long  row,  and  for 


the  last  two  weeks  before  the  race  these  fast 
rows  are  taken  daily.  There  have  been  many 
variations  from  this  regime. — To  row  as  the 
term  is  now  understood,  one  must  sit  facing 
opposite  the  way  he  wishes  to  go,  and,  bracing 
his  feet  against  the  footboard,  and  grasping  his 
oar  or  oars  firmly,  must  reach  well  out,  prompt- 
ly dip  his  blade  in  the  water,  and  then  vigor- 
ously throw  the  whole  weight  of  his  back  and 
all  the  pushing  power  of  his  legs  into  the  stroke, 
pulling  until  his  hands  actually  touch  his  body. 
No  one  rows  well  who  does  not  do  substan- 
tially all  these.  The  number  of  strokes  per 
minute  will  vary  in  different  crews  from  39  to 
45,  and  some  crews  have  "spurted"  to  47. 
Dr.  J.  E.  Morgan,  after  a  painstaking  and  ex- 
haustive inquiry  among  all  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  oarsmen  now  living,  and  among 
the  friends  of  those  deceased,  reaches  a  con- 
clusion most  favorable  to  this  exercise,  the 
only  serious  danger  being  to  him  who,  with 
abounding  pluck  and  spirit,  has  not  yet  suifi- 
cient  growth  or  strength  to  take  part  in  such  a 
race  at  all. — The  lightest  forms  of  modern  out- 
rigged  racing  boats  in  the  United  States,  built 
with  a  single  streak  or  smooth  skin,  are  called 
"shells."  Those  for  one  oarsman  are  single 
shells,  for  two  men  each  using  a  pair  of  sculls 
double  sculls  or  shells,  and  for  four  and  six 
men  respectively,  four-  and  six-oared  shells. 


Fiu.  1.— Six-oared  Rowing  Shell :  Elevation. 


The  covering  of  the  wooden  frame,  technically 
known  as  the  skin,  is  made  of  pine,  cedar,  or 
mahogany,  of  uniform  thickness,  from  -^  to  ^ 
in.  according  to  the  size  of  the  shell;  or  the 
skin  may  be  of  layers  or  even  a  single  sheet 
of  the  requisite  thickness  of  manila  paper, 


stretched  on  a  pine  model,  which  is  taken  out 
when  the  paper  skin  is  thoroughly  dry.  The 
skin  is  then  made  water-proof,  is  finished  with 
hard  varnishes,  and  must  have  a  frame  to  sup- 
port and  keep  it  in  shape.  Other  component 
parts  of  the  shell  are  the  washboards,  decks 


FIG.  2.— Six-oared  Bowing  Shell,  showing  Seats  and  Outriggers. 


or  "  canvas  "  of  thin  wood,  oiled  linen,  or  silk, 
the  thwarts  or  seats  for  oarsmen,  stretchers  or 
footboards  against  which  the  rowers  press  their 
feet,  the  rudder  connecting  with  the  "  travel- 
ler," which  the  bow  oarsman  operates  with  his 
feet,  and  the  outrigger.  The  dimensions  are : 
single  shells,  9|  to  15$  in.  beam,  28  to  31  ft. 
length ;  double  shells,  14  to  30  in.  beam,  32  to 
34  ft.  length;  four-oared  shells,  17J  to  30  in. 
beam,  40  to  42  ft.  length;  six-oared  shells,  19 
to  21  in.  beam,  48  or  49  ft.  length.  For  the 


lightest  single  sculls  the  draught  is  from  3  to  3£ 
in.,  weight  of  boat  30  Ibs.,  oars  6  Ibs.,  rower 
125  to  158  Ibs. ;  total  weight  and  displacement, 
162  to  194  Ibs.  For  larger  single  sculls  the 
total  weight  may  be  168  to  242  Ibs.,  including 
boat  38  to  40  Ibs.,  and  rower  130  to  200  Ibs. 
For  double  shells,  draught  3£  to  4J  in.,  boat  50 
to  90  Ibs.,  oars  12  to  14  Ibs.,  crew  262  to  458 
Ibs. ;  total  weight,  324  to  562  Ibs.  For  four- 
oared  shell,  draught  4|  to  5$  in.,  boat  94  to  180 
Ibs.,  oars  26  to  28  Ibs.,  crew  552  to  800  Ibs. ; 


ROWLEY 


RUBEN 


459 


total  weight  and  displacement,  672  to  959  Ibs. 
For  six-oared  shells,  draught  5  to  5£  in.,  boat  120 
to  150  Ibs.,  oars  36  Ibs.,  crew  760  to  880  Ibs. ; 
total  weight  and  displacement,  916  to  1,098 
Ibs.  These  displacements  are  in  fresh  water ; 
in  salt  water  they  are  reckoned  a  few  pounds 
more.  Eight-oared  shells  are  not  yet  common 
in  the  United  States.  The  cost  of  the  boats, 
without  oars,  is :  for  single  shells,  $90  to  $100 ; 
double,  $135  to  $190;  four-oared,  $210  to 
$260  ;  six-oared,  $300.  —  Among  the  many 
works  on  the  construction  of  boats,  records 
of  races,  training,  and  modern  method  of  row- 
ing, the  following  are  prominent :  "  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Rowing,  by  an  Oarsman  "  (London, 
1846);  "Manual  of  British  Rural  Sports,  by 
Stonehenge"  (London,  1863);  "Modern  Sys- 
tem of  Naval  Architecture,"  by  John  Scott 
Russell  (3  vols.,  London,  1865);  "Book  of 
American  Pastimes,"  by  Charles  A.  Peverelly 
(New  York,  1866) ;  "  Training  in  Theory  and 
Practice,"  by  Archibald  Maclaren  (London, 
18G6);  "The  Arts  of  Rowing  and  Training, 
by  Argonaut"  (London,  1866);  "The  Boat, 
and  How  to  Manage  it,  by  Salacia"  (Lon- 
don, 1868)  ;  "How  to  Row,"  by  T.  J.  Bering- 
ton  (Oxford,  1870) ;  "  The  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Boat  Races,"  by  W.  F.  Macmichael 
(Cambridge,  1870);  "Yale  and  Harvard  Boat 
Racing"  (New  Haven,  1871);  "Four  Years  at 
Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  1869 "  (New  Haven, 
1871);  "The  Illustrated  Oarsman's  Manual" 
(Troy,  N.  Y.,  1872);  "University  Oars:  A 
Critical  Inquiry  into  After-health,"  by  Dr.  J. 
E.  Morgan  (London,  1873) ;  and  the  "  Rowing 
Almanac  and  Oarsman's  Companion  "  (London, 
annually  since  1861). 

ROWLEY,  William,  an  English  dramatist  of 
the  age  of  Elizabeth,  who  lived  through  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  and  died  in  that  of  Charles 
I.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  belonged 
to  the  royal  company  of  players,  excelled  in 
comedy,  and  was  intimate  with  all  the  poets 
and  wits  of  his  time,  many  of  whom  he  as- 
sisted in  the  preparation  of  plays,  and  some 
of  whom  assisted  him.  Thus,  "  A  Fair  Quar- 
rel"  is  by  T.  Middleton  and  W.  Rowley ;  "  The 
Witch  of  Edmonton  "  is  by  Rowley,  Decker, 
and  Ford;  "The  Old  Law"  is  by  Massin- 
ger,  Middleton,  and  Rowley;  "Fortune  by 
Land  and  Sea "  is  by  Hey  wood  and  Rowley  ; 
and  it  is  said  that  in  "The  Birth  of  Merlin" 
Rowley  received  some  assistance  from  Shake- 
speare. The  Percy  society  in  1840  republished 
his  tract,  "A  Search  for  Money,  or  the  Lamen- 
table Complaint  for  the  Losse  of  the  Wan- 
dring  Knight,  Monsieur  1'Argent." 

ROXBURGHSHIRE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Scot- 
land, bordering  on  Cumberland  and  North- 
umberland, England ;  area,  670  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  53,965.  Jedburgh,  Kelso,  Hawick,  and 
Melrose  are  the  chief  towns.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Tweed  and  Teviot.  The  Cheviot 
hills  extend  from  the  E.  to  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  the  county,  and  afford  excellent  pasturage. 
Many  sheep  are  raised.  Wool  ie  manufac- 


tured. Roxburghshire  is  very  rich  in  remains 
of  monastic  magnificence.  Scott  has  made 
many  of  its  traditions  familiar  to  the  world. 

ROXBURY,  formerly  a  city  of  Norfolk  co., 
Massachusetts,  but  since  1867  forming  the 
13th,  14th,  and  15th  wards  of  Boston ;  pop. 
in  1860,  25,137;  in  1870,  34,772.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Boston  proper  by  Boston  neck.  It 
was  settled  in  1630,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1846.  Roxbury  was  for  many  years  the 
scene  of  the  labors  of  John  Eliot,  the  apos- 
tle to  the  Indians,  whose  remains  are  in  the 
"  ministers'  tomb  "  in  the  old  burial  ground. 

ROXOLAM.     See  SARMATIA. 

ROY,  William,  a  British  surveyor,  born  near 
Lanark,  Scotland,  May  4,  1726,  died  in  Lon- 
don, July  1,  1790.  From  1746  to  1755,  being 
a  colonel  in  the  army,  he  was  employed  in 
mapping  the  Scottish  highlands  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  military  posts.  He  became  a  gen- 
eral, and  between  1783  and  1788  made  a  trigo- 
nometrical survey  from  Greenwich  to  Dover 
(the  first  in  Great  Britain),  to  aid  in  deter- 
mining the  difference  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude between  the  Greenwich  and  Paris  obser- 
vatories. At  his  death  he  was  surveyor  gen- 
eral of  the  coast.  The  society  of  antiquaries 
published  his  work  on  "  The  Military  Antiqui- 
ties of  the  Romans  in  North  Britain  "  (fol., 
with  51  plates  and  3  maps,  1793). 

ROYAL  FERN.     See' OSMUNDA. 

ROYER-COLLARD,  Pierre  Paul,  a  French  states- 
man and  philosopher,  born  at  Sompuis,  Cham- 
pagne, June  21,  1763,  died  at  Chateauvieux, 
Loir-et-Cher,  Sept.  4,  1845.  He  was  an  advo- 
cate, held  office  in  Paris  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  revolution,  and  after  Aug.  10, 
1792,  was  proscribed  as  a  moderate.  In  1797 
he  was  elected  to  the  council  of  500  by  the 
department  of  Marne,  which  he  afterward 
represented  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  under 
the  restoration  and  Louis  Philippe.  He  was 
a  liberal  royalist,  and  the  founder  of  the  party 
of  doctrinaires.  The  most  eloquent  of  his 
discourses  was  delivered  in  1825  against  the 
proposed  law  of  sacrilege,  which  would  have 
required  of  every  citizen  a  profession  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith.  From  1811  till  March, 
1814,  he  was  professor  of  the  history  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  Sorbonne.  In  1827  he  suc- 
ceeded Laplace  as  a  member  of  the  French 
academy.  The  master  of  Cousin  and  Jouffroy 
in  speculative  philosophy,  and  of  Guizot  and 
De  Tocqueville  in  political  science,  he  has  left 
no  permanent  record  of  himself  at  all  corre- 
sponding to  his  personal  reputation  and  author- 
ity. His  philosophical  writings,  chiefly  frag- 
mentary, are  published  with  Jouffroy's  trans- 
lation of  the  works  of  Reid. — See  Vie  politique 
de  M.  Royer-  Collard,  sea  discours  et  sea  ecrits, 
by  Barante  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1861),  and  Vie  de 
Royer-Collard,  by  M.  de  Lacombe  (1868). 

RUBEN,  Christoph,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Treves  in  1805.  He  studied  at  Diisseldorf, 
and  in  Munich  under  Cornelius,  was  connected 
with  the  academy  of  Prague,  and  in  1852  be- 


460 


RUBENS 


came  director  of  that  of  Vienna.  He  has  exe- 
cuted many  cartoons  for  churches  and  for  the 
palace  of  Hohenschwangau.  His  most  cele- 
brated oil  painting  is  "  Columbus  at  the  Mo- 
ment of  Discovering  Land,"  now  in  Prague. 

IU  BKVS,  Peter  Paul,  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Siegen,  Germany,  June  29,  1577,  died  in 
Antwerp,  May  30,  1640.  His  father,  John 
Rubens,  was  the  secretary  of  William  the 
Silent,  who  on  discovering  his  intimacy  with 
his  wife  imprisoned  him  in  a  citadel,  and  next 
banished  him  to  Siegen,  whence  he  was  per- 
mitted to  remove  in  1578  to  Cologne,  where  he 
died  in  1587.  In  1588  Rubens  went  with  his 
mother  (Maria  Pypelincx)  to  Antwerp,  where 
he  became  page  of  Marguerite  de  Ligne,  count- 
ess de  Lalaing,  but  soon  left  her  to  study  art, 
chiefly  under  A.  van  Noort  and  O.  van  Veen 
or  Venius,  by  whose  advice  he  went  in  1600  to 
Italy,  furnished  with  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion from  the  archduke  Albert,  then  viceroy 
of  the  Netherlands,  and  his  consort,  the  infan- 
ta Isabella.  He  was  generally  accomplished, 
handsome,  and  dignified.  Making  Venice  his 
first  halting  place,  "he  compounded,"  says 
Fuseli,  "from  the  splendor  of  Paul  Veronese 
and  the  glow  of  Tintoretto  that  florid  system 
of  mannered  magnificence  which  is  the  element 
of  his  art  and  the  principle  of  his  school." 
Vincenzo  di  Gonzaga,  the  duke  of  Mantua,  at- 
tached him  to  his  court,  sent  him  on  a  diplo- 
matic mission  to  Spain,  and  enabled  him  to  re- 
side in  Rome.  Subsequently  he  visited  Milan 
and  Genoa,  where  he  made  a  collection  of 
drawings  of  the  chief  edifices  (published  in  2 
vols.  fol.  in  1622).  The  serious  illness  of  his 
mother  in  1608  hurried  him  back  to  Antwerp, 
and  there  he  was  appointed  court  painter  by 
the  archduke.  In  1609  he  married  Isabella 
Brandt,  a  sister-in-law  of  his  brother  Philip, 
and  for  many  years  was  prosperously  engaged 
in  his  profession.  His  pictures  painted  at  this 
period  are  considered,  both  in  composition  and 
finish,  his  most  pleasing  productions ;  and  not- 
withstanding the  rapidly  increasing  demand 
for  them,  it  is  probable  that  the  greater  part 
were  executed  wholly  by  himself.  In  his  later 
works  he  was  aided  by  pupils.  He  lived  in  an 
elegant  mansion  built  by  himself  and  stored 
with  works  of  art,  and  his  prestige  as  courtier 
and  artist  drew  around  him  pupils  from  all 
parts  of  Europe.  In  1620  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  Maria  de'  Medici  to  decorate  the  gal- 
lery of  the  Luxembourg  palace  with  allegorical 
compositions  illustrating  the  principal  events 
in  her  career.  The  pictures,  21  in  number, 
were  in  great  part  executed  by  his  most  emi- 
nent pupils  from  sketches  prepared  by  him, 
which  are  now  in  the  Pinakothek  in  Munich. 
While  in  Paris,  superintending  the  details  of 
this  commission,  Rubens  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  bought 
his  entire  collection  of  works  of  art  for  100,000 
florins.  In  1626  he  was  for  a  time  rendered  in- 
consolable by  the  death  of  his  wife,  whose  por- 
trait he  frequently  introduced  into  his  works. 


In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  by  the  in- 
fanta Isabella  to  the  Hague  to  negotiate  with 
Sir  Bulthasar  Gerbier,  the  agent  of  Charles  I. 
of  England;  and  in  the  autumn  of  1628  he  re- 
visited Spain.  Philip  IV.  appointed  him  secre- 
tary to  the  privy  council,  an  office  subsequently 
granted  in  reversion  to  his  eldest  son,  Albert. 
Scarcely  had  he  returned  to  Flanders  in  the 
spring  of  1629,  when  he  was  sent  as  envoy  to 
England.  During  his  residence  there,  which 
terminated  in  February,  1630,  he  painted  his 
allegory  of  "Peace  and  War,"  now  in  the 
British  national  gallery,  with  other  works,  and 
was  knighted.  Returning  to  Antwerp,  he 
married  in  December,  1630,  Helena  Forman 
or  Fourment,  a  girl  of  16.  So  numerous  at 
this  time  were  his  commissions  from  crowned 
heads  alone,  that  he  had  time  for  little  more 
than  designing  and  applying  the  finishing 
touches  to  the  pictures  which  pass  under  his 
name,  leaving  the  body  of  the  work  to  be  done 
by  assistants.  In  this  manner  were  executed 
the  series  of  pictures  representing  the  apothe- 
osis of  James  I.  for  the  ceiling  of  the  banquet- 
ing house  of  Whitehall,  which  he  completed 
in  1635,  receiving  for  them  £3,000.  In  1633 
he  was  sent  on  another  embassy  to  Holland, 
which  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  in- 
fanta. This  was  his  last  public  service,  and 
a  few  years  later  he  became  in  a  great  mea- 
sure incapacitated  for  work  by  the  gout,  which 
finally  caused  his  death.  His  posthumous  col- 
lection of  works  of  art,  including  319  pictures, 
is  said  to  have  produced  £25,000.  The  pic- 
tures ascribed  in  whole  or  in  part  to  Rubens 
amount,  according  to  Smith's  catalogue  rai- 
tonne,  to  1,800,  or,  estimating  the  number  of 
years  he  was  actually  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  his  art,  to  nearly  one  a  week.  They  com- 
prise history,  portraits,  landscapes,  animals, 
and  fruit  and  flower  pieces,  and  are  widely 
dispersed  over  Europe,  the  collection  in  the 
Louvre  being  particularly  rich.  The  finest 
are  still  in  Antwerp,  in  the  cathedral  of  which 
city  are  his  well  known  "Descent  from  the 
Cross "  and  "  Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  the 
former  being  generally  considered  his  master- 
piece. In  the  academy  at  Antwerp  are  many 
of  the  pictures  executed  by  Rubens  in  his  ear- 
liest and  best  period,  but  some  of  those  for- 
merly in  the  churches  have  been  removed  to 
other  collections.  The  Belvedere  in  Vienna 
contains  a  noble  altarpiece,  with  wings,  repre- 
senting the  "  Virgin  presenting  a  splendid 
Robe  to  St.  Ildefonso ;"  "  St.  Ambrose  refu- 
sing to  admit  the  Emperor  Theodosius  into 
the  Church ;"  and  two  altarpieces  representing 
the  miracles  performed  by  St.  Ignatius  Loyola 
and  St.  Francis  Xavier.  In  the  Pinakothek 
at  Munich,  which  contains  nearly  100  of  his 
works,  are  two  which  especially  illustrate  the 
surprising  energy  which  he  infused  into  his 
delineations  of  human  actions,  the  "Battle 
of  the  Amazons"  and  the  small  picture  of 
the  "Fall  of  tho  Damned."  Scarcely  less 
powerful,  though  in  a  different  degree,  is  the 


RUBICON 


RUBINSTEIN 


461 


"Village  Fete"  in  the  Louvre.  The  British 
national  gallery  possesses  the  "  Rape  of  the 
Sabines,"  which  has  been  called  "a  perfect 
nosegay  of  color,"  the  "  Judgment  of  Paris," 
and  several  other  works.  Animal  vigor,  in  the 
representation  of  which  Rubens  excelled,  is 
seen  nowhere  with  more  effect  than  in  his 
bacchanal  feasts  and  mythological  subjects  of 
the  coarser  kind,  of  which  "  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux carrying  off  the  Daughters  of  Leucippus," 
wonderful  for  its  flesh  coloring,  and  "  Sleep- 
ing Wood  Nymphs  surprised  by  Satyrs,"  in 
the  Pinakothek,  are  excellent  examples.  In 
his  representations  of  the  human  figure  he  sel- 
dom attempted  to  idealize,  and  his  Madonnas, 
Magdalens,  and  female  saints  are  literally  imi- 
tated from  Flemish  types  of  womanhood.  As 
an  animal  painter  he  showed  great  excellence, 
and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  particularly  com- 
mends his  lions  and  horses,  which,  he  ob- 
serves, "  perhaps  never  were  properly  repre- 
sented but  by  him."  His  portraits  are  by  some 
considered  superior  in  their  combinations  of 
vigorous  life  with  careful  handling  to  any  oth- 
er of  his  productions,  especially  his  "  Straw 
Hat,"  and  his  numerous  portraits  of  himself 
and  his  wives ;  while  in  his  landscapes  he  ex- 
hibited, says  Kugler,  "  the  same  juiciness  and 
freshness,  the  same  full  luxuriant  life,  the  same 
vigor  and  enthusiasm  as  in  his  historical  pic- 
tures."— Among  the  numerous  biographers  of 
Rubens  are  Waagen,  in  Raumer's  Historisches 
TaschenbucTi  (Leipsic,  1833 ;  English  transla- 
tion by  R.  R.  Noel,  edited  by  Mrs.  Jameson, 
London,  1840);  A.  van  Hasselt  (1840);  A. 
Michiels,  Rubens  et  Vecole  cPAnvers  (Paris, 
1854) ;  Gustave  Planche  (1854) ;  and  Sainsbury 
(London,  1859).  See  also  Waagen's  "  Trea- 
sures of  Art  in  Great  Britain  "  (4  vols.,  London, 
1854-'7). — His  son  ALBERT  RUBENS  (1614-'57) 
published  several  archaeological  works. 

RUBICON,  or  Rnbieo,  a  small  river  of  Italy, 
flowing  into  the  Adriatic  a  little  N.  of  Ri- 
mini (Ariminum),  celebrated  for  its  passage  by 
Caesar  in  his  march  toward  Rome,  49  B.  C. 
This  act  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war 
against  the  republic,  as  the  Rubicon  was  the 
dividing  line  between  Italy  and  his  province 
of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  On  reaching  its  brink  he 
is  said  to  have  hesitated  a  moment  and  then 
plunged  in,  exclaiming :  Jacta  est  alea  ("  The 
die  is  cast").  In  1756  a  papal  bull  declared 
the  Lusa,  the  larger  and  more  southern  of  two 
neighboring  streams,  to  be  the  Rubicon;  but 
modern  geographers  generally  prefer  the  Fiu- 
micino,  formed  by  the  Pisatello  and  Rugone. 

RUBIDIUM  (Lat.  rubidus,  dark  red),  a  metal 
of  the  alkalies,  discovered  by  Bunsen  and 
Kirchhoff  in  1860  by  means  of  the  spectro- 
scope. The  lines  characteristic  of  the  new 
metal  are  two  remarkable  bands  of  dark  red 
lying  beyond  Fraunhofer's  A,  and  consequent- 
ly in  a  part  of  the  spectrum  visible  only  by 
unusual  methods.  Two  blue  and  some  yel- 
low and  green  lines  on  the  spectrum  have 
since  been  observed.  Rubidium  occurs  in  a 


considerable  variety  of  potash  minerals,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  deposits  of  the 
Stassfurt  salt  mines ;  lepidolite  from  Rozna 
in  Moravia,  and  from  Goshen  and  Paris,  Me. ; 
orthoclase,  triphylline,  carnallite,  and  saltpe- 
tre ;  in  mineral  waters  ;  in  beet  root,  tobacco, 
ashes  of  tea  and  coffee,  crude  tartar,  ashes 
of  oak  and  of  a  great  variety  of  plants,  be- 
ing very  widely  though  sparingly  distributed. 
The  metal  was  extracted  by  Bunsen  from 
the  acid  tartrate,  1,100  grains  of  which  when 
distilled  furnished  about  80  grains  of  a  bril- 
liant metallic  mass.  It  is  silver  white,  with  a 
slightly  yellow  lustre,  oxidizes  rapidly  in  the 
air,  and  takes  fire  spontaneously.  It  is  soft 
like  wax  at  14°  F.,  melts  at  101°,  and  at  red 
heat  furnishes  a  blue  vapor.  It  is  more  elec- 
tro-positive than  potassium,  and  when  thrown 
upon  water  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a  violet 
flame  resembling  that  of  potassium.  It  burns 
readily  in  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  sulphur, 
and  arsenic  vapors.  Its  symbol  is  Rb ;  spe- 
cific gravity,  1-52;  atomic  weight  given  by 
Bunsen  at  85-36,  by  Piccard  at  85-41.  The 
salts  of  rubidium  are  with  difficulty  distin- 
guished from  those  of  potassium,  and  the  only 
certain  test  is  the  appearance  of  the  flame 
in  the  spectroscope.  The  sparing  solubility  of 
the  chloride  of  rubidium  and  platinum  in  boil- 
ing water  is  employed  as  one  of  the  means  of 
obtaining  pure  salts  of  rubidium. 

RUBINI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  singer, 
born  at  Romano,  near  Bergamo,  in  1795,  died 
there,  March  2, 1854.  In  his  boyhood  his  teach- 
er reported  that  he  had  no  talent  for  singing ; 
but  he  persevered  in  his  studies,  and  after  an 
obscure  career  of  several  years  in  Lombardy 
made  his  debut  at  Brescia  in  1815  with  great 
success.  He  first  appeared  at  Paris  in  1825  as 
Ramiro  in  Rossini's  Cenerentola,  and  speedily 
rose  to  the  first  place  in  his  profession  as  a 
tenor  singer.  From  1831  to  1846  he  sang  prin- 
cipally in  London,  Paris,  and  St.  Petersburg, 
and  in  the  latter  year  retired  with  a  large  for- 
tune to  a  villa  near  Bergamo,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  voice,  a  tenor 
of  remarkable  sweetness,  extended  from  E  to 
F  above  the  staff,  a  compass  of  two  octaves  and 
one  note,  and  has  been  known  to  reach  as  high 
as  G  above  the  staff.  He  excelled  in  the  music 
of  Bellini,  and  was  almost  unrivalled  in  the 
expression  of  sorrow  and  tenderness.  He  was 
an  indifferent  actor. 

RUBINSTEIN,  Anton,  a  Russian  musician,  born 
in  a  frontier  village  of  Bessarabia,  Nov.  30, 
1830.  He  is  of  Jewish  descent,  but  was  brought 
up  by  his  father  in  the  Greek  faith.  His 
mother  was  an  excellent  pianist,  and  instruct- 
ed him  and  his  brother  Nicholas,  since  direc- 
tor of  the  conservatory  at  Moscow,  in  the 
elements  of  music.  The  family  removed  to 
Moscow  while  he  was  still  a  child,  and  there 
at  the  age  of  six  he  began  the  systematic 
study  of  music.  At  the  age  of  nine  he  gave 
his  first  public  concert  in  that  city.  The  re- 
sult was  so  encouraging  that  he  was  sent  in 


462 


RUBLE 


RUDDER  FISH 


August,  1840,  with  his  teacher  Villoing,  to 
Paris,  where  Liszt  heard  him  and  prophe- 
sied for  him  a  great  career.  Here  he  studied 
diligently  for  a  year  and  a  half,  and  then  un- 
dertook his  first  artistic  tour  in  England,  Hol- 
land, Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Germany.  After 
the  close  of  this  prosperous  tour  Rubinstein 
remained  at  home  in  Russia  for  a  year,  and 
then  by  the  advice  of  Meyerbeer  was  placed 
under  the  instruction  of  the  famous  contra- 
puntist Dehn  at  Berlin.  In  1846,  left  to  his 
own  resources,  he  went  to  Vienna,  giving 
there  for  a  year  lessons  upon  the  piano,  at  the 
close  of  which  time  ho  undertook  a  concert 
tour  in  Hungary  with  the  flutist  Heindl,  and 
then  went  to  Berlin-,  but  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  revolutionary  troubles  of  184-8  retired 
to  St.  Petersburg.  In  1849  he  wrote  his  first 
opera,  Dmitri  Donaki,  which  was  brought  out 
in  1852.  The  grand  duchesa  Helen  now  pat- 
ronized the  young  composer,  and  at  her  insti- 
gation he  wrote  three  one-act  operas,  "  The 
Circassian,"  "  The  Siberian  Hunters,"  and 
"  Tom  the  Fool."  Rubinstein  founded  and 
for  nine  years  superintended  the  conserva- 
tory at  St.  Petersburg,  and  between  1850  and 
1860  composed  more  than  50  works  in  va- 
rious forms,  many  of  them  of  the  largest  di- 
mensions. Among  these  were  his  "  Ocean 
Symphony  "  and  three  other  symphonies,  six 
string  quartets,  his  trios  in  G  minor  and  B  flat 
major,  his  oratorio  "  Paradise  Lost,"  and  a 
great  variety  of  pianoforte  compositions,  in- 
cluding his  two  concertos  in  F  and  G  for  piano 
and  orchestra,  and  many  songs.  He  found 
time  also  to  give  concerts  in  Germany,  Paris, 
and  London,  everywhere  exciting  the  liveli- 
est interest  by  his  astonishing  qualities  as  a 
pianist.  In  February,  1861,  his  German  opera 
Die  Kinder  der  Haide  ("  The  Children  of  the 
Steppe  ")  was  produced  under  his  supervision 
at  Vienna.  Later  he'  composed  another  Ger- 
man opera  entitled  Feramors.  He  made  his 
first  appearance  in  America  at  New  York  on 
Sept.  23,  1872.  During  the  succeeding  winter 
and  spring  he  gave  concerts  in  all  the  larger 
cities  of  the  United  States  as  far  west  as  the 
Mississippi,  meeting  everywhere  with  the  same 
success  that  attended  his  concert  tours  in  Eu- 
rope. Returning  to  Russia  in  1873,  he  devo- 
ted himself  anew  to  composition,  producing 
on  Jan.  25,  1875,  at  St.  Petersburg,  his  fan- 
tastic opera  "  The  Demon,"  founded  on  a 
legend  by  Lermontoff,  and  at  Berlin,  in  April 
of  the  same  year,  another  opera,  Die  Macca- 
bder.  Since  Liszt  ceased  to  play  in  public, 
Rubinstein  has  had  no  superior  as  a  pianist. 

RUBLE,  a  Russian  silver  coin  and  unit  of  ac- 
count. About  the  beginning  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury the  Russians  began  to  use  silver  in  bars 
for  purposes  of  trade.  The  act  of  cutting  off 
from  a  bar  sufficient  weight  for  a  payment  was 
called  rubit,  whence  the  name  ruble.  The 
ruble  is  divided  in  account  into  100  copecks. 
The  value  has  greatly  varied  at  different  times. 
By  the  circular  of  the  secretary  of  the  trea- 


sury of  the  United  States  dated  Jan  1, 1875,  the 
rating  of  foreign  silver  coins  has  been  consid- 
erably reduced  owing  to  the  depreciation  of 
the  value  of  silver  as  compared  with  gold.  In 
the  article  COINS  the  value  of  the  silver  ruble 
in  1872  is  given  at  79'4  cents;  by  the  above 
named  circular  it  is  now  fixed  at  73'4  cents. 
Gold  is  coined  in  pieces  of  five  rubles;  frac- 
tions of  the  ruble  are  in  silver.  For  the  paper 
ruble  see  ASSIGNATIONS. 

1M  BY.     See  SAPPHIEB. 

Ki't'KKKT,  Friedrfeh,  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Schweinfurt,  May  16,  1788,  died  near  Co- 
burg,  Jan.  31,  1866.  He  completed  his  studies 
at  Jena,  was  a  journalist  at  Stuttgart  from 
1815  to  1817,  and  was  professor  of  oriental 
languages  for  15  years  at  Erlangen,  and  for  8 
years  at  Berlin.  His  works  embrace  various 
collections  of  lyrical,  epic,  and  other  poems ; 
Die  Weisheit  der  Brahmanen,  a  didactic  poem 
(6  vols.,  1836-'9;  7th  ed.,  1870);  and  admira- 
ble translations  from  the  Arabic  and  other 
oriental  tongues,  including  Die  Verwandlungen 
de»  Abu  Seid  von  Sarug,  oder  die  MaTcamen  des 
Hariri  (2  vols.,  1826 ;  5th  ed.,  1875).  Among 
his  posthumous  works  is  one  on  the  Coptic 
language  (1875).  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Fortlage  (1867)  and  Beyer  (1.868).— His  son 
HEiNnion,  an  eminent  historian,  born  in  Coburg, 
Jan.  14,  1823,  died  in  Breslau,  Sept.  11,  1875. 

REDDER  FISH,  one  of  the  mackerel  family, 
constituting  the  only  described  species  of  the 
genus  palinurus  (De  Kay).  It  belongs  to  the 
division  of  the  scomberoids  in  which  the  first 
dorsal  is  composed  of  isolated  spines  connected 
by  a  low  membrane ;  the  gill  covers  are  ser- 
rated and  spiny ;  there  are  one  or  more  spines 
in  front  of  the  anal  fin,  which  seems  to  remove 
it  from  the  scomberoids  with  which  in  other 
respects  it  agrees ;  the  body  is  elevated,  com- 
pressed, and  oblong,  and  the  tail  without  lat- 
eral keel;  the  profile  is  vertical ;  the  teeth  are 
small,  pointed,  and  nearly  equal.  The  P.  per- 
dformia  (De  Kay),  the  black  pilot,  or  the  rud- 


Rudder  Fish  (Palinurus  perciformis). 

der  fish  of  the  fishermen  of  Martha's  Vineyard, 
attains  a  length  of  from  9  to  12  in. ;  it  is  oc- 
casionally seen  on  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts 
and  New  York.  The  color  is  bluish  white  on 
the  sides,  with  minute  black  dots,  the  lower 
parts  lighter;  top  of  head  and  back  with  black 
blotches;  in  the  young  the  color  is  a  bright 
bronzed  black,  with  obscure  reddish  hues ; 
there  are  eight  short  spines  in  front  of  the 
fleshy  rays  of  the  dorsal ;  a  bony  ridge  is  ob- 
served over  the  eyes,  and  there  is  a  depres- 
sion between  them. 


RUDOLPH  I. 


RUE 


463 


RUDOLPH  I.  of  Hapsbnrg,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, founder  of  the  imperial  house  of  Aus- 
tria, son  of  Count  Albert  IV.  of  Hapsburg, 
born  in  the  Breisgau,  May  1, 1218,  died  in  Ger- 
mersheim,  July  15,  1291.  He  was  brought  up 
at  the  court  of  his  uncle  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick II.,  under  whom  he  served  in  the  wars 
in  Italy.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1240, 
he  succeeded  to  the  landgraviate  of  Upper  Al- 
sace, the  burgraviate  of  Rheinfelden,  and  with 
his  brother  to  the  county  of  Hapsburg.  He 
wrested  additional  territory  from  his  relatives 
and  others,  and  in  1245  married  a  daughter  of 
Burchard,  count  of  Hohenberg,  who  brought 
him  valuable  possessions.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  several  wars,  and  acquired  so  high 
a  reputation  for  justice  and  prowess  that  he 
was  chosen  by  many  cities  as  their  protector 
and  the  leader  of  their  armies.  In  1264  he 
became  chief  magistrate  of  Zurich,  and  was 
involved  in  several  conflicts,  which  generally 
terminated  in  his  favor.  The  most  bitter  of 
these  was  with  the  bishop  of  Basel,  and  Ru- 
dolph was  besieging  that  city  in  1273  when 
he  was  unanimously  chosen  to  the  throne  of 
Germany  in  preference  to  Alfonso  of  Castile 
and  Ottocar  of  Bohemia.  Basel  immediately 
opened  its  gates,  in  spite  of  the  angry  remon- 
strances of  the  bishop.  Rudolph  strengthened 
himself  after  his  coronation  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(Oct.  28)  by  the  marriage  of  his  two  daugh- 
ters, Matilda  and  Agnes,  to  Louis,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  and  Albert,  duke  of  Saxony,  and  by 
a  concordat  with  Pope  Gregory  X.,  who  per- 
suaded Alfonso  of  Castile  to  recognize  Ru- 
dolph, while  Duke  Henry  of  Bavaria  and  King 
Ottocar  of  Bohemia  were  speedily  overcome 
by  him.  Ottocar,  after  violating  a  truce,  fell 
in  battle  on  the  Marchfeld,  Aug.  26,  1278. 
Rudolph  restored  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to 
Wenceslas,  son  of  Ottocar,  but  retained  Aus- 
tria, Styria,  and  Carniola  for  his  own  sons. 
He  now  established  order  and  tranquillity  in 
his  dominions,  put  an  end  to  the  depredations 
of  the  feudal  barons  by  sentencing  many  of 
them  to  death  and  demolishing  their  strong- 
holds, and  passed  so  many  new  decrees  that  he 
was  called  lex  animata,  "  the  living  law."  Un- 
der him  German  was  substituted  for  Latin  in 
official  documents.  Rudolph  also  engaged  in 
a  successful  war  with  the  count  of  Savoy,  but 
was  unsuccessful  in  1288  against  the  city  of 
Bern.  He  restored  order  in  Bohemia,  deliver- 
ing the  young  king  Wenceslas  II.  from  his  cap- 
tivity, and  marrying  him  to  one  of  his  daugh- 
ters. He  was  greatly  mortified  at  the  refusal 
of  the  diet  of  Frankfort  in  1291  to  choose  his 
son  Albert  as  his  successor.  He  set  out  for 
Spire,  but  died  on  the  way,  and  was  succeeded 
on  the  imperial  throne  by  Adolphus  of  Nas- 
sau.— See  Geschichte  Rudolfs  von  Hdbsburg,  by 
Schonhuth  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-'4). 

RUDOLPH  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  born  in 

Vienna,  July  18,  1552,  died  Jan.  20, 1612.    He 

was  the   son   of  Maximilian  II.   and  Maria, 

daughter  of  Charles  V.,  a  bigoted  princess,  un- 

714  VOL.  xiv.— 30 


der  whose  charge  he  passed  his  early  years.  In 
1564  he  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Spain,  where 
Philip  II.,  who  had  then  no  male  issue,  designed 
him  to  be  his  successor,  and  here  the  Jesuits 
continued  his  education.  In  1572  he  was 
crowned  king  of  Hungary  and  in  1575  of  Bohe- 
mia, was  in  the  latter  year  elected  and  crowned 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  on  Oct.  12,  1576,  suc- 
ceeded Maximilian  in  all  his  dominions.  Un- 
der the  tolerant  rule  of  his  father  the  Protes- 
tants had  gained  vastly  in  strength,  especially 
in  the  Austrian  states.  Rudolph,  led  by  the 
Spanish  court  and  the  Jesuits,  proceeded  at 
once  to  restore  the  Catholic  party  to  its  former 
position.  The  religious  dissensions  broke  out 
in  all  their  former  bitterness,  and  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, the  electorate  of  Cologne  (where  the  dis- 
pute arose  out  of  the  ecclesiastical  reservation), 
and  the  see  of  Strasburg  became  the  theatre 
of  war.  Failing  to  obtain  redress  from  Ru- 
dolph, a  number  of  the  Protestant  states  formed 
in  1608  a  confederacy  known  as  "  the  Union," 
and  in  the  following  year  the  Catholic  states 
established  a  counter  confederacy  styled  "  the 
League."  While  Germany  was  thus  brought 
to  the  brink  of  a  general  struggle,  the  inca- 
pacity and  intolerance  of  Rudolph,  who  had 
been  involved  in  war  with  the  Turks  and  Tran- 
sylvania, had  alienated  his  family,  and  pro- 
voked an  insurrection  in  Hungary  under  Bocs- 
kay  (1604)  which  threatened  to  overturn  his 
throne.  In  1608  he  was  forced  to  cede  Hun- 
gary, Austria,  and  Moravia  to  his  brother  Mat- 
thias, who  had  gained  the  malcontents  'by 
promises  of  religious  liberty  (see  MATTHIAS)  ; 
and  in  July,  1609,  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia 
extorted  from  the  distressed  emperor  a  letter 
patent  (Majestatsbrief)  guaranteeing  the  exer- 
cise of  their  religion.  A  new  war  was  kin- 
dled in  Germany  by  the  disputed  succession  to 
the  dominions  of  the  duke  of  Jiilich.  In  1611 
an  attempt  against  the  liberties  of  Bohemia, 
whose  capital  Prague  was  his  favorite  resi- 
dence, cost  Rudolph  the  crown  of  that  kingdom, 
which  was  transferred  to  Matthias.  Rudolph 
died  soon  after,  stripped  of  all  but  his  imperial 
dignities.  His  temper  had  become  extremely 
gloomy  and  mistrustful,  and  from  superstitious 
fear  he  had  never  married  and  sought  to  keep 
his  brothers  from  doing  so.  He  was  fond  of 
science  and  the  mechanical  arts,  in  which  last 
he  personally  excelled,  but  he  was  greatly  ad- 
dicted to  alchemy  as  well  as  to  astrology,  which 
at  his  court  found  votaries  in  Tycho  Brahe 
and  Kepler.  He  encouraged  letters,  his  reign 
being  the  most  brilliant  period  of  Bohemian 
literature.  He  was  succeeded  by  Matthias. 
RUDOLSTADT.  See  ScnwABZBUKG-RuDOL- 

STADT. 

RUE,  from  ruta,  the  ancient  Latin  and  pres- 
ent botanical  name  of  a  genus  of  plants,  one 
species  of  which,  the  common  rue  (H.  graveo- 
lens),  has  long  been  cultivated,  and  is  now  oc- 
casionally seen  in  old  gardens.  The  genus 
ruta  comprises  about  40  species,  which  are 
natives  of  the  Mediterranean  region  and  west- 


464 


RUE 


RUFF 


era  Asia ;  it  gives  its  name  to  the  rutacece,  a 
family  of  polypetalous  exogens  which,  under 
the  recent  revision  of  Hooker  and  Bentham, 
is  a  large  and  important  one,  as  they  have  in- 
cluded in  it  the  orange  family  and  others  of 
less  importance,  and  it  now  consists  of  over 


ff* 


Garden  Euo  (Ruta  praveolens). 

80  genera,  numbering  some  650  species.  The 
only  representatives  of  this  family  indigenous 
to  the  northern  states  are  prickly  ash  and  hop 
tree,  which  are  described  under  their  titles. 
The  common  rue,  from  the  south  of  Europe, 
is  hardy  in  the  northern  states ;  it  is  a  half 
shrubby  plant,  with  alternate,  pinnately  di- 
vided leaves,  which  ave  of  a  bluish  green  and 
strongly  marked  with  transparent  dots  or 
glands  containing  an  oil  of  a  powerful  and 
unpleasant  odor ;  the  greenish  yellow  flowers 
are  produced  all  summer  in  small  corymbs, 
the  first  flower  which  opens  in  each  cluster 
having  its  parts  in  fives,  and  all  the  others  in 
fours;  stamens  twice  as  many  as  the  petals, 
inserted  at  the  base  of  a  glandular  disk  which 
surrounds  and  elevates  the  compound  pistil ; 
fruit  a  four-  or  five-lobed,  many-seeded  pod. 
Rue  was  formerly  held  in  high  repute,  and 
was  thought  by  the  ancients  to  prevent  con- 
tagion ;  it  is  still  somewhat  employed  in  do- 
mestic medicine,  though  it  is  too  dangerous  to 
bo  carelessly  administered ;  its  properties  are 
due  to  the  oil  contained  in  the  leaves,  which 
is  so  acrid  that  persons  with  delicate  skin  are 
blistered  by  handling  it,  and  children  in  play- 
ing with  it  have  suffered  from  its  effects.  Rue 
is  at  present  comparatively  little  used.  It  is 
called  antispasmodic,  and  has  been  used  in  hys- 
teria as  well  as  in  colic  and  in  dysmenorrhcea. 
It  has  also  been  employed  to  procure  abor- 
tion, acting  like  most  drugs  of  this  class  with 
great  and  even  dangerous  violence.  The  fresh 
plant  is  eaten  in  some  parts  of  Europe  as  a 
condiment  and  in  salads,  it  being  thought  to 
strengthen  the  sight.  The  "vinegar  of  the 
four  thieves,"  used  by  robbers  in  France  to 


enable  them  to  carry  on  their  thieving  during 
the  plague,  contained  rue.  Like  rosemary, 
rue  was  formerly  employed  in  religious  cere- 
monies, for  which  reason  Shakespeare  speaks 
of  it  in  two  of  his  plays  as  "herb  of  grace." 
— Meadow  rue  is  a  name  for  several  species 
of  thalictrum,  of  the  ranunculus  family,  which 
have  none  of  the  properties  of  common  rue. 

KMT,  a  wading  bird  of  the  subfamily  trin- 
gincs  or  sandpipers,  and  the  genus philomachus 
(Mohr.).  The  bill  is  as  long  as  the  head, 
straight,  rather  slender,  with  sides  compressed 
and  grooved,  and  slightly  dilated  at  tip ;  wings 
long  and  pointed,  the  first  and  second  quills 
longest  and  equal;  tail  moderate  and  nearly 
even ;  tarsi  long  and  slender,  covered  in  front 
with  transverse  scales;  toes  moderate,  the 
lateral  ones  unequal,  with  the  outer  united  to 
the  middle  as  far  as  the  first  joint,  and  the 
hind  one  elevated  and  short.  The  ruff  (P. 
pugnax,  Gray)  is  about  10  in.  long,  and  the 
bill  1 J  in. ;  above  it  is  varied  with  black,  ru- 
fous, and  gray,  arranged  in  oblique  bands  on 
the  scapulars  and  tertiaries,  and  whitish  be- 
low ;  primaries  dark  brown,  with  green  reflec- 
tions above  and  with  inner  webs  finely  mottled 
toward  the  base;  the  tail,  except  the  three 
outer  feathers,  transversely  barred ;  sides  of 
rump  white,  bill  brown,  and  legs  yellow.  The 
males  in  spring  have  the  feathers  of  the  neck 
developed  into  a  kind  of  ruff,  whence  the  com- 
mon name,  and  the  face  is  covered  with  red- 
dish papilla);  they  fight  during  the  breeding 
season,  unlike  most  wading  birds ;  they  are 
also  polygamous,  and  larger  than  the  females, 
and  in  these  three  respects  the  ruff  seems  to 
form  one  of  the  links  between  wading  and  gal- 
linaceous birds;  the  females  are  called  reeves. 
The  colors  of  the  ruff  vary  exceedingly,  and 


Ruff  (Philomachus  pugnax). 

no  two  are  precisely  similar.  They  are  na- 
tives of  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  migrating 
southward  during  winter;  they  have  been  in- 
troduced into  America,  and  are  sometimes 
killed  on  Long  Island.  They  are  found  chief- 
ly in  flocks,  in  marshy  and  moist  districts;  thej 


BUFFED  GROUSE 


RUM 


465 


feed  at  night  on  worms,  insects,  and  larva?; 
the  nest  is  made  of  coarse  grass,  and  is  placed 
in  a  hollow  of  the  ground  ;  the  eggs  are  four 
or  five,  pointed,  green  with  brown  specks. 
Their  flesh  is  esteemed  ;  they  are  taken  alive 
in  nets  and  fattened  for  market;  great  num- 
bers are  sent  from  Holland  to  London. 

RUFFED  GROUSE,  or  Partridge.     See  GROUSE. 

Ill  I  TIM,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  novelist,  born 
in  Genoa  about  1810.  He  and  his  brother 
Jacopo  were  fellow  students  of  Mazzini  at  Ge- 
noa, and  Giovanni  cooperated  with  the  latter 
in  organizing  at  Marseilles  the  league  known 
as  la  giocine  Italia.  In  1834,  on  the  failure 
of  the  invasion  of  Savoy  planned  by  Mazzini, 
Jacopo  was  executed,  while  Giovanni  escaped, 
and  lived  chiefly  in  England  till  the  amnesty 
of  1848,  when  for  a  short  time  he  was  Sardin- 
ian minister  in  Paris.  In  1849  he  returned  to 
England,  where  he  has  since  resided.  He  is 
married  to  an  English  lady,  and  writes  Eng- 
lish with  remarkable  fluency  and  elegance.  Ho 
has  published  "Lorenzo  Benoni,  or  Passages 
in  the  Life  of  an  Italian,"  an  autobiographical 
narrative  (London,  1853);  "The  Paragreens' 
Visit  to  the  Paris  Exhibition  "  (1855)  ;  "  Doc- 
tor Antonio"  (1855);  and  "Lavinia"  (1860). 

RUFINUS.     See  STILIOHO. 

RUGBY,  a  market  town  of  Warwickshire, 
England,  on  the  river  Avon,  16  m.  N.  E.  of 
Warwick,  and  83  m.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop. 
in  1871,  8,385.  It  is  on  the  line  of  the  London 
and  Northwestern  railway,  and  several  other 
railways  meet  here.  It  has  important  horse, 
cattle,  wool,  and  cheese  fairs.  The  grammar 
school,  of  which  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold  was  head 
master  from  1828  to  1842,  was  founded  in 
1567  by  Lawrence  Sheriff,  a  London  trades- 
man born  in  Rugby.  It  occupies  a  quadrangle 
of  buildings  in  the  Elizabethan  style,  and  has 
14  teachers  and  about  500  students,  with  an 
income  from  its  endowment  of  about  £5,000, 
and  20  exhibitions  to  the  universities  of  £40 
to  £80  per  annum  for  four  years. 

RUGE,  Arnold,  a  German  author,  born  at  Ber- 
gen, island  of  Rftgen,  Sept.  13,  1803.  He  was 
imprisoned  for  five  years  as  a  member  of  a 
political  students'  association,  but  subsequently 
graduated  and  lectured  on  philosophy  at  Halle, 
and  joined  in  the  publication  of  the  Hallisclie 
Jahrbiicher,  which  was  ultimately  suppressed  in 
Prussia  and  Saxony.  He  next  edited  for  about 
two  years  the  Deutsch-franzosische  Jahrbucher 
in  Paris,  conjointly  with  Karl  Marx,  and  after- 
ward connected  himself  with  Julius  Froebel's 
literary  bureau  at  Zurich,  which  was  closed 
by  the  authorities,  as  was  also  a  similar  estab- 
lishment which  he  founded  in  1847  at  Leip- 
sic.  The  city  of  Breslau  elected  him  in  1848  to 
the  Frankfort  parliament.  In  the  same  year 
he  established  Die  Reform,  a  daily  journal,  at 
Berlin,  which  was  speedily  suppressed,  and 
he  was  expelled  from  that  city,  and  in  1849 
also  from  Paris.  With  Ledru-Rollin  and  Maz- 
zini he  founded  in  London  in  the  same  year 
the  European  democratic  committee,  and  he 


has  since  resided  at  Brighton  as  a  visiting 
tutor.  His  collected  works  (10  vols.,  Mann- 
heim, 1846-'8)  were  followed  by  his  Jtevolu- 
tiansnovellen  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1850)  and  Aus 
friiherer  Zeit  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1862-'7).  He 
has  translated  into  German  "The  Letters  of 
Junius,"  Buckle's  "History  of  Civilization" 
(5th  ed.,  1874),  Henry  Lytton  Bulwer's  "Life 
of  Viscount  Palmerston,"  and  other  works. 

RUGEN,  an  island  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Pomerania,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
a  channel  from  £  to  2  m.  wide;  area,  about 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  of  the  circle  of  Riigen  in 
1867,  47,539.  Numerous  shallow  bays  and 
arms  of  the  sea  divide  it  into  several  penin- 
sulas. The  channel  separating  it  from  the 
mainland  is  gradually  narrowing.  (See  BAL- 
TIC SEA.)  The  surface  presents  great  variety, 
and  the  scenery  is  very  beautiful.  The  island 
is  much  visited  in  summer  for  sea  bathing. 
The  Stubbenkammer,  a  chalk  headland  in  the 
north,  rises  about  440  ft.  above  the  sea,  its 
highest  point,  called  the  King's  Seat,  being  the 
summit  from  which  Charles  XII.  witnessed 
the  sea  fight  between  the  Swedes  and  Dunes, 
Aug.  8,  1715.  There  are  many  ancient  sepul- 
chral mounds  on  the  island.  Capital,  Bergen. 
— Riigen  was  occupied  in  the  6th  century  by 
the  Rugians,  a  Germanic  people,  and  subse- 
quently by  Slavs,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
middle  ages  was  governed  by  princes  of  its 
own,  but  the  Danes  conquered  it  in  1168.  The 
Swedes  occupied  it  during  the  thirty  years'  war, 
and  it  was  ceded  to  them  at  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, but  it  was  allotted  to  Prussia  in  1815. 
Several  engagements  took  place  off  the  island 
in  1864  between  the  Danes  and  the  Prussians. 

RUM,  a  spirituous  liquor  distilled  from  fer- 
mented molasses,  the  refuse  juice  and  scum 
from  the  sugar  manufacture,  and  the  spirit 
wash  or  lees  (known  as  dunder)  of  former  dis- 
tillations. A  peculiar  volatile  oil  comes  over 
in  the  first  part  of  the  process,  which  imparts 
to  the  rum  its  flavor.  The  manufacture  of  rum 
has  long  been  carried  on  extensively  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  sugar  and  molasses  upon 
the  plantations  of  the  West  India  islands.  Ja- 
maica rum  ranks  first  in  quality,  and  that  made 
in  Santa  Cruz  is  also  favorably  known.  In 
the  New  England  states  it  has  been  largely 
distilled  from  molasses.  In  Newport,  R.  I., 
there  were  in  the  last  century  30  of  these  manu- 
factories, and  their  product  was  a  staple  article 
in  the  African  slave  trade.  The  materials 
named  above  are  employed  in  various  propor- 
tions at  different  places.  In  some  the  propor- 
tion of  spent  wash  already  used  several  times 
over  is  so  great  as  to  seriously  impair  the 
flavor.  The  fermentation  is  continued  upon 
large  quantities  of  material  at  a  time  from  9  to 
15  days,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  wash 
and  condition  of  the  weather.  Rum  often  has 
a  deep  red  color,  which  is  acquired  from  mo- 
lasses or  caramel  added  for  the  purpose,  and 
not  from  the  wood  of  the  casks  as  is  com- 
monly supposed.  Unlike  other  spirits,  rum 


466 


RUMELIA 


RUMFORD 


tends  to  cause  perspiration.  Rum  is  greatly 
improved  by  age,  and  when  very  old  is  often 
highly  prized.  At  a  sale  in  Carlisle,  England, 
in  1865,  ruin  known  to  be  140  years  old  sold 
for  three  guineas  a  bottle. 

KMIKM  \.     See  ROUMELIA. 

RUMFORD,  Benjamin  Thompson,  count,  an  Ame- 
rican natural  philosopher,  born  in  Woburn, 
Mass.,  March  26,  1753,  died  at  Auteuil,  near 
Paris,  Aug.  21,  1814.  He  was  educated  at  the 
common  school  in  his  native  place,  afterward 
at  Medford,  and  at  the  age  of  13  entered  the 
counting  house  of  a  Salem  merchant.  In  1770 
he  taught  an  academy  in  Rumford  (now  Con- 
cord), N.  U.,  and  in,.1772  married  Mrs.  Rolfe 
of  tli at  place,  a  wealthy  widow  considerably 
his  senior,  and  was  made  major  in  the  militia 
of  Xew  llampshire  by  the  royal  governor. 
This  excited  the  jealousy  of  older  officers,  and 
he  was  charged  with  disaffection  to  the  cause 
of  the  colonies,  driven  from  his  home,  and 
finally  took  refuge  in  Boston,  where  he  be- 
came an  associate  of  Gen.  Gage  and  the  other 
British  officers.  He  was  subsequently  tried  at 
Woburn,  and,  though  not  condemned,  was  re- 
fused a  full  acquittal,  and  afterward  made  an 
unsuccessful  effort  to  obtain  a  commission  in 
the  continental  army.  When  Boston  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  patriots  he  carried  to  England 
the  despatches  announcing  that  event.  There 
lie  was  employed  by  Lord  George  Germain, 
secretary  of  state  for  the  department  of  the 
colonies,  and  in  1780  became  under  secretary 
of  state.  After  the  retirement  of  Lord  Ger- 
main in  1781  Mr.  Thompson  returned  to  Amer- 
ica, and  there  formed  a  regiment  of  dragoons, 
of  which  ho  received  the  command  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land at  the  close  of  hostilities,  he  obtained 
leave  of  absence  to  visit  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  by  permission  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment entered  the  service  of  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  knighted  him.  •  Toward  the  end 
of  1784  ho  settled  in  Munich  with  the  appoint- 
ment of  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the 
elector.  Here  he  reorganized  the  entire  mili- 
tary establishment  of  Bavaria.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1790  he  undertook  to  suppress  beg- 
gary in  Bavaria,  which  had  become  a  profes- 
sion, and  inculcated  habits  of  industry  and 
order  in  the  people  of  the  lower  class.  In 
this  he  was  successful,  and  was  also  wholly 
or  partially  so  in  the  establishment  of  a  mil- 
itary school,  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of 
horses  and  of  horned  cattle,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  an  old  hunting  ground  near  Munich 
into  a  park,  where  after  his  departure  the 
inhabitants  erected  a  monument  in  his  honor. 
He  had  been  successively  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  major  general  in  the  army,  member  of 
the  council  of  state,  lieutenant  general,  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  general  staff,  minis- 
ter of  war,  and  count  of  the  holy  Roman 
empire,  on  which  occasion  ho  chose  as  a  title 
the  name  of  the  place  in  America  in  which  he 
had  resided.  His  health  failing  under  his  ar- 


duous labors,  he  made  a  tour  in  Italy ;  but 
not  finding  himself  recovered,  he  visited  Eng- 
land, reaching  that  country  in  September,  171)5, 
and  on  his  arrival  in  London  was  robbed  of  a 
trunk  containing  all  his  private  papers  and 
original  notes  and  observations  on  philosophi- 
cal subjects.  Returning  to  Bavaria  when  that 
country  was  threatened  by  the  war  in  1796 
between  France  and  Germany,  he  was  ap- 
pointed head  of  the  council  of  regency  du- 
ring the  absence  of  the  elector,  and  main- 
tained the  neutrality  of  Munich ;  for  this  ser- 
vice many  honors  were  conferred  upon  him, 
one  of  which  was  an  appointment  to  the  su- 
perintendency  of  the  general  police  of  the  elec- 
torate. As  the  climate  did  not  agree  with  him, 
after  spending  two  years  in  public  duties  and 
private  studies,  he  determined  to  fix  his  resi- 
dence in  England,  and  was  named  minister  to 
the  court  of  St.  James;  but  the  English  govern- 
ment, acting  on  the  rule  of  inalienable  allegi- 
ance, refused  to  recognize  him  in  this  capacity. 
While  in  England  ho  was  largely  concerned  in 
the  affairs  of  the  royal  institution,  of  which 
he  was  the  real  founder.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  Theodore,  elector  of  Bavaria  (1799), 
Rumford  gave  up  his  citizenship  in  the  electo- 
rate, and  finally  settled  at  Paris.  He  married 
in  1804  for  his  second  wife  the  widow  of  La- 
voisier, and  with  her  retired  to  the  villa  of 
Auteuil,  the  residence  of  her  former  husband, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  contributed  a  largo  number  of  papers  to 
various  scientific  journals.  The  subject  to 
which  he  devoted  his  philosophical  investi- 
gations more  than  any  other  was  that  of  heat, 
and  what  has  been  done  to  demonstrate  ex- 
perimentally the  doctrine  of  "  correlation  of 
forces  "  was  begun  by  him  in  a  series  of  ex- 
periments suggested  by  the  heat  evolved  in 
boring  cannon  at  the  arsenal  in  Munich.  (See 
CORBELATIOX  OF  FORCES.)  For  Count  Rum- 
ford's  claim  to  having  very  nearly  established 
the  "  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,"  see  a 
paper  by  Prof.  Robert  II.  Thurston  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civ- 
il Engineers,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  289;  also  Tyndall's 
"  Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion."  Rumford  also 
devoted  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  con- 
struction of  chimneys,  with  principal  reference 
to  remedies  for  their  smoking,  and  wrote  popu- 
lar essays  on  the  subject.  His  investigations 
into  the  strength  of  materials  and  the  force  of 
gunpowder  resulted  in  great  improvements  in 
artillery;  and  on  the  subjects  of  light  and  illu- 
mination he  also  made  many  experiments  and 
discoveries.  Some  years  before  his  death  he 
instituted  prizes  for  discoveries  in  light  and 
heat,  to  be  awarded  by  the  royal  society  of 
London  and  the  American  academy  of  sciences, 
of  which  he  himself  received  the  first  on  the 
former  subject  from  the  royal  society  ;  and  he 
bequeathed  to  Harvard  university  the  funds 
by  which  was  founded  the  Rumford  professor- 
ship of  the  physical  and  mathematical  sci- 
ences as  applied  to  the  useful  arts,  which  was 


RUMIANTZEFF 


RUMINANTIA 


467 


established  in  October,  1816. — The  results  of 
his  investigations  were  published  in  pamphlets 
and  essays,  in  French,  English,  or  German.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  writings  has  been  pub- 
lished in  4  vols.,  with  his  life  by  the  Rev.  G. 
E.  Ellis  (Philadelphia,  1871).  See  also  his  life 
by  Prof.  Renwick,  in  Sparks's  "  American 
Biography,"  2d  series,  vol.  v. 

Il'miAYTZEFF,  or  Romantzoff,  Petr,  count,  a 
Russian  general,  born  in  St.  Petersburg  in 
1725,  died  in  Mohilev  in  December,  1796.  Du- 
ring the  seven  years'  war  he  cooperated  with 
Soltikoff  in  defeating  Frederick  the  Great 
at  Kunersdorf  (1759),  and  captured  the  for- 
tress of  Colberg  (1761).  In  1770  he  became 
commander-in-chief  against  the  Turks,  and  de- 
feated in  two  battles  much  superior  forces  on 
the  Pruth  and  the  Kagul,  which  gave  to  Rus- 
sia the  whole  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  In 
1774  he  compelled  the  Turks  to  conclude  a 
peace  at  Kutchuk-Kainarji ;  and  after  being 
made  field  marshal,  he  was  presented  with  a 
large  domain.  In  1787,  on  the  renewal  of  the 
war  with  Turkey,  he  and  Potemkin  were  placed 
in  command ;  but  Rumiantzeff  declined  serv- 
ing with  Potemkin  and  retired. 

KHIIXAXTIA  (Lat.  ruminare,  to  chew  the 
cud),  a  group  of  ungulate  even-toed  mammals, 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw  in  almost  all  cases,  their  place  being 
supplied  by  a  callous  pad ;  six  lower  incisors ; 
canines  inconstant ;  molars  usually  six  on  each 
side  in  each  jaw,  with  flattened  crowns  and 
irregularly  crescentic  folds  of  enamel ;  stomach 
compound,  with  three  or  four  cavities,  in  con- 
nection with  the  act  of  rumination ;  caacum 
large ;  placenta  generally  cotyledonous ;  and 
feet  ungulate  and  bisulcate.  This  group  is 
equivalent  to  the  pecora  of  Linnrcus,  and  in- 
cludes such  animals  as  the  camel,  deer,  giraffe, 
antelope,  gnu,  goat,  sheep,  and  ox.  Almost 
all  the  genera  are  provided  with  horns,  solid 
and  deciduous  as  in  the  deer,  or  hollow  and 
permanent  as  in  the  ox  and  sheep.  They 
are  large  or  moderate  in  size,  and  generally 
rapid  runners;  they  feed  in  herds,  headed 
by  an  old  male,  and  are  exclusively  herbiv- 
orous ;  the  shape  in  most  is  light  and  ele- 
gant, and  the  limbs  long  and  slender;  the 
skin  is  covered  with  hair  or  wool ;  the  eyes 
are  large,  full,  and  often  very  beautiful ;  the 
ears  long,  erect,  very  movable,  and  more  or 
less  pointed ;  the  tail  varies  much  in  length 
and  covering.  They  inhabit  vast  plains,  the 
forests  of  the  north,  and  the  dry  deserts  of 
the  tropics,  their  speed  taking  them  in  a  few 
hours  from  an  exhausted  to  a  rich  feeding 
ground,  and  from  a  sandy  waste  to  a  well 
watered  region.  They  wage  no  war  on  each 
other  or  on  other  animals,  except  during  the 
pairing  season  ;  taking  to  flight  at  slight  causes 
of  alarm,  when  brought  to  bay  they  fight  bold- 
ly with  their  horns  and  antlers,  and  strike 
powerful  blows  with  their  sharp  front  hoofs. 
— The  deciduous  horns  of  the  ruminants  may 
be  rounded  as  in  the  stag,  roebuck,  and  Vir- 


ginia deer,  or  palmated  as  in  the  moose,  rein- 
deer, and  fallow  deer ;  they  are  usually  sym- 
metrical as  to  position  and  size,  but  not  as  to 
arrangement  of  the  divisions ;  there  is  an  in- 
timate connection  between  the  horns  and  the 
generative  system,  as  their  development  may 
be  arrested  and  their  periodical  shedding  pre- 
vented by  castration.  There  are  seldom  more 
than  two ;  but  in  the  fossil  sivatJierium  of 
the  tertiary  of  the  Sivalik  hills  there  are  four, 
also  in  the  four-horned  sheep,  goats,  and  ante- 
lopes; sometimes  there  are  even  five  in  the 
domesticated  sheep.  The  solid  horns  have 
been  described  under  BUCK,  and  DEER;  these 
antlers  fall  by  a  process  having  a  close  resem- 
blance to  that  by  which  in  necrosis  the  dead 
is  separated  from  the  living  bone;  after  the 
pairing  season  has  passed  the  circulation  stops 
in  the  horns,  and  they  become  dry  and  dead, 
and  separate  from  the  frontal  bone  by  absorp- 
tion carried  on  by  the  Haversian  canals  ;  these, 
acting  on  one  plane  through  the  whole  thick- 
ness of  the  bone  just  below  the  burr,  remove 
the  solid  materials  around  them,  so  that  each 
canal  finally  unites  its  cavity  with  that  of  an 
adjoining  one ;  when  this  has  extended  entire- 
ly across  the  base  the  antler  falls.  Prof.  J. 
Wyman  ("Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History,"  vol.  vii.,  p.  168,  1859)  re- 
gards the  antlers  as  dermal  bones  rather  than 
parts  of  the  internal  skeleton,  because  they 
are  developed  in  the  integuments  by  a  special 
centre  of  ossification,  and  become  attached  to 
the  frontal  only  after  ossification  has  some- 
what advanced.  In  the  hollow  horns  of  the  ox, 
sheep,  and  antelopes,  the  frontal  bony  cores 
are  cylindrical  shafts,  more  or  less  solid,  pro- 
tected by  periosteum  and  an  extension  of  the 
true  skin,  of  which  the  epidermic  portion  is  de- 
veloped into  a  dense  horny  sheath ;  in  most  the 
frontal  sinuses  extend  into  the  cores. — The 
tongue  generally  performs  the  office  of  prehen- 
sion as  well  as  deglutition;  the  anterior  part 
collects  and  judges  by  the  touch  of  the  nature 
of  the  food,  the  next  portion  prepares  the  mor- 
sel and  thrusts  it  backward  toward  the  oesoph- 
agus, and  the  basal  part  regulates  the  move- 
ments of  the  whole  organ  from  its  insertion 
in  the  hyoid  bone ;  the  papilla?,  fungiform  and 
filiform  in  front,  conical  and  circumvallate 
behind,  are  largely  developed.  The  saliva- 
ry glands  are  large,  with  long  ducts;  tonsils 
bulky,  and  oesophagus  thick  and  muscular.  The 
stomach  is  fourfold,  the  first  three  cavities 
(paunch  or  rumen,  honeycomb  bag  or  reticu- 
lum,  and  manyplies  or  psalteriuni)  being  essen- 
tially dilatations  of  the  oesophagus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rumination,  and  leading  to  the  fourth 
or  true  digestive  cavity ;  in  the  fourth  or  abo- 
masum,  the  only  one  developed  in  the  newly 
born  animal,  there  is  in  the  calf  an  organic 
acid  secreted,  possessing  the  power  of  convert- 
ing the  albumen  of  milk  into  curd  or  whey,  in 
the  prepared  condition  called  rennet.  Concre- 
tions of  balls  of  hair,  the  result  of  hairs  swal- 
lowed when  licking  their  own  or  others'  hides, 


468 


RUMINANTIA 


felted  together  by  the  movements  of  the  stom- 
ach, and  incrusted  with  a  polished  earthy  de- 
posit of  great  hardness,  are  often  found  in  the 
stomachs  of  ruminants,  especially  of  the  cow. 


Stomach  of  a  Sheep. — a.  (Esophagus  or  pullet,  b.  Rumen, 
paunch,  or  first  stomach,  c.  Keticulum,  honeycomb,  or 
second  stomach,  d.  Pialterium  or  mum-plies.  «.  Abo- 
niusuin,  fourth  or  true  stomach. 

The  intestinal  canal  is  very  long  and  simple; 
compared  with  the  length  of  the  body  it  is,  ac- 
cording to  Meckel,  as  12  to  1  in  the  camel  and 
deer,  22  to  1  in  the  ox,  and  28  to  1  in  the  sheep ; 
the  large  intestine  is  often  scarcely  wider  than 
the  small ;  the  csecum  is  always  large,  smooth, 
and  without  lateral  bulgings.  The  eyes  are 
wide  apart,  and  so  prominent  that  the  range  of 
vision  is  very  extensive;  the  opening  of  the 
pupil  is  transverse,  and  the  tapetum  is  exceed- 
ingly brilliant.  The  senses  of  hearing  and 
smell  are  highly  developed,  and  the  cranial  si- 
nuses are  extensive.  The  mammsB  are  inguinal, 
and  the  teats  four,  except  in  sheep  and  goats, 
which  have  only  two.  The  panniculus  earno- 
sus  musfle  is  remarkably  developed,  serving  as 
a  means  of  defence  by  shaking  off  flies  and 
other  stinging  insects  from  the  skin.  In  the 
camel  there  is  a  hump  on  the  back,  consisting 
principally  of  adipose  matter  developed  in  the 
subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  probably  serving 
as  a  storehouse  of  nutriment  to  the  animal 
during  its  long  fasts  in  the  desert.  The  hair 
is  generally  coarse,  and  never  what  would  be 
called  fur ;  it  varies  from  the  harsh  and  shag- 
gy coat  of  the  camel  and  the  somewhat  softer 
one  of  the  llama  to  the  fine  wool  of  the  sheep. 
Rumination  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  bulky 
character  of  the  food  as  compared  with  its 
nutrient  qualities;  the  timid  animals  of  this 
order  are  naturally  forced  to  take  in  a  large 
amount  of  food  in  a  short  time,  and  then  to 
flee  from  the  carnivorous  beasts  always  lying 
in  wait  for  them  to  some  retired  place  where 
they  can  remasticate  it  quietly.  In  camels 
the  bolus  is  triturated  alternately  from  side 
to  side;  in  horned  ruminants  and  in  the  gi- 
raffe it  is  always  in  one  direction,  either  from 
right  to  left  or  from  left  to  right. — Rumi- 
nants embrace  the  animals  most  useful  to  man 
and  the  most  easily  domesticated ;  whole  races 
of  men  count  their  wealth  by  the  numbers 
they  possess  of  them,  whether  camels,  llamas, 
goats,  sheep,  reindeer,  or  cattle.  They  are 
distributed  all  over  the  world  except  in  Aus- 
tralia; the  reindeer  and  musk  ox  are  found 
in  the  polar  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  the 
llamas  and  alpacas  in  South  America,  the  cam- 


els in  Asia  and  Africa,  the  giraffe  and  most 
antelopes  in  Africa,  and  the  deer  everywhere 
in  suitable  feeding  places;  in  North  America 
there  are  only  two  antelopes,  only  one  of  the 
sheep  family,  and  two  of  the  ox  family ;  there 
are  no  hollow-horned  ruminants  in  South 
America  as  original  species,  though  there  are 
vast  herds  of  wild  cattle  of  foreign  introduc- 
tion. The  distribution  of  fossil  ruminants  was 
in  some  respects  different  from  that  of  the  liv- 
ing species ;  for  instance,  the  giraffe  has  been 
found  fossil  in  France  and  the  Sivalik  hills, 
showing  a  warmer  climate  than  now  prevails 
in  those  regions;  on  the  contrary,  the  reindeer 
has  been  found  in  8.  Europe,  indicating  also  a 
temporary  diminution  of  heat,  probably  from 
the  extension  southward  of  the  ice  during  the 
glacial  period.  There  are  many  interesting  co- 
incidences of  geographical  distribution  in  geo- 
logical and  the  present  times,  bearing  on  the 
point  of  the  origin  of  existing  mammals,  and  in 
favor  of  the  theory  of  such  origin  from  the  de- 
velopment of  previously  existing  types,  rather 
than  from  a  distinct  creative  act  after  the  en- 
tire destruction  of  the  preceding  fauna.  Cam- 
els are  found  fossil  in  the  Sivalik  hills  of  India, 
llamas  in  the  caverns  of  Brazil,  musk  deer  in 
Asia  and  Africa,  &c. ;  deer  (cercidw)  are  nu- 
merous in  the  diluvial  formations  of  Europe, 
greatly  resembling  the  present  species,  and, 
according  to  Pictet,  some  may  be  considered 
as  the  stock  from  which  have  been  derived  the 
present  stag,  reindeer,  fallow  deer,  and  roebuck, 
these,  with  also  the  goat  and  sheep,  having  sur- 
vived the  catastrophes  of  this  disturbed  peri- 
od, and  preceded  the  appearance  of  man  in 
Europe.  The  fossil  deer  of  Asia  and  America 
also  very  much  resemble  the  existing  species 
of  these  continents.  The  urus  described  by 
Julius  Caesar  (Do  Bella  Gallico,  vi.  28)  among 
the  animals  of  Germany,  and  the  aurochs  even 
now  living  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania,  are  in- 
teresting in  connection  with  the  origin  of  do- 
mestic cattle ;  these  were  probably  indigenous, 
as  a  fossil  urus  and  aurochs  have  been  found  in 
the  diluvium  of  Europe.  The  fossil  musk  ox 
(ovibos)  has  been  found  in  Siberia  and  North 
America,  like  the  one  now  living  in  the  polar 
regions.  The  ruminants  show  more  transi- 
tions to  other  orders  than  would  be  supposed 
from  the  study  of  their  living  species,  espe- 
cially in  the  direction  of  the  odd-toed  ungu- 
lates; they  appeared  after  the  latter,  and  un- 
der forms  very  nearly  resembling  existing  spe- 
cies; there  were  none  in  the  eocene  tertiary, 
when  almost  all  herbivorous  mammals  were  of 
the  latter,  but  appeared  first  in  the  miocene, 
and  then  became  so  numerous  that  in  the  sub- 
sequent epoch  (pliocene)  and  during  the  dilu- 
vium they  had  entirely  displaced  the  latter, 
at  least  in  Europe.  The  sivatherium  of  the 
Sivalik  hills  resembled  proboscidians  in  its 
heavy  form,  short  neck,  and  probable  trunk 
(as  indicated  by  the  nasal  bones).  Among  the 
gigantic  animals  of  this  order  may  be  men- 
tioned the  great  Irish  elk,  with  enormous  horns, 


RUMSEY 


RUNJEET  SINGH 


469 


found  in  the  diluvium  of  Europe.  The  genus 
macrauchenia,  as  large  as  a  rhinoceros,  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  southern  regions  of  South  America, 
and  forms  another  remarkable  transition  form 
between  ruminants  and  proboscidians.  (See 
MACRAUCHENIA.) 

RUMSEY,  James,  an  American  inventor,  born 
at  Bohemia  Manor,  Cecil  co.,  Md.,  about  1743, 
died  in  London,  England,  Dec.  23,  1792.  In 
September,  1784,  he  exhibited  on  the  Potomac, 
in  the  presence  of  Gen.  Washington,  a  boat 
which  worked  against  the  stream  by  means  of 
mechanism.  He  subsequently  gave  his  atten- 
tion to  steam  as  a  motive  power,  and  in  March, 
1786,  propelled  a  boat  on  the  Potomac  by  a 
steam  engine,  which  secured  motion  by  the 
force  of  a  stream  of  water  thrown  out  by  a 
pump  at  the  stern.  In  December,  1787,  the 
experiment  was  successfully  repeated  on  a 
larger  scale.  About  the  same  time  he  became 
involved  in  a  controversy  with  John  Fitch. 
(See  FITCH,  JOHN.)  In  1788  the  "  Rumsey 
society  "  was  formed  in  Philadelphia ;  and  the 
inventor  going  to  England,  a  similar  society 
was  formed  in  London,  a  boat  and  machinery 
were  built  for  him,  and  he  obtained  patents  for 
his  inventions  in  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Holland.  A  successful  trip  was  made  upon 
the  Thames  in  December,  1792,  and  he  was 
preparing  for  another  experiment  when  he 
died.  He  published  a  "  Short  Treatise  on  the 
Application  of  Steam"  (1788). 

RUNES  (Old  Norse,  runir,  secret  signs,  mys- 
teries), an  ancient  graphic  system  employed 
chiefly  by  the  Teutonic  races  of 
f  •      F          northern  Europe,  though  traces 
K        TT          of  its  use  are  found  also  in  France 
and    Spain.      These    characters 
l>.      th         originally  served  for  divination 
and  secret  purposes,  but  it  is  not 
%.»      O          known  at  what  time  their  use  be- 
«.  gan.    Specimens  of  runic  writing 

K.  R  have  been  found  at  Thorsbjerg 
Yf  £  and  Nydarn  dating  from  the  2d 
or  3d  century ;  and  though  they 
*.  II  were  gradually  superseded  by  the 
t  Roman  alphabet,  the  runes  re- 

*>•     •"          mained  partially  in  use  in  out-of- 

•  ,  the-way  districts  of  Scandinavia 

till  the  close  of  the  last  century. 
J.  A  There  are  several  varieties  of 

runic  writing,  classed  as  the  An- 
1»  S  glo-Saxon,  the  German,  and  the 

*  „,          Norse.     The  bast  is  thought  to 

Represent  the  oldest  form,  from 
£4      g          which  the  others  were  developed. 
It  has  an  alphabet  of  only  15  or 
P.      L          16  letters,  while  that  of  the  An- 
^  glo-Saxons  finally  numbered   as 

Y.      M         many  as  40.     Among  the  varia- 

A.     (E,  Y    tions,  $ .  sometimes  stands  for  0, 

Eunic  Alphabet    ^    fop  ^  ^  f  Qp  ^  ^  £op  ^  4 

for  D,  and  f .  for  E.  These  variations  in  the 
forms  of  the  letters,  and  the  fact  that  they 


are  sometimes  read  from  left  to  right,  some- 
times from  right  to  left,  and  sometimes  alter- 
nately from  the  right  and  left,  greatly  increase 
the  difficulty  of  deciphering  them;  but  as  61 
runic  alphabets,  or  futhorcs,  as  they  are  called 
from  the  first  six  letters,  have  been  gathered, 
it  is  possible  to  read  any  well  preserved  in- 
scription with  tolerable  certainty.  There  is 
no  evidence  that  runes  were  ever  employed  in 
the  composition  of  books,  or  that  they  were 
used  as  familiarly  and  generally  as  other  graph- 
ic systems.  They  were  confined  to  inscriptions 
or  carvings  on  rocks,  stones,  household  uten- 
sils, weapons,  and  ornaments.  They  were  also 
cut  on  smooth  sticks,  called  run-stafas,  or  mys- 
terious staves,  generally  of  beech  (Ger.  Buche, 
whence  Buchstab,  letter),  used  for  divination. 
It  was  even  believed  that  a  mysterious  power 
resided  in  the  runes,  and  some  of  them  were 
considered  as  special  safeguards  of  ships,  oth- 
ers as  capable  of  healing  wounds,  &c.  The  use 
of  the  runes,  thus  associated  in  popular  belief 
with  sorcery,  was  discouraged  by  Christian 
missionaries. — Whatever  valuable  statements 
in  regard  to  the  nature  of  runes  are  to  be 
found  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  middle  ages 
have  been  gathered  in  Brynjulffsen's  Perico- 
lum  Runologicum  (1823).  See  also  Grimm, 
Ueber  deutsche  Runen  (1821)  and  Zur  Liter  a- 
tur  der  Runen  (1828);  and  Stephens,  "Old 
Northern  Runic  Monuments  of  Scandinavia 
and  England"  (3  vols.,  London,  18G7-'74). 

RU1VJEET  SINGH,  a  rajah  or  sovereign  of  the 
Sikhs,  in  the  Punjaub,  born  at  Gujerawala,  N. 
of  Lahore,  about  1780,  died  there,  June  27, 
1839.  He  was  the  son  of  Maha  Singh,  sirdar 
or  governor  of  one  of  the  Sikh  states,  who 
when  he  died  (1794)  left  the  government  of 
his  province  to  Runjeet,  under  the  regency  of 
his  mother,  whom  the  young  sirdar  is  said  to 
have  poisoned  when  he  arrived  at  the  age  of  17, 
in  order  that  he  might  reign  alone.  He  rapid- 
ly and  skilfully  availed  himself  of  the  wealth 
and  influential  position  to  which  he  had  suc- 
ceeded, and  became  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  Sikh  confederacy  W.  of  the  Sutlej.  A  ser- 
vice to  the  Afghan  monarch  obtained  for  him 
the  title  of  king  of  Lahore,  by  which  he  was 
generally  known  to  Europeans.  In  1807,  hav- 
ing taken  from  the  Afghans  several  important 
towns  situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Indus, 
and  established  his  position  as  sovereign  of  the 
Sikhs  in  the  Punjaub,  he  endeavored  to  ex- 
tend his  power  over  the  Sikh  territories  lying 
between  the  Sutlej  and  the  Jumna,  and  for 
this  purpose  advanced  into  that  region.  The 
chiefs  of  Sirhind  demanded  protection  from 
the  British  government,  which  was  granted; 
but  not  until  an  English  army  advanced  to  the 
banks  of  the  Sutlej,  in  1809,  did  Runjeet  Singh 
relinquish  his  claim  of  authority.  On  April  25 
of  that  year  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
English  at  Amritsir,  making  the  Sutlej  sub- 
stantially the  boundary  between  his  possessions 
and  those  of  the  East  India  company.  He  now 
reorganized  his  army  by  the  aid  of  European 


470 


RUNNELS 


RUPPELL 


officers,  and  ten  years  later  had  not  only  re- 
duced every  sirdar  in  the  Punjaub  to  subjec- 
tion, but  was  master  of  the  Afghan  city  of 
Peshawer,  and  had  assumed  the  title  of  mafia- 
rajah  (king  of  kings).  By  the  employment  of 
two  skilful  French  officers,  Allard  and  Ven- 
tura, in  1822,  he  brought  his  troops  to  a  still 
higher  degree  of  efficiency,  forming  a  disci- 
plined army  of  80,000  men,  with  300  guns. 
He  now  crossed  the  Indus  and  took  the  prov- 
ince of  Peshawer  lying  along  its  W.  bank.  His 
conquests  in  Afghanistan  occupied  him  for  sev- 
eral years.  In  1838  he  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  the  British  for  a  closer  alliance,  but 
died  before  they  wjpre  concluded.  He  was  re- 
markable for  his  success  in  harmonizing  the 
interests  of  the  various  Sikh  states,  no  less 
than  for  his  military  achievements ;  and  for 
fidelity  to  treaty  engagements  his  name  is  con- 
spicuous among  native  princes  of  India. 

RUNNELS,  a  W.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  N.  fork  of  the  Colorado  river;  area, 
750  sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having  no  population 
in  1870.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  of  the  streams 
is  good.  The  county  is  adapted  to  stock  rais- 
ing, but-is  subject  to  Indian  incursions. 

Rl'N.VERS.     See  ORTHOPTERA. 

RFNNYMEDE,  Knnnlmrdf,  or  Rinnemede,  a  nar- 
row slip  of  meadow  land  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames  near  Egham,  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  county  of  Surrey,  England,  about  20  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  London,  memorable  as  the  place 
where  in  1215  King  John  was  compelled  by 
his  barons  to  sign  the  Magna  Charta.  The  Eg- 
hain  races  now  take  place  upon  this  meadow. 

RUPERT,  Prince  (Prince  Robert  of  Bavaria), 
a  royalist  general  of  horse  during  the  Eng- 
lish civil  war,  born  in  Prague,  Dec.  17,  1619, 
died  at  Spring  Gardens,  London,  Nov.  29, 
1682.  His  mother  Elizabeth  was  the  eldest 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  and  the  wife 
of  Frederick  V.,  elector  palatine,  who  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  thirty  years'  war  was  elected 
by  the  insurgents  king  of  Bohemia,  and  in  con- 
sequence was  deprived  of  his  estates.  When 
only  13  years  old  Rupert  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Rheinberg,  and  at  18  commanded  a 
regiment  of  cavalry  in  active  service.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war  in  England  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  regiment  of  horse. 
He  took  Hereford,  Lichfield,  and  Cirencester, 
and  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles  of 
Edgehill  and  Chalgrove  field.  His  daring  and 
vigor  had  more  than  compensated  for  his  want 
of  prudence  and  military  sagacity,  and  he  was 
created  duke  of  Cumberland.  With  Prince 
Maurice  he  carried  Bristol  by  assault  on  July 
25,  1643.  Afterward  he  scattered  the  parlia- 
mentary forces  at  Newark,  and  gained  dis- 
tinction in  the  north  of  England,  especially 
by  the  relief  of  Latham  house,  held  by  the 
countess  of  Derby  against  a  detachment  of 
Fairfax's  army.  The  loss  of  the  battle  of 
Marston  Moor  was  due  to  his  rashness  and  his 
want  of  concert  with  the  duke  of  Newcastle ; 
yet  he  was  promoted  from  the  generalship  of 


the  horse  to  the  command  of  all  the  forces, 
and  took  the  city  of  Leicester.  In  the  battle 
of  Naseby,  June  14,  1645,  Prince  Rupert  com- 
manded the  left  wing,  and  pursued  the  portion 
of  the  parliamentary  army  opposed  to  him  a 
great  distance,  returning  to  find  his  own  side 
defeated.  Subsequently  he  took  command  of 
Bristol.  The  city  was  invested  by  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell  on  Aug.  22,  and  was  surrendered 
at  the  first  attack  (Sept.  11),  the  prince  march- 
ing out  with  a  convoy  of  two  regiments  of 
horse,  and  proceeding  to  Oxford.  The  same 
day  a  royal  proclamation  was  issued  revo- 
king and  annulling  all  military  authority  {riven 
to  "our  nephew  Prince  Rupert;"  but  in  1648 
he  obtained  the  command  of  that  portion  of 
the  fleet  which  adhered  to  the  royal  cause, 
and  with  it  went  to  the  coast  of  Ireland  to 
assist  Lord  Ormond.  Anchoring  in  the  har- 
bor of  Kinsale,  he  was  there  blockaded  by 
Blake  with  the  parliamentary  fleet  until  Oc- 
tober, 1649,  when  he  forced  his  way  out  with 
the  loss  of  a  few  ships.  Blake  pursued  him 
to  Malaga,  and  in  January,  1651,  attacked  his 
squadron,  and  destroyed  all  but  two  ships, 
with  which  the  prince  escaped  to  the  West  In- 
dies. There  he  remained  some  time,  support- 
ing himself  by  the  piratical  capture  of  Span- 
ish and  English  merchantmen,  and  then  return- 
ed to  France,  selling  his  ships  to  the  French 
government  in  behalf  of  Charles  II.  After 
the  restoration  he  was  made  privy  councillor. 
Under  the  duke  of  York  he  held  a  command 
in  the  fleet,  and  was  present  at  the  naval 
battle  of  Lowestoft  (1655).  In  1666,  in  con- 
junction with  Lord  Albemarle,  he  held  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  which  acted  against  the 
Dutch  with  various  success.  He  was  a  pro- 
moter of  the  Hudson  Bay  company,  and  its 
first  governor  in  1670.  During  the  latter  years 
of  his  life  he  was  governor  of  Windsor  castle, 
and  spent  a  large  portion  of  his  time  in  paint- 
ing and  engraving,  and  in  mechanical  and 
chemical  experiments.  The  invention  of  the 
mezzotint  has  been  ascribed  to  him,  but  it 
was  made  some  years  earlier.  He  improved 
the  mechanical  mode  of  the  art,  and  described 
it  in  a  communication  to  the  royal  society  in 
1662,  and  some  of  his  engravings  are  still  in 
existence.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  pinchbeck  or  prince's  metal,  and 
of  the  glass  bubbles  called  "  Rupert's  drops." 
(See  ANNEALING.)  He  was  buried  in  Henry 
VII.'s  chapel,  Westminster. — See  Leben  des 
Primen  Ruprecht  von  der  Pfah,  Anfiihrer 
der  Cavaliere  Karl's  I.  von  England,  by  Tres- 
kow  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1857),  and  Pfalzgraf  Ru- 
pert der  Cavalier,  by  Spruner  (Munich,  1854). 

RIPERPS  DROPS.     See  ANNEALING. 

RUPERTS  LAND.  See  NORTHWEST  TERRI- 
TORIES. 

RUPHIA,  a  river  of  Greece.     See  ALPHEUS. 

RBPPELL,  Wilheim  Peter  Ednard  Simon,  a  Ger- 
man traveller,  born  in  Frankfort,  Nov.  20, 
1796.  He  early  visited  Italy  and  Egypt,  and 
subsequently  explored  northern  Africa,  and 


KUPTURE 


KUSH 


471 


especially  Abyssinia.  He  presented  his  collec- 
tions to  his  native  town  in  consideration  of  an 
annual  pension  of  1,000  florins.  His  works 
include  Fundgruben  des  Orients  (5  vols.,  Vi- 
enna, 1818) ;  Reisen  in  Nubien,  Kordofan  und 
dem  petrdischen  Arabien  (Frankfort,  1829) ; 
Reise  in  Abessinien  (2  vols.,  1838-'40) ;  and 
Vogel  Nord-  und  Ostafrikas  (1845). 

RUPTURE.     See  HERNIA. 

RUREMONDE.     See  ROERMOND. 

Kl  KIR,  founder  of  the  first  Russian  dynas- 
ty. See  RUSSIA. 

RUSCHENBERGER,  William  S.  W.,  an  Ameri- 
can naturalist,  born  in  Cumberland  co.,  N. 
J.,  Sept.  4,  1807.  He  studied  medicine  in  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  became  a  surgeon 
in  the  United  States  navy  in  1826,  and  as  such 
circumnavigated  the  globe.  He  has  published 
"Three  Years  in  the  Pacific"  (8vo,  Phila- 
delphia, 1834) ;  "  A  Voyage  round  the  World, 
including  an  Embassy  to  Muscat  and  Siani " 
(1838);  "Elements  of  Natural  History"  (2 
vols.  12mo,  1850) ;  "  A  Lexicon  of  Terms  used 
in  Natural  History  "  (12mo,  1850) ;  and  "  Notes 
and  Commentaries  during  a  Voyage  to  Brazil 
and  China  in  the  Year  1848  "  (8vo,  1854). 

RUSH  (written  by  the  old  authors  rish,  resh, 
and  rashes,  probably  from  the  A.  S.  rise),  the 
common  name  for  species  of  juncus,  but  used 
in  combination,  as  bog  rush  and  scouring  rush, 
for  plants  of  other  genera.  Juncus  (Lat.  jun- 
gere,  to  join,  the  stems  having  been  used  for 
tying)  is  the  typical  genus  of  a  small  family 
of  endogenous  plants,  the  juncacece,  which, 
while  they  have  the  glumaceous  (husk-like) 
flowers  and  general  appearance  of  the  sedges 
and  grasses,  are  closely  related  to  the  lily  fam- 
ily, the  structure  of  the  flowers,  though  green- 
ish and  glume-like,  being  much  like  that  of  a 
minute  lily.  Dr.  George  Engelmann,  in  his 
monograph  of  the  genus  juncus  (St.  Louis 
academy  of  sciences,  1868),  finds  about  50  spe- 
cies in  all  North  America,  of  which  17  occur 
also  in  other  parts  of  the  world ;  four  species 
are  found  all  over  the  country,  and  five  others 
everywhere  east  of  the  Mississippi ;  others  are 
very  local,  especially  the  maritime  and  arctic 
species.  The  rushes  are  mostly  perennials, 
growing  in  water  or  in  wet  soil,  with  pithy  or 
hollow,  rarely  branching  stems,  which  in  some 
are  without  leaves,  in  others  with  leaves  flat 
and  grass-like,  while  a  number  have  cylindri- 
cal leaves,  marked  by  cross  partitions.  The 
flowers  are  in  panicles,  which  are  terminal,  or 
in  some  appear  lateral,  as  the  involucral  sheath 
continues  beyond  the  panicle  like  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  stem  ;  the  flowers,  arranged  on  the 
branches  of  the  panicle  singly  or  in  little  clus- 
ters, are  from  one  to  three  lines  long,  green- 
ish or  brownish,  the  six-parted  perianth  with 
three  outer  and  three  inner  divisions ;  sta- 
mens six,  sometimes  reduced  to  three;  pistil 
with  three  styles,  the  many-seeded  pod  one- 
or  three-celled.  Some  species  are  only  1  to  3 
in.  high,  and  the  larger  ones  reach  as  high  as 
4  ft.  Though  interesting  plants  to  botanists, 


the  rushes  are  of  little  economical  importance. 
The  sea  and  sharp  rush  (J.  maritimus  and  J. 
acutus)  of  Europe  grow  in  the  maritime  sands, 
and  are  sometimes  planted  in  order  that  their 
roots  may  retain  the  earth  of  embankments 
in  place ;  the  common  or  soft  rush  (/.  effit- 
sus)  is  disposed  to  spread  and  be  a  weed  in  wet 
pastures,  and  is  troublesome  in  southern  rice 
fields;  the  toad  rush  (/.  lufonius),  the  only 
annual  species  in  the  eastern  states,  is  very 
common  along  roadsides  and  on  the  edges  of 
footpaths,  it  seeming  to  flourish  best  where  it 
is  trodden  upon.  The  most  important  species 
is  that  popularly  called  black  grass,  /.  Qerardi 
(given  in  some  works  as  /.  lulbosus,  which  is 
a  European  species  not  yet  found  in  this  coun- 
try), abundant  in  salt  marshes  the  whole  length 
of  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  it  is  conspicuous 
by  the  dark  brown  color  of  its  flowers  5  when 
cut  early  it  makes  a  hay  that  is  much  relished 
by  animals,  and  salt-marsh  hay  is  regarded  as 


Common  or  Soft  Rush  (Juncus  effusus). 

valuable  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  this  it 
contains. — Formerly  rushes  were  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  carpets ;  the  floors  of  public  build- 
ings and  of  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  were 
strewn  with  them,  a  practice  which  was  con- 
tinued as  late  as  the  16th  century.  The  Japan- 
ese use  the  common  rush  for  making  mats, 
which  serve  for  carpets  and  for  beds;  light 
mats  of  the  same  material  and  covered  with 
transparent  paper  are  used  as  window  curtains. 
The  use  of  rushes  and  flags  for  bottoming 
chairs  was  formerly  common,  and  the  material 
serves  for  weaving  small  baskets ;  the  street 
flower  venders  sometimes  offer  their  wares 
arranged  in  neat  baskets  made  from  green  rush- 
es. The  Chinese  use  the  pith  of  some  species 
for  candle  wicks,  and  the  rush  lights  former- 
ly in  use  by  the  poor  classes  in  England  were 
made  of  the  pith  of  the  common  rush,  peeled 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a  narrow  strip  of 
the  rind  on  each  side  as  a  support. — Bulrush 


4Y2 


RUSH 


is  one  of  the  sedges  (acirpus  laeustris)  ;  scour- 
ing rushes  are  equisetums.  (See  HOESETAIL.) 

RUSH.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  Blue  river  and  Flat  Rock  creek;  area,  410 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,626.  The  surface  is 
undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Columbus  branch  of  the  Jeffer- 
sonville.  Madison,  and  Indianapolis  railroad, 
and  by  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Indian- 
apolis railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  667,007  bushels  of  wheat,  1,333,421  of 
Indian  corn,  69,236  of  oats,  58,359  of  pota- 
toes, 11,038  tons  of  hay,  63,227  Ibs.  of  wool, 
389,552  of  butter,  21,576  of  maple  sugar,  and 
16,989  gallons  of  sorghum  and  20,359  of  maple 
molasses.  There  were  7,799  horses,  5,123 
milch  cows,  10,994  other  cattle,  15,921  sheep, 
and  40,552  swine;  10  manufactories  of  bricks, 
15  of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  5  flour  mills,  15  saw  mills,  and  3 
woollen  mills.  Capital,  Rushville.  II.  A  W. 
central  county  of  Kansas,  intersected  by  Wal- 
nut creek,  an  affluent  of  the  Arkansas,  and 
watered  by  other  streams ;  area,  900  sq.  m. 
It  is  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870.  The 
surface  consists  chiefly  of  undulating  prairies, 
and  the  soil  is  productive. 

RUSH.  I.  Bri\jamin,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Byberry  township,  near  Philadelphia, 
Dec.  24,  1745,  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  19, 
1813.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in 
1760,  studied  medicine,  chiefly  at  Edinburgh, 
and  was  elected  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
medical  college  of  Philadelphia.  In  the  pro- 
vincial conference  of  Pennsylvania  ho  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  which  reported 
that  it  had  become  expedient  for  congress  to 
declare  independence.  When  congress  had  de- 
cided on  taking  that  step,  five  members  from 
Pennsylvania  withdrew,  whereupon  Rush  and 
four  others  were  elected  to  fill  their  places; 
and  he  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  The  same  year  (1776) 
he  married  Julia,  daughter  of  Richard  Stock- 
ton of  New  Jersey,  also  one  of  the  signers. 
In  April,  1777,  he  was  made  surgeon  general 
of  the  army  for  the  middle  department,  and  in 
July  physician  general.  He  wrote  four  letters 
to  the  people  of  Pennsylvania  on  their  consti- 
tution of  1776,  which  he  censured,  and  which 
was  soon  superseded  by  a  new  form  of  gov- 
ernment. In  February,  1778,  he  resigned  his 
post  as  physician  general,  on  account  of  the 
wrongs  done  to  the  soldiers  in  regard  to  the 
hospital  stores.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
was  a  professor  in  the  Philadelphia  medical  col- 
lege. In  1793,  during  the  ravages  of  the  yel- 
low fever,  he  rendered  extraordinary  services. 
His  bold  and  original  practice,  however,  made 
him  enemies,  and  a  paper  edited  by  William 
Cobbett,  called  "Peter  Porcupine's  Gazette," 
was  so  violent  in  its  attacks  that  it  was  prose- 
cuted, and  a  jury  rendered  a  verdict  of  $5,000 
damages.  From  1799  till  his  death  he  was 
tr.-isurer  of  the  United  States  mint.  He  pub- 
lished "  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations  " 


(5  vols.  8vo,  !789-'98;  3d  ed.,  4  vols.,  1809)-, 
"  Essays,  Literary,  Moral,  and  Philosophical " 
(1798;  2d  ed.,  1806);  "Sixteen  Introductory 
Lectures,"  &c.  (1811) ;  "  Diseases  of  the  Mind  " 
(1812;  5th  ed.,  1835);  and  editions  of  Syden- 
ham's  and  other  medical  works.  His  "  Medi- 
cal Tracts,"  containing  a  variety  of  essays  upon 
health,  temperance,  exercise,  &c.,  appeared  in 
a  separate  volume  at  an  early  period  of  his  life. 
In  1791  he  wrote  an  able  defence  of  the  use  of 
the  Bible  as  a  school  book.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  Dickinson  college,  and  was 
president  of  the  society  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  for  some  time  of  the  Philadelphia 
medical  society,  and  was  vice  president  of  the 
Philadelphia  Bible  society,  and  of  the  Ameri- 
can philosophical  society.  II.  Richard,  an 
American  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  29,  1780,  died 
there,  July  30, 1859.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton college  in  1797,  studied  law,  and  was  ap- 
pointed attorney  general  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1811,  and  soon  after  comptroller  of  the  United 
States  treasury.  From  1814  to  1817  he  was 
attorney  general  of  the  United  States.  In  1817 
he  was  temporary  secretary  of  state,  and  was 
then  appointed  minister  to  England,  where  ho 
remained  till  1825,  negotiating  several  impor- 
tant treaties,  especially  that  of  1818  with  Lord 
Castlereagh  respecting  the  fisheries,  the  N.  W. 
boundary  line,  conflicting  claims  beyond  the 
Rocky  mountains,  and  the  slaves  of  American 
citizens  carried  off  in  British  ships  contrary  to 
the  treaty  of  Ghent.  In  1825  President  Adams 
maOe  him  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  1828  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  vice  presidency  on  the 
same  ticket  with  President  Adams  and  received 
the  same  number  of  electoral  votes.  In  1829 
he  negotiated  in  Holland  a  loan  for  the  corpo- 
rations of  Washington,  Georgetown,  and  Alex- 
andria. In  1836  President  Jackson  appointed 
him  commissioner  to  obtain  the  Smithsonian 
legacy  (see  SMITHSOX,  JAMES),  then  in  the 
English  court  of  chancery;  and  in  August, 
1838,  he  returned  with  the  entire  amount.  In 
1847  President  Polk  appointed  him  minister 
to  France,  and  in  1848  he  was  the  first  of  the 
foreign  ministers  at  the  French  court  to  recog- 
nize the  new  republic,  in  advance  of  instruc- 
tions from  his  government.  At  the  close  of 
President  Folk's  term  he  asked  to  be  recalled, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 
In  1815  he  compiled  an  edition  of  the  laws  of 
the  United  States;  in  1833  he  published  "Me- 
moranda of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  St. 
James,"  and  in  1845  a  second  volume  of  the 
same  work,  "  comprising  Incidents,  Official  and 
Personal,  from  1819  to  1825;  among  the  for- 
mer, Negotiations  on  the  Oregon  Territory" 
(3d  ed.,  under  the  title  "  The  Court  of  London 
from  1819  to  1825,"  with  notes  by  the  author's 
nephew,  London  and  Philadelphia,  1873).  In 
1857  he  published  "  Washington  in  Domestic 
Life."  His  sons  published  in  I860  a  volume 
of  his  "  Occasional  Productions,  Political,  Di- 
plomatic, and  Miscellaneous,  including  a  Glance 


RUSHWORTH 

at  the  Court  and  Government  of  Louis  Philippe 
and  the  French  Revolution  of  1848." 

RUSHWORTH,  John,  an  English  compiler,  born 
in  Northumberland  about  1607,  died  in  Lon- 
don, May  12,  1690.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called  to  the  bar,  but 
never  practised.  From  1630  he  took  notes  of 
all  important  proceedings  in  the  higher  courts 
and  in  parliament.  He  was  assistant  clerk  and 
messenger  of  the  house  in  the  long  parliament, 
from  1645  to  1650  assistant  secretary  to  Lord 
Fairfax,  and  afterward  for  many  years  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament.  From  1684  till  his  death 
he  was  in  prison  for  debt.  The  first  part  (1  vol. 
fol.)  of  his  "  Historical  Collection  of  private 
Passages  of  State,  weighty  Matters  in  Law, 
and  remarkable  Proceedings  in  Parliament," 
covering  the  proceedings  from  1618  to  1629, 
appeared  in  1659  ;  the  second  part,  from  1629 
to  1640,  and  the  "Trial  of  the  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford,"  in  1680 ;  and  the  other  parts  were  ready 
for  the  press  at  his  death.  The  whole  work 
was  reprinted  in  1721,  in  7  vols. 

RISK.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Texas,  bordered 
N.  by  the  Sabine  river,  and  watered  in  the  north 
by  its  branches  and  in  the  south  and  west  by 
those  of  the  Angelina;  area,  1,025  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  16,916,  of  whom  7,715  were  colored. 
Iron  ore  is  abundant,  and  there  are  some  min- 
eral springs.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  347,561  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  73,556  of 
sweet  potatoes,  12,752  bales  of  cotton,  8,718  Ibs. 
of  wool,  and  108,301  of  butter.  There  were 
1,904  horses,  1,337  mules  and  asses,  11,251  cat- 
tle, 3,607  sheep,  and  21,785  swine.  Capital, 
Henderson.  II.  A  W.  central  county  of  Dako- 
ta, recently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  cen- 
sus of  1870;  area,  about  1,600  sq.  m.  It  is 
bounded  E.  by  the  Missouri  river,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  Moreau.  The  W.  portion  is  oc- 
cupied by  Elk  ridge.  The  surface  is  chiefly 
rolling  prairies. 

RI'SKIX,  John,  an  English  author,  born  in 
London  in  February,  1819.  He  is  the  son  of 
a  London  merchant,  from  whom  he  inherited 
a  large  fortune,  and  graduated  in  1842  at  Christ 
Church  college,  Oxford,  having  in  1839  gained 
the  Newdigate  prize  for  English  poetry.  Im- 
mediately afterward  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  art,  and  to  water-color  painting.  In 
1843  he  published  "Modern  Painters:  their 
Superiority  in  the  Art  of  Landscape  Painting 
to  all  the  Ancient  Masters.  By  a  Graduate  of 
Oxford."  It  attracted  attention  from  the  bril- 
liancy of  its  style,  the  eloquence  of  its  de- 
scriptive passages,  and  particularly  the  sum- 
mary manner  in  which  the  most  distinguished 
landscape  painters  of  the  old  and  new  schools 
were  disposed  of,  and  Turner's  supremacy  ad- 
vocated. Among  critics  and  connoisseurs  its 
reception  was  generally  hostile,  but  it  gained 
admirers  and  disciples,  and  in  1846  was  repub- 
lished  in  a  greatly  enlarged  form,  accompanied 
by  a  second  volume  treating  "  Of  the  Imagina- 
tive and  Theoretic  Faculties,"  to  which,  after 
an  interval  of  ten  years,  a  third  and  fourth 


RUSKIN 


473 


were  added ;  and  in  1860  the  work  was  com- 
pleted by  a  fifth  volume,  the  last  three  volumes 
containing  illustrations  by  the  author.  Mr. 
Ruskin  subsequently  revised  this  work,  ma- 
king many  alterations  (5  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1860-'67).  At  the  time  of  its  completion  in 
1860  the  original  title  had  become  a  misnomer, 
the  work  being  for  the  most  part  a  philosoph- 
ical treatise  on  landscape  painting.  The  col- 
lection of  materials  for  this  work  involved  long 
visits  to  various  parts  of  continental  Europe, 
and  in  the  cities  of  Italy,  especially  in  Venice, 
the  contemplation  of  the  more  striking  medie- 
val buildings  inspired  Ruskin  with  the  idea  of 
a  reform  in  domestic  architecture.  The  result 
was  his  "Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture"  (8vo, 
1849),  and  "  The  Stones  of  Venice  "  (3  vols., 
1851 -'3),  both  works  illustrated  by  himself. 
In  1851  he  began  a  series  of  "Examples  of  the 
Architecture  of  Venice,"  from  his  own  designs, 
of  which  but  three  parts  appeared.  Among  his 
other  architectural  publications  are  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "The  Opening  of  the  Crystal  Palace, 
considered  in  some  of  its  Relations  to  the  Pros- 
pects of  Art,"  mainly  devoted  to  a  scheme 
for  the  preservation  of  Gothic  buildings  and 
works  of  art,  and  "The  Study  of  Architecture 
in  our  Schools"  (1865).  His  "Notes  on  the 
Construction  of  Sheepfolds"  (1861)  is  a  dis- 
cussion of  church  discipline  and  doctrine  ra- 
ther than  of  church  building.  The  pre-Ra- 
phaelite  movement  in  the  British  school  of 
painting  early  enlisted  the  sympathy  of  Rns- 
kin,  who  alleged  that  the  principles  on  which 
Hunt,  Millais,  and  their  followers  proceeded 
had  first  been  enunciated  in  his  own  works ; 
and  in  his  pamphlet  "  Pre-Raphaelitism " 
(1851),  his  "Notes"  on  the  royal  academy  ex- 
hibitions of  1855-'60,  and  elsewhere,  he  has 
recorded  his  admiration  of  the  productions  of 
the  new  school.  In  his  "  Notes  "  on  Turner's 
pictures  and  drawings  exhibited  in  Marlbo- 
rough  house,  published  in  1857,  he  astonished 
the  public  by  severe  strictures  on  that  painter. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  Rede  lecturer  at 
Cambridge,  and  received  from  the  university 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1869  he  was  elected 
professor  of  fine  arts  in  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford. In  1871  he  gave  £5,000  to  endow  a  mas- 
ter of  drawing  in  the  Taylor  galleries,  Oxford. 
He  has  published  several  courses  of  lectures  to 
artisans  and  others,  among  which  are:  "Ar- 
chitecture and  Painting  "  (1854) ;  "The  Political 
Economy  of  Art"  (1858);  "The  Two  Paths," 
being  lectures  on  decoration  and  manufacture 
(1859);  "Sesame  and  Lilies,"  on  books  and 
reading  (1864) ;  "  The  Ethics  of  the  Dust,"  on 
the  elements  of  crystallization  (1865);  "The 
Crown  of  Wild  Olive,"  on  work,  traffic,  and 
war  (1866);  "Lectures  on  Art,"  delivered  at 
Oxford  (1870) ;  "  The  Eagle's  Nest "  and  "  Ara- 
tra  Pentelici,"  on  the  elements  of  sculpture 
(1872);  and  "Ariadne  Florentine,"  on  engra- 
ving (1874).  He  has  also  published  "  Elements 
of  Perspective,"  with  80  diagrams  (1889)  ; 
"The  King  of  the  Golden  River,"  a  Christ- 


474 


RUSS 


RUSSELL 


inas  fairy  tale  (1851) ;  a  notice  of  "  Giotto 
and  his  Works"  (1855),  prepared  for  a  col- 
lection of  engraved  outlines  of  the  frescoes 
of  that  master,  published  by  the  Arundel  soci- 
ety, of  which  Ruskin  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers; "Elements  of  Drawing,  in  three  Letters 
for  Beginners"  (1857),  one  of  his  most  prac- 
tical and  useful  treatises;  "Unto  this  Last," 
essays  on  political  economy  (1862);  "Time 
and  Tide,  by  Weare  and  Tyne,"  letters  on  the 
laws  of  work  (1867);  and  "The  Queen  of  the 
Air,"  a  study  of  the  Greek  myths  of  cloud  and 
storm  (1869).  He  is  the  author  of  the  illus- 
trative text  in  Turner's  "  Harbors  of  England," 
and  of  many  contributions  to  the  "  Quarterly 
Review  "  and  othei^periodicals,  of  which  some 
of  the  more  important  are  the  reviews  of 
Lord  Lindsay's  "  Christian  Art "  and  Eastlako's 
"History  of  Oil  Painting,"  in  the  "London 
Quarterly,"  and  a  biographical  notice  of  Samuel 
Prout  in  the  "Art  Journal."  In  January,  1871, 
he  began  a  series  of  monthly  letters  to  work- 
ing men,  under  the  general  title  "  Fors  Clavi- 
gera,"  which  are  still  continued  (1875),  and 
have  beon  gathered  into  volumes.  Several  vol- 
umes of  selections  from  his  works  have  ap- 
peared, the  best  of  which  are  "Art  Culture," 
a  treatise  ingeniously  constructed  from  selected 
passages  (published  only  in  New  York,  1872), 
and  "  Frondes  Agrestes,"  readings  from  "  Mod- 
ern Painters"  (1875),  with  critical  notes  by 
himself.  A  series  of  articles  on  the  "  Poetry 
of  Architecture,"  which  appeared  in  a  London 
magazine  in  1837-'8,  under  the  signature  of 
"  Kata  Phusin,"  have  been  collected  and  added 
to  his  works,  as  he  tacitly  admits  their  author- 
ship. His  latest  publications  are  :  "Mornings 
in  Florence  "  (first  part),  "  Proserpina,  Studies 
of  Wayside  Flowers"  (parts  i.  and  ii.),  "Love's 
Meinie,"  "  Notes  on  some  of  the  Pictures  in 
the  Exhibition  of  the  Royal  Academy,"  "  Deu- 
calion," and  "Val  d'Arno"  (1875).  Besides 
his  numerous  writing*,  he  has  engaged  in  or 
announced  various  schemes  for  the  benefit  of 
different  classes  of  society. 

RUSS,  .IVm  Dealsoa,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Chebacco  (now  Essex),  Mass.,  Sept.  1, 
1801.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1823, 
studied  medicine  at  home  and  in  Europe,  and 
began  to  practise  in  New  York  in  1826.  In 
1827  ho  went  to  Greece  with  a  cargo  of  sup- 
plies from  Boston,  and  remained  there  three 
years,  superintending  for  15  months  a  hospital 
which  he  had  established  at  Poros.  After  his 
return  to  New  York  he  began  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, early  in  1832,  the  instruction  of  six  blind 
boys,  and  was  appointed  the  same  year  super- 
intendent of  the  New  York  blind  institution. 
"While  here  he  invented  a  phonetic  alphabet  for 
the  blind,  consisting  of  41  characters,  sufficient- 
ly like  the  Roman  letters  to  be  read  by  any 
one,  to  which  he  added  22  prefixes,  suffixes,  &c. 
He  also  simplified  the  mathematical  characters 
for  the  blind,  using  four  instead  of  ten,  and 
printed  maps  for  them  from  raised  designs, 
using  wave  lines  for  water,  &c.,  instead  of  the 


plan  of  marking  the  boundaries  with  a  cord. 
The  maps,  with  some  slight  change,  are  still  in 
use,  but  the  figures  have  been  superseded  by 
Braille's  system.  (See  BLIND.)  The  phonetic 
system  of  writing  was  never  generally  intro- 
duced. Dr.  Russ  took  part  in  founding  the 
New  York  prison  association,  of  which  he  was 
successively  the  secretary  and  vice  president. 
From  1851  to  1858  he  was  superintendent  of 
the  juvenile  asylum.  He  has  also  been  en- 
gaged in  other  philanthropic  enterprises,  among 
them  a  house  of  employment  for  women,  es- 
pecially for  those  desirous  of  reforming  from 
a  vicious  life,  which  was  established  in  1850 
under  the  charge  of  his  wife  and  daughter. 

RCSSELL.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordered  S.  E.  by  the  Clinch  mountains  and 
intersected  by  Clinch  river ;  area,  about  700 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,103,  of  whom  1,167 
were  colored.  It  has  a  mountainous  surface 
and  some  good  soil  in  the  valleys,  and  con- 
tains iron  ore,  coal,  and  marble.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  40,985  bushels  of 
wheat,  205,968  of  Indian  corn,  56,216  of  oats, 
17,282  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  27,100  of  wool,  124,681 
of  butter,  4,040  of  flax,  43,692  of  maple  su- 
gar, and  13,978  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  2,251  horses,  2,874  milch  cows, 
7,448  other  cattle,  13,113  sheep,  and  7,964 
swine.  Capital,  Lebanon.  II.  An  E.  county 
of  Alabama,  separated  from  Georgia  by  the 
Chattahoochee  river,  and  drained  by  several 
tributaries  of  that  stream ;  area,  about  550  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,636,  of  whom  15,690 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating.  The 
county  contains  productive  tracts,  sandy  ridges, 
and  barren  plains.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Mo- 
bile and  Girard  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  272,221  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  26,770  of  oats,  52,146  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  20,796  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  824 
horses,  2,410  mules  and  asses,  2,672  milch  cows, 
4,929  other  cattle,  and  6,540  swine.  Capital, 
Seale's  Station.  III.  A  S.  county  of  Kentucky, 
intersected  by  Cumberland  river  and  drained 
by  its  branches ;  area,  about  225  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  5,809,  of  whom  293  were  colored. 
It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  soil  fertile  near  the 
streams.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
13,027  bushels  of  wheat,  224,262  of  Indian 
corn,  43,431  of  oats,  89,484  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
15,189  of  wool,  66,416  of  butter,  and  17,446 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
1,499  horses,  3,709  cattle,  7,171  sheep,  and  10,- 
679  swine.  Capital,  Jamestown.  IV.  A  W. 
central  county  of  Kansas,  intersected  by  the 
Saline  and  Smoky  Hill  rivers ;  area,  900  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  156.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Kansas  Pacific  railroad.  The  surface  is  gener- 
ally level  and  the  soil  good.  Capital,  Russell. 

RUSSELL,  an  E.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Ottawa  river ;  area,  686 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  18,344,  of  whom  7.745 
were  of  Irish,  5,600  of  French,  2,870  of  Scotch, 
and  1,551  of  English  origin.  It  is  drained  by 
the  Petite  Nation  river.  Capital,  L'Original. 


RUSSELL 


4T5 


RUSSELL,  Benjamin,  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  13,  1761,  died 
there,  Jan.  4,  1845.  He  was  apprenticed  at  14 
years  of  age  to  Isaiah  Thomas  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  but  before  completing  his  term  enlisted 
in  the  revolutionary  army.  He  settled  in  Bos- 
ton, and  in  March,  1784,  established  the  "  Co- 
lumbian Centinel,"  a  semi-weekly  newspaper, 
which  under  his  control  was  for  40  years  one 
of  the  most  influential  organs  of  the  federal 
party  in  New  England. 

RUSSELL,  John,  earl,  an  English  statesman, 
third  son  of  the  sixth  duke  of  Bedford,  born  in 
London,  Aug.  18,  1792.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  Avent  abroad  in 
1809,  and  travelled  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  the 
English  being  at  that  time  shut  out  from  most 
of  the  continental  countries,  and  witnessed 
some  of  the  most  important  incidents  of  the 
peninsular  war.  In  1813  he  was  elected  to 
parliament  as  a  whig  for  the  family  borough 
of  Tavistock,  and  the  Liverpool-Castlereagh 
ministry  found  in  him  an  uncompromising 
opponent.  At  the  close  of  1819  he  began  his 
career  as  a  parliamentary  reformer,  making 
annual  motions  on  the  subject.  In  1826, 
because  of  his  advocacy  of  Catholic  emanci- 
pation, he  was  defeated  in  the  parliamentary 
election  in  the  county  of  Huntingdon,  but  was 
chosen  for  Bandon  in  Ireland.  In  1828  he 
carried  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  corporation 
acts  through  parliament,  and  in  1829  voted 
for  the  successful  Catholic  emancipation  act. 
In  the  Grey  ministry,  formed  in  November, 
1830,  Lord  John  was  paymaster  of  the  forces, 
and  took  the  lead  in  the  house  of  commons 
in  support  of  the  reform  bill,  which  he  in- 
troduced in  March,  1831.  The  bill,  with  some 
changes,  was  carried,  and  Lord  John  was  cho- 
sen member  for  South  Devon  in  1832.  He 
went  out  with  the  Melbourne  ministry  in 
1834;  but  in  1835  he  returned  to  office,  being 
then  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the  home 
department,  which  place  he  held  till  1839, 
when  he  became  secretary  of  state  for  war 
and  the  colonies.  During  the  six  years  that 
followed  Lord  Melbourne's  restoration  to  pow- 
er, Lord  John  Russell  was  really  the  chief 
member  of  the  ministry ;  and  he  vigorously 
carried  various  reform  measures,  though  the 
whigs  had  not  a  constant  majority  in  the  com- 
mons, and  there  was  a  majority  against  them 
in  the  house  of  peers.  He  ceased  to  be  minis- 
ter on  Aug.  30,  1841,  when  the  second  Peel 
ministry  succeeded  to  that  of  Melbourne.  For 
five  years  he  was  chief  of  the  opposition,  but 
in  1846,  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  tory  party, 
he  became  prime  minister,  holding  the  office 
of  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  In  1852  he  was 
defeated  on  the  militia  question  and  resigned ; 
but  when  the  Aberdeen  ministry  was  formed, 
at  the  close  of  the  year,  he  became  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  which  office  he 
soon  exchanged  for  that  of  lord  president  of 
the  council.  He  left  the  Aberdeen  ministry 
in  January,  1855,  and  shortly  afterward  took 


the  office  of  colonial  secretary  in  the  Palmers- 
ton  ministry.  He  was. sent  as  British  plenipo- 
tentiary to  take  part  in  the  Vienna  conference, 
which  was  intended  to  put  an  end  to  the  Cri- 
mean" war ;  but  his  conduct  not  being  ap- 
proved by  the  English  public,  he  withdrew 
from  the  cabinet,  July  16.  In  1859  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs. 
In  July,  1861,  he  was  elevated  to  the  house  of 
peers  with  the  title  of  Earl  Russell  of  Kings- 
ton-Russell. The  unfriendly  tone  assumed 
toward  the  United  States  in  the  Trent  affair, 
the  short  participation  of  England  in  the  Mexi- 
can expedition,  the  interference  by  a  note 
addressed  to  Russia  in  favor  of  Poland  in 
1863,  and  a  friendly  attitude  toward  Denmark 
during  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  are  among 
the  salient  features  of  his  management  of  for- 
eign affairs  during  this  period.  After  the  death 
of  Lord  Palmerston  in  1865,  Earl  Russell  for 
the  second  time  became  prime  minister,  with 
Mr.  Gladstone  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ; 
but  differences  arising  between  the  leaders  of 
the  liberal  party  on  the  subject  of  reform  led 
to  a  vote  in  parliament  hostile  to  the  ministry, 
which  resigned  in  June,  1866.  Since  that  time 
Earl  Russell  has  been  an  unofficial  supporter 
of  liberal  measures  in  the  house  of  lords.  In 
1869  he  introduced  a  bill  authorizing  the  con- 
ferring of  life  peerages,  and  in  1670  moved 
for  a  commission  on  the  relation  between  the 
mother  country  and  the  colonies.  He  has 
published  a  "Life  of  William  Lord  Russell" 
(1819);  "Don  Carlos,  a  Drama"  (1822);  "Es- 
say on  the  History  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment and  Constitution  "  (1823 ;  new  ed.,  1865) ; 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Affairs  of  Europe  from  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht"  (2  vols.  4to,  1824-'9  ;  vol.  i. 
republished  as  "  History  of  the  principal  States 
of  Europe,  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,"  2  vols. 
8vo,  1826) ;  "  Establishment  of  the  Turks  in 
Europe  "  (1828) ;  "  Causes  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution" (1832);  "Correspondence  of  John, 
fourth  Duke  of  Bedford,  with  an  Introduction  " 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1842-'6);  "Memorials  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Charles  James  Fox "  (4  vols., 
1853-'7);  "Life  and  Times  of  Charles  James 
Fox"  (3  vols.,  1859-'66);  "Memoirs,  Journal, 
and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Moore"  (8 
vols.,  1852-'6);  "Selections  from  the  Speeches 
of  Earl  Russell,  1817  to  1841,  and  from  Des- 
patches, 1859  to  1865,  with  Introductions" 
(2  vols.,  1870);  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Christian  Religion  in  the  West  of  Europe" 
(1873);  and  "Recollections  and  Suggestions, 
1813-'73"  (1875).  He  has  been  twice  mar- 
ried :  in  1835  to  Adelaide,  widow  of  Lord  Rib- 
blesdale,  and  in  1841  to  Lady  Frances  Anna 
Maria,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Minto. 

RUSSELL,  John  Sfott,  a  British  engineer,  born 
in  the  vale  of  Clyde,  Scotland,  in  1808.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Glasgow  in 
1824,  and  was  employed  as  an  engineer  till 
1832,  when  he  became  lecturer  on  natural 
philosophy  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  claimed  to  be  the  discoverer  of  the  "  wave 


RUSSELL 


principle"  in  the  construction  of  ships,  and 
Brunei  adopted  it  in  the  Great  Western  and 
in  the  monster  ship  Great  Eastern,  the  latter 
constructed  under  Mr.  Russell's  superinten- 
dence; and  he  read  in  1857  a  paper  before  the 
British  association  on  the  "  Mechanical  Struc- 
ture of  the  Great  Ship."  After  being  manager 
of  a  ship-building  yard  in  Greenock  for  several 
years,  he  settled  in  London  in  1844,  where 
he  has  been  extensively  engaged  in  building 
large  steamers.  His  principal  works  include 
"  The  Modern  System  of  Naval  Architecture 
for  Commerce  and  War  "  (London,  1864),  and 
"  Systematic  and  Technical  Education  for  the 
English  People"  (1869).  He  has  also  been 
engaged  in  efforts  f6r  the  improvement  of  the 
working  classes. 

RUSSELL,  William,  lord,  an  English  states- 
man, second  son  of  William,  fifth  earl  of  Bed- 
ford, born  Sept.  29,  1039,  beheaded  July  21, 
H583.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  travelled  on 
the  continent,  and  was  elected  to  parliament 
for  Tavistock  in  1660,  but  for  the  next  12 
years  was  a  silent  and  inactive  member.  In 
1669  he  married  Lady  Vaughan,  a  widow,  and 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Southampton,  first  lord 
treasurer  to  Charles  II.  In  1673  he  ranged 
himself  with  the  Protestant  or  "country  par- 
ty," of  which  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  till 
his  death,  coming  forward  in  opposition  to 
the  attempts  of  the  king  and  his  partisans  to 
destroy  English  freedom  through  the  aid  of 
Franco.  On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  at 
the  beginning  of  1678,  he  became  Lord  Russell, 
and  heir  apparent  to  the  earldom  of  Bedford. 
On  March  14  of  that  year  he  seconded  the  mo- 
tion to  declare  war  against  France,  and  spoke 
in  support  of  it.  In  November  ho  was  cho- 
sen to  move  in  the  house  of  commons  that  the 
duke  of  York  should  bo  removed  from  the 
king's  presence  and  councils.  He  was  one  of 
the  chief  actors  in  the  impeachment  of  the  lord 
treasurer  Danby,  but  afterward  admitted  that 
he  was  mistaken  in  the  part  he  took  against 
that  statesman.  When  the  new  council  pro- 
posed by  Sir  William  Temple  was  formed,  Lord 
Russell  was  appointed  one  of  the  80  members. 
He  was  not  at  first  in  favor  of  excluding  the 
duke  of  York  from  the  succession,  but  finally 
supported  the  measure.  He  left  the  council  at 
the  beginning  of  1680.  On  Oct.  26  he  spoke 
in  favor  of  measures  against  "  popery,  and  to 
prevent  a  popish  successor  "  to  the  crown ;  and 
a  week  later  he  seconded  Col.  Titus's  motion 
to  disable  the  duke  of  York  from  becoming 
king  of  England.  His  influence  in  the  house 
of  commons  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  pas- 
sage of  the  exclusion  bill  through  that  body ; 
but  it  was  thrown  out  by  the  peers.  When 
tho  reaction  against  the  whigs  took  place,  the 
government  of  Charles  II.  resolved  to  destroy 
their  leaders,  proceeding  to  do  so  according 
to  the  forms  of  law.  Lord  Russell  knew  that 
his  life  was  in  danger,  but  he  would  not  fly. 
He  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  being  con- 
cerned in  the  Rye  House  plot,  said  to  have  been 


formed  by  Rumbold  and  others,  for  an  attack 
on  the  king  and  the  duke  of  York.  When  he 
was  taken  before  the  council,  the  king  told 
him  that  nobody  suspected  him  of  any  design 
against  his  person,  but  that  he  had  good  evi- 
dence of  his  being  in  designs  against  his  gov- 
ernment. After  the  examination  was  over, 
Lord  Russell  was  committed  to  the  tower. 
From  that  moment  he  began  to  prepare  for 
death,  as  if  he  were  already  under  sentence. 
The  trial  took  place  at  the  Old  Bailey,  July  18, 
1683.  The  charge  was  "for  conspiring  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  consulting  and  agreeing 
to  stir  up  insurrection;  and  to  that  end  to 
seize  the  guards  [appointed]  for  the  preserva- 
tion _of  the  king's  person."  The  case  for  the 
government  was  conducted  by  Sir  Robert  Saw- 
yer, attorney  general,  Heneage  Finch,  solicitor 
general,  and  Jeffreys.  No  counsel  was  then 
allowed  to  the  accused,  except  on  points  of 
law,  but  Lady  Russell  was  permitted  to  assist 
her  husband  in  writing,  "  to  help  his  memory." 
The  jury  was  formed  in  violation  of  law,  and 
it  is  certain  that  he  was  not  guilty  of  the  crime 
of  which  he  was  accused  according  to  a  proper 
construction  of  the  act  of  25  Edward  III. ;  so 
that  the  act  of  1  William  und  Mary,  reversing 
his  attainder,  declared  that  ho  "  was,  by  undue 
and  illegal  return  of  jurors,  having  been  re- 
fused his  lawful  challenge  to  tho  said  jurors 
for  want  of  freehold,  and  by  partial  and  unjust 
constructions  of  law,  wrongfully  convicted, 
attainted,  and  executed  for  high  treason." 
The  extent  of  Lord  Russell's  error  was,  that 
he  had  engaged  in  "some  discourses  about 
making  some  stirs,"  such  as  were  common 
enough  with  the  whigs  after  it  had  become  evi- 
dent that  the  king  had  resolved  to  govern  con- 
trary to  law;  this  was  all  that  was  sworn 
against  him,  and  this  was  not  treason.  Lord 
Russell  made  a  short  but  strong  speech  to  the 
court  and  jury ;  but  the  former  charged  against 
him,  and  the  latter  found  him  guilty.  When 
brought  up  to  receive  sentence,  on  July  14, 
Lord  Russell  pointed  out  that  judgment  ought 
not  to  pass  upon  him  for  conspiring  the  death 
of  the  king,  of  which  there  was  no  proof  by 
any  one  witness,  all  the  witnesses  having  sworn 
a  conspiracy  to  levy  war,  but  no  intention  of 
killing  the  king.  He  was  answered  that  it 
was  an  exception  proper  to  be  made  before  the 
verdict,  but  that  the  court  was  now  bound  by 
the  verdict,  as  well  as  the  prisoner ;  and  sen- 
tence of  death  was  passed  upon  him.  Great 
efforts  were  made  to  save  his  life,  but  the  king 
seems  to  have  been  impressed  with  the  belief 
that  he  could  not  with  safety  to  his  own  life 
spare  that  of  Lord  Russell.  To  please  his 
friends,  and  because  of  his  wife's  distress, 
Russell  petitioned  the  king  and  the  duke  of 
York  to  spare  him,  on  condition  of  his  living 
abroad,  and  taking  no  part  in  English  affairs ; 
but  he  never  supposed  his  petition  would  be 
favorably  received.  He  was  attended  by  Bur- 
net  and  Tillotson,  but  could  not  be  brought  to 
subscribe  to  their  servile  doctrine  on  the  right 


BTTSSELL 

of  resistance  to  tyranny.  Some  of  his  obser- 
vations during  the  few  days  that  passed  be- 
tween his  sentence  and  execution  show  much 
pleasant  humor,  and  others  great  depth  of 
thought  and  eloquence.  He  refused  to  accept 
of  a  plan  formed  for  his  escape.  At  the  scaf- 
fold he  gave  a  paper  to  the  sheriff  that  em- 
bodied his  sentiments.  His  fellow  victim,  Al- 
gernon Sidney,  was  executed  before  the  close 
of  the  year.  Russell's  attainder  was  reversed 
immediately  after  the  revolution,  and  his  fa- 
ther was  created  duke  of  Bedford  in  1694, 
the  patent  stating,  among  the  reasons  for  con- 
ferring the  honor,  "  that  this  was  not  the  least, 
that  he  was  the  father  to  Lord  Russell,  the 
ornament  of  his  age,"  &c. — His  wife,  Lady 
Rachel  Russell,  survived  him  40  years,  dying 
Sept.  29,  1723,  at  the  age  of  87.  Her'  "Let- 
ters," edited  by  Miss  Berry,  were  published  in 
1819.  A  more  perfect  edition,  edited  by  Lord 
John  Russell,  appeared  in  1854,  who  has  also 
written  "  The  Life  of  William  Lord  Russell, 
with  some  Account  of  the  Times  in  which  he 
lived"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1819). 

RUSSELL,  William,  a  Scottish  historian,  born 
in  Selkirkshire  in  1741,  died  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Dec.  25,  1793.  He  was  apprenticed  for  five 
years  to  a  bookseller  and  printer  of  Edinburgh, 
and  on  the  completion  of  his  term  published  a 
"  Select  Collection  of  Modern  Poems."  In 
1767  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed as  corrector  of  the  press  for  Strachan 
the  publisher.  From  1787  he  lived  on  a  farm 
in  Dumfriesshire.  His  principal  works  are: 
"  History  of  America  "  (2  vols.  4to,  1779 ;  new 
ed.,  with  additions  by  Charles  Coote,  1815) ; 
"History  of  Modern  Europe"  (4  vols.  8vo, 
!779-'84;  5  vols.,  1786),  continued  by  Coote 
and  others  in  various  editions  to  1856  (4  vols., 
1857;  and  "History  of  Ancient  Europe,  with 
a  View  of  the  Revolutions  in  Asia  and  Africa  " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1793;  new  ed.  by  Coote,  1815). 
He  left  an  unfinished  "  History  of  England 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Reign  of  George  III." 

RUSSELL,  William  Howard,  a  British  journal- 
ist, born  at  Lily  Vale,  county  Dublin,  Ireland, 
March  28,  1821.  While  a  student  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  he  was  employed  to  report 
Irish  elections  for  the  London  "Times."  In 
1842  he  went  to  London,  and  in  1843-'5  was 
engaged  as  one  of  the  chief  reporters  for  the 
"Times."  He  entered  the  Middle  Temple  in 
1846,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1850,  but 
renewed  his  connection  with  the  "  Times." 
In  1854-'5  he  corresponded  with  that  journal 
from  the  Crimea,  and  witnessed  and  reported 
all  the  important  engagements.  In  1857-'8  he 
was  in  India  to  report  the  progress  of  the  mu- 
tiny and  revolt.  He  shortly  after  established 
the  "Army  and  Navy  Gazette,"  of  which  he 
is  still  (1875)  editor  and  principal  proprietor. 
In  1861-'2  he  was  in  the  United  States  as  a 
war  correspondent  of  the  "  Times,"  and  trav- 
elled in  Canada.  In  1865  he  was  in  the  un- 
successful expedition  of  the  Great  Eastern  to 
lay  an  Atlantic  cable.  In  the  Austro-Prussian 


RUSSIA 


477 


war  of  1866  he  wrote  letters  to  the  "Times" 
from  the  Austrian  headquarters,  and  during 
the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-'71  from  the 
headquarters  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia. 
He-has  published  a  "  History  of  the  Crimean 
War"  (2  vols.  12mo,  1855-'6;  enlarged  ed., 
1857);  "Rifle  Clubs  and  Volunteer  Corps" 
(1859);  "My  Diary  in  India"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1860) ;  "  My  Diary  North  and  South  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1862);  "Memorials  of  the  Marriage  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales"  (fol.,  1864);  "Review 
of  Todleben's  History  of  the  Defence  of  Sebas- 
topol "  (8vo,  1864)  ;  "  Canada,  its  Defences, 
Condition,  and  Resources  "(1865);  "The  Great 
Eastern  and  the  Atlantic  Cable  "  (1865) ;  "  Ad- 
ventures of  Dr.  Brady,"  a  novel  (3  vols.,  1868)  ; 
"  Diary  in  the  East :  Tour  of  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Wales"  (1869);  "My  Diary  du- 
ring the  last  Great  War"  (1873);  and  some 
minor  works  collected  from  his  contributions 
to  periodicals. 

RUSSIA  (Russ.  Rossiya),  the  largest  connect- 
ed empire  of  the  world,  extending,  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  from  Int.  38°  20'  to  about  77°  30'  N., 
and  from  Ion.  17°  38'  E.  to  about  170°  W.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  E.  by  the  Pa- 
cific, S.  by  the  Chinese  empire,  Independent Tur- 
kistan,  Persia,  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  Black 
sea,  and  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Roumania,  Austria, 
Prussia,  the  Baltic  sea,  and  Sweden.  Its  great- 
est length  from  W.  to  E.  is  about  6,000  m. ;  its 
greatest  breadth  (exclusive  of  islands)  about 
2,300  m.  Its  total  surface  is  estimated  to 
comprise  one  twenty-sixth  of  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  and  to  represent  one  sixth 
of  its  firm  land.  THe  natural  geographical  ad- 
vantages of  Russia  are  very  great.  The  first 
trade  with  England  began  at  the  port  of  Arch- 
angel on  the  White  sea.  Now  the  maritime 
trade  of  the  empire  has  its  chief  emporiums 
on  the  Baltic,  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and 
the  inlets  of  the  northern  Pacific.  The  N. 
coast  is  deeply  penetrated  by  large  arms  of  the 
Arctic  ocean,  forming  gulfs,  of  which  those 
of  Obi  and  Kara,  on  the  border  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  on  the  N.  W.  the  White  sea,  are 
the  most  important. — The  rivers  of  Russia  are 
numerous  and  remarkable  for  their  magnitude. 
Those  of  European  Russia  (to  which  alone  we 
mainly  restrict  the  descriptive  portions  of  this 
article,  referring  the  reader  for  Asiatic  Russia 
to  the  articles  CAUCASUS,  SIBERIA,  and  TURKIS- 
TAN)  belong  to  the  four  great  basins  of  the 
Arctic  ocean,  the  Baltic,  the  Black  sea,  and  the 
Caspian  sea.  The  great  watershed  is  formed 
by  a  broad  central  ridge,  commencing  on  the 
frontiers  of  Poland,  stretching  across  the  em- 
pire in  an  irregular  waving  line,  and  termi- 
nating on  the  W.  side  of  the  Ural  mountains. 
The  waters  N.  of  this  shed  fall  into  the  Arctic 
ocean  and  the  Baltic  sea,  those  S.  of  it  into 
the  Black  or  the  Caspian.  The  Arctic  ocean 
receives  directly  the  Petchora,  which  rises  in 
the  Ural  mountains,  traverses  the  most  desert- 
ed parts  of  Russia,  receives  several  tributaries, 
and  discharges  by  a  wide  estuary,  remarkable 


478 


RUSSIA 


for  the  number  of  its  islands.  Through  the 
White  sea,  the  Arctic  ocean  receives  the  Me- 
zen,  the  Dwina,  and  the  Onega.  On  the  de- 
clivity of  the  Baltic  are  the  Tornea  and  the 
Kerai,  which  fall  into  the  gulf  of  Bothnia; 
the  Neva  and  the  Narva,  which  fall  into  the 
gulf  of  Finland ;  the  Duna  and  the  Aa,  which 
flow  into  the  gulf  of  Riga;  and  the  Niemen, 
which  rises  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  and 
before  terminating  its  course  enters  Prussia 
under  the  name  of  the  Memel.  The  Vistula, 
whose  source  and  mouth  belong  to  Austria 
and  Prussia  respectively,  traverses  Poland,  and 
receives  several  tributaries,  among  which  the 
Bug,  rising  in  Galicia,  Austria,  is  most  impor- 
tant. To  the  basin  .of  the  Black  sea  belong 
the  Pruth  and  the  Dniester,  both  rising  in  Ga- 
licia; the  Bog,  rising  in  Podolia;  the  Dnieper, 
which  rises  in  the  government  of  Smolensk, 
receives  a  considerable  number  of  affluents, 
among  them  the  Beresina,  and  falls  into  the 
Black  sea  near  Kherson  ;  the  Don,  originating 
in  the  government  of  Tula,  intersecting  the 
Cossack  country,  and  discharging  into  the  sea 
of  Azov;  and  the  Kuban,  which  descends  from 
the  Caucasus,  forms  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Asia  and  Europe,  and  near  its  mouth 
separates  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  falls 
into  the  sea  of  Azov  and  the  other  into  the 
Black  sea.  The  basin  of  the  Caspian  sea  re- 
ceives the  Volga,  the  largest  river  of  Europe, 
which  rises  in  the  government  of  Tver  and  dis- 
charges into  the  Caspian  near  Astrakhan,  and 
the  Ural,  which  descends  from  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  the  mountains,  traces  out  for  some 
distance  the  frontier  of  Europe,  and  falls  into 
the  Caspian  near  Guriev.  Most  of  the  lakes 
of  European  Russia  belong  to  the  northern 
basins,  as  Lake  Ladoga,  the  largest  lake  of 
Europe,  and  Lakes  Onega,  Peipus,  and  Ilmen. 
The  government  of  Olonetz  alone  contains 
hundreds  of  smull  lakes,  and  a  still  larger  num- 
ber is  found  in  Finland. — European  Russia  in 
general  forms  part  of  an  immense  plain,  be- 
ginning in  Holland,  and  extending  over  the 
north  of  Germany  and  the  whole  east  of  Eu- 
rope. Only  occasionally  small  table  lands  oc- 
cur, as  the  Valdai  hills  in  the  governments 
of  Novgorod  and  Tver,  the  loftiest  summit  of 
which  is  about  1,150  ft.  high.  To  the  north- 
west some  branches  of  the  Scandinavian  moun- 
tains enter  the  Russian  territory.  In  the  south- 
west the  Carpathian  mountains  send  forth  slight 
ramifications.  To  the  south,  in  the  peninsula 
of  the  Crimea,  is  the  insulated  chain  of  the 
Yaila  mountains,  which  in  one  place  attain 
an  elevation  of  about  5,000  ft.  To  the  east 
the  Ural  mountains,  and  to  the  southeast 
the  Caucasus,  form  in  great  part  the  natu- 
ral frontier  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
plains  are  here  and  there  covered  with  swamps, 
more  frequently  with  forests;  while  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  empire  they  consist  of 
dry  and  woodless  tracts  called  steppes.  The 
steppe  region  extends  from  the  river  Pruth, 
across  the  lower  watercourses  of  the  Dniester, 


Bog,  Dnieper,  and  Don,  as  far  as  the  Volga 
and  Caspian  sea.  It  is  only  in  the  western 
and  middle  parts  of  this  region  that  rich  mead- 
ow land  is  met  with ;  the  rest  is  poorly  wa- 
tered, thinly  populated,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  occasional  fertility  of  the  soil,  but  little 
favorable  to  agriculture.  What  the  steppes 
are  to  the  south  and  east  of  Russia,  the  tun- 
dras in  the  governments  of  Olonetz  and  Arch- 
angel, mostly  toward  the  shores  of  the  Arc- 
tic ocean,  are  to  the  north.  They  are  tree- 
less wastes,  bearing  a  scanty  vegetation  of  low 
shrubs  on  a  moss  or  turf  surface. — The  geo- 
logical structure  of  European  Russia  is  char- 
acterized by  vastness  and  simplicity.  Single 
formations  are  found  to  extend  over  entire 
provinces.  In  the  northern  part  the  granite 
and  the  Permian  formation,  composed  of  grits, 
marls,  conglomerates,  and  limestones,  prevail ; 
Esthonia  and  Ingria  (government  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg) present  the  Silurian  formation,  rest- 
ing on  schistose  rocks.  Along  the  chain  of 
the  Ural  mountains,  besides  the  eruptive  for- 
mations of  the  most  ancient  period,  the  Silu- 
rian group  prevails.  Lithuania  and  Poland 
belong  almost  wholly  to  the  tertiary  group ; 
they  also  contain  cretaceous  rocks.  The  south- 
ern portion  of  European  Russia  belongs  to 
the  tertiary  and  granitic  groups.  The  south- 
ern coast  of  the  Crimea  is  of  Jurassic  forma- 
tion. In  the  Caucasian  countries  cretaceous 
and  Jurassic  rocks  prevail,  mixed  with  gran- 
ite.— The  quality  of  the  soil  differs  very  great- 
ly in  the  different  provinces.  Some  consist 
mostly  of  sandy  barren  plains  or  vast  morass- 
es. The  most  valuable  portion  of  the  empire 
is  that  south  of  the  Valdai  hills  and  of  Mos- 
cow, extending  on  the  east  to  the  Volga,  and 
including  the  country  of  the  Don  almost  as  far 
as  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  on  the  west  to  the 
frontier  of  Galicia.  All  this  region  is  rich 
wheat  land,  exporting  wheat  to  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope, through  Odessa,  Nikolayev,  Taganrog, 
and  Kertch. — Almost  the  whole  of  European 
and  three  fourths  of  Asiatic  Russia  lie  within 
the  temperate  zone.  The  southern  border  of 
the  empire  approaches  to  within  15°  of  the 
tropic  zone,  while  the  northern  border  extends 
11°  beyond  the  arctic  circle.  In  general  the 
climate  is  severe.  The  mean  temperature  of 
winter  passes  the  freezing  point  even  in  the 
most  southern  districts.  South  of  lat.  58°  the 
mean  temperature  is  between  40°  and  55°  F. ; 
the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  and  the  sum- 
mers short  and  hot.  With  lat.  58°  the  cold 
region  begins,  and  with  lat.  65°  the  arctic  re- 
gion. At  St.  Petersburg,  which  is  within  the 
former  space,  the  thermometer  in  December 
and  January  sinks  to  20°  or  30°  below  zero, 
and  exceptionally  much  lower,  while  in  the 
summer  it  rises  to  85°  or  90°.  Among  the 
most  common  atmospheric  phenomena,  in  the 
steppes  as  well  as  in  the  northern  provinces 
and  in  Siberia,  is  the  luran,  a  vehement  wind 
accompanied  by  heavy  falls  of  snow.  The 
central  part  is  also  subject  to  violent  snow 


RUSSIA 


479 


storms,  called  viuga.  In  general,  the  climate 
is  healthy. — The  official  census  in  Russia  is 
taken  once  in  nine  years,  and  the  last  was  in 
1867.  More  recent  estimates  of  the  popula- 
tion of  portions  of  the  Russian  possessions 
have  been  made  for  1870,  1871,  and  1872,  and 
printed  in  the  St.  Petersburg  "  Calendar " 
(1875)  and  other  publications.  The  following 
tables  of  areas  and  population  are  from  Behm 
and  Wagner's  Bewlkerung  der  Erde,  annexed 
to  Petermann's  Geographische  Mittheilungen 
for  1875.  The  areas  are  Strelbitzki's  recent 
calculations  approved  by  the  government  and 
dated  1875.  They  include  the  newly  acquired 
Transcaspian  province  and  the  Amoo  Darya 
district  organized  in  1874,  with  the  areas  and 
population  of  that  year.  The  populations  here 
given  in  Russia  proper,  Poland,  Siberia,  and 
Central  Asia  are  for  1870;  in  the  Caucasus  for 
1871 ;  and  in  Finland  for  1872.  The  Russian 
empire  is  divided  into  governments  (and  a  few 
divisions  differently  designated),  the  area  (in- 
cluding inland  waters)  and  population  of  each 
of  which  are  estimated  as  follows : 


GOVERNMENTS. 

Area  in  tq.  m. 

Population. 

KCSSIA   PROPER. 

1  .  Archangel  

831,503 

281,112 

2.  Astrakhan  

86  6(18 

601,514 

8.  Bessarabia  

14,046 

1,078  982 

4.  Courland  

10,587 

619,154 

6.  Don  Cossack  territory  

61,911 

1,086.264 

6.  Esthonia  

7,818 

823,961 

7.  Grodno  

14,965 

1,008,521 

8.  Kaluga  

11  988 

996  252 

9.  Kazan  

24,600 

1,704,624 

10.  Kharkov  

21  040 

1  698  015 

11.  Kherson  

27,522 

1,596,809 

12.  Kiev  

19,686 

2,175,132 

18.  Kostroma  

82,700 

1  176  097 

14.  Kovno  

15,692 

1,156,041 

15.  Kursk  

17,936 

1,954,807 

16.  Livonia  

18158 

1  000  876 

17.  Minsk  

85,272 

1.182  230 

18.  Mohilev  

18,550 

947,625 

19.  Moscow  

12  857 

1  772  624 

20,  Kizhegorod  

19,795 

1,271,564 

21.  Novgorod  

47,284 

1,011,445 

22.  Olonetz  

67,480 

296  392 

28.  Orel  

18,040 

1.596,881 

24.  Orenburg  

78,885 

900,547 

25.  Penza  

14,996 

1,178  186 

26.  Perm  

128246 

2  19S  666 

27.  Podolia  

16222 

1  933  1S8 

28.  Poltava  

1»,2G4 

2,102,614 

29.  Pskov  

17068 

775  701 

80.  Riazan  

16253 

1  477  488 

81.  St.  Petersburg  

20,760 

1825471 

82.  Samara  

60197 

1  837  081 

83.  Saratov  

82,622 

1  751  268 

84.  Simbirsk  

19108 

1  205  881 

85.  Smolensk  

21  687 

1  140  015 

86.  Tambov  

25,688 

2,150  971 

87.  Taurida  

24537 

704997 

88.  Tchernigov  

20  231 

1  659  600 

89.  Tula  

11  955 

1  167878 

40.  Tver  

25  228 

1  528  881 

41.  Ufa  !  

47081 

1  864  925 

42.  Viatka  

69  114 

2  406  024 

43.  Vitebsk  

17488 

888727 

44.  Vladimir  

18862 

1  259  928 

45.  Volhynia  

27788 

1  704,018 

46.  Vologda  

155  498 

1,008,089 

47.  Voronezh  

25,487 

2,152,696 

48.  Wilna  

16411 

1,001,909 

49.  Yaroslav  

18,750 

1,000,748 

50.  Yekaterinoslav  

26146 

1,352,300 

Total  Russia  proper  (inclu-  ) 
ding  inland  waters)  | 

1,881,216 

65,704,559 

GOVERNMENTS. 

Are*  in  «q.  m. 

Population. 

POLAND. 

1.  Kalisz  

4392 

669  261 

2.  Kielce  

8  8U7 

518  780 

8.  Lomza  

4,667 

48')  699 

4.  Lublin  

6501 

5.  Piotrk6w... 

4,729 

gs2  496 

6.  Plock  

4,200 

7.  Radom  

4,769 

8.  Siedlce  

6684 

604  606 

9.  Suwalki  

4,646 

524  489 

10.  Warsaw  

6622 

'J'2  ri  *  WJ 

Total  Poland  

49157 

6  026  421 

Total  Russia  in  Europe  with  | 
Poland  ) 

1,944,615 

71,780,980 

FINLAND. 

1.  Abo-Bjorneborg  

9882 

806381 

2.  Kuopio  

16498 

226  180 

8.  Nyland  

45S4 

178  141 

4.  St.  Michael  

8819 

159848 

5.  Tavastehuus  

8824 

198  477 

6.  Uleaborg  

68965 

186  890 

7.  Vasa  

16  146 

810  937 

8.  Viborg  

16611 

276884 

Total  Finland  

144,269 

1  832  188 

THE  CAUCASUS. 

1.  Stavropol  

26684 

487118 

2.  Kuban  

87169 

672  224 

8.  Terek  

282C8 

485  287 

4.  Daphestan  

11  520 

449  299 

5.  Zakatal  

1  620 

66802 

6.  Tiflis  

15614 

606584 

7.  Baku  

16151 

eis'seo 

8.  Elisabethpol  

17117 

629  412 

9.  Erivan  

10663 

462001 

10.  Kutais  

7,995 

605691 

11.  Sukhum  

8882 

70701 

12.  Tchernoinore  

2749 

15708 

Total  Caucasus    

172887 

4  893  882 

SIBERIA. 

1.  Littoral  province  (Pacific)  
2.  Amoor  

781,917 
178.554 

45,000 
44,400 

8.  Transbaikal  

240,772 

480780 

4.  Irkutsk  

809,180 

878244 

5.  Yakutsk  

1,517,077 

281,977 

6.  Yeniseisk  

992888 

872  862 

7.  Tomsk  

829  027 

888756 

8.  Tobolsk  

581,964 

1,086,848 

Total  Siberia  

4  826  829 

8,428,867 

CENTRAL   ASIA. 

Kirghiz  Territories. 
1.  A  kinolinsk  

210,558 

881,900 

2   Semlpolatinsk  

188298 

610,168 

8.  Turgai  

202,186 

289,980 

4    Uralsk  

141  469 

846.715 

5   Transcaspian  province  

126,282 

275,000 

Turkistan. 
1  .  Semirietchensk  

155,292 

648,094 

2.  K  ul.ja  

27,496 

114,887 

8    Sir  Darya  

165,998 

848,489 

4.  Zerafshan  

19,666 

271.000 

89,957 

2-20,000 

Total  Central  Asia... 

1.277,196 

8,800,628 

RECAPITULATION. 


Russia  in  Europe 

Poland,  Kingdom  of 

Finland,  Grand  Duchy  of. . 

The  Caucasus 

Siberia 

Central  Asia 


Grand  total    8,851,004 


1.881,216 

49,157 

144,269 

172,887 

4,826,829 

1,277,196 


65,704,559 
6,026,421 
1.682,188 
4.898,882 
8,428,867 
8,800,628 


85,685,945 


715 


VOL.   XIV. — 31 


Russia  proper  is  divided  by  geographers  into 
Great  Russia,  embracing  the  central  and  north- 
ern governments  (the  latter  also  designated 


480 


RUSSIA 


North  Russia)  from  Kursk  and  Voronezh  to 
Archangel,  and -including  what  was  formerly 
known  as  Muscovy,  from  its  centre  Moscow ; 
Little  Russia,  or  Ukraine  (Kiev,  Tchernigov, 
Poltava,  and  Kharkov) ;  South  Russia  or  New 
Russia,  comprising  Bessarabia,  Kherson,  Tau- 
rida,  Yekaterinoslav,  and  the  territory  of  the 
Don  Cossacks ;  West  Russia,  comprising  Lithu- 
ania, Volhynia,  Podolia  (part  of  Red  Russia, 
the  bulk  of  which  is  in  Galicia),  Vitebsk  and 
Mohilev  (White  Russia),  and  Minsk  (Black  Rus- 
sia); the  Baltic  provinces,  comprising  Cour- 
land,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  and  St.  Petersburg 
(Ingria);  the  Volga  provinces;  and  the  Ural 
provinces.  The  census  of  Russia  for  1722  gave 
14,000,000  inhabitants;  that  of  1815,  45,000,- 
000;  that  of  1835,  55,000,000;  and  that  of 
1851,  65,200,000.  But  the  data  of  the  censuses 
of  former  times  were  very  imperfect,  and  con- 
quests have  greatly  swollen  the  total  of  nearly 
every  census  since  1722.  For  the  years  1860 
to  1865  the  number  of  births  was  on  an  aver- 
age a  little  above  3,000,000  a  year,  the  num- 
ber of  deaths  about  2,000,000,  and  the  average 
yearly  increase  of  the  population  was  estima- 
ted at  H  Per  cent.  The  number  of  illegitimate 
births  is  given  at  90,000  a  year,  and  the  excess 
of  females  over  males  in  the  population  is  esti- 
mated at  750,000.  In  European  Russia  the 
average  density  is  about  35  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile ;  in  Asiatic  Russia  the  average  does 
not  reach  2  to  the  square  mile.  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  the  present  and  former  capitals 
of  the  empire  (the  latter,  however,  still  ranking 
as  capital  for  some  purposes),  have  respective- 
ly 667,026  (1869)  and  611,970  (1871)  inhabi- 
tants. Only  four  other  cities  have  more  than 
100,000,  viz. :  Warsaw,  279,502  (1873) ;  Odessa, 
162,814(1873);  Kishenev,  103,998  (1867);  and 
Riga,  102,048  (1867).  Of  the  other  cities  and 
towns,  8  number  from  50,000  to  100,000.— Al- 
though many  portions  of  the  empire  in  point 
of  productiveness  compare  favorably  with  the 
most  fruitful  countries  in  Europe,  agriculture 
is  generally  still  at  a  low  stage ;  the  govern- 
ment and  proprietors  of  large  estates,  how- 
ever, have  of  late  done  much  to  improve  it, 
and  agricultural  machines  are  largely  imported 
from  the  United  States.  The  wealth  of  the 
landed  proprietor  formerly  consisted  less  in 
the  extent  of  his  land  than  in  the  number  of 
serfs  attached  to  it.  The  best  cultivated  land 
is  to  be  found  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Baltic  provinces,  in  the  governments  near  Mos- 
cow, and  in  Poland ;  but  even  in  these  most 
favored  provinces  there  are  many  uncultiva- 
ted tracts  of  land.  According  to  Lengenfeldt 
(Rustland  im  neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  Ber- 
lin, 1875),  in  European  Russia,  20'3  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  surface  is  arable  land,  11*8  mea- 
dows, 40 -5  forests,  and  27'4  pastures  and  un- 
cultivated land.  The  arable  land  amounts  to 
20'9  per  cent,  in  Russia  proper,  50  in  Poland, 
and  only  1*2  in  Finland.  The  forests  cover 
40'3  per  cent,  in  Russia  proper,  25-20  in  Po- 
land, and  53'3  in  Finland.  The  forests  for- 


merly constituted  an  inexhaustible  source  of 
riches,  but  from  reckless  administration  they 
now  produce  comparatively  little.  The  old 
three-field  system  of  husbandry,  by  which  one 
third  of  the  land  is  always  in  fallow,  is  still  in 
general  use ;  and  in  Great  and  Little  Russia, 
owing  to  the  depth  of  the  soil,  no  manure  is 
necessary.  All  the  cereals  are  produced  in 
such  abundance  as  to  leave  a  large  surplus  for 
export.  Maize  is  chiefly  grown  in  the  coun- 
tries about  the  Black  sea ;  flax,  hemp,  and  hops 
are  of  excellent  quality;  the  potato  is  grown 
in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  The  cultivation  of 
the  beet  root  has  been  greatly  advanced,  and  a 
large  number  of  sugar  houses  are  already  sup- 
plied by  it.  The  culture  of  the  vine  in  the 
Crimea,  Bessarabia,  and  other  southern  prov- 
inces furnishes  an  average  of  54,000,000  gal- 
lons, valued  at  11,610,000  rubles.  Tobacco  is 
grown  on  the  Volga,  in  Little  Russia,  and  on 
the  Don,  and  yields  annually  about  70,000,000 
Ibs.,  of  which  about  live  sixths  belongs  to  Bes- 
sarabia, Poltava,  Tchernigov,  and  Samara. 
Horticulture,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  great 
cities,  is  neglected.  Of  late  many  agricultural 
societies  have  been  formed,  and  a  number  of 
schools  established. — Horses  are  very  numer-. 
•  ins  in  Russia,  and  highly  valued.  In  the  8. 
W.  provinces  the  breed  is  particularly  fine. 
In  general  the  horses  of  Russia  are  hardy 
and  strong,  but  not  so  well  taken  care  of  as 
in  other  countries.  The  best  studs  are  in 
the  governments  of  Tambov,  Kharkov,  Voro- 
nezh, and  Kiev.  Russia  sells  a  large  num- 
ber of  horses  annually  to  Austria  and  Prussia. 
The  breeding  of  sheep  is  very  extensive ;  the 
wool  of  the  common  Russian  sheep  is  hard 
and  coarse,  but  of  late  years  the  breeding  of 
fine-wooled  sheep  has  been  steadily  on  the 
increase,  especially  in  the  Baltic  provinces, 
in  Poland,  and  in  the  southern  governments. 
Hogs  are  most  abundant  in  Great  Russia,  Lith- 
uania, and  throughout  the  western  provinces. 
The  number  of  domestic  animals  in  1874,  ac- 
cording to  the  reports  of  the  statistical  cen- 
tral committee  of  St.  Petersburg,  was  about 
20,000,000  horses,  28,500,000  horned  cattle, 
64,500,000  shtfep,  and  11,000,000  swine.  Of 
the  sheep  about  14,000,000  were  of  the  fine- 
wooled  sort,  principally  found  in  the  govern- 
ments of  Yekaterinoslav,  Kherson,  and  Bes- 
sarabia (about  7,000,000).  Bee  culture  is  most 
extensive  in  Poland,  the  Lithuanian  govern- 
ments, and  those  on  the  Volga,  especially 
Nizhegorod,  Kazan,  and  Simbirsk;  altogether 
it  yields  annually  about  7,000,000  Ibs.  of  wax 
and  21,000,000  Ibs.  of  honey,  arid  leaves  con- 
siderable surplus  for  exportation.  The  culture 
of  silkworms  was  introduced  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  was  especially  developed  in  the 
government  of  Astrakhan  and  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  Crimea.  Since  1864  it  has 
greatly  suffered  by  a  disease  among  the  silk- 
worms. The  southern  provinces  yield  an  an- 
nual average  of  nearly  20,000  Ibs. ;  in  Trans- 
caucasia silk  to  the  amount  of  about  4,000,000 


RUSSIA 


481 


rubles  has  been  produced  annually.  Rein- 
deer are  kept  K  of  lat.  66°,  and  camels  in 
the  south,  many  being  found  near  Orenburg. 
Among  the  wild  animals  are  the  aurochs  (in 
the  forest  of  Bialovitza  in  Lithuania),  elks, 
deer,  bears,  wild  hogs,  gluttons,  wolves,  fox- 
es, and  saiga  antelopes.  Furs  are  an  impor- 
tant article  of  export.  Fish  is  very  abun- 
dant in  the  Polar  sea  and  in  the  rivers,  and 
some  tribes,  especially  in  the  northeast,  live 
entirely  by  fishing.  The  most  important  fish- 
eries are  those  of  the  Volga,  the  Ural,  and  the 
sea  of  Azov. — Nearly  all  the  metals  are  found 
in  Russia,  most  of  them  of  excellent  quality. 
The  principal  mines  are  in  the  Ural  and  Altai 
mountains,  and  near  Nertchiusk  in  Siberia. 
The  produce  of  gold  increased  from  18,900 
Ibs.  avoirdupois  in  1839  to  49,800  in  1845, 
and  65,700  in  1847,  since  which  it  has  again 
decreased,  being  61,700  Ibs.  in  1869.  Silver  is 
also  found  in  the  Ural  and  Altai  mountains ; 
the  produce  in  1869  amounted  to  39,300  Ibs. 
Platinum  is  found  almost  exclusively  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Yekaterinburg.  It  was  first 
discovered  in  1823;  in  1861  the  produce  was 
8,060  Ibs.  Copper  is  found  in  the  Ural,  but 
much  more  copiously  (though  as  yet  but  lit- 
tle worked)  in  E.  Siberia.  The  produce  was 
3,555  tons  (of  2,240  Ibs.)  in  1852,  5,441  in 
1857,  and  4,310  in  1868.  The  iron  mines  fur- 
nish more  than  enough  for  the  wants  of  the 
empire.  The  works  in  the  Ural  mountains 
alone  are  said  to  employ  above  50,000  labor- 
ers. The  total  produce  was  167,214  tons  in 
1852,  205,822  in  1857,  and  319,000  in  1868. 
Rich  coal  mines  have  been  discovered  in  near- 
ly all  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire, 
and  the  annual  produce  is  rapidly  increasing, 
amounting  in  1868  to  402,300  tons.  The  coun- 
try is  very  rich  in  salt  and  brine  springs,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Taurida,  which  alone  furnishes  annu- 
ally about  250,000  tons,  while  the  total  produce 
in  1868  was  538,800  tons. — Manufactures  are 
increasing  with  wonderful  rapidity.  Their  in- 
troduction into  Russia  began  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, but  very  little  was  done  until  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great.  Catharine  II.,  Alexander  I., 
Nicholas  I.,  and  Alexander  II.  have  all  distin- 
guished themselves  by  zeal  in  encouraging  man- 
ufactures. At  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great 
there  were  21  large  imperial  manufactories, 
and  several  smaller  ones;  in  1820  their  num- 
ber had  risen  to  3,724,  in  1837  to  6,450,  in 
1845  to  7,315,  and  in  1854  to  18,100.  Later 
statements  vary  widely.  According  to  Sarauw 
(Das  Russische  Reich  in  seiner  finanziellen  und 
okonomischen  Entwiclcelung,  &c.,  Leipsic,  1873) 
and  Lengenfeldt,  the  total  number  of  factories 
in  1866,  inclusive  of  distilleries  and  breweries, 
large  and  small,  was  84,944,  which  employed 
919,025  workmen,  and  the  value  of  their  pro- 
ducts was  650,000,000  rubles.  The  chief  .seat 
of  manufactures  is  Moscow,  and  next  the  gov- 
ernments of  Vladimir,  Nizhegorod,  and  Sara- 
tov, and  St.  Petersburg  and  Poland.  Among 


the  most  important  products  are  woollen 
goods,  silk,  cotton,  linen  of  all  kinds,  leather, 
tallow,  candles,  soap,  and  metallic  wares.  Cot- 
ton spinning  is  developing  rapidly;  in  1870 
about  122,000,000  Ibs.  of  raw  cotton  were  im- 
ported, while  106  spinning  mills  yielded  about 
8,000,000  Ibs.  of  yarn,  not  sufficient,  however, 
for  the  domestic  looms,  which  in  1,508  manu- 
factories produced  about  220,000,000  rubles 
worth  of  cotton  goods.  The  manufacture  of 
woollen  goods  is  likewise  rapidly  gaining.  In 
1866,  1,831  manufactories  employed  105,135 
workmen,  and  produced  goods  valued  at  63,- 
000,000  rubles.  The  manufacture  of  mixed 
woollen  goods  began  in  1840,  and  in  1845  Mos- 
cow alone  had  22  establishments ;  the  number 
of  manufactories  in  1870  was  33,  and  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  the  goods  produced  was  1,500,- 
000  rubles.  The  chief  seat  of  the  silk  manu- 
facture is  the  government  of  Moscow ;  alto- 
gether there  are  518  establishments,  employ- 
ing 12,000  workmen.  The  number  of  beet- 
sugar  manufactories  in  1871  was  325,  which 
employed  70,000  persons ;  the  produce  was 
valued  at  30,000,000  rubles. — The  seaports  are 
few,  being  almost  confined  to  Archangel  on 
the  White  sea,  St.  Petersburg  and  Riga  on  the 
gulfs  of  the  Baltic,  Odessa,  Nikolayev,  and  a 
few  others  on  the  Black  sea,  Taganrog  on  the 
sea  of  Azov,  Astrakhan,  Baku,  and  Kizliar  on 
or  near  the  Caspian,  and  Nikolayevsk  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Amoor.  The  principal  articles 
of  the  foreign  commerce  for  1871-'2  were: 


EXPORTS. 

Rubles. 

IMPORTS. 

Rubles. 

Cereals       .... 

184,600,000 
87,900,000 
22,800,000 
14,500,000 
2,900,000 
22,400,000 
11,900,000 
5,700,000 
10,200,000 
2.800.000 
8,800,000 
1.500,000 
8,200,000 

Ba 
Ha 
Ma 
Te 
Ba 

Dy 

(Ml 

Lie 
W< 
Fr 
W< 
Co 
To 
Ba 
Sil 

w  cotton 
rdware  . 
chines.. 
a  

46,900,000 
20,400,000 
29,500,000 
85,200,000 
24,600,000 
14,900,000 
12,600,000 
14,800.000 
15,200,000 
11,800,000 
14,200,000 
12,600,000 
9,900,000 
6,500,000 
7,100,000 

Flax  

Flax  seed  
Wool  

Tallow  

w  metals 
estufl's  .  . 
s  

Timber  

Hos-s1  bristles  .  . 
Cattle  

[uors  

>ol  
lit.:  
>ollen  goods. 
;ton  yarn.... 
bacco  

Tow  
Hides  

Cordage  

w  silk  
c  goods  

The  value  of  Russian  commerce  for  1872  was  : 

EUROPEAN  AND  AMERICAN 
TRADE. 

Imports, 
rubles. 

Exports, 
rubles. 

171,828.000 
120,067,000 
18,890,000 
28,786,000 
18,709,000 
5,251,000 
5,888,000 
12,778,000 
1,548,000 
4,423,000 
404,000 
2,111,000 
4,092.000 
485.000 
12,295.000 
12,878,000 

77,819.000 
143,806,000 
22,881,000 
19,559.000 
6,028,000 
6,907,000 
7,487,000 
8,980,000 
100,000 
6,442.000 
6,802,000 
1.285.000 
2,868,000 
570,000 
1,078,000 
1,582,000 

Great  Britain    

Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  

Italy          

Spain 

Sweden  and  No 

United  States 

Other  countries 
Total  

414,678,000 

811,558,000 

482 


RUSSIA 


ASIATIC   TRADE. 

ImporU, 

ruble.. 

Export., 
rublM. 

Turkey  

6,275,000 
8,015,000 
4,1*25,000 
20,000 

8.552,000 
•J.>2o.OOO 
1,693,000 
1,262,000 

China  

Persia.  

Other  countries  

Total  

19,285,000 

9,882,000 

The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  imports 
and  exports  for  a  series  of  years  : 

YEARS. 

Import*,  rnblet. 

Exporti,  rnblM. 

I860  

1M.  .>:',.•-'  ,1 

.-203,247,777 
823,451.000 
8«,$53,<K)0 
860.867,284 
242  S.'O.OOO 

159.808.405 
104.805,010 
428,959,000 
818,510,000 
852.578,688 
272,870,000 

1865  

1868  

1370  

1871  

1872... 

In  1872  the  imports  of  gold  and  silver,  in  coin 
and  bars,  amounted  to  12,968,000  rubles,  and 
the  exports  to  5,742,000.  The  movements  of 
shipping  in  1871  and  1872  were  as  follows: 


TEARS. 

EXTKRID. 

CLEAKKD. 

Vxiob. 

Tonnagv. 

VMMU. 

In    it.-,-. 

1871... 

1  •2.256 
10,071 

1.894,880 
1,577,489 

12,173 

10,044 

1.S-.I7.&1S 
1.579,294 

1372... 

The  Russian  commercial  fleet  in  1874  com- 
prised 2,504  vessels  (of  which  227  were  steam- 
ers), of  520,584  tons.  The  inland  trade  is  car- 
ried on  in  a  very  great  measure  by  means  of 
annual  fairs,  of  which  those  at  Nizhni  Novgo- 
rod are  the  most  remarkable. — The  first  rail- 
way in  Russia  was  completed  in  1836,  and  ex- 
tends from  St.  Petersburg  to  Tzarskoye  Selo 
and  Pavlovsk,  two  imperial  residences,  the 
latter  distant  from  the  capital  17  ra.  A  much 
more  important  road,  from  St.  Petersburg  to 
Moscow,  was  opened  in  1851,  and  is  398  m. 
long.  In  1874  the  total  length  of  the  Russian 
railways  was  10,725  ra.,  with  about  2,400  m. 
in  course  of  construction.  The  aggregate  cap- 
ital expended  in  the  construction  of  railways 
up  to  January,  1874,  was  1,403,900,000  rubles. 
The  interest  guaranteed  by  the  state  amounted 
in  1873  to  51,180,000  rubles,  of  which  14,590,- 
000  had  really  to  be  paid.  The  entire  receipts 
of  the  railways  in  1878  amounted  to  122,880,- 
000  rubles.  The  first  electric  telegraph  was 
constructed  in  1853,  since  which  time  the  lines 
have  been  rapidly  extended  throughout  the 
empire,  including  one  across  Siberia.  The  ag- 
gregate length  of  the  lines  at  the  close  of  1872 
was  44,692  m.,  and  of  telegraph  wires  90,430 
m.  The  number  of  offices  was  1,333,  and  of 
telegrams  3,259,552;  the  revenue,  17,120,000 
rubles;  expenses,  14,957,000 rubles.  The  Bal- 
tic is  connected  with  the  Black  sea  by  the 
Dana,  the  Oginski  canal,  the  Beresina,  and  the 
Dnieper  and  Bog  systems,  and  with  the  Vol- 
ga and  the  Caspian  sea  by  the  Nizhni  Volo- 
tchok,  Tikhvin,  and  Maria  canals.  A  canal 
across  N.  Finland  forms  a  connection  be- 


tween the  White  sea  and  the  Baltic.  Many 
other  canals  connect  two  rivers.  The  Don  and 
the  Volga  are  connected  by  a  horse  railroad. 
The  communication  with  Siberia  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  natural  waterways.  The  Kama 
and  its  affluent  the  Ufa  lead  close  to  the  mines 
of  the  Ural. — The  government  of  the  Russian 
empire  is  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  emperor 
has  the  title  of  samoderzhetz  (autocrat)  of  all 
the  Russias.  At  the  same  time  he  bears  the 
titles  of  king  of  Poland,  grand  duke  of  Fin- 
land, czar  of  Kazan,  Astrakhan,  and  Siberia, 
and  several  others,  including  many  hereditary 
German  ones  which  have  come  to  him  through 
the  connection  of  the  Romanoff  dynasty  with 
German  princely  houses.  According  to  the 
law  of  1797,  the  crown  was  hereditary  by 
right  of  primogeniture,  with  a  preference  for 
the  male  descendants ;  but  the  emperor  Nich- 
olas changed  this  law,  excluding  female  inher- 
itance altogether  so  long  as  there  is  a  male 
member  of  the  family.  All  the  marriages  of 
the  members  of  the  reigning  family  must  have 
the  emperor's  sanction,  and  all  the  children  of 
a  matrimonial  alliance  not  recognized  by  the 
sovereign  are  excluded  from  the  succession. 
The  hereditary  grand  duke  becomes  of  age  at 
16;  all  the  other  princes  at  18.  With  regard 
to  Finland,  the  emperor  is  bound  by  the  act  of 
incorporation  of  1809  to  observe  certain  con- 
stitutional privileges  of  the  grand  duchy ;  but 
in  reality  this  is  never  done,  and  the  kind  of 
diet  which  Finland  possesses  is  of  no  value  to 
its  people.  The  highest  consultative  body  of 
the  empire  is  the  state  council,  which  is  fre- 
quently presided  over  by  the  emperor  himself. 
It  consists  of  the  ministers  and  such  other  dig- 
nitaries as  he  may  appoint,  and  is  divided  into 
three  departments,  legislative,  administrative, 
and  financial.  The  next  in  importance  among 
the  central  boards  of  the  empire  is  the  senate, 
created  in  1711  by  Peter  the  Great.  It  has 
charge  of  the  promulgation  and  execution  of 
the  law,  and  forms  also  the  supreme  court.  The 
number  of  its  members  generally  does  not  ex- 
ceed 120.  The  third  central  body  is  the  holy 
synod,  which  has  jurisdiction  over  the  affairs  of 
the  Russian  state  church.  The  synod  was  es- 
tablished in  1721,  and  has  its  seat  nt  St.  Peters- 
burg, with  a  section  at  Moscow.  The  state  min- 
istry consists  of  ten  ministers,  and  a  depart- 
ment of  general  financial  control.  There  is  also 
an  institution  called  the  committee  of  ministers, 
in  which  all  the  ministers  meet  once  a  week 
and  consult  on  the  affairs  of  the  state,  under  the 
presidency  of  a  dignitary  specially  appointed 
by  the  emperor.  The  ten  ministers  are  those 
of  the  imperial  house,  of  foreign  affairs,  of 
war,  of  the  navy,  of  the  interior,  of  finance, 
of  public  instruction,  of  justice,  of  the  imperial 
domain,  and  of  public  works.  Poland  and 
Finland  are  represented  at  St.  Petersburg  by 
special  secretaries  of  state,  through  whom  all 
orders  issuing  from  the  central  power  are  trans- 
mitted. The  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  central 
Asia  are  ruled  by  their  respective  governors 


RUSSIA 


483 


general,  who  have  all  the  powers  of  imperial 
lieutenants.  The  division  of  the  empire  into 
governments  is  purely  administrative.  The 
officials  at  the  head  of  them  are  called  civil 
governors,  but  many  of  them  are  military  men. 
They  all  have  above  them  general  governors, 
who  are  invariably  military  men.  These  gen- 
eral governors  are  not  dependent  on  the  min- 
ister of  the  interior,  but  make  their  reports  di- 
rectly to  the  senate  and  the  war  office,  and  can 
be  appointed  and  dismissed  only  by  the  empe- 
ror. There  are  14  military  general  governor- 
ships of  this  description,  viz. :  those  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, Finland,  Wilna,  Warsaw,  Kiev,  Odes- 
sa, Kharkov,  Moscow,  Kazan,  the  Caucasus, 
Orenburg,  West  Siberia,  East  Siberia,  and  Tur- 
kistan.  The  judiciary  system  of  Russia  was 
entirely  reorganized  by  a  ukase  of  1864.  The 
courts  are  divided  into  two  classes,  courts  of 
justices  of  the  peace,  with  jurisdiction  of  civil 
cases  not  involving  more  than  500  rubles,  and 
the  general  courts,  consisting  of  the  district 
courts  and  the  courts  of  appeal.  The  decision 
of  a  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  appealed  from 
to  the  assembly  of  all  the  justices  of  a  given 
district,  the  senate  remaining  in  all  cases  the 
highest  court  of  cassation.  The  trial  of  crim- 
inal causes  by  jury  was  introduced  in  1866. 
— No  empire  of  the  world  contains  so  great  a 
variety  of  nations  and  tribes  as  Russia ;  their 
number  exceeds  100,  and  they  speak  more  than 
40  different  languages.  The  smaller  and  the 
uncivilized  tribes  are  rapidly  being  amalga- 
mated with  the  ruling  race,  the  Russians ;  but 
the  Poles,  the  Lithuanians,  the  German  ele- 
ment in  the  Baltic  provinces,  the  Finns,  and 
a  few  minor  nationalities,  do  not  yet  give  any 
indications  of  losing  their  distinct  national 
character.  The  immense  majority  of  the  pop- 
ulation are  Slavs,  in  two  principal  divisions, 
Russians  (56,600,000)  and  Poles  (4,800,000),  to 
which,  as  a  third,  though  much  smaller  divi- 
sion, the  Serbs  and  Slavic  Bulgarians  must  be 
added,  counting  together  about  70,000  souls, 
and  mostly  living  in  settlements  on  the  Dnie- 
per and  the  Inguletz.  The  Russians  form  al- 
most the  sole  population  of  Great  and  Little 
Russia,  and  also  preponderate  in  influence,  if 
not  in  number,  in  South  and  West  Russia  and 
in  the  Volga  and  Ural  provinces.  The  Rus- 
sians are  again  subdivided  into  Great  and  Lit- 
tle Russians.  The  latter,  also  called  Red  Rus- 
sians, Ruthenians,  or  Russins,  include  a  large 
portion  of  the  Cossacks,  and  inhabit  Little 
Russia  and  South  Russia,  and,  mixed  with 
Poles,  some  districts  of  West  Russia.  The 
Great  Russians  are  the  predominant  race,  and 
their  language  is  used  throughout  the  empire 
by  the  government  and  the  majority  of  the 
nation.  The  common  people  are  vigorous  and 
hardy,  accustomed  to  the  rigors  of  a  severe 
and  varying  climate,  and  the  hardships  en- 
tailed by  oppression,  a  merciless  conscription, 
and  occasional  famines.  They  are  of  a  cheer- 
ful temper,  fond  of  song  and  frolic,  and  ad- 
dicted to  excessive  drinking.  Though  slavish, 


resigned,  and  generally  good-natured,  they  are 
not  unapt  to  fly  into  passion  and  commit 
acts  of  revenge,  and  both  murder  and  arson 
are  frequent.  Theft  is  very  common.  They 
are  both  gregarious  and  migratory  in  their 
habits,  easily  adapting  themselves  to  changed 
circumstances,  and  are  possessed  of  unusual 
mechanical  skill.  As  soldiers  they  are  re- 
markable for  endurance  and  blind  obedience 
rather  than  for  personal  courage.  The  use  of 
vapor  baths  is  general,  though  cleanliness  is 
far  from  being  a  national  virtue.  Gross  super- 
stition prevails  among  the  lower  classes,  and 
among  the  higher  alternates  with  radical  un- 
belief and  subversive  notions.  The  houses  are 
adorned  with  painted  images  of  saints,  on 
whom  various  forms  of  adoration  are  lav- 
ished. The  churches  in  the  towns,  consisting 
chiefly  of  frame  houses,  are  striking  by  their 
gaudy  domes  and  spires  and  lofty  double  cross- 
es, which  from  a  distance  attract  the  eye  of 
the  traveller,  and  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  vast  plains.  The  mass  of  the  Great  Rus- 
sians are  agriculturists,  mechanics,  laborers  in 
towns,  or  itinerant  traders;  the  Little  Rus- 
sians are  largely  engaged  in  rearing  cattle  and 
horses.  Among  the  non-Slavic  nations  the 
following  fire  the  most  important :  1.  The 
Letts  have  maintained  themselves  almost  pure 
in  the  Baltic  provinces,  especially  in  Courland; 
while,  as  Lithuanians,  in  the  governments  of 
Wilna,  Grodno,  and  Kovno,  they  have  largely 
amalgamated  with  Poles.  2.  The  Germans 
are,  though  not  a  majority,  the  predominant 
race  in  the  Baltic  provinces.  They  also  have 
flourishing  settlements  throughout  southern 
Russia,  and  large  numbers  of  German  scholars, 
physicians  and  druggists,  artisans,  mechanics, 
miners,  military  men,  &c.,  are  found  in  the 
large  cities.  3.  The  Finns  have  from  the 
oldest  times  occupied  the  northern  part  of 
European  Russia  and  a  portion  of  Siberia. 
To  them  belong  the  Finns  strictly  so  called 
and  the  Lapps  in  Finland,  the  Tchuds,  the 
Vots,  the  Livs,  and  the  Esths  (in  Courland,  Li- 
vonia, Esthonia,  Vitebsk,  Pskov,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Archangel,  and  Olonetz),  and  a  number 
of  tribes  on  the  Volga  and  in  the  adjoining 
territories.  (See  FINKS.)  4.  The  Tartar  race 
is  represented  by  the  Tartars  proper  in  the 
Crimea,  Transcaucasia,  Astrakhan,  and  West 
Siberia;  the  Nogais  on  the  Kuban  and  Don, 
and  in  Taurida;  the  Meshtcheriaks  in  Oren- 
burg; the  Bashkirs  in  Orenburg,  Ufa,  and 
Perm ;  the  Kirghiz  between  the  Ural  and  Ir- 
tish rivers ;  and  Yakuts  in  Yakutsk  and  Yeni- 
seisk. 5.  The  Mongolian  race  in  the  wider 
sense,  which  embraces  the  two  preceding  races, 
is  further  represented  by  the  Buriats,  Tnngu- 
sians,  Ainos,  and  other  tribes  in  East  Siberia ; 
the  Calmucks  in  Astrakhan,  the  Don  Cossack 
country,  Caucasia,  and  Siberia;  the  Samoyeds 
and  Ostiaks  on  both  sides  of  the  Obi ;  and  Uz- 
becks,  Turkomans,  and  Tajiks  in  the  recently 
annexed  territories  of  central  Asia.  6.  Among 
the  numerous  Caucasian  tribes,  the  Circassians, 


484: 


RUSSIA 


Lesghians,  Georgians  or  Grusians,  and  Mingre- 
lians  are  the  most  prominent.  7.  The  Per- 
sians and  Armenians  are  represented  in  Trans- 
caucasia. The  Jews  are  most  numerous  in  Po- 
land and  West  Russia.  Formerly  they  were 
not  allowed  to  live  in  Great  Russia,  from  which 
they  had  been  expelled  in  the  llth  century; 
and  even  now  they  are  admitted  there  and  in 
some  other  parts  only  under  various  restric- 
tions, and  nowhere  in  the  empire  do  they  enjoy 
full  rights  of  citizenship.  Greeks  are  especial- 
ly found  in  Odessa  and  some  other  large  cities. 
As  to  social  position,  the  population  is  divided 
into  three  classes  with  hereditary  rights,  the 
nobles,  the  inhabitants  of  towns,  and  the  coun- 
try people.  Peter  thp  Great  abolished  the  dig- 
nity and  official  privileges  of  the  boyars  (see 
BOTAK),  and  since  then  the  nobility  have  lost 
their  prerogatives  as  a  caste,  and  the  offices  of 
the  empire  are  accessible  to  all.  In  1722  he 
established  a  regulation  of  class  (tchiri),  which 
is  still  in  force,  concerning  the  rank  of  the 
officers  of  state,  dividing  them  into  fourteen 
classes,  the  first  eight  of  which  have  heredi- 
tary nobility  conferred  on  them,  while  the 
members  of  the  other  six  obtain  only  a  per- 
sonal nobility.  In  1872,  according  to  Lind- 
heim  (Die  wirth»chnftlichen  Verhdltnitse  de* 
Rustiichen  Reiches,  1873),  there  were  591,266 
noblemen  of  hereditary  and  827,764  of  per- 
sonal rank.  The  legal  relations  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  towns  were  reorganized  by  a  ukase 
in  June,  1870.  The  citizens  of  a  town  elect  a 
magistrate  or  town  council  (duma),  which  in 
turn  elects  a  committee  (uprava)  and  the  may- 
or. In  smaller  towns  no  committee  is  elect- 
ed, but  its  functions  are  performed  by  the 
mayor.  The  aggregate  population  of  the  towns 
amounted  in  1872  to  6,907,071.  The  bulk  of 
the  population  consists  of  the  peasants,  num- 
bering about  56,300,000.  Before  the  act  of 
emancipation,  they  were  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz.,  free  peasants,  peasants  under  the 
special  administration  of  the  crown,  and  serfs. 
The  first  class  included  the  odnodvortzi  or  free- 
holders, who  until  1845  formed  a  subdivision 
of  the  country  nobility,  but  were  transferred 
to  the  class  of  peasants  when,  by  order  of  the 
emperor,  the  titles  of  nobles  were  examined. 
The  second  class  comprised  the  crown  peas- 
ants, holders  of  land  by  socage,  some  16,000,- 
000;  the  domain  peasants;  the  peasants  be- 
stowed on  nobles  and  merchants  in  some  man- 
ufacturing districts,  on  condition  that  they 
should  return  to  the  crown  in  case  the  manu- 
factories were  closed ;  and  the  exiles  in  Sibe- 
ria. The  serfs  numbered  about  22,000,000, 
and  belonged  partly  to  the  crown  and  partly 
to  the  nobles.  Russian  serfdom  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  when  the 
field  laborers  were  gradually  deprived  of  the 
right  to  move  at  will  from  master  to  master. 
They  were  attached  to  the  soil,  which  they 
could  not  leave  without  the  consent  of  the 
master ;  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  not 
having  the  right  to  dispose  of  the  serfs  with- 


out the  land.  In  the  spring  of  1861  an  im- 
perial manifesto,  dated  Feb.  19  0.  S.  (March 
3),  providing  for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs, 
was  read  in  all  the  churches  of  the  empire. 
— The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  be- 
long to  the  Russian  church,  which  in  doctrine 
entirely  agrees  with  the  other  branches  of  the 
Greek  church,  while  in  administration  it  is 
distinct.  Since  the  times  of  Peter  the  Great 
it  has  been  governed  by  a  u  holy  synod,"  which 
is  one  of  the  supreme  boards  of  the  empire. 
It  is  dependent  on  the  emperor  in  questions  of 
administration,  but  not  of  dogma  or  of  rites. 
The  bishops  composing  the  holy  synod  reside 
partly  in  St.  Petersburg  and  partly  in  their 
dioceses.  The  church  is  divided  into  52  archi- 
episcopal  dioceses  or  eparchies.  The  church 
in  1870  had  62  archbishops  and  bishops,  385 
monasteries  with  5,750  monks,  154  nunneries 
with  3,226  nuns,  1,334  arch  priests,  40,852 
priests,  11,852  deacons,  and  70,280  clerks,  who 
discharge  the  duties  of  readers,  chanters,  sa- 
cristans, beadles,  and  singers.  The  total  num- 
ber of  churches  was  33,100,  including  59  cathe- 
drals. The  four  ecclesiastical  academies  at  St. 
Petersburg,  Moscow,  Kiev,  and  Kazan  have  of 
late  been  reorganized;  in  1872  they  numbered 
106  professors  and  410  students,  and  there  were 
also  51  theological  seminaries  with  15,585  stu- 
dents. The  lower  clergy  are  mostly  poor  and 
ignorant,  but  the  government  of  the  present 
emperor  has  made  better  provisions  for  their 
theological  education,  and  established  a  central 
relief  fund  for  raising  their  salaries,  the  mini- 
mum of  which  was  fixed  in  1869  at  300  ru- 
bles. The  church  service  is  performed  in  the 
Old  Slavic  language,  which  the  mass  of  the 
people  do  not  understand  at  all.  The  liturgy 
contains,  besides  the  prayers  common  to  all 
the  liturgies  of  the  Greek  church,  special  pray- 
ers for  every  separate  member  of  the  imperi- 
al family.  Sermoas  were  formerly  a  rare  ex- 
ception at  divine  service;  but  recently,  owing 
to  the  better  education  of  a  portion  of  the 
clergy,  the  movement  for  making  the  sermon 
a  part  of  the  service  is  gaining  ground.  Every 
member  of  the  Greek  church  is  obliged  to 
take  the  sacrament  once  a  year.  The  estab- 
lished church  has  some  special  privileges,  as 
the  ringing  of  the  larger  bells,  public  proces- 
sions, &c.  None  of  its  members  are  allowed 
to  secede  to  another  denomination,  and  all 
children  born  of  mixed  marriages  are  claimed 
for  it.  All  foreign  princesses  marrying  into 
the  imperial  family  must  likewise  embrace  the 
national  religion.  In  other  respects  Catholics 
and  Protestants  enjoy  equal  civil  rights  with 
members  of  the  established  church,  and  are 
equally  admissible  to  the  highest  offices  of  the 
empire;  while  unconverted  Tartars  are  ad- 
mitted to  military  offices.  The  political  sepa- 
ration of  the  Russian  church  from  the  main 
body  of  the  Greek  church  took  place  after  the 
flight  of  the  Greek  patriarch  from  Constanti- 
nople to  Moscow  in  the  16th  century.  Arch- 
bishop Isidore  of  Kiev  and  Moscow  in  1439 


RUSSIA 


485 


visited  the  council  of  Florence  to  promote  a 
union  of  the  eastern  churches  with  the  Latin, 
but  on  his  return  was  arrested  and  deposed. 
Feodor  I.  in  1589  appointed  the  first  Russian 
patriarch,  and  even  obtained  for  the  new  dig- 
nit7  in  1593  the  recognition  of  the  four  ori- 
ental patriarchs.  The  patriarchate  was  again 
abolished  by  Peter  I.,  who  transferred  the  su- 
preme administration  to  the  "  holy  synod,"  re- 
serving for  himself  and  his  successors  the  head- 
ship of  the  church.  To  a  still  higher  degree 
was  the  church  stripped  of  her  independence 
under  Catharine  II.,  the  secular  government 
assuming  all  the  property  of  the  church  and 
the  education  and  appointment  of  the  clergy. 
In  point  of  zeal  and  activity  the  Russian 
church  cannot  compare  with  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  the  Protestant  churches.  A  Bible 
society  was  organized  under  Alexander  I. ;  it 
was  suppressed  during  the  reign  of  Nicholas, 
but  has  resumed  its  operations  under  Alex- 
ander II.  A  number  of  years  ago  a  few 
members  of  the  highest  Russian  aristocracy 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church ;  and  Prince 
Gagarin  (who  entered  the  order  of  the  Jes- 
suits)  maintained  that  there  was  in  the  Russian 
church  a  considerable  party  favorable  to  a  cor- 
porate union  of  the  church  with  Rome.  There 
is  also  a  small  party  which  endeavors  to  estab- 
lish closer  relations  with  the  churches  of  the 
Anglican  communion  and  with  the  Old  Catho- 
lics. The  membership  of  the  established  church 
in  1871  was  stated  at  53,139,000  in  Russia 
proper,  30,000  in  Poland,  42,000  in  Finland, 
1,930,000  in  Caucasia,  and  2,875,000  in  Siberia. 
In  central  Asia  the  population  connected  with 
the  Greek  church  was  estimated  in  1874  at 
about  130,000.  Thus  in  the  whole  empire  the 
population  belonging  to  this  church  is  supposed 
to  exceed  58,000,000.  There  is,  however,  a 
vast  number  of  sects,  some  of  which  are  recog- 
nized by  the  government  and  their  statistics 
given  (although  said  to  be  under-estimated)  by 
the  minister  of  public  worship.  Of  the  latter 
there  are  the  Dukhobortzi,  or  Champions  of 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  Molokoni,  or  Milk  Drink- 
ers ;  the  Khlysti,  or  Flagellants ;  and  the 
Skoptzi,  or  Eunuchs,  also  called  White  Doves, 
who  practise  castration.  These  last  have  ex- 
isted from  ancient  times,  and  have  their  ad- 
herents chiefly  among  the  wealthy.  Besides 
these,  writers  mention  the  Little  Christians, 
Helpers,  Non-Payers  of  Rent,  Napoleonists, 
and  others.  The  largest  body,  the  existence 
of  which  the  government  ignores,  is  the  Ras- 
kolniks,  whose  origin  is  assigned  to  the  popu- 
lar opposition  to  certain  reforms  introduced 
in  the  17th  century  by  the  patriarch  Nikon, 
especially  to  changes  in  the  Slavic  translation 
of  the  Bible  and  in  the  Slavic  liturgical  books. 
They  call  themselves  Starovertzi  or  Old  Believ- 
ers. As  their  antipathy  to  change  often  extends 
to  political  measures,  they  have  been  general- 
ly persecuted  by  the  government.  Their  his- 
tory is  but  little  known,  and  accurate  statistics 
cannot  be  obtained.  Their  number  has  been 


variously  estimated  at  from  1,000,000  to  17,- 
000,000 ;  the  best  authorities  incline  toward  the 
highest  estimate.  The  United  Greek  church 
some  years  ago  numbered  about  230,000,  all 
Ruthenians  in  Poland ;  in  the  spring  of  1875, 
however,  the  bulk  of  them  joined  the  Orthodox 
church.  The  Gregorian  Armenian  church  has 
six  eparchies :  Nakhitchevan,  Bessarabia,  As- 
trakhan, Erivan,  Gruso-Imerethia,  Karabagh, 
and  Shirvan.  The  most  celebrated  literary  in- 
stitution of  this  church  is  the  Lazareff  institute 
for  oriental  languages  at  Moscow,  which  pro- 
vides for  the  education  of  20  youths.  The 
number  of  Gregorian  Armenians  is  said  to  be 
37,000  in  European  Russia,  and  561,000  in  the 
Caucasus.  The  Roman  Catholic  population  is 
given  as  2,883,000  in  Russia  proper,  4,826,000 
in  Poland,  830  in  Finland,  18,000  in  the  Cau- 
casus, and  25,000  in  Siberia.  The  Protestant 
population,  a  large  majority  of  whom  are  Lu- 
therans, is  2,234,000  in  Russia  proper,  331,000 
in  Poland,  1,797,000  in  Finland,  10,600  in  Cau- 
casia, and  5,700  in  Siberia.  The  number  of 
Mohammedans  amounts  to  7,225,000 :  2,359,- 
000  in  European  Russia,  1,960,000  in  Caucasia, 
61,000  in  Siberia,  and  2,843,000  in  central  Asia. 
The  Lutheran  church  is  divided  into  six  consis- 
torial  districts.  The  general  consistory  has  its 
seat  at  St.  Petersburg.  A  Lutheran  theologi- 
cal faculty  is  connected  with  the  university 
of  Dorpat.  The  Reformed  denomination  has 
about  30  churches,  mostly  in  Lithuania,  where 
they  are  organized  into  a  synod.  The  scat- 
tered Reformed  congregations  in  other  parts 
of  the  empire  are  under  the  direction  of  Lu- 
theran consistories.  The  Mennonites  claimed 
in  1873  a  population  of  nearly  40,000,  chiefly 
in  South  Russia ;  but  as  the  new  military  law 
abolished  the  exemption  from  military  duty 
which  had  formerly  been  conceded  to  them, 
they  resolved  to  emigrate  to  the  United  States. 
(See  MENNONITES.)  The  Moravians  have  pros- 
perous missions  in  Livonia  and  Esthonia,  where 
they  have  more  than  250  chapels  and  60,000 
members.  Recently  the  Baptists  have  also 
established  a  few  missions,  which  in  1873  re- 
solved upon  forming  a  Russian  organization. 
The  Jews  number  about  2,647,000  (1,829,000 
in  Russia  proper,  about  800,000  in  Poland,  and 
the  remainder  in  Caucasia  and  Siberia).  The 
most  numerous  of  the  pagans,  whose  number 
is  estimated  at  about  550,000,  are  the  Bud- 
dhists, with  380  places  of  worship  and  4,400 
priests. — The  cause  of  public  education  was 
first  effectively  promoted  by  Peter  the  Great, 
who  caused  Russia  to  take  the  first  step  toward 
European  civilization.  Catharine  II.  founded 
many  schools  and  literary  institutions.  Alex- 
ander I.  made  great  efforts  in  behalf  of  the 
people,  and  tried  to  establish  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction.  The  principal  de- 
partments of  education,  with  the  exception  of 
the  military  schools,  are  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  es- 
tablished in  1802.  The  empire  (excepting  Fin- 
land) is  divided  for  educational  purposes  into 


486 


EUSSIA 


ten  circles,  each  of  which  is  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a  curator,  viz. :  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Dorpat,  Kiev,  Warsaw,  Kazan,  Khar- 
kov, Wilna,  Odessa,  and  the  Caucasus.  There 
are  eight  universities :  at  St.  Petersburg,  Mos- 
cow, Dorpat,  Kiev,  Warsaw,  Kazan,  Kharkov, 
and  Odessa.  Finland  has  a  university  of  its 
own  at  Helsingfors.  Dorpat  is  the  only  one 
which  has  a  theological  faculty.  The  num- 
ber of  professors  at  the  eight  universities  in 
1873  was  545 ;  of  students,  6,697.  The  num- 
ber of  lyceurns  and  gymnasiums  was  126,  of 
pro-gymasiums  32 ;  the  aggregate  attendance 
of  these  institutions  was  42,791.  According 
to  the  report  of  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  1872,  the  mkmber  of  popular  schools 
was  19,658,  with  761,129  pupils,  of  whom 
625,784  were  boys  and  135,345  girls.  The 
number  of  special  schools  was  206,  with  41,- 
553  pupils.  The  number  of  learned  societies 
in  connection  with  the  ministry  of  public  in- 
struction in  1873  was  32,  of  which  9  belonged 
to  universities  or  similar  institutions  and  23 
had  an  independent  existence.  The  imperial 
academy  of  science  at  St.  Petersburg,  found- 
ed in  l723-'o,  ranks  high  among  societies  of 
this  class.  Several  scientific  establishments 
belong  to  other  departments  of  the  state; 
among  them  are  institutions  dependent  on  the 
ministry  of  the  navy,  a  law  school,  polytech- 
nic schools,  commercial  academies,  a  consider- 
able number  of  agricultural  and  mining  schools, 
and  navigation  schools.  The  study  of  oriental 
languages  has  been  cultivated  of  late  with  spe- 
cial zeal,  and  no  other  university  of  Europe  has 
so  many  active  professors  of  Asiatic  languages 
as  that  of  Kazan.  The  number  of  newspapers 
in  1868  was  219,  of  which  117  were  published 
in  Russian,  30  in  German,  and  20  in  Finnish. 
According  to  official  accounts,  there  were  in 
1872,  in  197  towns,  860  printing  establish- 
ments, 366  publishers  and  booksellers,  and  261 
circulating  libraries.  There  are  few  public  li- 
braries outside  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and 
Warsaw;  but  the  foundation  of  such  institu- 
tions has  been  laid  in  many  of  the  provincial 
towns,  a'nd  the  so-called  imperial  public  library 
of  St.  Petersburg  contains  1,100,000  volumes 
in  all  languages.  The  position  of  women  in 
Russia,  up  to  the  time  of  the  empress  Catha- 
rine, was  very  much  degraded.  That  sover- 
eign did  all  in  her  power  to  raise  both  their 
intellectual  and  social  standing.  Among  oth- 
er measures  was  the  establishment  of  a  semi- 
nary for  girls  in  St.  Petersburg;  the  girls  who 
entered  this  were  not  permitted  to  leave  be- 
fore seven  years,  when  their  education  was 
considered  complete.  The  seminary  was  di- 
vided into  two  p.arts,  one  of  which  belonged 
to  the  nobility  and  the  other  to  the  middle 
class;  the  number  of  girls  educated  therein 
was  500.  Since  that  time  (1764)  institutions 
for  female  education  have  been  constantly  in- 
creasing all  over  Russia.  Female  gymnasiums 
have  been  established  throughout  the  country, 
the  number  of  which  was  given  in  1873  as  200, 


and  that  of  the  pupils  23,000.  These  institu- 
tions are  all  supported  by  special  municipal 
tax,  and  have  not  only  contributed  to  the  edu- 
cation of  Russian  women,  but  also  diminished 
the  antipathies  and  prejudices  arising  from 
inequality  of  birth,  social  position,  and  for- 
tune. The  pupils  are  admitted  to  the  gym- 
nasiums without  distinction  of  parentage,  and 
they  wear  in  many  instances  a  uniform  dress. 
Where  the  population  is  mixed,  no  distinction 
is  made  even  in  the  nationality  of  the  pupils, 
so  that  the  Tartar  and  the  Bashkir  girls  in  the 
east  are  brought  together  with  the  Russian 
girls,  just  as  the  Polish  are  in  the  west.  Ta- 
king into  consideration  the  comparatively  re- 
cent date  at  which  the  education  of  girls  in 
Russia  has  been  cared  for,  the  Russian  women 
have  shown  remarkable  aptitude.  Out  of  63 
female  students  at  the  university  of  Zurich  in 
1872,  54  were  Russians.  The  question  of  re- 
ligion is  not  regarded  in  the  admission  of  pu- 
pils into  the  schools ;  all  denominations  have 
an  equal  right  in  this  respect,  and  there  are 
priests  and  parsons  attached  to  the  establish- 
ments to  give  religious  instruction.  Even  the 
Jews  and  Mohammedans  form  no  exception. 
Where  the  number  of  pupils  belonging  to  a 
certain  sect  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the 
retention  of  a  clerical  teacher,  the  parents 
are  left  to  provide  religious  instruction. — The 
penalties  of  death  and  of  corporal  punishment 
have  been  almost  entirely  abolished  in  Russia. 
The  former  is  pronounced  now  only  for  high 
treason,  and  no  criminal  court  of  the  land  can 
inflict  it ;  only  special  high  tribunals  appoint- 
ed for  exceptional  cases  having  that  power. 
Corporal  punishment  is  maintained  only  in 
Siberia  as  a  disciplinary  measure  among  the 
convicts.  The  criminal  statistics  of  1860-'68 
show  an  average  of  534,000  civil,  criminal,  and 
police  cases  in  the  whole  empire ;  the  number 
of  persons  sentenced  was  about  84,000,  or  less 
than  17  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  brought 
to  trial ;  of  these,  1,211  persons  were  sentenced 
to  hard  labor,  2,172  to  exile  in  Siberia,  2,488 
to  transportation,  6,667  to  enrolment  in  con- 
vict companies  which  are  kept  in  the  fortresses 
for  heavy  manual  labor,  13,669  to  imprison- 
ment, and  57,757  to  smaller  punishments;  81 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  were  cases  of 
theft,  and  only  2  per  cent,  were  cases  of  mur- 
der and  homicide ;  the  number  of  women  in- 
cluded in  the  84,000  convicts  was  8,800,  or  a 
little  more  than  10  per  cent. — The  silver  ruble 
is  established  by  an  imperial  decree  of  1839 
as  the  legal  and  unalterable  metallic  unit  of 
the  money  current  in  the  empire.  Its  value  is 
equal  to  37i<Z.  in  English,  or  73'4  cts.  in  Amer- 
ican money.  A  ruble  is  divided  into  100  co- 
pecks. Gold  pieces  of  3  and  6  rubles,  and  a 
few  platinum  pieces  of  the  same  value,  are 
coined ;  but  the  main  medium  of  circulation  is 
paper  money,  which  stands  abroad  at  over  15 
per  cent,  discount.  The  English  inch  and  foot 
are  generally  used  throughout  Russia,  except  in 
measuring  timber  for  the  export  duties.  The 


RUSSIA 


487 


arshin  and  the  sazhen  are  used  as  measures  of 
length.  The  arshin  equals  2-J-  English  feet ;  the 
sazhen,  7  English  feet.  For  the  measurement 
of  distances  they  have  the  versta  (verst),  equal 
to  3,500  feet,  or  a  little  less  than  two  thirds 
of  an  English  mile.  The  smallest  weight  is  the 
zolotnik  =  6  grains ;  3  zolotniks  =  1  loth ;  32 
loths  =  1  pound  (the  Russian  pound  is  the  same 
for  gold,  silver,  and  merchandise) ;  40  pounds  = 
1  pood ;  1  pood  =  36  Ibs.  1  oz.  10  drs.  avoirdu- 
pois. Time  continues  to  he  reckoned  in  Rus- 
sia by  the  Julian  calendar ;  yet  in  business  with 
foreign  countries  the  Russians  use  both  the 
Julian  and  Gregorian  dates. — The  finances  of 
the  empire  suffered  greatly  from  the  European 
wars  which  were  carried  on  under  Alexander  I. ; 
but  they  were  somewhat  improved  under  the 
able  administration  of  Count  Kankrin.  During 
the  reign  of  Nicholas  no  reports  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  finances  were  published ;  and  it  is 
only  since  1862  that  any  publication  of  this 
kind  has  taken  place.  Now,  however,  the  gov- 
ernment publishes  annually  a  budget,  though 
both  the  receipts  and  expenditures  are  fre- 
quently manipulated  so  as  to  produce  a  more 
favorable  impression  than  the  truth  would 
warrant.  Subjoined  is  a  table  showing  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  the  finances  from  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century : 


YEARS. 

Revenue,  rubles. 

Expenditure, 
rubles. 

Surplus  (  +  )  or 
deficit  (-). 

1800  

65,700,000 

63  100,000 

+    2  600  000 

1810  

64,188,000 

71,245,000 

—  7,067,000 

1820  

128,220,000 

134,000,000 

—  6,780,000 

1880         

116,245000 

118,817,000 

—  2  572  000 

1640  

165,190,000 

187,979,000 

-22,789,000 

1850  

224,640,000 

287,186.000 

-62,546,000 

I860         

886  916,000 

438  239,000 

—51  823,000 

1861    

411,584,000 

413,796,000 

—  2,212,000 

1862  

879,873,000 

8^9,136,000 

—  9,768,000 

1863  

418,974,000 

438.998.000 

—20,024,000 

1864  

893,721,000 

444.979,000 

-51,258,000 

1865  

418,897,000 

432,107,000 

-13,210,000 

1866  

852,695,000 

418,298,000 

-60,603,000 

1867  

419,888,000 

424,904,000 

-  5,066,000 

1868  

421,560,000 

441,282,000 

—19,776,000 

1809  .  .  . 

457,496,000 

468,797,000 

-11.801.000 

It  appears  from  this  table  that,  while  both  the 
revenue  and  expenditures  during  the  period 
from  1800  to  1869  increased  more  than  six- 
fold, yet  the  expenditures  regularly  exceeded 
the  revenue.  Since  1871  both  the  budgets  and 
the  accounts  of  actual  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments, as  published  by  the  government,  bear 
a  more  favorable  aspect,  as  is  partially  shown 
by  the  following  table : 


YEARS. 

BUDGET. 

ACTUAL. 

Revenue, 
rubles. 

Expenditure, 
rubles. 

rubles. 

Expenditure, 
rubles. 

1871... 
1872... 
1878... 
1874... 

470.692,000 
4(17.178.000 
517.849.000 
539,851.000 

510,618,000 
469,400,000 
517,322.01)0 
536,688,000 

508,188.000 
527,621,291 

499.735.000 
523,788,508 

The  only  direct  tax  of  the  empire  is  a  poll  tax 
(in  1874,  94,631,469  rubles)  levied  from  the 

peasantry  and  raised  at  little  expense.  Cus- 
toms (53,068,000)  of  a  protective  nature,  and 
the  excise  duties  (206,068,044),  mostly  laid 
on  spirits,  beer,  salt,  and  tobacco,  form  the 
bulk  of  the  indirect  taxes.  The  largest  branch- 
es of  expenditure  are  those  for  the  army 
(170,192,553  rubles),  the  navy  (24,847,685  ru- 
bles), and  the  national  debt  (93,257,877  ru- 
bles), the  last  named  branch  comprising  inte- 
rest and  sinking  fund.  The  public  debt  in 
January,  1873,  was  as  follows: 

Rubles. 

I.  Funded  debt 905,093,564 

1.  Foreign  redeemable  debt. ..  Ift7,482,&27 

2.  Home  "  '•         270,848,650 
8.  Foreign  irredeemable  debt.  275,728,199 
4.  Home             "  "        202,123,688 

II.  Debts  not  entered  In  the  great  book 552,618,672 

III.  Debts  of  the  Imperial  Russian  bank 818,709,328 

Total 2,277,081,664 

From  these  amounts  may  be  deducted  the  sum 
of  412,000,000  rubles  which  has  been  advanced 
to  railway  companies,  to  corporations,  and  to 
towns,  leaving  an  actual  debt  of  about  1,864,- 
000,000  rubles.  Banking  business  has  of  late 
years  received  a  considerable  impulse.  There 
are  not  fewer  than  40  joint-stock  banks  in 
Russia,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  104,000,000 
rubles.  Five  of  these  are  in  St.  Petersburg. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  territorial  (zhemski) 
banks,  by  means  of  which  the  government  was 
enabled  to  carry  through  the  emancipation  of 
the  peasants.  The  government  advanced  to 
landowners  from  1861  to  1873  the  sum  of  628,- 
489,844  rubles.  The  entire  amount,  with  in- 
terest, is  to  be  redeemed  by  the  peasants,  but 
in  the  mean  time  the  state  assumes  the  respon- 
sibility for  its  repayment. — The  ukase  of  Nov. 
16  (4  O.  S.),  1870,  announced  the  adoption  by 
the  Russian  government  of  the  principle  of  uni- 
versal liability  to  military  service,  and  another 
of  Jan.  13, 1874,  reorganized  the  entire  military 
system.  The  armed  forces  of  the  empire  are 
now  to  consist  of  a  standing  army  and  of  a 
militia.  The  standing  army  embraces  the  land 
and  naval  troops.  The  land  troops  comprise  : 
1,  the  active  army,  which  is  to  be  kept  up  by 
annual  recruitings ;  2,  a  reserve  force,  formed 
of  men  whose  term  of  service  in  the  active 
army  has  expired ;  3,  the  Cossacks  and  other 
regular  troops  of  various  Asiatic  tribes.  The 
militia  is  composed  of  all  men  from  20  to  40 
years  of  age,  capable  of  bearing  arms,  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  standing  army  ;  a  portion  of 
this  militia,  containing  the  younger  men,  can 
in  time  of  war  be  employed  for  filling  up  the 
irregular  forces.  Every  Russian  subject  who 
has  attained  his  20th  year  and  is  not  physical- 
ly incapacitated  is  liable  to  service,  immunity 
from  which  by  purchasing  a  substitute  is  pro- 
hibited; the  period  of  service  is  fixed  at  15 
years,  six  of  which  are  to  be  spent  in  an  active 
force,  and  nine  in  the  reserve ;  the  recruiting 
is  done  by  drawing  lots,  and  those  who  do  not 
enter  into  the  regular  army  have  to  serve  in 
the  militia.  The  entire  empire  is  divided  into 


488 


RUSSIA 


recruiting  districts.  Young  men  who  belong 
to  the  so-called  liberal  professions,  and  have 
received  a  certain  degree  of  education,  have 
the  duration  of  their  service  in  the  active  array 
restricted  to  six  months,  18  months,  three 
years,  or  four  years,  according  to  the  degree 
they  have  attained ;  there  are  also  volunteer 
engagements  of  three  months,  six  months,  and 
two  years,  as  in  France,  equally  in  accordance 
with  the  educational  privileges  of  the  young 
men.  But  a  nine  years'  reserve  service  is  ob- 
ligatory upon  all  such  men.  The  infantry  and 
the  cavalry  of  the  army,  now  (1875)  in  course 
of  reorganization,  are  to  have  for  their  mili- 
tary unit  the  division,  composed  of  four  regi- 
ments; the  artillery,  riflemen,  and  engineers 
are  to  be  formed  into  brigades.  Twelve  regi- 
ments d'elite  and  a  brigade  of  riflemen  will 
still  form  the  corps  of  imperial  guards  sta- 
tioned at  St.  Petersburg,  while  the  remaining 
45  divisions  of  infantry  are  to  be  formed  into 
15  corps,  each  consisting  of  three  divisions  of 
infantry,  one  of  cavalry,  and  a  number  of 
Cossacks,  artillery,  and  engineers.  Each  divi- 
sion of  infantry  consists  of  two  brigades,  each 
brigade  of  two  regiments  of  three  battalions 
each,  each  battalion  of  four  companies,  and 
each  company  of  250  men.  Each  division  of 
cavalry  is  to  consist  of  two  brigades,  each 
brigade  of  three  regiments,  and  each  regiment 
of  four  squadrons  of  250  horses.  The  cavalry 
brigade  consists  of  a  regiment  of  dragoons,  a 
regiment  of  lancers,  and  a  regiment  of  hussars. 
A  brigade  of  artillery  consists  of  six  batteries 
of  eight  guns  each.  Of  these  batteries,  three 
are  of  nine-inch  guns,  two  of  four-inch  guns, 
and  one  of  mitrailleuses.  The  whole  regular 
army  will  thus  consist  of  192  regiments  of 
infantry,  56  regiments  of  cavalry,  and  2,256 
guns,  besides  seven  brigades  of  riflemen  (one 
of  the  guards).  The  engineer  corps  is  com- 
posed of  six  brigades  of  sappers  and  six  half 
battalions  of  pontoniers.  The  Cossacks  are  di- 
vided into  regiments  of  10  sotnias  of  100  men 
each ;  they  now  comprise  153  mounted  regi- 
ments, with  87  battalions  on  foot,  and  28  bat- 
teries. The  number  of  these  troops  can  bo 
increased  ad  libitum  at  any  time,  as  all  the 
Cossacks  are  liable  to  life-long  service.  The 
army  is  now  (1875)  estimated  at  750,000 ;  but 
the  whole  military  force  of  Russia  in  case  of 
war  can  be  brought  to  1,500,000,  with  300,- 
000  horses,  half  of  which  is  designed  to  be 
used  for  offensive  operations,  and  the  other 
half  for  defensive  only.  The  Russian  navy  is 
commanded  by  81  admirals  and  2,990  officers 
of  all  ranks,  and  contains  25,500  sailors  and 
marines.  The  fleet  consists  of  225  steam  ves- 
sels, with  521  guns,  of  a  total  tonnage  of  172,- 
501  and  total  horse  power  of  31,978,  distrib- 
uted as  follows :  Baltic  fleet,  27  ironclads  with 
200  guns,  40  steamships  with  170  guns,  and 
70  transports ;  Black  sea  fleet,  2  ironclads  with 
8  guns,  25  steamships  with  45  guns,  and  4 
transports;  Caspian  fleet,  11  steamships  with 
45  guns,  and  9  transports.  There  are  also 


37  steamers  with  53  guns,  of  a  tonnage  of 
2,424  and  a  horse  power  of  2,250,  scattered  in 
the  sea  of  Aral  and  on  the  Pacific  and  Arctic 
coasts.  The  administration  of  the  navy  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  minister  of  marine,  assisted 
by  an  admiralty  council,  but  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  is  vested  in  the  grand  ad- 
miral, now  the  grand  duke  Constantino,  broth- 
er of  the  czar.  The  great  naval  stations  are 
Cronstadt  in  the  gulf  of  Finland  and  Sebas- 
topol  on  the  Black  sea.  The  great  navy  yards 
are  those  of  St.  Petersburg  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Neva,  and  Nikolayov  in  the  Black  sea. — 
The  ancient  history  of  Russia  is  involved  in 
great  obscurity.  (For  an  account  of  theories 
concerning  the  name  Rus  in  its  earliest  con- 
nections, see  JAPHETH.)  The  Greek  and  Ro- 
man writers  mention  the  Scythians  and  the 
Sarmatians  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  vast  and 
unknown  regions  of  the  north,  especially  of 
the  country  between  the  Don  and  the  Dnie- 
per, a  description  of  which  is  given  by  Hero- 
dotus. Strabo  and  Tacitus  say  that  the  Roxo- 
lani,  a  Scythian  tribe,  which  according  to  the 
testimony  of  the  later  writer  Spartianus  was 
ruled  by  kings,  lived  on  the  Don.  The  Greeks 
entered  into  commercial  relations  with  them, 
and  established  some  colonies  in  their  terri- 
tory. During  the  migration  of  nations  in  the 
4th  and  the  following  centuries,  Russia  wit- 
nessed the  movements  of  hordes  of  Goths, 
Alans,  Huns,  Avars,  Bulgarians,  and  others. 
Soon  after  the  name  of  the  Slavs  appears  for 
the  first  time,  a  race,  according  to  the  gen- 
eral opinion  of  historians,  identical  with  the 
Sarmatians,  and  believed  to  have  extended 
northward  as  far  as  the  upper  Volga.  The 
Slavs  found  scattered  Finnish  tribes  dwelling 
in  these  territories,  and  drove  them  higher 
north  toward  Finland  and  the  region  of  the 
Arctic  sea.  Such  of  these  people  as  did  not 
remove  became  amalgamated  with  the  inva- 
ders, and  gave  their  descendants  that  indiffer- 
ent color  of  hair  and  sallow  complexion  which 
most  Russians  of  our  day  possess.  Thus  the 
people  now  known  as  Russians  are  a  compound 
product  of  the  various  Slavic  tribes,  of  many 
Scythic  tribes,  especially  tlie  Tartars,  who  in 
the  middle  ages  oppressed  Russia  for  centuries, 
and  of  Finns.  (See  SLAVIC  RACE  AND  LAN- 
GUAGES.) The  Slavs  founded  the  towns  of 
Novgorod  and  Kiev,  both  of  which  became 
the  capitals  of  independent  Slavic  principal- 
ities. After  a  history  of  about  100  years,  of 
which  nothing  is  known,  the  principality  of 
Novgorod,  of  unknown  extent,  and  surrounded 
by  a  number  of  tribes  of  Finns  of  the  Tchudio 
branch,  appears  struggling  against  the  invasion 
of  the  Varangians  (called  by  the  Slavs  Rus),  a 
tribe  of  Northmen,  who  succeeded  in  making 
both  the  Slavs  and  Finns  tributary.  For  a 
time  the  Slavs  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  Va- 
rangians, but  sinking  into  anarchy  and  feeling 
themselves  unable  to  cope  with  internal  and 
external  foes,  they,  together  with  some  of  the 
neighboring  Finnish  tribes,  invited  Rurik,  the 


RUSSIA 


489 


prince  of  the  Varangians,  to  Novgorod,  where 
he  arrived  about  862,  with  his  brothers  Sineus 
(or  Sinaf)  and  TYuvor,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  Kussian  empire.  For  nearly 
200  years  Russia  remained  under  the  autocra- 
tic power  of  the  descendants  of  Rurik.  He 
died  in  879,  leaving  the  empire,  not  to  his  son 
Igor,  who  was  only  four  years  old,  but  to  his 
cousin  Oleg,  a  great  conqueror  and  wise  ruler. 
Oleg  (879-912)  conquered  the  principality  of 
Kiev  and  united  it  with  his  own,  vanquished 
the  Khazars  (probably  a  people  of  Turanian 
origin,  who  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries  had 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  between  the 
Dnieper  and  the  Caspian,  being  ruled  for  a 
time  by  a  dynasty  converted  from  Islam  to 
Judaism),  drove  the  Magyars  out  of  the  bor- 
ders of  Russia  toward  the  country  now  occu- 
pied by  them,  and  made  an  expedition  by  land 
and  sea  (with  900  vessels)  against  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople,  with  whom  in  911  he  con- 
cluded an  advantageous  peace.  Igor,  the  son 
of  Rurik  (912-'45),  put  down  an  insurrection 
of  the  Drevlians  on  the  Pripet,  conquered  the 
Petchenegs,  who  lived  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  sea  from  the  Danube  to  the  mouths  of 
the  Dnieper,  made  an  unsuccessful  war  against 
the  emperor  of  Constantinople  in  941,  and  was 
slain  in  a  second  war  against  the  Drevlians. 
During  the  minority  of  his  son  Sviatoslav  (945- 
'72),  his  widow,  the  celebrated  Olga,  held  the 
reins  of  government  with  wisdom  and  ener- 
gy. In  her  reign  Christianity  began  to  spread 
in  Kiev,  and  Olga  herself  was  baptized  in  957 
at  Constantinople.  Her  son  Sviatoslav,  who 
remained  a  pagan,  won  new  victories  over  the 
Khazars,  subdued  the  Bulgarians  and  Petche- 
negs, and  was  slain  by  the  latter,  while  return- 
ing through  their  territory  from  a  war  against 
Constantinople.  He  had  extended  the  borders 
of  the  empire  to  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  in  970 
divided  it  among  his  three  sons,  giving  Kiev 
to  Yaropolk  I.  (972-'80),  the  country  of  the 
Drevlians  to  Oleg,  and  Novgorod  to  Vladimir. 
In  a  war  which  arose  between  the  three  broth- 
ers, Oleg  was  slain  and  Vladimir  fled,  and  the 
whole  empire  was  reunited  under  Yaropolk; 
but  in  980  Vladimir  returned  with  Varangian 
hordes,  conquered  Novgorod  and  Kiev,  and, 
having  put  his  brother  to  death,  became  the 
ruler  of  all  Russia.  Vladimir,  surnamed  the 
Great  on  account  of  the  benefits  he  conferred 
on  the  empire,  conquered  Red  Russia  and 
Lithuania,  and  made  Livonia  tributary..  He 
at  first  opposed  Christianity,  but  subsequently 
declared  himself  ready  to  embrace  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Greek  church,  married  the  sister 
of  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  was 
baptized  in  988  on  the  day  of  his  wedding. 
He  soon  after  ordered  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  the  entire  empire,  established 
churches  and  schools,  and  founded  new  towns. 
He  divided  the  empire  among  his  twelve  sons, 
who,  even  before  the  death  of  the  father  in 
1015,  engaged  in  a  fratricidal  war,  in  which  at 
length  Sviatopolk,  a  son  of  Vladimir's  broth- 


er Yaropolk  I.,  but  adopted  by  Vladimir,  pos- 
sessed himself  of  the  throne,  after  murdering 
three  of  his  brothers.  Another  brother,  Ya- 
roslav, allied  himself  with  the  emperor  Henry 
II.  of  Germany  against  Sviatopolk,  and  the 
father-in-law  of  the  latter,  King  Boleslas  of 
Poland.  The  war  lasted  till  1019,  when  a  three 
days'  battle  decided  in  favor  of  Yaroslav,  and 
Sviatopolk  died  on  his  flight  in  Poland. 
Yaroslav  (1019-'54)  for  some  time  was  sole 
ruler ;  but  in  a  war  against  his  brother  Msti- 
slav,  prince  of  Tmutorakan  on  the  strait  of 
Yenikale  (who  in  1016  had  destroyed  the  Cri- 
mean remnant  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Khazars, 
and  in  1022  subdued  the  Circassians),  he  was 
routed  in  1024,  and  purchased  peace  by  ceding 
to  his  brother  one  half  of  the  empire.  After 
the  death  of  Mstislav  in  1036,  the  entire  em- 
pire became  once  more  united  under  Yaroslav. 
By  several  successful  wars  he  considerably  en- 
larged its  territory,  and  like  his  father  intro- 
duced many  useful  reforms.  He  caused  the 
translation  of  many  Greek  works  into  Slavic, 
built  churches  and  schools,  increased  the  num- 
ber of  towns,  peopled  many  waste  tracts  of 
land,  and  ordered  the  compilation  of  the  Rus- 
slcaya  Prarda,  the  first  Russian  code.  Three 
of  his  daughters  were  married  to  the  kings  of 
Norway,  France,  and  Hungary.  A  few  days 
before  his  death  he  divided  the  empire  among 
his  four  sons,  with  the  provision  that  the  three 
younger  ones  should  obey  the  eldest  brother 
Izaslav,  to  whom  he  gave  Kiev  and  Novgorod. 
But  this  provision  proved  of  little  avail;  the 
four  divisions  of  the  empire  were  again  sub- 
divided, and  the  Russian  monarchy  was  finally 
changed  into  a  confederacy.  The  power  of 
the  nation  was  broken  by  a  never  ceasing  in- 
ternal war,  and  large  territories  in  western 
Russia  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  Poles, 
Lithuanians,  Danes,  Teutonic  knights,  and  oth- 
ers. Yet  many  important  cities  were  found- 
ed during  this  period,  as  Moscow  about  1147; 
and  Kiev  and  Novgorod  took  their  place 
among  the  wealthiest  and  most  prosperous 
cities  of  Europe.  The  calamity  of  civil  war 
was  soon  followed  by  one  still  greater.  From 
eastern  Asia  innumerable  hordes  of  Mongols 
under  Genghis  Khan  and  his  sons  advanced 
toward  Russia.  The  princes  made  a  fruitless 
attempt  to  arrest  their  course.  The  danger 
from  abroad  did  not  cure  the  internal  dis- 
sensions; and  after  the  invaders,  who  had 
won  the  bloody  battle  of  the  Kalka,  turned 
back  to  Asia,  internecine  war  recommenced, 
accompanied  by  famine  and  pestilence.  In 
1230,  30,000  men  died  of  the  plague  in  Smo- 
lensk, and  42,000  in  Novgorod.  Soon  after  the 
Mongols  returned  under  Batu.  Many  towns 
and  villages  were  sacked,  and  far  and  wide 
the  soil  reeked  with  the  blood  of  the  mur- 
dered inhabitants.  The  princes  had  to  pay 
heavy  tribute  to  the  Mongols,  and  though 
many  of  them  occasionally  gained  some  victo- 
ries, they  did  not  succeed  in  restoring  the  inde- 
pendence and  greatness  of  Russia.  Alexander 


490 


RUSSIA 


Nevski  (1247-'63),  at  first  prince  of  Novgo- 
rod, which  state  had  remained  almost  inde- 
pendent of  the  Mongols,  won  signal  victories 
over  the  Swedes,  Livonians,  and  Lithuanians 
on  the  Neva  (hence  his  surname).  With  refer- 
ence to  the  Tartar  invaders,  a  better  era  began 
only  with  Ivan  (John)  I.  Kalita,  prince  of  Mos- 
cow (1328-'40).  He  united  the  principality 
of  Tver  with  Moscow,  embellished  his  capital 
with  many  new  churches,  and  in  1339  began 
the  reconstruction  of  the  Kremlin.  Some  time 
before  his  death  he  retired  into  a  convent 
and  died  aa  a  monk.  He  managed  to  keep  up 
friendly  relations  with  the  Tartars,  and  thus 
gave  the  people  a  chance  to  recover  their 
strength  and  to  organize  a  new  army,  which, 
under  one  of  his  successors,  Demetrius  (Dimi- 
tri),  routed  the  Mongols  in  1378,  and  again  in 
1380  on  the  Don  (hence  his  surname  Donski), 
where  100,000  Mongols  are  said  to  have  been 
slain.  But  in  1382  they  again  returned,  burned 
Vladimir  and  Moscow,  and  slew  in  the  latter 
city  alone  24,000  inhabitants.  Demetrius  was 
obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  heavy  sacrifices, 
after  which  he  took  revenge  on  the  Russian 
princes  to  whose  defection  he  owed  his  last 
defeat,  and  all  of  them  save  the  prince  of  Tver 
were  subjected  to  his  rule.  The  power  of 
the  grand  principality  (improperly  called  grand 
duchy)  of  Moscow  was  greatly  increased  du- 
ring the  reign  of  Basil  (Vasili)  II.  (1389-1425) 
by  the  incorporation  of  Nizhni  Novgorod  and 
Suzdal,  and  under  Basil  III.  (1425-'62)  by  the 
incorporation  of  Ilalicz,  Mozhaisk,  and  Borovsk. 
During  the  reign  of  the  latter  the  metropol- 
itan Isidore  of  Kiev  took  part  in  the  general 
council  of  Florence  (1439),  and  subscribed  to 
the  act  of  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  church- 
es ;  but  Basil  disapproved  this  step,  and  or- 
dered Isidore  to  be  thrown  into  prison,  whence 
after  some  years  he  escaped  into  Italy.  A  new 
period  in  the  history  of  Russia  begins  with  its 
entire  deliverance  from  the  rule  and  influence 
of  the  Mongols  through  Ivan  III.,  surnamed  the 
Great  (1462-1505).  Having  strengthened  his 
power  by  a  victory  over  the  khan  of  Kazan, 
whom  he  made  tributary  in  1469,  and  by  the 
conquest  and  annexation  of  Novgorod,  Perm, 
and  Pskov,  he  declared  to  the  ambassadors 
of  the  Mongols  that  Russia  would  henceforth 
cease  to  pay  them  tribute,  and  successfully 
resisted  their  renewed  invasion.  He  then 
conquered  and  annexed  several  more  Russian 
principalities,  and  a  part  of  Siberia  in  1499. 
But  in  a  war  against  the  Livonians,  who  were 
aided  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  he  was  totally 
routed  in  1501,  and  was  compelled  to  conclude 
a  truce  for  six  years,  and  a  little  later  a  peace 
for  50  years.  He  married  Sophia,  a  princess 
of  the  late  imperial  house  of  Constantinople, 
and,  by  right  of  his  consanguinity  to  that 
house,  adopted  the  double-headed  eagle  for  his 
escutcheon.  He  improved  the  laws,  regulated 
the  public  taxes,  and  was  the  first  who  assumed 
the  title  of  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias.  Under 
the  reign  of  Basil  IV.  (1505-'83),  the  last  semi- 


independent  principality  ceased  by  the  final  in- 
corporation of  Pskov  in  1510.  The  hereditary 
war  of  the  Russians  against  Lithuania,  which 
had  become  united  with  Poland  under  the  Ju- 
gellos,  was  carried  on  by  him  with  varying 
success;  but  the  Tartars  of  Kazan  were  com- 
pletely routed  in  1524  and  1530  and  made  trib- 
utary. His  son  Ivan  IV.  (1533-'84)  soon  re- 
stored order  by  cruel  energy,  and  history  has 
surnamed  him  the  Terrible.  Yet  he  contrib- 
uted more  to  the  greatness  of  Russia  than 
any  of  his  predecessors.  In  1545  he  created 
a  standing  army,  called  the  strieltzi  (archers), 
in  1552  reconquered  Kazan,  whose  ruler  du- 
ring his  minority  had  made  himself  indepen- 
dent, in  1553  opened  a  commercial  road  to 
Archangel,  in  1554  subdued  Astrakhan,  made 
successful  campaigns  in  Livonia  and  Esthouia, 
and  in  1570  united  the  country  of  the  Don 
with  his  empire.  In  1581-'2  a  Cossack  free- 
booter, Yermak  Timofeyeff,  conquered  for  him 
Siberia.  But  his  attempt  to  drive  the  Teutonic 
knights  out  of  Livonia  failed,  because  the  Ger- 
mans, Poles  (under  Stephen  Bathori),  Danes, 
and  Swedes  united  against  him ;  and  at  the 
peace,  concluded  in  1582,  he  had  to  cede 
Livonia  to  Sweden.  He  greatly  encouraged 
commerce,  concluded  commercial  treaties  with 
England,  called  many  foreigners,  especially 
Germans  and  Englishmen,  into  his  empire, 
and  in  1569  established  a  printing  office  in 
Moscow.  In  Novgorod,  which  he  hated  on 
account  of  the  free  spirit  of  the  citizens,  he 
put  more  than  60,000  men  to  death  in  1570, 
adding  to  the  slaughter  the  most  exquisite 
tortures.  Similar  scenes  occurred  in  Tver  and 
Moscow.  Finally,  however,  struck  with  re- 
morse, he  intended  to  abdicate  and  retire  into 
a  convent,  but  died  before  this  design  could  be 
executed.  His  son  Feodor  (or  Fedor)  I.  (1584- 
'98)  was  weak  in  mind  and  body,  and,  accord- 
ing to  an  order  of  his  father,  was  assisted  in 
the  government  by  a  state  council.  In  1588 
his  brother-in-law  Boris  Feodorovitch  Godu- 
noff,  a  man  of  great  talents  but  immoderate 
ambition,  obtained  the  sole  control  of  state 
affairs.  He  aspired  to  the  throne,  and  many 
of  his  rivals  and  several  members  of  the  im- 
perial family  were  exiled  or  poisoned.  Feodor 
himself  is  believed  to  have  died  of  poison,  and 
with  him  the  house  of  Rurik  became  extinct. 
Boris  Godunoff  was  called  by  the  boyars  to  the 
throne.  He  established  serfdom,  but  his  reign 
was  in  many  respects  beneficent;  law  was  im- 
partially administered,  arts  and  trades  encour- 
aged, many  intelligent  foreigners  called  into 
the  empire,  and  the  enlightenment  of  the  peo- 
ple promoted.  Yet  civil  war,  cruelty  against 
the  boyars,  and  a  terrible  famine  in  1601,  by 
which  in  Moscow  alone  upward  of  100,000 
persons  perished,  created  great  dissatisfaction. 
An  impostor,  who  claimed  to  be  Demetrius  the 
son  of  Ivan,  and  was  aided  by  Polish  magnates, 
stirred  up  a  rebellion,  and,  after  the  sudden 
death  of  Boris  Godunoff  in  1605,  dethroned 
Feodor,  the  son  of  the  latter,  and  was  himself 


RUSSIA 


491 


crowned  as  czar.  But  in  the  next  year  he  lost 
crown  and  life  in  a  conspiracy,  and  the  Rus- 
sian grandees  made  the  boyar  Shuiski  czar, 
who  was  crowned  on  June  1,  1606,  as  Basil  V. 
Ivanovitch.  Another  pseudo  Demetrius  rose 
against  him,  and,  supported  by  the  Poles,  ad- 
vanced victoriously  toward  Moscow.  Basil 
sought  and  obtained  an  alliance  with  the 
Swedes,  which  induced  Sigismund  III.  of  Po- 
land to  espouse  openly  the  cause  of  the  pseu- 
do Demetrius.  The  Swedish  troops  soon  went 
over  to  the  Poles,  Moscow  was  forced  to  sur- 
render (1610),  and  the  czar  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  died  the  next  year  in  a  Polish  prison. 
Moscow  was  burned  in  1611  by  the  Poles;  who 
had  been  attacked  there,  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants  were  slaughtered ;  but  in 
1612  the  Poles  were  forced  by  Pozharski  and 
other  popular  leaders  to  evacuate  Russia.  In 
the  next  year  the  Russians  elevated  to  the 
throne  Michael  Feodorovitch  Romanoff,  the 
first  czar  of  the  present  imperial  family.  He 
was  a  son  of  Feodor,  archbishop  of  Rostov 
and  afterward  patriarch  of  Moscow  under  the 
name  of  Philaret,  whose  grandfather  had  been 
connected  by  marriage  with  the  house  of  Ru- 
rik.  Michael  (1613-'45)  concluded  in  1617  a 
peace  with  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  and 
with  the  Poles,  and  devoted  his  whole  energy 
to  promoting  the  internal  prosperity  of  his 
empire.  Commerce,  which  had  been  entirely 
prostrate,  was  revived  by  treaties  with  Eng- 
land, France,  Persia,  and  China;  and  the  bor- 
ders of  his  Asiatic  possessions  were  extended 
in  1639  to  the  Pacilic.  Under  his  son  Alexis 
(1645-'76)  the  Cossacks,  who  had  risen  under 
Chmielnicki  against  Poland,  in  1654  acknowl- 
edged the  sovereignty  of  the  czar.  A  war  with 
Poland  ended  with  the  restoration  or  annexa- 
tion to  Russia  of  Tchernigov,  Smolensk,  Kiev, 
and  the  Ukraine.  The  reign  of  his  son  Feodor 
III.  (1676-'82)  was  signalized  by  many  impor- 
tant reforms.  According  to  his  last  will,  not  his 
imbecile  brother  Ivan,  the  heir  apparent,  but 
his  half  brother  Peter,  whose  eminent  talents 
he  seems  to  have  anticipated,  was  to  succeed 
him.  But  the  sister  of  Ivan,  Sophia,  plotted  a 
conspiracy,  in  consequence  of  which  both  Ivan 
and  Peter  were  proclaimed  czars,  and  she  her- 
self obtained  the  regency  of  the  empire.  In 
1689,  however,  Peter  overthrew  her  rule,  and 
shut  her  up  for  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  a 
convent.  Ivan  gladly  abandoned  his  claim  to 
the  throne,  which  was  now  mounted  by  Peter, 
known  in  history  as  the  Great.  In  a  brief 
time  he  transformed  the  entire  nation,  though 
personally  betraying  barbarous  impulses  till 
his  death.  Russia  became  the  most  powerful 
empire  of  northern  Europe,  and  henceforth 
regarded  herself  and  was  generally  regarded 
as  a  leading  member  of  the  European  family 
of  states.  In  1703  he  founded  a  new  capital, 
St.  Petersburg,  which  soon  became  one  of 
the  richest  cities  of  Europe.  The  victory  over 
Charles  XII.  at  Poltava  (1709)  destroyed  the 
euperiority  of  Sweden,  and  in  the  peace  of 


Nystad  (1721)  Peter  incorporated  Ingria,  a  part 
of  Karelia,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia  with  Russia. 
He  was  equally  successful  against  Persia,  which 
in  1723  ceded  the  provinces  of  Daghestan  and 
other  territories  on  the  Caspian,  with  the 
towns  of  Baku  and  Derbent.  His  wife  and 
successor,  Catharine  I.  (l725-'7),  guided  and 
supported  by  two  favorites  of  Peter,  Menshi- 
koff  and  Buturlin,  made  likewise  many  impor- 
tant improvements.  She  increased  the  army 
and  navy,  diminished  the  taxes,  and  recalled 
the  exiles  from  Siberia.  She  concluded  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Austria, 
and  sent  an  ambassador  to  China  to  propose  a 
commercial  treaty.  She  was  succeeded  by  Pe- 
ter II.  (1727-'30),  a  grandson  of  Peter  I.,  only 
11  years  old,  during  whose  brief  reign  the 
princes  Menshikoff  and  Dolgoruki  successively 
controlled  affairs.  At  his  sudden  death  the 
crown  devolved  on  Anna,  the  daughter  of 
Ivan  Alexeyevitch  (half  brother  of  Peter  the 
Great),  and  widow  of  the  duke  of  Courland. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  force  on  her  a  "  ca- 
pitulation," restricting  the  rights  of  the  crown 
in  favor  of  the  boyars ;  but  Anna  soon  discard- 
ed the  compact,  exiled  the  princes  Dolgoruki 
and  Gallitzin,  abolished  the  privy  council,  and 
reorganized  the  senate  on  an  entirely  new  basis. 
The  Kirghiz  tribes  in  1731  submitted  to  the 
protectorate  of  Russia,  but  the  Persian  prov- 
inces were  lost.  Under  her  reign  the  N.  E. 
coast  of  Siberia  and  the  Aleutian  islands  were 
discovered,  and  the  incorporation  of  Siberia 
was  completed.  In  the  war  of  the  Polish  suc- 
cession Anna  took  sides  with  Augustus  III., 
who  promised  to  her  favorite,  Duke  Biron,  the 
duchy  of  Courland,  then  a  Polish  fief.  The 
success  of  Augustus  secured  the  Russian  in- 
fluence in  Polish  affairs.  In  the  war  against 
Turkey,  Moldavia  was  conquered  by  Munnich ; 
but  when  Austria  concluded  the  unfavorable 
peace  of  Belgrade  (1739),  Russia  also  laid  down 
her  arms  and  gave  up  Moldavia.  After  Anna's 
death  (1740),  her  grandnephew  Ivan,  only  a 
few  months  old,  was  proclaimed  czar  under 
the  regency  of  Duke  Biron  of  Courland ;  but 
he  was  soon  dethroned  by  Elizabeth  (l741-'62), 
the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine 
I.  In  the  first  years  of  her  reign  Sweden  was 
instigated  by  France  to  a  war  against  Russia, 
which  was  terminated  in  1743  by  the  peace  of 
Abo,  and  secured  to  Russia  the  possession  of 
some  districts  of  Finland.  In  the  seven  years' 
war  Elizabeth  supported  Austria,  and  the  vic- 
tories of  Gross-Jagerndorf  and  Kunersdorf,  and 
even  the  defeat  of  Zorndorf,  apprised  Europe 
of  the  great  improvements  introduced  into  the 
Russian  army.  Under  her  reign  the  death  pen- 
alty and  the  rack  were  abolished,  but  sentences 
of  exile,  and  cruel  punishments  dictated  by  hef 
own  resentment,  were  numerous.  She  estab- 
lished the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, the  first  Russian  university  at  Moscow 
(1755),  two  colleges,  and  several  other  impor- 
tant literary  institutions.  She  was  succeeded 
by  Peter  III.,  the  son  of  her  sister,  formerly 


492 


RUSSIA 


duke  of  Holstein,  who  immediately  on  his  ac- 
cession gave  up  the  alliance  with  Austria,  and 
concluded,  first  a  peace,  and  soon  after  an  offen- 
sive alliance  with  Frederick  the  Great.  After  a 
reign  of  only  a  few  months,  Peter  lost  the  crown 
and  his  life  by  a  court  revolution,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  his  own  wife,  a  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  now  ascended  the 
throne  as  Catharine  II.  (17G2-'96).  During 
her  reign  Russia  gained  a  leading  and  decisive 
influence  in  the  system  of  European  policy, 
and  was  generally  recognized  as  one  of  the 
great  powers  of  Europe.  Catharine  fully  com- 
prehended the  necessity  of  external  peace  for 
the  development  of  the  internal  resources  of 
the  empire,  and  soon  after  her  accession  re- 
called the  Russian  troops  who  were  taking  part 
in  the  seven  years'  war.  She  surrounded  her 
throne  with  a  host  of  statesmen  and  warriors, 
more  famous  for  ability  than  character,  such 
as  Gallitzin,  Rumiantzeff,  Panin,  Orloff,  Solti- 
koff,  Suvaroff,  Tchernitchev,  Repnin,  and  Po- 
temkin.  She  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
nefarious  dismemberments  of  Poland  in  1772, 
1793,  and  1795,  and  received  herself  the  lion's 
share,  consisting  of  nearly  two  thirds  of  the 
Polish  kingdom ;  and  in  a  number  of  success- 
ful wars  she  wrested  from  the  Turks  the  Cri- 
mea, Azov,  and  several  other  territories.  Al- 
together the  territory  of  Russia  was  enlarged 
during  her  reign  by  nearly  225,000  sq.  m., 
Corn-land  being  among  the  acquisitions.  The 
internal  progress  was  no  less  signal.  More 
than  50,000  industrious  foreigners  settled  in 
the  fine  agricultural  districts  of  southern  Rus- 
sia as  colonists,  and  a  largo  number  of  new 
educational  and  charitable  institutions  were 
established.  Commerce,  navigation,  and  in- 
dustry greatly  improved  under  Catharine ;  the 
administration  of  the  empire  waa  thoroughly 
reorganized,  and  in  1706  the  empress  even 
convoked  a  general  assembly  of  delegates  from 
the  provinces  to  consult  respecting  the  compi- 
lation of  a  new  code  of  laws.  Iler  son,  Paul 
I.  (1796-1801),  took  an  active  part  in  the 
European  war  kindled  by  the  French  revolu- 
tion, forming  a  defensive  and  offensive  alli- 
ance against  France,  with  England,  Austria, 
Naples,  and  the  Porte.  His  armies  were  sent 
in  1799  against  the  French  republic  to  Italy, 
Switzerland,  and  Holland,  and  his  chief  com- 
mander, Suvaroff,  not  only  increased  the  fame 
of  the  Russian  arms,  but  greatly  strengthen- 
ed the  Russian  influence  on  European  policy. 
Dissatisfied  with  his  allies,  Paul  soon  recalled 
the  army,  concluded  with  Denmark  and  Swe- 
den a  convention  of  armed  neutrality,  and 
even  made  friendly  advances  toward  France, 
when  a  conspiracy  of  Russian  nobles,  who  had 
suffered  much  from  his  despotic  caprices,  led 
to  his  assassination.  His  son,  Alexander  I. 
(1801-'25),  was  strongly  inclined  in  favor  of  a 
peaceful  policy,  though  ho  found  it  impossible 
to  keep  out  of  the  general  war.  In  1801-'2 
he  was  active  in  promoting  the  treaties  which 
led  to  the  gradual  dissolution  of  the  German 


empire.  About  this  time  he  incorporated  with 
Russia  all  the  provinces  of  Georgia.  The  faith- 
lessness of  Napoleon  toward  Naples  and  Han- 
over, and  the  execution  of  the  duke  d'En- 
ghien  (who  was  carried  off  from  Baden),  in- 
duced Alexander  to  enter  into  an  anti-French 
alliance  with  Austria,  England,  Sweden,  and 
Naples.  A  grand  army  under  Kutuzoff  march- 
ed into  Moravia,  united  with  the  Austrians, 
and  with  them  was  routed  at  Austerlitz,  where 
Alexander  was  himself  present,  Dec.  2,  1805. 
Not  more  fortunate  was  the  alliance  of  Alex- 
ander with  Prussia.  After  the  indecisive  bat- 
tle of  Eylau,  Feb.  7,  8, 1807,  the  Russians  were 
totally  defeated  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Fried- 
land  (June  14),  and  Alexander  was  forced  to 
conclude  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (July  7),  by  a 
secret  article  of  which  he  surrendered  the  Io- 
nian islands  to  France,  while  he  received  from 
Prussia  the  district  of  Bialystok,  with  184,000 
inhabitants.  Moreover,  Russia  had  to  give  its 
adhesion  to  the  continental  system,  and  to 
close  its  ports  to  British  vessels.  A  war  with 
the  Turks,  which  had  been  instigated  by  Na- 
poleon, terminated  in  favor  of  the  Russians, 
who  occupied  Moldavia  and  "Wallachia.  The 
peace  of  Tilsit  raised  two  new  enemies  against 
Russia:  England,  which  desired  to  take  re- 
venge for  the  adhesion  of  Russia  to  the  con- 
tinental system,  and  inflicted  great  damage  on 
Russian  commerce;  and  Gustavus  IV.  of  Swe- 
den, who  in  a  brief  and  unfortunate  war  lost 
the  crown  for  himself  and  for  his  race,  while 
Sweden,  in  the  treaty  at  Frederikshamn,  Sept. 
17,  1809,  ceded  Finland,  the  Aland  islands,  and 
a  portion  of  Bothnia,  a  territory  with  900,000 
inhabitants.  For  five  years  Alexander  remain- 
ed on  good  terms  with  Napoleon,  and  in  the 
treaty  between  France  and  Austria  at  SchOn- 
brunn  (Oct.  14,  1809)  Russia  received  from 
Austria  the  district  of  Tarnopol  in  Galicia, 
with  400,000  inhabitants.  Turkey,  in  the 
peace  at  Bucharest  in  1812,  was  obliged  to 
cede  Bessarabia  and  a  part  of  Moldavia;  and 
Persia,  in  the  peace  at  Gulistan  in  1813,  to 
surrender  Daghestan  and  Shirvan,  former  con- 
quests of  Peter  the  Great.  Another  great  war 
with  France  became  inevitable  when  Alexan- 
der found  it  necessary,  by  a  ukase  of  Dec. 
31,  1810,  to  set  aside  one  of  the  provisions  of 
the  peace  of  Tilsit.  In  1812  Napoleon  inva- 
ded Russia  with  an  army  of  500,000  men,  for 
which  Italy,  the  kings  of  Prussia  and  Saxony, 
and  other  vassals  had  been  compelled  to  fur- 
nish large  contingents.  The  Russians  lost  the 
bloody  battle  on  the  Moskva,  Sept.  7,  and  even 
Moscow  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French ; 
but  the  burning  of  the  city  by  the  Russians 
was  the  beginning  of  a  frightful  retreat  of 
the  French,  during  which  nearly  the  whole 
grand  army  was  destroyed.  On  Feb.  28,  1813, 
Russia  was  joined  in  her  war  against  France 
by  Prussia,  and  in  August  by  Austria;  two 
months  later  the  battle  of  Leipsic  decided  the 
issue  of  the  great  Franco-Russian  war,  and  in 
1814,  and  again  in  1815,  Alexander  entered 


EUSSIA 


493 


Paris  as  the  foremost  among  the  allied  mon- 
archs  to  whom  Napoleon  succumbed.  In  the 
congresses  of  Vienna  (1814-'15)  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1818),  which  reorganized  the  polit- 
ical relations  of  the  European  states,  the  in- 
fluence of  Alexander,  the  founder  of  the  "  holy 
alliance,"  was  paramount ;  the  duchy  of  War- 
saw, which  Napoleon  had  created,  was  sur- 
rendered to  him,  and  transformed  into  a  king- 
dom of  Poland  under  the  Russian  sceptre ;  and 
in  the  contest  which  soon  sprung  up  through- 
out Europe  between  the  liberal  and  democra- 
tic tendencies  of  the  age  and  the  hereditary 
rights  of  the  princes,  Russia  was  regarded  as 
the  chief  support  of  the  latter.  At  the  same 
time  Alexander  was  eagerly  intent  on  promo- 
ting the  civilization  of  his  empire  and  develop- 
ing its  immense  resources.  The  system  of 
public  instruction  was  greatly  improved,  and 
religious  reforms  were  encouraged;  serfdom 
had  been  abolished  in  Courland  and  Livonia. 
The  death  of  Alexander,  Dec.  1,  1825,  acceler- 
ated the  outbreak  of  a  conspiracy  which  had 
wide  ramifications  throughout  Russia,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  army ;  but  his  brother  and  suc- 
cessor, Nicholas  I.  (1825-'55),  suppressed  it 
with  great  energy,  and  the  leaders  of  the  con- 
spiracy were  either  put  to  death  or  exiled  to 
Siberia.  A  war,  begun  by  Persia  immediate- 
ly on  receiving  the  intelligence  of  the  death 
of  Alexander,  was  victoriously  terminated  by 
Paskevitch ;  and  by  the  peace  of  Turkmantchai, 
Feb.  22,  1828,  Russia  gained  the  provinces  of 
Erivan  and  Nakhitchevan,  80,000,000  rubles 
as  indemnity,  and  the  exclusive  control  of  the 
Caspian  sea.  A  war  against  Turkey  commenced 
in  1828  was  equally  successful,  the  Turks  be- 
ing obliged  to  cede  in  the  peace  of  Adrianople 
(Sept.  14,  1829)  several  fortresses  on  the  fron- 
tier and  the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  and  to  pay 
a  large  indemnity.  The  heroic  efforts  of  the 
Polish  nation  in  1830-'31  to  recover  its  in- 
dependence at  length  succumbed  to  the  over- 
whelming power  of  the  czar,  who  by  a  ukase 
of  1832  declared  the  kingdom  of  Poland  a 
Russian  province  without  diet  and  without  its 
own  army,  and  openly  announced  his  inten- 
tion gradually  to  transform  the  Poles  into  Rus- 
sians. The  same  plan  was  pursued  with  re- 
gard to  the  numerous  other  tribes  and  nation- 
alities of  the  empire,  and  no  means  was  left 
untried  to  extend  the  dominion  of  the  Rus- 
sian language  and  the  Russian  church.  A  war 
against  the  independent  tribes  of  the  Caucasus, 
who  after  1834  were  led  by  Shamyl,  was  car- 
ried on,  with  but  little  interruption  and  with 
varying  success,  through  the  entire  reign  of 
Nicholas.  In  1849  a  Russian  army  was  sent 
to  the  aid  of  Austria  against  the  Hungarians, 
and  assisted  in  the  suppression  of  the  revolu- 
tion. In  1853  Russia  demanded  from  the 
Turkish  government  certain  guarantees  of  the 
rights  of  the  Greek  Christians  of  Turkey,  which 
the  Porte  believed  to  involve  an  actual  abdica- 
tion of  its  sovereignty,  and  which  it  therefore 
refused  to  concede.  This  led  in  the  same 


year  to  the  beginning  of  the  "  eastern  war." 
in  which  France,  England,  and  Sardinia  took 
sides  (1854)  with  Turkey,  on  the  ground  that 
the  existence  of  the  latter  empire  and  the  equi- 
librium of  political  power  in  Europe  were  en- 
dangered by  Russia.  This  war,  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Sebastopol, 
was  terminated  under  Nicholas's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Alexander  II.,  who  ascended  the  throne 
on  March  2,  1855.  (See  CRIMEA.)  By  the 
treaty  of  Paris  (March  30,  185G)  Russia  lost  a 
small  strip  of  land  in  Bessarabia,  and  her  naval 
preponderance  in  the  Black  sea.  She  recovered 
the  latter,  however,  by  withdrawing  from  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1870,  when  France  was  en- 
gaged in  a  disastrous  war,  while  England  alone 
was  unable  to  compel  Russia  to  respect  the 
treaty.  A  large  fleet  for  the  southern  waters 
is  now  (1875)  in  course  of  construction.  The 
reign  of  Alexander  II.  opened  with  a  series 
of  liberal  reforms,  which  at  once  aroused  the 
slumbering  energies  of  the  nation.  (See  ALEX- 
ANDER II.,  and  GORTCHAKOFF.)  The  war  in 
the  Caucasus  terminated  with  the  capture  of 
Shamyl  in  1859.  A  new  rising  in  Poland, 
which  broke  out  in  January,  1863,  was  crushed 
in  the  following  year,  and  in  consequence  of 
it  the  administration  of  that  country  was  en- 
tirely assimilated  to  that  of  Russia  proper,  the 
long  exercised  Russianizing  process  being  de- 
veloped with  the  utmost  rigor.  (See  POLAND.) 
Favorable  commercial  treaties  were  concluded 
in  1858  and  1860  with  Japan  and  China,  and 
from  the  latter  power  a  valuable  and  exten- 
sive tract  of  land  on  the  river  Amoor  was 
acquired,  while  the  Japanese  have  ceded  to 
Russia  all  their  claims  on  the  island  of  Sagha- 
lien.  On  the  other  hand,  Russia  sold  to  the 
United  States  in  1867  the  vast  territory  of 
Alaska,  which  had  been  occupied  since  the 
reign  of  Paul.  A  telegraph  line  has  been  com- 
pleted from  St.  Petersburg  to  Yokohama,  and 
the  Siberian  railway  is  speedily  pushing  for- 
ward toward  the  Pacific  coast.  Another  rail- 
way line,  the  Central  Asian,  is  in  process  of  con- 
struction to  Tashkend,  a  very  important  com- 
mercial town,  and  the  rendezvous  of  the  car- 
avans of  Turkistan. — The  Russian  conquests  in 
central  Asia  have  recently  attracted  general  at- 
tention, though  the  Russian  advance  into  these 
regions  began  centuries  ago,  when  the  czars 
of  Moscow,  freed  from  the  Tartar  invasion, 
began  to  retaliate  upon  the  invaders,  and  en- 
deavored to  find  a  market  for  their  manufac- 
tures, which,  being  of  a  very  inferior  quality, 
had  no  sale  in  Europe.  Between  the  Ural  riv- 
er, which  forms  a  part  of  the  natural  eastern 
boundary  of  European  Russia,  and  the  Irtish, 
formerly  on  the  S.  W.  frontier  of  Siberia,  ex- 
tended boundless  steppes,  the  whole  popula- 
tion of  which  consisted  of  a  few  thousand  wan- 
dering Kirghiz.  These  tribes,  when  not  fight- 
ing among  themselves,  united  in  attacks  upon 
the  Russian  frontier  settlements,  and  compelled 
the  Russians  to  pursue  them  into  the  interior 
of  the  steppes.  During  these  continued  fights 


494 


RUSSIA 


some  of  the  tribes  submitted  to  the  Russian 
rule,  but  for  two  centuries  no  one  could  say 
who  was  the  real  master  of  the  vast  tracts 
of  land  which  lay  between  the  rich  and  fruit- 
ful khanates  of  central  Asia  and  the  banks 
of  the  Ural  and  Irtish.  There  was  much 
trade  between  these  khanates  and  the  towns 
of  Astrakhan  and  Orenburg,  but  it  was  car- 
ried on  chiefly  by  Bokhara  merchants  com- 
ing across  the  steppes,  not  by  Russian  mer- 
chants venturing  abroad ;  for  while  the  former 
managed  to  get  safely  with  their  caravans 
through  the  wilderness  and  to  make  good  bar- 
gains with  the  Muscovites,  the  latter  ran  great 
risk  of  being  robbed  and  killed  in  the  steppes, 
or  robbed  and  sold  into  bondage  in  the  khan- 
ates themselves.  So  great  was  the  desire  of 
the  Russians  to  get  the  silk  and  cotton  of 
Bokhara  and  Khiva  in  exchange  for  their  own 
products,  that  the  merchants  of  the  khanates 
trading  in  Russia  were  exempt  from  all  taxes 
and  duties,  notwithstanding  the  bad  treatment 
the  Russian  merchants  underwent  in  the  khan- 
ates and  the  heavy  duties  levied  upon  their 
wares.  Under  the  emperor  Nicholas  the  first 
attempts  to  compel  the  khanates  to  a  fairer 
way  of  trading  were  made,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess. The  expedition  of  Count  Perovsky  in 
1839-'40  perished  under  the  combined  influ- 
ence of  want  of  water  and  food  and  of  con- 
stant flghts  with  the  overwhelming  forces  of 
the  khans  and  the  hostile  nomadic  tribes.  But 
toward  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  the 
steppes  beyond  the  river  Ural  came,  some- 
how or  othor,  to  be  considered  as  Russian 
territory;  they  were  called  domains  of  the 
Kirghiz  of  Orenburg  and  of  the  Kirghiz  of 
Siberia  respectively,  and  some  outpost  settle- 
ments were  established,  not  only  on  the  steppes, 
but  even  beyond  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Sir 
Darya.  Of  these  Fort  Perovsky,  which  was 
almost  a  fortress,  was  both  the  most  distant 
and  the  most  important,  since  it  enabled  the 
Russians  to  launch  two  steamers  on  the  sea  of 
Aral,  and  thence  to  navigate  a  portion  of  the 
Sir  Darya.  Yet  occasionally  whole  settlements 
were  exterminated  by  the  wandering  tribes, 
and  many  of  the  fortified  outposts  were  regu- 
larly besieged  by  the  united  troops  of  the  khan 
of  Khokan  and  the  emir  of  Bokhara.  A  spe- 
cial committee  appointed  to  investigate  the 
state  of  affairs  in  the  Asiatic  dominions  pro- 
nounced it  absolutely  necessary  to  "  unite  the 
new  outpost  lino  on  the  Sir  Darya  with  the 
advanced  posts  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Si- 
beria." This  resolution  practically  meant  the 
erection  of  new  fortified  places  further  along 
the  Sir  Darya  to  the  foot  of  the  Thian-shan 
mountains  and  to  the  lake  of  Issik-kul,  and 
had  been  approved  by  Nicholas  when  the  Cri- 
mean war  caused  the  government  to  postpone 
all  its  projects  in  Asia.  About  1860  the  pro- 
ject was  resumed,  the  first  steps  being  taken 
from  Siberia  by  the  construction  of  Forts  Vier- 
noye  and  Kastek  at  the  foot  of  the  Thian-shan. 
A  double  advance  was  executed  in  1863  by 


small  detachments  toward  and  along  the  Sir 
Darya.  The  Khokan  fortresses  Pishpek  and 
Tokmak,  and  Yeni  Kurgan,  were  occupied. 
About  the  beginning  of  1864  the  two  detach- 
ments were  comparatively  near  each  other, 
and  in  June  the  western,  commanded  by  Col. 
Verefkin,  took  Hazret-i-Turkistan ;  while  about 
the  same  time  the  eastern,  commanded  by  Col. 
Tcherniayeff,  captured  the  fort  of  Auliet.  The 
ends  of  the  two  lines  were  thus  nearly  joined, 
and  in  October  Col.  Tcherniayeff,  commanding 
the  united  detachments,  entered  Tchemkend. 
The  original  object  of  the  Russian  government 
was  thus  accomplished,  and  it  was  Alexander's 
intention  to  stop  any  further  advance  of  his 
troops;  but  the  khans  of  Bokhara  and  Kho- 
kan, and  subsequently  of  Khiva,  by  their  con- 
stant attacks  on  the  Russian  outposts,  com- 
pelled the  generals  to  advance  further.  Tash- 
kend  was  taken  in  1865,  Khojend  in  1866,  and 
Samarcand,  by  Gen.  Kaufmann,  in  1868.  The 
same  general  vanquished  the  khan  of  Khiva  in 
1873  (see  KHIVA),  and  in  September,  1875, 
after  another  victory,  took  the  city  of  Khokan. 
The  cessions  which  the  khan  of  Khiva  was 
forced  to  make  brought  the  entire  E.  coast  of 
the  Caspian  sea  into  the  hands  of  Russia,  so 
that  she  can  now  keep  her  military  lines  of 
operation  in  perfect  order  by  constant  supplies 
by  rail,  river,  and  the  sea,  from  St.  Petersburg 
and  the  Baltic.  The  Russian  government  has 
determined  to  connect  the  Caspian  sea  and  the 
sea  of.  Azov  (and  through  the  latter  the  Black 
sea)  by  a  canal  750  m.  long,  which,  it  is  esti- 
mated, can  be  finished  in  six  years  at  a  cost  of 
about  $62,000,000.  By  it  the  military  strength 
of  the  whole  southern  coast  region  will  be  ma- 
terially increased,  for  through  it  fleets  will  be 
able  to  penetrate  from  the  Black  sea  into  the 
Caspian,  and  there  unite  for  a  combined  attack 
or  a  common  defence.  Such  is  the  military 
importance  of  the  Caspian  sea  in  the  estima- 
tion of  Russia,  that  while  reserving  to  herself 
the  unrestricted  use  of  its  waters,  she  has  im- 
posed a  treaty  on  Persia  which  prevents  that 
power  from  maintaining  any  vessels  of  war 
upon  it,  notwithstanding  that  its  S.  and  S.  W. 
snores  are  part  of  its  territory.  There  is  an 
active  commercial  movement  on  the  Caspian, 
but  it  is  almost  exclusively  Russian.  More  than 
800  vessels  annually  enter  its  ports,  engaged  in 
trade  with  Persia,  Tartary,  and  the  Caucasus. 
— But  the  greatest  event  in  recent  Russian 
history  is  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  de- 
creed by  Alexander  II.  on  March  3  (Feb.  19, 
O.  S.),  1861.  The  early  history  of  Russia  was 
marked  by  unlimited  despotism  on  the  part 
of  the  princes,  and  equally  unlimited  insurrec- 
tionary tendencies  on  the  part  of  the  subjects. 
The  murdering  of  princes  was  common,  and  it 
was  only  by  organizing  large  body  guards  that 
they  maintained  their  power.  These  guards 
subsequently  became  nobles  and  were  largely 
endowed  with  territorial  possessions.  The 
peasants  worked  on  these  estates,  with  per- 
fect freedom  to  move  from  one  to  another, 


RUSSIA 


RUSSIA  (LANGUAGE,  &o.)         495 


until  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  when  they 
were  "fastened"  to  the  soil,  that  is  to  say, 
were  no  longer  permitted  to  move  from  the 
places  where  the  ukase  found  them.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  fastening  of  the  peasants  to  the 
land  on  which  they  lived  was  not  so  much  to 
enrich  the  landowners  by  giving  them  serfs, 
as  to  secure  the  revenues  of  the  crown ;  for  as 
long  as  the  peasants  were  free  to  move  about, 
they  actually  formed  a  vast  body  of  wanderers 
constantly  avoiding  all  payment  of  taxes  or 
any  other  contribution  to  the  government.  To 
take  a  census  under  such  circumstances  was 
impossible,  and  that  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
the  early  statistical  data  concerning  the  popu- 
lation of  Russia  are  so  highly  untrustworthy. 
Such  lands  as  did  not  in  the  stricter  sense  be- 
long to  the  princes  .or  the  nobles  were  at  all 
times  considered  as  constituting  the  property, 
not  of  individual  peasants,  but  of  whole  com- 
munities. They  were  periodically,  generally 
every  nine  years,  divided  among  the  families  of 
the  community,  in  equal  lots,  according  to  the 
number  of  heads,  and  without  regard  to  for- 
mer tenantry;  only  the  dwellings,  cattle,  and 
horses  forming  personal  property.  This  sys- 
tem of  division  and  rotation  excluded  both  des- 
titution and  a  regular  cultivation  of  the  land ; 
and  in  it  lies  the  explanation  of  the  great  favor 
which  communistic  views  have  at  all  times 
found  in  Russia.  Trade  and  industry  being  at 
a  very  low  stage  of  development,  few  private 
fortunes  were  accumulated  as  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  wealth  of  representative  men 
in  Russia  came  mainly  as  the  gift  of  the  sover- 
eign, and  from  the  large  extent  of  territory,  the 
want  of  proper  communications,  and  the  impos- 
sibility of  gathering  information  concerning  dis- 
tant regions,  the  princes  very  frequently  made 
presents  to  the  nobility  of  land  not  vacant,  but 
belonging  to  one  or  more  communities  of  peas- 
ants. The  inherent  right  of  peasants  to  own  a 
certain  portion  of  land  was  tacitly  acknowl- 
edged by  the  legislation  on  emancipation;  for 
instead  of  being  simply  declared  free,  every  one 
of  them  was  endowed,  according  to  the  fertility 
of  the  land,  with  from  5  to  25  acres,  with  a 
house  and  a  bit  of  orchard  attached  to  it,  for 
which  he  is  bound  to  pay,  during  a  stated  num- 
ber of  years,  a  certain  tax  to  the  government, 
which  undertook  to  compensate  the  landown- 
ers. The  great  result  achieved  by  this  reform  is 
that  there  is  now  no  agricultural  laborer  in  any 
part  of  the  empire  who  is  not  a  small  landowner 
and  a  householder.  The  agricultural  classes  are 
in  so  far  incomparably  better  off  than  the  arti- 
sans, mechanics,  or  even  members  of  the  libe- 
ral professions. — Among  the  numerous  works 
on  Russia,  besides  those  in  Russian  by  Karam- 
sin,  Polevoi,  Pogodin,  Ustrialoff,  Solovieff,  and 
others,  the  following  are  prominent :  Strahl 
and  Hermann,  OescJiichte  von  Russland  (6  vols., 
Hamburg,  1832-'60) ;  J.  G.  Kohl,  various  books 
of  travel  through  European  Russia  (1841  et 
seq.)  ;  Haxthausen,  Studien  uber  die  innern 
Zuttande,  das  Volksleben  und  insbesondere  die 
716  VOL.  xiv.— 32 


landlichen  Einrichtungen  Russlands  (3  vols., 
Hanover,  1847-'52) ;  N.  Turgeneff,  La  Russie 
et  let  Russes  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1847) ;  Schnitzler, 
Histoire  intime  de  la  Russie  SOILS  les  empereurs 
Alexandre  et  Nicholas  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1847), 
Les  institutions  de  la  Russie  depuis  les  reformes 
de  Vempereur  Alexandre  II.  (2  vols.,  1867),  and 
other  works ;  Gurowski,  "  Russia  as  it  is " 
(New  York,  1854) ;  Pauly,  Description  ethno- 
graphique  des  peuples  de  la  Russie  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1862) ;  Golovin,  fitudes  et  essais:  Ri- 
chesse  de  la  Russie,  &c.  (Paris,  1864),  and  other 
works ;  Koppen,  Statistische  Reise  in  Russland 
(St.  Petersburg,  1864) ;  Buschen,  Apercu  statis- 
tique  des  forces  productive*  de  la  Russie  (Paris, 
1868) ;  Eckardt,  Die  Baltischen  Provimen  Russ- 
lands (Leipsic,  1868),  Baltische  und  Russische 
Culturstudien  (Leipsic,  1869 ;  both  translated 
under  the  title  of  "Modern  Russia,"  &c.,  Lon- 
don, 1870),  and  Russlands  landliche  Zustande 
seit  Aufhebung  der  Leibeigenschaft  (Leipsic, 
1870);  W.  Hep  worth  Dixon,  "Free  Russia" 
(2  vols.,  London,  1870);  Barry,  "Russia  in 
1870  "  (London,  1871) ;  Mrs.  Guthrie,  "  Through 
Russia  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Astrakhan  and 
the  Crimea"  (2  vols.,  London,  1874);  Ralston, 
"Early  Russian  History"  (London,  1874);  and 
Lengenfeldt,  Russland  im  XIX  Jahrhundert 
(Berlin,  1875).  Erman  established  in  Berlin  in 
1841  the  Archiv  fur  wissenscJiaftliche  Kunde 
von  Russland,  a  periodical  exclusively  devoted 
to  the  geography  and  history  of  Russia,  and  still 
(1875)  continued.  Dilke,  Fadeyeff,  Hellwald, 
Mitchell,  Kinglake,  Sarauw,  Stumm,  Trench, 
Vambery,  Vincent,  Wirgmann,  and  others  have 
written  upon  Russia  in  central  Asia  and  the 
Russian  eastern  question. 

RUSSIA,  Language  and  Literature  of.  The  Rus- 
sian language  is  the  most  widely  spread  and 
important  idiom  of  the  great  Slavic  family 
of  languages,  of  which  it  forms  the  eastern- 
most branch.  It  is  distinguished  by  regularity, 
flexibility,  a  fitting  mixture  of  softness  and 
force,  and  especially  by  copiousness,  as  it  has 
assimilated  and  worked  up  an  immense  num- 
ber of  Scandinavian,  Tartar,  Finnish,  and  other 
non-Slavic  roots.  The  alphabet  consists  of  36 
letters  representing  the  following  sounds  or 
marks:  A,  a,  It  a;  E,  <5,  &/  B,  B,  «  (also 
/);  r,  r,  hard  g  (also  h  and  «);  A,  fl,  d; 
E,  e,  It.  e  (also  ye,  as  in  Eng.  yell,  and  u,  as  in 
&«*);  >K,  W,  Fr.  j  (sh);  3,  3,  e;  M,  H,  It.  »; 
I,  i,  J,  the  same;  K,  K,  Tc;  Jl ,  4,  I;  M,  M,  m; 
H,  H,  n;  O,  o,  It.  o,  also  Eng.  o,  as  in  hot; 
H,  v,p;  P,  P,  r;  0,  o,  «;  T,  T,  m,  t;  y,  y, 
It.  «;  $,  *,  /;  X,  x,  M  (Ger.  cK);  U,  Jj,  tz 
(It.  and  Ger.  2);  ij,  i,  tch  (Pol.  «);  III,  m, 
sh;  III,,  ill,,  shtch  (Pol.szcs);  t,  -b,  mark  of 
hardness;  H,  H,  Ger.  u  (nearly;  Pol.  y) ; 
j>5  b,  mark  of  softness;  •£,  -B,  ye;  3,  a,  e; 
H),  H),  yu;  a,  a,  ya ;  6,  e,  /;  V,  Y, 
It.  *  (also  v)  ;  $ ,  fl ,  y  consonant  (Ger.  j). 
The  grammatical  structure  is  like  that  of  the 
Polish,  but  the  accent  is  varied.  The  fol- 
lowing examples  will  show  some  of  the  gram- 


496 


RUSSIA  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


matical  features :  Masculine  noun  declined : 
nom.  sing,  tear,  (a,  the)  czar  or  king;  gen. 
tzarya ;  dat.  tzaryu ;  ace.  tzarya ;  voc.  tzar; 
instrumental,  tzarem ;  indicative,  tzarye ;  pi. : 
tzari,  tzarei,  tzaryam,  tzarei,  tzari,  tzarya- 
mi,  tzaryakh.  The  indicative  is  always  used 
with  a  preposition,  of,  on,  or  the  like :  o  tzarye, 
of  the  czar ;  na  tzaryakh,  on  the  czars.  Fem- 
inine noun,  sing. :  ruka,  hand,  ruki,  rukye, 
ruku,  ruka,  rukoyu,  rukye;  pi.  ruki,  ruk, 
rukam,  ruki,  ruki,  rukami,  rukakh.  Neuter 
noun,  sing. :  zerkalo,  looking  glass,  zerkala, 
eerkalu,  zerkalo,  zerkalo,  zerkalom,  zerkalye ; 
pi. :  zerkala,  zerkal,  zerkalam,  eerkala,  zerkala, 
zerkalami,  zerkalakh.  Adjective  masc.  sing. : 
mudry,  wise,  mudravo,  mudromu,  mudravo, 
mudry,  mudrym,  mudrom ;  pi. :  mudryye, 
mudrykh,  mudrym  (mudrykh),  mudryye,  mu- 
drymi,  mudrykh.  The  personal  pronouns  are 
the  following:  ya,  I;  ty,  thou ;  on,  he;  ona, 
she ;  ono,  it ;  my,  we ;  vy,  ye ;  oni,  onye,  they. 
The  first  10  numerals  (rnasc.)  are:  odin,  dva, 
tri,  tchetyre,  piat,  thest,  sem,  osem  or  vosem, 
deviat,  desiat.  The  perfect  of  the  verb  bit,  to 
be,  is — sing. :  ya  byl,  I  have  been,  ty  byl,  on 
byl,  ona  byla,  ono  bylo  ;  pi. :  my  byli,  vy  byli, 
oni  and  onye  byli.  How  far  the  language  is 
susceptible  of  assimilating  foreign  words,  es- 
pecially German  and  French,  can  be  seen  from 
a  few  examples :  general,  heneral;  civilization, 
tzivilizatziii ;  department,  departament ;  min- 
istry, ministerstvo  ;  poetry,  jwczia  ;  prose,  pro- 
za;  theatre,  drama,  tragedy,  comedy,  teater, 
drama,  trahedia,  comedia,  and  so  on.  Among 
the  best  grammars  of  the  Russian  language  for 
the  use  of  foreigners  are  those  in  German  by 
Heym,  Vater,  Schmidt,  Tappe,  Oldekop,  Boltz 
(2d  ed.,  1854),  Joel  (1860),  and  Booch-Arkossy 
(1864),  and  in  French  by  Langen  (1825)  and 
Reiff  (2d  ed.,  1859).  Among  the  best  diction- 
aries are  those  of  Heym,  Russisch-deutsches  und 
deutsch-russisches  Worterbuch  (Riga,  1795-'8 ; 
Russian,  German,  and  French  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1844) ;  Tatishtcheff,  Nouveau  dictionnairefran- 
fai»-ru»te  (2  vols.,  Moscow,  1832);  Oldekop, 
Rutiisch-deutschea  und  deutsch-russischea  Wor- 
terbuch  (last  ed.,  St.  Petersburg,  1843);  and 
Makaroff's  French-Russian  and  Russian-French 
dictionaries  (St.  Petersburg,  1868).  There  is 
an  English-Russian  grammar  and  dictionary  by 
Oonstantinoff  (3  vols.  8vo,  London). — The  first 
germs  of  literary  life  in  Russia  appear  in  the 
time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by 
Vladimir  the  Great  (about  990).  The  Slavic 
translation  of  the  Bible  and  the  introduction  of 
Old  Slavic  liturgical  books  by  Cyril  and  Metho- 
dius led  to  the  general  adoption  of  the  Old 
Slavic  as  the  written  language,  while  the  com- 
mon Russian  language  began  to  form  itself  from 
the  various  dialects  of  the  mixed  population. 
No  monuments  whatever  are  left  to  show  the 
condition  and  growth  of  the  Russian  language 
at  this  early  stage;  even  the  popular  songs 
which  elucidate  the  beginning  of  many  other 
literatures  have  reached  us  only  intermixed 
with  later  alterations.  In  the  Old  Slavic  lan- 


guage we  have  the  treaties  of  the  princes  Oleg 
and  Igor  with  the  Greeks  of  the  years  911  and 
944,  and  an  address  of  Sviatoslav ;  but  whether 
their  origin  really  belongs  to  this  ancient  time, 
or  whether  they  are  more  recent  translations 
from  the  Greek,  is  uncertain.  An  important 
Old  Slavic  work,  Russkaya  Pranda  ("  Russian 
Justice "),  which  was  composed  during  the 
reign  of  Yaroslav  (about  1020),  was  discov- 
ered in  1738  by  Tatishtcheff,  and  published 
by  Schlozer  (St.  Petersburg,  1767).  Nestor, 
the  father  of  Russian  history,  belongs  to  the 
same  period  (died  about  1114).  The  rule  of 
the  Mongols  over  Russia  interfered  but  little 
with  the  growth  of  Russian  literature,  for 
the  conquerors  spared  the  convents,  in  which 
science  found  a  safe  refuge.  Among  the  few 
works  of  this  early  period  which  have  been 
preserved  are  the  "Annals"  of  Simon,  bishop 
of  Suzdal  (died  1226),  a  work  of  the  metro- 
politan Cyprian  (died  1406),  a  part  of  the 
"Sophia  Chronicles"  from  862  to  1534  (pub- 
lished by  Stroyeff,  Moscow,  1820-'22),  and  a 
considerable  number  of  fables  and  tales,  most- 
ly centring  round  Vladimir  and  his  knights, 
and  bearing  great  resemblance  to  the  tales  of 
the  round  table.  Among  the  most  celebrated 
old  Russian  poems  is  the  Pesnia  o  polku  igore- 
vom  (on  the  expedition  of  Igor  against  Polotzk), 
written  about  1200.  It  was  discovered  in  1796 
by  Count  Mussin-Pushkin  at  Kiev,  and  has 
since  been  often  published  (with  a  German 
translation  by  Hanka,  Prague,  1821).  The  long 
duration  of  the  Mongol  rule  caused  a  number 
of  Mongol  words  to  be  received  into  the  Rus- 
sian language,  which  are  still  in  use.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Tartars,  Ivan  III.,  Ivan 
IV.,  and  especially  Michael  Romanoff,  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  progress  of  Russian  litera- 
ture, by  establishing  new  schools,  encouraging 
scholars,  and  calling  distinguished  foreigners 
into  the  empire.  Among  the  authors  of  this  pe- 
riod are  the  metropolitan  Macarius  (died  about 
1564),  who  wrote  biographies  of  saints,  Rus- 
sian divines,  &c.,  and  Matvieyeff,  the  author  of 
several  historical  works.  Nikon,  patriarch  of 
Russia  (died  1681),  had  the  Bible  translated 
into  the  Slavic  language,  and  caused  a  revision 
of  the  Slavic  liturgical  books  after  the  Greek 
originals,  for  which  purpose  more  than  500 
Greek  manuscripts  were  collected  by  his  order. 
But  the  great  drawback  to  the  rise  of  a  truly 
national  and  popular  literature,  the  use  for 
literary  purposes  of  another  language  than  that 
of  the  people,  was  not  removed  until  the  reign 
of  Peter  the  Great,  under  whom  the  intellec- 
tual condition  of  Russia  underwent  a  revolu- 
tion no  less  thorough  than  the  material.  lie 
abolished  the  use  of  the  Old  Slavic  as  the  offi- 
cial language  of  the  government,  and  took  en- 
ergetic steps  for  superseding  it  as  the  language 
of  literature.  He  fixed  the  alphabet  of  the 
common  Russian  language,  superintended  at 
Amsterdam  the  casting  of  the  first  types,  and 
gave  to  a  printer  of  Amsterdam,  who  in  1699 
published  the  first  book  in  the  Russian  Ian- 


RUSSIA  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUBE) 


497 


guage,  the  monopoly  of  printing  Russian  books 
for  15  years.  The  first  newspaper  was  es- 
tablished in  Moscow  in  1704,  and  the  first 
in  St.  Petersburg  in  1705.  Peter  instituted 
the  imperial  academy  of  science  according  to 
a  plan  of  Leibnitz ;  it  was  opened  shortly 
after  his  death,  by  Catharine  I.  (1725).  The 
impetuosity  with  which  Peter  endeavored  to 
give  to  his  empire  a  literature  did  not  leave 
him  time  to  establish  it  on  a  native  basis,  and 
to  develop  the  national  resources ;  the  writers 
whom  he  urged  on  to  write  naturally  brought 
many  foreign  and  heterogeneous  elements  into 
the  rising  literature.  An  Italian  theatre  was 
opened  at  the  Russian  court  in  1730,  and  a 
German  one  in  1738.  Among  the  principal 
authors  of  this  time  were  Demetrius,  metro- 
politan of  Rostov  (1651-1709),  who  wrote  bi- 
ographies of  the  saints  (4  vols.,  Kiev,  1711- 
'16);  Theophan  Procopovitch  (1681-1736), 
metropolitan  of  Novgorod,  who  left  about  60 
theological  and  historical  works;  Basil  Niki- 
titch  Tatishtcheff  (1686-1750),  who  wrote  a 
history  of  Russia  in  4  vols. ;  Prince  Cantemir, 
a  satirical  poet;  the  two  Cossack  poets  Kli- 
movski  and  Daniloff ;  the  historian  Prince 
Khilkoff  (died  1718),  who  wrote  a  "  Summary 
of  Russian  History ;"  Ivan  Kyriloff,  a  statis- 
tician and  geographer  ;  and  Basil  Grigorovitch, 
who  described  a  journey  to  western  Europe. 
Trediakovski  improved  Russian  prosody,  but 
his  poems  exhibit  more  learning  than  poetical 
genius. — The  work  begun  by  Peter  the  Great 
was  carried  on  with  great  vigor  and  success 
by  the  empresses  Elizabeth  and  Catharine  II. 
Elizabeth,  who  regarded  art  and  science  as  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  her  court,  founded  the 
university  of  Moscow,  and  the  academy  of  arts 
in  St.  Petersburg.  Catharine  II.  added  new 
and  immense  fields  to  the  literary  production 
of  the  country,  by  establishing  public  schools 
throughout  the  empire.  She  also  established 
normal  schools,  liberally  supporting  the  pupils, 
enlarged  and  patronized  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  the  academy  of  arts,  and  established  in 
1783  the  academy  for  the  perfection  of  the 
Russian  language  and  history.  At  the  head  of 
the  authors  of  this  period  stands  Lomonosoff 
(died  1765),  the  father  of  the  modern  Russian 
language.  He  wrote  the  first  critical  Russian 
grammar,  was  the  first  to  write  pure  and  gen- 
uine Russian  prose,  and  is  still  valued  as  a 
lyric  poet.  The  first  dramatic  writer  of  note 
was  Sumarokoff  (died  1777),  who  with  almost 
equal  success  wrote  also  historical  and  other 
poetical  works.  For  the  exhibition  of  his 
dramas  national  theatres  were  established  at 
St.  Petersburg  (1756)  and  Moscow  (1759). 
Among  the  other  distinguished  poets  of  this 
time  were  Kheraskoff  (1733-1807),  one  of  the 
most  prolific  writers  of  Russia,  and  Bogdano- 
vitch,  whose  romantic  poem  Dushenka  has  be- 
come one  of  the  favorites  of  the  nation.  Der- 
zhavin  (1743-1816)  exhibited  a  greater  ori- 
ginality than  any  of  the  preceding  poets.  His 
lyric,  didactic,  and  dramatic  works  still  hold 


a  high  rank,  and  his  "  Ode  to  God  "  has  been 
translated  into  nearly  all  civilized  langua- 
ges. Von-Vizin  (died  1792)  was  particularly 
successful  as  a  writer  of  comedies,  some  of 
which,  as  his  Nedorosl,  are  still  performed  at 
the  national  theatres;  he  was  also  the  best 
prose  writer  of  this  period.  Kapnist  as  a  lyr- 
ic poet  equalled  Derzhavin  in  tenderness  and 
purity  of  language,  and  was  his  superior  in  po- 
etical genius.  In  dramatic  poetry  Kniazhnin 
(died  1791)  is  almost  the  peer  of  Sumarokoff. 
Count  Khvostoff  deserves  honorable  mention 
for  his  comedies,  and  Prince  Dolgoruki  (1764-^, 
1823)  for  his  philosophical  odes  and  epistles. 
Platon,  metropolitan  of  Moscow,  wrote  numer- 
ous works  on  ecclesiastical  history.  A  "  His- 
tory of  Russia "  was  written  by  Shtcherbatoff 
(1733-'90);  Boltin  (1735-'92)  wrote  critical 
essays  on  the  ancient  history  of  Russia;  Tchul- 
koff,  a  "History  of  Russian  Commerce;"  Go- 
likoff,  "  Collections  for  a  Biography  of  Peter 
the  Great;"  and  Pleshtcheyeff,  "Statistics  of 
Russia."  Muravieff  (1757-1807)  wrote  many 
pedagogical,  moral,  and  historical  essays,  all  of 
which  exhibit  depth  and  nobility  of  feeling, 
keenness  of  thought,  and  an  accomplished  style. 
Novikoff  (1744-1818)  founded  a  typographi- 
cal society,  and  established  a  satirical  journal 
which  had  considerable  influence  in  literary 
circles.  The  critical  study  of  the  language  was 
greatly  promoted  by  a  "  Comparative  Diction- 
ary of  the  Russian  Language"  (St.  Petersburg, 
1787-'9),  for  which  Catharine  II.  herself  drew 
up  the  plans. — The  history  of  Russian  literature 
in  the  19th  century  exhibits  steady  progress. 
Alexander  I.  was-  a  liberal  patron  of  literature ; 
he  increased  the  number  of  universities  and  es- 
tablished many  new  literary  institutions.  Un- 
der Nicholas  I.  Russian  literature  emancipated 
itself  fully  from  the  controlling  influence  of 
foreign  elements,  assumed  a  thoroughly  nation- 
al character,  and  received  new  inspiration  from 
the  rise  of  the  Panslavic  movements,  both  po- 
litical and  literary,  in  which  Russia,  as  the 
foremost  representative  of  the  race,  seemed  to 
be  required  to  play  a  prominent  part.  The 
new  period  beginning  with  the  19th  century 
was  opened  in  a  worthy  manner  by  Nicholas 
Karamsin  (1765-1826),  who  delivered  Russian 
prose  from  the  dominion  of  bombast,  and  set 
a  brilliant  example  of  a  plain,  flowing,  and 
sprightly  language,  especially  in  his  chief  work, 
a  "History  of  Russia,"  in  12  vols.  He  seems 
to  have  taken  Wieland  as  a  model.  Many  of 
his  followers  even  outdid  him  in  imitating  the 
German  classics,  and  there  was  danger  of  Rus- 
sian literature  becoming  Germanized,  when  a 
reaction  arose  through  Shishkoff  (1754-1841), 
minister  of  public  instruction,  and  a  distin- 
guished poet,  philologist,  and  translator.  The 
old  Russian  and  purely  national  tendencies 
found  a  centre  in  the  "school  of  Moscow." 
The  victory  of  that  school  is  in  great  part  due 
to  the  genius  of  Pushkin  (1799-1837),  whose 
poems  afford  a  faithful  and  patriotic  reflection 
of  Russian  life,  which  forms  the  subject  of 


498 


RUSSIA  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITKHATUBK) 


nearly  all  his  works.  He  is,  in  particular,  the 
founder  of  the  national  tragedy  (by  his  "  Boris 
Godunoff,"  1831),  for  which  he  used,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  Zhukovski,  the  iambic 
metre,  which  was  adopted  by  many,  although 
others  retained  the  Alexandrine  verse.  Zhu- 
kovski himself  (1783-1852)  is  one  of  the  great- 
est poets  of  Russia ;  he  was  the  founder  of  a 
romantic  school,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
almost  every  kind  of  poetry.  Dmitrieff  (1760 
-1837)  distinguished  himself  equally  in  satire, 
epistle,  hymn,  and  epigram.  The  poets  Kry- 
.loff,  Khomiakoff,  and  Koltzoff  also  belong  to 
this  period.  Among  the  followers  of  Pushkin 
must  be  named  Ba/atynski  (died  1844),  Delvig 
(1798-1831),  Benedictoff,  and  Podolinski.  One 
of  the  favorite  lyric  poets  of  modern  times  is 
Lermontoff  (1814-'41),  whose  works  have  been 
translated  into  many  languages.  Pushkin  and 
Lermontoff  were  beyond  question  the  two  most 
talented  poets  Russia  has  ever  produced,  and 
their  works  have  exercised  the  most  powerful 
influence  on  the  mind  of  the  young  generation. 
Pushkin  is  the  Byron  of  Russia,  Lermontoff 
its  Schiller.  Other  lyric  poets  of  distinction 
are  Viazeraski  (born  1792),  a  writer  of  elegies, 
and  Gneditch,  an  excellent  translator  of  the 
Iliad,  "  King  Lear,"  and  other  foreign  poems. 
Among  the  dramatic  poets  of  distinction  was 
Ozeroff  (1770-1816),  who  was  the  first  to  fully 
comprehend  the  essence  and  objects  of  dra- 
matic poetry.  His  tragedies  ("  (Edipus,"  "  Fin- 
gal,"  &e.)  are  written  in  the  Alexandrine  verse; 
and  although  the  language  is  not  pure,  and 
the  structure  of  the  verse  is  frequently  heavy, 
these  faults  are  fully  outweighed  by  the  vig- 
or of  thought  and  expression.  Prince  Shak- 
hovski  (died  1846)  and  Glinka  are  authors 
of  many  comedies.  Among  the  more  recent 
dramatic  poets,  Polevoi  and  Kukolnik,  both 
of  whom  took  the  subjects  of  their  dramas 
from  Russian  history,  are  the  most  important. 
Gogol  (died  1852)  in  his  comedies  and  novels 
pictured  with  great  talent  and  intense  sarcasm 
the  provincial  life  of  Russia.  The  historical 
novel  has  been  cultivated  with  particular  suc- 
cess by  Bulgarin,  who,  however  deficient  his 
works  may  be  from  an  aesthetical  point  of 
view,  has  the  merit  of  having  first  ventured 
to  portray  actual  life.  Zagoskin,  an  imitator 
of  Walter  Scott,  pictured  the  life  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  Count  Solohub  that  of  the  higher 
classes  of  St.  Petersburg.  Other  distinguished 
writers  in  this  branch  of  literature  are  Prince 
Odoyovski,  Masalski,  Senkovski,  and  Dahl. 
The  idyllic  life  of  the  Cossacks  was  repre- 
sented with  great  freshness  and  talent  in  the 
works  of  Gogol,  Grebenka,  and  Kvitka,  some 
of  whom  used  the  peculiar  dialect  of  Little 
Russia  (Ruthenian).  Collections  of  popular 
tales  and  songs,  to  which  in  Russia  as  in  all 
Slavic  countries  much  attention  is  paid,  were 
made  by  Novikoff,  Maximovitch,  Makaroff,  and 
Sakharoff,  and  more  recently  by  Afanasieff. 
Among  the  prominent  historians  are  Ustrialoff, 
professor  at  St.  Petersburg,  whose  "  History 


of  Russia  "  (German  translation,  3  vols.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1840),  which  urges  the  gradual  Russifica- 
tion  of  all  the  non-Russian  tribes  of  the  em- 
pire, has  been  officially  introduced  as  a  text 
book  into  the  Russian  colleges;  Pogodin,  the 
author  of  valuable  critical  works  on  the  an- 
cient history  of  Russia;  Polevoi  ("History  of 
Russia  ") ;  and  Danilevski,  the  author  of  some 
able  though  partial  works  on  the  wars  of  Rus- 
sia with  Napoleon  I.  Able  historical  investi- 
gations have  also  been  made  by  Bestuzheff- 
Riumin,  Sniegireff,  Sreznevski,  the  academi- 
cian Solovieff,  and  Arsenieff.  Philosophical 
studies  are  still  in  their  infancy,  and  mostly 
lean  on  modern  German  philosophy.  Scientific 
theology  is  cultivated  still  less.  A  "  Cyclopae- 
dia of  Law  "  has  been  written  by  Novolin,  and 
a  "  History  of  Russian  Law "  by  Moroshkin. 
As  is  the  case  with  all  despotic  countries,  Rus- 
sia has  a  very  stringent  and  annoying  system 
of  censorship,  which  has  proved  to  be  a  great 
impediment  to  literature,  yet  at  the  same  time 
a  great  promoter  of  it.  All  the  writers  of  the 
50  years  preceding  the  accession  of  Alexander 
II.  were  turned  into  a  kind  of  political  mar- 
tyrs. The  independent  study  of  sciences,  the 
free  culture  of  poetry,  fiction,  and  the  fine  arts, 
were  constantly  checked,  and  despotism  was 
rampant  everywhere.  The  writers  naturally 
strewed  their  pages  with  political  allusions  and 
recriminations,  which  exposed  them  to  prose- 
cution on  the  part  of  the  government,  causing 
their  productions  to  be  read  by  people  who 
would  not  otherwise  have  taken  any  interest 
in  them.  In  this  way  the  progress  of  Russian 
literature  since  the  accession  of  Nicholas  to  the 
throne  in  1825  has  been  amazing.  He  began 
his  reign  amid  a  military  revolution  with  which 
a  few  of  the  literary  people  were  indirectly 
concerned.  The  leaders  of  the  movement  were 
hanged,  and  the  others  exiled  to  Siberia;  but 
an  impetus  was  given  to  liberal  ideas  which 
could  not  easily  be  checked.  These  ideas  broke 
out  again  in  1848-'9  with  Petrashevski's  con- 
spiracy. During  that  period  Pushkin,  Ler- 
montoff, and  Gogol  were  the  leading  writers, 
whom,  moderate  though  they  were  in  their 
views,  the  government  never  ceased  to  perse- 
cute. They  were  all  exiled  or  banished  at  dif- 
ferent times,  but  still  went  on  with  their  lib- 
eral propaganda,  embittered  by  the  persecution 
and  rendered  immensely  popular  by  their  won- 
derful talents.  Among  those  connected  with 
the  later  revolutionary  movements  were  two 
other  young  men,  wealthy  and  well  educated, 
Hertzen  (1812-'70)  and  Ogareff.  They  man- 
aged to  escape  to  London,  established  there  a 
Russian  press,  and  began  a  series  of  publica- 
tions of  which  the  Kolokol  ("  The  Bell "),  a  po- 
litical newspaper,  became  the  most  celebrated. 
Russian  travellers  smuggled  it  into  the  empire 
in  large  quantities,  and  its  fierce  attacks  on  the 
government  greatly  contributed  to  awaken  a 
feeling  of  patriotism  among  the  more  enlight- 
ened of  the  population.  The  Crimean  war 
showed  even  to  Nicholas  that  his  system,  far 


RUSSIA   (LANGUAGE,  &o.) 


KUSTIGE 


499 


from  strengthening  his  empire,  paralyzed  its 
natural  resources,  and  rendered  worthless  even 
the  army,  for  which  he  had  sacrificed  every- 
thing else.  When  peace  was  concluded,  and 
Alexander,  who  always  had  the  reputation  of 
a  liberal  and  good-natured  prince,  ascended  the 
throne,  the  progressive  elements  of  the  coun- 
try naturally  came  to  the  front.  Within  less 
than  five  years  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
of  Paris,  the  party  which  consisted  formerly 
of  very  moderate  liberals,  and  never  asked  for 
anything  beyond  a  reasonable  amount  of  free- 
dom of  the  press  and  public  life,  was  trans- 
formed into  ultra  radicals.  The  teachings  of 
modern  materialistic  philosophy,  which  had 
been  rapidly  gaining  ground  in  western  Europe, 
were  eagerly  adopted  by  the  young  generation 
of  litterateurs  and  students,  and  within  two 
or  three  years  a  school  was  formed,  the  rad- 
icalism of  which  outstripped  anything  that 
could  be  well  imagined.  Vogt,  Moleschott, 
and  Buchner  became  the  theological  and  phil- 
osophical idols  of  the  Kussian  youth ;  Fourier, 
Saint-Simon,  Robert  Owen,  and  Proudhon 
became  their  social  teachers;  and  a  system 
of  cosmical,  political,  and  moral  conceptions 
was  formed,  which  would  have  frightened  the 
very  writers  whose  authority  it  invoked.  The 
disciples  of  this  school  were  known  as  Nihil- 
ists, or  believers  in  nothing.  Its  leaders  were 
Tchernyshevski  and  Dobroluboff,  and  their  or- 
gan was  the  Sovremennik  ("  The  Contempo- 
rary "),  a  monthly  magazine  owned  and  ably 
edited  by  the  poet  Nekrasoff.  It  had  speedily 
created  a  large  party  among  the  young  men  in 
the  universities  and  public  schools,  and  the 
spreading  movement  frightened  the  govern- 
ment, which  prosecuted  everybody  who  showed 
the  slightest  sympathy  with  it.  All  the  con- 
spiracies and  political  prosecutions  which  have 
taken  place  in  Russia  since  1862  have  been  con- 
nected with  Nihilism.  Among  the  prominent 
men  of  the  party,  besides  Tchernyshevski,  who 
was  exiled  to  Siberia,  and  Dobroluboff,  who 
died  at  the  age  of  26,  were  Pisareff  (drowned 
by  accident),  Shelgunoff  (exiled  to  Siberia), 
Mikhailoff  (died  in  Siberia),  Serno-Solovievitch 
(died  in  Siberia),  and  Pomialovski  (died  from 
overwork  and  excessive  drinking  at  23).  The 
party  is  now  considerably  reduced.  Whatever 
remains  of  it  is  under  the  leadership  of  Antono- 
vitch  and  Zhukovski,  two  journalists  of  indif- 
ferent talent,  but  of  more  knowledge  than  their 
predecessors  possessed.  Foolish  and  extreme 
as  are  the  views  of  that  party,  it  has  immensely 
contributed  to  the  spread  of  knowledge  through- 
out Russia.  The  works  of  Buckle,  Huxley, 
Darwin,  Tyndall,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Helmholtz, 
Virchow,  and  many  others  have  been  translated 
and  passed  through  several  editions.  Some  of 
the  medical  students  (who  joined  the  move- 
ment en  masse}  have  made  themselves  favor- 
ably known  all  over  Europe  through  their 
researches  in  physiology  and  biology.  The 
movement  did  not  exclude  women,  many  of 
whom  began  to  study  medicine  and  natural 


sciences,  and  took  their  degrees,  mostly  at  the 
university  of  Zurich,  as  the  doors  of  the  Rus- 
sian universities  are  still  closed  against  them. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  of  contemporary 
Russian  authors  are  the  romancists  Ivan  Tur- 
geneff,  Gontcharoff,  Dostoyevsky,  Avdeyeff, 
Count  Tolstoi,  jr.,  Krestovski,  Khvostchinski, 
and  Panayeff ;  the  poets  Nekrasoff  and  Polon- 
ski;  and  the  dramatists  Ostrovski  and  Count 
Tolstoi,  sr.  Prominent  among  editors  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals  are  Aksakoff,  Krayefski, 
Stasulevitch,  Korsh,  and  Katkoff.  The  histor- 
ical writers  occupying  the  highest  position  are 
Solovieff,  Pypin,  and  Kovalevsky.  For  statis- 
tical work  the  highest  reputation  has  been 
achieved  by  Semenoff  and  Korsak.  The  great 
philosophical  writer  is  Lavroff.  As  a  matter 
of  course,  the  chief  literary  centres  are  the  two 
capitals,  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  The  post 
office  of  St.  Petersburg  sends  out  to  the  prov- 
inces more  than  80,000  copies  of  daily  and  40,- 
000  of  weekly  papers,  and  about  50,000  of 
monthly  periodicals.  The  highest  circulation 
of  any  one  newspaper  has  not  yet  exceeded  25,- 
000,  but  the  number  of  publications  is  constant- 
ly increasing.  The  growth  of  Russian  literature 
with  such  marvellous  speed  has  prevented  its 
being  thoroughly  studied  abroad,  and  there  are 
very  few  works  on  the  subject  which  bring  it 
down  to  the  present  day. — See  Gretch,  Essai 
d'une  Mstoire  de  la  litterature  russe  (4  vols.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1819-'22);  Bowring,  "Specimens 
of  Russian  Poets"  (London,  1821);  Otto,  LeJir- 
luch  der  russischen  Literatur  (Leipsic,  1887; 
translated  by  Cox,  Oxford,  1839);  Jordan, 
OescJiicMe  der  russischen  Literatur  (Leipsic, 
1846);  Talvi  (Mrs.  Robinson),  "Historical 
View  of  the  Languages  and  Literature  of  the 
Slavic  Nations"  (New  York,  1850);  Khanikoff, 
jfitudes  sur  V instruction  piiblique  en  Russie 
(Paris,  1865);  and  Petroff,  "Sketch  of  Rus- 
sian Literature"  (French  translation  by  Ro- 
mald,  Paris,  1872).  Of  late  years  many  ar- 
ticles on  Russian  literature  have  appeared  in 
German,  English,  and  American  magazines,  and 
especially  in  the  Paris  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes. 
RUSSIAN  AMERICA.  See  ALASKA. 
RUSTCHCK,  a  fortified  town  of  Bulgaria,  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  Tuna 
("province  of  the  Danube"))  pn  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  nearly  opposite  Giurgevo,  250 
m.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople ;  pop.  about  30,- 
000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and 
contains  nine  mosques,  Greek  and  Armenian 
churches,  and  several  synagogues.  Silk,  wool, 
cotton,  leather,  and  other  goods  are  made,  and 
the  trade  has  lately  increased.  Many  engage- 
ments have  taken  place  here  during  the  past 
century  between  the  Turks  and  the  Russians. 
In  1810  it  surrendered  to  the  latter  after  a  long 
siege.  After  evacuating  the  place  in  1812  the 
Russians  burned  it,  but  it  was  soon  rebuilt. 
The  fortifications,  razed  after  the  treaty  of 
Adrianople  (1829),  were  rebuilt  after  1853. 

UISTKiK,   Heinrieh  von,   a  German    painter, 
born  at  Werl,  Westphalia,  April  12, 1810.     He 


500 


RUSTOW 


RUTH 


studied  under  Schadow  in  Dusseldorf,  was  a 
teacher  at  the  Stiidel  institute  in  Frankfort, 
and  in  1844  became  professor  at  the  school  of 
art  in  Stuttgart.  He  paints  historical  and  genre 
pictures,  as  "The  Gueux  Sermon,"  "Raphael 
and  the  Fornarina,"  "  The  Recovered  Child," 
"The  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Castle  of  Rudol- 
stadt,"  "  The  Funeral  of  the  Emperor  Otho 
III.,"  and  "The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  and 
hia  Court  at  Palermo."  He  has  published 
poetry  and  dramas,  including  Attila  and  Lud- 
wig  der  Baier,  and  a  popular  military  song, 
Deutscher  Martch,  set  to  music  by  Kucken. 

R&STOW,  WilhelB,  a  German  military  wri- 
ter, born  in  Brandenburg,  May  25,  1821.  He 
joined  the  army  ia  1838,  and  became  an  offi- 
cer of  engineers.  He  was  indicted  in  1850  for 
a  publication  on  the  military  condition  of  Ger- 
many and  fled  to  Zurich,  where  he  was  em- 
Eloyed  as  a  teacher  and  a  major  in  the  army, 
n  1860  he  joined  Garibaldi  in  Sicily,  and  after- 
ward returned  to  Switzerland.  In  conjunction 
with  Kochly  he  has  written  Oetchichte  des  grie- 
ehischen  Kriegsioetent  (Aarau,  1852),  and  trans- 
lations and  commentaries  relating  to  Greek 
military  writers  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1864-'5).  He 
has  also  written  on  Julius  Caesar's  military 
operations  and  Napoleon  III.'s  history  of  the 
same,  on  the  first  Napoleon's  campaigns  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  on  the  Crimean  war,  and 
on  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-' VI.  Prom- 
inent among  his  theoretical  works  are:  Die 
Feldherrnkunst  des  19.  Jahrhunderts  (Zurich, 
1857 ;  2d  ed.,  1866) ;  Oeschichte  der  Infanterie 
(2  vols.,  Gotha,  1857-'8);  Allgemeine  Taktik 
(Zurich,  1858);  Militdrischet  Ifandworterbuch 
(2  vols.,  1859 ;  supplement,  1867) ;  and  Strate- 
gie  und  Taktik  der  neuesten  Zeit  (1872). — His 
brothers  ALEXANDER  and  CASAR,  Prussian  offi- 
cers, both  killed  in  battle  in  1866,  were  also 
authors  of  military  works. 
RITA  BAG  A.  See  TURNIP. 
RDTGERS  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  learning 
in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  established  by  royal 
charter  in  1770,  under  the  name  of  Queen's  col- 
lege. It  was  connected  with  the  general  synod 
and  theological  seminary  of  the  Protestant  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  church  till  1865,  when  it  became 
an  independent  literary  college,  on  the  condi- 
tion, however,  that  its  president  and  three 
fourths  of  its  trustees  should  be  members  in 
full  communion  of  that  church.  It  received 
its  present  name  in  1825  in  honor  of  Col. 
Henry  Rutgers,  who  contributed  $5,000  to  its 
fund.  Previous  to  that  time  its  exercises  were 
thrice  suspended,  once  by  the  revolutionary 
war  and  twice  by  financial  embarrassments. 
The  first  president  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  R.  Har- 
denbergh,  and  the  second  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  II. 
Livingston.  The  main  college  building  was 
erected  in  1809,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Ira  Condict,  president  pro  tern.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Philip  Milledoler  was  president  from  1825 
to  1840,  the  Hon.  A.  B.  Hasbrouck  from  1840 
to  1850,  and  the  Hon.  Theodore  Frelinghuysen 
from  1850  to  1862.  In  consequence  of  its 


small  endowment  and  of  the  confusion  of  the 
civil  war,  the  college  was  rapidly  losing  ground 
when  the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  H.  Campbell  was  ap- 
pointed president  in  1863.  Under  his  adminis- 
tration several  hundred  thousand  dollars  have 
been  added  to  its  endowment ;  six  new  profes- 
sorships have  been  created ;  a  large  geological 
hall,  a  chapel  and  library,  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, and  a  new  grammar  school  building 
have  been  erected ;  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents has  increased  from  60  to  more  than  200 
now  (1875)  in  actual  attendance.  In  1866  the 
state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts  was  opened  as  a  department  of  Rutgers 
college,  with  a  farm  of  100  acres.  In  this  de- 
partment there  are  three  courses  of  study,  one 
in  civil  engineering,  one  in  chemistry  and  agri- 
culture, and  a  special  course  in  chemistry,  so 
arranged  that  either  a  two  years'  or  a  four 
years'  course  may  be  pursued,  the  latter  being 
required  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science. 
Rutgers  college  has  now  12  professorships,  af- 
fording instruction  in  Biblical  literature,  con- 
stitutional law,  military  drill,  agriculture,  mi- 
ning, metallurgy,  analytical  chemistry,  engineer- 
ing and  graphics,  and  other  branches  common 
to  American  colleges.  Its  library  numbers 
7,000  volumes,  and  provision  has  been  made 
for  considerable  additions.  It  has  graduated 
1,095  classical,  78  medical  (from  1792  to  1816), 
and  71  scientific  students,  making  a  total  of 
1,244.  The  college  has  also  a  grammar  school 
with  nearly  200  pupils. 

RUTH,  Book  of,  one  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  By  many  ancient  and 
modern  writers  it  has  been  regarded  as  an 
addition  to  the  book  of  Judges,  because  the 
transactions  which  it  relates  happened  in  the 
time  of  the  judges  of  Israel.  (Ruth  i.  1.)  The 
book  contains  the  history  of  Ruth,  a  Moabitish 
woman,  who,  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
a  Hebrew  emigrant  from  Judah,  left  her  home, 
and  followed  her  mother-in-law  Naomi  to  Beth- 
lehem, where  Boaz,  a  relative  of  her  deceased 
husband,  attracted  by  her  appearance  as  a 
gleaner  in  his  field,  married  her.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Obed,  whose  son  Jesse  was  the  fa- 
ther of  David.  The  mention  of  comparative- 
ly late  national  customs  (as  in  iv.  7),  and  the 
occurrence  of  Chaldaisms,  are  considered  suffi- 
cient proofs  that  this  book  was  composed  in 
the  times  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy.  The 
alleged  proofs  of  its  composition  long  after 
the  time  of  David,  in  the  later  Chaldee  period 
of  the  language,  are  not  conclusive,  while 
there  are  clear  indications  of  an  earlier  date. 
(See  "Ruth,  Book  of,"  added  to  the  Ameri- 
can edition  of  Smith's  "Bible  Dictionary,"  p. 
2755,  and  the  authorities  there  referred  to.) 
Christ's  descent  from  Ruth  (Matt.  i.  5)  is  au- 
thenticated in  this  portion  only  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Its  canonical  authority  has  never 
been  questioned. — See  Bertheau,  Richter  und 
Rut  (Exegetische  Handbueh,  1845);  Keil,  Bib- 
lische  Commentar^  Josua,  Richter  und  Ruth 
(1863;  translated  in  Clark's  "Foreign  and  The- 


RUTHENIANS 


RUTLAND 


501 


ological  Library,"  vol.  viii.) ;  Wright,  "  Book 
of  Ruth,  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee"  (1865); 
Oassel,  Das  Buck  der  Richter  und  Ruth  (in 
Lange's  Bibelwerk,  1865);  and  Wordsworth, 
"The  Holy  Bible  with  Notes"  (1865). 

RITIIKMANS,  or  Rnsniaks  (Pol.  Rmini,  Hung. 
Oroszofc),  a  branch  of  the  Slavs,  inhabiting  E. 
Galicia  and  Bukowina,  adjoining  parts  of  Po- 
land and  West  Russia,  and  N.  E.  Hungary. 
In  Galicia  and  Bukowina  they  number  about 
2,500,000,  and  in  Poland  and  Hungary  about 
600,000  each ;  in  Russia  they  are  generally 
classified  with  the  Little  Russians,  to  whom 
they  are  closely  related.  They  are  mostly 
agriculturists  or  graziers ;  in  the  Carpathian 
regions  many  are  engaged  in  salt  mining.  Their 
language,  which  occupies  a  middle  ground  be- 
tween Polish,  and  Russian,  is  softer  and  more 
melodious  than  either.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  the  United  Greek  in  the  Austrian  territories, 
and  Orthodox  Greek  in  the  Russian.  The  no- 
bility is  mostly  Polonized.  As  a  national  ele- 
ment the  Ruthenians  are  important  only  in 
Galicia,  where  they  are  antagonistic  to  the 
Poles,  and  where  considerable  efforts  have 
been  made  to  develop  a  Ruthenian  literature, 
though  as  yet  with  insignificant  results,  and 
more  recently  to  assimilate  it  to  the  Russian. 
The  literary  association  Halicko-Russka  Matica 
has  been  particularly  active  in  the  anti-Polish 
agitation.  (See  GALICIA,  and  SLAVIC  RACE  AND 
LANGUAGES.) 

RUTHENIUM,  one  of  the  platinum  group  of 
metals,  closely  allied  to  osmium  in  many  of  its 
chemical  relations.  It  was  first  observed  by 
Prof.  Osann  in  ores  from  the  Ural  mountains, 
and  was  named  by  him  from  Ruthenia  (for 
Russia).  It  was  afterward  fully  described  by 
Prof.  Glaus,  to  whom  the  credit  of  the  discov- 
ery is  usually  ascribed.  The  platinum  ores  of 
Russia,  America,  and  Borneo  contain  it,  and  it 
has  been  detected  by  Wohler  in  combination 
with  osmium  and  sulphur  in  the  mineral  laurite 
found  in  Oregon  and  Borneo.  To  prepare  ru- 
thenium, Deville  employs  iridosmine,  a  refuse 
alloy  from  gold  pen  manufactories  and  assay 
offices.  This  alloy  is  fused  with  four  or  five 
times  its  weight  of  zinc  in  a  carbon  crucible ; 
the  heat  is  then  raised  sufficiently  to  volatilize 
all  of  the  zinc,  and  the  resulting  mass  is  again 
fused  with  three  parts  of  barium  binoxide  and 
one  part  of  saltpetre;  the  crucible  is  broken 
up,  and  its  contents  are  treated  with  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids.  The  oxide  of  ruthenium  thus 
obtained  is  fused  in  a  lime  or  magnesia  cruci- 
ble by  means  of  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe. 
After  osmium  it  is  the  most  infusible  of  all 
metals,  and  it  is  only  possible  to  melt  small 
quantities  in  the  hottest  portion  of  the  oxyhy- 
drogen flame,  at  a  temperature  that  would 
convert  gold  and  platinum  into  vapor.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  fused  metal  is  11 '4.  Its 
symbol  is  Ru,  It  can  be  alloyed  with  other 
metals,  such  as  zinc  and  tin,  but  is  of  no  par- 
ticular value  as  an  alloy.  Schonbein  discov- 
ered that  ruthenium  in  the  form  of  sponge 


would  decompose  water  in  the  presence  of 
chlorine.  If  some  of  the  sponge  be  projected 
into  chlorine  water,  oxygen  gas  is  at  once  lib- 
erated and  hydrochloric  acid  formed ;  the  metal 
is  not  at  all  affected,  and  if  chlorine  were  to  be 
slowly  conducted  into  the  water,  the  liberation 
of  the  oxygen  could  be  made  continuous. 

RUTHERFORD.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  South  Carolina  and 
drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Broad  river,  a 
branch  of  the  Congaree;  area,  about  850  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,121,  of  whom  2,642  were 
colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  and  but  a  por- 
tion of  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  24,406  bushels  of  wheat, 
272,485  of  Indian  corn,  39,678  of  oats,  26,474 
of  sweet  potatoes,  122  bales  of  cotton,  13,119 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  9,509  of  wool,  77,609  of  but- 
ter, 25,015  of  honey,  and  17,015  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses.  There  were  1,142  horses,  747 
mules  and  asses,  1,966  milch  cows,  3,384  other 
cattle,  6,496  sheep,  and  9,788  swine.  Capital, 
Rutherfordton.  II.  A  central  county  of  Ten- 
nessee, intersected  by  Stone  river,  a  branch  of 
the  Cumberland ;  area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  33,289,  of  whom  16,478  were  col- 
ored. It  has  a  diversified  surface  and  a  very 
fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Nashville, 
Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  174,745  bushels  of 
wheat,  867,443  of  Indian  corn,  63,514  of  oats, 
22,141  of  Irish  and  24,299  of  sweet  potatoes, 
2,490  tons  of  hay,  23,285  Ibs.  of  wool,  291,844 
of  butter,  8,412  bales  of  cotton,  and  14,969  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  7,953 
horses,  3,493  mules  and  asses,  5,862  milch 
cows,  8,184  other  cattle,  17,183  sheep,  and 
33,376  swine;  4  flour  mills,  3  saw  mills,  and  4 
wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establishments. 
Capital,  Murfreesboro. 

RUTLAND,  a  W.  county  of  Vermont,  border- 
ing on  New  York,  from  which  it  is  separated 
partly  by  Lake  Champlain,  and  drained  by 
Black,  White,  Quechee,  and  Paulet  rivers,  and 
Otter  creek;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in 
1870,  40,651.  It  has  an  elevated  surface,  in 
some  parts  mountainous,  and  a  fertile  soil. 
Iron  ore  abounds,  and  a  range  of  marble  quar- 
ries extends  along  its  whole  length.  The  mar- 
ble as  well  as  the  iron  is  excellent.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  several  railroads,  centring  in  Rut- 
land. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
23,191  bushels  of  wheat,  180,780  of  Indian 
corn,  246,092  of  oats,  22,127  of  buckwheat, 
617,094  of  potatoes,  110,624  tons  of  hay,  425,- 
216  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,190,645  of  butter,  1,369,- 
844  of  cheese,  522,177  of  maple  sugar,  and 
25,504  of  honey.  There  were  5,623  horses, 
19,594  milch  cows,  1,227  working  oxen,  12,208 
other  cattle,  83,870  sheep,  and  4,566  swine ;  6 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  2  of 
boats,  3  of  boots  and  shoes,  19  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  8  of  cheese,  11  of  men's  clothing,  13 
of  furniture,  2  of  forged  and  rolled  iron,  4  of 
castings,  14  of  leather,  4  of  machinery,  13  of 
marble  and  stone  work,  6  of  tombstones,  1  of 


502 


RUTLAND 


RUYSSELEDE 


lead  and  zinc,  1  of  slate  pencils,  28  of  roofing 
materials,  1  of  scales,  15  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen  and  1  of  worsted 
goods,  38  saw  mills,  and  14  flour  mills.  Cap- 
ital, Rutland. 

RUTLAND,  a  town  and  village,  county  seat  of 
Rutland  co.,  Vermont,  on  Otter  creek,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Rutland,  the  Harlem  Extension, 
the  Rutland  and  Washington,  and  the  Rensse- 
laer  and  Saratoga  railroads,  60  m.  S.  8.  W.  of 
Montpelier ;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1850,  3,715  ; 
in  1860,  7,577;  in  1870,  9,834,  of  whom  2,963 
were  foreigners.  The  village  (pop.  in  1875, 
about  9,000)  is  built  in  the  valley  of  the  creek 
near  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  is  the  second 
place  in  importance  in  the  state.  It  is  pleas- 
antly situated  between  two  lines  of  hills,  the 
Green  mountain  range  on  the  east  and  the 
Taconic  range  on  the  west.  The  Clarendon 
springs  are  6  m.  distant,  and  there  are  several 
prominent  peaks  in  the  vicinity.  The  village 
is  laid  out  at  right  angles.  The  business  blocks 
are  of  brick  and  marble ;  the  residences  prin- 
cipally of  wood.  The  public  buildings  (of 
brick)  are  the  post  office  and  United  States 
court  house,  the  county  court  house,  and  the 
town  hall.  There  are  three  large  brick  hotels ; 
three  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $1,000,000;  a  savings  bank,  with  about 
$700, 000  deposits;  two  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, one  of  which,  the  "  Herald,"  was  es- 
tablished in  1794;  and  ten  churches.  The 
town  is  divided  into  18  school  districts,  inclu- 
ding the  graded  district  in  the  village,  having 
25  school  buildings,  with  60  teachers  and  2,300 
pupils.  There  are  several  private  schools,  in- 
cluding the  Rutland  military  institute,  with  100 
students.  There  are  no  large  manufactories. 
The  production  of  marble  is  the  chief  industry, 
employing  about  1,500  men.  The  annual  yield 
is  about  400,000  cubic  feet.  The  quarries,  first 
opened  about  1840,  are  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  in  the  state,  furnishing  large  and  sound 
blocks  of  white  marble  quite  as  fine  as  the  stat- 
uary marble  of  Carrara.  Beautiful  specimens 
of  variegated  and  brecciated  marble  are  also 
found. — The  town  was  chartered  in  1761  and 
settled  in  1770.  A  centennial  celebration  was 
held  in  October,  1870.  It  was  one  of  the  capi- 
tals of  the  state  from  1784  to  1804.  The  vil- 
lage was  incorporated  in  1847. 

RUTLANDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  Eng- 
land, bordering  on  Lincolnshire,  Northamp- 
tonshire, and  Leicestershire ;  area,  149  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  22,070.  The  scenery  is  beauti- 
ful, and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  the  smallest 
county  in  England,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
wheat  and  cheese ;  but  barley  is  the  principal 
production.  The  chief  town  is  Oakham. 

RUTLEDGE.  I.  John,  an  American  states- 
man, of  Irish  parentage,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1739,  died  there,  July  23,  1800.  He 
studied  law  in  London,  returned  to  Charleston 
in  1761,  and  attained  the  foremost  rank  as  an 
advocate.  He  was  a  member  of  the  stamp  act 
congress  at  New  York  in  1765,  of  the  South 


Carolina  convention  in  1774,  and  in  the  same 
year  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress  at 
Philadelphia.  He  was  reappointed  to  the  con- 
gress of  1775  ;  and  in  1770,  in  the  convention 
of  South  Carolina,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  which  prepared  the  constitution, 
and  was  elected  president  of  the  new  govern- 
ment. When  Fort  Moultrie  was  attacked  by  the 
British  in  June,  he  sent  to  it  500  Ibs.  of  pow- 
der, against  the  advice  of  Gen.  Lee,  and  direct- 
ed Col.  Moultrie  not  to  evacuate  it  without  an 
order  from  him.  In  1779  he  was  chosen  gover- 
nor, and  when  Charleston  was  threatened  with 
a  siege  he  was  clothed  by  the  legislature  with 
dictatorial  power.  In  May,  1780,  when  Charles- 
ton fell,  Rutledge  retired  to  North  Carolina,  and 
for  nearly  two  years  accompanied  the  southern 
army.  In  1782  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
and  in  1784  chosen  chancellor  of  the  state; 
and  ho  was  a  member  of  the  convention  for 
framing  the  federal  constitution,  the  ratifica- 
tion of  which  he  supported  in  the  state  con- 
vention. In  1789  he  was  appointed  an  associ- 
ate judge  of  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
and  in  1791  elected  chief  justice  of  South  Car- 
olina. He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States  in  July,  1795,  and  presided  at  the 
succeeding  term  of  the  supreme  court ;  but  the 
senate,  for  political  reasons,  refused  to  confirm 
the  appointment.  II.  Edward,  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Charleston,  Nov.  23,  1749, 
died  Jan.  28, 1800.  He  studied  law  in  London, 
practised  in  Charleston,  and  in  l774-'7  was  a 
member  of  the  oontinentul  congress.  In  June, 
1776,  he  was  a  member  of  the  first  board  of 
war,  and  in  September  was  associated  with 
Dr.  Franklin  and  John  Adams  as  a  commit- 
tee to  confer  with  Lord  Howe  on  Staten  island 
as  to  terms  of  accommodation.  In  1779  he 
was  again  appointed  to  congress,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  illness  from  taking  his  seat.  Du- 
ring the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1780  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  detained  for  11  months 
at  St.  Augustine.  In  the  legislature  of  1791 
he  drew  up  the  act  for  the  abolition  of  the 
rights  of  primogeniture.  From  1798  till  his 
death  he  was  governor  of  the  state. 

RITLI.     See  Gutf-ru. 

Kill  LI.  a  Pelasgian  people  of  ancient  Italy, 
on  the  coast  of  Latium,  whose  chief  town, 
Ardea,  became  a  Roman  colony  about  490  B. 
0.  In  Virgil,  King  Turnus  of  the  Rutnlians  is 
mentioned  as  an  enemy  of  Latinus,  who  gave 
his  daughter  Lavinia,  previously  promised  to 
Turnus,  in  marriage  to  ^Eneas.  Their  name 
disappears  after  the  time  of  the  Roman  kings. 

RUYSDAEL,  Jacob,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
Haarlem  about  1680,  died  there  in  November, 
1681.  He  abandoned  his  original  profession 
of  surgery  and  rose  to  great  distinction  as  a 
landscape  and  marine  painter.  The  figures  in 
some  of  his  pictures  were  executed  by  Ostade, 
Wouvermans,  Berghem,  and  others. 

RUYSSELEDE,  a  town  of  West  Flanders,  Bel- 
gium, 14  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Bruges;  pop.  about 


KUYTER 


RYE 


503 


7,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  reforma- 
tory, which  was  opened  by  the  government  in 
1849.  Although  under  one  direction,  it  is  di- 
vided into  three  distinct  schools,  two  for  boys 
at  Ruysselede  and  Wynghene,  near  each  other, 
and  one  for  girls  at  Beernem,  about  two  miles 
distant.  The  children  received  are  vagrants, 
truants,  street  beggars,  and  the  like,  not  prop- 
erly criminals,  but  in  danger  of  becoming  so. 
The  age  of  admission  is  from  7  to  18  years ; 
the  term  of  committal  is  during  minority ;  the 
average  stay  is  about  three  years,  some  going 
away  in  three  months,  while  others  remain 
eight  or  ten  years.  The  institution  is  con- 
ducted on  the  congregate  plan,  the  boys  sleep- 
ing in  large  dormitories.  The  principal  labor 
is  farm  work  on  240  acres,  including  a  kitch- 
en garden  of  19  acres,  with  a  large  stock  of 
horses,  cows,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and  model  farm 
buildings.  In  winter  various  trades  are  car- 
ried on.  The  wool  and  flax  grown  on  the 
farm  are  spun,  woven,  and  made  up  into  gar- 
ments; the  straw  is  plaited  and  made  into 
hats ;  and  the  hides  are  tanned  and  shoes 
made.  Even  the  table  beer  is  brewed  on  the 
farm.  The  institution  is  not  only  entirely  self- 
supporting,  including  the  expenses  of  admin- 
istration, but  in  1871  there  was  a  net  profit 
of  3,000  francs,  and  in  the  previous  four  years 
a  total  gain  of  10,000  francs.  In  August, 
1872,  there  were  522  boys  at  Ruysselede.  At 
Wynghene  there  were  50  boys  in  training  for 
a  seafaring  life,  but  also  working  on  the  farm 
and  in  the  shops.  The  reformatory  at  Beer- 
nem, opened  in  1853,  contained  in  August, 
1872,  about  250  girls,  chiefly  employed  in  lace 
making,  sewing,  and  laundry  work.  They  are 
in  charge  of  a  religious  sisterhood,  but  under 
the  general  superintendence  of  the  director  at 
Ruysselede.  The  girls  gain  in  proportion  to 
their  number  more  than  the  boys,  their  earnings 
amounting  to  100,000  francs  a  year.  From 
1849  to  1873  about  5,000  boys  had  been  re- 
ceived. The  present  director,  Eugene  Poll,  be- 
lieves that  substantially  all  the  children  sent 
to  Ruysselede  are  saved,  as  the  percentage  of 
those  who  turn  out  badly  is  almost  zero. 

Rl  YTKR,  Michael  Adriaenszoon  de,  a  Dutch  ad- 
miral, born  in  Flushing,  Zealand,  in  1607,  died 
in  Syracuse,  Sicily,  April  29,  1676.  He  was 
apprenticed  by  his  parents  to  a  shoemaker  at 
the  age  of  11  years,  but  ran  away  and  engaged 
as  cabin  boy,  and  gradually  rose  to  the  highest 
rank.  When  in  1641  Holland  undertook  to 
assist  Portugal  against  Spain,  De  Ruyter,  then 
rear  admiral,  commanded  the  Dutch  fleet.  In 
1647  he  attacked  and  sunk  an  Algerine  squad- 
ron of  four  times  his  own  number  of  vessels 
off  the  port  of  Sale.  In  1652,  England  and 
Holland  being  at  war,  while  convoying  a  fleet 
of  merchantmen,  he  met  the  English  fleet  off 
Plymouth,  and  repulsed  it,  saving  his  entire 
convoy.  During  the  next  two  years  he  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  Dutch  fleet  under 
Admiral  Van  Tromp,  and  fought  two  naval 
battles,  one  of  which  was  successful.  In  1655 


he  was  again  sent  against  the  Algerine  pirates, 
whom  he  chastised  terribly,  hanging  at  the 
yardarm  the  famous  renegade,  Armand  de 
Diaz.  In  1659  he  was  sent  to  the  assistance 
of  Denmark  against  Sweden,  and  for  his  ser- 
vices the  Danish  king  ennobled  him  and  his 
whole  family.  In  1665,  war  having  again 
broken  out  between  England  and  Holland, 
he  was  put  in  command  of  the  fleet,  but  Prince 
Rupert  confined  him  to  the  Dutch  coast.  In 
June,  1666,  he  gallantly  fought  the  English  for 
three  days  in  the  Irish  sea,  but  eventually 
withdrew.  In  1667  he  renewed  the  attack, 
ascended  the  Thames  as  far  as  the  Medway, 
burned  the  shipping  at  Sheerness,  and  com- 
pelled England  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at 
Breda.  In  1671  De  Ruyter  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  in  the  war  against  France 
and  England,  and  in  1 672  fought  the  combined 
fleet  long  and  obstinately,  but  without  decisive 
results.  In  1675  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  aid  the  Spaniards  against  the  French, 
and  in  1676  fought  a  desperate  battle  against  a 
greatly  superior  French  force  under  Admiral 
Duquesne  off  the  E.  coast  of  Sicily,  and  was 
finally  worsted,  and  retreated  with  his  fleet 
into  the  harbor  of  Syracuse.  He  lost  both 
legs  in  the  fight,  and  died  of  his  wounds. 

RYCAl'T,  Sir  Paul.    See  RICAUT. 

RYE,  a  cereal  grain,  secale  cereale,  much  cul- 
tivated in  temperate  climates.  The  genus  se- 
cale belongs  to  the  subtribe  of  grasses  with 
wheat  and  barley  (hordeinece)  in  which  the 
inflorescence  is  in  a  dense  spike,  the  spikelets 
being  sessile  at  the  joints  of  a  zigzag  rachis ; 
the  chief  botanical  difference  between  rye  and 
wheat  is  that  in  the  former  the  spikelets  are 
only  two-flowered,  with  the  abortive  rudiment 
of  a  third  flower,  while  in  wheat  the  spikelets 
have  three  to  several  perfect  flowers ;  the  low- 
er palets  of  the  flowers  of  rye  are  long-awned, 
and  the  grain  is  brown.  As  with  other  culti- 
vated grain,  the  origin  of  rye  is  uncertain ; 
De  Candolle  thinks  the  evidence  points  to  the 
country  between  the  Alps  and  the  Black  sea 
as  its  native  region.  It  appears  to  have  varied 
less  under  cultivation  than  any  other  grain, 
there  being  only  two  recognized  varieties,  the 
winter  and  spring,  produced  as  with  wheat  by 
the  manner  of  cultivating;  it  succeeds  upon 
a  much  poorer  soil  than  wheat,  and  is  well 
suited  to  those  light  sandy  soils  which  will 
profitably  produce  neither  wheat  nor  barley. 
The  cultivation  of  rye  does  not  differ  from 
that  of  wheat ;  it  is  sown  in  September,  at 
the  rate  of  one  to  two  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  it 
is  sometimes  sown  among  Indian  corn,  the 
seed  being  covered  with  a  cultivator  or  hoe, 
leaving  the  surface  as  level  as  possible ;  the 
corn  is  cut  as  soon  as  ready  and  removed  to 
one  side  of  the  field,  and  the  rye  thoroughly 
rolled.  The  straw  of  rye  is  often  of  more 
value  than  the  grain,  and  hence  great  care  is 
taken  of  it  in  harvesting ;  it  is  frequently  cut 
with  the  cradle,  and  in  order  to  keep  the  straw 
unbroken  thrashed  with  a  flail ;  the  straw  is 


504: 


RYE 


RYLAND 


in  demand  for  bedding,  bringing  a  good  price 
in  cities ;  it  is  used  for  making  straw  mats  for 
covering  hotbeds  and  other  garden  uses,  for 
stuffing  horse  collars,  and  other  mechanical 
purposes.  As  a  green  fodder  crop  rye  is  val- 
uable ;  the  herbage  after  it  is  well  established 
may  be  pastured  late  in  autumn,  and  in  early 
spring  it  affords  succulent  and  nutritious  food, 
which  may  be  cut  for  cows  from  the  time  it 
is  six  inches  high  until  the  head  is  formed, 
when  the  stems  become  dry  and  useless.  Rye 
is  held  in  but  little  favor  in  England,  its  culti- 
vation being  confined  to  some  of  the  northern 
counties,  while  on  the  continent  it  is  large- 
ly used,  and  in  some  localities  is  the  com- 
mon breadstuff  of  the  population ;  its  color  is 
less  pleasant  than  that  of  wheat,  the  bread 
made  from  it  has  a  very  dark  color,  and  its 
taste  and  odor  are  to  some  disagreeable ;  it  is 
capable  of  making  a  light  wholesome  bread, 
though  less  nutritious  than  that  of  wheat,  as 


Bye  (Becale  cereale).— Head  reduced,  and  single  Splkelet 
enlarged. 

the  grain  contains  from  2  to  8  per  cent,  less 
of  nitrogenous  principles.  It  was  formerly 
the  custom  in  England  to  sow  two  or  three 

Earts  of  wheat  with  one  of  rye,  the  grains 
eing  harvested  and  threshed  together ;  the 
mixture,  called  maslin  or  meslin  (Lat.  miscel- 
lanea), is  said  to  be  better  when  thus  grown 
together  than  can  be  made  from  the  grains 
grown  separately;  bread  from  maslin  is  re- 
garded as  more  nutritious  than  that  from  the 
poorer  kinds  of  wheat.  Rye  meal  is  an  in- 
gredient in  the  New  England  brown  bread, 
the  other  ingredient  being  an  equal  or  larger 
amount  of  Indian  corn  meal.  The  Swedish 
peasantry  subsist  largely  upon  rye  cakes,  which 
are  thin  flat  disks  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  by 
means  of  which  they  are  strung  upon  sticks 
to  dry ;  they  are  baked  only  twice  a  year,  and 
must  be  dried  thoroughly.  Rye  is  somewhat 
laxative,  and  a  mush  made  from  the  meal  is 
a  suitable  food  for  those  troubled  with  con- 


stipation. The  roasted  grains  have  long  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  Rye  is  used  in 
Russia  to  distil  a  spirit  called  quass  ;  in  Hol- 
land it  is  employed  together  with  malt  to  make 
gin ;  and  in  this  country  much  whiskey  is  made 
from  it.  The  grain  is  sometimes  attacked  by 
a  minute  fungus  which  causes  it  to  change  its 
form  and  grow  into  a  horn-like  body  several 
times  larger  than  the  grain  itself,  and  known 
as  spurred  rye ;  where  this  occurs  great  cau- 
tion should  be  observed  in  using  the  grain  for 
food,  as  it  is  highly  poisonous.  (See  ERGOT.) 
— The  total  production  of  rye  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  census  of  1870,  was 
19,918,795  bushels.  The  states  producing  the 
largest  quantities  were :  Pennsylvania,  3,557,- 
641  bushels;  New  York,  2,478,125;  Illinois, 
2,456,578;  Wisconsin,  1,325,294;  Kentucky, 
1,108,983;  Ohio,  846,890 ;  Virginia,  682,264; 
New  Jersey,  566,575  ;  Missouri,  559,532  ;  and 
Kansas,  505,807. 

RYE  GRASS.    See  DARNEL. 

RYERSON,  Adolphos  Egerton,  a  Canadian  cler- 
gyman, born  near  Victoria,  Upper  Canada 
(now  Ontario),  March  24,  1808.  After  being  a 
teacher,  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Meth- 
odist church  in  1825,  and  for  four  years  was 
an  itinerant  minister.  In  1829  he  became  edi- 
tor of  "  The  Guardian,"  the  official  Methodist 
newspaper;  in  1832,  1836,  and  1840  was  a 
delegate  to  the  British  conference ;  and  in 
1842  became  principal  of  Victoria  college  at 
Cobourg.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  public  schools  for  Upper  Canada, 
and  in  1849  submitted  a  plan  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  public  school  system,  which  was 
adopted.  lie  is  now  (1875)  chief  superinten- 
dent of  education  for  Ontario.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  history  of  Canada,  and  has  prepared 
a  treatise  on  the  "  United  Empire  Loyalists," 
who  emigrated  from  the  United  States  to  Brit- 
ish America  in  1783. 

RYLAND,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Northampton,  Jan.  29,  1753,  died  in  Bristol, 
May  25,  1825.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
John  Collett  Ryland,  Baptist  pastor  at  North- 
ampton and  afterward  principal  of  a  seminary 
at  Enfield,  author  of  "  Contemplations  on  the 
Beauties  of  Creation,"  &c.  (8  vols.),  and  other 
works.  The  son  could  read  the  Psalms  in  He- 
brew at  five  years  of  age,  and  had  read  through 
the  Greek  Testament  before  he  was  nine.  In 
1770  he  preached  before  the  Baptist  congre- 
gation of  Northampton,  and  for  the  next  five 
years  assisted  his  father  in  his  school,  and 
preached  occasionally.  In  1776  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Northampton  congregation.  In 
1791  he  wrote  the  circular  letter  which  led  to 
the  formation  of  the  English  Baptist  mission- 
ary society,  in  the  organization  of  which  he 
took  part  at  Kittering  in  1792.  In  1793  he 
was  called  to  Bristol  as  pastor  of  the  Baptists 
in  that  city  and  president  of  the  Baptist  col- 
lege, continuing  in  both  offices  for  nearly  33 
years.  In  1815  he  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Baptist  missionary  society.  He  published 


RYMER 


SAADI 


505 


many  sermons  and  several  volumes  on  theo- 
logical topics. 

RYMER,  Thomas,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1640,  died  in  London,  Dec. 
14,  1713.  He  became  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn 
in  1666,  and  was  appointed  historiographer  to 
King  William  in  1692.  Rymer  was  chosen  to 
edit  the  whole  body  of  existing  documents  re- 
lating to  state  transactions  between  England 
and  other  countries,  and  the  result  was  the 
collection  entitled  Foedera,  Conventiones,  Lite- 
rs et  cujuscumque  Generis  Acta  Publica  inter 
Beges  Anglm  et  alios  quosvis  Imperatores,  &c., 
commonly  called  "  Eymer's  Foedera."  Fifteen 
volumes  were  printed  before  Rynier's  death, 
and  Robert  Sanderson,  who  was  appointed  his 
assistant  in  1707,  published  the  remainder  (to- 
gether 20  vols.  fol.,  1704-'35).  Rymer  wrote 
a  play  entitled  "Edgar,  or  the  English  Mon- 
arch" (1678),  and  "A  Short  View  of  Tragedy 
of  the  Last  Age,"  with  reflections  on  Shake- 
speare and  "  other  Practitioners  for  the  Stage  " 


(1693);  and  left  several  volumes  in  manu- 
script on  the  history  and  government  of  Eng- 
land, which  are  in  the  British  museum. 

KVSWKk  (Dutch,  Ryswylc  or  RijswijTc\  a 
village  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province 
of  South  Holland,  2  m.  S.  E.  of  the  Hague; 
pop.  about  2,900.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  con- 
cluded here  in  1697  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France 
on  the  one  part  and  the  German  empire,  Eng- 
land, Spain,  and  Holland  on  the  other,  which 
terminated  the  long  war  that  followed  the 
league  of  Augsburg  in  1686.  By  that  treaty 
Louis  acknowledged  "William  of  Orange  as 
king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  restored 
his  conquests  in  Catalonia,  and  a  large  part  of 
Flanders  to  Spain,  and  others  on  the  Rhine,  as 
well  as  Lorraine,  to  the  German  empire ;  but 
Strasburg  and  other  places  in  Alsace  were  defin- 
itively ceded  to  France.  The  villa  where  the 
treaty  was  concluded  was  demolished  in  1783, 
and  a  commemorative  pyramid  was  erected  on 
the  spot  in  1792. 


S 


THE  19th  letter,  15th  consonant,  and 
.  chief  sibilant  in  the  English  alphabet.  It 
is  a  linguo-dental,  and  represents  the  hissing 
made  by  driving  the  breath  between  the  end 
of  the  tongue  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  just 
above  the  upper  incisors.  It  is  found  in  most 
languages,  and  is  one  of  the  most  abundant 
consonants  in  English.  Its  sound  varies,  being 
strong,  like  c  soft,  in  this,  sun,  and  softer,  like 
2,  in  these,  wise.  Among  the  Hebrews,  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  uttered  s  for  the  aspirated  sh, 
which  they  could  not  articulate  (Judg.  xii.  6) ; 
and  lisping,  which  is  not  uncommon,  especially 
in  children,  consists  in  uttering  the  aspirated 
th  for  s.  Its  symbol  in  Hebrew  signifies  tooth, 
and  in  its  original  shape  it  may  have  represent- 
ed three  teeth,  since  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Etruscan  it  consists  of  three  strokes,  which  in 
altered  positions  have  the  same  relative  situa- 
tion to  each  other.  In  the  Phoenician  the  an- 
gles are  rounded,  and  approach  the  serpentine 
form  of  the  Roman  character. — In  words  com- 
mon to  the  Greek  and  Latin,  the  latter  language 
often  has  an  s  initial  in  place  of  the  aspirate  in 
the  former ;  thus  eg,  ITTTO.,  jj>/Uof,  vSup,  vkri,  vq, 
become  sex,  septem,  sol,  sudor,  sylva,  sus.  Be- 
fore words  borrowed  from  the  Latin  having  s 
initial,  the  French  often  prefix  a  vowel ;  thus 
spiritus,  spatium,  spes,  become  esprit,  espace, 
esperance  ;  and  by  an  abbreviation  schola,  scri- 
bere,  status,  become  ecole,  ecrire,  etat.  In  the 
middle  of  words  the  dropped  s  is  replaced 
by  a  circumflex  (  A  ) ;  thus  tempestas,  magister, 
bestia,  epistola,  become  tempete,  maitre,  bete, 
epitre  ;  and  the  Italian  medesimo,  testa,  presto, 
become  meme,  tete,  pret.  In  modern  English, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  a  final  is  the 
usual  sign  of  the  plural  of  nouns.  In  some 


declensions  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  the  Teutonic 
languages  (in  English  in  all  substantives  singu- 
lar) it  serves  to  mark  the  genitive.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  interchanges  with  t  (Ger.  das  and  dass, 
Fuss,  gross,  Biss,  Eng.  that,  foot,  great,  bite),  th 
(loves,  loveth,  hates,  hateth),  z  (in  the  Somerset- 
shire dialect  of  England ;  Dutch  euster,  zomer, 
Eng.  sister,  summer),  sch  (Ger.  schlagen,  Eng. 
slay},  and  other  consonants. — As  an  abbre- 
viation it  stands  for  societas  or  socius,  for  the 
proper  name  Sextus,  anciently  for  the  numeral 
7,  for  solo  in  Italian  music,  and  for  south  in 
books  of  navigation  and  geography. 

SAAIH,  Sheik  Moslih  ed-Dln,  a  Persian  poet,  born 
in  Shiraz,  died  in  1291,  at  the  age  of  102,  or 
according  to  some  authorities  at  a  still  higher 
age.  He  studied  at  Bagdad,  became  a  dervish, 
made  15  pilgrimages  on  foot  to  Mecca,  travel- 
led in  India  and  Egypt,  and  fought  against  the 
crusaders  in  Syria,  where  he  was  taken  prison- 
er. A  merchant  of  Aleppo  ransomed  him  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  with  whom 
he  led  an  unhappy  life.  After  30  years'  wan- 
derings, he  returned  to  Shiraz  and  built  him- 
self a  hermitage,  where  he  passed  his  remain- 
ing years.  He  possessed  great  scientific  knowl- 
edge, and  was  familiar  with  the  principal  ori- 
ental languages  and  Latin.  His  collected  pro- 
ductions include  the  Gulistan  ("Flower  Gar- 
den "),  Bostan  ("  Fruit  Garden  "),  Fend  Nameh 
("Book  of  Counsels"),  numerous  gazels  or 
odes,  elegies,  &c.  The  whole,  in  Persian  and 
Arabic,  edited  by  Harrington,  were  printed  at 
Calcutta  in  1791  (2  vols.  small  fol.);  and  of 
the  Gulistan  editions  have  been  published  with 
a  parallel  English  translation  by  James  Du- 
moulin  (Calcutta,  1807),  and  with  a  vocabulary 
by  Eastwick  (Hertford,  1850),  who  translated 


506 


SAADIA  BEN  JOSEPH 


SABELLIUS 


it  into  English  prose  and  verse  (1862).  The 
Gulistan  has  been  translated  into  German  by 
Olearius  (Schleswig,  1654)  and  Graf  (Leipsic, 
1846) ;  and  into  French  by  Gaudin  (Paris,  1791), 
Semelet  (1828  ;  2d  ed.,  1834),  and  Charles  De- 
fremery  (1858).  (See  PERSIA,  LANGUAGE  AND 
LITERATURE  OP,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  323.) 

SAADIA  (or  Siadiah)  BE.V  JOSEPH,  a  Jewish 
writer,  born  in  Egypt  in  892,  died  in  Baby- 
lonia in  941  or  942.  He  became  the  leading 
teacher  (gaori)  at  the  great  school  of  Sura  in 
Babylonia  in  928.  His  principal  work  is  "  Re- 
ligions and  Doctrines,"  written  in  Arabic,  and 
now  generally  known  nnder  its  title  Emunoth 
vedebth  in  Judah  beiv  Tibbon's  Hebrew  trans- 
lation (German  translation  by  Furst,  Leipsic, 
1845).  He  translated  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
into  Arabic,  and  wrote  in  Hebrew  didactic 
poems  on  the  laws  and  history  of  the  Jews. 

SAARBRllCK,  or  Saarbrieken,  a  town  of  Rhe- 
nish Prussia,  40  m.  S.  E.  of  Treves,  on  the 
Saar,  which  here  becomes  navigable;  pop.  in 
1871,  7,686.  A  bridge  connects  the  town 
with  the  suburb  Sanct-Johann  (pop.  9,143). 
There  are  Catholic  and  Protestant  church- 
es, and  a  palace,  once  the  residence  of  the 
princes  of  Nassau-Saarbruck.  The  town  is 
an  important  centre  of  the  coal  trade,  the 
adjoining  mines  producing  in  1871  upward 
of  60,000,000  quintals  and  employing  about 
15,000  persons.  Saarbruck  was  bombarded 
by  the  French,  under  Gen.  Frossard,  on  Aug. 
2,  1870,  in  the  presence  of  Napoleon  III.,  who 
reported  that  his  son  there  received  the  u  bap- 
tism of  fire;"  but  four  days  afterward  the 
French,  intrenched  on  the  Spichern  heights, 
were  defeated  by  the  Germans. 

8AARDAM,  or  Zaandam,  a  town  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  the  province  of  North  Holland,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Zaan  with  the  Y,  6  m.  N. 
W.  of  Amsterdam;  pop.  in  1867,  12,341.  It 
is  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  windmills,  some 
of  them  of  enormous  size,  used  for  grinding 
corn,  and  for  making  oil  and  paper.  Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia  worked  here  in  disguise  as  a 
ship  carpenter  for  a  short  time  in  1697,  and 
the  house  where  he  lived  was  bought  by  the 
late  queen  of  Holland,  a  sister  of  Alexander 
I.,  who  had  a  marble  tablet  placed  over  the 
ohimneypiece.  The  celebrated  ship  yards  have 
almost  all  disappeared. 

SAAVEDRA,  ingd  de.    See  RIVAS. 

SAAVEDRA  T  FAXARDO,  Diego.     See  FAXARDO. 

SABA.  See  ARABIA,  vol.  i.,  p.  620,  and  SHEBA. 

8AB.EAVS.    See  SHEBA. 

8ABAISM  (Ar.  fzaba,  to  rise  in  splendor,  as 
a  star ;  Heb.  tzeba  hashxhamayim,  the  host  of 
heaven,  the  stars,  tzebaoth,  the  heavenly  host), 
the  name  given  to  the  worship  of  the  heaven- 
ly bodies  as  deities.  It  prevailed  in  antiquity, 
nnder  various  forms,  in  large  parts  of  western 
Asia,  was  kindred  to  the  element  worship  of 
the  Persians  and  other  nations,  gave  rise  to 
astrology,  and  in  Mesopotamia  maintained  it- 
self to  a  late  period.  Arabian  historians  speak 
of  it  as  the  oldest  religion  in  the  world,  and 


Palgrave  finds  many  traces  of  it  in  modern 
Arabia.  According  to  one  tradition,  it  was 
handed  down  from  Enoch;  according  to  an- 
other, from  Sabai,  son  of  Seth,  son  of  Adam. 
Ibn  el-Wardi  mentions  two  Sabian  works,  a 
book  of  prayers  and  the  "  Book  of  the  Law," 
which  were  attributed  to  Enoch. 

SABBATH  (Heb.  shabbath,  day  of  rest),  the 
name  of  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  among  the 
Hebrews,  dedicated  to  an  entire  cessation  from 
worldly  labor.  It  began  on  Friday  evening,  and 
extended  to  the  evening  following.  Whether 
it  was  instituted  by  Moses  or  was  of  ante-Mo- 
saic origin  is  disputed.  A  wilful  violation  of 
the  sabbath  was  punished  with  death.  In  later 
times  the  provisions  of  the  Mosaic  law  respect- 
ing the  sabbath  were  greatly  extended  by  the 
Jews;  travelling  was  forbidden,  and  only  "a 
sabbath  day's  journey"  (2,000  paces  beyond 
the  limits  of  one's  town  or  village)  allowed. 
In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  many  zealous 
Jews  permitted  themselves  to  be  slaughtered 
by  the  enemy  rather  than  defend  themselves 
on  the  sabbath.  Christ  reproached  the  sect  of 
the  Pharisees  for  the  stress  they  laid  on  a 
mere  external  strictness  in  observing  the  sab- 
bath without  corresponding  purity  of  heart  and 
life.  The  Mishnah  enumerates  39  principal 
sorts  of  business  which  must  not  be  performed 
on  the  sabbath,  and  each  of  them  has  again 
its  subdivisions.  Stated  meetings  for  worship 
seem  not  to  have  been  connected  with  the  sab- 
bath until  after  the  exile.  The  sabbath  before 
the  passover  was  called  the  great  sabbath. 
Every  seventh  year  was  called  the  sabbatical 
year,  in  which  the  fields  remained  uncultivated 
and  debts  could  not  be  collected.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Christian  churches  celebrate 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  Sunday,  instead  of 
the  seventh  (sabbath) ;  but  a  few  small  denom- 
inations, as  the  Seventh  Day  Baptists,  the  ad- 
herents of  Joanna  Southcote,  &c.,  maintain 
that  the  change  was  made  without  Scriptural 
warrant,  and  therefore  adhere  to  the  religious 
celebration  of  the  seventh  day.  There  is  also 
a  small  sect  of  Sabbatarian  Christians  in  Tran- 
sylvania. (See  LORD'S  DAT.) 
*  SABELLIANS.  See  SABELLIUS. 

SABELLIDS,  the  originator  of  the  doctrine  de- 
scribed in  the  history  of  the  church  as  Sabel- 
lianism.  He  was  a  native  of  Africa,  a  pres- 
byter of  Ptolemais,  a  city  of  the  Libyan 
Pentapolis,  and  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
3d  century.  The  doctrine  of  Sabellins,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  gathered  from  the  fragments 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  his  opponents,  dif- 
fered from  the  Patripassian  tenets  of  Noetus 
and  Praxeas.  They  held  that  the  divine  in 
Christ  was  God  or  the  Father,  who  became 
and  was  called  the  Son  only  when  he  willed 
to  become  incarnate.  Subellius  taught  that 
the  Logos  or  Word  existed  before  the  incar- 
nation, but  not  as  a  distinct  person,  being 
immanent  in  the  essence  of  the  Deity  as  the 
divine  reason.  He  was  regarded  as  therein 
differing  from  St.  John  in  the  fourth  gospel, 


SABINE 


507 


denying  that  the  Logos,  the  creating,  reveal- 
ing, and  redeeming  principle,  is  a  person  really 
and  eternally  distinct  from  the  Father.  Wish- 
ing to  preserve  the  revered  Scriptural  terms 
of  "Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  used  by 
the  old  Monarchians  and  by  Christians  gene- 
rally, Sabellius  rejected  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
ception of  these  terms,  as  involving  a  trinity 
of  distinct  personal  existences  in  the  Godhead, 
and  opposed  to  the  prevailing  theology  a  trinity 
of  manifestations  or  offices.  God  in  himself,  ac- 
cording to  Sabellius,  is  one  and  personal ;  but 
this  one  divine  person,  subsisting  in  the  abso- 
lute simplicity  of  the  divine  nature,  becomes 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  according  as  he 
shows  himself  in  creating,  redeeming,  and 
sanctifying  mankind.  Thus  God,  remaining 
ever  one,  shows  himself  in  three  ways.  These 
three  historic  forms  are  not  persons  in  the 
Deity,  but  aspects  of  it.  The  titles  are  con- 
tingent, as  the  offices  which  they  represent  are 
temporary  ;  the  manifestations  cease  when  the 
work  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  ac- 
complished, both  being  reabsorbed  in  the  ab- 
solute Deity.  The  most  conspicuous  opponent 
of  Sabellius,  through  whom  indeed  his  views 
and  those  of  his  party  are  best  known,  was 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria.  In  his  controversy 
with  Dionysius  of  Kome,  while  pointing  out 
sharply  the  distinction  between  the  Son  and 
the  Father  which  Sabellius  denied,  he  went  so 
far  as  to  expose  himself  to  the  charge  of  deny- 
ing their  unity  of  nature.  His  hostility  did  not 
prevent  the  Sabellian  opinion  from  finding  par- 
tisans. Epiphanius,  in  the  4th  century,  says 
that  the  Sabellians  were  to  be  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  not  only  in  Mesopotamia, 
but  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome.  The  coun- 
cil of  Constantinople,  in  381,  by  rejecting  their 
baptism,  testified  to  their  importance.  Augus- 
tine, a  few  years  later,  believed  them  to  be  ex- 
tinct ;  but  their  opinions  continued  to  flourish 
tinder  other  names.  Marcellus  and  Photinus, 
in  the  4th  century,  were  only  the  first  of  a  long 
line  of  eminent  teachers  who  have  sustained 
after  Sabellius  the  theory  of  a  trinity  of  offices 
rather  than  a  trinity  of  persons  in  the  God- 
head.— The  doctrine  of  Sabellius  is  very  fully 
discussed  in  the  various  histories  of  dogmas, 
especially  by  Martini,  Mohler,  Baur,  Meier,  Dor- 
ner,  and  by  Schleiermacher  in  his  treatise  on 
the  opposition  between  the  Sabellian  and  the 
Athanasian  theory  of  the  Trinity. 

SABINE,  a  river  which  rises  in  Hunt  co.  in 
N.  E.  Texas,  runs  S.  E.  about  250  m.,  when  it 
reaches  the  E.  boundary,  and  then  generally 
S.  with  a  curve  to  the  east,  separating  Texas 
and  Louisiana,  and  enters  Sabine  lake  near  the 
coast,  the  entire  length  being  about  500  m.  It 
has  no  large  tributaries,  and  is  navigable  only  in 
some  parts.,  and  that  for  very  small  vessels. — 
Lake  Sabine  lies  between  Texas  and  Louisiana, 
about  5  m.  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  Sabine  pass.  It  re- 
ceives the  waters  of  the  Sabine  and  Neches 
rivers,  and  is  about  18  m.  long  by  9  m.  broad. 


SABINE.  I.  A  W.  pariah  of  Louisiana,  sepa- 
rated from  Texas  by  the  Sabine  river,  and 
drained  by  several  of  its  tributaries,  among 
which  are  the  bayous  St.  Patries,  San  Miguel, 
Lennau,  and  Toreau;  area,  about  1,300  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,456,  of  whom  1,847  were  col- 
ored. It  has  a  nearly  level  surface  and  fertile 
soil.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  74,- 
520  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,032  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, and  2,350  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
736  horses,  1,521  milch  cows,  5,022  other  cat- 
tle, 1,512  sheep,  and  9,091  swine.  Capital, 
Manny.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Texas,  separated 
from  Louisiana  by  the  Sabine  river ;  area,  525 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,256,  of  whom  1,107 
were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface 
covered  with  forests,  and  a  very  fertile  soil. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  86,839 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  19,680  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 1,722  bales  of  cotton,  1,766  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  1,918  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were 
831  horses,  1,634  milch  cows,  983  working 
oxen,  4,120  other  cattle,  1,598  sheep,  and  10,- 
640  swine.  Capital,  Hemphill. 

SABINE,  Sir  Edward,  a  British  physicist,  born 
in  Dublin  in  October,  1788.  He  was  educated 
in  the  military  schools  at  Marlow  and  Wool- 
wich, entered  the  royal  artillery  in  1803,  be- 
came captain  in  1813,  served  in  the  war  with 
the  United  States,  commanding  the  batteries  in 
the  siege  of  Fort  Erie  in  1814,  and  in  1818- 
19  accompanied  Ross  and  Parry  in  their  first 
arctic  expedition.  In  1821  he  began  a  series  of 
investigations  in  terrestrial  physics  in  several 
voyages  from  the  equator  to  the  arctic  circle. 
In  these  investigations,  the  results  of  which 
were  published  in  1825,  he  determined  the  re- 
quisite length  of  the  pendulum  to  beat  seconds 
in  different  latitudes,  and  thus  laid  the  basis 
for  an  accurate  determination  of  the  figure  of 
the  earth.  In  1838  he  presented  a  memoir  on 
the  magnetic  isoclinal  and  isodynamic  lines  of 
the  British  islands,  and  published  "Variabil- 
ity of  the  Intensity  of  Magnetism  upon  Many 
Parts  of  the  Globe."  His  discoveries  led  to 
the  establishment  of  permanent  magnetic  ob- 
servatories in  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies, 
the  latter  under  his  superintendence,  and  from 
1840  to  1860  he  published  the  results  of  mag- 
netic observations  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Hobart  Town,  St.  Helena,  and  Toronto,  in  sev- 
eral 4to  volumes.  He  has  been  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society  since  1818,  was  vice  president 
from  1850  to  1861,  and  president  from  Novem- 
ber, 1861,  to  November,  1871,  when  he  resigned. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  bath  in  1869,  and 
general  in  1870. 

SABINE,  Lorenzo,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Lisbon,  K  H.,  Feb.  28,  1803.  He  has  been 
a  merchant  and  bank  officer,  and  was  for  some 
time  secretary  of  the  Boston  board  of  trade. 
He  was  three  times  elected  to  the  Maine  legis- 
lature from  Eastport ;  was  an  agent  of  the 
United  States  treasury  department  in  Massa- 
chusetts ;  was  a  member  of  congress  from  that 
state  in  1852-'3;  and  now  (1875)  resides  in 


508 


SABINES 


SACCHINI 


Boston.  He  has  published  a  "  Life  of  Commo- 
dore Preble"  (1847);  "Biographical  Sketches 
of  the  Loyalists  of  the  American  Revolution  " 
(1847;  enlarged  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo,  1864) ;  a  "Re- 
port on  American  Fisheries"  (1853);  "Notes 
on  Duels  and  Duelling"  (1855);  and  an  "Ad- 
dress on  the  One  Hundredth  Anniversary  of 
the  Death  of  Gen.  Wolfe  "  (1859). 

SABINES,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  em- 
bracing a  large  number  of  tribes  conspicuous 
in  the  legends  and  history  of  Rome.  They 
formed  three  principal  groups:  the  Sabines 

S'opor;  the  Sabelli,  divided  into  Vestini, 
arsi,  Marrucini,  Peligni,  Frentani,  and  Hir- 
pini;  and  the  Samnites.  They  were  migra- 
tory, and  early  spre'ad  over  the  central  and 
southern  regions  of  the  peninsula.  They  were 
renowned  for  bravery,  rustic  simplicity  of 
manners,  love  of  freedom,  and  religious  char- 
acter. In  peace  they  were  ruled  by  republican 
magistrates,  in  times  of  war  by  sovereign  com- 
manders, called  by  the  Roman  historians  dic- 
tators or  kings.  The  Sabines  proper,  the  least 
warlike  of  all,  inhabited  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict in  the  central  Apennines,  between  the 
rivers  Tiber,  Nar  (now  Nera),  and  Anio  (Te- 
verone),  and  surrounded  by  Latium,  Etruria, 
Umbria,  Picenum,  and  the  territories  of  the 
Sabellians  and  Samnites.  Their  principal  towns 
were  Amiternum  on  the  Aternus  (Pescara), 
Cures,  the  birthplace  of  Numa  Pompilius, 
Reate  (Rieti)  on  the  Nar,  Nursia  (Norcia),  and 
Nomentum.  The  Sabines  formed  one  of  the 
constituent  elements  of  the  Roman  people,  a 
portion  of  them  having  become  incorporated, 
according  to  the  legend,  with  the  subjects  of 
Romulus  on  the  termination  of  the  war  waged 
to  revenge  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women  by 
the  Roman  youths.  The  remainder  of  the 
people  continued  independent,  but  early  in  the 
3d  century  B.  C.  received  the  full  Roman  fran- 
chise and  were  finally  merged  in  the  republic. 
SABLE,  a  carnivorous  animal  of  the  weasel 
family,  and  genus  mustela  (Linn.),  of  which 
the  generic  characters  have  been  given  under 
FISHER;  it  is  the  M.  zibellina  (Linn.).  In  size 


Sable  (Mustela  zibellina). 

it  is  about  equal  to  the  pine  marten  (see  MAR- 
TEN), and  its  color  in  summer  is  brownish, 
with  white  spots  on  the  head  and  grayish  neck  ; 
in  winter  it  is  much  darker,  though  not  so  dark 
as  to  justify  the  use  of  its  name  as  an  epithet 
signifying  deep  blackness.  The  feet  are  hairy 


to  the  toes,  indicating  its  residence  to  be  a 
snow-covered  region ;  it  inhabits  the  frozen 
mountains  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia, 
where  its  chase  is  attended  by  great  hardships 
on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate  and 
the  barren  nature  of  the  country.  The  dark 
winter  fur  is  highly  esteemed,  and  forms  an 
important  article  of  commerce  to  the  Rus- 
sians; considerable  numbers  are  carried  to 
Russia  and  western  Europe,  where  they  bring 
almost  fabulous  prices,  a  single  skin  being 
worth  from  $20  to  $60 ;  the  hairs  are  so  soft 
that  they  will  lie  any  way  in  which  they  are 
placed.  It  lives  principally  in  trees,  lying  con- 
cealed during  the  day  and  hunting  by  night ; 
it  will  destroy  a  hare,  though  larger  than  it- 
self, and  kills  ermines  and  other  small  weasels ; 
it  may  be  tamed,  and  is  very  docile  if  taken 
young.  It  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  variety 
of  the  pine  marten  (M.  martes,  Linn.) ;  but, 
though  not  uncommon,  enough  specimens  do 
not  exist  in  museums  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion. It  has  from  three  to  five  young,  late  in 
March  or  early  in  April.  The  American  sable 
is  the  American  pine  marten  ( if.  Americana). 

SABLE  ISLAND  (Fr.  sable,  sand),  a  low  island 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  about  100  m.  8.  E.  of 
Nova  Scotia,  to  which  it  belongs ;  length  about 
25  m.,  breadth  from  1  to  5  m.  It  consists  of 
two  nearly  parallel  ridges  of  sand  joined  at 
the  ends,  which  enclose  a  lake  about  11  m. 
long  and  in  some  places  12  ft.  deep.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  grass,  wild  peas,  strawberries, 
cranberries,  <fec.  The  island  supports  about 
500  wild  horses,  and  some  horned  cattle. 
There  are  valuable  fisheries  in  the  vicinity. 
Many  fatal  shipwrecks  have  occurred  upon 
Sable  island  and  the  sand  banks  and  shoals 
which  surround  it.  An  establishment  for  the 
relief  of  persons  thrown  upon  its  shores  is 
supported  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In 
1871  the  population  consisted  of  five  families, 
comprising  27  persons,  connected  with  this 
establishment.  In  1873  the  government  estab- 
lished two  lighthouses,  one  at  the  W.  end  (lat. 
43°  57'  N.,  Ion.  60°  8'  W.),  with  a  revolving 
light  123  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  other  1-J- 
m.  from  the  E.  end  (lat.  43°  58'  30",  Ion.  59° 
46'),  with  a  fixed  light  128  ft.  above  the  sea. 

SAC,  a  W.  county  of  Iowa,  watered  by  Boyer 
and  Coon  rivers  and  other  streams;  area,  576 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,411.  The  surface  is 
rolling  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  37,090  bushels  of  wheat, 
42,267  of  Indian  corn,  38,831  of  oats,  and  30,120 
Ibs.  of  butter.  Capital,  Sac  City. 

SACAPA.    See  ZACAPA. 

SA('(  VFCK).    See  SACKATOO. 

SACCHINI,  Antonio  Maria  Gasparo,  an  Italian 
composer,  born  in  Pozzuoli  about  1735,  died 
in  Paris,  Oct.  7,  1786.  He  was  educated  un- 
der Dnrante,  produced  numerous  works  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  and  arrived  in  1772  in 
England,  where  he  remained  till  1784,  when 
he  established  himself  in  Paris.  His  operas, 
once  famous  over  Europe,  are  now  scarcely 


SACHEVERELL 


SACKETT'S  HARBOR 


509 


known  by  name  even,  notwithstanding  they 
are  skilfully  and  richly  harmonized  and  abound 
in  beautiful  melodies.  The  most  celebrated  in 
their  day  were  II  Cid,  Tamerlano,  Montezuma, 
Rinaldo,  and  UAmore  soldato,  composed  for 
the  London  opera  house,  and  La  colonie, 
I?  Olympiade,  and  CEdipe  d  Colonne.  The  last 
named,  his  best  work,  was  brought  out  at 
Paris  the  year  after  his  death. 

SACHEVERELL,  Henry,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Marlborough,  Wiltshire,  about  1672, 
died  in  London,  June  5,  1724.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  obtained  a  fellowship,  received 
holy  orders,  and  in  1705  was  appointed  preach- 
er of  St.  Saviour's,  Southward.  In  1709  he 
delivered  two  political  sermons,  the  one  at  the 
Derby  assizes  on  Aug.  15,  the  other  before  the 
lord  mayor  at  St.  Paul's  on  Nov.  5,  in  which  he 
maintained  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience, 
and  denounced  the  act  of  toleration.  These 
sermons  were  widely  circulated  by  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  existing  government.  The  whigs 
being  then  in  power  under  the  ministry  of 
Godolphin,  Dr.  Sacheverell  was  ordered  to  be 
impeached;  and  the  trial  commenced  before 
the  house  of  lords,  Feb.  27,  1710.  On  March 
23  he  was  found  guilty,  sentenced  to  three 
years'  suspension  from  preaching,  and  the  two 
sermons  were  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the 
common  hangman.  This  light  sentence  was 
considered  a  tory  victory,  and  the  excitement 
created  by  the  affair  contributed  to  the  fall  of 
the  whig  ministry.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
sentence  the  house  of  commons,  then  led  by 
tory  influences,  appointed  him  to  preach  be- 
fore them  on  the  restoration  day,  and  the 
queen  presented  him  to  the  living  of  St.  An- 
drew's, Holborn.  Bishop  Burnet  says:  "He 
possessed  little  of  religion,  virtue,  learning,  or 
good  sense;"  and  he  was  afterward  seldom 
heard  of  except  through  his  quarrels  and  law- 
suits with  his  parishioners. 

SACHS,  Hans,  a  German  poet,  born  in  Nu- 
remberg, Nov.  5,  1494,  died  in  January,  1576. 
He  was  a  cobbler,  and  was  instructed  in  singing 
and  verse  making  in  Munich  by  Lienhart  Nun- 
nenbe,ck,  a  Meistersinger.  He  produced,  it  is 
said,  6,000  poems  of  all  kinds,  about  one  fourth 
of  which  only  are  in  print.  These  include  53 
sacred  and  78  profane  plays,  64  farces,  and  59 
fables.  Many  of  his  dramatic  pieces  are  brief 
comedies  called  Schwarike,  full  of  coarse, 
strong  satire  on  the  times.  Since  the  appear- 
ance in  1570-'79  of  the  collective  edition  of  his 
works  in  5  vols.  fol.,  and  the  reprint  in  1612- 
'17  in  5  vols.  4to,  several  editions  of  selec- 
tions from  them  have  been  published,  the  la- 
test forming  vols.  iv.,  v.,  and  vi.  of  the  collec- 
tion of  Deutsche  DicJiter  des  16.  tTahrhtinderts, 
by  Goedeke  and  Tittmann  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1870-'72;  new  ed.,  1874).  He  was  called  "hon- 
est Hans  Sachs."  A  monument  was  erected  to 
him  in  Nuremberg  in  1874. 

SACKATOO,  or  Sokoto.  I.  A  Foolah  monarchy 
of  central  Africa,  in  Soodan,  E.  of  the  Niger 
and  N.  of  the  Benoowe,  and  largely  identical 


with  the  territories  of  Houssa  except  in  its 
western  provinces.  Inclusive  of  the  tributary 
state  of  Adamawa  or  Fumbina  on  the  south- 
east, it  extends  from  about  lat.  6°  30'  to  14° 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  5°  to  15°  E.,  and  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Sahara,  N.  E.  and  E.  by  Bornoo  and 
Baghirmi,  S.  by  unexplored  regions,  and  W.  by 
Gando.  Its  estimated  area,  including  Ada- 
mawa, is  about  170,000  sq.  m.,  and  it  forms  a 
portion  of  the  extensive  region  conquered  by 
the  Foolahs,  who,  although  they  have  been  the 
dominant  race  since  about  1800,  constitute  but 
a  minority  of  the  entire  population,  which  is 
estimated  by  Behm  at  12,000,000,  though  other 
authorities  make  it  much  smaller.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  very  uneven.  The  higher  por- 
tions are  dry  and  generally  barren,  but  the  val- 
leys are  extremely  fertile.  The  climate  of  the 
northern  portion  is  salubrious,  except  in  the 
valleys  during  the  rainy  season.  The  produc- 
tions are  iron  of  very  good  quality,  cotton, 
rice,  tobacco,  and  sorghum.  Sheep,  cattle, 
horses,  asses,  and  camels  are  raised.  The  sul- 
tan, a  descendant  of  the  Foolah  chief  Othman, 
resided  at  Wurno,  15  m.  from  the  city  of  Sack- 
atoo,  when  Barth  visited  the  country  in  1853. 
His  income  at  that  time  was  reckoned  at  £1 0,000 
in  shell  money,  with  an  equal  amount  annually 
in  slaves  and  cloth.  Sackatoo  has  been  a  some- 
what noted  field  of  African  exploration,  hav- 
ing been  visited  by  Clapperton,  Lander,  Rich- 
ardson, and  Barth.  (See  ADAMAWA,  FOOLAHS, 
and  HOUSSA.)  II.  A  ci'ty  and  former  capital 
of  the  above  described  country,  situated  on  a 
long  ridge  sloping  toward  the  Sackatoo  or  Rima 
river,  a  tributary  of  the  Niger,  in  lat.  12°  59' 
N.,  Ion.  5°  12'  E. ;  pop.  more  than  20,000.  Its 
name,  according  to  Clapperton,  signifies  "  a 
halting  place."  It  is  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a 
square,  each  side  of  which  is  about  1J  m.  long, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  upward  of  12  ft. 
high.  Eight  gates  are  indicated  on  Earth's 
map,  two  on  each  side  of  the  city.  An  impor- 
tant market  is  held  here,  at  which  an  extensive 
traffic  is  carried  on  in  slaves,  horses,  cattle, 
leather,  iron,  and  articles  of  food.  The  prin- 
cipal industry  is  the  manufacture  of  leather 
goods,  including  bridles,  bags,  cushions,  and 
many  other  articles,  which  are  celebrated  in 
central  Africa  for  their  excellent  quality  and 
fine  workmanship.  Sackatoo  has  been  ren- 
dered particularly  prominent  in  the  record  of 
African  travel  by  the  death  of  the  British  ex- 
plorer Clapperton  in  its  vicinity  in  1827. 

SACKBIT,  a  wind  instrument  of  the  trumpet 
species,  capable  of  being  drawn  out  to  differ- 
ent lengths,  and  probably  indentical  with  the 
modern  trombone,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
modelled  by  the  Italians  from  an  ancient  one 
excavated  at  Pompeii,  and  which  on  its  first  in- 
troduction into  England  was  called  a  sackbut. 

SACKETPS  HARBOR  (or  more  correctly  SACK- 
ET'S),  a  village  in  the  town  of  Hounsfield,  Jef- 
ferson co.,  New  York,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Black 
River  bay,  an  inlet  of  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Utica  and  Black  River  railroad, 


510 


SACKVILLE 


SACRAMENT 


10  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Watertown;  pop.  in  1875, 
784.  The  harbor,  one  of  the  best  on  the  lake, 
is  divided  by  a  crescent-shaped  tongue  of  land, 
which  extends  from  the  lower  part  of  the  vil- 
lage, into  the  outer  and  inner  harbor.  The 
latter  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  large 
vessels  to  within  two  fathoms  of  the  shore. 
Its  commerce,  formerly  extensive,  has  been 
mostly  diverted  to  other  channels.  The  Madi- 
son barracks,  built  by  the  government  in 
1816-'19,  at  a  cost  of  $85,000,  are  situated 
here. — In  the  war  of  1812  Sackett's  Harbor 
was  the  headquarters  of  the  northern  division 
of  the  American  fleet,  and  several  war  vessels 
were  built  and  expeditions  fitted  out  here.  It 
was  twice  attacked  $y  the  British,  who  were 
repulsed,  the  last  time  with  a  loss  of  150  men. 
SACKVILLE.  I.  Thonis,  earl  of  Dorset,  an 
English  statesman,  born  at  Buckhurst,  Sussex, 
in  1530,  died  in  London,  April  19,  1608.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  was 
called  to  the  bur,  was  elected  to  the  house  of 
commons,  and  was  created  Baron  Buckhurst 
in  1567.  In  1570  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Franco;  in  1587  ho  was  ambassador  to  the 
Netherlands;  and  from  1599  till  his  death  he 
was  lord  treasurer.  In  March,  1603,  he  was 
created  earl  of  Dorset.  He  planned  the  "  Mir- 
rour  for  Magistrates,"  a  collection  of  rhymed 
stories  from  English  history  by  different  au- 
thors, and  produced  the  earliest  known  tragedy 
in  the  English  language,  "Gorboduc,"  or  "  Fer- 
rex  and  Porrex,"  play<ed  before  Queen  Eliza- 
beth in  15(32.  His  works  were  edited  by  the 
Rev.  Sackvillo  West  in  J.  R.  Smith's  "  Library 
of  Old  Authors"  (London,  1859).  II.  Chirtts, 
sixth  earl  of  Dorset,  born  Jan.  24,  1637,  died 
in  Bath,  Jan.  16,  1706.  He  was  a  wit,  and  a 
favorite  of  Charles  II.,  and  William  III.  ap- 
pointed him  lord  chamberlain.  His  best  com- 
position was  the  song  written  before  a  naval 
engagement  with  the  Dutch  admiral  Opdam, 
beginning  "To  all  you  ladies  now  at  land." 
III.  George,  a  soldier  and  statesman,  first  Vis- 
count Sackville,  son  of  tho  first  duke  of  Dor- 
sot,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  Jan. 
26,  1716,  died  Aug.  26,  1785.  He  entered  tho 
military  service  as  Lord  George  Sackville,  was 
present  at  the  battles  of  Dettingen  and  Fon- 
tonoy,  served  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
against  tho  young  pretender,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  general.  At  the  battle  of 
Minden,  Aug.  1,  1759,  he  commanded  the  al- 
lied cavalry,  and  for  his  failure  to  execute  the 
commander-in-chief's  order  to  charge  the  re- 
tiring French  infantry,  ho  was  court-martialled 
and  dismissed  from  the  service.  George  II. 
struck  his  name  from  the  list  of  privy  coun- 
cillors ;  but  on  the  accession  of  George  III.  he 
was  again  taken  into  favor.  In  1775,  tinder 
the  name  of  Lord  George  Germain  (assumed 
in  compliance  with  a  will),  he  entered  the  cab- 
inet of  Lord  North  as  secretary  of  state  for  the 
colonies,  retaining  tho  office  during  the  Amer- 
ican revolutionary  war,  and  incurring  great 
unpopularity  by  his  opposition  to  efforts  for 


the  termination  of  hostilities.  In  February, 
1782,  the  king  created  him  Viscount  Sackville. 

SACO,  a  river  of  New  England,  rising  in 
the  White  mountains,  in  Co6s  co.,  N.  H., 
and  formed  by  the  junction  of  three  princi- 
pal branches  at  Bartlett,  Carroll  co.  It  flows 
8.  E.  until  it  enters  Maine,  then  makes  an 
abrupt  turn  N.,  nnd  again  pursues  a  S.  E.  di- 
rection through  that  etate  to  the  ocenn  below 
Saco.  The  main  branch  passes  through  the 
noted  Notch  of  the  White  mountains.  Its 
falls  afford  valuable  water  power.  The  prin- 
cipal of  thorn  aro  the  Great  falls,  at  Hiram,  72 
ft. ;  Steep  falls,  at  Limington,  20  ft. ;  Salmon 
falls,  at  llollis  and  Buxton,  30  ft. ;  and  Saco 
falls,  42  ft.  This  last  fall  is  about  4  m.  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  at  the  head  of 
tide  water.  The  river  has  an  ordinary  rise  in 
the  spring  of  from  6  to  15  ft.,  but  it  has  fre- 
quently very  far  exceeded  that  height,  causing 
destructive  inundations.  The  entire  length  of 
the  river  is  estimated  at  160  m. 

SACO,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  ono  of  the 
shire  towns  of  York  co.,  Maine,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Saco  river,  about  4  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  on  the  Portland,  Saco,  and  Ports- 
mouth, and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads,  13 
m.  8.  W.  of  Portland ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,755.  It 
is  connected  with  Biddeford,  an  active  and 
thriving  city  on  tho  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
by  four  bridges.  The  sea  beach  within  tho 
city  (the  part  of  which  called  Old  Orchard 
beach  is  8fr  m.  from  the  railroad  depot)  has 
unsurpassed  facilities  for  driving  and  bathing, 
and  has  several  hotels.  It  has  little  foreign 
commerce,  but  a  considerable  coasting  trade. 
The  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port 
on  June  30,  1874,  was  23,  aggregate  tonnage 
3,766.  Ship  building  is  carried  on.  A  few 
vessels  and  boats  aro  engaged  in  tho  cod  and 
mackerel  fisheries.  Cotton  goods,  cotton  ma- 
chinery, boots  and  shoes,  belting,  brick,  brush- 
es, carriages,  hubs  and  wheels,  loom  harnesses, 
lumber,  and  leather  are  manufactured.  There 
are  two  national  banks,  with  a  joint  capital 
of  $200,000 ;  two  savings  banks,  with  about 
$1,500,000  deposits ;  a  fire  insurance  company, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  an  Athenreum  with-  a  li- 
brary of  2,000  volumes,  and  Baptist,  Christian 
Congregational,  Episcopal,  Freewill  Baptist, 
Methodist,  and  Unitarian  churches. —  Saco  was 
separated  from  Biddeford  as  Pepperellboro'  in 
1762.  The  name  was  changed  in  1805,  and  in 
1867  a  city  charter  was  obtained. 

SACRAMENT  (Lat.  tacramentitm,  the  military 
oath  or  its  obligation),  in  Christian  theology, 
an  external  ordinance  or  rite  of  divine  institu- 
tion, significant  of  a  supersensual  grace  or 
spiritual  effect.  Its  earliest  usage  in  the  Old 
Italic  version  of  the  New  Testament  and  in 
the  Latin  Vulgate  means  something  sacred  and 
hidden,  and  sacramentum  is  thus  taken  as  an 
equivalent  for  the  Greek  fivarf/piov,  a  secret; 
hence  the  early  church  fathers  used  the  word 
to  denote  any  mysterious  doctrine  or  thing 
pertaining  to  the  Christian  belief  or  worship. 


SACRAMENTO 


511 


Subsequently  sacramentum  in  the  Latin  church 
and  (jLvariipiov  in  the  Greek  were  restricted  to 
certain  rites  or  ordinances  divinely  institu- 
ted for  imparting  to  the  recipient  an  invisi- 
ble grace  in  conformity  with  the  visible  cere- 
mony. Both  these  churches  believe  that  there 
are  seven  such  sacraments,  viz. :  baptism,  con- 
firmation, penance,  the  eucharist,  extreme  unc- 
tion, order  or  ordination,  and  matrimony.  Bap- 
tism, confirmation,  and  order  can  only  be  re- 
ceived once,  and  are  considered  to  impress  on 
the  soul  an  indelible  seal  or  character.  Bap- 
tism and  penance  are  called  "the  sacraments 
of  the  dead,"  because  ordained  by  Christ  to 
restore  the  soul  dead  by  sin  to  the  life  of 
sanctifying  grace.  Baptism  is  validly  con- 
ferred on  infants  without  the  exercise  of  rea- 
son ;  but  its  worthy  reception  by  the  adult  re- 
quires faith  in  the  redeeming  merits  of  Christ 
and  compunction  for  past  offences.  The  five 
other  sacraments  are  called  "sacraments  of 
the  living,"  because  the  first  requisite  condi- 
tion for  their  worthy  reception  is,  that  the 
soul  of  the  recipient  should  be  in  a  state  of 
sanctifying  grace. — In  the  church  of  England 
many  distinguished  theologians,  especially  in 
recent  times,  have  inclined  to  the  opinion  that 
there  are  in  the  Christian  church  two  primary 
and  five  secondary  sacraments.  The  major- 
ity, however,  with  Protestants  generally,  be- 
lieve in  but  two  sacraments,  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper,  on  the  ground  that  the  New 
Testament  mentions  only  these  two  as  having 
been  instituted  by  Christ.  The  "Apology" 
for  the  Lutheran  confession  of  Augsburg  men- 
tions also  penance  or  "  absolution  "  as  a  true 
sacrament;  but  this  was  afterward  omitted 
from  the  list  of  the  sacraments,  and  confession 
was  retained  by  the  Lutheran  churches  as  a 
mere  ecclesiastical  institution.  The  sacrament 
of  ordination  has  also  found  advocates  among 
modern  High  Lutherans.  A  violent  contro- 
versy about  what  constitutes  the  substance  of 
each  sacrament  was  carried  on  between  the 
Lutherans  and  the  Reformed  churches  in  the 
16th  century.  As  to  the  efficacy  or  operation 
of  the  sacraments,  a  wide  difference  of  opinion 
has  existed  between  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic  theologians,  arising  in  a  great  measure 
from  the  widely  different  meaning  applied 
by  the  disputants  to  the  term  "faith,"  and  to 
other  interior  dispositions  required  of  the  re- 
cipient of  the  sacraments.  The  Friends  re- 
gard the  rites  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per as  Jewish  customs  which  ceased  to  be  ob- 
ligatory after  the  apostolic  age.  The  Dunkers, 
Mennonites,  Winebrennarians,  and  others,  con- 
sider the  "washing  of  feet"  and  the  Lord's 
supper  as  coordinate  and  of  equal  obligation. 

SACRAMENTO,  a  river  of  California,  draining 
with  the  San  Joaquin  the  central  valley  of  the 
state.  It  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mt. 
Shasta,  in  lat.  41°  25'  N.,  and  runs  principally 
S.  870  m.  to  its  mouth  in  Suisun  bay,  which 
communicates  through  San  Pablo  and  San 
Francisco  bays  and  the  Golden  Gate  with  the 
717  VOL.  xiv.— 33 


Pacific  ocean.  It  is  navigable  to  Sacramen- 
to, about  80  m.  from  Suisun  bay,  by  vessels 
drawing  3  ft.  of  water,  and  to  Tehama,  180  m. 
further,  by  steamboats  drawing  15  in.  The 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Pitt,  Feather,  and 
American  rivers,  all  coming  in  from  the  east- 
ward. Pitt  river  is  longer  and  larger  than 
the  Sacramento  at  the  junction,  and  is  named 
on  some  of  the  maps,  but  not  in  common 
usage,  the  Upper  Sacramento.  It  rises  in  the 
N.  E.  corner  of  the  state,  and  in  wet  seasons 
is  the  outlet  of  Goose  lake,  the  basin  of  which 
extends  into  Oregon. 

SACRAMENTO,  a  central  county  of  California, 
bounded  N.  by  the  American  river,  S.  by  the 
Calaveras  and  San  Joaquin,  and  W.  by  the 
Sacramento,  and  intersected  by  the  Mokelumne 
and  Cosumnes  rivers;  area,  1,026  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  26,830,  of  whom  3,596  were  Chinese. 
It  has  a  diversified  .surface,  nearly  level  in  the 
west  and  hilly  toward  the  east,  and  the  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  The  E.  portion  contains  de- 
posits of  gold.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Central 
Pacific  and  other  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  126,135  bushels  of  wheat, 
62,280  of  Indian  corn,  589,513  of  barley,  72,- 
055  of  Irish  and  148,920  of  sweet  potatoes, 
74,797  gallons  of  wine,  515,218  Ibs.  of  wool, 
319,500  of  hops,  439,835  of  butter,  88,050  of 
cheese,  and  21,827  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
9,462  horses,  9,050  milch  cows,  13,149  other 
cattle,  113,304  sheep,  and  14,749  swine;  2 
manufactories  of  bags,  4  of  boots  and  shoes, 
6  of  brick,  5  of  carriages  and  wagons,  10  of 
men's  clothing,  4  of  confectionery,  4  of  coop- 
erage, 5  of  furniture,  2  of  gas,  5  of  malt  liquors, 
3  of  machinery,  2  of  engines  and  boilers,  10  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
1  of  woollen  goods,  and  3  flouring  mills.  Capi- 
tal, Sacramento. 

SACRAMENTO,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Cali- 
fornia, county  seat  of  Sacramento  co.,  the  sec- 
ond city  in  the  state  in  population  and  impor- 
tance, 83  m.  by  the  California  Pacific  railroad 
and  189  m.  by  the  Central  Pacific  railroad  E.  N. 
E.  of  San  Francisco;  lat.  38°  33'  N.,  Ion.  121° 
20'  W.;  pop.  in  1850,  6,820;  in  1860,  13,785; 
in  1870,  16,283,  of  whom  6,202  were  foreign- 
ers, including  1,370  Chinese;  in  1875,  locally 
estimated  at  24,000,  of  whom  2,000  were  Chi- 
nese. It  is  situated  in  an  extensive  plain  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Sacramelito  river,  here  spanned 
by  a  fine  bridge,  immediately  S.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  American  river,  and  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  cities  W.  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
The  streets  are  wide  and  straight,  and  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles.  Those  running  E. 
and  "W.  are  named  by  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet; those  crossing  them  N.  and  S.  are  num- 
bered. The  shops  and  stores  are  mostly  of 
brick,  the  dwellings  mostly  of  wood  and  sur- 
rounded by  gardens.  Shade  trees  are  abundant. 
The  streets  in  the  business  portion  are  paved 
with  Nicolson  pavement  and  cobblestones.  The 
city  is  supplied  with  gas,  and  water  is  pumped 


512 


SACRAMENTO 


up  from  the  Sacramento  river,  and  distributed 
through  the  streets  in  pipes.  The  climate  is 
semi-tropical,  and  a  luxuriant  growth  of  flow- 
ers and  shrubs  may  be  seen  in  the  open  air  at 
all  times  of  the  year.  The  only  important 
public  building  is  the  state  capitol,  one  of  the 
finest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  situated  almost  in  the  heart  of  the 
city,  and  the  grounds  cover  18  blocks,  beauti- 
fully laid  out  with  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers. 
The  Oregon  division  of  the  Central  Pacific  rail- 
road, which  runs  to  Redding,  170  m.  N.,  con- 
necting by  stage  coaches  with  the  Oregon  and 
California  railroad  for  Portland,  Or.,  brings  to 
Sacramento  a  vast,  amount  of  trade  from  N. 
California,  embracing  the  best  grain-growing 
section  of  the  state.  The  Placerville  and  Sac- 
ramento Valley  railroad,  extending  to  Shingle 


Springs,  El  Dorado  co.,  48  m.,  brings  immense 
quantities  of  bowlders  and  granite  for  the  San 
Francisco  market,  and  also  of  marble  from  the 
Indian  Diggings  quarries.  This  is  the  only 
marble  of  any  consequence  yet  discovered  on 
the  Pacific  coast;  it  is  of  fine  quality,  and  is 
extensively  used  in  San  Francisco  and  Sacra- 
mento. Steamers  run  to  San  Francisco,  Marys- 
ville,  and  various  points  on  the  Sacramento 
river.  The  chief  manufactories  are  one  of 
agricultural  implements,  one  of  carriages,  one 
of  brandy,  one  of  beet  sugar,  two  of  chiccory, 
one  of  furniture,  one  of  pails,  tubs,  and  wash 
boards,  several  box  factories  and  planing  mills, 
smelting  and  refining  works  for  the  reduction 
of  ores,  a  woollen  mill,  and  three  flouring  mills. 
The  machine,  repair,  and  car  shops,  rolling 
mills,  &c.,  of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad  em- 
ploy from  1,000  to  1,500  hands.  There  are 


three  banks  incorporated  under  state  law,  com- 
bining a  savings  and  commercial  business,  and 
a  national  gold  bank.  There  are  19  public 
schools  (1  high,  1  grammar,  5  intermediate,  and 
12  primary),  a  female  college,  and  a  normal 
school;  a  Roman  Catholic  college,  under  the 
charge  of  the  Christian  brothers ;  a  conventual 
school,  under  the  charge  of  the  sisters  of  mercy ; 
and  a  number  of  private  schools.  The  state 
library  in  the  capitol  has  more  than  35,000 
volumes,  and  the  Sacramento  library,  in  a  fine 
building  belonging  to  the  association,  about 
7,000.  The  state  agricultural  society  has  ample 
accommodations  for  the  exhibition  of  stock  and 
one  of  the  finest  race  courses  in  the  world.  It 
holds  a  fair  annually  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. Three  daily,  two  semi-weekly  (one 
German),  and  two  weekly  newspapers  and  a 
monthly  periodical  are 
published.  There  are 
14  churches,  viz. :  Bap- 
tist (3),  Christian,  Con- 
gregational, Episcopal, 
German  Lutheran,  Lat- 
ter Day  Saints',  Metho- 
dist (8),  Presbyterian, 
Roman  Catholic,  and 
Spiritualist. — The  first 
white  settlement  on 
the  site  of  Sacramento 
was  made  in  1839  by 
J.  A.  Butter,  a  Swiss 
by  birth,  but  a  natu- 
ralized American  citi- 
zen, who  obtained  a 
grant  of  11  square 
leagues  of  land,  in  1841 
built  a  fort  which  he 
called  New  Helvetia, 
took  the  neighboring 
Indians  into  his  ser- 
vice, collected  a  few 
white  men,  and,  by  vir- 
tue of  his  remote  posi- 
tion and  the  number  of 
his  adherents,  secured 
influence  and  impor- 
This  fort  was  the  first 

point  in  California  reached  by  immigrants 
crossing  the  continent.  In  1848  nearly  all 
persons  going  to  the  mines  went  up  the  Sac- 
ramento river  in  boats  to  New  Helvetia,  and 
thence  proceeded  by  land.  With  the  increase 
of  the  mining  population  and  the  gold  yield 
the  trade  and  importance  of  New  Helvetia 
kept  pace,  and  in  October,  1848,  there  was 
an  auction  sale  of  lots  in  the  town  of  "  Sac- 
ramento," which  was  first  named  in  the  ad- 
vertisement of  the  sale.  In  January,  1849, 
the  first  frame  house  on  the  bank  of  the  Sacra- 
mento was  commenced.  The  site  of  the  city 
was  originally  only  about  15  ft.  above  low- 
water  mark,  and  as  the  river  frequently  rises 
20  ft.  it  was  subjected  to  overflow.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1850,  in  March,  1852,  and  in  January,  1853, 
the  city  was  flooded  so  that  boats  were  used  in 


tance  in  the  territory. 


SACRED  HEART 


SACS 


513 


going  from  house  to  house,  some  of  the  streets 
having  5  ft.  of  water  in  them,  and  not  more 
than  a  dozen  houses  being  on  land  above  the 
water  level.  To  prevent  similar  disasters  the 
streets  were  filled  in  5  ft.  deep  with  earth,  and 
the  city  surrounded  by  a  levee,  which  last 
alone  saved  the  place  from  overflow  during  the 
flood  in  the  spring  of  1861.  The  business  por- 
tion of  the  city  is  now  about  8  ft.  above  the 
original  level.  On  Nov.  3,  1852,  a  conflagra- 
tion destroyed  600  houses  and  other  property, 
in  all  estimated  to  be  worth  $5,000,000 ;  and 
in  July,  1854,  another  large  fire  occurred,  the 
loss  by  which  was  estimated  at  $650,000.  The 
capital  was  established  at  Sacramento  by  an 
act  of  the  legislature  on  Feb.  25,  1854 ;  and  in 
1861  the  work  was  commenced  on  the  capi- 
tol,  the  officers  having  previously  occupied  the 
present  county  buildings.  Sacramento  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  in  1863. 

SACKED  HEART,  Ladies  of  tbe,  a  religious  con- 
gregation in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  de- 
voted to  education,  founded  in  Paris,  Nov.  21, 
1800.  Two  fruitless  attempts  to  establish  a 
society  of  women  devoted  to  the  education  of 
young  ladies  of  the  higher  classes  had  been 
made  by  Pere  de  Tournely,  when  in  1800  his 
successor,  Joseph  Desire  Varin,  superior  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Faith,  found  in  Madeleine  So- 
phie Louise  Barat  and  Octavie  Bailly  persons 
fitted  for  his  design;  and  on  Nov.  21  they 
consecrated  themselves  to  the  Heart  of  Jesus, 
and  opened  a  school  in  Paris.  In  1801  they 
went  to  reside  in  Amiens,  where  their  com- 
munity as  well  as  their  pupils  increased  rapid- 
ly in  number.  In  1802  Mme.  Barat,  then  in 
her  21st  year,  was  chosen  superior,  and  a  tem- 
porary rule  was  drawn  up  by  Pere  Varin. 
Branch  establishments  were  founded,  and  in 
1806  a  first  chapter  of  the  order  was  held,  at 
which  Mme.  Barat  was  chosen  superior  gen- 
eral, which  post  she  retained  till  her  death 
in  1865.  The  ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  were 
placed  under  the  control  of  a  secular  priest, 
who,  by  an  attempt  to  change  their  rules, 
created  a  division  among  them.  This  checked 
their  growth  for  a  brief  space ;  but  the  inno- 
vations being  discountenanced  in  Rome,  Pere 
Varin  completed  his  draught  of  the  proposed 
constitutions  in  1825,  and  they  were  approved 
by  Leo  XII.,  Dec.  22,  1826.  The  pope  at  once 
invited  the  ladies  to  open  a  house  in  Rome, 
assigning  them  the  convent  and  church  of 
Trinita  de'  Monti.  They  spread  thence  to  the 
chief  cities  of  Italy,  and  soon  owned  flourish- 
ing schools  in  Austria,  Bavaria,  Prussia,  Bel- 
gium, England,  and  Ireland.  They  had  come 
to  the  United  States  in  1817,  with  Bishop  Du- 
bourg  of  New  Orleans,  and  founded  a  house 
near  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  but  their  increase  in  this 
country  is  chiefly  due  to  the  late  Archbishop 
Hughes,  to  Mme.  Elizabeth  Gallitzin,  and  espe- 
cially to  Mme.  Aloysia  Hardey,  who  founded 
most  of  the  American  houses.  They  opened 
successfully  a  school  at  the  corner  of  Houston 
and  Mulberry  streets,  New  York,  then  at  As- 


toria, and  finally  at  Manhattanville.  In  1842 
Mme.  Hardey  founded  establishments  in  the 
Pottawattamie  missions,  and  at  McSherrys- 
town,  Md.  Thenceforward  the  order  spread  to 
the  principal  states  of  the  Union,  and  to  the  Ca- 
nadian provinces,  Cuba,  and  Chili. — The  rules 
and  constitutions  are  closely  modelled  on  those 
of  the  society  of  Jesus,  in  all  that  regards  the 
conditions  for  membership,  the  careful  and  long 
training  for  the  final  profession,  the  degrees 
which  obtain  among  the  members,  the  election 
of  the  superior  general  and  the  appointment 
by  her  of  all  inferior  officers,  the  distribution 
of  the  entire  body  into  assistancies  and  prov- 
inces, the  rigorous  obedience  and  poverty 
practised  by  the  sisterhood,  and  the  effective 
methods  used  to  maintain  the  religious  spirit 
among  them.  But,  beyond  the  mere  fact  of 
the  instrumentality  of  Pere  Varin  in  founding 
this  society,  there  is  no  dependence  on  the 
Jesuits  and  no  connection  between  the  two  so- 
cieties. The  members  employed  in  the  high- 
er functions  of  teaching  and  governing  are 
designated  as  "  choir  religious,"  the  others  as 
lay  sisters.  In  18Y5  the  order  had  in  France  8 
provinces  and  42  establishments,  including  one 
in  Algiers ;  the  province  of  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land, with  4  establishments ;  that  of  England 
and  Ireland,  with  5 ;  that  of  Italy,  with  5 ; 
that  of  Spain,  with  3 ;  and  that  of  Austria, 
with  5.  In  America,  they  had  in  the  United 
States  3  provinces  with  21  houses,  the  prov- 
ince of  Canada  with  5,  and  the  province  of 
Chili  with  5,  besides  an  establishment  at  Ha- 
vana. The  number  of  choir  religious  was 
2,325,  and  that  of  lay  sisters  1,94V;  total, 
4,272.  The  central  house  of  the  whole  order 
and  the  residence  of  the  superior  general  is  in 
the  boulevard  des  Invalides,  Paris. 

SACS,  or  Sanks,  an  Algonquin  tribe  of  In- 
dians, formerly  on  the  Detroit  river  and  Sagi- 
naw  bay,  but  driven  beyond  Lake  Michigan  by 
the  Iroquois.  They  settled  near  Green  bay, 
where  they  subsequently  welcomed  the  Outa- 
gamies  or  Foxes,  with  whom  they  have  ever 
since  been  closely  associated.  They  were  ro- 
ving and  restless,  were  constantly  at  war  with 
the  Sioux  and  the  Iroquois,  and  aided  the 
French  against  the  latter.  A  part  of  the 
tribe  at  first  joined  the  Foxes  in  their  hostility 
against  the  French  at  Detroit,  but  soon  aban- 
doned their  cause.  They  took  part  with  Pon- 
tiac,  and  during  the  revolution  were  under 
English  influence.  In  the  second  war  with 
England  the  Rock  river  Sacs  joined  the  Eng- 
lish side.  Treaties  were  made  specially  with 
the  tribe  in  1804  and  1815-'16,  ceding  lands. 
Their  later  history  is  that  of  the  Foxes.  (See 
FOXES.)  The  Sacs  were  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  clans,  the  Great  and  Little  Bear, 
Great  and  Little  Fox,  Wolf,  Owl,  Eagle,  Tor- 
toise, and  four  others.  The  children  of  each 
family  as  they  are  born  are  marked  white  or 
black  alternately,  and  each  color  forms  a  dis- 
tinct band  in  the  nation,  the  white  or  Kis- 
coquah  and  the  black  or  Oshkosh.  "When 


514 


SACY 


SADO 


Black  Hawk  with  the  British  band  of  Sacs  be- 
gan war  in  1832  to  recover  the  ceded  lands  on 
Rock  river,  Keokuk,  chief  of  the  Kiscoquah 
band,  a  great  warrior  and  negotiator,  remained 
faithful.  The  united  Sacs  and  Foxes  numbered 
8,000  in  1822,  but  were  reduced  in  1874  to 
1,135,  of  whom  338  were  in  Iowa,  97  in  the 
Great  Nemaha  agency,  Nebraska,  200  in  Kan- 
sas, and  500  in  Indian  territory. 

SACY.  I.  Antpine  Isaac  Sylvestre  de,  baron,  a 
French  orientalist,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  21, 1758, 
died  there,  Feb.  21,  1838.  After  studying  law, 
he  devoted  himself  to  oriental  languages,  and 
published  in  1793  his  Memoires  »ur  diverges  an- 
tiquites  de  la  Perse^  He  became  in  1795  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  A  the  oriental  academy,  in 
1806  professor  of  Persian  at  the  college  de 
France,  and  in  1815  rector  of  the  university  of 
Paris.  Many  of  the  most  distinguished  orien- 
talists of  the  period  were  among  his  pupils. 
He  was  also  politically  active,  espousing  the 
side  of  the  royalists.  His  principal  works  are : 
Chrestomnthie  arabe  (3  vols.,  1806);  Gram- 
maire  arabe  (2  vols.,  1810);  Nouveaux  aper- 
fus  sur  Vhistoire  de  Fecriture  ehez  let  Arabet 
(1827);  Anthologie  grammaticale  arabe  (1829); 
and  Expose  de  la  religion  des  Drutes  (2  vols., 
1838).  He  published  annotated  editions  and 
translations  of  several  oriental  writers,  a  val- 
uable catalogue  of  his  own  library,  and  me- 
moirs on  minor  subjects  of  oriental  literature, 
history,  and  numismatics.  II.  Samuel  I'stazade 
Sylvestre  de,  a  French  author,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Paris,  Oct.  17,  1801.  After 
practising  law,  he  became  a  prominent  writer 
in  the  Journal  de»  Debate  as  an  opponent  of 
Charles  X.  (1828-'30),  and  as  a  supporter  of 
Louis  Philippe  (1830-'48).  After  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  wrote  chiefly  on 
literary  subjects.  He  was  also  keeper  of  the 
Mazarin  library  from  1836  to  1848,  and  sub- 
sequently its  administrator.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  to  the  academy,  and  in  1864  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  education,  and  in 
1867  of  the  senate.  Among  his  works  are 
Varietes  litteraires,  morales  et  historiques  (2 
vols.,  1858;  2d  ed.,  1861),  and  editions  of 
various  authors,  including  Lettret  de  Madame 
de  Sevigne  (11  vols.,  1861-'4). 

SAIMlirCKKS,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  sect,  de- 
rived according  to  a  Jewish  tradition  from 
Zadok,  its  reputed  founder,  in  the  3d  century 
B.  0. ;  but  Epiphanius  derives  it  from  the  He- 
brew word  teaddik  (just),  and  says  that  the 
followers  of  the  sect  assumed  this  name.  The 
Sadducees  appear  in  history  for  the  first  time 
under  the  Maccabroan  Jonathan,  about  144  B. 
0.  They  acknowledged  only  the  written  law, 
rejecting  the  obligatory  character  of  all  tra- 
ditions, and,  according  to  Josephus,  held  that 
the  soul  dies  with  the  body,  denied  providen- 
tial interference,  and  made  all  human  actions, 
with  their  good  and  evil  results,  solely  depen- 
dent on  the  free  will  of  men.  In  comparison 
with  their  opponents  both  in  the  religious  and 
the  political  sphere,  the  more  austere  and  pop- 


ular Pharisees  (see  PHARISEES),  the  sect  was 
never  numerous,  but  it  was  highly  influential, 
as  it  mostly  recruited  itself  from  the  educated 
and  wealthy  classes,  and  for  a  long  time  held 
the  high-priestly  ofh'ce  in  its  control.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  existence  of  the  Jewish  state 
the  Sadducees  were  excluded  from  Judaism, 
and  gradually  disappeared;  but  some  of  their 
principles  were  revived  by  the  sect  of  Caraites. 
— See  Grossmann,  De  Philosophia  Sadducceo- 
rum  (Leipsic,  1836),  and  Wellhausen,  Die  Pha- 
risder  und  die  Sadducder  (Greifswald,  1874). 

SADI.    See  SAADI. 

SADLER,  Sir  Ralph,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Hackney,  Middlesex,  in  1507,  died  at 
Standon,  Hertfordshire,  March  80, 1587.  Henry 
VIII.  employed  him  in  the  dissolution  of  the 
religious  houses,  and  he  shared  in  the  spoils. 
Between  1537  and  1543  he  was  sent  on  several 
diplomatic  journeys  to  Scotland.  In  1547  he 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie, 
and  was  knighted.  The  king  named  him  in  his 
will  one  of  12  councillors  to  the  16  nobles  to 
whom  the  care  of  the  kingdom  was  intrusted. 
On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  retired  to  his  es- 
tate near  Hackney.  When  Elizabeth  came  to 
the  throne  he  was  called  into  the  privy  coun- 
cil, and  on  the  imprisonment  of  Mary  queen  of 
Scots  in  the  castle  of  Tutbury,  he  was  ap- 
pointed her  keeper.  After  the  execution  of 
Mary  ho  was  sent  to  Scotland  to  pacify  King 
James. — See  his  "State  Papers  and  Letters," 
edited  by  Arthur  Clifford,  with  a  memoir  and 
notes  by  Walter  Scott  (Edinburgh,  1809). 

SADLIER,  Mary  Anne  (MADDEN),  an  American 
authoress,  born  at  Cootehill,  county  Cavan, 
Ireland,  Dec.  31,  1820.  She  began  contribu- 
ting to  a  London  magazine  when  scarcely  18. 
Having  emigrated  to  Montreal,  she  published 
by  subscription  "  Tales  of  the  Olden  Time." 
In  1846  she  married  James  Sadlier,  then  of  the 
firm  of  D.  and  J.  Sadlier  and  co.,  Catholic  pub- 
lishers of  New  York  and  Montreal,  since  de- 
ceased; she  now  (1875)  resides  in  New  York. 
She  has  written  a  great  number  of  tales,  among 
which  are:  "The  Daughter  of  Tyrconnell " 
(1868) ;  "  Con  O'Regan  "  (1864) ;  "  Heiress  of 
Kilorgan  "  (1867) ;  "  MacCarthy  More  "  (1868) ; 
and  "Maureen  Dim"  (1870).  She  has  also 
translated  several  religious  works,  tales,  and 
dramas  from  the  French. 

SADO,  an  island  of  Japan,  a  few  miles  "W.  of 
the  main  island,  between  Ion.  138°  and  140° 
E.,  intersected  by  the  88th  parallel  of  N.  lati- 
tude; length  40  m.,  general  breadth  about  8 
m. ;  pop.  about  130,000,  chiefly  miners.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  the  soil  indiffer- 
ent. Sado  is  noted  for  its  gold  mines,  discov- 
ered in  the  17th  century  and  continuously 
worked  since  then.  The  entire  island  is  a  mass 
of  auriferous  rock,  though  the  deposits  are  not 
extremely  rich.  The  mines,  mostly  in  the  E. 
part,  furnish  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  gold. 
The  rude  native  processes  have  recently  been 
superseded  by  foreign  machinery  supervised  by 
American  miners.  The  average  annual  yield 


SADOLETO 


SAFE 


515 


for  many  years  was  500  Ibs.  of  gold  and  700  Ibs. 
of  silver.     The  chief  harbor  is  Ebisuminato. 

SADOLETO,  Jaeopo,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Modena,  July  14,  1477,  died  in  Rome,  Oct. 
18,  1547.  In  1502  he  went  to  Rome,  became 
attached  to  the  household  of  Cardinal  Oliverio 
Carafa,  and  was  ordained  a  priest.  In  1511 
he  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Fregosio, 
was  elected  member  of  the  Roman  academy, 
and  published  several  Latin  poems.  Leo  X. 
on  his  accession  in  1513  chose  him  as  one  of 
his  secretaries,  and  he  distinguished  himself 
by  avoiding  all  offers  of  wealth,  associating 
with  Gaetano  of  Tiene  and  Giovanni  Pietro 
Carafa  (afterward  Pope  Paul  IV.)  in  public 
benevolence.  In  1517  he  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Carpentras  in  France.  In  the  controversies 
between  Luther  and  the  Roman  theologians, 
Sadoleto  was  urged  to  act  as  mediator,  but  con- 
ciliated neither  party.  The  correspondence 
that  he  then  began  with  Erasmus  is  thought 
to  have  prevented  the  latter  from  openly  join- 
ing the  reformers.  During  the  reign  of  Adrian 
VI.  he  was  neglected  and  lived  in  obscurity. 
Clement  VII.  in  1523  appointed  him  his  secre- 
tary. When  Clement  had  declared  for  France 
against  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  Sadoleto  with- 
drew to  his  diocese,  ten  days  before  the  sack 
of  Rome  by  the  Spanish  troops  (1527).  In 
1536  he  published  in  Venice  a  commentary  on 
St.  Paul,  offering  a  middle  ground  between 
the  extreme  opinions  on  grace  and  free  will. 
This  was  followed  by  Hortemius,  sive  de  Lau- 
dibus  Philosophies  (Lyons,  1538;  last  ed.,  Paris, 
1853,  with  a  French  translation).  He  was  now 
made  a  cardinal,  and  bent  all  his  energies  to- 
ward effecting  reforms  and  winning  back 
those  who  had  embraced  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trines. In  his  own  diocese  he  successfully  re- 
sisted the  spread  of  Calvinism,  while  he  be- 
sought the  clemency  of  Francis  I.  in  favor  of 
the  Waldenses  of  M6rindol  and  Cabrieres,  and 
protected  them  against  the  ruthless  oppression 
of  the  Toulouse  magistrates.  In  the  same  con- 
ciliatory spirit  he  wrote  a  famous  letter  to  the 
magistrates  and  citizens  of  Geneva ;  and  his 
treatise  De  Extructione  Ecclesias  Catholicce  is 
almost  the  only  instance  of  a  passionless  dis- 
cussion in  the  religious  literature  of  that  age. 
He  was  sent  by  Paul  III.  in  1542  as  legate  to 
Francis  I.,  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between 
him  and  the  emperor.  Failing  in  this,  and 
grieved  to  see  the  pope  sacrificing  the  highest 
interests  of  the  church  to  the  promotion  of  his 
own  family,  he  retired  to  Carpentras  and  re- 
signed his  bishopric.  The  pope  compelled  him 
to  go  to  Rome  in  1546,  and  he  was  chosen  to 
preside  in  the  council  of  Trent  as  papal  legate, 
but  resisted  the  appointment  on  the  score  of 
his  extreme  poverty.  His  collected  works,  ex- 
cept the  letters,  were  published  at  Verona  (4 
vols.  4to,  l737-'8) ;  his  letters,  Eputolarum 
Libri  XVIL,  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1550  (best 
ed.,  including  the  letters  and  Latin  poems  of 
Paolo  Sadoleto,  his  nephew  and  successor  as' 
bishop  of  Carpentras,  6  vols.  8vo,  Rome,  1759 


-'67).  His  life,  by  Fiordibello,  was  published 
with  a  new  edition  of  his  treatise  on  educa- 
tion, De  Liberia  reete  Instituendis  (Paris,  1855). 
See-also  Joly,  fitude  sur.Sodolet  (Caen,  1857). 

SADOWA,  a  small  village  in  Bohemia,  on  the 
Bistritz  river,  8  m.  N.  W.  of  Koniggratz,  and 
58  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Prague.  It  was  the  scene 
of  the  decisive  battle,  July  3,  1866,  between 
the  Prussians  commanded  by  King  William  I. 
and  the  Austrians  under  the  command  of  Be- 
nedek,  often  called  the  battle  of  Koniggratz. 
The  Prussian  armies  had  two  days  before  ef- 
fected their  junction.  More  than  400,000  men 
were  engaged  in  this  action,  which  lasted  from 
8  A.  M.  till  4  P.  M.,  and  resulted  in  the  total  rout 
of  the  Austrians,  who  lost  40,000  killed  and 
wounded,  20,000  prisoners,  and  174  guns.  The 
Prussian  loss  was  estimated  at  10,000.  The 
great  difference  in  the  losses  of  the  two  armies 
was  mainly  due  to  the  greater  rapidity  of  fire 
and  longer  range  of  the  needle  gun  used  by  the 
Prussians.  This  battle  decided  the  double  Ger- 
man-Italian war  of  1866. 

SAFE,  a  strong  box  or  closet  for  the  preser- 
vation of  money,  valuable  papers,  &c.,  usually 
made  of  iron,  and  as  nearly  proof  against  fire 
and  burglars  as  possible.  Until  the  present 
century  the  most  usual  safes  were  boxes  of 
oak  or  other  hard  wood,  strengthened  by  iron 
bands  and  provided  with  several  locks.  The 
first  English  patent  for  a  fire-resisting  safe 
was  to  'Richard  Scott  in  1801.  It  consisted 
of  an  inner  and  an  outer  casing  of  metal,  the 
space  between  being  filled  with  charcoal  or 
wood  treated  with  an  alkaline  salt.  The  first 
American  safes  that  attained  any  celebrity 
were  those  constructed  under  the  patent  of  0. 
J.  Gayler,  issued  in  1833.  They  were  double 
chests  with  spaces  between  them  for  air,  or 
other  good  non-conductors  of  heat.  The  great 
fire  in  New  York  of  1835  gave  rise  to  several 
new  inventions  for  increasing  the  fire-proof 
quality  of  safes.  That  patented  by  Mr.  B.  G. 
Wilder  of  New  York  obtained  the  precedence, 
and  the  safes  made  on  this  plan  are  still  in  ex- 
tensive use  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 
They  consist  of  a  double  box  of  wrought-iron 
plates  strengthened  at  the  edges  with  bar  iron, 
and  in  the  larger  sizes  with  a  bar  across  the 
middle.  The  space  between  the  outer  and  in- 
ner plates  is  filled  with  the  patented  compo- 
sition of  plaster  of  Paris  and  mica.  The  use 
of  asbestus  with  plaster  of  Paris  has  also  been 
patented.  The  latter  answers  a  very  good 
purpose  used  alone,  and  other  good  incombus- 
tible non-conductors  also  employed  for  filling 
are  clay,  hydraulic  cement,  and  a  mixture  of 
alum,  fire  clay,  and  carbonate  of  lime  or  chalk. 
An  excellent  filling  is  a  mixture  of  alum  and 
plaster  of  Paris.  Within  a  few  years  great  in- 
genuity has  been  employed  in  the  construction 
of  safes  and  locks,  and  it  has  become  an  im- 
portant industry  in  the  United  States.  Safes 
are  now  made  to  defy  opening  by  any  manipu- 
lation (see  LOOK),  and  there  are  devices  which 
make  it  difficult  or  impossible  for  a  burglar 


516 


SAFETY  LAMP 


SAFFORD 


to  introduce  gunpowder  without  consuming  a 
long  time  in  boring.  A  contrivance  to  pre- 
vent boring  has  been  patented  by  Mr.  Henry 
Geering  of  Birmingham,  England,  which  con- 
sists in  placing  in  front  and  on  each  side  of  the 
lock  a  set  of  movable  cylindrical  steel  bars,  so 
that  when  the  burglar's  drill  has  penetrated 
through  the  outer  plate  it  cannot  get  a  bearing 
upon  the  rotating  bars. 

SAFETY  LAMP.     See  LAMP. 

Mill,  or  Asfl,  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  on  the 
W.  coast,  S.  of  Cape  Cantin,  75  m.  N.  by  E. 
of  Mogador;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  massive  wall  80  ft.  high,  with  a 
ditch  on  the  land  side.  The  country  around  it 
is  sterile,  and  water'is  scarce.  The  harbor  is 
large  and  generally  safe,  but  is  exposed  to  "W. 
winds.  Before  the  rise  of  Mogador  Saffi  con- 
trolled most  of  the  commerce  of  Morocco  with 
Europe.  The  entries  at  the  port  in  1873  were 
180  vessels,  of  35,876  tons;  value  of  cargoes, 
$568,590,  of  which  $300,000  was  in  specie; 
clearances  the  same,  value  $1,388,140.  The 
principal  exports  are  grain,  beans,  eggs,  goat 
skins,  wool,  oranges,  and  slippers. — Saffi  is  on 
the  site  of  the  Portus  Rhusibis  of  Ptolemy, 
supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians. It  was  held  by  the  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards  from  1608  to  1641. 

SAFFLOWER,  a  dyeing  material,  the  florets 
of  carthamitt  tinctorius,  also  called  bastard 
and  dyer's  saffron,  and  in  this  country,  incor- 


Safflower  (Csrthamnfl  tinctoriufl). 

rectly,  saffron.  The  genus  carthamu*  (from 
kartam  or  quortom,  the  Arabic  name  of  the 
plant)  belongs  to  that  tribe  of  compotita  which 
includes  the  thistles,  and  contains  about  20  spe- 
cies, the  most  important  being  the  safflower ; 
this  is  an  annual,  which  has  been  so  long  culti- 
vated in  the  East  that  its  native  country  is 
unknown  ;  it  is  from  1  to  3  ft.  high,  the  stem 
branching  above,  and  furnished  with  oval,  half- 
clasping  leaves,  with  spiny  teeth ;  the  flow- 
ers are  in  thistle-like  heads  at  the  ends  of  the 


branches,  with  a  leafy  and  prickly  involucre ; 
the  florets  are  all  tubular,  and  of  a  dark  orange 
color;  akenes  (popularly  seeds)  without  pap- 
pus, four-sided,  white  or  brownish,  and  very 
smooth.  The  plant  will  perfect  itself  in  the 
northern  states,  and  is  often  seen  in  the  gar- 
dens of  those  who  raise  medicinal  herbs.  "When 
the  florets  are  fully  expanded,  they  are  pulled 
out  of  the  head  and  dried.  The  principal  sup- 
ply of  commerce  is  from  the  East  Indies,  where 
the  florets  are  pressed  into  small  cakes  an  inch 
or  two  in  diameter,  and  dried  in  kilns ;  after- 
ward they  are  packed  in  bales  of  about  2  cwt. 
Formerly  safflower  was  largely  used  in  measles 
and  other  diseases  accompanied  by  an  eruption 
of  the  skin,  and  it  is  still  kept  in  the  drug 
stores,  there  being  some  demand  for  it  in  do- 
mestic practice ;  the  home-grown,  dried  loose- 
ly, is  preferred.  It  has  at  most  a  slightly  dia- 
phoretic effect.  Safflower  is  sometimes  used 
to  adulterate  the  true  saffron,  a  more  expen- 
sive drug.  (See  SAFFBON.) — The  chief  use  of 
safflower  is  as  a  dye,  and  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  aniline  colors  it  was  largely  employed 
to  impart  to  silk  various  shades  of  pink,  rose, 
crimson,  and  scarlet ;  the  colors,  though  fugi- 
tive, are  very  brilliant.  It  contains  a  yellow 
coloring  principle,  which  is  soluble  in  water 
and  of  no  value,  and  a  red  coloring  matter, 
carthamine  or  carthamic  acid,  which  is  insolu- 
ble in  water,  but  soluble  in  alkaline  liquids, 
from  which  it  is  precipitated  by  acids.  "When 
used  as  a  dye,  the  yellow  color  is  first  extract- 
ed by  kneading  the  safflower  in  bags  under 
water ;  it  is  then  treated  with  a  solution  of  car- 
bonate of  soda ;  in  the  liquid  thus  obtained  the 
silk,  previously  mordanted  with  lemon  juice, 
is  immersed.  The  pink  saucers,  sold  for  dye- 
ing and  for  toilet  purposes,  are  small  white 
saucers  with  a  thin  coating  of  carthamine. 
Rouge  is  also  prepared  from  it.  (See  ROUGE.) 
SAFFORD,  Truman  Henry,  an  American  math- 
ematician, born  in  Royalton,  Vt.,  Jan.  6, 1886. 
While  a  child  he  attracted  public  attention  by 
his  remarkable  powers  of  calculation.  He 
could  mentally  extract  the  square  and  cube 
roots  of  numbers  of  9  and  10  places  of  figures, 
and  at  14  produced  the  elliptic  elements  of  the 
first  comet  of  1849.  At  this  time  he  was 
widely  known  as  the  Vermont  boy  calculator. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1854,  and 
spent  some  time  in  professional  studies  in  the 
observatory  of  that  institution.  Between  1850 
and  1862  he  computed  the  orbits  of  many 
planets  and  comets,  and  his  labors  were  pub- 
lished in  the  monthly  notices  of  the  royal  as- 
tronomical society  of  England,  the  Astrono- 
mische  Nachrichten,  and  the  "  Astronomical 
Journal."  From  1863  to  1866  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  Harvard  observatory,  part  of 
the  time  as  acting  director,  and  was  chiefly 
employed  in  observations  for  a  standard  cata- 
logue of  right  ascensions.  In  the  single  year 
1863  he  determined  the  right  ascension  of  1,700 
stars,  and  the  declination  of  450.  In  1865  he 
became  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  univer- 


SAFFRON 


SAGA 


517 


sity  of  Chicago  and  director  of  Dearborn  ob- 
servatory. The  first  two  years  here  were 
chiefly  devoted  to  work  upon  the  nebulae,  many 
new  ones  being  discovered.  From  1869  to 
1871  he  was  engaged  upon  the  great  catalogue 
of  stars  now  forming  by  the  cooperation  of 
English,  German,  Russian,  Norwegian,  Swiss, 
and  American  astronomers.  This  undertaking, 
however,  was  interrupted  by  the  total  loss  of 
the  means  of  the  Chicago  observatory,  and 
since  1872  Prof.  Safford  has  been  much  em- 
ployed in  latitude  and  longitude  work  in  the 
territories,  by  the  United  States  engineers,  for 
whom  he  has  also  prepared  a  star  catalogue, 
which  was  published  by  the  war  department. 
He  is  now  (1875)  working  upon  another.  He 
has  edited  vol.  iv.  (part  i.)  and  vol.  v.  of  the 
"  Annals  of  Harvard  College  Observatory." 
The  latter  volume  is  taken  up  by  the  report  of 
Prof.  G.  P.  Bond's  discoveries  in  the  constella- 
tion of  Orion,  which  Prof.  Safford  wrote  out 
fully  after  Bond's  death.  Other  contributions 
of  Prof.  Safford  may  be  found  in  the  same 
periodical,  and  also  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Academy." 

SAFFRON  (Arab,  zafran,  from  asfar,  yel- 
low), a  drug  consisting  of  the  dried  stigmas 
of  crocus  sativus.  The  genus  crocus  is  famil- 


Safiron  Crocus  (Crocus  sativus). 

iar  through  the  spring-flowering  garden  sorts ; 
the  saffron  crocus  resembles  these,  but  blooms 
in  autumn ;  the  flowers  are  pale  violet,  veined 
with  purple,  and  very  fragrant ;  the  leaves  ap- 
pear soon  after  the  flowers;  the  corm  or  bulb 
is  rather  larger  than  in  the  spring  crocuses. 
The  important  part  of  the  plant  is  the  stigma, 
which  is  orange-red,  with  three  drooping  di- 
visions, each  about  an  inch  long,  and  usually 
with  a  crest  at  the  end ;  these  are  protruded 
beyond  the  flower.  Saffron  is  mentioned  by 
Solomon  (Canticles  iv.  14),  and  has  been  known 
and  cultivated  from  very  early  times,  so  that 
its  home  is  very  doubtful;  it  grows  sponta- 
neously in  Greece,  but  may  have  been  intro- 


duced by  the  early  cultivators.  The  stigmas 
are  collected  and  dried  in  sieves  over  a  gentle 
tire,  the  operation  being  completed  in  half  an 
hour.  It  requires  the  stigmas  of  4,320  flowers 
to  make  an  ounce  of  the  dried  saffron.  In  the 
genuine  article  the  stigmas  are  loose  and  dis- 
tinct ;  this  is  called  hay  saffron,  to  distinguish 
it  from  a  factitious  preparation  of  various  sub- 
stances pressed  together  on  paper,  called  cake 
saffron.  The  principal  production  of  the  drug 
is  in  lower  Aragon  and  other  parts  of  Spain ; 
a  considerable  amount  of  excellent  quality  is 
gathered  in  the  department  of  Loiret,  France ; 
some  is  produced  in  Austria ;  and  a  small  quan- 
tity is  cultivated  by  the  Germans  in  Lancaster 
co.,  Pa.  It  was  formerly  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land at  Saffron  Walden,  but  the  supplies  from 
that  source  have  ceased.  The  cultivation  some- 
times fails  entirely,  on  account  of  a  fungus 
which  destroys  the  bulbs.  The  drug  has  always 
borne  a  high  price,  on  account  of  the  labor  re- 
quired to  collect  the  small  stigmas  which  com- 
pose it,  and  has  been  subject  to  various  adul- 
terations ;  one  of  the  most  common  is  the  ad- 
mixture of  safflower ;  another  is  the  petals  of 
the  garden  marigold ;  even  shreds  of  beef  have 
been  used.  All  such  adulterations  are  easily 
detected  by  soaking  a  small  quantity  of  the 
drug  in  warm  water ;  the  peculiar  form  of  the 
stigmas,  with  three  long  lobes,  allows  the  true 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  false  at  once.  Saf- 
fron was  formerly  regarded  as  of  so  much  im- 
portance that  various  countries  had  most  strin- 
gent laws  against  its  adulteration.  In  Germany 
in  1444  a  man  was  burnt  with  his  adulterated 
saffron,  and  in  1456  two  men  and  a  woman 
were  buried  alive  in  the  same  country  for  falsi- 
fying the  drug.  Saffron  is  of  no  value  for  any 
medicinal  effect;  it  is  now  used  but  little  in 
pharmacy,  and  then  solely  for  its  color.  Its 
taste  is  of  a  warm,  bitterish  character,  its  odor 
sweet  and  penetrating,  and  its  color  a  rich 
deep  orange.  A  single  grain  of  saffron  rubbed 
to  a  fine  powder  with  a  little  sugar  will  impart 
a  distinct  tint  of  yellow  to  700,000  grains  (10 
gallons)  of  water.  The  coloring  matter,  termed 
polychroite,  in  allusion  to  the  diversity  of  tints 
it  is  capable  of  assuming,  is  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol,  but  varies  by  the  action  of  differ- 
ent acids.  It  is  a  peculiar  glucoside,  which  by 
the  action  of  acids  splits  into  sugar,  volatile 
oil,  and  a  new  coloring  matter  called  crocine. 

SAGA,  a  city  of  Japan,  in  the  province  of 
Hizen,  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Shimabara, 
island  of  Kiushiu;  pop.  about  100,000.  It 
is  regularly  laid  out,  the  streets  crossing  at 
right  angles,  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  trade 
of  Kiushiu,  and  manufactures  the  famous  Hi- 
zen porcelain  ware.  It  has  an  ancient  castle, 
a  telegraph  station,  and  government  schools. 
It  was  the  former  capital  of  the  prince  of  Na- 
beshima,  one  of  the  18  semi-independent  dai- 
mios,  and  the  scene  of  much  active  labor  by 
Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies. In  1872  it  was  the  centre  of  a  party 
which  took  up  arms  to  compel  the  resignation 


518 


SAGADAHOO 


SAGE 


of  the  Tokio  cabinet,  and  the  acquiescence  of 
the  government  in  the  projected  invasion  of 
Corea.  This  rebellion  was  suppressed  in  a 
few  days,  several  regiments  of  the  national 
army  in  government  transports  and  chartered 
American  steamers  arriving  at  Saga,  and  after 
a  battle  and  some  skirmishing  restoring  the 
authority  of  the  central  government.  The 
principal  leader  and  13  others,  including  two 
students  educated  abroad,  were  decapitated ; 
195  persons  were  condemned  to  various  pun- 
ishments; more  than  7,500  insurgents  sur- 
rendered ;  and  60  villages  in  the  vicinity  and 
about  1,000  houses  in  Saga  were  burned. 

8AGADAHOC,  a  8.  county  of  Maine,  border- 
ing on  the  Atlantic,  and  intersected  by  the 
Kennebec  river ;  area,  about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870, 18,808.  Nearly  half  the  county  is  com- 
posed of  small  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ken- 
nebec, and  it  has  numerous  bays  and  channels. 
The  soil  is  fertile.  The  inhabitants  are  largely 
engaged  in  ship  building,  fishing,  and  the  coast- 
ing trade.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Portland  and 
Kennebec,  the  Bath  and  Rockland,  and  the  An- 
droscoggin  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  18,225  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,- 
849  of  oats,  21,951  of  barley,  108,928  of  pota- 
toes, 25,000  tons  of  hay,  29,416  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  264,862  of  butter.  There  were  1,840  horses, 
8,125  milch  cows,  1,668  working  oxen,  2,885 
other  cattle,  8,151  sheep,  and  1,098  swine.  The 
county  contained  37  saw  mills.  Capital,  Bath. 

S  u;  l.\,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  on  the  Bober,  45  m.  N.  W.  of  Liegnitz ; 
pop.  in  1871,  10,483.  It  has  a  fine  palace, 
four  churches,  and  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  and 
cloth  and  other  manufactories.  It  is  the  capital 
of  a  mediatized  principality,  which  in  1627  be- 
came the  property  of  Wallenstein,  in  1646  of 
Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  in  1786  of  Duke  Peter  of 
Courland,  whose  daughter  Dorothea  bequeath- 
ed it  in  1862  to  her  son  Prince  Louis  Talley- 
rand, duke  of  Sagan  and  of  Valencay. 

8AGAPENUM,  a  gum  resin,  of  unknown  botan- 
ical origin,  which  has  been  used  in  medicine. 
Its  properties  were  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
it  is  spoken  of  by  Hippocrates,  Dioscorides,  and 
Pliny.  But  at  present  it  can  scarcely  be  pro- 
cured genuine  even  at  Bombay,  whither  it  is 
sometimes  brought  from  Persia.  It  is  received 
in  agglutinated  fragments  of  brownish  and  red- 
dish yellow  colors,  of  consistence  like  wax,  of 
a  garlicky  odor,  less  disagreeable  than  that  of 
asafcetida,  and  of  a  hot,  nauseous,  bitterish 
taste.  It  has  no  medicinal  value. 

SAGE  (Fr.  sauge),  the  name  given  to  species 
of  MI  fr  in,  of  the  labiate  family,  and  especially  to 
the  common  or  garden  sage,  S.  offitinalix.  The 
genus  sahia  (Lat.  salvare^  to  save,  in  reference 
to  reputed  medicinal  qualities)  is  a  large  one, 
containing  more  than  400  species,  distributed 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  inclu- 
ding plants  which  are  very  unlike  in  external 
appearance,  and  mainly  distinguished  by  the 
structure  of  the  anthers,  which  have  the  two 
cells  widely  separated  by  a  transverse  connec- 


tive, one  cell  being  perfect  and  producing  pol- 
len, while  the  other,  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
connective,  is  deformed  and  abortive.  There 
are  two  native  species  in  the  middle  states, 
four  others  in  the  southern,  and  several  others 
in  the  far  western  and  southwestern  states. 


Garden  Sage  (Salria  offlcinalis). 

The  garden  sage,  the  best  known  species,  is  a 
hardy,  half  shrubby  plant  from  the  south  of 
Europe ;  its  oblong-lanceolate  leaves  are  rough 
with  a  fine  network  of  veins,  minutely  pubes- 
cent, and  of  a  dull  hoary  green  color;  the 
flowers  are  in  whorled  spikes,  usually  blue,  but 
the  varieties  present  other  colors.  The  plant 
has  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor  and  a  warm  and 
bitterish  taste.  Besides  the  common  form, 
there  are  broad  and  narrow-leaved  varieties, 
and  variegated  forms,  one  of  which,  under  the 
name  of  tahia  tricolor,  is  cultivated  as  an  or- 
namental plant.  Sage  has  been  used  medicinal- 
ly since  very  early  times,  its  Latin  name  indi- 
cating the  esteem  in  which  it  was  formerly 
held ;  besides  being  an  arcmatic  stimulant,  it 
has  tonic  and  astringent  properties,  and  its  in- 
fusion is  frequently  given  in  domestic  practice ; 
it  is  a  useful  gargle  in  sore  throat  with  relaxed 
uvula.  But  its  chief  use  is  as  a  condiment 
or  seasoning  for  stuffings,  sausages,  and  other 
cookery;  and  it  is  sometimes  used  to  flavor 
cheese.  The  market  gardeners  around  New 
York  cultivate  sage  entirely  as  an  annual ;  seeds 
are  sown  in  a  bed  in  April,  and  in  June  or 
July  the  plants  are  set  out  in  rows  12  in.  apart, 
on  land  from  which  cabbages,  peas,  or  other 
early  crops  have  been  removed,  and  the  plants 
are  cut  in  September  or  later.  Where  sage  is 
dried  and  pressed  into  cakes  for  market,  it  is 
treated  as  a  perennial;  the  flower  spikes  are 
cut  out  as  they  appear,  and  the  leafy  shoots 
gathered  and  dried. — Clary  is  a  species  of  sage 
(S.  tclarea),  with  much  larger  leaves  than  the 
common,  with  a  strong  and  to  many  persons 
unpleasant  flavor ;  it  is  rarely  seen  in  our  gar- 
dens, but  is  used  in  Europe  for  flavoring  soups. 


SAGE 


SAG  HAKBOE 


519 


The  scarlet  sage,  S.  tplendens,  from  Brazil,  is 
a  common  and  much  esteemed  garden  plant, 
usually  called  by  its  botanical  name,  salvia ; 
it  is  a  smooth  and  much-branching  species, 
with  dark  green  ovate  leaves,  and  long  spikes 
of  flowers  of  the  most  brilliant  scarlet;  the 
calyx  is  of  the  same  color  with  the  corolla,  and 
each  flower  is  subtended  by  a  conspicuous  floral 
leaf  or  bract,  also  scarlet ;  as  these  bracts  re- 
main after  the  flowers  have  fallen,  much  of  the 
effectiveness  of  the  plant  is  due  to  them.  It  is 
a  tender  perennial,  but  will  flower  the  first 
year  from  the  seed ;  it  is  often  treated  as  an 
annual,  but  it  is  most  frequently  raised  by  cut- 
tings from  plants  kept  in  a  greenhouse  for  the 
purpose.  A  sport  from  this  has  pure  white 
flowers,  and  there  are  several  garden  forms, 
one  more  dwarf  than  the  type.  8.  fulgem, 
from  Mexico,  and  S.  coccinea,  from  Central 
America,  are  scarlet-flowered  species,  some- 
times cultivated.  The  blue  sage,  S.  patens, 
from  Mexico,  has  flowers  of  the  most  charming 
blue,  but  the  plant  has  a  coarse  weedy  habit. 
The  silver-leaved  sage,  S.  argentea,  from  the 
Mediterranean,  with  very  large  ovate  or  round- 
ish, radical  leaves,  covered  with  white  woolly 
hairs,  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its  foliage 
only ;  the  flowers  are  white,  and  not  showy. — 
Some  of  the  native  species  suitable  for  the  gar- 
den are  S.  azurea  of  the  southern  states,  2  to 
4  ft.  high,  with  fine  blue  flowers;  S.  Pitcheri, 
growing  from  Kansas  to  Texas,  covered  with  a 
soft  down ;  and  S.  farinosa,  of  Texas,  white- 
hoary,  with  light  blue  flowers. 

SAGE,  Antoine  Rene  le.     See  LE  SAGE. 

SAGE  BUSH.     SEE  ARTEMISIA. 

SAGH  ALIEN,  or  Saghalin,  an  island  of  Eussia, 
formerly  jointly  claimed  and  occupied  by  Eus- 
sia and  Japan,  off  the  E.  coast  of  Asia,  be- 
tween lat.  45°  56'  and  54°  25'  N.,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  meridians  142°  and  143°  E. ; 
length  about  600  m.,  breadth  from  about  20 
to  80  m. ;  area,  24,560  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  16,- 
000,  including  Eussians,  Japanese,  Chinese,  Ai- 
nos  and  other  natives,  and  some  persons  of 
European  and  American  extraction.  The  en- 
tire coast  does  not  present  a  single  safe  har- 
bor, and  the  largest  bays  are  so  shallow  that 
ships  can  rarely  go  nearer  than  1  m.  to  the 
shore.  The  strait  of  Mamio  Einzo,  between 
Cape  Muravieff  in  the  Littoral  province  of  Si- 
beria and  the  island,  is  not  more  than  5  m. 
wide,  and  is  frozen  over  three  or  four  months 
in  the  year,  affording  connection  by  dog  teams 
over  the  ice  with  the  continent.  The  strait  of 
La  Perouse  separates  Saghalien  from  the  Jap- 
anese island  of  Yezo.  Through  the  entire 
length  of  the  island,  almost  on  meridian  143°, 
is  a  range  of  mountains  more  than  2,000  ft. 
high,  and  in  the  S.  part  are  peaks  of  4,000  ft. 
Below  lat.  52°  there  is  a  parallel  range  on  the 
E.  side.  None  of  the  mountains  are  volcanic. 
As  yet  the  exploration  is  but  partial,  and  the 
exact  topography  of  the  island  is  unknown. 
There  are  rich  deposits  of  coal  along  the  entire 
shore  on  the  W.  side.  The  two  principal  riv- 


ers, Baronai  and  Tymi,  rise  near  each  other  in 
lat.  50°  40',  the  first  flowing  S.,  the  second  N., 
neither  more  than  106  or  112  m.  long,  and  both 
navigable  for  boats.  There  are  four  lakes  of 
from  15  to  37  sq.  m.,  all  united  with  the  sea  by 
small  and  deep  channels,  and  numerous  lesser 
lakes  in  the  northwest.  The  climate  is  cold, 
damp,  and  foggy,  with  abundant  rain  in  sum- 
mer ;  and  snow  falls  for  days  together  in  win- 
ter and  lies  on  the  mountains  till  the  middle  of 
May.  The  mean  temperature  is  62°  F.  in  July, 
and  14°  in  January.  The  soil  varies  in  quality, 
and  is  little  cultivated,  the  inhabitants  subsist- 
ing chiefly  upon  fish  and  game,  while  corn  is 
imported  from  Eussia  and  rice  from  Japan. 
There  are  a  few  plains  and  natural  meadows. 
Besides  coal  and  petroleum,  the  natural  riches 
of  the  island  are  the  woods,  furs,  and  fisheries. 
The  woods  covering  the  mountains  consist  of 
Norway  spruce,  fir,  Siberian  silver  fir,  pines, 
and  deciduous  trees  from  the  birch  to  the  elm. 
The  hunting  grounds  furnish  sable,  fox,  deer, 
and  bear  skins.  Seals,  sea  lions,  and  whales 
abound  in  the  neighboring  seas.  Fish  are 
plentiful  in  the  estuaries  and  rivers,  particu- 
larly salmon,  and  in  autumn  swans,  geese, 
ducks,  and  other  wild  fowl.  Large  quantities 
of  dried  and  salted  salmon  and  herring  are 
sent  to  Japan.  Most  of  the  furs  go  to  Eussia, 
some  to  Japan,  and  a  few  to  the  United  States. 
The  chief  trading  posts  are  at  Aniva  bay  on 
the  S.  end  of  the  island,  and  the  trade  is  car- 
ried on  mainly  by  barter. — About  1780  the 
Japanese  began  to  settle  the  shores  in  the  S. 
part,  while  the  Eussians  were  invading  the  N. 
part.  In  1804  the  two  nations  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  fix  upon  a  boundary  of  occupa- 
tion. In  1852  some  Americans  tried  to  found 
a  post  to  open  trade  with  the  continent, 
and  Eussia  immediately  took  formal  possession 
of  the  island,  sending  men  from  Siberia  to 
build  forts  and  establish  posts,  and  in  1853 
they  opened  some  of  the  coal  mines.  In  1854 
Eussia  renewed  negotiations  as  to  boundary 
with  Japan,  and  the  island  was  declared  "  still 
unpartitioned,"  Japan  claiming  all  below  lat. 
50°,  while  the  Eussians  had  actually  colonized 
considerably  S.  of  that  parallel.  A  joint  occu- 
pation was  agreed  upon,  and  in  1875  the  Japa- 
nese portion  of  the  island  was  formally  ceded 
to  Eussia.  In  1873  Eussia  made  its  colony  a 
penal  settlement  and  sent  convicts  to  work 
the  coal  mines. 

SAG  HAKBOK,  a  village  and  port  of  entry  in 
the  towns  of  East  Hampton  and  Southampton, 
Suffolk  co.,  New  York,  on  the  S.  side  of  Gardi- 
ner's bay,  near  the  E.  extremity  of  Long  Island, 
and  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Long 
Island  railroad,  by  which  it  is  107  m.  E.  of  New 
York;  pop.  in  1870,  1,723;  in  1875,  2,100.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  the 
coasting  trade,  being  the  only  outlet  of  a  good 
farming  district.  The  whale  fishery,  once  ex- 
tensive, is  now  extinct.  Sag  Harbor  is  much 
resorted  to  in  summer.  Two  lines  of  steam- 
ers run  to  New  York  and  one  to  the  Connecti- 


520 


SAGINAW 


SAGO 


cut  river.  The  village  contains  a  cotton  mill, 
a  flour  mill,  three  cigar  manufactories,  a  sa- 
vings bank,  two  private  banks,  a  union  school, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  Baptist,  Episco- 
pal, Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic churches. 

SAGINAW,  a  river  of  Michigan,  formed  at 
Saginaw  City  by  the  confluence  of  the  Cass, 
Shiawassee,  and  Tittibawassee  rivers.  It  flows 
nearly  N.  for  18  m.,  and  empties  into  Saginaw 
bay.  It  is  navigable  by  the  largest  steamers. 
Its  branches  and  tributaries,  flowing  from  all 
points,  drain  a  large  area. 

SAGINAW,  an  E.  county  of  Michigan,  drained 
by  the  Saginaw  river  and  its  affluents;  area, 
about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  39,097.  The 
surface  is  level  or  gently  undulating,  and  the 
soil  very  fertile.  The  principal  exports  are 
fish  and  pine  lumber.  Water  power  is  abun- 
dant. It  is  intersected  by  several  railroads 
centring  at  Saginaw.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  37,255  bushels  of  wheat,  43,349 
of  Indian  corn,  52,295  of  oats,  86,999  of  po- 
tatoes, 14,926  tons  of  hay,  16,086  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  318,275  of  butter.  There  were  1,894 
horses,  3,077  milch  cows,  3,775  other  cattle, 
5,258  sheep,  and  3,216  swine;  36  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  42  of  salt,  86  saw 
mills,  6  planing,  mills,  5  flour  mills,  and  7  brew- 
eries. Capital,  Saginaw. 

SAGINAW,  or  Saginaw  City,  a  city  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Saginaw  co.,  Michigan,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Saginaw  river,  here  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Cass,  Shiawassee,  and  Tittaba- 
wassee  rivers,  and  crossed  by  three  bridges, 
18  m.  above  Saginaw  bay,  and  partly  opposite 
East  Saginaw,  115  m.  N.  W.  of  Detroit;  pop. 
in  1860,  1,899;  in  1870,  7,460;  in  1874, 10,064. 
It  is  finely  situated  and  tastefully  laid  out  and 
built.  The  ground  rises  from  the  river  to  a 
moderately  elevated  table  land.  The  corporate 
limits  extend  about  4  m.  along  the  river,  with 
an  average  width  of  2  m.  Washington  street, 
a  fine  avenue,  extends  through  the  city  parallel 
to  the  river.  E.  of  it  are  most  of  the  business 
places,  while  on  the  W.  side  are  the  county 
buildings  and  most  of  the  churches,  school 
houses,  and  residences.  A  good  supply  of  wa- 
ter is  furnished,  on  the  Holly  plan.  Horse 
cars  run  to  East  Saginaw.  The  city  is  con- 
nected with  Detroit  and  other  points  in  the 
state  by  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Flint  and 
Pere  Marquette,  and  the  Saginaw  Valley  and 
St.  Louis  railroads.  Saginaw  has  an  extensive 
business  in  furnishing  supplies  for  the  lumber 
regions,  and  possesses  large  interests  in  saw 
mills  and  salt  works  in  the  adjacent  country. 
The  principal  manufacturing  establishments 
within  the  city  limits  are  eight  large  saw 
mills,  three  planing  mills,  sash  and  door  man- 
ufactories, extensive  stave  and  barrel  works, 
four  shingle  mills,  and  eight  salt  works.  The 
city  contains  a  national  bank,  a  private  bank, 
several  hotels,  a  central  and  five  ward  schools, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  Baptist,  Episco- 
pal, German  Lutheran,  Methodist,  Presbyte- 


rian, Reformed  Lutheran,  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic churches. — Saginaw  was  first  settled  in 
1822,  and  received  a  city  charter  in  1859. 

SAGINAW,  East     See  EAST  SAGINAW. 

SAGINAW  BAY.     See  HURON,  LAKE. 

SAGO,  a  form  of  starch  obtained  from  the 
trunks  of  several  species  of  palm.  Sagu  (also 
written  zagu  and  saga)  is  the  Malay  name  for 
the  starch  and  the  tree  which  yields  it,  and  is 
in  Java  the  name  for  bread  prepared  from  the 
farina.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  sago 
was  the  product  of  cyeas  revoluta,  a  palm-like 
tree  belonging  to  a  very  different  family,  which 
is  even  mentioned  in  some  recent  works  as 
its  source,  and  the  tree  is  still  to  be  found 
in  greenhouse  collections  as  the  "sago  palm  ;" 
while  its  trunk  contains  starch,  it  affords  none 
of  the  sago  of  commerce.  Several  of  the 


Sago  Palm  (Sagns  Eumphii). 

palms,  especially  those  which  flower  but  once, 
accumulate  in  the  tissues  of  their  trunks  a 
large  amount  of  starch,  as  a  preparation  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  future  flower  and 
fruit ;  and  in  countries  where  palms  abound, 
the  inhabitants  make  use  of  this  as  food,  while 
it  is  not  known  in  commerce.  (See  PALM.) 
The  sago  of  the  shops  is  mainly  produced  by 
sagu»  Icetis,  the  smooth,  and  S.  Rumphii,  the 
prickly  sago  palm,  both  natives  of  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  archipelago  and  other  islands  of 
that  part  of  the  world ;  the  smooth  species 
grows  from  25  to  50  ft.  high,  while  the  other, 
which  mainly  differs  in  having  its  leaf  stalks 
and  the  spathe  or  sheath  to  the  flower  cluster 
armed  with  sharp  prickles,  is  rarely  over  80  ft. 
Both  have  graceful  crowns  of  large  pinnate 


SAGOSKIN 


SAHAPTINS 


521 


leaves,  and  a  one-seeded  fruit  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  covered  with  shining  reversed 
scales.  Left  to  themselves,  the  trees  attain 
their  full  growth  in  about  15  years,  flower, 
produce  their  fruit,  which  is  about  three  years 
in  coming  to  perfection,  and  then  die.  To  ob- 
tain the  sago,  the  trees  are  felled  as  soon  as 
they  show  signs  of  flowering ;  it  is  often  stated 
that  the  starch  is  obtained  from  the  pith  of 
the  trees,  but  palms  have  no  true  pith,  and  the 
starch,  accumulated  to  nourish  the  fruit,  is 
found  to  be  deposited  all  through  the  tissues 
of  the  trunk,  except  in  the  hard  rind ;  when 
allowed  to  bear  fruit,  the  trunk  finally  becomes 
a  nearly  hollow  shell.  The  trunk  is  cut  into 
convenient  lengths,  which  are  split  in  halves, 
and  the  interior  soft  portion  is  scraped  out 
and  pounded  in  successive  waters  until  all  the 
starch  is  separated ;  the  water  in  which  the 
starch  is  suspended  is  allowed  to  stand  until 
this  settles,  and  the  fibrous  matter,  which 
floats,  is  poured  off  with  the  water.  The  sedi- 
ment is  repeatedly  washed,  and  when  freed 
of  all  extraneous  matter  it  is  dried,  and  is 
then  called  sago  meal.  In  this  form  it  is  but 
little  known  in  this  country,  that  which  is 
imported  being  consumed  in  manufacturing 
processes ;  it  is  the  crude  starch  of  the  palm. 
The  form  in  which  sago  is  usually  seen  is  that 
called  granulated  or  pearl  sago  ;  the  wet  starch 
is  dried,  broken  up,  and  pounded  and  sifted 
until  of  a  somewhat  regular  size,  the  larger 
grains  being  of  the  size  of  mustard  seed,  in- 
termixed with  numerous  smaller  ones ;  the 
process  of  granulation  is  not  known  in  full, 
but  it  is  said  that  heat  and  mutual  attrition  by 
rubbing  in  a  bag  are  used  to  form  and  shape 
the  grains.  Sago  meal,  the  unprepared  starch, 
presents  under  the  microscope  a  great  many 
muller-shaped  granules,  i.  e.,  elongated,  round- 
ed at  one  end  and  truncate  at  the  other ;  the 
granules  of  pearl  sago  are  larger  and  less  reg- 
ular, being  changed  by  the  heat  used  in  pre- 
paring it.  Sago  is  usually  of  a  pinkish  or 
slightly  brownish  tint,  but  it  is  sometimes  ar- 
tificially bleached  and  pure  white ;  it  swells  up 
in  cold  water,  and  does  not  completely  dissolve 
by  boiling.  It  has  the  general  properties  of 
other  amylaceous  foods,  and  is  principally 
eaten  in  the  form  of  sago  pudding.  A  fac- 
titious sago  is  sometimes  met  with,  in  which 
the  grains  are  much  larger  and  more  regular 
than  in  the  true,  and  of  a  pure  white  ;  this  is 
made  from  potato  starch,  and  may  be  readily 
detected  under  the  microscope,  as  the  potato 
starch  granules  are  much  larger  than  those  of 
sago  and  of  a  different  shape. 

SAGOSKIX.     See  ZAGOSKIN. 

SAGUACHE,  a  S.  county  of  Colorado,  forming 
the  N.  extremity  of  San  Luis  park,  bordered 
on  three  sides  by  mountains,  and  watered  by 
affluents  of  the  Gunnison  and  Arkansas  rivers ; 
area,  about  2,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  304. 
The  valleys  are  natural  meadows,  covered  with 
a  rich  vegetation,  and  the  table  lands  afford 
fine  natural  pasturage.  In  the  S.  part  is  a 


lake,  24  by  10  m.,  which  has  a  regular  ebb  and 
flow.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
5,921  bushels  of  wheat,  5,527  of  oats,  1,061  of 
potatoes,  6,800  Ibs.  of  wool,  6,250  of  butter, 
and  174  tons  of  hay.  There  were  129  horses, 
2,052  milch  cows,  1,751  other  cattle,  and  3,100 
sheep.  Capital,  Saguache. 

SAGUENAY,  a  river  of  Quebec,  Canada,  flow- 
ing from  Lake  St.  John  by  two  outlets,  which 
unite  9  m.  E.  of  the  lake  (see  QUEBEC,  vol. 
xiv.,  p.  135),  to  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Tadou- 
sac,  120  m.  below  Quebec;  length  about  100 
m.  From  the  junction  it  flows  S.  E.  with  a 
stream  from  ^  m.  to  2  m.  in  width,  at  first  be- 
tween gently  sloping  banks ;  but  below  Grand 
or  Ha !  Ha !  bay  it  forces  its  way  through  per- 
pendicular cliffs  of  granite  and  syenite,  one  of 
them,  Cape  Trinity,  towering  1,500  ft.  above 
the  river,  and  another  near  it,  called  Pointe 
d'Eternite,  still  more  lofty.  Ha!  Ha!  bay  is 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  river,  about  60  m.  from 
its  mouth,  and  is  about  9  m.  wide  and  9  m. 
long,  with  a  depth  of  from  15  to  35  fathoms. 
The  depth  of  the  river  is  remarkable ;  34  m. 
from  its  mouth  there  is  a  recess  or  bay  which 
is  1J  m.  deep;  and  at  another  point,  a  little 
lower  down,  called  St.  Jean's  bay,  the  depth  is 
1£  m.  Its  average  depth  in  mid-channel,  ac- 
cording to  Admiral  Bayfield,  is  145  fathoms. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Chicoutimi, 
75  m.  from  its  mouth;  above  that  point  the 
rapids  prevent  navigation,  and  at  low  water  a 
bar  about  60  m.  from  its  mouth  prevents  large 
vessels  from  ascending. 

SAGUENAY,  the  N.  E.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  bordering  on  the  river  and  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence;  area,  68,840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,487,  of  whom  3,519  were  of  French  and  390 
of  English  origin  or  descent,  and  1,309  were 
Indians.  It  includes  the  island  of  Anticosti, 
and  embraces  the  portion  of  Labrador  belong- 
ing to  the  province.  The  Saguenay  river  in- 
tersects the  S.  W.  extremity,  and  numerous 
other  rivers  flow  into  the  river  and  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  The  settlements  are  scattered 
along  the  coast,  and  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  fishing.  Capital,  Tadousac. 

SAGCNTPM,  or  Sagnntns,  an  ancient  town  of 
Spain,  the  ruins  of  which,  consisting  of  a  thea- 
tre and  a  temple  of  Bacchus,  are  still  visible 
at  Murviedro  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Palancia  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  was  founded,  according  to  tra- 
dition, by  a  Greek  colony  from  Zacynthus 
(Zante),  who  named  it  after  their  native  isl- 
and, but  owes  its  celebrity  in  history  to  its  de- 
struction by  Hannibal,  219  B.  C.,  which  im- 
mediately led  to  the  second  Punic  war.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  the  Romans  and  made  a  colony. 
The  name  of  the  modern  town  on  its  site  is 
derived  from  muri  veteres  (old  walls).  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  theatre,  the  general  form 
of  which  is  still  perfect,  were  enclosed  with  a 
wall  in  1867. 

SAHAPTINS,  or  Sapttas,  a  family  of  North 
American  Indians,  living  west  of  the  Kocky 


522 


SAHARA 


mountains  and  extending  from  the  Dalles  of 
the  Columbia  to  the  Bitter  Root  mountains,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Columbia,  and  on  forks  of  the 
Lewis  and  the  Snake  or  Sahaptin  rivers.  They 
have  the  Selish  family  on  the  north  and  the 
Shoshones  on  the  south.  The  family  embraces 
the  Nez  Perces  or  Sahaptin  proper  (see  NEZ 
PEROTS),  the  Palus,  the  Tairtla,  the  Wallawal- 
las,  the  Yakamas  and  Kliketats,  and  according 
to  some  the  Waiilatpus  or  Cayuses. 

SAHARA,  the  largest  desert  in  the  world,  oc- 
cupying an  area  estimated  at  from  1,500,000  to 
2,500,000  sq.  m.,  in  the  N.  portion  of  Africa, 
across  which  it  extends  8,000  m.  from  the  At- 
lantic ocean  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  with  a 
width  of  1,000  nf.  between  Soodan  and  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  sea.    As 
the  same  sterile  region  is  renewed  beyond 
the  Nile,  its  E.  and  W.  boundaries  may  be  re- 
garded as  coterminous  with  those  of  the  con- 
tinent itself,  while  the  15th  and  30th  paral- 
lels of  N.  latitude  mainly  form  its  southern 
and  northern  limits.     Under  the  name  of  the 
Algerian  Sahara,  it  extends  considerably  N.  of 
the  30th  parallel  along  the  southern  base  of 
the  Atlas,  and  closely  approaches  the  Mediter- 
ranean W.  of  the  gulf  of  Cabes.     Here  the 
marshy  depressions  known  as  shotts,  of  which 
the  so-called  Melrir  lake  is  best  known,  con- 
stitute a  basin  into  which  it  has  been  proposed 
to  admit  the  waters  of  the  sea  by  means  of  a 
canal.     Continuations  of  the  Sahara  stretch 
eastward  and  northward  through  Arabia,  Per- 
sia, and  central  Asia  into  Mongolia,  where  they 
terminate  in  the  desert  of  Gobi.     The  great 
desert  of  Africa  presents  an  alternation  of  im- 
mense burning  wastes  of  loose  and   moving 
sand,  with  tracts  of  barren  rock,  stony  plains 
of  gravel,  many  of  which  are  covered  with 
saline  deposits,  and  elevated  and  rocky  plateaus 
rising  into  mountains  with  extensive  valleys 
and  expanses  of  sand  between  them.     The 
Average  elevation  of  the  Sahara  above  the  sea 
afin£9timated  at  1,500  ft.,  although  the  surface 
to  the10*™  to  be  depressed  in  many  places  be- 
places,*16  level  °f  the  ocean.     Its  most  moun- 
buildin'19  portion  lies  along  the  caravan  routes 
houses,  anT  resiuVand  Borneo  and  Houssa,  where 
ter  is  furnished,  oil"  of  the  table  land,  begin- 
cars  run  to  East  Sagithe  plateau  of  Hamadab, 
nected  with  Detroit  ana  000  ft.,  amid  peaks  of 
state  by  the  Michigan  Cenining  the  maximum 
Pere  Marquette,  and  the  Sag38  of  Asben,  5,000 
St.  Louis  railroads.     Saginaw  i  the  west,  called 
business  in  furnishing  supplies  Ihe  greatest  ex- 
regions,  and  possesses  large  intt    Its  hills  en- 
mills  and  salt  works  in  the  adjacilong  line  of 
The    principal   manufacturing  estetween  Cape 
within   the  city  limits   are   eight  ?  portion  of 
mills,  three  planing  mills,  sash  and  c  and  there 
^factories,  extensive  stave  and  barr  of  Fezzan 
four  shingle  mills,  and  eight  salt  woiibyan  des- 
city  contains  a  national  bank,  a  privng  toward 
several  hotels,  a  central  and  five  ward3nt.    (See 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  Baptistpnly  per- 
pal,  German  Lutheran,  Methodist,  Insert,  are 


most  numerous.  (See  OASIS.)  The  character 
of  the  S.  border  of  the  Sahara  is  imperfectly 
known,  but  is  believed  to  be  mountainous.  In 
the  north  it  is  skirted  by  extensive  treeless 
pasture  lands  along  the  base  of  the  Atlas  range, 
reaches  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  at  the 
gulf  of  Sidra,  and  further  E.  is  bounded  by 
the  table  land  of  Barca. — A  climate  of  burning 
aridity  prevails  on  the  great  desert  of  Africa. 
Rain  is  utterly  unknown  except  in  the  oases 
and  on  the  mountains,  where  it  occasionally 
falls  with  such  violence  as  to  produce  torrents 
that  suddenly  pour  down  into  the  valleys,  and 
almost  as  suddenly  disappear.  The  sterility 
of  the  Sahara  is  largely  attributable  to  the  fact 
that  the  prevailing  N.  E.  trade  winds  which 
blow  over  its  surface  bring  it  no  moisture, 
having  been  almost  drained  of  aqueous  vapor 
in  their  long  continental  journey  over  Europe 
and  Asia.  On  the  mountains  S.  of  the  Medi- 
terranean they  deposit  more  than  they  have 
collected  in  their  brief  passage  over  that  sea. 
When  they  reach  the  heated  desert  beyond, 
where  the  absorptive  capacity  of  the  air  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  access  of  temperature, 
they  bear  away  moisture  instead  of  bringing 
it.  and  it  is  not  condensed  into  rain  until  it 
reaches  the  mountains  of  central  Africa.  The 
Sahara  is  probably  subject  to  a  higher  temper- 
ature than  any  other  region  on  the  globe  ;  the 
thermometer  there  has  been  known  to  register 
188°  F.  This  terrific  heat  imparts  their  dreaded 
characteristics  to  the  simoom  and  other  simi- 
lar winds  which  blow  off  the  desert.  (See 
AFRICA.)  Notwithstanding  the  obstacles  to 
travel  offered  by  the  desert,  it  is  constantly 
crossed  on  various  routes  by  caravans  of  tra- 
ders. In  the  absence  of  watercourses,  were  it 
not  for  the  camel,  well  termed  in  oriental  lan- 
guage "the  ship  of  the  desert,"  these  wastes 
would  be  impassable  to  man.  Nocturnal  ra- 
diation is  extremely  rapid,  and  the  nights  are 
usually  cold. — The  geological  formation  is  un- 
favorable to  fertility,  and  although  in  some 
localities  a  growth  of  thorny  bushes  and  plants 
peculiar  to  the  desert  is  met  with,  the  vast 
bodies  of  silicious  sand  afford  little  or  no  nu- 
triment to  vegetation,  and  their  unstable  nature 
is  opposed  to  its  development.  Even  in  min- 
eral productions  the  desert  maintains  its  char- 
acter as  a  barren  waste.  No  useful  products 
are  obtained  except  salt,  which  is  collected  by 
caravans  and  sold  in  Soodan.  The  fauna  of 
the  desert  proper  includes  snakes,  lizards,  scor- 
pions, and  ants ;  but  the  animals  of  its  borders 
and  the  oases  comprise  about  50  species  of 
mammals,  including  the  lion  and  leopard,  the 
giraffe,  and  various  antelopes.  The  marked 
distinction  between  the  faunas  of  N.  and  S. 
Africa,  separated  by  the  desert,  is  explained 
by  the  supposition  that  a  portion  of  the  Saha- 
ra was  submerged  beneath  the  sea  during  the 
pliocene  period  of  geology.  Marine  shells  have 
been  discovered  S.  of  the  Atlas,  and  lines  of 
sea  beach,  showing  that  at  no  very  remote 
geological  period  the  plains  formed  the  bed 


SAIDA 


SAINFOIN 


523 


of  the  ocean.  According  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell, 
the  Sahara  was  under  water  between  lat.  20° 
and  30°  N.  at  one  time  during  the  glacial  epoch, 
BO  that  there  was  water  communication  be- 
tween the  southern  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  now 
bounded  by  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  A  pro- 
ject has  of  late  been  advocated  of  reconverting 
the  deeper  part  of  the  Sahel,  an  area  of  about 
126,000  sq.  m.,  into  a  sea,  by  cutting  a  canal 
from  the  Atlantic  through  the  sand  hills  which 
form  the  western  border. 

SAIDA  (anc.  Sidon  or  Zidori),  a  town  of  Sy- 
ria, in  the  pashalic  of  Acre,  24  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Beyrout,  on  the  N.  W.  slope  of  a  promon- 
tory projecting  into  the  Mediterranean ;  lat. 
33°  34'  JST.,  Ion.  35°  23'  E. ;  pop.  about  6,000, 


principally  Moslems  and  Greeks.  It  has  sev- 
eral great  khans  or  caravansaries.  The  harbor 
was  tilled  up  by  the  emir  Fakhr  ed-Din  in  the 
17th'  century,  and  is  now  only  accessible  for 
boats.  A  ruinous  old  castle,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  about  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  occupies  a  large  artificial  rock  or  mole 
at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  and  is  connected 
with  the  city  by  a  bridge  of  nine  arches.  The 
chief  trade  of  the  town  is  in  silk.  The  en- 
virons are  famous  for  their  fruit.  The  ruins 
of  ancient  Sidon  are  about  2  m.  inland.  On 
Jan.  20,  1855,  a  sarcophagus,  now  in  the  Lou- 
vre, was  discovered  among  these  ruins,  with 
a  Phoenician  inscription  22  lines  in  length,  in- 
dicating that  it  had  been  the  resting  place  of 
Eshmunazar,  king  of  the  Sidonians,  of  uncer- 


Saida. 


tain  date.  About  the  same  time  several  pots  of 
gold  coin,  of  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
were  disentombed  here ;  the  whole  amount  was 
of  the  value  of  about  $40,000.  The  ancient 
necropolis  was  excavated  in  1860  by  the  French 
expedition  under  M.  Eenan. — Saida  was  bom- 
barded and  taken  by  the  allied  Turkish,  Aus- 
trian, and  English  fleets  in  1840.  (See  SIDON.) 

SAID  PASHA,  viceroy  of  Egypt.  See  EGYPT, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  467. 

SAIGON,  or  Salgan,  a  city  of  Further  India, 
capital  of  French  Cochin  China,  on  the  river 
Saigon,  35  m.  from  its  mouth ;  pop.  estimated 
at  from  60,000  to  120,000.  It  consists  of  two 
separate  towns  connected  by  a  navigable  river 
and  a  road  2  m.  long.  The  citadel  was  begun 
by  a  French  engineer  in  1790,  and  now  in- 
cludes barracks,  officers'  quarters,  and  a  gov- 
ernor's residence.  There  are  a  large  naval 
yard,  an  arsenal,  two  pagodas,  and  extensive 
rice  magazines.  The  river  Mekong  commu- 
nicates with  the  Saigon  by  a  canal.  The  city 
is  an  important  seat  of  commerce,  exporting 
rice,  cinnamon,  and  valuable  woods,  and  is  a 


convenient  station  for  commercial  and  postal 
steam  lines. — Saigon  formerly  belonged  to 
Anam.  It  was  captured  and  occupied  by  the 
French  under  Admiral  Eigault  de  Genouilly, 
Feb.  17,  1859,  and  it  became  French  territory 
by  treaty,  June  5,  1862. 

SAIL.     See  SHIP. 

SAILING.     See  NAVIGATION. 

SAIMIRI.     See  MONKEY. 

SAINFOIN  (Fr.,  wholesome  hay),  a  fodder 
plant  (onobrychis  sativa)  of  the  order  legumi- 
nosce,  growing  spontaneously  in  the  limestone 
districts  of  England,  middle  and  southern  Eu- 
rope, and  Asia.  Its  roots  are  perennial,  and 
are  capable  of  penetrating  to  a  great  depth; 
its  stems  recumbent  or  nearly  upright,  2  or  3 
ft.  long;  its  smooth  pinnate  leaves  consist  o/ 
9  to  15  opposite  and  acute  leaflets;  the  flow- 
er stalks  are  axillary,  longer  than  the  leaves, 
terminated  in  July  by  spikes  of  pink  flowers, 
which  are  followed  by  small,  flat,  hard,  one- 
seeded  pods,  having  raised  veins  and  often 
prickly  on  the  edges.  The  plant  has  been  cul- 
tivated since  very  early  times,  its  botanical 


524 


SAINT 


SAINT  ANTHONY'S  FIRE 


name  being  the  ancient  Greek  one.  It  was 
introduced  into  Great  Britain  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century,  and  is  there  a  valuable 
crop  on  chalk  lands,  but  on  alluvial  soil  is  in- 


Bainfoln  (Onobryehis  iativ»). 

ferior  to  lucern  ;  it  is  cut  and  made  into  hay ; 
too  close  pasturing  kills  the  roots.  Occasion- 
al experiments  have  been  made  with  it  in  this 
country,  but  as  it  requires  three  or  four  years 
to  become  thoroughly  established,  it  is  not 
suited  to  our  agriculture.  (See  LCCKBN.) 

SAINT.     See  CANONIZATION. 

SAINT  ALBANS,  a  town  and  the  capital  of 
Franklin  co.,  Vermont,  bordering  on  Lake 
Champlain,  at  the  junction  of  several  divisions 
of  the  Central  Vermont  railroad,  62  m.  N.  W. 
of  Montpelier,  23  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Burlington, 
and  14  m.  S.  of  the  Canada  line;  pop.  in  1850, 
1,814;  in  1860,  3,637;  in  1870,  7,014.  The 
surrounding  country  abounds  in  fine  scenery. 
The  principal  village  is  on  an  elevated  plain  8 
m.  from  the  lake.  In  its  centre  is  a  neat  park 
of  four  acres,  around  which  are  the  county 
buildings,  hotels,  one  of  the  school  houses,  and 
several  churches.  In  the  vicinity  are  quarries 
of  calico  stone  and  variegated  marble,  and  a 
sulphur  spring.  There  is  a  market  every  Tues- 
day, when  the  farmers  from  the  adjacent  coun- 
try assemble,  and  large  quantities  of  dairy  pro- 
ducts are  sold.  The  quotations  of  butter  and 
cheese  at  St.  Albans  affect  the  market  through- 
out the  eastern  states.  About  850,000  Ibs.  of 
butter  and  5,000  Ibs.  of  cheese,  worth  $110,000, 
are  shipped  annually,  chiefly  to  Boston.  The 
town  contains  the  extensive  car  shops  of  the 
railroad  company,  a  manufactory  of  carriages, 
several  marble  shops,  iron  and  steel  works,  a 
rolling  mill  producing  steel  rails,  and  manufac- 
tories of  mowers,  stoves,  and  various  kinds  of 
castings.  There  are  two  national  banks,  a  sa- 
vings bank  and  trust  company,  six  hotels,graded 
and  grammar  schools  occupying  two  buildings, 
two  daily  newspapers,  one  issuing  a  semi- 


weekly  and  the  other  a  weekly  edition,  a  nun- 
nery, and  six  churches. 

SAINT  ALBANS,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  Eng- 
land, 20  m.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871, 
8,303.  It  is  built  on  the  summit  and  side  of  a 
hill,  has  little  trade,  and  the  principal  manu- 
facture is  straw  plaiting  and  straw  bonnet  ma- 
king. The  cathedral-like  abbey  church  was 
part  of  a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  in 
795,  and  St.  Michael's  church  contains  the  re- 
mains of  Lord  Bacon.  The  town  was  disfran- 
chised for  bribery  in  1852. — St.  Albans  was 
built  in  950,  and  incorporated  by  Edward  VI. 
in  1553.  It  is  near  the  site  of  the  Roman 
Verulamium  (Verulam),  ruins  of  whose  walls 
are  still  visible.  During  the  wars  of  the  roses 
two  battles  were  fought  here  :  on  May  22, 
1455,  when  the  duke  of  York  gained  the  day 
and  the  duke  of  Somerset,  who  led  the  Lan- 
castrians, was  killed;  and  on  Feb.  17,  1461, 
when  Queen  Margaret,  commanding  the  Lan- 
castrians, gained  a  victory  over  the  Yorkists, 
led  by  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  rescued  Henry 
VI.  from  captivity. 

SAINT  ALBANS,  Harriet  Mellon,  duchess  of,  born 
about  1775,  died  Aug.  6, 1837.  She  was  a  pop- 
ular comic  actress,  when  she  married  Mr.  Coutts, 
a  wealthy  London  banker.  She  soon  after  be- 
came a  widow  and  sole  mistress  of  a  colossal 
fortune.  On  June  16,  1827,  she  married  the 
duke  of  St.  Albans,  and  when  she  died  left  him 
an  income  of  £10,000  per  annum  with  a  life 
interest  in  some  landed  estates ;  but  the  great 
bulk  of  her  vast  property  was  left  to  Miss  An- 
gela Georgina  Burdett,  daughter  of  Sir  Francis 
Burdett  and  granddaughter  of  her  first  hus- 
band. (See  BUBDKTT-COCTTS.) 

SAINT  ANDREWS,  a  city  and  parish  of  Fife- 
shire,  Scotland,  on  the  North  sea,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Tay,  81 
m.  N.  E.  of  Edinburgh ;  pop.  of  the  city  in 
1871,  6,316.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  university  of 
St.  Andrews,  founded  in  1411,  and  comprising 
St.  Leonard's  and  St.  Salvator's  colleges  (now 
united)  and  St.  Mary's  divinity  college.  The 
library  of  the  united  colleges  has  about  100,000 
volumes.  The  university  is  the  oldest  in  Scot- 
land. The  Madras  school,  the  chief  object  of 
which  is  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor 
pupils,  was  founded  by  Dr.  Andrew  Bell. 

SAINT  ANDREWS,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Charlotte  co.,  New  Brunswick,  on  a  low 
narrow  peninsula  between  Passamaquoddy  bay 
and  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix  river,  at  the  8. 
terminus  of  the  New  Brunswick  and  Canada 
railroad,  65  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Fredericton ;  pop. 
in  1871,  2,961.  The  situation  is  convenient  for 
commerce  and  the  fisheries.  The  harbor  is 
entered  by  two  passes  from  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Croix,  and  admits  vessels  of  any  size.  The 
lumber  trade  and  ship  building  are  the  chief 
industries.  The  value  of  imports  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $107,065;  of  ex- 
ports, $66,798. 

SAINT  ANTHONY,  Minn.     See  MINNEAPOLIS. 

SAINT  ANTHONY'S  FIRE.     See  ERYSIPELAS. 


SAINT-ARNAUD 


SAINT  BERNARD 


525 


SAINT-ARNAUD.     See  LEEOY  DE 
NAUD. 

SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
the  county  seat  of  St.  John's  co.,  Florida,  on 
the  E.  coast,  33  ra.  S.  S.  E.  of  Jacksonville; 
pop.  in  1870, 1,717,  of  whom  594  were  colored  ; 
in  1875,  about  2,000.  It  occupies  a  penin- 
sula, formed  by  the  Matanzas  river  on  the 
east  and  the  St.  Sebastian  on  the  south  and 
west.  Directly  in  front  is  Anastasia  island, 
forming  a  breakwater.  Along  the  E.  front  of 
the  city,  about  a  mile,  is  a  sea  wall  4  ft.  wide, 
built  by  the  United  States  in  1837-'42,  afford- 
ing a  delightful  promenade  on  moonlight  even- 
ings. On  the  N.  end  of  Anastasia  island  (S. 
side  of  the  entrance  to  the  port)  is  a  revolv- 
ing light,  lat.  29°  53'  N.,  Ion.  81°  16'  W.  The 
streets,  which  are  generally  narrow,  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles.  In  the  centre  is  a  fine 
public  square,  called  the  "  Plaza  de  la  Consti- 
tution," on  which  are  the  custom  house  and 
post  office,  an  imposing  structure,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Spanish  governor,  remodelled 
by  the  United  States ;  the  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  a  large  edifice  in  the  Moorish  style, 
erected  in  1793 ;  the  Episcopal  church,  the 
old  convent,  and  the  ancient  markets.  Until 
within  a  few  years  the  only  material  used  in 
building  was  the  coquina  rock,  a  conglomerate 
of  small  sea  shells,  quarried  on  Anastasia  island, 
and  dried  hard  in  the  sun.  The  barracks  are 
among  the  finest  and  most  complete  in  the 
country.  The  building  was  formerly  a  Fran- 
ciscan monastery.  The  old  Spanish  wall,  which 
extended  across  the  peninsula  from  shore  to 
shore,  and  protected  the  city  on  the  north,  is 
in  ruins.  The  principal  object  of  interest  to 
visitors  is  the  old  fortress  of  San  Marco,  now 
Fort  Marion.  It  is  of  coquina,  is  well  pre- 
served, and  will  accommodate  a  garrison  of 
1,000  men.  It  was  finished  in  1756,  after  hav- 
ing been  more  than  a  century  in  construction, 
and  was  built  entirely  by  Indian  slaves.  On 
account  of  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  St.  Au- 
gustine is  much  resorted  to  in  the  winter  from 
the  north  ;.  the  number  of  visitors  in  1874-'5 
was  more  than  7,000.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  70° ;  frosts  seldom  occur,  and  semi- 
tropical  fruits  flourish.  The  chief  business  is 
the  manufacture  of  "palmetto  straw"  work, 
which  is  largely  shipped  to  the  north.  There 
is  some  coasting  trade.  Two  lines  of  sailing 
packets  run  to  New  York.  A  railroad,  14  m. 
long,  extends  to  Tocoi  on  the  St.  John's  river, 
whence  steamers  ply  to  Jacksonville.  There 
are  four  hotels,  with  accommodations  for  700 
guests ;  two  free  schools,  one  conducted  by 
the  sisters  of  charity,  the  other  supported  by 
the  Peabody  fund,  each  having  about  200  pu- 
pils ;  two  weekly  newspapers  ;  a  public  library 
of  about  1,000  volumes ;  two  convents ;  and 
five  churches,  viz. :  Baptist  (colored),  Episco- 
pal, Methodist  (colored),  Presbyterian,  and  Ro- 
man Catholic.  About  four  fifths  of  the  white 
inhabitants  are  of  Spanish  origin,  and  belong 
to  the  Catholic  church. — St.  Augustine  is  the 


oldest  town  in  the  United  States,  a  fort  hav- 
ing been  built  here  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Menendez  in  1565.  It  was  several  times  at- 
tacked by  the  French,  English,  and  Indians. 
With  the  rest  of  Florida  it  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  English  by  the  treaty  of  1763, 
was  ceded  to  Spain  in  1783,  and  transferred 
to  the  United  States  in  1819. 

SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW,  an  island  in  the  N.  E. 
angle  of  the  West  Indian  archipelago,  about 
25  m.  N.  of  St.  Christopher ;  area,  8  sq.  m. ; 
extreme  length  6  m.,  greatest  breadth  3  m. ; 
pop.  about  2,900,  chiefly  colored.  The  shores 
are  deeply  indented ;  the  surface  consists  of 
barren  hills  and  fertile  valleys,  yielding  fruit, 
vegetables,  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  The 
highest  point,  992  ft.,  is  near  the  E.  end. 
Fuel  and  water  are  scarce.  The  climate  is 
warm  but  healthful,  owing  to  the  trade  wind. 
Gustavia,  the  capital,  is  on  an  arm  of  the  sea 
opening  into  a  bight  on  the  S.  W.  side ;  it  is  a 
free  port,  but  the  harbor  is  too  shallow  to  ad- 
mit large  vessels.  The  island  was  settled  by 
the  French  in  1648,  and  finally  came  into  the 
possession  of  Sweden  in  1785.  It  is  the  only 
Swedish  colony  in  the  West  Indies. 

SAINT  BARTHOLOMEW,  Massacre  of.  See  BAR- 
THOLOMEW, SAINT. 

SAINT  BERNARD,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
between  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Mississippi 
river,  having  Lake  Borgne  on  the  north  ^  area, 
620  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,553,  of  whom  1,913 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil 
fertile,  the  higher  portions  producing  large 
crops  of  sugar  cane.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  12,775  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  32,767 
of  sweet  potatoes,  190,480  Ibs.  of  rice,  61  bales 
of  cotton,  680  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  42,580 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  7  molasses 
and  sugar  establishments.  Capital,  St.  Bernard.. 

SAINT  BERNARD.  I.  Great,  a  mountain  pass  in 
the  Pennine  chain  of  Alps,  between  Martigny 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Valais  and  the  Pied- 
montese  valley  of  Aosta.  There  is  no  moun-  . 
tain  bearing  the  name.  The  highest  point  of 
the  pass  is  about  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  On 
the  east  is  Mont  Velan  and  on  the  west  the 
Pointe  de  Dronaz.  At  the  highest  elevation 
of  the  pass,  near  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
is  the  hospice  or  monastery  of  St.  Bernard, 
the  highest  dwelling  in  Europe.  Its  inmates 
are  Augustinian  monks,  assisted  by  lay  breth- 
ren (marronniers),  celebrated  with  their  dogs 
for  rescuing  travellers.  In  their  hospice  at 
times  as  many  as  500  or  600  travellers  have 
been  accommodated  at  once.  The  snow  around 
the  hospice  averages  7  to  8  ft.  in  depth,  and 
the  drifts  sometimes  rest  against  it  and  accu- 
mulate to  the  height  of  40  ft.  The  severest 
cold  recorded  was  29°  below  zero,  and  the 
greatest  heat  68°  F.  A  monastery  is  believed 
to  have  existed  on  the  Great  St.  Bernard  pre- 
vious to  the  foundation  of  the  present  hos- 
pice by  St.  Bernard  of  Menthon,  in  962.  Its 
most  flourishing  period  was  at  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  but  it  now  depends  on  gifts  and 


526 


SAINT-BRIEUC 


SAINT  CHRISTOPHER 


collections.  The  route  over  the  Pennine  Alps 
by  the  Great  St.  Bernard  was  traversed  by 
Roman  armies,  by  armies  under  Charlemagne 
and  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  in  May,  1800, 
by  a  French  army  under  Napoleon.  A  wagon 
road  from  Martigny  to  Liddes  was  completed 
in  1850.  II.  Little,  a  mountain  of  the  Gruian 
Alps,  S.  of  Mont  Blanc,  on  the  frontier  of  Sa- 
voy, about  7,200  ft.  high.  It  has  a  compara- 
tively easy  pass  leading  from  the  valley  of  the 
Isere  into  that  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  which  is 
believed  to  have  been  traversed  by  Hannibal 
in  his  descent  into  Italy.  At  a  height  of  7,076 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is  another  con- 
vent founded  by  S^.  Bernard  of  Menthon  for 
the  relief  of  travellers. 

SAIYF-BRIEl  (',  a  town  of  Brittany,  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  C6tes-du-Nord, 
on  the  Gouet,  2|  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  bay 
of  St.  Brieuc,  233  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Paris ;  pop. 
in  1872,  15,253.  It  has  a  school  of  hydrogra- 
phy, a  cathedral  of  the  13th  century,  and  a 
statue  of  Du  Guesclin.  It  is  largely  engaged 
in  the  whale  and  cod  fisheries,  and  has  an 
active  trade  in  butter  and  cider.  The  port, 
called  Legue\  is  2  in.  down  the  stream. 

SAINT  ('ATHARl.VES,  a  town,  port  of  entry, 
and  the  capital  of  Lincoln  co.,  Ontario,  Canada, 
on  the  Welland  canal  and  the  Great  Western 
and  Welland  railways,  35  m.  S.  of  Toronto; 
pop.  in  1861,  6,284 ;  in  1871,  7,864.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  mineral  springs,  and  is  the  centre 
of  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  business.  It 
contains  five  or  six  large  flouring  mills,  several 
saw  and  pinning  mills,  founderies  and  machine 
shops,  a  sewing  machine  factory,  soap  and 
candle  factories,  tanneries,  woollen  mills,  brew- 
eries, ship  yards,  &c.  There  are  three  branch 
banks,  excellent  hotels,  a  hospital,  grammar 
pchool,  commercial  college,  three  daily  and 
three  weekly  newspapers,  a  convent,  and 
churches  of  seven  denominations.  The  value 
of  imports  for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1874, 
was  $1,066,589;  of  exports,  $34,803. 

MINT  CHARLES.  I.  A  S.  £.  parish  of  Loui- 
siana, bounded  N.  by  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and 
intersected  by  the  Mississippi  river ;  area,  about 
840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,867,  of  whom  8,963 
were  colored.  There  are  several  lakes  and 
bayous  on  its  borders ;  the  surface  is  generally 
level  and  the  soil  fertile  in  the  higher  parts. 
It  is  intersected  by  Morgan's  Louisiana  and 
Texas  railroad,  and  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  Texas  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  129,564  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  32,- 
767  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,288,200  Ibs.  of  rice, 
207  bales  of  cotton,  3,914  hogsheads  of  sugar, 
and  247,120  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were 
527  horses,  1,287  mules  and  asses,  268  sheep, 
and  505  swine;  and  21  molasses  and  sugar  es- 
tablishments. Capital,  St.  Charles.  II.  An  E. 
county  of  Missouri,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by 
the  Mississippi  river  and  S.  E.  by  the  Missouri, 
and  drained  by  Cuivre  river  and  several  creeks ; 
area,  about  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,304, 
of  whom  1,922  were  colored.  The  surface  is 


varied,  occupied  in  part  by  a  range  of  high- 
lands, and  the  soil  fertile.  There  are  extensive 
coal  mines.  It  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Louis, 
Kansas  City,  and  Northern  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  760,980  bushels  of 
wheat,  968,161  of  Indian  corn,  278,235  of  oats, 
16,143  of  barley,  97,623  of  potatoes,  6,382  tons 
of  hay,  146,754  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  41,008  of  wool, 
158,268  of  butter,  and  5,704  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses.  There  were  5,788  horses,  1,815 
mules  and  asses,  4,863  milch  cows,  7,146  other 
cattle,  10,527  sheep,  and 81, 393  swine;  6  man- 
ufactories of  brick,  18  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
2  of  furniture,  1  woollen  mill,  and  9  flour  mills. 
Capital,  St.  Charles. 

SAINT  CHARLES,  a  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  St.  Charles  co.,  Missouri,  on  the  left  or  N. 
bank  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  on  the  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Northern  railroad,  22 
m.  N.  W.  of  St.  Louis;  pop.  in  1850,  1,498; 
in  1860,  8,239;  in  1870,  5,570,  of  whom  434 
were  colored  ;  in  1875,  about  7,500.  The  river 
is  here  crossed  by  a  magnificent  iron  bridge 
for  railroad  and  ordinary  travel,  completed 
in  1871  at  a  cost  of  $1,750,000.  There  are 
seven  river  spans,  and  the  entire  length,  in- 
cluding the  viaduct  approaches,  is  6,535  ft. 
The  city  is  lighted  with  gas  and  lias  a  good  fire 
department.  The  trade  is  considerable,  and 
the  manufactures  are  of  some  importance,  the 
principal  establishments  being  a  foundery  and 
machine  shop,  six  flouring  mills,  two  woollen 
mills,  a  furniture  factory,  a  car  factory,  a  starch 
factory,  two  tobacco  factories,  a  broom  factory, 
a  plough  factory,  and  five  cooper  shops.  There 
are  a  national  bank,  two  savings  banks,  a  mu- 
tual fire  insurance  company,  and  a  pork-packing 
establishment.  Besides  three  public  schools 
and  several  parochial  schools  of  different  de- 
nominations, the  principal  educational  institu- 
tions are  St.  Charles  college,  the  Lindenwood 
female  college,  and  the  convent  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  (female).  St.  Charles  college  was  organ- 
ized in  1836  and  chartered  in  1838,  and  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
South.  It  was  closed  during  the  civil  war,  but 
has  since  been  maintained  as  a  high  school. 
Four  weekly  newspapers  (two  German)  and  a 
monthly  periodical  are  published.  There  are 
1 1  churches,  viz. :  Baptist,  Episcopal,  Evan- 
gelical Protestant,  German  Evangelical,  Ger- 
man Evangelical  Lutheran,  German  Methodist, 
Methodist  Episcopal,  South,  Presbyterian  (2), 
and  Roman  Catholic  (2).— -St.  Charles  is  one  of 
the  oldest  settlements  in  Missouri,  a  post  having 
been  established  here  under  Spanish  authority 
by  Louis  Blanchette  in  1769.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  town  in  1809  and  as  a  city  in  1849. 

SAINT  CHRISTOPHER,  an  island  of  the  Brit- 
ish West  Indies,  often  called  St.  Kitt's,  in  the 
Leeward  group,  separated  from  Nevis  on  the 
southeast  by  a  strait  2  m.  wide ;  length  23  m., 
breadth  of  its  main  body  nearly  5  -m.;  area, 
67  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  24,440.  A  range  of 
mountains  traverses  the  island  from  S.  E.  to 
N.  W. ;  the  highest  is  Mt.  Misery,  over  4,000 


SAINT  CLAIR 


527 


ft.  The  skirts  of  the  mountains,  the  higher 
parts  of  which  are  wooded,  together  with  the 
valley  of  Basseterre,  form  the  arable  portion 
of  the  island,  and  are  devoted  mainly  to  sugar. 
The  government  consists  of  a  president,  an  ex- 
ecutive council  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a 
legislative  assembly,  half  of  whose  members 
are  elected.  Nevis  has  been  recently  united 
with  St.  Christopher  for  the  purposes  of  ex- 
ecutive government.  In  1869  the  imports 
were  valued  at  £198,712 ;  exports,  £222,712. 
Capital,  Basseterre. — St.  Christopher  was  set- 
tled by  English  colonists  under  Sir  Thomas 
Warner  in  1623,  was  held  afterward  by  the 
lish  and  French,  and  finally  was  ceded  to 
reat  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles  in 
1783.  In  1872  it  joined  the  confederation  of 
the  Leeward  Islands,  the  legislature  of  which 
sits  at  St.  John's,  Antigua,  and  Basseterre  in 
alternate  years. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  a  lake  lying  between  Michigan 
and  Ontario,  Canada,  30  m.  long,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  12  in.,  at  its  widest  part  20  m. ; 
area,  360  sq.  m. ;  mean  depth,  20  ft.  It  is  6 
ft.  higher  than  Lake  Erie,  which,  according 
to  J.  T.  Gardner's  calculations  (United  States 
survey  reports,  1873),  is  573  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Through  St.  Clair  river,  about  40  m.  long  and 
£  m.  wide  (which  forms  a  part  of  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  British  Ameri- 
ca), it  receives  the  waters  of  Lakes  Huron, 
Superior,  and  Michigan,  which  it  discharges 
through  the  Detroit  river  into  Lake  Erie. 

SAINT  CLAIR.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Alabama, 
bounded  E.  and  S.  E.  by  Coosa  river;  area, 
about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,360,  of  whom 
2,065  were  colored.  It  is  mountainous,  and 
has  large  forests  of  oak  and  other  timber  and 
a  good  soil.  Extensive  beds  of  bituminous  coal 
are  worked.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Alabama 
and  Chattanooga  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  29,778  bushels  of  wheat, 
157,268  of  Indian  corn,  7,895  of  oats,  l,2931bs. 
of  tobacco,  4,451  of  wool,  1,244  bales  of  cot- 
ton, and  3,547  gallons  of  molasses.  There 
were  970  horses,  452  mules  and  asses,  1,621 
milch  cows,  622  working  oxen,  1,922  other 
cattle,  3,578  sheep,  and  8,775  swine.  Capital, 
Ashville.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Michigan,  lying 
on  Lake  Huron,  St.  Clair  river,  and  Lake  St. 
Clair,  which  separate  it  from  Canada,  drained 
by  Bell  and  Black  rivers,  and  traversed  by  sev- 
eral railroads ;  area,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  36,661.  The  surface  is  rolling,  and  much 
of  it  is  heavily  timbered  with  pine  and  other 
trees.  The  soil  is  fertile  in  the  south  and  sandy 
in  the  north  and  west.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  224,242  bushels  of  wheat,  102,066 
of  Indian  corn,  368,034  of  oats,  210,848  of  po- 
tatoes, 39,477  tons  of  hay,  128,020  Ibs.  of  wool, 
663,610  of  butter,  and  46,660  of  hops.  There 
were  6,398  horses,  8,014  milch  cows,  9,922 
other  cattle,  32,587  sheep,  and  9,438  swine; 
19  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  13 
of  clothing,  8  of  iron  castings,  10  of  tanned 
and  curried  leather,  3  of  machinery,  5  of  sash, 
718  VOL.  xiv. — 34 


doors,  and  blinds,  1  of  woollen  goods,  6  flour 
mills,  20  saw  mills,  and  7  breweries.  Capital, 
Port  Huron.  III.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Illinois, 
lying  on  the  Mississippi  river,  opposite  St. 
Louis,  drained  by  Kaskaskia  river  and  Caho- 
kia,  Silver,  and  Richland  creeks,  and  intersect- 
ed by  several  railroads;  area,  630  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  51,068.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
the  soil  very  fertile.  Along  the  Mississippi  are 
rich  coal  mines.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  1,565,071  bushels  of  wheat,  1,423,121  of 
Indian  corn,  476,851  of  oats,  48,192  of  barley, 
265,169  of  potatoes,  10,438  tons  of  hay,  5,347 
Ibs.  of  wool,  336,362  of  butter,  and  44,711 
gallons  of  wine.  There  were  8,457  horses, 
2,565  mules  and  asses,  6,338  milch  cows,  4,616 
other  cattle,  3,782  sheep,  and  29,785  swine; 
36  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
14  of  brick,  61  of  carriages  and  wagons,  21  of 
cooperage,  10  of  cabinet  furniture,  3  of  wrought 
iron,  3  of  castings,  4  of  machinery,  4  of  malt, 
1  of  vegetable  oil,  1  distillery,  14  breweries,  3 
planing  mills,  4  saw  mills,  18  flour  mills,  and  2 
woollen  mills.  Capital,  Belleville.  IV.  A  W. 
county  of  Missouri,  intersected  by  Osage  river 
and  drained  by  Sac  river ;  area,  650  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,742,  of  whom  152  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  varied,  partly  prairie  and  partly 
timber,  and  the  soil  tolerably  fertile.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Sedalia  division  of  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  35,060  bushels  of  wheat, 
200,368  of  Indian  corn,  56,186  of  oats,  3,766 
tons  of  hay,  2,410  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  10,376 
of  wool.  There  were  2,284  horses,  2,137  milch 
cows,  5,204  other  cattle,  5,773  sheep,  and  8,433 
swine.  Capital,  Osceola. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  a  borough  of  Schuylkill  co., 
Pennsylvania,  on  both  sides  of  Mill  creek 
(crossed  by  several  bridges),  a  tributary  of  the 
Schuylkill  river,  and  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  railroad,  3  m.  N.  of  Pottsville  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,726.  It  is  on  level  ground,  surrounded 
by  hills  under  which  are  inexhaustible  beds  of 
anthracite.  It  is  supplied  with  pure  water 
from  a  large  reservoir  among  the  mountains 
5  m.  to  the  north.  On  the  border  the  lar- 
gest coal  works  in  the  world  are  in  course  of 
erection,  to  be  completed  in  two  or  three  years. 
Here  the  Primrose  vein,  13  ft.  thick,  has  been 
struck  at  a  depth  of  1,600  ft.  Tunnelling  for 
the  Mammoth  vein,  which  is  expected  to  be 
from  40  to  50  ft.  thick,  is  to  begin  at  once 
(1875).  The  borough  contains  a  blast  furnace, 
a  shovel  factory,  a  manufactory  of  squibs  (used 
in  blasting),  three  public  school  buildings,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  and  11  churches. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  a  city  of  St.  Clair  co.,  Michi- 
gan, on  the  St.  Clair  river,  at  the  mouth  of 
Pine  river,  45  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Detroit ;  pop.  in 
1879,  1,790;  in  1874,  2,003.  A  branch  of  the 
Canada  Southern  railway  terminates  at  Court- 
right  on  the  Canada  side  of  the  river.  The 
Michigan  Midland  and  Canada  railroad  extends 
W.  to  Ridgeway  on  the  Grand  Trunk  railway. 
St.  Clair  contains  two  saw  mills,  an  exten- 


528 


SAINT  CLAIR 


SAINT  CROIX 


sive  woollen  mill,  a  large  tannery,  two  flour- 
ing mills,  a  shingle  mill,  a  large  carriage  fac- 
tory, a  foundery,  two  large  brick  yards,  and 
two  ship  yards.  It  is  the  most  extensive  hay- 
shipping  point  in  the  northwest.  There  are  a 
national  bank,  a  union  school,  a  weekly  news- 
paper, and  five  churches.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1858. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  Arthur,  an  American  general, 
born  in  Thurso,  Scotland,  in  1734,  died  near 
Greensburg,  Pa.,  Aug.  31,  1818.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  the  earl  of  Roslyn,  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  studied 
medicine  under  John  Hunter,  but  entered  the 
army  as  an  ensign,,and  came  to  America  with 
Admiral  Boscawen.''  He  served  under  Ainherst 
at  Louisburg,  and  under  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  In 
1762  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  in  1764 
settled  in  the  Ligonier  valley,  Pennsylvania, 
where  he  erected  mills,  and  held  several  im- 
portant civil  offices.  In  January,  1776,  he  was 
created  a  colonel  in  the  continental  army,  and 
in  August  a  brigadier  general,  and  was  in  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  In  1777  he 
was  made  a  major  general  and  commanded 
Ticonderoga,  but  was  compelled  to  evacuate 
it  before  Burgoyne.  For  this  he  was  tried  by 
court  martial,  but  acquitted.  In  1781  he  re- 
mained at  Philadelphia  to  protect  congress 
while  Washington  marched  to  Yorktown,  but 
joined  the  main  army  before  Cornwallis  sur- 
rendered. In  1786  he  was  sent  to  congress,  of 
which  he  became  president  in  1787.  When 
in  1789  the  government  of  the  Northwest 
territory  was  organized,  he  was  made  gov- 
ernor, and  held  that  post  till  1802.  In  1791 
ho  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
operating  against  the  Miami  Indians.  He  was 
surprised  on  Nov.  4,  near  the  Miami  villages, 
and  his  force  cut  to  pieces.  Washington  re- 
fused a  court  of  inquiry,  and  St.  Clair  resigned ; 
but  congress  appointed  a  committee  of  investi- 
gation, which  exonerated  him. 

SAINT  CLOUD,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Stearns  co.,  Minnesota,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  67  m.  in  a  direct  line  and  100 
m.  by  the  course  of  the  river  N.  W.  of  St.  Paul ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,161 ;  in  1875,  about  2,800.  It 
is  connected  witli  St.  Paul  by  the  first  division 
of  the  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad,  which  con- 
tinues N.  up  the  Sauk  valley.  Another  railroad 
up  the  Mississippi,  intersecting  the  Northern 
Pacific  65  m.  distant,  is  graded  (1875).  Steam- 
ers ply  in  summer  to  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony 
at  Minneapolis.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
country  unexcelled  for  grain  growing  and  stock 
raising.  A  rapid  in  the  Mississippi  here  affords 
one  of  the  best  water  powers  in  the  country, 
and  a  company  organized  for  the  purpose  is 
improving  it.  Some  of  the  manufactories  are 
now  run  by  steam.  There  are  two  saw  mills, 
two  flouring  mills,  two  planing  mills,  and  sash, 
door,  and  blind  factories,  an  iron  and  brass 
foundery,  one  large  and  three  smaller  furniture 
manufactories,  a  plough  factory,  four  wagon 
factories,,  marble  works,  brick  yards,  potte- 


ries, &c.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  sev- 
eral beds  of  superior  granite,  which  is  cut  in 
the  city,  and  shipped  to  Chicago  and  other 
points.  St.  Cloud  contains  a  fine  brick  court 
house,  a  large  hotel,  two  banks,  one  of  the 
state  normal  schools,  two  graded  public  schools, 
four  weekly  newspapers  (one  German),  and 
seven  churches. 

SAINT-CLOCD,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine,  2  m.  W.  of  the  enceinte  of  Paris; 
pop.  about  5,000.  It  received  its  name  from 
a  monastery  built  by  Clodoald,  a  grandson  of 
Clovis.  In  the  royal  palace  here,  which  was 
originally  a  country  house,  Henry  III.  was 
assassinated  in  1589.  The  duke  of  Orleans,  • 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  added  a  magnificent 
park  and  gardens,  and  the  place  became  cele- 
brated for  sumptuous  entertainments  and  his- 
torical associations.  Marie  Antoinette,  Napo- 
leon I.,  Louis  XVIII.,  Charles  X.,  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, and  Napoleon  III.  successively  resided  at 
St.  Cloud.  The  overthrow  of  the  first  repub- 
lic was  initiated  here  by  Bonaparte  on  the  18th 
Brumaire  (1799).  The  capitulation  of  Paris  in 
1815  and  the  ordinances  of  Charles  X.  were 
signed  here.  The  palace  was  almost  entirely 
burned  during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  October, 
1870,  though  many  works  of  art  were  saved. 

SAINT  CROIX.  I.  A  river,  also  called  Passa- 
maquoddy  and  Schoodic,  which  forms  a  por- 
tion of  the  N.  E.  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  British  America.  It  rises  in  Grand 
lake,  and  flows  in  a  very  winding  course,  though 
generally  S.  8.  E.  for  about  125  m.,  separating 
Maine  from  New  Brunswick,  and  falling  into 
Passamaquoddy  bay.  It  is  navigable  to  St. 
Stephen,  N.  B.,  about  20  m.  from  its  mouth. 
II.  A  river  of  Wisconsin,  rising  in  Douglas  co., 
near  the  W.  part  of  Lake  Superior,  and  flow- 
ing S.  W.  to  the  E.  line  of  Minnesota,  where  it 
becomes  the  boundary  between  that  state  and 
Wisconsin.  Its  general  direction  in  this  part 
of  its  course  is  S.,  and  it  falls  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, 38  m.  below  St.  Paul.  Its  whole  length 
is  about  200  m.,  and  its  width  at  its  mouth  100 
yards.  An  expansion  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course,  for  about  86  m.,  is  called  St.  Croix  lake. 
The  river  has  several  fine  falls. 

SAINT  CROIX,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
separated  by  the  St.  Croix  river  from  Minne- 
sota, and  drained  by  Willow,  Apple,  and  Rush 
rivers;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,016. 
The  surface  is  uneven,  and  most  of  it  covered 
with  pine  forests.  It  is  traversed  by  the  West 
Wisconsin  and  the  North  Wisconsin  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  823,678 
bushels  of  wheat,  42,461  of  Indian  corn,  447,- 
775  of  oats,  27,664  of  barley,  61,972  of  pota- 
toes, 7,058  tons  of  hay,  3,343  Ibs.  of  wool, 
229,015  of  butter,  and  4,200  of  hops.  There 
were  3,032  horses,  3,232  milch  cows,  4,085 
other  cattle,  1,435  sheep,  and  3,481  swine. 
Capital,  Hudson. 

SAINT  CROIX,  a  West  India  island.  See 
SANTA  CBUZ. 


SAINT-CYR 


SAINT  ELIAS 


529 


SAINT-CYR,  a  village  in  the  park  of  Versailles, 
9  m.  S.  W.  of  Paris,  celebrated  for  the  female 
seminary  (maison  de  St.  Cyr)  built  here  in 
1686,  after  the  designs  of  Mansard,  by  Louis 
XIV.,  under  the  auspices  of  Mme.  de  Mainte- 
non,  for  the  education  of  250  daughters  of  the 
nobility.  For  this  school,  at  the  request  of 
Mme.  de  Maintenon,  Racine  wrote  Athalie ; 
and  she  made  it  her  home  after  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  The  school  was  converted  in 
1793  into  a  military  hospital,  and  in  1806  the 
military  academy  of  Fontainebleau  was  trans- 
ferred to  it  by  Napoleon.  This  academy  be- 
came known  as  Vecole  speciale  militaire  de 
St.  Cyr,  and  is  still  the  principal  institution 
for  training  officers  for  the  army  and  navy. 

SU\T-( YK,  Laurent  Goavion.  See  GOUVION 
SAINT-OYB. 

SAINT-DENIS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Seine,  2  m.  N.  of  the  enceinte 
of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  31,993.  Dagobert  I. 
built  here,  over  the  grave  of  St.  Denis,  an  ab- 
bey which  soon  became  the  richest  in  France. 
One  of  its  manors  was  held  in  fief  by  some 
of  the  early  Capetians,  who  adopted  as  their 
standard  the  oriflamme,  originally  the  banner 
of  the  convent,  and  chose  the  crypt  of  the 
church  as  their  burial  place.  In  1793,  by  or- 
der of  the  convention,  the  tombs  of  the  kings 
were  destroyed  and  their  remains  removed. 
The  church,  restored  by  Napoleon  and  subse- 
quent governments,  ranks  among  the  best  spe- 
cimens of  Gothic  art.  The  convent  is  occu- 
pied by  a  school  for  female  orphans  of  mem- 
bers of  the  legion  of  honor. 

SAINT  DOMINGO.  See  HATTI,  and  SANTO 
DOMINGO. 

SAINTE-ALDEGONDE.     See  ALDEGONDE. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  Charles  Augnstin,  a  French  au- 
thor, born  in  Boulogne,  Dec.  23,  1804,  died  in 
Paris,  Oct.  13,  1869.  His  mother,  a  woman  of 
English  descent,  instructed  him  in  the  English 
language  and  literature.  He  completed  his 
studies  at  Charlemagne  and  Bourbon  colleges, 
Paris,  studied  medicine,  and  was  attached  to  the 
hospital  of  St.  Louis  till  1827.  He  began  his 
literary  career  about  1824  as  a  writer  for  the 
Globe.  In  1828  he  became  known  as  a  critic 
by  his  Tableau  historique  et  critique  de  la  poe- 
sie  francaise  et  du  theatre  francais  au  XVP 
siecle  (enlarged  ed.,  1843).  He  subsequently 
published  poetry  which  was  bitterly  assailed 
by  the  adherents  of  the  classical  school.  The 
revolution  of  July  transferred  the  Globe  to  the 
St.  Simonians,  whose  doctrines  he  then  advo- 
cated ;  but  he  soon  joined  the  newly  estab- 
lished Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  and  his  friend 
Armand  Carrel's  National.  In  1837  he  deliv- 
ered lectures  at  Lausanne,  which  formed  the 
groundwork  of  his  history  of  Port  Royal.  In 
1840  he  received  from  Thiers  an  office  in  the 
Mazarin  library,  which  enabled  him  to  com- 
plete that  work.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
academy  in  1845.  In  1848-'9  he  gave  lectures 
at  Liege  on  Chateaubriand  et  son  groupe  litte- 
raire  sous  Vempire  (2  vols.,  I860).  He  returned 


to  Paris  in  1850  as  a  partisan  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon, connected  himself  with  the  Constitution- 
nel,  and  early  in  1852  with  the  Moniteur.  In 
the  former  appeared  his  Causeries  du  Lundi. 
He  was  then  also  appointed  professor  of  Latin 
poetry  in  the  college  de  France,  but  the  stu- 
dents hissed  him  on  account  of  his  imperialism, 
and  he  at  once  resigned.  From  1857  to  1861 
he  was  maitre  de  conferences  at  the  normal 
school.  In  1865  he  became  a  member  of  the 
senate,  where  his  support  of  Renan  made  him 
obnoxious  to  the  ultramontanes.  As  a  subtle, 
discriminating,  and  impartial  critic,  he  had  no 
superior,  and  his  originality  and  occasional 
partiality  for  the  phraseology  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury made  Balzac  say  that  he  had  invented  a 
new  language  which  should  be  called  le  Sainte- 
Beuve.  He  was  equally  remarkable  for  his  in- 
timate sympathy  with  the  brilliant  women  and 
men  who  in  previous  periods  adorned  French 
society  and  literature,  for  his  keen  analysis  of 
character,  and  for  his  rich  store  of  anecdotes. 
His  works  include  Critiques  et  portraits  lit- 
teraires  (5  vols.,  1832-'9);  Volupte,  a  rather 
pathological  and  singular  novel  (1834;  5th 
revised  ed.,  1861) ;  Poesies  completes  (1840 ; 
enlarged  ed.,  2  vols.,  1863) ;  Port-Royal  (5 
vols.,  1840-'60 ;  3d  ed.,  6  vols.,  1867) ;  Por- 
traits litteraires  (2  vols.,  1844;  new  ed.,  3 
vols.,  1864);  Portraits  de  femmes  (1844;  new 
ed.,  1855) ;  Portraits  contemporains  (2  vols., 
1846;  new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1855);  Causeries  du 
Lundi  (15  vols.,  1851-'62)  ;  Galerie  desfemmes 
celebres  (1858),  and  Nouvelle  galerie  desfemmes 
celebres  (1864),  both  extracted  from  the  pre- 
ceding, and  translated  into  English  by  Har- 
riet W.  Preston  under  the  title  of  "  Portraits 
of  Celebrated  Women"  (Boston,  1868);  Nou- 
veaux  Lundis  (10  vols.,  1863-'8)  ;  Madame 
Desbordes-  Valmore,  sa  vie  et  sa  correspondence 
(1870 ;  translated  by  Harriet  W.  Preston,  Bos- 
ton, 1872) ;  and  the  posthumous  Causeries  du 
Lundi  (3  vols.,  1875;  "English  Portraits," 
selected  from  the  same,  London,  1875). 

SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE.     See  DEVILLE. 

SAINTE  GENEVIEVE,  an  E.  S.  E.  county  of 
Missouri,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  drained  by  Riviere  aux  Vases,  Isle 
au  Bois,  Saline,  and  Establishment  creeks; 
area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,384, 
of  whom  431  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
broken  and  hilly.  There  are  quarries  of  mar- 
ble, and  valuable  mines  of  lead  and  copper. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  155,228 
bushels  of  wheat,  180,350  of  Indian  corn,  78,- 
197  of  oats,  5,970  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  10,327  of 
wool.  There  were  1,967  horses,  1,805  milch 
cows,  3,632  other  cattle,  4,997  sheep,  and  11,- 
066  swine.  Capital,  Ste.  Genevieve. 

SAINT  ELIAS,  Mount,  a  volcanic  peak  on  the 
border  of  Alaska  and  British  America,  lat.  60° 
15'  N.,  Ion.  141°  W.  Its  height  has  been  va- 
riously estimated  at  16,000  to  18,000  ft.  More 
recently  Dall  from  trigonometric  calculation 
estimates  it  at  19,000  ft.,  which  is  higher  than 
any  other  peak  in  North  America. 


530 


SAINT-ELME 


SAINT  FRANCIS  EIVER 


SAINT-ELME,  Ida,  the  nom  de  plume  of 
a  French  courtesan  (£LSELIXA  VANAYL  DE 
YOXGH),  born  at  Valambrose,  S.  France,  in 
1778,  died  in  Brussels,  May  23,  1845.  She  is 
known  chiefly  by  her  publication  entitled  Me- 
moires  (Tune  contemporaine  (8  vols.,  Paris, 
1827;  new  ed.,  1863),  purporting  to  contain 
her  recollections  of  eminent  personages  under 
the  republic,  the  consulate,  the  empire,  and  the 
restoration.  As  the  mistress  of  several  of  Na- 
poleon's generals  and  marshals,  she  professed 
to  have  peculiar  materials  of  secret  history. 
After  the  revolution  of  1830  she  resided  in 
London,  and  made  an  attempt  to  levy  black- 
mail upon  Louis  Philippe  by  forcing  him  to 
purchase  letters  written  by  him  in'  1809.  She 
ended  her  life  in  a  hospital  of  nuns. 

Ml  M  I  ->l  IKUKUIl  K.     See  LERIXS  ISLANDS. 

SAIMKS  (anc.  Santones),  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Charente-lnferieure,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Charente,  86  m.  N.  W. 
of  La  Rochelle ;  pop.  in  1872,  9,998.  It  has 
many  Roman  antiquities,  and  a  renovated 
cathedral  which  originated  with  Charlemagne. 
The  crypt  of  the  church  of  St.  Eutrope  forms 
the  largest  subterranean  chapel  in  France. 
The  trade  is  chiefly  in  wine,  brandy,  and  grain. 
It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Aquitania.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Saintonge.  It  suffered  much  during  the  reli- 
gious wars. 

MIYl-Kl  1K»K.  a  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Loire,  on  the  Furens,  a 
branch  of  the  Loire,  82  m.  S.  W.  of  Lyons; 
pop.  in  1872,  110,814.  It  has  several  spacious 
streets  lined  with  substantial  houses  built  of 
freestone,  originally  white,  but  soiled  from  coal 
smoke.  Among  the  churches,  St.  Etienne  and 
Notre  Dame  are  most  noteworthy,  and  oth- 
er public  buildings  are  the  town  hall,  theatre, 
museum  of  industry,  gallery  and  school  of  tine 
arts,  school  of  mines,  and  communal  college. 
It  was  a  place  of  some  importance  in  the  15th 
century,  and  in  recent  times  has  become  one 
of  the  principal  manufacturing  centres  in  Eu- 
rope. It  owes  its  recent  rapid  rise  to  the  water 
power  furnished  by  the  Furens,  and  its  situa- 
tion in  the  midst  of  the  most  productive  coal 
fields  of  France.  The  ribbon  manufacture,  the 
largest  in  the  world,  employs  40,000  weavers 
in  the  town  and  adjacent  districts,  and  pro- 
duces goods  to  the  value  of  80,000,000  francs 
per  annum.  The  firearms  factories  employ 
6,000  men,  and  in  1868  turned  out  90,000 
pieces,  and  the  national  arms  factory,  employ- 
ing 4,500  men,  made  in  1868  200,000  Chasse- 
pot  rifles.  Sixty  cutlery  establishments  em- 
ploy 7,000  workmen  and  produce  goods  to 
the  value  of  about  3,500,000  francs  annually. 
The  manufacture  of  Bessemer  and  Martin  steel 
is  extensive.  Hemp  cables  for  mines  and  in- 
clined railway  planes  are  made.  Of  coal  about 
500,000  tons  a  year  are  exported. 

SAINT  ECSTATICS,  an  island  of  the  West  In- 
dies, belonging  to  the  Netherlands,  in  the  Lee- 


ward group,  12  m.  N.  W.  of  St.  Christopher ; 
area,  about  8  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  2,200.  The 
N.  part  is  broken  into  rugged  hills  from  500 
to  900  ft.  high ;  the  S.  is  occupied  by  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  the  summit  of  which  is  1,950 
ft.  high.  The  climate  is  warm,  but  healthful. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  but  covered  with  a  wilder- 
ness of  weeds ;  the  chief  product  is  yams,  be- 
sides which  the  sugar  cane  is  cultivated,  yield- 
ing an  average  of  80,000  Ibs.  of  sugar  per  an- 
num. Orange,  the  chief  town,  is  on  the  S.  W. 
side,  built  partly  on  a  small  beach  and  partly 
on  a  steep  cliff  130  ft.  high  ;  this  cliff  is  com- 
posed of  white  argillaceous  earth,  which  makes 
excellent  cement  for  subaqueous  as  well  as 
ordinary  works.  The  only  accessible  point  is 
on  the  beach  under  the  town,  and  here  the 
surf  is  dangerous.  The  landing  is  defended 
by  a  fort  and  several  batteries.  It  has  been 
a  Dutch  colony  since  about  1635,  but  was  sev- 
eral times  taken  by  the  French  and  English, 
and  the  English  language  is  spoken.  It  was 
at  one  time  a  place  of  great  importance,  being 
the  seat  of  an  extensive  contraband  trade,  and 
the  population  in  1780  was  25,000;  but  it  now 
has  little  trade. 

SAINT-EVREMOND,  Charles  de  MarjmetH  de  Saint- 
Denis,  seigneur  de,  a  French  author,  born  near 
Coutances,  April  1,  1618,  died  in  London, 
Sept.  20,  1703.  He  early  acquired  military 
and  social  distinction,  but  gave  offence  to  Ma- 
zarin  while  holding  a  high  command  in  which 
he  amassed  a  fortune,  and  was  imprisoned  for 
three  months  in  the  Bastile.  In  1661  he  was 
banished  for  disparaging  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees.  In  London,  where  he  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life,  he  became  an  oracle  in  fash- 
ionable and  political  society,  and  Charles  II. 
gave  him  a  pension  of  £300.  His  principal 
works  are:  Comedie  de*  aeademistet  (1650); 
Reflexion*  »ur  leg  divers  genie*  du  people  ro- 
main  (1664) ;  Jiigementt  et  ol*ertution»  »ur 
Seneque,  Plutarque,  &c. ;  and  minor  essays 
and  dissertations  on  ancient  and  modern  tra- 
gedy and  ancient  poetry.  The  first  authentic 
edition  of  his  works  was  partly  prepared  by 
himself  and  Des  Maizeaux,  and  finished  by  the 
latter  in  conjunction  with  Silvestre  (3  vols., 
London,  1705,  with  an  English  translation  and 
biographical  notice).  A  select  edition  was 
published  in  1804  by  Desessarts. 

SAINT  FRANCIS,  an  E.  county  of  Arkansas, 
drained  by  the  St.  Francis  and  L'Anguille 
rivers ;  area,  about  625  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,714,  of  whom  2,446  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  nearly  level,  and  the  soil  productive. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Memphis  and  Little 
Rock  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  141,911  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  8,850  of 
sweet  and  2,440  of  Irish  potatoes,  and  3,757 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,014  horses, 
659  mules  and  asses,  1,662  milch  cows,  368 
working  oxen,  2,449  other  cattle,  924  sheep, 
and  8,060  swine.  Capital,  Madison. 

SAINT  FRANCIS  RIVER.  See  ARKANSAS,  vol. 
i.,  p.  714, 


SAINT  FRANCOIS 


SAINT  HELENA 


531 


SAINT  FRANCIS,  an  E.  S.  E.  county  of  Mis- 
souri, drained  by  the  Big  river,  a  branch  of  the 
Maramec,  and  the  sources  of  the  St.  Francis ; 
area,  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,742,  of  whom 
518  were  colored.  The  surface  is  broken  and 
hilly,  and  includes  a  portion  of  the  Iron  moun- 
tain. It  has  extensive  iron  works.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  St.  Louis  and  Columbus  and  the 
St.  Louis  and  Texas  divisions  of  the  St.  Louis 
and  Iron  Mountain  railroad.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  63,632  bushels  of  wheat, 
247,581  of  Indian  corn,  125,803  of  oats,  3,083 
tons  of  hay,  9,490  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  20,460  of 
wool,  66,133  of  butter,  and  12,354  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  1,927  horses,  732  mules 
and  asses,  1,945  milch  cows,  512  working  oxen, 
2,921  other  cattle,  9,459  sheep,  and  17,217 
swine.  Capital,  Farmington. 

SAINT  GALL  (Ger.  Sanct-Galleri).  I.  A  N.  E. 
canton  of  Switzerland,  bounded  N.  by  Thur- 
gau,  N.  E.  by  the  lake  of  Constance,  E.  by 
the  Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  Vorarlberg 
and  Liechtenstein,  S.  by  Glarus,  and  W.  by  the 
lake  of  Zurich ;  area  (exclusive  of  the  canton 
of  Appenzell,  which  it  entirely  encloses),  780 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  191,015,  nearly  all  Ger- 
mans, and  two  thirds  Roman  Catholics.  It  is 
watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  including 
the  Thur,  the  Sitter,  and  the  Necker.  Lake 
Wallen  is  almost  entirely  in  this  canton.  The 
S.  part  of  the  canton  is  one  of  the  lofty  Al- 
pine regions  of  Switzerland,  Mounts  Scheibe, 
Graue  Homer,  and  Speerberg  being  within  its 
limits.  The  whole  surface  of  the  canton  is 
mountainous.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile. 
The  mountainous  districts  are  covered  with 
wood  or  rich  pasture,  and  on  the  lower  slopes 
are  vineyards  and  orchards.  The  most  impor- 
tant manufacture  is  that  of  cotton.  The  gov- 
ernment is  democratic.  The  great  council  is 
composed  of  88  Catholics  and  62  Protestants, 
elected  for  two  years,  and  meeting  twice  a 
year.  The  executive  council  is  composed  of 
seven  members,  chosen  by  the  great  council 
from  their  own  number  and  holding  office 
four  years.  The  canton  was  admitted  to  the 
confederation  in  1803.  It  is  divided  into  15 
districts.  The  constitution  of  1861  made  the 
church  virtually  independent  of  the  state,  and 
the  latter  controls  education.  II.  A  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  canton,  on  the  Steinach,  a  branch  of 
the  Sitter,  43  m.  E.  of  Zurich ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,676.  The  suburbs  are  finely  laid  out,  and 
command  beautiful  views.  It  is  the  centre  of 
the  manufacture  of  muslins  and  of  the  trade 
of  N.  E.  Switzerland.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  the  restored  Gothic 
church  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  new  school 
house  with  a  large  library  and  museum.  The 
city  grew  up  around  an  abbey  built  by  St.  Gall 
in  the  7th  century.  (See  GALL.)  It  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Helvetic  confederation  in  1454. 
The  abbey  was  secularized  in  1805 ;  it  is  now 
the  residence  of  the  bishop,  and  contains  an 
extensive  library,  remarkable  for  old  German 
manuscripts. 


SAINT-GERMAIN,  or  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  a  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise, 
8  m.  W.  of  the  enceinte  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872, 
22,862.  It  was  long  a  royal  residence,  and  is 
now  a  fashionable  summer  resort.  James  II. 
of  England  died  here.  The  revolution  con- 
verted the  palace  into  barracks ;  Napoleon  I. 
made  it  a  military  prison,  and  Napoleon  III.  a 
museum  of  antiquities.  Adjoining  it  is  one  of 
the  largest  forests  in  France. 

SAINT-GERMAIN,  Count  de,  a  cosmopolitan  ad- 
venturer of  the  18th  century,  of  unknown 
origin.  He  arrived  in  Paris  about  1740,  in 
company  with  the  marshal  de  Belle-Isle,  and 
created  a  prodigious  sensation  by  his  conver- 
sational powers,  by  his  knowledge  of  chemis- 
try and  history,  and  by  his  unaccountable  pos- 
session of  diamonds  of  great  value.  The  most 
fabulous  stories  were  circulated  about  him,  and 
his  graphic  and  familiar  delineations  of  par- 
sonages long  dead  gave  an  impression  that  he 
had  been  their  contemporary.  For  many  years 
he  was  a  favorite  at  court  and  in  the  highest 
society  in  Paris.  He  is  said  to  have  ended  his 
life  at  the  court  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cas- 
sel.  Voltaire  called  his  life,  in  allusion  to  his 
title  of  count  and  to  his  stories  (contes),  ce  conte 
pour  rire.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  really 
a  spy  in  the  pay  of  various  governments. 

SAINT  GOTHARD.  See  ALPS,  vol.  i.,  pp.  352 
and  354. 

SAINT  HELENA,  an  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Amite  river  and  drained  by 
the  Tickfah  river  and  Natalbany  creek  ;  area, 
about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,423,  of  whom 
2,914  were  colored.  The  surface  is  gently  un- 
dulating, and  the  soil  fertile,  especially  along 
the  streams.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  91,265  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  38,961  of 
sweet  potatoes,  3,875  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  3,284 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  807  horses,  1,823 
milch  cows,  3,999  other  cattle,  1,858  sheep,  and 
8,977  swine.  Capital,  Greensburgh. 

SAINT  HELENA,  an  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  in  the  S.  Atlantic  ocean,  about  1,200  m. 
W.  of  Africa  and  2,000  m.  E.  of  South  America ; 
lat.  15°  57'  S.,  Ion.  5°  42'  W. ;  area,  about  47  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,241,  including  natives  of 
mixed  European  and  Asiatic  origin,  west  Afri- 
can negroes,  and  whites  (government  officials, 
the  garrison,  merchants,  and  farmers).  Rug- 
ged and  precipitous  cliffs  from  600  to  2,000  ft. 
high  encircle  the  island.  The  principal  inlets 
are  James's  bay,  having  an  excellent  harbor, 
on  which  is  Jamestown,  Rupert's  and  Lemon 
valley  on  the  N.  W.,  and  Sandy  bay  on  the  S. 
E.  side,  all  fortified.  There  are  narrow  ravines 
where  landing  is  possible,  which  are  also  pro- 
tected by  small  forts  built  during  Napoleon's 
imprisonment,  but  now  mostly  unoccupied,  as 
the  entire  garrison  in  1874  numbered  but  191 
men.  The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin.  From 
a  crater  on  the  S.  side  lava  and  other  volcanic 
matters  have  flowed  in  every  direction,  the 
other  side  having,  it  is  supposed,  sunk  into  the 
ocean.  A  lofty  ridge  of  calcareous  rocks, 


532 


SAINT-HELIER 


SAINT  HYACINTHE 


running  nearly  E.  and  W.  with  a  bend  to  the 
S.  at  each  extremity,  intersects  the  island,  and 
in  this  range  are  Diana's  peak,  2,700  ft.  high, 
Cuckold's  point,  2,672  ft.,  and  Halley's  mount, 
2,467  ft.  The  Flagstaff,  2,272  ft.,  and  Barns- 
cliff,  2,015  ft.,  are  prominent  cliffs  on  the 
coast.  Along  the  S.  coast  are  many  remark- 
able columns  or  basaltic  rocks,  two  of  which, 
Lot  and  Lot's  Wife,  are  respectively  197  and 
160  ft.  high,  and  the  Chimney,  a  noted  hexag- 
onal column,  is  64  ft.  Iron,  gold,  and  copper 
have  been  found  in  small  quantities.  The  cli- 
mate is  temperate  and  salubrious,  and  not  un- 
healthy to  European  constitutions.  The  range 
of  the  thermometer  is  from  57°  *to  72°,  the 
annual  average  66°.  The  flora  is  interesting, 
though  of  more  than  700  species  but  52  are 
native.  When  the  island  was  discovered  it 
was  covered  with  trees,  which  are  now  nearly 
destroyed.  The  vegetation  is  almost  wholly 
European.  There  are  several  plains,  the  largest, 
Longwood,  comprising  1,500  acres;  but  in  a 
total  area  of  about  30,000  acres  not  more  than 
500  are  cultivated,  and  less  than  8,000  are  de- 
voted to  grazing.  The  soil  is  good  and  might 
be  made  productive,  but  almost  every  article' 
of  food  or  clothing  is  imported.  Rice  is 
brought  from  India,  and  with  fish,  which  is 
abundant,  forms  the  staple  food  of  the  poorer 
classes.  The  island  never  had  any  internal 
sources  of  income,  but  formerly  it  imported 
supplies  for  ships  to  and  from  India,  and  for 
whaling  vessels ;  but  the  trade  to  the  East  is 
now  almost  entirely  diverted  through  the  Suez 
canal,  and  whaling  vessels  are  rarely  seen.  It 
was  made  a  crown  colony  in  1833,  with  a 
governor  and  other  officers  under  the  control 
of  the  home  government.  Its  revenue  from 
customs  and  taxes  is  not  more  than  £15,000, 
and  its  total  annual  cost  to  the  government  is 
about  £55,000,  including  a  military  expendi- 
ture of  about  £23,000. — The  island  was  dis- 
covered on  St.  Helena's  day,  May  21, 1502,  by 
Juan  de  Nova  Castella,  a  Spanish  navigator  in 
the  service  of  the  Portuguese,  from  whom  it 
was  at  a  later  period  taken  by  the  Dutch. 
From  about  1650  to  1672  it  was  alternately 
occupied  by  the  Dutch  and  the  English.  In 
1673  Charles  II.  granted  it  to  the  East  India 
company.  It  was  Napoleon's  place  of  exile 
from  Oct.  16,  1815,  till  his  death,  May  5,  1821. 
In  1840  his  remains  were  removed  to  France, 
which  in  1838  bought  the  house  at  Longwood 
occupied  by  him,  and  the  valley  where  he  was 
buried,  and  appointed  a  perpetual  guard  for 
them.— See  "St.  Helena,"  by  John  Charles 
Melliss  (London,  1875). 

SAINT-HELIER,  a  market  town,  seaport,  and 
the  capital  of  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the  Eng- 
lish channel,  on  the  S.  coast;  pop.  in  1871, 
30,756.  It  is  situated  at  the  base  of  an  amphi- 
theatre of  low  hills  sloping  to  St.  Aubin's  bay. 
The  Victoria  and  Albert  piers  enclose  a  spa- 
cious harbor  defended  by  Fort  Regent  and  Cas- 
tle Elizabeth.  Near  Castle  rock  is  the  hermit- 
age said  to  have  been  the  retreat  of  St.  Helier, 


from  whom  the  town  takes  its  name.  There 
are  several  main  thoroughfares  intersected  by 
narrow  and  irregular  streets,  but  well  paved 
and  drained  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  court  house  built  in 
1647,  in  which  is  the  public  library  founded 
in  l736,  and  the  college  erected  in  commem- 
oration of  the  queen's  visit  in  1846.  There 
are  seven  parish  churches,  St.  Helier's  dating 
from  1341,  14  other  places  of  worship  for  dif- 
ferent denominations,  several  schools  and  be- 
nevolent institutions,  six  banks,  a  theatre,  and 
a  market  house.  Ship  building  is  an  impor- 
tant industry,  and  there  are  several  founderies 
and  breweries.  The  coasting  trade  in  oysters 
and  fish  is  extensive,  and  the  fisheries  and 
Newfoundland  trade  employ  about  10,000  tons 
of  shipping  and  1,500  hands.  The  mild  cli- 
mate and  cheap  living  make  the  place  a  fa- 
vorite resort. 

SADIT-HILAIRE,  Angnste  de,  a  French  botanist, 
born  in  Orleans,  Oct.  4,  1799,  died  there,  Sept. 
80,  1853.  He  was  auditor  in  the  council  of 
state  in  Paris,  explored  Brazil,  and  published 
Flora  Brasilia!  Meridionalis  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1825-'32),  and  other  works,  which  procured 
his  admission  to  the  institute. 

8AINT-HILAIRE,  Geoflroy.  See  GEOFFROY 
SAINT-HILAIRE. 

SALVr-HILAIRE,  Jutes.  See  BARTHELEMY- 
SAINT-HILAIRE. 

s  tl  Yl'-HIL  UUE,  Marco  de,  the  pseudonyme  of 
EMILE  MARO  HILAIRE,  a  French  writer,  born 
about  1790.  At  an  early  age  he  became  one 
of  the  pages  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  afterward  en- 
gaged in  book  making  as  a  profession.  His 
best  known  works  are  :  Memoires  J'trn  page  de 
la  cour  imperiale  (2  vols.  8vo,  1830);  Souve- 
nirs de  la  vie  prinee  de  Napoleon  (1838)  ;  Ilis- 
toire  populaire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  grande 
armee  (large  8vo,  illustrated,  1842);  Histoire 
de  la  garde  imperiale  (large  8vo,  illustrated, 
1845-'7);  Hiatoire  de  la  campagne  de  Russie 
(4  vols.  8vo,  illustrated,  1846-'8) ;  Histoire  det 
conspirationt  et  executions  politigves  (4  vols. 
large  8vo,  illustrated,  1849),  including  France, 
England,  Spain,  and  Russia ;  a  continuation  to 
1850  of  Anquetil's  Histoire  de  France  (1853); 
and  Histoire  de  Napoleon  III.  (8vo,  1853). 

SAINT  IM  UlYllir.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Quebec,  Canada ;  area,  263  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  18.310,  of  whom  18,075  were  of  French 
origin  or  descent.  It  lies  between  the  Yamas- 
ka  river  on  the  east  and  the  Richelieu  on  the 
west,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  county,  on 
the  W.  bank  of  the  Yamaska  river,  and  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  railway,  35  in.  E.  by  N.  of  Mon- 
treal ;  pop.  in  1871,  3,746.  Steamers  run  daily 
in  the  season  of  navigation  to  St.  C6saire,  a 
village  20  m.  above.  The  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  court  house,  city  hall  and 
market,  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  bishop's 
palace,  hospital  and  convent  of  gray  nuns,  and 
St.  Hyacinthe  college.  The  college  is  a  fine 
building  of  cut  stone,  700  ft.  long.  There  are 


SAINTINE 


SAINT  JOHN 


533 


manufactories  of  woollens,  wooden  ware,  leath- 
er, lace,  organs,  iron  castings,  mill  machinery, 
and  boots  and  shoes,  a  grist  and  saw  mill,  a 
bank,  a  branch  bank,  several  hotels,  a  telegraph 
office,  a  tri-weekly  and  two  weekly  newspa- 
pers, and  a  monthly  periodical.  One  of  the 
weeklies  is  published  in  English;  the  other 
publications  are  in  French. 

SAINTINE,  the  pseudonyme  of  JOSEPH  XAVIER 
BONIFACE,  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris, 
July  10,  1798,  died  there,  Jan.  21,  1865.  He 
early  won  academical  prizes  for  his  poetry, 
and  in  1837  the  Montyon  prize  of  3,000  francs 
for  his  story  of  Picciola  (37th  ed.,  revised, 
1861),  which  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.  He  published  many  other  stories, 
novels,  and  miscellaneous  works,  and  (under 
the  name  of  Xavier)  hundreds  of  plays,  the  last 
in  conjunction  with  other  dramatists.  Mrs. 
Wood  (Anne  T.  Wilbur)  published  "  The  Soli- 
tary of  Juan  Fernandez,  or  the  real  Robinson 
Crusoe"  (Boston,  1851),  a  translation  of  Sain- 
tine's  Seul!  and  "The  Queen  of  the  Danube" 
(1859),  from  his  Trois  reines,  ehronique  du  XV' 
sttcle  ;  and  Schele  de  Vere  a  translation  of  his 
Mythes  du  Shin  (London,  1874),  with  illustra- 
tions by  Dor6. 

SAINT  JAMES,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
having  Lake  Maurepas  on  the  northeast  and 
intersected  by  the  Mississippi ;  area,  330  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,152,  of  whom  6,877  were  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile. 
The  plantations  are  chiefly  on  the  river.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and 
Texas  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  91,105  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  3,450  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  934,915  of  rice,  3,041  bales  of  cot- 
ton, 6,265  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  347, 722  gal- 
lons of  molasses.  There  were  66  molasses  and 
sugar  establishments.  Capital,  Couvent. 

SAINT  JEAN  D'ACRE.     See  ACRE. 

SAINT  JOHN,  a  river  of  North  America,  called 
by  the  Indians  Looshtook  (Long,  river),  which 
rises,  under  the  name  of  the  S.  W.  branch,  in 
the  highlands  that  separate  Maine  from  Que- 
bec, Canada,  at  the  Metjarmette  portage.  It 
flows  N.  E.  to  the  junction  of  the  St.  Fran- 
cis, about  150  m.,  for  100  m.  of  which,  com- 
mencing at  the  junction  of  the  N.  W.  branch, 
it  is  known  as  the  Walloostook.  From  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Francis  it  flows  E.  N.  E.  and 
then  S.  E.  to  the  Grand  falls,  where  it  has  a 
perpendicular  descent  of  70  or  80  ft.,  thence 
nearly  S.  to  lat.  46°,  when  it  turns  suddenly 
and  flows  E.  for  100  m.  to  the  entrance  of  the 
outlet  of  Grand  lake,  thence  in  a  broad  chan- 
nel due  S.  to  Kingston,  then  S.  S.  W.  to  West- 
field,  and  finally  S.  E.  to  the  bay  of  Fundy  at 
St.  John.  Its  whole  course  is  about  450  m. ; 
of  this  225  m.  of  the  lower  portion  is  wholly 
within  British  territory ;  75  m.  from  the 
Grand  falls  to  the  St.  Francis  forms  the  boun- 
dary between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick ;  the 
next  112  m.  is  in  Maine ;  and  from  its  source 
to  lat.  46°  25'  N.,  Ion.  70°  4'  W.,  38  m.,  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  Maine  and  Que- 


bec. It  has  11  principal  affluents,  the  largest 
being  the  Alleguash,  St.  Francis,  Madawaska, 
and  Aroostook.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of 
120  tons  to  Fredericton,  84  m.  from  its  mouth  ; 
small  steamboats  ascend  to  Woodstock,  75  m. 
further,  and  even  at  times  to  the  Grand  falls, 
225  m.  from  its  mouth ;  above  this  point  it  is 
navigated  by  steamboats  40  m.,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Madawaska.  It  affords  a  vast  water 
power.  With  its  branches  it  furnishes  1,300 
m.  of  navigable  waters,  and  drains  17,000,000 
acres,  of  which  9,000,000  are  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, 2,000,000  in  Quebec,  and  6,000,000  in 
Maine. 

SAINT  JOHN,  a  lake  of  Canada.  See  QUEBEC, 
vol.  xiv.,  p.  1*35. 

SAINT  JOHN,  a  S.  county  of  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  bordering  on  the  bay  of  Fundy,  and 
intersected  by  the  St.  John  river;  area,  585 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  52,120,  of  whom  30,128 
were  of  Irish,  13,772  of  English,  5,785  of 
Scotch,  739  of  German,  616  of  African,  377 
of  Dutch,  and  340  of  French  origin  or  descent. 
The  surface  is  agreeably  diversified  and  the 
soil  fertile.  The  European  and  North  Ameri- 
can and  the  Intercolonial  railways  traverse 
the  county.  Capital,  St.  John. 

SAINT  JOHN,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  of 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  capital  of  St.  John 
co.,  on  a  harbor  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  St.  John  in  the  bay  of 
Fundy,  84  m.  by  the  course  of  the  river  or  54 
m.  in  a  straight  line  S.  S.  E.  of  Fredericton, 
and  130  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Halifax,  N.  S. ;  lat. 
45a  14'  6"  N.,  Ion.  66°  3'  30"  W. ;  pop.  in  1861, 
27,317;  in  1871,  28,805;  in  1875,  including 
suburbs,  about  50,000.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  city  stands  on  a  rocky  peninsula  projecting 
into  the  harbor  on  the  E.  side  of  the  river. 
The  site  rises  gradually  from  the  harbor.  The 
streets  are  wide,  and  chiefly  laid  out  at  right 
angles ;  some  of  them  are  very  steep  and  cut 
through  the  solid  rock  to  a  depth  of  30  or  40  ft. 
The  buildings  are  principally  of  brick  and  stone, 
and  there  are  many  fine  public  edifices,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, the  provincial  lunatic  asylum,  the  city 
hospital,  the  court  house  and  jail,  the  market 
house,  the  Carleton  city  hall,  the  opera  house, 
the  post  office,  the  Victoria  hotel,  the  marine 
hospital,  the  almshouse,  the  academy  of  music, 
the  dramatic  lyceum,  the  mechanics'  institute, 
the  skating  rink,  and  the  barracks.  The  Do- 
minion penitentiary,  a  large  granite  building,  is 
about  a  mile  from  the  city,  and  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  distant  is  the  Rural  cemetery,  con- 
taining 110  acres.  St.  John  is  lighted  with  gas, 
and  is  supplied  with  water  from  Little  river,  4 
m.  distant,  by  two  iron  pipes  having  a  joint 
capacity  of  5,500,000  gallons  a  day.  Horse 
cars  connect  the  city  with  Portland  and  Indian- 
town.  On  the  W.  side  of  the  river  is  a  portion 
of  the  city  called  Carleton.  Adjoining  the 
main  portion  of  the  city  and  practically  part 
of  it  is  the  town  of  Portland  (pop.  in  1871, 
12,520),  which  is  well  built,  lighted  with  gas, 


534 


SAINT  JOHN 


and  supplied  with  water,  and  contains  the 
residences  of  many  St.  John  merchants,  six 
churches,  and  several  ship  yards,  saw  mills, 
and  founderies.  St.  John  has  communication 
with  Halifax  by  the  Intercolonial  railway,  and 
with  Fredericton  and  Bangor,  Me.,  by  the  Eu- 
ropean and  North  American  railroad.  Steam- 
ers run  regularly  to  Fredericton  and  other 
points  on  the  river,  to  St.  Andrews  and  St. 
Stephen,  to  Annapolis,  Yarmouth,  and  other 
points  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  to  Portland,  Me., 
and  Boston.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  America,  and  is  never  blocked  with  ice. 
The  entrance,  about  2  m.  8.  of  the  city,  is 
protected  by  Partridge  island,  on  which  are 
a  quarantine  hospital  and  a  lighthouse  with  a 
light  166  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  passage  W. 
of  the  island  has  10  ft.  of  water  and  that  E. 
of  it  16  ft.,  while  abreast  of  the  city  there  is 
from  8  to  22  fathoms.  On  the  E.  side  of  the 
channel  below  the  city  a  breakwater  has  been 
constructed  as  a  protection  against  southerly 
gales.  There  is  a  peculiar  phenomenon  at  the 
entrance  of  the  river  into  the  harbor  about 
1J-  m.  above  the  city;  the  stream,  discharging 
an  immense  body  of  water,  is  forced  through 
a  rocky  gorge,  160  yards  wide  and  400  long, 
and  makes  a  fall  of  about  17  ft.  The  tide  in 
the  harbor  rises  ordinarily  21  ft.,  but  at  the 
vernal  equinox  25  ft.  At  low  water  the  waters 
of  the  river  are  about  12  ft.  higher  than  those 
of  the  harbor,  at  high  water  5  ft.  lower,  while 
for  15  or  20  minutes  of  each  ebb  and  flow  of 
the  tide  they  are  at  the  same  level,  during 
which  vessels  can  pass  the  falls.  Above  the 
falls  the  tide  seldom  rises  more  than  4  ft. 
Spanning  the  gorge,  about  100  ft.  above  low 
water,  is  a  magnificent  suspension  bridge,  640 
ft.  long.  The  value  of  foreign  commerce  for 
the  three  years  ending  June  30,  1875,  was  as 
follows : 


YEAR. 

Import.. 

Export*. 

1878... 

$3,118,753 

94,107,550 

1874  

8,415,936 

H.;il.V«iJ 

1875... 

8.812.758 

8,tM2.vj5 

The  entrances  during  the  last  named  year  were 
1,181,  tonnage  877,614,  of  which  419,  tonnage 
122,567,  were  in  ballast;  clearances,  1,141, 
tonnage  448,981,  of  which  16,  tonnage  6,535, 
were  in  ballast.  The  number  of  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  port  on  Jan.  1,  1875,  was  807, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  263,401.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  lumber,  which  is 
shipped  to  Great  Britain,  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  United  States.  The  manufactures  of  St. 
John  are  of  considerable  importance,  the 
amount  of  capital  invested,  according  to  the 
census  of  1871,  being  $1,225,942 ;  number  of 
hands  employed,  4,103;  value  of  products, 
$5,094,976.  The  number  of  ships  built  during 
the  year  ending  Dec.  81, 1874,  was  58,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  85,872.  Among  the  other 
articles  of  manufacture  are  iron  castings,  nails, 
edge  tools,  lumber,  leather,  boots  and  shoes, 


soap  and  candles,  paper,  cotton  goods,  rolling 
mill  products,  rope,  hats,  and  carriages.  There 
are  two  banks  with  a  joint  capital  of  $2,000,- 
000,  three  branch  banks,  a  savings  institution, 
and  three  banking  firms.  St.  John  is  divided 
into  nine  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
nine  aldermen,  and  nine  councilmen.  It  has 
a  police  force  and  a  good  fire  department,  with 
a  tire  alarm  telegraph.  There  are  several  good 
hotels,  three  orphan  asylums,  an  industrial 
school,  a  grammar  and  several  common  schools, 
several  private  or  denominational  schools  and 
academies,  a  historical  society,  a  natural  his- 
tory society,  a  young  men's  Christian  asso- 
ciation, four  daily,  one  tri-weekly,  and  nine 
weekly  newspapers,  a  bi-weekly  periodical, 
and  81  churches,  viz.:  5  Baptist,  1  Calvinistic 
Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Congregational,  6  Epis- 
copal, 2  Free  Christian  Baptist,  1  Methodist 
Episcopal,  6  Presbyterian,  1  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian, 2  Roman  Catholic,  and  5  Wesleyan 
Methodist. — St.  John  was  founded  by  Ameri- 
can loyalists  who  left  the  United  States  at  the 
close  of  the  revolution,  and  was  created  a  city 
by  royal  charter  in  1785. 

SAIXT  JOHN,  Henry*     See  BOLINGBROKE. 

MIM  JOHN.  I.  James  Augustas,  an  English 
author,  born  in  Carmarthenshire,  Sept.  24, 
1801.  lie  went  to  London  at  the  age  of  17, 
edited  a  newspaper  at  Plymouth,  published  a 
poem  entitled  "Abdallah,"  and  became  sub- 
editor with  James  Silk  Buckingham  of  the 
"  Oriental  Herald."  He  afterward  travelled  in 
the  East  and  resided  abroad  for  many  years, 
and  while  writing  at  Chantilly,  France,  his 
u  History  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  An- 
cient Greece  "  (8  vols.  8vo,  London,  1842)  be- 
came nearly  blind.  Among  his  other  works 
are:  "Description  of  Egypt  and  Nubia"  (8vo, 
1834) ;  "  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the 
Hindoos"  (2  vols.,  1884-'5);  "Isis,  an  Egyp- 
tian Pilgrimage  "  (2  vols.,  1852) ;  "  The  Neme- 
sis of  Power:  Forms  and  Causes  of  Revolu- 
tions;" "There  and  Back  again  in  search  of 
Beauty:  Italy"  (2  vols.,  1858);  "Philosophy 
at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  "  (1855) ;  "  History  of 
the  Four  Conquests  of  England,  Roman,  An- 
glo-Saxon, Danish,  and  Norman"  (2  vols., 
1861);  and  "Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh"  (2 
vols.,  1868).  He  has  also  published  four  nov- 
els, entitled  "Tales  of  the  Ramad'han,"  "Mar- 
garet Ravenscroft,"  "  Sir  Cosmo  Digby,"  and 
"  Weighed  in  the  Balance."  II.  Percy  Bollog- 
broke,  an  English  author,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Plymouth,  March  4,  1821.  He  accom- 
panied his  father  in  his  travels,  and  assisted 
him  in  the  preparation  of  some  of  his  works, 
and  received  from  the  Greek  parliament  a  vote 
of  thanks  for  his  activity  in  the  cause  of  the 
Greeks  before  the  Crimean  war.  He  also  trav- 
elled in  America.  He  has  published  "The 
Young  Naturalist's  Book  of  Birds"  (London, 
1844);  "Three  Days  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion "  (1848) ;  "  Quadroona,  or  the  Slave  Moth- 
er" (1861);  "The  Creole  Bride"  (1864);  and 
"  Good  as  Gold  "  (1870).  III.  Btyte,  an  English 


SAINT  JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM 


535 


traveller,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
London,  Aug.  9,  1822,  died  there,  Aug.  1, 
1859.  His  chief  works  are:  "Adventures  in 
the  Libyan  Desert ;"  "  Manners  and  Politics  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire;"  "Two  Years'  Resi- 
dence in  a  Levantine  Family;"'"  Views  in  the 
Oasis  of  Siwah  "  (fol.) ;  "  The  Subalpine  King- 
dom," containing  some  curious  documents  on 
the  life  of  Rousseau;  "Purple  Tints  of  Paris: 
Sketches  and  Manners;"  "The  Turks  in  Eu- 
rope "  (1853) ;  "  The  Louvre,  or  Biography  of 
a  Museum  "  (1855) ;  "  Legends  of  the  Christian 
East "  (1857) ;  and  "  Montaigne  the  Essayist " 
(1857).  IV.  Spenser,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  London,  Dec.  22,  1826.  He  studied 
the  Malay  language,  and  was  for  several  years 
consul  general  in  Borneo.  In  1861  he  became 
charge  d'affaires  and  subsequently  minister  to 
Hayti.  He  has  published  "  Life  in  the  Forests 
of  the  Far  East"  (London,  1862).  V.  Horace 
Roscoe,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1830.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of 
the  "  London  Leader,"  and  with  his  brothers 
Bayle  and  Percy  for  a  short  time  conducted 
the  "  Utopia."  He  has  published  "  Life  of 
Columbus"  (London,  1850),  "History  of  the 
British  Conquests  in  India "  (2  vols.,  1852), 
and  "  The  Indian  Archipelago  "  (2  vols.,  1853). 
His  wife  has  published  "Audubon,  the  Natu- 
ralist in  the  New  World "  (1856),  "  English 
Women  and  the  Age"  (1860),  and  "Masani- 
ello  of  Naples  "  (1865). 

SAINT  JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM,  Knights  Hospitallers 
of  the  Order  of  (also  called  knights  of  Rhodes 
and  knights  of  Malta),  a  religious  and  military 
order  which  originated  in  the  middle  of  the 
llth  century.  In  1048  permission  was  granted 
to  a  few  merchants  from  Amalfi  to  build  a 
chapel  for  Latin  pilgrims  near  the  holy  sepul- 
chre, and  to  connect  with  it  two  hospitals  or 
hostelries,  one  for  men  and  the  other  for  wo- 
men. The  chapel,  common  at  first  to  both 
sexes,  was  called  St.  Mary  of  the  Latins;  a 
second  chapel  attached  soon  afterward  to  the 
female  hospital  'was  called  after  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalen. The  hospital  for  men  bore  the  name  of 
St.  John  the  Almoner,  a  native  of  Cyprus  and 
patriarch  of  Alexandria  (died  about  616),  who 
had  sent  money  and  provisions  to  Jerusalem  in 
614,  after  it  had  been  sacked  by  Chosroes  II. 
The  service  in  the  hospitals  was  performed  by 
a  confraternity  of  pilgrims  of  both  sexes,  under 
the  direction  of  Gerard  (called  also  Bienheu- 
reux  Pierre  Gerard  and  Gerard  the  Blessed), 
the  whole  establishment  as  well  as  the  con- 
fraternity being  called  after  St.  John  the  Al- 
moner. They  displayed  such  heroic  charity 
on  the  occasion  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  crusaders,  July  15,  1099,  that  several  noble 
knights,  among  them  Raymond  du  Puy  or  del 
Puich,  joined  them  as  hospitallers.  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon  bestowed  on  them  the  lordship  of 
Montboire  in  Brabant,  and  other  princes  imi- 
tated his  example.  When  peace  was  restored 
to  the  city,  Gerard  and  his  associates  bound 
themselves  to  labor  for  ever  in  the  hospitals 


"  as  the  servants  of  the  poor  and  of  Christ," 
and  the  members  of  both  sexes  assumed  for 
their  distinctive  habit  the  black  robe  of  the 
Augustinians,  with  a  white  linen  cross  of  eight 
points  on  the  left  breast.  The  order  was  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Paschal  II.,  Feb.  15,  1113, 
under  the  appellation  of  "  Brothers  Hospital- 
lers of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem."  Extensive 
additions  were  made  to  the  original  establish- 
ments, and  a  magnificent  new  church  was 
erected  to  St.  John  the  Baptist  on  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  his  parents'  abode.  Gerard  then 
took  the  title  of  guardian  and  provost  of  the 
order,  and  built  for  the  accommodation  of  pil- 
grims hospitals  in  the  chief  maritime  towns  of 
western  Europe,  which  afterward  became  coni- 
manderies  of  the  order.  Gerard  died  in  1118, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Raymond  du  Puy,  who, 
to  protect  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
bands  of  pilgrims  against  the  Moslems,  armed 
himself  and  his  former  brother  knights  among 
the  hospitallers.  This  met  with  general  appro- 
bation in  Palestine  and  in  Europe,  and  attracted 
to  the  order  the  61ite  of  the  young  nobility. 
To  their  original  and  common  monastic  vows 
the  hospitallers  now  added  a  solemn  vow  of 
bearing  arms  in  defence  of  Christendom,  and 
of  defending  all  Christians  from  insult  and 
wrong.  Raymond  du  Puy  divided  the  order 
into  knights,  priests,  and  brothers  servants. 
There  also  grew  up  a  numerous  intermediate 
class  of  sergeants  (old  Fr.  serf  gents,  serving 
men)  or  half  knights,  who  rendered  important 
services  in  the  field  and  the  infirmary,  and 
were  in  course  of  time  assigned  separate  com- 
manderies.  As  the  new  church  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist  quite  eclipsed  the  former  modest  chap- 
el, the  order  under  its  new  organization  was 
called  after  St.  John  the  Baptist.  Raymond 
exchanged  the  title  of  guardian  for  that  of 
master ;  the  title  of  grand  master  was  first  as- 
sumed by  Hugues  de  Revel  in  1267.  Raymond 
du  Puy  drew  up  constitutions  based  on  the  Au- 
gustinian  rule,  which  together  with  the  other 
changes  in  the  order  were  approved  by  Pope 
Calixtus  II.  in  1120.  The  great  influx  of  mem- 
bers caused  the  order  to  be  divided  according 
to  nationalities  or  "languages,"  there  being  at 
first  seven  languages,  those  of  Provence,  Au- 
vergne,  France,  Italy,  Aragon,  Germany,  and 
England,  to  which  were  added  subsequently 
the  languages  of  Castile  and  Portugal.  Du 
Puy  during  his  period  of  office  delivered  from 
the  Moslems  the  principality  of  Antioch,  raised 
the  siege  of  Jaffa,  and  aided  powerfully  in  the 
fall  of  Tyre,  besides  driving  the  enemy  from 
Coele-Syria  and  Phoenicia,  and  contributing 
to  the  fall  of  Ascalon  in  1153.  The  fame  of 
these  services  brought  them  numerous  valuable 
gifts,  which  soon  proved  detrimental  to  their 
efficiency.  In  1168  the  grand  master  Gil- 
bert d'Assalit  and  a  majority  of  the  knights 
were  bribed  by  Amaury,  king  of  Jerusalem, 
to  engage  in  an  expedition  against  Egypt,  in 
violation  of  a  solemn  treaty.  In  1187  the  order 
was  nearly  annihilated  by  Saladin  in  the  battle 


536 


SAINT  JOHN'S 


of  Tiberias.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  was 
established  at  the  castle  of  Margat  (the  present 
Markab),  the  female  branch  of  the  order  re- 
tiring to  Europe.  The  knights  were  involved 
in  disputes  and  hostilities  with  the  templars, 
to  the  damage  of  both  orders ;  but  they  con- 
tinued to  serve  valiantly  against  the  infidels. 
At  the  battle  of  Gaza,  in  1244,  both  orders 
were  nearly  exterminated  by  the  Kharesmians. 
"When  Acre  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens 
(1291),  the  hospitallers  removed  to  Limisso  in 
Cyprus,  where  they  were  recruited  by  drafts 
on  the  European  commanderies.  In  this  insu- 
lar residence  originated  their  naval  character, 
as  their  vessels  conveyed  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land.  This  led  to'  sea  fights,  in  which  the 
brethren  became  as  distinguished  as  they  had 
been  on  land.  They  seized  Rhodes  in  1309, 
fortified  it,  and  held  it  for  more  than  two  cen- 
turies against  the  utmost  power  of  the  Turks, 
and  were  hence  called  knights  of  Rhodes.  Of 
the  two  memorable  sieges  they  sustained  there, 
the  first,  in  1480,  under  the  grand  master 
D'Aubusson,  proved  disastrous  to  the  besiegers, 
and  the  second,  under  L'Isle-Adam,  in  1522, 
after  a  heroic  defence  of  six  months,  ended  in 
the  defeat  of  the  knights  and  their  evacuating 
the  island.  After  taking  refuge  successively 
in  Candia,  Messina,  and  the  mainland  of  Italy, 
they  were  in  1530  put  in  possession  of  the 
islands  of  Gozo  and  Malta  and  the  city  of  Tri- 
poli by  the  emperor  Charles.  V.  Malta,  which 
the  knights  made  one  of  the  strongest  places 
in  the  world,  became  thenceforward  the  bul- 
wark of  Christendom,  and  gave  its  name  to 
the  order.  The  Turks  made  a  fruitless  at- 
tack on  the  island  in  1551,  and  renewed  it  in 
1565,  with  an  armament  calculated  to  com- 
mand success ;  but  the  grand  master,  Jean 
Parisot  de  la  Valette,  after  four  months  of 
incredible  endurance,  forced  the  besiegers  to 
depart.  This  defence  raised  the  fame  of  the 
order  to  its  height.  They  held  Malta  till  June, 
1798,  when  it  was  taken  by  Bonaparte,  the 
grand  master  Hompesch  having  abdicated  and 
been  sent  to  Trieste.  (See  HOMPESCH.)  Since 
this  event  the  order  has  existed  only  in  name. 
It  was  protected  for  a  time  by  the  emperor 
Paul  I.  of  Russia,  whose  reported  conversion 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  caused  him  to 
be  chosen  grand  master.  The  seat  of  the  order 
was  removed  to  Catana  in  1801,  to  Ferrara  in 
1826,  and  to  Rome  in  1834.  A  fruitless  at- 
tempt to  restore  it  was  made  in  1850.  Since 
1805  the  order  has  been  administered  by  a  lieu- 
tenant and  a  college  residing  in  Rome. 

SAINT  JOHN'S,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Florida, 
lying  between  the  St.  John's  river  and  the 
Atlantic,  and  drained  by  the  St.  John's  and 
its  affluents;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,618,  of  whom  681  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  flat  and  much  of  it  marshy.  There 
are  some  live  oaks.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  7,630  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,235 
of  sweet  potatoes,  1,000  Ibs.  of  rice,  67  hogs- 
heads of  sugar,  and  3,457  gallons  of  molasses. 


There  were  5,664  cattle  and  1,728  swine.    Cap- 
ital, St.  Augustine. 

SAINT  JOHNS,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec, . 
Canada,  bordering  on  New  York ;  area,  175 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  12,122,  of  whom  9,415 
were  of  French,  1,285  of  English,  and  963  of 
Irish  origin.  It  is  bounded  E.  by  the  Riche- 
lieu river,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Rouse's  Point 
division  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  Capital, 
St.  Johns. 

SAINT  JOHN'S,  the  capital  and  commercial 
metropolis  of  Newfoundland,  the  easternmost 
town  of  North  America,  situated  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  the  island,  on  the  N.  side  of  a  harbor 
of  the  same  name  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Avalon,  65  m.  N.  of  Cape  Race  and 
18  m.  S.  of  Cape  St.  Francis,  550  m.  E.  N.  E. 
of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia;  lat.  47°  84'  N.,  Ion. 
52°  42'  W. ;  pop.  in  1874,  23,890.  The  site 
ascends  gradually  from  the  harbor,  the  high- 
est point  being  225  ft.  above  the  sea.  Oppo- 
site the  town,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  harbor, 
the  hills  rise  abruptly  from  the  water's  edge 
700  ft. ;  but  a  small  space  at  their  base  has 
been  made  available  for  building,  and  here  have 
been  erected  warehouses  and  steam  factories 
for  the  manufacture  of  seal  and  cod  oil.  The 
country  around  St.  John's  is  picturesque  and 
generally  well  cultivated.  The  town  consists 
of  three  streets  nearly  parallel  with  the  har- 
bor, and  others  crossing  these  at  right  an- 
gles. A  fourth  main  street,  on  which  are  sit- 
uated the  government  house,  colonial  build- 
ing, skating  rinks,  &c.,  is  being  rapidly  built 
up.  The  streets  are  well  drained  and  macad- 
amized, and  are  lighted  with  gas.  A  supply  of 
water  was  introduced  in  1861,  at  a  cost  of 
$360,000,  from  a  large  lake  5  m.  distant,  and 
elevated  150  ft.  above  the  highest  part  of  the 
town.  The  principal  thoroughfare  stretches 
along  the  water's  edge  about  1£  m.,  and  is  well 
built  up  with  brick  and  stone.  From  it  the 
wharves  project  into  the  harbor.  On  the  other 
streets  the  houses  are  mostly  of  wood.  The 
government  house  (residence  of  the  governor) 
is  a  plain  structure,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $240,- 
000.  The  colonial  lunatic  asylum  is  beautifully 
situated  in- wooded  grounds  about  3  m.  out  of 
town.  Other  public  edifices  are  the  colonial 
building  (containing  the  public  offices  and  le- 
gislative halls),  custom  house,  colonial  peniten- 
tiary, post  office,  court  house,  general  hospital, 
smallpox  hospital,  market  house,  and  poor- 
house  (in  the  suburbs).  The  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  church  edifices  in 
North  America ;  it  occupies  the  highest  ground 
in  town,  and  with  the  adjacent  buildings  cost 
$800,000.  The  church  of  England  cathedral, 
not  yet  completed,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  archi- 
tecture, and  is  handsomely  decorated  within. 
The  wharves  and  stages  for  drying  fish,  which 
line  the  shore,  are  a  peculiarity  of  the  town. 
The  harbor  is  landlocked  and  somewhat  cres- 
cent-shaped ;  it  is  deep,  and  has  good  anchor- 
age. The  entrance  is  through  the  "  Narrows," 
a  gorge  between  two  steep  and  rugged  cliffs, 


SAINT  JOHN'S 


SAINT  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST    537 


220  yards  wide  and  660  yards  long,  with  12 
fathoms  of  water  in  mid-channel.  The  cliffs 
were  formerly  fortified  by  several  batteries,  but 
these  have  become  dismantled  since  the  with- 
drawal of  the  British  garrison.  On  the  S. 
cliff  is  a  lighthouse,  with  a  light  114  ft.  above 
the  sea.  There  are  also  two  lights  in  the  town 
serving  as  a  guide  to  the  harbor.  The  harbor 
is  1£  m.  long,  and  from  500  yards  to  a  little 
more  than  £  m.  wide.  On  the  S.  side  is  a  dry 
dock  capable  of  raising  vessels  of  600  tons,  and 
a  marine  railway  for  a  smaller  class  of  vessels. 
The  N.  and  S.  sides  are  connected  by  a  cause- 
way and  bridge.  It  is  open  the  entire  year. 
There  is  regular  steam  communication  with 
Europe  and  America,  and  steamers  and  sailing 
packets  run  to  different  points  in  the  island. 
The  trade  consists  chiefly  in  supplying  the  fish- 
ermen of  Newfoundland  with  clothing,  pro- 
visions, and  tackle,  and  in  exporting  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  fisheries,  chiefly  codfish,  seal  skins, 
and  cod  and  seal  oil,  which  are  mostly  taken 
to  Great  Britain,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Brazil. 
Another  important  industry  is  the  fitting  out 
of  vessels  for  the  seal  fishery.  The  value  of 
imports  during  1874  was  about  $6,000,000 ;  of 
exports,  about  $5,000,000.  The  number  of 
entrances  was  898,  tonnage  220,916;  clear- 
ances, 724,  tonnage  195,392.  About  80  per 
cent,  of  the  imports  and  75  per  cent,  of 
the  exports  of  the  island  pass  through  this 
port.  The  number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the 
seal  fishery  from  St.  John's  in  1874  was  24 
(13  steamers  and  11  sailing  vessels),  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  4,801  and  crews  number- 
ing 2,841  men ;  number  of  seals  taken,  150,000. 
The  number  of  vessels  owned  at  the  port  in 
1874  was  1,319,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
67,185,  of  which  18,  tonnage  5,447,  were  steam- 
ers, and  1,301,  tonnage  67,185,  sailing  vessels. 
The  latter  are  scattered  throughout  the  island 
and  owned  or  sailed  by  dealers  or  mercantile 
houses  in  St.  John's.  The  manufactures  of  St. 
John's  are  of  secondary  importance  and  of  lim- 
ited extent.  The  principal  establishments  are 
three  founderies,  three  breweries,  a  distillery, 
two  tanneries,  a  rope  factory,  a  block  factory, 
several  manufactories  of  boots  and  shoes,  sev- 
eral of  carriages,  one  of  cabinet  ware,  one  of 
nets,  four  biscuit  bakeries,  and  several  oil  re- 
fineries. There  are  two  banks,  a  savings  bank, 
and  a  marine  insurance  company.  There  is 
no  municipal  corporation,  the  town  being  gov- 
erned directly  by  the  colonial  legislature.  The 
only  local  taxation  is  a  rate  levied  on  houses 
under  acts  of  the  legislature  for  water  and 
sewerage.  The  town  is  well  policed,  and  there 
are  several  volunteer  fire  companies.  The 
principal  charitable  institutions  not  already 
mentioned  are  a  Roman  Catholic  orphanage 
for  girls,  an  asylum  for  widows  and  orphan 
girls,  and  another  for  boys,  in  connection  with 
the  church  of  England.  The  educational  in- 
stitutions include  St.  Bonaventure  college  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  a  church  of  England,  a  Wesleyan, 
and  a  general  Protestant  academy,  a  Presby- 


terian school,  an  industrial  school  and  an  or- 
phan asylum  school  under  the  control  of  the 
benevolent  Irish  society,  a  number  of  common 
schools  under  the  control  of  the  government 
boards  or  of  the  colonial  and  continental  church 
and  school  society,  and  several  private  schools. 
There  are  two  public  libraries,  having  together 
5,000  or  6,000  volumes.  The  principal  one  is 
in  connection  with  the  St.  John's  Athenaeum 
(which  is  now  erecting  a  large  building  for 
lectures,  concerts,  and  other  purposes),  and 
the  other  with  the  Catholic  institute.  Three 
tri-weekly,  four  semi-weekly,  and  three  week- 
ly newspapers  are  published.  There  are  11 
churches,  including  the  cathedrals,  viz. :  3 
church  of  England,  1  Congregational,  2  Pres- 
byterian (one  in  connection  with  the  estab- 
lished and  one  with  the  Free  church  of  Scot- 
land), 3  Roman  Catholic,  and  2  Wesleyan 
Methodist.  The  church  of  England  has  here  a 
theological  institute  for  the  training  of  young 
men  for  mission  work  in  the  colony. — St.  John's 
appears  to  have  been  resorted  to  by  fishermen 
(chiefly  French  and  Spanish)  in  the  early  part 
of  the  16th  century.  The  harbor  was  entered 
by  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  in  1583,  who  took 
formal  possession  of  the  island  in  the  name  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  town  was  several  times 
the  scene  of  conflict  between  the  French  and 
English  until  the  island  came  finally  into  the 
possession  of  the  latter  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713.  It  has  been  visited  by  several  con- 
flagrations, the  most  destructive  in  1846. 

SAINT  JOHNS  (Fr.  St.  Jean),  a  town,  port  of 
entry,  and  the  capital  of  St.  Johns  co.,  Quebec, 
Canada,  20  m.  S.  E.  of  Montreal ;  pop.  in  1871, 
3,022.  It  is  situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Richelieu  river,  here  spanned  by  a  fine  bridge, 
and  by  means  of  canals  affording  a  navigable 
connection  between  Lake  Champlain  and  the 
river  St.  Lawrence.  Divisions  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  Central  Vermont  railways  inter- 
sect here  with  the  Southeastern  and  the  Stan- 
stead,  Shefford,  and  Chambly  railways.  There 
is  a  large  trade  in  lumber,  grain,  and  other 
produce.  The  town  contains  saw,  grist,  and 
planing  mills,  brick  yards,  two  breweries,  and 
manufactories  of  iron  castings,  leather,  earth- 
enware, &c.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  lunatic  asylum, 
and  has  a  bank,  a  branch  bank,  about  40  stores, 
commodious  barracks,  two  weekly  newspapers, 
and  four  or  five  churches.  The  value  of  im- 
ports for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was 
$717,174;  of  exports,  $4,873,812. 

SAINT  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  a  S.  E.  parish  of 
Louisiana,  intersected  by  the  Mississippi  river, 
bordering  N.  W.  on  Lake  Maurepas,  N.  E.  on 
Lake  Pontchartrain,  and  S.  "W.  on  Lake  Des 
Allemands;  area,  about  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,762,  of  whom  4,044  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  106,884  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  1,360  tons  of  hay,  4,962  hogs- 
heads of  sugar,  346,100  gallons  of  molasses, 
and  632,670  Ibs.  of  rice.  There  were  337 
horses,  1,570  mules  and  asses,  1,157  cattle,  294 


538 


SAINT  JOHNSBURY 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


sheep,  and  381  swine.  The  parish  has  rail- 
road communication  with  New  Orleans.  Cap- 
ital, Edgard. 

SAINT  JOHXSBl'RY,  a  town  and  the  county 
seat  of  Caledonia  co.,  Vermont,  on  the  Pas- 
eumpsic  river,  and  on  the  Portland  and  Og- 
densburg  and  the  Connecticut  and  Passumpsic 
Rivera  niilroads,  38  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Montpelier ; 
pop.  in  1850,  2,758;  in  1860,  3,469;  in  1870, 
4,665.  It  contains  three  villages,  St.  Johns- 
bury,  St.  Johnsbury  Centre,  and  St.  Johnsbury 
East.  The  first  is  much  the  largest,  and  has 
many  neat  residences  and  good  public  buildings. 
The  court  house  is  a  fine  structure,  and  in  front 
is  a  soldiers'  monument.  The  Athenaeum,  also 
a  fine  building,  contains  a  public  reading  room 
with  a  library  of  more  than  10,000  volumes 
and  a  gallery  of  choice  paintings  and  works  of 
art.  The  principal  educational  institution  be- 
sides the  free  public  schools  is  the  St.  Johns- 
bury  academy.  The  town  has  two  national 
banks,  a  savings  bank,  two  weekly  newspapers, 
and  11  churches.  There  are  iron  founderies 
and  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
&c. ;  but  the  chief  industrial  feature  is  the  ex- 
tensive manufactory  of  the  "  Fairbanks  stan- 
dard scales,"  in  St.  Johnsbury  village.  The 
works  occupy  15  acres  and  employ  from  500 
to  600  men ;  annual  value  of  products,  more 
than  $2,000,000. 

MI  M  JOHN'S  RIVER.     See  FLORIDA. 

SAINT  JOSEPH.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Indiana, 
bordering  on  Michigan,  drained  by  the  St. 
Joseph  and  Kankakee  rivers,  and  traversed  by 
several  railroads ;  area,  470  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  25,322.  The  surface  is  naarly  level,  and 
is  divided  about  equally  into  oak  openings, 
forests,  and  prairie.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  503,757  bushels  of  wheat,  233,045 
of  Indian  corn,  76,846  of  oats,  19,910  tons  of 
hay,  55,506  Ibs.  of  wool,  352,577  of  butter,  and 
61,024  of  maple  sugar.  There  were  5,700 
horses,  5,587  milch  cows,  6,197  other  cattle, 
16,639  sheep,  and  13,560  swine;  6  manufac- 
tories of  agricultural  implements,  7  of  brick, 
15  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  cutlery  and 
edge  tools,  15  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  cast- 
ings, 5  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  1  of  sewing 
machine  fixtures,  3  of  woollen  goods,  28  saw 
mills,  2  planing  mills,  and  9  flour  mills.  Capi- 
tal, South  Bend.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Mich- 
igan, bordering  on  Indiana  and  drained  by 
the  St.  Joseph,  Portage,  Prairie,  Pigeon,  and 
Fawn  rivers ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  26,275.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil 
is  very  fertile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Michi- 
gan Southern,  Michigan  Central,  and  other  rail- 
roads. Large  quantities  of  peppermint  are 
raised  in  this  county.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  756,428  bushels  of  wheat,  654,712 
of  Indian  corn,  91, 184  of  oats,  400,201  of  pota- 
toes, 31,227  tons  of  hay,  203,223  Ibs.  of  wool, 
483,104  of  butter,  and  14,780  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses.  There  were  7,362  horses,  5,792 
milch  cows,  6,203  other  cattle,  46,128  sheep, 
and  21,020  swine ;  10  manufactories  of  agricul- 


tural implements,  19  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
3  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  castings,  10  of  leather, 
7  breweries,  20  saw  mills,  6  flour  mills,  and  4 
ship  yards.  Capital,  Centreville. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  a  river  of  Michigan  and  In- 
diana, rises  in  Hillsdale  co.,  Mich.,  and  after 
making  a  circuit  into  northern  Indiana  returns 
into  Michigan,  and  falls  into  Lake  Michigan, 
at  the  village  of  St.  Joseph,  after  a  course  of 
250  m.  -Its  general  direction  is  nearly  W.,  but 
its  course  is  serpentine.  It  is  navigable  for 
small  steamboats  to  Constantine,  120  m.  from 
its  mouth,  where  is  a  good  harbor. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Buchanan  co.,  Missouri,  on  the  great  E.  bend 
of  the  Missouri  river,  260  in.  W.  by  N.  of  St. 
Louis,  and  390  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Chicago ;  pop. 
in  1860,  8,932 ;  in  1870,  19,565,  of  whom  1,512 
were  colored;  in  1875,  about  25,000.  It  has 
a  court  house  erected  in  1876  at  a  cost  of 
$200,000,  a  handsome  city  hall  and  market 
house,  a  large  convent,  17  church  edifices,  and 
several  large  hotels.  The  great  iron  bridge 
across  the  river  at  this  point,  for  railway  and 
ordinary  travel,  was  built  in  1873  by  the  city, 
at  a  cost  of  $710,000.  One  of  the  state  luna- 
tic asylums  is  situated  here ;  it  was  erected  in 
1874  at  a  cost  of  $220,000,  and  has  accommo- 
dations for  200  patients.  The  "Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  Exposition  of  St.  Joseph  "  has 
extensive  grounds  and  buildings,  and  holds  an 
annual  fair  in  September.  Railway  facilities 
have  given  St.  Joseph  its  business  importance. 
Five  lines  of  railroad  centre  here,  affording 
three  separate  and  direct  routes  to  St.  Louis, 
three  to  Chicago  and  the  east,  three  to  Kansas 
City,  one  to  Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha,  and 
one  to  Denver,  viz. :  the  Kansas  City,  St.  Jo- 
seph, and  Council  Bluffs ;  Hannibal  and  St. 
Joseph;  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  North- 
ern ;  St.  Joseph  and  Denver  City ;  and  St.  Jo- 
seph and  Topeka.  The  wholesale  trade  is  the 
largest  after  San  Francisco  W.  of  St.  Louis 
or  Chicago,  commanding  the  most  productive 
agricultural  portion  of  the  far  west;  in  1874 
it  amounted  to  over  $18,000,000.  The  city 
has  seven  banking  institutions,  two  being  sa- 
vings banks.  It  is  the  largest  manufacturing 
point  after  San  Francisco  W.  of  the  Mississip- 
pi, having  five  flouring  mills,  one  large  grain 
elevator,  a  starch  factory  with  a  capacity  of 
1,200  bushels  of  corn  a  day,  two  furniture  fac- 
tories, a  woollen  mill,  nine  saddlery  and  harness 
establishments,  two  founderies  and  machine 
shops,  two  boot  and  shoe  factories,  four  pork- 
packing  establishments,  which  packed  108,000 
hogs  in  1874,  twelve  wagon  factories,  a  glue 
factory,  a  distillery,  and  a  tannery.  The  city 
has  a  graded  public  school  system,  with  15 
schools,  including  a  high  school,  52  teachers, 
and  3,362  pupils.  There  are  also  several  acad- 
emies and  private  schools,  including  St.  Jo- 
seph college  and  several  other  Roman  Catho- 
lic institutions.  Three  daily  and  four  weekly 
newspapers  are  published,  and  there  are  two 
public  libraries.  The  number  of  churches  is 


SAINT  JOSEPH'S  RIVER 


SAINT  LAWRENCE 


539 


17,  viz. :  3  Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Episcopal,  1 
Evangelical,  1  Jewish,  5  Methodist,  2  Presby- 
terian, and  3  Roman  Catholic,  including  the 
cathedral. — St.  Joseph  was  laid  out  in  1846, 
and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1857. 

SAI.VT  JOSEPH'S  RIVER.     See  SAINT  JOSEPH. 

SAINT-JUST,  Antoine  Louis  Leon  de,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Decize,  near  Nevers,  in 
1767  or  1768,  guillotined  in  Paris,  July  28, 
1794.  He  early  imbibed  a  very  extravagant 
admiration  of  the  ancient  republics,  and  pub- 
lished several  poems,  and  in  1791  a  work  en- 
titled Esprit  de  la  revolution  et  de  la  constitu- 
tion de  France.  Through  the  influence  of  Ro- 
bespierre he  was  in  1792  elected  to  the  con- 
vention. He  took  the  foremost  rank  among 
the  violent  spirits  in  that  body,  voted  for  the 
immediate  execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  advocated 
the  concentration  of  all  power  in  the  conven- 
tion, including  the  supervision  of  military  op- 
erations, and  urged  the  reign  of  terror  as  the 
only  means  of  safety  for  France,  declaring  that 
"  those  who  make  half-way  revolutions  only 
dig  their  own  graves."  After  the  fall  of  the 
Girondists  he  became  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  public  safety,  and  as  commissioner 
to  the  army  of  the  Rhine  he  established  the 
guillotine  in  Alsace.  In  February,  1794,  he 
was  named  president  of  the  convention,  and 
in  March  made  the  report  against  Danton  and 
his  partisans  which  insured  their  death.  With 
Robespierre  and  Couthon  he  formed  the  tri- 
umvirate of  the  reign  of  terror.  On  the  9th 
Thermidor  he  tried  by  speaking  to  resist  the 
public  wrath,  but  the  next  day  he  was  ex- 
ecuted. His  (Eavres  politiques  have  been  col- 
lected (1833-'4),  and  his  life  has  been  written 
by  Fleury  (2  vols.,  1852)  and  Hamel  (1859). 

SAINT-LAMBERT,  Jean  Francois  de,  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Nancy,  Dec.  26,  1716,  died  in 
Paris,  Feb.  9,  1803.  He  was  connected  with 
the  court  of  King  Stanislas,  where  he  met  Vol- 
taire anl  his  mistress,  the  marchioness  du 
Chatelet,  who  died  in  giving  birth  to  a  child 
by  him.  Voltaire  continued  to  befriend  him 
nevertheless.  His  next  and  lifelong  mistress 
was  Mine.  d'Houdetot,  with  whom  Rousseau 
was  also  in  love.  After  serving  in  the  army 
in  1756-'7,  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  literary 
society  in  Paris.  He  published  miscellaneous 
works,  of  which  his  minor  poems  are  the  best. 
His  elaborate  poem  Les  saisons  (1769 ;  revised 
and  enlarged  ed.,  1771)  gained  his  admission 
to  the  academy. 

SAINT  LANDRT,  a  S.  W.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Atchafalaya  river,  and  W. 
in  part  by  Bayou  Nezpique,  and  drained  by 
numerous  bayous ;  area,  about  2,200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  25,553,  of  whom  11,694  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  high  and  undulating, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  368,897  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
58,811  of  sweet  potatoes,  14,305  bales  of  cot- 
ton, 1,350  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  33,375  of  rice,  5,026 
of  wool,  1,988  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  118,110 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  5,843  horses, 


2,052  mules  and  asses,  8,455  milch  cows,  3,049 
working  oxen,  15,074  other  cattle,  9,398  sheep, 
and  17,188  swine.  There  were  17  molasses 
and  sugar  establishments.  Capital,  Opelousas. 
SAINT  LAWRENCE,  a  river  and  gulf  of  North 
America.  The  river  proper  begins  at  King- 
ston, at  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  flows  N. 
E.,  first  between  New  York  and  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, and  then  through  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, about  750  m.,  to  the  gulf.  It  insensibly 
expands  into  the  gulf,  but  is  usually  considered 
as  terminating  between  Cape  Chatte  on  the 
south  and  Pointe  des  Monts  on  the  north,  about 
lat.  49°  15'  N.,  Ion.  67°  W.  At  its  issue  from 
Lake  Ontario  it  is  2£  m.  wide,  and  in  the  nar- 
rowest parts  its  width  is  seldom  less  than  2  m. 
Below  the  city  of  Quebec  it  gradually  expands, 
and  at  its  mouth  is  upward  of  30  m.  wide.  At 
Cape  Gaspe  the  gulf  is  nearly  100  m.  wide. 
The  principal  expansions  above  Quebec  are 
Lake  St.  Peter,  30  m.  long  and  10  m.  wide, 
just  above  Three  Rivers ;  that  containing  the 
island  of  Montreal,  Isle  Jesus,  and  Isle  Perrot ; 
Lake  St.  Francis,  a  little  further  up ;  and  the 
Lake  of  the  Thousand  Islands,  near  its  issue 
from  Lake  Ontario,  containing  the  celebrated 
Thousand  islands.  The  principal  island  below 
Quebec  is  the  isle  of  Orleans.  The  influence 
of  the  tide  is  felt  as  high  up  as  Lake  St.  Peter. 
Its  principal  tributaries  on  the  N.  side  are  the 
Ottawa,  the  St.  Maurice,  the  Saguenay,  and 
the  Betsiamite  or  Bersimis ;  those  on  the  S. 
side,  \(hich  are  smaller  and  of  less  impor- 
tance, are  the  Oswegatchie,  Grass,  Raquette, 
St.  Regis,  Sorel  (also  called  the  Richelieu, 
Chambly,  or  St.  Johns),  St.  Francis,  and  Chau- 
diere  rivers.  The  St.  Lawrence  drains  a  ter- 
ritory of  over  400,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  basin, 
reckoned  from  its  extreme  source,  was  com- 
puted by  Darby,  before  the  discovery  of  the 
great  African  lakes,  to  contain  "more  than 
half  of  all  the  fresh  water  on  this  planet." 
Early  French  geographers,  treating  the  great 
lakes  as  expansions  of  the  stream,  made  the 
river  Nipigon,  on  the  N.  side  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, the  head  stream  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Others  have  considered  as  such  the  St.  Louis 
river,  emptying  into  the  S.  W.  extremity  of 
Lake  Superior.  In  either  case  the  total  length 
would  be  upward  of  2,000  m.  Besides  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  St.  Glair,  Huron,  Michigan,  and 
Superior,  there  is  a  number  of  lakes  N.  and  W. 
of  Lake  Superior,  which  together  would  about 
equal  Lake  Ontario.  These  all  pour  their  wa- 
ters into  the  ocean  through  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Regarding  the  chain  as  one  stream,  between 
Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  it  is  known  as  the 
St.  Mary's  river ;  between  Huron  and  St.  Clair 
as  the  St.  Clair  river;  between  St.  Clair  and 
Erie  as  the  Detroit  river ;  and  between  Erie 
and  Ontario  as  the  Niagara  river.  The  St. 
Lawrence  is  navigable  by  sea-going  vessels  to 
Montreal.  Above  that  city  its  navigation  is 
impeded  by  rapids,  of  which  the  Cedar  and 
Lachine  are  the  most  considerable.  The  in- 
clination of  these  rapids  is  so  regular,  that 


540 


SAINT  LAWRENCE 


SAINT-LO 


steamboats  drawing  7  ft.  of  wat«r  can  descend 
the  river  safely;  and  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
viating the  difficulty  of  ascent  (Lake  Ontario 
being  281  ft.  above  the  ocean  level  according 
to  former  measurements,  and  according  to  J. 
T.  Gardner's  recent  calculations  several  feet 
higher),  seven  different  canals  have  been  con- 
structed, of  an  aggregate  length  of  41  m.,  which 
will  admit  the  passage  of  vessels  of  1,000  tons. 
A  canal  has  also  been  constmcted  from  Lake 
Ontario  to  Lake'Erie,  called  the  Welland  canal, 
28  m.  in  length,  and  having  capacity  to  pass 
a  vessel  of  500  tons  burden.  There  is  also 
a  ship  canal  of  large  size  around  the  falls  of 
St.  Mary,  between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Supe- 
rior. A  vessel  of  *500  tons  may  load  from  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Louis  river  at  Duluth,  Minn., 
or  from  Chicago,  and,  without  breaking  bulk, 
pass  down  the  St.  Lawrence  to  any  port  in  the 
world.  An  enlargement  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Welland  canals  Is  now  (1875)  in  progress. 
When  this  is  completed,  the  locks  will  each 
have  270  ft.  of  chamber,  with  a  width  of  45 
ft.,  and  a  depth  of  14  ft.  over  the  mitre  sills. 
The  enlargement  was  at  first  intended  to  give 
only  12  ft.  of  water,  and  to  obtain  this  depth 
the  official  estimate  of  cost  was  $10,000,000. 
From  one  third  to  one  fourth  of  the  vessels 
employed  on  the  upper  lakes  are  too  large  to 

Eass  through  the  existing  Welland  canal  into 
ake  Ontario;  the  enlarged  canals,  which  may 
be  ready  for  the  season  of  1880,  will  be  able 
to  pass  the  largest  vessels  used  on  those  wa- 
ters. Enormous  as  is  the  water  supply  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  canals,  it  is  subject  to  consider- 
able periodic  changes  of  level;  and  the  pro- 
posed 14  ft.  of  water  in  them  is  estimated 
from  the  lowest  levels  that  have  been  reached 
in  55  years,  during  which  the  difference  be- 
tween the  highest  and  the  lowest  levels  has 
been  5|  ft.  in  Lake  Ontario;  and  to  secure 
the  required  depth  it  is  intended  to  sink  the 
locks  15  ft.  below  the  low-water  mark.  The 
annual  rise  is  from  10  to  20  in. ;  but  besides 
this  there  is  an  irregularly  recurring  change 
of  level,  extending  over  a  series  of  years, 
which  cannot  bo  calculated.  The  number  of 
days  during  which  the  canals  have  been  open 
during  the  past  24  years  has  varied,  in  the 
case  of  the  Lachine  canalr  from  197  to  233, 
the  average  probably  being  220  ;  of  the  Bean- 
harnois,  from  209  to  229,  with  an  average  a 
little  higher  than  the  Lachine.  In  1874, 1,000,- 
573  tons  of  shipping  passed  through  the  St. 
Lawrence  canals,  and  1,389,173  tons  through 
the  Welland. — The  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  which 
receives  the  waters  of  this  mighty  river,  is 
bounded  N.  by  Labrador,  E.  by  the  islands  of 
Newfoundland  and  Cape  Breton,  8.  by  Nova 
Scotia,  and  W.  by  New  Brunswick  and  Que- 
bec. It  has  an  estimated  area  of  80,000  sq.  m. 
It  has  three  channels  of  communication  with 
the  ocean,  viz.,  between  Newfoundland  and 
Cape  Breton,  by  the  strait  of  Belle  Isle  on  the 
north,  and  through  the  gut  of  Canso  on  the 
south.  It  has  numerous  islands,  among  which 


the  largest  are  Anticosti,  Prince  Edward,  and 
the  Magdalen  group.  Its  principal  buys  are 
those  of  Chaleurs,  between  New  Brunswick 
and  Quebec;  Miramichi,  in  New  Brunswick; 
St.  George,  in  Nova  Scotia ;  and  St.  George's, 
in  Newfoundland. 

SAINT  LAWRENCE,  a  N.  county  of  New  York, 
bordered  N.  W.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
drained  by  the  Indian,  Oswegatchie,  Grass, 
Raquette,  St.  Regis,  and  Deer  rivers  and  their 
affluents,  and  traversed  by  several  railroads ; 
area,  2,900  sq.  m.,  being  the  largest  county  in 
the  state;  pop.  in  1870,  84,826.  It  has  three 
lakes  of  considerable  size,  Long,  Black,  and 
Cranberry,  besides  several  smaller  ones.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  county  is  as  yet  but 
thinly  settled,  and  is  heavily  timbered.  Along 
the  St.  Lawrence  the  surface  is  generally  level 
and  very  productive.  There  are  mines  of  lead 
and  specular  iron  ore.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  569,701  bushels  of  wheat,  35,295 
of  rye,  174,840  of  Indian  corn,  1,077,345  of 
oats,  196,421  of  barley,  57,078  of  buckwheat, 
1,217,894  of  potatoes,  269,250  tons  of  hay, 
281,962  Ibs.  of  wool,  8,419,695  of  butter, 
1,710,082  of  cheese,  157,275  of  hops,  104,266 
of  flax,  1,063,592  of  maple  sugar,  and  23,283 
of  honey.  There  were  24,126  horses,  87,298 
milch  cows,  1,612  working  oxen,  81,693  other 
cattle,  62,632  sheep,  and  16,981  swine;  4  man- 
ufactories of  agricultural  implements,  8  of  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  10  of  brick,  46  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  20  of  cheese,  8  of  iron  castings, 
26  of  tanned  and  20  of  curried  leather,  9  of 
machinery,  80  of  saddlery  and  harness,  9  of 
starch,  19  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
11  of  wooden  ware,  8  of  woollen  goods,  7 
wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establishments, 
25  flour  mills,  97  saw  mills,  and  8  planing 
mills.  Capital,  Canton. 

SAINT  LEONARDS,  Edward  Bnrtenshaw  Sngdtn, 
baron,  an  English  jurist,  born  in  London  in 
February,  1781,  died  there,  Jan.  29,  1875.  He 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  admitted  to 
practice  in  1807,  gave  up  his  chamber  practice 
and  confined  himself  to  the  chancery  bar  in 
1817,  became  king's  counsel  and  bencher  of 
Lincoln's  Inn  in  1822,  and  was  elected  to  par- 
liament for  Weymouth  in  1828,  and  for  Ripon 
in  1887.  He  was  knighted  in  1829,  and  was 
solicitor  general  in  1829-'81,  lord  chancellor  of 
Ireland  in  1885  and  again  in  1841-'6,  and  lord 
chancellor  of  England  for  a  few  months  in 
1862,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  He 
published  "  A  Concise  and  Practical  Treatise 
of  the  Law  of  Vendors  and  Purchasers  "  (Lon- 
don, 1805 ;  14th  ed.,  1862 ;  7th  American  ed., 
New  York,  1851) ;  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
Powers"  (1808;  8th  ed.,  1861);  "Letters  to 
a  Man  of  Property,  on  Sales,  Purchases,  Mort- 
gages," &c.  (1809;  5th  ed.,  1829);  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Property,  as  administered  in 
the  House  of  Lords"  (1849);  and  "A  Hand- 
book on  Property  Law  "  (1858;  8th  ed.,  1669). 

SADiT-LO,  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  cap- 
ital of  the  department  of  La  Manche,  on  the 


SAINT  LOUIS 


541 


Vire,  158  m.  "W.  by  N.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872, 
9,287.  The  beautiful  Gothic  church  of  Notre 
Dame  was  formerly  a  cathedral,  and  the  church 
of  Sainte  Croix,  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Charlemagne,  was  generally  regarded  as  the 
completest  monument  of  Saxon  architecture; 
it  was  entirely  rebuilt  in  1860,  and  the  old 
church  of  St.  Thomas  de  Cantorbery  has  been 
converted  into  a  town  hall.  Fine  cloths,  drug- 
get, ribbons,  linen,  lace,  and  leather  are  made. 

SAINT  LOUIS.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Min- 
nesota, bounded  N.  E.  by  the  chain  of  small 
lakes  which  separate  that  state  from  British 
America,  S.  E.  by  Lake  Superior,  and  drained 
by  St.  Louis,  Vermilion,  and  other  rivers;  area, 
6,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,561.  The  county 
is  interspersed  with  lakes,  the  largest  of  which 
are  Vermilion  and  Pelican.  It  contains  much 
timber.  The  value  of  manufactures,  according 
to  the  census  of  1870,  was  $262,000,  the  chief 
establishments  being  three  saw  mills.  The 
Northern  Pacific  and  Lake  Superior  and  Mis- 
sissippi railroads  terminate  at  the  capital,  Du- 
luth.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Missouri,  occupying 
the  tongue  of  land  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers,  and  drained 
by  the  Maramec ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  351,189,  of  whom  26,387  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  varied  and  the  soil  very  fertile. 
There  are  extensive  mines  of  coal  and  quarries 
of  marble,  and  the  W.  part  extends  into  the 
great  iron  region  of  the  state.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  454,026  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,023,978  of  Indian  corn,  280,783  of  oats,  24,- 
062  of  barley,  377,316  of  potatoes,  30,333  tons 
of  hay,  14,570  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  15,537  of  wool, 
288,615  of  butter,  39,815  of  cheese,  and  46,836 
gallons  of  wine.  There  were  on  farms  7,037 
horses,  2,229  mules  and  asses,  8,216  milch  cows, 
5,136  other  cattle,  6,692  sheep,  and  27,198 
swine.  Capital,  St.  Louis. 

SAINT  LOUIS,  the  chief  city  of  Missouri,  coun- 
ty seat  of  St.  Louis  co.,  and  the  commercial 
metropolis  of  the  central  Mississippi  valley, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  20 
m.  below  the  entrance  of  the  Missouri,  about 
175  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  1,170 
m.  above  New  Orleans,  and  125  m.  E.  of  Jef- 
ferson City;  lat.  38°  37'  28"  N.,  Ion.  90°  15' 
16"  W. ;  pop.  in  1810,  1,600;  in  1820,  4,598; 
in  1830,  5,852;  in  1840,  16,469;  in  1850,  77,- 
860 ;  in  1860,  160,773 ;  in  1870  (when  it  was 
the  fourth  city  in  the  United  States  in  popula- 
tion), 310,864,  of  whom  22,088  were  colored  ; 
in  1875,  estimated  by  local  authorities  as  high 
as  490,000.  Of  the  population  in  1870,  161,- 
796  were  males  and  149,068  females,  198,- 
615  natives  and  112,249  foreigners,  of  whom 
2,652  were  born  in  Bohemia,  2,008  in  Brit- 
ish America,  2,788  in  France,  59,040  in  Ger- 
many, 5,367  in  England,  32,239  in  Ireland, 
1,202  in  Scotland,  and  2,902  in  Switzerland. 
There  were  59,431  families,  with  an  average 
of  5*23  persons  to  each,  and  39,675  dwellings, 
with  an  average  of  7'84  to  each.  Of  the  108,- 
691  persons  10  years  old  and  over  returned 


as  engaged  in  all  occupations,  810  were  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  41,418  in  profession- 
al and  personal  services,  28,219  in  trade  and 
transportation,  and  38,244  in  manufactures  and 
mining. — The  city  is  many  feet  above  high 
water.  It  is  built  on  three  terraces,  the  first 
rising  gently  from  the  river  for  about  1  m.  to 
17th  street,  where  the  elevation  is  150  ft.  above 
the  stream.  The  ground  then  gently  declines, 
rises  in  a  second  terrace  to  25th  street,  again 
falls,  and  subsequently  rises  in  a  third  terrace 
to  a  height  of  200  ft.  at  C6te  Brillante  or  Wil- 
son's hill,  4  m.  W.  of  the  river.  The  surface 
here  spreads  out  into  a  wide  and  beautiful 
plain.  The  corporate  limits  extend  11£  m. 
along  the  river,  and  in  extreme  width  3  m. 
back  from  it ;  area,  13,216  acres  or  20$-  sq.  m. 
The  densely  built  portion  is  comprised  in  a 
district  of  about  6  m.  along  the  river  and  2 
m.  in  width.  The  city  is  for  the  most  part 
regularly  laid  out,  the  streets  near  the  river 
running  parallel  with  its  curve,  while  further 
back  they  are  generally  at  right  angles  with 
those  running  W.  from  the  river  bank.  Grand 
avenue,  in  part  120  ft.  wide,  extends  through 
the  city  from  N.  to  S.,  and  in  the  centre  is 
about  3  m.  from  the  river.  Washington  av- 
enue, one  of  the  widest  and  finest  in  St.  Louis, 
runs  back  from  the  river ;  at  its  foot  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  great  bridge.  Front  street,  100 
ft.  wide,  extends  along  the  levee,  and  is  built  up 
with  massive  stone  warehouses.  The  whole- 
sale trade  is  chiefly  on  Main  and  2d  streets, 
but  is  extending  into  Washington  avenue  and 
5th  street.  The  fashionable  promenade  is  4th 
street,  containing  the  leading  retail  stores. 
There  are  14  street  railroad  companies,  run- 
ning to  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  one  over 
the  bridge  to  East  St.  Louis.  The  city  is  re- 
markably well  built,  largely  of  brick  or  stone. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  city 
hall,  the  court  house,  erected  at  an  expense  of 
$1,200,000,  the  jail,  the  county  insane  asylum, 
the  Masonic  temple,  the  polytechnic  building, 
the  custom  house  and  post  office,  costing  $350,- 
000,  the  United  States  arsenal  (a  large  and  im- 
posing structure  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  city, 
surrounded  with  fine  grounds),  the  merchants' 
exchange,  the  mercantile  library  hall,  the  city 
hospital,  the  marine  hospital,  the  high  school 
building,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis  uni- 
versity, several  hotels  (the  chief  of  which  are 
the  Southern,  Planters',  Barnum's,  Lindell, 
and  Laclede),  the  Koman  Catholic  cathedral 
(136  ft.  long  and  84  ft.  wide,  with  a  front  of 
polished  free  stone),  St.  George's  (Episcopal) 
church,  the  church  of  the  Messiah  (Unitarian), 
the  first  and  second  Presbyterian  churches, 
the  Baptist  church  at  6th  and  Locust  streets, 
the  Jewish  temple  at  16th  and  Pine  streets, 
the  Union  Methodist  church  at  llth  and  Lo- 
cust streets,  the  Lutheran  church  at  8th  and 
Walnut  streets,  the  Congregational  church  at 
10th  and  Locust  streets,  and  the  Presbyterian 
churches  at  llth  and  Pine  and  16th  and  Walnut 
streets.  A  new  custom  house  and  post  office 


542 


SAINT  LOUIS 


and  a  new  exchange  are  in  course  of  erection 
(1875).  The  public  squares  and  parks  embrace 
in  the  aggregate  about  2,000  acres.  Missouri 
park,  Hyde  park,  Gravois  park,  Jackson  place, 
Carr  place,  St.  Louis  place,  and  Washington 
square,  with  from  1^  to  12  acres  each,  are 


New  Court  House. 

within  the  settled  portion  of  the  city.  Lafay- 
ette park,  in  the  S.  portion,  contains  about 
30  acres ;  it  is  handsomely  laid  out,  and  sur- 
rounded by  elegant  dwellings.  The  North- 
ern park,  180  acres,  on  the  bluffs  in  the  N. 
portion,  is  noted  for  its  fine  trees.  Lindell 
park,  60  acres,  on  the  line  of  Forest  Park 
boulevard,  is  tastefully  laid  out,  and  filled  with 
native  forest  trees.  Forest  park,  1,850  acres, 
still  mostly  covered  with  primitive  trees,  W. 
of  the  centre  of  the  city  and  about  4  m. 
from  the  river,  is  bounded  by  wide  boule- 
vards. Lindell  boulevard  (194  ft.  wide)  and 
Forest  Park  boulevard  (150  ft.  wide),  each 
about  2  m.  long,  extend  from  it  toward  the 
heart  of  the  city.  The  Des  Peres  river  mean- 
ders through  this  park.  Other  public  grounds 
are  Carondelet,  Laclede,  and  Benton  parks,  Ex- 
change square,  and  Clinton  and  Marion  places. 
Tower  Grove  park,  adjoining  Shaw's  botanical 
garden,  is  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  city,  and 
contains  277  acres.  The  garden  (109  acres)  is 
owned  by  Henry  Shaw,  who  has  opened  it  to 
the  public,  and  intends  it  as  a  gift  to  the  city. 
The  fair  grounds  of  the  St.  Louis  agricultu- 
ral and  mechanical  association,  85  acres,  N. 
W.  of  the  centre  of  the  city,  are  handsomely 
laid  out  and  ornamented,  and  contain  exten- 
sive buildings;  the  amphitheatre  will  seat  25,- 
000  persons.  The  handsomest  cemeteries  are 
Bellefontaine  (350  acres)  and  Calvary  (262 


acres),  in  the  N.  part  of  the  city,  about  a  mile 
from  the  river.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  is  East  St.  Louis,  a  city  of  St.  Clair 
co.,  111.,  incorporated  in  1865,  and  containing 
in  1875  upward  of  10,000  inhabitants-.  It  has 
a  river  front  of  2  m.,  numerous  manufacto- 
ries, several  railroad 
Bhops,  an  elevator, 
and  the  extensive  na- 
tional stock  yard.  It 
is  connected  with  St. 
Louis  by  ferry  and  by 
the  great  bridge,  be- 
fore the  completion 
of  which  it  was  the 
terminus  of  all  the 
railroads  extending 
east.  The  bridge  is 
of  steel,  and  rests 
on  four  piers.  (See 
BRIDGE,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
276.)  It  passes  over 
a  viaduct  of  five  arch- 
es (27  ft.  span  each) 
into  Washington  ave- 
nue. The  lower  road- 
way runs  into  a  tun- 
nel, 15  ft.  wide,  17  ft. 
high,  and  4,800  ft. 
long,  which  passes  un- 
der a  large  portion 
of  the  city,  termina- 
ting near  llth  street, 
where  a  great  central 
railroad  depot  is  in 

course  of  construction  (1875).— St.  Louis  com- 
municates by  river  and  rail  with  a  vast  extent 
of  fertile  country.  Sixteen  lines  of  railroad 
centre  here,  viz.:  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi; 
Chicago,  Alton,  and  St.  Louis ;  Indianapolis 
and  St.  Lonis;  Atlantic  and  Pacific;  Missouri 
Pacific ;  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Northern ; 
St.  Louis  and  Iron  Mountain ;  St.  Louis,  Van- 
dalia,  Terre  Haute,  and  Indianapolis ;  Rock- 
ford,  Rock  Island,  and  St.  Louis ;  Belleville 
and  Southern  Illinois;  Toledo,  Wabash,  and 
Western;  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern;  Illinois 
and  St.  Louis ;  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas ; 
Illinois  Central ;  and  Cairo  and  St.  Louis.  The 
arrivals  of  barges  and  canal  boats  in  1874  num- 
bered 951 ;  of  steamers,  2,332,  viz. :  from  the 
upper  Mississippi,  1,063 ;  lower  Mississippi, 
752;  Illinois  river,  269;  Missouri  river,  104; 
Ohio  river,  113;  elsewhere,  31. 

RECEIPTS    OF   FREIGHT   FOR   FOUIl   YEARS. 


rwr 


YEAR. 

By  nil. 

By  river. 

ToUl. 

1871... 
1872.   . 
1878.  . 
1374.   . 

2.29a821  tons. 
2.888.864    " 
8.245,178    " 
8,165,098    " 

684.401  tons. 
868.819    " 
801.055    " 
782,765    " 

8,182,722  tons. 
8,702.288    " 
4,046.238    " 
8,897,858    " 

SHIPMENTS   OF   FREIGHT   FOR   FOUR   YEARS. 

1871.   . 

1>72.   . 
1878.   . 
1874.  . 

959.S82  tons. 
1.204,664    " 
1.155,416    " 
1,118,150    " 

776.498  tons. 
805.282    " 
7^-8.256    " 
707,825    " 

1,730,880  tons. 
2.000,046    " 
1,988,672    " 
1,825,480    " 

SAINT  LOUIS 


543 


The  principal  articles  of  receipt  and  shipment 
are  breadstuffs,  live  stock,  provisions,  cotton, 
lead  (from  the  Missouri  mines),  hay,  salt,  wool, 
hides  and  pelts,  lumber,  tobacco,  and  grocer- 
ies. The  trade  in  dry  goods  is  also  extensive. 


There  are,  including  those  in  East  St.  Louis, 
six  grain  elevators  and  warehouses,  five  es- 
tablishments for  storing  and  compressing  cot- 
ton, and  two  stock  yards.  The  movement  of 
breadstuffs  for  ten  years  has  been  as  follows : 


RECEIPTS. 


YEAR. 

Flour,  bl.ls. 

* 
Wheat,  buih. 

Corn,  bush. 

Oats,  bush. 

Rye,  bath. 

Barley,  bub. 

Total  grain  (redu- 
cing flour),  bush. 

1865  

1,161,088 

8,452,722 

8,162,318 

4,173,229 

217,568 

846,229 

17  657  252 

1866  

1,208,726 

4,410,805 

7,283,071 

8,567,000 

875,417 

548,796 

22,079,072 

1867      

944,075 

8,571,598 

5,155,430 

8,435,888 

250,704 

705,215 

17  848  755 

1868  

805,s36 

4,358,591 

2,800,277 

8,259,182 

867,961 

634,500 

15,444,781 

1869  

1,210,555 

6,736,454 

2,895,718 

8,461,844 

266,056 

757,600 

20,170,442 

1870  

1,491,626 

6,688,258 

4,708,888 

4,519,510 

210,542 

748,518 

24,818,791 

1871  

1,428,408 

7,811,910 

6,030,784 

4,858,099 

874,386 

876,217 

26,098,886 

1872  

1,259,983 

6,007,987 

9,479,887 

6,467,800 

877,587 

1,263,486 

28,895,912 

1878  

1,296,457 

6,185,083 

7,701,187 

5,859,853 

356,580 

1,153,615 

27,248.558 

1874... 

1,638,898 

8,255,221 

6,991,677 

5,296,967 

288,743 

1,421,406 

30,678,504 

SHIPMENTS. 


YEAR. 

Flour,  bbli. 

Wheat,  bush. 

Corn,  bush. 

Oats,  buih. 

Rye,  buih. 

Barley,  bush. 

Total  grain  (redu- 
cing flour),  buib. 

1865     

1,521,465 

62,860 

2,591,588 

8,088,864 

81,455 

50,000 

18,427,052 

1866  

1,700,740 

635,817 

6,759,199 

2,624,044 

225,458 

89.751 

13,885,969 

1867  

1,450,475 

821,883 

4,818,987 

2,244,756 

56,076 

55,720 

14,243,752 

1868      

1,499,337 

542,234 

1,611,618 

1,952,579 

192,555 

64,426 

11,860,097 

1869  

2,172,761 

1,715,005 

1,298,863 

2,104,002 

110,947 

57,134 

16.148,756 

1870            

1,790,739 

634,562 

8,636,060 

8,144,744 

100,254 

70,451 

21,039,776 

1871  

2,676,525 

1,048,532 

4,469,849 

2,484,582 

138,756 

62,848 

21,587,187 

1872               

2,247  OW 

918,477 

8,029,789 

8,464,594 

150,208 

87,566 

23,885,784 

1878  

2,506,215 

1,210,286 

5,260,916 

8,215,206 

206,652 

125,604 

22,549,739 

1874... 

2.981.760 

1.938.841 

4.148,556 

8,027,663 

166,133 

227.418 

24,417.411 

St.  Louis  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  flour, 
being  in  this  respect  the  first  city  in  the  Union. 
There  were  24  mills  in  operation  in  1874.  The 
production  for  ten  years  has  been  as  follows : 
1865,  743,281  bbls, ;  1866,  818,300 ;  1867,  765,- 
298;  1868,  895,154;  1869,  1,068,592;  1870, 
1,351,773;  1871,  1,507,915;  1872,  1,494,798; 
1873,  1,420,287;  1874,  1,573,202.  The  move- 
ment of  live  stock  and  provisions  for  ten  years 
was  as  follows : 

LIVE  STOCK. 


RECEIPTS. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Hogt. 

1865  

94,307 

52,188 

99,663 

1866    

108,259 

64047 

247  622 

1867  

74,146 

62,974 

298,241 

1863  

115,852 

79,815 

801,560 

1869  

124,565 

96  626 

844,843 

1870  

201,422 

94,477 

810,650 

1871    

199,527 

118  899 

638870 

1872  

263,404 

115,904 

759,076 

1873  

279,673 

86,434 

973,512 

1874  

860,925 

114916 

1  126,686 

SHIPMENTS. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Hop. 

1865... 

46712 

8680 

17869 

1866  

24,462 

15,194 

13  368 

1867  

26799 

19022 

28627 

1868  

87277 

6415 

16277 

1869  

59,867 

12,416 

89,076 

1870  

129  748 

11  649 

17156 

1871  .... 

180  018 

87465 

118,913 

1872  

164,870 

29,540 

118,700 

1873  .  .  . 

180662 

18902 

224873 

1874  

226,678 

85,577 

453,710 

PROVISIONS. 

YEAR. 

RECEIPTS. 

Pork,  bbli. 

Bacon  and  cut 
meat,  Ibs. 

Lard,  lln. 

1865... 

66,822 
56,740 
92,071 
85,127 
73,286 
77.398 
88,442 
60,207 
57,476 
55,453 

84,781,570 
81,278,150 
47,623,450 
46,753,850 
47,225,140 
44,494,770 
57,804,350 
63,484,860 
60,071,7(50 
52,104,830 

6,891,080 
5.004,870 
7,229.670 
5,941,650 
7,778,410 
6,215,150 
10,098,460 
11,238,890 
8,981,820 
6,877,660 

1866  

1867  

1868  

1869  
1870  

1871  

1872  

1878  

1874  

YEAR. 

SHIPMENTS. 

Pork,  bbls. 

Bacon  and  cut 
meat,  Ibs. 

Lard,  Ibs. 

1865    

109,702 
92,595 
188,226 
180,268 
120,002 
115,236 
131,782 
114,829 
105,876 
90,848 

64,910,870 
49,897,050 
70,095,130 
58,229,270 
75,755,450 
77,501,180 
128,666.060 
147,141,9(50 
184,892,770 
183,486,880 

9,569,880 
7,462,280 
14,818,210 
12,945,490 
18,822,900 
15,507,840 
80,760,470 
88,943,860 
87,156,810 
27,112,270 

1866  

1867  

1868  

1869  

1870  

1871  

1872  

1878  

1874  

The  number  of  hogs  packed  for  a  series  of 
years  has  been  as  follows  :  1869-'70,  241,316  ; 
1870-'71,  305,600;  187l-'2,  419,032  ;  1872-'3, 
538,000;  1873-'4,  463,793.    The  cotton  trade 
has  increased  rapidly  during  the  past  few  years. 
The  receipts  and  shipments  of  cotton,  together 
with  the  receipts  and  consumption  of  lead,  for 
five  years,  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : 

719 


VOL.  xiv. — 35 


544 


SAINT  LOUIS 


TEAR. 

COTTON,    BALES. 

LEAD,   PIOB. 

R«*Jpt.. 

Shipment!. 

RectlpU. 

Coniumptlcn. 

1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1878. 
1874. 

11,872 
41,512 
M,4M 

88,480 
156,948 

6,692 
85,782 

1  '.o-:'.' 
70,948 
122,694 

287,089 
229,961 
2*5.769 
85(1,087 
479,448 

206,600 
226,654 
222.907 
255,988 
200,000 

St.  Louis  is  a  port  of  delivery  in  the  customs 
district  of  New  Orleans,  and  a  port  of  entry 
under  the  aet  of  1870  permitting  the  shipment 
of  foreign  goods  in  bond  to  interior  ports 
from  the  port  of  first  delivery.  The  value  of 
direct  importations  under  this  act  in  1873  was 
$1,120,455;  in  1874,  $843,318.  The  value  of 
foreign  goods  warehoused  during  the  latter 
year  was  $4,046,428 ;  remaining  in  warehouse 


on  Dec.  31,  $276,547;  amount  of  import  duty 
collected  during  the  year,  $1,674,116  53.— Not- 
withstanding the  extent  of  its  commercial  in 
terests,  the  prosperity  of  the  city  is  chiefly  due 
to  its  manufactures,  in  which  it  is  surpassed 
only  by  New  York  and  Philadelphia  among 
the  cities  of  the  Union.  The  number  of  es- 
tablishments in  the  county  (mostly  within  the 
city  limits),  according  to  the  United  States  cen- 
sus of  1870,  was  4,579,  employing  425  steam 
engines  of  15,118  horse  power,  and  40,856 
hands,  of  whom  32,484  were  males  above  16, 
3,455  females  above  15,  and  4,917  youths ;  cap- 
ital invested,  $60,357,001 ;  wages  paid  during 
the  year,  $24,221,717;  value  of  materials  used, 
$87,388,252 ;  of  products,  $158,761,013.  The 
particulars  of  some  of  the  principal  branches 
are  contained  in  the  following  table : 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of  M- 
UblUhmefiU. 

1  i  «n  1  -   «n- 
ployad. 

Amount  of  capi- 
tal   iDYMUd. 

Value  of  male- 
tlmli  mad. 

Annual  ralu* 
of  producta. 

Agricultural  implements  

5 

448 

$780000 

$657460 

$1  475  000 

9 

888 

1  200000 

428  100 

760  000 

Bags.      

5 

814 

605000 

1  442,500 

6,007  260 

148 

709 

876900 

957  680 

1  990  940 

Bakery  products  

186 

799 

664,260 

1  968784 

2  986  086 

Brick                

v.-, 

1  258 

1  046,746 

874  879 

2  768  872 

Railroad  cart  

8 

M 

670000 

1  015,900 

1  725,800 

g 

72 

105,000 

Mi  11(111 

202  000 

860 

8077 

2189426 

8811  626 

6  665  617 

181 

828 

'248*425 

'697800 

1  Oil  420 

Confectionery  

12 

•j-1 

272000 

641  890 

1  189  166 

Coopw*gi»  , 

152 

1165 

742,450 

982  265 

1  949680 

8 

861 

489200 

481  746 

79H  050 

Flouring  mill  products  

81 

I'M 

8860000 

12690,684 

16717  766 

Furniture  

106 

1  607 

2862,000 

1  464980 

8685659 

Gas  

1 

166 

1  815,000 

842000 

1869250 

9 

401 

1  007  148 

626,760 

1  465000 

"    anchors  and  cables  

1 

20 

20  000 

25  750 

60000 

"    nails  and  spikes  

1 

47 

142,  S57 

287,260 

294000 

"    railing,  wrought  

| 

28 

871)00 

28,710 

79600 

"    pigs  

4 

784 

880000 

818,000 

1,946,000 

"    castings,  not  specified  

8 

146 

•C,  mm 

445620 

65!)  050 

17 

1,564 

2762,500 

1  416,776 

2  987  960 

Lead,  bars  and  sheets  

1 

22 

200000 

622600 

C50000 

"     pipe  

| 

12 

52500 

128,000 

167  000 

Liquors,  distilled  

6 

68 

817200 

495  157 

774  694 

40 

630 

4,248800 

2,184,760 

6,105,500 

4 

68 

641  200 

606,780 

818750 

Lumber,  planed  

6 

94 

r.ii.iioo 

298,125 

488,500 

12 

887 

976,001 

1  806,520 

1  910  870 

Machinery,  engines  and  boilers  

80 

1,406 

2,045,000 

1,776,540 

8,750,280 

9 

70 

450000 

647470 

700,550 

Stone  work   

76 

486 

809600 

454,820 

1,076,855 

158 

696 

168,200 

640572 

1  284660 

Matches         

6 

189 

1105(10 

104,875 

546,400 

12 

BM 

8  237  000 

8  644  094 

11,448,845 

Molasses  and  sugar,  refined  

1 

802 

2000000 

8,667,000 

4,185,250 

Animal  oil  

8 

77 

626,000 

2,866,100 

4,100,000 

Castor  oil        

1 

88 

825,000 

866,000 

500,000 

Paints  

8 

220 

970,000 

1,549,048 

2,088,000 

28 

805 

1  081.600 

762,060 

2,086,450 

Printing,  not  specified  

28 

1,1*1 

1,797,600 

1,819,270 

8.887,260 

7 

297 

197,000 

266,500 

616,500 

20 

198 

192.  SCO 

195,650 

406.700 

Saddlery  and  harness  

97 

1,084 

1,556,500 

2,688,885 

4,82fi,276 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  

12 

478 

1,086,800 

1,222,210 

2,884,100 

Soap  and  candles        

7 

260 

1,067,500 

1,277,780 

1,767,600 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-  iron  ware  

127 

798 

814,160 

998,680 

2,079,147 

Tobacco  and  snuff  

84 

1,408 

2,178,600 

4,204,760 

7,620,940 

"      cigars  

IN 

1,186 

470,260 

712,692 

1,765,698 

Zinc,  smelted  

2 

98 

280,000 

61,640 

162,400 

There  has  been  a  large  increase  since  1870  in 
nearly  all  branches  of  manufacture  except  iron, 
which  since  the  panic  of  1873  has  declined ;  the 
value  of  products  for  1874  has  been  estimated 
at  nearly  $240,000,000.  Extensive  Bessemer 
steel  works  are  now  (1875)  in  course  of  erec- 


tion. There  are  7  national  banks,  19  state 
banks,  and  30  savings  institutions,  with  an  ag- 
gregate capital  of  about  $20,000,000.  On  July 
1,  1874,  the  aggregate  deposits  were  $42,088,- 
214  69 ;  loans  and  discounts,  $48,544,501  51 ; 
cash  and  exchanges,  $11,903,758  03.  The  city 


SAINT  LOUIS 


545 


contains  a  safe  deposit  company  and  31  insu- 
rance companies,  of  which  five  are  life  insu- 
rance companies.  There  are  a  chamber  of 
commerce,  a  merchants'  exchange,  a  board  of 
trade,  a  cotton  exchange,  a  mechanics'  and  man- 
ufacturers' exchange,  and  a  mining  exchange. 
— St.  Louis  is  divided  into  12  wards,  and  is 
governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  city  council  com- 
posed of  two  members  from  each  ward,  elected 
biennially.  There  are  also  a  comptroller,  trea- 
surer, and  auditor.  The  United  States  courts 
for  the  E.  district  of  Missouri  and  terms  of  the 
state  supreme  court  are  held  here.  The  special 
city  courts  are  the  court  of  criminal  correction 
and  four  police  courts.  The  headquarters  of 
the  United  States  army  were  established  here 
in  1874.  The  police  force  is  under  the  control 
of  five  commissioners,  including  the  mayor  ex 
officio,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  over  30  sq. 
m.  of  territory  beyond  the  limits  of  the  city. 
The  force  on  April  1,  1875,  numbered  462  oflS- 
cers  and  men.  The  fire  department  comprises 
18  engine  companies,  14  hose  companies,  and 
three  hook  and  ladder  companies;  the  num- 
ber of  men  is  150.  The  water  supply  of  the 
city  is  taken  from  the  Mississippi  at  Bissell's 
point,  near  the  N.  boundary.  It  is  raised  into 
four  reservoirs,  each  240  by  660  ft.,  with  an 
average  depth  of  about  20  ft,  by  two  pump- 
ing engines,  each  with  a  capacity  of  17,000,000 
gallons  a  day.  In  these  reservoirs  it  remains 
24  hours,  to  free  it  from  sediment.  It  then 
passes  into  a  small  reservoir  near  the  two  high- 
service  engines,  which  raise  it  to  the  storage 
reservoir,  covering  about  17  acres  on  Comp- 
ton  hill,  26  ft.  above  the  highest  street  grade. 
The  board  of  health  consists  of  five  members, 
including  the  mayor  as  president  ex  officio. 
It  is  asserted  that  St.  Louis  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  cities  in  the  country.  The  number 
of  deaths  for  eight  years,  according  to  the 
health  officer's  report,  has  been  as  follows: 
1867,  6,167,  or  28'2  per  1,000;  1868,  5,193, 
20-6;  1869,  5,884,  20-6;  1870,  6,670,  21-8; 
1871,  5,265,  16-8;  1872,  8,047,  18-2;  1873, 
8,551,  21-36;  1874,  6,506,  14-45.  Of  the 
deaths  in  1874,  30'43  per  cent,  were  from 
zymotic,  18-29  from  constitutional,  41-74  from 
local,  and  6*56  from  developmental  diseases, 
and  2-99  per  cent,  from  violence.  The  num- 
ber of  deaths  from  consumption  was  581,  be- 
ing 8-93  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  The  assessed 
value  of  property  in  1864  was  $63,059,078; 
in  1874,  $172,109,270.  The  balance  in  the 
treasury  on  April  14,  1874,  was  $289,404  20 ; 
receipts  during  the  following  year,  $6,003,- 
819  56,  of  which  $2,236,121  86  were  from 
taxes,  2,005,120  from  the  sale  of  bonds, 
$1,150,000  from  temporary  loans,  and  $612,- 
577  70  from  miscellaneous  sources;  expendi- 
tures, $6,231,286  72,  of  which  $372,000  were 
for  the  payment  of  matured  bonds,  $1,035,- 
631  38  of  interest  on  debt,  $1,450,000  of  tem- 
porary loans,  and  $3,373,665  34  for  other 
purposes;  balance,  April  12,  1875,  $61,937  04. 
The  bonded  debt  on  April  13,  1875,  was  $15,- 


993,000,  on  which  the  annual  interest  is  $950,- 
710;  temporary  debt,  $1,027,000.  The  assets 
of  the  city  on  the  same  date  amounted  to 
$13,044,315  38,  including,  besides  a  sinking 
fund  of  $738,126  65,  the  water  works,  engine 
houses,  public  parks,  &c.  There  are  2-61  m. 
of  paved  and  macadamized  wharf,  220-81  m. 
of  macadamized  streets,  10-2  m.  of  Nicol- 
son  pavement,  40-68  m.  of  improved  alleys, 
162  m.  of  sewers,  and  160  m.  of  water  pipe. 
The  public  institutions  not  already  mentioned 
are  the  workhouse,  house  of  refuge,  female 
hospital,  city  dispensary,  and  quarantine  hos- 
pital. Under  the  management  of  various  so- 
cieties, there  are  9  hospitals  and  27  asylums 
and  homes,  including  a  deaf  and  dumb  asy- 
lum conducted  by  the  sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  St.  Vincent's  insane  asylum. — The  public 
schools  of  St.  Louis  are  under  the  control  of 
a  board  of  24  members,  two  from  each  ward, 
which  appoints  a  superintendent  and  two  as- 
sistants. There  are  three  courses  of  study, 
viz. :  the  normal  school  course,  for  females 
only,  two  years ;  the  high  school  course,  four 
years;  and  the  district  school  course,  eight 
years.  There  are  also  separate  schools  for  col- 
ored children,  and  evening  schools,  the  O'Fal- 
lon  polytechnic  institute  serving  as  an  even- 
ing high  school.  German  is  taught  in  the 
district  schools  to  such  pupils  as  elect  to  study 
it.  According  to  the  school  census  taken  in 
April,  1874,  there  were  138,133  persons  from 
5  to  21  years  of  age  inclusive,  of  whom  95,539 
were  from  6  to  16 ;  there  were  33,511  at- 
tending public  schools  and  21,789  attending 
private  schools ;  total  attending  school,  55,800. 
In  1866  there  were  only  30  school  houses,  with 
11,055  seats;  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  16,- 
228;  average  attendance,  9,597;  average  num- 
ber of  teachers,  236 ;  total  expenditures,  $331,- 
694  36.  In  1874-'5  there  were  57  day  schools 
(1  normal,  6  high  and  branches,  44  district,  6 
colored);  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  35,941; 
average  attendance,  24,438;  number  of  teach- 
ers, 654 ;  number  of  evening  schools,  21 ;  pu- 
pils enrolled,  5,751 ;  average  attendance,  2,644; 
teachers,  115;  number  of  school  houses,  56; 
rooms,  625 ;  seats,  30,070 ;  value  of  school 
lots,  $715,736 ;  of  school  buildings  and  furni- 
ture, $1,715,230 ;  expenditures,  $792,019  37,  of 
which  $522,350  09  were  for  teachers'  salaries, 
$44,345  57  for  permanent  improvements,  and 
$225,323  71  for  current  expenses.  The  public 
school  library  contains  about  38,000  volumes, 
and  has  a  good  reading  room;  it  is  open  to 
the  public  for  consultation.  Several  scientific 
and  other  societies  have  merged  their  collec- 
tions with  it.  There  are  about  70  parochial 
schools,  under  the  management  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  other  denominations,  and  a  num- 
ber of  academies  and  private  schools,  including 
one  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  There  are  also 
seven  medical  colleges  and  a  college  of  phar- 
macy. The  St.  Louis  university,  under  the 
direction  of  members  of  the  society  of  Jesus, 
was  founded  in  1829,  and  incorporated  in  1832. 


546 


SAINT  LOUIS 


SAINT  LUCIA 


It  hag  a  very  valuable  museum,  philosophical 
and  chemical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  more 
than  16,500  volumes.  The  select  libraries  open 
to  the  students  form  a  separate  collection  of 
more  than  8,000  volumes.  The  university  has 
a  classical  course  of  six  years,  a  commercial 
course  of  four  years,  and  a  preparatory  class. 
The  number  of  instructors  in  1874-'5  was  22; 
of  students,  353.  Washington  university,  in- 
corporated in  1853,  is  intended  to  embrace  the 
whole  range  of  university  studies,  except  the- 
ological. It  comprises  the  academy,  essential- 
ly a  preparatory  school  to  the  higher  depart- 
ments, with  a  primary  class ;  the  Mary  insti- 
tute, organized  in  1859;  the  college,  1859;  the 
O'Fallon  polytechnic  institute,  or  polytechnic 
school,  1857;  and  the  St.  Louis  law  school, 
1867.  The  college  course  is  similar  to  that 
of  other  American  colleges.  The  Mary  insti- 
tute is  a  female  seminary,  with  studies  of  all 
grades.  In  the  polytechnic  school  there  are 
five  regular  courses,  each  occupying  four  years, 
viz. :  civil  engineering,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, chemistry,  mining  and  metallurgy,  and 
building  and  architecture.  An  evening  school 
is  conducted  by  the  O'Fallon  institute  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  board  of 
public  schools.  The  number  of  instructors 
and  students  in  the  different  departments  in 
1874-'5  was  as  follows : 


DEPARTMENTS. 

Inttrncton. 

St.  :.n:-. 

Acadomy  

28 

831 

Man'  institute  

IT 

Ml 

College  

5 

80 

Polytechnic  school  (exclusive  of 
evening  school)    

18 

83 

Law  school  

8 

67 

Total  (deducting  repetitions).. 

58 

700 

The  college  has  a  library  of  5,500  volumes, 
the  polytechnic  school  one  of  30,000  volumes, 
and  the  law  school  one  of  upward  of  2,500 
volumes.  The  college  of  the  Christian  Brothers 
(Roman  Catholic)  was  chartered  in  1855  and 
organized  in  1859.  It  has  a  library  of  10,000 
volumes.  Concordia  college  and  theological 
seminary  (German  Evangelical  Lutheran)  was 
organized  in  1839  and  chartered  in  1853.  It 
has  a  library  of  4,500  volumes.  The  Missouri 
institution  for  the  education  of  the  blind  was 
established  in  1851.  The  academy  of  science, 
founded  in  1856,  has  a  large  museum  and  a 
library  of  3,000  volumes.  Other  libraries  are 
the  mercantile,  43,000  volumes ;  St.  John's  cir- 
culating library,  27,000;  and  the  law  library, 
in  the  court  house,  7,100.  The  Missouri  his- 
torical society,  established  in  1865,  has  a  large 
historical  collection.  The  newspapers  and 
periodicals  are  as  follows :  10  daily  (4  Ger- 
man), 4  tri-weekly,  1  semi-weekly,  32  week- 
ly (5  German),  5  semi-monthly  (1  German), 
28  monthly  (2  German),  1  bi-monthly,  and  3 
quarterly.  There  are  162  churches  and  mis- 
sions, viz. :  16  Baptist  (6  colored),  3  Christian, 
4  Congregational,  15  Episcopal  (1  colored), 


1  Evangelical  Lutheran,  1  Free  Methodist,  1 
Friends',  9  German  Evangelical,  12  German 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  2  Independent  Evangel- 
ical Protestant,  4  Jewish,  13  Methodist  Episco- 
pal (4  colored),  9  Methodist  Episcopal,  South, 

2  New  Jerusalem  (1  German),  23  Presbyterian, 
38  Roman  Catholic,  2  Unitarian,  and  7  mis- 
cellaneous.— In   1762  M.  d'Abbadie,  director 
general  of  Louisiana,  granted  to  a  company  of 
merchants,  of  whom  Pierre  Ligueste  Lacle'de 
was  the  leader,  the  exclusive  right  of  trade 
with  the  Indians  on  the  Missouri.    This  com- 
pany after  careful    examination    established 
themselves  on  the  present  site  of  St.  Louis, 
Feb.  15,  1764,  and  erected  a  large  house  and 
four  stores.     In  1770  the  number  of  settlers 
had  increased  to  40  families,  and  a  small  gar- 
rison was  maintained.     On  Aug.  11,  1768,  a 
company  of  Spanish  troops  under  Capt.  Rios 
took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  under  whose  sway  it  remained  till 
the  cession  of  Louisiana  in  1800  to  France, 
which  in  1803  sold  the  territory  to  the  United 
States.    In  1780  an  unsuccessful  attack,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  instigated  by  the  British, 
was  made  upon  it  by  a  considerable  body  of 
Indians.    For  many  years  it  was  only  a  tra- 
ding post  for  the  fur  traders,  and  the  furs 
collected  there  reached  an  annual  value   of 
about  $200,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century.    It  was  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  1809.   The  first  newspaper  was  published  in 
1808,  the  first  brick  house  erected  in  1818,  and 
the  first  bank  established  in  1816.     In  1817 
the  first  steamboat  arrived,  and  the  same  year 
the  first  board  of  school  trustees  was  formed. 
In  1822  St.  Louis  was  chartered  as  a  city.     The 
growth  of  Illinois,  which  began  to  be  rapid 
after  1825,  gave  St.  Louis  its  first  great  im- 
pulse ;  and  the  ascent  of  steamers  to  the  Great 
falls  soon  created  a  thriving  trade,  which  be- 
gan to  assume  magnificent  proportions  in  1840. 
The  city  suffered  from  cholera  in  1882,  and 
from  cholera  and  fire  in  1849.     In  1851  the 
first  railroad  was  begun,  and  to  the  extension 
of  its  railroad  facilities  is  mainly  due  its  rapid 
growth  since  that  date.     By  a  legislative  act 
of  1867,  taking  effect  in  1870,  Carondelet,  ad- 
joining it  on  the  south,  was  annexed  to  the  city. 

SADiT  Ll'CIA,  an  English  island  of  the  West 
Indies,  in  the  Windward  group,  between  St. 
Vincent  and  Martinique,  crossed  by  the  paral- 
lel of  14°  N.  and  the  meridian  of  61°  W. ;  length 
26  m.,  breadth  11  m. ;  area,  248  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  33,000.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
with  a  small  plain  near  the  S.  end  and  marsh- 
es on  the  coast.  Two  conical  mountains  rise 
abruptly  out  of  the  sea  on  the  W.  side  to  ele- 
vations of  2,680  and  2,710  ft. ;  an  extinct  vol- 
cano 1,000  ft.  high,  containing  an  inexhausti- 
ble mass  of  sulphur,  occupies  the  S.  W.  part 
of  the  island.  The  soil  is  fertile;  the  moun- 
tains are  clothed  with  forests  containing  valu- 
able timber  and  dyewoods;  the  valleys  are 
well  watered,  yielding  abundant  crops  of  sugar 
cane  and  cacao.  The  average  annual  value 


SAINT-MALO 


SAINT  MARY'S  STRAIT        547 


of  exports  is  $812,000 ;  of  imports,  $630,000. 
The  climate  is  warm,  damp,  and  unhealthy,  and 
destructive  hurricanes  occur.  The  chief  town, 
Castries,  is  on  the  shore  of  an  excellent  harbor 
on  the  W.  coast,  9  m.  from  the  N.  end.  The 
island  was  first  settled  in  1605  and  1639  by 
English  colonies,  and  has  been  several  times 
taken  by  the  French,  but  the  English  have  held 
possession  since  1803. 

SAINT-MALO,  a  fortified  town  of  Brittany, 
France,  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine, 
on  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Aron,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Ranee  in  the  bay  of  St.  Malo,  40  m.  N. 
N.  W.  of  Rennes;  pop.  in  1872,  12,316.  It  is 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway 
called  the  Sillon.  The  harbor  is  large  and  safe, 
but  encumbered  by  shoals  at  its  entrance,  and 
the  tide  rises  sometimes  to  the  height  of  45  ft., 
while  at  low  water  the  port  is  dry.  The  town 
is  largely  engaged  in  fisheries,  and  has  an  ac- 
tive trade  with  England.  The  cargoes  cleared 
in  1874  from  St.  Malo  and  the  adjoining  port 
of  St.  Servan,  in  sailing  ships  only,  amounted 
to  4,402,600  francs.  Lamennais  was  born  here, 
as  also  Chateaubriand,  whose  tomb  is  on  a  rock 
in  the  harbor.  A  monument  to  him  by  Millet 
was  erected  Sept.  5,  1875,  in  the  place  St.  Vin- 
cent, since  known  as  place  Chateaubriand. 

SAINT-MARC  GIRA_RD1.\.     See  GIRARDIN. 

SAINT  MARTIN,  a  S.  parish  of  Louisiana,  bor- 
dered E.  by  Atchafalaya  and  Grand  rivers,  S. 
W.  by  Chetimaches  lake,  and  intersected  by 
Teche  bayou ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,370,  of  whom  5,064  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  192,840  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  9,898  of  sweet  potatoes,  3,428  bales 
of  cotton,  1,494  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  75,740 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  2,413  horses, 
1,372  mules  and  asses,  3,101  milch  cows,  7,401 
other  cattle,  3,769  sheep,  and  5,109  swine,  and 
30  molasses  and  sugar  establishments.  Capi- 
tal, St.  Martinsville. 

SAINT  MARTIN,  an  island  in  the  N.  E.  angle  of 
the  West  Indian  archipelago,  5  m.  S.  of  An- 
guilla,  in  lat.  18°  5'  K,  Ion.  63°  3'  W. ;  area, 
about  30  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  6,600.  The  shore 
is  deeply  indented,  and  the  surface  hilly,  the 
summit  being  1,360  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  soil 
is  not  rich ;  the  climate  is  warm  but  healthy. 
The  northern  part  (pop.  3,600,  area,  13,166 
acres)  belongs  to  France  ;  one  third  of  it  is  cul- 
tivated, yielding  annually  2,000,000  Ibs.  of  su- 
gar, 25,000  gallons  of  molasses,  and  50,000  of 
rum.  The  southern  part,  belonging  to  Holland 
(pop.  3,000),  is  less  fertile,  but  yields  annually 
2,500,000  Ibs.  of  sugar,  130,000  gallons  of  rum, 
great  quantities  of  salt  collected  from  marshes 
bordering  the  coast,  and  fine  tobacco.  Mari- 
got  is  the  capital  of  the  French,  Philisburg  of 
the  Dutch  colony.  The  island  was  first  settled 
in  1638  by  both  nations. 

SAINT  MARTIN,  Alexis.  See  BEAUMONT,  WIL- 
LIAM. 

SAINT-MARTIN,  Louis  Claude,  marquis  de,  a 
French  metaphysician,  born  in  Amboise,  Jan. 


18,  1743,  died  near  Paris,  Oct.  13,  1803.  For 
a  while  he  practised  as  an  advocate  at  Tours, 
but  in  1765  was  a  lieutenant  in  a  regiment  in 
garrison  at  Bordeaux,  where  he  became  inter- 
ested in  mystical  speculations,  and  subsequently 
studied  the  works  of  Jakob  Boehm  and  Sw«- 
denborg.  In  1771  he  left  the  army  and  went 
to  Lyons,  where  he  published  his  first  book, 
Dea  erreurs  et  de  la  verite,  par  un  philosophe 
inconnu  (1775),  a  refutation  of  the  theories  of 
materialism.  He  spent  some  years  in  Paris, 
visited  England  in  1786  and  Italy  in  1787,  and 
after  his  return  resided  in  Strasburg  till  1791, 
then  in  Amboise  till  1795,  when  he  returned  to 
Paris.  His  principal  works  are :  Tableau  na- 
tureldes  rapports  qui  existent  entre  Dieu,  Vhom- 
me  et  Vunivers  (Lyons,  1782),  showing  that  we 
must  explain  things  by  man  and  not  man  by 
things ;  VHomme  de  desir  (1790) ;  Ecce  Homo 
(1792);  De  Vesprit  des  chases  (1800);  and'Ze 
ministers  de  rhomme-esprit  (1802). — See  his 
Correspondance  with  Kirchberger  (Paris,  1 862), 
and  Saint-Martin,  le  philosophe  inconnu,  by 
Matter  (1862). 

SAINT  MART,  a  S.  parish  of  Louisiana,  bor- 
dered S.  W.  by  several  bays  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  N.  E.  by  Lake  Chetimaches,  and 
drained  by  Atchafalaya  and  Teche  bayous; 
area,  860  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 13,850,  of  whom 
9,607  were  colored.  The  surface  is  flat  and 
marshy,  and  the  soil  highly  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  186,842  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  11,882  of  sweet  potatoes,  69,327 
Ibs.  of  rice,  6,591  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  341,- 
445  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  958 
horses,  1,861  mules  and  asses,  3,717  cattle, 
1,704  sheep,  and  2,960  swine;  25  manufacto- 
ries of  cooperage,  2  of  machinery,  5  of  brick 
and  stone,  31  of  molasses  and  sugar,  and  7  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Franklin. 

SAINT  MARY'S,  a  S.  county  of  Maryland, 
bounded  N".  E.  by  the  Patuxent,  E.  by  Chesa- 
peake bay,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Potomac ;  area, 
about  250  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  14,994,  of 
whom  7,726  were  colored.  It  has  numerous 
bays  and  creeks;  the  surface  is  nearly  level. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  152,630 
bushels  of  wheat,  274,457  of  Indian  corn,  44,- 
379  of  oats,  2,522,917  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  9,809 
of  wool.  There  were  2,577  horses,  2,260  milch 
cows,  5,714  other  cattle,  3,982  sheep,  and  11,- 
302  swine.  Capital,  Leonardtown. 

SAINT  MARY'S  STRAIT,  or  River,  the  con- 
necting link  between  Lake  Superior  and  Lake 
Huron,  forming  also  the  boundary  between 
Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  Beginning  at  the  head  of  Tequa- 
menon  bay,  a  frith  of  Lake  Superior,  the  strait 
holds  a  general  S.  E.  course  of  63  m.  to  the 
head  of  Drummond  island,  in  Lake  Huron. 
One  mile  below  Lake  Superior  are  the  rapids 
known  as  St.  Mary's  falls  or  Sault  de  Ste. 
Marie,  and  below  these  the  strait  spreads  out 
into  a  broad  lake.  It  is  navigable  up  to  the 
rapids  for  the  largest  vessels.  These  rapids 
have  within  the  space  of  three  quarters  of  a 


548 


SAINT-MAUR 


SAINT  PAUL 


mile  a  fall  of  22  ft.  A  ship  canal  around  the 
falls  was  completed  May  19,  1855,  the  greater 
part  of  which  is  cut  through  solid  rock.  (See 
CANAL,  vol.  Hi.,  p.  687.) 

SAINT-MACK,  Congregation  of,  a  congregation 
of  reformed  Benedictines  in  France.  Their 
body  was  organized  in  1618,  and  confirmed  in 
1621  and  1627.  It  comprised  at  one  time  about 
124  houses,  was  divided  into  seven  provinces, 
and  was  governed  by  a  general  residing  in  Pa- 
ris. Literature  owes  to  this  congregation  the 
best  collective  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
fathers.  Montfaucon,  Mabillon,  and  Ruinart 
belonged  to  it.  .The  congregation  was  broken 
up  by  the  French  revolution.  In  1833  the  con- 
vent was  restored  at  Solesme  in  the  diocese  of 
Le  Mans. 

SAINT  MAURICE,  a  river  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
rising  on  the  N.  border  of  the  province,  and 
emptying  into  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Three  Riv- 
ers, after  a  tortuous  S.  course  of  more  than 
400  m.  Its  banks  are  generally  high,  in  some 
places  from  200  to  1,000  ft.,  and  are  covered 
with  groups  of  majestic  trees.  It  expands  into 
numerous  lakes,  contains  several  islands,  and 
has  a  great  variety  of  cascades  and  falls.  The 
falls  of  Grande  Mere  and  the  Shawenegan  falls, 
about  30  m.  from  its  mouth,  are  particularly 
attractive.  It  is  navigable  for  a  few  miles  near 
its  mouth,  and  after  an  interruption  of  about 
40  m.  there  is  another  navigable  stretch  of 
75  m.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Manouan, 
Ribbon,  Flamand,  Vermilion,  Rat,  Mattawin 
or  Mattuin,  and  Shawenegan  from  the  west, 
and  the  Windigo,  Trenche,  Grande  Pierriche, 
Croche,  Grand  Bostonnais,  Petit  Bostonnais, 
and  Mekinak  from  the  east. 

SAINT  MAURICE,  a  county  of  Quebec,  Cana- 
da, bounded  S.  E.  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  just 
below  Lake  St.  Peter ;  area,  2,585  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  10,658,  of  whom  10,519  were  of 
French  origin  or  descent.  It  extends  N.  W. 
from  the  river  to  the  limits  of  the  province, 
and  is  watered  by  several  lakes  and  streams. 
Capital,  Yamachiche. 

SALVT  MICHAEL  (Port.  Sdo  Miguel),  the  lar- 
gest island  of  the  Azores,  in  the  North  Atlan- 
tic ocean;  extreme  length  50  m.,  breadth  of 
main  parts  5  to  12  m. ;  area,  224  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  115,000.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
the  highest  peak,  Vara,  being  3,570  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  contains 
warm  mineral  springs.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate and  equable;  the  thermometer  ranges 
from  48°  F.  in  January  to  84°  in  July ;  the  ex- 
tremes, 45°  and  86°,  are  of  rare  occurrence. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  tropical  and  tem- 
perate plants  equally  well.  The  orange,  pine- 
apple, banana,  and  sugar  cane  are  extensively 
cultivated.  The  annual  value  of  oranges  ex- 
ported to  England  is  about  $425,000 ;  the  to- 
tal value  of  exports  is  $450,000 ;  of  imports, 
$500,000.  Capital,  Ponta  Delgada. 

SAINT  MORITZ  (Ger.  Sanct-Moritz\  a  water- 
ing place  of  the  canton  of  Grisons,  Switzer- 
land, in  the  Engadine  valley,  on  the  right  bank 


of  the  Inn,  about  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea  and 
close  to  Lake  St.  Moritz.  One  of  the  two 
principal  springs  is  named  after  Paracelsus, 
who  visited  the  place,  and  the  other  is  called 
St.  Moritz.  The  water  is  chalybeate,  abound- 
ing with  carbonic  acid,  and  is  used  for  drink- 
ing and  bathing,  being  heated  for  the  latter 
purpose.  It  is  considered  stronger  than  that 
of  Schwalbach  and  Pyrmont.  The  season 
lasts  from  June  to  September. — See  "  A  Sea- 
son at  St.  Moritz,"  by  Dr.  Burney  Yeo  (Lon- 
don, 1870),  and  Der  Kurort  St.  Moritz  und 
eine  Eisensduerlinge,  by  Dr.  August  Huse- 
mann  (Coire,  1874). 

SAINT-NAZAIRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Loire-Inferieure,  on  the  right  bank 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  on  a  promon- 
tory between  that  river  and  the  ocean,  30  m. 
W.  of  Nantes;  pop.  in  1872,  13,536.  It  con- 
sists of  an  old  and  a  new  town ;  the  latter  has 
grown  up  since  the  establishment  of  a  floating 
dock  in  1845,  as  an  accessory  harbor  for  large 
ocean  vessels,  which  cannot  enter  Nantes.  It 
is  a  station  for  the  transatlantic  steamers  to 
West  Indian  and  other  ports. 

SAINT-NICOLAS,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  East  Flanders,  20  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Ghent;  pop.  about  22,000.  It  manufactures 
woojlen  goods,  shawls,  and  linen,  and  is  one 
of  the  greatest  flax  markets  in  the  world. 

SAINT-OMER,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Pas-de-Calais,  at  the  junction  of 
the  canal  of  Neuf-Foss6  with  the  river  Aa, 
180  m.  N.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  22,381.  It 
is  strongly  fortified  and  has  an  important  ar- 
tillery arsenal.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
and  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. There  are  also  interesting  remains  of  a 
Benedictine  abbey,  founded  by  St.  Omer  in  the 
7th  century.  Woollen  goods,  paper,  leather, 
hats,  distilled  liquors,  starch,  and  beet-root  su- 
gar are  manufactured  ;  and  there  is  a  trade  in 
grain,  wines,  oil,  brandy,  and  coal.  A  semi- 
nary for  the  education  of  English  and  Irish 
Roman  Catholics  still  exists,  taking  the  place 
of  the  celebrated  English  Jesuit  college. 

SAINT  PAUL,  a  city  and  port  of  delivery,  cap- 
ital of  the  state  of  Minnesota  and  of  Ramsey 
co.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  2,200  m.  from  its 
mouth,  8  m.  in  a  direct  line  E.  S.  E.  of  the  falls 
of  St.  Anthony,  and  350  m.  N.  W.  of  Chicago ; 
lat.  44°  52'  46"  N.,  Ion.  93°  5'  W. ;  pop.  in  1860, 
10,401;  in  1870,  20,030;  in  1875,  about  36,000. 
It  was  formerly  confined  to  the  left  bank,  the 
site  embracing  four  distinct  terraces,  forming 
a  natural  amphitheatre  with  a  southern  expo- 
sure, and  conforming  to  the  curve  of  the  river, 
which,  here  flowing  N.  E.,  by  an  abrupt  cir- 
cular sweep  takes  a  S.  E.  course.  The  city  is 
built  principally  upon  the  second  and  third 
terraces,  which  widen  into  level,  semicircular 
plains,  the  last,  about  90  ft.  above  the  river, 
being  underlaid  with  a  stratum  of  blue  lime- 
stone from  12  to  20  ft.  thick,  of  which  many 
of  the  buildings  are  constructed.  The  original 
town  is  regularly  laid  out,  but  the  newer  por- 


SAINT  PAUL 


549 


tions  are  irregular.  The  principal  public  build- 
ings are  the  capitol  and  the  custom  house,  the 
latter  including  the  post  office.  By  vote  of  the 
people  of  Ramsey  and  Dakota  counties,  a  por- 
tion of  the  territory  of  the  latter,  on  the  op- 
posite bank  of  the  river,  embracing  what  was 
known  as  "West  St.  Paul,"  was  ceded  to  St. 
Paul  in  November,  1874.  This  adds  to  the  city 
about  3,000  acres,  constituting  the  sixth  ward, 
and  from  1,200  to  2,000  people.  The  statistics 
below  are  exclusive  of  this  addition.  Tables 
of  mortality  show  St.  Paul  to  be  one  of  the 
healthiest  cities  in  the  United  States.  A  beau- 
tiful tract  of  300  acres,  lying  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Como,  has  been  secured  for  a  public  park. 
St.  Paul  is  remarkable  for  the  expansion  of  its 
wholesale  business.  This  trade  in  1869  reached 
a  total  of  $7,500,000;  in  1871,  $12,890,029; 
and  in  1873,  $19,459,246.  It  is  the  centre  of 
11  railroads,  over  which  arrive  and  depart  96 
trains  daily,  viz. :  the  Lake  Superior  and  Mis- 
sissippi ;  Stillwater  and  St.  Paul ;  St.  Paul, 


Stillwater,  and  Taylor's  Falls;  West  Wiscon- 
sin ;  North  Wisconsin ;  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul ;  St.  Paul  and  Chicago ;  Burling- 
ton,. Cedar  Rapids,  and  Minnesota;  St.  Paul 
and  Sioux  City ;  and  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  (two 
branches).  It  is  the  practical  head  of  naviga- 
tion on  the  Mississippi  river,  5  m.  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Minnesota,  its  most  northerly 
navigable  tributary.  An  average  of  50  steam- 
boats and  100  barges  trade  with  this  port,  com- 
prising a  total  carrying  capacity  of  45,000  tons, 
operated  by  1,630  men.  The  average  length 
of  the  season  of  navigation  is  7i  months,  and 
the  number  of  steamboat  arrivals  about  815 
annually.  There  were  in  1873  six  national 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $2,150,000, 
three  private  banks,  and  a  savings  bank.  The 
average  daily  deposits  were  $3,432,141;  loans 
and  discounts,  $3,603,079 ;  and  sales  of  ex- 
change, $30,987,024.  There  are  a  fire  and  ma- 
rine and  a  life  insurance  company.  The  total 
assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal  prop- 


Saint  Paul. 


erty  in  1874  was  $27,444,047,  about  50  per 
cent,  of  its  actual  value.  The  total  bonded 
debt  was  $1,140,254,  and  the  total  tax  levy 
2J  per  cent.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
agricultural  implements,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
printing  and  blank  books,  ale  and  beer,  boots 
and  shoes,  and  wagons  and  carriages.  The 
capital  invested  in  manufactures  in  1873  was 
$3,500,000,  the  number  of  persons  employed 
2,646,  and  the  value  of  manufactured  articles 
$5,350,000.  There  are  two  extensive  grain  ele- 
vators, one  of  which,  completed  late  in  1874, 
is  the  largest  in  the  state.  In  1873  there  were 
shipped  1,458,800  bushels  of  wheat  and  180,- 
112  bbls.  of  flour.  The  city  is  divided  into  six 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  coun- 
cil of  three  members  from  each  ward.  The 
police  force  is  under  a  chief,  appointed  by  the 
mayor.  The  streets  are  lighted  with  gas,  well 
graded  and  partially  paved,  and  a  system  of 
sewerage  is  in  progress.  The  city  is  supplied 
with  water  from  Lake  Phalon,  3  m.  distant. 
It  has  a  paid  fire  department  and  a  fire-alarm 


telegraph.  Two  lines  of  street  railway,  4  m. 
in  extent,  are  in  operation.  In  1873  there 
were  published  four  daily,  four  tri-weekly  (one 
German),  and  12  weekly  (two  German,  one 
Swedish,  and  one  French)  newspapers,  and 
two  monthly  periodicals.  There  are  ten  pub- 
lic school  buildings,  which  cost  $300,000.  The 
number  of  departments  is  55,  and  of  teachers 
73.  The  total  enrolment  of  pupils  for  1874 
was  3,833,  average  enrolment  3,000,  average 
daily  attendance  2,586.  There  are  also  a  fe- 
male seminary  and  several  private  schools  of 
high  grade.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  sev- 
eral institutions  of  learning,  and  have  recently 
secured  a  large  tract  of  land  in  the  vicinity  for 
an  industrial  school.  The  state  reform  school 
is  located  here.  There  are  a  commercial  and 
business  college,  an  academy  of  natural  sci- 
ences containing  126,000  specimens,  and  a  state 
historical  society.  The  city  contains  four  pub- 
lic and  four  private  circulating  libraries,  the 
former  including  the  state  law  library  and  those 
of  the  historical  society  and  academy  of  sci- 


550      SAINT  PAUL  DE  LOANDA 


SAINT  PETERSBURG 


ences,  and  comprising  together  about  24,000 
volumes.  The  charitable  institutions  include 
a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  orphan  asylum. 
The  number  of  churches  is  88,  viz. :  8  Baptist, 
1  Congregational,  4  Episcopal,  8  Evangelical, 

I  Jewish,  5  Lutheran,  7  Methodist,  4  Presby- 
terian, 7  Roman  Catholic,  1  Swedenborgian,  1 
Unitarian,  and  1  Universalist. — The  first  build- 
ing was  erected  on  the  site  in  1838,  and  it  was 
simply  an  Indian  trading  post  for  several  years. 
It  was  laid  out  into  village  streets  in  1849,  and 
a  city  government  was  obtained  in  1854,  when 
it  contained  about  3,000  inhabitants.     It  de- 
rived its  name  ffbm  that  of  a  log  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Paul  by  a  Jesuit  missionary  in  1841. 

SAINT  PAUL  DE  LOANDA,  a  decaying  city  of 
Angola  proper,  and  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Lower  Guinea, 
a  few  miles  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ben- 
go;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  contains  the  ruins 
of  two  cathedrals,  one  of  which  was  used  as 
a  college  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  century. 
The  harbor,  formed  by  a  low  sandy  island,  is 
protected  by  three  forts. 

SAINT  PETER,  a  city  and  the  county  scat  of 
Nicollet  co.,  Minnesota,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Minnesota  river,  at  the  junction  of  the  Wi- 
nona  and  St.  Peter  and  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux 
City  railroads,  75  m.  S.  W.  of  St.  Paul ;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,124;  in  1875,  8,810.  It  contains 
several  furniture  manufactories,  three  cooper 
shops,  two  grist  mills,  two  sash,  door,  and 
blind  factories,  a  marble  shop,  a  foundery  and 
machine  shop,  three,  breweries,  and  a  national 
bank.  There  are  a  largo  graded  school,  with 

I 1  departments  and  750  pupils ;  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic school,  with  75  pupils;  two  weekly  news- 
papers, and  10  churches.    The  state  hospital 
for  the  insane,  completed  in  1875,  is  of  lime- 
stone quarried  on  the  ground,  and  cost  $500,- 
000.    The  Swedish  Lutherans  of  Minnesota  are 
erecting  (1S75)  a  large  building  for  a  college. 

SAINT  PETKRSBIRG,  a  N.  W.  government  of 
Russia,  bounded  N.  by  the  gulf  of  Finland,  the 
government  of  Viborg,  and  Lake  Ladoga,  E. 
by  Novgorod,  S.  by  Pskov,  and  W.  by  Lake 
Peipus,  which  separates  it  from  Livonia  and 
Esthonia;  area,  20,760  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,825,471.  It  is  drained  by  the  Neva,  Luga, 
and  Narva,  which  discharge  their  waters  into 
the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  Volkhov,  Svir, 
and  other  streams,  which  flow  into  Lake  Lado- 
ga. The  surface  is  low  and  flat,  and  in  many 
places  swampy,  but  there  are  some  low  hills  in 
the  northeast,  and  a  spur  of  the  Valdai  moun- 
tains enters  it  on  the  south.  The  climate  is 
severe,  and  the  soil  mostly  barren.  It  nearly 
corresponds  to  the  former  province  of  Ingria, 
and  was  the  principal  theatre  of  the  long  wars 
between  the  Swedes  and  the  Russians.  Peter 
the  Great  finally  conquered  it,  and  it  was  se- 
cured to  Russia  by  the  peace  of  Nystad  in 
1721.  In  1871  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg  was 
erected  into  an  administrative  district  by 
itself,  which  left  in  the  old  government  about 
500,000  inhabitants. 


SAINT  PETERSBIRG,  the  capital  of  Russia, 
situated  on  and  around  the  delta  of  the  Ni-vn, 
in  lat.  59°  56'  80"  N.,  Ion.  80°  19'  E.,  13  m.  E. 
of  its  port  of  Cronstadt,  and  890  m.  N.  \V. 
of  Moscow;  pop.  in  1870,  667,026,  including 
76,831  Protestants  and  20,882  Roman  Cath- 
olics, more  than  40,000  Germans,  and  many 
other  foreigners.  The  Neva,  as  it  approaches 
the  gulf  of  Finland,  turns  first  N.  and  then 
W.,  and  soon  divides  into  the  Great  and  Little 
Nevka,  and  the  Great  and  Little  Neva.  Be- 
ginning at  the  north,  the  first  two  enclose  the 
Velaginski,  Kamenuoi,  and  Krestovski  islands; 
between  the  Great  Nevka  and  the  Neva  lies 
the  large  Apteknrski  island ;  Citadel  island  is 
in  the  Neva;  Petrovski  island  and  several 
islets  are  between  the  Little  Nevka  and  the 
Little  Neva ;  while  S.  of  the  Little  Neva  and 
between  it  and  the  Great  Neva  are  Volni  and 
Vasili  islands,  the  latter  the  largest  of  the  del- 
ta. S.  E.  of  this  in  the  peninsula  (converted 
into  islands  by  canals)  formed  by  the  bend  of 
the  Neva  is  the  admiralty  quarter  of  the  city. 
All  these  islands  are  included  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  city,  and  the  larger  are  very  popu- 
lous. They  are  connected  with  the  peninsula 
and  with  each  other  by  ten  bridges,  several  of 
them  very  fine.  Beyond  the  Neva  at  the  east 
there  is  a  large  and  rapidly  growing  suburb. 
The  Neva,  though  broad  and  clear,  is  shallow, 
and  a  bar  at  its  mouth  forbids  the  passage  of 
vessels  drawing  more  than  9  ft.  of  water ;  and 
though  the  hulls  of  large  ships  are  built  at  the 
city  dockyards,  they  are  floated  to  Cronstadt 
for  their  masts,  rigging,  and  cargoes  or  arma- 
ment. The  city  is  not  liable  to  an  attack  by 
sea,  but  it  has  no  adequate  defences  against  an 
approach  by  land. — The  peninsular  part  S.  of 
the  Neva,  with  the  finest  buildings  and  streets, 
is  called  the  Bolshaya  Storona  or  Great  side ; 
the  islands  and  settlements  on  the  N.  bank  are 
collectively  known  as  the  Petersburg  side.  On 
the  latter  side,  opposite  the  so-called  English 
quay,  are  the  exchange  and  most  of  the  impor- 
tant docks  and  warehouses.  The  city  is  ele- 
vated but  little  above  the  Neva,  which  has  more 
than  once  overflowed  and  caused  great  destruc- 
tion of  life  and  property.  The  peninsula,  or 
Great  side,  is  drained  by  cands,  the  principal 
of  which  are  the  Moika,  the  Catariuo,  the  Fon- 
tanka,  and  the  Zagorodnoi,  connected  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Neva  by  cross  canals. 
The  banks  of  the  principal  canals  are  protect- 
ed by  walls  of  hewn  granite,  and  crossed  by 
numerous  bridges.  The  quays  along  the  Neva 
are  of  great  extent  and  solidity.  The  admi- 
ralty building,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Great 
Neva,  is  an  immense  and  massive  pile  with  a 
lofty  dome  and  spire,  and  is  the  central  point 
of  the  S.  or  Great  side.  The  statue  of  Peter 
the  Great  is  on  its  S.  W.  side,  and  the  col- 
umn of  Alexander  I.  on  the  N.  E.  From  the 
galleries  of  this  building  the  whole  city  can 
be  seen.  Radiating  from  it  S.  E.,  S.  S.  E., 
and  S.  are  the  three  finest  streets  of  the 
city,  viz. :  the  Nevski  Prospekt  or  Neva  per- 


SAINT  PETERSBURG 


551 


spective,  the  Gorokhovaya  Ulitza  or  Peas  street, 
and  the  Voskresenski  Prospekt  or  Resurrec- 
tion perspective.     The  Neva  perspective,  130 
ft.  broad  and  about  4  m. 
long,  is  one  of  the  finest 
streets    in    Europe.     It 
contains  the"  cathedral  of 
Our  Lady  of  Kazan,  pro- 
fusely adorned  with  sil- 
ver, gold,  and  gems,  but 
without  much  architec- 
tural merit,  and  anoth- 
er  Greek  church,   both 
with  their   blue  domes 
decorated  with  stars ;  a 
Dutch  church,  a  Protes- 
tant German  church,  a 
Catholic  and  an  Arme- 
nian church,   all  costly 
and  some  of  them  very 
beautiful.     Here  too  are 
the    military   headquar- 
ters, the  palace   of  the 
archduke    Michael,    the 
great    bazaar    with    its 
10,000    merchants,    the 
institution  of  St.  Catharine,  and  a  theatre.    At 
the  end  of  this  street  and  near  the  city  limits 
are  the  convent  and  church  of  St.  Alexander 
Nevskoi,  the  latter  containing  a  sarcophagus 


the  citadel,  with  a  tall,  slender,  richly  gilt 
spire,  208  ft.  high,  which  can  be  seen  from  all 
parts  of  the  city  or  its  suburbs,  contains  the 


The  Isaac  Church. 


of  pure  silver  in  which  the  body  of  the  saint 
is  preserved,  and  the  palace  of  the  metropoli- 
tan. The  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in 


Winter  Palace. 

remains  of  all  the  Russian  monarchs  since  Peter 
the  Great.  The  Isaac  church,  S.  W.  of  the 
admiralty,  in  one  of  the  largest  open  spaces 
of  the  capital,  is  celebrated  for  its  simple  but 
grand  architecture,  its 
noble  proportions,  and  its 
imposing  porches.  Like 
the  Greek  churches  gen- 
erally, it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  Greek  cross,  and 
has  four  grand  entrances, 
each  approached  by  three 
broad  flights  of  steps, 
each  entire  flight  com- 
posed of  a  single  piece  of 
granite.  Each  entrance 
has  a  superb  peristyle 
composed  of  monolithic 
columns  of  polished  gran- 
ite, each  60  ft.  high  and 
7  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the 
whole  surmounted  by  a 
cupola  120  ft.  above  the 
peristyles,  covered  with 
copper  and  richly  gilt, 
and  resting  on  30  granite 
pillars.  The  foundation 
of  this  church,  formed  of 
several  successive  tiers 
of  piles,  is  said  to  have 
cost  $4,000,000.  The 
church  of  the  Smolnoi 
convent,  in  the  N.  E. 
part  of  the  peninsula, 
is  of  white  marble,  and 
is  surmounted  by  five 
blue  domes  spangled  with 
golden  stars.  The  Preobrazhenskaya  church 
belongs  to  one  of  the  oldest  regiments  of 
the  guards,  and  is  profusely  decorated  with- 


552 


SAINT  PETERSBTJKG 


in  and  without  with  military  trophies.  The 
English  church,  W.  of  the  admiralty,  is  richly 
ornamented. — St.  Petersburg  is  a  city  of  pal- 
aces. The  Winter  palace  is  said  when  the 
emperor  occupies  it  to  have  more  than  6,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  burned  in  1837,  and  re- 
built in  1839  on  a  more  magnificent  scale.  It 
is  one  of  the  largest  palaces  in  the  world,  and 
is  in  the  form  of  a  square,  455  ft.  long  and  350 
ft.  broad.  Its  halls  are  of  wonderful  beauty, 
and  filled  with  the  richest  statuary,  gems,  and 
pictures,  and  magnificent  tables  and  vases  of 
malachite.  The  Hermitage,  built  by  Catharine 
II.,  is  connected  with  the  Winter  palace,  and 
contains  40  rooms  of  paintings,  a  museum  of 
statuary,  arms,  and  gems,  a  theatre,  and  a  li- 
brary with  many  engravings.  The  marble  pal- 
ace, a  massive,  gloomy-looking  building,  lies 
near  Troitzkoi  or  Trinity  bridge,  considerably 
E.  of  the  Hermitage.  A  mile  further  E.,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neva,  is  the  Taurida  palace, 
which  has  a  ball  room  320  ft.  long  and  70  ft. 
wide.  The  Annitchkoff  palace,  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  is  on  the 
Neva  perspective  near  the  Fontanka  canal. 
One  of  the  finest  new  palaces  is  that  of  the 
grand  duke  Vladimir,  completed  in  1871.  The 
government  buildings  are  remarkable  for  their 
immense  size,  and  some  of  them  possess  great 
architectural  beauty.  The  principal  are  the 
admiralty,  half  a  mile  long  and  with  two 
wings  650  ft.  in  length,  the  holy  synod,  the 
headquarters  of  the  ecclesiastical  direction  of 
the  Greek  church,  the  hotel  de  Vital  major, 
and  the  war  office;  and  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Great  Neva,  on  Vasili  island,  the  ex- 
change and  custom  house,  both  imposing  edi- 
fices ;  on  Citadel  island,  the  citadel  and  the 
mint ;  and  further  down  the  river,  on  Vasili 
island  again,  the  Mtel  des  mines,  the  academy 
of  arts,  the  academy  of  sciences  with  its  mu- 
seum and  observatory,  and  the  fine  barracks 
of  the  cadets. — The  imperial  library  contains 
1,100,000  volumes  and  85,000  manuscripts, 
many  of  them  of  great  value.  The  academy 
of  sciences  and  the  Hermitage  have  120,000 
volumes  each.  The  academy  of  sciences,  found- 
ed by  Peter  the  Great  under  the  direction  of 
Leibnitz,  has  Asiatic,  Egyptian,  and  ethno- 
graphic museums,  and  numismatic,  anatomi- 
cal, mineralogical,  and  other  collections;  in 
1873  it  was  attended  by  303  students.  The 
academy  of  arts,  recently  much  improved  un- 
der the  direction  of  Prince  Gagarin,  is  noted 
for  its  galleries  of  pictures  and  sculptures.  The 
museum  of  the  mining  school  has  a  celebra- 
ted collection  of  minerals,  and  the  Rumiantzeff 
museum  of  oriental  objects.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  learned  bodies  is  the  imperial  geo- 
graphical society.  The  university  was  founded 
in  1819,  and  in  1872  had  1,413  students.  There 
are  several  colleges  and  special  schools  and  in- 
stitutions of  all  grades.  Female  gymnasia  and 
a  female  normal  school  were  opened  in  1873, 
and  new  compulsory  schools  at  the  end  of 
1874.  St.  Petersburg  has  many  extensive  char- 


itable institutions,  including  the  famous  found- 
ling hospital.  (See  FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL.)  The 
Gostinnoi  Dvor,  the  principal  market,  is  a  co- 
lossal pile  of  buildings,  with  many  shops  and 
warehouses,  resembling  a  perpetual  fair.  The 
Great  theatre  for  Italian  opera,  and  the  Mi- 
chael for  French  and  German  plays,  are  most 
frequented ;  the  Marie  and  Alexander  are  for 
Russian  performances.  The  English  club,  called 
so  after  the  original  founders,  though  now  not 
much  frequented  by  Englishmen,  is  the  prin- 
cipal one ;  the  most  exclusive  is  the  imperial 
yacht  club.  The  principal  park  is  the  Sum- 
mer gardens ;  military  reviews  are  held  on  an 
adjoining  square.  At  the  entrance  of  the  park 
is  a  chapel  erected  in  1866  to  commemorate 
the  escape  of  the  present  emperor  from  assas- 
sination. The  city  is  deserted  in  summer  by 
the  nobility.  In  winter  it  is  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  also  most  expensive  capitals  of 
Europe. — The  mean  annual  temperature  of  St. 
Petersburg  is  89°  F. ;  the  mean  summer  tem- 
perature is  62°,  that  of  winter  18°.  The  ex- 
tremes are  99°  and  —51°.  The  cold  is  very 
severe,  but,  protected  by  furs,  the  residents  do 
not  feel  it  so  much  as  in  milder  climates.  But 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city  is  unsatis- 
factory, owing  to  the  cellars  of  nearly  all  the 
houses  being  inhabited.  The  number  of  fever 
patients  in  the  hospitals  in  the  beginning  of 
1875  exceeded  10,000,  or  about  1  in  70  of  the 
population,  besides  the  sick  in  private  houses, 
few  of  which  were  at  that  period  free  from 
typhus  fever.  The  imperial  manufactories  of 
Gobelin  tapestry,  of  glass,  porcelain,  malachite 
and  other  precious  stones,  military  surgical  in- 
struments, and  embroideries,  are  on  a  large 
scale.  There  are  also  extensive  founderies  of 
cannon,  and  manufactories  of  cotton,  silk,  mus- 
lin, and  woollen  goods,  leather,  fringes,  paper, 
tobacco,  soap,  clocks,  jewelry,  &c.  The  com- 
merce has  received  a  new  impulse  from  the 
opening  of  the  Finland  and  Baltic  roads,  and 
about  8,000  vessels  now  arrive  and  depart  an- 
nually. St.  Petersburg  is  also  the  centre  of 
the  Russian  book  trade.  The  docks  were  in 
1875  connected  by  rail  with  Moscow  and  other 
cities,  and  a  canal  to  Cronstadt  is  expected 
to  be  completed  in  1879. — St.  Petersburg  was 
founded  May  27,  1708,  by  Peter  the  Great. 
He  first  erected  a  fortress  on  the  site  of  the 
present  citadel,  and  such  were  the  obstacles 
with  which  he  met  in  the  treacherous  charac- 
ter of  the  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  insalubrity 
of  the  location,  that  a  man  of  less  resolute 
will  would  have  abandoned  the  undertaking. 
But  his  perseverance  triumphed  over  nil  diffi- 
culties, and  in  1712  he  declared  it  his  capital, 
instead  of  Moscow.  At  his  death  the  city  had 
only  a  few  good  buildings.  His  successors 
embellished  and  almost  created  it,  especially 
Catharine  II.  In  1824  it  was  visited  with  a 
terrible  inundation.  The  city  formed  part  of 
the  government  of  St.  Petersburg  till  1871, 
when  it  was  made  a  separate  administrative 
district. 


SAINT  PIERRE 


SAINT  SEBASTIAN 


553 


SAINT  PIERRE,  a  fortified  seaport  of  the 
island  of  Martinique,  on  the  N.  W.  coast ;  pop. 
about  80,000.  It  was  settled  by  the  French  in 
1635,  is  the  largest  town  in  the  French  "West 
Indies,  and  is  well  built.  There  is  an  old  Cath- 
olic college  and  a  botanic  garden.  The  harbor 
is  much  exposed.  A  railway  to  Fort  Royal  or 
Fort  de  France,  the  capital,  was  in  progress  of 
construction  in  1875. 

SAINT  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON,  a  French  col- 
ony, comprising  the  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and 
Great  and  Little  Miquelon,  off  the  S.  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  and  opposite  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence ;  area,  81  sq.  m. ;  permanent  pop. 
in  1870,  4,750.  It  is  of  importance  as  a  fish- 
ing rendezvous.  The  imports  in  1870  were 
valued  at  17,800,000  fr.,  the  exports  at  17,- 
700,000  fr.  The  movement  of  shipping  com- 
prised 1,549  entrances  and  1,539  clearances. 
Capital,  St.  Pierre ;  pop.  800.  (See  FISHERIES, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  225.) 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Charles  Irenee  Castel,  abbe  de, 
a  French  philanthropist,  born  near  Barfleur, 
Normandy,  Feb.  18,  1658,  died  in  Paris,  April 
29,  1743.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Caen  and  joined  the  priesthood.  In  1686  he 
went  to  Paris  with  the  geometrician  Varignon, 
and  in  1695  succeeded  Bergeret  in  the  acad- 
emy. In  1702  he  became  chaplain  of  the 
bishop  of  Orleans,  who  obtained  for  him  the 
abbey  of  Tiron.  In  1712  he  attended  the  con- 
gress of  Utrecht  with  Cardinal  Polignac.  His 
Projet  de  paix  perpetuelle  (3  vols.,  Utrecht, 
1713-'17)  was  followed  in  1718  by  Discours 
sur  la  polysynodie,  in  which  he  severely  judged 
Louis  XIV.,  and  advocated  constitutional  gov- 
ernment. He  was  consequently  expelled  from 
the  academy,  but  an  association  known  as 
club  de  Ventresol  gave  him  opportunities  to 
expound  his  humanitarian  schemes,  and  be- 
came the  nucleus  of  the  future  academy  of 
moral  and  political  sciences.  The  club  was 
closed  in  1731  by  Cardinal  Fleury,  after  seven 
years'  existence.  Most  of  his  writings  are 
included  in  his  Outrages  de  politique  et  de 
morale  (18  vols.,  Rotterdam,  1738-'41). 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Jacques  Henri  Bernardln  de,  a 
French  author,  born  in  Havre,  Jan.  19,  1737, 
died  at  Eragny-sur-Oise,  Jan.  21,  1814.  He 
was  educated  by  a  priest  at  Caen,  and  went 
with  his  uncle  to  Martinique  as  a  sailor,  but  re- 
sumed his  studies  at  Caen,  and  subsequently  at 
the  college  and  school  of  engineers  at  Rouen. 
He  next  served  in  the  army  as  an  engineer, 
and  after  various  vicissitudes  entered  the  Rus- 
sian army.  He  submitted  to  the  empress  Cath- 
arine II.  his  scheme  for  establishing  on  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian  a  republic  after  the  mod- 
el of  that  of  Plato,  which  fell  to  the  ground 
like  most  of  his  visionary  conceptions.  He 
next  joined  Radziwill  in  Poland,  and  in  1765 
was  repeatedly  under  arrest.  A  love  affair 
with  a  Polish  princess  diverted  his  attention 
from  the  political  affairs  of  Poland,  and  on  her 
deserting  him  he  went  to  Saxony,  determined 
to  have  his  revenge  by  fighting  against  the 


Poles ;  but  another  romantic  adventure  drove 
him  from  Dresden,  and  failing  to  receive  em- 
ployment from  Frederick  the  Great,  he  re- 
turned in  November,  1766,  to  France,  whence 
he  sailed  as  an  engineer  to  Madagascar.  On 
discovering  that  the  real  object  of  the  expe- 
dition was  the  slave  trade,  he  left  it  and  re- 
mained at  the  isle  of  France  as  an  engineer 
till  1771,  when  he  returned  to  Paris.  Here 
he  associated  with  Rousseau  and  other  celeb- 
rities, and  was  noted  for  his  eccentricities  and 
love  of  solitude.  In  l792-'3  he  was  director 
of  the  botanical  garden;  in  1794  he  became 
professor  of  morals  at  the  normal  school,  and 
in  1795  a  member  of  the  academy.  Under  the 
empire  he  had  a  pension  of  2,000  francs.  By 
his  first  wife,  Mile.  Didot,  he  had  two  children, 
Paul  and  Virginia.  He  married  a  second  time 
in  his  63d  year.  His  principal  works  are : 
Voyage  a  Vile  de  France,  &c.  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1773 ;  new  ed.,  1835) ;  UArcadie  (Angers,  1781 ; 
new  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1796);  fitudes  de  la 
nature  (5  vola.,  Paris,  1784;  new  ed.,  6  vols., 
1835-'6 ;  English  translation  by  H.  Hunter,  5 
vols.,  1796) ;  Paul  et  Virginie  (1788),  his  most 
celebrated  work,  which  has  been  translated 
into  many  languages;  La  chaumiere  indienne 
(1790;  new  ed.,  including  Le  cafe  de  Surate, 
1828) ;  and  Harmonies  de  la  nature  (3  vols., 
1815 ;  new  ed.,  4  vols.,  1818).  Aim6  Martin, 
who  married  his  widow,  published  his  com- 
plete works  with  a  biographical  notice  (12 
vols.,  1818-'20;  new  ed.,  9  vols.,  1835),  his 
posthumous  works  (2  vols.,  1833-'6),  and  his 
Romans,  contes  et  opuscules  (2  vols.,  1834). 

SAINT-QCENTIN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Aisne,  on  the  Somme,  80  m. 
N.  E.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1872,  34,811.  It  is  well 
built,  the  principal  streets  converging  into  the 
Grande  Place,  which  contains  the  Gothic  town 
hall  supported  by  eight  columns.  A  still  more 
celebrated  Gothic  building  is  the  cathedral. 
The  town  is  a  great  centre  of  the  cotton  man- 
ufacture, and  many  other  articles  are  made 
here,  including  woollens,  machinery,  and  beet- 
root sugar.  There  is  a  brisk  trade  in  grain, 
flax,  hemp,  cattle,  &c.  The  canal  of  St.  Quen- 
tin,  which  connects  the  basins  of  the  Oise  and 
Somme  with  that  of  the  Scheldt,  upward  of 
60  m.  long,  is  of  great  commercial  importance. 
— Under  the  Romans  the  town  was  known  as 
Augusta  Vermanduorum.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Vermandois 
till  1215,  when  it  was  annexed  to  the  crown. 
The  Spaniards  captured  it  in  1557  after  a  mem- 
orable battle  (Aug.  10),  and  two  years  after- 
ward it  was  restored  to  France.  During  the 
Franco-German  war,  Jan.  19,  1871,  it  was 
again  the  scene  of  a  great  battle,  resulting  in 
the  disbandment  of  the  French  northern  army 
under  Faidherbe. 

SAINT  SEBASTIAN  (Sp.  San  Sebastian),  a  sea- 
port of  Spain,  capital  of  Guipuzcoa,  on  the 
bay  of  Biscay,  39  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Pamplona ; 
pop.  about  14,000.  It  occupies  a  low  isthmus 
uniting  Mt.  Urgull,  on  which  is  the  citadel,  to 


554 


SAINT-SIMON 


SAINT  STEPHEN 


the  mainland,  and  is  walled  and  strongly  forti- 
fied. The  harbor  is  email.  The  city  contains 
several  churches  and  convents,  civil  and  mili- 
tary hospitals,  and  public  squares.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French  in  1719,  1794,  and  1808, 
and  by  the  English  with  great  loss  on  Aug.  81, 
1813,  when  most  of  it  was  burned. 

SAINT-SIMON,  Claude  Henri,  count  de,  a  French 
socialist,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  17, 1760,  died  there, 
May  19,  1825.  In  1777  he  entered  the  army, 
and  in  1779  went  to  America,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 
On  his  home  voyage  he  was  captured  by  the 
English  with  too  count  de  Grasse  and  detained 
at  Jamaica  till  the  peace  of  1783.  He  then 
went  to  Mexico,  vainly  urging  the  construc- 
tion of  a  Pacific- Atlantic  canal,  and  in  1785  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  not  more  successful  in 
his  scheme  for  converting  Madrid  into  a  sea- 
port. On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he 
and  M.  de  Redern  bought  real  estate  at  very 
low  rates.  The  latter,  being  the  principal, 
gained  by  the  speculation,  while  Saint-Simon, 
after  his  release  from  11  months'  imprison- 
ment during  the  reign  of  terror,  was  said  to 
have  made  only  150,000  francs.  In  1801  he 
married  Mile,  de  Champgrand,  from  whom,  in 
the  vain  hope  of  becoming  the  husband  of  the 
widowed  Mme.  de  Stael,  he  was  divorced  in 
July,  1802.  In  1807  he  published  his  cele- 
brated Introduction  aux  trataux  scientifiques 
du  dix-neuvitme  */.>/-.  in  which  he  expounded 
the  basis  of  his  theories  for  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  science  and  the  reconstruction  of  so- 
ciety. Regarding  the  great  Encyclopedic  as 
merely  a  dictionary,  he  published  in  1810  his 
Prospectus  d'vne  nouvelle  Encyclopedic;  but 
Napoleon,  to  whom  he  had  appealed,  took  no 
notice  of  him,  and  he  was  reduced  to  the  most 
abject  poverty.  His  friend  Diard,  who  had 
often  aided  him,  died  in  1810;  subsequent- 
ly his  relatives  secured  him  a  small  pension. 
In  conjunction  with  Augustin  Thierry,  his 
most  devoted  disciple,  he  published  De  la  re- 
organisation de  la  societe  europeenne  (1814), 
and  Opinions  sur  let  mesures  d  prendre  contre 
la  coalition  de  1815  (1815).  In  ^Industrie, 
i"i  Discussions  politique»,  morales  et  philoso- 
phiques  (4  vols.,  1817-'18),  Thierry,  Saint-Au- 
bin,  and  others  assisted  him.  In  1819  he  was 
indicted  for  asserting  in  a  pamphlet  (Pardbole) 
that  the  death  of  men  of  science,  artists,  and 
artisans  was  a  greater  national  calamity  than 
that  of  kings  a.nd  bishops  and  other  people  of 
mere  rank  and  wealth.  He  was  acquitted  in 
March,  1820,  and  continued  thereafter  to  de- 
vote all  his  means  to  defray  the  cost  of  pub- 
lishing his  writings.  At  length  in  March, 
1823,  he  was  driven  to  despair  by  the  exhaus- 
tion of  his  resources,  and  shot  himself ;  but  the 
shot  only  destroyed  one  eye,  and  he  survived 
to  finish  his  Catechisme  industriel  (1824)  and 
his  Nouveau  C  hristianisme  (1825),  the  crown- 
ing work  of  his  life. — For  his  socialistic  doc- 
trines, which  became  known  as  St.  Simonism, 
see  SOCIALISM.  See  also  Saint-Simon,  »a  vie 


et  ses  travaux,  by  Hubbart  (Paris,  1857).  En- 
fantin  published  some  of  his  posthumous  wri- 
tings, which  are  also  included  in  (Euvreschoisies 
de  Saint-Simon  (3  vols.,  Brussels,  1859;  new 
ed.,  Paris,  1861).  Of  the  complete  edition 
proposed  by  Rodrigues,  only  two  volumes 
appeared  in  1832 ;  but  the  members  of  the 
council  appointed  by  Enfantin  as  the  literary 
executors  of  Saint-Simon  prepared  a  complete 
arid  joint  edition  of  both  Saint-Simon  and  En- 
fantin's  works  (20  vols.,  1865-'9). 

SAINT-SIMON,  Louis  de  Rourroi,  duke  de,  a 
French  writer  of  memoirs,  born  Jan.  1C,  1675, 
died  in  Paris,  March  2, 1755.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  his  mother,  Charlotte  do  1'Aubespine, 
he  became  proficient  in  Latin,  German,  and 
history.  He  served  at  the  siege  of  Namur  in 
1691,  and  subsequently  distinguished  himself 
in  various  campaigns.  In  1695  he  married 
Gabrielle  de  Durfort,  daughter  of  the  marshal 
de  Lorges.  In  1702,  failing  to  be  promoted, 
he  retired  from  the  army.  He  was  prominent 
at  the  French  court,  and  was  a  strenuous  op- 
ponent of  the  Jesuits.  In  1704  he  proposed  to 
end  the  Spanish  war  of  succession  by  giving 
the  Spanish  Low  Countries  to  Austria  and  a 
portion  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy  to 
a  prince  of  the  house  of  Savoy  with  the  title 
of  king;  and  his  suggestion  was  to  some  ex- 
tent adopted  as  a  basis  for  the  treaty  of  peace 
of  Utrecht.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV. 
(1715)  he  aided  the  duke  of  Orleans  in  ob- 
taining the  regency,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
council.  In  1721  he  negotiated  at  Madrid  the 
marriage  between  the  infanta  of  Spain  and 
Louis  XV.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  found 
the  cardinal  Dubois,  whom  he  had  always 
opposed,  more  powerful  than  ever,  and  the 
legitimated  bastards  of  Louis  XIV.  partly  re- 
invested with  royal  dignities.  Consequently 
he  broke  off  his  relations  with  the  government 
until  after  the  death  of  Dubois,  shortly  before 
that  of  the  regent,  upon  which  he  retired  to 
his  estates.  His  Memoirs*,  which  subsequent- 
ly attained  unusual  celebrity  on  account  of 
their  boldness  of  expression  and  pungent  sa- 
tire, were  removed  to  the  public  archives,  and 
only  Voltaire,  Marmontel,  Mme.  du  Deffand, 
and  a  few  others  were  permitted  to  read  them. 
Garbled  extracts  and  editions  were  published 
in  1788  and  1791 ;  the  first  authentic  and  com- 
plete series  appeared  in  1829-'80,  and  a  great- 
ly improved  edition  was  published  by  Cheruel 
(20  vols.,  1856-'9 :  abridged  English  transla- 
tion by  Bayle  St.  John,  4  vols.,  London,  1857; 
new  ed.,  8  vols.,  1875).  Among  his  posthu- 
mous papers  were  found  hundreds  of  letters 
of 'the  duke  of  Orleans,  unpublished  essays  of 
Montaigne,  and  other  valuable  manuscripts,  of 
which  a  full  catalogue  was  obtained  from  the 
public  archives  by  Armand  Baschet,  who  pub- 
lished in  1874  Le  due  de  Saint-Simon,  son  ca- 
linet  et  Thistoire  de  ses  manuscrits. 

SAINT  STEPHEN,  a  town  and  port  of  entry 
of  Charlotte  co.,  New  Brunswick,  on  the  St. 
Croix  river,  opposite  Calais,  Me.,  and  at  the 


SAINT  TAMMANY 

terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  New  Brunswick 
and  Canada  railway,  70  m.  S.  W.  of  Frederic- 
ton  ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,515.  It  is  connected  with 
Calais  by  bridges,  and  is  lighted  with  gas  from 
that  town.  The  lumber  trade  and  the  fisheries 
are  the  chief  industries.  There  are  two  banks, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  six  churches. 
The  value  of  imports  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1874,  was  $261,289  ;  of  exports,  $101,818. 

SAINT  TAMMANY,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
lying  on  Lake  Pontchartrain,  bounded  E.  by 
Pearl  river  and  drained  by  its  tributaries ;  area, 
about  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,586,  of 
whom  2,175  were  colored.  The  surface  is  un- 
even, partly  pine  barrens,  and  the  soil  not  very 
fertile.  The  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  Texas 
railroad  touches  the  S.  E.  corner.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  8,795  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  13,266  of  sweet  potatoes,  26,225  Ibs. 
of  rice,  3,186  of  wool,  34  bales  of  cotton,  36 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  660  gallons  of  molasses. 
There  were  192  horses,  918  milch  cows,  2,109 
other  cattle,  1,499  sheep,  and  2,289  swine;  10 
manufactories  of  brick,  8  ship  yards,  and  6 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Covington. 

SAINT  THOMAS,  an  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
in  the  Virgin  group,  30  m.  E.  of  Porto  Kico, 
belonging  to  Denmark ;  area,  about  35  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,007,  one  tenth  white,  two 
thirds  black,  and  the  remainder  mixed.  The 
island  is  formed  by  a  mountain  ridge  extending 
the  whole  length  and  attaining  an  elevation  of 
1,480  ft.  The  shores  are  deeply  indented,  and 
the  adjacent  waters  are  studded  with  islets  and 
rocks.  The  climate  is  warm,  the  thermometer 
ranging  from  70°  to  90°  F.  Hurricanes  pass 
over  the  island  about  once  in  20  years,  and  do 
great  damage.  Earthquakes  are  very  frequent, 
but  serious  shocks  do  not  occur  oftener  than 
once  in  50  years.  There  is  no  running  stream, 
and  only  one  small  spring ;  rain  water  is  col- 
lected, and  droughts  are  frequent.  The  soil  is 
not  fertile,  and  the  products  of  the  island  are 
insufficient  for  one  twentieth  of  its  inhabitants. 
In  1873  there  were  571  deaths,  the  chief  cause 
of  which,  among  resident  adults,  was  consump- 
tion. Charlotte  Amalie,  the  only  town,  con- 
tains 11,380  inhabitants,  and  is  built  along  the 
shore  of  an  excellent  bay  on  the  S.  side,  in  lat. 
18°  20'  N.,  Ion.  64°  56'  W.  It  is  a  free  port. 
The  streets  are  paved  and  generally  clean ;  the 
houses  are  supplied  with  gas,  and,  although 
low  and  poorly  built,  are  comfortable  and 
healthy.  The  average  annual  value  of  imports 
is  $5,000,000,  besides  coal.  Eight  regular 
steam  lines  touch  here,  the  total  steam  tonnage 
averaging  600,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the 
total  entries  of  all  classes  of  vessels  4,300  per 
annum.  Negotiations  for  the  transfer  of  the 
island  to  the  United  States  having  been  com- 
menced, a  vote  was  taken  in  1867,  which  re- 
sulted in  1,244  for  and  22  against;  but  the 
project  fell  through  in  the  United  States  senate. 

SAINT  THOMAS,  an  island  of  the  gulf  of 
Guinea,  belonging  to  Portugal,  in  lat.  0°  20'  N., 
Ion.  6°  40'  E. ;  area,  145  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 


SAINT  VITUS'S  DANCE        555 

20,000,  mostly  blacks.  In  its  centre  the  peak 
of  St.  Anna  rises  to  the  height  of  7,020  ft. 
The  valleys  are  fertile.  The  climate  of  the 
lowlands  is  unhealthy,  but  the  southern  part  is 
salubrious.  Cotton,  sugar,  indigo,  cocoanuts, 
canella  bark,  sweet  potatoes,  manioc,  dates,  and 
maize  are  produced.  The  principal  article  of 
export  is  coffee.  A  Portuguese  bishop  resides 
at  the  capital,  St.  Thomas,  which  has  about 
4,000  inhabitants.  The  island  was  discovered 
on  St.  Thomas's  day,  1471,  by  Vasconcellos. 

SAINT  THOMAS,  Christians  of.  See  CHRISTIANS 
OF  ST.  THOMAS. 

SAINT  VINCENT,  an  island  of  the  British 
West  Indies,  in  the  Windward  group,  about  25 
m.  S.  of  St.  Lucia ;  area,  131  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  35,688,  comprising  32,000  colored  and 
430  aborigines.  The  surface  is  divided  in  the 
middle  by  a  ridge,  culminating  in  the  volcano 
Morne  Garou,  about  5,000  ft.  high,  which  con- 
tains a  crater  half  a  mile  in  diameter  and  600 
ft.  deep ;  the  most  recent  eruption  was  on 
April  30, 1812.  The  soil  is  fertile;  the  moun- 
tains are  clothed  with  valuable  forests;  the 
valleys  are  well  watered  and  cultivated,  yield- 
ing sugar  cane,  arrowroot,  cotton,  and  cacao. 
The  average  annual  value  of  exports  is  $1,206,- 
000 ;  imports,  $760,000.  The  climate  of  the 
low  lands  is  warm  but  healthful ;  the  moun- 
tainous districts  are  cool.  The  chief  town, 
Kingston,  is  on  the  shore  of  a  fine  bay  on  the 
S.  W.  coast. — St.  Vincent  was  discovered  by 
Columbus,  Jan.  22,  1498,  was  first  settled  by 
African  slaves  shipwrecked  on  the  island  in 
1675,  and  was  subsequently  taken  possession 
of  by  the  French,  who  in  1763  ceded  it  to 
Great  Britain. 

SAINT  VINCENT,  Cape.  See  CAPE  ST.  VIN- 
CENT. 

SAINT  VINCENT,  Earl  of.  See  JERVIS,  Sir 
JOHN. 

SAINT  VITUS'S  DANCE,  or  Chorea,  a  disorder 
of  innervation,  characterized  by  an  irregular 
action  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  occurring  usu- 
ally in  young  persons  from  the  age  of  10  to  20 
years,  and  more  frequently  in  females.  Its 
approach  is  heralded  by  languor  and  lassitude, 
slight  dragging  of  one  of  the  limbs,  a  furred 
tongue,  general  disorder  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  occasionally  pain  in  the  occipital  por- 
tion of  the  head,  frequently  a  sense  of  awk- 
wardness leading  the  patient  to  avoid  the  pres- 
ence of  strangers,  and  sudden  muscular  con- 
tortions, apparently  involuntary.  Gradually 
the  muscles  cease  to  be  under  the  full  control 
of  the  will ;  the  head  shakes  upon  the  occur- 
rence of  the  slightest  excitement,  and  the  pa- 
tient cannot  control  its  motion  except  by  a 
violent  and  painful  exercise  of  volition.  If  he 
attempts  to  carry  food  or  drink  to  his  mouth, 
the  hand  approaches  part  way  and  then  moves 
off  suddenly  in  another  direction.  The  hands 
and  feet  will  not  keep  still ;  the  face  is  dis- 
torted by  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  mus- 
cles ;  the  motions  of  the  body  in  walking  are 
very  uncertain,  and  one  leg  and  the  opposite 


556 


SAKI 


SALADIN 


arm  will  seam  paralyzed.  The  articulation  is 
impeded  and  painful,  the  temper  variable,  and 
the  patient  exceedingly  sensitive.  Occasion- 
ally the  action  is  more  violent.  If  watched 
or  noticed,  the  spasmodic  action  is  invariably 
aggravated.  The  most  frequent  predisposing 
causes  are  the  changes  which  take  place  at  pu- 
berty. Among  the  exciting  causes  are  fright, 
irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  improper 
diet,  and  disordered  menstruation. — Chorea  is 
not  usually  dangerous  or  even  obstinate,  al- 
though cases  have  been  known  in  which  the 
involuntary  movements  were  so  violent  and 
continuous  as  to  exhaust  the  strength  of  the 
patient  and  produce  death.  As  a  general  rule 
it  is  simply  a  manifestation  of  functional  dis- 
turbance of  the  nervous  system,  dependent  on 
the  changes  of  approaching  puberty;  and  it 
usually  disappears  spontaneously  after  a  few 
weeks  or  months,  when  these  changes  have 
become  fully  established.  The  most  effective 
treatment  is  hygienic :  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  a  healthy  mental  and  bodily  occupation, 
simple  and  nutritious  food,  the  shower  bath, 
and  in  some  cases  tonic  medicines. 

SAKI.     See  MONKEY. 

SALA,  George  Angutns  Henry,  an  English  au- 
thor, born  in  London  in  1828.  He  is  the  son  of 
an  Italian  gentleman  and  an  English  singer  of 
West  Indian  extraction.  He  was  educated  for 
an  artist,  but  became  a  literary  contributor  to 
"  Household  Words,"  the  "  Welcome  Guest," 
"  Illustrated  London  News,"  and  "  Cornhill 
Magazine."  In  1860  he  established  "  Temple 
Bar,"  a  monthly  magazine,  and  was  its  editor. 
In  1863  he  was  the  correspondent  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  the  London  "Telegraph,"  and  he 
has  written  for  that  journal  from  Algeria  in 
1864,  from  the  Paris  exposition  in  1867,  from 
the  field  of  war  in  France  in  1870,  from  Rome 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  and  from  Madrid, 
Venice,  Algeria,  and  Morocco  in  1875.  He 
has  published  "A  Journey  due  North,  being 
Notes  of  a  Residence  in  Russia  in  the  Summer 
of  1856"  (London,  1858);  "Twice  round  the 
Clock,  or  the  Hours  of  the  Day  and  Night  in 
London"  (1859);*' Seven  Sons  of  Mammon" 
(1861);  "  Strange  Adventures  of  Captain  Dan- 
gerous "  (1863)  ;  "  My  Diary  in  America  in  the 
Midst  of  War"  (1865);  "From  Waterloo  to 
the  Peninsula  "  (1866) ;  "  Notes  and  Sketches 
of  the  Paris  Exposition  "  (1867) ;  "  Rome  and 
Venice"  (1869);  "Under  the  Sun:  Essays 
mainly  written  in  Hot  Countries  "  (1872) ;  and 
"Cookery  in  its  Historical  Aspects"  (1875). 

SALADIN  (MALEK  AL-NASIR  SALAH  ED-Dix 
ABU  MODHAFEB  YtTscp),  sult;in  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  born  in  the  castle  of  Tekrit  on  the  Ti- 
gris in  1137,  died  in  Damascus,  March  4,  1193. 
He  was  the  son  of  Ayub,  a  Kurd  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  famous  Noureddin,  sovereign  of 
Syria,  and  in  1163  accompanied  his  uncle  Shir- 
kuh  to  Egypt  as  an  officer  in  the  army  des- 
tined to  reinstate  the  emir  Shawer,  and  ulti- 
mately to  reduce  the  country  to  the  sway  of 
Noureddin.  During  three  campaigns  he  dis- 


played great  military  capacity.  In  1168  Shir- 
kuh,  having  reduced  the  country,  became  Nour- 
eddin's  lieutenant,  and  on  his  death  in  the 
same  year  his  authority  devolved  upon  Sala- 
din,  who  paid  nominal  deference  to  Noured- 
din, but  strengthened  his  own  power.  The 
death  of  Noureddin  in  1173  or  1174  left  him 
absolute  master  of  Egypt,  with  abundant  re- 
sources ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
turbances which  convulsed  Syria,  he  invaded 
that  country  under  pretence  of  delivering  the 
youthful  heir  of  Noureddin  from  the  unjust 
tutelage  of  the  regent  Shems  ed-Din.  The 
latter  was  defeated  in  several  great  battles, 
and  within  four  years  Saladin  made  himself 
master  of  southern  Syria  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  Mesopotamia.  After  devoting  sev- 
eral years  to  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  he  com- 
pleted in  1182-'4  the  conquest  of  Syria;  his 
brother  subdued  the  richest  portions  of  Ara- 
bia, and  by  1185  his  empire  extended  from 
Tripoli  in  Africa  to  the  Tigris,  and  from  Ye- 
men on  the  Arabian  sea  to  the  Taurus,  the 
Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  being  alone  in- 
dependent of  him.  The  violation  by  Reginald 
de  Chatillon  of  a  truce  concluded  in  1186  be- 
tween the  Latins  and  Saladin,  afforded  the 
latter  a  pretext  for  invading  the  Holy  Land 
with  an  army  of  80,000.  The  Christian  army 
was  overthrown  at  the  famous  battle  of  Tibe- 
rias (July  4,  1187),  with  a  loss  of  30,000  men. 
Guy  de  Lusignan,  king  of  Jerusalem,  captured 
by  Saladin,  was  treated  with  courtesy ;  but 
Reginald  de  Chatillon,  his  fellow  captive,  was 
decapitated,  and  the  captured  knights  tem- 
plars and  hospitallers  were  massacred.  Acre, 
Ascalon,  and  other  important  towns  were 
speedily  subdued,  and  on  Oct.  2,  1187,  Jeru- 
salem surrendered  to  him  after  a  siege  of  two 
weeks.  The  inhabitants  were  offered  their 
freedom  at  a  moderate  ransom,  several  thou- 
sand of  the  poorer  classes  being  exempted 
from  payment,  and  many  being  aided  by  the 
alms  of  the  conqueror.  Tyre,  reenforced  by 
Conrad  of  Montferrat,  held  out  against  him, 
and  Saladin,  after  an  unsuccessful  siege,  made 
a  disgraceful  retreat  to  Damascus.  The  third 
crusade  (1189)  aroused  him  to  the  defence  of 
his  new  possessions,  and  for  two  years  (1189- 
'91)  he  thwarted  every  attempt  of  the  crusa- 
ders to  retake  Acre.  When  the  city  finally  ca- 
pitulated to  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  and  Philip 
Augustus,  the  former,  left  by  the  departure  of 
the  French  king  sole  commander  of  the  Chris- 
tian hosts,  led  the  crusaders  down  the  coast 
to  Ascalon,  his  march  of  100  miles  being,  as 
Gibbon  says,  "  a  great  and  perpetual  battle  of 
eleven  days."  At  the  battle  of  Arsuf,  fought 
on  St.  George's  day,  in  which  the  Moslems 
were  routed,  Saladin,  seeing  Richard  fighting 
on  foot,  is  said  to  have  sent  him  his  own  horse 
as  a  present.  Ascalon  having  fallen,  the  cru- 
saders in  the  spring  of  1192  advanced  within 
a  day's  march  of  Jerusalem,  but  were  induced 
by  dissensions  in  their  own  ranks  to  retreat 
when  the  city  seemed  fairly  within  their  grasp. 


SALADO  EIVER 


SALAMANDER 


557 


Tedious  negotiations  followed,  but  on  Sept.  2 
a  three  years'  truce  was  concluded.  The  in- 
cessant toils  of  the  last  few  years  had  impaired 
the  health  of  Saladin,  and  he  died  of  a  bilious 
fever  after  an  illness  of  12  days. 

SALADO  RIVER.  See  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC, 
vol.  i.,  p.  688. 

SALAMANCA.  I.  A  W.  province  of  Spain,  in 
Leon,  bordering  on  Portugal  and  the  provinces 
of  Zamora,  Valladolid,  Avila,  and  Caceres; 
area,  4,940  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870  estimated  at 
280,870.  It  is  hilly  in  the  north  and  moun- 
tainous in  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Tormes,  Yeltes,  and  Agueda,  tributaries  of  the 
Douro,  which  forms  part  of  the  N.  W.  boun- 
dary line,  and  the  Alagon,  an  affluent  of  the 
Tagus.  Gold  occurs  in  the  Agueda  and  the 
Alagon ;  iron,  copper,  and  lead  are  found,  but 
few  mines  are  now  in  operation;  rock  crys- 
tal and  saltpetre  are  abundant;  and  there 
are  numerous  thermal  springs.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  and  grain  and  fruits  are  plenti- 
ful ;  but  much  the  larger  part  of  the  country 
is  divided  between  forest  and  pasturage,  and 
many  animals  are  reared.  The  wines  and  oils 
of  Salamanca  are  justly  esteemed ;  but  the 
once  flourishing  manufactures  of  carpets,  laces, 
and  leathers  have  become  insignificant.  Be- 
sides the  capital,  the  chief  towns  are  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  Bejar,  Pefiaranda,  and  Alba  de  Tor- 
mes. II.  A  city  (anc.  Salmantica),  capital  of 
the  province,  built  on  three  hills,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tormes,  110  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Ma- 
drid; pop.  about  17,700.  It  is  surrounded 
by  ancient  walls,  and  presents  from  without 
a  quaint  and  picturesque  appearance.  The 
streets  generally  are  very  irregular ;  but  the 
numerous  public  squares  are  fine  and  spacious, 
especially  the  Plaza  Mayor,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom.  This  square  is  flanked  on 
every  side  by  a  magnificent  colonnaded  arcade, 
the  lower  portion  of  which  is  for  the  most 
part  occupied  by  shops.  On  the  N.  side  is  the 
city  hall ;  and  the  facades  of  the  S.  and  "W. 
sides  are  embellished  with  busts  of  sovereigns 
and  great  men  of  Spain.  As  many  as  20,000 
spectators  commonly  attended  the  bull  fights 
of  which  this  square  was  the  scene  as  late  as 
1863.  The  number  and  beauty  of  its  public 
edifices  have  gained  for  Salamanca  the  appel- 
lation of  Roma  la  Chica  (little  Rome).  Fore- 
most among  them  is  the  cathedral,  in  the  florid 
Gothic  style,  begun  in  1513,  after  a  plan  of 
Juan  Gil  de  Otaflon,  and  consecrated  in  1560. 
Near  it  is  the  old  cathedral,  a  massive  struc- 
ture of  Norman-French  architecture,  founded 
in  1102  by  Ger6nimo,  the  confessor  of  the  Cid. 
The  bridge  over  the  Tormes,  with  27  arches, 
was  partly  built  by  the  Romans,  and  finished 
under  Philip  IV.  The  university,  founded 
about  1200,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in 
Europe,  having  sometimes  upward  of  10,000 
students ;  but  it  is  now  almost  deserted.  The 
chief  libraries  are  those  of  the  university  and 
of  the  college  of  San  Bartolom6.  Woollens, 
leather,  hats,  and  earthenware  are  manufac- 


tured.— Salamanca  was  an  ancient  city  of  the 
Vettones.  It  was  taken  by  Hannibal  in  222 
B.  C.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  made  a  mili- 
tary station,  and  the  remains  of  a  road  made 
by  them  and  some  monuments  are  still  extant. 
It  was  captured  and  ravaged  by  the  Moors, 
who  were  finally  expelled  from  it  in  1095.  In 
the  12th  century  it  was  made  a  bishopric,  and 
several  councils  were  held  here  in  the  14th 
and  15th.  The  battle  of  Salamanca,  in  which 
the  French,  after  pillaging  many  of  the  public 
buildings  and  destroying  13  convents  and  20 
colleges,  were  defeated  by  Wellington,  July 
22,  1812,  took  place  4  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city. 

SALAMANDER,  the  popular  name  of  most  of 
the  batrachian  reptiles  with  persistent  tail 
(urodela)  which  lose  the  gills  in  the  adult  con- 
dition (caducibranchiates).  The  family  of  am- 
phiumida  has  been  noticed  under  MENOPOMA. 
The  family  salamandrida  has  been  divided 
into  two  groups,  the  aquatic  and  terrestrial,  of 
which  the  former  will  be  described  under  TEI- 
TON.  Schneider  reunited  the  water  and  land 
salamanders  into  a  single  genus  salamandra, 
comprising  the  genera  talamandra  and  triton 
of  Laurenti.  Prof.  Baird  (in  the  "  Journal  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,"  vol.  i.,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1850)  makes  no  generic  distinction 
between  the  aquatic  and  terrestrial  species, 
though  he  subdivides  talamandra  into  several 
genera  established  by  Rafinesque,  Tschudi,  and 
others.  The  division  into  groups  according  to 
general  habitat  will  be  retained  here,  and  the 
species  now  noticed  will  be  those  which  be- 
long to  the  old  genus  salamandra  (Laurenti). 
In  this  group  the  body  is  lizard-like,  the  limbs 
four,  the  maxillary  and  palate  bones  with  mi- 
nute teeth,  the  tongue  more  or  less  pediculated 
and  free;  there  is  no  sternum,  the  ribs  are 
rudimentary,  and  the  pelvis  is  suspended  by 
ligaments;  there  are  in  the  adults  neither 
gills  nor  gill  openings,  and  the  lungs  are  well 
developed ;  the  eyes  are  prominent  and  fur- 
nished with  lids;  the  skin  is  without  scales, 
and  has  numerous  warty  glands  which  secrete 
an  acrid  viscid  fluid ;  the  tail  is  generally  cy- 
lindrical. They  live  on  land  in  the  adult  state, 
and  are  found  in  the  water  only  during  the 
breeding  season;  they  frequent  damp  places, 
and  are  found  only  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, in  Europe,  and  especially  in  North 
America.  The  young,  instead  of  being  wholly 
developed  in  the  water,  in  some  are  retained 
so  long  within  the  oviduct  that  they  are  born 
alive,  having  undergone  a  portion  of  their 
metamorphosis;  the  young  live  constantly  in 
the  water  and  breathe  by  external  gills,  which 
disappear  with  the  gill  openings  when  the 
respiration  becomes  pulmonary;  the  anterior 
limbs  are  developed  earlier  than  the  posterior, 
the  former  having  four  and  the  latter  five  toes. 
From  large  glands  behind  the  eyes  and  on 
the  body  is  secreted  a  yellow  matter  so  abun- 
dantly and  rapidly,  that  it  gave  rise  to  the 
popular  belief,  once  extensively  prevalent,  that 
they  possess  the  power  of  extinguishing  and 


558 


SALAMANDER 


SALAMIS 


ef  remaining  unharmed  in  fire,  to  test  which 
many  have  been  cruelly  destroyed ;  this  ncrid 
secretion  seems  to  be  poisonous  to  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  and  has  caused  their  bite  and 
even  their  touch  to  be  regarded  as  venomous. 
They  rarely  exceed  6J  in.  in  total  length. 
Some  of  the  tritons  are  essentially  terrestrial 
in  their  habits. — Among  the  North  Ameri- 
can species  may  be  mentioned,  in  the  genus 
pseudotriton  (Tschudi),  the  red-spotted  sala- 
mander (P.  ruber,  Tsch. ;  S.  rubra,  Daudin), 
4  to  0  in.  long,  red  above  with  many  small, 
black  points,  sides  red  and  abdomen  orange 
red,  both  unspo'tted ;  it  is  very  common  under 
rocks  and  fallen  trees,  and  preys  on  insects ; 
it  inhabits  the  Atlantic  states  from  Massachu- 
setts to  Florida ;  it  is  handsome,  and  the  same 
as  the  8.  maculata  (Green).  In  this  species 
the  body  is  very  short,  and  the  tail  is  equal  to 
or  less  than  the  body.  The  blue-spotted  sala- 
mander (8.  glutinosa,  Green ;  plethodon,  Tsch.) 
is  about  7  in.  long,  bluish  black  above,  with 
small  white  spots  on  back  and  tail  and  larger 
ones  of  the  same  color  on  the  flanks ;  the  tail 
is  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  body.  This 
is  common  from  Massachusetts  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  living  in  preference  under  fallen  trees ; 
the  specific  name  was  derived  from  the  great 
quantity  of  glutinous  matter  suddenly  given 
off  from  the  skin.  The  red-backed  salamander 
(8.  erythronola,  Green ;  of  the  same  genus  of 
Tschudi)  is  about  3  in.  long,  with  a  reddish 
brown  band  from  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  the  sides  yellowish  brown,  and  abdomen 
whitish ;  tail  shorter  than  the  body,  and  sepa- 
rated with  great  facility  by  the  animal  when 
seized  by  it,  a  faculty  possessed  by  many  of  the 
family.  It  is  very  handsome  and  common, 
very  agile,  found  under  stones  and  dead  trees 
with  snails  (helix)  from  the  Lake  Superior 
copper  region  to  Pennsylvania;  the  eggs  are 
deposited  in  packets  under  damp  stones.  The 
long-tailed  salamander  (8.  longicauda.  Green; 
spelerpes,  Raf.)  is  about  6  in.  long,  of  which 
the  tail  is  more  than  half;  the  body  is  lemon 
yellow  above  with  numerous  small  irregular 
black  spots,  tail  with  transverse  black  bands, 
and  lower  parts  yellowish  white;  its  habits 
are  more  aquatic  than  in  most  land  salaman- 
ders; it  is  found  from  northern  New  York  to 
Kentucky.  The  symmetrical  salamander  (S. 
symmetrica,  Harlan;  notopthalmut  miniatut, 
Raf.)  is  about  4  in.  long,  brownish  red  above, 
with  a  row  of  symmetrically  arranged  deep  red 
spots  on  eaeh  side;  lower  parts  orange  with 
black  dots ;  tail  longer  than  the  body  and  com- 
pressed ;  skin  rough.  It  is  found  from  Maine 
to  Florida;  in  young  specimens  the  whole 
back  is  covered  with  minute  black  dots,  and 
the  sides  have  fewer  spots.  The  violet  sala- 
mander (8.  subviolacea,  Bart. ;  amblyttoma, 
Tsch.)  is  about  6  in.  long,  body  and  tail  above 
bluish  black  with  a  row  of  round  or  oval  yel- 
low spots  on  each  side,  the  under  surface  of 
the  same  color  tinged  with  purple ;  it  passes 
most  of  its  time  in  moist  places,  and  is  found 


f  from  Maine  to  South  Carolina.  In  the  species 
belonging  to  the  last  two  genera  of  Ratinesque 
and  Tschudi,  there  are  no  sphenoidal  teeth, 
fend  the  carpus  and  tarsus  are  ossified  in  the 
adults,  and  the  tongue  rudimentary  in  the 
former  and  large  and  fleshy  in  the  latter ;  in 
the  other  subgenera  sphenoidal  teeth  are  some- 
times present,  and  the  tongue  is  generally  pro- 
tractile. Other  genera  and  several  other  spe- 
cies of  American  salamanders  are  described 
by  Baird  in  the  above  mentioned  journal,  in 
vol.  x.  of  the  Pacific  railroad  reports,  and  in 
vol.  ii.  of  the  Mexican  boundary  survey.  They 
are  all  not  only  harmless,  offering  no  resis- 
tance when  captured,  but  are  positively  bene- 
ficial from  the  great  numbers  of  noxious  in- 
sects and  larvae  which  they  devour. — The  com- 
mon salamander  of  Europe  (S.  maculata,  Mer- 
rem)  is  black  with  more  or  less  large  yellow 
spots.  It  is  found  in  central  Europe,  and  in 


Common  European  Salamander  (Salamandra  maculata). 

the  mountainous  parts  of  S.  Europe,  in  cool 
and  moist  places,  and  feeds  on  insects,  worms, 
and  small  mollusks ;  it  attains  a  length  of  7  or 
8  in. ;  it  is  viviparous,  and  produces  20  to  30 
young  at  a  birth. 

SALAMIS  (now  Kuluri),  an  island  of  Greece, 
in  the  gulf  of  /Egina,  of  very  irregular  form, 
lying  near  Attica,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  narrow  channel,  and  10  m.  "W.  of  Athens; 
greatest  length  about  10  m.,  average  width 
about  3  m. ;  area,  about  80  sq.  m ;  pop.  5,000. 
One  small  stream  flows  into  the  sea  on  the  S. 
W.  coast.  The  chief  modern  town  is  Euluri, 
on  the  W.  shore,  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the 
same  name.  The  island  is  hilly,  and  mostly 
barren,  but  produces  some  olives,  vines,  and 
cotton.  On  the  E.  shore  are  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Salamis. — Salamis  is  said  to 
have  been  made  a  kingdom  by  Telamon,  father 
of  Ajax.  It  continued  independent  till  620  B. 
C.,  when  its  possession  was  disputed  by  Attica 
and  Megaris,  and  finally  it  became  one  of  the 
Attic  demi.  It  was  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
place of  Solon  and  Euripides,  but  most  of  all 
for  the  great  naval  victory  gained  by  the 
Greeks  under  Themistocles  over  the  fleet  of 


SAL  AMMONIAC 


SALE 


559 


Xerxes  in  480  B.  0.,  about  the  beginning  of 
autumn.  (See  GREECE,  vol.  viii.,  p.  190.)  Sev- 
eral times  in  modern  wars  the  inhabitants 
of  Attica  have  been  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
Salamis. — Salamis  was  also  the  name  of  an 
ancient  city  of  Cyprus,  on  the  E.  coast,  the 
most  important  in  that  island,  ruins  of  which 
are  still  visible  at  Old  Famagusta. 

SAL  AMMONIAC.     See  AMMONIA. 

SALDMHA  OLIVEIRA  £  DAI  \,  Joiio  Carlos,  duke 
of,  a  Portuguese  statesman,  born  in  Lisbon, 
Nov.  17,  1791.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
Pombal.  He  studied  at  Coimbra,  and  at  an 
early  age  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  ad- 
ministration for  the  colonies.  In  1810  he  was 
sent  to  England  as  a  prisoner,  and  subsequent- 
ly went  to  Brazil,  where  he  served  in  the  army 
and  as  a  diplomatist.  Having  returned  to  Por- 
tugal, he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1825  by  John  VI.,  after  whose  death 
in  1826  he  became  governor  of  Oporto,  and 
under  the  constitution  of  Dom  Pedro  minister 
of  war,  till  June,  1827,  when  he  resigned  and 
went  to  England.  Dom  Miguel  having  usurped 
power,  Saldanha  raised  troops  against  him,  but 
they  abandoned  him.  In  1832  he  landed  in 
Portugal  with  Dom  Pedro,  and  became  com- 
mandant of  Oporto,  and  subsequently  marshal 
and  generalissimo.  Aided  by  the  duke  of  Ter- 
ceira,  he  terminated  the  war  by  taking  the 
capital,  and  compelling  the  capitulation  of  Dom 
Miguel  at  Evora.  In  1835  he  became  minister 
of  war  and  president  of  the  council ;  but  he 
resigned  in  November  of  the  same  year  and 
lived  abroad  from  1836  to  1846,  when  he  was 
recalled  by  the  queen  to  form  a  ministry.  In 
1849  he  was  overthrown  by  Costa-Cabral,  who 
offered  him  a  place  in  his  ministry,  which  he 
refused.  In  1851  Saldanha  effected  a  new 
revolution,  and  was  again  at  the  head  of  the 
government  till  the  accession  of  Pedro  V.  in 
1856.  He  was  minister  in  Rome  from  1862  to 
1864,  and  again  from  1866  to  1869.  On  May 
19, 1870,  he  instigated  a  revolution  in  the  royal 
palace,  in  consequence  of  which  the  king  was 
compelled  to  place  him  once  more  at  the  head 
of  the  cabinet ;  but  the  new  elections  went 
against  him,  and  he  was  succeeded  on  Aug. 
30  by  Sa  da  Bandeira. 

SALE,  in  law,  a  contract  to  give  and  transfer 
rights  of  property  for  money,  which  the  buyer 
pays  or  promises  to  pay  to  the  seller  for  the 
thing  bought  and  sold.  The  word  is  often  ap- 
plied indifferently  to  the  transfer,  for  a  consid- 
eration, of  both  real  and  personal  property ; 
but  in  its  proper  and  technical  sense  it  applies 
only  to  that  of  personal  property,  the  transfer 
of  real  property  passing  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  a  grant  or  conveyance.  The  difference 
between  a  sale  and  an  exchange  is  that  in  the 
former  the  price  is  paid  in  money,  while  in  the 
latter  it  is  paid  in  goods.  Three  things  are 
necessary  to  constitute  a  valid  sale  at  common 
law,  viz. :  the  thing  to  be  sold,  the  price  to  be 
paid  for  it,  and  the  agreement  or  consent  of 
the  contracting  parties  that  the  property  in  the 
720  VOL.  xiv.— 36 


subject  matter  should  pass  from  the  vendor  to 
the  vendee,  for  the  stipulated  price  given  or 
promised  to  be  given  by  the  vendee.  If  there 
is  no  evidence  that  the  sale  is  on  credit,  an 
agreement  for  immediate  payment  is  implied ; 
and  if  the  vendee  leaves  without  paying,  the 
vendor  may  rescind  the  sale  and  demand  and 
recover  his  goods.  But  the  actual  delivery  of 
a  chattel,  and  the  acceptance  of  earnest  or  part 
payment  by  the  seller,  is  evidence  of  an  implied 
agreement  between  them  that  something  is  left 
to  be  done  in  future,  and  the  legal  presumption 
of  immediate  payment  is  thereby  rebutted. 
The  buyer  however  cannot  take  the  goods,  not- 
withstanding earnest  be  given,  without  full 
payment,  unless  it  is  an  express  condition  of 
the  sale.  If  he  does  not  come,  in  a  reasonable 
time  after  request,  and  pay  for  and  take  the 
goods,  the  contract  may  be  dissolved  by  the 
seller,  and  he  is  at  liberty  to  sell  the  goods  to 
another  person.  But  where  express  terms  are 
agreed  upon  whereby  the  delivery  or  the  pay- 
ment is  postponed  to  a  future  time,  the  sale  is 
complete,  and  the  property  in  the  chattel  passes 
immediately  to  the  buyer.  The  thing  sold 
must  be  in  actual  existence  at  the  time  of  the 
sale,  otherwise  the  sale  will  be  invalid.  If  one 
man  sells  to  another  a  horse,  and  the  horse  is 
dead,  or  if  he  sells  a  house  or  other  property 
which  has  been  destroyed  by  fire,  both  parties 
being  ignorant  of  the  fact  before  sale,  it  is 
invalid.  If  a  part  only  of  the  subject  matter 
is  non-existent  or  destroyed,  and  the  remainder 
is  capable  of  transfer  or  delivery,  the  buyer 
has  the  liberty,  at  his  option,  either  to  rescind 
or  enforce  the  contract  as  to  such  remainder. 
The  price  to  be  paid  must  be  ascertained  and 
certain,  or  so  referred  to  a  definite  standard 
that  it  may  be  made  certain ;  and  the  thing 
sold  must  also  be  specific  or  capable  of  a  certain 
identification.  When  made  by  letter,  the  con- 
tract is  complete  as  soon  as  a  distinct  proposi- 
tion contained  in  it  is  accepted  bona  Jlde,  by 
letter  written  within  a  reasonable  time,  and 
mailed  before  the  acceptor  receives  information 
of  a  withdrawal  of  the  offer.  If  the  thing  is 
sold  for  cash,  the  vendor  is  entitled  to  hold 
possession  of  it  until  he  receives  his  pay.  He 
cannot  sue  for  the  price  until  the  goods  are  de- 
livered or  tendered ;  but  if  they  are  accidental- 
ly destroyed  while  thus  in  his  possession,  and 
without  any  fault  or  carelessness  on  his  part, 
he  may  then  sue  for  the  price.  If  the  price  is 
not  paid,  whether  the  goods  are  sold  for  cash 
or  on  credit,  and  they  remain  in  the  hands  of 
the  seller,  he  has  a  lien  on  them  for  the  price. 
This  lien  is  destroyed  by  either  actual  or  con- 
structive delivery  of  the  goods ;  and  if  he  takes 
a  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory  note  as  secu- 
rity for  the  price,  he  also  loses  his  lien.  After 
a  sale  of  personal  property  and  a  fair  and  abso- 
lute delivery  to  the  purchaser  personally,  the 
seller  cannot  reclaim  or  retake  possession  of 
the  property  (upon  the  ground  of  .a  lien),  be- 
cause the  consideration  which  was  to  have  been 
given  at  the  time  of  the  delivery  has  not  been 


560 


SALE 


paid,  even  though  the  purchaser  shortly  after 
becomes  insolvent ;  for  the  seller's  lien  being 
once  lost  or  waived  by  the  delivery,  it  cannot 
reattach. — A  sale  without  delivery  is  not  valid, 
in  general,  against  a  third  person  who  buys 
without  notice ;  and  if  the  goods  are  sold  by 
the  vendor  to  two  different  and  innocent  par- 
ties, by  transfers  equally  valid,  he  who  first 
obtains  possession  of  the  goods  will  hold  them. 
But  as  between  the  seller  and  the  purchaser, 
delivery  is  not  necessary  to  complete  the  bar- 
gain ;  though  as  between  the  seller  and  his 
creditors  a  stroog  inference  arises,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  delivery,  that  the  sale  itself  is  colora- 
ble, and  intended  as  a  fraud  upon  the  creditors. 
This  inference  is  not  conclusive,  but  is  one  of 
fact  to  be  considered  by  the  jury  in  connection 
with  other  circumstances.  Symbolical  deliv- 
ery will  in  many  cases  be  sufficient  and  equiv- 
alent in  its  legal  effect  to  actual  delivery. 
The  delivery  of  the  key  of  a  warehouse  in 
which  the  goods  sold  are  deposited ;  or  trans- 
ferring them  in  the  warehouseman's  or  wharf- 
inger's books  to  the  name  of  the  buyer ;  or 
the  delivery  of  a  part  as  representative  or  as 
an  instalment  of  the  whole,  is  a  delivery  suf- 
ficient to  transfer  the  property.  When  the 
goods  sold  are  of  such  a  nature  or  in  such  a 
situation  that  a  personal  possession  of  them  is 
impracticable  or  inconvenient,  the  simple  sale 
and  an  agreement  of  the  parties  will  pass  the 
property  to  the  purchaser  without  actual  de- 
livery. If  no  particular  time  is  appointed  by 
the  terms  of  the  contract  for  delivery  or  pay- 
ment, these  must  be  made  within  a  reasonable 
time ;  and  the  seller  is  bound  to  keep  the  things 
sold  until  time  of  delivery  with  ordinary  care 
and  good  faith ;  otherwise  he  will  be  liable 
should  they  be  injured  or  destroyed.  If  the 
contract  is  to  deliver  at  the  residence  of  the 
buyer  or  any  other  particular  place,  and  this 
is  not  done,  the  seller  is  liable  even  though 
such  a  delivery  becomes  impossible,  unless  it 
becomes  so  through  the  act  or  fault  of  the  pur- 
chaser. If  the  goods  are  to  be  delivered  to  the 
purchaser,  but  no  place  of  delivery  is  named, 
they  must  be  sent  to  him  wherever  he  may 
happen  to  be,  or  to  his  house  or  place  of  busi- 
ness, unless  they  were  bought  to  be  used  for 
any  particular  purpose,  or  at  any  particular 
place.  When  a  time  and  place  are  expressed 
in  the  contract  of  sale,  the  buyer  must  receive 
and  pay  for  them  then  and  there,  and  also  pay 
all  reasonable  charges  for  keeping  after  the 
sale  and  before  delivery.  If  the  goods  are 
sold  on  credit,  and  the  purchaser  should  be- 
come insolvent  before  delivery,  the  seller  may 
demand  security  and  refuse  to  deliver  with- 
out.— Whenever,  in  a  contract  of  sale,  it  is 
agreed  that  some  particular  act  shall  be  done 
in  relation  to  the  thing  sold,  by  either  party, 
as 'that  the  goods  shall  be  delivered  on  a  par- 
ticular day,  or  on  request,  or  that  a  promisso- 
ry note  shall  be  given,  this  makes  a  condi- 
tional sale.  So  it  is  a  condition  precedent 
\where  some  act  remains  to  be  done,  such  as 


weighing  or  measuring;  and  if  there  is  no  evi- 
dence tending  to  show  the  intention  of  the 
parties  to  make  an  absolute  and  complete  sale, 
the  property  does  not  pass  wholly  to  the  buy- 
er until  such  condition  is  performed.  If  the 
buyer  neglects  or  refuses  to  comply  with  a 
condition  precedent,  and  the  goods  are  there- 
fore not  delivered,  the  seller  may,  after  due 
delay  and  precautions,  resell  them,  and  hold 
the  buyer  responsible  for  any  deficiency  in 
the  price.  In  all  of  these  cases  the  property 
in  the  thing  sold  passes  to  the  buyer  by  the 
fact  of  sale,  but  he  holds  it  subject  to  the  lien 
or  other  reserved  right  of  the  seller.  One 
class  of  sales  on  condition  are  those  known  as 
"contracts  of  sale  or  return,"  where  posses- 
sion of  the  goods  is  given  to  the  purchaser 
with  the  privilege  of  keeping  them  or  return- 
ing them  within  a  specified  time.  If  he  re- 
turns them  within  this  time,  the  contract  is 
rescinded ;  but  otherwise  the  sale  becomes  ab- 
solute and  complete.  When  goods  are  sold  by 
auction,  the  conditions  of  sale  made  known  to 
the  buyer  by  the  advertisement,  or  communi- 
cated by  the  auctioneer  at  the  time  of  sale, 
bind  both  parties,  and  regulate  the  transfer 
and  possession  of  the  property.  When  goods 
which  are  only  a  numerical  proportion  of  an 
entire  bulk  are  sold,  no  property  passes  and 
the  sale  is  incomplete  until  such  part  has  been 
separated  and  set  apart  from  the  remainder 
and  actually  delivered. — The  seller  of  goods 
has  not  only  a  lien  upon  them  for  the  price 
while  they  remain  in  his  possession,  but  he 
may,  in  the  event  of  the  bankruptcy  or  in- 
solvency of  the  purchaser,  after  he  has  parted 
with  the  possession  of  them,  and  while  they 
are  in  tramitu  on  their  way  to  the  purchaser, 
retake  them,  the  price  being  unpaid.  (See 
STOPPAGE  IN  TRAKSITC.)  A  sale  of  goods 
with  intent  to  delay,  hinder,  or  defraud  a 
creditor,  though  good  as  between  the  parties, 
is  utterly  void  as  against  the  creditor,  even  if 
the  purchaser  pays  full  value  for  them,  unless 
the  purchaser  was  ignorant  of  the  fraud  and 
purchased  them  in  good  faith,  as  well  as  for  a 
good  consideration. — Contracts  of  sale  which 
have  an  immoral  or  illegal  object  in  view  are 
void  at  common  law.  Contracts  with  an  ene- 
my for  the  purchase  or  sale  of  goods,  and 
contracts  in  contravention  of  statutory  provis- 
ions, are  illustrations  of  this  rule.  The  ob- 
taining goods  upon  false  pretences,  under  col- 
or of  purchasing  them,  does  not  change  the 
property ;  but  it  has  been  held  that  a  bonafide 
purchaser  of  goods  for  a  valuable  considera- 
tion, from  a  person  who  obtained  them  from 
the  owner  by  false  pretences,  amounting  even 
to  a  felony,  will  hold  them  against  the  first 
seller,  if  he  (the  first  seller)  voluntarily  parted 
with  the  possession  and  intended  to  part  with 
the  title.  The  sale  will  never  be  valid  in  favor 
of  the  purchaser  where  he  obtains  the  goods 
by  fraud  practised  upon  the  seller  under  color 
of  a  purchase,  whether  on  credit  or  otherwise. 
Thus,  if  an  infant  fraudulently  represents  him- 


SALE 


SALEM 


561 


self  to  be  of  full  age,  and  by  such  false  repre- 
sentation succeeds  in  obtaining  goods  on  cred- 
it, the  sale  will  be  void,  and  the  seller  may  re- 
claim the  goods  from  the  buyer,  or  from  any 
one  who  has  not  bought  the  goods  of  the 
buyer  for  value,  and  in  ignorance  of  the  fraud. 
If  a  person  steals  goods  and  sells  them,  the 
property  is  not  thereby  changed,  but  remains 
in  the  rightful  owner,  who  may  reclaim  them 
wherever  they  may  be  found.  In  England 
there  is  an  exception  to  this  rule,  which  is 
where  the  goods  are  sold  by  the  wrongful  pos- 
sessor in  market  overt,  in  which  case  the  sale 
is  binding  upon  the  true  owner,  and  the  pur- 
chaser obtains  a  good  title.  But  in  this  coun- 
try no  sale  of  goods  by  the  wrongful  possessor 
is  valid.  (For  sale  with  warranty,  see  WAR- 
RANTY.) A  conjectural  estimate  of  the  value 
is  not  a  misrepresentation  which  might  avoid 
the  sale;  and  concealment,  to  be  fraudulent 
and  material,  must  be  a  concealment  of  some- 
thing which  the  party  was  bound  to  disclose. 
A  seller  is  unquestionably  liable  to  an  action 
for  deceit  if  he  fraudulently  represents  the 
quality  of  the  thing  sold  to  be  other  than  it  is, 
in  some  particulars  which  the  buyer  has  not 
equal  means  with  himself  of  knowing ;  and  he 
is  if  he  do  so  in  such  a  manner  as  to  induce 
the  purchaser  to  abstain  from  making  the  in- 
quiries which  for  his  own  security  and  advan- 
tage he  would  otherwise  have  made. 

SALE,  Salee,  or  Sla,  a  walled  town  of  Moroc- 
co, on  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  lat.  34°  4'  N.,  Ion. 
6°  45'  W.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Bu  Re- 
greg,  on  its  N.  bank,  opposite  Eabat ;  pop. 
about  10,000,  chiefly  descended  from  Spanish 
Mohammedans.  One  half  the  area  enclosed 
by  the  walls  is  now  unoccupied.  Carpets  and 
combs  of  lentisk  wood  are  manufactured ;  the 
exports  consist  principally  of  wool.  The  har- 
bor will  admit  only  brigs  and  schooners.  Sal6 
was  a  resort  of  pirates  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century,  when  it  was  substantially  inde- 
pendent of  Morocco.  In  1851  it  was  bom- 
barded and  nearly  destroyed  by  the  French. 

SALE,  George,  an  English  oriental  scholar, 
born  in  Kent  in  1680,  died  in  London,  Nov. 
14,  1736.  He  was  educated  at  King's  school, 
Canterbury,  and  was  a  lawyer.  For  the  "  Uni- 
versal History,"  edited  by  Swinton  and  oth- 
ers, he  wrote  the  cosmogony  and  parts  of  ori- 
ental history.  He  was  also  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "General  Dictionary"  (10  vols.  fol., 
London,  1734),  and  he  translated  the  Koran 
into  English  from  the  original  Arabic,  with 
notes  and  comments.  His  translation  was  de- 
fective, but  many  editions  have  been  published. 
After  his  death  his  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turk- 
ish manuscripts  were  purchased  for  the  Rad- 
cliffe  library  at  Oxford. 

SALEM,  a  S.  W.  county  of  New  Jersey,  bor- 
dered W.  by  the  Delaware  river,  drained  by 
Salem,  Alloway's,  and  other  creeks,  and  trav- 
ersed by  several  railroads;  area,  540  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  23,940.  The  surface  is  level  and 
the  soil  a  fertile  sandy  loam.  Marl  abounds, 


and  iron  ore  is  found.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  259,777  bushels  of  wheat,  756,342 
of  Indian  corn,  164,678  of  oats,  350,955  of 
Irish  and  220,574  of  sweet  potatoes,  67,496 
of  grass  seed,  39,454  tons  of  hay,  11,658 
Ibs.  of  wool,  and  373,849  of  butter.  There 
were  5,155  horses,  630  mules  and  asses,  7,352 
milch  cows,  9,946  other  cattle,  6,668  sheep, 
and  9,836  swine  ;  5  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  3  of  window  glass,  4  of  machi- 
nery, 2  of  paper,  10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3 
founderies,  5  brick  yards,  4  tanneries,  14  flour 
mills,  and  19  saw  mills.  Capital,  Salem. 

SALEM,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  one  of  the 
shire  towns  of  Essex  co.,  Massachusetts,  occu- 
pying a  peninsula  between  two  arms  of  the 
sea,  called  North  and  South  rivers,  and  adja- 
cent territory,  14  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Boston ;  lat. 
42°  31'  18"  N.,  Ion.  70°  63'  53"  W. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  24,117,  of  whom  6,084  were  foreigners; 
in  1875,  26,063.  The  peninsula  is  about  2 
m.  long  and  £  m.  broad.  A  small  peninsula 
called  the  Neck  is  attached  to  it,  and  was  first 
inhabited  ;  a  large  portion  of  it  belongs  to  the 
city,  and  is  occupied  as  the  almshouse  farm. 
The  site  of  that  part  of  the  city  within  the 
peninsula  is  flat,  but  healthy;  in  other  parts 
the  surface  is  more  uneven.  The  streets  are 
irregular,  but  well  built.  In  the  E.  part  of 
the  city,  toward  the  end  of  the  peninsula,  is 
a  beautiful  park  or  "  common "  of  8£  acres, 
called  Washington  square.  Harmony  Grove 
cemetery,  on  the  W.  border,  contains  65  acres. 
Salem  is  connected  with  Lowell  by  the  Salem 
and  Lowell  railroad,  and  with  Boston  by  the 
Eastern  railroad,  and  there  are  branches  to 
Marblehead  and  Lawrence.  Horse  cars  run 
through  the  principal  streets  and  to  the  ad- 
joining towns. — Salem  was  formerly  noted  for 
its  foreign  commerce.  In  its  very  infancy  its 
inhabitants  not  only  engaged  in  the  fisheries 
and  the  coasting  trade,  but  in  vessels  of  40 
to  60  tons  traded  with  Spain,  Italy,  France, 
and  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  In  the 
revolutionary  war  158  privateers,  mounting 
at  least  2,000  guns,  and  carrying  not  fewer 
than  6,000  men,  were  fitted  out  from  the 
town  of  Salem.  These  vessels  captured  445 
prizes,  and  brought  nine  tenths  of  them  into 
port  in  safety.  In  1785  the  first  vessel  ever 
sent  from  this  country  to  the  isle  of  France, 
Calcutta,  and  China,  was  despatched  by  Elias 
Haskett  Derby  of  Salem;  and  for  years  Sa- 
lem held  almost  the  monopoly  of  that  trade, 
and  in  1818  had  54  vessels  engaged  in  it.  The 
trade  to  the  other  ports  of  the  East  Indies 
and  Japan  was  also  commenced  by  the  mer- 
chants of  Salem,  as  was  that  to  Madagascar 
and  Zanzibar,  and  the  other  gum  and  ivory 
ports  of  E.  Africa,  the  legitimate  trade  to  the 
ports  of  W.  Africa,  the  commerce  with  Brazil 
and  the  Amazon,  and  especially  the  India-rub- 
ber trade,  in  which  for  many  years  she  took 
the  lead.  The  foreign  commerce  of  Salem  is 
now  small,  but  the  coasting  trade  is  large  and 
increasing,  coal  for  shipment  to  the  interior 


562 


SALEM 


manufacturing  towns  being  the  chief  item. 
Recently  the  fisheries,  which  ceased  as  the 
East  India  trade  grew  up,  have  been  resumed. 
The  value  of  imports  from  foreign  countries 
into  the  customs  district,  which  includes  also 
Beverly  and  Danvers,  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1874,  was  $60,717 ;  of  exports  to 
foreign  countries,  $50,153 ;  number  of  en- 
trances, 84,  tonnage  8,468 ;  clearances,  100, 
tonnage  11,767;  number  of  vessels  belonging 
in  the  district  on  that  date,  91,  tonnage  9,409  ; 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries, 
55,  tonnage  3,386,  The  number  of  entrances 
in  the  coastwise 'trade  during  the  same  year 
was  98,  tonnage  10,443 ;  clearances,  41,  ton- 
nage 5,461. — Manufacturing  is  a  prominent  in- 
terest, and  is  increasing.  The  manufacture  of 
leather  is  the  most  important  branch.  Other 
articles  are  jute  bagging,  cordage,  twine,  ma- 
chinery, foundery  products,  cars,  chemicals, 
boots  and  shoes,  white  lead,  leather  belting, 
lead  pipe  and  sheet  lead,  trunks  and  valises, 
furniture,  and  glue.  The  car  shops  of  the 
Eastern  railroad  company  are  here.  The 
Naumkeag  steam  cotton  company  has  two 
large  mills,  with  1,438  looms  and  73,594  spin- 
dles, and  employs  a  capital  of  $1,200,000. 
There  are  seven  national  banks,  with  an  ag- 
gregate capital  of  $2,015,000 ;  two  savings 
banks,  with  about  $8,000,000  deposits;  and 
five  insurance  companies. — Salem  is  divided 
into  six  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
with  a  board  of  six  aldermen  and  a  common 
council  of  four  members  from  each  ward.  It 
has  an  efficient  police  force  and  a  good  fire 
department.  The  streets  are  lighted  with  gas, 
and  water  is  supplied  by  an  aqueduct  from 
Wenham  lake,  4  m.  distant.  The  assessed 
value  of  property  in  1874  was  $25,845,675 
60,  viz.:  real  estate,  $14,121,000;  personal 
estate,  $11,724,675  50.  The  taxation  on  prop- 
erty amounted  to  $438,995  65,  of  which  $32,- 
880  was  for  state  purposes,  and  $22,243  80 
for  county  purposes.  The  net  expenditures 
for  the  eleven  months  ending  Dec.  1,  1874, 
were  $279,680  29 ;  city  debt,  less  cash  assets 
on  that  date,  $1,858,753  07.  Besides  the  alms- 
house  and  smallpox  hospital,  there  are  an  or- 
phan asylum,  a  dispensary,  a  reform  school 
for  boys,  and  several  charitable  societies.  The 
public  schools  are  under  the  general  manage- 
ment of  a  school  committee  of  20  members, 
who  appoint  a  superintendent.  There  are  a 
high  school,  five  grammar  and  twelve  primary 
schools,  two  evening  schools,  two  drawing 
schools,  and  a  special  school  for  factory  opera- 
tives and  others  unable  to  pursue  the  regular 
course.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
public  day  schools  in  1874  was  4,206  ;  average 
attendance,  2,953 ;  number  of  teachers,  80. 
The  total  expenditure  for  schools  was  $71,180 
55.  One  of  the  state  normal  schools  (for  fe- 
males) is  here.  Among  the  principal  public 
institutions  is  the  East  India  marine  society, 
organized  in  1799,  and  formed  of  those  who, 
as  captains  or  supercargoes,  have  doubled  Cape 


Horn  or  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  museum 
of  this  society  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  valuable  in  the  country.  Together  with 
the  scientific  collections  of  the  Essex  institute, 
it  has  been  placed  in  charge  of  the  trustees  of 
the  Peabody  academy  of  science,  founded  by 
George  Peabody  in  1869  by  the  gift  of  $150,000. 
The  joint  collections,  with  those  of  the  acad- 
emy, are  deposited  in  the  East  India  marine 
hall,  and  are  accessible  to  the  public.  The 
Essex  institute,  organized  in  1848  by  the  union 
of  the  Essex  historical  society  and  the  Essex 
county  natural  history  society,  besides  its  ex- 
tensive cabinet  of  natural  history,  has  a  library 
of  80,000  volumes,  a  large  collection  of  por- 
traits, and  many  historical  and  other  relics. 
The  Salem  Athenaeum,  formed  in  1810  by  the 
purchase  of  the  social  and  philosophical  libra- 
ries as  a  basis,  has  a  library  of  15,500  volumes. 
These  two  last  named  institutions  occupy  the 
fine  building  known  as  Plummer  hall,  erected 
in  1856  from  funds  bequeathed  to  the  Salem 
Athenaeum  by  Miss  Caroline  Plummer.  In  the 
same  building  are  the  libraries,  each  compri- 
sing about  1,000  volumes,  of  the  Essex  agricul- 
tural society,  incorporated  in  1818,  and  the  Es- 
sex southern  district  medical  society,  formed 
in  1805.  The  office  of  the  permanent  secre- 
tary of  the  American  association  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  science,  organized  in  1848,  is  in 
the  East  India  marine  hall,  and  contains  a 
small  and  select  scientific  library.  The  chari- 
table mechanical  association,  organized  in  1817, 
has  a  library  of  4,000  volumes.  Other  impor- 
tant associations  are  the  marine  society,  insti- 
tuted in  1766;  thelyceum,  in  1830;  the  young 
men's  union,  in  1855 ;  and  the  young  men's 
Christian  association,  in  1858.  Two  semi- 
weekly  and  three  weekly  newspapers  and  two 
monthly  periodicals  are  published.  The  num- 
ber of  churches  is  20,  viz. :  3  Baptist,  3  Con- 
gregational, 2  Episcopal,  1  Free  Advent,  1 
Friends',  2  Methodist,  1  New  Jerusalem,  2 
Roman  Catholic,  4  Unitarian,  and  1  Univer- 
salist. — Salem  is  the  oldest  town  in  Massa- 
chusetts except  Plymouth,  having  been  settled 
in  1628  by  John  Endicott,  before  whose  arri- 
val, however,  a  house  had  been  built  there  by 
Roger  Conant  in  1626.  In  1629  11  ships  ar- 
rived here  from  England,  bringing  406  immi- 
grants, who  settled  in  various  localities  in  the 
vicinity.  The  first  church  organization  effected 
in  this  country  was  at  Salem  in  1629,  with  the 
Rev.  Francis  Higginson  as  its  pastor.  In  1692 
the  famous  witchcraft  delusion  made  its  ap- 
pearance, and  19  persons  from  this  and  adja- 
cent towns  were  executed  on  the  eminence 
now  known  as  Gallows  hill.  It  had  its  origin 
in  what  is  now  the  town  of  Danvers,  and  the 
persons  connected  with  it  belonged  to  several 
other  towns  also.  (See  WITCH.)  The  town  was 
incorporated  in  1630,  and  received  city  privi- 
leges in  1836.  Its  Indian  name  was  Naumkeag. 
SALEM,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Salem 
co.,  New  Jersey,  on  a  creek  of  the  same  name, 
3  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Delaware  river, 


SALEM 


SALEP 


563 


82  m.  in  a  direct  line  and  44  m.  by  rail  S.  S.  W. 
of  Philadelphia ;  pop.  in  1850,  3,052 ;  in  1860, 
3,865;  in  1870,  4,555;  in  1875,  4,459.  The 
creek  is  navigable  to  this  point  by  vessels  of 
50  tons.  There  is  regular  communication  with 
Philadelphia  by  steamer  and  by  the  West  Jer- 
sey railroad.  The  city  owes  its  prosperity  chief- 
ly to  the  rich  agricultural  resources  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  It  contains  manufactories 
of  glassware  for  druggists'  use,  oil  cloth,  car- 
riages, &c.,  fruit-canning  establishments,  ship 
yards,  a  national  bank,  two  building  associa- 
tions, seven  public  and  six  private  schools,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  eleven  churches. 

SALEM,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of  Ro- 
anoke  co.,  Virginia,  on  the  Roanoke  river  and 
the  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad,  145 
m.  W.  by  S.  of  Richmond ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,355, 
of  whom  500  were  colored ;  in  1875,  about 
2,000.  It  is  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of  Vir- 
ginia, between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghany 
mountains,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  health- 
fulness,  mild  climate,  and  fine  scenery.  It  is 
a  favorite  summer  resort.  .  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  are  sulphur  and  chalybeate  springs, 
and  within  a  radius  of  30  m.  are  seven  of  the 
most  celebrated  mineral  springs  in  Virginia. 
The  Valley  railroad,  in  course  of  construc- 
tion, is  to  terminate  here.  The  town  has  sev- 
eral hotels,  a  national  bank,  two  free  schools 
(white  and  colored),  two  weekly  newspapers, 
and  Baptist,  Episcopal,  Lutheran,  Methodist, 
and  Presbyterian  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Roanoke  college,  Lutheran,  founded  in  1853, 
which  has  beautiful  grounds  and  three  fine 
brick  buildings.  There  are  collegiate,  nor- 
mal, and  preparatory  departments ;  and  select 
courses  may  be  pursued.  The  library  contains 
about  13,000  volumes.  The  college  has  exten- 
sive chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus  and 
a  large  cabinet  of  minerals.  In  1874-'5  it  had 
9  instructors  and  167  students  (84  collegiate,  40 
select  and  normal,  and  43  preparatory).  The 
number  of  alumni  in  1875  was  133.  The  theo- 
logical seminary  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
church,  founded  at  Lexington,  S.  C.,  in  1830, 
was  removed  to  Salem  in  1873. 

SALEM,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Marion 
co.,  Oregon,  capital  of  the  state,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Willamette  river, 
and  on  the  Oregon  and  California  railroad,  50 
m.  S.  of  Portland;  pop.  in  1870,  1,139;  in 
1875,  about  6,000.  The  river  is  navigable  to 
this  point  during  three  fourths  of  the  year,  and 
steamers  run  regularly  to  Portland.  The  city 
is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  prairie.  Mill  creek 
enters  the  river  at  this  point,  and  its  rapid  fall 
affords  good  water  power.  There  are  flouring 
mills,  tanneries,  machine  shops,  founderies,  a 
woollen  mill,  a  linseed  oil  mill,  and  other 
manufactories.  The  city  has  two  private  banks, 
one  daily  and  three  weekly  newspapers,  and 
eight  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  Willamette 
university  and  of  three  state  institutions,  the 
penitentiary,  deaf-mute  school,  and  institute 
for  the  blind.  It  was  settled  in  1834,  incor- 


porated in  1853,  and  became  the  state  capital 
in  1860. 

SALEM,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
province  of  Madras,  bordering  on  Mysore, 
North  and  South  Arcot,  Trichinopoly,  and 
Coimbatore;  area,  7,617  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
1,963,243.  It  includes  the  high  table  land  of 
Barramahl,  which  produces  teak,  sandal,  and 
rose  wood,  and  cedar  in  great  abundance. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Cavery.  Artificial 
sheets  of  water  or  tanks  for  irrigation  are 
numerous.  Iron  ore  is  abundant,  and  mines 
of  chromate  of  iron  have  been  extensively 
worked  at  the  foot  of  the  Sheevaroy  hills. 
The  district  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  Indian 
steel  manufacture.  Cotton,  tobacco,  indigo, 
coffee,  and  rice  are  extensively  cultivated. 
The  capital  is  Salem,  170  m.  S.  W.  of  Ma- 
dras ;  pop.  about  25,000.  Silk  and  cotton  are 
manufactured  here. 

SALEP  (Persian,  sahalefy,  a  substance  cor- 
sisting  of  the  dried  bulbs  of  various  species  of 
orchis,  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family. 
Any  of  the  tuberous-rooted  orchids  afford  it, 
and  it  is  ascribed  to  more  than  a  dozen  spe- 
cies, natives  of  different  countries  from  Eng- 
land to  India.  It  is  known  in  commerce  by 
the  country  rather  than  by  the  plant  produ- 
cing it ;  it  is  chiefly  supplied  through  Smyrna. 
Some  species  have  roundish  and  others  lobed 
tubers,  which  when  taken  up  are  stripped  of 
their  epidermis  and  plunged  in  boiling  water 
or  dried  in  an  oven,  after  which  they  are 
strung  together  in  bunches.  In  drying  they 
form  small,  oval,  irregular  masses,  hard,  horny, 
semi-transparent,  of  a  yellowish  color,  feeble 


Orchis  mascula,  one  of  the  plants  famishing  Salep. 

odor,  and  mild  mucilaginous  taste.  It  is  used 
in  a  powdered  state,  in  which  it  is  also  some- 
times kept.  Salep  has  long  been  in  use  in 
oriental  countries,  where  it  has  for  ages  been 
regarded  as  able  to  restore  virility ;  but  at  best 
it  is  only  an  article  of  diet  of  no  special  value. 


564 


SALERNO 


SALIERI 


It  contains  a  small  proportion  of  starch,  and 
48  per  cent,  of  a  peculiar  mucilage  more  nearly 
allied  to  cellulose  than  to  gum  ;  it  will  convert 
40  parts  of  water  into  a  thick  jelly ;  small 
amounts  of  sugar  and  albumen  are  also  pres- 
ent. Salep  is  hardly  known  to  Americans; 
druggists  keep  it  to  supply  the  wants  of  Eu- 
ropeans, who  use  it  in  a  decoction  flavored 
with  spice,  wine,  and  sugar. 

SALERNO  (anc.  Salernum),  a  town  of  S.  Ita- 
ly, capital  of  the  province  of  Principato  Cite- 
riore  or  Salerno'  (see  PEINCIPATO  CITERIOBK), 
at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Salerno  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, 30  m.  8.  E.  of  Naples ;  pop.  in 
1872,  27,759.  The  port,  long  nearly  filled  up 
with  sand,  has  been  improved  since  1868. 
The  cathedral,  begun  about  1080  on  the  site  of 
an  older  edifice,  contains  the  remains  of  Pope 
Gregory  VII.,  and  according  to  tradition  also 
those  of  St.  Matthew,  to  whom  it  is  dedicated. 
The  university  of  Salerno,  especially  celebrated 
in  the  middle  ages  for  its  school  of  medicine, 
was  replaced  in  1817  by  a  lyceum. — Salernnm 
was  originally  founded  by  the  Greeks  or  Tyr- 
rhenians, and  received  a  Roman  colony  in  194 
8.  C.  It  was  some  time  the  residence  of  the 
Lombard  duke  of  Benevento,  in  840  became 
an  independent  principality,  in  1077  was  cap- 
tured by  Robert  Guiscard  and  made  the  capi- 
tal of  the  duchy  of  Apulia,  and  afterward 
passed  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

SALES,  Francis  de.     See  Ki:  \  M  L-  DE  SALES. 

SALFORD.     See  MANCHESTER. 

8ALIANS,  or  Sallt  Franks,  a  tribe  of  Germans, 
who  iu  the  5th  century  invaded  Gaul,  and  by 
its  conquest  under  Clovis  founded  the  French 
monarchy.  (See  FRANKS.)  Their  code  of  law 
was  called  the  Salic.  (See  CODE,  vol.  v.,  p.  7.) 
— Salic  land  (terra  Salica  or  dominicata)  was 
a  name  given  to  an  estate  subject  to  no  burden, 
depending  upon  no  superior,  and  upon  which 
the  manor  house  of  the  master  was  situated. 
Later  the  title  was  applied  also  to  inherited 
landed  property  as  distinct  from  acquired  pos- 
sessions, and  by  the  Salic  law  females  were 
excluded  from  inheriting  this  species  of  prop- 
erty. This  last  feature  of  their  law  has  al- 
ways prevailed  in  France  with  respect  to  the 
crown,  as  it  did  in  Spain  under  the  Bourbon 
line  till  1830,  when  it  was  abolished  in  favor 
of  Isabella.  The  German  emperors  of  the 
house  of  Franconia,  from  Conrad  II.  to  Henry 
V.  (1024-1125),  are  designated  as  Salians. 

SALICINE,  a  crystallizable  bitter  substance 
contained  in  the  leaves  and  young  bark  of 
the  willow  (talix),  poplar,  and  several  other 
trees,  discovered  by  Leroux  in  1880.  It  was 
investigated  by  Piria,  who  discovered  many  of 
its  derivatives,  among  them  salicylic  acid.  It 
is  prepared  by  boiling  the  bark  in  water,  con- 
centrating the  decoction,  digesting  with  oxide 
of  lead,  and  precipitating  the  lead  by  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen,  when  salicine  crystallizes  out 
on  evaporating  and  cooling.  By  treatment 
with  animal  charcoal  and  recrystallizing  it  may 
be  obtained  pure  in  small  white  silky  needles, 


having  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  but  no  alka- 
line reaction.  Its  formula  is  CisHigOi.  It  is 
soluble  in  5'6  parts  of  cold,  and  in  much  less 
boiling  water.  The  addition  of  sulphuric  acid 
produces  a  deep  red  color.  Distilled  with  a 
mixture  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric 
acid,  among  other  products  there  is  a  yellow, 
sweet-scented  oil,  called  salicylol,  having  the 
composition  CTH«OJ,  identical  with  the  vola- 
tile oil  which  was  obtained  from  the  flowers 
of  spircea  ulmaria  or  common  meadow-sweet 
by  Lowig  and  Weidmann. 

SALIC  LAW.     See  SALIANS. 

SALICYLIC  ACID,  a  product  of  salicine,  car- 
bolic acid,  and  other  substances.  (See  SALI- 
CINE.) "When  salicylol  is  acted  on  by  chromic 
acid  or  potassium  hydrate,  it  becomes  oxidized, 
forming  potassium  salicylate,  with  evolution 
of  hydrogen  (C,H.Oi  +  HpK=C,H»KO,  +  Ha). 
The  potassium  salicylate  is  decomposed  by  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  acid,  liberating  salicylic 
acid,  CiHeO»,  with  production  of  potassium 
chloride  (C7 H.KO,  +  HC1=C,H,O,  +  KC1).  Oil 
of  wintergreen  (Gaultheria  procumbent)  also 
yields,  by  distillation  with  potash,  methyl  alco- 
hol and  salicylic  acid.  The  latter  may  also  be 
formed  by  passing  dry  carbon  dioxide  into 
warm  phenol  (carbolic  acid),  to  which  at  the 
same  time  are  added  small  pieces  of  sodium. 
The  reaction  forms  sodium  salicylate,  from 
which  salicylic  acid  may  be  obtained  by  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  this  manner 
of  producing  salicylic  acid  which  gives  it  im- 
portance both  in  a  scientific  and  commercial 
point  of  view.  Two  German  chemists,  Kolbe 
and  Lautemann,  chose  carbolic  acid  to  experi- 
ment upon,  with  a  view  to  produce  salicylic 
acid,  and  its  discovery  is  therefore  not  an  acci- 
dent. Salicylic  acid  crystallizes  from  an  alco- 
holic solution  by  spontaneous  evaporation  in 
large,  monoclinic,  four-sided  prisms.  From  a 
hot  aqueous  solution  it  separates  on  cooling 
into  slender  needles,  often  an  inch  long.  It 
melts  at  266°  F.,  and  gives  off  phenol  at  a 
higher  temperature.  It  has  a  sweetish  sour 
taste,  and  reddens  litmus  paper  strongly.  It 
does  not  act  on  polarized  light.  It  is  very 
slightly  soluble  in  cold,  quite  soluble  in  hot 
water,  and  still  more  in  alcohol ;  and  boiling 
oil  of  turpentine  dissolves  about  one  fifth  of 
its  weight.  The  acid  solution  imparts  a  deep 
red  color  to  ferric  salts.  Salicylic  acid  has  re- 
cently attracted  much  attention  as  a  powerful 
anti-ferment,  taking  the  place  of  carbolic  acid 
or  phenol  as  a  dressing  to  wounds  and  ulcers, 
and  as  a  general  antiseptic.  "When  consider- 
ably diluted  it  is  almost  odorless  and  tasteless, 
and  in  moderate  quantities  it  has  no  poisonous 
effects.  It  prevents  the  souring  of  worts  and 
beer,  and  is  used  by  glue  manufacturers  to 
arrest  putrefaction. 

SALIERI,  Antonio,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Legnano,  Aug.  19,  1750,  died  in  Vienna, 
M.-iy  7,  1825.  In  1766  he  went  to  Vienna 
with  Gassmann  the  contrapuntist,  who  in- 
structed him,  and  whom  he  succeeded  in  1775 


SALINE 


SALIVARY  GLANDS 


565 


as  court  chapelmaster  and  director  of  the  thea- 
tre there.  Here  he  became  so  intimate  with 
Gluck  as  to  compose  for  him  an  opera,  pro- 
duced in  Paris,  entitled  Lea  Dana'idea,  the  real 
authorship  of  which  Gluck  did  not  announce 
till  it  had  been  performed  several  times.  Sa- 
lieri  wrote  43  operas,  and  various  composi- 
tions for  instruments  and  for  the  church,  in- 
cluding his  Passione  di  Qezil  Cristo,  five  mass- 
es, and  a  requiem. 

SALINE,  a  river  of  Arkansas,  rising  in  the  N. 
part  of  Saline  co.,  and  flowing  S.  E.,  S.,  and 
S.  W.  into  the  Washita  river.  Its  length  is 
about  200  m.  It  is  navigable  at  high  water  by 
boats  of  considerable  size  70  or  80  m.  from  its 
mouth.  It  has  a  number  of  small  tributaries. 

SALINE,  the  name  of  five  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Arkan- 
sas, drained  by  Saline  river;  area,  about  800 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,911,  of  whom  185  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  level  in  the  S.  part 
and  hilly  elsewhere,  and  the  soil  is  productive. 
Marble,  quartz,  and  soapstone  are  found  in 
large  quantities.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  10,890  bushels  of  wheat,  186,040 
of  Indian  corn,  15,899  of  sweet  and  5,874  of 
Irish  potatoes,  69,292  Ibs.  of  butter,  11,457  of 
honey,  3,816  of  tobacco,  3,438  of  wool,  and 
603  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  779  horses, 
259  mules  and  asses,  1,518  milch  cows,  2,350 
other  cattle,  2,049  sheep,  and  11,221  swine. 
Capital,  Benton.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Illi- 
nois; area,  370  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,714. 
The  surface  is  generally  level  and  well  tim- 
bered, and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Cairo  and  Vincennes  railroad  and  a  branch 
of  the  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  83,211  bushels  of 
wheat,  531,516  of  Indian  corn,  69,793  of  oats, 
24,247  of  Irish  and  11,600  of  sweet  potatoes, 
8,149  tons  of  hay,  1,155,941  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
29,274  of  wool,  198,462  of  butter,  and  23,252 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
3,467  horses,  1,109  mules  and  asses,  2,888 
milch  cows,  4,542  other  cattle,  15,018  sheep, 
and  20,576  swine.  Capital,  Harrisburg.  III. 
A  central  county  of  Missouri,  bounded  N.  and 
E.  by  the  Missouri  river,  and  intersected  by 
the  Black  and  Salt  forks  of  La  Mine  river ; 
area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,672,  of 
whom  3,754  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
mostly  prairie  and  the  soil  fertile.  Bitumi- 
nous coal,  lead,  limestone,  and  sandstone  are 
found;  and  there  are  numerous  salt  springs. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  396,645 
bushels  of  wheat,  2,106,043  of  Indian  corn, 
323,806  of  oats,  80,670  of  potatoes,  10,424 
tons  of  hay,  215,475  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  47,018  of 
wool,  339,108  of  butter,  28,528  of  honey,  and 
10,566  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  8,083  horses,  3,279  mules  and  asses,  7,171 
milch  cows,  14,202  other  cattle,  16,310  sheep, 
and  46,231  swine;  10  flour  mills,  and  10  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Marshall.  IV.  A  central  coun- 
ty of  Kansas,  intersected  by  the  Saline  and 
Smoky  Hill  rivers ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 


1870,  4,246.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Kansas 
Pacific  railroad.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Timber 
grows  along  the  streams,  and  there  are  salt 
springs.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
67,586  bushels  of  wheat,  225,048  of  Indian 
corn,  20,931  of  oats,  30,220  of  potatoes,  40,331 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  10,862  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,425  horses,  1,867  milch  cows,  3,824 
other  cattle,  and  1,392  swine.  Capital,  Salina. 
V.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  intersected  by 
Big  Blue  river  and  watered  by  its  affluents; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,106.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
Eiver  railroad  and  the  Beatrice  branch.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  19,061  bushels 
of  wheat,  33,670  of  Indian  corn,  5,809  of  po- 
tatoes, 11,885  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,051  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  340  horses,  257  milch  cows, 
414  other  cattle,  696  sheep,  and  384  swine. 
Capital,  Pleasant  Hill. 

SALISBURY,  or  New  Saram,  a  city  of  Eng- 
land, capital  of  Wiltshire,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Avon,  Wily,  and  Bourne  rivers,  78  m.  W. 
S.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  in  1871,  12,903.  The 
cathedral  was  built  between  1220  and  1260,  by 
the  bishop  and  canons  of  Old  Sarum,  2  m.  N., 
which  place  was  in  consequence  deserted  by 
its  inhabitants  for  the  new  site.  Since  1868 
the  exterior  and  interior  have  been  completely 
restored.  The  principal  manufacture  is  cut- 
lery. The  woollen  manufacture,  once  famous, 
has  become  extinct. 

SALISBURY.  I.  Robert  Ceeil,  earl  of.  See 
CECIL.  II.  Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gascoyne  Cecil, 
third  marquis  and  eighth  earl  of,  an  English 
statesman,  born  Feb.  13,  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  from  1853  to 
1868  was  member  of  parliament  for  Stamford, 
being  at  first  called  Lord  Robert  Cecil,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1865 
Viscount  Cranborne.  In  1866-'7  he  was  sec- 
retary of  state  and  president  of  the  council  for 
India.  He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  April  12, 
1868.  On  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Derby,  Oct. 
23,  1869,  Salisbury  succeeded  him  as  chancel- 
lor of  the  university  of  Oxford.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1874,  he  became  a  member  of  Disraeli's 
administration  as  secretary  of  state  for  India. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  influential  representa- 
tives of  the  tory  party. 

SALIVA.  See  DIGESTION,  and  SALIVARY 
GLANDS. 

SALIVARY  GLANDS,  those  glands  which  se- 
crete the  saliva,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  parotid,  the  submaxillary,  and  the  sublin- 
gual,  disposed  in  pairs.  The  parotid,  the  lar- 
gest gland,  weighing  from  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce,  is  immediately  below  and  in  front  of 
the  ear  and  the  zygomatic  arch,  reaching  down 
as  low  as  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  Its  outer 
surface,  slightly  lobulated,  is  covered  by  the 
skin  and  fascia,  and  its  inner  surface  extends 
deeply  into  the  neck  by  two  processes,  one  of 
which  dips  behind  the  styloid  process  and  be- 
neath the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone 


666. 


SALIVARY  GLANDS 


SALLUST 


and  the  sterno-mastoid  muscle,  and  the  other 
is  situated  in  front  of  the  styloid  process.  The 
external  carotid  artery  passes  through  the  sub- 
stance of  the  gland.  It  is  also  traversed  by  the 
posterior  auricular,  transverse  facial,  temporal, 
and  internal  maxillary  arteries,  by  a  venous 
trunk  formed  by  the  union  of  the  temporal 
and  internal  maxillary  veins,  and  by  a  branch 
connecting  this  trunk  with  the  jugular  vein. 
The  facial  nerve  and  its  branches  and  the  great 
auricular  nerve  pass  through  it  from  before 
backward.  The  internal  carotid  artery  asd 
internal  jugular'vein  lie  close  to  its  deep  sur- 
face. The  duct  of  the  parotid  gland  (the  duct 
of  Steno)  is  about  2£  in.  long,  opening  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  cheek  by  a  small  orifice 
opposite  the  second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper 
jaw ;  it  is  dense,  of  considerable  thickness, 
and  its  canal  is  about  the  size  of  a  crow  quill, 
composed  of  an  external  fibrous  and  internal 
mucous  coat,  lined  with  columnar  epithelium. 
The  gland  is  supplied  with  blood  by  branches 
of  the  external  carotid  artery,  and  with  nerves 
from  the  carotid  plexus  of  the  sympathetic, 
the  facial,  the  superficial  temporal,  the  auri- 
culo-temporal,  and  great  auricular  nerves ;  and 
its  lymphatics  terminate  in  the  superficial  and 
deep  cervical  glands.  The  submaxillary  gland 
is  situated  below  the  lower  jaw,  within  and 
just  in  front  of  the  angle,  lying  upon  the 
mylo-hyoid,  hyo-glossus,  and  stylo-glossus  mus- 
cles, and  is  separated  from  the  parotid  by  the 
stylo-maxillary  ligament.  It  is  irregular  in 
form,  and  weighs  about  two  drachms.  It  is 
relatively  smaller  in  the  herbivora  than  in  the 
carnivora,  being  in  the  latter  larger  than  the 
parotid.  The  facial  artery  lies  imbedded  in  a 
groove  in  its  posterior  and  upper  border.  Its 
duct  (Wharton's)  is  about  2  in.  long,  much 
thinner  than  that  of  the  parotid,  and  opens 
by  a  narrow  orifice  by  the  side  of  the  f  nenum 
of  the  tongue.  The  gland  is  supplied  with 
blood  by  branches  of  the  facial  and  lingual 
arteries,  and  its  nerves  are  derived  from  the 
submaxillary  ganglion,  from  a  branch  of  the 
inferior  dental,  and  from  the  sympathetic. 
The  sublingual  gland  is  the  smallest,  weighing 
about  a  drachm.  It  is  situated  in  the  floor  of 
the  mouth  at  the  side  of  the  froenum  lingute, 
in  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  lower 
jaw,  close  to  its  symphysis.  Its  excretory 
ducts  are  from  8  to  20  in  number,  very  short, 
and  open  on  the  crest  or  projection  formed  by 
the  gland  itself.  One  or  more  join  to  form  a 
duct  known  as  the  duct  of  Bartholin,  which 
opens  into  Wharton's  duct.  The  gland  is  sup- 
plied with  blood  from  the  sublingual  and 
submental  arteries,  and  with  nerves  from  the 
gustatory  nerve. — These  three  pairs  of  glands 
are  of  the  kind  called  conglomerate,  consist- 
ing of  numerous  lobes  composed  of  smaller 
lobules  connected  together  by  areolar  tissue, 
vessels,  and  ducts.  There  are  other  small 
glands  lying  in  and  beneath  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth,  such  as  the  labial  and  buc- 
cal  glands,  the  follicular  glands  of  the  tongue, 


and  certain  glandular  bodies  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx.  (See  PHAEYNX.) 
Prof.  Dalton  obtained  pure  parotid  saliva  from 
the  human  mouth  by  introducing  a  silver  tube 
into  the  duct,  and  arrived  at  many  important 
facts  regarding  its  functions.  In  one  observa- 
tion 480  grains  of  the  secretion  flowed  from 
the  tube  in  20  minutes.  The  secretion  takes 
place  most  rapidly  during  mastication,  and  on 
that  side  of  the  mouth  where  the  mastication 
is  performed,  as  has  been  shown  by  Colin  and 
confirmed  by  Dalton.  The  flow  is  also  active 
upon  the  sight  or  perception  of  the  odor  of 
food,  and  also  from  the  influence  of  the  imagi- 
nation. Bernard  has  shown  that  galvaniza- 
tion of  the  small  root  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves,  and  of  the  facial,  immediately  pro- 
duces profuse  secretion  from  the  parotid.  Pa- 
rotid saliva  is  clear  and  limpid,  and  differs  in 
composition  somewhat  from  that  of  the  sub- 
maxillary and  sublingual  glands.  It  contains 
organic  matter,  sulpho-cyanide  of  sodium, 
phosphate  of  lime,  chlorides  of  potassium  and 
sodium,  and  carbonate  of  soda.  The  function 
of  parotid  saliva  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
chiefly  to  assist  in  mastication  and  deglutition. 
Pure  submaxillary  saliva  was  first  studied  as  a 
distinct  fluid  by  Bernard.  It  is  more  viscid 
than  that  from  the  parotid,  but  is  perfectly 
clear,  and  on  cooling  becomes  gelatinous.  Its 
organic  matter  is  not  coagulated  by  heat.  Ber- 
nard regards  the  function  of  submaxillary  sali- 
va as  exclusively  connected  with  gustation  or 
tasting,  and  says  its  secretion  only  takes  place 
under  the  stimulus  of  the  gustatory  nerves. 
The  secretion  of  the  sublingual  is  more  viscid 
than  that  of  the  submaxillary,  but  does  not 
gelatinize  on  cooling.  Like  the  secretion  from 
the  other  salivary  glands,  it  is  decidedly  alka- 
line. Its  organic  matter  is  not  coagulated  by 
heat,  acids,  or  metallic  salts.  The  functions 
and  properties  of  the  mixed  saliva  of  all  the 
glands  of  the  mouth  are  stated  in  the  article 
DIGESTION'. 

SALLE,  Jean  Baptiste  de  la.    See  LA  SALI,E. 

SALLKT,  Fried  rich  TOD,  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Neisse,  Silesia,  April  20,  1812,  died  at  Rei- 
chau,  Feb.  21,  1843.  He  was  descended  from 
French  Protestant  refugees.  After  serving  in 
the  army,  he  published  in  1880  a  satirical  novel 
on  military  life,  and  was  sentenced  to  ten  years' 
imprisonment,  which  the  king  reduced  to  two 
months.  His  principal  work,  Laienevangelium 
(Breslau,  1839;  6th  ed.,  1861),  is  a  eulogy  of 
pantheism.  His  complete  works  were  published 
in  5  vols.  (Breslau,  1845-'8;  new  ed.,  1864). 

8ALLFST  (CAIDS  SALLUSTITTS  CRISPUS),  a  Ro- 
man historian,  born  at  Amiternum,  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Sabines,  in  86  B.  C.,  died  in  34. 
He  belonged  to  a  plebeian  family,  and  about 
the  age  of  27  obtained  the  quaestorship.  In 
politics  he  allied  himself  with  the  faction  of 
Caesar,  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  52,  and 
in  50  was  expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  cen- 
sors Appius  Claudius  and  Piso  on  the  ground 
of  adultery  with  Fausta,  the  daughter  of  Sulla, 


SALMASIUS 


SALMON 


567 


but  in  reality,  probably,  on  account  of  his 
opposition  to  the  aristocratic  party.  In  47 
he  was  prsetor,  and  in  46  he  accompanied 
Caesar  in  his  expedition  to  Africa.  He  was 
appointed  governor  of  Numidia,  and,  after 
acquiring  an  immense  fortune  by  plundering 
the  inhabitants,  devoted  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  literary  pursuits  and  the  embellishment 
of  his  splendid  gardens  on  the  Quirinal  hill. 
Dion  Cassius  and  other  authors  ascribe  to  him 
almost  every  species  of  profligacy  and  crime. 
He  wrote  Bellum  Catilinarium,  a  history  of 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline ;  Bellum  Jugurthi- 
num,  a  history  of  the  war  against  Jugurtha; 
and  Historiarum  Libri  F.,  comprising  the 
period  between  78  B.  C.,  the  year  of  Sulla's 
death,  and  66,  and  forming,  with  the  other 
two  works,  a  connected  history  of  Roman 
affairs  for  45  years.  The  last  exists  only  in  a 
few  fragments.  Of  the  numerous  editions  of 
the  "Jugurthine  War"  and  the  "Conspiracy 
of  Catiline,"  the  first  is  that  of  Venice  (fol., 
1470),  and  one  of  the  best  that  of  Gerlach 
(3  vols.  4to,  Basel,  1823-'31),  the  latter  con- 
taining, in  addition,  the  fragments  of  the  lost 
books.  There  are  numerous  translations  of 
Sallust  into  English,  the  oldest  by  Barclay 
(1511),  and  recent  ones  by  Watson  (1852),  by 
Dr.  Giles  (1862),  and  by  J.  E.  Mongan  (1864). 

SALMASHS,  Claudius  (CLAUDE  DE  SAUMAISE), 
a  French  scholar,  born  at  Semur-en-Auxois, 
April  15,  1588,  died  in  Spa,  Sept.  6,  1653.  In 
Lis  boyhood  he  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  verses. 
He  completed  his  studies  in  Paris  and  Heidel- 
berg, and  became  a  Protestant.  He  was  in- 
vited to  Venice,  Oxford,  and  Borne,  but  pre- 
ferred in  1632  the  university  of  Leyden,  and 
returned  there  in  1640  after  a  visit  to  Paris, 
although  offered  a  large  pension  if  he  would 
become  Richelieu's  biographer.  At  the  insti- 
gation of  Charles  II.,  then  a  refugee  in  Hol- 
land, he  wrote  in  1649  Defemio  Regia  pro  Ca- 
rolo  Primo,  which  led  to  Milton's  cetebrated 
reply,  Pro  Populo  Anglicano  Defensio  (1650). 
In  the  same  year  he  visited  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden,  but  returned  in  1651  to  Leyden. 
His  most  important  work  is  Plinianm  Exerci- 
tationes  in  Solinum  (2  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1629; 
new  ed.,  Utrecht,  1689). 

SALMON,  the  common  name  of  the  soft-rayed 
fishes  of  the  genus  aalmo  (Guv.).  The  old 
genus  salmo  of  Artedi  and  Linnaeus  has  been 
subdivided  into  the  three  principal  families  of 
salmonidce,  characini,  and  scopelidce,  of  which 
only  the  first  concerns  us  here;  this,  besides 
the  salmon  and  trout,  includes  the  smelt,  cape- 
lin  (mallotus),  grayling,  whitefish,  and  others. 
The  genus  salmo  has  the  cheeks  or  whole  head 
covered  with  scaleless  integument,  and  the  rest 
of  the  body  with  cycloid,  thin,  small  scales; 
there  is  an  adipose  fin  on  the  back  near  the 
tail,  over  the  anal,  and  the  dorsal  is  over  the 
ventrals;  the  branchiostegal  rays  vary  from 
12  to  19,  and  there  is  a  false  gill  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  operculum ;  the  edge  of  the  upper 
jaw  is  formed  by  the  maxillaries  as  well  as 


the  premaxillaries ;  the  air  bladder  is  always 
present,  large  and  simple,  opening  into  the  pha- 
rynx; the  intestinal  canal  is  short,  with  nu- 
merous pyloric  caeca;  the  ovaries  form  closed 
sacs  without  oviducts,  and  the  eggs  enter  the 
cavity  of  the  abdomen,  whence  they  pass  out 
by  an  opening  behind  the  anus.  The  names 
salmon  and  trout  have  been  applied  in  the 
most  indefinite  and  contrary  manner,  by  dif- 
ferent authors  and  in  both  hemispheres,  to  the 
fishes  of  this  genus ;  those  by  almost  universal 
consent  called  salmon  will  be  alluded  to  here, 
leaving  for  the  article  TROUT  the  brighter 
spotted  and  usually  smaller  and  fresh-water 
species.  According  to  Prof.  Rasch  of  Nor- 
way, many  so-called  species  of  the  salmonidcs 
produce  fertile  offspring  inter  se;  the  spawn 
of  the  true  salmon  fecundated  by  the  common 
trout  has  been  known  to  produce  40  per  cent, 
of  a  well  shaped  prolific  brood ;  showing  either 
that  hybrids  are  not  sterile,  or  that  the  limits 
of  the  species  cannot  be  defined.  Even  the 
genus  as  restricted  by  Cuvier  has  been  sub- 
divided into  three  by  Valenciennes  according 
to  the  distribution  of  the  vomerine  teeth ;  in 
salmo  (Val.)  there  are  strong  conical  teeth  in 
both  jaws  and  a  small  group  at  the  end  of  the 
vomer;  the  palate  bones  and  the  sides  of  the 
tongue  are  also  armed  with  teeth ;  in  fario 
(Val.),  including  the  salmon  trout,  there  is  in 
addition  a  single  mesial  line  of  teeth  on  the 
vomer;  and  in  solar  (Val.)  the  vomer  has  two 
rows  of  teeth.  Species  called  salmon  and  spe- 
cies called  trout  are  found  in  each  of  these 
subdivisions,  but  the  last  two  contain  chiefly 
those  called  salmon  trout  and  trout.  The  sal- 
mons are  of  great  importance  to  man  as  an 
article  of  food,  and  are  the  most  esteemed  of 
any  fresh- water  fish ;  the  number  of  men  and 
the  amount  of  capital  employed  in  this  fishery 
are  very  great ;  their  flesh  is  eaten  fresh,  salt- 
ed, smoked,  dried,  and  pickled.  The  species, 
which  are  numerous,  inhabit  the  sea  and  fresh 
waters,  some  migrating  from  the  ocean  to 
rivers  at  the  breeding  season;  they  spawn  in 
shallow  streams,  both  sexes  assisting  in  form- 
ing the  bed;  they  are  found  in  the  northern 
waters  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  even  in 
small  streams,  in  the  cold  water  of  the  arctic 
zone,  and  as  high  as  the  regions  of  perpetual 
snow ;  none  have  been  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica, the  East  Indies,  or  Africa.  They  are  un- 
mistakably alluded  to  by  Pliny  and  Ausonius. 
— At  the  head  of  the  true  salmons,  or  those 
having  the  body  of  the  vomer  smooth,  stands 
the  common  salmon  (&  salmo,  Val. ;  S.  talar 
of  authors).  In  this  the  head  is  large,  the 
gape  wide  and  well  furnished  with  teeth ;  the 
gill  openings  are  very  large,  and  consequently 
death  very  soon  takes  place  out  of  the  water ; 
the  abdominal  outline  is  much  more  curved 
than  the  dorsal;  the  snout  pointed,  and  the 
body  rather  slender  and  fusiform ;  the  form  is 
elegant,  and  the  movements  are  rapid  aad  vig- 
orous. The  color  is  slaty  blue  on  the  back, 
darkest  on  the  head,  duller  and  slightly  silvery 


568 


SALMON 


on  the  sides,  and  beneath  pearly  silvery  white ; 
there  are  numerous  black  spots  above  the  lat- 
eral line ;  the  dorsal,  pectorals,  and  caudal  are 


Common  Salmon  (Salmo  salar). 

dusky,  the  anal  white,  and  the  ventrals  white 
externally  and  dusky  internally ;  the  gill  cov- 
ers are  rounded  posteriorly,  and  the  tail  is 
nearly  square  in  the  adult,  but  forked  in  the 
young ;  the  scales  are  delicate,  and  sunk  in  the 
thick  and  fatty  skin.  As  seen  in  the  markets 
they  are  generally  not  more  than  8  ft.  long, 
though  they  attain  a  much  greater  size.  From 
the  northern  seas  they  enter  the  rivers  when 
swollen  by  the  rains  and  more  or  less  turbid 
and  deep,  remaining  for  a  time  in  the  brackish 
estuaries;  they  are  probably  able  to  detect 
the  mixture  of  the  waters  through  the  nos- 
trils, which  are  freely  supplied  with  nervous 
filaments;  they  ascend  during  the  flood,  at 
the  rate  of  15  to  25  m.  a  day,  resting  in  pools 
when  the  water  is  unfit  for  their  progress;  the 
females  ascend  before  the  males.  Having  at- 
tained the  requisite  height,  as  the  cold  weather 
comes  on  they  take  measures  to  deposit  their 
spawn ;  at  this  time  the  female  becomes  very 
large,  and  her  silvery  tints  dull  gray ;  the  male 
becomes  thinner  on  the  back,  the  nose  longer, 
the  under  jaw  turns  up  in  a  strong  hook  which 
enters  a  hollow  in  the  nose,  and  the  colors 
become  brown  and  red.  A  furrow,  6  to  9  in. 
deep,  is  excavated  in  the  bottom,  principally 
by  the  female ;  in  this  the  spawn  is  deposited, 
impregnated,  and  covered  with  gravel  by  the 
fish.  The  spawning  process  consumes  from  8 
to  12  days,  and  at  the  end  of  it  the  fish  are 
very  much  emaciated,  the  scales  are  cast  off, 
and  they  retire  to  some  quiet  place  to  regain 
their  strength ;  in  this  condition  they  are 
called  kelts,  and  are  unfit  for  food.  The  eggs 
remain  covered  by  the  gravel  all  winter  be- 
neath the  ice,  and  begin  to  be  hatched  by 
the  end  of  March  or  commencement  of  April ; 
experiments  prove  that  the  eggs  are  hatched 
in  114  days  when  the  temperature  of  the  water 


Young  Salmon. 

Is  at  36°  F.,  in  101  at  43°,  and  in  90  at  45°. 
The  young  come  out  from  the  gravel  when 
about  an  inch  long ;  these  are  called  parr,  and 


remain  a  year  in  fresh  water ;  when  4  to  6  in. 
long  they  receive  the  name  of  smolts,  and  are 
greenish  gray  above  and  silvery  below,  with 
very  deciduous  and  delicate  scales,  in  which 
state  they  descend  to  the  sea ;  after  about  two 
months'  sojourn  there  they  ascend  the  riv- 
ers again,  weighing  2|  to  4  Ibs.,  and  are  then 
called  grilse ;  they  spawn  during  the  winter, 
and  then  are  entitled  to  the  name  of  salmon ; 
descending  and  returning  the  following  season, 
they  weigh  10  to  15  Ibs.,  and  may  go  on  in- 
creasing to  60  or  70  Ibs. ;  but  now  a  salmon  of 
30  Ibs.  is  considered  very  large,  as  from  the 
injudicious  methods  of  fishing  both  in  Europe 
and  this  country  most  are  caught  in  the  condi- 
tion of  grilse  or  younger.  According  to  Dr. 
Davy,  the  eggs  retain  their  vitality  for  many 
hours  in  the  air,  if  moist  and  cold  (even  to  32° 
F.),  but  not  more  than  an  hour  if  dry  and  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  both  the  ova  and  young 
fish  will  bear  a  heat  of  80°  or  85°  in  water  for 
a  short  time,  but  die  in  water  above  84°  or 
85°;  they  perish  also  in  salt  or  brackish  wa- 
ter. In  their  descent  to  the  sea  they  generally 
remain  for  a  time  in  brackish  water,  getting 


Salmon  One  Year  Old. 

rid  of  their  fresh-water  parasites  (crustaceans 
which  attach  themselves  to  their  gills),  and 
they  do  the  same  thing  before  they  ascend  the 
rivers,  which  frees  them  from  marine  parasites. 
This  species  is  very  extensively  distributed  in 
northern  Europe  and  America,  being  found  in 
Great  Britain,  the  Orkneys,  France,  Belgium, 
Holland,  Germany,  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Iceland,  getting  access  from  the 
English  channel  and  the  northern  seas  by  the 
Tweed,  Tay,  Severn,  Loire,  Rhine,  Elbe,  &c. ; 
it  does  not  occur  in  rivers  falling  into  the 
Mediterranean,  and  does  not  come  below  the 
45th  parallel  of  latitude ;  in  North  America  it 
frequents  the  rivers  of  Labrador,  Canada,  New- 
foundland, Nova  Scotia,  New  England,  and 
those  of  New  York  communicating  with  the 
St.  Lawrence,  ascending  even  to  Lake  Ontario. 
Salmon  can  live  without  access  to  the  sea,  as  is 
seen  in  Sebago  and  other  landlocked  lakes  of 
Maine,  but  they  are  of  inferior  size  and  quality. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  salmon  has  the  power 
of  swimming  with  great  velocity,  of  stemming 
rapid  rivers,  and  of  jumping  over  dams  and 
waterfalls  of  considerable  height ;  they  have 
been  known  to  spring  14  ft.  out  of  water,  and 
to  describe  a  curve  of  at  least  20  ft.  in  order  to 
surmount  a  cascade ;  if  not  successful  at  first 
they  persevere  till  they  succeed,  unless  the  ob- 
struction be  insurmountable ;  these  efforts  they 


SALMON 


"569 


are  able  to  make  by  their  powerful  and  active 
muscles,  and  especially  by  the  strong  and  fleshy 
tail.  Ascending  the  rivers  from  June  to  Sep- 
tember, their  shoals  are  attended  by  porpoises, 
seals,  and  carnivorous  fish,  which  find  them  an 
easy  prey ;  it  is  popularly  believed  that  they 
return  to  the  river  in  which  they  were  hatched, 
which  in  their  immense  numbers  would  be 
likely  to  happen  to  some,  but  more  unlikely,  as 
the  fact  proves,  to  the  greater  portion.  The 
salmon  is  very  voracious,  and  grows  rapidly ; 
in  the  sea  it  feeds  principally  on  small  fishes, 
especially  the  sand  eel  (ammodytes),  crusta- 
ceans, the  ova  of  echinoderms,  &c. ;  it  is  be- 
lieved that  it  eats  very  little  while  in  fresh 
water  from  its  thin  appearance,  but  the  ema- 
ciation would  be  sufficiently  accounted  for  by 
the  waste  incidental  to  the  breeding  season. 
In  the  sea  salmon  very  rarely  bite  at  a  hook, 
but  in  rivers  and  estuaries  they  will  rise  to 
artificial  flies.  For  an  interesting  account  of 
salmon  fly  fishing  the  reader  is  referred  to  Sir 
Humphry  Davy's  "  Salmonia,  or  the  Days  of 
Fly  Fishing."  They  are  speared  by  the  Amer- 
ican Indians,  and  also  in  the  Scottish  rivers. 
Where  salmon  fishing  is  pursued  as  a  business, 
they  are  taken  in  nets,  usually  in  gill  nets, 
stretched  across  the  mouths  of  the  rivers. 
Many  hundred  salmon  of  good  size  are  often 
taken  at  a  single  haul  of  a  seine,  and  some  of 
the  English  fisheries  furnish  annually  more 
than  200,000;  the  fisheries  of  Scotland  and 
Norway  are  also  very  profitable.  Eivers  are 
let  out  to  sportsmen  with  the  exclusive  right 
of  fishing  for  salmon  ;  the  streams  of  the  Brit- 
ish provinces  in  America  are  frequently  thus 
disposed  of  both  to  native  and  foreign  anglers. 
The  river  Thames  was  once  celebrated  for  its 
salmon,  but  its  stream  is  now  too  impure  to 
invite  them  to  enter.  The  Merrimack  river  in 
Massachusetts  formerly  swarmed  with  salmon 
weighing  from  9  to  12  Ibs.,  but  the  numerous 
dams  and  manufacturing  establishments  have 
driven  them  away,  and  the  northern  markets 
are  now  supplied  from  the  Kennebec  river  and 
the  British  provinces,  and  from  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  salmon  enters  the  rivers  of  Nova 
Scotia  in  the  latter  part  of  April,  the  rivers 
emptying  into  the  bay  of  Fundy  a  month  later, 
and  those  emptying  into  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence in  June ;  the  females  arrive  first,  and 
the  males  about  a  month  after,  and  the  grilse 
ascend  during  July  and  August.  They  spawn 
late  in  autumn,  most  of  them  returning  to  the 
sea  before  the  rivers  are  frozen  over,  but  some 
remaining  in  fresh  water  all  winter  and  going 
to  the  sea  in  the  spring;  the  ova  are  cast 
when  the  water  is  at  most  at  42°  F.,  in  shal- 
low, pure,  and  rapid  streams.  Among  the 
noted  rivers  for  fly  fishing  are  the  Gold  and 
St.  Mary's  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  S.  W. 
Miramichi  and  Nepisiguit  in  New  Brunswick. 
The  flesh  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and  of  a  tint 
of  pink  which  has  received  therefrom  the 
name  of  salmon-colored ;  the  delicacy  of  the 
flesh  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  ova  of  echino- 


derms and  crustaceans  which  form  their  chief 
food,  and  the  intensity  of  the  red  color  seems 
to  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  the  gam- 
marine  (minute  amphipod  crustaceans)  which 
they  devour.  As  with  all  fish  which  swim 
near  the  surface,  it  should  be  eaten  when 
fresh,  as  the  flavor  is  rapidly  lost  after  death. 
The  salmon  is  one  of  the  fish  to  which  the 
attention  of  pisciculturists  has  been  directed, 
from  the  ease  with  which  artificial  fecunda- 
tion is  effected,  the  successful  results  obtained, 
and  the  value  as  food.  In  the  Penobscot  riv- 
er in  November,  1871,  the  Russian  method  of 
fecundation,  that  of  carefully  keeping  the  eggs 
and  milt  from  water  until  they  have  come  in 
contact,  was  practised  with  such  success  that 
96  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  were  fecundated,  a 
very  much  larger  proportion  than  in  the  nat- 
ural operation ;  70,000  eggs  from  10  females, 
thus  fertilized,  were  sent  in  December  to  oth- 
er parts  of  Maine,  Massachusetts,  and  Connec- 
ticut. From  the  ninth  annual  report  of  the 
commissioners  of  fisheries  of  Massachusetts, 
for  the  year  ending  Jan.  1,  1875,  it  appears 
that  their  chief  work  consisted  in  hatching 
the  eggs  and  planting  the  young  of  the  Cali- 
fornia and  Maine  salmon ;  a  few  landlocked 
salmon  from  Sebec  were  also  distributed  to 
different  parts  of  the  state.  Salmon  eggs  have 
also  been  carried  from  Scotland  to  New  Zea- 
land.— The  S.  hamatus  (Cuv.),  regarded  by 
Bloch  and  other  naturalists  as  the  old  male 
of  the  preceding  species,  has  the  back  reddish 
gray,  the  sides  brighter,  and  lower  parts  dull 
white ;  there  are  black  spots  above  the  late- 
ral line,  and  some  red  markings,  and  the  fins 
are  bordered  with  blackish  ;  the  lower  jaw  in 
both  sexes  and  in  the  young  has  a  terminal 
hook  turned  upward  and  received  in  a  depres- 
sion near  the  union  of  the  intermaxillaries ;  the 
mouth  is  very  large  from  the  elongation  of  the 
jaw  s^  and  is  armed  with  strong  teeth.  The 
true  salmon  enters  the  rivers  in  summer,  but 
this  species  ascends  between  October  and  the 
end  of  February,  so  that  the  two  are  not  found 
together  except  at  the  end  of  the  fishing  sea- 
son ;  the  flesh  is  lighter  colored  and  drier  than 
in  S.  salar,  and  is  hence  less  esteemed ;  it  is 
found  in  the  rivers  of  western  Europe,  but 
a  specimen  so  named  by  Agassiz  was  caught 
in  1860  in  the  Merrimack  river,  showing  that 
species  which  generally  leave  their  arctic  re- 
treats for  the  European  shore  sometimes  de- 
scend on  the  American  coast.  In  the  S.  TiucTio 
(Val.),  the  salmon  of  the  Danube,  the  body  is 
longer  and  rounder  than  in  the  common  sal- 
mon ;  it  is  grayish  approaching  to  violet  on 
the  back,  silvery  white  on  the  sides  and  below, 
the  head  and  dorsals  with  a  greenish  tint,  and 
the  other  fins  yellowish ;  above  the  lateral  line 
are  black  spots,  smallest  in  the  largest  fish  ;  as 
in  other  salmons,  the  young  have  seven  or 
eight  dark  vertical  bands  on  the  body,  which 
disappear  with  age ;  it  attains  a  weight  of  80 
or  40  Ibs.,  and  is  not  found  in  the  rivers  open- 
ing into  the  Baltic;  the  flesh  is  white,  but 


570 


SALMON  TROUT 


SALSIFY 


softer  and  less  agreeable  than  in  the  common 
species ;  the  spawning  season  is  in  June.  For 
other  species  of  old  world  salmon,  see  Cuvier 
and  Valenciennes's  Histoire  naturelle  des  pois- 
tons,  vol.  xxi.  Among  the  American  species 
the  arctic  salmon  (£  Roasii,  Rich.)  deserves 
mention ;  it  grows  to  a  length  of  2  or  3  ft., 
and  has  a  more  slender  form  than  the  common 
salmon ;  the  color  above  is  brownish  green, 
the  sides  pearly  gray  with  bright  red  dots  near 
the  lateral  line,  and  red  below  ;  the  under  jaw 
is  considerably  the  longer ;  the  scales  small, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  smooth 
skin ;  it  is  found  in  the  arctic  seas  and  in  the 
rivers  therewith  communicating  so  abundantly, 
that  over  3,000  were  taken  at  a  single  haul  of 
a  net  during  one  of  the  expeditions  of  Sir  John 
Richardson.  Many  other  species  of  the  arctic 
seas,  on  the  E.  and  W.  coasts  of  North  Amer- 
ica, are  described  and  figured  in  Richardson's 
"  Fauna  Boreali- Americana,"  and  many  since 
his  time  have  been  described  from  the  Co- 
lumbia river  and  its  tributaries,  and  from  the 
rivers  of  the  N.  W.  coast.  (See  "Report  of 
United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fish- 
eries," by  Prof.  Baird,  part  ii.,  1875.) 

SALMON  TROUT.     See  TBOUT. 

8ALNAYE.     See  HAYTI,  vol.  viii.,  p.  553. 

SILO,  Gaspare  da,  an  Italian  violin  maker, 
born  at  Sulo,  on  the  lake  of  Garda,  about  1540, 
died  in  Brescia  about  1614.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  the  Amatis,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  to  bring  the  instruments  of  the  violin 
family  to  perfection.  His  instruments  were 
large  in  their  proportions  and  of  great  body 
and  brilliancy  of  tone,  double-purfied,  and  hav- 
ing large  sound  holes.  In  general  they  were 
long,  having  the  arch  of  the  belly  high  and  ex- 
tending almost  up  to  the  sides.  They  resemble 
in  their  general  characteristics  those  of  Stra- 
divarius  rather  than  those  of  the  Amatis  and 
their  imitators.  He  excelled  in  his  varnish, 
which  was  of  a  rich  brown.  He  left  many 
violas  and  double  basses.  Dragonetti,  the  great 
contrabassist,  played  upon  one  of  his  instru- 
ments, presented  to  him  by  the  convent  of  St. 
Mark  in  Venice,  to  which  it  was  returned  on 
his  death.  One  of  the  best  of  his  violins  is 
owned  by  Ole  Bull,  having  figures  carved  by 
Benvenuto  Cellini.  Salo  worked  at  his  trade 
in  Brescia  for  50  years.  A  violin  of  his  is  ex- 
tant dated  1566,  and  another  of  1613. 

SALOMON  ISLANDS.    See  SOLOMON  ISLANDS. 

SALONA,  the  Roman  capital  of  Dalmatia,  near 
the  present  Spalato  (anc.  Spalatum).  (See 
SPALATO.) 

SALONICA,  or  Salonlkl  (Turk.  Selanik;  anc. 
Therma,  and  afterward  Thewalonica),  a  walled 
town  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  capital  of  a  vilayet 
of  its  own  name  (see  MACEDONIA),  at  the  head 
of  the  gulf  of  Salonica,  anciently  called  the 
Thermaic  gulf,  805  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  pop.  about  70,000,  including  nearly 
20,000  Jews  and  about  as  many  Greeks.  The 
town  is  on  the  slope  of  a  steep  hill.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  number  and  beauty  of  its 


churches.  Among  them  are  the  church  of 
St.  George,  resembling  the  Roman  Pantheon, 
which  some  consider  to  have  been  a  temple  of 
the  Cabiri,  and  the  former  church  of  St.  So- 
phia, now  a  mosque,  in  which  St.  Paul  is  said 
to  have  preached.  A  triumphal  arch  at  the 
W.  extremity  of  the  Via  Egnatia  is  believed 
to  have  been  erected  by  the  people  of  Thessa- 
lonica  in  honor  of  Augustus,  and  in  memory  of 
the  battle  of  Philippi;  it  is  12  ft.  wide  and  18 
ft.  high,  and  is  constructed  of  large  blocks  of 
marble.  Another  arch  is  of  brick  faced  with 
marble,  has  camels  sculptured  on  it,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  commemorate  the  victory  of  Constan- 
tino over  the  Sarmatians.  The  castle  by  which 
the  town  is  defended  is  partly  Greek  and  partly 
Venetian.  Woollen  and  silk  goods  and  hard- 
ware are  manufactured.  In  1872  the  value  of 
the  exports  was  $6,778,000,  and  of  the  imports 
$7,294,000 ;  and  during  the  same  year  642  ves- 
sels of  an  aggregate  of  179,000  tons  entered 
the  port.  Within  a  few  years  the  trade  has 
materially  fallen  off. — Salonica  was  first  known 
in  history  as  Therma,  being  so  called  from  the 
hot  springs  near  it.  About  315  B.  C.  it  was 
enlarged  by  Cassander  of  Maoedon  who  named 
it  Thessalonica  after  his  wife,  the  daughter  of 
Philip.  Xerxes  rested  his  army  here.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Athenians  about  432,  and 
afterward  became  the  chief  Macedonian  naval 
station.  It  surrendered  to  the  Romans  after 
the  battle  of  Pydna,  and  under  the  empire 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  Illyrian  provinces. 
Cicero  took  refuge  here  during  his  exile.  The 
apostle  Paul  visited  it  about  A.  I  >.  52,  and  ad- 
dressed epistles  to  its  church.  In  consequence 
of  a  riot  the  city  was  subjected  to  a  frightful 
massacre  by  the  emperor  Theodosius  in  890. 
It  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Gothic  aud 
Slavic  wars,  but  was  captured  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  904,  when  the  population  amounted 
to  220,000.  The  Normans  from  Sicily  took  it 
in  1185.  It  was  held  during  the  first  half  of 
the  13th  century  by  Boniface  of  Montferrat, 
and  afterward  by  the  Venetians ;  and  it  was 
finally  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1430.  A 
butchery  of  Greeks  took  place  here  in  1822, 
in  consequence  of  insurrectionary  movements 
in  the  neighborhood. 

SALOP.     See  SHROPSIIIKE. 

SALSETTE  (native  name,  Saththi),  an  island 
in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  18  m.  long  and 
10  m.  wide;  area,  about  150  sq.  m. ;  pop.  esti- 
mated at  50,000.  It  is  connected  with  the 
island  of  Bombay  by  an  arched  stone  bridge 
and  by  a  causeway  built  at  the  expense  of  Sir 
Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy,  and  with  the  mainland 
by  the  viaduct  of  the  Peninsular  railway.  In 
the  central  hill  of  Keneri  and  elsewhere  there 
are  famous  ancient  rock-cut  cave  temples.  The 
chief  town  is  Thanah.  Salsette  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  was  wrested  from  them  in  1739  by 
the  Mahrattas,  who  were  dispossessed  by  the 
British  in  1774. 

SALSIFY.    See  OYSTER  PLANT. 


SALT 


571 


SALT,  sodic  chloride,  sea  salt,  or  common 
salt,  the  substance  which  is  always  denoted 
when  the  word  "  salt "  is  used  in  ordinary  lan- 
guage. The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
in  which  a/If  in  the  feminine  is  used  for  the  sea, 
and  <Uf  in  the  masculine  for  the  solid  product 
left  when  sea  water  evaporates.  It  is  some- 
times also  called  muriate  of  soda.  It  may  be 
formed  by  burning  sodium  in  chlorine  gas,  or 
by  neutralizing  hydrochloric  acid  with  sodium 
carbonate,  and  evaporating.  It  occurs  very 
abundantly  in  nature,  both  in  the  solid  state, 
as  rock  salt,  and  in  solution  in  sea  water,  salt 
lakes,  and  salt  springs ;  also  in  smaller  quanti- 
ty in  river  water.  Mines  of  rock  salt  have 
been  recently  explored  in  the  Caucasus,  in 
which  the  stone  implements  were  found  as 
they  were  left  at  a  date  so  remote  that  no  tradi- 
tion exists  of  the  time  when  they  were  worked. 
The  mines  of  Wieliczka  in  Austrian  Galicia 
have  been  worked  for  at  least  six,  but  probably 
for  upward  of  eight  centuries.  The  springs 
of  Droitwich  in  England  were  worked  by  the 
Romans,  and  in  Cheshire  "the  Wiches"  were 
very  productive  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor.  Little  is  understood  of  the  origin 
of  rock  salt.  Some  beds,  as  those  of  Cheshire, 
appear  to  have  been  produced  by  the  drying 
up  of  bodies  of  sea  water  cut  off  from  the 
ocean,  while  in  other  cases,  as  at  Bex,  where 
the  salt  forms  a  perpendicular  vein  or  dike,  its 
origin  is  altogether  obscure.  Salt  lakes  are 
derived  either  from  the  partial  drying  up  of 
isolated  bodies  of  sea  water,  as  the  Dead  sea, 
or  by  the  evaporation  of  lakes  without  outlets, 
and  fed  by  streams  which  have  passed  over 
beds  of  salt,  or  plains  impregnated  with  it,  as 
Great  Salt  lake,  Lake  Urumiah  in  Persia,  and 
many  of  the  lakes  of  South  America.  Saline 
incrustations  often  overspread  the  surface  of 
plains  in  Russia,  India,  the  South  American 
pampas,  and  the  regions  E.  and  W.  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  The  salt  of  the  ocean  has 
doubtless  resulted  from  the  chemical  changes 
which  have  taken  place  between  the  elements 
that  constitute  the  earth's  crust  during  former 
geological  epochs.  The  waters  of  the  open 
oc~»^  contain  on  an  average  33'8  parts  of  salt 
in  1,000,  of  which  26-8  in  1,000  are  common 
salt,  equal  to  about  4  oz.  in  a  gallon,  or  a  bush- 
el from  300  or  350  gallons.  The  entire  quan- 
tity of  salt  in  the  ocean  is  estimated  by  Schaf- 
hautl  at  3,000,000  cubic  miles.  The  water  of 
landlocked  seas  like  the  gulf  of  Mexico  or  the 
Mediterranean  sea  contains  more  salt  than  that 
of  the  open  ocean,  and  it  is  also  found  that  the 
water  of  the  bottom  of  such  seas  is  salter  than 
that  upon  the  surface. — Salt  crystallizes  in 
colorless,  transparent,  anhydrous  crystals,  be- 
longing to  the  isometric  system,  and  has  a 
very  perfect  cubic  cleavage,  which  generally 
displays  itself  even  in  the  great  masses  of  rock 
salt,  parts  of  which  however  are  frequently 
massive  and  granular,  and  rarely  fibrous  or 
columnar.  But  the  most  characteristic  pecu- 
liarity of  the  crystallization  of  salt  is  the  for- 


mation of  the  hopper-shaped  crystals  on  the 
surface  of  a  saline  solution  during  evaporation. 
A  single  cube  appears  at  first,  which  partially 
sinks:  in  the  liquid,  and  new  cubes  then  form 
and  attach  themselves  to  its  upper  edge,  till 
by  a  repetition  of  this  process  a  hollow  rectan- 
gular pyramid,  sometimes  of  considerable  di- 
mensions, and  with  the  apex  downward,  is 
finally  produced.  Crystals  of  this  form  occur 
in  some  salt  mines,  and  casts  of  them  in  clay 
are  found  in  the  New  York  salt  region  and 
some  other  places.  Salt  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  2'1  to  2'257,  and  a  hardness  between  gypsum 
and  calc  spar.  It  is  transparent  to  translucent, 
and  its  color  varies  from  white  to  yellowish, 
reddish,  bluish,  and  purplish.  It  is  of  all  sub- 
stances the  most  perfectly  diathermanous  or 
transparent  to  heat  of  every  degree  of  refran- 
gibility.  (See  DIATHERMANCY.)  At  32°  F. 
100  parts  of  water  dissolve  36'52  parts  of  pure 
salt;  and  at  229*5°,  the  boiling  point  of  a 
saturated  solution,  only  40'35  parts  are  dis- 
solved. This  almost  uniform  solubility  at  all 
temperatures  furnishes  the  means  of  separa- 
ting it  from  many  of  the  foreign  salts  with 
which  it  is  associated  in  sea  water  and  brine 
springs.  Rock  salt  dissolves  much  more  slow- 
ly, even  in  fine  powder,  than  sea  salt  and  that 
from  springs,  and  the  coarsely  crystallized  salt 
than  the  finer  varieties.  These  differences  are 
of  economical  importance,  especially  in  curing 
provisions.  For  the  principle  of  its  curative 
properties  see  PRBSERVATION  OF  FOOD.  The 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  solutions  rise 
with  the  degree  of  concentration.  Salt  is  fu- 
sible at  a  red  heat,  and  volatile  at  a  still  higher 
temperature.  Its  volatility  is  made  use  of  in 
the  process  of  "salt-glazing"  common  earth- 
enware. (See  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN,  vol. 
xiii.,  p.  788.)  Artificial  crystals  generally  de- 
crepitate when  heated,  from  the  presence  of 
water  mechanically  enclosed  between  their  lay- 
ers. Some  specimens  of  rock  salt  from  Wie- 
liczka decrepitate  when  dissolved  in  water,  and 
disengage  a  gas,  which  is  sometimes  pure  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  and  sometimes  a  mixture  of 
this  with  hydrogen  and  oxide  of  carbon. — Salt 
is  a  compound  of  one  atom  of  chlorine  com- 
bined with  one  atom  of  sodium;  chemical 
symbol,  NaCl;  molecular  weight,  58'5.  When 
it  is  heated  to  redness  with  silica,  silicate  of 
sodium  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  formed.  A 
process  for  manufacturing  soluble  glass  is 
based  on  this  reaction.  With  oil  of  vitriol  it 
gives  sulphate  of  sodium  and  hydrochloric 
acid.  This  is  the  first  step  in  Le  Blanc's  pro- 
cess for  soda  ash.  Salt  is  rarely  if  ever  ob- 
tained pure.  The  chief  impurities  in  rock  salt 
are  sulphate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and  clay; 
but  besides  these  the  chlorides  of  potassium, 
calcium,  and  magnesium,  the  sulphates  of  soda 
and  magnesia,  and  bituminous  matters  are  oc- 
casionally met  with,  and  some  varieties  are 
even  colored  by  the  presence  of  infusoria.  In 
salt  made  from  sea  water,  the  salts  of  magnesia 
with  a  little  sulphate  of  lime  are  the  principal 


572 


SALT 


impurities.     All  the  varieties  of  salt  occasion- 
ally contain  minute  quantities  of  bromides  and 


iodides.    The  following  table  exhibits  the  com- 
position of  salt  from  various  sources : 


VARIETIES  OF  SALT. 

Chi.  ride  of 
eodlum. 

Chloride  of 
polauium. 

Chloride  of 
rmlclum. 

Chloride  of 
magnesium. 

Sulphate  of 
potoih. 

Sulphate  of 
lime. 

Sulphatei  of 
magnnia  and 

M>.1». 

•_ 

a 

Alumina  and 
Iron. 

I 

1 

PercenUge  of 
ullne  residue. 

AUTHORITIES. 

BOCK   SALT. 

Wlellczka,  white  

100-00 
99-928 
99-43 
94-57 
98-14 
99-80 
97-00 
9S-58 
99-52 
96-28 
99-55 
98-8S 
98-83 

96-76 
97-21 
99-77 
99-85 
95-76 
9417 
96-78 
94-91 
99-46 

96-86 
97-59 
M".i:l 
97-08 
97-41 
96-70 
91-81 
99-11 
92-97 
95-07 
96-42 
98-12 

98-06 

98-28 
97-61 
98-95 

94-48 
94-49 
95-71 

95-86 
89-88 
82-28 
86-01 
97-40 
84-87 
7.'.  IT 
95-42 
81*7 
79-45 
;..  • 
97-08 
78-61 
18-15 
29-86 
90-07 

trace 
0-07 
0-12 
0-97 

Bischo£ 

Heine. 
Bischof. 
Berthier. 
Fournet? 
Fournet. 
G.  H.  Cook. 

C.  B.  Haydcn. 
Goessiuann. 

G.  H.Cook. 

u 

Goessmann. 
G.  H.  Cook.. 

Goessmann. 
E.  8.  Wayne, 
Gocssmaim. 

G.  H.  Cook. 
GobeL 

Meissner. 
Heine. 
Herrmann. 

Heine. 

Bromels. 
Flguler  and  Miuliic. 
Win.  Henry. 
G.  H.  Cook, 
Boussingault. 
G.  H.  Cook. 

TTslgllo. 
Rose. 
Booth  and  Muckle. 
L.  D.  Gale. 

BiTchtesiraden,  yellow... 
Hall  In  Tyrol...  A.  

trace 

6:25 

o-?o 

Stassfurl  

II  -Ml 
TS« 

.... 

1-12 

2-28 

0-22 

llullstadt  in  Up.  Austria. 
Vic  In  German  Lorraine.  . 
Jeb-el-Melab,  Algeria.  .  .  . 
Ouled  Kebbah,  Algeria.  .  . 
Cheshire,  England  

0-50 

0-20 

8-00 

0-98 

0-54 

0-02 

0-46 

Carriekfergus,  Ireland.  .  .  . 
Holc.ton,  Virginia  

8-50 

0-08 

0*45 

0-14 

trace 
trace 

Petite  Anse,  Louisiana  .. 
Banto  Domingo  

trace 
0-04 

0-14 
0-26 

o-oi 

0-08 
0-57 
I'll 
0-49 
0-24 

•• 

0-79 

1    4- 

6:6i 

0-88 
0-07 

0-90 

REA   SALT. 

Turk's  island  

1-56 
0-54 

II-  OS 

0'12 

0-64 
0-24 

St.  Martin's  

1-75 

St.  Kill's  

0-14 

Curacoa  

Cadiz  

0-75 
0  49 
0-41 
1-42 

o-io 

1-17 

0-48 
1-39 
0-68 
0-19 
0-80 

9-44 

Lisbon  

-  ,| 

Trapanl,  Sicily  

1-64 

Martha's  Vineyard  

8"?4 

Texas  

0-14 

SALT  FROM   BPBINOS  AND 
LAKES. 

Cheshire,  England  

0-01 

0-03 

?-44 

Dieuze,  German  Lorraine. 
Droltwlch,  England  

1-02    0'S9t 
8-05    . 

0-5(1 

0-02 
0-08 
0-18 
0-07 
0-48 

Goderich,  Ont  

0-01 
0-15 
0-5* 
1-26 

1-49 

1-BO 

Onondaga,  N.  T  

1-S6 

1-00 

Pitlsburgh,  Pa  

?-70 

Kanawha,  W.  Vm,  

7-00 

Holston,  Va  

0-68 
0-88 

o-io 

0:24 
1-12 

0-91 
1-08 
0-51 

9-tft 

0-llt 

0-10 

1-09 

o-oi 

0  58 

6  50 
0-04 
0-18 
0-07 

0-24 

0-01    5-10 
....    8-40 

Hocking  Valley,  O  

Pomemy,  O  

6:8t»l 
0-86J 
0-18 
0-09 
0  08 
0-851 

0-05 

0-16 

2-66 

D--VI 

Nebraska.  

Kansas  

4-AO 

Onondaga,  "  factory  filled" 
Great  Salt  lake  

0-12 

0-TO 

i-w 

.... 

Elton  lake,  Uussla  

0-21 

6:08 
0-49 

l-'« 

6-19 

1-69 
0-99 
1-09 

1-59 
1-49 
1-18 
2-24 
0-25 

SOLID   KERI  WE  OF  RKINKS 
AND   SEA  WATEB. 

Halle  In  Prussian  Saxony 
Stassfurt  

,i  

12-28 
17-16 
2-00 

26-50 
8-8» 
2-87 
1-27 
26-00 
15-20 
21-20 
18-54 
2-80 
9-20 
26-40 
24-90 
8-74 
29-18 
26-42 
22-42 

0-84 
0-08 

1-10 
0-99 

2-80 
1-61 

1-51 

0-04 
0-18 
0-65 
1-90 

rss 

l-20t 
1-87 

ii-l-, 
0-06 

trace 

Schonebeck  

Arti'i-n,  from  bore  in  rock 
sail  

DQrrenberg  

0'68t 
8:80t 

0-17 
7-68 

v7!« 

6-  77$ 
6:20 

0-02 
0-07 
0-50| 

Nauhclin  

1-88 
1-61 

6-74 
6:25 

Soden  

Dieuze  

China  

1 

17-92 
0-84 
18-98 
16-48 

5-J7 
0-64 

4  '-Ml 

4-07 

Onondaga  

8-09 

1  •'•>•.! 
0--2 
8-47 

0:87 

6:89t 
2-lOt 
6-42+ 
18'2frt 

8:iaj 

0-01 
trace 
trace 
trace 

'.'.'.'. 

Pittsburgh  

Kanawha.  

HoUton  

Salt  lake,  Texas     

Sea  water  

1-84 
0-79 
2-51 

ii:si 

8-56 
(T'M 
55-45 

1-1-J 

•• 

0-27 

Elton  lake  

Dead  sea  

Great  Salt  lake  

An  examination  of  this  table  will  show  that  the 
impurities  differ  both  in  kind  and  in  quality. 
More  or  less  sulphate  of  lime  and  chloride  of 
magnesium  are  found  in  salt  from  whatever 

*  The  carbonates  are  mainly  of  lime,  except  in  the  Hol- 
•ton  rock  salt,  which  contains  magnesia  only.  The  brines  of 
Nauheim,  Onondaga.  Kanawha,  and  many  others,  as  well  as 
•ea  water  and  that  of  the  Dead  sea,  contain  traces  of  bromides 


locality  or  source  it  may  be  derived.  The 
purest  rock  salt  is  the  best  of  all ;  next  to  that 
is  sea  salt,  and  then  the  average  quality  from 
brine  springs;  but  the  table  shows  that  the 

and  iodides.    The  dry  residue  of  sea  water  from  the  Medi- 
terranean contains  1-47  per  cent,  of  bromide  of  sodium. 
t  Sulphate  of  magnesia  only.         1  Sulphate  of  soda  only 
$  Sulphate  of  alumina.  I  Silicate  of  soda. 


SALT 


573 


"  Onondaga  factory  filled  salt "  is  as  pure  as 
the  rock  salt  of  Cheshire,  England,  which  is 
one  of  the  purest  known.  An  impurity  of  3 
per  cent,  renders  salt  unfit  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, especially  if  the  impurity  consist  of 
chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  particu- 
larly the  former. — Beds  of  rock  salt  and  brine 
springs  occur  in  geological  formations  of  al- 
most every  period.  The  New  York  springs 
are  in  the  upper  Silurian,  and  most  of  those  of 
western  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  of  Michi- 
gan, Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Kentucky,  in 
the  lower  coal  measures ;  most  of  the  Russian 
mines  and  springs  are  in  the  Permian ;  those  of 
Cheshire  in  England,  Ireland,  eastern  France, 
Wurtemberg,  and  many  other  parts  of  Ger- 
many, in  different  members  of  the  triassic 
group ;  those  of  the  Austrian  Alps  in  oolitic 
beds ;  those  of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  Cardona 
in  cretaceous  rocks ;  while  those  of  Wieliczka 
in  Galicia,  of  Tuscany,  Sicily,  and  Petite  Anse 
belong  to  tertiary  strata.  Its  most  invariable 
mineral  associate  is  gypsum  or  hydrated  sul- 
phate of  lime;  in  some  places,  as  at  Bex  in 
Switzerland,  this  is  replaced  by  anhydrite,  or 
the  same  mineral  without  water ;  while  poly- 
halite  (a  mineral  consisting  of  sulphates  of 
lime,  magnesia,  potash,  and  soda),  bitumen, 
sulphur,  and  calc  spar  also  frequently  occur 
with  it ;  and  in  many  places,  as  in  the  wells  in 
the  coal  formation,  a  copious  discharge  of  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  gas  accompanies  the  flow 
of  brine,  and  also  jets  of  rock  oil.  (See  PE- 
TROLEUM, vol.  xiii.,  p.  370.) — Geographically 
salt  is  widely  distributed.  Excepting  Nor- 
way, Denmark,  and  Holland,  the  European 
countries  are  all  provided  with  salt  to  some 
extent  from  domestic  sources,  and  even  in 
some  of  these  rock  salt  is  imported  and  refined. 
The  principal  mines  of  rock  salt  are  those  of 
Wieliczka  in  Galicia ;  at  Hall  in  the  Tyrol,  and 
along  the  mountain  range  through  Aussee,  in 
Styria,  Ebensee,  Ischl,  and  Hallstadt  in  Upper 
Austria,  Hallein  in  Salzburg,  and  Reichenhall 
in  Bavaria ;  in  Hungary  in  the  county  of  Mar- 
maros ;  in  Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and  Walla- 
chia ;  at  Vic  and  Dieuze  in  German  Lorraine ; 
at  Bex  in  Switzerland ;  in  the  valley  of  Car- 
dona  and  elsewhere  in  Spain ;  in  the  region 
around  Northwich  in  Cheshire,  England ;  near 
Carrickf ergus,  Ireland ;  and  in  the  government 
of  Perm  in  Russia.  The  principal  salt  springs 
are  in  Cheshire,  Worcestershire,  and  Stafford- 
shire, England ;  in  Wurtemberg  and  Prussian 
Saxony ;  and  in  northern  Italy.  Russia  is  al- 
most the  only  country  which  derives  much 
from  salt  lakes.  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Italy,  with  a  number  of  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  are  the  principal  producers  of 
sea  salt.  England,  Austria,  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy,  with  some  of  the  Medi- 
terranean islands,  are  the  principal  exporters 
of  salt. — In  Russia  the  supplies  from  mines, 
springs,  and  lakes  are  inexhaustible.  Over 
the  vast  area  of  the  Permian  group,  covering 
upward  of  300,000  sq.  m.,  salt  is  found,  and 


in  numerous  localities  is  extensively  and  profit- 
ably worked.  Ancient  mines  of  rock  salt  have 
been  explored  in  the  Caucasus,  supposed  to  be 
among  the  oldest  in  the  world.  In  Sweden, 
Carlstad  near  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Wener 
produces  some  salt,  but  both  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way import  much,  principally  from  England 
and  Sardinia.  Denmark  is  also  a  large  im- 
porter. In  Holland  and  Belgium  refined  salt 
is  made  from  British  rock  salt,  which  is  dis- 
solved in  fresh  or  sea  water,  and  crystallized 
by  artificial  heat.  Among  the  largest  salt  mines 
in  the  world  are  those  of  Stassfurt  in  Prussia, 
and  the  adjoining  Anhalt  mines. — In  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  Upper  Austria,  Salzburg,  Styria, 
and  Tyrol  on  the  west,  and  Croatia  and  Dalmatia 
on  the  south,  have  almost  inexhaustible  stores 
of  rock  salt  and  brine  springs;  while  the 
province  of  Istria  derives  much  wealth  from 
the  lagoons  bordering  the  Adriatic.  The  salt 
mines  of  Wieliczka,  7  m.  S.  E.  of  Cracow, 
extend  over  a  space  of  about  2  m.  in  length  by 
nearly  1  m.  in  breadth,  and  are  about  1,000 
ft.  in  depth.  The  salt  occurs  in  great  lenticu- 
lar masses,  inclined  at  a  high  angle.  It  varies 
very  much  in  quality ;  the  so-called  "  green 
salt "  contains  5  or  6  per  cent,  of  clay,  which 
destroys  its  transparency ;  a  variety  called 
Spiza  is  crystalline  and  mixed  with  sand ; 
while  that  known  as  szyfiik,  principally  from 
the  lower  levels,  is  in  largely  crystallized  mass- 
es, perfectly  pure  and  transparent.  The  strata 
in  which  it  occurs  are  compact  tertiary  clays, 
containing  fossils ;  and  the  principal  associated 
minerals,  besides  gypsum,  are  bitumen,  anhy- 
drous sulphate  of  lime,  the  sulphates  of  bary- 
ta and  strontia,  and  sulphur.  The  mines  are 
entered  by  numerous  shafts,  with  galleries  at 
seven  different  levels,  leading  to  a  labyrinth  of 
passages  and  immense  excavations  extending 
to  a  total  length  of  upward  of  500  m.  Some  of 
the  chambers  formerly  excavated  were  more 
than  150  ft.  high,  but  those  now  made  are 
much  smaller.  One  of  these  is  fitted  up  as  a 
chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Anthony,  in  which  the 
altar,  statues,  columns,  pulpit,  &c.,  are  all  of 
salt.  In  another  part  is  a  lake  650  ft.  long  and 
40  ft.  deep,  formed  by  the  water  which  trickles 
through  the  strata.  The  annual  yield  is  now 
about  1,400,000  cwt.  It  is  not  known  when 
these  mines  were  discovered.  They  are  believed 
by  recent  authorities  to  have  been  worked  in 
the  early  part  of  the  llth  century,  when  they 
belonged  to  Poland,  and  in  the  14th  Casimir  the 
Great  established  regulations  for  their  work- 
ing, as  they  had  then  become  very  productive. 
They  were  pledged  to  Austria  in  1656,  but  re- 
covered by  John  Sobieski  in  1683.  In  1772, 
when  the  first  dismemberment  of  Poland  took 
place,  Austria  again  obtained  them,  and,  except 
from  1809  to  1815,  has  since  held  them.  The 
kings  of  Poland  drew  considerable  revenues 
from  these  mines,  and  depended  upon  them 
for  the  dowries  of  their  queens  and  the  endow- 
ments of  theirconvents,  to  which  last  purpose 
their  revenues  were  applied  as  early  as  the 


574 


SALT 


14th  century.  At  each  royal  election  the  no- 
bles always  stipulated  that  the  salt  of  Wieliczka 
should  be  supplied  to  them  at  the  mere  cost  of 
extraction.  From  Wieliczka  a  saliferous  re- 
gion extends  on  both  sides  of  the  Carpathians, 
through  Galicia,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania, 
into  Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  The  richest 
mines  of  Hungary  are  in  the  county  of  Mar- 
maros.  In  Transylvania  the  mines  have  been 
worked  since  the  times  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
and  there  is  al*o  a  large  number  of  salt  springs. 
— In  Switzerland  the  brine  springs  of  Bex  have 
been  worked  since  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. They  formerly  belonged  to  a  family  of 
Augsburg  named  Zobel,  but  are  now  the  prop- 
erty of  the  government  of  the  canton  (Vaud). 
In  1823,  in  consequence  of  the  gradual  failure 
of  the  springs,  the  mountain  was  pierced  by  a 
gallery,  which  led  into  a  vein  or  dike  of  salt, 
varying  from  2  to  50  ft.  in  thickness.  Springs 
are  found  in  other  parts  of  Switzerland. — In 
Italy  the  lagoons  and  springs,  still  highly  pro- 
ductive, were  worked  in  ancient  times.  Ven- 
ice formerly  owed  her  prosperity  in  great 
part  to  her  salt  lagoons  and  her  control  of  the 
trade  in  salt  in  southern  Europe.  During  the 
decline  of  her  power  her  salines  remained 
unproductive,  until  they  were  reestablished 
on  a  vast  scale  during  the  French  rule.  They 
are  again  largely  worked  in  the  artificial  en- 
closures aronnd  the  city  connected  with  the 
sea.  Salt  is  a  strict  government  monopoly, 
and  the  springs  and  salines  furnish  one  of 
the  chief  articles  of  export. — Spain  has  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  salt  mines  in  Europe, 
at  Cardona  in  Catalonia.  Here  is  a  hill  500 
ft.  high,  covering  an  area  of  throe  quarters 
of  a  square  mile,  composed  of  nearly  verti- 
cal beds  of  salt,  gypsum,  and  clay  belonging 
to  the  cretaceous  series,  the  salt  constituting 
about  four  fifths  of  the  entire  mass.  The 
workings  are  in  the  form  of  long  steps  of  one 
metre  (39  in.)  in  height  and  width,  cut  in  the 
salt,  in  the  open  air,  by  means  of  blasting  and 
the  pick.  The  salt  is  simply  ground  and 
washed  to  prepare  it  for  sale.  Salt  springs 
are  found  in  other  parts  of  Catalonia  and  along 
the  Pyrenees,  in  beds  of  the  same  age,  as  at 
Pamplona  in  Navarre.  But  most  of  the  salt 
of  Spain  is  obtained  from  sea  water,  especially 
in  Valencia  and  Catalonia.  Salt  is  a  strict 
monopoly  in  Spain,  and  can  be  sold  by  indi- 
viduals only  for  exportation. — In  Portugal  salt 
is  manufactured  principally  from  sea  water, 
and  the  business  is  largely  carried  on,  sustain- 
ing a  considerable  export  and  coasting  trade. 
The  St.  Ubes  salt,  well  known  in  commerce, 
and  much  esteemed  for  packing  provisions,  is 
a  product  of  Portugal.  The  export,  and  that 
of  the  Cape  Verd  islands  also,  is  principally 
to  Brazil  and  the  United  States. — In  France, 
which  by  the  treaty  of  1871  has  lost  its  prin- 
cipal rock  salt  deposits  of  Vic  and  Dieuze,  for- 
merly comprised  in  the  department  of  Meurthe, 
there  are  both  important  deposits  and  springs 
in  the  adjoining  regions,  along  the  Jura,  and  in 


the  central  departments.  Along  the  Pyrenees 
rock  salt  and  springs  are  found  in  the  cretace- 
ous formation.  But  the  greatest  portion  of 
the  product  of  France  is  from  the  lagoons  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  coasts. — Eng- 
land, which  now  produces  more  salt  than  any 
other  country,  obtains  her  supply  almost  ex- 
clusively from  mines  and  springs  in  beds  of  the 
same  geological  age  as  those  of  Vic  and  Dieuze, 
principally  in  Cheshire  and  Worcestershire; 
there  are  also  brine  springs  in  Staffordshire, 
from  which  Hull  is  supplied.  Northwich  and 
Winsford  in  Cheshire,  on  the  river  Weaver, 
furnish  six  sevenths  of  the  whole ;  and  the  beds 
of  rock  salt  are  chiefly  limited  to  the  region 
drained  by  this  river.  They  occur  in  detached 
masses  of  limited  area  beneath  the  plains  of 
this  district,  sometimes  spreading  out,  as  at 
Northwich,  to  a  breadth  of  three  fourths  of  a 
mile.  The  strata  penetrated  at  this  locality 
are  gypsiferous  clays  and  marls  to  the  depth  of 
120  ft.,  below  which  are  found  beds  of  salt  GO 
to  90  ft.  thick,  resting  on  80  to  40  ft.  of  in- 
durated clays  containing  seams  of  rock  salt,  and 
below  these  rock  salt  about  100  ft.  thick.  The 
purest  salt  is  in  a  portion  of  4  ft.  thickness 
about  10  or  12  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  the  up- 
per bed,  and  in  another  of  20  ft.  thickness  (50 
or  70  ft.  below  the  top  of  the  lower  bed. 
Other  portions  of  the  beds  are  earthy.  The 
salt  is  not  stratified,  but  divided  into  vertical 
prisms  sometimes  3  ft.  in  diameter.  But  the 
Cheshire  salt,  known  in  commerce  as  Liver- 
pool salt,  is  mostly  obtained  from  wells  of  200 
to  250  ft.  depth,  terminating  in  the  lower  bed 
of  rock  salt.  In  these  the  brine  is  pumped  up 
and  conveyed  to  the  evaporating  pans,  which 
are  20  ft.  wide,  30  to  80  ft.  long,  and  1 6  to  20  in. 
deep.  In  Scotland,  before  the  abolition  of  the 
duty,  much  salt  was  made,  from  sea  water,  but 
most  of  the  salt  works  are  now  abandoned.  In 
Ireland  two  beds  of  rock  salt,  making  together 
a  thickness  of  120  ft.,  covered  by  680  ft.  of  red 
marls,  were  discovered  about  1853  at  Carrick- 
fergus  near  Belfast ;  since  which  time  the  annual 
product  has  gradually  increased  to  many  thou- 
sands of  tons. — The  total  product  of  the  mines 
and  springs  of  Europe  was  estimated  in  1821 
at  1,250,000  to  1,500,000  tons.  It  is  now  cer- 
tainly twice  as  great  as  the  larger  of  these  es- 
timates; and  with  the  addition  of  that  from 
sea  water  and  salt  lakes,  the  total  product  is 
probably  5,000,000  tons. — In  Asia  salt  is  no 
less  abundant  than  in  Europe.  In  Siberia  and 
Tartary  plains  are  covered  with  saline  incrus- 
tations. Extensive  mines  of  rock  salt  have 
been  worked  from  ancient  times  at  Nakhitche- 
van  in  Armenia.  This  variety  abounds  in  Per- 
sia, where  are  also  many  salt  lakes  with  no  out- 
lets. Lake  Urumiah,  90  m.  long  and  20  to  80  m. 
broad,  and  about  4,300  ft.  above  the  sea,  con- 
tains brine  of  extraordinary  strength,  the  per- 
centage of  pure  salt  being  18'116  and  of  other 
salts  2'434.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1'155.  In 
summer,  over  a  breadth  of  3  or  4  m.  around 
parts  of  this  lake,  the  incrustation  of  salt  ia 


SALT 


575 


sometimes  more  than  a  foot  thick.  The  re- 
sources of  British  India  in  salt  are  great,  but 
comparatively  unimportant  from  the  monopoly 
of  the  government,  and  salt  is  largely  import- 
ed from  England.  Still  vast  beds  of  rock  salt 
are  worked  in  the  Punjaub  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  great  quantities  are  obtained 
from  the  incrustations  over  the  plains  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  from  various  other 
portions  of  the  Indian  peninsula.  The  salt 
wells  of  China  are  remarkable  for  their  great 
depth  and  immense  numbers.  China  and  Java 
are  wholly  dependent  upon  their  own  resources 
for  salt,  admitting  no  importations. — Africa 
contains  extensive  tracts  of  salt  lands  and 
beds  of  rock  salt  in  the  desert  of  Sahara,  par- 
ticularly in  the  N.  and  W.  portions,  as  in 
that,  part  called  Tanezruft,  on  the  route  be- 
tween Tuat  and  Timbuctoo.  The  trade  in  salt 
with  Soodan  furnishes  a  support  for  many 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert.  Near  Bis- 
kra is  a  mountain  of  salt  in  the  cretaceous 
formation ;  and  another  is  found  near  the  salt 
lake  Zagrez.  This  lake  is  in  some  seasons  cov- 
ered with  a  glistening  white  crust  of  excellent 
salt,  like  ice,  amounting  to  even  one  or  two 
feet  in  thickness.  Similar  lakes  are  met  with 
in  this  region,  and  also  in  Abyssinia.  In  cen- 
tral Africa,  salt  from  salt  lakes  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  article  of  commerce. — In  the 
Hawaiian  islands  salt  is  procured  from  the 
lakes  near  Honolulu,  and  is  exported. — In 
South  America,  rock  salt  is  found  in  Brazil, 
Peru,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela;  in  the  pam- 
pas of  the  south  and  the  elevated  plains  of 
Peru,  it  occurs  as  an  incrustation;  in  Patago- 
nia and  the  Argentine  Eepublic  are  productive 
salt  lakes;  in  Colombia  it  is  obtained  from 
springs,  and  in  Brazil  from  lagoons  on  the 
coast.  The  salines  or  salt  lakes  of  the  pampas 
extend  from  Port  St.  Julian  in  Patagonia,  lat. 
49°  S.,  through  the  Argentine  Republic,  to  lat. 
25°  S.  They  are  generally  shallow,  and  in  the 
wet  season  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  salt  is 
dissolved,  and  redeposited  during  the  dry  sea- 
son, when  the  appearance  of  the  snow-white 
expanse,  crystallized  in  great  cubes,  is  very 
striking.  Patagonian  salt  is  still  a  large  arti- 
cle of  commerce  with  other  parts  of  South 
America.  It  is  of  the  greatest  purity,  requi- 
ring no  preparation,  and  containing  only  0'2G 
per  cent,  of  gypsum  and  0'22  of  earthy  mat- 
ter, without  a  trace  of  iodic  salts.  The  beds 
of  various  salts  in  the  elevated  plains  of  Tara- 
paca  in  Peru,  especially  around  Iquique,  are 
among  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world.  The 
porphyritic  mountains  on  the  coast  rise  abrupt- 
ly to  a  height  of  between  1,900  and  3,000  ft. ; 
between  their  summits  and  an  inland  plain,  on 
which  lies  the  celebrated  deposit  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  is  a  high  undulatory  district,  covered  by 
a  crust  chiefly  composed  of  common  salt,  either 
in  white,  hard,  opaque  nodules,  or  mingled  with 
sand,  forming  a  compact  sandstone.  This  never 
attains  a  great  thickness,  though  in  the  pampa 
of  Tamarugal,  in  S.  Peru,  Mr.  J.  H.  Blake 
721  VOL.  xiv.— 37 


saw  a  considerable  space  covered  with  round 
masses  of  salt,  5  or  6  ft.  in  diameter,  piled  upon 
each  other.  In  some  places  they  were  deep  red, 
but  in  the  vicinity  of  Pisco  they  were  sufficient- 
ly pure  for  culinary  purposes.  The  inhabi- 
tants employed  them  in  building  their  houses. 
As  rain  falls  here  only  at  intervals  of  many 
years,  the  deposits  are  subjected  to  very  lit- 
tle waste.  Colombia  has  very  rich  mines  of 
rock  salt,  especially  in  the  district  of  Zipaqui- 
ra.  The  mineral  extends  many  miles  across  a 
branch  of  the  Cordillera.  Salt  springs  are  also 
found  here.  On  the  N.  coast  are  lagoons  of 
great  capacity  of  production.  The  salt  mines 
of  Araya,  in  the  peninsula  N.  of  Cumand  in 
Venezuela,  were  discovered  by  the  followers 
of  Columbus  in  1499 ;  and  as  they  offered  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  the  finest  salt,  they 
continued  for  years  to  attract  adventurers  of 
all  nations.  The  Dutch  islands  of  Curacoa 
and  Buen  Ayre,  N.  of  Venezuela,  produce 
several  hundred  thousand  barrels  annually  by 
natural  evaporation  and  of  the  finest  quality, 
much  of  which  is  exported  to  the  United 
States. — A  large  number  of  the  West  India 
islands  produce  salt,  especially  the  southern 
Bahamas,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  St.  Martin,  and 
St.  Christopher  or  St.  Kitts.  Turk's  island, 
S.  E.  of  the  Bahamas,  was  formerly  the  main 
source  of  sea  salt  for  the  United  States,  and 
even  now  most  of  the  salt  from  any  of  the 
West  India  islands,  or  from  Yucatan,  is  called 
Turk's  island  salt.  Since  1833  the  manufac- 
ture has  fallen  off  here,  while  it  has  grown 
up  in  the  Windward  islands  and  some  other 
British  islands.  Of  the  Dutch  West  Indies, 
besides  Curagoa  and  Buen  Ayre,  St.  Martin, 
in  the  Leeward  islands,  produces  a  great  deal 
from  lagoons  in  the  southern  part,  and  it  is 
the  principal  export  of  Philisburg,  the  Dutch 
capital.  On  the  N.  coast  of  Cuba  are  exten- 
sive lagoons,  from  which  in  dry  years  large 
quantities  are  obtained.  In  Hayti  there  is  a 
deposit  of  rock  salt  on  the  S.  side  of  the  isl- 
and, said  to  form  a  mountain  6  m.  long,  -J  m. 
broad,  and  400  to  500  ft.  high.  The  crude 
salt  contains  96'79  per  cent,  of  pure  sodium 
chloride.  In  Porto  Rico  are  two  salines  for- 
merly worked  by  the  government,  which,  as 
well  as  the  monopoly  of  the  introduction  of 
either  Spanish  or  foreign  salt  into  the  island, 
were  sold  to  private  parties  in  1851.  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  however,  draw  most  of  their 
supply  from  Spain,  and  some  from  England. 
— In  Central  America  are  many  salt  springs, 
and  on  the  Pacific  coast  large  quantities  are 
made  from  sea  water.  In  Mexico,  the  state 
of  Oajaca  has  salines  extending  for  30  or  40 
leagues  along  the  Pacific,  which  are  very  valu- 
able and  supply  the  whole  interior  of  the  state. 
These  formerly  belonged  to  the  government, 
but  were  sold  by  Santa  Anna  to  the  family  of 
Echeverria  for  $300,000.  In  Tamaulipas  salt 
is  produced  from  a  chain  of  lagoons  on  the 
coast  divided  by  the  Rio  Grande  from  the  cele- 
brated salt  lake  near  Brownsville  in  Texas. 


576 


SALT 


The  lake  of  Tezcuco,  near  the  city  of  Mexico, 
is  so  strongly  impregnated  as  to  leave  a  white 
deposit  on  its  banks,  and  supplies  a  number  of 
salt  works.  The  island  of  Carmen,  in  the  gulf 
of  California,  contains  a  large  salt  lake,  with 
a  solid  crust  several  feet  thick.  Large  quan- 
tities are  sent  to  Mazatlan  and  San  Francisco. 
— In  British  North  America,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  Cape  Breton  island,  Newfound- 
land, and  the  Magdalen  islands  contain  salt 
springs,  which* in  nearly  all  these  places  are  as- 
sociated with  gypsum.  At  Goderich  on  Lake 
Huron,  in  1866,  in  boring  for  oil,  a  deposit  of 
rock  salt  was  struck  at  a  depth  of  about  960 
ft.,  and  the  brine  was  remarkably  strong  and 
of  great  purity.  The  manufacture  of  salt  was 
commenced  immediately,  and  developed  rapid- 
ly, until  now  the  production  amounts  to  sev- 
eral millions  of  bushels  annually,  affording  the 
principal  source  of  supply  for  Canada,  and  also 
furnishing  a  large  amount  for  export  to  the 
United  States.  On  account  of  the  strength 
and  purity  of  the  brines,  salt  is  produced  and 
sold  at  a  price  which  after  adding  the  duty 
enables  the  Goderich  manufacturers  to  com- 
pete with  those  of  the  middle  and  western 
states.  Canada  was  formerly  principally  sup- 
plied from  England  and  the  state  of  New 
York ;  she  has  been  indeed  our  only  customer 
of  importance,  the  exports  of  American  salt 
to  other  countries  being  small. — The  United 
States  is  well  supplied  with  salt,  23  of  the 
states  and  territories  having  been  returned  by 
the  different  censuses  since  1810  as  producers, 
while  seven  others  possess  valuable  springs  or 
deposits.  Rock  salt  has  been  found  only  in 
S.  W.  Virginia  and  in  Louisiana.  The  princi- 
pal springs  are  in  central  New  York,  near  Sy- 
racuse, in  West  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  in 
Michigan,  and  in  the  states  bordering  on  the 
Ohio.  Salt  lakes  occur  in  California,  Utah, 
New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Minnesota.  Salt  has 
been  made  from  sea  water  in  nearly  every 
Atlantic  state  at  some  period.  The  New  Eng- 
land states  have  at  different  times  produced 
large  quantities  of  sea  salt,  particularly  du- 
ring the  revolution  and  the  war  of  1812,  and 
about  1830;  since  which  time  but  little  has 
been  made,  though  a  few  vats  are  still  kept  in 
operation  at  Cape  Cod,  Nahant,  &c.  Virginia 
had  salt  works  at  Cape  Charles  before  1620, 
and  in  1633  exported  salt  to  Massachusetts. 
In  South  Carolina,  Nathaniel  Johnson  under- 
took the  manufacture  in  1689,  and  in  1725  the 
legislature  passed  two  acts  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  salt  making. — The  salt  springs  of  New 
York  are  principally  in  Onondaga  co.,  in  the 
towns  of  Syracuse,  Salina,  and  Geddes,  and  issue 
from  rocks  of  upper  Silurian  age.  They  were 
known  to  the  Indians  at  a  very  early  period, 
but  Father  Lalemant  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  first  white  man  who  visited  them.  About 
1770  Onondaga  salt  was  in  common  use  among 
the  Delawares,  and  was  carried  to  Quebec  for 
sale.  The  first  made  by  the  whites  was  in 
1788,  near  Syracuse,  by  boiling.  The  salines 


belong  to  the  state,  which  supplies  the  brine 
to  manufacturers  and  receives  a  royalty  of 
one  cent  a  bushel.  Six  cents  was  formerly 
charged,  and  the  state  thus  derived  a  large 
revenue;  but  in  1846  the  tax  was  reduced  to 
its  present  amount,  which  suffices  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  pumping,  superintendence,  &c. 
In  1789-'90,  500  or  600  bushels  were  made  and 
sold  at  $1  a  bushel.  In  1791  the  capacity  of 
the  works  was  8,000  bushels  a  year.  In  1797, 
when  the  first  leases  of  salt  lots  were  made, 
the  product  was  25,474  bushels;  in  1807,  165,- 
448;  in  1817,  448,665;  in  1827,  988,410;  in 
1837,  2,161,287;  in  1847,  8,951,851;  and  in 
1858,  7,033,219  bushels.  In  1862  the  produc- 
tion reached  the  maximum  of  9,053,874  bush- 
els ;  since  that  year  the  average  has  been  about 
8,000,000  bushels,  gradually  declining  since 
1870.  For  1874  the  product  was  6,594,191 
bushels.  The  productive  springs  are  in  great 
part  found  in  the  marshy  lands  which  surround 
Onondaga  lake.  A  stratum  of  marl  3  to  12 
ft.  thick,  underlaid  by  a  marly  clay,  forms  an 
impervious  barrier  between  the  water  raised 
from  the  wells  and  that  of  the  lake.  Wells 
are  sunk  or  bored  in  the  low  lands  around  the 
lake,  from  200  to  800  ft.,  and  from  these  the 
salt  water  is  forced  up  by  pumps  into  the  res- 
ervoirs from  which  the  evaporating  works  are 
supplied.  The  strata  passed  through  near  the 
surface  are  beds  of  fine  sand,  and  then  clay, 
sometimes  more  than  40  ft.  thick,  beneath 
which  is  gravel  of  pebbles  and  sand  containing 
salt  water.  The  brine  is  of  variable  strength 
in  the  different  wells,  as  indicated  by  its  spe- 
cific gravity,  which  is  from  1*045  to  1'147,  and 
from  30  to  45  gallons  are  required  for  a  bushel 
of  dry  salt  weighing  56  Ibs.  The  chief  im- 
purity is  sulphate  of  lime,  which  was  found  by 
Dr.  Lewis  0.  Beck  to  amount  to  from  4'04  to 
5*69  per  cent.  Excepting  the  chloride  of  mag- 
nesium, the  impurities  found  in  these  brines 
are  also  common  to  rock  salt.  From  the  deep- 
est wells  at  Syracuse  Dr.  Beck  obtained  brines 
which  afforded  173-50  parts  of  salt  in  1,000 
parts,  and  of  which  83}  gallons  were  required 
to  the  bushel  of  ordinarily  dry  salt.  The  deep- 
est wells  now  afford  brines  containing  17  to 
20  per  cent,  of  salt.  Salt  springs  are  found 
in  other  parts  of  central  and  also  of  western 
New  York,  especially  over  the  area  extend- 
ing E.  and  W.  170  m.  from  Otsego  co.  to  Or- 
leans and  Genesee,  and  N.  and  S.  about  80  m. 
from  Broome  co.  nearly  to  Lake  Ontario. — 
In  western  Pennsylvania  is  an  important  salt 
region  along  the  Alleghany,  Kiskiminetas,  and 
Beaver  rivers,  in  the  carboniferous  series.  In 
1812  the  first  wells  were  bored  200  ft.  deep 
on  the  Kiskiminetas  river,  and  in  1829  there 
were  extensive  works  there,  using  coal,  and 
producing  salt  at  20  to  25  cts.  a  bushel,  while 
in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Illinois  it  was  selling 
at  50  cts.  The  production  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1857  was  estimated  at  900,000  bushels;  in 
1860  it  was  1,011,800  bushels,  but  it  has  since 
declined.  West  Virginia  has  very  important 


SALT 


577 


salines  in  the  valley  of  the  Great  Kanawha, 
beginning  at  Charleston  and  extending  about 
20  m.  above.  They  are  situated  in  the  lower 
coal  measures.  The  first  wells  bored  were 
only  30  ft.  deep,  but  some  have  since  been 
bored  1,500  ft. ;  700  or  800  ft.  is  as  great  a 
depth  as  is  generally  profitable,  as  below  this 
the  water  does  not  increase,  while  the  dis- 
charge of  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  becomes 
much  more  copious.  This  gas  was  formerly 
employed  for  heating  the  kettles,  but  its  use 
is  now  almost  discontinued.  The  bittern  or 
residual  liquor  contains  a  good  deal  of  bro- 
mine. In  1829  these  works  produced  1,000,- 
000  bushels.  The  product  for  1870  was  4,633,- 
750  bushels,  but  for  1875  it  was  expected  to 
amount  to  hardly  one  fourth  of  that  quantity. 
In  S.  W.  Virginia  there  is  a  salt  region,  in 
"Washington  and  Smyth  counties,  along  the 
banks  of  the  N.  fork  of  the  Holston  river. 
The  Holston  springs  and  rock  salt  are  on  the 
line  of  an  extensive  dislocation  of  the  strata, 
bringing  the  lower  Silurian  magnesian  lime- 
stones into  immediate  contact  with  the  lower 
carboniferous  strata,  the  vertical  displacement 
being  calculated  by  Prof.  Rogers  at  not  less 
than  8,000  ft.  The  dislocation  is  at  least  100 
m.  long,  but  no  rock  salt  or  workable  brine  is 
found  except  in  the  Preston  valley,  on  the  line 
of  Smyth  and  Washington  counties.  Several 
productive  wells  have  been  bored  to  the  depth 
of  200  to  300  ft.  In  one  well  over  300  ft.  of 
rock  salt  divided  by  a  little  clay  was  passed 
through  without  tapping  any  brine.  There  ap- 
pears to  be  no  solid  rock,  but  a  deposit  of  clay 
and  earth,  imbedding  in  places  large  bodies 
of  rock  salt  and  gypsum,  and  saturated  in  its 
lower  portions  with  highly  concentrated  brine. 
— The  first  attempts  in  Ohio  were  made  in  1798 
at  the  "  old  Scioto  salt  works  "  in  Jackson  co. 
The  wells  were  only  30  ft.  deep,  and  600  to  800 
gallons  were  required  to  make  a  bushel  of  dark 
and  inferior  salt,  which  however  sold  for  $3  or 
$4,  being  carried,  even  as  late  as  1808,  on  pack 
horses  to  considerable  distances.  Until  about 
1845  the  wells  were  sunk  only  400  or  500  ft. 
in  depth,  but  at  Porneroy  they  are  now  1,200 
ft.  deep,  yielding  a  copious  supply  of  strong 
brine,  and  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  salt  of 
Ohio  is  at  present  manufactured  in  that  vicin- 
ity. From  some  of  the  springs  issue  large 
quantities  of  carburetted  hydrogen  gas,  which 
has  been  used  as  fuel  in  evaporating.  Rock  oil 
is  also  a  product  of  them.  (See  PETROLEUM.) 
In  1850  Ohio  produced  550,350  bushels,  and 
in  1873  4,154,187  bushels.  Indiana  has  numer- 
ous salt  springs,  especially  along  the  Wabash 
river  in  the  coal  measures.  The  "Wabash  sa- 
line in  1809  made  130,000  bushels,  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  saline,  about  1820,  at  least  150,000 
bushels;  but  in  1870  the  whole  product  of 
Illinois  was  only  estimated  at  54,000  bushels. 
In  Kentucky  salt  springs  or  licks  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  even  before  1795  much  salt  was 
made.  The  principal  licks  are :  one  on  Salt 
Lick  creek,  near  the  Ohio;  the  upper  and 


lower  Blue  springs  on  Licking  river;  Dren- 
non's  lick,  on  the  Kentucky  river ;  Big  Bone, 
Long,  Bullett's,  and  Mann's  licks.  The  princi- 
pal works  recently  in  operation  are  on  Goose 
creek ;  they  made  in  1860  about  290,000  bush- 
els, but  the  product  in  1870  was  only  64,000 
bushels,  and  is  now  still  less.  In  Michigan  is 
a  valuable  salt  region  in  Saginaw  co.  Many 
licks  and  springs  have  long  been  known,  and 
in  1838  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  by 
the  state  authorities  to  work  some  of  them. 
In  1859  the  legislature  offered  a  bounty  of  10 
cts.  a  bushel  for  salt  made  in  the  state,  and  a 
company  in  E.  Saginaw  bored  a  well,  and  ob- 
tained at  669  ft.  nearly  saturated  brine.  Since 
1860  the  production  of  salt  in  Michigan  has  de- 
veloped with  great  rapidity,  until  it  has  become 
next  to  New  York  the  largest  salt-producing 
state  in  the  Union.  The  product  in  1874  was 
5,134,875  bushels.  In  1862  a  deposit  of  rock 
salt  was  discovered  on  the  island  of  Petite 
Anse  in  Vermilion  bay,  off  the  coast  of  Loui- 
siana. It  is  considered  to  be  geologically  more 
recent  than  the  tertiary,  or  of  quaternary  age. 
It  was  worked  extensively  during  the  blockade 
of  that  coast  in  the  civil  war,  and  has  since 
produced  more  than  100,000  bushels  annually. 
In  Kansas,  the  Indian  territory,  and  western 
Arkansas,  along  the  Arkansas  and  "Washita 
rivers,  in  N.  "W.  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah, 
is  a  vast  expanse  of  sterile  plains,  principally 
occupied  by  cretaceous  rocks,  in  nearly  every 
part  of  which  salt  lakes  and  incrustations  and 
vast  masses  of  gypsum  occur.  But  the  most 
famous  of  these  lakes  is  the  Great  Salt  lake  of 
Utah,  about  75  m.  long  and  30  m.  wide,  whose 
waters  are  nearly  saturated,  containing  20'2 
per  cent,  of  common  salt,  and  2  per  cent,  of 
other  salts.  For  several  years  the  waters  in 
this  lake  have  gradually  risen  above  their  for- 
mer level,  and  a  proportionate  diminution  of 
salt  has  been  observed.  In  California  are  nu- 
merous salt  lakes,  particularly  in  Tulare  co.,  at 
the  Cafiada  de  las  Uvas,  and  in  the  Taheechay- 
pah  pass  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  near  which  is  a 
dry  lake  from  which  a  considerable  quantity  fit 
for  table  use  has  been  taken. — At  the  present 
time  (1875)  the  production  of  salt  in  the  United 
States  may  be  considered  in  reference  to  three 
different  sections,  viz. :  the  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  the  Rocky  mountain  region, 
and  the  Pacific  coast  region.  Although  during 
the  past  100  years  salt  has  been  manufactured 
in  nearly  every  state  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  the  business  is  now  mainly  restricted  to 
three  separate  areas :  the  neighborhood  of  Sy- 
racuse, N.  Y. ;  Saginaw  valley,  Mich. ;  and  the 
Kanawha  valley,  including  the  wells  at  Pome- 
roy,  near  the  junction  of  that  river  with  the 
Ohio.  These  three  localities  produced  in  1870, 
in  about  200  establishments,  nearly  16,000,000 
bushels  of  salt,  the  total  number  of  establish- 
ments in  the  country  at  that  time  being  282, 
and  the  total  production  17,606,000  bushels. 
From  1850  to  1875  the  salt  industry  has  grown 
in  Florida  and  Michigan,  while  in  New  York 


578 


SALT 


and  the  Kanawha  region  it  has  gradually  de- 
creased since  1862,  when  the  business  appears 
to  have  been  most  flourishing.  In  Massachu- 
setts, Pennsylvania,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois  the  business  ia  rapidly  becoming  un- 
productive, while  Missouri  and  Tennessee  no 
longer  report  any  saline  in  actual  operation. 
But  the  total  production  for  1870  was  greater 
than  that  for  1860  by  about  5,000,000  bushels, 
nn  increase  of  40  per  cent.  The  salt  industry 
is  now  very  much  depressed,  especially  in  the 
Kanawha  valley  and  at  Syracuse,  from  the 
fact  that  the  great  strength  of  the  Michigan 
and  Goderich  brines  and  the  abundance  of 
fuel  in  those  localities  enable  these  brands  of 
salt  to  be  successfully  sold  where  Onondaga 
salt  made  from  brines  only  half  as  strong,  and 
Ohio  and  Kanawha  salt  made  from  brines  still 
weaker,  formerly  commanded  the  market.  In 
addition  to  these  disadvantages,  the  Onondaga 
and  Kanawha  salt  is  driven  from  eastern  mar- 
kets by  Liverpool  salt,  which  is  brought  to  our 
eastern  seaports  at  a  merely  nominal  charge 
by  ships  that  load  in  return  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  breadstuffs.  Throughout  the  region  lying 
on  both  flanks  of  the  Rocky  mountains  the 
demand  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  is  main- 
ly supplied  from  local  sources,  chiefly  brine 
springs,  In  1870  Utah  produced  1,950  bush- 
els, Idaho  13,400,  Colorado  7,500,  and  Kansas 
10,000.  The  production  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing with  the  settlement  of  the  country,  and  is 
almost  without  competition.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  salt  has  long  been  produced  near  Los  An- 
geles and  further  north,  and  the  production  in- 
creased from  44,000  bushels  in  1860  to  174,835 
in  1870.  The  salt  is  obtained  entirely  by  evap- 
oration of  sea  water.  Salt  was  formerly  pro- 
duced in  Oregon,  but  is  not  now  manufactured 
there. — Manufacture  of  Salt.  The  separation 
of  salt  from  brines  and  sea  water  is  conducted 
in  three  distinct  ways :  1,  by  evaporation  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun  in  shallow  reservoirs,  prin- 
cipally practised  with  sea  water  in  the  southern 
temperate  or  tropical  regions ;  2,  by  artificial 
heat,  in  very  long  shallow  pans,  as  in  Cheshire, 
or  in  kettles,  as  at  the  Onondaga  salines ;  3,  by 
exposing  sea  water  to  intense  cold,  when  the 
ice  formed  is  nearly  pure,  and  a  concentrated 
brine  remains,  which  is  afterward  subjected  to 
one  of  the  first  two  processes.  Weak  brines 
are  frequently  brought  to  a  certain  strength  by 
solar  evaporation,  and  then  finished  by  boil- 
ing; or  more  frequently  they  are  pumped  up 
into  elevated  reservoirs,  and  suffered  to  trickle 
over  the  surface  of  bundles  of  brush  or  thorns 
built  up  into  walls,  sometimes  80  to  50  ft. 
high  and  5,000  ft.  long,  fully  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  wind ;  the  great  amount  of  surface 
thus  obtained  causes  the  evaporation  to  go  on 
very  rapidly,  and  a  few  repetitions  of  the  pro- 
cess bring  very  weak  brines  to  suitable  strength 
for  boiling.  This  process  is  known  as  "  grad- 
uation;" and  the  same  effect  is  sometimes 
obtained  by  allowing  the  water  to  trickle  over 
ranges  of  cords  suspended  perpendicularly. 


The  third  process  is  practised  in  northern  Eu- 
rope. In  nearly  every  locality  certain  details 
are  employed  in  the  evaporation  due  to  pecu- 
liarities in  the  brines,  in  the  fuel  employed, 
proximity  to  the  sea,  &c.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  general  methods  employed  when  treating 
sea  water,  the  operations  at  Berre  near  Mar- 
seilles are  thus  described  by  Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt, 
in  a  paper  published  in  the  "  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Canada"  for  the  years  1853-'6.  The 
waters  of  the  Atlantic  contain  from  2*5  to  2 '7 
per  cent,  of  common  salt,  and  those  of  the 
Mediterranean  about  8  per  cent.  While  the 
latter  therefore  afford  a  stronger  brine,  the 
dry  and  hot  summers  of  the  southern  shores 
are  also  more  favorable  for  the  evaporation 
(which  is  conducted  without  artificial  heat) 
than  the  cooler  and  more  rainy  coasts  of  Brit- 
tany and  La  Vendee.  The  Mediterranean 
waters,  moreover,  contain  about  0'8  per  cent, 
of  sulphates  and  chlorides  of  calcium,  magne- 
sium, and  potassium ;  and  from  the  residue, 
or  mother  liquors,  after  most  of  the  common 
salt  has  been  separated,  it  is  found  that  salts 
of  magnesia  and  potash  and  sulphate  of  soda 
may  be  obtained  of  almost  equal  value  with 
the  salt  which  is  the  primary  object  of  the 
manufacture.  The  salines  of  Berre,  however, 
where  these  operations  are  very  successfully 
conducted  upon  a  grand  scale,  do  not  use  the 
strong  sea  water,  but  are  supplied  from  a  lake 
which,  though  connected  with  the  tide,  is 
freshened  fully  one  half  by  streams  from  the 
interior.  Other  advantages  afforded  by  the 
situation  compensate  for  this  weakness  of  the 
brine.  The  broad  receiving  basins  of  these 
salines  must  be  so  situated  that  they  can  be 
flooded  at  very  high  tides,  and  be  protected  by 
dikes  against  their  incursions  when  supplies 
of  salt  water  are  not  wanted.  A  clayey  soil 
is  important  to  prevent  infiltration,  and  give 
strength  to  the  dikes.  The  water  being  let 
into  the  great  shallow  basins,  it  is  allowed  to 
remain  till  it  deposits  its  sediments  and  begins 
to  evaporate  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun.  It  is 
thence  conducted  successively  through  other 
basins  of  10  to  16  in.  depth,  in  which  the 
evaporation  goes  on,  and  the  lime  it  contained 
is  deposited  as  a  sulphate.  As  its  bulk  decreas- 
es smaller  shallow  basins  suffice  for  holding  it 
after  it  is  separated  from  the  sediments  and 
lime,  and  in  these  it  is  concentrated  by  contin- 
ued evaporation  to  a  saturated  brine.  When 
this  marks  25°  Baum6,  it  is  transferred  to  the 
salting  tables,  upon  which  the  crystalline  crusts 
soon  collect.  Pure  salt  to  the  extent  of  25 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  product  separates  be- 
tween 25°  and  26°,  and  may  be  kept  by  itself, 
the  brine  in  this  case  being  removed  to  an- 
other table.  Upon  this  salt  of  second  quality 
is  deposited  to  the  extent  of  60  per  cent,  of  the 
whole,  between  26°  and  28-5°;  and  upon  oth- 
er tables  the  remainder  is  collected  between 
the  last  degree  named  and  32°.  The  last  pro- 
duct, though  somewhat  impure  and  deliquescent 
from  the  magnesian  salt  it  contains,  is  preferred 


SALT 


579 


for  salting  fish  on  account  of  its  property  of 
attracting  moisture.  The  mother  liquors  are 
run  off  to  be  treated  for  the  other  salts.  From 
the  salting  tables  the  crystallized  salt  is  taken 
and  made  up  into  pyramidal  heaps,  and  du- 
ring the  summer  season  these  are  left  exposed 
to  the  weather.  The  little  rain  that  falls  pro- 
motes the  purification  of  the  salt  by  removing 
the  more  soluble  foreign  matters.  Nothing 
more  is  done  to  prepare  the  salt  for  the  market. 
Its  average  price  is  one  franc  for  100  kilo- 
grammes (220  Ibs.).  Steam  or  horse  power  is 
employed  at  these  large  salines  to  raise  the 
water  from  the  lower  basins  into  the  upper 
ones ;  the  machines  that  take  up  the  water  are 
lifting  wheels  of  8  to  16  ft.  diameter.  The 
evaporating  surfaces  cover  815  acres,  of  which 
•fa  is  devoted  to  the  salting  tables.  The  total 
annual  product  of  salt  is  about  44,000,000  Ibs. 
At  Baynas,  as  M.  Pay  en  states,  the  same  amount 
is  made  with  strong  sea  water  on  370  acres. — 
The  relative  strength  of  the  various  brines  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States  and  Canada  for  the 
manufacture  of  salt  is  thus  given  by  Dr.  Beck, 
the  figures  representing  the  number  of  gallons 
required  to  the  bushel  of  ordinary  dryness: 


Sea  water,  from. .  ..300  to  350 

Boon's  Lick,  Mo 480 

Conemaugh,  Pa 800 

Jackson,  0 213 

Lockhart'8,  Miss 180 

St.  Catharine's,  Ont 120 

Zanesville,  0 95 

Grand  river,  Ark 80 

Kanawha,  W.  Va 75 


Montezuma,   N.  T.  (old 

wells) 70 

Muskingum,  0 50 

Montezuma,  N.  Y.  (new 

well) 50 

Onondaga,  N.  T.  (old 

wells) 40  to  45 

Onondaga,  N.  Y.  (new 

wells  at  Syracuse)  80  to    85 


At  Saginaw,  Mich.,  the  proportion  is  25  to  30 
gallons  to  a  bushel,  and  at  Goderich,  Canada, 
22.  The  following  description  of.  the  meth- 
ods employed  in  treating  the  brines  of  Onon- 
daga, N.  Y.,  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of 
those  generally  employed  elsewhere,  especially 
in  Michigan,  Ohio,  and  "West  Virginia.  These 
brines  contain  about  one  half  of  one  per  cent, 
of  sulphate  of  lime,  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  mere 
traces  of  carbonic  acid  and  oxide  of  iron,  and 
from  16  to  17  per  cent,  of  salt.  It  is  the  ob- 
ject of  the  manufacturers  to  remove  all  of  the 
iron,  a  part  of  the  sulphate  of  lime,  and  as 
much  as  possible  of  the  chlorides  of  lime  and 
magnesium.  The  colorless  and  clear  brine  is 
first  pumped  into  shallow  vats,  where  it  re- 
mains until  the  carbonic  acid  escapes  and  the 
iron  is  deposited  as  oxide.  It  is  then  either 
evaporated  by  the  sun's  heat  for  "solar  salt," 
or  by  artificial  heat  for  fine  or  boiled  salt. 
The  first  process  is  conducted  in  wooden  vats 
protected  by  movable  covers,  sheds  with  sec- 
tional movable  roofs  being  generally  used. 
The  evaporation  is  conducted  very  slowly,  and 
as  a  consequence  the  salt  appears  in  very  large 
crystals  and  is  known  as  "coarse  salt."  The 
brine  from  which  the  iron  has  been  separated  is 
drawn  into  a  lower  set  of  vats,  where  it  is  left 
until  crystals  of  salt  appear  on  the  surface.  A 
considerable  amount  of  sulphate  of  lime  has 
meantime  been  deposited.  The  resulting  satu- 


rated brine,  called  "  salt  pickle,"  is  drawn  off 
from  the  precipitated  gypsum  into  a  third  set  of 
vats.  Whenever  a  sufficient  amount  of  salt  crys- 
tals has  accumulated,  they  are  washed  in  fresh 
pickle  and  allowed  to  drain  from  perforated 
wooden  troughs,  and  thence  removed  to  the 
storehouse.  Three  crops  are  produced  in  a 
season,  the  middle  crop  being  the  best.  This 
coarse  salt  is  considered  best  for  packing  meats 
and  fish,  as  it  dissolves  more  slowly  than  fine 
salt  and  prevents  the  meats  from  being  packed 
too  closely.  Boiled  salt  is  produced  by  several 
methods,  of  which  three  are  the  most  impor- 
tant, viz. :  the  kettle,  the  pan,  and  the  steam 
processes.  In  the  first,  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  this  country,  from  60  to  60  kettles, 
having  a  capacity  of  from  100  to  120  gallons 
each,  are  set  in  a  row  and  heated  by  a  common 
flue  and  fireplace.  Two  rows  are  attached  to 
one  chimney.  The  settling  tanks  and  store 
rooms  are  arranged  along  the  sides  of  the  ket- 
tles, and  the  whole  roofed  over.  The  precipi- 
tation of  the  iron  is  sometimes  hastened  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  milk  of  lime. 
The  clear  brine  is  then  drawn  into  the  kettles, 
when  evaporation  goes  on  rapidly  and  at  a 
higher  temperature ;  consequently  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  sulphate  of  lime  separates  before 
saturation  than  in  the  solar  process.  The  re- 
moval of  this  precipitate  is  effected  by  placing 
an  iron  pan  upon  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  pro- 
vided with  an  upright  handle.  The  motion  of 
the  boiling  liquid  causes  the  particles  of  solid 
matter  to  collect  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
bottom  upon  the  pan.  The  pan  is  removed 
and  emptied  from  time  to  time  until  crystals  of 
salt  appear,  when  it  is  not  replaced.  The  salt 
which  accumulates  is  well  washed  in  the  re- 
maining pickle  and  placed  in  baskets  suspended 
over  the  kettles,  when  after  draining  a  few 
hours  it  is  emptied  into  the  store  rooms.  A 
state  law  in  New  York  prescribes  that  the  salt 
shall  be  stored  two  weeks ;  also  that  it  shall  be 
inspected  before  being  stored,  and  again  when 
ready  for  shipment.  The  pan  process  is  used 
in  this  country  to  some  extent,  and  largely  in 
England.  The  brine  is  either  saturated  cold 
or  in  a  pan  called  the  "  foreheater."  It  is  then 
transferred  to  another  pan  and  evaporated, 
either  slowly  or  rapidly  as  a  coarse  or  a  fine 
salt  is  desired.  If  a  very  fine  grain  is  desired, 
the  pans  are  constantly  stirred.  The  pans  are 
of  iron,  set  over  flues,  and  vary  in  size  from 
60  to  20  ft.  in  length  and  35  to  13  ft.  in  width, 
by  15  to  20  in.  in  depth.  In  these  pans  the 
evaporation  is  very  rapid ;  the  salt  accumulates 
constantly,  and  requires  to  be  withdrawn  con- 
tinually. In  the  steam  process  the  brine  freed 
from  iron  is  drawn  into  the  steam  settlers, 
where  it  is  brought  to  saturation.  These  are 
wooden  cisterns  about  100  ft.  long,  8  ft.  wide, 
and  6  ft.  high.  They  are  heated  by  several 
four-inch  steam  pipes,  which  pass  through 
them  from  end  to  end.  After  the  impurities 
have  settled  the  brine  is  drawn  into  grainers, 
which  are  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  settlers, 


580 


SALT 


SALTA 


but  only  12  to  15  in.  deep ;  they  are  also  heated 
by  steam  pipes.  The  salt  forms  very  rapidly, 
and  is  lifted  and  drained  and  stored  before  in- 
spection, as  in  the  kettle  process.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  salt,  especially  its  fineness,  depends 
less  on  the  character  of  the  brine  than  on  the 
care  and  rapidity  with  which  the  evaporation 
has  been  conducted.  The  practice  called  "  cut- 
ting the  grajn,"  i.  e.,  adding  to  the  boiling 
brine  traces  of  glue,  resin,  soap,  &c.,  has  been 
known  and  employed  for  generations ;  but  its 
use  is  condemned  by  the  best  manufacturers, 
as  it  requires  very  great  care  to  prevent  the 
salt  from  being  injured  for  dairy  and  other 
purposes  for  which  fine  salt  is  most  used.  Salt 
of  the  very  finest  quality  is  now  manufac- 
tured at  Onondaga,  by  the  Ohio  and  Kanawha 
salt  companies,  and  in  Michigan. —  Uses  and 
Statistics.  Salt  is  the  only  mineral  substance 
universally  employed  as  an  article  of  food  by 
man  and  the  higher  orders  of  animals.  Be- 
sides its  direct  consumption  as  food,  enor- 
mous quantities  are  needed  for  preserving 
meats  and  fish,  much  is  consumed  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  and  given  to  cattle  and  sheep, 
and  a  very  large  amount  is  used  in  chemical 
operations,  particularly  in  the  manufacture  of 
soda.  This  last  process  alone  takes  about  48,- 
000  tons  annually  in  France,  and  a  single  es- 
tablishment near  Glasgow  has  used  26,000  tons 
for  the  past  20  years.  The  proportionate  con- 
sumption of  salt  in  different  countries  is  very 
variable.  In  the  United  States  it  is  estimated 
at  about  50  Ibs.  annually  for  each  person,  in 
Great  Britain  at  22,  in  France  at  15  Ibs.  Ani- 
mals and  many  plants  will  not  thrive  when 
totally  deprived  of  salt,  though  too  much  acts 
as  a  poison.  Certain  plants  which  grow  at 
the  seaside  depend  upon  it,  and  are  also  found 
inland  in  the  neighborhood  of  salt  mines  and 
lakes.  It  is  employed  as  a  remedy  for  dys- 
pepsia, and  a  spoonful  of  dry  salt  will  some- 
times check  hajmorrhage  of  the  lungs  or  haem- 
orrhage from  other  causes.  In  small  doses 
it  acts  as  a  stimulant  tonic,  and  in  larger 
ones  as  a  purgative  and  emetic.  It  has  also 
been  used  with  good  effect  in  intermittent 
fever.  It  is  a~  necessary  stimulus  in  health, 
quickly  passing  into  the  blood  and  escaping 
by  the  kidneys.  Its  inordinate  use  induces 
plethora,  increasing  the  weight  and  strength 
of  the  body.  It  is  sometimes  applied  as  a  fo- 
mentation in  sprains  and  bruises.  Salt-water 
baths,  natural  or  artificial,  are  considered  stim- 
ulating and  tonic.  Salt  is  alluded  to  in  many 
passages  of  the  Bible.  All  sacrifices  offered 
in  the  temple  were  seasoned  with  it;  new- 
born children  were  rubbed  with  it ;  it  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  tilings  most  necessary 
to  life;  it  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  perpetuity 
and  incorruption,  of  hospitality  (as  it  still  is 
in  the  East),  and  finally  of  barrenness  and 
sterility,  as  in  sowing  the  site  of  a  destroyed 
city  with  salt.  From  its  necessity  salt  has 
in  almost  all  countries  been  a  favorite  sub- 
ject of  taxation,  and  important  political  re- , 


suits  have  sometimes  arisen  from  the  extor- 
tions practised  by  the  collectors,  of  which  the 
histories  of  France  and  Hindostan  furnish  ex- 
amples. In  England  the  excise  on  salt  has 
long  been  repealed.  In  the  United  States,  the 
states  most  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  salt  appoint  an  inspector  whose  duty  is  to 
inspect  the  salt  and  brand  the  packages  as  first 
or  second  quality,  as  it  may  have  been  care- 
fully or  carelessly  prepared.  To  support  this 
system  of  inspection  a  light  tax  is  levied  on 
all  the  salt  produced.  In  Michigan  the  tax  is 
three  mills  per  bushel ;  in  New  York  it  is 
one  cent  a  bushel,  which  however  pays,  in 
addition  to  inspectors'  salary,  the  expenses 
incident  to  running  the  wells. — It  would  be 
impossible  to  gather  trustworthy  statistics  of 
the  consumption  of  salt  throughout  the  world. 
In  1790  very  little  was  produced  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  2,337,920  bushels  were  import- 
ed ;  in  1825  the  value  of  the  production  was 
more  than  $1,500,000,  and  the  importation  was 
4,574,202  bushels ;  in  1850  the  production  was 
9,763,840  bushels;  in  1860, 12,717,193  bushels 
were  produced  and  14,094,227  bushels  import- 
ed ;  in  1870  the  production  was  17,606,105 
bushels.  At  present  (1875),  while  our  total 
production  has  fallen  off  to  some  extent,  our 
imports  have  increased,  particularly  from  Can- 
ada, and  our  total  yearly  consumption  is  prob- 
ably not  far  from  30,000,000  bushels. 

SALTA.  I.  A  N.  W.  province  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  bordering  on  Bolivia  and  the 
provinces  of  Jujuy,  Santiago,  Tucuman,  and 
Catamarca;  area,  50,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869, 
85,959.  It  is  traversed  in  almost  every  direc- 
tion by  spurs  of  the  Andes,  the  flattened  crests 
of  which  form  in  the  west  and  northwest  a 
series  of  plateaus,  some  as  high  as  12,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  with  peaks  rising  much  higher. 
Among  the  numerous  rivers  are  the  Juramen- 
to,  San  Francisco,  and  Bermejo,  the  last  form- 
ing the  boundary  with  the  Gran  Chaco.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  wheat,  barley,  maize,  cotton, 
coca,  coffee,  yerba  mate"  or  Paraguay  tea,  and 
excellent  wines  are  produced.  The  great  for- 
ests yield  many  kinds  of  valuable  wood.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  are  found,  and  porce- 
lain clay  is  abundant.  Wine,  rum,  sugar  and 
molasses,  dried  and  preserved  fruits,  and  the 
wool  and  skins  of  the  vicufia,  llama,  and  al- 
paca are  exported.  Salta  is  divided  into  21 
departments.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, in  the  low  valley  of  Chicoana,  between 
two  mountain  chains,  about  820  m.  N.  "W.  of 
Buenos  Ayres;  pop.  in  1869,  11,716.  It  is 
regularly  laid  out,  with  good  streets  and  neat 
houses.  The  public  schools  were  attended  in 
1869  by  2,885  pupils,  of  whom  1,231  were  fe- 
males. The  climate  here  is  less  salubrious 
than  almost  anywhere  else  in  the  province. — 
This  city  was  founded  in  1582  by  Abreu,  un- 
der the  name  of  San  Clemente  de  la  Nueva 
Sevilla,  in  the  valley  of  Siancas;  in  1584  it 
was  transferred  to  its  present  site,  and  at  first 
called  San  Felipe  de  Lerma. 


SALTILLO 


SALT  LAKE  CITY 


581 


SALTILLO,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
state  of  Coahuila,  on  the  Kio  Tigre,  435  m. 
N".  by  W.  of  the  city  of  Mexico ;  pop.  about 
15,000.  It  is  well  built,  but  the  only  edifices 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  government  house 
and  the  parish  church.  Some  silver  and  gold 
mines  were  formerly  worked  in  the  vicinity, 
but  none  of  importance  are  now  in  operation. 
The  manufactures  comprise  cotton  stuffs,  and 
zarapes  much  prized  for  their  fineness  and 
brilliant  colors.  There  is  an  annual  fair  last- 
ing eight  days,  largely  attended  from  all  parts 
of  the  state. — Saltillo  was  founded  in  1586,  and 
incorporated  as  a  city  with  the  name  of  Leone 
Yicario,  by  decree  of  Nov.  5,  182T.  Near  it 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  22 
and  23,  1847.  (See  BUENA  VISTA.) 

SALT  LAKE,  a  N.  county  of  Utah,  border- 
ing on  Great  Salt  lake,  and  intersected  by 
Jordan  river ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
18,337.  The  Wahsatch  mountains  cross  the  E. 
part ;  the  W.  portion  descends  toward  the  val- 
ley of  the  lake.  Along  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains the  soil  is  productive  when  irrigated. 
There  are  four  mining  districts,  producing 
gold,  silver,  and  lead  in  1874  to  the  value  of 
more  than  $4,000,000.  There  are  smelting 
works,  stamp  mills,  flouring  mills,  saw  mills, 
breweries,  tanneries,  and  various  manufacto- 
ries. The  county  has  several  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  26,838  bushels 


of  wheat,  6,838  of  Indian  corn,  4,584  of  oats, 
4,413  of  barley,  16,216  of  potatoes,  4,285  Ibs. 
of  .wool,  16,207  of  butter,  and  1,172  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  (on  farms)  455  horses,  611 
milch  cows,  1,058  other  cattle,  3,184  sheep, 
and  243  swine.  Capital,  Salt  Lake  City. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY,  a  city,  capital  of  Utah  ter- 
ritory and  of  Salt  Lake  co.,  situated  at  the 
W.  base  of  a  spur  of  the  Wahsatch  mountains, 
4,320  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  about  12 
m.  from  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  Great  Salt 
lake,  2  m.  E.  of  the  river  Jordan,  and  600  m. 
E.  by  N.  of  San  Francisco;  lat.  40°  46'  K, 
Ion.  112°  6'  W. ;  pop.  in  1860,  8,236;  in 
1870,  12,854,  of  whom  5,250  were  foreigners ; 
in  1875,  about  20,000,  of  whom  about  one 
third  are  gentiles  and  apostate  Mormons.  It 
is  connected  with  the  Union  and  Central  Pa- 
cific railroads  at  Ogden,  37  m.  N.,  by  the  Utah 
Central  railroad.  The  Utah  Southern  railroad 
is  completed  to  York,  78  m.  S.,  and  the  Utah 
Western  25  m.  W.  Camp  Douglas,  a  United 
States  military  post,  is  about  3  m.  distant. 
Great  care  was  displayed  in  selecting  the  site 
and  in  laying  out  the  city.  The  streets  are  128 
ft.  wide,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 
There  are  260  blocks,  each  one  eighth  of  a  mile 
square  and  containing  10  acres.  Each  block 
is  divided  into  8  lots,  10  by  20  rods,  and  con- 
taining 1J  acre.  Several  of  the  blocks  have 
been  cut  by  cross  streets  laid  out  since  the 


Salt  Lake  City,  showing  the  Tabernacle. 


founding  of  the  city.  Shade  trees  and  ditches 
filled  with  running  water,  brought  from  City 
creek  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation,  line  both 
sides  of  every  street,  while  almost  every  lot 
has  an  orchard  of  pear,  apricot,  plum,  peach, 
and  apple  trees.  The  city  is  divided  into  20 


wards,  nearly  every  one  of  which  has  a  public 
square.  The  dwellings  and  business  structures 
are  built  principally  of  adobe.  The  former 
are  generally  small  and  of  one  story,  with 
separate  entrances  where  the  proprietor  has 
a  plurality  of  wives.  Among  the  public  build- 


582 


SALTPETRE 


SALTS 


ings  are  the  city  hall,  costing  $70,000,  used  as 
the  territorial  capitol ;  the  tabernacle,  capable 
of  seating  about  15,000  persons,  covered  by  a 
self-supporting  roof ;  and  the  Mormon  temple, 
in  course  of  construction,  estimated  to  cost 
$10,000,000.  The  theatre  is  very  large.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  common 
council,  but  they  are  really  controlled  by  the 
president  of  the  Mormon  church.  Recently 
tf  m.  of  street  railroad  have  been  built  and  gas 
works  have  been  put  in  operation.  The  laying 
of  about  5  m.  of  water  pipes  is  in  progress 
(1875).  The  city  contains  two  national  banks, 
a  savings  institution,  and  three  private  banks. 
There  are  no  public  schools,  but  many  good 
private  ones.  The  principal  institutions  of 
learning  are  the  university  of  Deseret  (Mor- 
mon), St.  Mark's  school  (Episcopal),  a  Roman 
Catholic  nunnery,  and  the  Methodist  and  Pres- 
byterian schools.  There  is  a  public  library, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  ladies  of  the  city. 
Three  daily  (two  Mormon  and  one  gentile) 
and  five  weekly  (two  Scandinavian)  news- 
papers and  two  monthly  periodicals  (devoted 
to  religion  and  education)  are  published.  A 
miners'  hospital  is  supported  mainly  by  the 
mining  camp  near  the  city.  There  are  about 
30  churches,  of  which  all  but  6  are  Mormon. 
Salt  Lake  City  was  settled  in  1847  by  the  Mor- 
mons, under  the  lead  of  Brigham  Young. 

SALTPETRE.    See  NITRATES. 

SILTS.  In  the  present  state  of  chemical 
science  a  satisfactory  definition  of  the  term 
salt  cannot  be  given.  The  older  chemists  re- 
garded a  salt  as  a  product  of  the  "  union  "  of 
an  acid  with  a  base,  as  when  (using  the  older 
notation,  as  well  as  atomic  weights)  nitric 
acid  (NO»)  unites  with  potash  (KO)  to  form 
nitrate  of  potash  (KO,NO») ;  and  this  defini- 
tion is  often  used  at  the  present  time,  but  ac- 
cording to  modern  theory  it  is  not  strictly  cor- 
rect. To  say  that  a  salt  is  produced  by  the 
"action"  of  an  acid  on  a  base  is  correct  as  far 
as  it  goes,  but  salts  are  sometimes  formed  by 
the  direct  union  of  two  elements,  neither  of 
which  is  an  acid  or  a  base.  By  the  term  base 
is  meant  a  body  composed  of  two  or  more 
elements  (inorganic  bases  usually  having  only 
two),  most  frequently  an  oxide  of  a  metal,  which 
is  capable  of  effecting  a  double  decomposition 
with  an  acid,  during  which  water  and  a  salt 
are  formed  by  the  exchange  of  elements,  as 
when  oxide  of  silver  is  acted  upon  by  nitric 
acid  (AgaO  +  2HNO,=2AgNO,  +  H,O),  where 
the  oxygen  of  the  oxide  of  silver  unites  with 
the  hydrogen  of  the  nitric  acid  to  form  water, 
while  the  metallic  basyle  silver  unites  with  the 
radical  (XOS)  to  form  nitrate  of  silver.  This 
is  a  different  action  from  that  formerly  sup- 
posed to  take  place,  that  is,  the  direct  union 
of  the  base  and  acid,  without  double  decom- 
position ;  for  instance,  using  the  old  notation 
and  equivalent  numbers,  AgO  +  NOB=AgO, 
NO».  That  part  of  the  base  which  unites  with 
a  portion  of  the  acid  to  form  the  salt  is  usu- 
ally called  the  basyle.  In  the  formation  of 


nitrate  of  silver  above  described,  the  basyle 
Ag  of  the  base  AgaO  displaces  the  hydrogen 
which  in  the  nitric  acid  is  united  with  the 
radical  NOs.  Lavoisier  supposed  that  all  true 
acids  contained  oxygen,  and  gave  the  name 
(meaning  acid  generator)  to  that  element  in 
accordance  with  that  hypothesis.  The  term 
acid  was  applied  to  both  the  anhydrides  and 
their  compounds  with  water,  which  latter  are 
now  regarded  as  the  only  true  acids.  In  course 
of  time  it  was  discovered  that  there  were  acids 
containing  no  oxygen,  such  as  hydrochloric, 
hydriodic,  and  hydrobromic  acids,  which  pos- 
sessed all  the  other  characteristics  of  Lavoi- 
sier's acids,  as  sourness  to  the  taste  and  the 
power  to  redden  vegetable  blues.  This  led  to 
the  division  into  oxyacids  and  hydracids;  but 
it  was  found  that  the  constitution  of  common 
salt  was  simply  binary,  it  being  composed  of 
the  metallic  basyle  sodium  united  to  the  ele- 
ment chlorine,  and  having  the  formula  NaCl. 
Berzelius  then  propounded  the  theory  that  a 
salt  consisted  of  an  electro-positive  body  uni- 
ted to  an  electro-negative  body,  each  of  which 
might  be  either  simple  or  compound.  "When 
simple,  as  in  common  salt,  they  formed  haloid 
salts,  so  named  from  their  resemblance  to  com- 
mon salt  (Gr.  dXf,  sea  salt),  and  consisted  of  an 
electro-positive  metal  united  to  an  electro-neg- 
ative radical  or  halogen.  When  these  bodies 
were  compound  they  formed  amphide  salts,  and 
these  amphide  salts  might  contain  oxygen  in 
both  base  and  acid,  or  they  might  contain  sul- 
phur in  both ;  in  one  case  being  called  oxy- 
salts,  and  in  the  other  sulpho-salts.  The  ha- 
loid salts  were  strictly  binary  compounds,  but 
the  amphide  salts  were  regarded  as  ternary. 
Davy  and  Dulong  also  introduced  a  theory  by 
which  the  seeming  difference  between  oxyacid 
and  hydracid  salts  was  reconciled.  This  was 
called  the  binary  theory,  and  it  regarded  all 
hydrated  acids  as  in  reality  salts,  containing 
hydrogen  in  place  of  a  metal,  and  acting  the 
part  of  a  basyle  toward  a  single  element  or 
group  of  elements,  and  all  salts  as  being 
built  up  on  the  type  of  chloride  of  sodium. 
Thus  sulphuric  acid,  HaSO4,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  salt  similar  in  constitution  to  potassio 
sulphate,  KjSO-4,  the  only  difference  being  the 
presence  of  the  feeble  basyle  hydrogen  in  place 
of  the  powerful  basyle  potassium.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  on  zinc  there  is  simply 
displacement  of  hydrogen  by  zinc  (H9S()4  + 
Zn=ZnSO4-l-2II),  hydrogen  being  evolved  in 
a  gaseous  state.  According  to  the  old  ideas, 
using  the  old  notation,  sulphuric  acid,  HsO,SOi, 
acting  on  the  zinc,  caused  electric  polarization, 
by  which  the  affinity  of  the  metal  for  oxygen 
was  so  increased  that  it  rapidly  decomposed 
water,  liberating  the  hydrogen,  forming  a  base, 
ZnO,  with  the  oxygen,  and  then  uniting  with 
the  anhydride  SO3,  forming  sulphate  of  zinc, 
ZnO,SOs.  The  binary  theory,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, simplifies  the  reactions,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  admits  of  the  agency  of  the  elec- 
tro-motive force;  for  in  the  composition  of 


SALTS 


583 


sulphate  of  zinc,  ZnS04,  the  metal  is  regarded 
as  an  electro-positive  basyle,  while  the  body 
SO*  is  regarded  as  an  electro-negative  radical, 
composed  of  the  anhydride  of  the  acid  plus  oxy- 
gen, and  called  generically  an  oxion.  When 
the  oxygen  is  united  to  sulphur,  as  in  sulphuric 
acid,  the  oxion  is  specifically  called  a  sulphion, 
or  sometimes  an  oxysulphion.  In  the  case  of 
sulphurous  acid,  instead  of  being  a  sulphion 
it  is'  a  sulphosion.  When  the  radical  contains 
nitrogen  instead  of  sulphur,  it  is  an  oxion, 
which  is  specifically  called  a  nitrion  or  a  nitro- 
sion,  according  as  it  is  a  constituent  of  nitric 
or  nitrous  acid.  The  objections  to  the  binary 
hypothesis  are,  that  none  of  the  compound 
radicals  or  oxions,  SO4,  N03,  or  COS,  have 
ever  been  isolated ;  and  it  also  appears  im- 
probable that  a. compound  which  is  held  to- 
gether by  such  powerful  attractions  as  in  pot- 
ash exist  between  potassium,  the  most  highly 
electro-positive,  and  oxygen,  the  most  highly 
electro-negative  element,  should  be  decom- 
posed by  the  action  of  carbonic  anhydride, 
COa,  parting  with  its  oxygen,  so  that  K2O  + 
COa  should  become  Ka,COs  instead  of  KaO,COa. 
Chemists  are  now  more  inclined  to  regard  a 
salt,  when  once  formed,  as  a  whole,  and  not 
as  consisting  of  two  distinct  parts,  although  it 
is  probable  that  during  the  act  of  combining 
the  electro-chemical  relations  of  the  constit- 
uents are  distinct  and  opposite.  It  is  some- 
times convenient,  however,  to  regard  salts  as 
having  the  constitution  of  binary  compounds, 
and  as  consisting  of  a  basyle  and  a  radical  con- 
stantly held  together  by  opposite  electric  po- 
larities. It  was  formerly  supposed  that  salts 
are  formed  only  between  acids  and  bases  of 
the  same  class ;  that  is,  that  both  members 
must  be  oxides,  sulphides,  chlorides,  &c. ;  and 
this  was  consistent  with  the  ternary  hypothe- 
sis, which  regarded  the  salt  as  a  combination 
of  a  compound  base  with  an  anhydride  and  not 
•with  its  radical,  as  has  been  above  illustrated. 
Upon  this  hypothesis  it  will  be  seen  that  sul- 
phuret  of  potassium  could  not  form  a  salt  with 
sulphuric  acid.  It  required  decomposition  to 
effect  this,  including  the  evolution  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas,  thus:  KaS  +  HaSO4  = 
KaSO4  +  HaS.  But  according  to  the  binary 
theory  a  similar  reaction  takes  place  on  the 
addition  of  sulphuric  acid  to  oxide  of  potas- 
sium, water  instead  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
being  formed :  KaO  +  H2SO4=KaSO4  +  HaO.— 
There  are  three  varieties  of  salts  which  de- 
pend upon  the  relative  proportions  of  radical 
to  basyle,  or,  in  common  language,  of  acid  to 
base.  They  are  called  neutral  or  normal,  acid, 
and  basic  or  subsalts.  1.  Neutral  Salts,  A 
salt  is  commonly  said  to  be  neutral  when  the 
characteristics  of  both  acid  and  base  have 
neutralized  each  other,  and  this  condition  is 
usually  regarded  as  existing  when  the  salt  has 
neither  the  effects  of  acids  nor  alkalies  upon 
certain  vegetable  colors.  The  blue  color  of 
litmus  is  changed  to  red  by  an  acid,  and  again 
restored  by  an  alkali,  while  a  perfectly  neutral 


salt  produces  neither  of  these  effects.  The 
yellow  of  turmeric  is  turned  brown  by  an 
alkali,  and  is  restored  by  an  acid.  But  there 
are  some  salts  which  are  regarded  as  neutral 
in  composition,  or,  to  use  a  more  appropriate 
term,  normal,  which  have  the  power  of  chang- 
ing vegetable  blues  to  red,  and  vice  versa. 
There  are  some  acids  (and  they  are  all  now  re- 
garded as  salts  of  hydrogen)  that  contain  only 
one  atom  of  hydrogen  which  can  be  displaced 
by  one  atom  of  a  monad  metal.  Such  acids 
are  said  to  be  monobasic,  and  among  them  are 
hydrochloric,  HC1,  nitric,  HNO$,  and  acetic, 
HCaHsOa.  When  these  acids  unite  with  bases, 
they  are  capable  of  forming  only  monobasic 
salts,  that  is,  salts  containing  one  atom  of  ba- 
syle. Other  acids  contain  two  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen, which  may  be  replaced  by  two  atoms  of 
a  monad  metal  like  potassium,  or  one  equiva- 
lent of  a  dyad  like  zinc.  These  acids  are  called 
dibasic,  and  among  them  are  sulphuric,  JIsS04, 
and  tartaric,  HaC4H40«.  Other  acids  again 
contain  three  atoms  of  hydrogen,  which  may 
be  replaced  by  three  atoms  of  a  monad  metal, 
or  one  atom  of  a  triad ;  and  such  acids  are 
said  to  be  tribasic,  of  which  tribasic  phospho- 
ric acid,  H3POB,  and  citric  acid,  HsCgHeOT, 
are  examples.  Acids  and  salts  which  contain 
more  than  one  equivalent  of  basyle  are  said  to 
be  polybasic.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
when  all  the  atoms  in  the  hydrogen  basyle 
of  the  acid  are,  in  the  formation  of  the  salt, 
replaced  by  an  equivalent  number  of  atoms 
of  the  metallic  basyle,  the  salt  as  formed  will 
be  normal,  or,  in  common  language,  neutral ; 
although  it  must  be  remembered  that  some 
normal  salts  will  change  vegetable  colors.  2. 
Acid  Salts.  When  the  atoms  of  the  hydrogen 
basyle  are  only  partially  replaced  by  a  metal- 
lic basyle,  the  salt  so  formed  is  an  acid  salt, 
the  acid  character  of  the  hydrogen  compound 
(acid  or  salt)  not  having  been  neutralized  by  an 
equivalent  of  metallic  basyle.  The  formation 
of  a  true  acid  salt  therefore  requires  a  poly- 
basic  acid,  for  if  the  one  basyle  of  hydrogen 
in  an  acid  is  replaced  by  one  metallic  basyle, 
the  salt  so  formed  will  be  normal.  An  exam- 
ple of  an  acid  salt  is  bisulphate  of  potassium 
(hydric-potassic  sulphate),  KHS04,  where  only 
half  of  the  basyle  hydrogen  is  displaced,  and 
there  is  only  one  atom  of  potassium  instead 
of  the  two  which  are  required  to  replace  the 
hydrogen  in  sulphuric  acid,  HSSO4.  Other 
examples  are  the  organic  salts,  bitartrate  of 
potassium  (cream  of  tartar,  hydric-potassic 
tartrate),  KHC4H4O«,  and  bicarbonate  of  po- 
tassium (hydric-potassic  carbonate),  KHCO». 
The  normal  salts  corresponding  to  these  are : 
potassic  sulphate,  KaSO4 ;  potassic  tartrate, 
K9C4H40« ;  and  potassic  carbonate,  KaCOa. 
3.  Basic  Salts.  These  are  such  as  contain  a 
greater  number  of  atoms  of  metallic  basyle  than 
there  were  atoms  of  hydrogen  basyle  in  the 
acid.  An  example  of  such  salts  is  basic  mercu- 
ric sulphate  (turpeth  mineral),  HgSO4,2HgO, 
which  contains  three  atoms  of  mercury  in 


584 


SALTS 


SALTZBURG 


place  of  the  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  that  were 
contained  in  the  sulphuric  acid  from  which 
the  salt  was  formed.  The  theory  of  the  for- 
mation of  basic  salts  is  imperfect,  and  it  will 
be  observed  that  here  there  is  not  that  com- 
plete replacement  of  basyle  which  exists  in 
.neutral  and  acid  salts.  The  tendency  to  the 
formation  of  basic  salts  is  limited  to  certain 
acids  and  bases.  The  monad  basyles  do  not 
form  basic  salts.  The  dyad  metals,  such  as  cop- 
per, lead,  and  mercury,  have  a  strong  tendency 
to  do  so,  while  the  triads,  as  antimony  and  bis- 
muth, have  a  still  stronger  tendency.  4.  Dou- 
ble Salts.  In  considering  polybasic  acids  and 
salts,  it  was  seen  that  one  of  the  atoms  of  the 
hydrogen  basyle  of  a  dibasic  acid  might  be  re- 
placed by  an  atom  of  a  monad  metallic  basyle. 
Such  an  aqid  salt  may  be  regarded  as  a  true 
double  salt  of  a  metal  and  hydrogen.  But  a 
normal  double  salt  maybe  formed  by  replacing 
one  hajf  of  the  hydrogen  basyle  with  one 
monad  metal,  and  the  other  half  with  another 
monad  metal.  Such  are  called  double  salts,  of 
which  Rochelle  salt  (tartrate  of  potash  and 
soda),  KNaC4H4Os  -I-  4  Aq,  is  an  example.  Most 
of  the  double  salts  have  this  constitution,  but 
others  have  a  different  formation.  A  remark- 
able class  of  double  salts  was  investigated  by 
Graham.  In  many  cases  the  water  of  crystal- 
lization may  be  expelled  from  a  salt  by  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water ;  in  other  cases 
all  but  one  molecule  will  be  thus  expelled, 
which  requires  a  considerably  higher  heat.  It 
was  found  that  this  last  molecule  of  water 
could  be  replaced  by  a  molecule  of  certain  an- 
hydrous salts.  The  formation  of  a  certain 
class  of  sulphates  illustrates  this  action.  All 
the  sulphates  of  metals  isomorphous  with  mag- 
nesium are  capable  of  forming  double  salts  of 
this  character  with  some  anhydrous  sulphate 
not  isomorphous  with  this  class,  as  potassic 
sulphate.  If  magnesic  sulphate,  MgS047IIaO, 
which  parts  with  six  of  its  molecules  of  water 
at  212°  and  crystallizes  in  right  rhombic  prisms, 
and  potassic  sulphate,  KjSO4,  which  crystal- 
lizes in  six-sided  prisms,  or  in  four-sided  right 
rhombic  prisms,  are  separately  dissolved  in 
water  in  equivalent  proportions  and  mingled 
while  at  a  temperature  a  little  above  212°,  the 
solution  will  deposit  on  cooling  a  new  double 
salt,  MgSO4,K»SO4  +  6IIjO,  having  the  same 
crystalline  form  as  magnesic  sulphate,  but  con- 
taining six  instead  of  seven  molecules  of  water 
of  crystallization,  potassic  sulphate  occupying 
the  place  of  the  seventh  molecule.  This  sev- 
enth molecule  has  been  termed  by  Graham 
saline  water.  Another  well  known  variety  of 
double  salts  are  the  alums,  of  which  common 
potash  alum,  K,C],4SO4  +  24H,O  (or  K,S04, 
A1»3SO4  +  24H,0),  is  an  example.  (See  ALUM.) 
Haloid  salts  unite  with  each  other  to  form 
double  salts,  the  most  common  of  which  are 
formed  by  the  chlorides,  iodides,  and  bromides 
of  the  less  oxidizable  metals,  and  the  alkaline 
and  earthy  metals.  Examples  of  such  double 
haloid  salts  are  the  double  chloride  of  potas- 


sium and  platinum,  2KCl,PtCl4,  and  the  donble 
iodide  of  potassium  and  mercury,  2KI,HgI». 
There  is  a  class  of  salts  called  oxychlorides, 
oxybromides,  oxy cyanides,  &c.,  in  which  one 
molecule  of  the  chloride,  of  the  bromide,  or  of 
the  cyanide  is  united  with  one  or  more  mole- 
cules of  the  oxide  of  the  same  metal,  as  in 
Turner's  yellow,  PbCl,,7PbO.— When  any  acid 
is  added  to  the  solution  of  a  salt  the  basyle  of 
which  is  capable  of  forming  a  soluble  salt  with 
the  radical  of  such  added  acid,  a  partial  ex- 
change between  the  basyle  of  the  salt  and  the 
hydrogen  basyle  of  the  added  acid  is  supposed 
to  take  place,  probably  in  the  proportion  of 
the  relative  attractions  of  these  basyles  for 
each  radical.  But  if  the  radical  of  the  add- 
ed acid  is  capable  of  forming  an  insoluble 
salt  with  the  basyle  of  the  salt,  the  latter  will 
be  entirely  decomposed,  and  its  radical  appro- 
priated by  the  rauical  of  the  added  acid ;  for 
as  fast  as  the  basic  sulphate  is  formed  it  is 
removed  from  the  solution  by  precipitation, 
which  necessitates  a  continual  decomposition 
of  the  first  salt:  Ba2NO,  +  HsSO4=BaSO4  + 
2IINO».  Similar  reactions  take  place  on  add- 
ing a  base  to  a  saline  solution.  If  both  bases 
and  the  salts  which  they  form  with  the  radi- 
cal of  the  salt  are  soluble,  the  solution  will  re- 
main clear ;  but  if  the  added  base  forms  an  in- 
soluble salt  with  the  radical  of  the  salt,  the 
latter  will  be  decomposed,  while  the  new  salt 
will  be  precipitated ;  or  if  the  base  of  the  salt 
be  insoluble  while  the  added  base  is  soluble,  a 
soluble  compound  will  be  formed,  and  the  base 
of  the  first  salt  will  be  precipitated.  Most  of 
the  metallic  salts,  with  the  exception  of  those 
of  the  alkalies  and  the  alkaline  earths,  are 
formed  from  bases  which  are  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter ;  consequently  the  addition  of  a  soluble 
base,  as  potash  or  soda,  to  such  metallic  salts 
causes  the  precipitation  of  the  base  or  oxide, 
and  upon  this  reaction  depend  many  of  the 
chemical  tests  for  metallic  substances.  Oxide 
of  zinc,  or  zinc  white,  although  prepared  for 
commerce  by  distilling  zinc  into  chambers  sup- 
plied with  currents  of  air,  may  be  formed  by 
precipitation  from  solutions  of  its  salts  by  an 
alkaline  hydrate,  for  instance,  from  the  sul- 
phate by  the  action  of  potassic  hydrate  (ZnS04 
+  KaO=ZnO  +  K»SO4),  potassic  sulphate  being 
formed  and  remaining  in  solution.  The  nature 
of  the  double  decomposition  which  takes  place 
when  two  salts  are  brought  together  depends 
often  upon  the  condition  in  which  they  are. 
For  instance,  if  ammonic  sulphate  and  calcic 
carbonate  are  mixed  together  in  a  dry  state 
and  gently  heated,  decomposition  takes  place, 
and  calcic  sulphate  and  ammonic  carbonate  are 
produced,  the  latter  being  expelled  as  a  vola- 
tile product:  CaCO,  +  (H4N)aSO4=(H4N)11CO, 
+  CaSO4.  But  if  a  solution  of  calcic  sulphate 
and  ammonic  carbonate  are  mixed,  the  effects 
will  be  reversed,  and  calcic  carbonate  and  am- 
monic sulphate  will  be  formed,  the  former 
being  precipitated,  the  latter  held  in  solution. 
SALTZBCBG.  See  SALZBURG. 


SALUTATION 


SALUZZO 


585 


SALUTATION,  words  or  signs  of  greeting. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  the  verbal  form 
was  Xaipe  ("Rejoice");  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  Salve,  vale  ("  Be  healthy,  be  strong  "), 
and  Quid  agis  f  ("  What  doest  thou?  ").  The 
French  say:  Comment  vous  portez  vous? 
("How  do  you  carry  yourself?");  the  Ger- 
mans: Wie  tefinden  Sie  sichf  ("How  do  you 
find  yourself?  ") ;  the  Italians :  Come  sta  ella  ? 
("  How  do  you  stand?  ") ;  the  modern  Greeks : 
11  KdfivsTe  ("  What  do  you  do? ") ;  the  Dutch : 
Hoe  vaart  gij?  ("How  do  you  fare?");  the 
Swedes:  Hum  mdr  Nif  ("How  can  you?"). 
One  form  of  salutation  in  the  fevered  coun- 
try of  Egypt  is:  "How  goes  the  perspiration? 
do  you  sweat  copiously?"  In  China  a  com- 
mon salutation  is:  "Have  you  eaten  your 
rice  ?  is  your  stomach  in  good  order  ?  "  and  a 
similar  one  prevails  in  Holland  in  Smakelijk 
etenf  ("Have  you  relished  your  meal?"). 
One  Polish  form  is:  Czys  wesolf  ("Art  thou 
gay?");  and  another:  Jak  sig  mass?  ("How 
hast  thou  thyself?").  Two  common  saluta- 
tions in  Russia  are:  Zdrastvui  ("Be  well"), 
and  the  peculiar  Kak  pozhivayete  f  ("  How  do 
you  live  on  ? ").  A  common  exclamation  in 
Russia,  Boh  s  toloi,  which  means  literally 
"God  with  thee,"  has  now  rather  the  signi- 
fication of  "  Devil  take  you."  The  salutations 
of  the  Arabs  and  Turks  are  marked  by  a  reli- 
gious character.  Among  those  of  the  Arabs 
are:  "May  your  morning  be  good;"  "God 
grant  thee  his  favors;"  "If  God  will,  thou  art 
well;"  "If  God  will,  all  the  members  of  thy 
family  enjoy  good  health."  The  Turks  say: 
"Be  under  the  care  of  God;"  "My  prayers 
are  for  thee;"  "Forget  me  not  in  thy  pray- 
ers;" and  "Thy  visits  are  as  rare  as  fine 
days,"  an  expression  evidently  of  very  ancient 
origin,  as  it  is  in  no  way  applicable  to  their 
present  country.  The  Persian  salutations  are 
marked  by  extravagant  compliment,  such  as : 
"  Is  thy  exalted  high  condition  good? "  "  Peace 
be  upon  thee ;"  "  I  make  prayers  for  thy 
greatness;"  "May  thy  shadow  not  be  removed 
from  our  head;"  and  "May  thy  shadow  never 
be  less."  An  old  English  salutation  in  polite 
society  was:  "Save  you,  sir,"  evidently  an 
abbreviation  of  "  God  save  you,  sir,"  just  as 
"  Good  bye  "  is  a  contraction  of  "  God  be  with 
you." — Of  the  many  different  methods  of  sal- 
utation, the  custom  of  shaking  hands  is  the 
one  most  common  among  civilized  nations, 
though  probably  it  comes  from  the  remotest 
barbarism,  when  two  men  meeting  gave  each 
other  their  weapon  hands  as  a  security  against 
treachery  or  sudden  attack.  On  the  European 
continent  it  is  usual  for  men  who  are  intimate 
friends  to  kiss  one  another;  but  this  custom 
prevails  in  England  and  America  only  among 
women.  In  the  greatest  portion  of  Germany 
it  is  an  act  of  politeness  to  kiss  the  hand  of  a 
lady;  but  this  privilege  is  allowed  in  Italy 
only  to  near  relatives,  while  in  Russia  it  is  ex- 
tended to  kissing  the  forehead.  In  the  East 
and  among  the  Slavic  nations  the  salutations 


partake  of  the  character  of  self-abasement. 
The  custom  of  throwing  one's  self  upon  the 
ground  and  kissing  the  feet  of  the  monarch 
prevailed  among  the  Persians.  In  China,  an 
inferior  upon  horseback  meeting  a  superior 
dismounts  and  waits  till  the  latter  has  passed 
by.  In  Japan  the  inferior  removes  his  sandals 
when  meeting  his  superior,  crosses  his  hands 
by  placing  the  right  hand  in  the  left  sleeve, 
and  then  suffering  both  to  fall  slowly  on  his 
knee,  passes  the  other  with  a  slow  and  rock- 
ing motion  of  the  body,  crying  out :  Augh  f 
aughj  ("Do  not  hurt  me  !  ").  In  Siam,  when 
the  inferior  throws  himself  upon  the  ground 
before  his  superior,  the  latter  sends  one  of  his 
dependants  to  examine  whether  the  former 
has  been  eating  anything  or  carries  with  him 
any  smell  at  all  offensive.  If  such  be  the  case, 
he  is  immediately  kicked  out  without  cere- 
mony ;  but  if  not,  the  attendant  raises  him  up. 
In  Ceylon  the  inferior  on  meeting  a  superior 
throws  himself  on  the  ground,  repeating  the 
name  and  dignity  of  the  latter,  who  appears 
to  take  scarcely  any  notice  of  the  prostrate 
form  which  he  passes.  In  some  countries  the 
salutations  are  often  made  by  the  contact  of 
other  parts  of  the  body  besides  the  hands  and 
the  lips.  In  the  Society  and  Friendly  islands, 
two  persons  on  meeting  salute  by  rubbing  the 
ends  of  their  noses  together,  and  the  salutation 
is  returned  by  each  taking  the  hand  of  the 
other  and  rubbing  it  upon  his  own  nose  and 
mouth.  The  Moors  of  Morocco  ride  at  full 
speed  toward  a  stranger  as  if  they  intended  to 
run  him  down,  and  as  soon  as  they  have  ap- 
proached near  they  stop  suddenly  and  fire  a 
pistol  over  his  head.  In  one  of  the  Pelew  isl- 
ands the  inhabitants  grasp  either  the  hand  or 
the  foot  of  the  one  they  wish  to  salute,  and 
rub  their  faces  against  it.  In  Burmah,  in  order 
to  kiss,  they  apply  the  mouth  and  nose  closely 
to  the  person's  cheek  and  draw  in  the  breath 
strongly  as  if  smelling  a  delightful  perfume; 
hence,  instead  of  saying:  "Give  me  a  kiss," 
they  say :  "  Give  me  a  smell."  The  Arab  sal- 
utations are  very  ceremonious.  If  persons  of 
distinction  meet,  they  embrace  several  times, 
kiss  each  other's  cheek,  inquire  several  times 
about  the  health  of  each  other,  and  also  kiss 
their  own  hands.  The  Arabian  dwellers  in  the 
desert  shake  hands  six  or  eight  times,  and  in 
Yemen  persons  of  rank  permit  their  fingers  to 
be  kissed  after  a  long  refusal.  In  Turkey  it  is 
the  custom  to  cross  the  hands  upon  the  breast 
and  bow  to  the  person  saluted.  Military  salu- 
tations consist  in  the  touching  of  the  hat  or 
cap,  the  lowering  of  swords  or  of  colors,  the 
presenting  of  arms,  or  the  firing  of  cannon. 
Naval  salutes  are  also  made  by  the  discharge 
of  cannon,  by  the  lowering  or  raising  of  the 
flag,  and  by  the  cheering  of  the  sailors. 

SALUZZO  (Fr.  Saluces),  a  town  of  Piedmont, 
Italy,  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  province  of  Coni, 
30  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Turin;  pop.  about  16,000. 
It  contains  a  cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  and  a 
statue  of  Silvio  Pellico,  who  was  born  here. 


586 


SALVADOR 


SALVAGE 


The  old  castle,  where  Griseldis  is  said  to  have 
been  imprisoned,  has  been  converted  into  a 
penitentiary.  Wine,  grain,  cattle,  and  ice  are 
dealt  in,  and  there  are  silk  looms,  tanneries, 
and  hat  manufactories.  In  the  middle  ages 
Saluzzo  formed  a  margraviate,  which  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  14th  century  became  depen- 
dent upon  Savoy.  In  the  16th  century  its 
possession  was  disputed  by  France  and  Savoy, 
but  in  1601  Henry  IV.  gave  it  up  to  the  latter, 
receiving  a  compensation  in  other  territories. 

SALVADOR,  Joseph,  a  French  historian  of 
Spanish-Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Montpel- 
lier  in  1796.  He  studied  medicine,  but  did 
not  practise.  His  principal  works  are :  Loi 
de  Molse,  ou  Systeme  religieux  et  politique  des 
Hebreux  (1822),  a  prelude  to  the  Histoire  des 
institutions  de  Molse  et  du  peuple  hebreu  (3 
vols.,  1828);  Jesus- Christ  et  sa  doctrine  (2 
vols.,  1838) ;  Histoire  de  la  domination  ro- 
maine  en  Judee  et  de  la  mine  de  Jerusalem 
(2  vols.,  1846) ;  and  Paris,  Rome,  Jerusalem, 
ou  la  question  religieuse  au  XIX'  siecle  (2 
vols.,  1859). 

SALVAGE,  in  admiralty,  and  generally  in  the 
law  merchant,  the  compensation  earned  by 
persons  who  voluntarily  assist  in  saving  a  ship 
or  her  cargo  from  a  maritime  peril.  This  com- 
pensation is  not  a  mere  payment  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  quantum  meruit,  or  a  remuneration 
pro  opere  et  labore,  but  a  reward  for  bravely 
encountering  the  perils  of  the  seas,  given  in 
order  that  the  general  interests  of  navigation 
and  the  commerce  of  the  country  may  be  ad- 
vanced. As  to  the  amount  of  salvage  which 
shall  be  decreed,  or  the  proportion  in  which  it 
shall  be  given  to  salvors,  there  is  no  fixed  rule 
or  practice  in  admiralty.  In  respect  to  derelict 
or  abandoned  property,  the  ancient  rule  gave 
one  half  to  the  salvor;  but  now  the  position 
seems  to  be  well  established  that  the  reward  in 
derelict  cases  should  be  governed  by  the  same 
principles  as  in  other  salvage  cases,  namely, 
that  it  shall  depend  upon  the  danger  to  prop- 
erty, value,  risk  of  life,  skill,  labor,  and  the 
duration  of  the  service.  The  court  has  no 
power  to  decree  salvage  for  saving  life  merely ; 
but  if  the  saving  of  life  can  be  connected  with 
the  saving  of  property,  then  the  court  will 
take  notice  of  it.  Nevertheless,  efforts  to  save 
life  do  not  command  a  compensation  so  much 
higher  than  is  given  for  the  saving  of  property 
as  might  perhaps  be  expected.  The  reason  is, 
that  it  is  not  a  deviation  when  the  vessel  goes 
out  of  her  way  to  save  life,  and  therefore  the 
insurance  is  not  forfeited ;  whereas  it  is  a  de- 
viation to  vary  from  the  course  for  the  purpose 
of  saving  property,  and  compensation  must  be 
made  for  forfeiture  of  the  insurance. — It  is  a 
cardinal  rule  that  salvage  services  can  be  per- 
formed only  by  persons  not  bound  by  their 
legal  duty  to  render  them.  A  crew  cannot 
claim  as  salvors  of  their  own  ship  or  cargo,  not 
only  because  it  is  their  duty  to  save  her  if  pos- 
sible, but  because  it  would  be  most  unwise  to 
tempt  them  to  let  the  ship  and  cargo  get  into 


a  position  of  extreme  danger,  that  then,  by 
extreme  exertions,  they  might  claim  salvage. 
But  to  this  general  rule  there  is  the  exception 
that,  where  the  contract  of  the  seamen  is  at  an 
end,  or  the  service  rendered  is  so  entirely  out 
of  the  line  of  their  ordinary  duty  that  it  may 
be  considered  as  not  done  under  their  contract, 
there  may  be  a  valid  claim  for  compensation. 
A  crew  are  bound  to  suppress  a  mutiny  on 
board  their  own  ship  at  all  events  and  at  every 
hazard,  and  cannot  claim  salvage  therefor.  If 
the  crew  of  one  ship  suppress  mutiny  or  re- 
volt in  another,  or  retake  a  captured  ship  from 
mutineers  or  revolters,  this  may  well  found  a 
claim  for  salvage.  If  part  of  the  crew  leave 
their  ship  and  go  to  save  another,  and  thereby 
acquire  a  claim  for  salvage,  the  rest  who  re- 
main share  in  the  claim,  yet  not  equally,  for 
their  right  rests  mainly  on  the  increased  labor, 
exposure,  or  peril  which  falls  on  them.  For 
ordinary  services  rendered  to  the  ship  in  time 
of  distress,  no  salvage  is  due  to  a  passenger ; 
but  in  his  case,  as  in  that  of  a  seaman,  extra- 
ordinary services  may  give  a  salvage  claim.  A 
pilot,  like  a  passenger,  may  become  a  salvor 
when  his  peculiar  relation  to  the  ship  is  dis- 
solved ;  but  most  of  our  state  pilotage  laws 
make  it  part  of  the  duty  of  a  pilot  to  assist  ves- 
sels in  distress,  and  either  give  the  rate  of  ex- 
tra compensation  to  be  awarded,  or  point  out 
the  tribunal  which  shall  determine  the  amount 
due.  Extra  services  are,  therefore,  generally 
considered  in  this  country  as  such,  and  not 
as  salvage  services.  The  officers  and  crews  of 
our  national  vessels  are  so  far  bound  to  res- 
cue a  vessel  from  mutineers  that  they  are  not 
entitled  to  claim  any  compensation  in  such  a 
case,  unless  perhaps  when  they  incur  great 
personal  danger,  and  use  great  exertions  in 
the  performance  of  the  service.  For  an  ordi- 
nary salvage  service  they  are  entitled  to  com- 
pensation. As  a  general  rule,  none  can  claim 
salvage  who  do  not  directly  participate  and 
aid  in  the  salvage  services,  or  at  least  pro- 
mote those  services  by  doing  the  work  of 
those  who  render  them.  But  an  exception, 
and  a  liberal  one,  is  usually  made  in  favor  of 
the  owners  of  the  saving  vessel,  who  are  not 
only  entitled  to  claim  compensation  for  stores 
and  other  supplies  and  outlays,  but  salvage 
compensation  in  addition. — A  salvage  service 
is  possible  when  the  peril  encountered  is  some- 
thing distinctly  beyond  ordinary  danger,  some- 
thing which  exposes  the  property  to  destruc- 
tion unless  extraordinary  assistance  be  ren- 
dered. But  if  the  master  can,  by  proper  use 
of  the  means  in  his  possession,  save  the  prop- 
erty, the  law  presumes  that  he  will,  and  that 
the  salvor's  interference  was  unnecessary ;  yet 
even  if  the  master  could  save  the  ship,  the  sal- 
vors may  show  that  he  would  not  have  done 
so.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  distress  should 
be  actual  or  immediate,  or  that  the  danger 
should  be  imminent  and  absolute ;  it  will  be 
sufficient  if,  at  the  time  the  assistance  is  ren- 
dered, the  ship  has  encountered  any  damage  or 


SALVAGE 


SALVINI 


587 


misfortune  which  might  possibly  expose  her 
to  destruction  if  the  services  were  not  ren- 
dered. That  the  property  must  be  actually 
saved,  and  saved  by  those  claiming  to  be  sal- 
vors, in  order  to  lay  the  foundation  for  salvage 
claims  in  admiralty,  is  quite  certain ;  but  if  the 
party  encounters  the  danger,  and  does  all  he 
can  to  save  the  vessel,  and  his  services  tend  in 
some  degree  to  preserve  the  vessel,  compensa- 
tion will  be  awarded  to  him,  although  the  ves- 
sel is  mainly  preserved  by  other  means.  It 
is  equally  a  salvage  service,  whether  the  ser- 
vice be  rendered  at  sea  or  where  the  vessel  is 
wrecked  on  the  coast,  and  whether  it  be  per- 
formed by  seamen  or  landsmen.  If  a  vessel 
at  sea  is  short-handed  by  reason  of  sickness, 
and  is  navigated  into  port  by  a  part  of  the 
crew  of  another  vessel,  that  is  to  be  treated 
as  a  salvage  service.  So  compensation  has 
been  granted  for  keeping  near  a  vessel  in  dis- 
tress at  the  earnest  request  of  her  master  and 
crew,  although  but  little  aid  was  rendered. — 
Salvage  is  generally  decreed  on  all  the  proper- 
ty saved,  whether  ship,  cargo,  or  freight.  It 
is  allowed  on  public  property,  and  all  goods 
of  the  government  pay  the  same  rate  as  if 
they  were  owned  by  individuals.  The  general 
rule  is  that  our  courts  have  jurisdiction  over 
all  property,  to  whomsoever  it  belongs,  which 
comes  within  their  territorial  jurisdiction  ;  but 
vessels  of  war  belonging  to  a  foreign  neutral 
power  cannot  be  arrested  in  our  ports  into 
which  they  have  lawfully  come,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  a  private  armed  vessel  sailing  under 
a  commission  from  a  foreign  government.  The 
private  property  of  a  foreign  sovereign,  or  the 
prize  property  which  a  vessel  of  war  brings 
into  our  ports,  comes  within  the  general  rule, 
and  not  within  the  exception.— If  assistance  is 
rendered  to  a  vessel  under  circumstances  which 
would  generally  constitute  it  a  salvage  service, 
it  may  yet  not  be  such ;  as  where  the  service 
is  rendered  under  a  custom  to  give  assistance 
gratuitously  in  similar  instances,  or  where  the 
aid  is  given  under  a  special  contract.  If  two 
vessels  sail  as  consorts  and  under  an  agreement 
to  assist  each  other,  neither  can  claim  salvage 
for  assistance  rendered  to  the  other.  Even 
when  vessels  sailing  together  are  not  consorts, 
nor  owned  by  the  same  party,  it  is  possible 
that  there  may  be  a  usage  of  mutual  help  which 
would  defeat  a  claim  of  salvage.  Thus  it  is 
said  that  if  a  steamer  be  stranded  on  a  sand 
bank  in  the  Mississippi,  and  another  steamer 
draws  her  off,  usage  prohibits  any  salvage  com- 
pensation. But  a  custom  of  one  port  that  ves- 
sels shall  assist  each  other  gratuitously  is  not 
binding  on  vessels  of  other  ports  rendering  as- 
sistance to  vessels  of  the  port  where  the  cus- 
tom exists.  If,  at  the  time  of  the  service,  the 
salvors  make  a  bargain  with  the  owners  of  the 
property  in  peril,  or  their  servants,  as  to  the 
amount  of  salvage,  this  is  enforced  by  the  court 
against  the  owners  only  so  far  as  it  seems  equi- 
table and  conformable  to  the  merits  of  the 
case. — Any  gross  misconduct  on  the  part  of  the 


salvors,  and  especially  any  embezzlement  of 
the  property  saved,  forfeits  their  whole  claim. 
The  responsibility  of  the  salvors,  respecting  the 
preservation  and  protection  of  the  property, 
continues  as  long  as  the  property  is  subject  to 
the  decree  of  the  court.  Salvors  in  possession 
have  a  qualified  property  in  the  thing  saved, 
whether  ship  or  cargo,  or  both,  and  they  can- 
not be  divested  of  this  interest  until  it  is  taken 
from  them  by  adjudication.  Yet  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary that  they  should  remain  in  actual  pos- 
session, in  order  to  maintain  their  rights  or 
preserve  their  qualified  property;  nor  should 
they  do  so  to  the  detriment  of  the  property  or 
the  inconvenience  of  the  master  and  crew. — 
Military  salvage  is  that  which  is  earned  by  res- 
cuing vessels  or  cargoes  from  pirates  or  the 
public  enemy.  In  cases  of  recapture,  it  fol- 
lows as  an  incident  of  prize.  The  amount  of 
salvage  is  fixed  by  statute  for  most  of  these 
cases,  and  when  not  so  determined  must  be 
governed  by  the  general  principles  of  law. 

SALVANDY,  Nareisse  Aehille  de,  count,  a  French 
author,  born  at  Condom,  June  11,  1795,  died 
in  Normandy,  Dec.  15,  1856.  He  enlisted  in 
the  imperial  guard  in  1813,  was  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Brienne,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
adjutant  major.  In  1819-'21  he  was  master  of 
requests.  In  1824  he  became  connected  with 
the  Journal  des  Debats,  and  assisted  Chateau- 
briand in  combating  the  ultra  royalists.  In 
1835  he  was  admitted  to  the  academy.  He 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  in  1837-'9, 
and  again  in  1845.  In  1843  he  was  made  count 
and  ambassador  to  Turin.  After  the  coup 
d^eiat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  withdrew  to  private 
life.  He  published  Alonzo,  ou  VEspagne  (4 
vols.,  Paris,  1823-'4) ;  Islaor,  ou  le  Barde  cJire- 
tien  (1824);  and  Histoire  de  Pologne  avant  et 
sous  le  roi  Jean  SobiesM  (3  vols.,  1827-'9). 

SALVATOR  ROSA.     See  ROSA. 

SALVI,  Giambattista.    See  SASSOFEEEATO. 

SILVIA.     See  SAGE. 

SALYIM,  Tommaso,  an  Italian  actor,  born  in 
Milan,  Jan.  1,  1833.  At  the  age  of  14  he  be- 
came a  pupil  of  the  actor  Gustavo  Modena, 
made  his  first  appearance  a  year  later  at  the 
royal  theatre  in  Naples,  and  subsequently  ac- 
companied Ristori  in  a  theatrical  tour  through 
Italy.  In  1849  he  served  as  a  volunteer  under 
Avezzana,  and  afterward  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  appeared  in  the  characters  of  Orosmane 
in  Zaire,  Oreste,  Saul,  and  Othello.  On  his 
return  to  Italy,  Giacometti  wrote  for  him  the 
drama  La  morte  civile.  In  1865  he  took  part 
in  the  celebration  at  Florence  of  Dante's  600th 
birthday,  reciting  portions  of  the  Ditina  Com' 
media.  After  another  tour  through  Italy,  he 
played  in  the  chief  cities  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, and  in  April,  1871,  went  to  South  Ameri- 
ca, filling  engagements  in  Montevideo,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  whence  he  re- 
turned to  Italy.  In  1878  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  making  his  first  appearance  Sept.  16, 
as  Othello,  in  the  academy  of  music  in  New 
York,  and  gave  128  representations,  including 


588 


SALZACH 


SAMARCAND 


Hamlet,  the  Gladiator,  Samson,  David  Garrick, 
&c.,  in  the  leading  American  cities,  and  28  in 
Havana,  closing  with  Othello  in  New  York  in 
June,  1874.  In  1875  he  gave  a  successful  series 
of  performances  in  London. 

SALZAfH,  or  Salzt.     See  SALZBURG. 

SALZBURG.  I.  A  duchy  and  crownland  of 
Austria,  bordering  on  Upper  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  Tyrol,  and  Bavaria ;  area,  2,767  sq. 
m.;  pop.  at  the  end  of  1869,  153,159.  It  is 
almost  entirely  surrounded  by  Alpine  moun- 
tains. The  Noric  Alps  extend  through  the 
country  under  various  names,  and  the  Gross- 
Glockner,  their  highest  peak  (12,776  ft.),  is  on 
the  southern  border,  on  the  confines  of  Carin- 
thia and  Tyrol.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Salzach,  an  affluent  of  the  Inn,  which  rises  in 
the  S.  W.  corner,  flows  E.  by  N.  to  the  cen- 
tre of  the  duchy,  and  then  N.  N.  W.  to  the 
Bavarian  frontier.  Among  other  rivers  are 
the  Enns  and  the  Mur.  The  Zeller  lake  is  the 
largest  of  the  numerous  Alpine  lakes.  The 
Krimler  Ache  waterfall  is  the  most  imposing 
in  Austria.  The  principal  mineral  springs  are 
at  Gastein.  Hallein,  on  the  Salzach,  is  noted 
for  its  production  of  salt.  The  climate  is  gen- 
erally cold,  but  not  unhealthful,  although  there 
are  many  cretins  in  the  high  mountain  region. 
Salt,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  arsenic  abound, 
but  the  production  of  precious  metals  has  fall- 
en off.  Cattle  and  horses  are  plentiful.  Ho- 
siery is  the  principal  article  of  manufacture. — 
The  country  formed  a  part  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Noricum,  and  after  the  fall  of  the  em- 
pire rapidly  recovered  from  the  invasion  of 
the  barbarians.  The  duchy  owes  its  origin  to 
a  bishopric  founded  in  the  6th  century  by  the 
Bavarian  duke  Theodo,  with  St.  Rupert  as 
first  incumbent.  Considerably  enlarged,  it  was 
raised  in  798  to  an  archiepiscopal  see.  The 
archbishop  Gebhard  became  in  1088  legate  for 
all  Germany.  His  successors  were  perpetually 
involved  in  hostilities  with  the  emperors  and 
other  princes  and  their  own  subjects.  In  1498 
Archbishop  Leonard  II.  expelled  the  Jews  and 
all  his  enemies  among  the  nobles.  In  l731-'2 
all  the  Protestants,  numbering  about  80,000, 
were  expelled  by  Archbishop  Leopold  Anthony 
for  refusing  to  abjure  their  faith.  Most  of 
them  found  a  hospitable  refuge  in  East  Prus- 
sia, offered  to  them  by  Frederick  William  I. 
Previous  to  its  secularization  in  1802,  the  see 
had  a  population  of  nearly  200,000.  It  was 
then  ceded  with  other  territory  to  the  grand 
duke  Ferdinand  of  Tuscany,  and  in  1805  to 
Austria.  By  the  peace  of  1809  it  was  ceded 
to  Napoleon,  who  in  1810  gave  it  to  Bavaria. 
Most  of  the  territory  was  restored  to  Austria 
in  1814.  In  1849  it  became  a  separate  crown- 
land,  and  the  first  Salzburg  diet  was  held  in 
1861.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Juvanla  or  Juvavum), 
capital  of  the  duchy,  on  the  Salzach,  156  m.  W. 
by  S.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1870,  20,336.  The 
situation  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe.  On  the 
left  bank  of  the  Salzach  is  the  Monchsberg,  and 
on  the  right  bank  the  Kapuzinerberg,  and  the 


town  stands  within  the  narrow  defile  formed 
by  these  hills,  the  outlying  houses  in  the  sub- 
urbs being  built  around  rocks.  The  Salzach 
is  spanned  by  three  bridges.  The  streets  are 
generally  crooked,  but  there  are  several  large 
squares  and  many  handsome  edifices.  The 
principal  churches  are  the  fine  cathedral,  St. 
Peter's  with  Haydn's  monument,  St.  Sebastian's 
with  that  of  Paracelsus,  St.  Margaret's,  restored 
in  1864,  and  the  university  church ;  and  there 
are  15  other  places  of  worship,  including  one  for 
Protestants,  opened  in  1865.  The  monument 
of  Mozart,  who  was  born  here,  adjoins  a  high 
fountain  on  a  principal  square;  and  that  of 
the  archbishop  Sigisraond  stands  near  the  new 
gate  (Neuthor).  The  university,  founded  in 
1620,  was  suppressed  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. An  archbishop  resides  here,  and  there 
is  a  theological  faculty  and  seminary  for  priests. 
In  1818  Salzburg  was  partly  destroyed  by  fire, 
but  was  soon  rebuilt.  The  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria and  the  king  of  Prussia  met  here,  Aug. 
19,  1865,  to  ratify  the  convention  of  Gastein 
with  regard  to  Schleswig-Holstein  and  Lau- 
enburg.  In  1874  Roman  golden  ear  rings  and 
other  relics,  including  a  marble  coffin  and  a 
milestone  of  the  time  of  Septimius  Severus, 
were  dug  up  in  the  city. 

SAM  AX  A.    See  SANTO  DOMINGO. 

SAHAR.    See  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

SAMARA.  I.  An  E.  government  of  European 
Russia,  bordering  on  Ufa,  Orenburg,  Astra- 
khan, Saratov,  and  Simbirsk;  area,  60,11)7  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  1,887,081.  The  river  Volga 
forms  its  W.  frontier,  and  it  is  drained  by  the 
Samara,  the  Irgis,  and  other  affluents  of  the 
Volga.  The  government  was  erected  in  1850. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  government,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Samara  with  the  Volga,  518 
m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Moscow ;  pop.  in  1867,  34,494. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop,  is  the  chief 
corn  market  on  the  Volga,  and  has  a  growing 
trade  in  cattle,  sheep,  fish,  caviare,  skins,  leath- 
er, and  tallow.  Along  the  Volga  are  many 
German  and  Swiss  settlements. 

SAMARANG.  I.  A  province  on  the  N.  coast 
of  Java;  area,  about  1,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1868,  1,001,252,  of  whom  5,162  were  Euro- 
peans. It  has  numerous  rivers,  navigable  for 
boats  within  the  limits  of  the  tide.  The  S. 
W.  boundary  is  formed  by  a  volcanic  range 
of  mountains  which  rises  to  the  height  of 
9,000  and  10,000  ft.  Along  the  sea  there  is 
a  low  alluvial  plain.  The  country  is  very  fer- 
tile, producing  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo, 
tobacco,  pepper,  and  rice,  of  which  large  quan- 
tities are  exported.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
province,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Sama- 
rang,  about  250  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Batavia ;  pop. 
about  30,000.  It  is  an  important  commercial 
centre ;  there  are  cotton  and  leather  manufac- 
tories; and  a  railway  built  in  1868  connects  it 
with  the  rich  agricultural  region  of  the  interior. 

SAMARCAXD  (anc.  Maracanda),  a  walled  city 
of  central  Asia,  belonging  to  Russia,  formerly 
in  the  khanate  and  135  m.  E.  of  the  city  of 


SAMARIA 


SAMARITANS 


589 


Bokhara,  about  lat.  39°  40'  N.,  Ion.  67°  18'  E. ; 
pop.  from  15,000  to  20,000,  mostly  Uzbecks. 
It  is  situated  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Zeraf- 
shan,  4  m.  S.  of  that  river,  and  in  site  and  sur- 
roundings is  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  city 
in  Turkistan ;  but  much  of  its  interior  aspect 
is  miserable.  It  contains  a  citadel  and  a  large 
public  market  place,  and  a  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  at  the  bazaars,  especially  in  the 
products  of  leather  manufacture.  Samarcand 
stands  on  higher  ground  than  Bokhara,  and 
before  the  Russian  conquest  was  a  summer  re- 
sort of  the  emir  in  consequence  of  its  lower 
temperature.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
summer  palace  of  Tamerlane,  his  mosque  sur- 
mounted by  a  melon-shaped  dome,  his  recep- 
tion hall  containing  the  celebrated  kolctash,  or 
blue  stone,  on  which  his  throne  was  placed, 
and  his  sepulchre  in  a  domed  chapel  without 
the  city.  Three  sacred  colleges  (medreses)  bor- 
der the  market  place. — Samarcand  was  known 
to  the  Chinese  as  Tshin  prior  to  the  times  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  In  classical  geography 
it  appears  as  Maracanda,  the  capital  of  Sogdi- 
ana.  Alexander,  who  occupied  it  in  328  B.  0., 
slew  there  his  friend  Clitus.  The  Nestorian 
Christians  early  made  their  way  thither,  and 
according  to  Col.  H.  Yule  the  see  of  a  Chris- 
tian bishop  was  established  there  early  in  the 
6th  century.  About  the  time  of  the  Arab 
invasion  of  Turkistan,  the  city  and  territory 
appear  to  have  been  ruled  by  a  Turkish  prince 
bearing  the  title  of  tarlchan.  About  710  they 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  and  sub- 
sequently became  subject  to  the  dynasty  of  the 
Samanides,  after  the  fall  of  which  the  city  was 
ruled  by  various  contending  chieftains  until  its 
capture  and  the  destruction  of  its  fortress  by 
Genghis  Khan  about  1220.  A  century  and  a 
half  later  it  reappears  prominently  in  history 
as  the  capital  of  Tamerlane,  who  made  it  the 
most  famous,  luxurious,  and  magnificent  city 
of  central  Asia,  adorned  with  imperial  palaces 
and  surrounded  by  extensive  and  splendid  gar- 
dens. Vamb6ry  declares  that  the  reputed  mag- 
nificence of  the  buildings  is  fully  borne  out  by 
the  existing  ruins.  At  that  time  the  city  con- 
tained 150,000  inhabitants,  and  was  not  only 
the  centre  of  important  manufactures  and  a 
vast  emporium  of  trade,  but  also  a  prominent 
seat  of  Mohammedan  learning.  It  maintained 
40  colleges,  one  of  which  accommodated  1,000 
students,  and  is  still  even  in  ruins  remarkable 
for  the  handsome  specimens  of  fine  earth  mo- 
saic work  in  its  walls.  With  the  fall  of  the 
Timour  dynasty  Samarcand  began  permanent- 
ly to  decline,  and  it  is  now  politically  and  com- 
mercially inferior  to  Bokhara.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Russians  in  May,  1868,  in  the  course  of 
the  war  against  Bokhara,  and  was  ceded  to  Rus- 
sia a  few  months  later.  A  Russian  garrison 
occupies  the  citadel,  and  Samarcand  is  now 
the  capital  of  the  military  district  of  Zerafshan 
in  the  Russian  province  of  Turkistan. 

SAMARIA  (Heb.  Shomerori),  an  ancient  city  in 
middle  Palestine,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  so 


called  after  the  hill  of  Shomeron,  upon  which 
it  was  founded  about  925  B.  0.  by  Omri,  the 
sixth  king  of  Israel.  Omri  made  Samaria  the 
royal  residence,  and  it  remained  so  until  the 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes.  In  721  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser,  and 
peopled  with  colonists  from  the  Assyrian  prov- 
inces. In  109  it  was  besieged,  conquered,  and 
razed  to  the  ground  by  the  Asmonean  John 
Hyrcanus;  but  it  must  have  been  soon  re- 
built, for  in  104  it  is  mentioned  as  a  town 
belonging  to  the  Jewish  territory.  Augustus 
gave  it  to  Herod  the  Great,  who  embellished 
it  with  a  temple  of  Augustus  and  other  build- 
ings, strongly  fortified  it,  and  called  it,  in  honor 
of  the  emperor,  Sebaste  (the  Greek  word  cor- 
responding to  Augusta).  The  ancient  name  of 
the  city  was  also  retained,  and  is  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament.  The  later  history  of  the 
town  is  unknown,  but  a  little  village,  Sebus- 
tieh,  with  some  ruins,  still  exists  on  its  site, 
and  contains  about  60  houses,  substantially 
built  of  old  materials,  which  exhibit  here  and 
there  traces  of  the  splendor  of  ancient  Sebaste. 
Under  the  Romans  a  whole  division  of  Pales- 
tine was  also  called  Samaria,  forming  a  sepa- 
rate province  between  Judea  and  Galilee. 

SAMARITANS  (Heb.  Shomeronim,  later  Ku- 
tTiim,  Cuthroans),  a  people  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  sprung,  after  the  conquest  of 
Samaria  by  Shalmaneser,  from  the  mixture  of 
the  natives  with  foreign  colonists  from  Baby- 
lon, Cuthah,  Ava,  Hamath,  and  Sepharvaim. 
As  they  were  a  mixed  race,  their  religion  was 
also  mixed.  More  strictly  following  the  Bib- 
lical narrative  (2  Kings  xvii.),  Hengstenberg 
(who  has  been  followed  by  Havernick,  Rob- 
inson, and  others)  argues  that  the  entire  He- 
brew population  of  Samaria  had  been  carried 
away,  that  the  Samaritan  people  were  wholly 
of  heathen  origin,  and  that  the  Israelitish  wor- 
ship was  established  when  the  colonists  ob- 
tained from  the  Assyrian  king  an  Israelite 
priest,  in  order  to  appease  the  supposed  wrath 
of  the  national  deity  by  restoring  his  worship. 
After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity  the  Samaritans  asked  permis- 
sion to  participate  in  the  restoration  of  the 
temple,  but  it  was  refused ;  and  from  this  event 
(535  B.  C.)  dates  the  hostility  between  Jews 
and  Samaritans.  It  increased  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  5th  century  B.  C.,  when  the  Persian 
governor  Sanballat  erected  for  the  Samaritans 
on  Mt.  Gerizim,  near  Shechem,  a  temple  of 
Jehovah,  and  gave  them  an  independent  high 
priesthood,  which  was  bestowed  by  him  upon 
his  son-in-law  Manasses,  son  of  the  Jewish  high 
priest.  Alexander  the  Great  took  a  Samaritan 
army  with  him  to  Egypt,  and  many  settled  in 
the  Thebaid.  The  colony  received  reenforce- 
ments  from  Samaria  under  Ptolemy  Soter,  and 
again  at  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus,  who  de- 
stroyed that  city,  crushing  the  power  of  the  Sa- 
maritans in  Palestine.  Remnants  of  the  Egyp- 
tian colony  are  extant,  and  form  a  congregation 
at  Cairo.  In  Palestine  a  few  families  are  found 


590 


SAME 


SAMOAN  ISLANDS 


at  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem.  Attempts 
have  been  made  by  Europeans  to  maintain  a 
correspondence  with  the  remnants  of  the  Sa- 
maritans ;  as  by  Joseph  Scaliger  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  century,  by  several  learned  men 
in  England  in  1675,  by  the  Ethiopic  scholar 
Ludolf  in  1684,  and  by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  and 
others.  All  the  letters  of  the  Samaritans  writ- 
ten on  these  occasions,  with  an  essay  on  their 
history  by  De  Sacy,  may  be  found  in  Notices 
et  extraits  des  manittcrits  de  la  Mbliotheque  du 
roi  (vol.  xii.,  Paris,  1831).  The  best  modern 
accounts  of  them  are  by  the  Americans  Fisk 
("Missionary  llerald,"  1824)  and  Robinson 
("Biblical  Researches,"  vol.  iii.),  and  Guerin, 
.Description  geographique,  historique  et  archeo- 
loyique  de  la  Palestine,  deuxieme  part,  Samaria 
(Paris,  1875). — The  Samaritans  recognize,  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch, rejecting  all  the  rest  of  the  Hebrew 
canon,  together  with  the  traditions  of  the 
Pharisees.  Of  the  Pentateuch  they  have  a 
translation  in  the  Samaritan  language,  an  Ara- 
iiKivtu  dialect,  mixed  with  many  Hebrew  forms 
and  words.  In  the  same  language  are  written 
their  rituals  and  liturgies,  and  a  number  of 
psalms.  (See  Gesenius,  Carmina  Samaritana, 
in  his  Anecdota  Orientalia,  Leipsic,  1824.) 
They  have  also  preserved  an  ancient  Hebrew 
text  of  the  Pentateuch,  first  described  in  Eu- 
rope by  Morinus  in  1628  (after  a  copy  bought 
by  Pietro  della  Vallo  from  the  Samaritans  in 
Damascus),  and  shortly  after  published  in  the 
Paris  polyglot.  It  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, agreeing  with  the  Septuagint  in  a  vast 
number  of  places  where  that  differs  from  the 
ordinary  Hebrew  text,  though  Gesenius  has 
proved  the  studied  design  of  the  Samaritan  re- 
visers to  conform  their  text  to  their  peculiar 
anti-Jewish  tenets,  and  the  blundering  way  in 
which  they  executed  their  emendations.  It  is 
written  in  the  old  Hebrew  characters,  closely 
resembling  the  Phoenician.  When  the  Arabic 
became  the  conversational  language  of  the  Sa- 
maritans, all  their  works  were  translated  into 
it ;  and  they  have  also  in  Arabic  a  so-called  book 
of  Joshua.  (See  JOSHUA.)  We  know  from  the 
New  Testament  that  the  Samaritans,  like  the 
Jews,  were  waiting  for  a  Messiah,  who  in  their 
later  writings  is  called  Hashshaheb  or  Hatta- 
heb,  i.  c.,  the  Restorer.  Their  later  writings 
also  prove  their  belief  in  spirits  and  angels,  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  the  resur- 
rection. They  observe  the  Mosaic  ordinances 
concerning  the  sabbath,  and  many  other  pre- 
scriptions of  the  Mosaic  law. — See  Juynboll, 
Commentarii  Historic  Gentit  Samaritana 
(Leyden,  1846),  and  John  W.  Nutt,  ."Frag- 
ments of  a  Samaritan  Targum,"  edited  from  a 
Bodleian  manuscript,  and  containing  a  sketch 
of  Samaritan  history  (London,  1874). 

SAME,  or  S;»m<>«.    See  CEPHALONIA. 

S.UIXIUM,  a  division  of  ancient  Italy,  bound- 
ed N.  W.  by  the  territories  of  the  Marsi,  Pe- 
ligni,  and  Marrucini,  N.  E.  by  that  of  the 
Frentani,  E.  by  Apulia,  S.  by  Lucania,  and  S. 


W.  and  W.  by  Campania  and  Latium,  and 
comprising  most  of  the  present  provinces  of 
Campobasso  and  Benevento,  with  some  sur- 
rounding districts.  The  country  is  occupied 
by  some  of  the  highest  mountain  groups  of 
the  central  Apennines.  It  was  watered  by 
the  upper  courses  of  the  Sagrus  (now  Sangro), 
Tifernus  (Biferno),  Frento  (Fortore),  Autidus 
(Ofanto),  and  Vulturnus  (Volturno),  all  of 
which,  except  the  last,  flow  into  the  Adriatic. 
The  principal  places  were  Beneventum  (Bene- 
vento), Caudium  (Airola) — near  which  were  the 
narrow  passes  called  Caudine  Forks,  where  a 
defeated  Roman  army  passed  under  the  yoke 
in  321  B.  C. — Aufidena  (Alfidena),  Bovianum 
(Bojano),  and  ^Esernia  (Isernia).  The  Sam- 
nites  were  a  warlike  people  of  the  Sabine  race, 
who  conquered  the  country  from  the  Opicans 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  With  this 
republic  they  waged  a  series  of  wars,  in  which 
Valerius  Corvus,  Curius  Dentatus,  Papirius 
Cursor,  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus,  and  other 
Romans  shine  as  heroes  amid  frequent  calam- 
ities and  humiliating  defeats  of  their  country- 
men (343-290  B.  C.).  They  were  finally  sub- 
dued, joined  Pyrrhus  in  280,  but  succumbed 
again,  and  in  216  took  sides  with  Hannibal, 
but  without  any  permanent  result.  They  rose 
again  together  with  other  Italians  in  the  social 
war  (90),  and  were  the  last  of  the  allies  to 
yield.  During  the  war  of  Sulla  and  Marius 
they  tried  to  recover  their  independence ;  but 
their  army  was  annihilated  by  Sulla  in  a  battle 
at  the  Colline  gate  of  Rome,  and  their  country 
laid  waste  and  distributed  to  Roman  settlers, 
the  inhabitants  being  sold  into  slavery  (82). 

S A MO AN  ISLANDS,  or  Navigators'  Islands,  a  group 
in  the  S.  Pacific,  about  400  m.  N.  E.  of  the 
Feejee  islands,  between  lat.  13°  27'  and  14° 
18'  S.,  and  Ion.  169°  28'  and  172°  48'  W.  They 
include  nine  inhabited  islands,  viz. :  Manua, 
Olosinga,  Ofu,  Anuu,  Tutuila,  Upolu,  Manono, 
Apolima,  and  Savaii ;  area,  according  to  recent 
authorities,  which  reduce  the  figures  of  Com. 
Wilkes's  survey  of  1839,  about  1,125  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  85,107.  Besides  these,  there  are 
at  the  E.  end  of  Upolu  four  islets,  Nuulua,  Nu- 
tali,  Taputapu,  and  Namoa,  and  between  Mano- 
no and  Apolima  an  isolated  islet  called  Niulapo. 
All  the  islands  and  islets  are  of  volcanic  for- 
mation, though  the  latter  are  separated  from 
the  former  by  coral  reefs.  There  are  extinct 
volcanoes  on  most  of  the  islands,  and  the  na- 
tives have  no  traditions  of  eruptions  from  any 
of  them;  but  in  1867  a  submarine  volcano 
burst  out  of  the  ocean  between  Manua  and 
Olosinga,  and  for  two  weeks  shot  up  jets  of 
mud  and  dense  columns  of  sand  and  stones  to 
a  height  of  2,000  ft.  It  left  no  permanent 
protrusion  above  the  bed  of  the  sea,  and  it  is 
said  to  be  difficult  now  to  obtain  soundings 
on  its  site.  Manua,  the  most  easterly  island 
of  the  group,  which  has  an  area  of  about  20 
sq.  m.,  rises  like  a  dome  to  the  height  of  2,500 
ft.  Olosinga  is  a  narrow  ledge  of  rocks  with 
a  double  coral  reef  around  it,  the  outer  shelf 


SAMOAN  ISLANDS 


591 


50  to  60  ft.  wide,  and  the  inner  in  some  places 
140  ft.  It  contains  but  6  sq.  m. ;  Ofu,  next 
to  it,  is  somewhat  larger.  Tutuila  is  high  and 
mountainous,  with  precipices  rising  from  the 
ocean  to  a  height  of  from  1,200  to  upward  of 
2,300  ft.  Its  W.  end,  which  is  lower,  is  cov- 
ered with  luxuriant  vegetation  and  is  thickly 
settled.  On  its  N.  coast  are  many  good  ports, 
but  the  best  is  Pango-Pango  or  Pago-Pago  on 
the  S.  side.  It  is  completely  landlocked,  has 
an  entrance  clear  of  rocks,  and  water  enough 
for  the  largest  vessels.  It  is  one  of  the  safest 
and  best  harbors  in  the  Pacific,  and,  being  on 
the  direct  steamship  route  between  America 
and  Australia,  must  become  in  time  an  impor- 
tant port.  The  area  of  the  island  is  about  50 
sq.  m.,  and  it  contains,  together  with  Anuu, 
an  islet  off  its  E.  extremity,  3,500  inhabitants. 
Upolu,  the  most  important  island  of  the  group, 
has  an  area  of  about  335  sq.  m.,  and  in  1869 
had  16,610  inhabitants.  A  range  of  broken 
hills  occupies  its  middle,  the  sides  of  which, 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  slope  to  the 
sea.  Apia,  on  the  N.  side,  the  chief  town,  has 
a  population  of  about  300,  of  whom  100  are 
whites.  It  is  the  official  residence  of  the  va- 
rious consuls,  of  the  members  of  the  London 
missionary  society,  and  of  the  Koman  Catholic 
bishop  of  Oceania.  Almost  all  the  business 
of  the  port  is  in  the  hands  of  Hamburg  firms. 
The  harbor  of  Apia  is  sheltered  by  a  natural 
breakwater,  and  is  second  only  to  that  of  Pan- 
go-Pango. Manono,  which  is  enclosed  within 
the  sea  reef  of  Upolu,  has  an  area  of  only  3  sq. 
m.  Apolima,  about  a  mile  distant,  2  sq.  m.  in 
area,  is  a  natural  fortress.  It  is  the  crater  of 
an  extinct  volcano,  and  is  a  ring  of  perpendicu- 
lar cliffs,  with  a  single  opening  on  the  N.  side, 
through  which  only  one  boat  at  a  time  can  pass 
to  the  basin  within.  A  few  miles  distant  is  Sa- 
vaii,  the  westernmost  and  largest  island  of  the 
group,  containing  about  700  sq.  m.  and  a  pop- 
ulation in  1869  of  12,670.  Its  interior,  which 
has  not  been  explored,  is  occupied  by  a  moun- 
tain chain,  in  parts  nearly  5,000  ft.  high,  slo- 
ping gradually  to  the  sea,  and  leaving  but  a 
strip  of  alluvial  land  a  few  miles  wide  along 
the  shores.  It  has  little  timber  and  no  run- 
ning streams,  and  its  shores  are  rocky  and  pre- 
cipitous, with  few  harbors.  On  the  N.  side 
the  bay  of  Mataatu  affords  good  anchorage. 
A  series  of  wonderful  caves  in  the  island  have 
been  explored  for  2£  m.,  but  not  to  their  full 
extent. — The  climate  is  very  equable,  the  mer- 
cury seldom  rising  higher  than  88°  or  falling 
lower  than  70°.  From  observations  made  in 
1872  at  Mama  in  Upolu,  the  mean  temperature 
for  the  year  was  78-33°.  The  difference  of 
temperature  between  sun  and  shade  is  seldom 
more  than  7°.  Rains  are  distributed  evenly 
throughout  the  year,  excepting  in  January, 
February,  and  March,  when  heavy  rain  storms 
with  northern  winds  prevail ;  but  destructive 
storms  are  rare.  The  soil  is  a  rich  vegetable 
mould,  with  a  slight  proportion  of  decomposed 
lava  impregnated  with  iron.  Excepting  the 
722  VOL.  xiv. — 38 


shore  line,  the  mountains,  and  a  lava  field  on 
the  E.  end  of  Savaii,  there  is  little  naked  land 
on  any  of  the  group.  The  interior  is  covered 
with  dense  forests  of  tropical  luxuriance,  con- 
taining many  varieties  of  valuable  timber  trees. 
Among  the  trees  and  fruits  are  the  banian, 
two  varieties  of  pandanus,  several  species  of 
palms,  the  anauli,  bamboo,  rattan,  breadfruit, 
cocoanut,  wild  orange,  lemon,  lime,  banana, 
plantain,  yam,  taro,  paper  mulberry,  tacca 
(from  which  arrowroot  is  made),  pineapple,  vi 
apple,  guava,  mango,  and  citron.  Wild  sugar 
cane  grows  abundantly,  and  there  are  two  va- 
rieties of  sea-island  cotton,  one  of  longer  sta- 
ple than  the  other.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  small 
quantities,  and  some  coffee  is  raised.  The  ava 
(macropiper  methysticum),  which  grows  in  clus- 
ters from  6  to  10  ft.  in  height,  is  a  species  of 
pepper.  From  its  dried  root  is  made  an  in- 
toxicating beverage,  which  when  taken  in  small 
doses  is  a  delightful  soporific.  There  are  no 
traces  of  native  mammalia  except  a  species  of 
bat  (pteropus  ruficollis),  which  often  mea- 
sures 4  ft.  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  Horses, 
cattle,  and  swine  have  been  introduced.  Poul- 
try is  plentiful,  and  pigeons  abound.  A  bird 
called  the  tooth-billed  pigeon  (didunculus  stri- 
gerostris),  allied  to  the  dodo,  is  found  in  the 
lonely  parts  of  the  mountains. — Among  the 
Polynesian  islands  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sa- 
moan  group  rank  in  personal  appearance  sec- 
ond only  to  the  Tongese.  The  men  average 
about  5  ft.  10  in.  in  height,  are  erect  and  proud 
in  bearing,  and  have  straight  and  well  rounded 
limbs ;  the  women  are  generally  slight  in  fig- 
ure, symmetrical,  and  easy  and  graceful  in  their 
movements.  The  skin  of  both  sexes  is  dark 
olive,  but  the  chiefs  and  better  families  are 
much  lighter.  The  nose  is  usually  straight 
and  not  flattened  like  that  of  the  Malay,  and 
the  mouth  is  large,  with  thick  lips.  In  some 
the  eyes  are  oblique.  The  hair  is  black  and 
straight.  Beards  are  not  so  common  as  among 
Europeans,  yet  many  have  heavy  beards.  Po- 
lygamy is  customary,  but  two  wives  seldom 
live  in  the  same  house.  They  are  generally 
cleanly  in  their  habits  and  social  in  disposition. 
Women  are  considered  the  equals  of  men,  and 
both  sexes  join  in  the  family  labors.  Great 
ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  construction  of 
their  houses,  which  are  built  of  the  wood  of , 
the  breadfruit  tree,  thatched  with  wild  sugar 
cane  or  pandanus  leaves.  The  ancient  religion 
of  the  islanders  acknowledged  one  great  God, 
but  they  paid  less  worship  to  him  than  to  some 
of  their  war  gods.  They  had  a  god  of  earth- 
quakes, a  god  who  supported  the  earth,  and 
gods  of  lightning,  rain,  and  hurricanes,  and 
also  many  inferior  gods  who  watched  over  cer- 
tain districts ;  and  they  had  carved  blocks  of 
wood  and  stone,  erected  in  memory  of  certain 
chiefs,  whom  they  worshipped.  All  are  now 
nominally  Christians;  there  are  schools  and  a 
church  in  every  village,  and  the  missionaries 
have  unbounded  influence.  Nearly  all  the 
children  seven  years  of  age  can  read  their  own 


592 


SAMOS 


SAMOYEDS 


language,  and  most  of  the  adult  population  can 
read  and  write.  The  Bible  has  been  transla- 
ted and  printed,  and  hymn  books  and  other 
works  are  published  at  the  missionary  printing 
office.  'According  to  a  census  taken  in  1869 
by  the  representatives  of  the  London  mission- 
ary society,  the  population  was  divided  denom- 
inationally as  follows :  Independents  and  Pres- 
byterians, 27,021 ;  Wesleyans,  5,082 ;  Roman 
Catholics,  3,004. — The  commerce  of  the  islands 
is  small.  The  exports  are  coppra,  or  the  dried 
meat  of  the  cocoanut,  from  which  oil  is  made, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  cotton.  Of  the  for- 
mer about  10,000  tons  are  shipped  annually, 
mainly  to  Hamburg.  The  imports  are  general 
merchandise  and  provisions,  and  some  lumber 
from  California  and  Oregon.  Nearly  all  the 
trade  is  controlled  by  the  Hamburg  house  of 
Godeffroy  and  co.,  who  have  buildings  at  Apia 
and  several  cotton  plantations  in  the  vicinity. 
In  1873  105  vessels,  of  25,198  tons,  entered  the 
port  of  Apia,  of  which  47  were  German,  47 
English,  and  4  from  the  United  States. — The 
Samoan  islands  were  named  by  Bougainville, 
who  visited  them  in  1768,  the  archipel  des  na- 
vigateurs,  from  the  skill  of  the  natives  in  using 
their  canoes.  In  1787  La  P6rouse  touched  at 
these  islands,  and  De  Langle,  the  commander 
of  one  of  his  vessels,  and  11  men  were  killed 
by  the  natives.  The  first  missionaries  landed 
in  Savaii  in  1830,  from  the  Society  islands,  and 
in  1836  they  were  joined  by  others  from  Eng- 
land. The  first  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
arrived  in  1846.  The  islands  were  surveyed 
by  Com.  Wilkes  in  1839.  In  1872  Com.  Meade 
visited  the  group,  and,  by  arrangement  with 
the  native  chiefs,  took  the  harbor  of  Pango- 
Pango  under  the  protection  of  the  United 
States.  In  1873  a  special  agent,  Mr.  A.  B. 
Steinberger,  was  sent  by  President  Grant  to 
the  islands,  who  reported  that  the  chiefs  were 
desirous  that  the  whole  group  should  be  pro- 
tected by  the  United  States;  but  in  1875  a 
native  king  was  elected,  and  Steinberger  be- 
came his  prime  minister. 

SAMOS  (called  by  the  Turks  Su*am-Ada««i), 
an  island  of  the  Grecian  archipelago,  belong- 
ing to  Turkey,  separated  from  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor  by  the  strait  of  Little  Boghaz,  and 
from  the  island  of  Nicaria  (anc.  Icaria)  by  the 
Great  Boghaz ;  length,  from  E.  to  W.,  27  m., 
greatest  breadth  12  m.;  area,  213  sq.  m.;  pop. 
about  15,000,  nearly  all  Greeks.  The  chief 
town  is  Chora.  There  are  several  good  har- 
bors on  the  coast.  The  interior  is  traversed 
by  two  mountain  ranges,  one  of  which  at- 
tains the  height  of  4,725  ft.  in  Mt.  Kerkis  (anc. 
Cercetius).  Samos  was  anciently  celebrated 
for  its  fertility.  The  olive  and  vine  are  cul- 
tivated, and  grain,  silk,  cotton,  wine,  figs,  and 
oil  are  exported.  The  minerals  include  mar- 
ble, iron,  lead,  silver,  and  emery,  but  are  not 
worked. — The  original  inhabitants  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  Carians  and  Leleges.  The 
Samians  planted  several  colonies  on  the  shores 
of  the  Propontis  and  JSgean,  and  early  in  the 


6th  century  B.  C.  their  navy  was  the  most 
powerful  in  the  Grecian  waters.  The  capital, 
Samos,  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  of 
Chora,  was  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the  Hel- 
lenic world.  Polycrates,  who  usurped  the 
government  about  535  B.  C.,  enriched  it  with 
a  temple  of  Juno,  artificial  moles  enclosing 
the  harbor,  an  aqueduct  hewn  in  solid  rock  to 
convey  water  to  the  town,  and  a  fortified  pal- 
ace. After  his  death  in  522  the  island  was 
subject  to  Persia  for  43  years,  when  it  was  lib- 
erated by  the  victory  over  the  fleet  of  Xerxes 
at  Mycale,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Athe- 
nian league.  It  revolted,  but  was  conquered 
by  the  Athenians  in  439.  The  Romans  made 
the  capital  a  free  city.  In  the  middle  ages 
the  island  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  who 
were  expelled  in  the  13th  century.  During 
the  Greek  revolution  the  Samians  expelled  the 
Turks,  but  by  the  treaty  which  secured  the 
independence  of  other  parts  of  Greece  Samos 
remained  subject  to  Turkey,  though  enjoying 
special  privileges.  Since  1885  it  has  been  gov- 
erned by  the  Greek  family  Vogorides.  Th*o 
governor,  styled  "prince  of  Samos,"  pays  an 
annual  tribute  of  about  $18,000  to  the  sultan. 
The  production  and  population  of  Samos  have 
been  much  reduced  within  a  few  years.  In 
February,  1873,  an  earthquake  continuing  four 
days  destroyed  many  lives  and  much  property. 

SAMOTIIRACE  (modern  Gr.  Samathraki;  Turk. 
Semendrek),  an  island  of  the  Grecian  archipel- 
ago, belonging  to  Turkey,  between  Lemnos  and 
the  coast  of  Thrace ;  area,  about  32  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  1,800.  It  is  the  highest  land  in  the 
north  of  the  archipelago.  It  is  sterile  and  des- 
titute of  ports.  In  antiquity  it  was  called  Dar- 
dania,  Electris,  Melite,  and  Leucosia,  and  was 
renowned  as  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
the  Cabiri.  It  was  in  early  times  independent, 
with  possessions  on  the  mainland,  aided  Xerxes 
in  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  was  afterward 
subject  to  Athens,  Macedon,  and  Rome. 

SAMOYED8,  a  nomadic  people  in  the  northern 
parts  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  forming 
a  branch  of  the  Uralo- Altaic  division  of  man- 
kind. The  name,  which  signifies  in  Russian 
"  persons  who  devour  themselves,"  and  oc- 
curs in  early  Russian  chronicles,  would  seem 
to  imply  that  the  people  had  once  been  can- 
nibals, if  it  were  not  more  likely  that  in  this 
instance  it  is  a  corruption  of  some  word  con- 
nected with  the  Finnic  Suomi  or  Lapp  Sam 
and  Sabme.  The  Samoyeds  were  originally 
spread  from  the  Altai  mountains  to  the  Arctic 
ocean,  and  from  the  White  sea  nearly  to  the 
river  Lena.  They  are  still  met  with  in  groups 
from  the  White  sea  to  the  river  Khatanga,  but 
the  space  between  the  Obi  and  the  Yenisei  is 
now  their  principal  seat.  Their  whole  num- 
ber is  estimated  at  less  than  20,000,  divided 
into  three  principal  and  several  smaller  tribes 
speaking  different  dialects.  They  are  mostly 
idolaters,  of  small  stature  and  repulsive  fea- 
tures, but  peaceably  disposed.  They  dwell  in 
tents  of  reindeer  skin. — ^See  "  The  Land  of  the 


SAMPmKE 


SAMSON" 


593 


North  Wind:  Travels  among  the  Laplanders 
and  the  Samoyedes,"  by  Edward  Rae  (Lon- 
don, 1875). 

SAMPHIRE  (formerly  written  sampire .  and 
tampetra,  from  the  old  Fr.  name  Vkerbe  de 
Saint  Pierre,  Ital.  San  Pietro,  from  its  grow- 


Samphlre  (Crithmum  maritimum). 

ing  on  rocks),  a  very  succulent  plant  of  the 
parsley  family  or  umbellifers,  crithmum  mari- 
timum, with  fleshy,  dissected  leaves,  and  com- 
pound umbels  of  small  white  flowers  destitute 
of  calyx  teeth ;  the  fruit  oblong,  dark  green  or 
purplish.  It  is  a  smooth  perennial,  about  a 
foot  high.  Samphire  is  found  on  rocky  cliffs 
by  the  seashores  of  Britain  and  southward  to 
northern  Africa,  the  roots  penetrating  deep 
into  crevices  by  means  of  their  numerous  strong 
fibres.  The  leaves  and  young  shoots  have  a 
pleasant  aromatic  taste,  and  the  plant  was  held 


Marsh  Samphire  (Salicomia  herbacea\ 

in  great  esteem  by  the  old  herbalists  as  a 
stomachic,  and  used  in  salads  and  pickled.  It 
is  still  used  in  England  as  a  pickle,  and  on  the 


continent  is  sometimes  cooked  as  a  pot  herb. 
— The  plant  sometimes  called  samphire  in  this 
country,  and  marsh  samphire  in  England,  is 
salicornia  herlacea  (Lat.  sal,  salt,  and  cornu, 
horn,  a  saline  plant  with  horn-like  branches), 
more  generally  known  as  glasswort ;  it  is  one 
of  the  goosefoot  family,  or  chenopods.  Its 
annual  stems  are  6  to  12  in.  high,  leafless  and 
long,  succulent,  jointed,  and  much  branching ; 
the  minute  flowers  each  in  a  hollow  in  the 
stems  at  the  joints.  It  is  very  abundant  along 
the  coast  and  in  saline  marshes  in  the  interior; 
it  is  much  relished  by  cattle,  and  in  Europe 
was  formerly  burned  in  large  quantities  for 
the  soda  contained  in  its  ashes.  It  is  said  that 
much  of  the  pickled  samphire  sold  in  England 
is  really  this  plant,  which  is  very  abundant 
and  more  accessible  than  the  true  samphire, 
from  which  it  differs  not  only  in  appearance 
but  in  the  absence  of  aromatic  flavor. 

SAMPSON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordered  W.  by  South  river  and  drained  by 
Black  river  and  several  tributaries  of  that 
stream;  area,  940  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  16,436, 
of  whom  6,483  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
undulating  and  the  soil  sandy  but  fertile. 
There  are  extensive  forests  of  pitch  pine.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  281,381  bushels 
of  wheat,  21,950  of  peas  and  beans,  141,373  of 
sweet  potatoes,  1,231  bales  of  cotton,  19,837 
Ibs.  of  rice,  7,523  of  tobacco,  11,437  of  wool, 
35,554  of  butter,  and  22,664  of  honey.  There 
were  1,441  horses,  605  mules  and  asses,  3,378 
milch  cows,  1,149  working  oxen,  5,267  other 
cattle,  6,732  sheep,  and  22,524  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Clinton. 

SAMSON  (Heb.  ShimsJiori),  a  judge  of  Israel, 
celebrated  for  his  bodily  strength.  He  was  the 
son  of  Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  was 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  B. 
0.  He  was  devoted  to  the  life  of  a  Nazarite 
from  his  birth,  and  early  began  to  exhibit  su- 
perhuman strength.  The  great  achievements 
recorded  of  him  are  connected  with  his  love 
for  his  Philistine  wife  and  for  two  women  of 
loose  character,  one  of  whom,  Delilah  of  So- 
rek,  ascertained  that  the  secret  of  his  strength 
lay  in  his  hair,  which  had  never  been  shorn. 
Having  entered  into  a  plot  against  him  with 
the  Philistines,  she  called  in  a  man  to  cut  off 
his  hair  while  he  lay  sleeping  in  her  lap ;  he 
was  then  seized  by  his  enemies,  deprived  of 
his  sight,  and  made  to  grind  in  the  prison. 
But  when  his  hair  grew  long  his  strength 
came  back.  An  immense  multitude  of  Philis- 
tines having  assembled  in  a  temple  to  rejoice 
in  his  captivity,  he  was  brought  in  to  make 
them  sport,  and  was  placed,  where  all  might 
see  him,  between  the  two  central  supports  of 
the  building.  Persuading  the  lad  who  held 
him  by  the  hand  to  let  him  feel  the  pillars  and 
lean  upon  them,  he  grasped  them  both,  and 
exerting  all  his  strength  overthrew  them,  and 
the  building  fell,  burying  the  whole  assembly, 
himself  included,  beneath  the  ruins.  He  was 
a  judge  of  Israel  for  20  years. 


594 


SAMSON 


SANA 


SAMSON,  George  Whltficld,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Harvard,  Worcester  co.,  Mass., 
Sept.  29,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Brown  uni- 
versity \n  1839,  and  at  Newton  theological  in- 
stitution in  1843,  and  was  pastor  of  the  4| 
street  Baptist  church,  Washington,  D.  C.,  till 
October,  1849.  He  was  president  of  Colum- 
bian college  from  1859  to  1871,  and  of  Rutgers 
female  college  in  New  York  in  1872-'8.  He 
has  published  a  series  of  letters  from  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Italy  (1848);  To  Daimonion 
(1852;  enlarged  under  the  title  of  "Spiritual- 
ism Tested,"  1860)  ;  "  Outlines  of  the  History 
of  Ethics"  (1860);  "Elements  of  Art  Criti- 
cism "  (1867);  and  "  Physical  Media  in  Spirit- 
ual Manifestations"  (1869). 

SAMSON,  Joseph  Isidore,  a  French  actor,  born 
in  St.  Denis,  July  2,  1793,  died  in  March, 
1871.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  and  was  at 
first  a  lawyer's  clerk  and  a  copyist  in  a  lot- 
tery bureau.  In  1812  he  began  to  study  at 
the  conservatory  after  performing  at  a  minor 
theatre.  From  1832  to  1863,  when  he  retired, 
he  was  connected  with  the  Th6atre  Francais, 
being  especially  distinguished  in  the  comedies 
of  Molic-re  and  Beaumarchais.  He  also  wrote 
vaudevilles  and  dramas,  and  L'Art  thedtral,  a 
didactic  poem,  and  lectured  on  dramatic  art. 
He  was  professor  of  elocution  at  the  conserva- 
tory for  upward  of  30  years. — See  Samson  et 
se»  eleves,  by  Legouv6  (Paris,  1875). 

SAMUEL  (Hob.  S/iemuel,  "  heard  of  God  "), 
a  Hebrew  seer  or  prophet,  the  last  judge  of 
Israel.  He  was  the  son  of  Elkanah  and  Han- 
nah, of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  was  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  12th  century  B.  C.,  proba- 
bly at  liamathaim  Zophim  in  Mt.  Ephraim. 
Even  before  his  birth  his  mother  had  bound 
him  to  the  obligations  of  a  Nazarite,  and  ho 
was  set  apart  from  his  early  youth  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  under  the 
immediate  tutelage  of  Eli.  His  first  prophecy 
concerned  the  doom  of  Eli's  house.  Twenty 
years  after  the  death  of  Eli  Samuel  assembled 
the  people  at  Mizpah,  urging  them  to  remain 
faithful  to  the  Lord,  and  promising  them 
speedy  deliverance  from  the  Philistines.  At 
this  time  he  seems  to  have  been  acknowledged 
as  judge,  an  office  which  he  held  for  about 
20  years,  restoring  everywhere  the  neglected 
national  worship.  The  Philistines,  the  most 
dangerous  foes  of  Israel,  were  routed,  and  did 
not  recruit  their  strength  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  leadership.  The  Amorites,  the  east- 
ern foes  of  Israel,  remained  in  peace  with  him. 
His  dwelling  was  at  Ramah,  and  in  his  old  age 
he  appointed  two  of  his  sons  deputy  judges 
at  Beersheba.  The  people  became  dissatisfied, 
and  demanded  a  king.  Samuel,  with  great  re- 
luctance, at  length  yielded  by  divine  direction 
to  this  demand,  and  anointed  Saul  the  first 
king  of  Israel.  He  rebuked  Saul  on  several 
occasions,  and  at  length,  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  anointed  David  as  second  king  before 
the  demise  of  Saul.  He  died  before  1060  B.  C. 
According  to  Jewish  tradition,  he  was  the  au- 


thor of  the  book  of  Judges  and  of  a  part  of 
the  books  of  Samuel. 

SAMUEL,  Books  of,  two  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one 
book.  The  present  division  into  two  books 
dates  from  the  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  by 
Bomberg  (1517-'18),  and  is  derived  from  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  in  both  which  ver- 
sions they  are  termed  the  1st  and  2d  books  of 
Kings.  They  consist  of  the  connected  biogra- 
phies of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David.  The  author 
of  the  books  of  Samuel  is  unknown.  •  Grotius, 
Eichhorn,  Jahn,  Herbst,  and  Havernick  regard 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  as  the  author.  Most 
commentators  agree  that  they  were  the  work 
of  one  compiler,  who  used  several  older  books ; 
but  as  to  the  number  and  character  of  these 
they  do  not  agree.  The  date  of  the  work 
seems  from  internal  evidences  to  have  been 
between  975  and  622  B.  C.  Some  writers,  as 
Hobbes,  Spinoza,  Simon,  Le  Clerc,  Eichhorn, 
Thenius,  and  De  Wette,  have  maintained  that 
the  book  contains  contradictory  statements ; 
but  their  arguments  have  been  disputed  oy 
Carpzovius,  Davidson  ("  Biblical  Hermeneu- 
tics"),  Hengstenberg,  Havernick,  Welte,  Keil, 
and  others.  Among  the  most  recent  commen- 
tators are  Thenius,  Die  Sucker  Samuelt  (2d 
ed.,  Leipsic,  1864);  Keil,  Lie  Hue  her  Samuels 
(1864 ;  English  translation,  1866)  ;  Words- 
worth, in  his  "Holy  Bible,  with  Notes  and  In- 
troductions" (1866);  and  Erdmann,  in  Lange's 
Ilibelwerk  (1873).  For  the  latest  critical  view 
of  the  state  of  the  text,  see  Wellhausen,  Der 
Text  der  Bucher  Samueli*  (Gottingen,  1871). 

SANA,  or  SIMM,  a  city  of  Yemen,  Arabia, 
formerly  capital  of  the  imamate  of  Sana,  110 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Hodeida ;  pop.  about  20,000. 
It  lies  in  a  fertile  valley,  about  4,000  ft.  above 
the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  ruinous  wall 
of  sun-baked  brick,  5J  m.  in  circumference. 
It  is  divided  into  a  Jewish  quarter,  on  the  W. 
side,  and  the  city  proper,  with  the  citadel,  at 
the  E.  end.  The  imam's  palaces  are  built  of 
cut  stone,  with  extensive  gardens,  surround- 
ed by  separate  walls  and  fortifications.  The 
streets  are  wide  and  comparatively  well  kept, 
but  a  large  part  of  the  town  is  in  ruins.  The 
climate  is  subject  to  great  variations;  some- 
times no  rain  falls  for  several  years,  and  the 
drought  produces  famine  and  pestilence;  but 
generally  there  are  rains  in  January,  June,  and 
July.  Sana  is  the  centre  of  the  coffee  trade  of 
Yemen,  and  is  famous  for  its  fruits,  especially 
grapes.  The  rich  merchants  have  summer 
houses  at  Raudhah,  5  m.  N.  of  the  city. — Sana 
was  a  city  of  the  Sabaean  kingdom,  and  is  of 
great  antiquity.  It  is  probably  the  Tamna  or 
Thomna  of  the  ancient  geographers.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Pliny  as  a  large  commercial  town, 
with  65  temples,  to  which  caravans  from  Gaza 
resorted.  About  930  it  became  the  seat  of 
the  imams  of  Yemen,  who  ruled  all  S.  W. 
Arabia.  (See  YEMEN.)  In  July,  1872,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  who  have  since  held  it 
with  a  garrison  of  1,000  men. 


SAN  ANTONIO 


SAN  BERNARDINO 


595 


SAN  ANTONIO,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Bexar  co.,  Texas,  on  the  San  Antonio  and  San 
Pedro  rivers,  75  m.  S.  "W.  of  Austin  and  250 
m.  N.  by  W.  of  Brownsville ;  pop.  in  1850, 
8,488 ;  in  1860,  8,235 ;  in  1870, 12,256,  of  whom 
4,120  were  foreigners  and  1,957  colored ;  in 
1875,  about  16,000,  of  whom  about  a  third  are 
of  German  and  a  third  of  Mexican  origin.  It 
consists  of  three  parts :  the  old  town,  or  San 
Antonio  proper,  between  the  two  streams ; 
Alamo,  E.  of  the  San  Antonio;  and  Chihua- 
hua, W.  of  the  San  Pedro.  The  old  town  is 
the  business  quarter,  and  has  in  great  part  lost 
its  Mexican  character,  having  been  almost  en- 
tirely rebuilt  since  1860.  The  two  principal 
streets  are  Commerce  and  Market,  running 
parallel  to  each  other  from  the  main  plaza. 
The  former  is  built  up  with  handsome  business 
structures,  two  and  three  stories  high.  Sepa- 
rated from  the  main  plaza  by  a  fine  Catholic 
church  is  the  plaza  de  las  armas.  From  the  two 
plazas  run  to  the  right  and  left  a  number  of 
other  streets,  mostly  with  Spanish  names,  and 
still  in  part  occupied  by  low,  castellated  Mexi- 
can houses,  built  of  limestone,  without  win- 
dows. Chihuahua  is  almost  exclusively  Mexi- 
can in  character  and  population.  The  houses 
are  one  story  high,  partly  built  of  stone  and 
partly  of  upright  logs  with  cane  roofs.  Alamo 
is  the  largest  quarter  of  the  city,  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  other  two,  and  is  mostly  inhab- 
ited by  Germans.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  the  Alameda,  an  extension  of  Commerce 
street.  In  the  N.  part  is  the  Alamo  plaza, 
with  the  fort  of  that  name  celebrated  in  Texan 
history.  (See  ALAMO.)  The  land  immediately 
around  the  city  is  level.  A  mile  distant  rises  a 
chain  of  limestone  hills,  which  furnish  an  ex- 
cellent building  material.  The  sources  of  the 
San  Pedro  and  the  adjacent  land  belong  to  the 
city,  and  are  set  apart  as  a  public  park,  which 
has  long  been  the  principal  pleasure  resort  of 
the  citizens. — San  Antonio  is  the  chief  city  of 
W.  Texas,  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  Its  most 
important  manufactories  are  three  large  flour- 
ing mills,  a  soap  and  candle  factory,  a  wood 
and  stone  cutting  establishment,  two  ice  fac- 
tories, a  meat  extract  factory,  and  three  brew- 
eries. It  has  a  national  bank,  with  $125,000 
capital,  and  four  private  banks.  The  city  is 
not  yet  reached  by  any  railroad,  but  the  Gulf, 
Western  Texas,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Galveston, 
Harrisburg,  and  San  Antonio  lines,  in  progress 
(1875),  will  connect  it  with  Indianola  and  with 
Houston  and  Galveston  respectively.  The  for- 
mer is  completed  to  Cuero,  75  m.  S.  E.,  and 
the  latter  to  Kingsbury,  42  m.  E.  N.  E.  Regu- 
lar lines  of  stage  coaches  run  to  these  points 
and  to  Austin.  San  Antonio  is  divided  into 
four  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  re- 
corder, and  a  board  of  twelve  aldermen.  It  has 
a  good  fire  department.  There  are  a  hospital 
and  a  female  orphan  asylum,  under  the  control 
of  the  Roman  Catholics ;  a  Roman  Catholic 
college  and  convent;  two  German- American 
schools ;  five  free  public  schools  with  about 


1,000  pupils ;  two  daily,  a  tri-weekly  (German), 
and  three  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers; 
and  ten  churches,  viz. :  1  Episcopal,  1  Luther- 
an,- 3  Methodist  (2  colored),  1  Presbyterian,  and 
4  Roman  Catholic. — San  Antonio  was  founded 
in  1714  by  the  Spaniards,  who  established  a 
fort  on  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Pedro,  and 
called  it  San  Fernando.  Near  this  some  monks 
in  1718  established  the  mission  of  the  Alamo. 
On  account  of  the  Indians,  both  the  fort  and 
mission  were  removed  to  the  left  bank,  where 
the  plaza  de  las  armas  now  is.  The  settlers 
established  themselves  around  this,  and  called 
it  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  while  a  portion  of 
the  town  E.  of  this  was  called  San  Antonio  de 
Valero.  The  mission  continued  to  be  called 
San  Antonio  de  Valero  till  1783.  San  Anto- 
nio was  the  centre  of  important  operations  in 
the  wars  for  Mexican  and  Texan  independence. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1733.  The 
German  immigration  commenced  in  1845. 

SAN  ANTONIO  RIVER,  a  river  of  Texas,  rising 
in  Bexar  co.,  and  following  a  general  S.  E. 
course  of  nearly  200  m.  to  Espiritu  Santo  bay. 
It  unites  with  the  Guadalupe  about  12  m.  from 
its  mouth.  Its  largest  tributaries  are  the  Me- 
dina and  Salado  in  Bexar  co.,  and  the  Cibolo 
in  Karnes  co.  The  chief  towns  on  its  banks 
are  San  Antonio  and  Goliad. 

SAN  AUGUSTINE,  an  E.  county  of  Texas,  bor- 
dered W.  by  Angelina  river  and  Attoyac  ba- 
you, and  drained  by  their  branches;  area, 
680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,196,  of  whom 
1,964  were  colored.  The  soil  is  very  rich  and 
produces  excellent  cotton.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  110,007  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  10,082  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,598  bales  of 
cotton,  and  1,135  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
913  horses,  2,576  milch  cows,  791  working 
oxen,  5,368  other  cattle,  1,221  sheep,  and 
8,713  swine.  Capital,  San  Augustine. 

SAN  BENITO,  a  W.  county  of  California, 
bounded  E.  by  the  main  range  of  the  Coast 
mountains,  and  embracing  the  valley  of  the 
San  Benito  river.  It  was  formed  in  1874  from 
the  E.  portion  of  Monterey  co.  The  raising 
of  sheep  and  cattle  is  largely  pursued,  and 
agriculture  is  carried  on  to  some  extent.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad. 
Capital,  San  Benito. 

SAN  BERNARDINO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Cali- 
fornia, bounded  N.  E.  by  Nevada,  and  E.  by 
Arizona,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Colorado  river;  area,  about  16,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,988.  About  three  fourths  of 
the  county,  comprising  the  N.  and  E.  portions, 
consists  of  dry  desert  valleys  and  volcanic 
mountains.  This  region  has  little  vegetation, 
and  is  interspersed  with  hot  springs  and  de- 
posits of  sulphur  and  soda.  There  are  some 
streams  that  lose  themselves  in  "  sinks."  Death 
valley,  in  which  the  Amargoza  river  disap- 
pears, is  from  100  to  250  ft.  below  the  level 
of  the  sea,  is  destitute  of  good  water,  and  is 
extremely  hot  in  summer.  Gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in 


596 


SANCHUNIATHON 


SANDAL  WOOD 


the  north.  In  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  county, 
here  crossed  by  the  Coast  range,  are  exten- 
sive valleys  having  a  delightful  climate  and  a 
fertile*  soil.  The  mountains  contain  an  abun- 
dance of  pine,  cedar,  hemlock,  maple,  &c.  In 
this  district  are  found  gold,  copper,  tin,  mar- 
ble, and  alabaster,  and  silver  mines  are  worked 
successfully.  The  largest  stream  is  the  Santa 
Ana,  which  flows  into  the  Pacific.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  10,356  bushels  of 
wheat,  12,250  of  Indian  corn,  51,906  of  barley, 
48,730  gallons  of  wine,  71,075  Ibs.  of  wool, 
21,780  of  butter,  7,000  of  cheese,  and  1,808 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  970  horses,  622 
milch  cows,  2,498  other  cattle,  18,121  sheep, 
and  1,066  swine;  2  manufactories  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  1  flour  mill,  and  5  saw  mills. — 
SAN  BERXARDINO,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  a 
fine  valley,  about  60  m.  E.  of  Los  Angeles; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,064.  The  town  is  supplied 
with  water  by  artesian  wells,  and  the  numer- 
ous fruit  and  ornamental  trees  give  it  a  very 
beautiful  appearance.  The  view  of  Mount 
San  Bernardino,  the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Ooast 
range,  is  exceedingly  grand. 

S  VM  III  MA THO\,  or  Sanrhoniathon,  the  name 
prefixed,  as  that  of  the  author,  to  a  history  of 
Phoenicia  and  Egypt  published  by  Herennius 
Philo  of  Byblus  as  a  Greek  translation  from 
the  Phoenician.  Philo,  a  grammarian  who 
flourished  early  in  the  2d  century  A.  D.,  rep- 
resents Sanchuniathon  as  a  native  of  Berytus, 
and  as  having  written  in  the  time  of  Semira- 
mis,  dedicating  his  work  to  Abibalus,  a  na- 
tional king  of  Berytus.  Of  this  work  a  con- 
siderable fragment  is  preserved  in  Eusebius, 
who  quoted  Sanchuniathon  in  corroboration 
of  certain  Biblical  statements  which  Porphyry 
had  assailed.  It  is  now,  after  much  learned 
controversy,  the  belief  of  most  critics  that 
the  so-called  history  of  Sanchuniathon  was 
originally  written  by  Philo.  Richard  Cumber- 
land, bishop  of  Peterborough,  translated  the 
fragment  from  Eusebius,  with  copious  chro- 
nological and  historical  notes  (8vo,  London, 
1720).  The  Greek  fragments  still  extant  have 
been  published  by  Orelli  (Leipsic,  1826),  and 
in  Gary's  "  Ancient  Fragments "  (London, 
1832).  In  1837  Friedrich  Wagenfeld  pub- 
lished at  Bremen  what  purported  to  be  the 
entire  Greek  text  of  Philo's  Sanchuniathon, 
but  it  proved  to  be  a  fabrication  of  the  editor. 

SAN  CRISTOBAL,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Chiapas,  450  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Mexico;  pop.  in  1869,  7,649.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  and  well  cultivated  valley,  on  the 
E.  slope  of  the  central  mountain  range,  and 
has  good  streets  and  houses,  the  latter  mostly 
of  one  story.  Lead  and  iron  abound  in  the 
surrounding  country.  The  chief  industries  are 
cattle  rearing,  and  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
woollen  and  cotton  stuffs  and  common  earth- 
enware.— The  town  was  founded  in  1528  under 
the  name  of  Villa  Real,  and  was  successively 
called  San  Cristobal  de  los  Llanos  and  Ciudad 
Real ;  it  received  its  present  name  in  1829. 


BANCROFT,  William,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Fresingfield,  Suffolk,  Jan.  13,  1616,  died 
there,  Nov.  24,  1693.  He  was  educated  at 
Emmanuel  college,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
fellow  in  1642,  but  subsequently  lost  his  fel- 
lowship by  refusing  to  subscribe  to  the  "Sol- 
emn League  and  Covenant."  He  was  chosen 
one  of  the  university  preachers  in  1660,  was 
rector  of  Houghton-le-Spring,  a  prebendary  of 
the  cathedral  of  Durham,  and  in  1678  became 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  When  James  II. 
issued  his  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  required  the  clergy  to  publish  it,  Bancroft 
refused,  and  with  six  other  bishops  presented 
a  petition  to  the  king  against  it.  The  seven 
prelates  were  committed  to  the  tower  on  a 
charge  of  libel,  but  were  acquitted.  Sancroft 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary,  and  was  deposed.  He  pub- 
lished some  sermons,  and  "  Letters  to  Mr. 
North  "  (afterward  Sir  Henry).  His  "  Modern 
Policies  and  Practices,"  from  Machiavelli  and 
others,  was  published  in  1757. 

SANCTUARY.    See  ASYLTTH. 

SAND,  George.    See  DUUEVANT. 

SAND,  Karl,  a  German  political  fanatic,  born 
at  Wunsiedel,  in  Franconia,  Oct.  5,  1795,  exe- 
cuted near  Mannheim,  May  20,  1820.  After 
studying  theology  at  the  universities  of  Tubin- 
gen and  Erlangen,  he  went  in  1817  to  that  of 
Jena,  where  he  joined  the  Teutonic  society,  a 
precursor  of  the  Burschenschaften.  He  was 
an  enthusiast  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  con- 
ceived it  to  be  his  duty  to  destroy  Kotzebue, 
whose  writings  and  connection  with  the  Rus- 
sian court  had  made  him  especially  obnoxious 
to  the  German  patriots.  Having  delivered  a 
letter  to  him  at  his  residence  in  Mannheim, 
March  23,  1819,  while  he  was  reading  it  Sand 
struck  him  thrice  with  a  dagger,  then  went  into 
the  street,  and  kneeling  down  cried,  "  Long 
live  my  German  fatherland,"  and  stabbed  him- 
self. His  wound  was  not  mortal,  and  on  May 
5,  1820,  he  was  condemned  to  death. 

SANDAL  WOOD  (Sansk.  chandana),  the  aro- 
matic wood  of  several  species  of  tantalum 
(Pers.  tandul),  especially  S.  album,  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  genus  gives  its  name  to  a  small 
famijy  of  apetalous,  exogenous  plants,  compri- 
sing herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees,  most  of  which  are 
parasitic  by  their  roots,  at  least  when  young. 
Besides  the  above  named  species  of  santalum, 
others,  in  the  Hawaiian  and  Feejee  islands  and 
Australia,  furnish  sandal  wood,  some  of  which 
finds  its  way  into  commerce.  The  Indian  san- 
dal wood  is  a  tree  20  to  80  ft.  high,  with  a 
trunk  6  to  12  in.  through ;  it  is  rather  local, 
being  found  most  abundantly  in  Mysore,  where 
the  trees  are  a  monopoly  of  the  East  India 
company,  and  can  only  be  felled  by  the  prop- 
er officers,  and  in  Madras  they  are  also  under 
government  control.  Where  there  is  no  re- 
striction the  trees  soon  become  exterminated, 
but  in  the  localities  referred  to  the  supply  is 
kept  up  by  new  plantations.  The  trees  reach 
their  full  size  in  20  or  30  years ;  after  they  are 


SANDAL  WOOD 

felled  and  the  branches  removed,  the  trunks 
are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  for  sev- 
eral months  in  order  that  the  white  ants  may 
eat  away  the  worthless  sap  wood ;  the  trunk 
is  cut  into  pieces  24  and  30  in.  long,  carefully 
trimmed,  weighed,  and  assorted  for  shipment. 


SANDEMANIANS 


597 


Sandal  Wood  (Santalum  album). 

The  wood  is  very  heavy,  its  density  and  aroma 
being  greatest  when  it  grows  on  dry  and  poor 
soil ;  the  color  is  a  pale  brown,  varying  in  dif- 
ferent samples;  it  splits  easily;  has  a  persis- 
tent odor  which  is  agreeable  to  most  persons ; 
its  taste  is  strongly  aromatic.  The  aroma  of 
the  wood  depends  upon  a  volatile  oil,  which 
is  light  yellow  and  thick,  and  begins  to  boil 
at  385°  F. ;  a  resin  is  also  found  in  the  wood. 
Sandal  wood  is  mentioned  in  a  Vedic  work 
written  as  early  as  the  5th  century  B.  C. ;  it 
was  used  in  sacred  buildings  in  India ;  the 
gates  constructed  for  the  temple  of  Somnath 
in  Guzerat,  and  carried  off  on  its  destruction 
about  1025,  are  of  carved  sandal  wood,  and 
though  over  1,000  years  old  are  in  good  pres- 
ervation. It  was  used  in  embalming  princes. 
The  great  consumption  of  the  wood  is  in  Chi- 
na; in  1866  there  were  received  at  the  vari- 
ous ports  5,197  tons.  The  oil  is  made  at  the 
localities  where  the  trees  grow  ;  the  roots  are 
dug  up  for  the  purpose,  and  the  chips  and 
sawdust  are  also  used;  in  1872-'3,  10,348  Ibs., 
valued  at  £8,374,  were  imported  into  Bom- 
bay, a  large  share  of  which  was  reexported. 
In  the  East  the  wood  is  used  in  religious  cere- 
monies, and  the  wealthy  Hindoos  add  sticks  of 
it  to  the  funeral  pile  to  show  their  respect  for 
the  departed.  In  India  it  is  the  best  substi- 
tute for  box  wood  for  engravers'  use ;  it  is 
used  largely  by  the  Chinese  for  cabinet  work, 
as  its  odor  repels  insects,  for  small  boxes,  and 
the  framework  of  fans;  they  also  burn  it  as 
incense  in  their  temples.  Within  a  few  years 
the  oil  has  come  into  use  as  a  substitute  for 
copaiba  in  the  treatment  of  gonorrhoea. — RED 
SANDAL  WOOD,  or  SAUNDEBS  WOOD,  is  fur- 


nished by  pterocarpvs  santalinus,  a  tree  of 
the  leguminosce,  and  a  native  of  various  lo- 
calities in  southern  India.  It  is  20  to  30  ft. 
high,  and  seldom  over  4  ft.  in  girth ;  like  the 
true  sandal  wood,  it  is  controlled  by  govern- 
ment, and  is  now  raised  in  plantations;  it  is 
found  in  commerce  in  irregular  logs  consisting 
of  the  heart  wood  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunks  and  the  larger  roots ;  it  is  of  a  deep 
red  color  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The  natives 
of  India  use  it  in  their  temples,  and  for  turned 
work.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  me- 
dicinal, but  is  now  used  only  for  coloring ;  the 
compound  spirit  of  lavender,  popularly  called 
red  lavender,  owes  its  color  to  this,  as  does 
Stoughton's  bitters.  The  coloring  matter  is 
santalic  acid,  or  santaline,  a  resinoid,  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  alkaline  solutions. 

SAND  BLAST,  a  method  of  engraving  figures 
on  glass  or  metal,  or  cutting  away  or  boring 
holes  in  hard  substances,  by  a  rapid  stream  of 
sharp  sand,  invented  by  Mr.  B.  C.  Tilghman  of 
Philadelphia.  The  jet  of  sand  may  be  driven 
by  a  blast  of  steam  from  a  boiler,  at  high  pres- 
sure (from  50  to  300  Ibs.  per  square  inch),  or 
by  an  air  blast  produced  by  a  fan  blower  re- 
volving with  great  velocity  (a  30-inch  fan  1,500 
to  2,000  times  per  minute).  The  sand  is  con- 
tained in  a  hopper,  and  is  let  down  through 
a  tube  with  a  fine  orifice,  which  may  be  in- 
clined at  any  desired  angle.  Surrounding  the 
sand  tube  is  the  blast  pipe,  the  effect  being  to 
carry  the  stream  of  sand  with  nearly  the  velo- 
city of  the  steam  or  air  jet  against  the  object 
to  be  operated  on,  which  is  placed  in  a  box, 
and  adjusted  by  means  of  slides  so  that  it  may 
be  moved  in  front  of  the  jet  as  the  figures  are 
being  cut.  The  box  must  have  openings  for 
the  exit  of  the  air.  In  an  experiment  with 
this  apparatus  a  hole  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter  and  of  the  same  depth  was  bored 
through  a  piece  of  corundum  in  a  little  less 
than  half  an  hour,  the  sand  being  driven  by  a 
steam  jet  at  300  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch. 
A  diamond  was  easily  reduced  in  weight  and 
a  topaz  completely  dissipated  in  one  minute. 
Patterns  of  objects  may  be  laid  upon  the 
glass  in  the  manner  of  stencil  plates,  and  en- 
graved with  great  facility.  An  engraving  of 
a  photographed  coating  of  gelatine  upon  glass 
may  also  be  taken. 

SAND  CRAB.    See  CEAB. 

SANDEAC,  Leonard  Sylvain  Jules,  a  French  au- 
thor, born  at  Aubusson,  department  of  Creuse, 
Feb.  19,  1811.  He  was  a  lover  of  George 
Sand,  and  published  with  her  the  celebrated 
novel  Pose  et  Blanche.  A  complete  collec- 
tion of  his  novels  appeared  in  2  vols.  in  1859. 
One  of  his  most  successful  plays  is  Mile,  de 
la  Seigliere,  adapted  from  his  novel  of  the 
same  title.  He  is  a  member  of  the  academy 
and  a  director  of  the  Mazarin  library. 

SAND  EEL.     See  EEL. 

SANDEMANIANS,  a  sect  of  Christians  who  ori- 
ginally separated  from  the  Presbyterian  church 
of  Scotland.  Their  actual  founder  was  the 


598 


SANDERLING 


SAN  DIEGO 


Rev.  John  Glass,  a  native  of  Dundee  (1695- 
1773),  and  they  were  at  first  known  as  Glass- 
ites ;  but  subsequently  they  were  called  Sande- 
manians,  from  the  Rev.  Robert  Sandeman,  the 
son-in-law  of  Glass,  who  reduced  his  opinions 
to  a  system.  Sandeman  was  born  in  Perth 
about  1720,  and  in  1764  settled  in  Danbury, 
Conn.,  where  he  died  in  1771.  Under  his  in- 
fluence churches  were  gathered  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Scotland,  in  Newcastle,  London,  and 
other  English  cities,  and  in  several  towns  of 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts.  But  few  of 
these  remain  ;  the  most  important  are  at  Dun- 
dee, Edinburgh,  and  Danbury.  The  number 
of  persons  at  present  belonging  to  the  sect  is 
probably  less  than  2,000.  The  peculiarities  of 
the  Sandemanians  are  their  construction  of  the 
word  "faith,  "  which  they  interpret  as  simple 
assent  to  the  teaching  and  divinity  of  Christ ; 
rejection  of  all  mystical  or  double  sense  from 
the  Scriptures ;  prohibition  of  all  games  of 
chance ;  weekly  love  feasts,  being  the  dinner 
of  all  the  church  together  on  every  Sunday ; 
the  kiss  of  brotherhood,  which  passes  between 
all  the  members,  male  and  female,  at  their 
solemn  meetings;  strict  abstinence  from  all 
blood  and  "things  strangled,"  according  to 
the  Jewish  precept ;  plurality  of  elders,  two 
at  least  being  required  for  all  acts  of  discipline 
and  all  administration  of  ritual;  prohibition 
of  college  training;  and  the  absence  of  prayer 
at  their  funerals.  Their  religious  services  are 
confined  mostly  to  the  reading  and  explanation 
of  Scriptures;  and  where  there  is  no  special 
church,  the  meetings  are  held  in  the  houses  of 
the  brethren.  The  custom  of  washing  feet  is 
now  discontinued. — See  the  writings  of  John 
Glass  (4  vols.  8vo,  Edinburgh,  1762). 

8ANDERL1NG,  a  wading  bird  of  the  genus 
oalidris  (Cuv.),  differing  from  the  sandpipers 


Common  Sanderling  (Calidris  arenaria). 

(tringa,  Linn.)  chiefly  in  the  absence  of  the 
hind  toe.  The  common  sanderling  is  the  C. 
arenaria  (111.),  inhabiting  the  temperate  re- 
gions of  America  and  Europe ;  it  is  from  7f 


to  8  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  12^  in., 
the  bill  1  in.  and  the  tarsus  the  same,  and  the 
weight  If  oz.  The  plumage  above  is  ashy 
gray  with  lighter  edges,  with  spots  of  brown- 
ish black  on  the  head  and  back,  and  with  fine 
transverse  lines  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail 
coverts ;  under  parts  pure  white ;  shoulders 
brownish  black  without  spots  ;  quills  with 
white  shafts ;  the  greater  wing  coverts  widely 
tipped  and  the  middle  tail  feathers  edged  with 
white ;  bill  and  legs  greenish  black ;  the  bill  is 
straight,  a  little  widened  at  the  end ;  the  tail 
is  doubly  emarginated,  the  middle  feathers  the 
longest ;  both  sexes  are  alike ;  in  the  spring 
the  plumage  is  more  or  less  tinged  and  edged 
with  yellowish  red.  It  is  abundant  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  in  winter  going  to  the 
southern  states  and  to  South  America.  The 
European  bird  presents  no  certain  distinguish- 
ing marks  from  the  American. 

SAND  GROUSE.     See  GROUSE. 

SANDHURST  (formerly  BKNDIGO),  a  city  of 
Victoria,  Australia,  82  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Mel- 
bourne ;  pop.  about  25,000.  The  town  is  well 
lighted  and  supplied  with  water,  and  the  prin- 
cipal streets  are  paved.  The  main  street,  Pall 
Mall,  has  many  fine  shops,  and  numerous  im- 
posing brick  and  stone  buildings.  The  banks, 
the  government  and  municipal  offices,  the  hos- 
pital, benevolent  asylum,  mechanics'  institute, 
and  Lyceum  theatre  are  among  the  principal 
buildings.  Sandhurst  is  one  of  the  chief  rail- 
way stations  of  Victoria,  and  is  the  headquar- 
ters of  a  rich  gold-mining  region. 

SAN  DIEGO,  the  S.  county  of  California, 
bounded  E.  by  Arizona,  "from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Colorado  river,  S.  by  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, and  W.  by  the  Pacific  ocean ;  area, 
about  13,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,951.  Two 
branches  of  the  Coast  range  cross  it  from  N. 
to  S.,  dividing  it  into  three  divisions  differing 
much  in  climate,  soil,  and  topography.  The 
division  along  the  coast  is  about  25  m.  wide, 
and  consists  largely  of  level  plains  or  gently 
sloping  valleys,  watered  by  the  San  Bernardo, 
San  Diego,  San  Luis  Rey,  Margarita,  Sweet- 
water,  and  other  rivers ;  the  greater  portion  is 
suitable  for  agriculture  and  grazing.  The  cen- 
tral or  mountain  division  is  very  irregular  in 
outline,  averaging  nearly  40  m.  in  width.  Both 
ranges  are  covered  with  forests  of  oak,  cedar, 
pine,  and  fir,  and  contain  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  other  minerals.  Valuable  gold  mines  have 
been  opened  within  the  past  four  years.  Be- 
tween them  are  a  number  of  broad  valleys  or 
table  lands,  having  a  delightful  climate  and  a 
fertile  soil.  They  produce  grapes,  oranges, 
wheat,  barley,  &c.  The  E.  division  is  occu- 
pied by  the  Colorado  desert,  which  is  for  the 
most  part  treeless  and  barren,  and  part  of  it 
is  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  very  dry 
and  hot,  and  contains  many  natural  curiosi- 
ties, among  which  is  a  lake  of  boiling  mud, 
about  half  a  mile  long  by  500  yards  wide.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  32,947  bushels 
of  wheat,  9,330  of  Indian  corn,  18,745  of  bar- 


SAN  DIEGO 

2ey,  9,250  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  1,433  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  5,687  horses,  1,268  milch  cows, 
20,347  other  cattle,  16,443  sheep,  and  1,683 
swine.  Capital,  San  Diego. 

SAN  DIEGO,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  San  Diego  co.,  California,  on  the  N. 
E.  shore  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  about  460 
m.  S.  E.  of  San  Francisco,  and  15  m.  N.  of 
the  Mexican  border;  lat.  32°  44' 41"  N.,  Ion. 
117°  8'  W. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,300;  in  1874, 
about  4,000.  It  has  one  of  the  three  good 
harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States,  and  has  been  fixed  by  act  of  congress 
as  the  western  terminus  of  the  Texas  and  Pa- 
cific railroad.  Its  climate  is  remarkably  equa- 
ble and  salubrious,  the  thermometer  rarely 
rising  to  80°  F.  or  sinking  to  the  freezing  point. 
Many  visit  it  as  a  health  resort.  The  exports 
in  1874,  consisting  mainly  of  gold  bullion, 
wool,  wheat,  flour,  barley,  hides,  honey,  wine, 
and  olive  oil,  amounted  to  $2,000,000.  There 
are  four  churches,  two  academies,  two  daily 
and  two  weekly  newspapers,  two  banks,  a  fine 
court  house,  and  a  steam  flouring  mill.  The 
city  was  laid  out  in'  1868. — North  San  Diego, 
a  small  hamlet  4  m.  N.  of  the  city  proper,  was 
the  first  place  settled  by  white  men  in  Cali- 
fornia. Father  Junipero,  a  Jesuit  priest,  with 
a  number  of  followers,  landed  there  in  May, 
1768,  and  soon  afterward  founded  the  mis- 
sion of  San  Diego. 

SAND  LACNCE.     See  EEL. 

SAND  MARTIN.     See  SWALLOW. 

SAN  DOMINGO.     See  SANTO  DOMINGO. 

SANDOVAL,  Prudencio  de,  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  about  1560,  died  in  Pamplona,  March 
17,  1621.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  and 
was  appointed  by  Philip  III.  historiographer 
of  Spain,  in  1608  bishop  of  Tuy,  and  in  1612 
bishop  of  Pamplona.  His  principal  works 
are  :  ffiatoria  de  la  vida  y  hechos  del  empera- 
dor  Cdrlos  V.  (2  vols.,  1604-'6),  of  which  there 
are  abridgments  in  English  by  James  Wads- 
worth  ("  The  Civil  Wars  of  Spain,"  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1652)  and  Capt.  John  Stevens  ("  History 
of  Charles  V.,"  1703) ;  Historia  de  los  reyes  de 
Castillo,  y  de  Leon  (1615) ;  and  Las  cronicas 
de  los  quatro  oMspos,  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  four  chroniclers  of  the  12th  century. 

SANDPIPER,  the  common  name  of  the  trin- 
gince,  an  extensive  subfamily  of  small  wading 
birds  of  the  snipe  family.  They  have  the  bill 
as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  head,  slender, 
compressed  on  the  sides,  with  the  culmen 
slightly  depressed  and  enlarged  near  the  tip, 
and  the  greater  portion  covered  with  a  soft, 
very  sensitive  skin ;  the  nostrils  are  basal,  in 
a  groove  extending  for  two  thirds  of  the  bill ; 
the  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  tail  moderate 
and  nearly  even,  the  tarsi  usually  long  and 
slender,  and  the  toes  but  slightly  united  at  the 
base.  In  the  typical  genus  tringa  (Linn.)  the 
first  primary  is  longest,  the  tertiaries  long,  and 
the  secondaries  short ;  the  tarsus  is  covered  in 
front  with  transverse  scales,  the  hind  toe  very 
email,  the  anterior  toes  margined  with  mem- 


SANDRART 


599 


brane  and  free  at  the  base.  There  are  between 
20  and  30  species,  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
some  widely  diffused,  and  a  few  common  to 
America  and  Europe;  they  are  usually  seen 
in  flocks  on  the  seashore  or  on  the  margin 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  in  marshes,  probing 
the  sand  and  mud  with  the  bill  in  search  of 
worms  and  minute  crustaceans.  They  are  gen- 
erally migratory.  The  colors  of  the  spring 
and  autumn  plumage  are  different  in  most 
species,  which  has  created  some  confusion  in 
specific  descriptions;  both  sexes  are  much 
alike  in  color,  but  the  females  are  frequently 
the  largest. — Among  the  American  species  is 
the  purple  sandpiper  (T.  maritima,  Brunn. ; 
arquatella,  Baird),  found  on  the  shores  of  east- 
ern North  America,  and  in  winter  in  tropical 
North  and  South  America,  and  also  in  the 
temperate  parts  of  Europe ;  gunners  call  it  the 
rock  snipe,  from  its  frequenting  rocky  instead 
of  sandy  shores.  The  red-backed  sandpiper 


Least  Sandpiper,  or  Peep  (Tringa  Wilsonii). 

T.  alpina,  Linn. ;  schceniclm,  Mohr.)  is  very 
abundant  on  the  Atlantic  shores  in  sandy  and 
muddy  places;  it  is  found  also  in  temperate 
Europe,  where  it  is  called  dunlin  and  purre ; 
Mr.  Cassin  thinks  the  American  bird  a  distinct 
species,  and  gives  it  the  name  of  Americana. 
The  nest  is  a  slight  hollow  in  a  dry  place  lined 
with  grass ;  the  young  leave  the  nest  as  soon 
as  hatched,  as  do  all  the  species.  The  least 
sandpiper,  or  peep  (T.  Wilsonii,  Nutt.),  is  the 
smallest  of  the  group  in  this  country,  being 
only  5£  to  6  in.  long ;  it  is  abundant  over  the 
entire  temperate  regions  of  North  America; 
it  breeds  in  the  far  north,  arriving  in  Massa- 
chusetts early  in  July.  Its  congener  in  Eu- 
rope is  the  T.  minuta  (Leisler). — Among  the 
European  species  of  sandpipers,  the  ruff,  the 
knot,  and  the  sanderling  have  been  noticed 
under  these  titles. 

SANDRART,  Joachim  yon,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Frankfort,  May  12,  1606,  died  in  Nu- 
remberg, Oct.  14,  1688.  He  was  a  pupil  of 


600 


SANDS 


SANDUSKY 


Gerhard  Honthorst,  and  was  employed  by  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  III.  and  Maximilian  of  Ba- 
varia. He  published  the  Academia  Artis  Pic- 
torice,  4toma  Antiques  et  Nova  Theatrum,  and 
other  works,  which  were  translated  into  Ger- 
man (8  vols.  fol.,  Nuremberg,  1769-'75). 

SANDS,  Robert  Charles,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  May  11,  1799, 
died  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  Dec.  17,  1832.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  college  in  1815,  and  in 
1820  commenced  the  practice  of  law.  With 
J.  W.  Eastburn  he  wrote  the  poem  "  Yamoy- 
den"  (New  York,  1820),  in  1824  edited  for 
a  time  the  "Atlantic  Magazine,"  in  1825-'7, 
with  William  Cullen  Bryant,  the  "  New  York 
Keview,"  and  from  1827  till  his  death  was  an 
editor  of  the  daily  "  Commercial  Advertiser." 
With  Bryant  and  Verplanck  he  wrote  the 
"Talisman,"  an  annual  (3  vols.,  1828-'80,  after- 
ward republished  as  "Miscellanies"),  in  which 
appeared  the  "Dream  of  the  Princess  Papant- 
zin,"  one  of  his  longest  poems ;  and  he  was 
associated  with  Bryant,  Paulding,  Leggett,  and 
Miss  Sedgwick  in  "Tales  of  Glauber  Spa"  (2 
vols.,  1832).  He  also  published  "Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Paul  Jones"  (1831).  His 
works  were  edited  with  a  memoir  by  Gulian 
0.  Verplanck  (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1834). 

SANDSTONE,  a  rock  formed  of  grains  of  sand, 
often  intermixed  with  coarse  pebbles,  cemented 
together  by  the  infiltration  of  calcareous,  ar- 
gillaceous, ferruginous,  or  silicious  substances. 
This,  with  long  continued  pressure,  has  con- 
verted the  collections  of  sand  into  solid  rock. 
Sandstone  strata  occur  through  all  the  geologi- 
cal formations  from  the  metamorphic  group 
upward,  and  the  hard  quartz  rocks  of  this 
group  are  now  understood  to  be  altered  sand- 
stones. Those  formations  of  the  stratified 
rocks  in  which  layers  of  sandstone  prevail  are 
often  specially  designated  by  this  name.  Beds 
of  very  coarse  pebbles  are  known  as  pudding- 
stones  and  conglomerates.  (See  COXGLOME- 
BATE.)  The  Potadam  sandstone,  near  the  base 
of  the  Silurian  rocks,  is  extremely  hard,  close- 
grained,  and  quartzose,  often  occurring  in 
broad  sheets  and  little  intermixed  with  other 
strata.  Its  beds  in  several  places  in  New  Eng- 
land, New  York,  and  E.  Pennsylvania  attain 
a  thickness  of  more  than  300  ft. ;  and  at  Pots- 
dam in  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.,  a  thickness  of 
70  ft.  is  exposed  in  the  quarries.  The  rock  is 
remarkable  for  its  uniform  thickness  in  broad 
sheets  ;  masses  are  taken  out  30  ft.  square  and 
2  ft.  or  more  thick,  perfectly  solid  and  smooth. 
Divisional  planes  are  exposed  by  the  hammer 
and  wedges,  and  the  thickness  of  the  sheets 
may  be  reduced  to  an  inch.  The  general  color 
is  yellowish  brown,  variously  shaded  in  the 
different  layers.  (See  POTSDAM.)  Many  other 
sandstones  are  extensively  employed  for  build- 
ing, some  of  which  are  easily  quarried  in  sheets, 
of  agreeable  color,  and  well  suited  by  their 
hardness  and  sharpness  of  grit  for  architectural 
ornaments.  Such  especially  are  the  grits  or 
harder  sandstones  of  the  coal  measures,  usually 


brownish  yellow  or  whitish.  The  formations 
known  as  the  old  red  and  new  red  sandstones 
afford  quarries  of  superior  building  stones ;  but 
they  also  contain  many  layers  of  very  inferior 
stone.  The  old  portion  of  the  capitol  at  Wash- 
ington is  built  of  an  inferior  variety  of  sand- 
stone from  the  Potomac.  In  England  sand- 
stone is  much  more  used  for  building  than, 
other  rocks.  Edifices  of  the  12th  century,  of 
the  hard  grits  of  the  coal  measures  and  under- 
lying formations,  as  Melrose  abbey  and  the 
cathedral  of  Glasgow,  are  in  the  finest  state  of 
preservation  ;  and  in  some  of  those  of  the  next 
century,  as  Ecclestone  abbey  near  Barnard  cas- 
tle, the  original  sharp  outlines  of  the  delicate 
mouldings  and  other  decorations  are  still  finely 
retained ;  while  other  edifices,  as  Durham  cas- 
tle, and  even  the  Hunterian  museum  in  Glas- 
gow, built  in  1804,  manifest  decided  symptoms 
of  decay.  The  cause  of  these  differences  may 
be  the  imperfect  consolidation  of  the  grains 
in  the  poorer  kinds,  and  a  texture  that  admits 
the  absorption  of  water,  which,  freezing  and 
thawing  within  the  mass,  throws  off  succes- 
sive portions  from  the  outside;  or  it  may  be 
the  original  intermixture  of  foreign  substances 
that  are  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  influences, 
as  iron  pyrites  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Both 
of  these  together  are  particularly  destructive 
from  the  sulphuric  acid  generated  in  the  de- 
composition of  the  former  attacking  the  car- 
bonate and  removing  this  from  the  stone. — The 
sandstones  employed  for  architectural  purposes 
in  the  United  States  are  chiefly  from  quarries 
of  the  new  red  sandstone  formation  in  the 
Connecticut  river  valley  and  in  New  Jersey; 
they  are  also  imported  from  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick,  and  from  Caen  in  France. 
The  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  sand- 
stones are  chiefly  from  the  vicinity  of  Shepo- 
dy  bay  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Fundy,  and 
are  known  in  the  New  York  market  as  the 
Dorchester  and  Albert  stone.  The  rock  is  yel- 
lowish brown,  darker  than  the  Caen  stone,  of 
even  grain,  and  much  of  it  very  free  from  for- 
eign substances.  The  quarries  furnish  very 
large  blocks,  and  are  directly  on  the  shore  of 
the  bay,  accessible  to  large  vessels.  For  flag- 
ging stones  several  varieties  of  sandstone  an- 
swer an  excellent  purpose,  as  for  example  the 
broad  slabs  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  already 
referred  to.  New  York  city  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  them  from  Ulster,  Greene,  and  Albany 
counties,  and  from  the  formation  known  as 
the  Hamilton  group.  The  principal  shipping 
points  are  Kingston,  Saugerties,  Maiden,  New 
Baltimore,  and  Coxsackie  on  the  Hudson  river, 
and  the  quantities  sent  down  annually  amount 
to  several  million  square  feet.  The  stone  is 
obtained  in  immense  sheets  of  any  desired 
thickness  from  nearly  horizontal  strata,  and 
is  regularly  divided  by  perpendicular  joints, 
which  are  as  smooth  as  if  cut  by  a  saw. 

SANDCSRY,  a  N.  county  of  Ohio,  bordered 
N.  E.  by  Sandusky  bay  in  Lake  Erie,  inter- 
sected by  Sandusky  river,  and  also  drained  by 


SANDUSKY 

Portage  river  and  several  smaller  streams,  and 
traversed  by  several  railroads  ;  area,  about  425 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,503.  It  has  a  low 
and  level  surface  and  fertile  soil.  In  the  W. 
part  is  the  Black  swamp,  covered  with  forests, 
which  has  been  reclaimed  and  is  highly  pro- 
ductive. The  chief  productions  in  1873  were 
405,116  bushels  of  wheat,  789,793  of  Indian 
corn,  280,013  of  oats,  121,575  of  potatoes, 
474,769  of  apples,  21,131  tons  of  hay,  67,329 
Ibs.  of  cheese,  and  141,879  of  wool.  In  1874 
there  were  8,726  horses,  18,301  cattle,  40,370 
sheep,  and  20,227  swine;  in  1870,  5  manufac- 
tories of  brick,  11  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1 
of  railroad  cars,  6  of  furniture,  4  of  iron  cast- 
ings, 2  of  engines  and  boilers,  7  of  cooperage, 
1  of  woollens,  6  flour  mills,  30  saw  mills,  and 
6  tanneries.  Capital,  Fremont. 

SAMM'SR.  Y,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Erie  co.,  Ohio,  finely  situated  on  the  S. 
shore  of  Sandusky  bay,  3  m.  from  Lake  Erie, 
and  105  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Columbus ;  pop.  in 
1860,  8,408;  in  1870,  13,000;  in  1875,  about 
20,000.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  the  bay 
being  about  20  m.  long  by  about  5  m.  wide, 
with  an  average  depth  of  14  ft.,  easy  of  ac- 
cess, and  secure  in  all  weather.  The  city  is 
built  on  an  inexhaustible  bed  of  excellent  lime- 
stone, extensively  employed  for  building  pur- 
poses and  in  the  manufacture  of  lime.  The 
site  rises  gradually  from  the  shore  and  com- 
mands a  beautiful  view  of  the  bay.  The  city 
and  neighboring  islands  are  a  favorite  summer 
resort.  The  Lake  Erie  division  of  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  and  the  Cincinnati, 
Sandusky,  and  Cleveland,  and  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  railroads,  meet  here.  San- 
dusky is  extensively  engaged  in  exporting  fresh 
and  salted  fish,  ice,  pine  and  hardwood  lumber, 
shingles,  and  laths,  and  is  the  centre  of  one  of 
the  most  important  vine-growing  districts  in 
the  United  States.  The  value  of  imports  from 
Canada  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was 
$26,240 ;  of  exports  to  Canada,  $264,914.  The 
number  of  entrances  was  186,  tonnage  12,089; 
clearances,  155,  tonnage  14,332.  The  number 
of  entrances  in  the  coastwise  trade  was  3,140, 
tonnage  479,897;  clearances,  3,124,  tonnage 
474,602.  The  city  is  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
facture of  articles  in  wood,  of  which  handles, 
spokes  and  hubs,  "  bent  work  "  for  carriages, 
and  carpenters'  tools  are  the  most  important. 
It  contains  three  national  banks,  several  pub- 
lic schools,  a  daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  14  churches. 

SAND  WASP,  the  common  name  of  a  family 
of  fossorial  hymen opterous  insects,  the  sphegi- 
doK  of  Latreille.  They  have  a  long  abdomen 
attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  long  thin  pedicel, 
filiform  antenna,  and  feet  adapted  for  digging. 
There  are  numerous  species,  generally  large, 
violet  blue,  sometimes  banded  with  yellow ; 
the  females  have  a  sting ;  there  are  no  neuters, 
the  female  making  her  own  nest  in  the  sand. 
After  laying  an  egg  in  a  cell  the  mother  places 
in  it  living  insects,  stinging  them  so  as  to  pro- 


SANDYS 


601 


duce  stupefaction,  and  then  closes  the  cell ;  the 
larva  feeds  upon  the  imprisoned  insects,  and 
grows  rapidly;  it  then  spins  a  silky  cocoon 
in  which  it  undergoes  transformation.  Some 
wasps  of  the  family  crdbronidce  also  make  their 
nests  in  sand  and  earth. 

SAMm  IlII,  a  town  of  Barnstable  co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, extending  across  the  peninsula  of 
Cape  Cod  from  Cape  Cod  bay  to  Buzzard's 
bay,  50  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in  1870, 
3,694;  in  1875,  3,416.  There  are  within  the 
town  eight  stations  on  the  Old  Colony  rail- 
road and  Wood's  Hole  branch,  and  nine  post 
offices,  viz. :  Cohasset  Narrows,  East  Sand- 
wich, Monument,  North  Sandwich,  Pocasset, 
Sandwich,  South  Sandwich,  Spring  Hill,  and 
West  Sandwich.  The  bays  afford  fine  facili- 
ties for  bathing  and  fishing.  Many  summer 
cottages  have  been  erected  in  different  parts 
of  the  town.  The  principal  village  is  on  the 
N.  side,  and  is  nearly  surrounded  by  hills 
from  which  extensive  views  may  be  obtained. 
In  clear  weather  Provincetown,  30  m.  distant 
across  the  bay,  is  visible.  The  route  of  the 
projected  ship  canal,  to  connect  the  waters  of 
Buzzard's  bay  with  those  of  Cape  Cod  bay, 
lies  through  this  town.  The  establishment  of 
the  Boston  and  Sandwich  glass  company  is  the 
largest  of  its  kind  in  New  England,  and  pro- 
duces articles  of  superior  quality.  There  are 
also  a  tack  factory,  a  car  factory,  two  iron 
founderies,  a  savings  bank,  21  public  schools, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  a  library  of  1,100  vol- 
umes, and  10  churches. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  See  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

SANDYS.  I.  Sir  Edwin,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Worcester  in  1561,  died  at  Northborne, 
Kent,  in  1629.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Edwin 
Sandys,  then  bishop  of  Worcester,  afterward 
archbishop  of  York.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
where  he  was  the  pupil  .of  Richard  Hooker, 
and  afterward  travelled  extensively  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  published  "  Europe?  Speculum,  or 
a  Survey  of  the  State  of  Religion  in  the  West- 
ern Part  of  the  World"  (best  ed.,  4to,  1637). 
Having  supported  the  succession  of  James  I., 
he  was  knighted  by  that  monarch  in  1603. 
He  was  an  influential  member  of  the  second 
London  company  for  Virginia,  in  which  he 
took  the  lead  in  measures  of  reform,  and  in- 
troduced the  vote  by  ballot.  In  1619,  having 
been  elected  treasurer  of  the  company,  as  its 
chief  officer  was  then  called,  he  established 
in  the  colony  representative  government,  and 
was  indefatigable  in  promoting  public  security 
and  prosperity.  Spanish  influence  was  exert- 
ed against  him,  and  in  1620  King  James,  in 
violation  of  the  charter,  forbade  his  reelec- 
tion ;  but  his  successor  was  his  friend  the  earl 
of  Southampton,  who  continued  his  policy. 
II.  George,  an  English  poet,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Bishopsthorpe  in  1577,  died  at 
Boxley  abbey,  Kent,  in  March,  1644.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  published  "A  Rela- 
tion of  a  Journey  begun  A.  D.  1610,  in  Four 
Books,  containing  a  Description  of  the  Turk- 


602 


SANFORD 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


ish  Empire,  of  Egypt,  of  the  Holy  Land,  and 
of  the  Remote  Parts  of  Italy  and  Islands  ad- 
joining" (fol.,  1615;  7th  e"d.,  1673),  and  a 
translation  of  the  first  five  books  of  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses"  (2d  ed.,  1621).  In  1621  he 
became  colonial  treasurer  of  Virginia,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  public  zeal. 
He  executed  all  orders  concerning  staple  com- 
modities; to  him  is  due  the  building  of  the 
first  water  mill ;  he  promoted  the  establish- 
ment of  iron  works  in  1621,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  introduced  ship  building.  He 
translated  the  last  ten  books  of  the  "  Metamor- 
phoses "  while  in  Virginia.  When  the  king 
broke  up  the  Virginia  company  in  1624,  he  re- 
turned to  England,  where  in  1626  he  published 
the  translation  of  the  whole.  He  also  wrote 
poetical  versions  of  the  Psalms  (1636),  of  the 
book  of  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations,  &c. 
(1639),  and  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  (1642). 
His  life,  by  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd,  is  prefixed 
to  "  Selections  from  Sandys's  Metrical  Para- 
phrases" (London,  1839).  A  collective  edi- 
tion of  his  poetical  works,  with  an  introduc- 
tion and  notes,  has  been  published  by  the  Rev. 
R.  Hooper  (2  vols.,  London,  1872). 

SANFORD,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Alabama,  bor- 
dering on  Mississippi,  and  drained  by  affluents 
of  the  Tombigbee  river ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,898,  of  whom  1,563  were  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  is 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
18,672  bushels  of  wheat,  219,437  of  Indian 
corn,  14,128  of  oats,  31,619  of  sweet  potatoes, 
72,157  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,825  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,462  horses,  496  mules  and  asses, 
2,518  milch  cows,  4,470  other  cattle,  6,784 
sheep,  and  11,463  swine.  Capital,  Vernon. 

SAN  FERNANDO,  a  city  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
7  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Cadiz,  on  the  Isla  de  Leon ; 

Eop.  about  18,000.  It  is  joined  to  the  main- 
ind  by  an  ancient  Roman  bridge,  and  be- 
tween it  and  Cadiz  extend  vast  salt  marshes. 
Salt,  rum,  liqueurs,  leather,  and  soap  are  man- 
ufactured. The  town  was  founded  about  1750, 
and  in  1808  had  40,000  inhabitants.  Two 
miles  distant  is  the  suburb  of  San  Carlos,  with 
the  residence  of  the  captain  general  and  sev- 
eral public  establishments. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  the  chief  city  of  California 
(in  law,  the  city  and  county  of  San  Francis- 
co), the  principal  commercial  emporium  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  in  lat.  87°  46'  N., 
Ion.  122°  24'  W.  It  is  situated  at  the  N.  end 
of  a  peninsula,  which  is  30  m.  long  and  6  m. 
across  at  the  city,  and  separates  San  Francisco 
bay  from  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  area  within 
the  political  district  is  42  sq.  m.,  of  which  con- 
siderable portions  are  drifting  sand  and  rocky 
hills,  rising  in  several  points  to  an  elevation 
of  800  ft.  Goat  island,  Alcatraz  island,  and 
Mission  rock  in  the  bay,  and  the  Farallon  isl- 
ands in  the  ocean,  80  m.  off,  also  belong  to 
the  city  and  county.  The  city  stands  on  the 
E.  slope  and  at  the  base  of  high  hills.  In 
1846  these  hills  were  steep  and  cut  up  by 


numerous  gullies,  and  the  low  ground  at  their 
base  was  narrow,  save  in  what  is  now  the  S. 
part  of  the  city,  where  there  was  a  succession 
of  hills  of  loose,  barren  sand,  impassable  for 
loaded  wagons.  In  front  of  the  town  of  Yerba 
Buena,  as  it  was  called  previous  to  1847,  was 
a  cove  extending  £  m.  into  the  land  and  1  m. 
wide  between  the  projecting  points  of  land 
known  as  Clark's  point  and  Rincon  point. 
Along  the  front  line  of  this  cove  the  water 
was  40  ft.  deep,  and  around  its  edges  there 
were  mud  flats  which  were  bare  at  low  tide. 
The  sand  ridges  have  been  cut  away,  the  gullies 
and  hollows  filled  up,  the  hills  cut  down,  and 
the  cove  filled  in;  and  where  large  ships  rode 
at  anchor  in  1849  are  now  paved  streets.  The 
country  around  the  city  is  bare,  with  no  trees 
and  little  fertile  land  within  20  m.  The  great- 
er part  of  the  peninsula  is  hilly  and  unfit  for 
cultivation.  There  is  but  one  road  leading  out 
of  the  city.  The  business  streets  are  built  up 
densely,  but  beyond  that  the  houses  are  scat- 
tered at  considerable  intervals,  and  the  settled 
part  of  the  city  may  be  said  .to  cover  an  area 
of  9  sq.  m.  In  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  city  is 
Telegraph  hill,  294  ft.  high ;  in  the  S.  E.  cor- 
ner Rincon  hill,  120  ft. ;  and  on  the  W.  side 
Russian  hill,  360  ft.  The  densely  settled  streets 
are  in  the  amphitheatre  formed  by  the  three 
hills.  On  account  of  the  hills,  some  of  which 
have  been  entirely  cut  down,  the  city  has  been 
laid  off  in  different  surveys  not  uniform  with 
each  other  in  the  size  of  the  blocks  or  the 
course  of  the  streets ;  but  in  each  survey,  with 
rare  exceptions,  the  streets  are  straight  and 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  The  prin- 
cipal retail  shops  are  in  Kearny,  Market,  and 
Montgomery  streets,  which  are  the  most  fash- 
ionable promenades;  the  banks  and  brokers' 
offices  are  in  California  street ;  the  importers 
and  jobbers  are  in  Front,  Sansome,  and  Battery 
streets;  the  principal  fashionable  residences 
are  in  Van  Ness  avenue,  Pine  street  hill,  and 
Taylor,  Bush,  Sutter,  Post,  Geary,  and  O'Far- 
rell  streets ;  and  the  Chinese  quarter  comprises 
portions  of  Sacramento,  Commercial,  Dupont, 
Pacific,  and  Jackson  streets.  The  busiest 
streets  are  paved  with  Belgian  block  and  cob- 
ble stones,  and  most  of  the  residence  streets 
are  planked.  The  city  is  supplied  with  gas 
made  from  imported  coal,  and  water  is  brought 
from  Pilarcitos  creek  near  the  base  of  the 
peninsula,  by  a  conduit  30  m.  long;  the  supply 
at  present  is  about  20,000,000  gallons  a  day. 
In  February,  1875,  there  were  in  the  city  23,- 
700  buildings,  of  which  4,300  were  of  brick ; 
the  remainder  were  of  wood,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  perhaps  half  a  dozen  of  adobe  and  as 
many  of  stone.  The  buildings  erected  in  1874 
numbered  1,389,  and  cost  $9,344,000.  The 
most  notable  buildings  are  the  Palace  hotel, 
Nevada  bank,  bank  of  California,  merchants' 
exchange,  Safe  Deposit  bank,  Lick  house,  Oc- 
cidental hotel,  Grand  hotel,  Cosmopolitan  ho- 
tel, custom  house,  mint,  mercantile  library, 
California  theatre,  grand  opera  house,  a  new 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


603 


theatre  not  yet  named,  and  the  unfinished 
city  hall.  James  Lick,  a  pioneer  citizen,  has 
given  his  property,  valued  at  several  million 
dollars,  to  trustees  with  instructions  to  erect 
various  institutions  that  will  contribute  to  sci- 
ence, art,  and  philanthropy,  as  well  as  orna- 
ment the  city.  The  Palace  hotel,  the  largest 
building  of  the  kind  in  the  world  and  the  most 
complete  in  its  appointments,  is  275  by  350 
ft.  on  the  ground,  nine  stories  high  (counting 
two  below  the  level  of  the  street),  can  accom- 
modate 1,200  guests,  and  cost  with  land  and 
furniture  $3,250,000.  The  Occidental  and  Cos- 
mopolitan hotels  can  each  accommodate  400, 
the  Lick  house  350,  and  the  Grand  hotel  300. 
In  the  S.  part  of  the  city,  3  m.  from  the 
city  hall,  are  the  buildings  of  the  old  mission 
of  San  Francisco.  The  main  structure  is  the 
church,  built  of  adobe  in  1778.  Four  miles  "W. 
of  the  city  hall,  and  on  the  S.  shore  of  the 
Golden  Gate  or  entrance  to  the  bay,  is  Fort 


point,  the  chief  defence  of  the  entrance,  which 
is  there  1  m.  wide.  Alcatraz  island,  which 
contains  another  fortification,  commanding 
both  the  entrance  and  the  city,  is  2  m.  N.  of 
the  city  hall.  Although  the  city  is  on  a  sandy, 
rocky,  treeless  peninsula,  with  a  site  so  ill 
fitted  by  nature  for  its  present  purposes  that 
$50,000,000  have  been  spent  in  grading,  still 
it  has  much  attractive  scenery  in  its  vicinity. 
The  Golden  Gate  park  contains  1,043  acres, 
and  the  Lone  Mountain  cemetery  has  in  many 
respects  no  superior.  Bridges  each  a  mile  long 
span  Mission  and  Islais  coves.  The  climate  is 
peculiar.  The  mean  temperature  of  January 
is  49°,  and  of  July  57°.  Furs  are  often  seen 
in  the  streets  in  August,  and  snow  is  never 
seen  in  December.  People  go  to  San  Francis- 
co from  the  interior  of  the  state  to  escape  from 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  the  number  of  days 
so  warm  that  the  shade  is  necessary  for  com- 
fort does  not  exceed  a  dozen  in  a  year.  As 


New  City  Hall. 


severe  frost  is  unknown,  tropical  and  subtrop- 
ical plants  need  no  shelter.  The  people  are 
ruddier  and  stouter  than  Americans  generally. 
— The  growth  of  San  Francisco  has  been  un- 
precedented. In  1846  the  population  was  600 ; 
in  the  spring  of  1848,  when  the  gold  fever 
broke  out,  it  was  1,000;  in  1852  a  state  census 
reported  34,870;  the  federal  census  in  1860 
gave  56,802,  but  there  were  probably  70,000 ; 
according  to  the  federal  census  of  1870  there 
were  then  149,473 ;  and  in  February,  1875,  the 
number  was  estimated  by  local  authorities  at 
230,000.  Included  in  the  last  number  were 
83,956  white  males  over  21  years  of  age, 
44,000  white  females  over  18,  43,573  white 
males  under  21,  37,804  white  females  under 
18,  19,000  Chinese,  and  1,800  colored  persons. 
In  1874,  according  to  the  city  school  census, 
there  were  60,552  persons  under  17  years  of 
age,  and  of  these  35,000  were  between  6  and 
17;  40,056  were  born  of  foreign  parents,  12,- 
230  of  native  parents,  and  5,956  of  mixed 


parentage.  In  1870,  according  to  the  census, 
half  the  inhabitants  were  foreign,  of  whom 
36  per  cent,  were  Irish,  14  per  cent.  German, 
13  per  cent.  Chinese,  9  per  cent.  English  and 
Welsh,  and  6  per  cent.  French,  and  the  rest 
Scandinavians,  Dalmatians,  Spanish  Americans. 
&c.  Of  the  natives,  50  per  cent.,  mostly  chil- 
dren, were  born  in  California,  16  per  cent,  in 
New  York,  10  per  cent,  in  Massachusetts,  3 
per  cent,  in  Maine,  and  some  in  every  other 
state  of  the  Union.  There  are  German,  French, 
Spanish,  Italian,  and  Chinese  newspapers,  and 
Irish,  German,  French,  Italian,  Spanish  Amer- 
ican, Scandinavian,  Dalmatian,  Swiss,  Dutch, 
and  Chinese  benevolent  societies. — The  only 
railroad  terminating  within  the  city  limits  is 
the  Southern  Pacific ;  the  Central  Pacific  ter- 
minates at  Oakland  on  the  E.  side  of  San 
Francisco  bay,  and  the  California  Pacific  and 
San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific  lines  termi- 
nate on  San  Pablo  bay  N.  of  the  city.  Ferry 
steamers  ply  to  these  points.  There  are  eight 


604 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


street  railroads,  with  45  m.  of  track.  About 
50  ocean  steamers  run  from  the  port  in  regular 
lines  to  Japan,  Australia,  Panama,  Mexico,  Vic- 
toria,'and  domestic  ports  in  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, and  a  score  of  light  steamers  to  vari- 
ous ports  on  the  inland  waters  that  have  their 
outlet  at  the  Golden  Gate.  In  1874  San  Fran- 
cisco exported  $30,000,000  of  treasure,  inclu- 
ding $20,000,000  to  New  York,  $8,000,000  to 
China,  $437,000  to  Central  America,  $400,000 
to  Peru,  $184,000  to  England,  and  $41,000  to 
Japan.  The  merchandise  exports  by  sea  in  the 
same  period  were  valued  at  $27,000,000,  in- 
cluding $16,000,000  to  Great  Britain,  $1,668,- 
000  to  China,  $690,000  to  Japan,  $1,000,000  to 
Mexico,  $453,000  to  Central  America,  $340,- 
000  to  Peru,  $450,000  to  the  Hawaiian  islands, 
$290,000  to  the  Society  islands,  $382,000  to 
Australia,  $137,000  to  New  Zealand,  $693,000 
to  British  Columbia,  $560,000  to  France,  $339,- 
000  t)  Germany,  $1,195,000  to  Russian  ports 
in  Asia,  and  $196,000  to  the  East  Indies. 
The  value  of  the  principal  articles  of  export 
was  as  follows:  wheat  (500,000  tons),  $14,- 
000,000 ;  flour,  $2,900,000 ;  barley,  $289,000  ; 
oats,  $131,000;  wines,  $600,000 ;  quicksilver, 
$711,000.  There  were  also  exported  18,000 
tons  of  wool.  The  imports  by  sea  included 
261,000,000  ft.  of  lumber,  18,000  boxes  of  can- 
dles, 60,000  barrels  of  cement,  37,000  tons  of 
English  coal,  189,000  tons  of  Australian  coal, 
15,000  tons  of  Cumberland  coal,  51,000  tons 
of  Vancouver  island  coal,  11,000,000  Ibs.  of 
coffee,  34,000,000  Ibs.  of  rice,  8,000,000  Ibs. 
of  tea,  71,000,000  Ibs.  of  sugar,  355,000  fire 
brick,  28,000  boxes  of  fresh  Oregon  apples, 
16,000  boxes  of  raisins,  214,000  kegs  of  nails, 
805,000  cases  of  coal  oil,  and  34,000  cases, 
8,000  baskets,  and  15,000  casks  (various  sizes) 
of  wine.  The  imports  by  rail  were  also  large, 
and  included  some  of  the  same  classes  of  ar- 
ticles. The  number  of  sea-going  vessels  that 
arrived  was  4,204,  with  an  aggregate  measure- 
ment of  1,553,000  tons,  of  which  nearly  half 
came  from  Europe  and  New  York.  The  sum 
of  $7,898,000  was  paid  for  federal  duties,  and 
$2,488,000  for  internal  revenue  duties.  The 
coinage  was  $27,000,000.  The  sales  of  mining 
stock  in  the  board  of  brokers  amounted  to 
$260,000,000,  and  of  real  estate  within  the 
limits  of  the  city  to  $23,000,000.  The  site 
and  some  other  circumstances  of  the  city  are 
unfavorable  to  manufacturing  industry,  but  in 
the  matter  of  climate  and  Chinese  population, 
and  in  some  other  points,  it  has  great  advan- 
tages ;  and  it  has  many  important  manufac- 
turing establishments,  including  woollen  and 
silk  mills,  and  manufactories  of  watches,  car- 
riages, boots,  furniture,  candles,  acids,  soap, 
wire  work,  castings  of  iron  and  brass,  and  sil- 
ver ware.  San  Francisco  is  the  centre  of  great 
wealth  and  the  home  of  many  millionaires. 
Many  of  the  mines  of  gold,  silver,  quicksilver, 
and  coal,  the  deposits  of  borax  and  sulphur, 
the  quarries  of  granite,  marble,  trap,  slate,  and 
steatite,  the  mining  and  irrigating  ditches,  the 


railways  and  macadamized  roads,  the  quartz 
mills  and  saw  mills,  the  vineyards,  farms,  or- 
chards, and  ranches,  from  Arizona  to  Idaho, 
and  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Rocky  mountains, 
are  owned  here.  The  wealth  of  the  city  prob- 
ably amounts  to  $500,000,000;  the  assessed 
value  of  the  property  within  its  limits  is  about 
half  that  sum.  The  capital  and  deposits  of 
the  savings  banks  are  $55,000,000,  and  of  the 
commercial  banks  $25,000,000.  The  city  owes 
much  of  its  prosperity  to  the  Comstock  lode  in 
Nevada,  which  pays  about  $12,000,000  of  an- 
nual dividends,  and  yields  a  considerable  profit 
also  upon  the  sales  of  mining  stock,  in  which 
people  from  all  'parts  of  the  coast  speculate. — 
San  Francisco  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a 
board  of  supervisors  of  12  members  (one  from 
each  ward),  elected  for  two  years.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  board  of  education  (one  from  each 
ward)  are  also  elected  biennially.  The  reg- 
ular police  force  consists  of  150  men.  There 
is  a  paid  fire  department,  with  11  steam  en- 
gine companies,  5  hose  companies,  8  hook  and 
ladder  companies,  and  a  fire-alarm  telegraph. 
The  annual  expenditures  of  the  city  govern- 
ment are  $3,500,000,  including  $650,000  for 
schools,  $400,000  for  interest  and  sinking  fund 
of  the  debt,  $229,000  for  street  lights,  $224,- 
000  for  the  fire  department,  $190,000  for  the 
police,  and  as  much  more  for  the  hospital.  The 
entire  debt  is  $4,162,000,  less  relatively  than 
that  of  any  other  large  American  city.  The 
taxation  for  city  and  state  purposes  in  1874 
amounted  to  $5,543,000.  Among  the  chari- 
table institutions  are  the  United  States  marine 
hospital,  the  city  hospital,  the  pest  house,  the 
almshouse  (all  government  institutions),  the 
woman's  hospital,  the  lying-in  hospital,  and 
the  hospitals  of  the  sisters  of  mercy  and  of 
the  French  and  German  benevolent  societies. 
There  are  87  benevolent  societies  meeting 
openly,  besides  numerous  secret  societies  that 
are  at  least  partially  benevolent  in  character. 
The  public  schools  accommodate  30,000  pupils 
in  regular  attendance.  The  mercantile  library 
has  40,000  volumes,  the  mechanics'  institute 
library  30,000,  the  odd  fellows'  library  25,- 
000,  and  the  law  library  15,000.  There  are  an 
academy  of  sciences,  a  school  of  design,  two 
medical  colleges,  and  three  academic  institu- 
tions. The  number  of  newspapers  and  period- 
icals is  75,  viz. :  11  daily,  1  tri-weekly,  2  semi- 
weekly,  40  weekly,  1  bi-weekly,  2  semi-month- 
ly, and  18  monthly.  Of  churches,  the  Metho- 
dists, Presbyterians,  and  Catholics  have  each 
13 ;  the  Baptists,  Episcopalians,  and  Luther- 
ans each  7 ;  the  Congregationalists  and  Jews 
each  5 ;  the  Swedenborgians  2 ;  and  the  Unita- 
rians and  Universalists  each  1.  In  seven  the 
German  language  is  used,  and  the  Russian, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Swedish  in  one  each. 
— The  mission  of  San  Francisco  de  Asis,  fre- 
quently called  the  mission  Dolores,  was  founded 
Oct.  9, 1776,  by  two  Franciscan  monks,  Francis- 
co Palou  and  Benito  Cambon,  natives  of  Spain. 
Their  establishment  grew,  and  in  1825  it  had 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

• 

76,000  head  of  neat  cattle,  79,000  sheep,  3,000 
horses,  18,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  barley, 
merchandise  worth  $35,000,  $25,000  in  cash, 
and  about  1,800  Indians.  For  58  years  the 
missionaries  had  complete  control  of  the  mis- 
sion, and  it  prospered  without  interruption 
until  in  1834  the  missions  of  California  were 
secularized  and  given  over  to  civil  officers. 
Their  downfall  was  then  most  rapid,  and  in  a 
few  years  nothing  remained  save  the  adobe 
buildings.  One  of  the  first  effects  of  the  new 
policy  of  secularizing  the  missions,  placing  the 
country  under  the  control  of  the  civil  powers, 
and  encouraging  colonization,  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  village  of  Yerba  Buena,  near 
the  present  site  of  the  city  hall.  The  first 
house  was  erected  in  1835,  and  others  fol- 
lowed slowly.  The  first  survey  of  streets  and 
town  lots  was  made  in  1839.  A  small  trade 
was  done  in  exporting  hides,  selling  wheat  to 
the  Russians,  furnishing  supplies  to  whalers, 
and  trading  with  the  rancheros  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. Very  few  vessels  entered  the  har- 
bor. In  midsummer  of  1846  an  American 
man-of-war  took  possession  of  the  place  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States.  The  town 
was  known  only  as  Yerba  Buena  until  Jan.  30, 
1847,  when  the  ayuntamiento  or  town  council 
changed  it  to  San  Francisco.  On  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  the  spring  of  1848  the  town  was 
deserted  by  many  of  its  inhabitants  from  June 
to  October ;  but  the  return  of  the  adventu- 
rers in  the  autumn,  the  arrival  of  others  from 
abroad,  the  increase  of  shipping,  the  abundance 
of  money,  and  the  profits  of  trade  soon  built 
up  a  city,  and  in  1849  San  Francisco  had  be- 
come a  great  centre  of  commerce.  But  the 
houses  were  crowded  together  and  built  of 
combustible  materials,  and  several  great  fires 
occurred ;  the  first  was  on  Dec.  24,  1849,  when 
the  estimated  loss  was  $1,000,000 ;  the  next 
on  May  4,  1850,  loss  $3,000,000;  the  third  on 
June  14  of  the  same  year,  loss  $3,000,000 ;  the 
fourth  on  May  2,  1851,  loss  $7,000,000;  the 
fifth  on  June  22,  1851,  loss  $2,000,000.  Yet 
these  fires  scarcely  interrupted  the  prosperity 
of  the  place.  It  continued  to  grow  rapidly 
until  January,  1854,  when,  in  consequence  of 
over  speculation  in  land,  of  a  decline  in  the 
gold  yield,  and  of  the  temporary  decrease  of 
shipping  (the  last  the  result  of  the  home  pro- 
duction instead  of  the  importation  of  food), 
the  business  of  the  city  became  less  profitable. 
The  title  to  much  of  the  land  was  in  litigation ; 
many  houses  were  unoccupied ;  and  the  depres- 
sion did  not  cease  till  August,  1858,  when  a 
new  era  of  prosperity  began,  and  the  growth 
of  the  city  has  since  been  steady,  notwithstand- 
ing a  real  estate  panic,  which,  following  im- 
moderate expectations  of  the  benefits  to  accrue 
from  the  Pacific  railroad,  began  in  May,  1869, 
and  lasted  four  years.  The  city  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1850,  and  the  city  and  county  were 
consolidated  in  1856.  In  1851  and  1856,  in 
consequence  of  bad  municipal  government  and 
corrupt  administration  of  the  criminal  laws, 


SANHEDRIM 


605 


the  people  organized  vigilance  committees,  and 
executed  several  criminals.  (See  CALIFORNIA.) 

SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY,  a  sheet  of  water  in 
California,  connected  with  the  Pacific  ocean 
by  a  strait  5  m.  long  and  1  m.  wide,  called  the 
Golden  Gate,  in  lat.  37°  48'  N.,  Ion.  122°  80' 
W.  It  extends  S.  S.  W.  about  40  m.,  being 
separated  from  the  Pacific  by  a  peninsula  from 
6  to  15  m.  wide,  on  the  N.  extremity  of  which 
is  the  city  of  San  Francisco.  The  bay  opposite 
the  city  is  about  7  m.  wide,  and  in  its  widest 
part  12  m.  The  shores  of  the  Golden  Gate  are 
bold  and  rocky,  rising  on  the  north  in  some 
places  nearly  2,000  ft.,  while  on  the  south  the 
hills  are  from  300  to  400  ft.  high,  many  of  them 
being  covered  with  shifting  white  sand.  On 
the  bar  there  is  80  ft.  of  water  at  low  tide ; 
within  there  is  a  much  greater  depth  and  good 
anchorage.  The  principal  islands  are  Alca- 
traz,  in  the  middle  of  the  channel,  about  4  m. 
from  the  entrance ;  Angel,  the  largest,  con- 
taining 800  acres ;  and  Yerba  Buena  or  Goat 
island,  opposite  the  city.  There  is  a  fortifica- 
tion on  Alcatraz  island,  and  another  at  Fort 
point  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Golden  Gate.  San 
Francisco  bay  is  connected  on  the  north  by  a 
strait  3  m.  wide  with  San  Pablo  bay,  which  is 
nearly  round  and  about  10  m.  in  diameter ;  and 
this  receives  from  the  east  through  Carquinez 
strait  (1  m.  wide)  the  waters  of  Suisun  bay, 
which  is  about  8  m.  long  from  E.  to  W.  and  4 
m.  wide.  San  Pablo  and  Suisun  bays  are  deep, 
but  Carquinez  strait  has  only  16  ft.  of  water 
at  low  tide.  At  the  head  of  San  Pablo  bay  is 
Napa  or  Mare  island,  on  which  is  a  United 
States  navy  yard.  The  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  rivers,  which  drain  the  great  valley 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  moun- 
tains, discharge  into  Suisun  bay.  The  name 
San  Francisco  bay  is  often  extended  over  San 
Pablo  bay. 

SANGAMON,  a  central  county  of  Illinois,  in- 
tersected by  the  Sangamon  river,  and  traversed 
by  several  important  railroads ;  area,  936  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  46,352.  The  surface  is 
mostly  level  prairie  land  diversified  with  for- 
ests of  good  timber.  Bituminous  coal  is  found 
in  abundance.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  336,962  bushels  of  wheat,  4,388,763  of 
Indian  corn,  397,718  of  oats,  187,494  of  pota- 
toes, 50,682  tons  of  hay,  117,736  Ibs.  of  wool, 
554, 1 96  of  butter,  and  58,487  of  honey.  There 
were  16,395  horses,  3,046  mules  and  asses, 
8,897  milch  cows,  26,219  other  cattle,  29,749 
sheep,  and  76,429  swine ;  5  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  28  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  2  of  iron  castings,  2  of  engines  and 
boilers,  14  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  woollen 
mill,  15  flour  mills,  and  7  saw  mills.  Capital, 
Springfield,  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 

SANGHNARIA.    See  BLOODROOT. 

SANHEDRIM  (accurately,  sanhedrin,  a  Heb. 
word  formed  from  the  Gr.  cwtdpiov,  assem- 
bly), the  supreme  council  of  the  Jews  in  later 
times.  Traditionally  its  origin  is  traced  to  the 
70  elders  appointed  by  Moses,  but  its  Greek 


606 


SANILAO 


SAN  JOSE 


name  and  the  absence  of  earlier  historic  men- 
tion point  to  a  time  after  the  Macedonian 
supremacy.  Its  full  development  was  under 
the  earlier  Asmoneans;  and  Herod,  when  pro- 
curator of  Galilee,  was  summoned  before  the 
sanhedrim,  charged  with  usurping  its  author- 
ity in  sentencing  men  to  death.  Its  members 
were  chosen  from  the  chief  priests,  elders,  and 
scholars ;  and  the  tradition  is  that  there  were 
70  besides  the  nasi  or  president.  There  was 
a  vice  president,  who  was  called  "father  of 
the  council."  The  usual  meeting  place  was 
a  hall  called  lishkath  haggazith  (hewn-stone 
chamber)  within  the  temple  enclosure.  Be- 
fore it  Jesus  was  arraigned  as  a  false  prophet, 
and  Peter,  John,  Stephen,  and  Paul  as  false 
teachers.  Its  power  was  nearly  destroyed  by 
Herod  the  Great,  who  put  to  death  almost  all 
its  members.  The  Talmud  also  mentions  a 
lesser  sanhedrim  of  23  members  in  every  city 
of  Palestine  in  which  there  were  as  many  as 
120  families. 

SANILAC,  an  E.  county  of  Michigan,  border- 
ing on  Luke  Huron  and  drained  by  the  head 
streams  of  Black  and  Cass  rivers ;  area,  about 
1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1874,  16,292.  It  has  an 
undulating  and  well  timbered  surface,  and  a 
moderately  fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  112,055  bushels  of  wheat,  49,782 
of  peas  and  beans,  145,396  of  oats,  103,990  of 
potatoes,  14,901  tons  of  hay,  82,593  Ibs.  of 
wool,  250,832  of  butter,  and  32,999  of  maple 
sugar.  There  were  1,941  horses,  8,265  milch 
cows,  1,419  working  oxen,  8,700  other  cattle, 
9,182  sheep,  and  3,760  swine;  4  flour  mills,  16 
saw  mills,  5  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  and  3  of  furniture.  Capital,  Lexington. 

SAN  JtUYI'O,  a  river  of  Texas,  rising  in 
Walker  co.  and  flowing  S.  S.  E.  into  San  Ja- 
cinto  bay,  an  arm  of  Galveston  bay ;  length 
about  120  m.,  of  which  45  m.  are  navigable. 
It  is  deep  and  clear.  Near  its  mouth,  on 
April  21,  1836,  was  fought  the  decisive  battle 
of  San  Jacinto.  (See  HODSTOK,  SAM.) 

SAN  JACLVTO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  Trinity  river,  and  drained  by  small 
tributaries  of  the  San  Jacinto ;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m.  It  has  been  formed  since  the  census  of 
1870.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil 
very  productive.  Capital,  Cold  Spring. 

SAN  JOAQl  I>,  a  river  of  California,  which 
rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  in  Fresno 
co.,  flows  S.  W.  to  the  W.  part  of  the  county, 
and  thence  N.  W.  through  Fresno,  Merced, 
Stanislaus,  and  San  Joaquin  counties,  and  uni- 
ting with  the  Sacramento  empties  into  Suisun 
bay,  which  through  San  Pablo  and  San  Fran- 
cisco bays  communicates  with  the  Pacific  ocean. 
Tulare  lake  discharges  into  it  at  high  water, 
and  the  river  was  formerly  considered  to  rise 
in  it.  Its  entire  length  is  about  350  m.  It  is 
navigable  at  all  seasons  by  vessels  of  from  150 
to  230  tons  to  Stockton,  about  50  m.  above  its 
month;  in  winter  and  spring  steamers  ascend 
nearly  200  m.  further.  It  receives  numerous 
tributaries  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  chief 


of  which  are  the  Fresno,  Mariposa,  Merced, 
Tuolumne,  Stanislaus,  and  Calaveras.  Its  val- 
ley is  noted  for  its  fertility,  producing  great 
quantities  of  wheat  and  barley. 

SAN  JOAQUIN,  a  central  county  of  California, 
intersected  by  the  San  Joaquin  river,  which 
here  receives  the  Mokelumne,  and  bounded  N. 
by  the  Calaveras  and  S.  E.  by  the  Stanislaus, 
tributaries  of  the  San  Joaquin;  area,  1,452  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  21,050,  of  whom  1,629  were 
Chinese.  It  lies  between  the  foot  hills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  ranges,  but  the  sur- 
face is  generally  level,  and  a  large  portion  of 
it  treeless.  Part  of  the  extensive  tract  of  tule 
marsh  in  the  northwest  has  been  reclaimed. 
The  main  line  and  Visalia  division  of  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroad  and  the  Stockton  and  Cop- 
peropolis  and  Stockton  and  Visalia  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  2,360,925  bushels  of  wheat,  37,350  of  In- 
dian corn,  1,027,016  of  barley,  21,165  gallons 
of  wine,  86,760  Ibs.  of  wool,  292,060  of  but- 
ter, 25,111  of  cheese,  and  41,214  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  14,139  horses,  6,999  milch  cows, 
14,373  other  cattle,  79,889  sheep,  and  27,937 
swine ;  8  manufactories  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, 6  of  carriages  and  wagons,  2  of 
iron  castings,  3  of  machinery,  13  of  saxldlery 
and  harness,  3  breweries,  l'  tannery,  and  2 
flour  mills.  Capital,  Stockton. 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Santa 
Clara  co.,  California,  at  the  intersection  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad  with  the  San  Jos6 
branch  of  the  Central  Pacific  line,  8  m.  S.  E. 
of  San  Francisco  bay,  and  40  m.  S.  E.  of  San 
Francisco ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,089,  of  whom  8,755 
were  foreigners,  including  714  Chinese ;  in 
1875,  estimated  by  local  authorities  at  15,000. 
The  main  portion  of  the  city  occupies  a  gently 
rising  plateau,  between  the  Coyote  and  Guada- 
lupe  rivers  (small  streams  emptying  into  the 
bay),  here  1  i  m.  apart,  with  suburbs  extending 
some  distance  beyond  them.  It  is  handsomely 
laid  out,  lighted  with  gas,  and  well  supplied 
with  water,  and  has  a  good  fire  department. 
Horse  cars  run  through  the  main  streets.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  court  house,  a 
massive  Corinthian  structure  costing  $200,000, 
with  a  dome  commanding  a  fine  view  ;  the  jail 
adjoining  it,  the  finest  in  the  state,  costing 
$80,000 ;  the  state  normal  school  building,  in 
the  centre  of  Washington  square,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  $200,000 ;  the  city  hall ;  two 
markets,  costing  more  than  $40,000  each ;  eight 
public  school  buildings ;  and  ten  churches,  the 
largest  and  most  expensive  being  an  unfin- 
ished edifice  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics. There  are  three  public  parks,  containing 
2,  8,  and  30  acres  respectively.  The  city  owns 
a  tract  of  400  acres  in  Penitencia  cation,  7  m. 
E.,  reserved  for  a  public  park,  containing  a 
wild  rocky  gorge  with  a  mountain  stream  and 
a  variety  of  mineral  springs.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  equable,  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try yields  grain  and  fruits  abundantly.  Slight 
earthquake  shocks  are  not  uncommon.  The 


SAN  JOSE 

city  contains  a  woollen  mill,  three  founderies 
and  machine  shops,  three  flouring  mills,  three 
planing  mills,  five  or  six  carriage  factories, 
three  breweries,  three  distilleries,  two  large 
fruit-drying  establishments,  one  fruit-canning 
establishment,  three  candy  factories,  two  glove 
factories,  a  broom  factory,  a  tannery,  a  starch 
factory,  and  a  furniture  factory.  The  bank- 
ing institutions  are  a  national  gold  bank  and 
three  banks  of  discount  and  deposit,  with  sa- 
vings departments;  aggregate  capital,  $2,350,- 
000.  The  public  schools  are  graded.  The  col- 
lege of  Notre  Dame  (Roman  Catholic),  a  day 
and  boarding  school  for  girls,  founded  in  1851 
and  incorporated  in  1855,  has  a  fine  building 
and  extensive  grounds.  The  San  Jose  institute 
and  business  college,  a  day  and  boarding  school 
for  both  sexes,  founded  in  1862,  has  commo- 
dious buildings.  At  Santa  Clara,  3  m.  W.,  is 
Santa  Clara  college,  under  the  management  of 
the  Jesuits,  founded  in  1851  and  incorporated 
in  1855.  It  occupies  a  number  of  elegant  build- 
ings in  an  enclosure  of  about  12  acres.  Be- 
tween Santa  Clara  and  the  city  is  the  univer- 
sity of  the  Pacific  (Methodist  Episcopal),  con- 
nected with  which  is  a  young  ladies'  seminary. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1852,  and  has 
been  recently  removed  from  Santa  Clara.  San 
Jose  has  an  opera  house  seating  1,200,  and  an 
elegant  and  commodious  music  hall.  The  San 
Jose  library  association,  incorporated  in  1872, 
has  4,000  volumes.  Three  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers  and  a  monthly  periodical 
are  published.  There  are  Baptist,  Episcopal, 
Friends',  Jewish,  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  a  Unitarian  so- 
ciety.— San  Jose  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards 
before  1800,  but  remained  merely  a  collection 
of  adobe  huts  till  after  the  cession  of  the  coun- 
try to  the  United  States.  The  legislature  of 
California  held  its  first  session  here  in  the 
winter  of  1849-'50,  and  assembled  here  again 
the  following  winter,  but  soon  removed  to 
Vallejo. 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Costa  Rica,  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  almost  midway  between  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Pacific ;  lat.  9°  54'  N.,  Ion.  84° 
3'  W. ;  pop.  about  26,000.  It  lies  in  a  pictu- 
resque valley,  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  formed 
between  the  Herradura  mountains  on  the  south 
and  those  of  Barba  on  the  north.  Its  streets 
are  laid  out  with  great  regularity,  but  the  build- 
ings are  low  and  unimposing.  Among  the 
best  of  the  latter  are  the  cathedral,  the  episco- 
pal palace,  and  the  government  buildings.  A 
railway  is  in  course  of  construction  (1875)  to 
connect  it  with  Punta  Arenas,  its  port  on  the 
Pacific,  and  with  Limon  on  the  Atlantic.  The 
national  bank  of  Costa  Rica  was  established 
here  in  1873,  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000. 
San  Jose  became  the  seat  of  government  after 
the  destruction  of  Cartago,  the  former  capital, 
by  an  earthquake,  Sept.  2,  1841. 

SAN  JUAN,  an  island  of  Washington  terri- 
tory, in  Washington  sound,  between  the  gulf 
723  VOL.  xiv. — 39 


SAN  JUAN  DE  NICARAGUA 


007 


of  Georgia  on  the  north,  the  strait  of  Fuca  on 
the  south,  Rosario  strait  on  the  east,  and  the 
canal  de  Haro  on  the  west,  about  lat.  48°  30'  N., 
Ion.  123°  W. ;  length  15  m.,  greatest  breadth 
7  m. ;  area,  about  60  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  376, 
including  the  American  garrison  of  98  men, 
but  exclusive  of  the  British  garrison.  The  N. 
part  is  mountainous  and  heavily  timbered ;  the 
S.  part  has  many  beautiful  and  fertile  prairies, 
and  excellent  pasturage.  Coal  and  limestone 
are  found.  The  adjacent  waters  abound  in 
cod,  halibut,  salmon,  and  other  fish.  This  and 
several  smaller  islands  were  included  in  What- 
com  co.  till  1873,  when  they  were  formed  into 
the  county  of  San  Juan.  The  largest  of  the 
other  islands  are  Orcas,  about  60  sq.  m.,  and 
Lopez,  about  30  sq.  m.  The  rest  have  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  50  sq.  m.,  the  princi- 
pal being  Blakely,  Decatur,  Shaw,  Waldron, 
Henry,  Spieden,  Stuart,  and  Sucia.  Total  area 
of  the  county,  about  200  sq.  m.  The  popula- 
tion of  Orcas  island  in  1870  was  108;  of  Lo- 
pez, 48 ;  of  the  others,  except  San  Juan,  22 ; 
and  of  the  entire  group,  554,  including  72 
Indians;  white  population  in  1874,  545. — San 
Juan  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the  dis- 
pute respecting  its  possession  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  treaty  of 
June  15,  1846,  for  the  settlement  of  the  Ore- 
gon boundary,  fixed  upon  the  49th  parallel  as 
the  line  to  "the  middle  of  the  channel  which 
separates  the  continent  from  Vancouver  isl- 
and, and  thence  southerly  through  the  middle 
of  said  channel  and  of  Fuca's  straits  to  the 
Pacific  ocean."  Subsequently  Great  Britain 
claimed  that  Rosario  strait  was  the  channel 
intended,  while  the  United  States  insisted  upon 
the  canal  de  Haro,  leaving  Washington  sound 
with  its  numerous  islands  in  dispute.  In  No- 
vember, 1859,  an  arrangement  was  entered 
into  between  the  two  governments  for  a  tem- 
porary joint  military  occupation,  in  pursuance 
of  which  a  British  garrison  was  established  in 
the  N.  part  and  an  American  garrison  in  the 
S.  By  article  34  of  the  treaty  of  Washington, 
May  8,  1871,  the  question  in  dispute  was  re- 
ferred to  the  arbitration  of  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  who  in  October,  1872,  decided  in 
favor  of  the  United  States;  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing month  the  British  garrison  was  with- 
drawn.— See  vol.  v.  of  "Papers  relating  to 
the  Treaty  of  Washington,"  published  by  the 
department  of  state  (1872). 

SAN  JUAN  DE  NICARAGUA,  San  Joan  del  Norto, 
or  Greytown,  a  port  of  Nicaragua,  on  a  promon- 
tory near  the  mouth  of  the  river  San  Juan,  on 
the  Caribbean  sea,  in  lat.  10°  56'  N.,  Ion.,  83° 
45'  W. ;  pop.  about  300.  The  houses,  none  of 
which  have  more  than  two  stories,  are  now  in 
a  state  of  decay.  San  Juan  derives  its  chief 
importance  from  being  the  principal  port  of 
Nicaragua  on  its  E.  coast.  It  was  occupied  by 
a  British  force  in  1848  as  belonging  to  the 
"Mosquito  kingdom,"  became  prominent  as 
the  terminus  of  the  Nicaragua  transit  in  1858, 
when  its  inhabitants  organized  an  independent 


608    SAN  JUAN  DE  PUEKTO  RICO 


SAN  MARINO 


municipal  government,  and  was  secured  to 
Nicaragua  by  treaty  withXJreat  Britain  in 
1860.  It  was  bombarded  in  1854  by  a  naval 
force  of  the  United  States,  on  a  charge  that 
its  inhabitants  had  infringed  upon  the  rights 
of  the  transit  company.  Since  then  its  har- 
bor has  become  nearly  choked  with  sand. 

SAN  JUAN  DE  PUERTO  RICO,  a  fortified  city, 
capital  of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  on  a  small 
island  off  the  N.  coast;  lat.  18°  29'  N.,  Ion. 
66°  7'  W. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  The  streets  are 
regularly  laid  out,  well  kept,  and  lighted  with 
gas.  The  public  buildings  are  the  old  govern- 
ment house,  the  royal  military  hospital,  the 
bishop's  palace  and  seminary,  a  large  cathe- 
dral, an  arsenal,  custom  house,  city  hall,  and 
several  fine  castles,  now  used  as  barracks. 
There  are  a  house  of  refuge  and  instruction 
for  the  indigent,  an  insane  asylum,  and  other 
benevolent  institutions.  San  Juan  has  several 
primary  schools,  a  college  in  course  of  con- 
struction (1875),  and  a  fine  library.  The  port 
is  difficult  of  access,  but  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  Antilles,  and  a  di- 
rect trade  has  recently  been  established  with 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  It  is  regular- 
ly visited  by  the  steamers  of  the  British  lines 
frequenting  the  West  Indies.  The  principal 
exports  are  sugar,  mostly  to  the  United  States, 
coffee  to  Germany,  and  some  tobacco. 

SAN  JUAN  RIVER.     See  NICARAGUA.. 

SAN  LUCAR  DE  BARRAMEDA,  a  city  of  Anda- 
lusia, Spain,  situated  in  a  barren  district  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  in  the  province 
and  18  m.  N.  by  W.  of  the  city  of  Cadiz;  pop. 
about  16,000.  It  contains  many  churches  and 
convents,  and  a  hospital  founded  in  1517  by 
Henry  VIII.  of  England  for  British  sailors. 
Cotton  and  silk  goods,  leather,  soap,  and  ba- 
rilla are  manufactured.  The  chief  export  is 
wine.  It  serves  as  a  seaport  to  Seville. 

SAN  LUIS.  I.  A  central  province  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  bordering  on  La  Rioja,  Cor- 
dova, the  pampas  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Men- 
doza,  and  San  Juan ;  area,  20,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1869,  52,761.  In  the  north  it  is  mountain- 
ous, with  several  high  peaks.  The  southern 
districts  abound  in  excellent  pasture  lands,  on 
which  are  reared  large  numbers  of  cattle.  The 
Rio  Quinto  is  the  only  river  of  importance. 
There  are  some  lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is 
the  Bebedero,  of  considerable  extent,  and  sup- 
plying salt  for  the  whole  province.  Much  rain 
falls.  The  soil  is  favorable  for  the  cultivation 
of  all  the  European  products.  Oranges  and 
grapes  are  especially  abundant,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  excellent  wines  are  made.  The  chief 
articles  of  commerce  are  hides,  sheep  and  gua- 
naco  wool,  skins,  leather,  ostrich  and  con- 
dor feathers,  gold,  auriferous  copper,  precious 
stones,  and  salt.  Of  14,576  children  from  6 
to  14  years  of  age,  2,600  attended  school  in 
1869.  The  province  is  divided  into  eight  de- 
partments. II.  A  city,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, 460  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  pop. 
in  1869,  3,748.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at 


an  elevation  of  about  2,500  ft.,  with  a  mild 
climate.  The  chief  industries  are  agriculture 
and  the  manufacture  of  wines.  The  city,  some- 
times called  San  Luis  de  la  Punta,  was  founded 
by  Luis  Loyola  in  1596. 

SAN  LUIS  OBISPO,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Cali- 
fornia, bounded  W.  by  the  Pacific,  E.  by  the 
Coast  range,  and  S.  by  the  Guaymas  or  Santa 
Maria  river,  and  drained  by  the  head  waters 
of  Salinas  or  Buenaventura  river ;  area,  about 
3,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,772,  of  whom  59 
were  Chinese.  The  surface  is  partly  moun- 
tainous, and  the  soil  fertile.  Gold,  silver,  coal, 
and  limestone  are  found ;  there  are  bituminous 
springs,  and  a  celebrated  warm  sulphur  spring. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  88,864 
bushels  of  wheat,  25,982  of  Indian  corn,  126,- 
604  of  barley,  16,519  of  peas  and  beans,  908,- 
863  Ibs.  of  wool,  156,340  of  butter,  341,259  of 
cheese,  and  5,714  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
4,485  horses,  4,813  milch  cows,  15,899  other 
cattle,  191,909  sheep,  and  3,819  swine.  Cap- 
ital, San  Luis  Obispo. 

SAN  LUIS  POTOSL  I.  An  E.  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Nuevo  Leon,  E.  by  Tamau- 
lipas  and  Vera  Cruz,  S.  by  Hidalgo,  Queretaro, 
and  Guanajuato,  and  W.  and  N.  W.  by  Zacate- 
cas;  area,  28,889  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869,  476,500. 
In  the  southeast  the  surface  is  flat,  but  in  other 
directions  it  becomes  broken  and  hilly,  ter- 
minating in  mountains  and  a  high  table  land 
in  the  west.  The  most  important  rivers  are 
the  Santander  and  Tainpico.  Large  crops  of 
wheat,  maize,  and  barley  are  raised,  and  great 
numbers  of  cattle  are  reared.  There  are  sev- 
eral copper  mines.  The  manufactures  include 
woollen  and  cotton  goods,  glass,  leather,  earth- 
enware, and  hardware.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  state,  upward  of  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
220  m.  N.  W.  of  Mexico,  and  100  m.  S.  E.  of 
Zacatecas ;  pop.  in  1869,  31,389.  It  has  six 
handsome  churches,  three  convents,  a  hospital, 
a  government  house,  and  several  schools,  and 
manufactories  of  shoes,  hats,  and  hardware. 

SAN  MARINO.  I.  A  republic  in  N.  E.  Italy, 
the  oldest  and  next  to  Monaco  the  smallest 
state  in  Europe ;  area,  22  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1874, 
7,816.  It  is  surrounded  by  the  provinces  of 
Forli  and  Pesaro  ed  Urbino,  is  mountainous, 
and  has  four  or  five  villages.  Wine,  silk,  and 
fruits  are  the  principal  products.  It  was  set- 
tled, according  to  tradition,  in  the  4th  century 
by  Marinus,  a  Dalmatian  hermit,  and  has  ever 
since  the  establishment  of  its  government  re- 
mained independent.  The  legislature  consists 
of  a  council  of  60,  taken  equally  from  the 
ranks  of  nobles,  burgesses,  and  small  proprie- 
tors, and  appointed  for  life  by  the  councillors 
themselves.  An  executive  body  of  12  is  se- 
lected from  this  number ;  two  presidents  (ca- 
pitani  reggenti)  are  chosen  every  six  months, 
and  justice  is  administered  by  two  foreign 
magistrates  appointed  for  three  years.  The 
annual  revenue  is  about  $14,000.  In  1874  the 
harboring  in  San  Marino  of  fugitives  from  jus- 
tice led  to  complications  with  the  Italian  gov- 


SAN  MARTIN 


SAN  PETE 


609 


eminent.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  republic, 
8  m.  S.  W.  of  Rimini;  pop.  about  6,000.  It 
is  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  rugged  moun- 
tain, and  contains  a  remarkable  cabinet  of 
medals,  a  theatre,  five  churches,  two  convents, 
a  town  house,  and  a  statue  of  Marinus. 

SAN  MARTIN,  Jose  de,  an  Argentine  general, 
born  at  Yapeyu,  Feb.  25,  1778,  died  in  Bou- 
logne, France,  Aug.  17,  1850.  He  received  a 
military  education  in  Spain,  served  with  dis- 
tinction at  Baylen,  and  became  a  colonel  in  the 
Spanish  army.  He  returned  to  South  America 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  independence, 
and  organized  the  Argentine  forces.  After 
repeated  victories  over  the  royalists,  he  was 
made  in  1814  commander-in-chief  of  the  ill- 
fated  expedition  to  Upper  Peru  against  the 
troops  of  the  viceroy  of  Lima.  Withdraw- 
ing to  the  province  of  Cnyo,  he  soon  raised 
an  army,  with  which  he  crossed  the  Chilian 
Andes,  and  defeated  the  royalists  under  Oso- 
rio  in  the  battle  of  Chacabuco,  Feb.  12,  1817. 
Declining  the  presidency  of  Chili,  he  defeated 
the  Spaniards  again  at  Maypu,  April  5,  1818, 
and  Chilian  independence  was  secured.  In 
1820  he  marched  into  Peru,  accompanied  by 
Bernard  O'Higgins,  president  of  Chili,  entered 
Lima,  drove  the  Spaniards  into  the  interior, 
declared  Peru  independent  (1821),  and  as- 
sumed the  dignity  of  protector,  which  he  was 
forced  to  resign  in  1822.  Having  retired  to 
private  life,  he  went  to  Europe,  and  lived  in 
England,  the  Netherlands,  and  France. 

SAN  MATED,  a  W.  county  of  California,  bor- 
dering on  the  Pacific,  and  bounded  N.  E.  by 
the  bay  of  San  Francisco ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,635,  of  whom  519  were  Chi- 
nese. The  surface  is  hilly  and  well  timbered, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  Excellent  coal  is  found, 
and  there  are  mineral  springs  of  sulphur  and 
iron.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Southern  Pacific 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
107,049  bushels  of  wheat,  294,318  of  oats, 
171,207  of  barley,  329,875  of  potatoes,  285,460 
Ibs.  of  butter,  469,295  of  cheese,  and  19,065 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,238  horses,  5,140 
milch  cows,  4,688  other  cattle,  6,535  sheep, 
and  5,829  swine ;  2  flour  mills,  1  tannery,  and 
11  saw  mills.  Capital,  Redwood  City. 

SAN  MIGUEL,  an  E.  county  of  New  Mexico, 
bordering  on  Texas,  intersected  by  the  Rio 
Pecos  and  Canadian  river,  and  watered  by 
their  tributaries ;  area,  about  10,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  16,058.  A  S.  projection  of  this 
county  divides  Bernalillo  and  Valencia  coun- 
ties into  two  parts.  The  N.  "W.  portion  is 
mountainous.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  13,321  bushels  of  wheat,  83,145  of  In- 
dian corn,  186,626  Ibs.  of  wool,  18,650  of 
cheese,  and  1,747  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
649  horses,  979  mules  and  asses,  4,834  milch 
cows,  3,236  working  oxen,  4,571  other  cattle, 
194,309  sheep,  and  549  swine;  4  flour  mills, 
and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Las  Vegas. 

SAN  MIGUEL,  a  city  of  San  Salvador,  capital 
of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  in  a  broad 


and  fertile  plain,  about  90  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  the 
city  of  San  Salvador;  pop.  about  12,000.  It 
is  the  most  important  trading  town  in  Central 
America.  The  great  fair  of  La  Paz  is  held 
here  every  year.  About  5  m.  W.  of  the  city 
is  a  volcano  of  the  same  name,  6,680  ft.  high, 
rising  abruptly  from  the  plain,  which  sends 
out  great  volumes  of  smoke,  and  occasional 
eruptions  open  vast  fissures  in  its  sides. 

SAN  MIGUEL,  Evariste,  duke  de,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Gijon  in  1780,  died  in  Ma- 
drid, May  29,  1862.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1808,  became  a  lieutenant  colonel,  and  was 
elected  to  the  cortes.  After  the  restoration 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  he  edited  a  liberal  paper. 
In  1820  he  served  under  Riego  in  the  Andalu- 
sian  expedition,  and  composed  the  "  Hymn  of 
Riego."  He  was  banished  to  Zamora  in  1821, 
but  recalled  in  1822,  and  made  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs.  On  the  French  invasion  in  1823 
he  rejoined  the  army,  was  taken  prisoner  and 
exiled,  and  resided  in  England  till  1834.  Un- 
der the  proclamation  of  a  general  amnesty  he 
returned,  and  was  for  ten  years  a  member  of 
the  cortes.  In  1854  he  became  president  of 
the  revolutionary  junta  of  Madrid,  minister  of 
war,  field  marshal,  and  provisional  president 
of  the  cortes.  He  wrote  several  works  on  the 
history  of  his  country. 

SANNAZARO,  or  San  Nazaro,  Jaeopo,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Naples  in  1458,  died  there  in 
1530.  His  first  poetical  compositions  obtained 
him  the  patronage  of  Frederick  III.  of  Naples, 
whom  he  afterward  followed  into  exile,  re- 
turning to  Naples  only  after  the  death  of  his 
benefactor,  and  declining  the  protection  of 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova.  His  chief  works  are: 
the  Arcadia  (4to,  Venice,  1502;  Naples,  1504; 
Milan,  1808),  a  pastoral  romance,  which  had 
upward  of  60  editions  in  the  16th  century; 
his  six  Ecloga  (published  with  the  following), 
according  to  Paolo  Giovio  his  most  perfect 
work,  in  which  the  coast  populations  of  Italy 
replace  the  shepherds  of  Virgil;  and  De  Par- 
tu  Virginis  Libri  III.  (fol.,  Naples,  1526 ; 
Venice,  1528,  1535;  Amsterdam,  1679,  1728), 
of  which  Hallam  says :  "  It  would  be  difficult 
to  find  its  equal  for  purity,  elegance,  and  har- 
mony of  versification." 

SAN  PATRICK),  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  the  Aransas  river,  S.  W.  by  the 
Nueces,  and  S.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  area, 
625  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  602,  of  whom  64 
were  colored.  It  has  considerable  good  land, 
but  is  subject  to  summer  droughts.  Stock 
raising  is  the  chief  business.  Nearly  half  the 
county  is  covered  with  mezquite  and  other 
trees.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
21,325  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,010  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  7,325  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
4,973  horses,  30,828  cattle,  2,845  sheep,  and 
1,281  swine.  Capital,  San  Patricio. 

SAN  PETE,  an  E.  county  of  Utah,  bordering 
on  Colorado,  and  intersected  by  Green  river ; 
area,  about  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,786. 
The  W.  part  is  crossed  by  the  Wahsatch  moun- 


610 


SAN  REMO 


SAN  SALVADOR 


tains,  watered  by  the  Sevier  river,  and  has 
abundant  timber  and  considerable  land  adapted 
to  agriculture.  In  the  east  are  numerous  large 
but  generally  unoccupied  valleys.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  91,443  bushels  of 
wheat,  3,867  of  Indian  corn,  9,197  of  oats, 
5,256  of  peas  and  beans,  58,655  of  potatoes, 
12,509  Ibs.  of  wool,  61,887  of  butter,  and  4,084 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  805  horses,  1,794 
milch  cows,  1,908  other  cattle,  7, 407  sheep,  and 
361  swine;  7  manufactories  of  furniture,  2 
wool-carding  establishments,  1  flour  mill,  and 
11  saw  mills.  Capital,  Manti. 

SAN  RENO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Porto  Maurizio,  on  the  coast,  25  m.  E.  N.  E. 
of  Nice  ;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  picturesque- 
ly situated  on  a  declivity  descending  to  the  sea- 
shore, which  is  covered  by  a  dense  growth  of 
olive  trees.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  steep, 
and  there  are  several  ancient  churches.  The 
palazzo  Garbarino  contains  Raphael's  Madon- 
na della  Rovers.  San  Remo  has  become  a  rival 
of  Nice  and  Mentone  as  a  residence  for  invalids. 

SAN  ROQITE,  a  city  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  57  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cadiz, 
near  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Gibraltar;  pop. 
about  8,000.  There  is  trade  in  grain  and  pro- 
visions. Owing  to  its  healthful  situation  on  a 
rocky  eminence,  and  the  low  price  of  living,  it 
is  frequented  by  summer  visitors. 

SAN  SABA,  a  W.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  N. 
and  E.  by  the  Colorado  and  intersected  by  the 
San  Saba  river;  area,  1,100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,425,  of  whom  144  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  partly  mountainous.  There  are  sul- 
phur springs  in  the  S.  E.  part.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  49,710  bushels  of  wheat, 
3,187  of  sweet  potatoes,  3,518  Ibs.  of  wool, 
3,090  of  honey,  and  1,870  gallons  of  molasses. 
There  were  16,343  cattle,  1,465  sheep,  and 
5,394  swine.  Capital,  San  Saba. 

SAN  SALVADOR.  I.  The  smallest  but  most  pop- 
ulous of  the  five  republics  of  Central  America, 
comprised  between  lat.  13°  and  14°  30'  N.,  and 
Ion.  87°  30'  and  90°  20'  W.,  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  Honduras,  S.  E.  by  Fonseca  bay,  S.  by  the 
Pacific,  and  N.  W.  by  Guatemala ;  area,  accord- 
ing to  Squier,  9,600  sq.  m.,  though  most  recent 
authorities  give  it  at  not  more  than  7,500  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  estimated  at  600,000,  of  whom  9,000 
are  whites,  300,000  Indians,  290,000  mestizoes, 
and  1,000  negroes.  Except  the  extensive  and 
safe  port  of  La  Union,  on  the  W.  shore  of  the 
bay  of  Fonseca,  the  harbors  (Acajutla,  La  Li- 
bertad,  and  Jiquilisco)  are  merely  open  road- 
steads. A  narrow  tract  of  low,  rich,  alluvial 
land,  20  m.  wide,  extends  along  the  shore  as 
far  as  La  Libertad;  further  N.  the  coast  is 
rising  and  broken.  Several  short  mountain 
ranges  of  moderate  height  traverse  the  inte- 
rior. About  12  to  15  m.  from  the  coast  are  the 
volcanoes  of  Apaneca,  5,826  ft.  high ;  Isalco, 
which  is  unceasingly  active,  4,060  ft. ;  San 
Salvador,  7,376  ft. ;  San  Vicente,  7,500  ft. ; 
San  Miguel,  6,680  ft. ;  Santa  Ana,  6,615  ft. ; 
Cojutepeque,  5,700  ft. ;  Tecapa,  5,200  ft. ;  Usu- 


lutan,  4,250  ft. ;  Chinameca,  4,750  ft. ;  and 
Conchagua,  4,800  ft.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Lempa,  deep  but  rapid,  about  150  m.  long, 
principally  fed  by  the  lake  of  Guija,  near  the 
N.  W.  boundary  of  the  state.  Lake  Ilopango, 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  state,  is  about  9 
m.  long  and  3  m.  wide.  The  soil  is  generally 
good,  in  some  parts  remarkably  rich ;  but  the 
frequent  political  dissensions  have  material- 
ly retarded  agriculture.  Considerable  maize 
is  planted;  oranges,  lemons,  pineapples,  and 
plantains  are  extensively  grown  ;  sugar,  cacao, 
coffee,  cotton,  and  tobacco  yield  bountiful 
crops.  But  indigo  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant source  of  wealth,  though  the  quantity 
raised  has  considerably  diminished  since  the 
era  of  independence.  The  Balsam  coast,  where 
the  balsam  of  Peru  is  collected,  is  W.  of  Point 
Libertad ;  the  Indians  collect  annually  about 
20,000  Ibs.  Numerous  fine  cattle  are  raised. 
The  hills  are  crossed  by  innumerable  metallic 
veins,  but  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country 
is  imperfectly  developed,  and  the  rich  silver 
mines  are  almost  entirely  neglected ;  excellent 
iron  ore  is  obtained  near  Metapa.  The  manu- 
factures consist  of  coarse  cotton  goods,  cut- 
lery, and  iron  ware.  Although  warmer  than 
Guatemala,  the  country  is  generally  healthful, 
excepting  the  low  tract  along  the  coast.  The 
republic  is  divided  into  the  departments  of 
San  Miguel,  San  Vicente,  La  Paz  (capital,  8a- 
catecoluca),  Chalatenango,  Cuscatlan  (capital, 
Suchitoto),  San  Salvador,  Sonsonate,  and  Santa 
Ana,  with  capitals  of  the  same  names  except 
in  the  two  cases  noted.  San  Salvador  is  the 
capital  of  the  republic;  and,  besides  it  and 
the  department  capitals,  there  are  140  smaller 
towns  and  62  villages.  Fairs  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  government  in  different  parts  of 
the  state ;  the  principal  one  is  held  at  San 
Miguel.  The  main  article  sold  is  indigo.  In 
1872  the  imports  amounted  to  $3,000,000,  and 
the  exports  to  $3,800,000.  The  public  debt  in 
1869  was  $705,800,  at  6  per  cent.  The  presi- 
dent, whose  term  was  formerly  six  years,  is 
now  elected  every  four  years.  The  legislature 
consists  of  a  senate  with  12  members,  and  a 
house  of  representatives  with  24  members,  all 
elected  for  two  years,  half  of  the  members 
being  replaced  by  new  ones  every  year.  Every 
male  citizen  over  21  years  old  is  entitled  to 
vote,  except  domestic  servants  and  those  who 
are  without  a  legal  occupation,  contract  debts 
fraudulently,  owe  money  past  due  to  the  state, 
enter  the  service  of  a  foreign  power,  or  are 
notoriously  of  bad  character;  foreigners  may 
become  naturalized  after  five  years'  residence. 
Ecclesiastics  and  soldiers  in  active  service  are 
debarred  from  civil  government  offices.  The 
president  as  well  as  the  representatives  and  sen- 
ators must  possess  property  of  a  specified  value. 
Each  department  governor  is  elected  for  two 
years.  The  standing  army  consists  of  1,000 
men,  and  the  militia  of  5,000.  Though  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  is  recognized  by  the 
state,  all  other  denominations  are  protected  in 


SAN  SALVADOR 


SANSKRIT 


611 


their  worship.  In  education  this  republic  ex- 
cels the  other  states  of  Central  America,  and 
has  a  very  well  endowed  university  in  the 
capital.  Duties  on  imports,  stamped  paper, 
and  the  monopolies  of  tobacco  and  rum  furnish 
the  revenues. — When  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  the 
lieutenant  of  Cortes,  invaded  this  region  in 
1524,  it  had  a  dense  population  and  large,  well 
built  cities.  In  1528  the  city  of  San  Salvador 
rose  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cuscatlan,  and 
under  the  Spanish  rule  the  province  became  a 
flourishing  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Guate- 
mala. The  independence  of  this  part  of  the 
Spanish  dominion  was  accomplished  in  1821 
almost  without  bloodshed.  The  present  five 
republics  constituted  themselves  as  the  confed- 
erated republic  of  Central  America.  When  a 
violent  effort  was  made  to  incorporate  it  with 
Mexico  (under  the  emperor  Iturbide),  San  Sal- 
vador decreed  its  annexation  to  the  United 
States,  but  the  fall  of  the  Mexican  empire  rees- 
tablished the  Central  American  republic  (1823), 
of  which  the  city  of  San  Salvador  was  made 
the  capital.  It  became  an  independent  com- 
monwealth in  1839,  and  in  1856  assumed  the 
title  of  republic.  In  all  the  revolutions  of 
Central  America,  San  Salvador,  owing  to  its 
geographical  position,  has  been  compelled  to 
take  an  active  part.  In  1862  a  war  broke  out 
with  Guatemala,  which  aimed  at  a  supremacy 
over  all  Central  America;  but  the  troops  of 
the  latter  state  were  repulsed,  and  a  peace 
was  effected  in  February,  1863.  A  second 
attempt  at  invasion  by  Guatemala  in  April, 
1863,  proved  unsuccessful  in  the  beginning, 
but  ended  with  the  capture  of  San  Salvador 
by  Carrera,  president  of  Guatemala,  in  Octo- 
ber. Barrios,  president  of  San  Salvador,  was 
recalled  from  Panama  in  May,  1865,  by  the 
revolutionary  party ;  but  he  was  defeated  and 
shot,  after  a  trial  by  court  martial.  Duefias, 
provisionally  elected  in  1863,  was  reflected 
for  four  years  in  1865,  and  continued  in  office 
till  1869.  Under  him  the  government  endeav- 
ored to  open  the  country,  to  construct  and  im- 
prove roads,  and  to  build  bridges  and  wharves. 
Gonzalez  succeeded  him  as  provisional  presi- 
dent, and  was  reflected  for  four  years  in  1872, 
when  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  alliance  was 
made  between  this  republic  and  Guatemala. 
IL  A  city,  capital  of  the  republic,  on  the  Asel- 
huate,  in  lat.  13°  40'  N.,  Ion.  89°  5;  W.;  pop. 
about  16,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  delightful 
valley  more  than  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  about 
3  m.  S.  E.  of  the  volcano  of  San  Salvador,  fa- 
mous for  its  numerous  and  disastrous  erup- 
tions. The  streets  are  regularly  laid  out,  and 
generally  well  kept.  In  the  centre  is  a  spa- 
cious plaza,  on  which  before  the  late  earth- 
quake stood  the  cathedral,  very  large  but  of 
little  architectural  beauty,  and  three  rows  of 
handsome  arcades.  The  other  principal  public 
buildings  were  eight  churches,  the  university,  a 
female  seminary,  a  hospital,  and  two  aqueducts. 
Fine  sugar  and  indigo  plantations  abound  in  the 
vicinity,  and  there  are  numerous  hot  springs. 


The  chief  industry  is  agriculture,  the  once 
extensive  hardware  and  cotton  manufactures 
having  dwindled  to  comparative  insignificance. 
— San  Salvador  was  founded  in  1528  by  Jorge 
de  Alvarado.  It  has  frequently  suffered  from 
earthquakes,  the  most  disastrous  of  which  were 
that  of  April  16,  1854,  when  the  city  was  al- 
most completely  destroyed,  and  a  large  number 
of  the  inhabitants  (then  numbering  some  30,- 
000)  perished;  and  that  of  March  19,  18Y2,  by 
which  most  of  the  public  edifices  and  dwelling 
houses  were  thrown  down,  50  persons  killed, 
and  more  than  500  seriously  injured.  It  was, 
however,  resolved  to  rebuild  the  city  on  the 
same  site,  for  the  eighth  time  since  its  foun- 
dation. A  new  university  and  several  public 
schools  have  been  organized  of  late. 

SAN  SALVADOR,  or  Cat  Island,  an  island  of  the 
Bahama  group,  28  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Eleuthera; 
length  nearly  50  m.,  breadth  from  3  to  7  m. ; 
pop.  about  1,000.  This  island  has  generally 
been  supposed  to  be  Guanahani,  the  first  land 
seen  by  Columbus  in  the  new  world  (Oct.  12, 
1492),  and  named  by  him  San  Salvador.  Hum- 
boldt  and  Irving  have  defended  this  view,  but 
Navarrete  combats  it  and  advocates  the  claims 
of  Grand  Turk  island ;  and  Watling  island 
and  Mayaguana,  of  the  same  group,  have  been 
identified  with  Guanahani  respectively  by  A. 
B.  Becher  ("Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society,"  1856)  and  F.  A.  de  Varnhagen  (La 
verdadera  Guanahani  de  Colon,  1864).  Bech- 
er's  view  has  been  adopted  by  Daniel,  Peter- 
mann,  and  other  eminent  geographers. 

SAN  SALVADOR,  a  city  of  Brazil.     See  BAHIA. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN.    See  SAINT  SEBASTIAN. 

SANSKRIT,  the  literary  language  of  the  Hin- 
doos, the  Aryan  inhabitants  of  India.  Origi- 
nally a  vernacular  dialect  in  Hindostan,  it  has 
for  nearly  or  quite  2,000  years  past  been  kept 
artificially  in  use,  like  the  Latin  in  Europe,  by 
the  labors  of  grammarians  and  lexicographers, 
and  the  transmitted  usages  of  an  educated  caste, 
to  serve  as  the  means  of  learned  intercourse 
and  composition.  Its  name  (saflskrta,  com- 
pleted, perfected)  denotes  it  as  "  the  cultivated, 
elaborated,  or  perfected  form  of  speech,"  in 
distinction  from  the  uncultivated  dialects,  called 
Prakrit  (prakrti,  nature),  which  sprang  from 
or  were  contemporaneous  with  it.  The  impor- 
tance and  interest  of  the  Sanskrit  is  twofold. 
Considered  in  its  relation  to  Indian  history,  it 
contains  an  immense  literature,  laying  open 
from  a  very  remote  epoch  nearly  to  the  present 
day  the  inward  and  outward  life  of  a  numerous 
and  highly  endowed  branch  of  the  human  fam- 
ily (India  still  contains  a  seventh  part  of  our 
race) ;  and  it  is  the  most  ancient  and  original  of 
the  Indo-European  languages,  and,  by  reason 
of  its  better  conservation  of  the  features  of 
their  common  parent,  throws  vastly  more  light 
than  any  other  upon  the  history  and  relations 
of  all.  The  latter  is  the  more  widely  appre- 
ciated side  of  its  usefulness,  and  the  one  which 
has  most  contributed  to  give  currency  to  its 
study.  Its  cultivation  by  Europeans  dates  less 


612 


SANSKRIT 


than  a  century  back,  to  the  establishment  of 
English  supremacy  in  India,  nor  did  it  gain 
a  foothold  on  European  ground  till  after  the 
beginning*  of  the  present  century.  The  earli- 
est translations  of  Sanskrit  works  were  of  the 
Bhagavad-  Gltd  in  1785,  the  Hitopadesa  in  1787, 
'  and  the  Sakuntald  in  1789.  Sir  William  Jones, 
and  later  Colebrooke  and  Wilson,  were  the 
Englishmen  who  did  most  in  India  to  foster 
and  advance  the  study ;  the  Schlegels  in  Ger- 
many and  Chezy  in  France  were  the  first  who 
introduced  it  upon  the  continent.  Bopp  (from 
1830  onward)  founded  upon  it  the  new  sci- 
ence of  the  comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo- 
European  languages,  of  which  others  before 
him  had  given  but  hints  or  fragments.  With- 
in 30  years  the  introduction  of  the  Vedas  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  world  has  made  a  new 
era  in  Sanskrit  study.  Hundreds  of  Sanskrit 
texts  have  been  published  in  the  East  and  in 
the  West ;  translations  from  them,  with  gram- 
mars, glossaries,  and  other  apparatus  for  the 
learner,  are  to  be  found  in  every  cultivated 
language  of  Europe ;  all  the  considerable  uni- 
versities have  instructors  in  Sanskrit,  and  its 
students  are  everywhere  numerous. — The  San- 
skrit is  ordinarily  written  in  a  character  called 
ittwndgari,  "divine  city,"  which,  in  its  pres- 
ent fully  developed  form,  is  of  a  date  several 
centuries  later  than  the  Christian  era.  The 
ancient  alphabet  from  which  it  is  descended 
was  derived,  according  to  the  best  opinion, 
from  a  Semitic  source.  Respecting  the  origin 
of  writing  there  are  not  even  any  traditions  in 
the  Hindoo  literature,  as  regards  either  its  pe- 
riod or  its  place  of  derivation;  and  scholars 
are  still  at  variance  as  to  whether  whole  depart- 
ments of  the  literature  were  composed  before 
or  after  the  knowledge  of  a  written  character. 
The  earliest  dated  monuments  known  are  those 
of  the  Buddhist  monarch  Priyadarsi,  of  the  3d 
century  B.  C. ;  their  language  is  already  Pra- 
krit. The  detandgarl  is  written  from  left  to 
right;  it  is  a  complete  mode  of  writing,  repre- 
senting every  analyzable  sound  by  a  separate 
sign ;  it  is  syllabic,  each  consonant  implying  a 
short  a,  if  the  sign  of  no  other  vowel  is  attached 
to  it ;  if  more  consonants  than  one  are  to  be 
spoken  with  one  vowel,  their  signs  are  united 
into  a  single  compound  character.  (See  INDIA, 
RACES  AND  LANGUAGES  OF,  vol.  ix.,  p.  217; 
and  for  the  method  employed  in  transcribing 
the  sounds,  see  WRITING.)  The  completeness 
of  this  system  of  written  signs,  and  its  nice 
adaptation  of  sign  to  sound,  are  very  evident. 
Not  less  evident  is  the  richness  of  the  system 
of  sounds,  and  the  harmony  and  proportion  of 
its  development.  The  spoken  alphabet  has  the 
proper  characteristics  of  an  ancient  and  prim- 
itive system,  lacking  many  of  the  later  inter- 
mediate vowels,  spirants,  and  the  like,  and  the 
written  alphabet,  of  course,  is  corresponding- 
ly defective;  the  English  has  at  least  five  vow- 
els (or  nine,  if  long  and  short  be  counted  as 
separate)  and  six  consonants  for  which  the 
Sanskrit  alphabet  has  no  signs.  A  peculiar 


and  striking  feature  of  the  external  form  of 
the  Sanskrit  is  presented  by  its  highly  elabo- 
rate system  of  euphonic  rules,  which  have  play 
both  in  the  formation  and  inflection  of  words, 
and  also,  in  a  yet  more  searching  and  extend- 
ed manner,  in  the  combination  of  words  into 
a  sentence.  The  ends  sought  are  chiefly  the 
avoidance  of  the  hiatus  and  of  the  concurrence 
of  surd  and  sonant  letters,  the  assimilation  of 
nearly  kindred  sounds,  and  the  modification 
of  combinations  difficult  of  utterance ;  and  the 
physical  theory  of  most  of  the  rules  is  readily 
traceable.  As  an  illustration  of  the  euphonic 
combination  of  the  phrase,  we  take  the  words 
indras  apabharan  apdm  garbhdn  charati  ap»u 
antar;  they  form  the  sentence  indro  'pabha- 
rann  apdng  garbhdihf  charaty  apsv  antah. 
That  there  is  something  artificial  and  arbitrary 
in  the  strict  application  of  the  system  of  eupho- 
nic changes  to  the  sentence  is  in  itself  high- 
ly probable,  since  we  can  hardly  conceive  that 
any  people,  in  its  ordinary  use  of  language, 
should  so  sacrifice  the  independence  of  individ- 
ual words  to  an  exaggerated  sense  of  euphony ; 
and  the  probability  becomes  a  certainty  when 
we  observe  that  in  the  Vedic  poetry,  the  ear- 
liest and  least  artificial  literature  of  the  lan- 
guage, the  euphonic  rules,  as  is  shown  by  the 
metre,  are  in  great  part  unobserved.  The  ac- 
cents are  the  acute  and  the  circumflex,  corre- 
sponding in  value  to  those  of  the  Greek.  Nei- 
ther is  limited  to  any  particular  part  of  the 
word,  like  those  of  the  Latin  and  Greek ;  it  may 
stand,  in  a  word  of  whatever  length,  on  what- 
ever syllable  the  rules  of  derivation  or  compo- 
sition may  direct.  The  circumflex  but  seldom 
rests  on  a  simple  long  vowel ;  it  belongs  chiefly 
to  a  syllable  whose  vowel  is  preceded  by  a 
semi-vowel  convertible  into  a  vowel,  as  kwft, 
nady&s. — As  regards  the  etymological  part 
of  grammar,  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  the  Sanskrit  is  (besides  the  great  affluence 
of  forms,  and  the  unlimited  facility  of  form- 
ing new  derivatives  and  new  compounds)  its 
remarkable  preservation  of  original  materials 
and  processes,  the  great  regularity  and  conse- 
quent transparency  of  its  formative  methods. 
In  most  words  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing root,  affix,  and  termination,  and  in 
recognizing  the  original  form  and  signification 
of  each.  For  analyzing  words,  retracing  their 
history,  and  referring  them  to  their  ultimate 
roots,  the  utmost  facilities  are  afforded.  This 
character  of  the  language  has  determined  that 
of  the  native  science  of  grammar,  on  which  our 
own  grammatical  treatment  of  it  is  mainly 
based.  The  Hindoo  grammar  is  essentially  an- 
alytical and  etymological,  dissecting  out  roots, 
affixes,  themes,  and  terminations,  and  laying 
down  the  rules  which  govern  their  combi- 
nation into  vocables.  About  2,000  roots  are 
catalogued  by  the  native  authorities,  but  the 
greater  part  are  of  no  account,  being  either 
slightly  varied  forms  of  others,  or  mere  gram- 
matical artificialities.  The  Indo-European  roots 
are  far  more  numerously  and  faithfully  pre- 


SANSKRIT 


613 


served,  in  form  and  signification,  by  the  San- 
skrit than  by  any  other  member  of  the  family. 
It  is  this  remarkable  conservation  of  materials 
and  processes  which  gives  prominent  impor- 
tance to  the  Sanskrit  in  Indo-European  philol- 
ogy, making  its  introduction  the  inauguration 
of  a  new  era  in  etymologizing,  and  so  in  the 
science  of  language,  which  is  based  on  etymol- 
ogy, or  the  history  of  individual  words. — The 
whole  system  of  inflection  in  Sanskrit  is  most 
nearly  accordant  with  that  of  Greek ;  it  is  de- 
cidedly richer  in  declension,  but  vastly  poorer 
in  conjugation.  In  declension,  it  distinguishes 
three  genders,  the  masculine  and  neuter  agree- 
ing in  theme,  and  usually  in  inflection,  the  fem- 
inine having  long  terminal  vowels  and  fuller 
endings.  The  cases  are  eight :  the  nominative, 
with  which  in  most  instances  the  next  case, 
the  vocative,  agrees  in  form ;  two  other  cases 
of  relation,  the  dative  expressing  for,  the  gen- 
itive of;  and  four  cases  of  position  or  direc- 
tion :  the  accusative,  expressing  to,  direct  ap- 
proach, immediate  action ;  the  ablative,  ex- 
pressing from;  the  locative,  in;  the  instru- 
mental, by  the  side  of,  along  with,  with,  by. 
Each  occurs  in  three  numbers,  singular,  dual, 
and  plural,  and  the  usual  terminations  are  as 
follows :  sing.  nom.  s  (neut.  m  or  wanting),  ace. 
TO,  inst.  d,  dat.  e,  abl.  as  (or  t),  gen.  as  (asya), 
loc.  i;  dual,  nom.,  ace.,  and  voc.  du  (neut.  i), 
inst.,  dat.,  and  abl.  bhydm,  gen.  and  loc.  os; 
pi.  nom.  as  (neut.  dni,  i),  ace.  as  (masc.  n),  inst. 
bhis,  dat.  and  abl.  bhyas,  loc.  su.  Adjectives 
are  declined  like  substantives ;  as  comparative 
and  superlative  suffixes  they  add  tara  and 
or  fyans  and  ishtha.  The  numerals  close- 
ly accord  with  those  in  the  related  languages. 
(See  GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  740.)  The  pronouns,  excepting  the  first 
and  second  personal,  distinguish  three  genders. 
They  derive  themselves  from  roots  of  their 
own,  which  play  also  an  important  part  in  the 
development  of  forms  and  form-words.  Their 
many  irregularities  of  declension  agree  nearly 
with  those  of  the  pronouns  in  the  other  Indo- 
European  dialects,  nor  are  their  roots  peculiar. 
The  verb  has  two  voices,  an  active  and  a  mid- 
dle or  reflexive,  which  latter,  in  a  part  of  its 
forms,  serves  also  as  a  passive,  as  in  Greek. 
It  distinguishes  throughout,  like  the  noun, 
three  numbers,  with  the  usual  three  persons 
in  each,  and  the  personal  terminations  are  evi- 
dently reducible  to  forms  of  pronouns,  indi- 
cating in  each  case  the  subject ;  they  are  of 
two  classes,  corresponding  to  those  of  the  prin- 
cipal and  historical  tenses  in  Greek.  In  their 
normal  form  they  are  as  follows :  active :  princ. 
sing,  mi,  si,  ti ;  dual,  DOS,  thas,  tas ;  pi.  mas, 
tha,  anti;  hist.  sing,  m,  «,  t;  du.  va,  tarn, 
tdm;  pi.  ma,  ta,  an; — middle:  princ.  sing,  e, 
se,  te  ;  du.  vahe,  dtM,  dte ;  pi.  make,  dhve, 
ante;  hist.  sing,  i,  thds,  ta;  du.  vahi,  dthdm, 
dtdm ;  pi.  mahi,  dhvam,  anta.  The  present 
and  imperfect  tenses  exhibit  various  modifi- 
cations of  the  verbal  root  into  a  special  stem, 
on  which  is  founded  a  division  of  the  verbs 


into  ten  conjugational  classes;  all  are  analo- 
gous with  changes  which  the  Greek  verbs 
more  irregularly  undergo  in  the  same  tenses, 
and  with  scattered  phenomena  in  the  other 
related  languages.  The  present  has  an  im- 
perative, distinguished  by  special  terminations, 
and  a  potential,  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
optative,  having  for  its  characteristic  the  vow- 
el i,  or  the  syllable  ya,  inserted  between  the 
root  and  the  personal  ending.  Of  a  subjunc- 
tive, made,  as  in  Greek,  by  an  a  between  root 
and  ending,  only  fragments  remain,  in  the  an- 
tiquated dialect  of  the  Vedas.  The  character- 
istic of  the  imperfect  is  an  augment,  a  prefixed 
a.  Of  other  tenses,  we  have  an  augmented 
aorist,  of  double  formation,  as  in  Greek ;  a 
"  second  aorist,"  which  is  the  imperfect  of 
the  unmodified  root,  and  a  "  first  aorist,"  in 
several  varieties,  having  s  as  its  sign ;  a  per- 
fect, reduplicated,  and  with  peculiar  termina- 
tions ;  a  periphrastic  future,  of  late  growth  ; 
a  future  of  compounded  origin,  the  same  with 
the  Greek  in  au ;  an  imperfect  of  this  future, 
or  a  conditional,  of  very  rare  occurrence ;  and 
finally  a  precative,  or  optative  of  compound 
formation,  belonging  to  the  aorists,  also  not 
common.  Fragments  of  imperative,  optative, 
and  subjunctive  forms,  belonging  to  the  aorist, 
perfect,  and  future  tenses,  are  found  in  the 
oldest  literature,  but  they  are  obsolete  in  the 
classical  Sanskrit.  The  present,  perfect,  and 
future  tenses,  active,  passive,  and  middle,  have 
participles.  Of  verbal  nouns  there  is  an  ac- 
cusative case  (the  Latin  supine  in  um),  used 
as  an  infinitive ;  also  an  instrumental  case, 
forming  a  gerund,  or  a  kind  of  indeclinable 
past  participle  (as  bhutvd,  having  been),  which 
is  of  excessively  frequent  employment.  The 
derivative  forms  of  the  verb,  formed  at  plea- 
sure from  any  root,  are  the  passive,  having  a 
special  form  only  in  the  present  and  imperfect, 
the  causative,  the  desiderative,  and  the  inten- 
sive or  frequentative.  The  affluence  of  verbal 
forms  is  thus  seen  to  be  great,  yet  the  language 
is  far  from  making  full  use  of  them,  and  the 
Sanskrit  verb  is  not  to  be  compared  for  power 
of  expression  with  the  Greek,  or  even  with 
the  Latin;  there  is  a  strong  tendency,  espe- 
cially in  the  later  styles  of  writing,  to  slight  the 
finite  forms,  and  to  construct  loose  and  awk- 
ward sentences  with  the  participle  and  gerund. 
Prepositions,  in  our  sense,  are  almost  absent, 
the  prepositions  of  the  other  Indo-European 
tongues  having  here  still  their  original  value  as 
adverbs,  directing  the  action  of  the  verb,  but 
not  directly  governing  nouns;  as  prefixes  to 
verbs  they  are  of  constant  application,  and  play 
a  great  part  in  the  formation  of  derivatives. 
Conjunctions  and  adverbs  are  in  part  derived 
from  pronominal  roots,  in  part  from  nouns. — 
Syntax  is  a  branch  of  the  grammar  of  very 
inferior  interest,  and  is  even  left  out  in  most 
of  our  Sanskrit  grammars.  Whatever  expres- 
siveness and  rhetorical  charm  the  language  has 
lie  chiefly  in  its  boundless  wealth  of  epithets, 
and  not  at  all  in  the  construction  of  its  sen- 


614 


SANSKRIT 


tences  and  periods;  indeed,  a  period  in  San- 
skrit is  next  to  an  impossibility ;  the  formation 
and  connection  of  its  clauses  is  of  the  baldest 
simplicity.  The  excessive  use  of  cumbrous 
compounds  is  also  a  very  general  fault  in  San- 
skrit construction,  appearing  in  all  styles  of 
composition,  but  especially  the  more  artificial ; 
to  say,  for  instance,  "  water-play-delighted- 
maiden-bathing-fragrant  (river-breezes)  "  for 
"made  fragrant  by  the  bathing  of  maidens 
delighted  with  sporting  in  the  water,"  is  a  vir- 
tual abnegation  of  the  privileges  of  an  inflect- 
ed language,  and  a  partial  retrogradation  to 
the  stiff  inexpressiveness  of  the  Chinese. — The 
construction  of  Sanskrit  metre  is  based  en- 
tirely upon  quantity,  as  in  Greek,  with  total 
disregard  of  accent.  The  most  ancient  metres 
are  very  simple  and  almost  wholly  iambic; 
much  of  the  later  versification  is  remarkable 
for  its  extreme  complexity,  elaborateness,  and 
artificiality. — LITERATURE.  The  most  ancient 
literature  of  India,  that  of  the  Vedas,  as  form- 
ing a  body  of  works  of  separate  and  peculiar 
interest,  has  been  treated  under  INDIA,  RELI- 
GIONS AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE  OF  ;  and,  with 
the  Vedas,  the  whole  mass  also  of  Vedic  litera- 
ture, the  oldest  religious  literature  of  the  coun- 
try, and  also  the  two  long  epics  or  Itihasas,  the 
Matidbhdrata  and  the  Rdmdyana.  The  prop- 
er Sanskrit  literature  counts  by  thousands  its 
works  still  in  existence,  while  titles  and  quoted 
fragments  of  hosts  of  others,  not  known  to 
be  preserved  in  their  entirety,  are  on  record. 
Most  of  these  works  are  still  in  manuscript, 
and  the  largest  collections  of  manuscripts  out 
of  India  itself  are  those  of  the  India  office  in 
London,  the  royal  library  at  Berlin,  and  the 
Bodleian  at  Oxford.  The  period  it  covers 
stretches,  if  the  Vedas  be  included,  from  at 
least  1500  B.  0.  to  our  own  day.  Nearly  all 
of  it  was  composed  after  the  language  had 
ceased  to  be  in  the  fullest  sense  a  spoken  ver- 
nacular ;  hence  a  tinge  of  artificiality,  growing 
deeper  as  more  modern  times  are  approached, 
rests  upon  it  all.  With  insignificant  excep- 
tions, it  is  all  composed  in  metre,  even  works 
of  law,  of  morality,  of  science;  and,  in  great 
part,  in  the  so-called  fttka,  a  two-line  stanza, 
each  line  made  up  of  two  eight-syllable  feet, 
the  movement  being  rudely  iambic.  Every 
department  of  knowledge  and  branch  of  in- 
quiry is  represented  in  it,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  history ;  and  the  want  of  the  his- 
torical element  is  perhaps  the  most  striking 
general  characteristic  of  the  literature.  The 
Hindoo  mind,  in  utter  opposition  to  the  Egyp- 
tian and  Chinese,  has  ever  been  little  regard- 
ful of  objective  truth,  careless  of  facts,  disin- 
clined to  observe  and  record,  laying  no  stress 
on  the  events  of  outward  life,  heedless  of  their 
connection  and  succession ;  hence  the  absence 
of  a  chronology  in  the  literary  as  well  as  the 
political  history  of  India,  and  the  uncertainty 
of  centuries  resting  upon  the  date  of  almost 
every  work.  Much  of  this  mass  of  literary 
productions  is  of  a  character  which  has  com- 


manded high  and  general  admiration;  but  it 
exhibits  the  characteristic  faults  and  deficien- 
cies of  the  oriental  mind  in  no  light  degree. 
The  want  of  history  robs  it  of  one  great  source 
of  worth  and  interest;  much  of  it  is  trivial 
and  tedious;  and  to  place  even  its  master- 
pieces on  a  par  with  those  of  the  classical 
languages  would  be  highly  presumptuous.  It& 
interest  as  a  record  of  the  life  of  a  great 
and  highly  endowed  people,  of  our  own  blood, 
whose  influence  and  institutions  have  affected 
all  eastern  Asia,  is  not  easily  overestimated. 
Of  other  epic  or  quasi-epic  poems  besides  the 
Mahdbhdrata  and  the  Rdmdyana,  we  may 
mention  the  Raghuvansa  ("Race  of  Raghu"), 
Kumdra-SambM'ca  ("Birth  of  the  War  God")r 
and  Nalodaya,  ("  Rise  of  Nala "),  all  by  Ka- 
lidasa;  Magha's  "Death  of  Sisupala;"  and 
Marsha's  Naishadhiya.  In  the  lighter  style  of 
lyric  and  erotic  poetry,  which  is  abundantly 
represented,  and  by  works  of  greatly  differing 
merit,  are  the  Ritutanhdra  ("  Seasons ")  and 
Meghaddta  ("Cloud  Messenger")  of  Kalida- 
sa,  and  the  Gita-Govinda  of  Jayadeva,  de- 
scribing the  adventures  of  the  god  Krishna 
among  the  shepherdesses,  the  companions  of 
his  youth,  a  favorite  theme  of  Hindoo  song. 
The  "  Centuries "  of  Bhartrihari,  and  other 
like  works,  are  aphorismic,  pearls  of  thought 
and  style,  intended  for  edification  and  instruc- 
tion. The  same  ends  are  served  by  the  col- 
lections of  fables,  of  which  the  most  accepted 
have  found  their  way  all  over  the  world  ;  the 
Panchatantra,  through  Persian  and  Arabic 
translations,  has  entered  almost  every  western 
literature,  as  the  fables  of  Bidpai  or  Pilpay. 
A  somewhat  later  collection  of  the  same  mate- 
rials, the  Hitopadesa  ("  Salutary  Instruction  "), 
is  one  of  the  most  popular  books  of  the  San- 
skrit literature.  The  Sanskrit  fable  is  much 
longer  drawn  than  the  western,  and  depends 
for  its  interest  more  on  discourse,  and  less  on 
situation  and  action.  The  Hindoo  tales,  in 
verse  and  in  prose,  are  of  comparatively  small 
consequence  in  the  literature ;  the  most  noted 
collection  is  the  Kathdsaritsdgara  ("  Ocean  of 
Streams  of  Narration  ") ;  through  the  medium 
of  Persian  versions,  they  are  regarded  as  form- 
ing the  groundwork  of  the  Arabic  literature 
of  like  class,  represented  to  us  chiefly  by  the 
"  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments."  The  drama 
is  a  most  interesting  branch  of  Hindoo  litera- 
ture ;  no  other  ancient  people,  excepting  the 
Greek,  has  brought  forth  independently  any- 
thing so  admirable  in  this  department.  The 
most  celebrated  dramas  are  the  MrichhaJcati 
("Toy  Cart")  of  Sudraka,  and  the  different 
works  of  Kalidasa,  as  the  Sakuntald,  the  Ur- 
vasi,  and  "Malavika  and  Agnimitra,"  all  of 
which  have  been  edited  and  translated.  The 
Sakuntald  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  flowers  of 
the  Indian  genius;  and  its  selection  by  the  en- 
lightened taste  of  Sir  William  Jones  and  his 
translation  of  it  into  English  (1789),  whence  it 
passed  at  once  into  every  language  of  Europe, 
was  an  important  epoch  in  the  early  history 


SANSKRIT 


615 


of  Sanskrit  study.  The  subjects  of  the  drama 
are  mainly  legendary,  their  catastrophes  al- 
ways happy.  They  are  written  in  mixed  prose 
and  verse,  and  likewise  in  mixed  Sanskrit  and 
Prakrit;  only  the  higher  male  characters 
speaking  the  cultivated  or  learned  tongue, 
while  the  lower,  and  all  the  females,  talk  the 
vernacular  dialect.  The  machinery  of  the 
Hindoo  stage  is  not  well  understood,  but  it 
is  believed  to  have  been  very  simple.  The 
grounds  on  which  Kalidasa  has  been  usually 
assigned  to  the  1st  century  B.  C.  are  now  ac- 
knowledged to  be  entirely  futile,  and  the  time 
of  the  bloom  of  dramatic  composition  is  as  un- 
certain as  other  such  matters  in  Hindoo  his- 
tory ;  more  probably  it  is  at  least  two  or  three 
centuries  after  Christ,  or  even,  as  many  schol- 
ars believe,  as  late  as  the  llth  century.  (See 
KALIDASA.)  The  Puranas  form  a  separate 
class  of  works,  being  the  religious  literature 
of  the  middle  period,  later  than  the  Vedic, 
preceding  the  modern  and  comparatively  in- 
significant tantras  and  shastras,  all  of  which 
have  been  described  in  INDIA,  RELIGIONS  AND 
RELIGIOUS  LITEKATUBE  OF.  The  law  books  at- 
tach themselves  to,  and  are  a  development  of, 
a  part  of  the  Vedic  literature,  viz. :  treatises 
prescribing  the  religious  observances  and  rules 
of  life  of  the  orthodox  Hindoo  ;  domestic  and 
civil  duties,  offences  and  penalties,  purification 
and  penance,  are  their  subjects.  The  oldest 
and  most  famous  among  them  is  the  code  as- 
scribed  to  the  mythical  sage  Manu ;  it  has  been 
often  translated,  and  is  a  chief  source  of  au- 
thentic knowledge  respecting  the  elaborated 
system  of  Brahmanic  polity. — In  treating  of 
the  scientific  literature,  the  grammar,  for  its 
antiquity,  originality,  and  profundity,  is  enti- 
tled to  the  first  place.  In  its  inception  and 
method  it  is  entirely  peculiar,  and  it  has  car- 
ried phonetic  and  etymological  analysis  further 
than  any  but  the  best  modern  European  sci- 
ence. Here,  as  more  than  once  in  other  de- 
partments, the  early  works  containing  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  science  are  lost ;  the  most 
ancient  extant  authority,  Panini,  is  the  su- 
preme one ;  the  immense  grammatical  literature 
is  made  up  almost  solely  of  commentaries  and 
continuations  of  his  work.  Its  age  is  uncer- 
tain, but  it  is  usually  assigned  to  the  3d  or  4th 
century  B.  C.  Its  form  is  very  peculiar;  it 
carries  brevity  to  the  utmost  extreme,  far  be- 
yond the  limits  of  orderly  arrangement  and 
intelligibility,  availing  itself  of  a  technical  ter- 
minology almost  mathematical ;  the  4,000  con- 
cise rules  which  compose  it  are  often  compared 
to  so  many  algebraic  formulas.  The  same 
style  is  characteristic  of  some  other  depart- 
ments of  the  literature,  and  especially  of  the 
text  books  of  the  schools  of  philosophy.  Phi- 
losophy is  another  highly  important  branch  of 
Indian  science,  and  has  its  roots  in  the  very 
earliest  literature.  There  are  six  chief  sys- 
tems: the  Mimdnsa  of  Jaimini  and  Veddnta 
of  Badarayana,  founding  themselves  more  di- 
rectly on  the  Vedas,  and  so  especially  ortho- 


dox; the  Nydya  of  Gautama  and  Vaisethika 
of  Kanada,  wearing  an  especially  logical  char- 
acter; and  the  SdnkJiya  of  Kapila  and  Yoga 
of-  Patanjali,  atheistic  and  theistic  branches  of 
a  school  named  from  the  precision  affected  in 
the  enunciation  of  its  principles.  The  general 
character  of  these  systems  has  been  described 
in  connection  with  the  religions  of  India.  The 
Buddhist  Sanskrit  literature  is  immense,  and 
has  been  carried  by  the  spread  of  the  religion 
to  many  other  countries  of  Asia,  into  whose 
languages  it  has  been  translated.  The  astro- 
nomical literature  is  later  by  some  centuries 
than  the  Christian  era,  and  nearly  all  there  is  of 
true  science  in  the  astronomy  of  the  Hindoos 
was  learned  by  them  from  the  Greeks.  They 
have  made  in  arithmetic  and  algebra  remarka- 
ble original  progress ;  and  the  Hindoo  system 
of  decimal  notation  has  made  its  way,  through 
the  Arabs,  to  the  exclusive  use  of  modern  en- 
lightened nations,  our  usual  figures  being  by 
origin  letters  of  the  Sanskrit  alphabet.  The 
acquirements  of  the  Hindoos  as  regards  the 
interpretation  of  the  symptoms  of  disease,  and 
the  application  of  medical  and  surgical  reme- 
dies, are  not  insignificant,  and  their  medical 
literature,  which  is  as  yet  little  known,  is  re- 
garded as  well  deserving  study ;  the  most  es- 
teemed author  whose  works  are  preserved  is 
Susruta.  Rhetoric,  versification,  and  music 
are  each  represented  in  a  department  of  the 
literature.  Respecting  the  arts,  whether  the 
fine  arts  or  the  practical,  little  of  value  is 
known  to  exist. — The  best  Sanskrit  grammars 
are,  in  English,  Williams's  (3d  ed.,  Oxford, 
1864)  and  Max  Mailer's  (1870);  in  French,  Op- 
pert's  (Berlin,  1859);  in  German,  Bopp's  (4th 
ed.,  1868),  and,  as  a  manual  of  reference  for 
the  advanced  student,  Benfey's  (Leipsic,  1852). 
Wilson's  lexicon  (two  editions,  Calcutta,  1819 
and  1832),  an  inferior  work,  but  long  indis- 
pensable to  the  student,  is  out  of  print  and 
very  dear ;  a  third  edition  was  begun  by  Gold- 
stucker,  but  never  finished.  Westergaard's 
Radices  Linguae  Sanscritce  is  very  valuable, 
and  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  Wilson. 
Benfey  has  published  a  brief  hand  dictionary 
(London,  1866),  and  Monier  Williams  a  very 
full  and  valuable  lexicon  in  a  single  4to  volume 
(London,  1872).  The  great  Sanskrit-German 
lexicon  of  Bohtlingk  and  Roth  (St.  Petersburg), 
an  immense  and  admirable  work,  was  com- 
pleted in  1875.  Bopp's  Glossarium  Sanscritum 
(Berlin,  1847)  serves  the  beginner  in  connection 
with  the  texts  published  by  the  same  author, 
and  contains  all  the  roots  and  much  linguistic 
information.  A  good  and  useful  chrestomathy 
is  still  a  desideratum;  of  Lassen's  (Sanskrit 
and  Latin,  Bonn,  1838)  a  new  edition  has  been 
issued  by  Gildemeister  (Bonn,  1865);  Boht- 
lingk's  (St.  Petersburg,  1845)  lacks  a  glossary ; 
Benfey's  (Leipsic,  1853-'4)  is  of  small  service 
to  an  unpractised  scholar.  Texts  to  be  recom- 
mended to  the  beginner  are  Bopp's  selections 
from  the  MahdbMrata,  especially  his  Nalus 
(Berlin,  1832),  or  Williams's  Nala  (Oxford, 


0115 


SANSON 


SANTA  ANNA 


1860);  the  Hitopadesa  of  Schlegel  and  Las- 
sen  (Bonn,  1829),  or  Johnson  (Hertford,  new 
ed.,  1864),  or  Muller  (London,  1854-'65) ;  the 
Bhagavad-  Gitd  of  Schlegel  and  Lassen  (Bonn, 
1846)  or  Thomson  (Hertford,  1855) ;  the  Sa- 
JcuntalA  of  Bohtlingk  (Bonn,  1842),  or  Williams 
(Hertford,  1853),  or  Burkhard  (Breslau,  1872) ; 
Bohlen's  Bhartrihari  (Berlin,  1833) ;  and 
Johnson's  Meghaduta  (London,  1867). 

SANSON,  NIeolis,  a  French  geographer,  horn 
in  Abbeville,  Dec.  20,  1600,  died  in  Paris  in 
July,  1667.  He  produced  a  map  of  Gaul  at 
the  age  of  16,  and  about  1640  was  named  geog- 
rapher to  the  king.  His  maps  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  more  correct  than  those  of  Or- 
telius  and  Mercator;  but  he  disregarded  the 
astronomical  observations  of  his  time,  and  ad- 
hered to  the  Ptolemaic  longitudes.  He  pub- 
lished works  on  the  geography  of  ancient 
Gaul,  Greece,  the  Roman  empire,  sacred  geog- 
raphy, &c.  His  three  sons  were  all  geographers. 

SANTA  ANA,  a  N.  W.  county  of  New  Mexico, 
bordering  on  Arizona,  and  intersected  in  the 
S.  E.  by  the  Rio  Grande ;  area,  about  7,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,599.  It  is  watered  in 
the  east  by  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
in  the  west  by  affluents  of  the  San  Juan  and 
Colorado  Chiquito.  The  surface  is  mountain- 
ous. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  2,975 
bushels  of  wheat,  9,521  of  Indian  corn,  and 
26,334  Ibs.  of  wool.  They  were  155  horses, 
269  mules  and  asses,  1,477  cattle,  32,630  sheep, 
and  112  swine.  Capital,  Jemez. 

SANTA  ANNA,  Antonio  Lopez  dp.  a  Mexican  gen- 
eral, born  in  Jalapa,  Feb.  21,  1798.  He  began 
his  military  career  in  1821,  against  the  royal- 
ists, and  after  some  success  was  given  the 
command  of  Vera  Cruz  (1822);  but  insubor- 
dination led  to  his  dismissal,  and  he  took  re- 
venge by  aiding  in  the  downfall  of  the  em- 
peror Iturbide.  Becoming  chief  of  the  federal 
party  in  the  succeeding  contest,  he  was  signal- 
ly defeated,  and  retired  to  his  home.  At  the 
end  of  1828  he  secured  the  overthrow  of  the 
Pedraza  administration,  and  shortly  after  the 
elevation  of  Guerrero,  who  made  him  minis- 
ter of  war  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  after  Santa  Anna  had  repelled  the  Span- 
ish invasion  under  Barradas,  in  September, 
1829.  He  subsequently  headed  two  success- 
ful insurrections,  one  to  replace  Guerrero  in 
the  executive  functions  by  Bnstamante,  and 
the  other  to  overthrow  the  latter  in  favor 
of  Pedraza  (January,  1832).  In  March,  1883, 
he  was  elected  president;  but,  though  a  fa- 
vorite with  the  army,  he  was  unpopular  with 
the  nation,  being  suspected  of  aiming  at  the 
imperial  crown.  Several  insurrections  broke 
out,  the  last  and  most  formidable  of  which 
was  crushed  by  Santa  Anna  on  May  11,  1835, 
when  the  insurgents  sustained  severe  losses, 
and  the  republican  party  received  a  fatal  blow. 
A  complete  administrative  reorganization  was 
now  effected,  and  the  governors  of  the  several 
states  were  henceforth  dependent  upon  the 
supreme  power.  A  revolutionary  feeling  long 


existing  in  Texas  now  broke  out  into  open  in- 
surrection. Early  in  1836  Santa  Anna  took 
the  field  in  person.  By  the  middle  of  February 
he  reached  the  Rio  Grande  at  the  head  of  6,000 
troops,  stormed  the  Alamo  at  San  Antonio  on 
March  6,  after  several  days'  siege,  and  massa- 
cred its  defenders,  but  with  great  loss  to  him- 
self, and  after  the  massacre  at  Goliad,  done 
under  his  express  orders,  marched  toward  Gon- 
zales.  At  San  Jacinto  he  was  totally  routed 
by  the  Texan  army  under  Houston,  April  21. 
The  next  day  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  his 
functions  were  at  once  suspended  by  the  Mexi- 
can government.  In  1837  he  returned  to  his 
native  country  by  way  of  the  United  States, 
but  was  coldly  received,  and  at  the  presidential 
election  of  that  year  he  had  only  2  out  of  69 
electoral  votes,  after  which  he  retired  to  his  es- 
tates at  Jalapa.  The  same  year  he  took  part  in 
the  defence  of  Vera  Cruz,  bombarded  by  the 
French,  and  there  sustained  an  injury  which 
necessitated  the  amputation  of  a  leg.  In  the 
long  contention  between  the  centralists  and 
federalists  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
former;  and  from  Oct.  10,  1841,  to  June  4, 
1844,  he  was  virtual  dictator,  under  the  title 
of  provisional  president.  He  was  again  consti- 
tutional president,  under  the  instrument  of 
June  12,  1843,  from  June  4  to  Sept.  20,  1844, 
when  he  was  deposed  by  a  new  revolution, 
taken  prisoner  near  Tlacolula  on  Jan.  15,  1845, 
and  banished  for  ten  years,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  Cuba.  In  1846  he  was  recalled, 
appointed  generalissimo,  and  in  December  made 
provisional  president.  Immediately  after,  at 
the  head  of  20,000  men,  he  advanced  north- 
ward, and  on  Feb.  22,  1847,  attacked  the 
American  troops  at  Buena  Vista,  5,000  strong, 
under  Gen.  Taylor,  by  whom  he  was  effectually 
repulsed  on  the  following  day.  Having  raised 
a  new  army,  he  took  up  a  position  at  Cerro 
Gordo,  where  he  was  again  defeated  by  the 
Americans,  under  Gen.  Scott,  on  April  18. 
Collecting  3,000  men  from  the  fragments  of 
his  army,  he  retreated  toward  the  city  of 
Mexico.  Late  in  April  he  was  informed  of 
his  appointment  to  the  presidency  by  congress ; 
but  finding  subsequently  that  the  election  for 
president  which  the  states  had  held  on  May  15 
was  unfavorable  to  his  pretensions,  he  prevailed 
on  congress  to  postpone  the  counting  of  votes 
until  January,  1848,  and  in  the  mean  time 
banished  or  imprisoned  all  who  opposed  his 
schemes,  and  established  a  severe  censorship 
of  the  press.  He  had  organized  an  army  30,- 
000  strong  for  the  defence  of  the  capital ;  but 
Molino  del  Rey  was  stormed  by  Gen.  Scott 
on  Sept.  8, 1847,  and  Chapultepec  on  the  13th, 
and  on  the  14th  the  city  of  Mexico  fell.  Santa 
Anna  now  resigned  the  presidency,  and  made  a 
last  effort  to  retrieve  his  reputation  by  the  siege 
of  Puebla ;  but  he  was  attacked  by  Gen.  Lane  at 
Huamantla,  and  forced  to  retire  from  the  place, 
which  was  now  relieved.  Having  received 
permission  from  the  American  commander-in- 
chief,  he  sailed  for  Jamaica  on  April  5,  1848. 


SANTA  BARBARA 


SANTA  CRUZ 


617 


In  1853  he  returned  to  Mexico,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  great  enthusiasm.  He  was  ap- 
pointed president  for  one  year,  after  which 
time  he  was  to  call  a  constituent  congress ;  but 
he  fomented  a  new  revolution  by  which  he  was 
declared  president  for  life,  with  power  to  ap- 
point his  successor,  and  with  the  title  of  most 
serene  highness.  He  began  to  rule  with  des- 
potic authority,  and  the  revolution  of  Ayutla 
followed,  led  by  Gen.  Alvarez.  After  a  struggle 
of  two  years,  Santa  Anna  signed  his  uncondi- 
tional abdication,  and  sailed  on  Aug.  16,  1855, 
for  Havana.  He  afterward  spent  two  years 
in  Venezuela,  and  thence  went  to  St.  Thomas. 
During  the  French  invasion  he  reappeared  in 
Mexico,  and  pledged  himself  to  strict  neutral- 
ity ;  but  a  manifesto  tending  to  excite  disturb- 
ance in  his  favor  led  Gen.  Bazaine  to  order 
him  to  quit  the  country  in  May,  1864.  Maxi- 
milian, however,  appointed  him  grand  marshal 
of  the  empire ;  but  in  1865,  having  been  im- 
plicated in  a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor, 
he  again  withdrew  to  St.  Thomas.  In  1867  he 
made  a  last  attempt  to  gain  ascendancy  in  Mex- 
ico, but  was  taken  prisoner  at  Vera  Cruz  and 
condemned  to  death.  Juarez  pardoned  him,  on 
condition  of  his  quitting  Mexican  soil  for  ever, 
and  he  came  to  the  United  States.  Since  the 
death  of  Juarez  he  has  been  permitted  to 
return,  and  he  now  (1875)  lives  in  seclusion 
in  the  city  of  Mexico. 

SANTA  BARBARA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Califor- 
nia, bounded  S.  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  ocean, 
N.  by  the  Guaymas  or  Santa  Maria  river, 
and  drained  by  Santa  Inez  and  other  rivers ; 
area,  about  2,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,784, 
of  whom  109  were  Chinese,  since  which  a 
portion  has  been  taken  to  form  Ventura  coun- 
ty. The  eastern  portion  is  mountainous,  the 
western  undulating.  The  soil  near  the  coast 
is  generally  fertile,  and  in  the  valleys  bounti- 
ful crops  are  produced.  Formerly  stock  rais- 
ing was  the  principal  business ;  but  latterly 
much  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  cul- 
ture of  grapes,  oranges,  and  almonds.  Gold, 
iron,  copper,  salt,  asphalt,  and  petroleum  are 
found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
20,200  bushels  of  wheat,  158,374  of  Indian 
corn,  187,871  of  barley,  41,934  of  peas  and 
beans,  26,539  of  potatoes,  996,200  Ibs.  of  wool, 
81,088  of  butter,  34,500  of  cheese,  and  8,655 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,777  horses,  2,166 
milch  cows,  7,993  other  cattle,  189,358  sheep, 
and  3,947  swine. — SANTA  BARBARA,  the  capi- 
tal (pop.  about  6,500),  in  a  sheltered  nook  on 
the  shore  of  the  Pacific,  275  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  San 
Francisco,  has  several  hotels,  two  banks,  a  col- 
lege, good  public  schools,  three  daily  and  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  seven  churches.  It  is 
noted  as  a  health  resort  on  account  of  its  mild 
and  equable  climate,  and  is  growing  rapidly.  It 
occupies  the  site  of  a  mission  founded  in  1780. 

SANTA  CATHARINA,  a  S.  E.  province  of  Bra- 
zil, bounded  N.  W.  and  N.  by  Parana,  E.  by 
the  Atlantic,  and  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Sao  Pedro ; 
area,  28,220  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  140,000.  The 


island  of  Santa  Catharina,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  a  strait  varying  in  width  from  £ 
m.  to  7  m.,  is  about  30  m.  long  from  N.  to  S., 
and  about  10  m.  wide.  The  strait  is  divided 
into  two  good  harbors,  the  northern  being  one 
of  the  best  in  South  America.  The  island  is 
mostly  covered  with  fine  woods  and  abounds 
with  water;  its  climate  is  temperate  and  sa- 
lubrious. The  coast  of  the  mainland  is  level, 
but  the  interior  is  traversed  by  the  Serra  do 
Mar.  The  Uruguay  has  its  source  in  this  prov- 
ince. The  climate  is  temperate.  The  prov- 
ince is  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  Brazil,  but 
not  well  settled.  Beds  of  good  bituminous 
coal  have  been  discovered.  Considerable  oil 
is  prepared  from  whales  taken  in  the  strait, 
and  timber  and  cordage  are  exported.  There 
are  flourishing  German  colonies  in  the  prov- 
ince. Capital,  Desterro. 

SANTA  CLARA,  a  W.  county  of  California, 
bounded  N.  by  San  Francisco  bay,  watered  by 
the  Coyote  and  Guadalupe  rivers  and  other 
small  streams;  area,  1,332  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
26,246,  of  whom  1,525  were  Chinese.  It  occu- 
pies the  fertile  valley  between  the  Coast  and 
Santa  Cruz  mountains,  extending  to  the  sum- 
mits of  the  ranges  on  either  side.  The  hillsides 
are  heavily  wooded  with  redwood,  oak,  ma- 
drone,  spruce,  &c.  There  are  mineral  and  hot 
springs.  The  New  Almaden  and  Guadalupe 
quicksilver  mines  are  in  this  county.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad,  and 
by  the  San  Jos6  branch  of  the  Central  Pacific. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,188,137 
bushels  of  wheat,  405,575  of  barley,  31,764  of 
potatoes,  85,150  gallons  of  wine,  179,465  Ibs. 
of  wool,  179,675  of  butter,  525,290  of  cheese, 
94,000  of  hops,  and  45,779  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  7,926  horses,  7,553  milch  cows,  14,569 
other  cattle,  49,085  sheep,  and  8,135  swine; 
3  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  2 
of  iron,  2  of  machinery,  1  of  paper,  12  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  1  of  woollens,  2  establishments  for 
smelting  quicksilver,  2  planing  mills,  6  saw 
mills,  2  tanneries,  2  currying  establishments, 
and  8  flour  mills.  Capital,  San  Jos6. 

SANTA  CLARA  COLLEGE.     See  SAN  Josfi. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  a  W.  county  of  California,  lying 
between  the  summit  of  the  Santa  Cruz  moun- 
tains and  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  bounded  S.  by 
the  Pajaro  river ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,743,  of  whom  156  were  Chinese.  There  is 
considerable  fertile  land,  but  the  greater  por- 
tion consists  of  mountain  ranges  densely  tim- 
bered with  redwood,  oak,  and  pine,  and  adapted 
to  grazing.  There  is  abundant  water  power. 
Copper,  coal,  gold,  and  sand  for  glass  making 
are  found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
115,687  bushels  of  wheat,  22,795  of  Indian 
corn,  56,690  of  oats,  72,155  of  barley,  34,253 
of  potatoes,  14,550  gallons  of  wine,  120,955 
Ibs.  of  butter,  120,225  of  cheese,  and  8,664  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  1,729  horses,  2,168  milch 
cows,  2,745  other  cattle,  819  sheep,  and  3,408 
swine;  1  manufactory  of  gunpowder,  4  of 


618 


SANTA  CRUZ 


SANTA  FE 


lime,  2  of  cooperage,  1  of  engines  and  boilers, 
5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  5  tanneries,  4  currying 
establishments,  1  flour  mill,  2  planing  mills, 
and  22  saw  mills.  Capital,  Santa  Cruz. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  or  Saint  <  roix.  an  island  of  the 
West  Indies,  65  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Porto  Rico,  the 
largest  and  southernmost  of  the  Virgin  group, 
forming  with  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  the 
Danish  government  of  the  West  Indies ;  length 
about  25  m.,  greatest  breadth  5  m. ;  area,  84 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,760.  The  surface  is 
level,  with  a  range  of  low  hills  in  the  north. 
There  are  numerous  streams,  and  the  soil  is 
fertile.  Nearly  the  whole  island  is  cultiva- 
ted, about  half  being  planted  with  sugar  cane. 
Santa  Cruz  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on 
his  second  voyage,  and  has  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dutch,  British,  Spanish,  and  French, 
the  last  of  whom  ceded  it  to  Denmark  in 
1733.  The  British  took  it  in  1807,  but  re- 
stored it  to  the  Danes  by  the  treaty  of  Paris. 
English  is  the  language  generally  spoken.  Cap- 
ital, Christiansted. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  u  fortified  town,  capital  of  the 
Canary  islands,  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  the  isl- 
and of  Teneriffe ;  pop.  about  11,000.  The 
harbor  is  good,  and  has  a  fine  long  mole.  In 
1871,  150  vessels  entered,  with  an  aggregate  of 
94,067  tons.  The  exports  include  cochineul, 
wine,  almonds,  raw  silk,  barilla,  and  archil. 

SANTA  KK,  M  S.  E.  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  bordering  on  the  Gran  Chaco  and  the 
provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entre-Rios  (from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Parana),  Buenos 
Ayres,  Cordova,  and  Santiago;  area,  20,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869,  75,178.  It  is  flat  in  the 
south  and  centre,  and  hilly  in  the  north.  Be- 
sides the  Parana,  the  principal  rivers  are  the 
Tercero  and  the  Salado ;  there  are  many  small 
streams.  There  are  numerous  lakes,  some  of 
which  are  salt,  and  extensive  forests.  Wheat, 
maize,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated,  and,  with 
wax,  honey,  oranges,  and  other  fruits,  and 
skins,  are  exported  in  large  quantities.  The 
colonies  established  in  this  province  are  the 
most  numerous  and  prosperous  in  the  repub- 
lic. The  chief  industries  are  agriculture  and 
cattle  rearing.  (See  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.)  Of 
20,002  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  14 
in  1869,  4,303  attended  school.  The  province 
is  divided  into  the  departments  of  Santa  !•'«'•, 
San  Jos6,  San  Ger6nimo,  and  Rosario.  The 
capital  is  Santa  !•'»'•.  a  prosperous  town  with 
10,670  inhabitants  in  1869 ;  and  the  chief  town 
is  Rosario,  the  second  city  in  the  republic. 

SANTA  Ff,  a  N.  central  county  of  New  Mex- 
ico, drained  by  the  Rio  Grande  and  small  trib- 
utaries of  that  river,  and  by  the  head  waters 
of  the  Rio  Pecos ;  area,  about  1,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  9,699.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, and  the  soil,  except  in  the  valleys, 
poor  and  sandy.  There  are  gold  mines.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  6,314  bushels 
of  wheat,  20,262  of  Indian  corn,  1,889  of  peas 
and  beans,  28,918  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  490  tons 


of  hay.  There  were  (on  farms)  416  horses, 
840  mules  and  asses,  2,116  milch  cows,  1,383 
working  oxen,  630  other  cattle,  23,843  sheep, 
and  656  swine ;  2  manufactories  of  jewelry, 
2  breweries,  1  saw  mill,  and  2  quartz  mills. 
Capital,  Santa  F6. 

SANTA  Ffe,  the  capital  of  New  Mexico  and  of 
Santa  F6  co.,  situated  on  both  banks  of  Santa 
F6  creek,  which  flows  W.  14  m.  into  the  Rio 
Grande,  at  an  elevation  of  6,862  ft.  above  the 
sea,  about  275  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Denver,  Colo- 
rado, and  nearly  900  m.  W.  bv  S.  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo. ;  lat.  85°  41'  N.,  Ion.  106*  10'  W. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,765;  in  1875,  about  6,000,  of  whom 
about  5,000  are  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  ori- 
gin and  speak  the  Spanish  language.  Stage 
coaches  run  daily  to  Pueblo,  Col.,  about  190 
m.  N.  N.  E.,  the  terminus  of  the  Denver  and 
Rio  Grande  railroad,  and  to  Las  Animas,  Col., 
about  280  m.  N.  E.,  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
of  the  Kansas  Pacific  railroad  and  of  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6  railroad. 
There  is  telegraphic  communication  with  Den- 
ver. Santa  F6  is  the  centre  of  supplies  for 
the  surrounding  country,  and  is  constantly 
filled  with  freight  wagons  and  carrying  ani- 
mals, the  latter  being  the  lurroa  or  donkeys 
commonly  used  in  the  territory.  The  valley 
in  which  it  is  situated  is  irrigated  from  Santa 
F6  creek  and  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains. 
The  climate  is  very  agreeable,  the  tempera- 
ture never  reaching  either  extreme,  while  the 
atmosphere  is  rare  and  pure.  The  town  is 
irregularly  laid  out,  and  the  unpaved  streets 
are  very  narrow,  crooked,  and  ancient-look- 
ing. The  public  square  or  plaza,  containing 
about  2^  acres,  is  bordered  on  three  sides  by 
the  principal  business  houses  and  on  the  fourth 
by  the  old  "  palace,"  one  story  high,  contain- 
ing the  governor's  mansion,  legislative  hall, 
and  court  room.  In  the  centre  is  a  beau- 
tiful park  of  trees,  chiefly  cottonwoods,  and 
here  a  soldiers'  monument  of  native  marble 
has  been  erected  by  the  territorial  legislature. 
The  buildings  are  almost  without  exception  of 
adobe  and  one  story  high.  In  the  N.  portion 
are  the  ruins  of  two  unfinished  stone  buildings, 
the  territorial  capitol  and  penitentiary,  con- 
gress having  failed  since  1855  to  appropriate 
funds  for  their  completion.  Near  these  are 
the  masonic  and  odd  fellows'  cemetery  and 
the  military  and  private  cemeteries.  Within 
the  town  is  the  military  reservation  of  Fort 
Marcy.  Santa  F6  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1852,  but  the  succeeding  legislature  in  1853 
repealed  the  charter.  It  has,  however,  muni- 
cipal regulations  and  a  police,  under  the  pre- 
fect of  the  county.  It  contains  two  national 
banks,  each  having  a  capital  of  $150,000.  The 
Roman  Catholics  have  a  college  for  boys  and  a 
conventual  academy  for  girls,  each  attended  by 
about  150  pupils.  One  newspaper,  the  daily 
and  weekly  "New  Mexican,"  is  published  in 
English  and  Spanish.  There  are  four  Roman 
Catholic  churches  and  a  Presbyterian  mission 
church.  The  Episcopalians  also  have  a  resi- 


SANTA  FE  DE  BOGOTA 

dent  missionary,  but  no  church  edifice.  A 
new  Roman  Catholic  cathedral'  is  in  course  of 
construction  around  the  old  one,  which  is  still 
used. — Santa  Fe  is  known  in  the  old  church 
records  and  is  often  mentioned  in  the  archives 
of  the  former  governments  of  the  country  as 


SANTANDER 


619 


Street  Scene  In  Santa  F6. 

the  city  of  "Santa  F6  de  San  Francisco  de 
Asis,"  St.  Francis  heing  the  patron  saint.  St. 
Francis's  day  (Oct.  4)  is  still  celebrated  with 
much  ceremony.  "When  first  visited  by  the 
Spaniards,  about  1542,  the  town  was  a  popu- 
lous Indian  pueblo.  It  is  not  known  when  it 
was  first  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  but  it  has 
been  the  capital  of  New  Mexico  since  1640. 
It  was  captured  in  1680  and  the  principal 
buildings  were  burned  by  the  Indians,  who 
drove  the  whites  from  the  country.  It  was 
recaptured  by  a  Spanish  force  in  1694,  when 
the  inhabitants  returned.  The  most  formi- 
dable subsequent  attack  by  the  Indians  was 
in  1837,  when  they  were  defeated  by  Manuel 
Armijo.  It  was  occupied  by  the  United  States 
troops  on  Aug.  18,  1846.  It  was  entered  by 
the  confederate  forces  from  Texas  on  March 
10,  1862,  who  were  forced  to  evacuate  it  on 
April  8. 

SANTA  FE  DE  BOGOTA.     See  BOGOTA. 

SANTA  MARIA  (Sp.  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria), 
a  city  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the  province 
and  6  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cadiz,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Guadalete,  where  it  falls 
into  the  bay  of  Cadiz ;  pop.  about  21,000.  It 
is  second  to  Cadiz  in  exporting  wine  of  excel- 
lent quality,  and  to  Jerez  in  the  extent  of  its 
wine  cellars.  Brandy,  liqueurs,  oil,  hats,  soap, 
leather,  and  wax  are  manufactured. 

SANTA  MARTA,  a  city  of  the  United  States 
of  Colombia,  capital  of  the  state  of  Magda- 
lena,  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  bay  of  Santa 


Marta,  455  m.  N.  of  Bogota ;  pop.  about  4,000. 
It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  sand  marshes, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Manzanares.  The 
houses  are  chiefly  of  one  story,  roofed  with 
straw  or  tiles,  and  there  is  a  fine  cathedral. 
The  port,  which  is  spacious  and  commodious, 
and  defended  by  three  forts,  is 
well  frequented  by  shipping, 
chiefly  engaged  in  coasting  and 
the  West  Indian  trade.  Steam- 
ers ply  monthly  between  San- 
ta Marta  and  New  York.  The 
principal  exports  are  Peruvian 
bark,  hides,  skins,  coffee,  hats, 
fustic  and  other  dyes,  and  me- 
dicinal plants.  The  value  of 
the  exports  to  New  York  in 
1872  was  $290,182. 

SANTA  MAURA  (modern  Gr. 
Levcada ;  anc.  Leucadia  or 
Leucas),  an  island  and  eparchy 
of  Greece,  one  of  the  Ionian 
islands,  in  the  Ionian  sea,  sep- 
arated by  a  strait  1  m.  wide 
from  the  W.  coast  of  Acarna- 
nia;  area,  111  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  20,892.  It  is  22  m. 
long  by  from  5  to  9  m.  wide, 
and  is  traversed  N.  and  S.  by 
a  limestone  ridge,  terminating 
S.  W.  in  Cape  Ducato  (the  an- 
cient Leucas,  famous  for  Sap- 
pho's leap),  and  culminating 
near  the  centre  of  the  island  in  Mount  St. 
Elias,  about  3,750  ft.  high.  The  whole  sur- 
face is  more  or  less  broken ;  only  a  small  por- 
tion is  cultivated,  and  the  crop  of  grain  is 
insufficient  for  home  consumption.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  oil,  wine,  and  salt,  the  last 
procured  by  evaporation  in  the  lagoon.  Cap- 
ital, Amaxichi,  also  sometimes  called  Santa 
Maura. — The  ancient  Leucas  (Gr.  Ae^/cof,  white) 
derived  its  name  from  the  limestone  cliffs. 
In  the  time  of  Homer  it  was  united  to  the 
mainland  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  by  an  isth- 
mus, which  was  cut  through  by  the  Corinthi- 
ans about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  B.  C. 
The  town  of  Leucas,  which  was  founded  near 
the  isthmus  by  the  Corinthians,  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  Acarnanian  league,  and 
was  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Romans  in 
197  B.  0.  On  the  promontory  of  Leucas  was 
a  temple  to  Apollo,  and  at  the  annual  festival 
of  the  god  it  was  customary  to  cast  a  crim- 
inal from  the  rock  into  the  sea.  Birds  of  all 
kinds  were  tied  to  him  to  break  his  fall,  and  if 
he  survived  boats  were  ready  to  save  him ;  but 
in  that  case  he  was  banished  for  ever.  This 
expiatory  rite  gave  rise  to  the  story  that  lovers 
leaped  from  this  cliff  to  escape  the  pangs  of  love. 
SANTANDER.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in 
Old  Castile,  bordering  on  the  bay  of  Biscay 
and  the  provinces  of  Biscay,  Burgos,  Palencia, 
Leon,  and  Asturias;  area,  2,112  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  241,581.  The  Cantabrian  mountains, 
on  its  S.  limit,  abound  in  forests  and  valuable 


620 


SANTAREM 


SANTIAGO 


timber,  and  are  intersected  by  fertile  valleys. 
It  has  productive  fisheries,  iron,  lead,  and  cop- 
per mines,  and  limestone,  marble,  gypsum,  and 
potters  clay.  The  trade  is  greatly  hindered 
by  the  want  of  good  roads.  II.  A  city  (anc. 
Portua  Blendium),  capital  of  the  province,  on 
the  bay  of  Biscay,  215  m.  N.  of  Madrid ;  pop. 
about  35,000.  The  houses  are  narrow  and 
poor  in  the  old  quarter,  but  handsomely  built 
in  the  new.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  a  commercial  school,  a  school  of  naviga- 
tion, an  excellent  institute  for  higher  studies, 
and  other  literary  and  scientific  institutions. 
There  are  a  Gothic  cathedral  and  an  old  con- 
vent, now  an  immense  tobacco  manufactory, 
tanneries,  and  sugar  refineries.  The  harbor  is 
of  easy  access,  and  has  a  lighthouse  and  excel- 
lent anchorage.  There  are  regular  steamship 
lines  to  Bayonne,  Bilbao,  Havana,  Liverpool, 
London,  and  Hamburg. — The  city  was  sacked 
by  Soult  in  1808,  was  stormed  by  the  Span- 
iards but  retaken  by  the  French  in  1809,  and 
evacuated  by  them  in  1812. 

SANTAREM,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Estremadura,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tagus,  46  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Lisbon ;  pop.  about 
8,000.  It  occupies  the  summit  and  two  sides 
of  a  hill,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  in  decay. 
It  has  two  colleges  and  a  seminary,  and  a  large 
trade  in  grain,  olive  oil,  and  wine.  Santarem 
was  taken  from  the  Moors  by  Alfonso  I.  in 
1146;  and  it  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Miguelites  in  1833-'4. 

SANTA  ROSA,  a  W.  county  of  Florida,  bor- 
dering on  Alabama,  watered  by  the  Yellow 
and  Blackwater  rivers,  and  washed  on  the  S. 
W.  by  Pensacola  bay  and  Escambia  river; 
area,  1,440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,812,  of 
whom  662  were  colored.  The  surface  is  flat 
and  the  soil  poor.  Santa  Rosa  island  is  off 
the  S.  shore.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  6,872  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  1,887  of 
sweet  potatoes,  27,845  Ibs.  of  rice,  and  1,828 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  1,976  cattle 
and  1,291  swine.  Capital,  Milton. 

SAM  KK,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  formed 
by  the  Congaree  and  Wateree,  which  unite 
near  the  middle  of  the  state,  at  the  junction 
of  Sumter,  Richland,  Orangeburg,  and  Claren- 
don counties,  whence  it  flows  S.  E.  into  the 
Atlantic  by  two  mouths  in  lat.  83°  6'  N.  The 
main  stream  is  about  150  m.  long,  and  steam- 
boats ascend  to  Columbia  on  the  Congaree,  and 
Camden  on  the  Wateree.  Its  lower  part  is 
skirted  by  rice  swamps  and  pitch  pine  forests. 

SANTERRE,  Antoine  Josrph,  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Paris,  March  16,  1752,  died 
there,  Feb.  6,  1809.  He  inherited  from  his 
father  a  large  brewery  in  the  faubourg  St.  An- 
toine. In  1789  he  was  an  elector  and  a  com- 
mander in  the  national  guard,  and  took  part 
in  the  attack  on  the  Bastile,  and  subsequently 
in  the  disturbances  on  the  Champ  de  Mars 
(1791),  after  which  he  fled  to  escape  arrest. 
The  amnesty  granted  after  the  king's  adoption 
of  the  constitution  enabled  him  to  renew  his 


agitation,  and  he  led  the  populace  to  the  Tui- 
leries  on  June  20,  1792,  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  insurrection  of  Aug.  10,  and  be- 
came chief  commander  of  the  national  guard 
of  Paris,  with  the  rank  of  general  of  divi- 
sion. In  this  capacity  he  escorted  Louis  XVI. 
to  the  Temple  and  to  the  guillotine,  and  or- 
dered the  drums  to  beat  to  drown  the  king's 
voice,  which  gave  him  an  unfounded  reputa- 
tion for  cruelty.  Subsequently  he  commanded 
a  division  in  Vendee,  where  he  showed  great 
incapacity,  and  was  signally  routed  at  Coron, 
near  Chollet,  Sept.  18,  1798.  Returning  to 
Paris  in  disgrace,  he  was  imprisoned  as  an  Or- 
leanist,  but  released  after  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre. Owing  to  his  influence  with  the  mob, 
he  was  confirmed  in  his  rank  by  Napoleon, 
but  was  not  actively  employed.  He  ended  his 
life  in  comparative  poverty. — See  Santerre,  »a 
vie  publique  et  privee,  by  Carro  (Paris,  1847). 
SANTIAGO.  I.  A  central  province  of  Chili, 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  and  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  the  provinces  of  Aconcagua, 
Colchagua,  and  Valparaiso ;  area,  7,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  880,419.  It  is  extremely  moun- 
tainous, the  Andes  here  including  some  of  the 
most  elevated  peaks  in  America.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Maypu.  Silver  and  copper  abound, 
and  many  mines  are  in  operation.  There  are 
many  mineral  springs.  In  the  lower  regions 
the  climate  is  mild  and  the  soil  extremely  fer- 
tile, and  agriculture  is  here  in  a  higher  state 
of  perfection  than  elsewhere  in  South  Amer- 
ica. Cattle  rearing  is  an  important  industry, 
and  jerked  beef  is  exported.  The  culture  of 
tobacco,  for  which  the  soil  is  well  adapted,  is 
prohibited,  its  importation  being  a  government 
monopoly.  The  province  is  divided  into  the 
departments  of  Santiago,  Melipilla,  Rancagua, 
and  Victoria ;  the  chief  towns,  besides  the  cap- 
ital, are  Rancagua  and  Melipilla.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  province  and  of  Chili,  on  the 
Rio  Mapocho,  about  70  m.  S.  E.  of  Valparaiso ; 
lat.  33°  27'  S.,  Ion.  70°  40'  W. ;  pop.  given  in 
1865  at  115,377,  but  by  Asta-Burruaga,  in  his 
Diccionario  de  Chile  (1867),  at  150,000.  It 
lies  between  two  cordilleras,  about  1,800  ft. 
above  the  sea,  8  m.  W.  of  the  foot  of  the  An- 
des. The  streets  are  spacious  and  regular,  well 
paved,  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  houses  are 
of  brick,  with  ornamented  courtyards.  The 
public  squares  and  several  of  the  avenues  are 
profusely  embellished  with  fountains  and  stat- 
ues. The  river  is  crossed  by  handsome  bridges. 
The  cathedral,  founded  in  1750,  on  theW.  side 
of  the  Plaza  Mayor,  is  351  ft.  long  by  92  ft. 
wide,  with  a  superb  frontispiece.  On  the  same 
square  are  the  post  office  and  treasury  (for- 
merly the  casa  de  la  audiencia),  the  city  hall, 
criminal  courts,  the  former  residence  of  the 
presidents,  now  converted  into  a  barrack,  and 
the  archiepiscopal  palace,  in  the  Moorish  style. 
The  mint  is  a  beautiful  edifice  460  ft.  long  by 
350  ft.  wide,  a  portion  of  which  serves  as  the 
president's  palace  and  for  the  offices  of  the 
ministry.  The  congress  building  was  erected 


SANTIAGO 


SANTIAGO  DE  LOS  OABALLEROS  621 


in  1858,  contiguous  to  the  old  church  of  the 
Jesuits,  destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  8,  1863,  when 
1,600  persons,  chiefly  women,  perished  in  the 
flames.  The  hill  of  Santa  Lucia  rises  in  the 
centre  of  the  city  to  a  height  of  254  ft.,  and 
on  its  N.  and  S.  flanks  stand  two  fortresses. 
The  theatre  ranks  among  the  finest  in  Amer- 
ica. The  city  has  a  powder  magazine,  a  vast 
artillery  barrack,  a  penitentiary,  a  house  of 
correction  for  children,  a  military  and  two  fine 
general  hospitals,  an  insane  asylum,  a  house 
of  refuge,  and  many  other  benevolent  institu- 
tions. The  educational  establishments  include 
the  academy  of  science,  the  university  or  na- 
tional institute  with  1,200  students,  a  military 
academy,  schools  of  design,  a  school  of  agri- 
culture with  a  model  farm,  two  normal  schools, 
the  seminario  conciliar,  and  about  40  primary 
and  grammar  schools,  public  and  private,  the 
former  being  gratuitous.  The  national  library 
contains  40,000  volumes  and  many  rare  manu- 
scripts. The  mean  temperature  is  68°  F.  in 
summer  and  49°  in  winter,  when  rains  are  fre- 
quent and  heavy.  Santiago  is  the  commercial 
centre  for  the  province.  There  are  tanneries, 
flour  mills,  silver  refineries,  three  banks,  and  a 
fire  insurance  and  a  life  insurance  company. 
The  city  is  connected  by  telegraph  with  the 
principal  ports  of  the  republic,  and  by  rail  with 
Valparaiso  and  Talca ;  and  a  transandine  rail- 
way to  Buenos  Ayres  was  projected  in  1874. 
— Santiago  was  founded  in  1541  by  Pedro 
de  Valdivia,  under  the  name  of  Santiago  del 
Nuevo  Extreme,  and  erected  into  a  bishopric 
in  1561.  It  was  visited  by  disastrous  earth- 
quakes in  1570,  1647,  1657,  1688,  1730,  1751, 
and  1822,  and  has  frequently  suffered  from 
inundations.  An  international  exhibition  was 
opened  here  on  Sept.  16,  1875. 

SANTIAGO,  or  Santiago  del  Estero,  a  central 
province  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  bordering 
on  Santa  Fe,  Cordova,  Catamarca,  Tucuman, 
Salta,  and  the  Gran  Chaco ;  area,  35,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  132,763.  The  face  of  the  coun- 
try, somewhat  mountainous  in  the  west,  con- 
sists mainly  of  an  undulating  plain,  sloping  to- 
ward the  southeast.  The  province  is  watered 
by  theDulce,  Salado,  and  many  smaller  streams, 
which  are  dried  up  during  the  summer.  There 
are  many  lagoons  and  lakes,  mostly  salt,  the 
chief  of  which  is  the  Laguna  de  los  Porongos 
on  the  southern  border,  fed  by  the  waters  of 
the  Dulce.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  not  insalu- 
brious ;  and  the  soil  is  fertile,  much  of  the 
land  being  devoted  to  pasturage.  The  chief 
productions  are  wheat,  maize,  the  sugar  cane, 
and  fruits.  There  are  large  forests.  The  most 
important  manufactures  are  those  of  ponchos 
and  other  articles  of  wool,  with  laces,  some  of 
which  are  not  inferior  to  the  finest  imported 
from  Europe.  Carbonate  and  nitrate  of  soda 
and  carbonate  of  potash  from  the  salines  are 
exported.  Of  33,375  children  from  6  to  14 
years  of  age  in  1869,  3,684  attended  school. 
The  province  is  divided  into  18  departments. 
The  capital  is  the  city  of  the  same  name,  with 


7,775  inhabitants  in  1869,  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century. 

SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOSTELA  (Lat.  Campus 
Stella),  a  city  of  Galicia,  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  32  m.  S.  by  W.  of  the  city  of  Co- 
runna;  pop.  about  29,000.  It  is  surrounded 
by  hills,  and  has  broad  paved  streets  and  well 
built  houses.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 
In  the  cathedral,  founded  in  1082,  the  body  of 
St.  James  the  Elder  is  popularly  believed  .to 
be  buried,  and  formerly  there  were  frequent 
pilgrimages  to  the  shrine.  The  city  has  a 
university  with  about  1,000  students,  a  public 
library,  a  hospital,  and  a  mint.  It  was  sacked 
in  997  by  the  Moors,  from  whom  Ferdinand 
III.  took  it  in  1235,  and  in  1809-'14  it  was 
held  by  the  French. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA  (locally  called  CUBA),  a 
city  of  Cuba,  capital  of  the  Eastern  depart- 
ment, and  of  a  province  of  its  own  name,  at 
the  head  of  a  fine  bayou  on  the  S.  E.  coast, 
160  m.  S.  E.  of  Puerto  Principe ;  lat.  19°  53' 
N.,  Ion.  75°  53'  W.;  pop.  about  45,000,  of 
whom  not  more  than  10,000  are  whites.  It 
is  on  the  side  of  a  hill  160  ft.  above  the  bay. 
The  streets  are  bad  and  many  of  them  very 
steep,  but  all  lighted  with  gas  and  lined  with 
stone  houses.  The  cathedral,  completed  in 
1819,  is  the  largest  on  the  island,  and  there 
are  several  other  churches,  a  theatre,  a  custom 
house,  barracks,  and  three  hospitals.  The  city 
is  supplied  with  bad  water  through  an  aque- 
duct, and  as  it  is  shut  in  from  the  northern 
breezes,  the  suffocating  heat  and  the  miasmatic 
effluvia  from  adjacent  marshes  render  it  the 
most  unhealthful  abode  in  the  Antilles.  The 
harbor,  although  one  of  the  best  in  America, 
is  difficult  of  access,  owing  to  the  narrowness 
of  the  entrance.  It  is  defended  by  four  forts. 
W.  of  the  city,  12  m.  distant,  are  the  exten- 
sive copper  mines  of  El  Cobre,  which  export 
annually  more  than  25,000  tons.  The  other 
exports  are  coffee,  sugar,  and  molasses. — San- 
tiago, founded  by  Diego  Velasquez  in  1514,  is 
after  Baracoa  the  oldest  town  in  Cuba.  In 
1522  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city,  and  for  a 
time  was  the  capital  of  the  island.  In  1558 
it  was  seized  by  the  French,  who  surrendered 
it  for  a  ransom  of  $80,000;  and  in  the  same 
century  it  suffered  much  from  pirates.  In  No- 
vember, 1873,  the  captain  (Fry)  and  several 
of  the  crew  and  passengers  of  the  ship  Virgin- 
ius  were  shot  by  order  of  the  Cuban  authori- 
ties at  Santiago.  This  vessel,  sailing  under  the 
United  States  flag,  had  been  captured  by  the 
Spanish  steamer  Tornado  off  Jamaica,  on  the 
ground  that  it  intended  to  land  men  and  arms 
in  Cuba  for  the  insurgents.  The  affair  created 
great  excitement  in  the  United  States,  but  was 
settled  by  the  payment  of  indemnities  by  Spain. 

SANTIAGO  DE  LOS  CABALLEROS,  a  city  of  San- 
to Domingo,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yaqui  river,  in 
a  savanna  nearly  surrounded  by  mountains,  20 
m.  S.  of  Puerto  Plata ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is 
built  around  a  large  plaza,  in  which  is  held  the 


622 


SANTILLANA 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


market ;  the  houses  in  the  main  part  of  the 
town  are  mostly  of  stone.  Its  climate  is  health- 
ful, and  the  surrounding  country  very  produc- 
tive, botli  in  minerals  and  plants.  The  tohacco 
of  the  Vega  Real  is  sent  thither  for  transpor- 
tation to  Puerto  Plata. — Santiago  was  found- 
ed in  1504,  and  stands  in  the  region  called  by 
the  natives  Cibao.  It  suffered  many  reverses 
from  the  French  and  buccaneers,  and  was  de- 
stroyed by  Dessalines,  and  again  by  the  Span- 
iards when  they  evacuated  the  island  in  1865. 

s V MILL  V\ \,  Martinis  de.     See  MENDOZA. 

SANTO  DOM  I  XiO  (sometimes  improperly  called 
San  Domingo),  a  republic  comprising  the  east- 
ern and  larger  portion  of  the  island  of  Hayti, 
in  the  West  Indies,  otherwise  called  the  Do- 
minican republic.  (For  its  physical  charac- 
teristics, see  HAYTI.)  It  includes  all  the  ter- 
ritory E.  of  the  boundary  line  fixed  by  treaty 
between  Spain  and  France  in  1777,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pedernales 
on  the  S.  coast  to  that  of  the  river  Massacre, 
which  flows  into  the  bay  of  Manzanillo  on  the 
N.  coast.  Its  greatest  length,  from  Cape  En- 
gafio  to  the  Haytian  frontier,  is  about  260  m., 
and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Cape  Isabella  to 
Cape  Beata,  165  in. ;  area  estimated  at  18,000 
sq.  m.  The  republic  is  divided  into  five  prov- 
inces :  Santo  Domingo,  Azua  de  Compostela, 
Ooncepcion  de  la  Vega,  Santiago  de  los  Cuba- 
lleros,  and  Santa  Cruz  del  Seybo,  the  capitals 
of  which  have  the  same  names  respectively. 
The  principal  harbors  are  Santo  Domingo, 
Puerto  Plata,  and  the  bay  of  Samana.  The 
last,  which  is  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Sa- 
mana on  the  N.  E.  end  of  the  island,  is  about 
35  m.  long  and  10  m.  wide.  Its  entrance  is 
made  difficult  by  extensive  banks  and  a  reef. 
Samana  bay  proper,  or  the  port  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara, on  the  N.  side  of  the  large  bay,  is  formed 
by  a  line  of  reefs  and  islets  parallel  with  the 
shore.  It  is  \  in.  wide,  and,  though  difficult 
of  access,  is  deep  enough  for  large  vessels. — 
The  soil  of  Santo  Domingo  is  of  extraordi- 
nary fertility.  Tobacco,  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
maize,  coffee,  cacao,  and  the  plantain  are  the 
staple  productions.  The  coffee  is  left  in  many 
places  to  grow  wild ;  and  the  tobacco,  from 
want  of  cultivation,  is  inferior,  though  with 
proper  care  it  might  equal  that  of  Cuba.  The 
cotton  is  of  fine  staple  and  good  length,  and 
might  be  made  as  good  as  any  in  the  world. 
The  forests  contain  great  varieties  of  valua- 
ble trees,  among  which  are  mahogany,  lig- 
num vitse,  ebony,  fustic,  a  species  of  log- 
wood, and  many  other  cabinet  and  dye  woods. 
The  plains  furnish  fine  pasturage  for  the  cattle 
of  hundreds  of  owners,  who  annually  collect 
and  count  the  animals,  and  brand  the  young. 
The  horses  are  in  general  small,  but  graceful 
and  well  adapted  to  the  indifferent  roads. 
Mules  are  numerous,  as  are  also  the  other  do- 
mestic animals ;  and  swine  raising  forms  an 
important  industry.  In  the  forests  are  large 
numbers  of  coaiti-mundis  and  agoutis.  The 
rivers  are  infested  with  alligators.  Various  spe- 


cies of  lizards  are  found,  and  the  iguana,  whose 
flesh  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  delicacy,  attains 
a  large  size.  Among  the  venomous  insects 
are  the  scorpion,  centipede,  and  tarantula,  the 
stings  of  which,  although  causing  much  pain 
and  inconvenience,  are  by  no  means  fatal,  as 
is  commonly  supposed.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  and 
copper  are  the  chief  minerals ;  the  first  two 
are  said  to  be  extremely  abundant  in  all  parts 
of  the  republic.  The  gold  mines  of  La  Vega 
and  Buenaventura  alone  furnished  Ovando  with 
the  half  million  of  dollars  which  he  sent  home 
annually  to  the  king  of  Spain,  besides  what 
he  expended  on  improvements  in  the  colony. 
As  many  as  240,000  crowns  of  gold  were  coined 
in  the  mint  of  La  Vega  in  1502,  when  the 
mines  were  not  worked  so  thoroughly  as  in 
later  times,  and  the  city  of  Santiago  de  los 
Caballeros  was  chiefly  inhabited  by  goldsmiths. 
No  mines  are  now  in  operation,  but  consider- 
able grain  gold  is  still  extracted.  Silver  was 
also  mined  in  large  quantities  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury ;  but  the  mines  were  closed  by  a  royal 
decree  from  Spain,  and  they  have  not  been 
reopened,  nor  is  their  precise  situation  gen- 
erally known.  Mines  of  tin,  lead,  quicksil- 
ver, sulphur,  and  rock  salt  are  also  mentioned 
by  the  Spanish  writers ;  and  considerable  salt 
is  still  produced. — The  climate  is  much  more 
salubrious  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  West 
India  islands ;  and  the  average  health  and 
longevity  is  said  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the 
United  States.  In  the  highlands  the  tempera- 
ture is  equable  and  agreeable ;  in  the  lowlands 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  84°  to  91°  F. 
The  intensity  of  the  heat  is  tempered  by  the 
sea  breeze,  which  blows  nearly  all  day  long, 
and  by  the  land  breeze,  which  begins  two  or 
three  hours  after  sunset  and  continues  until 
sunrise.  From  May  to  October  heavy  rains 
fall,  frequently  accompanied  by  thunder  and 
lightning.  From  February  to  April  it  is  uni- 
formly dry.  Yellow  fever  and  cholera  have 
made  considerable  ravages  on  several  occa- 
sions in  the  island,  but  have  never  been  epi- 
demic there. — The  population,  which  .is  set 
down  by  some  authorities  at  200,000,  is"  said 
by  the  United  States  commissioners,  who  vis- 
ited the  republic  in  1871,  not  to  exceed  150,- 
000.  About  nine  tenths  are  native  Domini- 
cans, springing  for  the  most  part  from  the  union 
of  Spaniards,  Indians,  and  negroes,  though 
some  are  of  pure  African  blood.  The  whites, 
about  one  tenth  of  the  whole,  are  Spaniards 
of  unmixed  race,  mainly  descendants  of  the 
early  settlers,  and  other  Europeans,  who  re- 
side mostly  in  the  seaports  and  larger  towns, 
and  have  almost  exclusively  under  their  con- 
trol the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country.  The 
Dominicans  are  sober,  courteous,  affable,  and 
hospitable,  and  in  their  intercourse  with  each 
other  make  little  distinction  of  class,  race,  or 
color.  Very  little  absolute  poverty  exists,  and 
mendicancy  is  almost  unknown.  Cock  fighting 
is  the  chief  amusement,  and  gaming  is  largely 
practised  both  in  public  and  in  private.  High 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


623 


crimes  are  rare,  and  one  may  safely  travel  with 
money  and  valuables,  alone  and  unarmed,  in 
any  part  of  the  country.  Few  genuine  repre- 
sentatives of  the  indigenous  race  of  the  island 
are  now  to  be  found.  As  they  decreased  with 
great  rapidity,  the  colonists  brought  slaves 
from  Africa.  By  1522  so  many  Africans  had 
been  introduced  that  they  rose  in  insurrection 
on  account  of  cruel  treatment.  A  colony  of 
blacks  emigrated  from  the  United  States  to 
Santo  Domingo  in  1824,  and  their  descendants 
are  still  to  be  traced  among  the  population.— 
The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Koman  Catho- 
lic, but  all  other  sects  are  tolerated ;  and  there 
are  some  Methodist  and  Baptist  churches,  sup- 
ported mainly  by  the  colored  emigrants  from 
the  United  States.  The  archbishop  of  Santo 
Domingo  still  preserves  the  title  of  primate 
of  the  Indies,  bestowed  on  him  in  the  Spanish 
colonial  days.  There  is  a  so-called  university 
in  the  capital,  and  there  are  several  schools 
there  and  in  the  other  towns ;  but  public  edu- 
cation is  little  attended  to,  even  in  its  primary 
branches. — The  commerce  of  Santo  Domingo 
is  small,  owing  partly  to  anarchy  and  partly 
to  customs  duties  so  excessive  as  to  be  almost 
prohibitory.  In  1863  the  total  imports  amount- 
ed to  about  $1,500,000;  exports,  $2,500,000. 
In  1870  the  imports  were  estimated  at  $560,- 
000 ;  exports,  $700,000.  In  1873  the  imports 
at  the  chief  port,  Puerto  Plata,  amounted  to 
$871,116 ;  exports,  $1,093,753.  The  number 
of  vessels  that  entered  that  port  in  the  same 
year  was  201,  of  12,191  tons.  The  principal 
exports  are  tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  sugar,  ca- 
cao, ginger,  hides,  wax,  mahogany,  and  dye 
woods.  Inland  commerce  is  cramped  by  the 
want  of  good  roads,  all  highways  being  neg- 
lected, and  transportation  being  confined  al- 
most entirely  to  the  backs  of  horses  and  mules. 
Steamers  run  regularly  from  Puerto  Plata  and 
Santo  Domingo  city  to  the  other  West  India 
islands  and  to  New  York. — The  government  is 
a  republic,  founded  on  a  constitution  adopted 
in  1844,  and  proclaimed  anew  on  the  depar- 
ture of  the  Spaniards  in  1865.  The  president 
and  vice  president  are  elected  for  six  years, 
with  a  difference  of  three  years  in  the  time 
of  their  election.  The  president  appoints  a 
council  of  state  consisting  of  four  ministers,  on 
one  of  whom,  at  his  will,  devolve  the  duties  of 
minister  of  foreign  relations.  The  legislative 
branch  consists  of  a  senate  (aenado  consultor) 
elected  for  six  years,  and  composed  of  nine 
members,  two  each  for  the  cities  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo and  Santiago,  and  one  for  each  of  the 
five  provinces.  Each  province  and  district  has 
a  government,  and  each  parish  and  military 
post  a  commandant  nominated  by  the  execu- 
tive. The  towns  are  governed  by  councils 
elected  for  three  years.  The  judiciary  consists 
of  a  supreme  court  which  sits  in  the  capital, 
and  a  court  of  first  instance  in  each  province 
and  district,  sitting  in  the  respective  capitals. 
Each  town  and  parish  has  also  an  alcalde  or 
justice  of  the  peace.  The  revenue  is  derived 
724  VOL.  xiv. — 40 


from  customs  duties,  which  average  40  per 
cent.,  direct  and  indirect  taxation,  and  sales 
of  .public  property.  There  are  no  recent  offi- 
cial returns  of  the  receipts  and  disbursements 
of  the  government;  but  the  United  States 
commission  reported  the  total  income  for  1870 
to  be  $772,684  75,  of  which  $728,605  58  was 
derived  from  customs,  $35,466  55  from  direct 
and  indirect  taxes,  and  the  remainder  from 
sales,  rents,  &c.  The  total  debt  of  the  re- 
public in  1870  was  reported  by  the  commis- 
sion to  amount  to  $1,565,831,  wholly  internal. 
Besides*  this,  a  foreign  debt  of  £757,700  was 
contracted  in  London  in  1869,  which  at  the 
close  of  1872  had  been  reduced  by  a  sink- 
ing fund  to  £722,700.  The  army  consists  of 
4,000  men  in  time  of  peace,  and  on  a  war  foot- 
ing of  15,000  men.  The  navy  comprises  three 
corvettes  and  five  schooners,  with  44  guns. — 
For  the  history  of  Santo  Domingo  previous 
to  1844,  see  HAYTI.  On  Feb.  27  of  that  year 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  part  of  the 
island  declared  their  independence,  and  pro- 
claimed the  Dominican  republic,  under  the 
lead  of  Pedro  Santana.  The  Haytians  invaded 
their  territory  with  20,000  (according  to  some 
authorities,  15,000)  men,  but  were  defeated  by 
Santana  on  March  19.  In  November  a  consti- 
tution was  formed,  and  Santana  was  elected 
president.  He  resigned  in  1848,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Jimenes,  who  conspired  with  Sou- 
louque,  president  of  Hayti,  and  induced  the 
latter  to  invade  Dominica ;  but  Santana,  called 
to  command  the  troops,  defeated  5,000  Hay- 
tians with  but  400  men  at  Ocoa,  April  22, 1849. 
Santana  received  the  title  of  liberator  of  his 
country,  and,  having  deposed  Jimenes,  ruled 
as  dictator  until  the  election  to  the  presidency 
of  Buenaventura  Baez  in  the  autumn  of  1849. 
Baez  secured  the  recognition  of  the  republic 
by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Denmark.  About 
1850  the  question  of  annexation  to  the  United 
States  was  mooted,  but  Baez  did  not  favor  it, 
on  account  of  the  existence  of  slavery  there. 
This  together  with  his  alliance  with  the  cleri- 
cal party  made  him  unpopular,  and  in  1853 
Santana  was  elected  president.  He  banished 
Baez,  and  compelled  the  archbishop  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him  as  a  power  great- 
er than  the  church ;  but  he  in  turn  became 
unpopular,  and  Baez  was  recalled  in  1856.  In 
the  following  year  a  rebellion  broke  out,  and 
in  1858  Baez  was  driven  from  the  island,  San- 
tana and  liberalism  again  coming  into  pow- 
er. In  1861  Santana,  disheartened  with  affairs 
and  despairing  of  his  ability  to  preserve  peace, 
suddenly  invited  Spain  to  resume  her  author- 
ity over  the  republic.  Geffrard,  president  of 
Hayti,  protested  against  the  cession  to  Spain, 
and  gave  refuge  to  many  prominent  Domini- 
cans who  were  opposed  to  it.  The  Spaniards 
sent  troops  into  the  island,  but  discontent 
prevailed  everywhere,  particularly  among  the 
negroes,  who  feared  a  return  to  slavery.  In 
1863  a  serious  rebellion  broke  out,  and  after 
two  years  of  fighting,  in  which  every  atrocity 


624: 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


SAO  FRANCISCO 


•was  perpetrated,  Spain  was  at  last  forced  to 
retire,  and  by  an  act  of  cortes,  March  8,  1865, 
declared  the  independence  of  Santo  Domingo. 
Large*numbers  of  troops  were  sent  to  the  isl- 
and, a  great  proportion  of  whom  perished  in 
the  struggle.  Anarchy  prevailed  on  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Spaniards.  Toward  the  close  of 
1865  Baez  was  recalled  to  the  presidency,  but 
in  1866  a  conspiracy  secured  his  overthrow, 
and  a  triumvirate  consisting  of  Pimentel,  Gar- 
cia, and  Luperon  came  into  power.  These 
were  succeeded  by  Jose  Maria  Cabral  as  presi- 
dent, who  attempted  to  lease  Samana  bay  to 
the  United  States,  but  the  offer  was  declined. 
In  1868  Baez  again  became  president.  In  1871 
three  commissioners  were  sent  by  President 
Grant  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  the 
Dominican  republic,  whose  inhabitants  had 
voted  almost  unanimously  for  annexation  to 
the  United  States ;  their  report  was  favorable 
to  annexation,  but  congress  took  no  action 
upon  it.  On  Jan.  10,  1873,  the  bay  and  pen- 
insula of  Samana  were  ceded  to  a  company 
formed  in  the  United  States;  but  on  March 
25,  1874,  all  the  rights  of  the  company  were 
confiscated  for  non-payment  of  the  stipulated 
annual  rent.  Baez  was  succeeded  as  president 
by  Ignacio  Gonzales,  elected  Dec.  20,  1873. 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  a  city,  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name  and  of  the  republic  of  Santo 
Domingo,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Ozama,  lat.  18°  28'  N.,  Ion.  69°  55' 
W. ;  pop.  said  to  be  10,000,  but  estimated  by 
the  United  States  commission  in  1871  at  about 
6,000.  The  town  is  built  on  a  solid  limestone 
formation,  with  a  perceptible  incline  toward 
the  river,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  8  ft. 


Cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo. 

thick  and  10  ft.  high,  built  of  mamposteria, 
a  composition  of  earth,  powdered  stone,  and 
lime;  it  is  4,500  yards  in  circumference,  and 
is  strengthened  with  bastions.  The  streets 
are  straight,  wide,  and  at  right  angles  to  each 


other.  Many  of  the  ancient  houses  and  build- 
ings are  still  standing,  but  are  only  remarkable 
for  their  solidity.  Few  of  the  many  churches 
which  once  graced  the  city  now  remain.  The 
most  noteworthy  is  the  cathedral,  in  which 
the  remains  of  Columbus  and  of  his  brother 
Bartholomew  reposed  for  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies. It  was  begun  in  1512  and  finished 
in  1540,  and  was  modelled  after  a  church  in 
Rome.  On  the  bank  of  the  river  are  the  ruins 
of  the  so-called  castle  of  Columbus,  a  fortified 
stone  house  built  by  Diego  Columbus.  There 
are  in  the  city  a  seminary,  a  college,  and  a  pri- 
mary school,  all  under  the  care  of  the  church, 
with  about  800  pupils.  In  the  college  are 
a  school  of  medicine  and  a  night  school  for 
gratuitous  instruction.  The  climate  is  health- 
ful. The  trade  is  principally  in  cabinet  and 
dye  woods,  which  are  brought  down  from  the 
interior.  The  port  is  deep  enough  for  large 
vessels,  the  river  being  24  ft.  deep  for  three 
miles,  but  there  is  only  18  ft.  of  water  at  the 
entrance. — Santo  Domingo  city,  the  oldest  ex- 
isting settlement  by  white  men  in  the  new 
world,  was  founded  by  Bartholomew  Colum- 
bus in  1494  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ozama, 
and  was  originally  called  Nueva  Isabella.  In 
1502  it  was  destroyed  by  a  hurricane,  when  its 
location  was  changed  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river,  The  walls  were  built  in  1506.  In 
1586  Sir  Francis  Drake  captured  the  city,  but 
ransomed  it  for  25,000  ducats.  In  1655  the 
English  under  Admiral  Penn  and  Gen.  Vena- 
bles  were  defeated  liere. 
M YIOIM V  See  THERA. 
s I  vroKIM.  Giovanni  Domenlro,  an  Italian  anat- 
omist, born  in  Venice  about  1680,  died  there, 
May  7, 1736.  He  stud- 
ied medicine  at  Pisa, 
and  practised  in  Ven- 
ice, where  he  was  pro- 
sector and  professor 
of  anatomy.  He  dis- 
covered and  described 
two  small  cartilages, 
attached  to  the  apices 
of  the  arytenoid  car- 
tilages of  the  larynx, 
now  known  as  the 
cartilages  of  Santori- 
ni.  His  works  are : 
Opmcula  Medico,  do 
Structura  et  Motu 
Fibrce;  DeNutritione 
Animali ;  De  Hae- 
morrhoidibus  ;  De  Ca>- 
tameniti,  &c.  (Venice, 
1705)  ;  Olservationet 
Anatomicce  (1724)  ; 
Istoria  d\m  feto  et- 
tratto  delle  parti  de- 

retane  (1727);  Ittruzione  alle  febbre  (1734); 
and  Anatomica  Septemdecim  Tabulae,  &c. 
(Parma,  1775). 

SlO  FRANCISCO,  a  river  of  Brazil.    See  BRA- 
ZIL, vol.  iii.,  p.  220. 


SAONE 

SAONE  (anc.  Arar ;  in  the  middle  ages,  Se- 
gona  or  Saucona),  a  river  of  France,  which 
has  its  source  at  Viomenil,  in  the  S.  W.  part  of 
the  department  of  Vosges,  flows  generally  S. 
through  the  departments  of  Haute-Sa6ne,  C6te 
d'Or,  and  Saone-et-Loire,  forms  the  boundary 
between  those  of  Kh6ne  and  Ain,  and  unites 
with  the  Rhone  at  Lyons.  Its  length  is  280 
m.,  of  which  190  m.  are  navigable  for  steam- 
boats. The  town  of  Gray  is  the  head  of  navi- 
gation at  the  ordinary  height  of  the  river,  but 
during  an  overflow  large  rafts,  loaded  with 
staves,  iron,  and  other  heavy  produce,  descend 
from  the  department  of  Vosges  to  Gray.  Its 
principal  affluents  are  the  Oignon,  Doubs,  and 
Seille  from  the  left,  and  the  Ouche  and  Grone 
from  the  right.  The  Burgundian,  Central,  and 
Rh6ne  and  Rhine  canals  connect  it  with  the 
Rhine  and  the  Seine.  Though  usually  a  gen- 
tle stream,  it  has  at  times  been  subject  to  de- 
structive floods ;  several  of  these  are  on  record, 
including  one  in  1840  which  produced  great 
loss  of  property  and  life  at  Lyons. 

SAOXE-ET-LOIRE,  a  S.  E.  department  of 
France,  in  Burgundy,  bordering  on  C6te-d'Or, 
Jura,  Ain,  Rhone,  Loire,  Allier,  and  Nievre; 
area,  3,302  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  598,344.  It 
is  crossed  from  N.  to  S.  by  a  mountain  range, 
and  is  watered  W.  of  this  ridge  by  the  Loire, 
and  E.  by  the  Sa6ne.  The  surface  is  diversi- 
fied and  the  soil  moderately  fertile.  Fair  wines, 
coal,  iron,  manganese,  leather,  glass,  and  linen, 
cotton,  and  woollen  goods  are  produced.  The 
great  iron  works  of  Le  Oreuzot  are  in  this  de- 
partment. It  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Charolles,  Chalon-sur-Sa6ne,  Louhans, 
Macon,  and  Autun.  Capital,  Macon. 

SAOXE,  Haute,    See  HAUTE-SAdxE. 

SAO  PAULO.  I.  A  S.  province  of  Brazil, 
bounded  N.  by  Minas  Geraes,  E.  by  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  Parana,  and 
"W.  by  Matto  Grosso ;  area,  93,547  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  835,000.  The  coast,  250  m.  long,  is 
fringed  by  numerous  islands,  the  largest  being 
that  of  Sao  Sebastiao.  The  best  harbor  is 
that  of  Santos.  The  Serra  do  Mar,  forming 
the  edge  of  the  great  Brazilian  plateau,  skirts 
the  coast;  its  average  height  is  2,750  ft.  On 
the  W.  side  the  country  declines  gently  toward 
the  plains  of  the  Parana  basin.  This  region 
is  watered  by  large  rivers,  mostly  navigable 
for  several  hundred  miles;  the  principal  are 
the  Grande  and  the  Tiete,  tributaries  of  the 
Parana,  which  forms  the  W.  boundary  line  of 
the  province.  The  gold  mines  of  Jaragua  were 
long  famous.  Pompeo  sets  down  the  yield  of 
all  the  gold  mines  up  to  1800  at  116,250  Ibs. 
Silver,  copper,  and  iron  also  occur,  and  dia- 
monds, rubies,  and  other  precious  stones  have 
been  found.  Valuable  coal  mines  have  re- 
cently been  discovered.  The  climate  in  the 
west  is  mild,  but  on  the  coast  it  is  hot.  The 
soil  is  very  rich,  and  the  chief  articles  of  culti- 
vation are  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar  cane, 
maize,  sweet  potatoes,  mandioca,  and  black 
beans.  The  value  of  the  coffee  exported  in 


SlO  PEDRO  DO  RIO  GRANDE 


625 


1870-'7l  was  $5,600,000,  one  fifth  of  which 
was  to  the  United  States ;  of  the  cotton, 
$1,300,000,  half  of  which  went  to  England. 
In  1873  there  were  624  public  schools,  with 
16,264  pupils.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, 40  m.  N.  K  W.  of  Santos,  its  port,  and 
225  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  pop.  about 
20,000.  It  stands  on  high  ground,  almost  sur- 
rounded by  a  low  plain.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row and  irregular,  but  well  paved  and  light- 
ed with  gas ;  the  houses  are  of  adobe.  The 
cathedral,  a  parish  church,  and  several  other 
churches  attached  to  convents  or  nunneries, 
the  bishop's  and  the  president's  palaces,  the 
city  hall,  prison,  three  hospitals,  and  three 
stone  bridges  are  noteworthy  structures.  Sao 
Paulo  was  founded  by  Jesuits  in  1552 ;  in 
1712  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city,  and  in  1746 
was  erected  into  a  bishopric. 

SlO  PEDRO  DO  RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL  (for- 
merly abbreviated  to  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  now 
to  Sao  Pedro).  I.  The  southernmost  province 
of  Brazil,  bounded  N.  by  Parana,  N.  E.  by 
Santa  Catharina,  S.  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  W. 
by  Uruguay,  and  N.  W.  by  the  Argentine  Re- 
public ;  area,  73,836  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872  (es- 
timated), 455,000,  including  several  thousand 
Germans  and  about  84,000  slaves.  The  Serra 
do  Mar  traverses  the  province  near  the  coast 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  the  Serra  Geral  runs  E.  to 
W.,  none  of  the  peaks  rising  more  than  3,200 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  S.  and  "W.  parts  are 
level,  and  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy.  Parallel 
to  the  coast  in  nearly  its  whole  extent  are 
Lake  Merim,  115  m.  long  and  15  m.  wide,  and 
the  lagoa  dos  Patos,  150  m.  long  and  40  m. 
wide,  united  by  a  natural  canal,  Sao  Gonzalo, 
50  m.  long,  and  communicating  with  the  ocean 
through  the  estuary  called  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
which  extends  from  the  S.  end  of  the  lagoa 
dos  Patos  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  over 
a  dangerous  bar.  Besides  the  Uruguay,  which 
flows  on  its  N.  and  W.  border,  the  principal 
rivers  are  the  Ibicuy,  350  m.  long,  a  tributary 
of  the  Uruguay ;  the  Jacuy,  navigable  for  250 
m.,  emptying  into  the  lagoa  dos  Patos ;  and  the 
Jaguarao,  175  m.  long,  falling  into  Lake  Merim. 
The  W.  shores  of  the  lakes  are  verdant  plains 
intersected  by  small  streams,  and  producing 
all  the  cereals  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  and 
tropic  zones,  with  flax,  hemp,  sugar  cane,  cot- 
ton, and  tobacco.  Ipecacuanha,  sarsaparilla, 
turpeth,  camomile,  and  indigo  abound.  The 
forests  afford  abundant  timber  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  cabinet  woods.  The  province  is  rich 
in  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  marbles,  and  par- 
ticularly coal.  Lead,  granite,  kaolin  and  other 
clays,  ochres,  and  many  varieties  of  precious 
stones  are  found.  Cattle  raising  is  an  impor- 
tant industry.  Mining  is  still  limited.  Railway 
and  telegraph  lines  are  now  (1875)  in  course 
of  construction  through  the  province.  Educa- 
tion is  encouraged;  in  1873  there  were  446 
public  schools,  with  an  aggregate  attendance 
of  14,696  pupils.  The  chief  towns  are  Sao 
Pedro,  Pelotas,  Pardo,  and  Porto  Alegre,  the 


626 


SAP 


SAPPHIRE 


capital.  II.  A  city  of  the  preceding  province, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
150  m.  £.  S.  W.  of  Porto  Alegre ;  pop.  about 
18,000.  The  streets  are  irregular,  but  well 
paved.  The  harbor  is  the  only  good  one  in  the 
province,  nearly  the  entire  trade  of  which, 
conducted  mainly  by  English  and  Germans, 
centres  here.  Three  lines  of  steamers  run  to 
Porto  Alegre.  The  exports  in  1872-'3  were 
valued  as  follows:  hides,  $5,037,312;  horse- 
hair, $247,200 ;  wool,  $149,544 ;  mat6  or  Para- 
guay tea,  $93,658 ;  rum,  sugar,  coffee,  and 
timber,  $6,897;  total,  $5,534,611.  The  im- 
ports amounted  to  $1,826,587.  The  arrivals 
from  foreign  ports  were  929  vessels,  tonnage 
198,029;  departures  698,  tonnage  212,936; 
arrivals  from  Brazilian  ports  840,  tonnage 
221,213;  departures  890,  tonnage  185,060. 

SAP.    See  PLANT,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  582. 

SAPAJOU.    See  MONKEY,  vol.  xi.,  p.  751. 

SAIMV  WOOD  (Malay,  sapang),  a  dyewood 
afforded  by  Ccetalpinia  »apan,  imported  from 
the  East  Indies  and  used  to  dye  red  on  cotton. 
The  genus,  named  in  honor  of  the  naturalist 
Ctesalpinus,  is  also  found  in  Central  and  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  where  some 
species  afford  Brazil,  peach  or  Nicaragua,  and 
other  dyewoods  (see  BRAZIL  WOOD),  and  an- 
other species  the  divi-divi  pods  used  in  tan- 
ning (see  DIVI-DIVI). 

SAPOR.     See  PERSIA,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  322. 

SAPPIIIRE  (Hob.  »appir;  Ar.  saftr\  a  pre- 
cious stone,  next  in  value  and  hardness  to  the 
diamond.  It  is  a  transparent  variety  of  corun- 
dum, composed  of  nearly  pure  alumina.  It  re- 
ceives different  names  according  to  the  color, 
the  red  sapphire  being  the  oriental  ruby ;  the 
amethystine,  the  oriental  amethyst;  the  yel- 
low, the  oriental  topaz;  the  green,  the  orien- 
tal emerald ;  while  the  term  sapphire  alone 
is  commonly  applied  to  the  blue  variety.  The 
Greek  sapphire  (oAxfetpof)  was  not  the  gem 
here  described,  but  the  lapis  lazuli,  as  appears 
from  the  description  given  by  Theophrastus 
and  Pliny.  The  blue  sapphire  is  the  v&KtvOof 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  hyacinthu*  of  Pliny. 
The  ruby  was  probably  included  in  the  an- 
thrax of  Theophrastus  and  the  earbunculu» 
and  lychnis  of  Pliny.  The  chemical  formula 
of  sapphire  is  A14O»,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
oxide  of  chromium,  upon  the  varying  propor- 
tions of  which  the  color  of  the  different  varie- 
ties depends.  The  coarser  kinds  of  corundum 
contain  several  other  oxides.  (See  CORUNDUM, 
and  EMERY.)  The  sapphire  crystallizes  in  the 
rhombohedral  system,  has  a  vitreous  lustre, 
often  pearly  in  the  basal  planes,  and  some- 
times, when  viewed  in  the  direction  of  the 
vertical  axis,  exhibits  a  bright  opalescent  star. 
All  sapphires,  or  pure  varieties  of  corundum, 
are  exceedingly  tough  and  hard,  being  rated  9 
on  the  scale  of  hardness,  the  diamond  being 
10.  The  gem  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  and  in  different  geological  formations, 
as  in  the  granite  of  Siberia,  in  the  ripidolite 
of  North  Carolina,  and  in  the  granular  lime- 


stone of  New  Jersey.  The  finest  ruby  sap- 
phires come  from  Pegu,  Burmah,  and  Siam. 
Smaller  ones  have  been  found  at  Hohenstein 
in  Saxony,  Bilin  in  Bohemia,  and  Le  Puy  in 
France.  The  finest  blue  sapphires  come  from 
Ceylon. — The  blue  sapphire  has  been  known 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  was  regarded  by 
the  ancients  as  a  sacred  stone.  It  is  the  fifth 
stone  in  the  breastplate  of  the  Hebrew  high 
priest.  A  good  blue  sapphire  of  10  carats  is 
worth  about  50  guineas,  and  one  of  20  carats 
200  guineas.  An  ordinary  rule  for  estima- 
ting the  value  is  to  multiply  the  square  of 
the  weight  in  carats  by  half  a  guinea.  Fine 
gems,  for  special  reasons,  often  bring  a  much 
higher  price ;  thus  a  sapphire  of  a  barbel  blue, 
weighing  6  carats  only,  brought  at  a  public 
sale  in  Paris  $350.  Notwithstanding  its  ex- 
cessive hardness,  the  ancients  executed  fine 
engravings  upon  the  sapphire.  A  remarkable 
intaglio  by  Cneius,  cut  in  a  sapphire,  is  in  the 
Strozzi  cabinet  at  Rome  ;  it  is  a  profile  of  the 
yonng  Hercules. — The  red  sapphire,  or  ruby, 
is  the  most  precious  variety,  a  perfect  one 
weighing  more  than  8$  carats  being  more  val- 
uable than  a  diamond  of  the  same  weight ;  a 
perfect  one  of  5  carats  is  worth  twice  as  much 
as  a  diamond  of  the  same  weight ;  and  when 
they  weigh  10  carats  each,  the  ruby,  if  very 
fine,  has  three  times  the  value  of  the  diamond. 
According  to  Harry  Emanuel  ("  Diamonds  and 
Precious  Stones,"  London,  1878),  the  finest  and 
purest  rubies  have  the  following  value :  1  carat, 
from  £14  to  £20;  2  carats,  £70  to  £80;  8 
carats,  £200  to  £250  ;  4  carats,  £400  to  £450. 
The  tint  of  the  ruby  is  as  fine  by  artificial  light 
as  by  the  light  of  day,  and  when  of  the  finest 
tint  it  has  the  color  of  the  centre  of  the  red 
band  of  the  solar  spectrum,  or  that  particular 
shade  known  by  jewellers  as  "  pigeon's  blood ;" 
but  it  varies  from  the  lightest  rose  tint  to  the 
deepest  carmine.  A  deep-colored  ruby  ex- 
ceeding 20  carats  is  usually  called  a  carbuncle. 
The  largest  fine  ruby  known  in  the  world  was 
brought  from  China  to  Prince  Gagarin,  gov- 
ernor of  Siberia ;  it  afterward  came  into  the 
possession  of  Prince  Menshikoff,  and  is  now 
in  the  imperial  crown  of  Russia.  The  mines  of 
Burmah  are  a  royal  monopoly,  and  the  finest 
stones  can  bo  carried  out  of  the  country  only 
by  smuggling.  When  a  particularly  large  and 
fine  stone  is  found,  it  is  customary  to  send 
out  a  procession  of  grandees  with  soldiers  and 
elephants  to  meet  it.  One  of  the  titles  of 
the  king  is  "  lord  of  the  rubies."  The  yellow 
sapphire,  called  the  oriental  topaz,  is  very  rare, 
but  never  reaches  the  value  of  a  ruby  or  blue 
sapphire,  or  even  an  emerald  of  equal  dimen- 
sions. It  was  the  second  stone  in  the  breast- 
plate of  Aaron.  It  was  for  a  long  time  sup- 
posed that  the  ancients  did  not  engrave  upon 
the  topaz,  but  Caire  describes  one  in  his  pos- 
session weighing  29  carats,  engraved  with  the 
motto  in  Arabic,  "  No  one  accomplishes  but 
God."  The  ordinary  occidental  topaz  is  a 
compound  of  alumina,  silica,  and  fluoric  acid. 


SAPPHO 

(See  TOPAZ.) — The  violet  sapphire  is  the  orien- 
tal amethyst,  a  very  rare  gem  of  a  magnificent 
lustre.  It  is  the  ninth  stone  in  the  breastplate 
of  the  Hebrew  high  priest,  and  is  the  sacred 
stone  which  ornaments  the  cross  and  the  pas- 
toral ring  of  Catholic  bishops.  It  was  often 
cut  both  in  relief  and  in  intaglio  by  the  an- 
cients. In  the  national  library  of  France  there 
is  a  splendidly  wrought  profile  in  amethyst, 
supposed  to  be  Maecenas  in  old  age,  engraved 
by  Dioscorides,  one  of  the  four  celebrated  en- 
gravers mentioned  by  Pliny.  The  greater  part 
of  the  amethysts  of  commerce  are  occidental 
amethysts,  quartz  crystals  colored  a  fine  violet 
by  certain  metallic  oxides.  (See  AMETHYST.) 
The  oriental  emerald,  the  green  variety  of 
precious  corundum,  when  of  a  beautiful  green 
and  perfectly  transparent,  is  the  rarest  of  gems. 
Specimens  have  been  found  in  Montana  terri- 
tory. (See  EMERALD.)  When  the  sapphire  is 
colorless  it  is  called  the  white  sapphire,  and 
when  properly  cut  and  polished  it  has  been 
mistaken  for  the  diamond ;  but  it  is  inferior 
in  brilliancy,  and  may  be  distinguished  by  its 
somewhat  less  specific  gravity,  and  by  its  be- 
ing readily  scratched  by  the  diamond. — Speci- 
mens of  sapphire  have  been  found  in  the  ripi- 
dolite  of  North  Carolina  by  Col.  C.  W.  Jenks, 
in  large  crystals  of  several  hundred  pounds 
weight.  They  occur  in  the  native  rock  in  situ, 
of  different  colors,  possessing  much  beauty  as 
mineralogical  specimens,  and  some  of  them 
have  been  cut;  but  as  they  are  traversed  by 
cleavage  planes,  they  do  not  possess  the  per- 
fection of  the  eastern  gems. — Artificial  sap- 
phires have  been  formed  by  Deville  and  Caron 
in  small  crystals  by  subjecting  fluoride  of  alu- 
minum to  the  action  of  boracic  acid  at  a  white 
heat,  and  adding  various  quantities  of  fluoride 
of  chromium.  A  certain  quantity  yields  the 
blue  sapphire,  somewhat  more  the  ruby,  and 
still  more  the  emerald.  Daubre"e  formed  pure 
crystals  by  the  action  of  chloride  of  aluminum 
on  lime ;  Ebelmann  by  exposing  to  a  high 
heat  four  parts  of  borax  and  one  of  alumina ; 
and  Gaudin  by  decomposing  potash  alum  with 
charcoal. 

SAPPHO,  a  Greek  poetess,  born  at  Mytilene 
or  Eresus  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  flourished 
about  600  B.  C.  She  lived  in  friendly  inter- 
course with  her  countryman  Alcseus,  and  was 
married  to  Cercolas  of  Andros,  by  whom  she 
had  a  daughter,  Cleis.  From  Mytilene,  where 
she  lived,  she  was  compelled  by  persecution 
to  flee  to  Sicily,  but  whether  she  remained 
there  until  her  death  is  not  known.  The  com- 
mon story  that,  being  in  love  with  a  youth 
named  Phaon,  she  leaped  in  despair  from  the 
Leucadian  rock,  probably  originated  in  the 
myth  of  the  love  of  Aphrodite  for  Adonis, 
who  is  called  Phaon  by  the  Greeks,  while  the 
leap  from  the  rock  is  a  metaphor  used  by 
many  poets  besides  Sappho.  Her  poems  are 
principally  erotic  compositions  for  the  single 
voice,  but  she  also  wrote  on  a  variety  of  oth- 
er subjects,  serious  as  well  as  satirical,  and  is 


SAKAGOSSA 


627 


said  to  have  first  employed  the  Mixolydian 
mode  in  music.  The  Attic  comic  poets  de- 
lighted in  introducing  her  into  their  dramas 
as  a  courtesan;  but  Welcker,  K.  O.  Mailer, 
Neue,  and  other  commentators  have  attempted 
to  vindicate  her  character.  The  poems  of  Sap- 
pho were  arranged  by  the  later  literary  Greeks 
in  nine  books  according  to  their  metres ;  but 
only  one  complete  ode,  that  to  Aphrodite,  and 
a  number  of  short  fragments,  remain.  She 
wrote  in  the  ^Eolic  dialect,  and  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  metre  which  bears  her  name.  It 
was  formerly  the  custom  to  print  her  literary 
remains  in  editions  of  the  pseudo-Anacreon, 
and  it  was  not  till  1733  that  a  separate  edition 
of  any  portion  of  them  appeared.  Numerous 
collections  and  critical  editions  have  since  been 
published,  the  best  being  by  Volger  (1810), 
Neue  (1827),  Schneidewin  (1838),  and  Bergk 
(1843).  There  are  numerous  translations. 

SARACENS,  originally  the  name  of  an  Arab 
tribe,  then  applied  to  the  Bedouins,  afterward 
to  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  and  later  to 
all  the  Moorish  or  Mohammedan  people  who 
invaded  Europe,  and  against  whom  the  cru- 
saders fought.  The  classical  writers  do  not 
clearly  indicate  the  locality  occupied  by  the 
tribe.  Decius,  it  is  said,  let  loose  among  them 
a  number  of  lions,  to  punish  them  for  their 
predatory  habits.  In  regard  to  the  origin  of 
the  name,  some  suppose  that  an  Arab  tribe 
claimed  Sarah  as  their  ancestress  in  order  to 
escape  the  stigma  of  being  descendants  of  Ha- 
gar ;  others,  that  the  name  was  given  to  them 
in  consequence  of  their  roving  and  plundering 
life,  from  the  Arabic  saralc,  to  plunder ;  and 
others,  that  the  word  is  a  derivative  of  sha- 
rak,  to  rise,  and  hence  signifies  merely  "an 
eastern  people." 

SARAGOSSA  (Sp.  Zaragoza).  I.  A  N.  E.  prov- 
ince of  Spain,  in  Aragon,  bordering  on  Na- 
varre, Huesca,  L6rida,  Tarragona,  Teruel,  Gua- 
dalajara, Soria,  and  Logrono;  area,  6,607  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870  (estimated),  401,894.  The 
surface  is  generally  hilly.  The  valley  of  Caspe 
in  the  southeast  is  remarkably  fertile.  The 
Ebro  flows  S.  E.  through  the  province ;  other 
rivers  are  the  Jalon,  Gallego,  and  Jiloca.  Lead, 
copper,  tin,  and  sulphur  are  found,  but  few 
mines  are  in  operation.  Wheat,  flax,  hemp, 
silk,  wine,  and  oil  are  produced.  Little  at- 
tention is  paid  to  manufactures.  The  chief 
towns,  besides  the  capital,  are  Tarazona,  Ca- 
latayud,  Daroca,  Mequinenza,  and  Caspe.  II. 
A  city  (anc.  Ceesarea  Augusta),  capital  of  the 
province,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Huerba  and  nearly  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Gallego,  and  on  the  canal  of 
Aragon,  170  in.  N.  E.  of  Madrid;  pop.  about 
65,000.  Although  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  in  Spain,  it  is  gloomy  and  antiquated, 
with  narrow,  irregular,  and  ill-paved  streets. 
The  canal  and  the  crossing  of  two  main  rail- 
way lines  have  lately  given  the  city  an  in- 
creased activity.  There  are  two  cathedrals, 
several  churches,  an  academy  of  fine  arts,  a 


628 


SARAGOSSA 


SARATOGA 


large  hospital,  and  a  university  established  in 
1474.  The  bridge  over  the  Ebro  was  built  in 
1487. — Saragossa  was  founded  by  Augustus  in 
27  B.  0.,  taken  by  the  Goths  about  470,  by  the 
Moors  in  712,  and  by  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon  in 
1118.  It  is  famous  for  the  two  sieges  it  sus- 
tained in  1808,  the  first  from  June  16  to  Aug. 
14,  when  the  French  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss,  and  the  second  from  Dec.  20, 1808,  to  Feb. 
21,  1809,  when  the  city  surrendered  after  one 
of  the  most  desperate  defences  in  history,  and 
was  held  by  the  French  till  July,  1813.  Du- 
ring the  siege  54,000  persons  in  the  city  per- 
ished, of  whom  only  6,000  were  killed  by  the 
enemy,  the  rest  dying  from  an  epidemic  which 
broke  out  and  which  compelled  the  surrender. 

SARAGOSSA,  Maid  of.    See  AOUSTIXA. 

SARATOGA,  an  E.  county  of  New  York, 
bounded  E.  and  partly  N.  by  the  Hudson  river, 
and  S.  by  the  Mohawk ;  area,  780  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  51,529.  The  surface  is  mountainous 
in  the  northwest.  Iron  ore,  sandstone,  and 
limestone  are  abundant.  The  central  portion 
abounds  in  mineral  springs,  principally  at  Sar- 
atoga and  Ballston  Spa.  The  Champlain  canal 
passes  along  the  E.  and  the  Erie  along  the  S. 
border,  and  it  is  traversed  by  several  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  15,913 
bushels  of  wheat,  173,599  of  rye,  881,541  of 
Indian  corn,  581,674  of  oats,  144,985  of  buck- 
wheat, 1,236,915  of  potatoes,  83,399  tons  of 
hay,  194,792  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,426,308  of  butter, 
83,277  of  cheese,  52,296  of  hops,  and  38,316 
of  honey.  There  were  9,200  horses,  15,779 
inilch  cows,  11,041  other  cattle,  40,513  sheep, 
and  7,675  swine ;  6  manufactories  of  boats,  8 
of  brick,  32  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  cot- 
ton goods,  4  of  woollen  goods,  1  of  linen,  1  of 
window  glass,  1  of  edge  tools  and  axes,  3  of 
hardware,  6  of  iron  castings,  6  of  machinery,  2 
of  engines  and  boilers,  12  of  paper,  20  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  8  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
4  of  wooden  ware,  10  tanneries,  16  flour  mills, 
and  30  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ballston  Spa. 

SARATOGA,  Battle  of.  On  Sept.  14,  1777,  the 
expedition  of  Burgoyne  crossed  the  Hudson 
by  a  bridge  of  boats  and  encamped  on  the 
heights  and  plains  of  Saratoga,  near  Fish 
creek,  within  a  few  miles  of  the  northern  di- 
vision of  the  continentals  under  Gen.  Gates  at 
Still  water.  Kosciuszko  had  fortified  Bemns's 
heights ;  the  right  wing  occupied  a  hill  near- 
est the  river,  and  Arnold  commanded  the  left 
wing  about  three  fourths  of  a  mile  further 
removed.  Next  day  the  right  wing  of  the 
British  advanced  to  within  4  m.  of  the  Ameri- 
can lines,  and  on  the  19th  made  a  further  for- 
ward movement  of  2  m.  It  was  led  by  Bur- 
goyne, and  consisted  of  Canadians  and  Indians, 
supported  by  a  body  of  grenadiers  and  light 
infantry  under  Gen.  Fraser.  Gen.  Morgan, 
who  had  been  detached  about  noon  with  his 
sharpshooters  to  observe  Burgoyne's  move- 
ments, drove  back  the  advanced  guard,  but 
coming  upon  the  main  column  was  compelled 
to  retreat.  Reinforcements  coming  up  under 


Arnold,  a  severe  conflict  ensued,  commencing 
about  4  o'clock  and  continuing  until  dark. 
The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  within  400, 
that  of  their  adversaries  about  500.  This  con- 
test is  variously  called  the  battle  of  Saratoga, 
Stillwater,  and  Bemus's  heights.  Frustrated 
in  this  attempt,  his  communications  with  Can- 
ada cut  off  by  the  seizure  of  the  posts  at  the 
outlet  of  Lake  George,  and  his  supplies  inter- 
cepted by  the  capture  of  a  large  fleet  of  boats 
with  provisions  and  300  men,  Burgoyne's  only 
hope  was  in  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  had 
promised  to  attempt  the  ascent  of  the  Hudson 
for  his  relief.  He  fortified  his  camp,  but  after 
waiting  two  weeks  had  no  alternative  but  to 
hazard  a  battle.  On  Oct.  7,  seconded  by  Major 
General  Phillips  and  Riedesel,  and  Brigadier 
General  Fraser,  he  advanced  with  1,500  picked 
troops,  two  12-pounders,  two  6-pounders,  and 
two  howitzers,  and  offered  battle  to  the  Amer- 
ican army.  Scouts  were  sent  out  with  or- 
ders to  make  a  diversion  in  the  rear,  but  they 
were  discovered  by  the  advanced  guard  of  the 
Americans.  Two  detachments  went  forward, 
one  under  Gen.  Poor  against  the  British  left 
and  one  under  Morgan  against  their  right.  On 
the  left  the  Americans  advanced  against  the 
British  grenadiers  and  artillery,  and,  having 
been  joined  by  Arnold  (who  had  rushed  with- 
out orders  to  the  head  of  the  detachment,  and 
assumed  the  command),  took  and  lost  the  bat- 
teries again  and  again,  until  the  enemy  had 
been  driven  off  and  their  own  guns  turned 
upon  them.  Morgan  in  the  mean  while  had 
attacked  the  enemy's  right  under  Fraser,  who 
was  fatally  wounded  by  a  sharpshooter.  This, 
followed  by  a  reinforcement  of  the  Americans, 
threw  the  British  into  confusion,  and  Bur- 
goyno,  abandoning  his  artillery,  retreated  to 
his  camp  in  good  order.  Here  he  was  again 
desperately  assailed,  and  the  Americans  car- 
ried a  portion  of  the  camp  and  drove  off  the 
Hessian  reserve.  Arnold,  who  led  the  last 
charge,  was  severely  wounded  in  the  leg. 
Night  closed  the  contest ;  the  victors  lay  on 
their  arms  near  the  battle  field,  and  Burgoyne 
abandoned  a  portion  of  his  camp  and  moved 
to  the  river.  On  the  9th  he  retreated  to 
Saratoga,  and  on  the  10th  the  whole  British 
force  occupied  their  former  camp,  which  they 
proceeded  to  strengthen  in  the  hope  of  succor 
from  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  should  they  not  be 
able  to  effect  a  retreat.  An  American  battery 
under  Gen.  Fellows  commanded  the  passage 
across  the  river,  the  bridges  on  the  road  to 
Fort  Edward  were  destroyed,  and  Gates  with 
about  12,000  men  appeared  on  the  S.  side  of 
Fish  creek  prepared  for  battle.  Without  an 
avenue  of  retreat,  continually  exposed  to  the 
fire  of  Gates's  and  Fellows's  batteries  and  the 
riflemen  of  Morgan,  without  provisions  for 
more  than  a  few  days,  and  despairing  of  re- 
lief, Burgoyne,  after  consultation,  on  Oct.  13 
proposed  a  cessation  of  hostilities  until  terms 
of  capitulation  could  be  agreed  upon.  Gates 
demanded  an  unconditional  surrender,  which 


SARATOGA  SPRINGS 

•was  rejected;  and  he  finally  agreed  on  the 
15th  to  more  moderate  terms,  influenced  by 
the  possibility  of  Clinton's  arrival,  which  after 
some  hesitation  Burgoyne  signed  on  the  17th. 
They  provided  that  the  British  were  to  march 
out  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  to  be  fur- 
nished a  free  passage  to  England  under  prom- 
ise of  not  again  serving  against  the  Americans. 
These  terms  were  not  carried  out  by  congress, 
and  most  of  the  captured  army,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Gens.  Burgoyne,  Riedesel,  Phillips, 
and  Hamilton,  were  retained  as  prisoners  while 
the  war  lasted.  The  Americans  obtained  by 
this  victory,  at  a  very  critical  period,  an  ex- 
cellent train  of  brass  artillery,  consisting  of 
42  guns  of  various  calibre,  4,647  muskets,  and 
a  large  supply  of  ammunition.  The  prisoners 
numbered  5,8£4,  and  the  entire  American  force 
at  the  time  of  the  surrender  was  10,817  effec- 
tive men.  A  plan  has  been  formed  for  the 
erection  of  a  monument  on  the  site  of  the  sur- 
render (Schuylerville),  to  be  higher  than  that 
of  Bunker  Hill,  with  niches  for  bronze  statues 
of  the  principal  actors  in  the  battle.  The  cost 
is  estimated  at  $450,000,  toward  which  the 
state  of  New  York  has  appropriated  $50,000. 

SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  a  town  and  village  of 
Saratoga  co.,  New  York,  on  the  Adirondack 
and  the  Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  railroads,  32 
m.  N.  by  "W.  of  Albany ;  pop.  of  the  town  in 
1870,  8,537;  of  the  village,  7,516;  in  1875, 
10,765.  The  mineral  springs,  which  have  given 
this  place  its  celebrity,  and  its  large  elms,  are 
almost  the  only  natural  attractions.  Saratoga 
lake,  6  m.  long  by  2  m.  wide,  fed  by  Kayade- 
rosseras  creek  and  connected  with  the  Hudson 
by  Fish  creek,  is  3£  m.  E.  of  the  village.  On 
the  S.  E.  shore  is  a  valuable  white  sulphur 
spring.  There  are  in  all  at  Saratoga  28  springs 
(including  6  spouting),  some  chalybeate,  others 
impregnated  with  iodine,  sulphur,  and  magne- 
sia, and  all  powerfully  charged  with  carbonic 
acid  gas.  The  most  celebrated  are  the  Con- 
gress, Empire,  Hathorn,  High  Rock,  Washing- 
ton, Geyser  (spouting),  and  Pavilion  springs. 
High  Rock  spring,  composed  of  calcareous  tufa, 
narrows  rapidly  as  it  rises  above  the  surface, 
and  terminates  3£  ft.  above  the  ground  in  a 
rounded  top,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  circu- 
lar opening  a  foot  in  diameter  4  in.  below  the 
surface ;  the  depth  of  the  spring  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  is  32  ft.  In  1789  the  rock  was 
entire,  the  water  occasionally  overflowing  and 
increasing  its  size  by  deposits.  Two  years 
afterward  a  large  tree  fell  upon  and  cracked 
it,  since  which  time  the  water  has  kept  on  a 
general  level  5  or  6  in.  below  the  top.  The 
waters  of  these  springs  are  regarded  as  valu- 
able aids  in  cutaneous  and  liver  diseases,  in 
some  cases  of  confirmed  dyspepsia,  and  in 
chronic  affections  of  the  bowels.  They  are 
generally  tonic  and  greatly  cathartic.  At  an 
early  period  the  waters  were  evaporated  in 
potash  kettles,  and  the  precipitated  salts  sold 
in  small  packages ;  but  it  was  soon  found  that 
these  salts  did  not  reproduce  the  original  wa- 


SARAWAK 


629 


ters  on  being  dissolved.  Large  quantities  of 
the  waters,  especially  of  the  Congress,  Empire, 
and  Hathorn  springs,  are  bottled  and  exported. 
(For  analyses,  see  MINEBAL  SPRINGS,  vol.  xi., 
p.  593.)  The  village  contains  7  large  and  25 
small  hotels,  49  boarding  houses,  four  banks, 
a  large  town  hall,  two  assembly  rooms,  a 
female  seminary,  a  water  cure,  five  printing 
offices,  a  daily  and  three  weekly  newspapers, 
and  eight  churches.  The  number  of  visitors 
during  the  season,  which  lasts  from  June  15 
to  Sept.  15,  ranges  from  30,000  to  45,000. — 
The  medicinal  properties  of  the  High  Rock 
spring,  or  the  "  Round  Rock,"  as  it  was  called 
by  the  early  settlers,  were  known  to  the  Iro- 
quois  confederacy  at  the  period  of  Jacques 
Carder's  visit  to  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1535. 
In  1767  Sir  William  Johnson  was  carried  hith- 
er on  a  litter  by  the  Mohawks,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved he  was  the  first  white  man  to  visit  the 
spring.  The  first  log  cabin  was  built  in  1773 
by  Derick  Scowton,  and  the  first  framed  house 
in  1784  by  Gen.  Schuyler,  who  in  the  same 
year  cut  a  road  through  the  forest  to  the  High 
Rock  from  Schuylerville.  In  1693  a  sangui- 
nary battle  was  fought  near  the  site  of  the 
present  village  between  the  French  under  De 
Manteth  and  the  English  led  by  Major  Peter 
Schuyler,  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 
The  name  Saratoga  (Indian,  Saraghoga)  signi- 
fies the  "place  of  the  herrings,"  which  for- 
merly passed  up  the  Hudson  into  Saratoga 
lake. — See  R.  L.  Allen,  "Analysis  of  the  prin- 
cipal Mineral  Fountains  at  Saratoga,"  &c.  (New 
York,  1858),  and  W.  L.  Stone,  "Reminiscences 
of  Saratoga"  (New  York,  1875). 

SARATOV.  I.  A  S.  E.  government  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  bordering  on  Penza,  Simbirsk, 
Samara,  Astrakhan,  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  and  Tambov;  area,  32,622  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870, 1,751,268,  of  whom  120,000  were 
Germans.  It  is  watered  by  affluents  of  the 
Don  and  of  the  Volga,  which  bounds  it  in 
the  east.  It  formerly  included  a  large  territo- 
ry E.  of  the  Volga,  which  is  now  comprised 
in  the  governments  of  Samara  and  Astrakhan. 
The  country  is  generally  level,  but  skirted  by 
hills  along  the  Volga.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  government,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vol- 
ga, 450  m.  S.  E.  of  Moscow ;  pop.  in  1867, 
93,218.  It  contains  12  Greek  and  several  oth- 
er churches,  and  a  gymnasium.  It  is  an  im- 
portant centre  of  trade  and  industry,  and  the 
population  has  lately  much  increased.  A  Greek 
bishop  resides  here,  as  well  as  a  Protestant 
consistory  with  an  extensive  jurisdiction. 

SARAWAK.  I.  An  independent  state  in  Bor- 
neo, under  English  control,  extending  about 
300  m.  along  the  N.  W.  coast  from  Cape  Datu 
to  Kidorong  point,  between  lat.  0°  30'  and  3° 
20'  N.,  and  Ion.  109°  40'  and  111°  40'  E.,  and 
inland  at  the  furthest  point  about  100  m.  The 
interior  boundary,  bordered  by  the  Krimbang 
mountains,  forms  a  curve  which  terminates  in 
the  capes  mentioned.  The  surface  varies  from 
the  lofty  mountains  scattered  throughout  the 


630 


SARAWAK 


SARDANAPALUS 


interior,  some  of  which  are  at  least  6,000  ft. 
high,  to  the  low,  forest-covered,  and  fertile 
plains  in  the  valleys  of  the  numerous  rivers, 
separated  from  each  other  by  mountainous 
ridges.  A  few  isolated  mountains  occur  near 
the  coast.  The  largest  and  deepest  river  is 
the  Rejang,  which  flows  into  the  sea  N.  E.  of 
the  capital,  over  a  bar  having  five  fathoms  of 
water  at  high  tide.  The  Sarawak  river  has  a 
depth  of  8$  fathoms  at  its  principal  entrance, 
at  low  water.  Between  it  and  the  Rejang  is 
the  Batang-Lupar,  a  third  long  river,  which 
enters  the  sea  with  a  width  of  4  m.  Of  the 
secondary  rivers  the  more  important  are  the 
Samarahan,  Sadong,  Seribas,  and  Kalaka,  in 
W.  Sarawak;  the  Egan,  a  branch  of  the  Re- 
jang; and  the  Bintulu,  near  the  E.  frontier, 
on  which  stands  a  settlement  of  the  same 
name.  In  the  mountains  nearest  the  coast 
limestone  is  the  prevailing  formation.  The 
soil  along  the  rivers  is  a  rich  alluvium,  but 
clayey  in  the  higher  districts.  Gold  washing 
is  carried  on  by  the  Chinese  on  many  of  the 
streams,  and  yields  some  profit.  The  chief 
metal  product,  however,  is  antimony,  which 
occurs  of  the  best  quality,  in  exceeding  abun- 
dance, and  in  many  localities.  Excellent  coal 
deposits  have  been  discovered,  but  as  yet  are 
only  partially  developed.  Iron  was  formerly 
manufactured  by  the  inhabitants  from  native 
ores,  and  arsenic  and  manganese  are  found, 
and  small  quantities  of  silver;  but  none  of 
these  metals  are  now  worked.  Forests  over- 
spread the  greater  part  of  the  country,  yield- 
ing valuable  timber,  ebony,  ironwood,  sandal 
wood,  gutta  percha,  caoutchouc,  camphor,  rat- 
tan, and  bamboo.  Agriculture  is  in  a  com- 
paratively primitive  state.  Rice  is  cultivated 
in  the  lowlands,  and  cotton,  pepper,  tapioca, 
and  tobacco  in  the  more  elevated  districts. 
Maize,  sugar  cane,  arrowroot,  and  nearly  all 
the  insular  products  of  the  archipelago  are 
also  raised.  The  climate  is  hot,  with  much 
rain  from  September  to  March,  but  not  un- 
healthy.— The  population  of  Sarawak  is  esti- 
mated at  800,000,  composed  of  about  40,000 
Malays,  the  Land  and  Sea  Dyaks,  a  tribe  in 
the  east  known  as  the  Milanaus,  some  tattooed 
tribes  of  the  interior,  and  about  8,000  Chinese. 
There  are  settlements  on  all  the  larger  rivers. 
The  founder  of  the  present  government  was 
Sir  James  Brooke  (see  BROOKE),  to  whom  in 
1841  the  sultan  of  Borneo  proper  ceded  the 
town  of  Kuching,  with  the  title  of  rajah.  An 
additional  cession  was  subsequently  made,  en- 
larging Sarawak  to  its  present  boundaries. 
Under  his  enlightened  rule  the  country  stead- 
ily advanced,  from  the  complete  anarchy  in 
which  he  found  it,  toward  peace  and  pros- 
perity, notwithstanding  a  formidable  Chinese 
insurrection  in  1857,  which  was  successfully 
suppressed  after  the  slaughter  or  expulsion 
of  about  2,000  Chinamen.  When  Sir  James 
Brooke  died  in  1868,  he  was  succeeded  as 
rajah  by  his  nephew  Charles  Brooke,  under 
whom  Sarawak  has  continued  to  prosper.  A 


system  of  associating  the  native  chiefs  with 
Europeans  in  the  government  was  adopted  at 
the  outset,  and  has  been  maintained.  Justice 
is  simply  and  effectively  administered  through 
native  local  courts,  where  the  Mohammedan 
code  is  applied  under  European  supervision, 
and  through  the  supreme  court  of  the  rajah 
at  the  capital.  Complete  religious  toleration 
prevails;  the  English  bishop  of  Labuan  ex- 
ercises spiritual  jurisdiction  in  Sarawak,  and 
there  are  several  Protestant  missionary  stations 
in  the  country.  A  few  regular  troops  are 
maintained.  The  revenue  is  derived  through 
the  sale  of  antimony,  duties  on  opium,  tobacco, 
and  spirits,  and  a  family  tax  of  four  shillings 
sterling.  The  total  value  of  the  foreign  trade 
is  over  £800,000  annually,  the  principal  ex- 
ports being  gutta  percha,  antimony,  sago  meal, 
camphor,  wax,  edible  birds1  nests,  and  rattans. 
II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  state,  on  the  Sara- 
wak river,  17  m.  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  1°  28' 
K,  Ion.  110°  8'  E.;  pop.  about  25,000,  mostly 
Malays  and  Chinese,  with  a  few  English  offi- 
cials. It  was  formerly  known  as  Euching. 
The  buildings  extend  along  the  bank,  none  of 
them  at  any  very  great  distance  from  the  river, 
and  include  the  government  house,  an  Eng- 
lish Protestant  church  and  mission  house,  and 
a  mosque.  Large  vessels  can  enter  the  river, 
but  cannot  ascend  to  the  town,  the  approach 
to  which  is  commanded  by  a  small  fort.  Sa- 
rawak is  a  free  port,  and  carries  on  a  large 
trade,  chiefly  with  Singapore. 

BARBER,  a  W.  county  of  Arkansas,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  the  Arkansas  river,  and  drained  by 
small  tributaries  of  that  stream ;  area,  about 
625  sq.  m.  It  has  been  formed  since  the  cen- 
sus of  1870.  The  surface  is  generally  broken 
and  hilly,  but  there  are  some  prairies,  which 
with  the  river  bottom  and  valleys  are  fertile. 
There  is  some  fine  timber.  Grain,  grass,  cotton, 
and  tobacco  grow  well.  Capital,  Anderson. 

SARCODE.  See  ANIMALCULES,  and  PROTO- 
PLASM. 

SARD,  and  Sardonyx,  precious  stones,  varie- 
ties of  carnelian  or  chalcedony,  named  either 
from  Sardis  in  Lydia,  where  they  were  origi- 
nally found,  or  from  the  Greek  o&p^  flesh,  in 
allusion  to  the  flesh-like  colors  they  sometimes 
exhibit.  The  sard  is  marked  by  concentric 
zones  or  small  nebulosities  in  the  middle  of  its 
ground,  which  distinguish  it  from  red  carne- 
lian. Its  color  by  reflected  light  is  a  dark  red- 
dish brown,  almost  black,  and  by  transmitted 
light  a  deep  red  inclining  to  blood  red.  When 
it  alternates  in  bands  with  white  chalcedony, 
it  is  called  sardonyx  (sard  and  onyx).  The 
name  was  indefinitely  applied  by  the  Romans 
to  the  various  agates  and  carnelians.  Dufr6noy 
designates  true  flesh-colored  agates  as  sards, 
those  with  alternating  white  stripes  as  sar- 
donyx, and  the  deep  reddish  brown  or  orange 
red  agates  as  sardoines. 

SARDANAPALt'S,  the  last  king  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  of  Ninus,  according  to  the  ancient  his- 
torian Ctesias.  His  effeminacy  and  licentious- 


SAEDES 

ness  excited  a  rebellion,  headed  by  Arbaces, 
satrap  of  Media,  and  Belesys,  the  noblest  of 
the  Chaldean  priests.  He  defeated  the  insur- 
gents in  several  battles,  and,  when  at  last 
forced  to  retreat  to  Nineveh,  sustained  a  siege 
of  two  years.  When  it  became  evident  that 
the  city  could  be  held  no  longer,  he  collected 
all  his  treasures  and  his  women,  and  placing 
them  on  an  immense  pyre  perished  with  them 
in  the  flames.  The  date  of  the  event  has  been 
variously  assigned  to  876,  789,  710,  625,  and 
606  B.  0.  The  utter  impossibility  of  recon- 
ciling the  chronology  of  this  account  with  that 
given  by  other  authorities,  has  led  many  wri- 
ters to  distrust  the  whole  narrative,  and  to 
consider  Sardanapalus  a  myth.  K.  O.  Miiller 
sought  in  an  ingenious  and  elaborate  essay  to 
prove  the  identity  of  the  god  Sandon  with  Sar- 
danapalus. Kawlinson  is  of  opinion  that  the 
Sardanapalus  of  Ctesias  represents  both  Asshur- 
bani-pal,  in  whose  reign  the  Assyrian  empire 
reached  its  greatest  extent,  and  his  successor 
Asshur-emit-ilin  (according  to  him  the  Saracus 
of  Abydenus),  in  whose  time  Assyria  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Medes.  (See  ASSYKIA.)  Le- 
normant  identifies  him  with  the  predecessor 
of  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  whose  name  Rawlinson 
gives  the  form  of  Asshur-lukh-khnsh  or  As- 
shur-lush,  George  Smith  of  Assur-nirari,  and 
Oppert  of  Asshur-likhish ;  but  Lenormant,  as- 
suming that  there  was  in  Assyrian  a  peculiar 
itanaphal  f orm  of  conjugation,  reads  the  name 
Asshur-tanagbal,  whence,  by  a  softening  of 
the  consonants,  the  Greek  form  Sardanapalus 
might  easily  have  arisen.  The  first  destruction 
of  Nineveh,  thus  placed  in  the  reign  of  As- 
shur-tanagbal (789  B.  0.)  by  Lenormant,  Op- 
pert,  and  Dr.  Hincks,  is  not  believed  to  be  his- 
torical by  Rawlinson  and  many  other  scholars. 
SARDES,  or  Sardis,  an  ancient  city  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, capital  of  Lydia,  in  the  plain  N.  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  on  the  river  Pactolus  near  its  junction 
with  the  Hernius,  about  45  m.  E.  of  Smyrna. 
Ancient  writers  say  the  town  was  named  after 
the  god  of  the  sun,  and  it  is  conjectured  that 
it  is  identical  with  the  Homeric  Hyde.  The 
early  history  and  traditions  of  Sardes  have 
been  given  in  the  article  LTDIA.  There  are 
but  few  remains  of  the  magnificent  residence 
of  Croesus,  in  whose  time  Sardes  was  one  of 
the  richest  cities  in  the  world.  At  the  side  of 
a  steep  hill,  on  which  the  walls  of  the  acropo- 
lis are  still  standing,  are  the  ruins  of  a  thea- 
tre and  other  buildings.  In  the  valley  are  the 
remains  of  a  gymnasium,  or  perhaps  a  basil- 
ica, and  on  the  acropolis  stand  two  enormous 
columns,  besides  several  others  lying  on  the 
ground,  supposed  to  belong  to  a  temple  of 
Cybele,  which  Herodotus  mentions  as  having 
been  burned  by  the  revolted  lonians  when 
they  took  the  city  in  500  B.  0.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  valley  is  the  necropolis  of  the  Ly- 
dian  kings.  Prominent  among  the  tumuli,  and 
the  largest  of  all,  is  that  of  Alyattes,  which  is 
circular  and  about  1,140  ft.  in  diameter.  It 
was  discovered  that  the  tomb  had  been  open- 


SARDINIA 


631 


ed  years  ago,  and  the  excavations  made  here 
in  1868  by  G.  Dennis  showed  that  most  of  the 
tombs  in  the  necropolis  had  been  rifled.  A 
few  mud  huts  in  the  midst  of  the  ruins  consti- 
tute the  Turkish  village  of  Sart.  In  the  reign 
of  Tiberius  Sardes  was  visited  by  an  earth- 
quake which  convulsed  the  whole  face  of  the 
country,  and  reduced  it,  together  with  other 
important  cities,  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  It  was 
rebuilt  by  the  aid  of  Roman  benefactions,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  either  St.  Paul  or  St.  John 
preached  here,  and  founded  the  church  men- 
tioned in  the  Apocalypse  as  one  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia.  The  Seljuks  captured  Sardes 
in  the  llth  century,  and  in  1402  it  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  Tamerlane. 

SARDINE,  a  small  and  well  known  fish  of  the 
herring  family,  and  genus  alosa  (Cuv.).  It  is 
regarded  by  Valenciennes  and  most  ichthyolo- 
gists as  identical  with  the  fish  called  pilchard 
on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  though  Cuvier 
made  it  distinct,  giving  it  the  specific  name  of 
sardina.  Its  flesh  is  very  delicate.  The  fishery 
employs  a  great  number  of  men  and  women 
on  the  coasts  of  Brittany,  and  to  a  less  extent 
of  Portugal.  Sardines  are  salted,  or  preserved 
in  olive  oil  and  butter  and  put  up  in  tin  cases 
for  exportation.  The  larger  fish  are  called 
celans  in  France,  and  pilchards  in  England; 
their  shoals  are  preyed  upon  by  codfish,  and 
especially  by  porpoises.  Fish  of  many  other 
genera  of  the  herring  family  are  called  sar- 
dines. In  the  East  Indies  species  of  clnpeo- 
nia,  spratella,  Icowala,  and  Dussumiera  (the 
last  named  belonging  to  the  erytJirinidce)  are 
placed  on  the  table  as  sardines;  in  the  West 
Indies  Tiarengula  clupeola  (Val.)  is  called  the 
Spanish  sardine,  Kn&pellona  OrMgnyana  (Val.) 
in  South  America.  The  menhaden  (A.  men- 
haden) is  called  the  American  sardine,  and  is 
caught  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  put  up  in 
oil,  and  exported  in  large  quantities. 

SARDINIA  (Ital.  Sardegna;  anc.  Ichnusa  and 
Sardinia),  next  to  Sicily,  the  largest  and  most 
important  island  in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  ly- 
ing N.  of  Africa,  N.  W.  of  Sicily,  W.  of  south- 
ern Italy,  E.  of  Spain  and  the  Balearic  islands, 
and  S.  of  Corsica,  and  extending  from  lat.  38° 
52'  to  41°  16'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  8°  8'  to  9°  50' 
E.  On  the  west  and  south  it  is  washed  by  the 
Mediterranean  proper,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Tyrrhenian  sea,  and  it  is  separated  from  Cor- 
sica by  a  narrow  strait  called  Bocche  di  Boni- 
facio ;  length  169  m.,  greatest  breadth  96  m. ; 
area,  including  several  small  adjacent  islands, 
9,399  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  636,660.  Its  shape 
is  oblong,  and  its  coasts  are  generally  steep  and 
rugged,  with  deep  indentations  especially  on  the 
west  and  south.  On  the  E.  side  are  Capes  Fi- 
gari,  Co  da  Cavallo,  Comino,  Monte  Santo,  Bel- 
lavista,  Ferrato,  and  Carbonara,  and  the  bays 
of  Terranova,  Orosei,  and  Tortoli.  The  gulf 
of  Cagliari  cuts  a  wide  semicircular  opening  on 
the  south  between  Capes  Carbonara  and  Spar- 
tivento,  beyond  which  are  Cape  Teulada  and 
the  bay  of  Teulada  or  of  Isola  Rossa.  On  the 


632 


SARDINIA 


SARDINIAN  STATES 


W.  shore,  going  northward,  are  the  bays  of 
Palmas  and  Oristano,  the  latter  having  at  its 
entrance  the  promontories  La  Frasca  and  San 
Marco*  and  Capes  Mannu,  Marargiu,  Caccia, 
Argentiera,  Negretto,  and  Falcone.  East  of 
this  last  point  the  N.  coast,  after  forming  the 
gulf  of  Asmara,  makes  a  semicircular  sweep 
to  Punta  la  Testa  at  the  N.  extremity  of  the 
island.  The  principal  small  islands  lying  off 
the  coast  are  the  group  of  Madalena,  among 
which  is  Caprera,  near  the  E.  mouth  of  the 
strait  of  Bonifacio;  the  island  of  Tavolara,  S. 
E.  of  Cape  Figari;  Aguillastro,  S.  of  Cape 
Monte  Santo ;  Serpentara  and  Costelazzo,  near 
Cape  Carbonara ;  San  Antioco  and  San  Pietro, 
W.  and  N.  W.  of  the  bay  of  Palmas;  Mai  di 
Ventre,  opposite  Cape  Mannu;  and  Asinara, 
N.  of  Cape  Falcone. — More  than  four  fifths 
of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  mountains.  The 
main  chain,  which  runs  N.  and  S.  across  the 
island,  as  well  as  its  offshoots,  belongs  chiedy 
to  the  paleozoic  formation ;  the  N.  range, 
called  Monti  di  Limbara,  is  mostly  granitic; 
while  the  hills  extending  through  the  centre 
from  Porto  Torres  to  Cagliari  are  of  tertiary 
calcareous  formation.  In  many  parts  of  the 
island,  and  especially  in  the  northeast,  there 
are  extinct  volcanoes.  The  highest  summit  is 
the  Punta  Bruncu-Spina,  in  the  Genargentu  or 
central  range,  6,290  ft.  above  the  sea.  In  the 
opinion  of  geologists  Sardinia  was  once  united 
to  Corsica,  from  which  it  has  been  severed 
by  some  volcanic  convulsion.  The  rivers  are 
numerous,  but  small;  the  most  important  are 
the  Tirso,  which  flows  S.  W.,  drains  the  cen- 
tre of  the  island,  and  falls  into  the  gulf  of 
Oristano,  and  the  Orosei,  Flumendosa,  Mannu, 
and  Coghinas.  The  principal  lakes  are  those 
of  Cagliari,  Sarno,  and  St.  Giusta.  The  island 
abounds  in  mineral  resources,  which  are  very 
imperfectly  developed.  Its  ancient  silver  mines 
are  abandoned,  but  there  are  many  lead  mines 
in  operation.  Iron,  copper,  mercury,  anti- 
mony, granite,  marble,  porphyry,  jasper,  am- 
ethyst, gypsum,  and  alabaster  are  found,  and 
large  beds  of  coal  have  been  discovered  near 
Iglesias.  Salt  is  obtained  on  the  coast,  and 
there  are  numerous  mineral  springs.  The  cor- 
al fishery  is  an  important  branch  of  industry. 
— The  soil  is  peculiarly  rich.  Wheat  and  bar- 
ley are  produced  nearly  everywhere ;  maize  is 
supposed  to  occupy  about  one  fifth  of  the  culti- 
vated land.  In  the  vicinity  of  Milis,  near  Cape 
Mannu  on  the  W.  coast,  there  is  an  orange  for- 
est, the  trees  in  which  are  far  larger  than  the 
finest  seen  in  Portugal.  Other  fruits  are  also 
produced  in  abundance;  and  the  wines  are 
remarkable  for  spirit  and  flavor.  Tobacco  is 
raised  near  Sassari;  cotton  thrives  near  Ca- 
gliari ;  flax,  hemp,  and  saffron  are  produced ; 
and  in  recent  times  white  mulberries  have 
been  extensively  planted.  The  cork  oak,  pine, 
chestnut,  and  other  trees  clothe  the  slopes  of 
the  mountains  almost  to  their  summits.  Skins 
of  hares,  rabbits,  foxes,  and  martens  are  large- 
ly exported.  The  moufflon,  an  animal  of  the 


sheep  kind,  which  is  believed  to  be  indigenous 
to  the  island,  frequents  the  highest  and  most 
secluded  woods.  An  enormous  quantity  of 
cheese  is  made  from  sheep  and  goat's  milk. 
The  coasts  abound  in  tunny,  anchovies,  pil- 
chards, &c.  The  climate  is  agreeable,  espe- 
cially in  the  high  grounds;  the  summer  heat 
is  not  »o  overpowering  as  on  the  continent, 
and  winter  is  comparatively  mild,  there  being 
little  snow  except  on  the  higher  mountains. 
The  low  lands,  which  are  mostly  marshy,  are 
subject  in  the  autumn  to  deadly  malaria,  here 
called  intemperie.  Sardinia  was  anciently  one 
of  the  granaries  of  Rome;  but  its  prosper- 
ity has  been  seriously  checked  by  a  long  pe- 
riod of  misgovernment.  It  was  not  till  1836 
that  feudal  tenure  and  feudal  jurisdiction  were 
entirely  abolished.  Besides  the  royal  manu- 
factories of  gunpowder,  salt,  and  tobacco  (the 
last  two  being  crown  monopolies),  there  are  a 
few  of  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods,  and 
some  coarse  pottery  and  glass  works.  The 
island  is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Cagliari 
and  Sassari. — Sardinia  was  originally  settled 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  Etruscans,  and  tempo- 
rarily also  by  Greeks  in  the  6th  century  B.  C. 
Its  inhabitants,  a  mixed  race  called  Sardi,  were 
despised  as  rude  and  thievish.  It  was  early 
conquered  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  occupied 
by  the  Romans  shortly  after  the  first  Punio 
war.  In  the  5th  century  A.  D.  it  was  seized 
by  the  Vandals,  and  in  the  6th  annexed  to  the 
Byzantine  empire  by  Belisarius.  The  Saracens 
invaded  the  coasts  in  the  8th  century,  and  sub- 
sequently established  there  a  kingdom.  They 
were  finally  expelled  in  1022  by  the  Pisans  and 
Genoese,  who  disputed  its  possession  for  nearly 
150  years.  In  1164  Frederick  Barbarossa  made 
the  Genoese  Barisone  king  of  Sardinia,  but  in 
the  following  year  he  granted  the  island  to  Pisa. 
The  old  contest  was  renewed  and  carried  on  till 
1 175,  when  the  emperor,  as  umpire,  divided  Sar- 
dinia about  equally  between  the  Pisans  and  the 
Genoese.  In  1238  Enzio,  natural  son  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  became  king,  and  in  1296  the  crown 
was  given  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  King 
James  II.  of  Aragon  as  a  vassal  of  the  Roman  see. 
After  overcoming  the  Pisans,  he  became  in  1326 
the  sole  and  uncontested  ruler,  and  Sardinia  re- 
mained subject  to  Spain  till  1713,  when  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was  surrendered  to  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  of  Germany.  In  1720  he 
gave  it  in  exchange  for  Sicily  to  Duke  Victor 
Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy,  who  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Sardinia.  (See  SARDINIAN  STATES.) 
SARDINIAN  STATES,  or  Kingdom  of  Sardinia, 
formerly  a  government  of  Italy,  comprising 
the  island  of  Sardinia,  Piedmont  (in  the  wider 
sense,  including  Saluzzo,  Montferrat,  and  the 
W.  part  of  the  duchy  of  Milan),  Genoa,  Savoy, 
and  Nice.  The  last  two  portions  have  been 
annexed  to  France,  while  all  the  other  states, 
as  well  as  Lombardy,  which  was  united  with 
Sardinia  in  1859,  are  now  embraced  in  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  Previous  to  the  annexa- 
tion of  Lombardy  and  the  cession  of  Savoy 


SARDIS 

and  Nice,  the  Sardinian  states  extended  over 
an  area  of  nearly  30,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  about  6,000,000.  The  origin  of  the 
kingdom  datea  from  the  negotiations  which 
followed  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Eastadtj 
and  resulted  in  the  quadruple  alliance  of  Aug. 
2,  1718.  Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Sardinia  in  1720, 
resigned  in  1730  in  favor  of  his  son  Charles 
Einanuel  III.,  but  soon  made  an  ineffectual  at- 
tempt to  recover  the  crown,  and  died  a  pris- 
oner in  1732.  Sardinia  received  numerous  ad- 
ditions under  Charles  Emanuel  III.  His  son 
Victor  Amadeus  III.,  who  succeeded  him  in 
1773,  was  finally  overpowered  by  Napoleon  in 
1796,  shortly  before  his  death,  and  obliged  to 
surrender  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France.  His  son 
Charles  Emanuel  IV.  was  forced  in  1798  to 
retire  to  the  island  of  Sardinia;  Piedmont  was 
annexed  to  France,  Sept.  11,  1802,  and  until 
1814  continental  Sardinia  remained  part  of 
that  empire.  On  his  abdication  in  June,  1802, 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Victor  Eman- 
uel I.,  who  was  restored  in  1814,  and  reestab- 
lished absolutism.  Savoy  was  reannexed  to 
Sardinia,  and  Genoa  was  added  to  it  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna.  Victor  Emanuel  I.,  du- 
ring a  military  insurrection  headed  by  Santa 
Rosa  and  others,  abdicated  in  1821  in  favor 
of  his  brother  Charles  Felix,  in  whose  absence 
Charles  Albert,  of  the  younger  line  of  Savoy- 
Carignan,  assumed  the  regency,  proclaimed  the 
Spanish  constitution  of  1820,  and  established 
a  provisional  junta.  Charles  Felix,  aided  by 
Russia  and  Austria,  was  restored  and  undid 
his  relative's  work ;  but  as  the  elder  branch 
of  the  house  of  Savoy  became  extinct  in  his 
person,  April  27,  1831,  Charles  Albert  ascend- 
ed the  throne.  In  1848  he  promulgated  the 
statute  fondamentale,  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
present  constitution  of  Italy.  He  was  involv- 
ed in  the  same  year  in  a  war  with  Austria, 
was  vanquished  by  Radetzky,  renewed  the  war 
in  1849,  and  was  utterly  defeated  at  Novara, 
March  23.  (See  CHARLES  ALBERT,  vol.  v., 
p.  300.)  He  abdicated,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  who,  after  a  war 
with  Austria  in  1859,  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  Napoleon  III.,  annexed  Lombardy  and  oth- 
er states,  and  finally  became  master  of  all  Italy. 
(See  ITALY,  SAVOY,  and  VICTOR  EMANUEL.) 

SARDIS.     See  SARDES. 

SARDOU,  Ylctorlen,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris,  Sept.  7,  1831.  His  early  life  was 
passed  in  penury,  as  a  teacher  and  writer,  and 
his  first  play  (1854)  was  a  failure.  After  his 
marriage  in  1858  with  Mile,  de  Brecourt,  an 
actress,  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Mile. 
Dejazet,  who  brought  out  at  her  theatre  sev- 
eral of  his  plays ;  but  his  reputation  was  not 
fully  established  until  after  the  performances 
in  1861  of  Nos  intimes.  Among  his  best  known 
later  plays  are :  Candide  and  Les  premieres 
armes  de  Figaro  (1862);  Don  Quichotte  (1864); 
Les  meux  garpons  (1865);  Lafamille  Benoiton 
(1865) ;  Patrie  (1869) ;  Fernande  (1870) ;  and 


SARMATIA 


633 


VOnde  Sam,  a  satire  on  American  society 
(1872).  His  La  Haine  (1874)  failed.  He  has 
made  an  immense  fortune  from  his  plays,  in 
which  striking  plagiarisms  have  been  detected. 

SARI,  or  Saree,  a  city  of  Persia,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Mazanderan,  in  lat.  36°  35'  N.. 
Ion.  53°  6'  E.,  about  15  m.  from  the  S.  shore 
of  the  Caspian  sea ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  dilapidated  wall  and  ditch, 
has  dirty  unpaved  streets,  and  contains  many 
houses  of  burnt  brick  neatly  tiled,  several 
mosques  and  the  remains  of  Parsee  temples,  a 
remarkable  brick  tower  100  ft.  high  with  a 
conical  roof,  public  baths,  and  five  colleges. 

SARGASSO  SEA.  See  ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  79. 

SARGENT,  Epes,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Gloucester,  Mass.,  Sept.  27,  1812.  He  studied 
in  Harvard  college,  became  connected  succes- 
sively with  the  Boston  "Daily  Advertiser" 
and  "Atlas,"  and  about  1839  removed  to  New 
York  to  take  charge  of  the  "Mirror."  He 
next  edited  the  Boston  "Evening  Transcript," 
but  in  a  few  years  retired  from  journalism, 
and  prepared  popular  "  Speakers,"  "  Readers," 
and  other  school  books,  and  works  for  the 
young.  He  has  written  several  very  success- 
ful plays,  including  "The  Bride  of  Genoa" 
(produced  in  1836)  ;  "  Velasco,"  a  tragedy 
(1837);  "Change  makes  Change,"  a  comedy; 
and  "The  Priestess,"  a  tragedy  founded  on 
the  story  of  Norma.  Among  his  other  works 
are:  "Life  of  Henry  Clay"  (1840);  "Fleet- 
wood,  or  Stain  of  Birth  "  (1845) ;  "  Songs  of 
the  Sea,  and  other  Poems"  (1847);  "Arctic 
Adventures  by  Sea  and  Land"  (1857);  "Pecu- 
liar," a  slave  story  (1863);  "  Planchette,"  a 
work  on  spiritualism  (1869);  and  "The  "Wo- 
man who  Dared,"  a  poem  (1869).  He  is  now 
(1875)  preparing  a  new  work  on  spiritualism. 

SARGON.     See  ASSYRIA,  vol.  ii.,  p.  35. 

SARMATIA,  in  classical  geography,  the  name 
of  a  vast  region  of  eastern  Europe  and  western 
Asia  (according  to  ancient  divisions).  Ptole- 
my the  geographer  distinguishes  between  Eu- 
ropean and  Asiatic  Sarmatia.  He  describes 
the  former  as  bounded  W.  by  the  Vistula  and 
the  Sarmatian  mountains  (N.  W.  Carpathians) ; 
S.  by  a  line  running  from  the  Sarmatian 
mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes 
(Dnieper),  and  thence  along  the  coast  of  the 
Euxine  to  the  isthmus  of  the  Tauric  Cher- 
sonesus  (Crimea);  E.  by  the  Moeotis  (sea  of 
Azov),  the  Tanais  (Don),  and  further  N.  by 
the  meridian  drawn  from  the  source  of  the 
Tanais;  and  N.  apparently  from  the  gulf  of 
Finland  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  the  re- 
gions beyond  being  unknown  at  the  time. 
The  boundaries  of  Asiatic  Sarmatia  he  draws 
from  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus  (strait  of  Yeni- 
kale)  along  the  N.  E.  shore  of  the  Euxine  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Corax,  a  little  above  Dios- 
curias  in  Colchis;  thence  along  Iberia  and 
Albania  to  the  Caspian  sea,  which  forms  the 
E.  boundary  as  far  as  the  river  Rha  (Volga), 
which  completes  the  E.  limit  -unto  the  un- 


634 


SAKMIENTO 


SARPI 


known  north.  The  eastern  part  was  inhab- 
ited by  the  Sarmatro  or  Sarmatians  proper, 
probably  the  Sauromatte  of  Herodotus,  accord- 
ing to  him  an  Asiatic  people  derived  from  the 
intercourse  of  Scythians  with  the  Amazons. 
The  larger  western  division,  corresponding  to 
the  Scythia  of  Herodotus,  was  peopled  by  the 
Venedi,  Alani,  Hamaxobii,  Roxolani,  Jazyges, 
and  numerous  other  tribes  of  various  race. 

SARJtllEiYTO,  Domingo  Fanstino,  an  Argentine 
statesman,  born  in  San  Juan  de  la  Frontera, 
Feb.  15,  1811.  In  1826  he  became  director  of 
a  school  in  the  province  of  San  Luis,  and  from 
1831  to  1836  he  resided  in  Chili.  In  1836  he 
founded  a  female  school  at  San  Juan,  but  in 
1840  again  went  to  Chili,  where  he  greatly 
promoted  education,  publishing  many  school 
books  and  establishing  numerous  schools  and 
colleges,  including  the  normal  school  of  San- 
tiago, and  editing  several  periodicals,  mostly 
educational.  He  was  the  first  to  publish  a 
daily  paper  in  Santiago.  In  1845  the  Chilian 
government  sent  him  to  Europe  and  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  observe  the  primary  school  sys- 
tems of  those  countries,  and  on  his  return  he 
published  a  work  entitled  De  la  Education 
popular.  Returning  to  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, he  became  successively  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, colonel  of  the  Argentine  forces,  gover- 
nor of  the  province  of  San  Juan,  and  minister 
of  public  instruction.  He  was  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  United  States  from  1864  to 
1868,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  assuming  office  Oct.  12. 
During  his  administration  the  war  against 
Paraguay  was  brought  to  a  successful  termina- 
tion, numerous  insurrections  were  put  down, 
railways  and  telegraphs  were  constructed,  im- 
migration was  promoted,  foreign  commerce 
encouraged  and  extended,  schools  were  multi- 
plied, a  national  college  was  established  in  each 
of  the  provinces,  and  the  national  observatory 
was  founded  under  the  supervision  of  Prof. 
B.  A.  Gould.  Many  important  institutions 
were  introduced,  mainly  modelled  after  those 
of  the  United  States.  His  term  expired  in 
October,  1874.  His  most  important  works 
are:  Manual  de  la  historia  de  los  pueblos  an- 
tiguos;  Arjiropolis,  6  la  capital  de  los  Estados 
Confederados  ;  Civilization  i  barbaric  (trans- 
lated into  French) ;  Viajes  por  Europa,  Af- 
rica i  America;  Vida  de  Abran  Lincoln; 
and  Las  escuelai.  The  last  two  were  pub- 
lished in  New  York. 

SARM  A,  or  Port  Sarnla,  a  town,  port  of  entry, 
and  the  capital  of  Lambton  co.,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, on  the  St.  Clair  river  near  Lake  Huron, 
and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Great  Western 
railways,  168  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Toronto;  pop.  in 
1871,  2,929.  It  is  connected  by  ferry  with 
Port  Huron,  Mich.,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  It  contains  manufactories  of  iron  cast- 
ings, machinery,  wooden  ware,  woollens,  and 
leather,  saw,  grist,  and  shingle  mills,  a  brew- 
ery, two  branch  banks,  two  telegraph  offices, 
several  schools,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and 


Baptist,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  Presbyterian, 
and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  The  value  of 
imports  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
was  $864,616  ;  of  exports,  $819,517. 

SARXO,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  on  the  Sarno 
(anc.  Sarnus\  in  the  province  and  13  m.  N. 
W.  of  the  city  of  Salerno;  pop.  about  15,000. 
It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  contains  the  re- 
mains of  a  once  powerful  castle,  a  fine  cathe- 
dral, mineral  springs,  and  manufactories  of  pa- 
per and  silk,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  In 
553  the  Goths  under  Teias  were  defeated  in 
this  vicinity,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sarno,  by 
the  Byzantine  general  Narses. 

SAROS,  a  N.  county  of  Hungary,  in  the  Cia- 
Tibiscan  circle,  bordering  on  Galicia,  Zemplen, 
Abauj,  and  Zips;  area,  1,463  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  175,292,  chiefly  Slovaks  and  Ruthenians. 
The  Carpathians  extend  over  the  whole  N. 
frontier,  and  their  branches  cover  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  county.  The  Tarcza,  Topla,  and 
other  rivers  form  fine  valleys,  which  produce 
flax,  hemp,  grain,  and  fruit.  In  the  moun- 
tains, where  the  climate  is  severe,  oats  only 
thrive,  but  they  abound  with  timber,  and  with 
iron  and  other  minerals  and  precious  stones,  of 
which  the  beautiful  varieties  of  opal  in  Mt.  Li- 
banka  are  most  celebrated.  Linens  and  other 
goods  are  manufactured.  There  are  great  salt 
works  at  S6var,  near  Eperies,  the  capital,  and 
mineral  springs  at  Bartfeld  and  other  places. 

SARPI,  Paolo  (commonly  known  as  Fra  PAO- 
LO), an  Italian  historian,  born  in  Venice,  Aug. 
14,  1552,  died  there,  Jan.  14,  1623.  He  stud- 
ied for  12  years  in  a  convent  of  Servites,  be- 
came a  member  of  that  order  in  1565  (ex- 
changing his  baptismal  name  of  Pietro  for  that 
of  Paolo  on  his  solemn  profession  in  1572), 
completed  his  course  of  philosophy  and  theolo- 
gy at  Mantua  in  1570,  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  in  the  university  there,  and  after- 
ward at  Venice.  He  became  provincial  of  hig 
order  in  1579,  and  went  to  Rome  to  draw  up 
new  constitutions  for  the  Servites.  In  1585 
he  was  sent  again  to  Rome  as  procurator  gen- 
eral, and  was  taken  into  favor  by  Sixtus  V. 
He  studied  natural  science,  and  when  recalled 
to  Venice  in  1589  he  drew  up  an  account  of 
his  discoveries  in  physics.  According  to  Gri- 
sellini,  Sarpi  had  discovered  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  and  had  been  the  first  to  observe 
the  dilatation  and  contraction  of  the  pupil  of 
the  eye,  the  effect  of  pure  air  injected  into  the 
lungs  in  case  of  asphyxia,  and  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  inclination  of  the  magnetic 
needle.  Although  noted  for  austerity  of  life, 
the  independence  with  which  he  expressed  his 
opinions  on  religious  matters  caused  him  to 
be  suspected  by  the  Venetian  inquisitors,  and 
to  be  refused  two  episcopal  sees  which  he 
had  solicited.  Pope  Paul  V.,  having  vainly 
requested  the  abrogation  of  a  law  of  Venice 
which  he  deemed  contrary  to  the  freedom  of 
the  church,  threatened  to  lay  the  republic  un- 
der an  interdict.  Sarpi  thereupon  published 
a  pamphlet  in  which  he  assailed  the  papal  pre- 


SARPY 

tensions.  On  Jan.  28, 1605,  he  was  appointed 
state  canonist,  and  in  1606  issued  a  Trattato 
delV  interdetto,  in  which  he  exhorted  the  Ve- 
netians to  disregard  the  threatened  interdict. 
Consulted  by  the  Venetian  government  on  the 
most  important  matters  of  public  policy,  and 
allowed  the  free  use  of  the  state  archives,  Sar- 
pi  published  elaborate  answers,  and  Come  deb- 
la  governarsi  la  republica  veneziana  per  avere 
il  perpetuo  dominio.  These  works  have  been 
condemned  as  advocating  an  odious  system  of 
duplicity  and  oppression.  At  the  same  time 
their  author  strenuously  promoted  an  alliance 
between  Venice  and  the  new  Dutch  republic, 
while  stimulating  his  fellow  citizens  to  hostil- 
ity toward  the  court  of  Eome.  He  was  de- 
nounced as  a  schismatic  and  a  Protestant,  and 
an  attempt  was  made  upon  his  life,  Oct.  5, 
1607.  He  is  now  best  known  by  his  "  Histo- 
ry of  the  Council  of  Trent "  (Istoria  del  con- 
cilia tridentino,  fol.,  London,  1619 ;  4  vols. 
8vo,  Florence,  1858;  Latin  translation,  Lon- 
don, 1620 ;  English  translation,  1629  and  1676). 
Another  principal  work  of  Sarpi  was  his  Istoria 
delV  interdetto  (4to,  Venice,  1624;  translated 
into  French  and  Latin).  The  best  complete 
edition  of  his  writings  was  published  in  Na- 
ples (24  vols.,  1789).  His  life  has  been  written 
by  the  Italian  liberal  A.  A.  Bianchi-Giovini  (2 
vols.,  Zurich,  1836),  and  by  A.  G.  Campbell, 
from  original  manuscripts  (Florence,  Turin,  and 
Eome,  1875).  An  account  of  the  controversy 
of  Sarpi  with  the  pope  and  the  Jesuits  is  given 
by  T.  Adolphus  Trollope  in  his  "  Paul  the  Pope 
and  Paul  the  Friar"  (London,  1860). 

SARPY,  an  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  separated 
from  Iowa  on  the  east  by  the  Missouri  river, 
and  bounded  S.  and  W.  by  the  Platte ;  area, 
about  275  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  3,385.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Omaha 
and  Southwestern  railroads.  The  surface  is 
diversified  and  the  soil  very  fertile.  Cotton- 
wood  abounds  along  the  streams.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  95,233  bushels  of 
wheat,  231,075  of  Indian  corn,  91,387  of  oats, 
12,135  of  barley,  39,578  of  potatoes,  107,655 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  7,465  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,531  horses,  1,422  milch  cows,  1,888  oth- 
er cattle,  and  1,927  swine.  Capital,  Bellevue. 

S  A  UK. It  KM  A.     See  PITCHER  PLANTS. 

SABSAPARILLA  (Span,  zarza,  a  bramble,  and 
parrilla,  a  vine ;  ».  «.,  a  thorny  vine),  a  drug 
consisting  of  the  roots  of  various  species  of 
smilax.  (See  SMILAX.)  There  is  no  article  of 
materia  medica  surrounded  by  so  much  un- 
certainty as  sarsaparilla.  Little  is  definitely 
known  as  to  the  plants  which  produce  the  va- 
rieties of  commerce,  and  there  is  no  agreement 
among  medical  men  as  to  its  remedial  value. 
Sarsaparilla  is  collected  in  western  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  the  northern  countries 
of  South  America,  and  the  varieties  are  known 
by  the  names  of  the  countries  producing  them, 
or  those  of  the  ports  of  shipment.  Among 
the  species  to  which  it  has  been  referred  are 
smilax  officinalis  of  Colombia  and  Jamaica, 


SARTHE 


635 


S.  medica  of  Mexico,  8.  papyracea,  8.  typliil- 
litica,  and  others.  The  base  of  the  stem  in 
the  different  plants  is  enlarged  to  form  a  short, 
thick,  woody,  and  knotted  rhizome,  from  which 
proceed  several  long  slender  roots  which  run 
near  to  the  surface,  often  as  much  as  9  ft.  in 
length.  These  roots  are  collected,  in  some 
countries  with  and  in  others  without  the  rhi- 
zome, dried,  and  made  into  parcels ;  the  dried 
roots  average  about  the  size  of  a  quill,  are  fur- 
nished with  more  or  less  rootlets  or  "  beard," 
and  longitudinally  furrowed;  they  have  an 
earthy  smell  and  flavor.  Examined  with  the 
microscope  in  cross  section,  the  varieties  pre- 
sent characteristic  differences  in  the  propor- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  cortical,  woody, 
and  medullary  tissues ;  in  some  kinds  the  cells 
abound  in  starch  granules,  on  which  account 
the  commercial  varieties  are  grouped  as  mealy 
and  non-mealy  sarsaparillas ;  the  Honduras, 
Guatemala,  and  Brazilian  belong  to  the  first, 
and  the  Jamaica,  Mexican,  and  Guayaquil  to 
the  other  class.  A  crystalline  neutral  princi- 
ple may  be  separated  from  the  root,  which 
has  been  called  smilacine,  salseparine,  and  pa- 
rilline ;  the  last,  being  the  oldest,  is  the  gene- 
rally accepted  name ;  it  appears  to  be  related 
to  saponine,  and  like  that  froths  remarkably 
when  a  solution  of  it  is  shaken.  Sarsaparilla 
was  introduced  into  Spain  as  early  as  1545, 
and  has  since  been  at  times  a  very  popular 
medicine.  Those  physicians  who  regard  it  as 
of  value  class  it  as  an  alterative,  and  use  it  in 
inveterate  venereal  cases,  chronic  rheumatism, 
obstinate  skin  diseases,  and  in  a  generally  de- 
praved condition  of  the  system.  It  is  given 
in  the  form  of  decoction  and  sirups ;  the  sirups 
contain  guaiacum  and  aromatics,  and  are  much 
used  as  a  vehicle  for  medicines  of  positive  effi- 
cacy, such  as  iodide  of  potassium  and  corro- 
sive sublimate.-  The  drug  has  a  popular  repu- 
tation as  a  "  purifier  of  the  blood,"  and  a  few 
years  ago  immense  quantities  of  quack  medi- 
cines were  sold  bearing  the  name,  but  contain- 
ing not  a  particle  of  sarsaparilla.  The  sirup 
called  sarsaparilla,  so  much  drunk  in  soda  wa- 
ter under  the  impression  that  it  is  healthful, 
rarely  contains  any  of  the  drug. — Indian  sar- 
saparilla is  hemidesmus  Indicus,  of  the  milk- 
weed family,  the  root  of  which  is  employed 
in  India  and  sometimes  in  England  for  the 
same  purposes.  American  or  false  sarsaparilla 
is  aralia  nudicaulis.  (See  SPIKENARD.) 

SARTHE,  a  N.  W.  department  of  France, 
formed  from  the  old  provinces  of  Maine  and 
Anjou,  bordering  on  Orne,  Eure-et-Loir,  Loir- 
et-Cher,  Indre-et-Loire,  Maine-et-Loire,  and 
Mayenne;  area,  2,397  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
446,603.  The  Loir,  flowing  through  the  S.  part, 
and  its  tributary  the  Sarthe,  through  the  W. 
part,  are  navigable,  and  there  are  many  small- 
er streams.  The  productions  include  iron, 
coal,  hemp,  wine,  cloth,  gloves,  candles,  paper, 
and  glass.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Le  Mans,  Mamers,  La  Fleche,  and 
St.  Calais.  Capital,  Le  Mans. 


636 


SARTI 


SASKATCHEWAN 


SARTI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Faenza,  Dec.  28,  1729,  died  in  Berlin,  July 
28,  1802.  He  studied  counterpoint  under 
Padre*  Martini,  and  his  first  opera,  Pompeo  in 
Armenia,  was  produced  at  Faenza  in  1752. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  chapelmaster  at  Co- 
penhagen, and  in  1779  at  Milan.  About  1785 
he  became  imperial  chapelmaster  and  director 
of  the  conservatory  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  re- 
mained in  Russia  till  1801,  when  he  went  to 
Berlin  for  his  health.  He  composed  operas 
and  church  music,  and  invented  a  machine  to 
measure  the  vibrations  of  tones. 

SARTO,  Andrea  Vannrrhi  del,  commonly  called 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  an  Italian  painter,  born  in 
Florence  about  1488,  died  there  in  1530.  Af- 
ter passing  some  time  in  the  workshop  of  a 
goldsmith,  he  took  lessons  in  drawing  from 
one  Giovanni  Barile,  and  subsequently  studied 
under  Pietro  di  Cosimo.  But  his  real  instruc- 
tors were  the  cartoons  and  frescoes  of  Michel 
Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Masaccio,  and 
Ghirlandaio.  Having  executed  some  oil  and 
fresco  paintings  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Francesco  Bigio  in  Florence,  he  painted  in 
1509,  for  the  convent  of  the  Servites,  a  series 
of  frescoes  from  the  life  of  St.  Filippo  Benizzi, 
and  in  1514  the  pictures  of  the  "Epiphany" 
and  the  "  Birth  of  the  Virgin,"  which  exhibit 
delicacy  of  sentiment  and  masterly  execution, 
but  lack  dignity  and  grandeur  of  conception. 
His  coloring  is  distinguished  by  sweetness  and 
freshness  of  tone.  His  reliefs  are  singularly 
bold,  and  he  was  a  thorough  master  of  chi- 
aroscuro. His  illustrations  of  the  life  of  St. 
John,  which  he  began  in  1514  for  the  Com- 
pagnia  dello  Scaho,  are  in  chiaroscuro,  and 
were  not  completed  before  1526.  For  Francis 
I.  of  Franco  he  executed  the  Pietd,  or  "  Dead 
Christ,"  with  the  Virgin,  St.  John,  and  Mary 
Magdalen.  The  king  invited  him  to  Paris,  and 
the  picture  of  "Charity,"  which  he  painted 
there,  is  now  at  the  Louvre.  In  1525  he 
painted  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Servites  one  of 
his  most  celebrated  frescoes,  the  Madonna  del 
Sacco,  so  called  from  the  sack  of  grain  on 
which  St.  Joseph  leans,  which  was  admirably 
engraved  by  Raphael  Morghen  as  a  companion 
to  Raphael's  "Transfiguration."  His  princi- 
pal picture  of  1528,  the  u  Madonna  with  the 
Saints,"  in  the  Berlin  museum,  has  been  injured 
by  a  clumsy  attempt  to  restore  it ;  and  his 
"  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,"  painted  in  1529,  is  at 
Dresden.  Ho  possessed  also  an  extraordinary 
talent  for  copying  the  works  of  other  masters, 
and  his  copy  of  Raphael's  Leo  X.  in  the  mu- 
seum of  Naples  is  invariably  taken  for  the 
original.  He  was  not  always  well  paid  for  his 
pictures,  but  might  have  been  prosperous,  as 
he  had  many  powerful  and  rich  patrons,  had 
he  not  yielded  to  the  caprices  of  an  extrava- 
gant wife.  He  returned  from  Paris  with  a 
considerable  amount  of  money  given  him  by 
the  king  to  be  invested  on  the  royal  account  in 
rare  works  of  art.  Instead  of  appropriating 
this  money  to  the  prescribed  use,  Andrea  squan- 


dered it  in  riotous  living;  and  thenceforth, 
says  Vasari,  "  from  an  eminent  position  he  sank 
to  the  very  lowest,  merely  working  for  a  live- 
lihood, and  passing  his  time  as  best  he  could." 

SARI  M,  OM,  an  extinct  city  of  Wiltshire, 
England,  2  m.  N.  of  Salisbury.  It  was  an  im- 
portant settlement  of  the  early  Britons,  after- 
ward a  Roman  station,  and  the  residence  of 
the  West  Saxon  kings.  It  was  fortified  by 
Alfred,  and  was  made  a  bishop's  see  in  the 
llth  century;  but  the  cathedral  having  been 
removed  to  the  present  site  of  Salisbury  or 
New  Sarum  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  local  quarrel,  the  place  was  de- 
serted, and  has  not  now  a  single  habitation, 
though  traces  remain  of  its  walls,  castle,  and 
cathedral.  It  was  endowed  by  Edward  III. 
with  the  privilege  of  sending  two  members  to 
the  house  of  commons ;  the  franchise  accom- 
panied the  estate,  and  the  proprietor,  after  it 
had  lost  all  its  inhabitants,  continued  to  re- 
turn the  two  members  regularly  until  the  pass- 
ing of  the  reform  act  in  1832. 

SASKATCHEWAN,  a  river  of  British  North 
America,  in  the  Northwest  territories,  the  up- 
per course  consisting  of  two  branches.  The 
North  branch,  issuing  from  Glacier  lake  on 
the  E.  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  in  lat. 
51°  54'  N.,  Ion.  117°  30'  W.,  flows  E.  past  the 
base  of  Mt.  Murchison,  and  then  generally  E. 
N.  E.  to  its  junction  with  the  South  branch 
near  Ion.  105  ,  12  m.  above  Fort  a  la  Come. 
The  latter  branch,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Bow  and  Belly  rivers  from  the  Rocky 
mountains  in  lat.  49°  40',  Ion.  111°  40',  flows 
N.  E.  to  Chesterfield,  where  it  receives  the 
Red  Deer  river,  then  E.  N.  E.  to  the  junction 
with  the  North  branch.  The  main  river  thus 
formed,  called  by  the  Crees  Kisiskachewan 
(swift  current),  flows  N.  E.  to  the  bend  on 
the  parallel  of  54°,  then  S.  E.  to  Cedar  lake, 
from  which  it  flows  E.  to  the  N.  W.  extrem- 
ity of  Lake  Winnipeg.  The  area  of  the  entire 
basin  is  240,000  sq.  m.  From  the  source  of 
the  North  branch  to  the  junction  the  distance 
is  about  550  m.,  and  the  length  of  the  main 
river  is  about  200  m.  The  basins  of  both 
branches  are  generally  too  wild  and  mountain- 
ous, and  the  climate  is  too  rigorous,  to  ad- 
mit of  much  cultivation ;  but  S.  of  the  North 
branch  is  a  fertile  belt,  to  portions  of  which 
the  Hudson  Bay  company  reserves  its  rights 
since  its  surrender  of  territorial  and  govern- 
mental privileges  in  1869.  The  mountains  are 
heavily  timbered.  On  both  branches  coal  and 
iron  are  found.  Bisons,  rapidly  disappearing 
in  the  Northwest  territories,  are  now  chiefly 
found  on  the  North  branch.  The  valley  of 
the  main  river,  except  along  its  lower  course, 
presents  the  best  agricultural  region  with  good 
grazing  land.  The  river  is  frozen  from  the 
middle  of  November  to  the  middle  of  April, 
and  in  summer  is  navigable  by  the  Hudson 
Bay  company's  boats,  though  the  North  branch 
has  a  rapid  current  and  shallow  channel  ob- 
structed by  bowlders.  The  settlements  and 


SASSAFRAS 


637 


stations  are  distant  from  the  river  and  near 
the  lakes  on  account  of  the  fish,  which  are 
there  abundant.  Nelson  river,  which  issues 
from  the  N.  extremity  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  is 
treated  by  some  authorities  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Saskatchewan,  adding  350  m.  to  its 
length.  (See  NELSON  RIVER.) 

SASSAFRAS,  a  North  American  tree  of  the 
laurel  family  (lauracece),  formerly  called  laurus 
sassafras,  but  separated  from  laurus  on  ac- 
count of  differences  in  structure  by  Nees  von 
Esenbeck,  who  took  the  popular  name  for  that 
of  the  new  genus,  and  it  is  now  sassafras  offici- 
nale  ;  the  name  is  said  to  be  of  Spanish  origin. 
The  tree  rarely  exceeds  50  ft.  in  height,  and  in 
northern  localities  is  much  smaller ;  it  extends 
from  Canada  to  Louisiana,  and  is  found  be- 
yond the  Mississippi.  In  a  young  and  vigor- 
ous tree  the  head  is  broad  and  round,  with 
its  branches  in  regular  whorls,  and  the  long 
and  irregular  spray  curves  upward,  forming  a 


Sassafras  officinale— Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit. 

sharp  angle  with  the  branches.  The  bark  on 
young  branches  is  reddish  green,  and  on  old 
trunks  reddish  ash  color  with  deep  and  irregu- 
lar cracks.  The  leaves  vary  remarkably,  some 
being  ovate  and  entire,  and  others  broad  and 
three-lobed,  and  various  intermediate  forms 
occur  on  the  same  branch.  The  greenish  yel- 
low flowers  are  dioecious  and  apetalous,  in  um- 
bel-like racemes,  the  calyx  being  six-parted ; 
the  sterile  flowers  have  nine  stamens,  the  an- 
thers four-celled  and  opening  by  four  valves ; 
the  fertile  flowers  have  six  rudiments  of  sta- 
mens, and  a  roundish  ovary,  which  ripens  into 
an  ovoid,  one-seeded  drupe,  the  size  of  a  large 
pea,  of  a  deep  blue  color,  and  supported  upon 
pedicels,  which  when  the  fruit  is  ripe  become 
thickened  and  dark  red.  The  sassafras  de- 
serves attention  as  an  ornamental  tree,  for 
which  it  is  much  more  used  in  England  (where 
it  was  introduced  in  1597)  than  here.  All 
parts  of  it  are  more  or  less  aromatic,  from 
a  volatile  oil,  which  is  more  abundant  in  the 


bark  of  the  root  than  elsewhere;  the  wood, 
which  is  brittle  in  the  growing  tree,  becomes 
when  seasoned  remarkably  tough  and  light, 
and  is  used  for  fishing  rods;  the  trunks  are 
sometimes  sawn  into  boards,  which  are  used 
for  trunks  and  drawers;  it  is  said  that  no 
insects  will  be  harbored  by  a  bedstead  made 
of  the  wood ;  sassafras  poles  have  long  been 
used  for  roosts  in  poultry  houses,  as  their 
odor  is  disagreeable  to  hen  lice.  The  young 
shoots  and  leaves  are  highly  mucilaginous; 
the  pith,  obtained  from  the  twigs,  is  kept 
in  the  shops,  in  slender  cylindrical  pieces,  re- 
markably light  and  spongy  and  very  mucila- 
ginous when  chewed ;  a  dram  to  a  pint  of  boil- 
ing water  forms  a  demulcent  drink  in  inflam- 
matory diseases,  and  is  used  as  a  soothing  eye 
wash ;  the  mucilage  differs  from  ordinary  gum 
in  not  being  precipitated  by  alcohol.  The 
leaves  when  chewed  are  not  only  mucilaginous, 
but  have  a  peculiar  flavor  unlike  that  of  the 
bark ;  in  Louisiana  these  are  dried  and  pulver- 
ized, the  fibrous  portions  being  removed,  and 
kept  for  thickening  soups,  and  making  gumbo 
when  okra  is  not  at  hand.  (See  OKEA.)  The 
fruit  is  strongly  and  unpleasantly  aromatic, 
but  is  greatly  eaten  by  birds.  When  the  Euro- 
peans first  visited  this  country  they  found  the 
sassafras  in  use  by  the  Indians,  and  the  sick 
of  Monardes's  expedition  (1562)  having  been 
cured  by  it,  its  reputation  spread  to  Europe, 
and  early  in  the  17th  century  it  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  important  articles  to  be  derived 
from  the  colonies.  The  wood,  which  is  much 
less  aromatic  than  the  bark,  is  still  used  in 
England,  where  it  is  imported  in  logs  6  to  12 
in.  thick  with  the  bark  on ;  these  are  cut  into 
chips  or  shavings,  which  are  used  with  guaia- 
cum  and  sarsaparilla  to  make  a  sudorific  drink 
used  in  skin  diseases ;  a  tea  made  of  these 
chips,  mixed  with  milk  and  sugar,  called  sa- 
loop,  is  sold  in  the  streets  of  London  to  labor- 
ers as  they  go  to  their  work  in  early  morning. 
In  this  country  the  bark  of  the  root  is  the  only 
portion  valued  for  its  aromatic  qualities ;  it  is 
kept  in  the  shops  in  the  dried  state  in  small 
fragments,  which  are  used  for  flavoring  offici- 
nal preparations ;  an  infusion  sweetened  with 
molasses  and  fermented  with  yeast  is  used  in 
the  southern  states  as  beer. — The  oil  of  sassa- 
fras is  yielded  abundantly  by  the  bark  of  the 
root ;  the  roots  are  used  in  distillation,  and 
the  amount  of  oil  varies  with  the  proportion 
of  the  bark  from  2  to  4£  per  cent.  •,  it  is  color- 
less or  reddish  brown,  of  specific  gravity  about 
1'09,  and  when  cooled  by  a  freezing  mixture 
deposits  crystals  of  sassafras  camphor.  Balti- 
more is  the  headquarters  for  this  oil,  and  the 
annual  product  is  from  15,000  to  20,000  Ibs. — 
In  localities  where  the  sassafras  tree  is  abun- 
dant it  is  difficult  to  clear  the  lands,  as  it  is 
very  tenacious  of  life,  and  every  piece  of  root 
left  in  the  ground  will  throw  up  shoots ;  the 
most  successful  manner  of  eradicating  it  is  by 
means  of  sheep,  which  will  eat  off  the  shoots 
as  fast  as  they  start  up. 


638 


SASSANTDJ3 


SATSUMA 


SASSANID.E,  a  dynasty  of  Persian  kings  found- 
ed by  Ardeshir,  called  by  the  Greeks  Artax- 
erxes,  and  considered  the  son  of  Babek  arid 
the  grandson  of  Sassan,  who  overthrew  the 
rule  of  the  Arsacidse,  in  A.  D.  226.  (See 
ARDESHIR,  and  PERSIA..)  Under  the  Sassanian 
kings,  and  especially  under  Sapor  (Shapur)  I., 
Sapor  II.,  Ohosroes  (Khosru)  I.,  and  Chosroes 
II.,  long  and  successful  wars  were  carried  on 
against  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  emperors, 
the  Persian  empire  was  extended  and  consoli- 
dated, and  the  Zoroastrian  religion  was  re- 
stored and  maintained.  The  dynasty  closed 
with  Yezdegerd  III.,  who  in  641  was  beaten 
by  the  caliph  Omar  in  the  battle  of  Nehavend, 
into  which  the  Persians  wont  150,000  strong; 
he  was  murdered  in  651  while  asleep,  for  the 
sake  of  his  splendid  garments,  by  a  miller  in 
whose  mill  he  had  hidden.  From  the  coins 
of  this  dynasty,  of  which  an  almost  complete 
series  has  been  gathered,  it  appears  that  the 
kings  were  men  of  extraordinary  personal 
beauty,  with  large  eyes,  prominent  well  form- 
ed nose,  and  firm  chiselled  mouth.  On  some 
of  the  coins  an  eldest  son  or  a  queen  is  as- 
sociated with  the  monarch.  On  the  reverses 
are  fire  altars,  which  were  apparently  carried 
before  the  kings  in  processions. — See  Tho- 
mas, "  Early  Sassanian  Inscriptions,  Seals,  and 
Coins"  (London,  1868). 

SASSARI.  I.  A  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  forming  the  N.  portion  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  bounded  S.  by  Oagliari,  and  on  all 
other  sides  by  the  sea;  area,  4,142  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  243,452.  It  is  mountainous  through- 
out. It  is  watered  by  the  Tirso,  Ooghinas, 
Posada,  and  other  small  rivers.  Wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  cattle  abound,  and  cheese  and  butter 
are  largely  exported.  The  province  is  divided 
into  the  districts  of  Alghero,  Nuoro,  Ozieri, 
Sassari,  and  Tempio  Pausania.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Turritano,  10 
m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  gulf  of  Sassari  and 
102  ra.  N.  N.  W.  of  Oagliari ;  pop.  in  1872, 
82,674.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and 
contains  an  old  fortified  castle,  a  cathedral,  a 
small  university,  which  in  1875  had  66  students, 
a  theological  seminary,  and  other  schools,  the 
Vallombrosa  and  other  palaces,  and  fine  gar- 
dens. Oil  is  the  chief  article  of  trade.  Its 
seaport  is  the  neighboring  Porto  Torres. 

SASSOFEEEATO  (GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  SALVI), 
an  Italian  painter,  born  in  the  castle  of  Sas- 
soferrato,  near  Urbino,  July  11,  1605,  died  in 
Rome,  Aug.  8,  1685.  He  is  frequently  con- 
founded with  an  earlier  artist  of  the  same 
name,  who  imitated  Raphael.  In  style  he  fol- 
lowed the  Oarracci,  with  sweetness  and  deli- 
cacy. He  painted  landscapes,  sacred  portraits, 
and  more  rarely  historical  pieces.  The  Berlin 
museum  contains  many  of  his  best  pictures. 

SATAN.    See  DEVIL. 

SATIN  BOWER  BIRD.     See  BOWER  BIRD. 

SATIN  SPAR,  a  name  applied  to  two  distinct 
minerals,  which  have  a  similar  fibrous  struc- 
ture. The  most  common  is  a  variety  of  gyp- 


sum, the  other  a  carbonate  of  lime.  The  gyp- 
sum mineral,  softer  than  the  other,  is  found  in 
the  counties  of  Nottingham,  Derby,  and  Glou- 
cester, England,  near  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland, 
and  in  gypsum  beds  in  other  localities.  It  is 
sometimes  made  into  beads  which  have  some 
resemblance  to  "  cat's  eye,"  but  the  latter  is  a 
hard  quartz  mineral.  (See  CAT'S  EYE.)  Beau- 
tiful specimens  of  carbonate  of  lime  satin  spar, 
of  snowy  whiteness,  are  found  in  Cumberland, 
Devonshire,  and  Buckinghamshire,  England, 
and  at  Lead  Hills  in  Scotland. 

SATIN  WOOD,  a  name  for  several  woods  of 
commerce,  which  when  polished  present  a  pe- 
culiar lustre;  the  principal  kinds  are  the  In- 
dian and  West  Indian,  or  Bahaman.  The  In- 
dian satin  wood  is  produced  by  chloroxylon 
Sirietenia,  of  the  meliacece,  and  related  to  the 
mahogany  tree ;  it  is  50  or  60  ft.  high,  found 
along  the  Coromandel  coast  and  other  parts  of 
India ;  the  wood  is  hard  and  yellow,  somewhat 
resembling  box  wood,  but  darker.  The  West 
Indian  wood  is  superior  to  the  other,  being 
of  a  light  canary  yellow ;  though  considerable 
quantities  are  exported  from  the  Bahamas,  the 
tree  which  furnishes  it  is  still  uncertain ;  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  it  is  the  wood  of  a  spe- 
cies of  miiba,  one  of  the  ebony  family.  In 
some  cases  the  wood  is  handsomely  curled  and 
mottled,  and  such  pieces  are  cut  into  veneers 
for  choice  cabinet  work ;  the  ordinary  kinds 
are  chiefly  used  for  the  backs  of  brushes. 

SATSUMA,  the  name  of  a  province  in  the  S. 
part  of  Kiushiu,  Japan,  and  of  the  most  noted 
of  all  the  feudal  clans  in  the  empire.  The 
fijef  of  the  daimio  of  Satsuma  comprised  Sat- 
suma  proper,  Osumi,  Hiuga,  and  the  Loo  Choo 
islands.  Satsuma  now  forms  the  Kagoshima 
ken  or  district ;  pop.,  1,183,000.  The  sur- 
face is  mountainous,  and  the  soil  indifferent. 
Commerce,  mineral  wealth,  and  manufactures, 
especially  of  porcelain,  have  made  this  one  of 
the  richest  provinces  of  Japan.  The  history 
of  the  clan  dates  from  1571,  when  Shimadzu 
Yoshihisa  became  daimio.  After  the  battle 
of  Sekigahara,  the  daimio  of  Satsuma  was  al- 
lowed by  lyeyasu  to  retain  his  territory.  In 
1609  lyehisa,  one  of  the  Shimadzu  family, 
conquered  the  Loo  Choo  islands,  which  the 
shogun  allowed  him  to  retain  as  part  of  his 
fief.  The  Satsuma  clan  has  long  been  pre- 
eminent for  the  ability  of  its  leaders,  and  for 
military  ardor  and  prowess.  During  the  To- 
kugawa  shogunate  they  were  the  most  restive 
under  its  rule,  rendering  only  nominal  obedi- 
ence. The  last  but  one  of  the  daimios  of 
Satsuma,  who  died  in  1858,  was  the  first  to 
develop  the  impulse  toward  occidental  civil- 
ization. He  introduced  foreign  learning  and 
measures  when  the  shogun  endeavored  to  re- 
press such  tendencies,  and  diligently  prepared 
the  way  for  the  revolution  of  1868.  On  Sept. 
12,  1862,  Shimadzu  Saburo,  his  younger  broth- 
er, having  left  Yedo  with  a  grudge  against 
the  shogun,  and  cherishing  a  desire  to  em- 
broil him  with  foreigners,  was  met  on  the 


SAHARA 

highway  between  Yedo  and  Yokohama  hy  a 
party  of  English  gentlemen  and  a  lady,  who 
were  attacked  by  his  procession,  and  Mr.  0. 
L.  Richardson,  a  merchant  from  Hong  Kong, 
was  killed.  The  British  government  demanded 
and  obtained  from  the  shogunate  an  indemni- 
ty of  £100,000,  and  after  the  bombardment  of 
Kagoshima,  Aug.  13,  1863,  the  Satsuma  men 
paid  to  the  British  an  indemnity  of  £25,000. 
In  1868  the  clan  led  the  coalition  that  over- 
threw the  shogunate,  restored  the  mikado,  or- 
ganized the  new  government,  and  led  the  van 
at  the  battle  of  Fushimi.  Satsuma  has  sent 
more  students  to  foreign  countries  and  fur- 
nished more  able  men  than  any  other  prov- 
ince. The  clan  also  led  the  way  in  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  feudal  system  in  1872. 

SAHARA,  or  Satara.  I.  A  collectorate  in  the 
southern  division  of  the  province  of  Bombay, 
British  India,  separated  by  the  Western  Ghauts 
from  the  Indian  ocean,  and  situated  S.  of  the 
district  of  Poonah ;  area,  about  11,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  1,028,520.  The  country  forms 
part  of  the  table  land  of  the  Deccan,  and  the 
surface  is  generally  much  broken  and  rugged. 
It  is  drained  by  the  head  waters  of  the  Kistnah 
and  its  tributaries.  The  soil  is  generally  bar- 
ren, and  in  the  western  or  more  elevated  part 
of  the  country  the  climate  is  cool  and  exces- 
sively moist.  The  Mahratta  race  predominates, 
and  it  was  here  that  the  great  chieftain  Sevajee 
rose  to  power  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. The  state  passed  from  his  successors  to 
the  peishwa,  whose  territory  was  occupied  by 
the  British  at  the  close  of  the  Mahratta  war 
of  181 7-' 18.  In  1819  they  replaced  the  rajah, 
a  descendant  of  Sevajee,  upon  the  throne  of 
hjs^ancestors,  under  British  protection.  In 
consequence  of  certain  intrigues  he  was  de- 
posed by  his  protectors  in  1839,  and  his  broth- 
er elevated  in  his  place.  The  new  rajah  gov- 
erned with  great  wisdom,  and  died  in  1848 
without  issue,  but  adopted  a  boy  distantly  re- 
lated to  him  a  few  hours  before  his  death.  It 
was  decided  by  the  British  authorities  that  a 
dependent  principality  could  not  pass  to  an 
adopted  heir  without  the  consent  of  the  para- 
mount power;  and  Sattara  was  annexed  to 
British  India.  "Within  its  limits  is  the  po- 
litical agency  of  Sattara,  superintending  four 
native  principalities,  each  governed  by  a  de- 
scendant of  a  Mahratta  chief  or  courtier,  viz. : 
the  Pant  Pratinidhi,  the  Pant  Sacheo,  the  Min- 
balkar  of  Phalkan,  and  the  Daflekar,  with  areas 
respectively  of  350,  500,  400,  and  700  sq.  m. 
II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  district,  115  m.  S. 
8.  E.  of  Bombay,  in  lat.  17°  41'  N.,  Ion.  74° 
1'  E.,  among  the  hills  of  the  Deccan,  E.  of 
the  ridge  of  the  Ghauts.  The  fort  is  on  the 
summit  of  a  steep  mountain,  E.  of  the  town, 
about  800  ft.  high.  Sattara  was  taken  from 
the  Mussulmans  by  Sevajee  in  1673,  block- 
aded and  captured  by  Aurungzebe  in  person  in 
1700,  and  retaken  by  the  Mahrattas  five  years 
later.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  rajah  after 
his  restoration  by  the  British. 

725  VOL.  xiv.— 41 


SATURN 


639 


SATURDAY  (Saturn's  day),  the  seventh  and 
last  day  of  the  week,  and  the  Roman  dies 
Saturni.  It  is  the  Jewish  sabbath,  and  in 
the  Catholic  breviary  is  called  dies  sablati. 

SATURN  (SATUBNUS),  an  ancient  mythical  king 
or  deity  of  Italy,  to  whom  was  ascribed  the  in- 
troduction of  agriculture  and  civilization.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  he  reigned  on  the  Capito- 
line  hill,  hence  also  called  the  Saturnian  hill, 
and  after  his  death  was  translated  to  the  abodes 
of  the  gods.  His  reign  was  called  the  golden 
age  of  Italy.  With  his  wife,  Ops,  the  repre- 
sentative of  plenty,  he  was  regarded  as  the 
protector  of  agriculture  and  of  all  vegetation 
which  tended  to  the  benefit  of  man,  and  he 
carried  in  his  hand  a  crooked  pruning  knife. 
The  Greek  deity  Cronus,  with  whom  he  was 
frequently  identified,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Heaven  and  Earth,  and  the  father  of  Jupiter, 
Juno,  Neptune,  and  Pluto.  He  usurped  the 
sovereignty  of  Heaven  (Uranus),  and  institu- 
ted a  reign  of  peace  and  plenty,  called  by  the 
poets  the  golden  age,  to  which  succeeded  the 
rule  of  Jupiter,  who  deposed  and  imprisoned 
his  father.  In  later  times  his  name  was  iden- 
tified with  xpfoos,  time,  and  in  the  character  of 
the  destroyer  he  was  represented  as  bearing  a 
scythe,  and  as  devouring  his  own  offspring. 

SATURN,  the  sixth  planet  in  order  of  distance 
from  the  sun,  the  third  of  the  superior  planets, 
and  in  ancient  systems  of  astronomy  the  outer- 
most member  of  the  planetary  system,  but 
now  known  to  travel  within  the  orbits  of  two 
planets  at  least,  Uranus  and  Neptune.  Saturn 
moves  at  a  mean  distance  from  the  sun  amount- 
ing to  872,137,000  m.  The  eccentricity  of  his 
orbit  being  considerable,  his  greatest  and  least 
distances  are  respectively  920,973,000  m.  and 
823,301,000  m.,  the  difference,  97,672,000  m., 
exceeding  by  fully  6,000,000  m.  the  earth's 
mean  distance  from  the  sun.  The  eccentricity 
of  the  orbit  is  0*055996.  Since  the  earth's 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  91,430,000 
m.,  it  follows  that  when  in  opposition  to  the 
sun  Saturn  is  at  a  distance  from  the  earth  of 
about  732,000,000  m.  when  nearest  to  the  sun, 
and  of  about  829,500,000  m.  when  furthest 
from  the  sun.  It  appears  therefore  that  not- 
withstanding his  relatively  enormous  distance, 
which  necessarily  operates  to  diminish  the 
changes  of  his  apparent  dimensions  on  account 
of  the  earth's  motions,  Saturn  is  seen  under 
very  different  conditions  in  different  opposi- 
tions. For,  remembering  the  difference  of 
solar  illumination  when  Saturn  is  in  aphelion 
and  perihelion,  as  well  as  the  variation  in  the 
apparent  size  of  his  disk  on  account  of  his 
varying  distance  from  the  earth,  we  perceive 
that  he  must  be  more  favorably  placed  for  ob- 
servation in  a  perihelion  than  in  an  aphelion 
opposition,  in  the  ratio  of  (829,500,000)"  x 
(920,973,000)"  to  (732,000,000)'  x  (823,301,- 
000)a ;  that  is,  approximately  as  8  to  5.  This 
ratio  would  also  represent  the  range  of  varying 
brightness  of  Saturn  in  different  oppositions 
were  it  not  for  the  rings,  which  greatly  modify 


640 


SATURN 


the  apparent  brightness  of  the  planet.  As  the 
rings  attain  their  greatest  opening  very  near- 
ly at  the  aphelion  and  perihelion  of  Saturn's 
orbit,  the^-atio  just  obtained  fairly  represents 
the  relative  brightness  when  he  is  in  those 
parts  of  his  orbit ;  but  he  appears  much  less 
bright  relatively  when  at  his  mean  distance 
than  would  be  the  case  if  he  had  no  rings,  for 
the  rings  then  turn  their  edge  almost  exactly 
toward  the  earth.  Saturn  completes  the  cir- 
cuit of  his  orbit  in  10,759-2198  days,  or  29 
years  167'2  days,  in  an  orbit  inclined  about  2° 
29'  58"  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. — Saturn 
comes  next  to  Jupiter  in  volume  and  mass.  In 
fact,  he  surpasses  all  the  remaining  planets 
taken  together  nearly  three  times.  His  mean 
diameter  is  about  70,150  m.,  his  polar  diameter 
about  3,500  m.  less,  his  equatorial  diameter 
about  3,500  m.  greater.  Ills  compression  is 
about  -fa.  lie  exceeds  the  earth  697  times  in 
volume  ;  but  his  density  is  only  0*13  of  that  of 
the  earth,  so  that  his  mass  only  exceeds  hers 
about  89*7  times.  He  rotates  on  his  axis  in 
about  lOJ^  hours,  and  his  equator  is  inclined 
about  27D  to  the  plane  of  his  orbit. — Saturn 
when  first  observed  with  tbe  telescope  by 
Galileo  presented  a  triple  appearance,  as  if 
two  smaller  orbs  were  symmetrically  placed 
on  either  side  of  a  larger  one.  Afterward  Ga- 
lileo supposed  the  planet  had  two  appendages 
resembling  handles  (ansce)  in  shape  and  position. 
Sometimes  the  arnce  appeared  so  large  as  to 
form  a  continuous  ring;  at  other  times  they 
disappeared  altogether.  After  they  had  been 
for  some  time  invisible,  they  reappeared,  and 
gradually  increased  in  magnitude.  Galileo  and 
Hevelius  were  able  to  detect  a  dark  space  ap- 
parently enclosed  within  the  rounded  curve  of 
the  nnnic.  Huygens  explained  these  appear- 
ances as  caused  by  an  opaque,  flat,  thin,  and 
circular  ring  surrounding  the  equator  of  Sat- 
urn, but  nowhere  touching  the  planet's  globe. 
This  ring  being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  and 
moving  always  parallel  to  itself,  it  follows 
that  for  half  the  Saturnian  year  one  side  of 
the  ring  is  illuminated,  and  for  the  other  half 
the  other  side.  When  the  ring  is  turned  edge- 
wise either  to  the  sun  or  to  the  earth,  or  when 
the  earth  is  on  the  darkened  side  of  the  ring,  it 
is  invisible  except  in  telescopes  of  great  pow- 
er. As  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun 
is  very  small  compared  with  that  of  Saturn,  it 
follows  that  the  invisibility  caused  either  by 
the  ring's  plane  passing  through  the  earth,  or 
by  the  earth  and  sun  being  on  different  sides  of 
the  plane,  must  always  occur  when  the  planet 
is  near  one  or  other  of  the  two  points  on  its 
orbit  where  the  plane  passes  through  the  sun. 
Later  observations  by  Cassini,  Bell,  Sir  W. 
Herschel,  and  others,  but  more  particularly  the 
recent  observations  of  the  Bonds  at  Harvard 
college  and  Dawes  and  Lassell  in  England,  have 
added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  Saturn's  ring 
system.  The  ring  is  found  to  consist  of  two 
chief  bright  rings  separated  by  a  circular  gap ; 
but  each  of  the  bright  rings  is  probably  divided 


into  several  subordinate  rings.  But  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  part  of  this  remarkable 
system  is  a  dark  ring  within  the  bright  system 
of  rings.  This  dark  ring  is  so  obvious  with 
very  moderate  telescopic  power  that  the  idea 
is  naturally  suggested  that  it  is  a  recent  forma- 
tion ;  and  therefore  the  history  of  its  discovery 
and  of  observations  prior  thereto  deserves  to 
be  carefully  noted.  It  appears  from  a  paper 
by  Galle  of  Berlin  in  the  Nachrichten,  No.  756, 
that  a  dark  ring  was  seen  with  the  large  Ber- 
lin refractor  in  1838.  An  account  of  Galle's 
observations,  accompanied  by  drawings  exhib- 
iting the  part  of  the  ring  seen  across  the  body 
of  the  planet,  was  read  by  Encke  before  the 
Berlin  academy  in  the  same  year.  But  little 
notice  seems  to  have  been  attracted  by  this  re- 
markable announcement ;  so  that  the  actual  dis- 
covery of  the  ring  (made  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  general  recognition)  must  be  attributed 
to  Prof.  G.  P.  Bond  of  Harvard  and  the  Rev. 
W.  R.  Dawes  in  England,  in  November,  1850 ; 
Bond,  who  discovered  the  ring  on  Nov.  15, 
having  the  priority  by  a  few  days.  Dawes  at 
this  time,  and  Bond  somewhat  later,  called  at- 
tention to  the  darkening  of  the  inner  bright 
ring  toward  the  inside,  where  it  adjoins  on 
the  dark  ring.  Dawes's  account,  when  he 
announced  the  discovery  of  the  dark  ring,  was 
as  follows:  "The  exterior  portion  of  the  inner 
bright  ring  to  about  one  fourth  of  its  whole 
breadth  was  very  bright ;  but  interior  to  this 
the  shading  off  did  not  appear,  as  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  to  become  deeper  toward 
the  inner  edge  without  any  distinct  or  sudden 
gradations  of  shade ;  on  the  contrary,  it  was 
clearly  seen  to  be  arranged  in  a  series  of  nar- 
row concentric  bands,  each  of  which  was  dark- 
er than  the  next  exterior  one.  Four  such  were 
distinctly  made  out;  they  looked  like  steps, 
leading  down  to  the  black  chasm  between  the 
ring  and  the  ball.  The  impression  I  received 
was  that  they  were  separate  rings,  but  too  close 
together  for  the  divisions  to  be  seen  in  black 
lines."  Later  Capt.  Jacobs  at  Madras  recog- 
nized the  fact  that  the  dnsky  ring  is  semi-trans- 
parent, the  outline  of  the  globe  of  the  planet 
being  distinctly  visible  through  the  ring.  On 
this  account,  and  because  of  the  peculiar  aspect 
of  the  dark  ring  when  it  crosses  the  body  of 
the  planet,  the  name  "crape  ring"  has  been 
assigned  to  it.  Otto  Struve  has  shown  that 
the  inner  or  dusky  ring  is  not  a  modern  appen- 
dage to  the  planet,  as  might  bo  suggested  by 
the  fact  that  it  remained  so  long  undiscovered ; 
but  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century 
the  dark  band  thrown  across  the  planet  was 
distinguished  from  the  shadow  of  the  bright 
rings,  and  was  called  by  observers  the  equato- 
rial belt.  Another  curious  result  of  Struve's 
researches  was  to  show,  by  comparisons  of 
measures  made  by  Huygens,  Cassini,  Bradley, 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  W.  Struve,  Encke,  and  himself, 
that  "  the  inner  edge  of  the  inferior  bright  ring 
is  gradually  approaching  the  body  of  the  plan- 
et, while  at  the  same  time  the  total  breadth  of 


SATURN 

the  two  bright  rings  is  constantly  increasing." 
The  theory  now  generally  accepted  respecting 
the  rings  is  that  they  are  composed  of  minute 
satellites,  like  sand  on  the  seashore  for  multi- 
tude. The  following  table  shows  the  position 
of  the  ring  system  and  the  proportions  of  the 
ring  and  globe : 

Longitude  of  ring's  rising  node 167°  44' 

Inclination  of  ring  to  the  ecliptic 28°  10' 

Annual  precession  of  rising  node 8-145" 

Exterior  diameter  of  outer  ring  in  miles 166,920 

Interior           "               "       '•          "        147,670 

Exterior  diameter  of  inner  ring 144,810 

Interior           "              *•       "  10i»,100 

Inferior  diameter  of  the  dark  ring 91,780 

Breadth  of  outer  bright  ring 9,625 

of  inner  bright  ring 17,605 

"       of  division  between  rings 1,680 

of  dark  ring 8,660 

of  system  of  bright  rings 28,910 

"       of  entire  system  of  rings 87,570 

Space  between  planet  and  dark  ring 10,822 

— Saturn  is  attended  by  eight  satellites,  the 
largest  of  which,  Titan,  sixth  in  order  of  dis- 
tance from  the  planet,  is  the  largest  satellite 
of  the  solar  system,  and  probably  is  as  large  as 
the  planet  Mercury.  Much  confusion  prevails, 
as  Sir  John  Herschel  complains,  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  Saturnian  satellites,  owing  to  the 
order  of  distances  not  coinciding  with  that  of 
discovery.  The  elements  of  the  satellites,  and 
the  names  of  their  discoverers,  are  as  follows, 
counting  from  within  outward : 


No. 

Sidereal 

revolution. 

Distance  In 
radii  of  >  . 

Diameter 
In  miles. 

Discoverer. 

1. 

Od.  22h.  87m. 

8-3607 

1,000? 

Sir  W.  Herschel. 

a. 

1      8    53 

4-8125 

do. 

8. 

1    21    18 

5-3396 

500? 

Q.  D.  Oassini. 

4. 

2    17    41 

6-8898 

500? 

do. 

5. 

4    12    25 

9-5528 

1,200 

do. 

6. 

15    22    41 

22-1450 

8,000 

C.  Huygens. 

7. 

21      7      8 

26-7834 

? 

W.  Bond. 

8. 

79      7    54 

64-3590 

1,800 

G.  D.  Cassini. 

Saturn's  surface  is  marked  by  belts,  somewhat 
similar  to  Jupiter's.  Owing  to  the  inclination 
of  Saturn's  equator,  his  belts  afforded  an  op- 
portunity, wanting  in  Jupiter's  case,  for  testing 
the  question  whether  the  sun  is  the  chief  agent 
in  causing  the  belts.  It  is  clear  that  if  this 
were  so  the  belts  would  follow  the  sun,  the 
equatorial  zone,  a  well  marked  band  of  whitish 
color,  remaining  no  longer  equatorial  when  the 
sun  was  far  to  the  north  or  south  of  the  Satur- 
nian celestial  equator.  And  as  the  sun  viewed 
from  Saturn  takes  more  than  29  years  in  com- 
pleting the  circuit  of  the  star  sphere,  being 
half  that  time  north  of  the  Saturnian  equator 
and  the  remaining  half  south  of  that  circle,  it 
is  clear  that  there  would  be  ample  time  for  the 
sun  to  draw  the  cloud  zone  north  of  Saturn's 
equator  during  the  summer  of  Saturn's  north- 
ern hemisphere,  and  south  of  the  equator  du- 
ring the  summer  of  Saturn's  southern  hemi- 
sphere. This  would  happen  if  the  sun  caused 
and  therefore  ruled  the  Saturnian  cloud  belts, 
as  he  causes  and  rules  the  great  cloud  belt 
of  the  zone  of  calms.  But  in  Saturn's  case 
nothing  of  this  kind  is  observed.  His  great 


SATURNALIA 


equatorial  cloud  zone  remains  equatorial  all 
the  year  round.  No  clearer  evidence  could 
be  desired  of  the  fact  that  this  cloud  zone  is 
neither  sun-raised  nor  sun-ruled,  but  is  due  to 
some  cause  in  the  Saturnian  globe  itself.  This 
cause  can  be  no  other,  it  would  seem,  than  an 
intense  heat  pervading  the  whole  globe  of  the 
planet.  For  other  reasons,  drawn  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  condition  of  Jupiter  and  Sat- 
urn on  the  nebular  hypothesis,  Prof.  Peirce 
has  recently  adopted  the  opinion  that  these 
two  great  planets  are  thus  instinct  with  their 
primeval  fires. — Measurements  of  Saturn  have 
led  to  the  singular  result  that  the  planet  ap- 
pears to  vary  in  shape.  The  disk  is  usually 
elliptical,  but  sometimes  shows  a  figure  in 
which  the  two  diameters  from  45°  Saturnian 
latitude  N.  to  45°  S.  appear  the  greatest,  the 
equatorial  diameter  less,  and  the  polar  diame- 
ter the  least.  This  appearance  has  been  called 
Saturn's  "  square-shouldered  "  aspect.  It  was 
first  noticed  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  and  as  he 
recognized  it  with  different  telescopes  he  was 
satisfied  that  it  was  not  a  mere  optical  delusion. 
It  has  since  been  noticed  by  other  observers,  as 
the  Bonds,  Airy,  and  Coolidge,  who  possessed 
far  too  great  skill  in  observing  to  be  readily 
deceived  in  a  matter  so  simple.  It  has  "been 
ascribed  to  optical  illusion,  but  probably  with- 
out sufficient  ground.  In  fact  it  has  never 
been  shown  why  the  illusion  should  be  noticed 
at  one  time  and  not  at  others,  or  how  it  can  be 
occasioned.  It  appears  to  the  writer  that  a 
sufficient,  a  reasonable,  and  a  probable  inter- 
pretation is  afforded  by  the  theory  that  the 
atmosphere  of  Saturn  is  subject  to  changes, 
either  by  the  formation  and  precipitation  of 
cloud  masses  at  an  enormous  elevation,  or  in 
some  other  way,  which  cause  the  apparent  fig- 
ure of  the  disk  to  alter  while  the  real  globe  of 
Saturn,  far  within  the  visible  boundary,  re- 
mains unchanged  in  shape.  This  theory  cor- 
responds well  with  results  to  which  the  study 
of  the  planet  Jupiter  seems  to  lead  us,  as 
already  shown.  (See  JUPITEB.) 

SATIRXALIA,  the  festival  of  Saturn,  celebra- 
ted originally  by  the  rural  population  of  ancient 
Italy  in  December,  as  a  sort  of  harvest  home, 
and  in  later  ages  converted  into  a  season  of 
almost  absolute  relaxation  and  merrymaking. 
Its  origin  was  ascribed  to  Janus,  Hercules,  and 
others.  Tullus  Hostilius  is  said  to  have  revived 
games  of  the  Saturnalia  and  Opalia  at  Rome, 
in  honor  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  to  commemorate 
a  victory  over  the  Sabines.  During  the  repub- 
lic a  single  day  in  the  middle  of  December  was 
set  apart  for  its  celebration,  although  the 
whole  month  was  considered  as  dedicated  to 
Saturn ;  but  under  the  emperor  Augustus  the 
term  was  made  to  embrace  Dec.  17, 18,  and  19, 
to 'which  a  fourth  day,  and  under  Caligula  a 
fifth,  was  added.  It  would  seem,  however, 
that  under  the  emperors  the  festivities  in  real- 
ity lasted  seven  days,  and  included  three  sep- 
arate festivals,  the  Saturnalia  proper,  the  Opa- 
lia, and  the  Sigillaria,  so  called  from  the  little 


SATYRS 


SAUMUR 


earthenware  figures  given  to  children  as  pres- 
ents. During  the  Saturnalia  no  business  of 
any  kind  was  transacted,  the  distinctions  of 
rank  were  forgotten,  the  utmost  freedom  of 
speech  was  permitted,  and  crowds  perambu- 
.lated  the  streets,  wearing  the  pileut,  the  em- 
blem of  liberty,  and  shouting  lo  Saturnalia, 
much  in  the  same  spirit  as  in  the  modern  car- 
nival time;  while  within  doors  feasting  and 
revelry  were  indulged  to  an  inordinate  degree. 

SATYRS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  class  of  rus- 
tic divinities  under  the  government  of  Bacchus, 
and  forming  part  of  his  retinue.  They  are 
represented  as  robust  and  rough  in  appearance, 
with  the  heads  and  bodies  of  men,  but  with 
ears  pointed  like  those  of  animals,  and  short 
horns  and  tails.  They  were  frolicsome  and 
addicted  to  various  kinds  of  sensual  enjoy- 
ment. Hesiod  describes  them  as  a  good-for- 
nothing  race.  They  were  represented  as  the 
sons  of  Hermes  and  Iphthima.  The  older 
ones  were  called  Sileni.  The  satyrs  are  some- 
times confounded  by  the  Latin  poets  with  the 
Italian  fauns,  although  originally  distinct  be- 
ings, and  in  ancient  pictures  and  bass  reliefs 
so  represented.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
statues  of  antiquity  was  the  satyr  of  Praxi- 
teles* at  Athens.  The  word  is  used  by  Pliny 
to  indicate  a  kind  of  ape. 

SACK,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin,  drained 
by  the  Barraboo  river,  and  traversed  by  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad  ;  area, 
about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,860.  The 
Wisconsin  river  crosses  the  N.  E.  corner  and 
borders  the  county  S.  E.  and  S.  The  surface 
is  hilly  and  well  timbered,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  487,416 
bushels  of  wheat,  410,710  of  Indian  corn,  510,- 
125  of  oats,  210,518  of  potatoes,  29,578  tons 
of  hay,  61,081  Ibs.  of  wool,  513,080  of  but- 
ter, and  1,250,269  of  hops.  There  were  6,030 
horses,  7,250  milch  cows,  8,601  other  cattle, 
18,766  sheep,  and  13,374  swine;  7  manufac- 
tories of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  furniture, 
2  of  machinery,  2  of  woollen  goods,  1  blast 
furnace,  2  iron  founderies,  5  flour  mills,  10  saw 
mills,  and  6  breweries.  Capital,  Barraboo. 

SAUL  (Heb.  Shaut),  the  first  king  of  Israel, 
son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  He  had 
four,  or  according  to  some  six  sons,  three  of 
whom,  including  Jonathan,  the  intimate  friend 
of  David,  fell  with  their  father  in  the  battle 
against  the  Philistines  at  Mount  Gilboa  (about 
1055  B.  C.),  and  one  of  whom,  Ishbosheth,  for 
two  years  maintained  himself  as  king  of  all 
the  tribes  except  Judah.  He  had  also  two 
daughters,  Merab,  the  first  born,  and  Michal, 
the  wife  of  David.  (For  the  history  of  his 
reign  see  HEBREWS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  582.) 

SULIY,  Louis  Felirlen  Joseph  Calgnart  de,  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Lille,  March  19, 
1807.  He  was  an  officer  of  artillery,  and  af- 
terward keeper  of  the  museum  of  artillery  in 
Paris.  In  1836  the  French  institute  awarded 
him  a  prize  for  his  Essai  de  classification  de» 
suites  monetaires  byzantines;  and  in  1842  he 


became  a  resident  member  of  the  academy 
of  inscriptions.  He  studied  the  Celtiberian, 
Phoenician,  Egyptian,  and  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions; and  in  1850  he  explored  the  Dead  sea 
and  announced  that  he  had  found  the  ruins  of 
Sodom,  and  had  identified  the  "  tombs  of  the 
kings"  at  Jerusalem  as  the  royal  sepulchres 
of  Judah.  He  has  published  Voyage  autour 
de  la  mer  Morte  et  dam  les  terres  billiquea 
(2  vols.  4to,  with  maps  and  drawings,  Paris, 
1852-'4)  ;  Etudes  sur  la  numismatique  ju- 
dalque,  and  Histoire  de  Part  judalque,  tiree 
des  textes  sacres  et  profanes  (1858) ;  Les  expe- 
ditions de  Cesar  en  Grande- Bretagne  (1860); 
Voyage  en  Terre-Sainte  (2  vols.,  1865) ;  Lea 
demiers  jours  de  Jerusalem  (1866)  ;  Histoire 
d^fferode,  roi  des  Juifs  (1867);  Etude  chro- 
nologique  des  litres  d'Esdras  et  de  Nehemie 
(1868) ;  Sept  siecles  de  Vhistoire  judalque  de- 
puis  la  prise  de  Jerusalem  par  Nebuchodo- 
nosor  jusqu'a  la  prise  de  Bettir  par  les  Ro- 
mains  (1874) ;  and  Numismatique  de  la  Terre- 
Saint*  (1874). 

S.ULT  STE,  MARIE.  See  SAINT  MARY'S 
STRAIT. 

SUM  STE.  MARIE,  or  Sanlt  de  SU>.  Marie.  I. 
A  village  and  the  county  seat  of  Chippewa 
co.,  Michigan,  on  St.  Mary's  strait,  at  the  foot 
of  the  rapids,  and  on  the  ship  canal  connect- 
ing the  navigation  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Supe- 
rior, 290  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Detroit,  and  145  m. 
E.  of  Marquette;  pop.  in  1870,  1,213.  The 
village  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  French  fort  and  missionary  station. 
Fort  Brady  was  built  here  in  1822  by  the  Uni- 
ted States  government,  but  it  is  now  aban- 
doned. The  inhabitants  are  mostly  French 
Canadians  and  Indians,  and  they  subsist  by 
exchanging  furs,  fish,  and  maple  sugar  with 
the  vessels  that  touch  here,  for  provisions  and 
manufactured  goods.  The  village  contains 
three  hotels  and  two  churches,  Presbyterian 
and  Roman  Catholic.  II.  A  port  of  entry  and 
the  capital  of  Algoma  district,  Ontario,  Cana- 
da, opposite  the  preceding;  pop.  in  1871,  879. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  contains  Episco- 
pal, Roman  Catholic,  and  Wesleyan  Methodist 
churches.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  the  fur  trade  and  fisheries. 

8AUMAISE.     See  SALMASIUS. 

SAUMUR,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Loire,  25  m.  S.  E.  of  Angers;  pop.  in 
1872,  12,552.  It  is  built  partly  on  a  steep 
hill  surmounted  by  an  old  castle,  now  used 
as  a  town  hall.  A  handsome  bridge  connects 
the  lower  town  with  a  suburb  on  the  opposite 
bank.  Some  of  the  churches  are  of  great 
antiquity.  Saumur  has  a  celebrated  school 
of  cavalry,  and  manufactories  of  linen,  glass, 
enamelled  articles,  leather,  and  saltpetre.  It 
was  formerly  a  stronghold  of  the  Protestants, 
who  had  here  an  academy  and  a  theological 
seminary,  which  were  suppressed  in  1685.  In 
June,  1793,  it  was  taken  by  the  Vendeans, 
after  a  battle,  and  retaken  by  the  republicans. 


SAUNDEES 


SAUSSURE 


643 


SAVNDERS,  an  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  bound- 
ed N.  and  E.  by  the  Platte  river,  and  drained 
by  Cottonwood  creek  and  other  streams ;  area, 
about  750  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1875,  10,382.  The 
Burlington  and  Missouri  Eiver  railroad  touch- 
es the  S.  E.  corner.  The  surface  consists  of 
rolling  prairies,  and  the  soil  is  very  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  55,652 
bushels  of  wheat,  86,545  of  Indian  corn,  28,- 
827  of  oats,  15,273  of  potatoes,  4,630  Ibs.  of 
wool,  41,525  of  butter,  and  5,730  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  800  horses,  583  milch  cows,  1,842 
cattle,  1,351  sheep,  and  1,335  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Ashland. 

SAUNDERS,  Prince,  a  Haytian  lawyer,  born 
in  Thetford,  Vt.,  about  1775,  died  in  Hayti, 
Feb.  12,  1839.  He  was  a  negro,  taught  col- 
ored schools  in  Colchester,  Conn.,  and  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  in  1807  went  to  Hayti.  Christophe 
sent  him  to  England  to  procure  teachers, 
books,  and  school  apparatus.  The  resu-lt  not 
being  satisfactory,  Saunders  returned  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  studied  divinity,  and 
preached  for  some  time  to  a  congregation  in 
Philadelphia.  He  then  returned  to  Hayti,  and 
was  appointed  attorney  general  of  the  repub- 
lic. He  was  the  author  of  the  criminal  code 
of  Hayti,  and  published  several  small  works, 
including  "Haytian  Papers"  (London,  1816). 

SAl'\l)ERSO\,  Nicholas,  an  English  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Thurleston,  Yorkshire,  in  1682, 
died  April  19,  1739.  Before  he  was  a  year 
old  he  lost  his  sight  by  the  smallpox.  He  be- 
came acquainted  with  Greek  and  Latin  while 
young,  and  was  instructed  by  his  father  in  the 
rudiments  of  mathematics,  afterward  received 
instruction  in  algebra  and  geometry,  and  at- 
tended an  academy  near  Sheffield.  In  1707  he 
established  himself  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics 
and  optics  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1711  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  recommendation  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Christ's  college.  He  wrote  "  Elements  of  Al- 
gebra "  (2  vols.  4to,  1740),  and  "  The  Method 
of  Fluxions,"  including  a  commentary  on  some 
parts  of  Newton's  Principia  (8vo,  1756).  He 
invented  a  method  of  performing  arithmetical 
operations  by  touch. 

SAUPPE,  Hermann,  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Wesenstein,  Saxony,  Dec.  9, 1809.  He  stud- 
ied in  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Zurich, 
and  became  professor  in  the  latter  in  1838.  In 
1845  he  went  to  Weimar  as  director  of  the 
gymnasium,  and  in  1856  to  Gottingen  as  pro- 
fessor of  philology.  He  has  edited  many  clas- 
sical works,  and  in  conjunction  with  Haupt  a 
collection  of  Latin  and  Greek  authors  with 
German  notes.  He  also  edited  Don  Carlos  in 
the  great  edition  of  Schiller  (1867  et  seq.). 

SAl'RIAXS,  an  order  of  scaly  reptiles,  inclu- 
ding such  as  are  popularly  called  lizards,  skinks, 
monitors,  geckos,  iguanas,  agamas,  chame- 
leons, &c.,  and  the  extinct  iguanodon,  ichthyo- 
saurus, pterodactyl,  and  plesiosaurus.  The 
ophisaurians,  like  the  blindworm  and  amphis- 
bsena,  have  no  limbs,  and  form  the  connecting 


links  between  lizards  and  serpents.  The  §au- 
rians  are  all  air-breathers,  and  the  two  lungs 
are  about  equally  developed ;  the  young  under- 
go no  metamorphosis,  and  the  eggs  are  cov- 
ered by  a  hard  skin  or  shell ;  a  few  are  vivip- 
arous. (See  LIZARD.)  The  anal  aperture  is 
transverse,  and  the  dermal  or  external  skeleton 
is  not  bony  like  that  of  the  loricata  or  croco- 
dilians;  the  older  writers,  and  some  of  the 
modern,  place  the  crocodilians  among  saurians. 
This  order  is  very  numerous  in  genera  and 
species,  distributed  most  abundantly  in  tropi- 
cal regions,  where  they  are  largest  and  most 
active.  In  their  movements  they  come  near 
the  mammals,  among  them  being  found  those 
which  creep,  others  which  walk,  or  run,  or 
climb,  or  swim,  or  dive,  or  burrow,  or  fly. 
Their  important  subdivisions  are  treated  under 
the  popular  names. 

SAl  UI\,  Jacques,  a  French  Protestant  clergy- 
man, born  in  Nimes,  Jan.  6,  1677,  died  at  the 
Hague,  Dec.  30,  1730.  His  family  went  to 
Geneva  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  In '1694  he  made  a  campaign  in  the 
English  service  as  a  cadet  under  Lord  Gal- 
way,  afterward  served  in  Piedmont,  and  then 
returned  to  Geneva  and  studied  theology.  In 
1701  he  became  pastor  of  the  Walloon  church 
in  London.  He  remained  there  four  years, 
and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  Hague,  ac- 
quiring a  great  reputation  as  a  preacher.  His 
sermons,  in  several  volumes,  have  appeared  in 
many  editions;  a  nearly  complete  translation 
of  them  has  been  published  in  German,  and  an 
abridged  translation  in  English.  Among  his 
other  works  is  Discours  sur  les  etenements  lea 
plus  memordbles  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouveau  Tes- 
tament, called  "Saurin's  Bible"  (2  vols.  fol., 
illustrated,  1720,  to  which  Eoques  and  Beau- 
sobre  added  4  vols.). 

SAUROPSIDA,  one  of  Huxley's  three  divisions 
of  the  vertebrates,  embracing  the  birds  and 
reptiles,  characterized  by  absence  of  gills  at 
any  time  of  life,  by  skull  jointed  to  spine  by 
a  single  condyle,  and  by  lower  jaw  of  seve- 
ral pieces,  united  to  the  skull  by  an  os  quadra- 
turn,  as  distinguished  from  his  division  of 
ichthyopsida,  including  fishes  and  batrachians 
which  have  either  permanent  or  deciduous 
gills.  The  affinities  which  justify  the  union 
of  birds  with  reptiles  are  well  seen  in  the  fos- 
sil archaeopteryx.  (See  ARCH.EOPTERYX.) 

SAUSSURE,  Horace  Benedict  de,  a  Swiss  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Conches,  near  Geneva,  Feb.  17, 
1740,  died  in  Geneva,  Jan.  22,  1799.  He 
studied  botany  under  his  father  and  his  uncle 
Charles  Bonnet,  and  under  Haller,  and  became 
familiar  with  many  sciences.  From  1762  to 
1786  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gene- 
va, and  in  1798,  after  the  incorporation  of  that 
city  with  France,  of  natural  history  at  the  cen- 
tral school  of  the  department  of  Leman;  and 
he  founded  the  society  of  arts  in  Geneva.  He 
made  important  researches  in  the  Alps  and 
other  mountains,  contrived  the  best  kind  of 
hygrometer  or  rather  hygroscope,  and  perfect- 


Q4A 


SAUVEUR 


SAVANNAH 


ed  and  invented  other  instruments,  the  best 
known  being  the  cyanometer.  In  1787  he  as- 
cended the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  in  1788  of 
the  Col  clu  Geant,  and  in  1789  Monte  Rosa. 
Cuvier  regarded  his  Essai  sur  Vhygrometrie 
.  (Neuf ch&tel,  1783)  as  a  remarkable  scientific 
work,  and  attached  the  highest  importance  to 
his  geological  and  mineralogical  labors.  His 
Voyages  dans  lea  Alpes  (4  vols.,  1779-'96), 
comprising  also  his  exploration  of  other  moun- 
tains, gave  him  the  title  of  the  "  first  painter 
of  the  Alps." — His  son  NICOLAS  THEODORE 
(1767-1845)  became  eminent  in  vegetable  chem- 
istry. His  daughter  ALBERTINE  ADRIENNB 
(176&-1841),  who  married  Jacques  Necker,  a 
cousin  of  Mme.  de  Stael,  translated  Schlegel's 
"Course  of  Dramatic  Literature"  (1814),  and 
wrote  Notice  sur  le  caractere  et  let  ecrits  de 
Mme.  de  Stael  (1820),  and  L1  Education  pro- 
gressive (3  vols.,  1828-'32 ;  4th  ed.,  2  vols.,  1864.) 

S\n  Kl  R,  Joseph,  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  La  Fleche,  March  24,  1653,  died  in 
Paris,  July  9,  1716.  He  was  mute  until  the 
age  of  seven,  and  his  voice  and  hearing  long 
remained  imperfect,  yet  he  made  a  new  sci- 
ence of  musical  acoustics.  He  gained  an  in- 
troduction at  court  through  Prince  Eugene, 
and  in  1686  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  col!6ge  de  France.  He  determined  the 
number  of  vibrations  corresponding  to  each 
determinate  sound,  whether  of  an  organ  pipe 
or  of  a  sonorous  chord.  His  discoveries  are 
described  in  numerous  papers  in  the  Memoires 
of  the  academy  of  sciences. 

SAVAGE,  Msrmion  W.,  an  Irish  novelist,  died 
in  Torquay,  May  1,  1872.  After  holding  for 
many  years  a  public  office  in  Dublin,  he  set- 
tled in  London  in  1856,  and  for  several  years 
edited  the  "Examiner."  His  "Bachelor  of 
the  Albany,"  "My  Uncle  the  Curate,"  "Reu- 
ben Medlicott,"  and  "The  Falcon  Family" 
were  originally  published  under  an  assumed 
name,  to  avoid  compromising  his  official  posi- 
tion, as  they  were  strongly  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  young  Ireland.  He  also  edited  with 
notes  Richard  Lalor  Shell's  "Sketches,  Legal 
and  Political "  (  2  vols.,  London,  1855). 

SAVAGE,  Richard,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London,  Jan.  10,  1698,  died  in  Bristol,  July 
81, 1743.  According  to  his  own  story,  he  was 
the  illegitimate  offspring  of  Anne,  countess  of 
Macclesfield,  and  Richard  Savage,  Earl  Rivers, 
and  at  the  age  of  14  months  was  consigned  by 
his  mother  to  the  care  of  a  poor  woman.  The 
countess  early  disowned  him,  but  her  mother, 
Lady  Mason,  caused  him  to  be  placed  in  a  school 
at  St.  Albans,  after  leaving  which  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  shoemaker.  Hearing  by  accident 
the  secret  of  his  birth,  he  assumed  his  father's 
name.  Steele,  Wilks  the  actor,  and  Mrs.  Old- 
field  befriended  him,  and  in  1723  he  produced  a 
successful  tragedy,  "  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,"  in 
which  he  played  the  principal  character.  The 
publication  of  a  volume  of  miscellanies  soon 
after  increased  his  reputation.  In  1727,  hav- 
ing killed  a  man  in  a  drunken  brawl,  he  was 


tried  and  condemned  to  death.  The  countess 
of  Hertford  interceded  with  Queen  Caroline 
in  his  behalf,  and,  despite  the  exertions  of  his 
mother  to  have  the  sentence  carried  into  effect, 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  once  attempted  her 
own  life,  he  received  the  royal  pardon.  On 
leaving  prison  he  published  his  poem,  "  The 
Bastard."  With  a  view  of  putting  an  end  to 
scandal,  Lord  Tyrconnel,  a  relative  of  his 
mother,  took  him  into  his  own  house,  where 
he  was  allowed  an  annual  income  of  £200. 
For  several  years  he  led  a  life  of  excitement ; 
but  having  quarrelled  with  his  protector,  he 
was  again  cast  adrift.  By  the  death  of  Queen 
Caroline  soon  after  he  was  deprived  of  a  pen- 
sion of  £50,  and  left  to  the  charity  of  his 
friends,  whom  he  gradually  alienated.  He  was 
finally  induced  to  retire  to  Swansea  in  Wales, 
and  an  annual  stipend  was  contributed  to  his 
support  by  Pope  and  others.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  year  he  started  for  London  with  a  tragedy, 
and  while  passing  through  Bristol  was  arrest- 
ed for  a  debt  of  £8,  and  died  in  the  debtors' 
prison  of  that  place.  He  also  wrote  "  The 
Wanderer"  (1729),  a  poem  esteemed  by  him 
as  his  masterpiece,  and  a  number  of  minor 
pieces.  His  works,  with  an  account  of  his 
life  and  writings  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson, 
were  published  in  1775  (2  vols.  8vo). 

SAVANNAH,  the  largest  city  and  the  commer- 
cial metropolis  of  Georgia,  capital  of  Chat- 
ham co.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Savannah 
river,  18  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  at  the  termi- 
nus of  the  Central,  Atlantic,  and  Gulf,  and  the 
Savannah  and  Charleston  railroads,  82  m.  in 
a  direct  line  and  104  m.  by  rail  S.  W.  of 
Charleston,  S.  C. ;  lat.  82°  5'  N.,  Ion.  81°  5' 
W. ;  pop.  in  1850,  15,812;  in  1860,  22,292;  in 
1870,  28,285,  of  whom  13,068  were  colored 
and  8,671  foreigners.  The  city  is  on  a  sandy 
plain  about  40  ft.  above  the  river,  with  one 
narrow  street  below  the  steep  bluff,  the  ware- 
houses upon  which  open  below  on  the  level  of 
the  piers,  and  from  the  uppermost  story  on 
the  other  side  upon  a  wide  sandy  area  called 
Bay  street,  which  is  divided  by  numerous  car- 
riageways and  rows  of  trees.  The  whole  city 
is  regularly  laid  out  with  broad  shaded  streets, 
and  at  many  of  the  principal  crossings  are 
open  squares  with  trees.  The  corporate  lim- 
its extend  about  !•$•  m.  back  from  the  river, 
and  include  an  area  of  3-^  sq.  m.  The  water 
front  extends  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  cres- 
cent about  2£  m.  Suburban  settlements  are 
fast  springing  up  S.  of  the  city  limits.  In  this 
district  a  public  park  of  80  acres,  called  For- 
syth  place,  has  been  laid  out.  Bonaventure 
cemetery,  about  4  m.  from  the  city,  is  reached 
by  a  fine  drive.  The  principal  other  cemetery 
is  Laurel  Grove,  belonging  to  the  municipality. 
The  residences  are  mostly  surrounded  with 
flower  gardens,  which  bloom  all  the  year.  The 
most  noticeable  public  edifices  are  the  city  ex- 
change, court  house,  state  arsenal,  barracks, 
artillery  armory,  theatre,  St.  Andrew's  hall, 
lyceum,  Oglethorpe  hall,  Chatham  academy, 


SAVANNAH 


645 


custom  house,  market  house,  hospitals,  and 
asylums.  The  custom  house  is  of  granite,  110 
ft.  long,  52  ft.  deep,  and  52  ft.  high,  and 
contains  also  the  post  office  and  United  States 
court  rooms.  St.  John's  and  Christ  churches 
(Episcopal)  are  respectively  Gothic  and  Ionic 


edifices.  Several  other  churches  are  very  hand- 
some and  commodious,  among  which  is  the 
independent  Presbyterian  church,  of  granite, 
costing  about  $130,000.  The  Georgia  histori- 
cal society  has  a  large  and  beautiful  hall.  The 
reservoir  is  on  a  circular  tower  80  ft.  high; 


Savannah. 


new  pumping  works  have  recently  been  erected. 
There  is  a  monument  to  Gen.  Greene  in  John- 
son square,  and  one  to  the  memory  of  Pulaski 
in  Monterey  square,  on  the  spot  where  he  fell 
in  the  attack  on  the  city  in  1779.  The  harbor 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  southern  coast.  The 
depth  of  water  on  the  bar  is  19  ft.  at  mean  low 
water,  and  26  ft.  at  mean  high  water;  within,  at 
the  Tybee  roads  anchorage,  the  depth  is  31  ft. 
and  38  ft.  respectively.  Only  12  ft.,  however, 
at  mean  low  water  and  18  ft.  at  mean  high 
water  can  be  carried  up  to  the  city,  and  much 
dredging  is  required  to  keep  the  channel  open 
in  certain  places  to  this  extent.  The  river 
flows  between  marshy  lands,  which  are  inter- 
sected by  numerous  creeks  and  artificial  chan- 
nels, and  are  cultivated  chiefly  for  rice.  Long 
narrow  islands  and  spits  almost  level  with  the 
water  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  space  be- 
tween the  opposite  banks,  and  reduce  the  main 
channel  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  way  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  mouth  to  a  width  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  and  even  less.  From  the  city 
to  Hutchinson's  island,  which  extends  about  6 
m.,  is  only  about  600  ft.  The  chief  defences 
of  the  river  are  Fort  Pulaski,  a  strong  fortifi- 
cation on  Cockspur  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  built  by  the  United  States  at  a  cost  of 
$988,859,  and  Fort  Jackson  on  the  right  bank, 
4  m.  below  the  city,  built  at  a  cost  of  $182,000. 
Steamers  run  regularly  up  the  river  to  Augus- 
ta, and  to  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Florida,  and  southern  ports. — The  chief  busi- 
ness of  Savannah  is  the  receipt  and  shipment 
of  cotton,  though  the  trade  in  lumber  is  also 


considerable.  As  a  cotton  port  it  ranks  sec- 
ond in  the  United  States.  It  recovered  rapid- 
ly from  the  effects  of  the  civil  war,  and  the 
value  of  its  commerce  has  since  about  doubled. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  shipments  of 
cotton  and  the  value  of  exports  for  ten  years  : 


YEARS 

Entire  value  of 

ENDING 

To  foreign  ports. 

To  const- 
"iwporti 

Total. 

eiportt  to  for- 

JUNE  30. 

i      efgn  port». 

Bales. 

Value. 

Balei. 

Bale,     ! 

1866. 

64,085  $12,695,600    162,946    226,981  1    112,890,663 

1867. 

109,874 

16,298,527    147,096    256,970       16.742.511 

1868. 

275,188 

24,174,980    289,629    514.767 

24,644,100 

1869. 

168,008 

20,483,619    187,9S8!    855,991       21,049,656 

1870. 

266,854    29,258,208    204,729    470,568       29,749.088 

1871. 

481,509 

82.504,3<>8    252,750    734.2591      82,984,768 

1872. 

290,091 

27,829,917    155,641!    445.782       28.262,115 

1878. 

876,198 

27,125,070    229,855    605,558       27,592,050 

1674* 

178,479 

12,277,160 

189,110    817.589       12,440,288 

1875t          459,249 

81,609,865 

206,056    665,805 

82,424,490 

The  value  of  imports  from  foreign  countries  in 
1874  was  $788,220;  of  exports  to  coastwise 
ports,  $18,076,451 ;  of  all  exports,  $50,500,.946 ; 
tonnage  entered  in  the  foreign  trade  237,619, 
cleared  189,399  ;  entered  in  the  coastwise  trade 
842,673,  cleared  377,459.  The  number  of  ves- 
sels belonging  to  the  port  on  June  30,  1874, 
was  80,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  22,170. 
The  chief  manufacturing  establishments  are 
several  planiug  mills,  founderies,  and  flouring 
and  grist  mills.  There  are  a  national  bank, 
with  a  capital  of  $750,000 ;  three  state  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $9,000,000 ;  and 
several  building  and  loan  associations. — The 

*  Six  months  ending  Jan.  1.        t  Year  ending  Jan.  1. 


646 


SAVANNAH 


SAVE 


city  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  12  aldermen, 
elected  biennially.  It  has  a  good  police  force 
and  an  efficient  fire  department  with  a  fire- 
alann  telegraph.  The  amount  of  taxable  real 
estate  and  improvements  is  about  $14,000,000. 
The  receipts  into  the  city  treasury  during  1874 
were  $988,320  65,  of 'which  $362,869  65  were 
from  loans;  expenditures,  $975,991  61,  of 
which  $353,505  were  to  pay  floating  debt  and 
bonds.  The  funded  debt  oa  Jan.  1,  1875, 
amounted  to  $3,600,140,  on  which  the  annual 
interest  is  $251,052  90.  The  principal  charita- 
ble institutions  are  the  poorhouse  and  hospital, 
an  orphans'  home,  a  dispensary,  and  an  infir- 
mary. The  public  schools  of  the  city  and  of 
the  county  of  Chatham  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  board  of  education  of  12  members. 
The  schools  for  white  and  colored  children  are 
separate.  In  the  year  1874-'5  there  were  in 
the  city  6,919  children  of  school  age  (3,853 
white  and  3,066  colored),  and  13  public  schools 
(10  white  and  3  colored),  all  graded,  with 
61  teachers;  average  daily  attendance,  2,453. 
The  white  schools  include  two  Catholic  in- 
stitutions. Outside  of  the  city  there  were  18 
ungraded  schools  (4  white  and  9  colored). 
The  expenditures  during  the  year  for  all  the 
schools  amounted  to  $48,350  94,  of  which  $42,- 
927  9G  were  for  teachers'  wages.  The  schools 
are  free,  being  supported  mainly  by  city  and 
county  appropriations.  There  are  several  pri- 
vate schools,  and  a  medical  college  with  14 
professors.  Two  daily  (one  German),  one  tri- 
weekly, and  four  weekly  (one  German)  news- 
papers are  published.  There  are  30  churches, 
viz. :  9  Baptist  (7  colored),  1  Congregational 
(colored),  4  Episcopal  (1  colored),  2  Jewish, 
1  Lutheran,  4  Methodist  (2  colored),  4  Presby- 
terian, 4  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  undenomina- 
tional.— Savannah  was  founded  in  February, 
1733,  by  Gen.  Oglethorpe.  The  British  at- 
tacked it  on  March  8,  1776,  and  were  repulsed ; 
but  on  Dec.  29,  1778,  they  took  possession  of 
the  city.  In  October,  1779,  the  French  and 
American  army  under  Count  D'Estaing  and 
Gen.  Lincoln  attempted  to  recapture  it,  but 
were  unsuccessful.  In  this  engagement  Count 
Pulaski  fell,  and  the  French  lost  537  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  the  Americans  241.  Sa- 
vannah received  a  city  charter  in  December, 
1789.  In  November,  1796,  a  fire  destroyed 
property  to  the  value  of  $1,000,000 ;  and  in 
January,  1820,  another  conflagration  occurred, 
involving  a  loss  of  $4,000,000.  On  Jan.  8, 
1861,  two  weeks  prior  to  the  passage  of  the 
ordinance  of  secession  by  the  convention  of 
Georgia,  Forts  Jackson  and  Pulaski  were  seiz- 
ed by  the  state  troops  by  order  of  the  gov- 
ernor. During  the  war  the  place  was  oc- 
cupied as  a  confederate  military  post  and  de- 
pot. It  was  the  point  on  the  sea  to  which 
Sherman's  march  from  Atlanta  was  directed, 
and  the  first  serious  opposition  which  he  en- 
countered was  about  15  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city, 
the  roads  to  which  were  obstructed  by  felled 
timber,  earthworks,  and  artillery;  but  these 


obstructions  were  turned,  and  on  Dec.  10, 
1864,  the  city  was  fairly  invested.  The  en- 
trance of  the  Ogeechee  river  into  Ossibaw 
sound  was  guarded  by  Fort  McAllister,  a  work 
of  no  great  strength,  having  23  guns  mounted 
en  barbette,  a  mortar,  and  a  garrison  of  about 
200  men.  This  fort  was  captured  Dec.  13, 
with  a  Union  loss  of  90  men,  and  on  the  17th 
Gen.  Hardee,  who  had  about  10,000  men  at 
Savannah,  mostly  militia,  was  summoned  to 
surrender  by  Sherman.  Hardee  refused  on 
the  ground  that  he  still  maintained  his  line 
of  defence,  and  was  in  communication  with 
his  superior  officers.  Sherman  then  prepared 
to  assault,  but  before  his  arrangements  were 
completed  Hardee  abandoned  the  city  and  re- 
treated to  Charleston.  The  Union  army  en- 
tered Savannah  on  Dec.  21.  Among  the  cap- 
tures were  25,000  bales  of  cotton. 

s\\  AYYVII  RIVER.  See  GEOBGIA,  vol.  vii., 
p.  716. 

8AVARY,  Anne  Jean  Marie  Rone,  duke  of  Rovi- 
go,  a  French  soldier,  born  at  Marcq,  near  Vou- 
ziers,  April  26,  1774,  died  in  Paris,  June  2, 
1833.  He  entered  the  army  in  1790,  super- 
intended in  1804  the  execution  of  the  duke 
d'Enghien,  became  general  of  division  in  1805, 
achieved  in  1807  a  victory  at  Ostrolenka,  and 
received  a  largo  pension  and  the  title  of  duke 
of  Rovigo.  N  apoleon,  after  employing  him  in 
missions  to  Russia,  sent  him  to  Madrid,  where 
he  prevailed  upon  King  Charles  IV.  and  Prince 
Ferdinand  to  meet  Napoleon  at  Bayonne,  pre- 
liminary to  their  deposition.  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Spain, 
he  joined  Napoleon  at  Erfurt,  and  remained 
his  companion  till  1810,  when  he  succeeded 
Fouche  as  minister  of  police.  In  1814  he  ac- 
companied Maria  Louisa  to  Blois,  and  went  on 
board  the  Bellerophon  to  accompany  the  em- 
peror to  St.  Helena;  but  the  English  took  him 
to  Malta,  whence  he  escaped  to  Smyrna.  There 
he  lost  most  of  his  fortune  in  commerce,  and 
in  1819  he  returned  to  Paris  and  obtained  the 
reversal  of  the  sentence  of  death  which  had 
been  pronounced  upon  him  in  1816.  In  1823 
he  published  an  extract  from  his  memoirs,  in 
which  he  threw  the  blame  of  executing  the 
duke  d'Enghien  on  Talleyrand.  The  court 
was  displeased  at  this,  and  he  went  to  Rome, 
but  was  recalled  to  active  service  in  1831  as 
commander  of  the  army  in  Algeria.  His  Me- 
moires  pour  sercir  d  Vhistoire  de  Vempereur 
Napoleon  (8  vols.,  1828)  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  works  on  the  first  empire. 

SAVE  (anc.  Savus ;  Ger.  Sou;  Hun.  Szdtd),  a 
river  of  Austria  and  Turkey,  rises  in  the  Car- 
nic  Alps,  in  the  N.  W.  corner  of  Carniola,  flows 
mostly  E.  S.  E.  through  Carniola  and  Croatia, 
passing  Laybach  and  Agratn,  and  along  the 
southern  boundary  of  Slavonia,  separating  it 
from  Bosnia  and  Servia,  and  empties  into  the 
Danube  between  Belgrade  and  Semlin.  It  is 
about  550  m.  long,  and  for  most  of  its  course 
winds  sluggishly  through  an  open  country, 
often  overflowing.  Below  the  confluence  of 


SAVIGNY 

the  Kulpa  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  150  tons. 
Its  principal  affluents,  all  from  the  south,  are 
the  Kulpa,  Unna,  Verbas,  Bosna,  and  Drina. 

SAVIGN1,  Friedrieh  Karl  von,  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  Frankfort,  Feb.  21,  1779,  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Oct.  25,  1861.  He  studied  at  Marburg, 
where  he  lectured  on  the  civil  law  from  1801 
to  1804.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  law  at  Landshut,  and  in  1810  at  Berlin.  In 
1842  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  for 
the  revision  of  the  law,  and  in  1848  retired 
from  political  life.  He  published  Das  Recht 
des  Besitzes  (1803;  7th  ed.,  1865;  English 
translation,  "Treatise  on  Possession,"  &c.,  6th 
ed.,  8vo,  London,  1848) ;  GescMchte  des  ro- 
miscJien  Rechts  im  Mittelalter  (6  vols.,  1815- 
'31) ;  and  System  des  heutigen  romischen  Rechts 
(8  vols.,  1840-'49),  to  which  -Das  OUigations- 
recht  (2  vols.,  1851-'3)  is  an  appendix. 

SAVILE,  or  Saviilc,  George,  marquis  of  Hali- 
fax, an  English  statesman,  born  in  Yorkshire 
in  1630,  died  in  London,  April  20,  1695.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  baronet,  and  for  his  zeal  in 
bringing  about  the  restoration  was  created  in 
1668  Baron  Savile  and  Viscount  Halifax ;  in 
1679  he  was  made  earl,  and  in  1682  marquis 
of  Halifax.  In  1672  he  was  made  a  privy 
councillor,  and  in  1679  was  admitted  into  the 
council  of  30,  and  subsequently  became  one 
of  Charles  II.'s  four  confidential  advisers.  It 
was  owing  almost  entirely  to  his  oratory  that 
the  house  of  lords  rejected  the  exclusion  bill 
in  1680.  He  however  defended  Lord  Eussell, 
and  denounced  the  withdrawal  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts charter.  On  the  accession  of  James 
II.  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  post  as  lord 
privy  seal  and  accept  the  presidency  of  the 
council ;  but  as  he  refused  to  support  the  king 
.  in  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  habeas  corpus 
acts,  he  was  dismissed  from  office.  He  was 
appointed  by  James  one  of  the  commissioners 
to  treat  with  William  of  Orange,  but  the  flight 
of  the  king  put  an  end  to  his  mission.  When 
parliament  met  he  was  appointed  speaker  of 
the  house  of  lords,  and  supported  the  claim 
of  William  as  king  regnant,  presented  the 
crown  to  William  and  Mary  on  their  accession, 
and  was  made  lord  privy  seal.  But  he  soon 
went  into  opposition,  and  acted  for  a  short 
time  with  the  Jacobites.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  party  contemptuously  called  trimmers, 
a  name  which  he  accepted  and  defended.  He 
wrote  "  Character  of  a  Trimmer,"  "  Anatomy 
of  an  Equivalent,"  "Letters  to  a  Dissenter," 
and  "Maxims  of  State,"  all  of  which  were 
printed  in  1  vol.  8vo  after  his  death.  Sev- 
eral historical  essays  were  published  under  his 
name.  Two  manuscript  copies  of  his  memoirs 
were  both  destroyed.  The  poet  Henry  Carey, 
ancestor  of  Edmund  Kean,  was  his  natural  son. 

SAVffl.     See  JUMPER. 

SAVINGS  BANK,  an  institution  for  the  deposit 
and  safe  keeping  of  small  sums  of  money. 
Savings  banks  were  originally  established  by 
benevolent  individuals  with  a  view  to  enable 
the  poor  to  find  places  in  which  small  savings 


SAVINGS  BANK 


647 


could  be  deposited  on  interest,  and  thus  to 
offer  inducements  to  make  such  savings.  Un- 
like ordinary  banks,  savings  banks  do  not  usu- 
ally lend  money  on  personal  security,  but  upon 
mortgage  of  real  estate,  stocks,  and  bonds  of 
governments  and  incorporated  companies.  In 
some  countries  these  banks  are  only  permitted 
by  law  to  invest  in  the  national  securities. 
The  earliest  savings  bank  of  which  there  is 
any  record  was  founded  in  Hamburg  in  1778; 
but  little  is  known  of  its  history  or  operations. 
The  next  was  in  Bern,  Switzerland,  in  1787. 
In  that  country  recently  existed  at  Zurich  the 
oldest  savings  bank  in  Europe,  it  having  been 
founded  in  1805.  Francis  Maseres  in  1771 
published  in  England  a  proposal  that  the  rate 
payers  of  any  parish  should  be  incorporated 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  savings  of  the 
people  and  of  investing  the  same,  and  granting 
deferred  annuities  to  the  owners  thereof.  A 
bill  based  on  this  proposal  passed  the  house  of 
commons,  but  failed  in  the  house  of  lords.  In 

1797  Jeremy  Bentham  suggested  the  plan  of 
what  he  called  "frugality  banks  "in  connec- 
tion with  the  management  of  paupers.     In 

1798  a  "  Friendly  Society  for  the  Benefit  of 
Women  and  Children  "  was  established  at  Tot- 
tenham High  Cross,  Middlesex,  by  Mrs.  Pris- 
cilla  Wakefield,  and  in  or  before  1801  there 
were  combined  with  it  a  fund  for  loans  and 
a  bank  for  savings.    In  1804  this  bank  was 
regularly  organized  with  Mr.  Eardley  Wilmot, 
M.  P.,  and  Mr.  Spurling  as  its  first  trustees. 
In  1799  the  Eev.  Joseph  Smith  of  Wendover, 
Bucks,  circulated  in  his  parish  proposals  to  re- 
ceive sums  on  deposit  during  the  summer,  and 
to  return  them  at  Christmas  with  an  addition 
of  one  third  as  a  bounty  on  the  economy  of  the 
depositors.     The  peasantry  of  the  parish  read- 
ily embraced  this  offer.     In  1806  the  "Provi- 
dent Institution  "  of  London  was  established. 
A  savings  bank  was  at  first  attached  to  it,  but 
was  soon  discontinued,  and  the  institution  be- 
came simply  a  life  insurance  company.     In 
1807  the  Rev.  John  Muckersy  established  in 
Scotland  the  "West  Calder  Friendly  Bank  for 
the  Savings  of  the  Poor."    In  1808  a  society 
was  opened  in  Bath,  chiefly  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  ladies,  for  receiving  the  deposits 
of  female  servants.     In  1810  the  Rev.  Henry 
Duncan,  D.  D.,  minister  of  Ruthwell,  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland,  established  a  parish  bank 
in  that  town,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years  had 
therein  accumulated  £1,160,  at  5  per  cent,  in- 
terest.   His  attention  had  been  directed  to  this 
subject  by  reading  the  writings  of  John  Bone 
on  social  economy.     He  himself  also  wrote 
various  essays,  including  "An  Essay  on  Par- 
ish Banks."     The  institution  established  by 
him  served  as  a  model  for  various  others.    In 
gratitude  to  Dr.  Duncan,  a  savings  bank  house 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  the  town  of 
Dumfries  soon  after  his  death  in  1846.    In  De- 
cember, 1813,  the  Edinburgh  savings  bank  was 
founded,  mainly  through  the  instrumentality 
of  J.  H.  Forbes,  who  was  connected  with  the 


648 


SAYINGS  BANK 


banking  house  of  Sir  William  Forbes  and  co., 
and  within  three  years  he  had  received  deposits 
amounting  to  £8,316  from  1,837  depositors. 
At  first  the  rate  of  interest  was  4  per  cent., 
but  after  the  first  year  it  was  fixed  at  5  per 
cent.  In  January,  1815,  the  "Provident  In- 
stitution of  Bath,"  afterward  called  the  Bath 
savings  bank,  was  established.  Southampton 
followed  with  a  savings  bank  in  November  of 
the  same  year,  Exeter  in  February,  1816,  and 
Hertford  in  March.  The  bank  of  Exeter  estab- 
lished agencies  for  receiving  deposits  through- 
out Devonshire,  and  within  two  years  held 
deposits  to  the  amount  of  £14,525.  The  Hert- 
ford bank  had  been  preceded  by  the  "  Sunday 
Bank"  established  in  the  same  place  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Lloyd.  The  first  savings  bank 
in  Ireland  was  established  at  Stillorgan,  county 
Dublin,  in  March,  1815.  By  the  end  of  1816 
there  were  74  in  England  and  Wales,  and  4  in 
Ireland.  The  first  legislation  by  parliament 
for  the  regulation  of  these  banks  was  "  An 
act  to  encourage  the  establishment  of  banks 
for  savings  in  England"  and  "An  act  to  en- 
courage the  establishment  of  savings  banks  in 
Ireland,"  both  passed  in  1817.  Among  other 
provisions  of  these  acts  were  those  by  which 
the  trustees  and  managers  of  the  banks  were 
empowered  to  pay  over  the  money  received 
from  the  depositors  to  the  bank  of  England 
or  the  bank  of  Ireland  for  the  account  of  the 
commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  na- 
tional debt,  and  as  "  the  fund  of  the  banks  for 
savings,"  and  the  commissioners  were  to  invest 
them  in  3d.  per  cent,  bank  annuities  and  issue 
debentures  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  Sd. 
per  cent,  per  diem  (£4  11«.  Sd.  per  annum). 
In  Ireland  the  trustees  might  place  not  more 
than  one  fifth  of  their  deposits  with  bankers. 
Alterations  as  to  England  were  made  in  1817 
and  1820,  and  in  1824  an  act  was  passed  cov- 
ering both  kingdoms.  Between  1849  and  1857 
the  great  frauds  and  defalcations  in  these 
banks  had  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people  in  their  stability.  In  1861 
the  amount  to  the  credit  of  depositors  and  the 
reserves  of  these  banks  were  £41,546,475. — As 
early  as  1806  Mr.  Whitbread  had  proposed  the 
establishment  of  savings  banks  in  connection 
with  the  post  office.  In  1859,  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  social  science  association  at  Brad- 
ford, a  paper  was  read  on  the  subject  by  Mr. 
0.  W.  Sikes,  of  the  Huddersfield  banking  com- 
pany, which  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
postmaster  general  and  others ;  and  finally  a 
plan,  to  a  great  extent  based  npon  Mr.  Sikes's 
suggestions,  was  matured  by  George  Chetwynd 
and  Frank  I.  Scudamore,  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  Sir  Rowland  Hill.  This  plan,  embod- 
ied in  a  bill,  was  carried  through  parliament 
by  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  became  a  law  on  May 
17,  1861,  and  went  into  effect  Sept.  17.  By 
Dec.  31,  1862,  the  total  balance  on  hand  was 
£1,694,724.  During  the  year  1873,  2,917,698 
deposits  were  received,  of  the  aggregate  amount 
of  £7,955,740,  the  average  being  £2  14*.  Qd. 


The  total  amount  of  deposits  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1873  was  £21,745,442.  The  rate  of  in- 
terest allowed  is  2J  per  cent.,  and  the  amounts 
received  are  from  time  to  time  paid  over  to 
the  commissioners  for  decreasing  the  national 
debt,  by  whom  they  are  invested  in  consols. 
Out  of  an  amount  due  to  depositors  Dec.  81, 
1872,  of  £19,860,874,  but  £301,070  remained 
on  that  date  in  the  hands  of  the  postmaster 
general.  Similar  systems  have  been  success- 
fully introduced  into  Australia  and  Canada. 
The  rate  of  interest  allowed  by  the  ordinary 
savings  banks  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  3J 
per  cent.,  and  the  deposits  are  invested  in 
consols,  which  pay  about  3 -35  per  cent.  The 
total  amount  of  deposits  in  these  banks  and 
post-office  banks,  as  stated  in  parliament  May 
27,  1875,  was  £65,673,000.— In  the  United 
States  the  first  savings  bank  was  the  u  Phila- 
delphia Saving  Fund  Society,"  suggested  by 
Condy  Raguet  and  organized  in  1816.  It  still 
exists  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  on  Jan. 
1,  1875,  held  deposits  amounting  to  $10,275,- 
752  83.  The  second  was  established  in  Boston 
in  the  same  year ;  the  third  in  New  York  in 
1819.  In  the  various  states  there  are  laws 
regulating  these  institutions,  and  some  of  them 
are  managed  with  great  probity  and  have  been 
eminently  successful,  although  there  have  been 
very  disastrous  failures.  Complete  statistics 
of  these  banks  are  not  accessible,  but  the  fol- 
lowing for  1874-'5  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
business  done  by  them  in  the  United  States : 


STATES. 

No. 

Dtpoilton. 

DepodU. 

Maine  

90.89H 

$29,556,498 

New  Hampshire  

«8 

92,601 

80,214,588 

Vermont..T  

16,200 

6,751,002 

MliSr.HctlUS.-tt>  

179 

702.0H9 

217,452,120 

Khode  Island  .            

98,124 

46,617,164 

Connecticut  

205.510 

72.206.624 

New  York  

15S 

672,498 

803,!'85,649 

New  Jersey  

40 

81,795,000 

California  

25 

01,038 

72,569,108 

— In  France  the  savings  banks  are  under  the 
surveillance  of  the  state,  and  their  funds  are 
deposited  in  the  cause  des  depots  et  consigna- 
tion*, which  is  administered  under  guarantee 
of  the  public  treasury,  which  pays  the  interest; 
but  the  depositors  have  no  other  security  than 
the  banks  themselves.  The  earliest  savings 
bank  established  in  France  was  in  Paris,  July 
29,  1818  ;  there  was  one  in  Bordeaux  in  1819, 
and  one  in  Marseilles  in  1821 ;  these  were  joint- 
stock  companies.  Generally  from  1821  they 
have  been  municipal  institutions  established  by 
the  town  councils.  In  1874  there  were  508 
savings  banks  in  France,  with  2,079,196  de- 
positors, and  deposits  amounting  to  $107,019,- 
847.  In  1875  a  bill  was  discussed  by  the  na- 
tional assembly  providing  for  post-office  savings 
banks,  but  was  rejected  for  several  reasons, 
among  others  because  the  bill  permitted  women 
and  minors  to  open  accounts  and  withdraw 
deposits  when  no  opposition  was  made  by  the 
husbands  of  the  one  or  the  parents  of  the 


SAVOIE 

other  class.  Danger  also  was  apprehended  that 
if  the  government  made  itself  responsible  for 
too  large  sums  of  money  payable  on  demand, 
difficulty  might  be  experienced  in  their  pay- 
ment. In  Belgium  savings  banks  exist  in  most 
of  the  principal  towns,  and  are  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  towns  themselves  or  of  financial 
establishments.  Switzerland  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  savings  banks.  In  1874  it  had 
303,  with  deposits  amounting  to  $57,600,000. 
In  the  various  states  of  the  German  empire 
savings  banks  exist,  one  having  been  founded 
in  Berlin  as  early  as  1818.  In  Austria  the 
deposits  in  these  institutions  amount  to  $179,- 
475,824.  Throughout  Europe  the  deposits  in 
savings  banks  are  estimated  at  $1,180,000,000. 

SAVOIE,  a  department  of  France.    See  SAVOY. 

SAVOIE,  Haute.     See  HAUTE-SAVOIE. 

SAVONA,  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince, on  the  W.  side  of  the  gulf,  and  23  m.  S. 
W.  of  the  city  of  Genoa;  pop.  in  1872,  24,- 
851.  It  is  very  antique,  has  a  large  trade  in 
silk,  wine,  and  fruit,  manufactures  paper,  cloth, 
firearms,  soap,  and  glass,  and  is  famous  for 
its  pottery.  It  has  a  cathedral  dating  from 
1604,  with  fine  wood  carvings  from  an  older 
one,  a  citadel,  an  arsenal,  a  naval  school,  a 
seminary,  and  a  college.  The  port  was  filled 
up  with  hulks  and  stones  by  the  Genoese  in 
1525-'8,  but  has  been  partly  cleared  out,  and 
the  work  is  still  in  progress  (1875). 

SAVONAROLA,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  reformer, 
born  in  Ferrara,  Sept.  21,  1452,  executed  in 
Florence,  May  23,  1498.  In  1475  he  became  a 
Dominican  at  Bologna ;  and  having  completed 
his  theological  studies  and  received  orders,  he 
was  sent  in  1482  to  the  convent  of  San  Mar- 
co in  Florence  to  preach  the  Lenten  station. 
His  diminutive  stature  and  harsh  voice  having 
caused  him  to  fail  in  this,  he  was  removed  to 
the  convent  of  Brescia,  where  he  achieved  such 
success  as  a  pulpit  orator  that  in  1489  he  was 
recalled  to  San  Marco  in  Florence.  Applying 
the  visions  and  prophetical  denunciations  of 
the  Apocalypse  to  the  vices  and  corruptions  of 
the  pagan  renaissance  in  Italy,  he  assumed  the 
character  of  a  prophet.  In  1493  he  was  ap- 
pointed vicar  general  of  his  order  in  northern 
Italy,  and  was  encouraged  by  the  court  of 
Rome  to  carry  'out  a  thorough  reform  in  all 
Dominican  houses.  Soon  afterward  the  pope 
made  the  reformed  Dominicans  of  Tuscany  an 
independent  body  under  Savonarola.  After 
the  death  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  in  1492, 
the  friar  allied  himself  with  the  political  par- 
ty which  favored  the  French  domination  in 
Lombardy,  and  his  discourses  pointed  plainly 
to  the  speedy  arrival  of  one  who  should  liberate 
Florence  from  the  yoke  of  the  Medici  and  the 
corruptions  of  paganism.  He  was  appointed 
one  of  a  deputation  to  welcome  Charles  VIII. 
of  France  as  the  saviour  of  Italy,  and  to  invite 
him  to  Florence  in  1494.  Thenceforward  his 
influence  was  for  a  time  all-powerful  in  the 
city.  When  the  French  evacuated  Florence,  a 
theocratic  republic  was  proclaimed  by  his  ad- 


SAVOY 


649 


vice,  in  which  Christ  alone  was  to  be  sovereign, 
and  legislation  and  public  order  were  regulated 
on  the  ascetic  principles  of  monastic  life.  He 
made  war  upon  all  amusements,  proposed  a 
rigid  censorship  of  morals,  and  even  demand- 
ed the  deposition  of  the  pope.  A  sentence  of 
excommunication,  which  he  disregarded,  only 
increased  his  popularity.  He  continued  his 
harangues,  organized  processions,  and  held  pub- 
lic autos  da  fe,  in  which  beautiful  and  licen- 
tious works  of  art  were  destroyed.  But  after  a 
time  the  combination  of  the  Medici  with  other 
powerful  families,  the  hostility  of  the  Francis- 
cans, Savonarola's  extravagant  interpretations 
of  Scripture,  and  the  censure  of  the  court  of 
Rome,  caused  a  sentence  of  banishment  to  be 
issued  against  him.  He  shut  himself  up  in  his 
convent  of  San  Marco,  but  surrendered  after  a 
violent  contest.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  demanded 
that  he  and  his  companions,  Domenico  Buon- 
vicini  and  Silvestro  Maruffi,  should  be  sent  to 
Rome.  The  Florentine  council  refused,  but  al- 
lowed the  papal  delegates  to  share  in  the  trial. 
The  prisoners  were  sentenced  to  death  and 
strangled,  and  their  bodies  burned.  Monuments 
to  Savonarola's  memory  were  erected  in  the 
convent  of  San  Marco  in  1873,  and  in  Ferrara 
on  the  anniversary  of  his  death,  May  23,  1875. 
He  left  numerous  ascetic  and  political  writings 
and  religious  poems.  In  his  Triumphu*  Grucis 
he  strives  to  prove  the  truths  of  religion  by 
philosophical  arguments,  and  to  bring  the  nat- 
ural and  supernatural  together.  In  his  work 
De  Divisione  omnium  Scientiarum  he  rejects 
all  pagan  authors,  and  would  substitute  for 
these  the  study  of  the  fathers.  His  works 
were  partly  published  at  Lyons  (6  vols.,  1633- 
'40),  and  portions  have  been  translated  into 
various  languages.  Among  recent  publications 
of  his  writings  are  Prediche  (Florence,  1845), 
and  Poesie  (1862).  His  life  has  been  written 
by  Carle  (Paris,  1842),  Madden  (London,  1853), 
and  many  others.  The  best  biographies  are 
by  Perrens  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1853  ;  3d  ed.,  1859), 
and  by  Villari  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1859-'61 ; 
French  translation  by  Gustave  Gruyer,  with 
collections  of  Savonarola's  correspondence  and 
poetry,  2  vols.,  1874).  Villari  corrects  the  ex- 
aggerated accounts  of  his  execution. 

SAVOY  (Fr.  La  Sawie),  a  territory  of  France, 
formerly  an  independent  duchy  and  afterward 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  between  lat. 
45°  4'  and  46°  24'  K,  and  Ion.  5°  37'  and  7° 
15'  E. ;  area,  3,888  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  540,- 
985.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  92  m.  and  its 
greatest  breadth  from  E.  to  W.  75  m.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  canton  and  lake  of  Geneva ; 
W.  by  the  department  of  Ain,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Rh6ne ;  S.  W.  by  the  de- 
partments of  Isere  and  Hautes-Alpes,  being 
divided  from  the  former  by  the  Guiers,  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Rh6ne,  and  from  the  latter  by 
the  Maurienne  ridge,  an  offset  of  the  Cottian 
Alps ;  and  S.  E.  and  E.  by  the  Cottian,  Graian, 
and  Pennine  Alps,  with  their  ramifications 
projecting  toward  the  lake  of  Geneva,  which 


650 


SAVOY 


separate  it  from  Piedmont  and  the  canton  of 
Valais.  This  range  contains  the  loftiest  peaks 
and  most  magnificent  glaciers  in  the  whole 
Alpine  system ;  among  the  former  are  Monts 
Blanc,  Ise>an,  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  Ta- 
bor ;  among  the  latter,  Is6ran  and  Chamouni. 
The  country  is  intersected  by  several  of  its  off- 
sets, viz. :  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  branching  from 
the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  covering  with  their 
ramifications  most  of  the  central  and  western 
districts;  the  Savoisian  and  Valaisian  ridge,  ex- 
tending from  the  Pennine  Alps  to  the  lake  of 
Geneva;  and  La  Vanoire,  which  diverges  from 
Mont  Ise>an  and  describes  a  curve  toward  the 
W.  S.  W.  The  streams  generally  rise  in  the 
main  chain  in  the  east,  and  flow  directly  or 
indirectly  into  the  Rh6ne ;  the  Dranse,  which 
flows  northward  to  the  lake  of  Geneva,  the 
Arve,  Ch6ran,  and  Isere,  flowing  wOvStward, 
are  the  most  important.  Besides  its  share 
of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  Savoy  has  the  smaller 
lakes  of  Bourget,  Annecy,  Morion,  Haute-Luce, 
and  Mont  Cunis,  and  the  subterraneous  lakes  in 
the  cave  of  Biuigo.  Mineral  springs  are  abun- 
dant; those  of  Aix,  St.  Gervais,  and  Evian  are 
the  most  famous ;  and  there  are  intermittent 
springs  at  Pigros  and  Haute-Oombe.  Mines 
of  argentiferous  lead  are  wrought  in  various 
places,  and  there  are  mines  of  copper,  iron, 
and  lignite,  anthracite,  and  bituminous  coal, 
and  quarries  of  marble,  granite,  slate,  jasper, 
and  porphyry.  The  forests  furnish  timber  for 
ship  building  and  other  purposes.  The  extent 
of  arable  land  is  not  considerable,  but  every 
acre  is  cultivated ;  the  valleys,  of  which  the 
most  celebrated  is  that  of  Chamouni,  present 
a  succession  of  cultivated  fields,  orchards,  and 
gardens ;  and  the  steepest  declivities  of  the 
mountains  are  terraced  and  made  productive. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  hemp,  and  fruits  are 
extensively  cultivated.  Chestnuts  form  an 
important  article  of  food  among  the  poor. 
Vines  thrive  on  the  hills,  and  the  wines  are 
of  good  quality.  Mulberry  and  walnut  trees 
are  cultivated,  the  nuts  of  the  latter  yield- 
ing oil.  Numbers  of  cattle  are  reared.  The 
rivers  teem  with  fish,  and  the  streams  and 
lake  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Cenis,  the  Ch6ran, 
and  the  Guiers  are  famous  for  trout.  The 
climate,  though  variable,  is  healthful  and  mild ; 
the  cold  is  severe  only  on  the  mountains.  The 
inhabitants,  in  manners,  language,  and  sympa- 
thies, have  always  been  essentially  French. 
They  are  kind,  honest,  hospitable,  and  intelli- 
gent, fond  of  their  country  and  loath  to  leave 
it  permanently,  though  as  many  as  30,000  of 
them  find  employment  during  the  winters  in 
France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Spain.  Near- 
ly all  of  the  non-migratory  class  are  landown- 
ers, the  soil  being  much  subdivided.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  chief  pursuit,  but  there  are  many 
founderies  and  iron  works,  and  linen,  cotton, 
woollen,  and  other  manufactories.  Before  its 
annexation  to  France,  Savoy  was  divided  into 
the  provinces  of  Ghablais,  Faucigny,  Genevois, 
Maurienne,  Savoy  Proper,  Upper  Savoy,  and 


Tarantaise.  It  now  constitutes  the  depart- 
ments of  Savoie  (the  southern  part)  and  Haute- 
Savoie.  For  the  latter,  see  HAUTE-SAVOIE. 
The  former  has  an  area  of  2,221  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  267,958.  It  is  divided  into  the  ar- 
rondissements  of  Albertville,  Chambery,  Mou- 
tiers,  and  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne.  Capital, 
Chamb6ry. — Savoy  was  originally  inhabited  by 
the  Allobroges,  Nantuates,  and  other  tribes 
of  Transalpine  Gaul.  Under  the  Romans  it 
formed  a  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis.  Subse- 
quently it  belonged  to  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Franks  and  Burgundians.  The  last  king  of 
Aries,  Rudolph  III.,  early  in  the  llth  century 
appointed  Beroald,  a  descendant  of  the  count 
of  St.  Maurice,  as  governor  of  Savoy.  Count 
Humbert,  however,  who  died  about  1048,  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  actual  founder  of  the 
house  of  Savoy.  He  was  a  stepson  of  Ru- 
dolph III.,  and  inherited  the  county  of  Mau- 
rienne, in  addition  to  which  he  received  from 
the  emperor  Conrad  II.,  after  the  death  of 
Rudolph  and  the  permanent  incorporation  of 
Savoy  with  Germany  in  1032,  considerable 
fiefs,  including  Chablais  and  Vaud.  His  ne- 
phew Amadeus  II.,  in  right  of  his  mother  Ade- 
laide, heiress  to  the  marqnisate  of  Susa,  added 
a  large  part  of  Piedmont  to  the  possessions 
of  his  house.  Under  Amadeus  III.  (1103-'48) 
the  territory  became  in  1111  a  county  of  the 
empire,  and  he  was  the  first  count  of  Sa- 
voy. Its  domains  were  much  enlarged  under 
subsequent  counts,  especially  Amadeus  V.  the 
Great  (1285-1323).  (See  AMADEUS  V.)  Turin 
had  become  the  capital  previous  to  his  reign. 
Amadeus  VI.,  a  chivalrous  and  adventurous 
prince,  annexed  Coni  and  other  territories,  and 
Amadeus  VII.  Nice.  Under  Amadeus  VIII. 
(1391-1434)  Savoy  became  a  duchy  in  1416 
(see  AMADEUS  VIII.),  and  he  reannexed  Pied- 
mont, which  for  about  a  century  and  a  half 
had  been  in  the  possession  of  a  younger  branch 
of  the  family.  Charles  I.  (1482-'9)  conquered 
the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo.  Charles  III.  (1504- 
'53)  became  involved  in  the  wars  between 
Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.,  and  lost  nearly  all 
his  possessions,  which  were  recovered  by  his 
son  Emanuel  Philibert  (1553-'80),  who  also 
acquired  additional  domains.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  warlike  princes  of  tis  house,  com- 
manded the  Spanish  army  in  the  battle  of  St. 
Quentin  (Aug.  10,  1557),  after  a  struggle  grant- 
ed the  Waldenses  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
and  promoted  agriculture,  industry,  and  learn- 
ing. The  ambition  of  his  successor,  Charles 
Emanuel  I.  the  Great  (1580-1630),  son-in-law 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  resulted  in  new  spoli- 
ations on  the  part  of  France  (see  CHARLES 
EMANUEL  I.) ;  and  his  son  Victor  Amadeus  I. 
(1630-'37)  was  soon  after  his  accession  obliged 
to  conclude  with  his  brother-in-law  Louis  XIII. 
of  France  the  disastrous  peace  of  Cherasco. 
The  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Savoy  had  been 
at  a  standstill  for  a  long  period  when  Victor 
Amadeus  II.  succeeded  Charles  Emanuel  II., 
a  peaceful  prince,  in  1675.  After  various 


SAW 


651 


vicissitudes  he  recovered  not  only  all  its  pos- 
sessions, but  acquired  in  1713  a  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Milan  and  the  kingdom  of  Sicily, 
which  he  exchanged  in  1720  for  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king.  (See  VIC- 
TOR AMADEUS,  and  SARDINIAN  STATES.)  Thus, 
after  having  been  counts  and  dukes  of  Savoy 
for  700  years  in  the  aggregate,  these  princes 
were  ranked  among  royal  dynasties,  allied 
with  almost  all  the  great  houses  of  Europe, 
and  finally  the  reigning  king  Victor  Emanuel 
has  become  the  ruler  of  all  Italy.  (See  ITALY.) 
Except  during  the  French  domination  under 
the  republic  and  Napoleon  I.,  Savoy  remained 
a  part  of  the  Sardinian  states  till  1860,  when 
by  the  treaty  of  Turin  (March  24)  it  was  ceded 
to  France,  together  with  most  of  the  county 
of  Nice,  on  condition  that  the  inhabitants 
should  approve  of  the  transfer;  and  a  large 
majority  of  affirmative  votes  having  been  cast 
at  the  election  for  that  purpose,  the  county 
was  formally  annexed  to  France,  June  12. 

SAW,  an  instrument  usually  made  of  a  steel 
plate  with  teeth  along  one  edge,  used  for  cut- 
ting wood,  ivory,  stone,  and  the  softer  metals. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  used  saws  of  bronze, 
and  applied  them  to  cutting  out  planks  from 
logs.  The  saw  was  single-handed,  and  the 
log  was  placed  on  end  and  secured  to  posts 
set  in  the  ground.  The  inventor  of  the  saw 
was  deified  by  the  Greeks,  and  called  by  some 
Talus  and  by  others  Perdix.  The  saws  of 
the  Grecian  carpenters  were  like  the  straight 
frame  saws  of  modern  times,  the  blade  set 
across  the  middle  of  the  frame,  with  the  teeth 
perpendicular  to  its  plane.  The  block  of  wood 
to  be  sawn  was  clamped  down  upon  a  bench, 
and  the  workmen  stood  on  opposite  sides  of 
this,  one  at  each  end  of  the  saw. — Sa\^s  are 
of  various  forms  and  sizes,  according  to  their 
intended  use.  The  older  forms  are  straight 
strips  of  steel,  either  set  in  a  frame,  or  simply 
provided  with  handles  at  each  end,  so  as  to 
be  moved  forward  and  back  by  two  persons ; 
or  the  plate  is  made  stiff  enough  for  a  single 
handle  to  answer,  when  it  is  worked  by  one 
person  holding  it  in  one  hand.  In  modern 
times  saw  blades  are  often  circular,  the  teeth 
cutting  as  the  saw  revolves  constantly  in 
the  same  direction. — Steel  plates  intended  for 
large  saws  are  prepared  from  ingots  carefully 
made  to  secure  uniform  quality,  and  after 
being  rolled  they  are  slit  into  the  shapes  for 
the  different  saws.  The  edge  intended  for 
the  teeth  is  then  ground  true,  and  the  teeth 
are  cut  by  a  punch  at  a  fly  press.  The  rough 
edges  left  by  the  punch  are  filed  down  and 
the  teeth  are  sharpened.  The  blades  are  next 
heated  in  ovens  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  im- 
mersed horizontally  and  edgewise  into  a  trough 
containing  oil  with  certain  portions  of  melt- 
ed tallow,  beeswax,  rosin,  pitch,  &c.  To  re- 
move the  excess  of  hardness  they  thus  acquire, 
after  wiping  off  a  portion  of  the  composition 
that  adheres  to  them,  the  blades  are  held  over 
a  fire  until  that  which  remains  ignites;  this 


is  called  "  blazing  off."  The  more  that  is  re- 
moved of  the  composition  before  this  burning, 
the.  harder  is  -the  blade ;  and  thus  its  temper 
is  regulated  for  the  kind  of  saw  required.  To 
give  it  uniform  density  throughout,  the  blade 
is  next  hammered  over  its  face  upon  an  anvil 
or  polished  steel ;  this  is  called  "planishing" 
or  "  smithing."  The  next  process  is  grinding 
the  surface,  to  reduce  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  from  the  teeth  toward  the  back  edge. 
Small  blades  are  held  against  the  stone  by 
means  of  a  board  laid  upon  them,  and  large 
saws  are  suspended  at  each  end.  The  finishing 
processes  are  repetitions  of  the  planishing  and 
grinding,  together  with  polishing  by  smooth 
stones  and  with  emery. — The  teeth  are  vari- 
ously shaped  for  different  saws.  The  most 
simple  are  made  by  angular  notches,  the  angle 
at  the  apex  of  the  notch  being  of  60°.  This  is 
most  convenient  for  sharpening,  as  the  com- 
mon triangular  or  "  three-square "  file  is  just 
adapted  to  its  figure.  "When  the  teeth  are 
made  with  equal  sides,  they  are  said  to  have  an 
upright  pitch ;  and  when  they  make  a  zigzag 
of  alternating  long  and  short  lines,  they  are  said 
to  be  flat  or  to  have  considerable  pitch.  The 
former  are  adapted  for  cross-cut  saws,  worked 
by  two  men,  one  at  each  end.  Such  teeth  lack 
the  chisel-like  effect  of  those  of  a  low  pitch, 
and  rather  scrape  away  the  wood  than  tear 
into  it  like  the  latter,  which  cut  only  when  the 
saw  is  moved  in  the  direction  toward  which  the 
teeth  point.  Hand  saws  in  the  United  States 
and  England  have  the  teeth  pointed  from  the 
handle ;  in  Asiatic  countries  and  in  Greece 
they  have  always  been  made  with  teeth  point- 
ed the  other  way.  A  straight  cut  upon  a  line 
can  probably  be  made  better  by  the  thrusting 
cut,  and  in  this  the  sawdust  is  thrown  out 
more  freely ;  but  the  force  is  certainly  applied 
to  better  advantage  as  regards  the  saw  in 
pulling  it  in  the  line  of  its  greatest  strength 
than  in  pushing;  and  for  very  slender  saws, 
in  which  it  is  an  object  to  dispense  with  all 
unnecessary  width  and  thickness,  as  in  the 
keyhole  and  other  similar  sorts,  it  would  ap- 
pear decidedly  better  to  adopt  the  East  Indian 
practice.  Some  large  saws  are  notched  at  a 
sharper  angle  than  60°,  and  for  these  special 
files  made  for  the  angle  are  used,  and  are 
known  as  mill-saw  files.  Teeth  made  at  a  low 
pitch  in  large  saws  would  become  clogged  with 
sawdust  unless  the  space  between  them  were 
enlarged,  and  the  various  forms  in  which  this 
is  done  give  distinctive  names  to  the  teeth. 
In  large  mill  saws  and  circular  saws  the  space 
between  the  teeth,  which  may  be  2  or  3  in., 
is  hollowed  out  in  a  curve,  and  the  outline  is 
much  like  a  fish  hook  in  form,  the  shank  of  the 
hook  bending  back  to  make  the  back  of  one 
tooth,  and  the  point  curving  round  to  form 
the  under  side  or  face  of  the  next.  All  saws 
used  for  cutting  wood  require  some  provision 
against  their  liability  to  become  jammed  and 
the  teeth  clogged  in  the  narrow  passage  they 
make  for  themselves.  This  is  sometimes  ef- 


652 


SAW 


SAW  FISH 


fected  by  making  the  blade  thinner  toward  the 
back,  but  the  most  effectual  mode  is  in  the 
"  set "  given  to  the  teeth.  In-  finishing  the 
saw  the  last  process  is  to  bend  half  the  teeth 
a  little  out  on  one  side,  and  the  other  half  on 
the  other  side.  In  eastern  countries  a  group 
of  a  dozen  teeth  or  thereabout  are  bent  to  one 
side,  and  the  next  group  to  the  other.  The 
operation  is  performed  with  a  small  hammer, 
the  saw  being  held  with  the  teeth  resting  on 
the  rounded  edge  of  a  small  anvil.  The  same 
may  be  done  with  the  saw  set,  which  is  a  bit 
of  steel  with  slits  suited  to  the  different  thick- 
nesses of  saw  blades.  The  amount  of  set  va- 
ries with  the  sort  of  service  the  saw  is  in- 
tended for.  The  more  likely  the  material  is 
to  clog,  the  wider  must  be  the  spread  of  the 
teeth  ;  but  if  it  is  an  object  to  avoid  the  waste 
of  the  wood  or  the  greater  labor  involved  in 
a  wide  cut,  the  set  should  be  as  little  as  pos- 
sible.— Circular  saws  were  in  use  in  1790,  and 
some  forms  have  been  employed  for  cutting 
the  teeth  of  clock  wheels  ever  since  the  time 
of  Dr.  Hooke.  For  cutting  wood  they  were 
first  brought  into  important  service  in  the 
machines  invented  by  M.  I.  Brunei  for  making 
ships1  blocks,  and  adopted  by  the  British  ad- 
miralty board  in  Portsmouth  in  1804.  From 
that  time  they  have  continued  in  constant  use 
and  in  various  forms  for  different  applica- 
tions. Saws  of  this  kind  commonly  run  in  a 
slit  through  a  table,  upon  which  the  board 
or  other  material  to  be  sawed  is  placed  and 
pushed  on  against  the  descending  teeth.  They 
are  made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity,  and 
the  teeth  for  those  intended  to  work  in  soft 
wood  and  with  the  grain  are  made  well  apart 
and  inclined  and  curved  even  to  the  fish-hook 
form.  For  harder  wood  the  teeth  are  made 
smaller  and  more  upright.  Insertable  teeth, 
now  much  used,  are  placed  in  notches  in  the 
periphery  of  the  saw  plate,  and  when  worn 
down  can  be  replaced.  This  contrivance  is 
a  great  saving,  and  at  the  same  time  allows 
the  dimensions  of  the  saw  to  be  preserved. — 
The  oldest  factory  for  large  saws  in  the  United 
States  is  probably  that  founded  by  William 
Rowland  in  Philadelphia  in  1802.  The  largest 
saws  in  the  world  for  sawing  boards  and  plank 
are  probably  those  made  expressly  for  the  Cali- 
fornia market,  where  they  are  wanted  for  the 
gigantic  timber  of  that  region.  At  the  saw  fac- 
tory of  Messrs.  R.  Iloe  and  co.,  in  New  York, 
circular  saws  are  made  of  80  in.  diameter  and 
a  fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  mill  and  cross- 
cut saws  10  ft.  long  and  upward.  At  this 
establishment  are  produced  nearly  all  the  va- 
rieties of  saws  in  use,  from  circular  saws  of 
4  in.  diameter  up,  and  from  the  common  wood 
saw  to  the  largest  mill  saws.  Some  of  the 
articles  are  peculiar  to  the  United  States,  as 
also  the  processes  employed.  The  steel  plates 
are  almost  entirely  imported  from  England; 
some  are  received  also  from  Philadelphia. 
Chain  saws,  made  of  solid  links  with  sernitod 
edges,  the  links  being  connected  by  rivets, 


are  in  common  use  by  surgeons  for  sawing 
bones  when  they  are  so  situated  that  they 
cannot  be  operated  upon  with  the  common 
surgeon's  saw.  They  are  also  sometimes  used 
by  mechanics  under  similar  circumstances  of 
position.  Band  saws,  made  by  serrating  and 
setting  the  edge  of  a  flexible  steel  band,  are 
now  largely  used  in  shops  for  the  working  and 
carving  of  wood,  making  patterns,  &c.  They 
may  be  of  almost  any  size,  from  that  adapted 
to  the  sawing  of  scrolls  in  the  thinnest  boards 
to  the  sawing  of  lumber  from  logs,  and  they 
have  the  advantage  of  continuous  motion  in 
one  direction.  The  band  is  moved  by  means 
of  two  rollers  covered  Avith  leather  or  vulcan- 
ized caoutchouc,  one  of  which  is  connected 
with  the  motor  shafting. — The  earliest  notice 
of  saws  being  run  by  power  is  contained  in 
a  manuscript  of  the  13th  century  in  Paris,  in 
which  is  a  representation  of  the  saw  mill  with 
a  self  action  turned  by  a  water  wheel.  Beck- 
mann  finds  evidence  of  saw  mills  worked  by 
water  power  in  Augsburg,  Germany,  as  far  back 
as  1322.  In  the  island  of  Madeira  one  is  said 
to  have  been  in  operation  in  1420,  and  the  first 
one  in  Norway  was  built  in  1530.  In  Holland 
they  were  in  use  more  than  100  years  soon- 
er than  in  England ;  and  the  Dutch  furnished 
the  English  with  lumber.  The  operation  of 
one  at  Lyons  in  1565  is  described  by  the  bish- 
op of  Ely,  then  British  ambassador  at  Rome. 
The  first  recorded  attempt  to  establish  a  saw 
mill  in  Great  Britain  was  made  near  London 
in  1663  by  a  Dutchman;  but  the  enterprise 
was  abandoned  on  account  of  the  opposition 
of  the  hand  sawyers.  In  1700  the  advantages 
offered  by  this  improvement  were  set  before 
the  public  by  one  Houghton ;  but  no  one  ven- 
tured, to  introduce  it  till  1767  or  1768,  when 
by  the  desire  of  the  society  of  arts  a  saw  mill 
was  built  at  Limehouse  by  James  Stansfield. 
It  was  soon  destroyed  by  the  mob.  In  the 
American  colonies  the  importance  of  this  ex- 
peditious means  of  obtaining  sawed  lumber 
was  generally  felt,  and  efforts  were  early  made 
to  obtain  the  necessary  machinery,  such  as  was 
used  in  Holland.  In  1634  a  saw  mill  was  put 
in  operation  at  the  falls  of  the  Piscataqua,  be- 
tween Berwick  and  the  Cocheco  branch  of 
that  river,  and  this  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  mill  of  the  kind  in  New  England.  In 
New  York  as  many  as  three  mills  were  con- 
structed by  the  Dutch  West  India  company 
about  1633,  to  run  by  water  power  or  by 
wind.  One  of  them  was  on  Nut  or  Gover- 
nor's island,  which  was  leased  in  1639  for  500 
merchantable  boards  yearly,  half  oak  and  half 
pine.  Another  was  on  Saw  Mill  creek,  a  small 
stream  which  flowed  into  the  East  river  from 
the  pond  known  as  the  Collect.  On  the  Dela- 
ware saw  mills  were  erected  by  the  Dutch  and 
Swedes  before  the  arrival  of  Penn. 

SAW  FISH,  a  cartilaginous  fish  of  the  genus 
pristu  (Lath.),  the  type  of  a  family  interme- 
diate in  position  between  the  sharks  and  rays, 
though  generally  ranked  with  the  latter.  It 


SAW  FISH 


SAW  FLY 


653 


has  the  elongated  and  rounded  form  of  a  shark, 
with  the  mouth  and  gill  openings  on  the  ven- 
tral surface  as  in  rays.  Its  distinguishing  char- 
acter is  the  long,  flattened,  narrow,  and  straight 
snout,  set  on  the  sides  with  teeth  or  strong 
bony  spines,  forming  a  double-edged  saw-like 
weapon,  whence  the  common  name.  The  true 
jaw  teeth  are  very  small,  and  pavement-like  as 
in  the  rays ;  the  body  is  flattened  in  front  of 
the  pectorals,  the  posterior  portion  and  the 
tail  as  in  sharks ;  the  skin  is  covered  with  small 
rough  scales;  the  pectorals  are  distant  from 
the  head,  and  not  extending  to  the  ventrals; 
the  tail  has  two  dorsals,  and  a  caudal  fin  pro- 
longed as  in  the  sharks.  About  half  a  dozen 
species  are  described,  found  in  arctic,  tropical, 
and  antarctic  seas,  and  one  all  along  the  coast 
from  New  England  to  Florida;  they  are  rapid 
swimmers.  The  beak  attains  a  length  of  from 
one  fourth  to  one  third  the  total  length  of  the 
body ;  it  is  covered  with  a  rough  skin,  and  is 
narrower  toward  the  end,  which  is  rounded; 
this  beak  has  been  found  driven  deeply  into 
the  timbers  of  ships.  They  seem  to  have  a 
natural  antipathy  to  the  larger  cetaceans,  and 
many  voyagers  have  been  witnesses  to  their 
victories  over  them.  The  jaw  teeth  are  adapt- 
ed for  crushing  crustaceans  and  similar  ani- 
mals upon  which  they  feed,  and  not  for  tear- 
ing flesh.  According  to  Owen,  the  beak  is 
composed  of  the  cartilages  attached  to  the 
frontal,  nasal,  and  vomerine  bones  blended 
into  a  horizontal  flattened  plate,  which  is  more 
completely  ossified  than  any  other  part  of  the 
skeleton ;  a  series  of  deep  sockets  on  each  of 
the  lateral  margins  contain  the  teeth,  which 
are  solid,  the  base  being  slightly  concave  and 
porous,  and  the  spaces  between  them  hollow 
and  filled  with  a  gelatinous  medulla,  rendering 
it  light  without  diminishing  its  strength ;  ves- 
sels and  nerves  supply  the  teeth,  which  grow 
by  constant  Addition  of  ossified  pulp  material 
at  the  base.  Though  the  projections  of  the 
beak  are  implanted  like  teeth,  they  have  no 
relation  to  the  intestinal  canal,  and  are  turned 
outward  like  spines  of  the  external  or  der- 
matoskeleton ;  they  form  a  very  interesting 
transition  between  teeth  and  cutaneous  spines. 
These  teeth  wound  by  repeated  blows,  and  not 
by  cutting  like  a  saw ;  the  Polynesians  use  this 
beak  as  a  sword. — The  common  saw  fish  is  the 
P.  antiquorum  (Lath.),  which  attains  a  length 
of  12  to  15  ft.,  of  which  the  beak  is  about  one 
third,  with  20  to  30  teeth  on  each  side ;  it  is 


Common  Saw  Fish  (Pristis  antiquorum). 

blackish  gray  above,  and  lighter  below;  the 
eyes  are  large,  the  nostrils  in  front  of  the 
mouth  protected  by  a  membranous  fold,  and 


two  oval  foramina  behind  the  eyes.  Klein 
says  that  in  the  embryo  the  sides  of  the  snout 
are  as  smooth  as  the  gums  of  a  new-born  in- 
fant ;  but  according  to  Latham  they  grow  very 
rapidly  after  birth,  and  are  not  shed  and  re- 
placed like  the  teeth  of  mammalian  jaws. 

SAW  FLY,  the  popular  name  of  the  tenthre- 
dinidce,  a  very  destructive  family  of  hymenop- 
terous  insects.  They  are  found  on  the  leaves 
of  plants,  and  live  almost  entirely  on  vegeta- 
ble food;  they  are  poor  fliers  and  sluggish; 
the  form  is  generally  short  and  flattened,  with 
broad  head,  and  thorax  widely  joined  to  the 
abdomen,  the  antenna  short  but  of  various 
forms,  thread-like,  knobbed  at  the  end,  feath- 
ered, notched,  or  forked ;  the  wings  overlap, 
cover  the  back,  and  are  horizontal  when  closed. 
The  females  have  two  saws,  lodged  in  a  groove 
in  the  hind  part  of  the  body  within  two  sheath- 
like  pieces ;  they  are  placed  side  by  side,  with 
the  ends  directed  backward,  the  form  and  the 
shape  of  the  teeth  varying;  they  usually  curve 
upward,  and  are  serrated  along  the  lower  or 
convex  edges ;  each  saw  has  a  back  to  steady 
it,  but  the  blade  slides  forward  and  backward 
on  it ;  they  are  not  only  toothed  on  the  edge 


Elm  Saw  Fly  (Chubex  ulmi). 

but  on  the  sides,  acting  as  rasps  as  well  as 
saws.  With  these  they  saw  slits  in  stems, 
leaves,  and  fruits,  in  which  their  eggs  are  de- 
posited ;  the  wounds  sometimes  produce  galls 
in  which  the  young  are  hatched  and  grow. 
The  larvae  look  much  like  caterpillars,  are  cy- 
lindrical and  greenish,  with  several  pairs  of 
legs,  generally  18  to  22 ;  most  are  naked,  but 
some  have  a  few  prickles,  others  a  white  flaky 
substance,  and  a  few  a  dark,  slimy,  slug-like 
skin.  The  larvae  also  resemble  caterpillars  in 
habits ;  when  fully  grown  they  enter  the  ground 
and  make  a  silken  cocoon,  but  a  few  place 
their  cocoons  on  plants  or  in  crevices  above 
ground ;  they  remain  thus  during  the  winter, 
change  to  whitish  chrysalids  in  spring,  and 
soon  come  out  winged  insects ;  there  are  some- 
times two  broods,  one  going  through  all  ita 
changes  during  summer. — About  100  species 
are  found  in  New  England  alone.  The  largest 
is  the  elm  saw  fly  (cimbex  ulmi,  Peck),  about 
|-  in.  long,  with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  near- 
ly 2  in. ;  the  female  resembles  a  hornet,  with 
black  head  and  thorax,  hind  body  steel-blue 
with  three  or  four  yellowish  spots  on  each 


G54 


SAW  FLY 


SAXE 


side,  and  smoky  brown  transparent  wings. 
The  male  is  very  different,  and  is  the  C.  Ame- 
ricana of  Leach ;  the  body  is  longer  and  nar- 
rower1, without  the  spots  on  the  sides.  They 
appear  from  the  last  of  May  to  the  middle  of 
June,  the  eggs .  being  deposited  on  the  Ameri- 
can elm,  whose  leaves  are  eaten  by  the  larvae ; 
these  in  August  are  nearly  2  in.  long,  thick- 
bodied,  with  22  legs,  rough  skin,  pale  greenish 
yellow,  with  numerous  transverse  wrinkles  and 
black  dorsal  stripe  and  spiracles ;  when  at  rest 
they  lie  on  the  side  in  a  spiral,  and  eject  a 
watery  fluid  from  lateral  pores  when  disturbed ; 
they  make  a  tough  cocoon  under  dead  leaves, 
in  which  they  remain  all  winter,  being  trans- 
formed to  chrysalids  in  spring.  The  fir  saw 
fly  (lophyrus  abietis,  Harris)  is  very  destruc- 
tive in  the  larva  state  to  the  fir  family  in  New 
England.  The  male  is  about  }  in.  long  and  f 
in.  in  expanse  of  wings ;  black  above,  brown 
below,  the  wings  with  changeable  tints  of 
reddish,  green,  and  yellow  ;  the  legs  dirty  yel- 
low ;  antenna)  like  short  black  feathers  curled 
inward  on  each  edge.  The  female  is  -fa  in. 
long  and  |  in.  in  expanse ;  yellowish  brown 
above,  with  blackish  stripe  on  each  side  of 
thorax ;  dirty  yellow  below ;  antennas  short 


Fir  Saw  Fly  (Lophyrus  abletis). 

and  tapering,  19-jointed,  serrated  on  the  out- 
side. They  appear  early  in  May,  making  slits 
for  their  eggs  in  the  edges  of  the  leaves ;  the 
larva)  come  out  in  June  and  July,  living  in 
large  swarms,  curling  the  hind  part  of  the  body 
around  the  leaf  while  feeding,  and  throwing 
up  the  head  and  tail  when  disturbed ;  they 
are  about  £  in.  long,  the  head  and  anterior 
parts  black  ;  body  pale  green  with  longitudinal 
stripes ;  below  yellowish  ;  they  become  almost 
yellow  at  last,  and  descend  to  the  ground, 
where  they  make  oblong  grayish  cocoons,  -fg 
in.  long,  escaping  in  the  spring  by  a  lid  at  one 
end.  The  most  effective  means  of  destroying 
them  is  showering  the  trees  with  soap  suds  or 
a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap.  A  nearly  allied 
species,  L.  pini  (Latr.),  is  very  destructive  to 
the  pine  and  fir  in  Europe ;  the  eggs  are  laid 
in  slits  in  the  leaves  closed  up  by  a  viscid  sub- 
stance which  issues  from  the  mouth ;  whole 
forests  in  Germany  have  been  stripped  by  the 
larva?  ;  among  their  enemies  are  insectivorous 
birds  and  mammals,  like  the  woodpeckers, 
mice,  and  squirrels,  and  also  ichneumon  flies. 
The  vine  saw  fly  of  the  United  States  (telan- 
dria,  viti&,  Harris)  is  black,  with  red  thorax 
above,  and  fore  legs  and  under  sides  of  all 
the  legs  yellowish  white ;  wings  smoky ;  the 


female  J  in.  long,  the  male  smaller.  They  lay 
eggs  in  the  spring  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
terminal  leaves  of  the  vine,  the  larvse  appear- 
ing in  little  swarms  in  July,  feeding  in  com- 
pany and  eating  the  leaves  even 
to  the  stalk ;  they  are  f  in. 
long  when  full  grown,  the  head 
and  tip  of  tail  black,  the  body 
lighfr  green  above  with  two 
rows  of  black  dots  on  each 
ring,  and  yellowish  below ;  they 
make  cells  of  earth  lined  with  silk,  and  come 
out  perfect  insects  in  about  two  weeks,  when 
they  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  which  eat, 
go  into  the  ground  for  the  winter,  and  come 
out  flies  the  next  spring.  The  best  remedies 
are  dusting  air-slacked  lime  on  the  vines  or 
showering  them  with  strong  soap  suds.  An- 
other saw  fly  injurious  to  fruit  trees  will  be 
noticed  under  SLUG  WORM. 

SAWYER.  I.  Thomas  Jefferson,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Reading,  Windsor  co.,  Vt., 
Jan.  9,  1804.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury 
college  in  1829,  studied  for  the  ministry,  and 
in  1830  took  charge  of  a  Universalist  society 
in  New  York.  In  1845  he  became  the  princi- 
pal of  the  Clinton  liberal  institute,  Oneida  co., 
N.  Y.,  and  also  taught  classes  in  theology.  In 
1852  he  resumed  his  former  charge  in  New 
York,  and  soon  afterward  held  a  public  de- 
bate with  the  Rev.  Isaac  Westcott,  a  Baptist 
clergyman,  which  was  published  under  the 
title,  "  Discussion  of  the  Doctrine  of  Univer- 
sal Salvation"  (12mo,  1854).  He  aided  in 
founding  the  theological  school  at  Canton,  N. 
Y.,  and  in  the  establishment  of  Tufts  college 
at  Medford,  Mass.,  in  which  since  18G9  he  has 
been  professor  of  theology.  Harvard  univer- 
sity conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  D.  D., 
and  the  Leipsic  theological  historical  society 
has  made  him  one  of  its  members.  II.  Caro- 
line M.  (FISHER),  an  American  author,  wife  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Newton,  Mass.,  Dec.  8, 
1812.  Her  contributions  to  the  youth's  de- 
partment of  the  "  Christian  Messenger "  have 
been  collected  in  a  series  of  volumes.  She 
has  edited  the  "  Rose  of  Sharon,"  a  Univer- 
salist annual,  and  the  "  Boston  Repository," 
a  Universalist  monthly  magazine,  published 
many  poems,  and  made  numerous  translations 
from  the  French  and  German. 

SAXE,  John  Godfrey,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Highgate,  Franklin  co.,  Vt.,  June  2,  1816. 
He  graduated  at  Middlebury  college  in  1839, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  St.  Albans  in  1843, 
and  practised  in  his  native  county  until  March, 
1850.  From  1850  to  1856  he  was  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  "  Burlington  Sentinel "  news- 
paper, and  in  1856  was  state's  attorney.  In 
1859  and  1860  he  was  the  candidate  of  the 
democratic  party  of  Vermont  for  governor. 
His  published  works  include  "  Progress,  a  Sa- 
tire" (New  York,  1846);  "New  Rape  of  the 
Lock"  (1847);  "The  Proud  Miss  McBride" 
(1848);  "The  Times"  (1840);  "The  Money 
King  and  other  Poems"  (1859) ;  " Clever  Sto- 


SAXE 

ries  of  Many  Nations"  (1864);  "The  Masque- 
rade and  other  Poems"  (1866);  "Fables  and 
Legends  in  Khyme"  (1872;  complete  "red- 
line  "  illustrated  ed.,  1874) ;  and  "  Leisure  Day 
Rhymes"  (1875).  Of  the  first  collection  of 
his  poems  (Boston,  1849)  40  editions  have 
been  issued.  He  now  (1875)  resides  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

SAXE)  Manrlee,  count  de,  a  marshal  of  France, 
born  in  Germany  in  October,  1696,  died  at 
Chambord,  Nov.  30,  1750.  He  was  the  natural 
son  of  Augustus  the  Strong,  elector  of  Saxony 
and  king  of  Poland,  by  the  Swedish  countess 
of  Konigsmark,  and  at  12  years  of  age  served 
in  the  army  of  the  allies  commanded  by  Marl- 
borough  and  Eugene.  He  was  present  at  the 
sieges  of  Tournay  and  Mons,  and  before  the 
age  of  15  was  placed  by  his  father  in  command 
of  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  with  which  he  did 
good  service  at  the  siege  of  Stralsund.  He 
fought  under  Eugene  against  the  Turks  in 
1717-'18,  went  to  Paris  in  1720,  and  received 
from  the  duke  of  Orleans  the  commission  of 
marechal-de-camp  with  the  command  of  a  re- 
giment, which  he  proceeded  to  discipline  and 
manoeuvre  according  to  a  system  of  his  own 
invention.  For  several  years  he  studied  math- 
ematics and  the  art  of  war  under  Folard,  and 
in  172G  proceeded  to  the  north  in  the  hope  of 
being  elected  duke  of  Courland.  The  opposi- 
tion of  Russia  and  Poland  compelled  him  to 
take  refuge  in  France,  notwithstanding  he  had 
secured  his  election.  In  1728  he  was  recalled 
by  the  duchess.  Anna  Ivanovna,  who  had  con- 
ceived an  attachment  for  him,  and  with  whom 
he  might  have  shared  the  throne  of  Russia,  to 
which  in  1730  she  was  elevated,  had  not  his 
inconstancy  caused  his  dismissal.  In  1733  he 
obtained  a  command  in  the  French  army,  and 
for  services  at  the  siege  of  Philippsburg  was 
appointed  a  lieutenant  general.  In  the  gener- 
al war  which  broke  out  in  1740  he  served  with 
credit  in  the  campaigns  of  Bohemia  and  on 
the  Rhine,  and  in  1743  was  appointed  a  mar- 
shal of  France.  In  1744,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  in  Flanders,  he  held  his  ground  against 
forces  thrice  as  numerous  as  his  own,  retain- 
ing all  the  conquests  previously  made  by  the 
French;  and  in  1745  he  was  appointed  gen- 
eral-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Flanders,  amount- 
ing to  100,000  men.  The  campaign  began  with 
the  siege  of  Tournay,  and  on  the  approach  of 
the  allies  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland  to 
the  support  of  the  town,  Saxe  gave  them  bat- 
tle at  Fontenoy  (May  11,  1745),  and  after  an 
obstinate  contest  gained  a  memorable  victory, 
which  led  to  the  speedy  conquest  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  On 
this  occasion,  though  suffering  so  severely 
from  an  attack  of  dropsy  as  to  be  obliged  to 
travel  in  a  litter,  he  caused  himself  to  be  con- 
veyed to  all  parts  of  the  field.  Louis  XV.  be- 
stowed upon  him  the  estates  of  Chambord, 
which  yielded  an  annual  revenue  of  100,000 
francs;  and  for  the  victory  gained  at  Rau- 
coux  over  the  allies  under  Charles  of  Lor- 
726  VOL.  xiv. — 454 


SAXE-MEININGEN 


655 


raine,  Oct.  11,  1746,  he  was  made  marshal 
general  of  France.  In  the  campaigns  of  1747- 
'8  Saxe  captured  Lawfeld,  Bergen-op-Zoom, 
and  Maestricht,  which  with  other  successes  led 
to  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapello  in  1748.  He 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  princely  style  on 
his  estate.  Saxe  was  remarkable  for  his  stat- 
ure and  bodily  strength  ;  he  died  prematurely 
from  the  effects  of  debauchery.  He  devoted 
several  years  to  a  work  entitled  Met  reveries  (5 
vols.  4to,  1757),  containing  many  useful  hints 
on  the  art  of  war,  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Sir  William  Fawcett  (London,  1757). 
Numerous  biographies  of  Saxe  have  been  pub- 
lished, including  one  by  Delabarre-Duparcq 
(Paris,  1850),  and  one  by  Karl  von  Weber  (Dres- 
den, 1863)  ;  and  Carlyle  has  drawn  a  portrait 
of  him  in  his  "Life  of  Frederick  the  Great." 

SAXE-ALTEIVBCRG.     See  ALTENBUKG. 

SAXE-COBIRG.     See  COBUEG. 

SAXE-COBl'KG-GOTHA,  a  duchy  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  consisting  of  two  principal  parts 
separated  from  each  other  by  Prussia  and 
Meiningen.  The  northern  division  comprises 
the  former  duchy  of  Gotha,  and  is  bounded 
by  Prussia,  Schwarzburg,  Weimar,  and  Mei- 
ningen. The  southern,  comprising  the  duchy 
of  Coburg,  is  bounded  by  Bavaria  and  Meinin- 
gen. Area,  760  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  174,339, 
almost  all  Protestants.  Both  parts  of  the 
duchy  are  mountainous  and  have  beautiful 
valleys  and  forests;  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
Thuringian  Forest  are  found  in  Gotha.  The 
duchy  is  watered  by  the  Gera,  Nesse,  Unstrut, 
and  Urn.  Grain,  flax,  find  timber  are  the  chief 
products.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of  Gotha 
pitch,  tar,  and  lampblack  are  made.  There  are 
manufactories  of  linen,  woollen  goods,  cutlery, 
porcelain,  and  wooden  toys,  iron  founderies, 
and  beet-sugar  refineries.  The  duchy  has  one 
vote  in  the  federal  council  of  Germany,  and 
sends  two  deputies  to  the  German  Reichstag. 
The  local  diet  or  legislature  consists  of  one 
chamber  with  21  members,  who  are  chosen  by 
the  special  diets  of  the  two  duchies,  Gotha 
choosing  14  and  Coburg  7.  The  present  duke, 
Ernest  II.  (born  June  21,  1818),  succeeded  his 
father  in  1844;  as  he  has  no  children,  the 
heir  presumptive  to  the  throne  is  his  nephew 
Alfred,  duke  of  Edinburgh,  second  son  of 
the  duke's  brother  Prince  Albert  and  Queen 
Victoria  of  Great  Britain.  The  ducal  line  of 
Gotha,  which  was  founded  in  1681,  by  Fred- 
erick, eldest  son  of  Ernest  the  Bious  of  Al- 
tenburg  and  Gotha,  became  extinct  in  1825. 
After  protracted  negotiations  between  the 
other  Saxon  houses,  Gotha  was  given  to  the 
ducal  line  of  Coburg- Saalf eld,  which  had  been 
founded  by  a  younger  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious. 
The  duke  of  Coburg-Saalfeld  in  turn  ceded 
Saalfeld  to  the  duke  of  Meiningen,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

SAXE-LAUENBPRG.    See  LAUENBURG. 

SAXE-MELMNGEN-HILDBCRGHAISEN,  a  duchy 
of  the  German  empire,  composed  of  the  old 
duchy  of  Meiningen,  the  principalities  of  Hild- 


656      SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH 


SAXIFRAGE 


burghausen  and  Saalfeld,  and  some  smaller 
districts,  bounded  mainly  by  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
Coburg,  and  Weimar ;  area,  953  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  187,957,  nearly  all  Protestants.  Its 
surface  is  mountainous,  several  peaks  of  tbe 
Thuringian  range  rising  to  an  elevation  of 
nearly  3,000  ft.  The  Werra  traverses  the 
duchy,  first  TV.  and  then  N.  W. ;  the  other 
principal  rivers  are  the  Saale  and  Ihn.  There 
are  salt  and  mineral  springs.  The  valleys  are 
fertile.  The  manufactures  consist  principally 
of  coarse  cotton  and  linens,  iron  ware,  pot- 
tery, and  glass.  The  reigning  duke  George 
(born  April  2,  1826)  succeeded  his  father  in 
1866.  The  government  is  limited  by  a  diet  of 
a  single  chamber  with  24  members.  It  has 
one  vote  in  the  federal  council,  and  sends  two 
deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  The  principal  towns 
are  Meiningen,  the  capital,  on  the  Werra,  Saal- 
feld, Hildburghausen,  Sonneberg,  and  Eisfeld. 

SAXE-WEIMAR-EISEVACII,  a  grand  duchy  of 
the  German  empire,  composed  of  the  princi- 
palities of  Weimar  and  Eisenach,  which  are 
separated  by  Prussian  Saxony  and  Coburg- 
Gotha,  and  of  the  district  of  Xeustadt,  sep- 
arated from  Weimar  by  Altenburg,  and  12 
smaller  portions;  area,  1,404  sq.  in.;  pop.  in 
1871,  286,183,  of  whom  9,404  were  Roman 
Catholics,  1,120  Jews,  and  the  rest  Protes- 
tants. It  has  a  diversified  surface,  being  bro- 
ken by  branches  of  the  Thuringian  Forest  and 
the  Hohe  Rhon,  and  is  watered  by  the  Saale, 
Ilm,  Gera,  Werra,  Nesse,  and  Ulster.  A  large 
portion  of  the  soil  is  adapted  to  agriculture, 
and  produces  grain,  flax,  and  hemp ;  but  the 
principal  staple  is  wool.  The  reigning  grand 
duke  is  Charles  Alexander  (born  June  24, 
1818),  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1853.  It 
has  one  vote  in  the  federal  council,  and  sends 
three  deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  The  local 
legislature  or  diet  consists  of  one  chamber  with 
81  members.  The  chief  towns  are  Weimar,  the 
capital,  Jena,  Apolda,  Neustadt,  and  Weida. 

SAXIFRAGE  (Lat.  saxifruga,  from  saxum,  a 
rock,  and  frangere,  to  break),  a  plant,  many 
species  of  which  grow  in  the  crevices  of  rocks, 
and  were  once  supposed  to  disintegrate  them ; 
hence,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  signatures, 
the  plants  at  one  time  were  regarded  as  able 
to  break  up  and  remove  stone  in  the  bladder. 
The  genus  saxifraga  gives  its  name  to  a  fam- 
ily, the  taxifragacea,  which  with  the  additions 
made  by  recent  revisions  is  very  large ;  it  may 
be  briefly  described  as  very  near  rosacece,  but 
generally  without  stipules,  and  with  albumi- 
nous seeds.  Saxifraga  comprises  about  160 
species,  found  in  temperate  and  arctic  regions, 
and  especially  in  alpine  situations ;  nearly  all 
are  perennials,  often  with  their  radical  leaves 
in  a  cluster ;  the  usually  small  perfect  flowers 
in  a  panicle  or  corymb,  with  a  five-cleft  calyx, 
five  petals,  and  ten  stamens;  ovary  of  two 
more  or  less  united  carpels,  with  two  styles, 
and  frequently  cohering  with  the  calyx,  ripen- 
ing into  two  many-seeded  follicles.  The  early 
or  Virginian  saxifrage  (S.  Virginiensis)  is  in 


Early  Saxifrage  (Siuci- 
fraga 


all  the  northern  states  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  abundant  of  spring  flowers,  especially  on 
dry  hills  and  growing  in  the  clefts  of  rocks 
with  a  warm  exposure ;  it  has  a  tuft  of  thiek- 
ish  obovate  leaves,  tapering  into  a  broad  pe- 
tiole, and  scollop-toothed  on  the  margin  ;  from 
the  centre  of  the  cluster 
rises  a  flower  stem  4  to 
8  in.  or  more  high,  at  the 
top  of  which  is  a  dense 
clustered  cyme,  which 
later  becomes  an  open 
loose  panicle ;  the  differ- 
ence in  appearance  be- 
tween the  plant  when  it 
begins  to  flower  and  later 
in  the  season  has  caused 
it  to  be  described  under 
several  different  names ; 
the  flowers  are  white, 
sometimes  tipped  with 
purple,  and  occasional 
specimens  have  double 
flowers.  This  species  ex- 
tends from  Canada  to 
the  mountains  of  Geor- 
gia and  west  to  Oregon, 
blooming  from  April  to 
June.  Some  few  alpine 
species  are  found  only 
on  Mt.  Washington  and  other  northern  peaks. 
The  swamp  saxifrage  (S.  Penntyfaanica)  is  a 
coarse  species  found  in  wet  places,  with  flow- 
er stalks  1  to  2  ft.  high,  but  without  beauty ; 
and  several  others  are  found  in  the  eastern 
states.  In  the  arctic  and  subarctic  portions  of 
the  continent  there 
are  several  interest- 
ing species,  and  some 
are  peculiar  to  the 
Rocky  mountains 
and  other  western 
ranges. — In  England 
the  climate  allows  of 
the  cultivation  of  a 
large  number  of  al- 
pine species,  which 
will  not  grow  here 
on  account  of  our 
hot  summers.  The 
most  common  in 
American  gardens 
are  the  thick-leaved 
saxifrage  (S.  crassi- 
folia)  from  Siberia, 
and  several  similar 
species,  with  fleshy, 
nearly  evergreen 
leaves,  6  to  7  in. 
long ;  in  very  early 


Thick  leaved  Saxifrage  (Sari- 
fraga  crassifoliu). 


spring  they  throw  up  a  thick  stalk,  about  a 
foot  high,  with  a  large  cluster  of  bright  rose- 
colored  flowers,  which  is  compact  at  first,  but 
spreads  later  into  an  ample  cyme ;  they  bloom 
so  early  that  they  are  apt  to  be  caught  by  late 
frosts.  Saxifraga  umbrota  is  a  favorite  plant 


SAXO 


SAXONY 


657 


in  English  gardens.  (See  LONDON  PRIDE.) 
The  umbrella  saxifrage  (S.  peltata)  of  Cali- 
fornia is  remarkable  for  its  large  leaves,  and 
is  somewhat  cultivated  for  its  striking  foli- 
age. A  species  which  multiplies  by  means  of 
long  runners  (S.  sarmentosa),  introduced  from 
China,  is  cultivated  as  a  house  plant,  in  win- 
dow baskets,  and  in  greenhouses,  under  the 
names  of  beefsteak  and  strawberry  geranium, 
wandering  Jew,  mother  of  thousands,  sailor 
plant,  and  various  others ;  it  has  round-heart- 
shaped  or  kidney-shaped,  hairy  leaves,  purplish 
below  and  mottled  above  with  green  and 
white ;  it  forms  thread-like  runners,  a  foot  or 
more  long,  at  the  end  of  which  a  bud  and 
ultimately  a  new  plant  appears,  which  if  it 
reaches  the  earth  will  take  root,  and  if  not 
will  throw  out  other  runners.  The  old  plants 
throw  up  a  stem  which  bears  a  panicle  of 
irregular  flowers,  with  two  long  hanging  white 
petals,  and  three  erect  smaller  ones,  spotted 
with  pink  and  yellow. 

SAXO,  surnamed  GRAMMATICTJS,  a  Danish 
historian,  died  about  1204.  According  to  the 
common  opinion  he  was  provost  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Roskilde,  then  the  Danish  capital,  and 
was  employed  by  Archbishop  Absalon  to  write 
a  history  of  Denmark.  For  times  near  his 
own,  Saxo  is  an  unexceptionable  witness ;  but 
in  describing  remote  periods  he  drew  from 
popular  tradition.  His  Historia  Regum  Hero- 
umque  Danorum  was  first  printed  in  Paris 
(fol.,  1514).  A  learned  commentary  on  it  has 
been  written  by  Stephens  (fol.,  Soro,  1644). 

SAXONS,  a  name  first  used  by  the  geogra- 
pher Ptolemy  to  indicate  a  branch  of  the  Ger- 
manic race,  now  dominant  in  the  northwest- 
ern lowlands  of  Germany,  especially  in  the 
region  of  the  middle  and  lower  Elbe,  between 
the  Hartz  and  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Thu- 
ringian  Forest,  and  between  the  Weser  and  the 
Rhine.  The  Saxons  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
were  a  small  tribe,  who  in  his  time  (2d  centu- 
ry A.  D.)  dwelt  between  the  Eider,  Trave,  and 
Elbe,  and  upon  several  of  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  word  Saxon  is  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  derived  from  Salcaisuna,  sons  of  the  Sa- 
kai,  or  Scythians,  and  by  others  from  sahs, 
a  flint  knife  or  short  sword.  Eutropius,  the 
next  after  Ptolemy  who  mentions  them,  says 
that  the  Saxons,  united  with  the  Franks,  had 
become  formidable  against  the  Roman  fron- 
tier. The  exploits  of  the  Saxons  were  chiefly 
at  sea.  A  special  Roman  fleet  was  appointed 
to  act  against  them,  and  the  southern  coast 
of  Britain  was  placed  under  an  officer  styled 
comes  littoris  Saxonici.  Carausius,  a  Belgian, 
who  usurped  the  purple  in  A.  D.  287,  gave 
them  ships,  sent  officers  to  teach  them  the  sci- 
ence of  navigation,  and  encouraged  their  de- 
predations upon  every  coast  which  had  not  ac- 
knowledged his  authority.  Magnentius,  who 
had  seized  Italy  and  Gaul,  and  assassinated  the 
emperor  Constans,  likewise  formed  an  alliance 
with  them  in  350 ;  other  tribes  joined  their 
standard ;  and  at  length  they  gave  their  name 


to  a  powerful  league  rivalling  that  of  the 
Franks,  and  embracing  all  the  tribes  between 
the  Skager  Rack  and  the  limits  of  modern 
France,  extending  inland  to  the  Saale,  and  be- 
yond to  the  western  frontier  of  Bohemia.  In 
the  middle  of  the  5th  century  Saxon  tribes 
took  possession  of  the  coast  land  of  modern 
Normandy  as  Roman  allies  and  mercenaries, 
and  others  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire ;  but  both  hordes  soon  disappeared  in 
the  subsequent  Frankish  empire.  In  the  6th 
and  6th  centuries  they  established  themselves 
in  Britain  (see  ANGLO-SAXONS)  and  on  the  con- 
tinent, fought  with  the  Thuringians,  attacked 
the  upper  Rhine,  and  extended  the  scene  of 
their  spoils  far  inland.  Charlemagne  at  last, 
after  one  of  the  most  obstinate  and  destructive 
wars  recorded  in  history  (772-804),  destroyed 
their  aggressive  power,  and  forced  them  to  ac- 
cept Christianity.  (See  CHARLES  I.  of  Germany, 
vol.  iv.,  p.  290.)  Among  the  principal  Saxon 
tribes  were  then  reckoned  the  Westphalians, 
Eastphalians,  Ditmarsians,  and  Holsatians.  In 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century  arose  the  duchy 
of  Saxony,  to  which  Thuringia  was  soon  after 
annexed.  Henry  the  Fowler,  duke  of  Saxony, 
became  king  of  Germany  (919),  and  his  son 
Otho  I.  gave  the  duchy  to  Hermann  Billung, 
whose  house  ruled  it  for  a  century  and  a  half. 
Mainly  under  it  were  founded  the  margraviates 
of  Meissen,  East  Saxony,  and  others,  in  terri- 
tories wrested  from  the  Slavs  and  Danes.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  the  last  emperor  of  the  house 
of  Henry  the  Fowler,  Henry  II.  (1024),  the 
Saxon  dukes  often  struggled  against  the  empe- 
rors of  the  houses  of  Franconia  and  Swabia. 
Lothaire,  of  the  Supplinburg  family,  becoming 
emperor  in  1125,  gave  Saxony  to  Henry  the 
Haughty  of  Bavaria,  under  whose  son  Henry 
the  Lion  the  duchy  was  broken  up.  (See 
HENRY  THE  LION.) — Only  a  very  small  num- 
ber of  monuments  of  the  Old  Saxon  language, 
properly  so  called,  are  extant.  The  most  im- 
portant and  largest  is  the  H6Uand  (the  Saviour), 
of  the  9th  century,  which  gives  in  alliterated 
verses  the  gospel  narrative  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
Two  manuscripts  of  it  are  in  existence,  one  in 
Munich  and  the  other  in  the  British  museum. 
It  appears  to  be  but  a  portion  of  an  extensive 
work  giving  a  versified  paraphrase  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  made  at  the  request  of 
Louis  le  D6bonnaire.  The  first  edition  of  it, 
by  Schmeller,  appeared  in  1830-'40.  (See  GER- 
MANIC RACES  AND  LANGUAGES,  and  ANGLO- 
SAXONS,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF  THE.) 

SAXONY  (Ger.  Sachseri),  a  kingdom  of  the 
German  empire,  between  lat.  50°  10'  and  51° 
30'  N.,  and  Ion.  11°  55'  and  15°  5'  E.,  bounded 
N.  and  N.  E.  by  Prussia,  S.  E.  and  S.  by  Bohe- 
mia, S.  W.  by  Bavaria,  and  W.  by  the  Thurin- 
gian  states  and  Prussia;  area,  5,788  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  2,556,244.  Capital,  Dresden.  The 
southern  part  is  traversed  by  spurs  of  the  Fich- 
telgebirge  and  the  Erzgebirge,  the  latter  sepa- 
rating the  country  from  Bohemia.  The  pictu- 
resque region  where  the  spurs  approach  the 


658 


SAXONY 


Elbe  is  called  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  Lusa- 
tian  mountains  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river 
connect  the  Erzgebirge  with  the  Riesengebirge. 
The  S.  W.  portion  of  the  country  is  known  as 
the  Voigtland.  About  three  fifths  of  the  sur- 
face is  level  or  slightly  undulating.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Elbe  and  its  tributaries  the 
Elster,  Mulde,  and  Spree.  The  climate  is  salu- 
brious, but  severe  in  the  mountains.  Grain, 
fruit,  and  flax  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 
Of  the  total  area,  52 -4  per  cent,  is  under  til- 
lage, 13  per  cent,  meadows  and  pastures,  30'5 
per  cent,  forests,  and  only  4'1  per  cent,  unpro- 
ductive. Cattle^are  raised  in  great  numbers. 
Saxony  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  fine 
wool ;  recently  the  sheep  have  declined  in  num- 
ber, but  improved  in  breed.  The  value  of  all 
private  landed  property  rose  from  $294,000,000 
in  1830  to  $490,000,000  in  1858,  and  $807,000,- 
000  in  1874.  Minerals  abound,  including  coal, 
silver,  iron,  lead,  tin,  marble,  porcelain  clay, 
arsenic,  &c.  The  amount  of  silver  mined  in 
1870  was  64,000  Ibs. ;  iron,  179,000  quintals; 
lead,  70,000  quintals.  Nearly  80,000  persons 
are  employed  in  mines  and  smelting.  In  1871 
there  were  681  distilleries  and  (599  breweries, 
producing  40,800,000  gallons  of  beer.  More 
than  half  the  population  is  engaged  in  manu- 
factures, producing  fine  linen,  silk,  and  wool- 
len goods,  laces  and  embroideries,  tin  spoons, 
paints,  straw  goods,  porcelain,  musical  instru- 
ments, iron  and  tin  ware,  machinery,  and  many 
other  articles.  The  book  trade  and  the  fairs 
of  Leipsic  and  the  general  commerce  of  Sax- 
ony are  of  great  magnitude.  (See  GERMANY, 
anil  LEIPSIC.)  Public  education  is  as  well  pro- 
vided for  in  Saxony  as  in  Prussia.  The  uni- 
versity of  Leipsic  enjoys  world-wide  celebrity, 
and  there  are  various  academies  in  Dresden, 
a  celebrated  one  for  mining  at  Freiberg,  and 
many  gymnasiums  and  normal  and  special 
schools,  besides  the  numerous  common  schools. 
The  kingdom  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Dresden,  Leipsic,  Zwickau,  and  Bautzen  (in- 
cluding the  main  part  of  Upper  Lusatia). — 
Since  1831  Saxony  has  been  a  hereditary  con- 
stitutional monarchy.  The  constitutional  and 
electoral  laws  were  perfected  in  1849,  1851, 
1860,  1861,  and  1868.  The  king  is  a  Roman 
Catholic,  but  98  per  cent,  of  the  people  are 
Protestants,  of  German  race.  In  1871  there 
were  3,357  Jews,  and  about  50,000  Wends,  of 
Slavic  race,  almost  all  in  Lustitia.  Saxony 
holds  the  third  rank  in  the  federal  council  of 
Germany,  having  four  votes,  and  is  represented 
by  23  deputies  in  the  Reichstag.  The  legis- 
lature consists  of  an  upper  chamber  composed 
of  royal  princes,  nobles,  prelates,  large  landed 
proprietors,  and  the  burgomasters  of  the 
eight  chief  towns  (Dresden,  Leipsic,  Chemnitz, 
Zwickau,  Plauen,  Glauchau,  Freiberg,  and 
Meerane) ;  and  of  a  second  chamber  with  35 
representatives  of  towns  and  45  of  rural  bor- 
oughs. The  executive  government  is  exercised 
under  the  king  by  a  council  of  state  and  six 
heads  of  departments  constituting  the  minis- 


try. The  Saxon  troops  form  the  12th  corps 
of  the  German  army.  The  only  fortress  of 
Saxony  is  the  impregnable  castle  of  Konig- 
stein,  the  commander  of  which  is  appointed  by 
the  emperor  of  Germany.  (See  KONIGSTEIN.) 
The  public  debt  at  the  close  of  1873  was  about 
$81,000,000.  The  revenue  and  expenditures 
were  respectively  estimated  for  1874-'5  at 
$11,000,000. — The  Germanic  Hermunduri  are 
considered  the  original  inhabitants  of  Saxony  ; 
they  were  followed  by  the  Slavic  Sorabs,  who 
during  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  were  over- 
powered by  the  Saxons.  The  latter  founded 
the  margraviate  of  Meissen  (Misnia),  which  in 
the  12th  century,  under  the  house  of  Wet- 
tin,  became  one  of  the  most  nourishing  states 
of  Germany.  A  long  intestine  conflict  was 
terminated  in  1308  by  the  recognition  of  the 
margrave  Frederick  the  Bitten  as  joint  ruler 
of  Meissen  and  Thuringia.  A  portion  of  Fran- 
conia  was  subsequently  added,  and  in  reward 
for  services  in  the  Hussite  war;  the  house  of 
Wettin  in  1423  obtained  the  electoral  dignity, 
which  had  been  borne  by  S  axe- Wittenberg, 
one  of  the  fragments  of  the  old  Saxon  duchy 
(see  SAXOXS),  under  a  branch  of  the  Ascanian 
family.  On  the  death  of  Frederick  the  War- 
like, the  first  elector  (1428),  his  sons  divided 
his  possessions,  which,  reunited  for  a  time, 
were  again  divided  by  his  grandsons  (1485). 
Ernest  received  the  western  portions,  including 
Wittenberg  and  Thuringia,  with  the  electoral 
dignity,  and  Albert  the  eastern,  embracing  the 
main  parts  of  the  present  Saxony,  founding 
respectively  the  Ernestine  and  Albertine  lines. 
Frederick  the  Wise  (1486-1525)  and  John  the 
Constant  (1525-'82),  sons  of  Ernest,  were 
strong  protectors  of  Luther.  John  Frederick, 
son  of  John  the  Constant,  while  defending 
Protestantism  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Smalcald  league,  succumbed  in  the  battle  of 
Milhlberg  (1547)  to  an  alliance  between  his 
cousin  Maurice,  of  the  Albertine  line,  and  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  Maurice  succeeded  to 
the  electorate,  which  remained  attached  to  his 
dynasty,  and  obtained  the  larger  part  of  the 
Ernestine  possessions,  the  remainder  of  which, 
subsequently  enlarged  by  cessions,  was  gradu- 
ally split  up  into  the  various  Thuringian  states. 
The  elector  John  George  I.  (1611-'56),  by  his 
vacillating  course  during  the  thirty  years'  war, 
plunged  Saxony  into  inextricable  difficulties. 
Augustus  (Frederick)  I.  the  Strong  (16  94-1 733) 
became  a  Roman  Catholic  to  qualify  himself 
for  the  throne  of  Poland  (as  such  Augustus  II.). 
His  warfare  with  Charles  XII.  caused  Saxony 
to  be  invaded  by  the  Swedes.  The  disrepu- 
table reign  of  his  son  Augustus  (Frederick)  II. 
of  Saxony  and  III.  of  Poland  (l733-'63),  and 
the  wars  with  Prussia,  especially  the  seven 
years'  war,  entailed  still  greater  disasters  upon 
the  country.  A  better  era  began  under  the 
regency  of  Prince  Xavier  (1763-'8),  during 
the  minority  of  Frederick  Augustus  III.  (as 
elector,  1763-1806;  I.  as  king,  1806-'27),  and 
during  the  reign  of  the  latter,  who  was  sur- 


SAXONY 


SAY 


659 


named  the  Just.  He  declined  the  crown  df  Po- 
land and  refused  to  join  the  coalition  against 
the  French  revolution,  but  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war  against  France  he  furnished  his 
contingent  as  a  member  of  the  German  em- 
pire. In  1805  he  remained  neutral,  but  in  1806 
joined  Prussia  against  France,  which  resulted 
in  Saxony  being  conquered  by  Napoleon,  who 
transformed  the  country  into  a  kingdom,  to 
which  he  added  in  1807  the  duchy  of  Warsaw. 
He  was  a  loyal  vassal  of  Napoleon  in  the  wars 
of  1809-'13.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic  he 
was  detained  by  the  emperor  Alexander  as  a 
prisoner  of  war,  but  allowed  to  reside  at  Pres- 
burg  during  the  debates  of  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  which  restored  to  him  half  of  his  Ger- 
man possessions,  the  other  half  being  given  to 
Prussia  and  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  to  Russia. 
Anthony  (1827-'36),  a  brother  of  Frederick 
Augustus,  in  1831  adopted  a  constitutional 
form  of  government,  and  shortly  after  joined 
the  Zollverein.  The  reign  of  King  Frederick 
Augustus  II.,  a  nephew  of  Anthony  (1836- 
'54),  was  disturbed  by  religious  animosities, 
which  in  1845  culminated  in  a  bloody  riot  at 
Leipsic,  by  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  by  a 
sanguinary  struggle  of  the  democratic  party 
for  the  recognition  of  the  national  constitu- 
tion of  Germany  (May,  1849).  He  died  with- 
out issue,  Aug.  9,  1854,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  John,  the  translator  of  Dante.  As 
he  sided  with  Austria  in  the  war  of  1866, 
the  Prussians  invaded  his  country  on  June 
16,  while  his  army  withdrew  to  Bohemia  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Sadowa.  Prussia 
made  peace  with  Saxony,  Oct.  21,  on  receiv- 
ing a  large  indemnity  and  the  right  of  gar- 
risoning the  fortress  of  Konigstein,  and  Beust, 
as  the  principal  instigator  of  the  war,  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  Saxon  for  the  Austrian 
service.  In  the  same  year  Saxony  joined 
the  North  German  confederation ;  and  in  1871 
it  was  incorporated  in  the  German  empire, 
after  taking  a  distinguished  part  in  the  Fran- 
co-German war  under  the  crown  prince  Al- 
bert, who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  King  John,  Oct.  29,  1873.  (See  ALBERT, 
FEIEDRICH  AUGUST.) 

SAXONY,  a  central  province  of  Prussia,  bor- 
dering on  the  provinces  of  Brandenburg,  Hesse- 
Nassau,  and  Hanover,  Anhalt,  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  the  Thuringian  states,  and  Brunswick ; 
area,  9,746  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,103,174.  It 
is  generally  flat,  but  it  has  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains in  the  west  (with  their  highest  peak,  the 
Brocken),  and  the  Thuringian  Forest  in  the 
south.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Elbe,  in 
the  east,  and  its  tributaries  the  Saale,  Mulde, 
Unstrut,  Bode,  and  Havel.  The  soil  is  fertile 
and  the  best  cultivated  in  Prussia.  Cotton  and 
woollen  cloth,  leather,  linen,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  beer  are  manufactured.  The  congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815  transferred  most  of  this  prov- 
ince from  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  to  Prussia. 
It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Magdeburg, 
Merseburg,  and  Erfurt.  Capital,  Magdeburg. 


SAXTON,  Joseph,  an  American  inventor,  born 
at  Huntingdon,  Pa.,  March  22,  1799,  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Oct.  26, 1873.  In  his  youth 
he  constructed  a  printing  press  and  issued  a 
small  newspaper.  At  the  age  of  18  he  went 
to  Philadelphia,  where  he  found  employment 
with  a  watchmaker  and  afterward  with  an 
engraver.  His  first  invention  was  a  machine 
for  cutting  the  teeth  of  chronometer  wheels. 
Afterward  he  constructed  the  astronomical 
clock  with  compensating  pendulum,  now  in  the 
state  house.  In  1831-'7  he  was  in  England, 
where  he  constructed  a  compound  magnet 
which  sustained  a  weight  of  525  Ibs. ;  a  mag- 
netic needle  several  feet  in  length  with  a  mir- 
ror on  its  end,  which  exhibited  for  the  first 
time  by  the  movement  of  a  reflected  beam  of 
light  the  daily  and  hourly  variations  of  the 
magnetic  force  of  the  earth ;  the  magneto- 
electric  machine;  the  locomotive  differential 
pulley ;  an  apparatus  for  measuring  the  velo- 
city of  vessels ;  and  a  metal-ruling  machine. 
On  his  return  to  Philadelphia  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  mint,  and  constructed  the 
large  standard  balances  in  use  in  all  the  United 
States  mints  and  assay  offices.  In  1843  he  re- 
moved to  Washington,  where  he  superintended 
the  construction  of  standard  balances,  weights, 
and  measures,  and  of  different  portions  of  the 
apparatus  used  in  the  operations  of  the  coast 
survey,  and  invented  an  automatic  instrument 
for  recording  the  height  of  the  tides. 

SAT,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  political  ecqno- 
mist,  born  in  Lyons,  Jan.  5, 1767,  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  16,  1832.  After  being  engaged  in  com- 
mercial pursuits,  he  became  connected  with  the 
Courrier  de  Provence,  a  newspaper  edited  by 
Mirabeau  in  Paris,  and  afterward  was  the  sec- 
retary of  Claviere,  the  Girondist  minister  of 
finance.  In  1794,  in  conjunction  with  Cham- 
fort,  Andrieux,  and  Ginguene,  he  founded  La 
decade  philosophique,  litteraire  et  politique  ; 
and  after  the  18th  Brumaire  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  tribunate.  Forced  by  Bona- 
parte to  withdraw  from  political  life,  he  estab- 
lished a  cotton-spinning  mill,  but  was  obliged 
to  abandon  it  in  1812.  After  the  fall  of  Na- 
poleon he  published  an  improved  edition  of 
his  Traite  de  Veconomie  politique  (1st  ed.,  2 
vols.  8vo,  1803),  to  which  he  added  an  Epi- 
tome des  principes  fondamentaux  de  Teconomie 
politique.  In  1815  he  prepared  a  Catechisme 
d'economie  politique.  In  1821  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  industrial  economy  in  the 
conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers,  and  in  1830 
of  political  economy  in  the  college  de  France. 
His  lectures  were  published  under  the  title 
of  Cours  complet  d'economie  politique  et  pra- 
tique (6  vols.  8vo,  1828-'30;  new  ed.,  with 
notes  by  his  son,  2  vols.  8vo,  1852).  He  also 
wrote  Lettres  a  M.  Malthus  sur  differents 
sujets  d'economie  politique  (1820),  reprinted 
under  the  title  of  Melanges  et  correspondences 
d'economie  politique  (1833),  and  various  es- 
says which  have  been  collected  in  his  (Euvres 
diverses.  His  Traite  and  Catechisme  have  each 


660 


SAY 


SCALA 


been  twice  translated  into  English. — His  son 
HORACE  EMILE  (1794-1860)  and  his  grandson 
LEON  (born  1826)  also  hold  a  prominent  place 
among  political  economists.  The  latter  is  now 
(1875)"minister  of  finance. 

SAY,  Thomas,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  July  27,  1787,  died  at  New 
Harmony,  Ind.,  Oct.  10,  1834.  In  1815  he  in- 
vestigated the  natural  history  of  E.  Florida ; 
in  1818  he  explored  the  islands  and  coast  of 
Georgia;  in  1819  he  was  appointed  chief  zool- 
ogist in  Long's  expedition  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains; and  in  1823  he  accompanied  that  to  St. 
Peter's  river  in  the  same  capacity.  He  re- 
moved to  New  Harmony  in  1825.  His  com- 
plete writings  on  entomology  were  edited  by 
Dr.  J.  L.  Le  Conte,  with  a  memoir  by  George 
Ord  (New  York,  1859),  and  his  work  on  con- 
chology  by  W.  G.  Birney  (New  York,  1858). 

SCABBARD  FISH,  a  fish  generally  placed  with 
the  mackerel  family,  and  in  the  genus  lepido- 
pus  (Cuv.).  The  only  species  described  is  the 
L.  argyreut  (Cuv.  and  Val.),  inhabiting  the 
European  seas  from  Great  Britain  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  met  with  even  as  far  south  as 
the  capo  of  Good  Hope.  The  body  is  very 
elongated,  compressed,  and  ribbon-shaped,  and 
without  scales ;  the  head  is  pointed ;  the  dor- 
sal, anal,  and  caudal  fins  are  distinct  from  each 
other,  the  first  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  body ;  the  law  teeth  are  in  a  single  row, 
those  on  the  palate  and  pharyngeal  bones  and 
branchial  arches  very  small ;  six  branchioste- 
gal  rays,  a  long  csocal  stomach,  numerous  pan- 
creatic caeca,  and  a  narrow  air  bladder.  In  a 
specimen  taken  on  the  coast  of  England,  be- 
tween 5  and  6  ft.  long,  the  body  was  only  4-J 
in.  deep  at  the  gills,  2  in.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  anal  and  at  the  tail,  with  a  weight  of  6  Ibs. 
without  the  intestines ;  the  pectorals  were  rath- 
er small,  and  the  ventrals  a  mere  squamous 
appendage,  the  styloid  pubic  bone  being  felt 
through  the  skin.  Though  not  uncommon  in 
European  seas,  this  fish  was  not  known  to  nat- 
uralists until  the  end  of  the  18th  century;  it 
was  described  by  Montagu  as  xipotheca  tetra- 
den».  According  to  Risso,  its  flesh  is  eaten  in 
Mediterranean  ports,  and  is  firm  and  delicate. 
It  swims  with  great  velocity,  waving  like  a 
long  and  wide  ribbon  of  silver. — The  silvery 
hair-tail  (trichiurus  leptunu,  Linn. ;  T.  argen- 
teut,  Mitch.)  differs  from  the  preceding  genus 
in  having  no  vestige  of  ventrals,  in  the  anal 


Silvery  Hair-Tail  (Trichlurus  lepturns). 

being  a  series  of  spines  scarcely  protruding 
through  the  skin,  and  in  the  tail  ending  in  a 
filiform  point  without  a  caudal  fin,  whence  the 
name ;  it  attains  a  length  of  4  ft.  It  is  found 
on  the  American  coast  from  New  England  to 
South  America.  The  whole  armature  of  the 
jaws  indicates  carnivorous  habits.  Other  spe- 


cies are  described  in  the  Indian  ocean.    Both  of 

these  genera  are  occasionally  called  ribbon  fish. 

SC.EYOLA,  the  cognomen  of  several  Romans. 

I.  Cains  Matins,  a  legendary  hero,  who  flourished 
at  the  close  of  the  6th  century  B.  0.    Por- 
sena  of  Clusium,  the  protector  of  the  expelled 
Tarquins,  having  besieged  Rome  and  reduced 
the  city  to  great  distress,  Mucius  went  to  the 
hostile  camp,  where,  mistaking  the  chief  secre- 
tary for  the  monarch,  he  struck  him  a  fatal 
blow.     On  being  dragged  before  Porsena,  he 
declared  that  his  purpose  was  to  assassinate 
the  king,  a  deed  which  other  Romans  would 
still  achieve ;  whereupon  Porsena  ordered  him 
to  be  burned  alive,  unless  he  betrayed  his  fel- 
low conspirators.    Mucius,  to  show  how  little 
the  threat  affected  him,  thrust  his  right  hand 
into  a  fire,  and  held  it  there  while  it  was  be- 
ing consumed.     Porsena,  astonished  at  his  for- 
titude, commanded  him  to  bo  liberated;  and 
Mucius  informed  him  that  300  Roman  youths 
had  sworn  to  free  Rome  from  so  dangerous 
an  enemy,  or  to  perish  in  the  attempt.    Por- 
sena thereupon  made  peace  with  the  Romans ; 
and  Mucius,  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  his 
right  hand,  was  ever  after  distinguished  by 
the  cognomen  of  Scsevola,  or  the  left-handed. 

II.  Quint  us  Modus  called  the  augur,  tribune  of 
the  people  in  128  B.  C.,  plebeian  tedile  in  125, 
praetor  in  121,  and  consul  with  L.  Cfficilius 
Metellus  in  117.     He  was  distinguished  for  his 
legal  erudition  and  his  modesty.     He  died  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  between 
Marius  and  Sulla.     Cicero  in  his  youth  was  a 
pupil  of  this  Mucius,  whom  he  makes  an  inter- 
locutor in  several  of  his  dialogues.    III.  Quln- 
tns  Mnrlns,  the  pontifex,  was  tribune  of  the 
people  in  106  B.  C.,  cnrulo  redile  in  104,  consul 
with  L.  Licinius  Crassus  in  95,  and  afterward 
pontifex  maxitnus.    After  his  consulship  he 
obtained  the  province  of  Asia,  where  a  festi- 
val was  instituted  in  commemoration  of  his 
virtues.     He  fell  a  victim  to  the  Marian  fac- 
tion in  82,  and  was  slain  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta.     He  was  still  more  celebrated  as  a  law- 
yer than  his  contemporary  and  namesake.     He 
was  the  first  to  compose  a  scientific  treatise 
on  the  Jv»  Civile,  now  lost ;   and  he  wrote 
also  Tlepi  "Opwv,  a  work  on  legal  definitions. 

SCALA  (Lat.  SCALIOEBI),  an  Italian  family 
whose  power  in  Verona  was  established  in 
1260  by  Mastino  I.  della  Scala,  who  was  assas- 
sinated in  1279,  and  whose  most  celebrated 
successor  was  Cangrande,  the  friend  of  Dante. 
(See  CANE  I.  DELLA  SOALA.)  After  receiving 
in  fief  from  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  Verona, 
which  they  greatly  embellished,  and  other  im- 
portant cities,  their  power  was  extended  un- 
der Cangrande's  successors,  the  joint  rulers 
Alberto  II.  and  Mastino  II.,  as  far  as  Lucca ; 
but  they  became  involved  in  war  with  Ven- 
ice and  Florence.  The  power  of  the  Scalas 
greatly  declined  after  Mastino's  death  in  1351, 
and  still  more  under  Cangrande  II.  and  other 
worthless  rulers,  and  it  was  finally  overthrown 
in  1387  by  Giovanni  Galeazzo  Visconti. 


SCALD 


SCALLOP 


661 


SCALD.  See  BURNS  AND  SCALDS. 
SCALE  (Lat.  scala,  a  ladder),  a  graduated  line 
or  slip  of  wood,  ivory,  metal,  or  paper,  divided 
into  parts  equal  or  unequal,  and  used  for  trans- 
ferring these  parts  by  dividers  in  plotting.  The 
most  simple  scale  is  that  of  equal  parts,  and 
this  may  serve  not  merely  for  giving  propor- 
tional linear  spaces,  but  also  for  laying  down 
angles  with  greater  accuracy,  the  table  of 
chords  being  referred  to  to  give  the  propor- 
tional length  of  the  chord  of  any  angle  to  the 
radius  of  the  circle.  The  common  six-inch 
ivory  scale  contains  several  scales,  each  of 
•which  presents  a  different  division  of  the  inch, 
as  into  quarters,  and  one  of  these  into  tenths, 
and  each  tenth  by  what  is  known  as  the  diag- 
onal scale  into  10  parts;  other  divisions  are 
into  3,  3£,  4,  44,  5,  and  6  equal  parts,  one  of 
each  of  these  being  divided  into  tenths,  and 
one  of  each  of  the  principal  divisions  into 
twelfths.  These  scales  are  also  sometimes  fur- 
nished with  trigonometrical  lines,  as  scales  of 
chords,  rhumbs,  sines,  secants,  and  tangents. 
(See  GUNTER,  and  SECTOE.)  Scales  of  equal 
parts  have  of  late  been  produced  in  a  very 
convenient  and  cheap  form  upon  paper,  the 
divisions  being  of  12  inches,  and  a  13th  inch 
•which  is  divided  into  20,  40,  50,  and  60  equal 
parts.  Other  scales  give  different  divisions. 

SCALE,  Musical.    See  Music. 
*'  SCALES  (of  fishes).    See  COMPARATIVE  ANAT- 
daiY. 

SCALES.  See  WEIGHING  MACHINES. 
SCALIGER.  I.  Julius  Caesar,  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist, born,  according  to  his  own  account, 
at  Riva,  on  the  lake  of  Garda,  April  23,  1484, 
died  in  Agen,  France,  Oct.  21,  1558.  He 
claimed  descent  from  the  Scaligeri  (or  family 
della  Scala),  sovereign  princes  of  Verona^from 
1260  to  1387,  and  asserted  that  he  began  his 
classical  and  medical  studies  when  he  was  be- 
tween 30  and  40  years  old.  This  story  has 
been  disproved  by  Scipio  Maffei  and  Tiraboschi. 
The  latter  says  he  was  the  son  of  an  illumina- 
tor of  Venice,  a  native  of  Padua,  named  Bene- 
detto Bordone,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Delia 
Scala,  and  that  the  son  studied  at  Padua  in 
his  youth.  In  1525  Scaliger  went  to  Agen  as 
physician  to  the  bishop  of  that  city,  and  mar- 
ried into  a  noble  family.  His  extraordinary 
fame  as  a  scholar  drew  to  Agen  crowds  of 
literary  men.  His  vanity,  however,  was  equal 
to  his  learning,  and  one  of  his  first  publica- 
tions was  a  virulent  attack  upon  Erasmus. 
He  wrote  Latin  poetry  and  many  commenta- 
ries on  the  classics,  and  translated  Aristotle's 
"  History  of  Animals  "  and  other  Greek  works 
into  Latin.  His  chief  productions  are :  De 
Causis  LingucB  Latina  (4to,  Lyons,  1540),  the 
first  considerable  modern  treatise  on  Latin 
grammar,  and  Poetices  Libri  VII.  (fol.,  Lyons, 
1561).  II.  Joseph  Justus,  the  10th  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Agen,  Aug.  4,  1540,  died  in 
Leyden,  Jan.  21,  1609.  He  studied  Latin  at 
Bordeaux  and  under  his  father,  and  Greek  un- 
der Turnebus  in  Paris,  and  learned  the  princi- 


oriental and  European  languages.    He  em- 
braced the  reformed  religion  in  }562,  became 
tutor  in  the  family  of  Louis  de  la  Rocheposay, 
and  travelled  extensively.     In  1578  he  was 
teaching  philosophy  at  Geneva,  but  soon  after- 
ward retired  to  the  residence  of  his  patron  near 
Tours.    In  1593  he  succeeded  Justus  Lipsius  as 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the  university  of 
Leyden.     He  was  as  vain  and  arrogant  as  his 
father,  whom  he  surpassed  in  erudition,  and 
his  latter  years  were  embittered  by  a  contro- 
versy with  Scioppius  and  others  on  the  pre- 
tensions of  his  family,  which  he  had  revived. 
He  was  never  married.     His  most  valuable 
works  were   those   on   chronology,   Opus  de 
Emendatione   Temporum    (fol.,   Paris,   1583), 
and  Thesaurus  Temporum  (Geneva,  1609).  Two 
collections  of  his  fragments  and  conversations 
were  published  after  his  death,  under  the  titles 
of  Scaligerana  Prima  and  Scaligerana  Secun- 
da.    A  sketch  of  his  life  and  literary  activity 
has  been  published  by  Bernays  (Berlin,  1855). 
SCALLOP,  a  bivalve  of  the  genus  pecten  (Tur- 
ton),  having  the  shell  rounded,  inequivalve, 
eared,  with  the  upper  margin  straight  and  the 
hinge  without  teeth.     The  lobes  of  the  mantle 
are  widely  separated,  and  include  a  glandular 
sac  containing  a  gaseous  fluid  which  enables 
the  light  shell  to  float  easily  and  to  change  po- 
sition with  the  tide ;  the  mantle  is  reflected  in 
a  sub-marginal  fold  provided  with  tentacles, 
with  numerous  ocelli  or  eye  spots  near  the 
margin.     The  mouth  is  jawless  and  toothless, 
with  a  tentacular  labial  border,  the  tentacles 
being  short  and  separate  from  the  branchise; 
they  have  only  one  adductor  muscle ;  the  foot 
is  long  and  cylindrical ;  the  branchiae  are  dis- 
united on  the  median  line.     They  rest  on  the 
right  side;  some  of  the  family  attach  them- 
selves by  a  byssus,  especially  when  young,  but 
most  are  free,  living  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
at  moderate  depths,  moving  by  means  of  the 
hatchet-shaped  foot  and  the  recoil  produced 
by  suddenly  opening  and  shutting  the  valves. 
In  the  common  scallop  (P.  concentricus,  Say) 
the  shell  is  orbicular,  the  valves  convex  and 
nearly  closed,  with  about  20  rounded  ribs ;  it 
is  dusky  horn-colored,  with  alternating  lighter 
and  darker  zones ;  the  interior  is  shining  white 
tinged  with  purplish,  and  grooved  to  corre- 
spond to  the  external  ribs;   the  length  and 
height  are  about  2£  in.,  and  the  breadth  1  in. 
It  is  abundant  about  the  extremity  of  Cape 
Cod,  whence  it  extends  southward,  being  very 
common  on  the  New  Jersey  coast;  it  varies 
considerably  in  color,  with  different  degrees 
of  whitish,  reddish,  and  purplish ;  it  is  often 
handsomely  zoned,  and  was  formerly  much 
employed  for  making  card  racks,  pin  cushions, 
&c.     The  muscle  of  the  shell  forms  a  delicate 
article  of  food.    The  P.  Islandicus  (Chemn.)  is 
another  American  species,  larger,,  handsomer, 
redder,  with  more  numerous  ribs,  and  living 
more  to  the  north ;  it  is  found  on  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland,  where  it  is  a  favorite  food  of 
many  fishes,  especially  the  cod.    Some  of  the 


662 


SCALY  ANT-EATER 


SCANDERBEG 


foreign  species  are  very  handsome,  as  the  P. 
pallium  (Lain.),  or  the  duke's  mantle,  finely 
mottled  with  deep  red;  this  is  from  the  Iii- 


Scallop  (Pecten  Islandlcus). 

dian  seas.  The  more  northern  P.  Japonicus 
(Gmel.)  is  also  a  beautiful  reddish  shell,  though 
it  varies  much.  A  large  species,  P.  maximum 
(Lam.),  is  common  on  the  English  coast  in 
from  80  to  40  fathoms ;  the  deeper  shell  was 
formerly  used  for  scalloping  oysters,  giving  the 
name  to  this  favorite  dish,  and  as  a  drinking 
cup.  The  scallop  of  St.  James  (P.  Jacobceu*, 
Lam.)  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
was  worn  by  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land. 

SCALY  ANT-EATER.     See  PANGOLIN. 

SCIMAVDKK.  a  small  river  of  Troas,  celebra- 
ted by  Homer,  who  says  that  the  gods  called 
it  Xanthus,  and  men  Scamander.  It  probably 
owed  the  former  name  to  the  yellow  or  brown- 
ish color  of  its  water,  which  was  believed  to 
have  the  power  of  tinging  the  wool  of  sheep 
which  drank  of  it.  (See  TROY.) 

SCAMMONY  (Gr.  anafi^vtov),  a  medicinal  drug, 
the  concrete  juice  of  convolvulus  scammonia. 
This  is  a  perennial  species  with  a  woody  root, 
which  in  old  plants  is  2  or  8  ft.  long  and  3  or 
4  in.  thick ;  its  stems  are  numerous,  twining, 
and  woody  at  base,  furnished  with  arrow- 
shaped  leaves,  and  bearing  long  peduncles, 
each  of  which  produces  several  pale  yellow 
flowers  about  an  inch  long  and  striped  with 
purple.  It  is  found  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
the  neighboring  countries,  Smyrna  and  Alep- 
po being  the  principal  places  of  export.  In 
collecting  scammony,  an  excavation  is  made 
to  expose  the  root  for  4  or  5  in. ;  the  top  of 
the  root,  or  crown,  with  its  attached  stems, 
is  removed  by  a  slanting  cut,  and  at  the  lower 
edge  of  this  slope  a  mussel  or  other  shell  is 
stuck  into  the  root  to  receive  the  juice ;  at 
the  end  of  about  1 2  hours  the  flow  ceases,  the 
shells  are  collected,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
cut  surface  of  the  root  is  scraped  to  remove 
any  of  the.  partially  dried  juice  that  may  re- 
main. The  products  attained  by  these  meth- 
ods are  mixed  and  dried.  The  purest  form  of 
scammony  is  that  which  is  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  shells,  but  this  is  only  to  be  seen  in  cab- 


inets of  materia  medica ;  the  mixed  product 
from  the  shells  and  scrapings  is  nearly  as  good, 
and  even  in  this  state  it  is  very  rare.  Scarce- 
ly any  article  of  medicine  is  more  persistently 
adulterated  than  scammony;  the  work  begins 
with  the  peasants  who  collect  it,  and  much 
of  it  is  made  over  a  third  time  before  it  en- 
ters commerce.  Chalk,  ashes,  sand,  and  wheat 
flour  and  other  farinaceous  articles  are  added ; 
and  what  is  known  as  Montpellier  scammony 
is  made  up  of  different  resins  and  starchy 
substances,  and  contains  no  scammony.  Pure 
scammony  is  in  irregular  resinous  lumps,  of 
which  88  to  90  per  cent,  is  soluble  in  ether ;  but 
it  is  more  commonly  met  with  in  the  form  of 
round  flattened  cakes  and  more  or  less  impure, 
though  called  virgin  scammony.  It  has  a  pe- 
culiar cheesy  odor,  especially  in  powder ;  the 
amount  and  kind  of  foreign  material  mixed 
with  it  is  readily  ascertained  by  the  use  of  sol- 
vents and  a  microscope.  The  dried  root  has 
been  sent  to 
Europe,  where 
the  resin  has 
been  prepared 
by  exhausting 
the  root  with  al- 
cohol. Scammony 
was  used  before 
the  present  era,  and 
was  mentioned  by 
the  early  writers  ; 
and  though  not  em- 
ployed to  any  great 
extent,  it  has  long 
had  a  place  in  the 
various  pharmaco- 
poeias. It  is  a  pow- 
erful drastic  purge, 
regarded  as  more 
active  than  jalap 
and  less  violent 
than  gamboge ;  the 
dose  of  the  pure 
drug  is  10  or  15 
grains.  In  this  country  it  is  rarely  used  alone; 
it  enters  into  the  compound  extract  of  colo- 
cynth,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  popular  com- 
pound cathartic  pill.  For  medical  use  the 
resin,  which  is  officinal,  is  preferable  on  ac- 
count of  the  uniformity  of  its  composition. 
The  scammony  root  is  officinal  in  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia. 

SCANDERBEG  (Turkish,  hkander  Beg\  an 
Albanian  prince,  whose  true  name  was  George 
Castriota,  born  in  Croia  about  1410,  died  in 
Alessio,  Jan.  17,  14C7.  He  was  the  fourth 
son  of  John  Castriota,  a  Christian  prince,  of  a 
small  district  of  Albania,  of  which  the  capital 
was  Croia.  Prince  John,  having  been  made 
tributary  by  Amurath  II.,  was  obliged  to  de- 
liver up  his  four  sons  as  hostages.  The  three 
elder  died  young,  and  George  was  educated  as 
a  Mussulman,  became  a  favorite  with  Amu- 
rath,  received  the  name  of  Iskander  (Alexan- 
der), and  was  made  sanjakbeg  or  commandant 


Scammony  (Convolvulus  scam- 
monia). 


SCANDINAVIA 

of  a  district,  with  a  force  of  5,000  horse.  On 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1432  his  princi- 
pality was  made  a  province  with  a  Turkish 
governor,  and  from  that  time  Scanderbeg  re- 
solved upon  its  recovery.  He  served  for  sev- 
eral years  in  the  Turkish  armies,  and  com- 
manded the  force  sent  against  Servia  in  1439. 
In  1443  he  was  second  in  command  of  the 
army  sent  into  Hungary,  and  in  a  battle  on 
the  Morava  purposely  gave  the  victory  to  John 
Hunyady.  In  the  confusion  of  defeat  he  ex- 
torted a  firman  for  the  government  of  Alba- 
nia from  the  sultan's  chief  secretary,  whom 
with  his  attendants  he  immediately  afterward 
slew.  Hastening  with  a  few  hundred  follow- 
ers to  Oroia,  the  gates  of  which  were  opened 
to  him,  he  assumed  his  hereditary  sovereignty 
and  abjured  Islamism.  The  Albanians  rose  at 
his  call,  and  in  30  days  he  had  become  mas- 
ter of  all  the  fortresses  in  the  country,  giv- 
ing the  Turkish  garrisons  their  choice  between 
massacre  and  baptism.  Being  appointed  gen- 
eralissimo, he  soon  collected  an  army  of  15,- 
000  natives,  French,  and  Germans,  with  which 
he  defeated  one  of  40,000  under  Ali  Pasha. 
He  overthrew  three  other  large  armies,  and 
in  1449,  and  again  in  1450,  worsted  Amurath 
himself,  compelling  him  in  the  latter  year, 
though  his  army  numbered  100,000  men,  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Croia  and  retreat.  Moham- 
med II.  continued  the  war  with  energy  but 
without  success,  though  Scanderbeg  was  some- 
times defeated,  and  was  harassed  by  internal 
dissensions  and  treason.  Peace  was  concluded 
in  1461  at  the  suit  of  the  sultan,  leaving  Scan- 
derbeg in  full  possession  of  his  territories.  At 
the  solicitation  of  Pope  Pius  II.,  he  then  went 
to  Italy  to  support  Ferdinand  of  Naples  against 
John  of  Anjou,  and  secured  the  victory  of 
Troja,  Aug.  18,  1462,  which  drove  John  out  of 
Italy.  The  pope,  at  the  instance  of  the  Vene- 
tians, having  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks  in  1463,  Scanderbeg  broke  the  truce,  re- 
newed the  war,  defeated  the  Turks  in  several 
battles,  forced  Mohammed  with  an  army  of 
100,000  to  retreat  in  1465,  drove  another  army 
of  80,000  from  before  Croia,  and  during  three 
days  massacred  its  remains  in  the  defiles  of 
Tirana.  He  successfully  resisted  his  enemies 
to  the  last,  and  it  was  not  until  after  his  death 
that  Albania  was  reduced  by  the  Turks.  He 
was  buried  at  Alessio,  and  when  the  Turks 
took  the  town  soon  after,  the  janizaries  dis- 
interred his  bones  and  used  them  as  amulets. 
He  left  a  young  son  to  the  guardianship  of 
the  Venetians,  whose  descendants  held  a  Nea- 
politan dukedom.  His  life  has  been  written  in 
Latin  by  his  friend  Marinus  Barletius  (Frank- 
fort, fol.,  1537;  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
Portuguese,  Spanish,  and  German) ;  in  French 
by  C.  Paganel  (1850) ;  and  in  English  by  Dr. 
C.  C.  Moore  (New  York,  1850). 

SCANDINAVIA,  the  ancient  name  of  that  por- 
tion of  Europe  now  comprised  in  the  king- 
doms of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  and 
the  island  of  Iceland. 


SCARAB^EUS 


663 


SCANSORES  (Lat.  scandere,  to  climb),  an  or- 
der of  birds,  comprising  such  as  have  the 
toes  in  pairs,  two  before  and  two  behind,  the 
latter  being  the  outer  anterior  and  the  hind 
toes.  This  arrangement  facilitates  climbing, 
as  is  seen  in  the  families  of  parrots,  toucans, 
cuckoos,  trogons,  and  woodpeckers.  (See  OE- 

NITHOLOGY.) 

SCAPULAR  (Lat.  scapula,  the  shoulder  blade), 
a  part  of  the  habit  of  most  ancient  religious 
orders,  and  in  particular  a  badge  worn  by  the 
guild  of  the  scapular  of  our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel,  as  a  symbol  of  the  wearer's  connec- 
tion with  the  Carmelite  order.  The  full  reli- 
gious habit  called  scapular  is  an  oblong  piece 
of  cloth  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  for  the  head, 
and  falling  over  the  shoulders  and  breast  be- 
low the  knees.  It  varies  in  color  in  different 
orders,  and  the  same  variety  of  color  attaches 
to  the  symbolic  scapular,  the  scapular  of  the 
passion  being  red,  that  of  the  immaculate  con- 
ception blue,  &c.  That  of  Mount  Carmel  is 
composed  of  two  small  square  pieces  of  brown 
cloth  connected  by  ribbons  or  strings,  and 
bearing  emblems  or  monograms  of  Christ  and  , 
his  mother.  This  confraternity  was  first  in- 
stituted about  1250  by  St.  Simon  Stock,  sixth 
general  of  the  Carmelites,  and  spread  rapidly 
from  England  throughout  Christendom.  It 
counted  among  its  members  Kings  Edward  I. 
of  England  and  Louis  IX.  (saint)  of  France. 
It  was  endowed  by  the  popes  with  many  privi- 
leges and  indulgences,  and  is  the  most  popu- 
lar guild  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

SCARAB/El'S  (Linn.),  the  representative  genus 
of  a  large  family  of  pentamerous  lamellicorn 
beetles,  having  the  antenna?  generally  termi- 
nated by  a  club,  and  either  composed  of  leaf- 
lets or  of  box-like  joints.  Of  the  old  family 
several  thousand  species  were  enumerated,  of 
about  200  genera,  but  these  are  now  separa- 
ted into  many  distinct  families.  The  proper 
scarabceidce  or  coprophagi  comprise  those  which 
live  in  and  feed  upon  excrements,  especially 
those  of  herbivorous  animals.  The  form  is 
generally  short  and  thick,  and  their  color  shi- 
ning black  or  brilliant  metallic ;  they  excrete 
an  oily  matter,  which  prevents  the  substances 
among  which  they  live  from  adhering  to  them ; 
they  are  able  to  dig  very  rapidly  into  the 
ground;  in  the  spring  they  enclose  their  eggs 
in  small  balls  of  dung,  which  they  roll  along 
with  the  hind  feet  to  holes  in  which  they  are 
to  be  deposited. — The  type  of  this  family  is 
the  genus  ateuchm  (Weber  and  Fabr.),  equiv- 
alent to  the  genus  scarabceus  of  McLeay ;  this 
is  peculiar  to  the  old  world,  and  of  more  than 
40  species  nearly  30  belong  in  Africa.  The 
body  is  rounded,  flattened  above,  the  four  pos- 
terior limbs  hairy  and  ending  in  a  single  spur ; 
the  external  edge  of  the  wing  covers  is  nearly 
straight,  and  the  head  is  lobed  and  festooned 
in  front.  Two  species  were  worshipped  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  often  represented 
by  their  hieroglyphics  and  on  their  monuments ; 
models  of  them,  in  the  most  precious  materials, 


664 


SCARBOROUGH 


SCAURUS 


were  worn  as  charms  and  buried  with  mum- 
mies; the  insects  themselves  have  also  been 
found  in  their  coffins.  The  A.  (S.)  taeer  (Oliv.) 
is  black  and  about  an  inch  long,  and  is  found 
in  8.  Europe,  W.  Asia,  and  N.  Africa.  The  A. 
(A)  ^Egpyliorum  (Latr.)  is  larger  and  wider, 


Scarabcens  (Ateuchtu  ^£gyptlorum). 

green  with  golden  tints,  and  is  found  princi- 
pally in  Egypt.  They  were  considered  sym- 
bolic of  the  world  on  account  of  the  globular 
form  of  the  egg  balls;  of  the  sun,  from  the 
ray-like  projections  of  the  head;  and  of  a 
warrior,  from  the  belief  that  all  were  males, 
whence  they  were  also  worn  as  symbols  by 
the  Romans.  As  typical  of  the  sun,  the  source 
of  fertility,  they  were  worn  by  women  to  ren- 
der them  prolific. 

SCARBOROUGH,  a  seaport  town  of  England, 
in  the  North  riding  of  Yorkshire,  39  m.  N.  E. 
of  York;  pop.  in  1871,  24,259.  It  is  situated 
on  a  rocky  declivity  and  along  the  N.  shore  of 
an  open  bay  of  the  North  sea.  Its  mineral 
waters  are  esteemed,  and  the  town  ia  much 
frequented  in  summer  for  sea  bathing.  It  has 
two  public  libraries,  several  fine  churches,  a 
theatre,  and  a  remarkable  bridge  on  piers  75 
ft.  high,  and  extending  over  a  chasm  400  ft. 
wide  between  the  town  and  the  spa. 

SCARLATINA.    See  FEVERS,  vol.  vii.,  p.  170. 

SCARLATTI.  I.  Alrssandro,  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  in  Trapani  in  1649,  died  in  Naples, 
Oct.  24,  1725.  He  was  instructed  in  music  by 
Carissimi,  and  the  introduction  of  violin  ac- 
companiments to  airs,  the  ritornel,  and  the  da 
capo  are  ascribed  to  him.  He  is  said  to  have 
produced  200  masses,  100  operas,  and  8,000 
cantatas.  II.  Donenlco,  a  composer,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Naples  in  1683,  died  in  Ma- 
drid or  Naples  about  1759.  He  was  chapel- 
master  to  the  queen  of  Spain,  and  produced 
numerous  operas,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
compositions  for  the  pianoforte,  42  in  num- 
ber, the  successful  performance  of  which  was 
long  regarded  as  the  greatest  test  of  excellence 
in  a  pianist. 

SCARLET  FEVER.  See  FEVERS,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
170. 

SCARPA,  Antonio,  an  Italian  anatomist,  born 
at  La  Motta,  a  village  of  Friuli,  June  13,  1747, 
died  in  Pa  via,  Oct.  31, 1832.  He  was  educated 
at  Padua,  in  1772  became  professor  of  anat- 
omy in  the  university  of  Modena,  and  in  1783 
at  Pavia,  and  in  1814  director  of  the  faculty 
of  medicine.  His  principal  works,  in  which 
surgical  anatomy  was  first  clearly  developed, 


illustrated  with  engravings  which  are  among 
the  most  exact  and  elegant  of  their  kind,  have 
been  translated  into  many  languages. 

SCARPANTO  (anc.  Carpathus),  an  island  of 
Turkey,  in  the  Mediterranean,  28  m.  S.  W.  of 
Rhodes,  27  m.  long  and  6  m.  broad ;  pop.  about 
5,000.  It  consists  chiefly  of  bare  mountains, 
the  highest  about  4,000  ft.  Game,  cattle,  mar- 
ble, and  iron  abound.  The  coast  is  generally 
inaccessible,  but  there  are  a  number  of  har- 
bors for  small  craft.  In  antiquity  it  belonged 
to  the  Dorians  and  subsequently  to  Rhodes. 

SCARRON,  Pial,  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris 
in  1610,  died  in  October,  1660.  He  led  a  gay 
and  dissolute  life  in  his  youth,  but  the  death  of 
his  father  left  him  penniless,  and  disease  dis- 
torted his  whole  frame.  He  then  applied  him- 
self to  literature,  and  soon  acquired  such  a 
reputation  by  his  caricatures  and  humorous 
sketches  as  to  be  styled  the  "  emperor  of  the 
burlesque."  What  he  earned  by  his  pen,  to- 
gether with  the  proceeds  of  a  benefice  granted 
him  by  his  friend  Lavardin,  bishop  of  Le  Mane, 
and  a  pension  from  the  private  purse  of  the 
queen,  enabled  him  to  live  at  ease,  and  his 
house  was  the  favorite  resort  of  wits  and 
noblemen.  During  the  war  of  the  Fronde  he 
was  one  of  the  opponents  of  Mazarin,  and 
wrote  the  Mazarinade,  which  cost  him  his 
pension.  In  1652  he  married  Francoise  d'Au- 
bigne\  afterward  celebrated  as  Mme.  de  Main- 
tenon.  His  comedies,  among  which  are  Jode- 
let  (1645),  Don  Japhet  (TArmenie  (1653),  and 
ISEcolier  de  Salamanque  (1654),  were  well  re- 
ceived ;  but  he  was  indebted  for  his  greatest 
success  to  his  burlesque  of  Virgil,  Ufineide 
tratestie.  His  best  work  is  Le  roman  comique, 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Oliver 
Goldsmith  (2  vols.,  London,  1775).  There  have 
been  numerous  translations  of  all  his  writings, 
including  his  letters.  The  best  edition  of  his 
complete  works  is  that  of  Bruzen  de  la  Marti- 
ni£re  (10  vols.  12mo,  Paris,  1787). 

S(  U RIS,  Marcos  Jtaillns.  I.  A  Roman  sena- 
tor and  consul,  born  in  163  B.  C.,  died  between 
90  and  88.  He  studied  eloquence,  gained  dis- 
tinction in  the  army,  and  was  elected  curule 
aadile  in  123,  praetor  urbanus  in  120,  consul  in 
115,  censor  in  109,  and  consul  again  in  107. 
During  his  first  consulship  he  obtained  a  tri- 
umph for  victories  over  the  Ligurians  aud 
other  Alpine  tribes,  and  was  made  princep* 
tenatut.  He  afterward  accumulated  great 
wealth  by  peculation  and  bribery,  for  which 
he  escaped  punishment  by  his  eloquence  and 
diligent  discharge  of  duty.  An  embassy  to 
Africa  in  112,  with  Scaurus  at  its  head,  to  se- 
cure justice  to  Adherbal  from  Jugurtha,  having 
failed,  war  was  declared  by  Rome,  and  Scaurus 
accompanied  the  army  as  legate  of  the  consul 
Bestia.  Jugurtha  secured  peace  by  bribing  the 
leaders,  which  raised  a  great  outcry  at  Rome ; 
but  Scaurus,  though  one  of  the  most  guilty,  es- 
caped by  contriving  to  be  appointed  one  of  the 
qua«itorc»  ordered  to  investigate  the  offence. 
II.  Son  of  the  preceding,  chiefly  celebrated  for 


SCHADOW 

his  mercenary  crimes.  He  was  stepson  to  Sulla, 
whose  proscriptions  enabled  him  to  add  im- 
mensely to  his  wealth.  In  the  third  Mithri- 
datic  war  he  served  as  quaestor  under  Pompey, 
and  in  Judea  received  a  large  bribe  from  Aris- 
tobulus  for  deciding  in  his  favor  against  his 
brother  Hyrcanus,  but  Pompey  reversed  his 
decision.  Having  made  a  predatory  incursion 
into  Arabia  Petraea,  he  was  bought  off  by 
Aretas,  the  king,  for  300  talents.  In  58  B.  C. 
he  was  elected  curule  ffidile,  and  expended  all 
his  wealth  to  celebrate  the  games,  building  a 
temporary  theatre,  decorated  with  360  columns 
and  3,000  statues,  and  large  enough  to  hold 
80,000  persons.  He  was  prsetor  in  56,  and  in 
65  governed  Sardinia,  whose  inhabitants  he 
plundered  to  obtain  the  means  for  paying  his 
debts  and  securing  the  consulship.  For  this 
he  was  brought  to  trial  before  a  tribunal  pre- 
sided over  by  Cato ;  but  though  his  guilt  was 
undoubted,  his  defence  by  Cicero,  Hortensius, 
and  other  advocates,  and  his  own  tears  and 
appeals  to  the  splendor  of  his  sedileship,  pro- 
cured his  acquittal.  Some  time  later  he  was 
condemned  for  illegal  efforts  to  obtain  office. 
His  residence  on  the  Palatine  hill  was  celebra- 
ted for  its  magnificence. — His  son  MAKCUS 
^EMILIUS  accompanied  Sextus  Pompey,  his  half 
brother,  to  Asia,  and  after  the  loss  of  his  fleet 
betrayed  him  to  the  generals  of  Antony ;  and 
his  grandson  MAMEEOUS,  called  by  Seneca  the 
last  of  the  Scauri,  a  dissolute  orator  and  poet, 
was  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  accused  of  adul- 
tery with  Livia,  and  committed  suicide. 

SCHADOW.  I.  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German 
sculptor,  born  in  Berlin,  May  20,  1764,  died 
there,  Jan.  26,  1850.  He  studied  the  antique 
in  Koine,  and  going  to  Berlin  in  1788  attract- 
ed notice  by  a  monument  to  Count  von  der 
Mark,  natural  son  of  Frederick  William  II.  He 
was  thenceforth  extensively  employed  on  mon- 
umental works,  among  which  are  a  colossal 
statue  of  General  Ziethen  at  Berlin,  equestrian 
statues  of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Stettin  and 
of  Blticher  at  Rostock,  and  a  statue  of  Luther 
at  Wittenberg.  For  the  last  28  years  of  his 
life  he  was  director  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts 
in  Berlin.  He  published  several  works  on  art. 
II.  Friedrich  Wilbelm  TOD  Sehadow-Godenhaus,  a 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin, 
Sept.  6,  1789,  died  in  Dilsseldorf,  March  19, 
1862.  He  went  to  Rome  when  young,  cooper- 
ated with  Cornelius  and  Overbeck  in  founding 
a  new  German  school  of  art,  and  became  a 
Catholic.  He  became  professor  in  the  Berlin 
academy  of  fine  arts,  succeeded  Cornelius  in 
1826  as  director  of  the  Dilsseldorf  academy, 
and  was  ennobled  in  1843.  Specimens  of  his 
style  are:  "Mignon"  (1828),  frequently  en- 
graved; the  "Four  Evangelists,"  in  the  Wer- 
der  church,  Berlin;  the  "Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,"  in  the  museum  in  Frankfort ;  the 
"Fountain  of  Life;"  and  an  allegorical  series 
entitled  "  Paradise,"  "  Purgatory,"  and  "  Hell." 
After  the  completion  of  the  last  named  work 
he  became  blind,  but  afterward  partially  re- 


SCHAFF 


665 


covered  his  sight.  During  his  last  illness  he 
dictated  a  volume  of  memoirs. 

SCHAFER,  Heinrlch,  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Schlitz,  Upper  Hesse,  April  25,  1794,  died 
in  Giessen,  July  2, 1869.  He  was  professor  of 
history  at  Giessen  from  1833  till  his  death. 
His  principal  works  are  Geschichte  von  Portu- 
gal (5  vols.,  Hamburg  and  Gotha,  1836-'54), 
and  Geschichte  von  Spanien  (3  vols.,  1831-'67), 
of  which  Lembke  wrote  the  first  volume.  Both 
works  form  part  of  Ukert  and  Heeren's  Ge- 
schichte der  Europaischen  Staaten.  Among 
his  later  writings  is  Ueber  Tieutige  Aufgaben 
der  Geschichttchreibung  (Giessen,  1864). 

SCHAFF,  Philip,  an  American  scholar,  born  in 
Coire,  Switzerland,  Jan.  1,  1819.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen  and  Halle,  graduated  at  Berlin 
in  1841,  travelled  as  a  private  tutor,  and  lec- 
tured on  theology  in  Berlin  in  1842.  Being 
invited  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  Mercersburg, 
Pa.,  he  was  ordained  at  Elberfeld,  and  came  to 
America  in  1844.  In  1845  he  was  tried  for 
heresy  and  'acquitted,  and  afterward  continued 
to  teach  and  write  at  Mercersburg,  in  connec- 
tion successively  with  Dr.  Nevin  and  Dr.  Wolff. 
In  1854  he  lectured  in  Germany  on  America, 
represented  the  American-German  churches 
at  the  ecclesiastical  diet  of  Frankfort  and  the 
Swiss  pastoral  conference  at  Basel,  and  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  university 
of  Berlin.  In  1863  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  sabbath  committee  of  New  York,  and 
removed  to  that  city ;  and  in  1869  he  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  Union  theological 
seminary  there.  From  1867  to  1874  he  was 
acting  secretary  of  the  American  branch  of  the 
evangelical  alliance,  visiting  Europe  thrice  in 
the  interval;  and  ia-1872  he  became  president 
of  the  American  committee  of  the  company  of 
revisers  of  the  English  Bible.  In  August,  1875, 
he  attended  at  Bonn  a  conference  of  Old  Catho- 
lics, Greeks,  and  Protestants,  held  with  a  view 
of  promoting  Christian  unity  among  the  church- 
es there  represented.  He  has  published  in  Ger- 
man "  The  Sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Halle, 
1841)  ;  "  On  James  and  the  Brothers  of  Jesus" 
(Berlin,  1842) ;  "  The  Principle  of  Protestan- 
tism" (German  and  English,  Chnmbersburg, 
Pa.,  1845) ;  "  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church  " 
(Mercersburg,  1851;  2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1854; 
translated  into  English,  New  York  and  Edin- 
burgh, 7853)  ;  "  German  Hymn  Book,  with  a 
Historical  Introduction,  Critical  and  Biographi- 
cal Notes"  (Philadelphia  and  Berlin,  1859); 
and  "  Four  Lectures  on  the  Civil  War  in  Amer- 
ica, and  Overthrow  of  Slavery  "  (delivered  and 
published  in  Berlin,  1865).  His  works  in  Eng- 
lish are :  "  What  is  Church  History  ?  A  Vin- 
dication of  the  Idea  of  Historical  Develop- 
ment" (Philadelphia,  1846);  "St.  Augustine, 
his  Life  and  Labors"  (New  York,  1853;  Ger- 
man, Berlin,  1854) ;  "Ancient  Church  History  " 
(3  vols.,  1853-'68) ;  "  America,  its  Political,  So- 
cial, and  Religious  Character,"  translated  from 
his  lectures  at  Berlin  in  1854  (1855);  "Ger- 
many, its  Universities  and  Divines  "  (Philadel- 


666 


SCHAFFHAUSEN 


SCHELDT 


phia,  1837) ;  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
of  the  first  three  Centuries"  (New  York  and 
Edinburgh,  1858);  "The  Moral  Character  of 
Chrisfc,  or  the  Perfection  of  Christ's  Humanity 
a  Proof  of  His  Divinity"  (1860);  "Christ  in 
Song"  (1868) ;  "The  Vatican  Decrees"  (1875); 
and  reports  of  the  sabbath  committee,  1863-'!), 
and  of  the  evangelical  alliance,  1867-'73.  He 
has  now  in  press  (1875)  a  "History  of  the 
Creeds  of  Christendom,"  in  3  vols.  From 
1848  to  1853  he  edited  the  Kirchenfreund,  a 
German- American  monthly,  and  was  for  some 
time  co-editor  of  the  "Mercersburg  Review;" 
and  he  is  editor  of  the  American  edition  of 
Lange's  commentary,  to  be  completed  in  27 
volumes,  of  which  18  have  appeared  (1875). 

S€HAFFimsK.\.  I.  A  N.  canton  of  Switzer- 
land, bounded  S.  by  the  Rhine  and  the  can- 
tons of  Zurich  and  Thurgau,  and  on  all  other 
sides  by  Baden;  area,  116  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  37,721,  chiefly  Protestants,  and  all  of 
German  origin.  The  canton  is  traversed  by 
low  ramifications  of  the  Jura  range  in  the 
wider  sense.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  tem- 
perate. Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupa- 
tion. The  government  is  democratic.  Schaff- 
hausen  joined  the  Swiss  confederation  in  1501. 
II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  canton,  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  45 
m.  N.  by  E.  of  Zurich;  pop.  in  1870,  10,303. 
It  is  walled  and  overlooked  by  an  old  castle. 
It  has  a  college,  a  library,  an  arsenal,  and 
manufactories  of  steel  ware,  railroad  carriages, 
chemicals,  and  tobacco.  About  3  m.  below 
the  town  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  the  Rhine, 
from  60  to  75  ft.  high. 

SCHAUFFLER,  William  Gottlieb,  an  American 
missionary,  born  at  Stuttgart,  Germany,  Aug. 
22, 1798.  He  resided  in  Russia  from  his  Cth  to 
his  27th  year,  when  he  went  to  Turkey  as  an 
independent  missionary.  Feeling  the  need  of 
more  education,  he  came  to  America,  spent 
five  years  at  Andover  seminary,  and  in  1832 
was  sent  back  to  Turkey  by  the  American 
board  of  missions.  He  published  in  English, 
"Essay  on  the  right  Use  of  Property"  (1832), 
and  "Meditations  on  the  Last  Days  of  Christ" 
(1837;  new  eds.,  1853  and  1858).  He  has  trans- 
lated the  Bible  into  Hebrew-Spanish  and  Turk- 
ish. Of  the  latter  version  the  New  Testament 
has  been  published,  and  the  Pentateuch  and 
Isaiah  are  in  course  of  publication  in  Germany 
under  the  author's  supervision  (1875).  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  university 
of  Halle  in  1867. 

SCHAIMBI RG-LIPPE,  a  principality  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  embraced  between  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  Hanover,  Hesse-Nassau,  and  West- 
phalia; area,  171  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  82,059.  j 
The  surface  toward  the  north  is  level,  but  be-  j 
comes  hilly  in  the  south,  and  the  soil  is  very 
fertile.  There  are  only  a  few  small  streams, 
tributaries  of  the  Weser.  A  large  forest,  the 
Schaumburger  Wald^is  in  the  west,  and  the 
Steinhuder  Meer,  a  small  lake,  in  the  north. 
Coal  and  limestone  are  found.  It  has  one  vote 


in  the  federal  council,  and  sends  one  deputy  to 
the  Reichstag.  The  local  legislature  or  diet 
consists  of  one  chamber  with  15  members. 
The  reigning  prince  is  Adolphus  (born  Aug.  1, 
1817),  who  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
in  1860.  Capital,  Buckeburg. 

SCHEELE,  Karl  \\illiclm,  a  Swedish  chemist, 
born  in  Stralsund,  Pomerania,  Dec.  19,  1742, 
died  at  Koping,  near  Stockholm,  May  21, 1786. 
In  1777  he  was  appointed  by  the  medical  acad- 
emy apothecary  at  Koping.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Priestley,  he  probably  discovered  more 
new  substances  than  any  other  chemist,  inclu- 
ding tartaric  acid,  manganese,  chlorine,  barytes, 
the  pigment  called  Scheele's  green,  and  the  col- 
oring principle  of  Prussian  blue.  (See  CHEM- 
ISTRY, vol.  iv.,  p.  362.)  In  his  "Chemical  Ob- 
servations and  Experiments  on  Air  and  Fire  " 
(Stockholm,  1777;  translated  into  English  by 
Kirwan),  with  no  knowledge  of  the  previous 
discovery  of  Priestley,  he  described  oxygen 
under  the  name  of  "empyreal  air." 

SCHEFFER.  I.  Ary,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Dort,  Holland,  in  1795,  died  at  Argenteuil, 
near  Paris,  in  June,  1858.  At  12  years  of  age 
he  painted  a  historical  picture  which  attracted 
much  attention  in  Amsterdam.  Subsequently 
he  studied  in  Paris  under  Baron  Guerin.  His 
most  characteristic  works  are  devoted  to  re- 
ligious subjects.  These  include  his  Christut 
Consolator,  "Dead  Christ,"  "Three  Marys," 
"  Christ  weeping  over  Jerusalem,"  Mater  Do- 
lorosa,  and  the  "Temptation."  Ilis  several 
pictures  of  "Mignon,"  his  "Francesca  da  Ri- 
mini," "Dante  and  Beatrice,"  and  illustra- 
tions from  "  Faust,"  are  widely  known  by  en- 
gravings, lie  painted  a  few  portraits,  inclu- 
ding those  of  Lafayette,  Talleyrand,  Beranger, 
Lamartine,  and  Charles  Dickens.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  Mrs.  Grote  (London,  1860). 
In  1862  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  at 
Dort.  II.  Henri,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  the  Hague,  Sept.  27,  1798,  died  in 
Paris,  March  15,  1862.  He  also  was  a  pupil 
of  Guerin,  and  among  other  celebrated  pic- 
tures painted  "  Charlotte  Corday  protected 
against  the  Fury  of  the  Populace  by  Members 
of  the  Convention,"  "The  Battle  of  Cassel," 
"Joan  of  Arc  at  Orleans,"  and  a  large  number 
of  religious  subjects  and  portraits.  His  daugh- 
ter married  Renan. 

SCHELDT  (Flem.  Scheldt;  Fr.  Escaut;  nnc. 
Scaldi«),  a  river  of  France,  Belgium,  and  Hol- 
land, having  its  source  in  a  small  lake  near  St. 
QuentSn  in  the  French  department  of  Aisne. 
It  first  flows  N.  by  Cambrai  to  Conde,  then 
N.  W.  to  the  frontiers  of  West  Flanders,  Bel- 
gium, then  N.  N.  E.  between  that  province 
and  Hainaut  into  East  Flanders,  E.  through 
the  latter  province  after  passing  Ghent,  then 
N.,  forming  the  boundary  between  Antwerp 
and  East  Flanders,  and  finally  turns  W.  by  N., 
and  enters  the  North  sea  in  the  Dutch  prov- 
ince of  Zealand  by  two  broad  mouths  called 
the  Hond  or  West  Scheldt  (the  main  stream) 
and  the  East  Scheldt,  enclosing  the  islands  of 


SCHELLING 


667 


North  and  South  Beveland  and  "Walcheren. 
The  lower  part  is  bordered  with  dikes.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Heine,  Dender, 
and  Rupel  on  the  right,  and  the  Sensee,  Scarpe, 
and  Lys  on  the  left.  The  chief  towns  on  its 
banks,  besides  those  named,  are  Valenciennes, 
Tournay,  Oudenarde,  Dendermonde,  and  Ant- 
werp. Its  length  is  211  m.,  and  it  is  naviga- 
ble to  within  a  few  miles  of  its  source.  The 
canal  of  St.  Quentin,  60  m.  long,  connects  it 
with  the  Somme  and  the  Oise. 

SCHELLING,  Friedrieh  Wilhelm  Joseph  von,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  at  Leonberg,  near  Stutt- 
gart, Jan.  27,  1775,  died  at  Ragatz,  Switzer- 
land, Aug.  20,  1854.  His  father  was  pastor  at 
Leonberg,  and  subsequently  prelate  at  Maul- 
bronn.  Friedrich  entered  the  university  of 
Tubingen  in  1790,  and  studied  philosophy  un- 
der Adler,  a  disciple  of  Wolf,  and  divinity 
with  Storr.  His  essay  for  the  doctorate  of 
philosophy  was  on  the  origin  of  evil,  as  narra- 
ted in  Gen.  iii.  His  next  treatise,  in  Paulus's 
Memorabilia  (1793),  was  on  myths  and  sagas. 
In  1795  appeared  his  first  metaphysical  essay, 
"On  the  Possibility  of  a  Form  of  Philosophy," 
and  a  few  months  later  his  dissertation,  Vom 
Ich  als  Princip  der  Philosophic,  oder  uber  das 
Unbedingte  im  menschlichen  Wissen.  In  his 
Philosophische  Briefe  uber  Dogmatismus  und 
Kriticismus,  in  Niethammer's  Journal  (1795), 
he  grapples  with  Kant's  sundering  of  the  re- 
spective spheres  of  the  theoretical  and  practi- 
cal reason,  denouncing  this  dualism,  and  con- 
tending that  there  must  be  something  uncon- 
ditional, which  is  the  common  source  of  both 
the  objective  and  the  subjective.  There  is 
"  an  intellectual  intuition  "  of  the  uncondition- 
ed. Allowing  the  equal  validity  of  both  the 
subjective  and  objective,  he  already  demands 
for  both  a  higher  unity.  Thus  at  the  age  of 
20,  before  he  left  the  university,  he  had  found 
the  principle  of  his  peculiar  system,  which  was 
to  supersede  the  critical  philosophy  of  Kant 
and  the  subjective  idealism  of  Fichte.  After 
leaving  Tubingen,  he  taught  for  two  years  at 
Leipsic,  and  wrote  "  Illustrations  of  the  Ideal- 
ism of  the  Theory  of  Science  "  (Fichte's).  A 
severe  nervous  fever  brought  him  to  the  bor- 
ders of  the  grave.  At  the  age  of  24  he  went 
to  Jena,  parted  company  with  the  idealism  of 
Fichte,  and  began  his  more  independent  career 
in  a  series  of  brilliant  lectures,  which  aroused 
the  highest  enthusiasm.  At  Jena  he  taught 
with  Fichte  and  Hegel.  The  latter  was  older 
in  years,  but  younger  as  a  student.  They 
edited  the  Kritisches  Journal  der  Philosophie 
together,  and  were  not  yet  sensible  of  their 
divergence.  Here  was  developed  the  second 
stage  of  Schelling's  speculations,  in  his  phi- 
losophy of  nature  and  transcendental  ideal- 
ism. In  rapid  succession  he  published  Ideen 
zu  einer  Philosophie  der  Nfitur  (vol.  i.,  1797, 
the  only  one  published) ;  Von  der  Weltseele, 
eine  Hypothese  der  hoheren  Physik  znr  Erkla- 
rung  des  allgemeinen  Organisms s  (1798  ;  later 
editions  contain  also  an  essay  Ueber  das  Ver- 


hdltniss  des  Realen  und  Idealen  in  der  Natur) ; 
Erster  Entwurf  eines  Systems  der  Naturphi- 
losophie  (1799) ;  an  "  Introduction  "  to  the  last 
named;  and  System  des  transscendentalen 
Idealismus  (1800).  Most  of  these  works  were 
originally  read  as  lectures,  and  some  of  them 
more  carefully  digested  in  the  Neue  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  speculative  Physilc  (1802-'3).  His 
choice  of  nature  as  the  subject  of  his  specula- 
tions indicated  his  revolt  from  the  subjective 
tendency.  He  said :  Nature  is  life,  a  living  or- 
ganism, replete  with  formative  powers;  there 
is  an  ideal  in  the  real,  a  subject  in  the  object, 
reason  in  matter.  Nature  is  autonomic;  there 
is  a  soul  of  the  world,  its  immanent  principle. 
Grasping  this  soul,  we  re-create  nature.  It 
is  all  one  living  organism,  a  perpetual  process 
of  production,  through  the  whole  series  of  in- 
organic and  organic  forms.  All  is  pervaded  by 
one  law,  the  law  of  evolution ;  and  that  law 
is  a  law  of  polarity,  of  polar  forces.  These 
act  and  react  perpetually,  as  is  seen  in  the  phe- 
nomena of  magnetism,  electricity,  and  chemi- 
cal agency.  The  mechanical  theory  of  nature 
was  superseded  by  the  idea  of  living  forces. 
Experiment  has  verified  some  of  Schelling's 
prognostications ;  but  the  progress  of  research 
has  left  to  his  system  as  a  whole  only  the 
value  of  a  bold  attempt  at  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  nature.  He  applied  the  same  princi- 
ple of  polarity  in  a  more  universal  sense  in 
his  "Transcendental  Idealism,"  which  gives 
the  outlines  of  the  philosophy  of  spirit.  The 
attempt  is  here  made  to  derive  all  parts  of 
philosophy  from  the  intellectual  intuition,  con- 
sidered as  an  act  of  the  subject  bringing  the 
objective  before  it,  an  act  in  which  the  high- 
est freedom  and  the  highest  necessity  concur. 
Here  the  theoretical  and  practical  parts  of 
philosophy  are  unfolded,  including  an  outline 
of  the  course  of  history,  as  a  drama,  which 
one  mind  has  poetized;  but  that  one  mind  is 
not  yet  with  Schelling  a  personal  deity.  The 
third  division  of  this  treatise  is  on  the  "Phi- 
losophy of  Art,"  following  out  the  hints  con- 
tained in  Kant's  "  Criticism  of  the  Judgment." 
Art  is  well  nigh  deified ;  it  is  viewed  as  the 
highest  product  of  man,  the  perfected  union 
of  the  ideal  and  the  real,  of  the  subject  and 
the  object.  The  infinite  embodied  in  the  finite 
is  in  every  work  of  art ;  the  artist  grasps  the 
eternal  idea  and  realizes  it  in  a  perfected 
form ;  he  is  a  creative  genius,  and  yet  works 
under  the  law  of  necessity.  These  views  are 
further  unfolded  in  his  elaborate  essay  Ueber 
das  Verhaltniss  der  lildenden  Kunste  zur  Natur 
(1807).  By  an  inward  and  logical  necessity 
Schelling  was  led  on  to  another,  the  third  stage 
of  his  system,  known  as  the  philosophy  of  iden- 
tity. He  had  already  considered  nature  by  it- 
self, and  spirit  by  itself ;  but  the  two,  in  a  com- 
plete system,  cannot  remain  sundered.  The 
ideal  and  the  real,  the  subjective  and  the  ob- 
jective, hi  next  says,  are  identical.  This  he 
attempts  to  show  in  his  exposition  of  his  sys- 
tem in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  speculative  Physilc 


668 


SCHELLING 


(1801),  in  relation  to  nature — a  fragment  of 
his  project;  and  in  a  more  popular  way,  in 
his  Vorlesungen  fiber  die  Methode  des  akade- 
mischeji  Studiums  (1803).  In  this  doctrine  of 
absolute  identity  we  have  the  most  enigmati- 
cal and  obscure,  not  to  say  paradoxical  stage 
of  his  philosophy,  which  at  that  time,  as  He- 
gel said,  "he  made  before  the  public,"  not  yet 
waiting,  as  Kant  always  did,  for  his  ripened 
statements.  If  taken  as  his  whole  and  final 
system,  it  is  a  pantheistic  mysticism ;  but 
Schelling,  in  his  later  account  of  it,  says  that 
it  represents  only  the  negative,  abstract  side 
of  his  philosophy,  to  be  supplemented  by  its 
positive  and  historical  portions.  This  system 
of  absolute  identity  is  constructed  in  the  geo- 
metric method,  following  the  example  of  Spi- 
noza ;  and  the  ideal  and  real  poles  are  in  fact 
parallel  with  the  two  "modes"  of  thought 
and  extension  in  the  ethics  of  Spinoza.  It  is 
around  this  point  that  the  subsequent  specula- 
tions of  Schelling  revolve,  though  for  many 
years  he  struggled  in  the  vain  attempt  to  rec- 
oncile the  pantheistic  tendencies  of  these  ear- 
lier essays  with  the  theistic  and  Christian  po- 
sitions which  he  gradually  adopted  and  de- 
fended. In  this  transition  period  he  was  called 
from  Jena  to  Wurzburg  (1803),  where  he 
taught  for  two  years,  in  fellowship  and  some- 
times in  rivalry  with  Paulus  and  J.  J.  Wagner. 
In  1808  he  became  secretary  of  the  academy  of 
the  arts  of  design  in  Munich  ;  in  1820  he  with- 
drew to  Erlangen  to  write  his  Philosophic  der 
Mythologie  and  Philosophie  der  Offenbarung, 
which  form  vols.  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.  of  his  col- 
lected works  published  after  his  death  by  his 
sons.  In  1826,  when  the  university  of  Lands- 
hut  was  removed  to  Munich,  he  accepted  a 
chair,  and  attracted  enthusiastic  auditors  from 
all  parts  of  Germany,  from  France,  England, 
and  Greece.  Several  works  which  he  had  in 
the  mean  while  published  indicate  the  struggles 
and  developments  of  his  system.  In  his  Eru- 
no,  oder  uber  da»  gdttliche  und  natarliche  Prin- 
cip  der  Dinge  (1802),  he  discoursed,  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Platonic  dialogue,  upon  the  unity 
of  the  infinite  and  finite,  the  possible  and  the 
real,  as  these  must  be  found  in  the  eternal 
being ;  expressly  denying  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  absolute  can  be  attained  in  "a  merely 
logical  way."  His  work  Philosophie  und  Re- 
ligion (1804)  develops  the  idea  of  divine  free- 
dom in  relation  to  creation.  Still  maintaining 
(what  he  subsequently  denied  in  his  essay  on 
"  Freedom  ")  that  the  finite  as  such  implies  the 
fall,  he  here  denies  that  there  can  be  any  ema- 
nation of  the  world  from  God,  and  says  that 
the  transition  can  only  be  made  by  a  leap,  by 
an  act,  and  an  act  of  free  will,  in  his  Dar- 
legung  des  wahren  Verh&Uinsses  der  Natur- 
philosophie  zur  verbesserten  Fithte'schen  Lehre 
(1806),  the  theosophic  element  becomes  more 
prominent ;  the  Christian  mystics  and  Boehm 
affect  his  theories  and  statements.*  lie  was 
feeling  his  way  to  the  position  decisively  ta- 
ken in  the  introduction  to  the  first  volume  of 


his  collected  works  (Philosophische  Schriften, 
1809),  and  in  the  Untersuchungen  uber  das 
Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,  which  forms 
the  concluding  treatise  of  that  volume.  In  the 
preface  he  says  the  real  antagonism  of  philoso- 
phy is  found  in  the  two  ideas  of  necessity  and 
freedom.  The  question  of  sin  and  its  origin 
is  the  capital  and  decisive  inquiry.  God  is 
viewed  as  a  person  and  a  will.  There  still 
remains  a  "  dark  ground  "  in  deity,  by  which 
to  explain  creation  and  sin,  but  the  personal 
deity  (he  alleges  in  his  later  expositions)  is  the 
prius  and  lord  of  this  "  nature  in  God."  Free- 
dom in  the  creature  is  essentially  the  possi- 
bility of  good  and  evil.  Out  of  the  nexus  of 
cause  and  effect,  beyond  even  the  sphere  of 
consciousness,  each  individual  determines  his 
nature  by  an  act  which,  though  "out  of  all 
time,"  is  still  recognized  as  free  by  the  sense 
of  responsibility  and  guilt.  In  his  Denkmal 
against  Jacobi  (1812)  he  denies  that  there  can 
be  two  kinds  of  philosophy,  and  insists  on  the 
necessity  of  a  scientific  theism,  which  should 
recognize  God  as  the  absolute  personality,  and 
yet  find  in  him  the  basis  of  all  real  existence. 
A  "  Reply  to  Eschenmayer "  (in  the  Allge- 
meine  Zeitschrift)  refutes  the  objection  that 
he,  like  Boehm,  puts  "  Satan  in  God."  Ueber 
die  Gottheiten  von  Samothrake  (1816)  is  a 
classical  fragment  of  his  mythology,  somewhat 
arbitrary  in  its  hypotheses.  Sixteen  sheets 
of  his  Vorlesungen  uber  di«  Philosophie  der 
Mythologie  were  printed  in  1830,  but  with- 
drawn from  circulation.  Nearly  20  years  had 
now  passed  since  he  had  published  any  marked 
work.  Meanwhile  Hegel  had  elaborated  his 
system,  with  a  more  logical  and  constructive 
talent;  introducing  a  principle  of  movement, 
which  was  not  a  personal  will,  into  the  abso- 
lute being,  and  identifying  the  logical  process 
of  the  idea  with  the  development  of  real  being. 
Cousin  wrote  a  slight  sketch  of  German  phi- 
losophy ;  Beckers  put  it  into  German ;  and 
Schelling  broke  his  long  silence  by  writing  a 
preface,  in  which  he  accused  Hegel  of  con- 
structing his  whole  scheme  upon  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  true  sense  and  import  of  the 
system  of  identity.  About  ten  years  after 
Hegel's  decease  his  instructor  became  his  suc- 
cessor at  the  university  of  Berlin  (1841).  The 
capital  of  Prussia  greeted  him  with  open  arms. 
Frederick  William  IV.,  Neander,  and  Miiller 
hailed  him  with  encouragement.  He  was  laud- 
ed as  the  spiritus  rector  of  the  century,  who 
through  philosophy  was  to  lead  philosophy 
back  to  Christ.  The  Hegelians  accused  him  of 
recreancy  to  the  "  idea,"  of  theosophy,  of  mys- 
ticism. His  lectures  were  published,  without 
his  consent,  by  both  Frauenstadt  and  Paulus. 
But  he  lectured  only  a  few  semesters,  and  then 
withdrew  from  public  life  to  perfect  the  de- 
tails of  his  system.  His  physical  constitution 
was  vigorous,  and  his  mental  clearness  was  un- 
impaired to  the  last.  Two  of  his  sons,  Karl 
Friedrich  August  and  Hermann,  have  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  his  collected  works  (14 


SCHELLING 

vols.,  Stuttgart  and  Augsburg,  1856-'61).  The 
first  ten  volumes  give  all  his  writings  in  chro- 
nological order,  including  several  treatises  pre- 
viously unpublished.  The  remaining  volumes 
give  the  later  system. — Fundamental  in  his 
system,  in  its  latest  exposition,  is  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  negative  and  the  positive 
philosophy ;  between  the  abstract  and  the  his- 
torical ;  between  the  philosophy  of  the  idea 
and  the  philosophy  of  what  is  real.  The  neg- 
ative philosophy  gives  the  logical  and  meta- 
physical basis  of  the  whole ;  it  is  the  prima 
philosophic^,  the  first,  but  not  the  highest, 
philosophy ;  the  quid  sit,  but  not  the  quod  sit. 
He  reviews  the  old  metaphysics  from  Plato  and 
Aristotle  to  Kant  and  Hume ;  and  the  result  is 
the  system  of  pure  ideas,  of  being  as  such,  but 
yet  of  being,  not  in  its  reality,  but  in  its  abstract 
and  necessary  possibilities.  Logically  antece- 
dent to  being,  as  one  of  its  potences  or  pow- 
ers, is  the  possibility  of  being  (das  Seyn-Kdn- 
nen) ;  then  comes  pure  being  itself  (purus 
actus — das  reine  Seyri) ;  and  then  the  union  of 
the  two,  as  the  subject-object,  or  spirit.  These 
thfee  potences  are  at  the  basis  of  all,  in  idea ; 
they  are  the  potences  of  absolute  being,  which 
as  a  principle  of  development  can  only  be 
grasped  as  absolute  spirit,  absolute  personality, 
absolute  will.  In  other  words,  the  transition 
from  the  absolute  to  the  relative,  from  the  infi- 
nite to  the  finite,  cannot  be  deduced  from  being 
and  its  predicates,  but  can  only  be  achieved  by 
personal  will.  Yet  in  making  this  transition, 
these  three  potences  of  being  are  also  the 
means  or  factors  of  the  developing  process. 
The  three  potences  become  distinct  personali- 
ties in  the  process  of  creation,  and  work  for  a 
time  separately  and  even  in  collision.  Thus 
the  Trinity  is  not  a  God  in  three  Gods,  but 
God  in  three  personalities,  and  at  the  consum- 
mation of  the  process  takes  on  a  still  higher 
form.  Man  was  created  with  the  possibility 
of  good  and  evil ;  against  God's  will  he  chose 
the  evil,  and  became  subject  to  temporal  and 
eternal  death ;  and  yet  the  ground  for  this 
evil  is  also  found,  says  Schelling,  in  the  first 
of  the  three  principles  of  the  Divine  Being, 
passing  through  the  "theogonic  process,"  in 
conflict  with  the  other  principles.  Satan  is 
not  eternal,  and  is  not  a  creature ;  it  is  a  prin- 
ciple, a  spirit,  which  became  personal,  especial- 
ly in  the  height  of  the  conflict  with  Christ. 
The  fall  is  before  and  beyond  history;  the 
narrative  in  Genesis  is  true  on  the  mythologi- 
cal standpoint.  After  the  fall  came  the  my- 
thological process,  through  which  the  second 
divine  personality  passes;  the  whole  history 
of  mythology  is  not  an  accidental  but  a  neces- 
sary process.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  recog- 
nizes type  and  symbol  as  everywhere  pointing 
to  Christ,  the  Logos ;  mythology  and  Judaism 
unite  in  him.  But  in  Christianity  Christ  is  the 
centre,  the  very  substance.  The  incarnation  is 
not  a  parting  with  the  divine  glory  and  attri- 
butes, but  a  resuming  of  them.  Christ  as  incar- 
nate is  not  from,  but  in,  two  natures ;  there  is 


SCHEMNITZ 


6C9 


not  a  human  personality,  the  only  personality 
is  divine.  His  sacrificial  death  was  necessary  to 
make  expiation  for  sin;  and  through  this  death 
man  again  obtains  freedom  and  justification. 
Justification  precedes  good  works.  So,  too,  the 
resurrection  comes  through  Christ  alone  ;  with- 
out the  resurrection,  the  soul,  separate  from 
the  body,  would  be  in  an  unnatural  state,  a 
state  of  comparative  torpor.  Through  and  by 
this  process  of  redemption,  the  Trinity  too  is 
completed.  God  is  no  longer  merely  in  three 
personalities  (as  in  the  creation),  but  there  are 
now  three  persons,  each  of  whom  is  God. 
Schelling  also  unfolds  the  philosophy  of  church 
history,  making  three  stages,  corresponding 
respectively  to  the  apostles  Peter,  Paul,  and 
John.  We  are  now  in  the  Pauline  stadium ; 
that  of  John  will  follow,  and  complete  the 
whole.  Paul  is  the  apostle  of  the  Son,  and 
John  of  the  Spirit.  Schelling  found  many  dis- 
ciples and  followers,  and  the  development  given 
by  them  to  the  principal  doctrines  has  caused 
their  philosophy  to  be  designated  as  "  New 
Schellingism."  Schleiermacher  and  Hegel  were 
in  a  measure  pupils  of  Schelling,  though  they 
established  philosophical  schools  of  their  own. 
— See  Rosenkranz,  Schelling  (1843) ;  Miche- 
let,  Die  neueste  Deutsche  Philosophic  (1843); 
Noack,  Die  Philosophic  der  Romantik  (I860) ; 
and  the  histories  of  philosophy  by  Chalybaus, 
Hitter,  Erdmann,  Ueberweg,  and  Thilo.  Erd- 
mann  has  also  published  a  valuable  sketch  of 
his  negative  philosophy.  In  Coleridge's  "Bio- 
graphia  Literaria  "  will  be  found  some  account 
of  Schelling's  system  in  its  absolute  identity 
phase.  Of  special  interest,  particularly  in  re- 
gard to  the  history  of  the  growth  of  Schel- 
ling's views,  is  Fichte's  und  Schelling^t  .philo- 
sophischer  Briefwechsel  (1856).  The  "Intro- 
duction "  to  Schelling's  Erster  Entwurf  eines 
Systems  der  Naturphilosophie  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Davidson  in  the  "Journal  of  Spec- 
ulative Philosophy"  (St.  Louis,  1867).  His 
life  has  been  written  by  Plitt,  Aus  Schelling's 
Leben  (3  vols.,  1869-'7l).  See  also  Friedrieh 
Wilhelm  Joseph  von  Schelling,. cine  Jubildums- 
Gedachtnissrede,  by  O.  Pfleiderer  (Stuttgart, 
1875),  and  Schelling '«  GeistesentwicJcelung,  by 
Hubert  Becker  (Munich,  1875). 

SdlEMMTZ  (Hun.  Selmeca-Bdnyd),  a  town  of 
N.  W.  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Hont,  on 
the  Schemnitz,  a  tributary  of  the  Gran,  65  m. 
N.  by  W.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  14,029.  It 
is  closely  hemmed  in  by  hills,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  one  steep  and  narrow  street  and  of 
several  suburbs.  It  contains  four  Catholic 
churches  and  one  for  Protestants,  and  a  mining 
academy  founded  in  1760.  The  gold,  silver, 
lead,  copper,  iron,  sulphur,  and  arsenic  mines, 
long  among  the  most  important  in  Europe,  have 
much  fallen  off  in  production,  though  still 
employing  about  8,000  persons.  All  the  gov- 
ernment mines  are  connected  with  each  other, 
and  below  them  are  two  main  adits,  of  which 
the  lower  one,  the  Joseph  II.  adit,  is  a  mag- 
nificent work,  12  ft.  high,  10  ft.  wide,  and  ex' 


670 


SCHENCK 


tending  10  m.  to  the  valley  of  the  Gran,  and 
is  used  for  a  canal  and  a  railway. 

SCHENCK,  Robert  Camming,  an  American  states- 
man, born  at  Franklin,  Warren  co.,  Ohio,  Oct. 
7,  1809*.  He  graduated  at  Miami  university 
in  1827,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Day- 
ton. In  1840-'42  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  legislature,  in  1843-'51  a  representative 
in  congress,  and  in  1851-'3  minister  to  Bra- 
zil. In  1861  he  served  as  a  brigadier  general 
and  subsequently  as  major  general  of  volun- 
teers, and  was  wounded  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  (1862).  He  was  again  a  member 
of  congress  from  1863  to  1871,  and  in  the  hit- 
ter year  was  appointed  minister  to  England, 
which  post  he  still  holds  (1875). 

SCHE.VECTADY,  an  E.  county  of  New  York, 
traversed  by  the  Mohawk  river,  the  Erie  canal, 
and  several  railroads;  area,  221  sq.  in.;  pop. 
in  1875,  24,895.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mohawk  is  very  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  5,006  bushels  of  wheat, 
53,730  of  rye,  103,533  of  Indian  corn,  233,199 
of  oats,  43,465  of  barley,  67,651  of  buckwheat, 
322,902  of  potatoes,  35,457  tons  of  hay,  4,700 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  29,393  of  wool,  557,770  of 
butter,  and  42,020  of  hops.  There  were  3,816 
horses,  6,185  milch  cows,  3,7G9  other  cattle, 
7,938  sheep,  and  3,894  swine.  The  raising  of 
broom  corn  and  the  manufacture  of  brooms 
are  important  industries;  in  1870,  17  estab- 
lishments produced  $325,148  worth  of  brooms 
and  wisp  brushes.  Capital,  Schenectady. 

SUIKWHDY,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Schenectady  co.,  New  York,  on  the  S.  bank  of 
the  Mohawk  river,  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
Erie  canal,  17  m.  N.  W.  of  Albany;  pop.  in 
1850,  8,921;  in  1860,  9,579;  in  1870,  11,026; 
in  1875,  13,171.  It  communicates  with  the 
principal  points  in  the  state  by  means  of  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  the 
Schenectady  and  Saratoga,  the  Schenectady 
and  Duanesburgh,  and  the  Schenectady  and 
Troy  railroads.  It  is  largely  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing, the  principal  establishments  being 
numerous  broom  factories,  extensive  locomo- 
tive works,  engine  and  boiler  works,  iron 
works,  knitting  mills,  two  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  one  each  of  shawls, 
galvanized  and  corrugated  iron,  pumps  and  fire 
engines,  steel  springs  and  iron  railing,  artifi- 
cial limbs,  stoves,  and  wheelbarrows,  and  two 
planing  mills.  There  are  four  banking  estab- 
lishments, with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $400,- 
000,  four  principal  hotels,  three  public  halls,  a 
union  school  and  several  branches,  two  daily 
and  four  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers, 
and  17  churches,  viz. :  African,  Baptist,  Con- 
gregational, Episcopal  (2),  German  Lutheran, 
Jewish,  Methodist  (2),  Presbyterian  (2),  Re- 
formed (3),  Roman  Catholic  (2),  and  Univer- 
salist.  Schenectady  is  the  seat  of  Union  col- 
lege, one  of  the  oldest  institutions  of  learning 
in  the  country.  Its  buildings,  three  in  number, 
are  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  city.  (Sw 
UNIOIJ  UNIVERSITY.) — The  town  was  settled 


by  Arent  Van  Corlear  in  1661,  and  a  fort  was 
built.  On  Feb.  9, 16(JO,  the  Indians  and  French 
massacred  the  inhabitants,  sparing  only  60  old 
persons  and  children;  and  in  1748  it  was  again 
taken  and  a  large  number  of  persons  put  to 
death.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1798. 

SCHENKEL,  Daniel,  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Dogerlin,  Switzerland,  Dec.  21,  1813.  He 
studied  in  Basel  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1841 
became  a  clergyman  in  Schaffhausen  and  a 
member  of  the  grand  council.  In  1849  he 
went  as  professor  of  theology  to  Basel,  and  in 
1851  to  Heidelberg.  His  removal,  demanded 
by  a  portion  of  the  clergy  in  1864  on  account 
of  his  liberal  views,  was  not  granted  by  the 
authorities  of  Baden.  In  1865  he  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  founders  of  the  German 
Protestant  union.  He  edited  the  Allgemeine 
Kirchemeitung  from  1852  to  1859,  and  the 
Allgemeine  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  which  he 
founded,  from  1859  to  1872 ;  and  in  1867  he 
began  to  edit  the  Bibellexikon,  which  he  com-, 
pleted  in  1875  (5  vols.,  Leipsic).  His  princi- 
pal works  are  :  Das  Wesen  des  Protestantisms 
(3  vols.,  Schaffhausen,  1846-'51 ;  2d  ed.,  186t); 
Christliche  Dogmatik  (2  vols.,  Wiesbaden, 
1858-'9);  Das  Charakterlnld  Jesu  (1864;  4th 
od.,  enlarged,  1874;  English  translation  by  W. 
H.  Furness,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1866);  and  Bren- 
nende  Fragen  (1869). 

SC1IERIA,  in  the  Odyssey,  an  island  at  the 
west  end  of  the  earth,  inhabited  by  the  Phsea- 
ccs,  a  people  fond  of  the  feast,  the  lyre,  and 
the  dance.  The  ancients  identified  it  with 
Corcyra. 

S(  I1KKR,  Johannes,  a  German  author,  born 
at  Ilohenrechberg,  Wurtemberg,  Oct.  3,  1817. 
He  graduated  at  Tubingen  in  1840,  and  with 
his  brother  Thomas  Ignaz,  a  prominent  educa- 
tor, conducted  a  school  at  Winterthur,  Switz- 
erland. After  some  years  he  established  him- 
self in  Stuttgart,  but  his  republican  sympathies 
compelled  him  in  1849  to  take  refuge  in  Switz- 
erland. Ho  first  resided  in  Zurich,  but  re- 
turned to  Winterthur  in  1852,  and  resided 
there  till  I860,  when  he  became  professor  of 
history  at  the  polytechnic  institute  in  Zurich. 
His  principal  works  are:  Geschichte  der  deut- 
schen  Literatur  (2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1854);  Ge- 
schichte der  englischen  Literatur  (1854 ;  2d  ed., 
revised  and  enlarged,  1874);  Geschichte  der 
Religion  (3  vols.,  1855-'7) ;  Allgemeine  Ge- 
schichteder  Literatur (Ithed.,  Stuttgart,  1872); 
Schiller  und  seine  Zeit  (3d  ed.,  1862);  Ge- 
schichte der  deutschen  Frauenwelt  (2  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  1865) ;  Blucher,  seine  Zeit  und  sein  Leben 
(3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1865) ;  Studien  (3  vols.,  1865- 
'6)  ;  HammersMCtfje  und  Historien  (Zurich, 
1871)  ;  Damonen  (Leipsic,  1872) ;  and  Goethe's 
Jiiyend:  Die  Frauenwelt  geschildert  (Leipsic, 
1874). 

SCHERZER,  Karl  von,  chevalier,  a  German 
traveller,  born  in  Vienna,  May  1,  1821.  Ho 
learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Brockhaus  in  Leipsic  and  in  the 
government  printing  establishment  in  Paris. 


SCHEVENINGEN 

In  company  with  Moritz  Wagner  he  travelled 
in  the  United  States,  Central  America,  and  the 
West  Indies,  from  1852  to  1855;  and  from 
1856  to  1859  he  was  a  member  of  the  Aus- 
trian Novara  expedition  round  the  world.  In 
1869  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  expe- 
dition to  eastern  Asia,  and  before  returning 
to  Europe  went  alone  from  Japan  to  Califor- 
nia, and  spent  some  time  in  Guatemala.  In 
1872  he  was  appointed  Austrian  consul  gen- 
eral at  Smyrna.  He  published  works  on  his 
American  travels,  partly  in  conjunction  with 
Wagner  (1854-'7);  his  principal  subsequent 
works  are :  Beschreibende  Theile  der  Reise  der 
osterreichischen  Fregatte  Novara  um  die  Erde 
(3  vols.  4to,  Vienna,  1861-'2) ;  Am  dem  Na- 
tur-  und  Volkerleben  im  tropischen  America 
(Leipsic,  1864);  Statistisch-commerzieller  Theil 
der  Novara  -  Expedition  (2  vols.,  Vienna, 
1864;  newed.,  Leipsic,  1867,  entitled  Statis- 
tisch-commerzielle  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise  um 
die  Erde)\  Fachmannische  Berichte  uber  die 
osterreichisch-ungarische  Expedition  nach  Si- 
am,  China  und  Japan  (Stuttgart,  1868-'71); 
and  La  province  de  Smyrne  (1875). 

SCHEVENINGEN,  a  watering  place  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, on  the  seashore,  3  m.  N.  W.  of  the 
Hague ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  contains  a  fine 
old  church,  a  royal  pavilion,  and  a  large  hotel 
belonging  to  the  corporation  of  the  Hague. 
The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  fishing.  The 
English  fleet  under  Monk  defeated  in  this  vi- 
cinity the  Dutch  commanded  by  Van  Tromp, 
who  was  killed,  Aug.  10  (N.  S.),  1653. 

SCIIK  k,  Gottlieb,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Stuttgart,  Aug.  15,  1779,  died  there,  April  11, 
1812.  He  completed  his  studies  in  Paris  under 
David  and  in  Rome,  where  he  finished  in  1803 
his  "  David  before  the  angry  Saul,"  followed 
in  1805  by  "Noah's  Thank  Offering"  and  an 
admirable  portrait  of  his  friend  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Apollo  among  the  Shepherds"  (1807),  land- 
scapes, portraits,  and  Scriptural  paintings. 

SCHIEDAM,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
the  province  of  South  Holland,  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Maas  with  the  Schie,  4  m.  W.  of 
Rotterdam;  pop.  in  1873,  20,778.  It  is  well 
built,  has  many  canals,  and  contains  one  Cath- 
olic and  five  Protestant  churches.  The  finest 
public  building  is  the  exchange.  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  the  trade  in  spirituous  liquors.  There 
are  nearly  300  distilleries,  chiefly  of  gin,  cele- 
brated under  the  name  of  hollands  or  Schie- 
dam schnapps. 

SCHILLER,  Jofaann  Christoph  Friedricb  von,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Marbach,  Wurtemberg, 
Nov.  10,  1759,  died  in  Weimar,  May  9,  1805. 
He  attended  a  Latin  school  at  Ludwigsburg,  to 
which  town  his  parents  had  removed  in  1768. 
His  father  then  became  inspector  of  the  palace 
of  Solitude,  near  Stuttgart,  where  Friedrich 
in  1773  entered  the  ducal  military  seminary, 
which  in  1775  was  transferred  to  Stuttgart  as 
a  military  academy.  Schiller  was  first  destined 
for  the  church,  and  next  for  the  law,  but  he 
727  VOL.  xiv. — 43 


SCHILLER 


671 


chose  medicine,  and  in  1780  became  a  surgeon 
in  the  army.  At  an  early  age  he  had  composed 
poetry  and  dramas,  and  for  several  years  he 
had  been  engaged  on  the  tragedy  Die  Rau- 
ler,  which  on  its  publication  in  1781  created 
an  immense  sensation.  The  duke  of  Wurtem- 
berg, fearing  the  effect  of  this  work,  which 
idealized  brigandage,  ordered  the  author  to  ad- 
here to  his  profession.  Schiller  nevertheless 
remodelled  the  play  for  the  stage,  and  was  ar- 
rested at  Stuttgart  for  stealthily  witnessing  its 
first  performance  at  Mannheim.  He  escaped 
from  Wurtemberg  in  October,  1782,  to  Baden, 
and  subsequently  found  a  refuge  in  the  house 
of  Frau  von  Wolzogen  at  Bauerbach,  near 
Meiningen,  whose  sons  had  been  his  fellow 
pupils,  and  in  September,  1783,  became  con- 
nected as  a  dramatist  with  the  Mannheim  the- 
atre. He  remained  there  about  18  months, 
during  which  he  translated  "Macbeth,"  and 
wrote  the  tragedies  Die  Verschwdrung  des  Fies- 
co  and  Kabale  und  Liebe.  He  also  founded 
the  RJieinische  Thalia,  and  published  in  that 
periodical  the  opening  acts  of  his  drama  Don 
Carlos  and  some  poems.  About  the  same  time 
appeared  his  Philosophische  Brief e.  In  1785 
he  went  to  Leipsic,  and  thence  to  Dresden, 
where  he  finished  Don  Carlos,  and  in  1787  to 
Weimar.  Here  he  met  Charlotte  von  Lenge- 
feld  (who  afterward  became  his  wife),  Herder, 
and  Wieland.  In  1788  he  for  the  first  time 
saw  Goethe,  but  their  intimate  acquaintance 
began  several  years  later  at  Jena.  In  1788  ap- 
peared the  first  and  only  volume  of  Schiller's 
unfinished  Geschichte  des  Abfalls  der  Nieder- 
lande.  In  1789  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  at  Jena,  and  in  1791  finished  his 
"  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  according 
to  Carlyle  "  the  best  historical  performance 
which  Germany  could  boast  of."  Between 
these  two  works  appeared  his  strange  frag- 
mentary story  Der  Geisterseher.  Another  of 
his  anomalous  productions  was  Der  Yerbrecher 
aus  verlorener  Ehre.  After  recovering  from 
a  severe  pulmonary  attack,  he  continued  to 
work  with  the  same  intensity  as  before,  and 
became  absorbed  in  Kant,  whose  philosophy 
suggested  to  him  many  profound  aesthetic  dis- 
quisitions. He  also  wrote  essays  and  minor 
poems  for  the  Horen,  and  edited  the  Musenal- 
manach,  in  which  he  and  Goethe  retorted  upon 
their  critics  with  metrical  epigrams  (Xenien). 
For  some  time  he  worked  almost  all  night,  ta- 
king stimulants,  which  undermined  his  health. 
His  beautiful  ballads  appeared  mostly  during 
this  period.  In  1799  appeared  his  drama  Wal- 
lenstein,  one  of  his  greatest  works,  upon  which 
he  was  engaged  for  seven  years.  It  is  in  three 
parts,  Wallensteirfs  Lager,  Die Piccolomini,  and 
Wallenstein's  Tod;  the  last  two  were  trans- 
lated by  Coleridge.  Soon  afterward  he  re- 
moved to  Weimar,  where  his  genius  was  stim- 
ulated by  a  closer  communion  with  Goethe. 
Between  1799  and  1801  he  produced  the  dra- 
mas Marie  Stuart,  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans, 
and  Die  Braut  von  Messina,  and  Dot  Lied  von 


672 


SCHILLER 


SCHLAGINTWEIT 


der  Glocke,  besides  many  other  exquisite  poems. 
In  1804  he  completed  Wilhelm  Tell,  the  last 
and  one  of  the  noblest  of  his  dramatic  works. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  said:  "Many  things 
are  now  becoming  intelligible  and  clear  to  me." 
The  grand  ideal  pervading  all  his  writings  is 
that  of  the  highest  intellectual  and  moral  cul- 
ture as  a  groundwork  of  liberty,  and  he  ex- 
pressed his  thoughts  in  prose  and  poetry  with 
impassioned  eloquence  and  at  the  same  time 
with  artistic  grace  and  felicity.  As  a  pictu- 
resque dramatist,  whose  ideality  and  genius 
soared  highest  in  depicting  the  triumphs  of 
virtue,  liberty,  and  patriotism,  and  in  creating 
lofty  types  of  womanhood  and  manhood,  he 
imparted  to  others  his  own  enthusiasm,  and 
impressed  the  heart  of  the  people  more  pow- 
erfully than  any  other  German  poet.  In  per- 
son Schiller  was  tall  and  spare,  his  complex- 
ion was  pale,  his  brow  high  and  instinct  with 
thought,  his  nose  aquiline,  his  month  of  ex- 
quisite beauty;  his  hair  inclined  to  auburn, 
and  his  eyes  were  blue  and  full  of  fire.  Dan- 
necker'a  bust  in  the  Weimar  library  is  the  best 
likeness  of  him.  In  1827  his  remains  were  re- 
moved to  the  prince's  vault  in  the  new  Weimar 
cemetery.  The  finest  statues  of  him  are  by  Thor- 
waldsen  in  Stuttgart  (1839)  and  by  Rietschel 
in  the  Schiller-Goethe  monument  at  Weimar 
(1857).  The  celebration  of  his  centennial  in 
1859  resulted  in  a  number  of  monuments  be- 
ing erected  in  his  honor  in  Germany  and  else- 
where. Among  the  latest  are  those  erected 
in  1871  in  Berlin  and  in  1874  in  Vienna;  and 
one  is  to  bo  erected  in  1876  at  Marbach.  In 
1859  the  Schiller  funds  for  relieving  indigent 
authors  were  merged  with  the  central  associa- 
tion in  Dresden,  which  in  1872  had  a  surplus 
of  about  $300,000. — The  complete  and  partial 
editions  of  Schiller's  works,  which  include 
translations  and  adaptations,  short  historical 
sketches,  and  various  fragments,  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous.  The  first,  incomplete,  was 
published  by  his  friend  Korner  (12  vols.,  1812- 
*15).  The  most  recent  and  complete  has  been 
published  under  the  supervision  of  Godeke 
(1867-'7o),  and  Schiller's  youngest  daughter 
published  in  1867  Schiller's  Dramatische  Ent- 
wiirfe.  The  most  celebrated  English  versions 
of  his  poems  are  by  Bulwer,  and  many  of  his 
other  works  have  also  been  translated  into 
English.  Among  American  translators  of  his 
poems  are  C.  T.  Brooks,  J.  S.  D  wight,  N.  L. 
Frothingham,  and  W.  H.  Furness.  The  best 
English  biographies  of  Schiller  are  Carlyle's 
(1825 ;  German  translation,  with  an  introduc- 
tion by  Goethe,  1830)  and  Bulwer's  (1847).  The 
principal  German  biographies  are  by  Schiller's 
sister-in-law,  Caroline  von  Wolzogen  (2  vols., 
1830;  new  eds.,  1845  and  1851),  Hoffmeister  (5 
vols.,  1837-'42 ;  new  ed.  enlarged  by  Viehoff, 
1846-'53;  completed,  3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1873), 
Schwab  (1840;  4th  ed.,  1859),  and  Palleske  (2 
vols.,  1858-'9;  English  translation  by  Lady 
Wallace,  1859;  5th  German  ed.,  1872).  See 
also  Schiller's  Jugendjahre,  by  Boas  (2  vols., 


1858);  Goethe  und  Schiller,  by  Gddeke  (1859); 
Schiller  und  seine  Zeit,  by  Scherr  (1859); 
Schiller's  Kalender,  1795-1805,  by  his  daughter 
Emilie  von  Gleichen-Russwurin  (1865) ;  his  cor- 
respondence with  Goethe  (6  vols.,  1828  ;  new 
ed.,  1856,  and  one  including  Duntzer's  Schiller 
und  Goethe,  1859;  English  translation  by  G. 
H.  Calvert,  Boston,  1845),  with  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  (1830),  with  Korner  (4  vols.,  1847; 
new  ed.,  enlarged  by  GOdeke,  1874);  Schiller's 
Briefe  (3  vols.,  1846;  with  historical  com- 
ments, 1854-'7) ;  his  correspondence  with  his 
sister  Christophine  and  her  husband  Reinwald, 
edited  by  Maltzahn  (1874);  and  Schiller's  Ver- 
hdltniss  zu  dem  Publikum  seiner  Zeit,  by  Oskar 
Brosin  (1875).— Schiller's  widow  died  in  1826. 
They  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters.  The 
youngest  of  the  latter,  the  baroness  von  Glei- 
chen-Russwurm,  died  in  1872.  His  only  sur- 
viving male  descendant  (1875)  is  his  grandson, 
Friedrich  Ludwig  Ernst  von  Schiller,  an  officer 
in  the  Austrian  army. 

SCHILLING,  Johannes,  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Mittweida,  Saxony,  June  23,  1828.  Ho 
studied  in  Dresden  and  Berlin,  and  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  Rome.  In  1868  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  royal  academy  of  art  in  Dresden. 
His  principal  works  are  "Amor  and  Psyche," 
the  Schiller  monument  in  Vienna,  and  especial- 
ly his  four  groups  representing  the  seasons,  for 
which  he  received  a  first  prize  in  1861,  and 
which  were  placed  in  1872  on  the  Bruhl  terrace 
in  Dresden.  In  1872  he  also  received  the  sec- 
ond prize  of  1,000  thalers  for  his  design  for  a 
projected  national  monument  in  the  Nieder- 
wald.  In  1874  he  finished  four  life-size  figures 
for  the  Schiller  monument  in  Vienna. 

SCIILMLEL,  Karl  Friedricb,  a  German  architect, 
born  in  Xen-Ruppin,  Prussia,  March  13,  1781, 
died  in  Berlin,  Oct.  9,  1841.  lie  studied  in 
Berlin,  in  Italy,  and  in  France,  became  known 
in  1808-'14  as  a  painter  of  dioramas,  and  after- 
ward acquired  celebrity  as  architect  of  some 
of  the  finest  public  works  in  Berlin,  where  he 
became  professor  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts 
in  1820.  He  excelled  also  as  a  historical  and 
decorative  painter,  and  a  special  museum  in 
Berlin  bearing  his  name  has  been  opened  for 
his  works.  His  Sammlung  architektonischer 
Entwurfe  (26  numbers,  Berlin,  1820-'37)  and 
Werke  der  hohern  Baukunst  (Potsdam,  1845- 
'6),  have  passed  through  many  editions. — See 
Aus  Schinkels  Nachlass,  by  Wolzogen  (4  vols., 
Berlin,  1862-'4),  and  the  biographies  by  Ku- 
gler  and  others. 

SCHLAGINTWEIT,  Hermann,  Adolf,  and  Robert, 
German  travellers,  the  first  born  in  Munich, 
May  13,  1826 ;  the  second  born  Jan.  9,  1829, 
killed  in  Kashgar,  Aug.  26,  1857;  the  third 
born  Oct.  27,  1833.  While  at  the  university 
Hermann  and  Adolf  made  explorations  of  the 
Alps,  and  published  the  results  in  their  Unttr- 
suchungen  uber  die  physikalische  Geographic 
der  Alpen  (Leipsic,  1850).  After  spending 
some  time  in  England  and  Scotland,  they  re- 
newed in  1851  their  explorations  of  the  Alps, 


SCHLAGINTWEIT 


SCHLATTER 


673 


visited  Piedmont  and  Savoy,  and  devoted  them- 
selves especially  to  observations  and  measure- 
ments in  the  vicinity  of  Monte  Rosa.  They 
were  the  first  to  ascend  the  highest  peak  of 
this  mountain  (Aug.  23,  1851),  and  to  make  an 
accurate  measurement  of  its  elevation ;  and 
they  remained  for  14  days  on  its  S.  W.  slope, 
at  a  height  of  10,000  ft.  In  1852  they  explored 
the  Bavarian  Alps,  where  in  1853  also  Adolf 
made  geological  observations.  The  results  of 
their  researches  were  published  in  Neue  Unter- 
suchungen  uber  die  phyaikalische  Geographie 
und  die  Oeologie  der  Alpen  (illustrated,  Leip- 
sic,  1854).  In  the  same  year  they  produced 
two  maps  in  relief  of  Monte  Rosa  and  of  the 
Zugspitze,  the  highest  peak  in  Bavaria.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Bunsen  and  Humboldt,  Her- 
mann and  Adolf  were  invited  by  the  East  In- 
dia company  to  make  an  expedition  for  mag- 
netic and  other  scientific  observations  in  India ; 
and  they  sailed  from  Southampton,  Sept.  20, 

1854,  in  company  with  their  brother  Robert, 
reaching  Bombay  Oct.  26.     The  most  impor- 
tant result  to  magnetic  science  was  the  dis- 
covery that  the  isodynamic  lines,  which  run 
due  E.  with  little  variation  from  the  Arabian 
sea  to  the  Indian  archipelago,  are  violently 
deflected  in  central  and  southern  India,  and 
make  a  sharp  southward  curve.     On  March  25, 

1855,  Adolf  and  Robert  started  for  the  Hima- 
laya mountains.     After  examining  the  glacier 
of  Milum,  more  than  10  m.  long  and  3,000  ft. 
broad,  they  entered  Thibet,  and  investigated 
the  glaciers  of  Ibi-Gamin,  one  of  its  highest 
mountains,  ascending  to  an  elevation  of  22,260 
ft.      Returning,  the  three  brothers  explored 
the  country  in  different  directions,  and  met 
at  Simla  in  the  spring  of  1856.     They  set  out 
together  for  new  researches  in  the  Himalaya, 
but  soon  took  different  courses,  Adolf  reach- 
ing Lanskar  in  Thibet  on  June  26,  while  his 
brothers  proceeded  across  the  Karakorum  and 
Kuenlun  ranges.     They  met  at  Serinagur,  sep- 
arated once  more,  and  again  came  together 
on  Nov.  17  at  Rawal-Pindi.     Robert  then  re- 
turned to  Europe  by  way  of  Mooltan,  Bhooj, 
and  Bombay,  and  Hermann  by  way  of  Nepaul 
and  Calcutta.     Adolf  decided  to  pursue  his 
researches  a  year  longer  in  Thibet  and  Tur- 
kistan,  and  proceeded  to  Kashgar,  whence  he 
intended  to  penetrate  into  Siberia,  but  was 
slain  there,  for  some  unknown  reason,  by  the 
inhabitants.     His  journal,  containing  135  pages 
of  closely  written  notes,  was  recovered  in  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  by  Lord  William  Hay,  civil  com- 
missioner in  Cashmere.     The  whole  extent  of 
the  travels  of  the  brothers  Schlagintweit  was 
about  18,000  miles.     Hermann  and  Robert  ar- 
rived safely  in  Berlin,  and  settled  at  Ja'gers- 
burg  near  Forchheim,  where  they  have  de- 
posited   their   valuable   collections  of    about 
2,000  minerals  and  fossils,  a  large  herbarium, 
zoological  and  ethnographical  specimens,  em- 
bracing 275  casts  of  the  faces  and  37  of  the 
hands  and  feet  of  the  tribes  which  they  visit- 
ed, and  an  atlas  of  750  original  views.     Re- 


ports of  their  travels  were  published  during 
their  absence  in  the  principal  geographical 
journals  of  Europe.  The  surviving  brothers 
are  preparing  a  complete  narrative  in  English 
entitled  "Results  of  a  Scientific  Mission  to 
India  and  High  Asia,  undertaken  between 
the  Years  1854  and  1858 ;  with  an  Atlas  of 
Panoramas,  Views,  and  Maps."  Five  volumes 
of  this  work  have  been  published:  the  first 
giving  astronomical  determinations  of  lati- 
tudes and  longitudes,  and  magnetic  observations 
(Leipsic,  1861) ;  the  second,  the  general  hyp- 
sometry  of  India,  the  Himalaya,  and  western 
Thibet,  edited  by  Robert  (1862);  the  third,  a 
route  book,  with  geographical  glossary,  edited 
by  Hermann  (1863) ;  and  the  fourth  and  fifth 
giving  the  meteorology  and  physical  conditions 
of  India  (1866  and  1873).  Hermann,  who  re- 
ceived in  1864  from  the  emperor  Alexander 
II.  the  surname  of  Sakunliinski  (Transkuen- 
lunian),  is  now  (1875)  writing  an  elaborate 
work  based  on  the  results  of  his  travels  and 
those  of  his  brothers,  under  the  title  of  Reuen 
in  Indien  und  ffochasien,  of  which  4  vols. 
have  appeared  (Jena,  1869-'74).  Robert  pub- 
lished in  1869  a  collection  of  poems  from  va- 
rious German  poets,  entitled  Poetische  Bilder 
au«  alien  Theilen  der  Erde  ;  and  after  extended 
travels  on  the  American  continent,  he  wrote 
Die  Pacific- Ei&eribahn  in  Nordamerilca(\&7Q\ 
and  Californien,  Land  und  Leute  (1871). — 
EDUAED,  another  brother  (born  March  8,  1831, 
died  in  the  battle  of  Kissingen,  fighting  in 
the  Bavarian  army,  July  10,  1866),  publish- 
ed a  work  based  on  his  observations  in  the 
Spanish-Moroccan  campaign  of  1859-'60,  en- 
titled Der  spanish-marokkanische  Krieg  (Leip- 
sic, 1863). — EMIL,  a  fifth  brother  (born  July  7, 
1835),  has  devoted  himself  to  oriental  studies, 
and  written  "Buddhism  in  Tibet"  (in  English, 
Leipsic,  1863),  Die  GottesurtJieile  der  Indier 
(Munich,  1866),  and  Die  Konige  von  Tibet,  von 
der  Entstehung  Tconiglicher  MacJit  in  Ydrlung 
bis  sum  Erloschen  in  Laddie  (or  about  50  B.  C. 
to  1834  A.  D.),  published  by  the  royal  Bava- 
rian academy  in  1866. 

SCHLATTER,  Michael,  a  Swiss  missionary,  born 
in  St.  Gall,  July  14,  1716,  died  near  Philadel- 
phia in  October,  1790.  He  was  educated  at 
St.  Gall,  became  a  clergyman,  and  in  1746  of- 
fered himself  to  the  synods  of  North  and  South 
Holland  as  a  missionary  to  the  German  Re- 
formed emigrants  in  Pennsylvania.  From  1746 
to  1751  he  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed  church- 
es of  Philadelphia  and  Germantown,  and  or- 
ganized churches  among  the  scattered  Ger- 
mans in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Maryland, 
and  Virginia.  He  effected  the  organization  of 
the  synod  of  the  German  Reformed  church  in 
America  in  September,  1747.  In  1751  he  re- 
visited Europe,  and  secured  the  services  of  six 
other  ministers  for  the  American  churches.  In 
1757  he  accompanied  an  expedition  to  Nova 
Scotia  against  the  French  as  chaplain.  When 
the  revolution  broke  out  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  colonists,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1777. 


674 


SCHLEGEL 


SCHLEIDEN 


SCHLEGEL.  I.  August  Wilhelm  yon,  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Hanover,  Sept.  5,  1767,  died 
in  Bonn,  May  12,  1845.  He  was  a  son  of  the 
poet  tfnd  clergyman  Johann  Adolf  Schlegel, 
and  studied  at  Gottingen,  at  first  theology  and 
afterward  philology  under  Heyne.  He  had 
successfully  cultivated  poetry  from  his  earliest 
boyhood,  which  led  to  his  friendship  with 
Korner,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  compose  German  sonnets.  After  three 
years'  residence  at  Amsterdam  as  private  tutor, 
he  settled  in  Jena,  where  he  became  professor, 
and  joined  his  brother  Friedrich  in  writing 
essays  which  opened  the  era  of  the  romantic 
school  of  literature.  Having  separated  from 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Michaelis,  he  removed 
in  1802  to  Berlin,  where  he  lectured  on  litera- 
ture and  the  fine  arts.  In  1805  he  accompa- 
nied Mme.  de  Stael  in  her  travels.  In  1808  he 
delivered  at  Vienna  his  celebrated  lectures  on 
dramatic  art,  which  reveal  his  immense  admi- 
ration for  Shakespeare.  They  were  published 
in  3  vols.  (Heidelberg,  1809-'!!),  and  several 
times  translated  into  English.  Visiting  Stock- 
holm in  1812,  he  became  secretary  to  Berna- 
dotte,  the  future  king  of  Sweden.  In  1815, 
after  the  second  occupation  of  Paris  by  the 
allies,  he  joined  Mine,  de  Stael,  and  remained 
with  her  till  her  death  in  1817.  From  1819  to 
the  end  of  his  life  he  was  professor  of  history 
at  Bonn.  His  second  marriage  in  1819,  with 
a  daughter  of  Paulus  of  Heidelberg,  resulted 
like  the  first  in  a  separation.  His  literary 
activity  began  at  Jena,  where  he  wrote  for 
Schiller's  Horen  and  other  periodicals,  edited 
in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Friedrich  the 
Atlnnnmn,  and  began  his  translation  of  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare,  of  which  he  rendered 
17,  the  rest  being  prepared  by  Dorothea  Tieck, 
under  the  supervision  of  her  father,  and  by 
Count  Baudissin.  In  1801  he  published  with 
his  brother  Charakteristiken  und  Kritiken  (2 
vols.),  which  was  followed  by  his  translations 
of  Calderon's  five  principal  plays  (Spanitches 
Theater,  2  vols.,  1803-'9),  and  of  Spanish,  Ital- 
ian, and  Portuguese  poetry  (SlumenttrduMe 
der  italifniHclir.il,  gpanischen  und  portugiesi- 
schen  Poetie,  1804).  At  the  suggestion  of 
Mme.  de  Stael  he  published  in  French  in  1807 
Comparaison  de  la  Phedre  d'Euripide  avec 
cello  de  Racine,  which  attracted  much  atten- 
tion and  aroused  much  indignation  in  France. 
In  his  PoetUche  Werke  (2  vols.,  1811)  are  con- 
tained his  best  poems,  and  in  his  Kritwche 
Schriften  (2  vols.,  1828)  some  of  his  most  pro- 
found eesthetical  disquisitions.  He  was  also 
remarkable  as  an  oriental  scholar,  and  as  the 
first  in  Germany  to  master  Sanskrit.  His  wri- 
tings are  comprised  in  his  Sdmmtliche  Werke 
(12  vols.,  184G-'7),  (Euvreg  ecrites  en  francais 
(3  vols.,  1846),  and  Opusrula  Latina  (1848),  the 
last  including  his  translation  of  the  Rama- 
yana  and  other  contributions  to  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature. II.  Friedrieh  Karl  Uilhelm  TOD,  a  Ger- 
man author,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Hanover,  March  10, 1772,  died  in  Dresden,  Jan. 


12,  1829.  He  went  to  Leipsic  to  qualify  him- 
self for  commerce,  but  soon  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Gottingen,  and  completed  his  studies 
at  Leipsic.  In  1800  he  established  himself  as 
Privatdocent  of  philosophy  in  Jena,  and  sub- 
sequently lectured  also  in  Paris.  Having  with 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Moses  Mendelssohn, 
joined  the  Catholic  church,  he  went  in  1808 
to  Vienna,  and  in  the  following  year  accom- 
panied the  archduke  Charles  on  the  battle  field 
as  a  secretary,  issuing  patriotic  proclamations 
against  Napoleon.  Subsequently  he  was  sec- 
retary of  the  Austrian  embassy  at  Frankfort 
till  1818,  when  he  returned  to  Vienna  and  re- 
sumed his  lectures  there,  and  in  1828-'9  lec- 
tured in  Dresden.  He  shared  with  his  brother 
and  Tieck  in  the  leadership  of  the  romantic 
school,  and  was  especially  remarkable  as  a 
critic  and  thinker  of  great  originality.  His 
principal  works  are :  Gritchen  und  Rdmer 
(1797);  Geschichte  der  Poesie  der  Oriechen 
und  Rdmer  (1798);  Lucinde  (1799),  a  novel 
of  which  only  one  volume  was  published  on 
account  of  its  voluptuous  character;  Alarcos, 
a  tragedy  (1802);  Ueber  die  Sprache  und  Weis- 
heit  der  Inder  (1808);  Vorlesungen  uber  die 
neuere  Geschichte  (1811);  Geschichte  der  alien 
und  nenen  Literatur  (2  vols.,  1816);  Philoso- 
phie  der  Geschichte  (2  vols.,  1829);  and  Phi- 
losophie  der  Sprache  (1880).  His  works  were 
collected  in  15  vols.  (1822-'46).  He  also  pub- 
lished several  works  written  by  his  wife.  His 
"  Lectures  on  Modern  History,"  "Philosophy 
of  History,"  "Philosophy  of  Life  and  Phi- 
losophy of  Language,"  and  other  works,  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

SCHLEICHER,  August,  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Meiningen,  Feb.  19,  1821,  died  in  Jena, 
Dec.  6,  1868.  He  studied  theology  and  com- 
parative philology  at  Leipsic  and  Tubingen, 
and  graduated  at  Bonn  as  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy in  1846.  In  1850  he  became  professor  at 
Prague,  and  in  1857  at  Jena.  He  ranked  next 
to  Bopp  in  comparative  philology,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished in  the  Indo-Germanic  and  particu- 
larly in  the  Slavo-Lettic  group  of  languages. 
His  works  include  Zur  vergleichenden  Spra- 
chengeschichte  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1848-'60,  vol.  ii. 
entitled  Die  Sprachen  Europe?*) ;  Formenlehre 
der  kirchenslavischen  Sprache  (1853);  Iland- 
buch  der  litauischen  Sprache  (2  vols.,  Prague, 
1856-'f»7) ;  and  Compendium  der  vergleichen- 
den  Grammatik  der  indogermanischen  Spra- 
chen (Weimar,  1862;  3d  ed.,  1871;  English 
translation  by  II.  Bendall,  part  i.,  "Phonol- 
ogy," London,  1874). 

SCHLEIDEN,  Matthias  Jakob,  a  German  bota- 
nist, born  in  Hamburg,  April  5,  1804.  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  Jena  from  1839 
to  1862,  and  of  vegetable  chemistry  and  an- 
thropology at  Dorpat  in  1863-'4,  subsequently 
residing  at  Dresden.  His  principal  works  are : 
Grundzuge  der  wissenschaftlichen  Potanik  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1842-'3;  4th  ed.,  1861;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Dr.  Lankester,  London, 
1849);  Die  P flame  und  ihr  Leben  (6th  ed., 


SCHLEIERMACHER 


675 


Leipsic,  1864;  translated  by  Prof.  Henfrey, 
London,  1848)  ;  Baum  und  Wald  (1870) ;  and 
Die  Rose  (1873). 

SCHLEIERMACHEK,    Friedrieh    Daniel   Ernst,    a 

German  theologian,  born  in  Breslau,  Nov.  21, 
1768,  died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  12,  1834.  His  fa- 
ther was  a  Reformed  minister,  and  chaplain 
of  a  Prussian  regiment  in  Silesia.  In  1788  he 
was  placed  in  the  educational  establishment  of 
the  Moravians  at  Niesky,  Upper  Lusatia,  and 
in  1785  in  the  Moravian  college  at  Barby.  He 
entered  the  university  of  Halle  in  1787,  where 
he  lived  in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  Prof.  Stu- 
benrauch.  He  attended  the  lectures  of  Sem- 
ler  and  Wolf,  made  himself  acquainted  with 
modern  languages  and  mathematics,  and  stud- 
ied Spinoza,  Kant,  Fichte,  and  Jacobi.  After 
a  two  years'  course  he  left  the  university  with- 
out a  fixed  system  of  religious  opinions.  In 
1790  he  passed  the  examination  for  license, 
and  became  private  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Count  Dohna,  where  he  spent  three  years. 
In  1794  he  took  orders  and  became  assistant 
to  his  uncle  at  Landsberg  on  the  Warta.  From 
1796  to  1802  Schleiermacher  was  chaplain  at 
the  Charit6  hospital  in  Berlin;  and  during 
these  six  years  he  identified  himself  tempora- 
rily with  the  so-called  romantic  school  of  poe- 
try. In  1799  he  published  Eeden  uber  die  Re- 
ligion an  die  Gebildeten  unter  ihren  Verdchtern 
(new  eel.,  Leipsic,  1867),  which  marks  the  tran- 
sition of  German  theology  from  speculation  to 
the  restoration  of  positive  faith.  His  piety, 
however,  was  strongly  tinctured  with  the  pan- 
theism of  Spinoza.  His  Monologen  (1800)  is  a 
description  of  the  ethical  ideal  which  floated 
before  his  mind,  and  was  evidently  influenced 
by  the  subjective  idealism  of  Fichte.  In  1802 
he  removed  for  two  years  to  Stolpe  in  Pome- 
rania  as  court  preacher.  There  began  his 
translation  of  Plato,  which  he  had  projected 
with  Friedrich  Schlegel  in  Berlin.  Its  partial 
completion  in  6  vols.  (1804-'28)  gives  him  a 
place  among  the  best  Greek  scholars  in  Ger- 
many. His  Grundlinien  einer  Kritik  der  Ms- 
Tierigen  Sittenlehre,  which  opened  a  new  path 
in  moral  philosophy,  belongs  to  the  same  peri- 
od (1803).  In  1804  he  became  extraordinary 
professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  Halle. 
After  the  temporary  suspension  of  this  univer- 
sity in  1806  he  spent  some  time  on  the  island 
of  Rugen,  then  returned  to  Berlin  as  minis- 
ter of  Trinity  church,  and  married  the  widow 
of  his  intimate  clerical  friend  Willich  (1809). 
"When  the  university  of  Berlin  was  founded  in 
1810,  he  was  elected  its  first  theological  pro- 
fessor, and  continued  in  this  post,  combining 
with  it  his  pastoral  labors  in  Trinity  church, 
during  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  connection 
with  his  colleague  Neander,  his  former  pupil 
in  Halle,  he  attracted  students  from  all  parts 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  says  that  Schleiermacher's  speaking 
far  exceeded  his  power  in  writing,  and  that  his 
strength  consisted  in  the  "deeply  penetrative 
character  of  his  words,  which  was  free  from 


art,  and  the  persuasive  effusion  of  feeling  mov- 
ing in  perfect  unison  with  one  of  the  rarest  in- 
tellects." He  never  wrote  out  his  sermons, 
except  the  text,  theme,  and  a  few  heads,  but 
allowed  them  to  be  taken  down  during  deliv- 
ery and  published  after  he  had  revised  them. 
During  the  most  critical  and  depressed  period 
in  the  history  of  Prussia,  he  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence  to  stir  up  in  all  classes  of  society 
those  patriotic  feelings  which  resulted  in  the 
war  of  deliverance  and  the  final  emancipation 
of  Germany  from  French  rule.  He  adhered 
to  his  liberal  political  principles  during  the 
period  of  reaction  in  favor  of  absolutism, 
which  set  in  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  and  subjected  himself  to 
strong  suspicion  in  high  quarters.  He  assisted 
in  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
confessions  in  Prussia  at  the  tercentennial  cel- 
ebration of  the  reformation  (1817),  and  de- 
fended it,  although  he  regarded  himself  as 
belonging  rather  to  the  Informed  type  of 
Protestantism,  and  advocated  in  his  own  way 
even  the  Calvinistic  scheme  of  a  double  pre- 
destination as  subservient  to  an  ulterior  design 
of  a  final  universal  salvation.  He  favored 
strongly  the  introduction  of  the  presbyterian 
and  synodical  form  of  government.  He  was 
one  of  the  compilers  of  the  new  Berlin  hymn 
book  (1829),  which  opened  the  way  for  a  hym- 
nological  reform  in  all  parts  of  Germany. 
— Schleiermacher  was  small  of  stature,  and 
slightly  deformed  by  a  humpback ;  but  his  face 
was  noble,  earnest,  sharply  defined,  and  high- 
ly expressive  of  intelligence  and  kindly  sym- 
pathy ;  his  eye  keen,  piercing,  and  full  of  fire ; 
his  movements  quick  and  animated.  His  mind 
retained  its  vitality  and  freshness  to  the  last. 
His  productions,  including  the  posthumous 
publications  from  his  lectures,  embrace  philo- 
sophical ethics,  dialectics,  psychology,  poli- 
tics, pedagogics,  church  history,  hermeneutics, 
Christian  ethics,  dogmatics,  practical  theology, 
sermons,  and  a  large  number  of  philosophical, 
exegetical,  and  critical  essays.  The  Old  Tes- 
tament alone  was  excluded  from  his  lectures. 
His  literary  remains  were  intrusted  to  his 
friend  and  pupil  Dr.  Jonas,  and  from  them  as 
well  as  from  his  published  writings  and  nu- 
merous manuscripts  of  students  a  complete 
collection  of  his  works  has  been  published  in 
three  divisions,  respectively  entitled  Zur  The- 
ologie,  Predigten,  and  Zur  PhilosopUe,  inclu- 
ding his  lectures  on  psychology  (1862)  and  Daa 
Leben  Jem  (1864) ;  the  whole  publication  em- 
braces 31  volumes  (1835-'64).  His  correspon- 
dence with  J.  Chr.  Gass  was  edited  in  1852  by 
W.  Gass,  and  that  with  other  friends  appeared 
under  the  title  Aus  Schleiermacher '«  Leben  (4 
vols.,  1858-'62).  His  autobiography,  extend- 
ing only  to  1794,  was  first  published  in  1851 
in  Niedner's  Zeitschrift  fur  historiscTie  The- 
ologie.  His  philosophical  and  theological  views 
have  been  discussed  by  Braniss  (1822),  Del- 
bruck  (1827),  Baumgarten-Crusius  (1834),  Ro- 
senkranz(1836),  Strauss  (1839),  Neander,  Twe- 


6T6 


SCHLEIZ 


SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 


sten,  Baur,  and  others.  Among  his  biogra- 
phers are  Auberlen  (1859),  K.  Schwartz  (1861), 
Elisa  Maier  (1863),  Dilthey  (1867  et  seq.\  and 
Schenkel  (18G8).  See  also  Schleiermacher's 
Reden  uber  die  Religion  und  ihre  Nachwir- 
Tcungen  auf  die  enangelische  Kirche  Deutsch- 
lands,  by  Albrecht  Ritschl  (Bonn,  1874). 

SCHLEIZ.    See  REUSS. 

SCHLESTADT.    See  SCHLETTSTADT. 

SCHLESWIG,  or  Sleswlek  (Dan.  Sletvig).  I. 
Formerly  an  independent  duchy  governed  by 
the  king  of  Denmark,  now  the  N.  part  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-llolstein.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  Jutland,  from  which  it  is 
partly  separated  by  the  Kongo  Aa,  E.  by  the 
Little  Belt  and  the  Baltic,  S.  by  Holatein,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Eider  river  and 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  canal,  and  W.  by  the 
North  sea ;  extreme  length  90  m.,  general 
breadth  about  40  m. ;  area,  8,529  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  409,907.  (See  ScnLEswio-HoLSTKiy.) 
— Since  the  time^  of  Charlemagne  Schleswig 
has  been  a  disputed  possession  between  the 
Germans  and  the  Danes.  A  margraviate  erect- 
ed here  by  Henry  I.  of  Germany  about  934, 
and  reorganized  by  Otho  the  Great  in  948,  was 
yielded  up  to  Canute  the  Great  in  1027,  when 
the  Eider  was  agreed  upon  as  the  boundary 
between  the  two  countries.  Thenceforward 
Schleswig  was  usually  bestowed  upon  the 
younger  princes  of  the  Danish  reigning  family. 
King  Waldemar  II.  (1202-'41)  invested  with 
it  his  younger  son  Abel,  whose  descendants, 
closely  allied  with  the  counts  of  Holstein  of 
the  Schauenburg  house,  but  usually  hostile  to 
the  Danish  kings,  ruled  it  till  1375.  During 
this  period  the  foundation  was  laid  for  the 
union  of  the  two  territories,  and  in  1326  the  so- 
called  constitution  of  Waldemar  was  adopted, 
according  to  which  Schleswig  was  never  again 
to  be  united  with  Denmark  under  the  same 
lord.  After  the  extinction  of  Abel's  line,  the 
counts  of  Holstein  laid  claim  to  Schleswig  un- 
der several  treaties,  and  in  1386  Gerhard  VI. 
received  it  as  a  Danish  fief.  Although  IIol- 
stein  was  a  fief  of  the  empire,  the  history  of 
the  two  countries  is  from  this  time  united. 
II.  A  city  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein, formerly  capital  of  the  duchy 
of  Schleswig,  at  the  head  of  a  shallow  bay 
called  the  Schlei  or  Sley,  about  20  m.  from  the 
Baltic,  and  69  m.  N.  N.  W  of  Hamburg ;  pop. 
in  1871,  13,850.  It  is  almost  surrounded  by 
water,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts,  the 
Altstadt,  chiefly  inhabited  by  fishermen,  the 
Lollfuss,  and  Friedrichsburg.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral with  many  monuments.  Woollen  goods, 
leather,  lace,  and  china  are  made.  The  harbor 
is  accessible  to  small  vessels.  Schleswig  was 
in  existence  in  808,  and  for  nearly  600  years 
it  was  an  important  commercial  city.  It  de- 
clined from  the  gradual  filling  up  of  its  harbor. 

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,  a  province  of  Prus- 
sia, formed  in  1866,  and  consisting  of  the  for- 
mer duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Denmark,  E.  by  the  Baltic,  Lubeck, 


and  Lauenburg,  S.  by  the  province  of  Hanover, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Elbe,  and 
W.  by  the  North  sea;  area,  6,766  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  995,873,  chiefly  Protestants.  The  in- 
habitants are  a  mixture  of  various  races.  In 
N.  Schleswig  Danish  is  spoken  by  about  145,- 
000  people,  who  occupy  nearly  half  of  the 
former  duchy  of  Schleswig.  In  S.  Schleswig 
and  Holstein  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  speak 
German.  The  Frisian  dialect  is  still  spoken 
in  some  of  the  western  parishes,  but  it  is  not 
used  in  either  church  or  school.  The  district 
between  and  E.  of  the  towns  of  Schleswig  and 
Flensburg  is  known  as  the  territory  of  the 
Angles.  The  province  constitutes  only  one 
administrative  district,  called  Schleswig.  The 
principal  towns  are  Altona,  Kiel  (the  capital), 
Rendsburg,  and  Gluckstadt  in  Holstein,  and 
Schleswig  and  Flensburg  in  Schleswig.  The 
chief  rivers,  besides  the  Elbe,  are  the  Eider, 
which  separates  Schleswig  from  Holstein,  the 
Trave,  and  the  Stor,  an  affluent  of  the  Elbe. 
A  number  of  islands  lie  opposite  the  W.  coast 
of  Schleswig,  of  which  Rom6,  Sylt,  and  Fohr 
are  the  most  important.  The  islands  of  Alsen 
in  the  Little  Belt  and  Feraern  N.  E.  of  Hol- 
stein also  belong  to  the  province.  The  surface 
is  mainly  level ;  in  the  interior  of  Schleswig 
there  is  a  slightly  elevated  sandy  ridge  cov- 
ered with  heath,  which  increases  in  height 
toward  the  north.  The  soil  of  Holstein  is 
very  fertile,  and  produces  wheat,  buckwheat, 
potatoes,  hops,  hemp,  flax,  and  wood.  The 
soil  in  the  interior  of  Schleswig  is  light  and 
stony ;  the  W.  side  is  bordered  by  a  strip  of 
rich  marsh  land,  and  artificial  dikes  and  sluices 
are  necessary  to  prevent  its  being  overflowed. 
The  province  is  noted  for  its  fine  horses,  which 
are  famous  for  heavy  cavalry  service  and  are 
exported  in  considerable  numbers.  The  man- 
ufactures are  not  important ;  only  Neumun- 
ster  in  Holstein  can  be  called  a  manufacturing 
town.  (See  HOLSTEIX.) — In  1386  the  counts 
of  Holstein  received  Schleswig  as  a  Danish 
fief.  Their  line  becoming  extinct,  the  estates 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  in  1460  elected  Count 
Christian  of  Oldenburg  to  be  their  sovereign, 
who  had  in  1448  been  chosen  king  of  Den- 
mark. It  was  stipulated  that  the  duchies 
"  should  for  ever  remain  together  undivided," 
and  the  estates  reserved  the  right  to  choose 
at  any  time  a  successor  from  among  his  de- 
scendants. The  agreement  to  maintain  the 
integrity  of  Holstein  was  soon  broken,  and  in 
1490,  with  the  consent  of  the  estates,  two 
sovereign  houses  were  founded.  These  were 
united  again  under  Frederick  I.,  but  in  1544 
three  sovereign  houses  were  founded.  Since 
1580  there  have  been  three  main  branches  of 
the  family  of  Schleswig-Holstein:  the  royal 
Danish,  called  the  Holstein-Gluckstadt ;  that 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  of  which  since  1762  the 
czar  of  Russia  is  the  head ;  and  the  Holstein- 
Sonderburg,  which  had  no  territorial  authority. 
In  1616  the  estates  yielded  their  right  of  elec- 
tion, and  the  law  of  succession  became  that 


SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 

of  primogeniture,  with  reversion  to  the  col- 
lateral branches.  In  1773  the  future  emperor 
Paul  I.,  as  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  ceded  all 
his  possessions  and  claims  in  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  to  the  king  of  Denmark,  in  exchange  for 
the  principality  of  Oldenburg,  which  he  trans- 
ferred to  the  youngest  branch  of  the  Holstein- 
Gottorp  family.  The  ancient  constitution  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  had  since  the  17th  century 
fallen  into  abeyance,  and  in  1802-' 6  the  es- 
tates were  formally  abolished.  In  1815  the 
king  of  Denmark  had  to  enter  the  German 
confederation  as  duke  of  Holstein,  and  in  1823 
the  inhabitants  of  that  province  appealed  to 
the  German  diet  for  the  constitution  of  1460, 
without  effect;  but  in  1834  chambers  were 
erected  both  for  Schleswig  and  for  Holstein. 
But  still  the  repressive  measures  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  a  persistent  effort  to  bring  the 
German  language  into  disuse  in  the  churches, 
schools,  and  courts,  created  discontent.  The 
Salic  law  had  never  prevailed  in  either  Schles- 
wig or  Holstein,  and  the  royal  house  in  the 
male  line  was  about  to  become  extinct  when 
on  July  8,  1846,  appeared  a  proclamation  of 
the  king,  extending  the  Danish  laws  of  succes- 
sion to  all  his  dominions  except  a  part  of  Hol- 
stein, at  the  same  time  expressing  the  intention 
of  including  even  this  in  time.  The  collateral 
branches  of  the  reigning  family,  the  estates  of 
the  duchies,  and  the  German  diet  protested; 
but  on  March  24,  1848,  Frederick  VII.  pro- 
claimed the  incorporation  of  Schleswig  with 
Denmark.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  three 
years'  war,  in  which  the  duchies  contended  for 
their  independence,  and  were  for  a  time  aid- 
ed by  Prussia.  (See  DENMARK.)  In  January, 

1851,  Austria  and  Prussia  jointly  intervened, 
disbanded  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army,  and 
on  Feb.  18,  1852,  surrendered  Holstein  to  Den- 
mark.    At  the  London  conference  of  May, 

1852,  the  great  powers  and  Sweden  fixed  upon 
Prince  Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonder- 
burg-Glucksburg  as  the  next  king.     The  other 
branches  of  the  prince's  family  residing  in  Den- 
mark renounced  their  claims  in  Prince  Chris- 
tian's favor,  but  those  residing  in  Schleswig- 
Holstein  did  not.     Neither  the  estates  of  the 
duchies  nor  the  German  diet  became  a  party 
to  this  agreement.    In  1854  constitutions  were 
granted  to  both  Schleswig  and  Holstein ;  but 
they  were  not  satisfactory  to  the  people,  and 
in  November,  1863,  the  parliament  formally 
incorporated  Schleswig  with  Denmark.   In  the 
same  month  the  king  died,  and,  in  accordance 
with  the  London  treaty,  the  prince  of  Sonder- 
burg-Gltlcksburg  ascended  the  throne  as  Chris- 
tian IX.     The  prince  of  Schleswig-Holstein- 
Sonderburg-Augustenburg,  whom  the  duchies 
regarded  as  the  rightful  heir,  proceeded  to 
Kiel  to  assume  the  government.     In  the  mean 
time  the  German  diet  had  declared  the  treaty 
of  London  broken  by  Denmark,  and  an  Aus- 
tro-Prussian  army  entered  Holstein.    After  se- 
vere fighting  the  Danes  were  driven  out  of 
Schleswig,  and  even  Jutland  was  occupied  by 


SCHLIEMANN 


677 


German  troops.  England  attempted  in  vain 
to  mediate,  a  second  London  conference  came 
to  nothing,  and  the  Danes  were  completely 
subdued.  At  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Oct.  30, 
1864,  Christian  IX.  renounced  all  his  claims  to 
Schleswig-Holstein,  and  also  to  Lauenburg. 
The  convention  of  Gastein,  Aug.  14,  1865, 
assigned  the  occupation  of  Holstein  to  Austria 
and  of  Schleswig  to  Prussia.  After  the  war 
of  1866  both  duchies  came  under  Prussian 
rule,  and  were  shortly  after  made  a  province 
of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  The  article  in  the 
treaty  of  Prague  between  Austria  and  Prus- 
sia, providing  for  a  restoration  of  Danish- 
speaking  Schleswig  to  Denmark  should  the 
people  vote  for  it,  has  thus  far  (1875)  been  dis- 
regarded. (See  DENMARK.) — See  Droysen  and 
Samwer,  Die  Herzogthumer  Schleswig-Holstein 
und  das  Konigreich  Ddnemark  (2d  ed.,  Ham- 
burg, 1850) ;  Luders,  Denlcwurdigkeiten  zur 
neuesten  schleswig-holsteinischen  Geschichte  (4 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1851-'3);  Baudissin,  Geschichte 
des  schleswig-holsteinischen  Kriegs  (Hanover, 
1862) ;  Rustow,  Der  deutsch-ddnische  Krieg 
ton  1864  (Zurich,  1864) ;  Der  osterreichisch- 
preussische  Krieg  gegen  Ddnemark  (Vienna, 
1865) ;  and  Moller,  Geschichte  Schleswig-Hol- 
steins  (2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1865). 

SCHLETTSTADT  (Fr.  Schelestadt  or  Schlestadt), 
a  town  of  Germany,  in  Lower  Alsace,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  111,  25  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Stras- 
burg ;  pop.  in  1871,  9,307,  chiefly  Roman 
Catholics.  It  contains  several  fine  mediaeval 
churches,  a  college,  a  public  library,  and  a 
Catholic  normal  seminary  opened  in  1872. 
Leather,  cotton  goods,  potash,  and  many  oth- 
er articles  are  manufactured;  and  there  is 
trade  in  wine,  tobacco,  rape  seed,  hemp,  and 
flax.  Schlettstadt  was  a  town  in  the  8th  cen- 
tury, having  been  founded  on  the  site  of  one 
destroyed  by  Attila,  and  was  fortified  and  be- 
came a  free  imperial  city  in  the  13th  century. 
Agricola  established  a  school  here.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1632,  was  annexed  to 
France  in  1648,  and  subsequently  became  the 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department 
of  Bas-Rhin.  The  fortifications,  designed  by 
Vauban,  commanded  the  railway  lines  and  the 
military  road  to  Belfort  and  Besancon.  The 
Germans  captured  it  after  a  siege  in  October, 
1870,  and  subsequently  demolished  the  forti- 
fications. 

SCHLEY,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  drained 
by  branches  of  Flint  river;  area,  about  200 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,129,  of  whom  2,851 
were  colored.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  3,889  bu.shels  of  wheat,  88,053  of  Indian 
corn,  19,626  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,540  Ibs.  of 
rice,  3,657  bales  of  cotton,  and  6,672  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  317  horses, 
621  mules  and  asses,  2,531  cattle,  486  sheep, 
and  4,371  swine.  Capital,  Ellaville. 

SCHLIEMAM,  Heinrieh,  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Kalkhorst,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  in 
1822.  His  father  was  poor,  and  placed  him  at 
the  age  of  14  in  a  grocer's  store  in  Ftirsten- 


678 


SCHLOSSER 


SCHMID 


berg,  where  he  remained  for  more  than  five 
years.  He  then  obtained  employment  in  a 
mercantile  house  in  Amsterdam,  and  devoted 
his  leisure  hours  to  the  acquisition  of  lan- 
guages, learning  very  rapidly,  as  he  relates,  to 
speak  and  write  English,  French,  Dutch,  Span- 
ish, Italian,  and  Portuguese,  in  addition  to 
Latin,  which  he  had  learned  in  his  childhood. 
His  learning  Russian  was  the  foundation  of  his 
fortune.  In  the  beginning  of  1846  he  was  sent 
as  an  agent  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  business  of  his  own,  which  within  a 
few  years  brought  him  considerable  wealth. 
In  1854  he  mastered  Swedish  and  Polish;  and 
in  1856  he  learned  modern  Greek,  with  the 
help  of  two  Greek  friends,  in  six  weeks,  and 
three  months  more  sufficed  him  to  learn  enough 
of  classical  Greek  to  understand  the  ancient 
writers.  He  now  devoted  two  years  exclu- 
sively to  the  classics,  reading  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  several  times.  In  1858-'9  he  trav- 
elled in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Germany,  Italy, 
Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  learned  Arabic.  In 
1863  he  retired  from  business  with  the  inten- 
tion of  exploring  the  Troad,  but  in  1864  he 
was  induced  to  make  a  journey  around  the 
world,  which  occupied  two  years.  He  then 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  published  in  1869 
Ithaque,  le  Peloponntee  et  Troie  (German  ed., 
Leipsic,  1869),  giving  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  1868  in  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  Ithaca  (where 
he  supposed  he  had  discovered  genaine  re- 
mains of  the  home  of  Ulysses,  as  seen  by 
Homer),  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  plain  of 
Troy,  the  result  of  studies  of  the  so-called 
Cyclopean  works  of  Argolis,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  topography  of  the  Iliad.  In  the 
beginning  of  1870  he  returned  to  the  Troad, 
accompanied  by  his  wife,  a  Greek  lady,  and 
spent  the  seasons  of  1871-'8  in  excavating  the 
plateau  of  Hissarlik,  which  he  considers  to 
nave  been  the  site  of  Troy.  (See  TBOT.)  His 
book,  Trojanische  AlUrihumer  (1874),  a  sort 
of  diary  of  the  progress  of  the  excavations, 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages ;  the 
English  version,  edited  by  Dr.  Philip  Smith 
(London,  1875),  gives  a  selection  of  illustra- 
tions drawn  from  the  large  Atlat  Trojanucher 
Alterthiimer,  consisting  of  218  photographs  of 
his  discoveries,  with  explanatory  text,  which 
Schliemann  published  soon  after.  He  pro- 
duced much  irritation  at  Constantinople  by 
failing  to  send,  as  promised,  half  of  the  ob- 
jects he  discovered  at  Hissarlik  to  the  imperial 
Ottoman  museum.  In  1874  he  obtained  from 
the  Greek  government  permission  to  demolish 
at  his  own  expense  the  Venetian  tower  in  the 
acropolis  of  Athens,  which  covers  about  1,600 
sq.  ft.  of  the  Propylrea.  But  the  permission 
was  cancelled,  probably  on  account  of  his 
pending  suit  with  the  Turkish  government, 
and  Schliemann  thereupon  induced  the  archae- 
ological society  of  Athens  to  carry  on  the 
excavations  for  him. 

SCHLOSSER,  Friedrieh  Christoph,  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Jever,  Oldenburg,  Nov.  17, 


1776,  died  in  Heidelberg,  Sept.  23,  1861.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  from  1817  till  his 
death  was  professor  of  history  at  Heidelberg. 
His  principal  works  are :  Geschichte  des  18. 
Jahrhunderts,  continued  to  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon  I.  (8  vols.,  1823-'46 ;  5th  ed.,  1864- 
'6 ;  English  translation,  with  notes  by  D.  Da- 
vison,  "History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
8  vols.,  London,  1843-'52) ;  Weltgeschichte  in 
zusamm.enhangend.er  Erzahlung  (9  vols.,  1817- 
'24;  2d  ed.,  1839-'41) ;  Universattiistorische 
Uebersicht  der  Geschichte  der  alien  Welt  und 
ihrer  Cultur  (3  vols.,  1826-'34) ;  and  Welt- 
geschichte fur  das  deutsche  Volk,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  Kriegk  (19  vols.,  1842-'54;  new 
ed.,  18  vols.,  1870-'74). 

SCIILOZER.  I.  August  Lndwig  von,  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Gaggstedt,  Wurtemberg, 
July  5,  1735,  died  in  Gottingen,  Sept.  9,  1809. 
He  studied  in  Wittenberg  and  Gottingen,  and 
became  a  private  teacher  in  Sweden,  where  he 
published  a  work  in  Swedish  on  the  history 
of  trade  and  commerce  (Stockholm,  1758).  In 
1759  he  returned  to  Gottingen  to  study  medi- 
cine, but  in  1761  went  with  the  Russian  his- 
toriographer Muller  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 
he  became  a  teacher  at  the  academy,  and  was 
professor  of  history  from  1765  to  1767,  when 
he  assumed  the  chair  of  political  sciences  at 
Gottingen.  He  wrote  on  northern  and  uni- 
versal history,  and  extensively  on  politics,  and 
translated  Nestor's  Russian  chronicles  to  A. 
D.  980  (5  vols.,  1802-'9).  II.  Kurd  von,  a  Ger- 
man author,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Lubeck,  Jan.  5,  1822.  He  was  German 
minister  in  Mexico  from  1869  to  1871,  and 
subsequently  in  Washington.  His  works  in- 
clude Geschichte  der  deutschen  Ostseeldnder  (3 
vols.,  Berlin,  1850-'53) ;  Verfall  und  Unter- 
gang  der  Sanaa  (1858);  and  Friedrieh  der 
Grosse  und  Katharina  II.  (1859). 

SCHMALK1LDEN.    See  SMALOALD. 

SCHMID,  Leopold,  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Zurich,  June  9,  1808,  died  in  Giessen,  Dec. 
20, 1869.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Munich, 
became  in  1839  professor  of  theology  at  Gies- 
sen, and  in  1843  professor  of  philosophy.  In 
February,  1849,  he  was  nominated  to  the  va- 
cant see  of  Mentz,  but  Bishop  Ketteler  was  sub- 
stituted in  his  stead  by  the  pope.  In  his  prin- 
cipal work,  Der  Geist  des  Katholicismus,  oder 
Grundlegung  der  christlichen  Irenik  (2  vols., 
Giessen,  1848-'50),  he  advocated  the  return 
of  the  Roman  Catholics  to  the  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  primitive  church,  and  urged 
the  adoption  of  a  broader  spirit  of  charity  in 
dealing  with  Protestant  churches.  In  Ultra- 
montan  oder  Icatholisch?  (1867),  he  proposed 
as  an  axiom  of  state  policy  to  refuse  to  treat  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  as  the  representa- 
tives of  a  distinct  religious  community,  so  long 
as  they  would  not  acknowledge  the  specific 
claims  of  the  evangelical  religion.  lie  also 
attempted  to  reconcile  science  and  faith  in 
his  Grundsatze  der  Einleitung  in  die  Philoso- 
phic (1860)  and  Dai  Gesetz  der  Penonlichkeit 


SCHMIDT 

(1862). — See  Schroder  and  Schwarz,  Leopold 
Schmidts  Leben  und  Denken  (Leipsic,  1871). 

SCHMIDT,  Heinrieh  Julian,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Marienwerder,  March  7,  1818.  He 
studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  became  a  teacher 
and  journalist  in  Berlin.  Since  1863  he  has 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literature.  His 
principal  works  are  :  Oeschichte  der  Romantilc 
im  Zeitalter  der  Reformation  und  Revolution 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1850) ;  Qeschichte  der  deut- 
schen  Literatur  seit  Lessing's  Tod  (5th  ed.,  3 
vols.,  1865-'7) ;  and  Bilder  am  dem  geistigen 
Leben  unserer  Zeit  (1870-71 ;  2d  series,  1873). 

SCHNAASE,  Karl,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Dantzic,  Sept.  7, 1798,  died  in  Wiesbaden,  May 
21,  1875.  He  studied  law,  and  held  judicial 
offices  in  various  localities  from  1819  to  1857. 
In  1858  he  established  the  periodical  Das  christ- 
liche  Kumtblatt,  and  edited  it  with  Grtineisen 
in  Stuttgart  and  Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld  in 
Dresden.  After  spending  several  years  in 
Rome,  he  settled  in  1867  in  Wiesbaden.  His 
principal  works  are :  Niederlandische  Briefe 
(Stuttgart,  1834),  and  Geschichte  der  lildenden 
Kunste  (7  vols.,  Dusseldorf,  1843-'64;  2d  ed. 
by  Lutzow  and  Friedrichs,  1866  et  seq.). 

SCHNEIDER,  Eugene,  a  French  politician,  born 
in  Nancy  in  April,  1805,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  27, 
1875.  He  and  his  brother  (who  died  in  1845) 
became  managers  of  the  iron  works  of  Le  Creu- 
zot,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  in  1845. 
In  1851  he  was  minister  of  agriculture  and  com- 
merce. In  1852  he  was  returned  to  the  legis- 
lative body,  of  which  he  became  vice  presi- 
dent, and  after  Morny's  death  (1865)  president, 
being  repeatedly  reelected.  He  was  also  re- 
gent of  the  bank  of  France. 

SCHNEIDER,  Hortense  Catherine,  a  French  ac- 
tress, born  in  Bordeaux  about  1835.  She  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  in  her  15th  year,  and  was 
connected  with  various  theatres  in  Paris  for 
upward  of  ten  years  before  she  became  cele- 
brated in  1864  by  her  personation  of  Offen- 
bach's La  ~belle  HeUne.  She  achieved  still 
greater  triumphs  in  La  grande  duchesse  and 
similar  operas. 

SCHNEIDER,  Johann  Gottlob,  a  German  philol- 
ogist, born  at  Oollmen,  Saxony,  Jan.  18,  1750, 
died  in  Breslau,  Jan.  12.  1822.  He  studied-  at 
Leipsic,  and  in  1774  assisted  Brunk  in  editing 
the  Greek  poets  at  Strasburg.  In  1776  he 
became  professor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
and  in  1811  at  Breslau.  He  published  a  large 
critical  Greek  lexicon  (2  vols.,  1797-'8;  3d 
ed.,  with  supplement,  1819-'21),  annotated  edi- 
tions of  many  Greek  authors,  and  also  various 
works  on  natural  history. 

SCHNETZ,  Jean  Victor,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Versailles,  May  15, 1787,  died  in  Paris,  March 
15,  1870.  He  studied  under  David,  Regnault, 
and  Gros,  and  was  director  of  the  French  acad- 
emy in  Rome  for  many  years.  He  executed 
numerous  historical,  religious,  and  genre  pic- 
tures ;  the  most  popular  are :  "  The  Gypsy  fore- 
telling the  Future  of  Sixtus  V.,"  "  Christ  call- 
ing little  Children  unto  Him,"  "St.  Gene- 


SCHCELCHER 


679 


vteve,"  "Jeremiah,"  "The  Capuchin  Physi- 
cian," "The  Monk  engaged  in  Prayer,"  and  a 
pastoral  scene  from  the  vicinity  of  Rome. 

SCHNORR  VON  KAROLSFELD,  Julius,  a  German 
painter,  born  in  Leipsic,  March  26,  1794,  died 
in  Dresden,  May  24,  1872.  He  was  the  son  of 
the  painter  Veit  Hans  Schnorr  (1764-1841), 
and  studied  under  his  father,  in  Vienna,  and  in 
Italy.  In  1817  he  went  to  Florence  and  Rome, 
where  Overbeck  and  Cornelius  procured  or- 
ders for  him  for  frescoes,  and  he  also  executed 
there  many  oil  paintings  of  religious  subjects. 
In  1827  he  became  professor  at  the  academy 
of  Munich,  and  in  1846  removed  as  professor 
to  Dresden,  where  he  was  also  director  of  the 
picture  galleries.  He  was  the  founder  of  a 
new  school  in  opposition  to  the  unconven- 
tional style  of  Kaulbach,  and  adhered  to  the 
most  rigid  rules  of  art.  His  most  celebrated 
works  are  the  frescoes  and  paintings  of  the 
Ribelungen,  and  his  series  of  encaustic  pictures 
illustrating  the  history  of  Charlemagne,  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa,  and  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg, 
all  in  the  royal  palace  at  Munich ;  "  Luther  at 
the  Diet  of  Worms,"  also  in  Munich;  and  his 
designs  for  the  windows  in  St.  Paul's  cathe- 
dral, London.  His  best  known  designs  for 
illustrated  books  are  his  Bibel  in  Bildern 
(Leipsic,  1852-'60),  and  those  prepared  in  con- 
junction with  Neureuther  for  the.  Nibelvn- 
genlied.  —  His  brother  LTJDWIG  FERDINAND 
(1788-1853),  chief  director  of  the  Belvedere 
gallery  in  Vienna,  was  a  good  painter  of  the 
romantic  school,  and  executed  admirable  de- 
signs for  Goethe's  Faust. 

SCIHKLCHER,  Vietor,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris,  July  21,  1804.  He  early  became 
known  as  an  advocate  of  free  institutions, 
visited  Mexico,  the  United  States,  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  East,  and  the  banks  of  the 
Senegal,  and  published  De  Vesclavage  des  noira 
et  de  la  legislation  coloniale  (1833);  Abolition 
de  Vesclavage  (1840);  Les  colonies  francafaea 
(1842)  ;  Les  colonies  etrangeres  et  Haiti  (2 
vols.,  1843)  ;  Egypte  en  1845  (1846)  ;  and 
L'Histoire  de  tesclatage  pendant  les  deux 
dernieres  annees  (2  vols.,  1847).  In  1848  he 
was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
navy,  and  at  once  procured  the  passage  of  a 
law  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  French 
colonies  (April  27).  He  represented  Guade- 
loupe in  the  constituent  and  legislative  assem- 
bly till  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  when, 
after  an  attempt  at  armed  resistance,  he  took 
refuge  in  London,  where  he  published  several 
works,  including  a  "  Life  of  Handel "  in  Eng- 
lish (1857).  Despite  successive  amnesties,  he 
did  not  return  to  Paris  until  after  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon  III.  in  1870.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris  he  had  command  of  the  artil- 
lery of  the  national  guard.  The  commune 
imprisoned  him  a  few  days  for  attempting  to 
reconcile  them  with  the  government.  At  the 
general  election  of  Feb.  8,  1871,  he  was  re- 
turned in  Paris,  Martinique,  and  French  Gui- 
ana, and  took  his  seat  for  Martinique. 


680 


SCHOFFER 


SCHOMBERG 


Sf  IIOFFER,  or  Scholfler,  Peter,  a  German  print- 
er, born  at  Gernsheim,  near  Darmstadt,  about 
1430,  died  about  1503.  In  early  life  he  was 
a  copyist  at  Paris,  but  about  1450  became  an 
assistant  in  the  printing  establishment  of  Faust 
and  Gutenberg  in  Mentz.  He  introduced  many 
improvements  in  the  art  of  printing  while  in 
their  employ,  and  after  their  separation  in 
1455  became  a  partner  of  Faust,  whose  daugh- 
ter Christine  he  afterward  married.  The  first 
book  on  which  his  name  appears  is  the  celebra- 
ted Psalter,  August,  1457,  reprinted  in  1459. 
This  was  followed  by  a  number  of  other  works, 
all  remarkable  for  their  beauty  of  impression 
and  clearness  of  type.  In  1463  he  accompa- 
nied his  father-in-law  to  Paris  to  establish  a 
depot  for  the  sale  of  their  books.  After  the 
death  of  Faust  about  1466,  Schdffer  carried  on 
the  business  alone,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Johann.  The  latter  printed  chiefly  reli- 
gious works  between  1503  and  1531.  A  mon- 
ument to  Peter  Schoffer  was  erected  at  Gerns- 
heim in  1836. 

SCHOFIELD,  John  McAllister,  an  American  sol- 
dier, born  in  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29, 
1831.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853, 
and  in  1860  became  professor  of  physics  in  the 
"Washington  university  at  St.  Louis.  On  Nov. 
21,  1861,  he  was  made  brigadier  general  of 
volunteers,  five  days  afterward  brigadier  gen- 
eral of  Missouri  militia,  and  on  Nov.  29,  1862, 
major  general  of  volunteers.  He  bore  a  part 
in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Atlanta 
campaign,  and  after  the  capture  of  Atlanta, 
Sept.  1,  1864,  was  placed  under  Gen.  Thomas 
in  command  of  the  forces  which  opposed  the 
movement  of  Gen.  Hood  toward  Nashville. 
lie  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Franklin,  Nov. 
80,  for  which  he  was  made  brigadier  general 
in  the  regular  army,  and  afterward  brevet  ma- 
jor general ;  and  he  led  a  corps  in  the  subse- 
quent engagements  before  Nashville,  Dec.  15, 
16,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  the  remnant  of  Gen. 
Hood's  army.  As  commander  of  the  depart- 
ment of  North  Carolina  he  took  possession  of 
Wilmington,  Feb.  22,  1865;  fought  success- 
fully at  Kingston,  March  8-10;  and  then  ad- 
vanced to  Goldsboro',  where  on  March  22  he 
united  with  the  army  of  Gen.  Sherman.  Du- 
ring the  political  complication  of  1868  Gen. 
Schofield  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  May 
80.  In  March,  1869,  he  was  assigned  to  com- 
mand the  department  of  the  Missouri,  and  in 
April,  1870,  the  division  of  the  Pacific. 

SCHOHARIE,  an  E.  county  of  New  York, 
drained  by  Schoharie  and  Catskill  creeks ;  area, 
675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  33,340.  A  branch  of 
the  Catskill  mountains  occupies  the  S.  and  W. 
part,  and  a  ridge  called  the  Helderberg  moun- 
tains extends  along  the  E.  border.  Iron  ore, 
limestone,  and  sandstone  are  found,  and  there 
are  sulphur  springs  in  the  northwest.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Albany  and  Susquehanna  and 
two  or  three  short  railroads.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  66,440  bushels  of  wheat, 
82,452  of  rye,  113,097  of  Indian  corn,  750,091 


of  oats,  40,127  of  barley,  231,230  of  buck- 
wheat, 329,488  of  potatoes,  95,520  tons  of 
hay,  126,903  Ibs.  of  wool,  2,190,668  of  butter, 
112,421  of  cheese,  1,610,457  of  hops,  84,811 
of  flax,  69,986  of  maple  sugar,  and  16,998  of 
honey.  There  were  8,634  horses,  23,256  milch 
cows,  15,087  other  cattle,  29,293  sheep,  and 
6,200  swine ;  6  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  4  of  brooms,  10  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  2  of  cement,  5  of  cheese,  12  of  cooper- 
age, 1  of  cotton  goods,  10  of  iron  castings,  15 
of  leather,  3  of  paper,  12  flour  mills,  and  10 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Schoharie. 

SCHOLASTICISM.  See  PHILOSOPHY,  vol.  xiii., 
p.  439. 

SCHOLTEN,  Johannes  Hcndrik,  a  Dutch  theo- 
logian, born  at  Vleuten,  near  Utrecht,  Aug. 
17,  1811.  He  was  minister  at  Meerkerk  from 
1888  to  1840,  and  afterward  professor  of  theo- 
logy at  the  Athenaeum  of  Franeker  till  1843, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  university  of 
Leyden.  He  is  the  founder  of  the  new  school 
of  Dutch  Protestant  theology,  and  claims  for 
it  the  utmost  independence  in  the  applica- 
tion of  scientific  principles.  His  works  in- 
clude Geschiedenis  der  Godsdienst  en  wijsbe- 
geerte  (Leyden,  1853 ;  French  translation  by 
Reville,  Manuel  d'histoire  compares  de  la  phi- 
losophic et  de  la,  religion,  Paris,  1861);  De  leer 
der  hervormde  kerTc  in  hare  grondbeginselen 
(2  vols.,  Leyden,  1848-'50 ;  4th  od.,  1861-'2) ; 
De  vrye  wil  critisfh  onderzoeJc  (1859) ;  Over  de 
oorzaken  van  het  hedendaagsche  materialisme, 
and  Het  critisch  standpunt  van  Mr.  C.  W. 
Opzoomer  (Amsterdam,  1860);  ITet  evangelie 
naar  Johannes  (Leyden,  1864 ;  German  trans- 
lation by  Lang,  Berlin,  1864) ;  De  oudste  getui- 
genissen  aangaande  de  schriften  des  Nieuwe 
Testaments  (Leyden,  1866 ;  German  transla- 
tion by  Manchot,  Bremen,  1867);  De  evange- 
lien  naar  Mattheus  en  Marcus  (1867) ;  and 
Supernaturalisme  in  verbandmit  Bijbel,  Chris- 
tendom en  protestantisme  (1867). 

SCHOMBERG,  Frederick  Hermann,  duke  of,  an 
English  soldier  of  German  origin,  born  in  Hei- 
delberg about  1616,  fell  in  battle,  July  1  (N. 
S.  12),  1690.  He  was  a  son  of  the  German 
count  Johann  Meinhardt  von  Schomberg,  and 
his  mother  was  an  English  lady,  a  daughter  of 
Sir  Edward  Sutton,  Lord  Dudley.  In  early 
life  he  served  in  the  armies  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  other  countries,  and  in  1650  entered 
that  of  France.  As  commander  in  Portugal  he 
compelled  Spain  in  1668  to  recognize  the  Por- 
tuguese dynasty  of  Braganca.  In  1675  Louis 
XIV.  made  him  marshal  for  his  services  in 
Catalonia,  and  in  the  following  two  years 
he  forced  the  enemies  of  France  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Maestricht  and  Charleroi.  He  left 
the  French  army  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  in  1685,  and  sought  employ- 
ment from  other  governments.  The  prince  of 
Orange,  under  whom  he  had  formerly  served, 
appointed  him  as  his  second  in  command  on 
his  departure  for  England  in  1688,  and  in  1689 
created  him  duke  of  Schomberg  in  the  Eng- 


SCHOMBEEG 

lish  peerage,  and  made  him  master  of  the  ord- 
nance, while  parliament  granted  him  £100,- 
000.  He  was  sent  to  Ireland,  and  in  1690 
took  a  heroic  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne, 
in  which  he  lost  his  life. — His  second  son 
Meinhardt  became  duke  of  Leinster,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Charfes  as  third  duke  of 
Schomberg.  He  died  without  male  issue  in 
1719,  when  all  the  titles  became  extinct. 

SCHOMBERG,  Henri  de,  count,  a  French  sol- 
dier, born  in  Paris  in  1573  or  1575,  died  in 
Bordeaux,  Nov.  17,  1632.  He  was  descended 
from  the  German  Schombergs.  After  hold- 
ing various  high  offices  he  became  in  1619  su- 
perintendent of  finance  and  grand  master  of 
artillery,  and  assisted  in  reducing  the  Protes- 
tant strongholds  in  Languedoc  and  Guienne. 
From  1621  to  1624  he  was  omnipotent  as 
prime  minister,  and  excited  the  jealousy  of 
Richelieu,  who  had  him  displaced,  but  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal.  He  expelled  the  Eng- 
lish from  the  island  of  Re"  in  1627,  and  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  siege  of  La  Ro- 
chelle ;  took  Pinerolo  in  1630,  and  forced  the 
duke  of  Savoy  to  raise  the  siege  of  Casale ;  in 
1632  commanded  the  army  against  the  insur- 
gents in  Languedoc,  on  Sept.  1  defeated  and 
captured  the  duke  of  Montmorency  at  Cas- 
telnaudary,  and  was  made  governor  of  Lan- 
guedoc. He  published  Relation  de  la  guerre 
tfltalie  (Paris,  1630).— His  son  CHARLES  (1601 
-'56)  served  under  him  in  Italy  and  Langue- 
doc, succeeded  him  as  governor  of  the  latter 
province,  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Leucate 
in  1637,  received  the  rank  of  marshal,  took 
Perpignan  in  1642,  and  commanded  the  army 
which  invaded  Catalonia  in  1648.  He  ac- 
quired the  title  of  duke  by  his  first  wife,  the 
duchess  of  Halluyn.  His  second  wife,  Marie 
de  Hautefort  (1616-'91),  was  a  favorite  of 
Louis  XIII.,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
women  of  her  day,  best  known  as  mare"chale 
de  Schomberg. 

SCIIOMBIRCK,  Sir  Robert  Hermann,  an  Eng- 
lish traveller,  born  at  Freiburg-on-the-Unstrut, 
Prussia,  June  5, 1804,  died  at  Schoneberg,  near 
Berlin,  March  11,  1865.  In  early  life  he  was 
for  some  time  partner  in  a  tobacco  manu- 
factory in  Virginia.  In  1830  he  went  almost 
penniless  to  the  West  Indies,  and  explored  the 
little  island  of  Anegada,  one  of  the  Virgin 
group.  His  valuable  reports  on  the  danger- 
ous coasts  procured  him  in  1834  from  the 
English  geographical  society  and  some  bota- 
nists the  means  of  exploring  British  Guiana, 
where  he  spent  four  years.  He  published 
"  Description  of  British  Guiana,  Geographical 
and  Statistical"  (London,  1840);  "Views  in 
the  Interior  of  Guiana"  (1840);  and  reports 
to  the  geographical  society,  translated  into 
German  by  his  brother  Otto,  with  a  preface 
by  Alexander  von  Humboldt  (Eeisen  in  Gui- 
ana und  am  Orinoco,  Leipsic,  1841).  The 
great  Victoria  regia  lily  was  discovered  by 
him  on  this  journey.  From  1841  to  1844  he 
was  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  survey 


SCHOOL  BROTHERS,  &c.       681 

the  frontier  between  British  Guiana  and  Bra- 
zil, and  to  make  further  geographical  and  eth- 
nqlogical  investigations.  He  was  joined  by 
his  brother  Moritz  Richard,  who  published  an 
account  of  the  journey  in  German  (3  vols., 
1847-'8).  Robert  was  knighted  in  1845,  and 
from  1848  to  1857  he  was  British  consul  and 
charg6  d'affaires  to  the  Dominican  republic, 
and  afterward  till  1864  consul  general  at  Bang- 
kok, Siam.  Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he 
published  "History  of  Barbadoes"  (1847),  and 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Empire  of  Guiana  by 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  "  (1848). 

S<JIO\  BKIN,  Christian  Friedrieh,  a  German  chem- 
ist, born  at  Metzingen,  Wurtemberg,  Oct.  18, 
1799,  died  in  Baden-Baden,  Aug.  28,  1868. 
He  was  early  apprenticed  to  a  manufacturer  of 
chemical  products,  and  was  conscripted,  but 
was  exempted  from  military  service  by  the 
king,  who  assisted  him  in  completing  his  edu- 
cation at  Tubingen  and  Erlangen.  In  1824-'5 
he  taught  chemistry  and  physics  at  Keilhau 
near  Rudolstadt.  In  1828  he  became  profes- 
sor at  the  university  of  Basel.  In  1839  he 
discovered  the  allotropic  condition  of  oxygen 
known  as  ozone  (see  OZONE),  and  in  1845  he 
produced  gun  cotton.  His  most  noteworthy 
works  are  :  Das  Verhalten  des  Euens  zum 
Sauerstoff  (Basel,  1837) ;  Beitrage  zur  physi- 
Icalischen  Chemie  (1844);  Ueber  die  Erzeugung 
des  Ozons  (1844);  and  Ueber  die  langsame  und 
rasche  Verlrenming  der  Korper  in  atmospha- 
rischer  Luft  (1845). — See  Christian  Friedrieh 
Schonfiein,  by  Hagenbach  (Basel,  1869). 

SCHOOL  BROTHERS  AND  SCHOOL  SISTERS,  the 
collective  name  of  numerous  associations  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  devoted  to  the 
education  of  youth.  The  first  of  these  associa- 
tions, the  Ursulines,  arose  in  1537  at  Brescia, 
under  the  direction  of  the  first  Jesuits ;  the 
"  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Our  Lady " 
were  founded  in  1597  by  Pierre  Fourier;  the 
"  Piarists  "  or  "  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Schools," 
in  the  same  year;  the  "Visitation  Nuns"  in 
1610;  and  the  "Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools"  in  1679.  In  1863  there  were  in 
France  58,883  members  of  sisterhoods  em- 
ployed in  teaching,  and  3,073  more  directing 
orphan  asylums  and  agricultural  or  industrial 
schools,  while  the  total  number  of  school 
brothers  in  the  same  year  was  upward  of 
9,000.  I.  SCHOOL  BROTHERS.  Under  this  name 
we  treat  solely  of  those  congregations  whose 
members  are  not  priests,  the  "Fathers  of  the 
Pious  Schools  "  being  treated  under  PIAEISTS. 
The  following  are  the  most  important  school 
brotherhoods :  1.  The  "  Brethren  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools,"  founded  in  1679  by  Jean  Baptiste 
de  la  Salle.  (See  BRETHREN  OF  THE  CHRIS- 
TIAN SCHOOLS.)  2.  The  "  Christian  Brothers," 
founded  by  the  Rev.  E.  Rice  at  Waterford. 
Ireland,  with  their  central  house  and  superior 
general  in  Dublin,  and  numerous  establishments 
in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the  British  colo- 
nies. 3.  The  "  Brothers  Marists "  or  "  Chris- 
tian Brothers  of  the  Society  of  Mary,"  founded 


682 


SCHOOL  BROTHERS  AND  SCHOOL  SISTERS 


at  Bordeaux,  France,  in  1817,  by  Abbe"  Guil- 
laume  Joseph  Cheminade,  approved  by  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.  in  1839,  introduced  into  the 
United  States  in  1849  by  Archbishop  Purcell 
of  Cincinnati,  and  having  in  1874  23  establish- 
ments in  Ohio,  Illinois,  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  4.  The 
"  Lamennaisian  Brothers  "  or  "  Congregation 
of  Christian  Instruction,"  founded  in  Brittany 
in  1820,  by  Abbe  Jean  de  Lamennais,  whose 
purpose  is  to  teach  in  the  poorest  localities. 
In  1875  they  reckoned  about  800  members 
and  150  establishments  in  France.  5.  The 
"  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,"  founded  in  1821  at  Le  Puy,  France,  by 
Abbe  Coindrin.  They  opened  their  first  house 
in  the  United  States  at  Mobile  in  1847,  and  in 
1874  had  other  establishments  in  Mississippi, 
New  Orleans,  Kentucky,  and  Indiana.  6.  The 
"Xaverian .Brothers,"  founded  at  Bruges,  Bel- 
gium, in  1839,  by  Theodore  Jacques  Ryken, 
with  a  special  view  to  labor  for  education  in 
the  United  States.  They  were  first  introduced 
into  Louisville  in  1854  by  Bishop  (afterward 
Archbishop)  Spalding,  and  in  1875  had  charge 
of  six  schools  there,  of  one  in  Baltimore,  and 
of  the  St.  Mary's  industrial  school  for  boys 
near  that  city.  7.  The  "  Brothers  of  Charity," 
founded  in  1809,  in  Belgium,  by  Canon  P. 
Triest,  for  the  education  of  the  blind  and  deaf 
mutes,  and  the  training  of  orphans.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1874,  they  took  charge  of  the  industrial 
school  of  the  Angel  Guardian  in  Boston,  Mass. 
Besides  these,  there  are  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  congregations  of  men  forming  an 
integral  portion  of  religious  orders  comprising 
priests.  Such  are  the  "Josephites"  or  "Broth- 
ers of  St.  Joseph,"  who  are  only  a  branch  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  founded 
in  1834  at  Le  Mans,  France,  by  Abb6  Mo- 
reau,  the  various  communities  of  Franciscan 
brothers  belonging  to  the  third  order  of  St. 
Francis,  and  dependent  on  the  Franciscan 
priests,  and  the  "  Clerks  of  Saint  Viateur." 
II.  SCHOOL  SISTERS.  Of  these  congregations 
the  most  important  are  the  following:  1.  The 
Ursulines.  (See  URSULINES.)  2.  The  "  Sis- 
ters of  the  Visitation  of  Our  Lady,"  founded 
in  1610  at  Annecy  in  Savoy,  by  St.  Francis 
of  Sales  and  St.  Jeanne  Francoise  de  Chan- 
tal.  The  order  numbered  87  establishments 
at  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1641,  and  160  in 
1700,  with  6,600  members.  It  was  approved 
by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1626.  The  first  estab- 
lishment in  the  United  States  was  made  in 
Washington  in  1808,  and  the  order  has  now 
(1875)  other  monasteries  and  schools  in  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  New 
York,  Delaware,  and  Minnesota.  3.  The  "  Sis- 
ters of  Notre  Dame,"  or  "School  Sisters  of 
the  Blessed  Peter  Fourier,"  founded  by  him 
and  Alice  Leclero  at  Mataincourt,  France,  in 
1597,  abolished  in  1789,  revived  at  Ratisbon  in 
1832,  confirmed  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  in  1854,  and 
first  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1847. 
IB  1875  they  had  establishments  in  Maryland, 


New  Jersey,  New  York,  Kentucky,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Missouri,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Min- 
nesota. 4.  The  "Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Namur,"  founded  at  Amiens,  France,  in  1804, 
by  Pcre  Joseph  Desire  Varin,  Julie  Billiart, 
and  Marie  Louise  Francoise  Blin  de  Bourdon, 
and  transferred  to  Namur,  Belgium,  in  1809. 
Its  object  is  to  educate  girls  of  the  middle 
classes,  and  it  was  approved  June  28,  1844,  by 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  It  spread  rapidly  through 
Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland. 
The  English  government  intrusted  to  the  order 
the  direction  of  normal  schools  for  Roman. 
Catholic  pupil-teachers.  They  were  called  to 
Cincinnati  in  1840  by  Bishop  (afterward  Arch- 
bishop) Purcell,  to  Oregon  by  Archbishop  Blan- 
chet  in  1843,  to  California  in  1851,  and  to 
Guatemala  in  1859.  In  1871  this  sisterhood 
owned  82  establishments,  of  which  20  were  in 
the  United  States,  with  a  total  of  26,000  pn- 
pils.  5.  The  "  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 
Notre  Dame,"  founded  at  Montreal,  Canada, 
in  1653,  by  Marguerite  Bourgeoys,  and  ap- 
proved by  Bishop  de  Laval  of  Quebec,  and 
now  the  most  numerous  teaching  body  in 
Canada.  The  mother  house  is  at  Montreal. 
At  the  close  of  1874  the  order  numbered  569 
professed  sisters  and  88  novices,  with  56  es- 
tablishments in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
6.  "  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart."  (See  SACRED 
HEART,  LADIES  OF  THE.)  The  preceding  con- 
gregations have  for  their  primary  object  the 
instruction  of  young  girls.  Others  combine 
with  the  labor  of  teaching  the  care  of  orphan 
asylums,  the  visitation  of  the  sick  and  poor, 
and  the  direction  of  hospitals.  Such  are:  1. 
The  "  Ladies  of  the  Incarnate  Word,"  founded 
in  1625  by  Jeanne  Marie  Chezard  de  Matel, 
and  approved  by  Urban  VIII.  in  1633.  Their 
sole  object  at  first  was  education;  they  as- 
sumed the  direction  of  hospitals  in  1866.  They 
have  many  establishments  in  France,  and  eight 
in  Texas.  2.  The  "  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus 
Christ,"  founded  Aug.  15,  1849,  at  Dernbach, 
Nassau,  by  Katharine  Kaspar,  approved  by 
Pius  IX.  in  1860,  and  confirmed  in  1870.  Their 
first  establishment  in  this  country  was  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  in  August,  1868.  They  num- 
bered 45  sisters  and  five  houses  in  1875.  8. 
The  "Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity,"  or 
"Eudist  Sisters,"  founded  in  1641  at  Caen  in 
Normandy,  by  Abbe  Jean  Eudes.  In  1885  a 
modification  of  the  rule  enabling  them  to  take 
charge  of  penitent  women  was  introduced  at 
Angers,  the  establishment  there  becoming 
known  as  the  "House  of  the  Good  Shepherd." 
The  change  was  approved  by  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.,  and  the  order  thereafter  was  called  the 
"  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Good 
Shepherd."  They  have  numerous  establish- 
ments in  Europe,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1842,  and  have  opened  houses  in  the  principal 
cities  of  the  Union  and  in  Canada.  4.  The 
"  Presentation  Nuns,"  founded  at  Cork,  Ire- 
land, in  1777,  by  Miss  Nano  Nagle,  for  the 
visitation  of  the  sick  and  poor  and  the  instruc- 


SCHOOLCRAFT 


SCHOPENHAUER 


683 


tion  of  poor  children.  They  have  since  for- 
borne from  visiting  the  sick,  and  become  strict- 
ly cloistered.  Their  rules  were  approved  by 
Pius  VII.  in  1805.  Their  first  establishment 
in  America  was  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland, 
and  the  first  in  the  United  States  was  made  in 
New  York  city,  Sept.  8,  1874.  5.  The  "  Sis- 
ters of  Mercy."  (See  MEEOY,  SISTEBS  OF.)  6. 
Tho  "  Sisters  of  Charity."  (See  CHAEITY,  SIS- 
TEES  OF.)  7.  The  "Gray  Nuns"  or  "Sisters 
of  Charity  of  Montreal,"  founded  there  in  1745 
by  Mme.  d'Youville,  and  trained  to  take  charge 
of  hospitals,  asylums,  and  schools.  The  24 
houses  dependent  on  Montreal  in  1875  num- 
bered 225  professed  nuns  and  51  novices,  labor- 
ing in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The 
houses  dependent  on  the  central  establishment 
in  Quebec  numbered  107  sisters.  8.  The  "  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph."  There  are  several  congrega- 
tions bearing  this  name.  The  principal  one  was 
founded  at  Le  Puy,  France,  in  1650,  by  Abb6 
Jean  Pierre  M6daille,  and  introduced  into  the 
United  States  by  Bishop  Kosati  of  St.  Louis  in 
1836.  In  1875  they  had  establishments  in  the 
principal  eastern  and  western  states.  Besides 
these,  several  less  numerous  congregations  have 
originated  in  America,  which  are  chiefly  de- 
voted to  education.  Among  them  are:  the 
"  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth,"  founded  in 
1812  in  Kentucky,  by  Bishop  David ;  the  "  Sis- 
ters of  Loreto,"  founded  in  Kentucky  in  1812, 
by  the  Rev.  Charles  Nerinckx,  and  now  having 
establishments  in  nearly  all  the  western  states ; 
the  colored  "Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence," 
founded  at  Baltimore  in  1825  by  the  Rev.  H. 
Joubert,  approved  by  Pius  VIII.  in  1831,  and 
now  increasing  in  numbers  in  consequence  of 
the  mission  to  the  blacks  intrusted  to  the 
missionary  society  of  St.  Joseph,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Charles  (see 
OBLATES  OF  ST.  CHAELES)  ;  and  the  "  Sisters 
of  Charity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,"  founded  at 
Philadelphia  by  the  Rev.  T.  C.  Donaghoe,  and 
removed  afterward  to  Iowa,  where  they  have 
several  establishments.  In  Canada  there  are 
the  "  Sisters  of  St.  Anne,"  founded  at  Vau- 
dreuil  near  Montreal  in  1848,  by  the  Right 
Rev.  Ignace  Bourget,  bishop  of  that  city,  ap- 
proved by  Pius  IX.  in  1860,  and  introduced 
into  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  in  1866;  they  are  exclu- 
sively school  sisters. 

S(  IIOOU  RAFT,  a  county  of  the  upper  penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  bounded  N.  by  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  S.  E.  by  Lake  Michigan ;  area,  about 
2,300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1874, 1,290.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Manistique  river  and  other  streams. 
The  surface  is  rough  and  broken,  and  mostly 
covered  with  dense  forests  of  pine.  Lumbering 
is  the  chief  occupation.  In  1870  there  were 
two  blast  furnaces  and  four  saw  mills  in  oper- 
ation. The  "Pictured  Rocks,"  a  perpendicular 
wall  many  miles  long  and  200  to  300  ft.  high, 
curiously  stratified,  are  in  this  county,  on  the 
S.  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Capital,  Onota. 

SCHOOLCRAFT,  Henry  Rowe,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  Watervliet  (now  Guilderland), 


Albany  co.,  N.  Y.,  March  28,  1793,  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Dec.  10, 1864.  He  studied 
at  Union  college,  and  under  Prof.  F.  Hall  of 
Middlebury  college,  Vt.,  learned  the  art  of  glass 
making,  made  a  mineralogical  and  geological 
tour  in  the  west  in  1817-'18,  was  geologist  of 
an  exploring  expedition  in  the  Lake  Superior 
copper  region  and  on  the  upper  Mississippi  in 
1820,  travelled  as  Indian  commissioner  in  Illi- 
nois and  along  the  Wabash  and  Miami  rivers 
in  1821,  and  in  1822  was  Indian  agent  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  and  Michilimackinac.  In  1823  he 
married  the  granddaughter  of  an  Indian  chief. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan  legislature 
from  1828  to  1832,  and  founded  the  Michigan 
historical  society  and  the  Algic  society  at  De- 
troit. Before  the  latter  he  read  two  lectures 
on  the  Indian  languages,  for  which  he  received 
a  gold  medal  from  the  French  institute.  In 
1832  he  conducted  the  expedition  which  dis- 
covered the  source  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in 
1836  secured  the  cession  by  the  Indians  of 
16,000,000  acres  of  land  to  the  United  States. 
He  was  appointed  acting  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  in  1836,  and  chief  disbursing 
agent  for  the  northern  department  in  1839. 
In  1845  he  made  a  census  of  the  Six  Nations 
of  New  York  for  the  state  legislature,  and  in 
1847  removed  to  Washington,  and  engaged 
under  the  appointment  of  the  government  in 
the  preparation  of  a  work  entitled  "  Historical 
and  Statistical  Information  respecting  the  His- 
tory, Condition,  and  Prospects  of  the  Indian 
Tribes  of  the  United  States  "  (6  vols.  4to,  with 
336  plates,  Philadelphia,  1851-'7).  He  also 
published,  in  connection  with  his  researches, 
"  A  View  of  the  Lead  Mines  of  Missouri  "  (8vo, 
New  York,  1819);  "Travels  in  the  Central 
Portions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley"  (1825); 
"Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  Itasca  Lake, 
the  actual  Source  of  the  Mississippi"  (1834; 
republished,  with  the  account  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  1820,  under  the  title  "  Narrative  of  an 
Exploratory  Expedition  to  the  Sources  of  the 
Mississippi  River  in  1820,  completed  by  the 
Discovery  of  its  Origin  in  Itasca  Lake  in 
1832,"  Philadelphia,  1853);  "Algic  Research- 
es" (2  vols.  12mo,  New  York,  1839;  repub- 
lished under  the  title  "  The  Myth  of  Hiawatha 
and  other  Oral  Legends,"  8vo,  Philadelphia, 
1856);  "Oneota,  or  Characteristics  of  the 
Red  Race  of  America"  (New  York,  1844); 
"Notes  on  the  Iroquois"  (Albany,  1848); 
"Personal  Memoirs  of  a  Residence  of  Thirty 
Years  with  the  Indian  Tribes"  (8vo,  Phila- 
delphia, 1851);  and  "Scenes  and  Adventures 
in  the  Semi-Alpine  Regions  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains"  (Philadelphia,  1853).  "The  In- 
dian Fairy  Book  "  has  been  compiled  from  his 
manuscripts  by  C.  Mathews  (New  York,  1868). 

SCHOOLS.  See  COLLEGE,  COMMON  SCHOOLS, 
EDUCATION,  INFANT  SCHOOLS,  MILITARY 
SCHOOLS,  NOEMAL  SCHOOLS,  REFOEMATORIES, 
and  UNIVERSITY. 

SCHOPENHACER,  Arthur,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Dantzic,  Feb.  22,  1788,  died  in 


684 


SCHRADER 


SCHRODER 


Frankfort,  Sept.  21,  1860.  His  father  was  a 
banker,  and  left  him  a  fortune ;  and  his  mother, 
Johanna  Frosina  (1770-1838),  was  a  novelist 
of  merit.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin, 
and  in  1813  maintained  at  the  university  of 
Jena  a  thesis  entitled  Ueber  die  vierfache  Wur- 
zel  des  Satzes  vom  zureichenden  Grunde,  which 
contained  the  germs  of  his  future  philosophy. 
In  1814  he  spent  the  winter  at  Weimar  with 
Goethe,  who  initiated  him  into  his  own  studies 
on  colors,  and  Schopenhauer  in  1816  published 
Ueber  Sehen  und  Farben.  From  1814  to  1818 
he  lived  at  Dresden,  and  brought  his  philo- 
sophical views  into  a  system,  exhibited  in  Die 
Welt  als  Wille  und  Vorstellung  (1819 ;  English 
translation  by  Franz  Huffer,  London,  1874). 
(See  PHILOSOPHY,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  442.)  In  1820 
he  lectured  for  six  months  at  the  university  of 
Berlin,  and  in  1831  settled  at  Frankfort.  His 
remaining  works  are :  Ueber  den  Willen  in  der 
Natur  (1836);  Die  Freiheit  de»  menschlichen 
Willent  (1839)  and  Das  Fundament  der  Moral 
(1841),  which  were  combined  and  revised  un- 
der the  title  Die  beulen  Grundprobleme  der 
Ethik  (I860) ;  and  Parerga  und  Paralipome- 
na  (1851),  a  collection  of  essays  and  his  most 
popular  work.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
has  been  published  by  Julius  Frauenstadt  (6 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1874),  who  has  also  written 
Schopenhauer,  Lichtatrahlen  aus  seinen  Wer- 
ken,  with  a  biography  (3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1874). — 
See  also  Philosophic  de  Schopenhauer,  by  Th. 
Ribot  (Paris,  1875). 

SCHRADER,  Julius,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Berlin,  June  16,  1815.  He  studied  in  Dussel- 
dorf,  and  in  1844  received  the  great  academi- 
cal prize  in  Berlin,  which  provided  him  with 
a  three  years'  pension  during  his  residence  in 
Rome.  In  1851  he  became  professor  at  the 
Berlin  academy,  and  member  of  the  academi- 
cal senate.  He  excels  in  painting  nude  figures, 
drapery,  and  costumes.  His  best  known  works 
are :  "The  Death  of  Leonardo  de  Vinci,"  "The 
Surrender  of  Calais,"  the  fresco  in  the  new 
Berlin  museum  of  the  "  Consecration  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian,"  "Charles  I.  saying  Fare- 
well to  his  Family,"  "  Esther  in  the  presence 
of  Ahasuerns,"  "  Lady  Macbeth  walking  in 
Sleep,"  "  Cromwell  at  his  Daughter's  Death- 
bed," and  the  portraits  of  Alexander  von 
Humboldt,  Cornelius,  Ranke,  and  Moltke. 

SCUREVELItS,  or  Sehmel,  (unit-lias  a  Dutch 
scholar,  born  in  Haarlem  in  1615,  died  in  Ley- 
den,  Sept.  11,  1664.  He  succeeded  his  father 
as  rector  of  the  college  in  Leyden  in  1642. 
He  published  variorum  editions  of  many  clas- 
sical authors,  and  a  Lexicon  Manuale  Grceco- 
Latinum  et  Latino- Grcecum  (1654),  which, 
often  republished,  has  been  more  extensively 
used  than  almost  any  other  work  of  the  kind. 

SCHREYER,  Adolph,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Frankfort  in  1828.  He  completed  his  stud- 
ies of  the  horse  in  Stuttgart,  Munich,  and  Dtts- 
seldorf,  accompanied  the  Austrian  army  in 
1854  to  the  Danubian  principalities,  travelled 


through  Turkey,  Hungary,  and  southern  Rus- 
sia, and  in  company  with  Prince  Thurn  and 
Taxis  through  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Algeria ;  and 
he  subsequently  resided  in  Paris.  His  pic- 
tures of  animals,  especially  of  horses,  and  also 
those  of  human  beings  and  of  landscapes,  are 
remarkable  for  vigor  and  brilliant  coloring. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  are  an  "Artillery 
Attack  at  Traktir,"  "  Horses  frightened  by 
Wolves,"  "The  Dying  Horse,"  "The  Walla- 
chian  Stud,"  "The  Wallachian  Extra-Post," 
and  "  The  Csik6s  driving  his  Horses  across  the 
Plain."  He  has  repeatedly  received  medals  at 
the  Paris  exhibition. 

SCHRdCKH,  Johann  Matthias,  a  German  church 
historian,  born  in  Vienna,  July  26, 1733,  died  in 
Wittenberg,  Aug.  2, 1808.  He  was  successive- 
ly professor  of  philosophy,  of  poetry,  and  of 
history  at  Wittenberg.  His  most  important 
works  are  Christliche  Kirchengeschichte  (35 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1768-1803;  2d  ed.  by  Tzschirner, 
vols.  i.-xiv.,  1772-1825),  and  Kirchengeschichte 
seit  der  Reformation  (8  vols.,  Leipsic,  1804-'9; 
2  vols.  added  by  Tzschirner,  1812). 

SCHRODER.  I.  Antoinette  Sophie,  a  German 
actress,  born  in  Paderborn,  Feb.  29,  1781,  died 
in  Munich,  Feb.  25,  1868.  She  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  comedian  Burger,  and  became  a 
celebrated  tragedian,  excelling  as  Phaedra,  Me- 
dea, and  Lady  Macbeth,  and  successively  per- 
forming at  Hamburg,  Vienna,  and  Munich. 
Her  last  public  appearance  was  at  the  Schil- 
ler centenary  in  1859,  when  she  recited  the 
"  Song  of  the  Bell."  She  was  separated  from 
her  first  husband,  the  actor  Stollmers  or  Smets, 
soon  after  their  marriage  in  1795 ;  the  singer 
Friedrich  Schroder,  who  married  her  in  1804, 
died  in  1818 ;  and  she  did  not  live  long  with 
her  third  husband,  the  actor  Kunst.— See  So- 
phie Schroder,  by  P.  Schmidt  (Vienna,  1870). 
II.  Wllhdmlne  Sfhrttder-Devrlent,  a  German  sing- 
er, daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Ham- 
burg, Dec.  6,  1804,  died  in  Gotha,  Jan.  26, 
1860.  In  her  childhood  she  performed  as  a 
ballet  dancer ;  in  her  15th  year  she  appeared 
at  Vienna  in  Racine's  Phedre ;  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  she  displayed  great  genius  as  a 
singer,  and  soon  eclipsed  all  other  prima  don- 
nas by  her  powerful  voice  and  her  excellent 
acting,  especially  in  Fidelia,  Euryanthe,  Nor- 
ma,  La  sonnambula,  as  Romeo,  as  Desdemona, 
and  as  Valentine  in  the  "  Huguenots."  In 
1828  she  was  separated  from  her  first  husband, 
Karl  August  Devrient,  and  subsequently  at 
Dresden  from  her  second  husband,  the  Saxon 
officer  Doring,  after  which  she  married  the 
Livonian  nobleman  Von  Bock. — See  Wilhel- 
mine  Schroder,  by  Wolzogen  (Leipsic,  1863). 

SCHR5DER,  Frjedrieh  Lndwig,  a  German  actor, 
born  in  Schwerin,  Nov.  3,  1744,  died  in  Ham- 
burg, Sept.  3,  1816.  In  his  childhood  he  per- 
formed in  the  strolling  company  of  his  parents, 
and  before  the  age  of  30  he  had  became  one 
of  the  greatest  German  tragedians.  In  1771 
he  assumed  the  management  of  the  theatre  at 
Hamburg,  and  wrote  plays,  besides  translating 


SCHRODTER 


SCHULTE 


685 


several  of  Shakespeare's,  which  he  was  the 
first  to  introduce  upon  the  German  stage.  His 
Dramatische  Werlce  were  edited  by  Billow, 
with  an  introduction  by  Tieck.  His  life  was 
written  by  F.  L.  W.  Meyer  (2  vols.,  Hamburg, 
1810),  and  by  Brunier  (Leipsic,  1864). 

SCHRODTER,  Adolpb,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Schwedt,  Prussia,  June  28, 1805.  He  studied 
copperplate  engraving  in  Berlin  seven  years, 
and  subsequently  resided  as  a  painter  at  Dussel- 
dorf  and  Frankfort.  In  1859  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  polytechnic  school  in  Carlsruhe. 
He  is  distinguished  for  his  humorous  pieces, 
especially  his  "Wine  Tasters"  (1832),  "Auer- 
bach's  Cellar  "  (1848),  and  more  recently  "  Hans 
Sachs"  and  "Falstaff  and  the  Page,"  and  for 
genre  pictures  of  a  serious  character. 

SCHUBART,  Christian  Friedrich  Daniel,  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Obersontheim,  Swabia,  March 
26,  1739,  died  in  Stuttgart,  Oct.  10,  1791. 
After  a  dissolute  and  adventurous  life,  he  was 
driven  from  Augsburg,  where  he  had  estab- 
lished the  Deutsche  Ohronik  (1774-'7),  for  de- 
riding the  clergy,  and  transferred  it  to  Ulm ; 
and  for  publishing  there  a  false  report  of  the 
death  of  Maria  Theresa  he  was  imprisoned 
about  ten  years.  Schiller  visited  him  during 
that  period,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  obtained 
his  release  in  1787.  In  Stuttgart,  where  he 
became  musical  director  and  director  of  the 
theatre,  he  continued  his  periodical  under  the 
title  of  Vaterlands-Chronik.  He  wrote  Ge- 
dicJite  aus  dem  Kerlcer  (1785),  Hymnm  auf 
Friedrich  den  Orossen  (1786),  an  autobiogra- 
phy, and  a  large  number  of  religious  songs. 
His  Gesammeltc  Schriften  und  ScMclcsale  ap- 
peared in  8  vols.  (Stuttgart,  1839-'40).— See 
Schubartfs  Leben  in  seinen  Briefen,  by  David 
Friedrich  Strauss  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1849). 

SCHUBERT,  Franz,  a  German  composer,  born 
at  Lichtenthal,  near  Vienna,  Jan.  31,  1797, 
died  in  Vienna,  Nov.  19,  1828.  His  father 
was  a  school  teacher,  from  whom  he  received 
his  first  lessons.  Having  a  fine  voice,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  academy  of  the  "  Konvict," 
and  became  a  member  of  the  imperial  chapel 
choir,  then  conducted  by  Salieri,  whose  favor- 
ite pupil  he  was.  "While  at  school  he  experi- 
mented on  almost  every  variety  of  music,  to 
some  of  which  he  gave  curiously  mournful 
titles,  as  "The  Parricide"  and  the  "Corpse 
Fantasia."  Leaving  the  academy  in  1813,  he 
assisted  his  father  in  teaching  for  three  years, 
but  did  not  neglect  his  music,  for  during  1815 
alone  he  wrote  more  than  100  songs,  six  operas 
and  operettas,  and  some  symphonic  pieces,  be- 
sides church  and  chamber  music.  In  1818  he 
was  engaged  by  Count  Esterhazy  to  teach  his 
two  daughters ;  and  while  living  with  this  fam- 
ily he  composed  many  of  his  best  quartets  and 
songs.  His  music  was  not  popular  with  the 
Viennese  public,  and  he  constantly  experienced 
the  mortification  of  seeing  inferior  works  pre- 
ferred to  his  own.  In  the  spring  of  1828  he 
gave  his  first  and  only  concert.  Intense  en- 
thusiasm was  awakened,  but  the  encourage- 


ment that  might  have  proved  his  salvation 
some  years  before  came  too  late,  and  after  a 
life  of  disappointment,  embittered  by  failing 
health,  he  died  at  the  age  of  31.  He  left  an 
astonishing  number  of  compositions,  including 
nine  symphonies,  several  operas,  masses,  over- 
tures, a  great  deal  of  chamber  and  pianoforte 
music,  and  about  600  songs.  Of  all  this  music 
but  little  was  published  during  his  life,  and  he 
heard  but  a  very  small  portion  of  it  publicly 
performed,  being  known  to  his  contemporaries 
mostly  as  a  song  writer.  He  raised  the  Ger- 
man Lied  to  a  place  in  musical  art  which  it 
had  not  previously  occupied.  His  fame  is  al- 
most wholly  posthumous,  and  has  constantly 
gained  strength  since  his  death.  Biographies 
of  Schubert  have  been  written  by  Kreissle  von 
Hellborn  (Vienna,  1864;  English  translation 
by  E.  Wilberforce,  London,  1866)  and  Reiss- 
mann  (Berlin,  1874). 

SCHUBERT,  Gotthilf  Heinricb  von,  a  German 
mystic,  born  at  Hohenstein,  Saxony,  April  26, 
1780,  died  at  Laufzorn,  Upper  Bavaria,  July 
1,  1860.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipsic  and 
medicine  at  Jena,  practised  medicine  at  Alten- 
burg,  Freiberg,  and  Dresden,  was  director  of 
an  educational  institution  in  Nuremberg  from 
1809  to  1816,  tutor  to  the  children  of  the 
grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  till  1819, 
and  professor  of  the  natural  sciences  at  Erlan- 
gen  till  1827,  and  subsequently  at  Munich.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Schelling,  and  published  nu- 
merous works  embodying  mystical  interpre- 
tations of  natural  phenomena,  and  forming  a 
system  of  objective  idealism.  Among  them 
are  :  Ahnungen  einer  allgetneinen  Geschichte 
des  Lelens  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1806-'20) ;  Ansich- 
ten  von  der  NacMseite  der  Naturwissenschaften 
(1808 ;  4th  ed.,  1840) ;  Symlolilc  des  Traums 
(1814;  4th  ed.,  1862);  Geschichte  der  Seele 
(1830  ;  2d  ed.,  1833) ;  and  Altes  und  Neues  aus 
dem,  Gebiete  der  innern  Seelenkunde  (5  vols., 
18l7-'44).  He  also  published  manuals  of  nat- 
ural history,  narratives  of  travel  in  France, 
Italy,  and  the  Levant,  several  volumes  of  tales 
and  biographies,  and  an  autobiography  (3  vols., 
Erlangen,  1853-'6). 

SCHULTE,  Joliaim  Friedrleh,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Winterberg,  Westphalia,  April  23, 
1827.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Ber- 
lin in  1851,  and  practised  law  in  Berlin,  Arns- 
berg,  and  Bonn.  In  1855  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  canon  law  in  the  university  of 
Prague,  and  in  1863  a  member  of  the  Austrian 
council  of  instruction.  During  the  Vatican 
council  he  declared  himself  opposed  to  the 
declaration  of  pontifical  infallibility ;  and  after 
the  proclamation  of  the  dogma  he  took  sides 
with  Dr.  Dollinger  and  the  Old  Catholics.  In 
1871  he  published  at  Prague  a  pamphlet  en- 
titled "  The  Power  of  the  Roman  Popes  over 
Princes,  Countries,  Peoples,  and  Individuals 
examined  by  the  light  of  their  Doctrines  and 
Acts  since  the  reign  of  Gregory  VII.,  to  serve 
for  the  appreciation  of  their  Infallibility,  and 
set  face  to  face  with  contradictory  doctrines  of 


686     SCHULTZ-SCHULTZENSTEIN 


the  Popes  and  Councils  of  the  first  Eight  Cen- 
turies." To  this  Bishop  Fessler  of  St.  Polten 
replied  in  "  The  True  and  False  Infallibility" 
(English  ed.,  London  and  New  York,  1875). 
Dr.  Schulte,  having  resigned  his  offices  in  the 
university  of  Prague  and  the  consistorial  court, 
was  in  1872  appointed  by  the  German  govern- 
ment professor  in  the  university  of  Bonn.  His 
principal  works  are:  System  des  katholischen 
Kirchenrechts  (Giessen,  1856);  Die  Lehre  von 
den  Quellen  den  katholischen  Kirchenrechts 
(1860) ;  Lehrbuch  des  Tcatholuchen  Kirchen- 
rechts (1868);  Lehrbuch  der  deut^chen  Reichs- 
und  Rechtegeschichte  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1861- 
'70);  Die  Rechtsfrage  des  Einftusses  der  Re- 
gierungen  bei  den  Bischofswahlen  (Giessen, 
1869);  and  Die  Macht  der  romischen  Pdpste, 
&c.  (Prague,  1871). 

SCHULTZ-SCHULTZENSTEIN,  Karl  Heinrich,  a 
German  physiologist,  born  at  Alt-Ruppin, 
Prussia,  July  8,  1798,  died  in  Berlin,  March 
27,  1871.  He  graduated  at  Berlin,  where  he 
became  in  1825  extraordinary,  and  in  1883 
ordinary  professor  of  physiology.  His  works 
relating  to  his  microscopical  investigations  of 
the  movement  of  sap  and  the  internal  organ- 
ization of  plants  include  Die  Natur  der  le- 
bendigen  Pftame  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1823);  Sur 
la  circulation  et  sur  le»  vaisseaux  lactiferes 
dans  les  plantes  (1839),  crowned  by  the  French 
academy ;  Die  Cyclose  des  Lebenssaftes  in  den 
Pflanzen  (Bonn  and  Breslau,  1841) ;  Ueber 
Anaphytose  oder  Verjungung  der  Pflanzen 
(Berlin,  1843);  Neues  System  der  Morphologic 
der  Pflamen  (1847);  and  Die  Verjungung  im 
PJlamenreich  (1851).  In  animal  physiology 
his  most  important  works  are  Ueber  die  Ver- 
jungung den  menschlichen  Lebens  (Berlin,  1842) 
and  Die  Verjungung  im  Thierreich  (1854). 
He  endeavored  to  found  a  new  system  of 
psychology  in  his  treatises  Die  Bildung  des 
menschlichen  Geistes  durch  Cultur  der  Ver- 
jungung (1855),  Die  Moral  als  Heilwissen- 
schaft  und  Culturwissenschaft  (1863),  and  Die 
Physiolofjie  der  Verjungung  des  Lebens  im 
Unterschiede  von  dynamischen  und  materia- 
listischen  Stofficechseltheorien  (1807).  He  also 
wrote  on  the  history  of  medicine  and  the 
theory  of  disease. 

si  111  I.'I/K,  Max,  a  German  anatomist,  born 
about  1825,  died  in  Bonn,  Jan.  16,  1874.  He 
was  professor  at  Bonn,  where  he  superintend- 
ed the  establishment  of  the  new  anatomical 
laboratory.  From  1858  to  1861  he  elaborated 
the  protoplasm  theory.  (See  PBOTOPLASM.) 
His  works  comprise  Innere  Bewegungserschei- 
nungen  bei  Diatomeen  (in  Troschel's  Archiv 
fur  Naturgeschichte,  1860)  ;  Ueber  Muskelkor- 
perchen  (1860) ;  Das  Protoplasma  der  Rhizo- 
poden  und  der  Pflamemellen  (1863);  and  Zur 
Anatomic  und  Physiologic  der  Retina  (1866). 

SCHULZE,  Ernst  Konnd  Friedrith,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Celle,  March  22,  1789,  died 
there,  June  29,  1817.  He  studied  theology  at 
G6ttingen,  and  afterward  graduated  in  philol- 
ogy, but  his  friend  Bouterwek  turned  his  at- 


tention to  aesthetic  and  classical  studies.  He 
wrote  Cacilie,  a  romantic  poem  (2  vols.,  new 
ed.,  Leipsic,  1822),  idealizing  Cacilie  Tychsen, 
a  deceased  lady  to  whom  he  had  been  attached. 
After  participating  in  the  war  against  France 
in  1814,  he  wrote  Die  bezauberte  Rose  (llth 
ed.,  Leipsic,  1867),  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  and  French.  His  collected  works 
have  been  edited  by  Bouterwek  (4  vols.,  Leip- 
sic, 1822)  and  Marggraff  (5  vols.,  1855). 

SCHUMACHER,  Helnrlcb  Christian,  a  Danish  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein,  Sept. 
3,  1780,  died  Dec.  28,  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  Kiel,  Jena,  Copenhagen,  and  Gottingen,  re- 
sided from  1807  to  1810  in  Altona,  and  in  1810 
became  extraordinary  professor  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Copenhagen.  In  1813  he  became  super- 
intendent of  the  observatory  at  Mannheim,  and 
in  1815  ordinary  professor  of  astronomy  and 
superintendent  of  the  observatory  at  Copen- 
hagen. In  1816  he  was  employed  to  measure 
the  territory  of  Hamburg,  and  in  1817  to  mea- 
sure the  degrees  of  latitude  from  Lauenburg 
to  Skagen,  and  the  degrees  of  longitude  from 
Copenhagen  to  the  W.  coast  of  Jutland.  In 
1821  he  received  the  direction  of  the  survey 
and  mapping  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  and 
from  that  time  lived  in  Altona.  In  1824,  in 
connection  with  the  English  board  of  longi- 
tude, he  determined  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  the  observatories  of  Greenwich  and 
Altona,  and  in  1830  he  made  at  the  castle  of 
Guldenstein  the  observations  in  regard  to  the 
length  of  the  seconds  pendulum  which  served 
as  the  base  of  the  Danish  scale  of  measures. 
In  1822  he  published  accurate  accounts  of  the 
distances  of  Venus,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Saturn 
from  the  moon.  In  1821  he  began  his  Astro- 
nomische  Nachrichten,  which  is  still  continued ; 
and  in  conjunction  with  other  astronomers, 
especially  Bessel,  he  undertook  at  Stuttgart  in 
1836  the  editing  of  an  Astronomi«ches  Jahr- 
buch. — His  nephew  CHRISTIAN  ANDREAS-,  born 
Sept.  6,  1810,  has  published  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  astronomy,  and  a  Danish  translation 
of  Humboldt's  Kosmos  (1847),  and  since  1848 
has  edited  at  Copenhagen  the  scientific  and 
industrial  journal  Nordlyset. 

SCHUMANN,  Robert,  a  German  composer,  born 
in  Zwickau  in  1810,  died  at  Endenich,  near 
Bonn,  July  29,  1856.  His  father  was  a  book- 
seller and  publisher.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he 
wrote  little  choral  and  orchestral  works.  His 
musical  education  was  to  a  great  extent  self- 
directed,  and  it  was  not  until  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Leipsic  in  1828  that  he  received 
intelligent  instruction  in  music  from  Friedrich 
Wieck.  In  1829  he  attended  lectures  at  Hei- 
delberg, returning  to  Leipsic  in  1830  to  receive 
instruction  in  counterpoint  and  composition 
from  Heinrich  Dorn.  Here  he  acquired  that 
systematic  knowledge  of  thorough  bass  which 
he  had  thought  unnecessary  in  his  early  years, 
and  for  want  of  which  his  earlier  compositions 
lack  grace  of  form  and  freedom  of  expression. 
With  a  view  to  obtaining  flexibility  of  the 


SCHURZ 


687 


muscles  of  his  hand,  and  to  shortening  the 
months  of  practice  necessary  to  acquire  tech- 
nical facility,  he  experimented  upon  his  fingers 
with  a  machine  of  his  own  invention,  which 
finally  deprived  the  sinews  of  the  third  finger 
of  his  right  hand  of  their  natural  elasticity, 
and  made  it  impossible  that  he  should  ever 
become  a  pianist.  In  April,  1834,  in  connec- 
tion with  several  friends,  he  founded  the  Neue 
Zeitschrift  fur  Musik,  which  he  long  conduct- 
ed in  a  broad,  generous,  and  noble  spirit.  The 
years  from  1837  to  1840  were  rendered  un- 
happy by  the  resistance  of  Friedrich  Wieck  to 
the  marriage  of  Schumann  with  his  daughter 
Clara,  an  eminent  pianist.  Schumann  finally 
appealed  to  the  law  to  compel  the  father's 
consent,  and  obtained  a  favorable  decision 
from  the  royal  court  of  appeals ;  and  the  mar- 
riage took  place  in  September,  1840.  Up  to 
this  period  nearly  all  his  compositions  had 
been  for  the  piano.  During  this  year  he  de- 
voted himself  to  compositions  for  the  voice, 
producing  138  songs,  some  for  one  and  some 
for  more  voices ;  very  many  of  these  have  be- 
come classic.  In  this  year  also  he  was  made 
doctor  of  philosophy  by  the  university  of 
Jena.  Between  1840  and  1854  he  produced 
those  great  works  upon  which  his  fame  chief- 
ly rests:  his  symphonies,  his  quintet  opus  44 
and  quartet  opus  47,  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri," 
"  The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Eose,"  and  many  other 
works  of  large  scope.  In  1850  he  succeeded 
Ferdinand  Hiller  as  director  of  music  at  Dtis- 
seldorf ;  but  he  lacked  many  of  the  essential 
qualities  of  a  good  conductor,  and  in  1853  his 
engagement  terminated.  Even  before  this  time 
the  mental  malady  that  darkened  his  closing 
years  had  begun  to  develop  itself.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1854,  he  threw  himself  into  the  Rhine. 
He  was  rescued  and  removed  to  a  private  asy- 
lum at  Endenich,  but  never  recovered  his  rea- 
son. His  works  embrace  almost  every  vari- 
ety of  composition  for  voice  and  instruments. 
A  second  edition  of  his  Gesammelte  Schriften 
uber  Mmik  und  Musiker  appeared  in  Leipsic 
in  1875  (2  vols.). 

SCHIIRZ,  Carl,  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Liblar,  near  Cologne,  Prussia,  March  2, 
1829.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  of 
Cologne  and  the  university  of  Bonn,  which 
he  entered  in  1846.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  joined  Gottfried  Kinkel, 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  university,  in  the 
publication  of  a  liberal  newspaper,  of  which 
for  a  time  he  was  the  sole  conductor.  In  the 
spring  of  1849,  in  consequence  of  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  promote  an  insurrection  at 
Bonn,  he  fled  with  Kinkel  to  the  Palatinate, 
entered  the  revolutionary  army  as  adjutant, 
and  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Rastadt.  On 
the  surrender  of  that  fortress  he  escaped  to 
Switzerland.  In  1850  he  returned  secretly  to 
Germany,  and  with  admirable  skill  and  self- 
devotion  effected  the  escape  of  Kinkel  from 
the  fortress  of  Spandau,  where  he  had  been 
condemned  to  20  years'  imprisonment.  In 
728  VOL.  xiv. — 44 


the  spring  of  1851  he  was  in  Paris,  acting  as 
correspondent  for  German  journals,  and  he 
afterward  spent  a  year  in  teaching  in  London. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852,  resided 
three  years  in  Philadelphia,  and  then  settled  in 
Madison,  Wis.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of 
1856  he  delivered  speeches  in  German  in  be- 
half of  the  republican  party,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  defeated  as  a  candidate  for  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  "Wisconsin.  During  the 
contest  between  Mr.  Douglas  and  Mr.  Lincoln 
for  the  office  of  United  States  senator  from 
Illinois,  in  1858,  he  delivered  his  first  speech 
in  the  English  language,  which  was  widely 
republished.  Soon  after  he  removed  to  Mil- 
waukee and  began  the  practice  of  law.  In  the 
winter  of  1859-'60  he  made  a  lecture  tour  in 
New  England,  and  aroused  attention  by  a 
speech  delivered  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  against 
the  ideas  and  policy  of  Mr.  Douglas.  He  was 
an  influential  member  of  the  republican  na- 
tional convention  of  1860,  being  largely  instru- 
mental in  determining  that  portion  of  the  plat- 
form relating  to  citizens  of  foreign  origin,  and 
spoke  both  in  English  and  German  during  the 
canvass  which  followed.  President  Lincoln 
appointed  him  minister  to  Spain,  which  post 
he  resigned  in  December,  1861,  in  order  to 
enter  the  army.  In  April,  1862,  he  was  com- 
missioned brigadier  general  of  volunteers,  and 
on  June  17  assumed  command  of  a  division  in 
the  corps  of  Gen.  Sigel,  with  which  he  took 
part  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He 
was  made  major  general,  March  14,  1863,  and 
at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  commanded 
a  division  of  Gen.  Howard's  corps  (the  llth), 
which  was  routed  by  Jackson.  He  had  tem- 
porary command  of  the  llth  corps  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Gettysburg,  and  subsequently  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Chattanooga.  On  the  close 
of  the  war  he  returned  to  the  practice  of  law. 
In  1865-'6  he  was  the  Washington  correspon- 
dent of  the  New  York  "Tribune,"  and  in  1866 
he  made  a  report,  as  special  commissioner  ap- 
pointed by  President  Johnson,  on  the  condi- 
tion of  the  southern  states,  which  was  submit- 
ted to  congress.  In  the  same  year  he  removed 
to  Detroit,  where  he  founded,  the  "Detroit 
Post;"  and  in  1867  he  became  editor  of  the 
Westliche  Post,  a  German  newspaper  published 
in  St.  Louis.  He  was  temporary  chairman  of 
the  republican  national  convention  in  Chicago 
in  1868,  and  labored  earnestly  in  the  succeed- 
ing canvass  for  the  election  of  Gen.  Grant.  In 
January,  1869,  he  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  from  Missouri,  for  the  term  ending  in 
1875.  He  opposed  some  of  the  leading  mea- 
sures of  President  Grant's  administration,  and 
in  1872  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  liberal  party,  presiding  over  the 
convention  in  Cincinnati  which  nominated 
Horace  Greeley  for  the  presidency.  He  visited 
Europe  in  1873,  and  again  in  1875,  being  re- 
ceived with  much  consideration  in  his  native 
country.  On  his  return  he  took  part  in  the 
political  canvass  in  Ohio,  in  which  he  opposed 


688 


SCHUYLER 


SCHWAB 


strenuously  the  increase  of  the  national  cur- 
rency. Among  his  more  celebrated  speech- 
es are:  "The  Irrepressible  Conflict"  (1858); 
"  The  Doom  of  Slavery  "  (1860) ;  "  The  Aboli- 
tion of  Slavery  as  a  War  Measure"  (1862); 
and  "  Eulogy  on  Charles  Sumner"  (1874).  A 
volume  of  his  speeches  was  published  in  1865 
(12mo,  Philadelphia). 

SCHITLER.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  New  York ; 
area,  352  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,989.  The 
southern  portion  of  Seneca  lake,  and  Little, 
Mud,  and  other  small  lakes,  are  within  its  bor- 
ders. It  is  traversed  by  the  Chemung  and 
Elmira,  Jefferson,  and  Canandaigua  railroad 
and  the  Chemung  canal.  The  surface  is  hilly 
and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  238,803  bushels  of  wheat,  21,408  of 
rye,  178,074  of  Indian  corn,  520,160  of  oats, 
269,945  of  barley.118,986  of  buckwheat,  42,410 
tons  of  hay,  221,749  Ibs.  of  wool,  853,374  of 
butter,  40,579  of  cheese,  and  32,374  of  honey. 
There  were  5,665  horses,  7,440  milch  cows, 
6,471  other  cattle,  40,237  sheep,  and  8,515 
swine ;  5  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 10  of  carriages  and  wagons,  6  of  coop- 
erage, 1  of  hinges,  3  of  iron  castings,  2  of 
marble  work,  1  of  machinery,  1  of  malt,  12 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  stone  and  earth- 
en ware,  3  of  woollen  goods,  9  tanneries,  9 
flour  mills,  and  10  saw  mills.  Capital,  Havana. 
Hi  A  W.  county  of  Illinois,  bordered  S.  E.  by 
the  Illinois  river  and  S.  W.  by  Crooked  creek ; 
area,  420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,419.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  excellent. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  221,945 
bushels  of  wheat,  20,841  of  rye,  440,975  of 
Indian  corn,  119,359  of  oats,  13,361  tons  of 
hay,  4,866  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  52,532  of  wool, 
213,030  of  butter,  13,045  of  honey,  and  35,144 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
6,479  horses,  4,192  milch  cows,  8,441  other 
cattle,  15,419  sheep,  and  23,357  swine;  7 man- 
ufactories of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  wool- 
len goods,  and  12  saw  mills.  A  branch  of  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  railroad  en- 
ters it.  Capital,  Rushvillo.  III.  A  N.  E.  coun- 
ty of  Missouri,  bordering  on  Iowa,  bounded 
W.  by  Chariton  river  and  drained  by  the  N. 
fork  of  Salt  river  and  the  head  streams  of  Fa- 
bius  river ;  area,  324  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,820.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Missouri,  Iowa, 
and  Nebraska,  and  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City, 
and  Northern  railroads.  The  soil  is  rich,  and 
the  surface  diversified  by  woodland  and  prai- 
rie. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  49,- 
727  bushels  of  wheat,  279,460  of  Indian  corn, 
125,442  of  oats,  6,313  tons  of  hay,  22,094  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  47,717  of  wool,  129,451  of  but- 
ter, 14,359  of  honey,  and  19,755  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  3,686  horses, 
1,002  mules  and  asses,  3,206  milch  cows,  4,185 
other  cattle,  15,961  sheep,  and  11,928  swine;  1 
flour  mill,  and  8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Lancaster. 

Sdll  \  LKK,  Philip,  an  American  general,  born 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  22,  1733,  died  there, 
Nov.  18,  1804.  He  inherited,  according  to  the 


law  of  primogeniture,  the  whole  of  his  father's 
estate,  but  divided  it  equally  among  his  broth- 
ers and  sisters.  He  entered  the  army  in  1755, 
and  accompanied  Sir  William  Johnson  to  Fort 
Edward  and  Lake  George.  After  the  peace  he 
was  a  member  of  the  colonial  assembly  of  New 
York.  In  1775  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  con- 
tinental congress,  which  appointed  him  a  major 
general  and  placed  him  in  command  of  the 
army  in  New  York  and  the  preparations  for  an 
expedition  against  Canada ;  but  he  was  taken 
sick,  and  the  command  devolved  upon  Mont- 
gomery. He  subsequently  conducted  the  ope- 
rations against  Burgoyne,  but  after  St.  Glair's 
evacuation  of  Ticonderoga  suspicions  against 
Schuyler  caused  him  to  be  superseded  by 
Gates.  His  conduct  was  afterward  fully  ap- 
proved by  a  court  of  inquiry,  but  he  refused  to 
resume  command,  though  continuing  to  render 
important  services  in  the  military  operations  in 
New  York.  He  was  a  member  of  the  conti- 
nental congress  from  1778  to  1781,  and  United 
States  senator  from  1789  to  1791,  and  was 
again  appointed  to  that  office  in  1797,  but  did 
not  serve. — See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Philip 
Schuyler,"  by  Benson  J.  Lossing  (2  vols.  12mo, 
New'York,  1860-'62;  enlarged  ed.,  1872). 

M  HIM. KILL,  a  river  of  E.  Pennsylvania,  ri- 
sing in  the  carboniferous  highlands  of  Schuyl- 
kill  co.  aud  flowing  S.  E.  into  the  Delaware 
river  at  Philadelphia;  length,  120  m.  It  has 
slack-water  navigation  to  Port  Carbon,  3  m. 
above  Pottsville.  The  tide  ascends  to  Fair- 
mount  dam  in  Philadelphia. 

SCHUYLKILL,  an  E.  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
drained  by  the  Schuylkill  river,  bounded  S. 
E.  by  Kittatinny  or  Blue  mountain,  and  trav- 
ersed by  the  Broad,  Sharp,  and  Mahanoy  moun- 
tains; area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  116,428. 
The  surface  is  very  mountainous,  and  the  soil 
except  along  the  streams  generally  poor.  An- 
thracite coal  and  iron  are  extensively  mined; 
the  production  of  the  former  in  1870  was 
3,860,144  tons,  valued  at  $10,289,043.  Sev- 
eral railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
agricultural  productions  in  1870  were  115,831 
bushels  of  wheat,  86,410  of  rye,  267,560  of 
Indian  corn,  288,356  of  oats,  234,374  of  po- 
tatoes, 33,154  tons  of  hay,  6,685  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  883,495  of  butter.  There  were  3,712 
horses,  5,883  milch  cows,  5,255  other  cattle, 
8,100  sheep,  and  10,831  swine;  4  manufac- 
tories of  forged  and  rolled  iron,  4  of  pig  iron, 
23  of  castings,  15  of  tanned  and  11  of  curried 
leather,  22  of  machinery,  47  flour  mills,  and  21 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Pottsville. 

SCHWAB,  Gnstar,  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Stuttgart,  June  19,  1792,  died  there,  Nov.  4, 
1850.  He  studied  in  Tubingen,  where  he  was 
tutor  in  the  theological  seminary  till  1817, 
when  he  became  professor  of  ancient  litera- 
ture in  the  upper  gymnasium  of  Stuttgart. 
From  1837  to  1845  he  was  a  clergyman  near 
and  in  Stuttgart,  and  subsequently  he  became 
chief  councillor  of  studies  and  of  the  evangel- 
ical consistory.  His  Swabian  romances  and 


SCHWALBACH 


SCIIWARZENBERG 


689 


ballads  rank  next  to  those  of  Uhland.  His 
principal  poetical  works  are:  Gedichte  (2 
vols.,  1828-'9) ;  Funf  BUcJier  deutscher  Lie- 
der  und  Gedichte  (1835 ;  5th  ed.,  1871) ;  and 
Neue  Auswahl  (1838  ;  4th  ed.,  1851).  Prom- 
inent among  his  prose  writings  are  Die  schun- 
sten  Sagen  des  classischen  Alterthums  (3  vols., 
1838-'40 ;  4th  ed.,  1853),  and  Schiller's  Leben 
(1840 ;  2d  ed.,  3  parts,  1841-'4). 

SCHWALBACH,  or  Langensehwalbaeh,  a  watering 
place  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  8  m.  N.  W.  of  Wiesbaden ;  pop. 
in  1871,  2,643.  It  adjoins  Schlangenbad,  and 
is  celebrated  as  having  the  strongest  of  all 
chalybeate  springs.  A  new  bath  house  was 
established  in  1866.  The  number  of  visitors 
annually  is  about  6,000.  Large  quantities  of 
the  water  are  exported. 

SCHWANTHALER,  Lndwlg  Blichael,  a  German 
sculptor,  born  in  Munich,  Aug.  26,  1802,  died 
there,  Nov.  15,  1848.  He  studied  under  his 
father,  and  became  in  1835  professor  at  the 
academy  of  Munich,  after  several  visits  to 
Rome.  His  works  are  numerous,  including 
the  frieze  for  the  Barbarossa  hall  at  Munich, 
more  than  200  ft.  long ;  the  model  for  the  im- 
ages of  the  12  ancestors  of  the  house  of  Wittels- 
bach,  in  the  new  palace  at  Munich ;  the  15  stat- 
ues of  the  "  Battle  of  Arminius  "  for  the  Wal- 
halla;  the  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  at  Mu- 
nich, which  he  left  unfinished ;  and  the  statue 
of  Mozart  in  Salzburg. — See  Schwanthaler's 
Jteliquien,  by  Trautmann  (Munich,  1858). 

SCHWARTZ,  Marie  Sophie,  a  Swedish  novelist, 
born  at  Boras,  July  4, 1819.  She  is  a  daughter 
of  Johan  Birath,  a  merchant,  and  married  in 
1839  Prof.  Gustavus  Magnus  Schwartz,  a  physi- 
ologist, who  died  in  1858.  Since  that  date  she 
has  published  numerous  novels,  of  which  a 
complete  German  translation  has  appeared  in 
Stuttgart  (54  vols.,  1865-'71).  Some  of  them 
have  been  published  in  English  in  the  United 
States,  including  "  Gold  and  Name,"  "  Birth 
and  Education,"  and  "  Guilt  and  Innocence." 

SCHWARTZE1VBERG.     See  SCHWABZENBEBG. 

SCHWARZ,  Berthold,  a  German  alchemist, 
whose  real  name  was  believed  to  be  Konstan- 
tin  Ancklitzen,  born  in  Freiburg,  Breisgau, 
probably  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
He  was  a  Franciscan  monk  either  at  Mentz  or 
at  Nuremberg,  and  his  cloistral  name  was  Ber- 
thold. The  surnames  of  Schwarz  ("black") 
and  "  the  Black  Barthel "  were  given  him  on 
account  of  his  partiality  for  the  black  art ;  and 
he  is  said  to  have  discovered  gunpowder  while 
in  prison  on  a  charge  of  sorcery.  According 
to  other  versions,  he  discovered  it  either  at 
Cologne  or  at  Goslar.  Whether  he  made  an 
original  discovery  of  the  composition  of  gun- 
powder, or  merely  devised  its  application  to 
war  and  the  chase,  is  equally  uncertain ;  bxit 
the  latter  is  more  probable,  as  gunpowder  is 
supposed  to  have  been  known  in  1330,  and  be- 
fore other  dates  assigned  to  his  alleged  discov- 
ery ;  and  he  may  have  acquired  information 
about  it  from  manuscripts  in  the  monasteries. 


A  monument  to  his  memory  was  erected  at 
Freiburg  in  1853. 

SCHWARZ,  Christian  Frledrieh,  a  German  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Sonnenburg  in  Brandenburg 
in  October,  1726,  died  in  Tanjore,  Hindostan, 
Feb.  13, 1798.  He  studied  Tamil  to  aid  Schultz 
in  translating  the  Bible,  was  ordained  at  Co- 
penhagen in  1749,  and  in  1750  sailed  for  Tran- 
quebar.  He  removed  thence  to  Trichinopoly, 
and  finally  to  Tanjore,  where  he  spent  the  last 
20  years  of  his  life.  The  rajah  of  Tanjore  com- 
mitted to  him  the  education  of  his  son  and 
successor ;  and  Hyder  AH  received  him  as  an 
ambassador  after  refusing  all  others.  When 
the  latter  invaded  the  Carnatic,  and  the  inhab- 
itants and  garrison  of  Tanjore  were  reduced 
almost  to  starvation,  Schwarz  induced  the  na- 
tive farmers  to  bring  in  their  cattle,  pledging 
his  word  for  their  payment.  After  his  death 
the  rajah  of  Tanjore  and  the  East  India  com- 
pany each  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory. 

S(  mVAUZBl  RG-Rl  DOLSTADT,  a  principality  of 
the  German  empire,  bordering  on  the  Saxon 
duchies,  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  and 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ;  area,  364  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  75,523,  nearly  all  Lutherans.  It 
is  divided  into  the  upper  lordship  of  Rudol- 
stadt,  which  is  mountainous,  and  the  lower 
of  Frankenhausen,  which  is  less  so.  The  main 
rivers  are  the  Saale,  Ilm,  and  Schwarza.  The 
principal  products  are  minerals  and  timber. 
Horses  and  cattle  abound.  Linen,  woollen, 
and  other  goods  are  manufactured.  The  diet 
consists,  according  to  the  modified  constitution 
of  1870,  of  16  members,  4  chosen  from  the 
largest  taxpayers  and  12  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  principality  has  one  vote  in  the 
German  Reichstag.  The  local  princes,  whose 
house  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Thuriugia,  be- 
came in  1699  independent  of  Saxony.  The 
reign  of  the  present  prince,  George  Albert  (born 
1838),  began  in  1869.  Capital,  Rudolstadt. 

SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN,  a  principal- 
ity of  the  German  empire,  bordering  on  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  the  Saxon  duchies,  and  Schwarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt ;  area,  323  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  67,191.  It  consists  of  the  upper  lord- 
ship of  Arnstadt  and  the  lower  of  Sonders- 
hausen ;  is  mountainous  in  the  S.  part,  and  is 
watered  by  the  Gera,  Ilm,  and  other  tributa- 
ries of  the  Saale.  The  main  products  are  flax, 
timber,  and  minerals.  Trade  and  industry 
have  lately  much  increased  through  railway 
traffic.  The  prince  names  5  members  for  the 
local  diet,  and  the  other  10  are  chosen  half  by 
the  largest  taxpayers  and  half  by  general  elec- 
tion. In  the  German  Reichstag  the  princi- 
pality has  one  vote.  The  reigning  prince, 
Gunthe?  Frederick  Charles  (born  1801),  suc- 
ceeded in  1835  on  the  resignation  of  his  fa- 
ther. Capital,  Sondershausen. 

SCHWARZENBERG,  Frledrieb  Johann  Joseph  Ce- 
lestinns  TOD,  an  Austrian  cardinal,  born  -in  Vi- 
enna, April  6,  1809.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
Salzburg  Feb.  1,  1836,  was  proclaimed  cardi- 
nal Jan.  24, 1842,  and  was  promoted  to  the  pri- 


690 


SCHWARZENBERG 


SCHWEIGGER 


matial  see  of  Prague  Dec.  13,  1849.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Vatican  council  he  signed  the 
petition  to  the  pope,  drawn  up  by  Cardinal 
Rauscber,  praying  that  the  doctrine  of  pon- 
tifical infallibility  should  not  be  discussed  in 
the  council ;  he  made  a  discourse  against  the 
opportuneness  of  a  dogmatic  definition,  but 
afterward  accepted  the  decision  of  the  council. 
SCHWARZENBERG.  I.  Karl  Philipp,  prince, 
and  duke  of  Krumau,  an  Austrian  field  mar- 
shal, born  in  Vienna,  April  15,  1771,  died  in 
Leipsic,  Oct.  15,  1820.  He  distinguished  him- 
self under  Lacy  in  the  war  against  the  Turks, 
and  also  in  the  war  against  France.  In  1794, 
at  the  battle  of.  Cateau-Cambresis,  he  cut  his 
way  at  the  head  of  his  regiment  and  of  12 
British  squadrons  through  a  line  of  27,000 
men.  After  the  victory  of  Wurzburg  he  was 
made  major  general,  and  in  1799  lieutenant 
field  marshal ;  and  in  1805  he  commanded 
the  Austrian  right  wing  at  Ulm.  In  1808  he 
was  appointed  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg. 
He  was  present  in  the  following  year  at  the 
battle  of  Wagram,  commanding  the  rear  guard 
on  the  retreat,  and  after  the  peace  of  Vienna 
was  sent  to  France  as  ambassador.  There  he 
conducted  the  negotiations  in  regard  to  the 
marriage  of  Napoleon  with  the  archduchess 
Maria  Louisa.  He  gave  a  ball  in  honor  of 
it,  which  was  broken  up  by  a  terrible  confla- 
gration resulting  in  the  death  of  his  sister-in- 
law  the  princess  Pauline  of  Schwarzenberg, 
and  the  empress  barely  escaped  with  her  life. 
In  the  campaign  of  1812  against  Russia,  he 
commanded  the  Austrian  contingent  of  the 
French  army ;  and  at  the  request  of  Napo- 
leon the  emperor  Francis  created  him  a  mar- 
shal. In  1813  he  was  in  Paris  attempting  to 
negotiate  a  peace  between  France  and  Rus- 
sia. After  his  return  he  received  the  supreme 
command  of  the  allied  troops  of  Russia,  Aus- 
tria, and  Prussia,  gained  the  victory  of  Leip- 
sic, and  marched  to  Paris.  On  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  allied  army  on  the  upper  Rhine, 
and  a  second  time  entered  France  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Waterloo.  At  the  end  of  the  campaign 
he  was  made  president  of  the  imperial  military 
council,  and  was  presented  with  several  estates 
in  Hungary.  II.  Felix  Lndwlg  Johann  Friedrteh, 
prince  of,  an  Austrian  statesman,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  the  estate  of  Erumau 
in  Bohemia,  Oct.  2,  1800,  died  in  Vienna, 
April  5,  1852.  He  became  a  captain  of  cuiras- 
siers, and  in  1824  went  to  St.  Petersburg  as 
attache  to  the  Austrian  embassy.  Two  years 
later  he  was  sent  with  despatches  to  London, 
joined  the  extraordinary  mission  to  Brazil  un- 
der Baron  Neumann,  and  after  his  return  to 
Europe  was  employed  in  diplomacy.  "While 
in  London  in  1830,  he  eloped  with  Lady  Ellen- 
borough,  who  was  divorced  from  her  husband. 
He  became  a  major  general  in  1842,  and  in 
1848  commanded  a  brigade  under  Nugent  in 
Italy,  and  was  made  lieutenant  field  marshal 
before  the  battle  of  Custozza.  He  was  recalled 


to  Austria  by  the  troubles  in  the  capital,  and 
after  the  suppression  of  the  October  revolu- 
tion in  Vienna  was  made  prime  minister, 
which  post  he  retained  till  his  death.  During 
his  term  of  office  the  aid  of  Russia  was  ob- 
tained for  the  suppression  of  the  Hungarian 
revolution,  and  a  daring  policy  pursued  in  Ger- 
many. (See  AUSTRIA.)  He  died  of  apoplexy. 

SCHWARZWALD.     See  BLACK  FOREST. 

SCHWEGLER,  Albert,  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Michelbach,  Wurtemberg,  Feb.  10,  1819, 
died  in  Tubingen,  Jan.  5,  1857.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,  and  became  a  follower  of  Baur 
and  one  of  the  principal  exponents  of  the 
Tubingen  school ;  but  on  account  of  the  ob- 
jections of  the  authorities  to  his  Montanivmus 
(1841),  he  abandoned  theology,  and  in  1843 
became  Pritatdocent  of  philosophy  and  classi- 
cal philology  at  Tubingen,  and  in  1848  profes- 
sor. Subsequently  he  tilled  the  chair  of  histo- 
ry there.  Has  principal  works  are  :  Das  nach- 
apostolische  Zeitalter  (2  vols.,  1846);  editions 
of  the  Clementine  homilies  (1847)  and  of  Aris- 
totle's "  Metaphysics,"  with  German  annota- 
ted translations  (4  vols.,  1847-'8);  Geschichte 
der  Philosophic  (1848;  7th  ed.,  1870;  English 
translation  by  Prof.  J.  H.  Seelye,  New  York, 
1856) ;  an  edition  of  the  church  history  of 
Eusebius  (2  vols.,  1862);  JRomische  Geschichte, 
extending  only  to  the  Licinian  laws  (3  vols., 
1853-'8;  2d  ed.,  1867);  and  the  posthumous 
Geschichte  der  griechischen  Philosophic,  edited 
by  Kostlin  (1869;  2d  ed.,  1870). 

"SCHWEIDMTZ,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussia, 
on  the  Weistritz,  in  the  province  and  80  m.  S. 
W.  of  the  city  of  Breslau  ;  pop.  in  1871, 16,998. 
During  the  seven  years'  war  Schweidnitz  was 
repeatedly  besieged  by  the  Prussians  and  Aus- 
trians,  the  Prussian  siege  of  1762  being  the 
most  memorable.  In  1807  it  was  taken  by  the 
French,  who  demolished  the  outer  defences. — 
The  former  principality  of  Schweidnitz  was 
ruled  by  local  princes  from  1290  to  1353 ;  and 
it  was  afterward  a  crownland  of  Bohemia  till 
1741,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Prussia. 

SCHWEIGGER,  Johann  Salomon  Chrlstoph,  a  Ger- 
man physicist,  born  in  Erlangen,  April  8, 1779, 
died  in  Halle,  Sept.  6,  1857.  He  studied  at 
Erlangen,  was  Privatdocent  there  from  1800 
to  1802,  became  professor  of  mathematics  and 
physics  at  the  gymnasium  of  Baireuth  in  1802 
and  at  the  polytechnic  institute  of  Nuremberg 
in  1811,  and  from  1819  was  professor  of  phys- 
ics and  chemistry  at  Halle.  After  the  an- 
nouncement of  Oersted's  discovery  of  electro- 
magnetism  in  1819-'20  he  devised  an  electro- 
magnetic multiplier  (see  GALVANISM,  vol.  vii., 
p.  5D3),  which  bears  his  name.  He  contribu- 
ted to  Gehlen's  Journal  der  Chemie,  Physik 
und  Mineralogie  (vol.  vii.,  1808)  an  article  en- 
titled Ueber  Benutzung  der  magnetischen  Kraft 
bei  Messvng  der  elektrwchen  (published  sepa- 
rately in  Berlin  in  1874),  containing  statements 
in  regard  to  electro-magnetism  from  which 
his  friends  claim  for  him  the  credit  of  being 
the  original  discoverer. 


SCHWEINFURT 


SCIIWERIN 


691 


SCHWEEVFCRT,  or  Sehweinforth,  a  town  of  Ba- 
varia, in  the  district  of  Lower  Franconia,  on 
the  Main,  23  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Wiirzburg ;  pop. 
in  1871,  10,325,  chiefly  Protestants.  It  is  en- 
closed by  old  walls,  and  has  a  Catholic  and 
several  Lutheran  churches,  a  gymnasium,  and 
manufactures  of  leather,  linen,  and  woollen 
cloths.  Schweinfurt  was  a  free  imperial  city 
from  1130  to  1803. 

SCHWEINFURTH,  Georg  August,  a  German  trav- 
eller, born  in  Riga,  Sept.  29,  1836.  He  studied 
in  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  botany,  and  set  out  in 
1864  on  a  journey  through  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Egyptian  coast  lands  on  the  Red 
sea,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  flora 
and  fauna  in  those  regions.  He  returned  to 
Cairo  in  1865,  and  made  a  second  expedition 
up  the  Blue  Nile  as  far  as  Khartoom.  Reach- 
ing Europe  again  in  July,  1866,  he  spent  two 
years  in  Berlin  in  classifying  and  describing 
the  botanical,  zoological,  and  geological  speci- 
mens collected  in  his  travels.  Going  again  to 
Khartoom  in  1868,  he  explored  the  White  Nile 
and  the  Gazelle,  and  penetrated  inland  to  the 
west  as  far  as  Ion.  26°  E.,  and  to  the  south  as 
far  as  Munza,  about  lat.  3°  30'  N.,  through  the 
little  known  regions  of  the  Shellooks,  Dinkas, 
and  Niam-Niam,  and  the  kingdom  of  Monbut- 
too.  These  travels  occupied  three  years,  and 
after  spending  a  season  in  Sicily,  Malta,  and 
Rome,  he  arrived  in  Germany  in  July,  1872. 
In  1875  the  khedive  made  him  president  of 
an  Egyptian  geographical  society,  which  is  to 
issue  a  monthly  journal.  He  has  published 
Versuch  einer  Vegetationsskizze  (Berlin,  1862) ; 
Plant®  qucedam  Niloticcs  (1862) ;  Beitrag  zur 
Flora  Aethiopiem  (1867);  Reliquiae  Kotschy- 
arce  (1868);  and  Im 
Herzen  von  Afrilca  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1874 ; 
English  translation, 
"The  Heart  of  Afri- 
ca," 1874).  This  work 
contains  the  first  trust- 
worthy account  of  the 
pygmy  race  of  Africa, 
the  Akka.  (See  PYG- 
MY.) 

SCHU'EWT/,  Lewis 
David  Ton,  an  Ameri- 
can botanist,  born  in 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Feb. 
13,  1780,  died  there, 
Feb.  8, 1834.  He  was 
educated  in  Germany, 
and  remained  there  till 
1812,  when  he  went 
as  a  Moravian  minister 
to  Salem,  N.  C.,  and 
in  1821  to  his  native 
town.  He  described 
nearly  1,400  new  spe- 
cies of  plants,  of  which  more  than  1,200  were 
of  North  American  fungi,  previously  little 
studied.  His  works  include  Conspectus  Fun- 


gorum  Lutatice  (Leipsic,  1805) ;  Synopsis  Fun- 
gorum  Carolines  Superioris,  edited  by  Dr. 
Schwegrichen  (1818);  Specimen  Flora  Ame- 
ricas Septentrionalis  Cryptogamicce  (Raleigh, 
1821);  "Monograph  of  the  Linneean  Genus 
Viola"  (published  in  Silliman's  "Journal," 
1821) ;  "  Catalogue  of  Plants  collected  in  the 
N.  W.  Territory  by  Say"  (Philadelphia,  1824); 
"Monograph  upon  the  American  Species  of 
the  Genus  Carex"  (New  York,  1825);  and 
Synopsis  Fungorum  in  America  Boreali  Me- 
dia Degentium  (Philadelphia,  1832). 

SCHWENKFELD,  Kaspar  von,  the  founder  of  a 
religious  sect,  born  in  Ossig,  Silesia,  in  1490, 
died  in  Dim  about  1561.  He  was  a  nobleman 
of  ancient  lineage,  councillor  to  the  duke  of 
Liegnitz  and  an  eager  advocate  of  the  refor- 
mation. He  ditt'ered  with  Luther  especially  on 
the  deification  of  the  body  of  Christ ;  and  he 
was  persecuted  by  both  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  His  character  was  never  im- 
pugned by  any  of  his  opponents,  and  his  numer- 
ous writings  (including  Bekanndtnus  und  Re- 
chenschaft  von  den  Hauptpunkten  des  christ- 
lichen  (rlaubenfi,  1547,  and  nearly  100  trea- 
tises) are  among  the  most  valuable  sources  of 
the  history  of  the  reformation.  His  adhe- 
rents, called  Schwenkfelders  or  Schwenkfeld- 
ians,  lived  mostly  in  Silesia.  In  1734  a  con- 
siderable number  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania, 
where  they  settled  principally  in  Montgom- 
ery, Berks,  Bucks,  and  Lehigh  counties.  They 
still  number  there  about  300  families  and  800 
members,  and  have  five  churches  and  school 
houses. — See  Ausfahrliche  Geschichte  Kaspar 
von  Schwenkfeld' '»,  &c.  (Lauban,  1861). 

SCIIWERIN,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  on 


the  W.  side  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  18 
m.  S.  of  its  seaport  Wismar;  pop.  in  1871, 
26,804.  It  consists  of  thje  Altstadt  and  the 


692 


SCHWERIN 


SOILLY  ISLANDS 


Neu-,  Vor-,  and  Paulstadt,  the  last  three  being 
of  modern  origin  and  the  most  attractive.  The 
grand  ducal  palace  is  an  imposing  building  on 
an  isla'nd  in  the  lake,  on  the  same  spot  where 
there  was  a  castle  in  the  12th  century,  which 
was  restored  by  Wallenstein.  The  new  palace 
was  begun  in  1846  and  finished  in  1858,  and  is 
surrounded  by  beautiful  pleasure  grounds.  The 
Dom  or  cathedral,  recently  restored,  is  a  fine 
Gothic  structure.  Tobacco  manufacture  is  the 
principal  industry.  It  is  a  place  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  embellish- 
ments to  the  grand  duke  Paul  Frederick  (1837- 
'42),  whose  statue  by  Kauch  stands  in  front  of 
the  theatre. 

SCHWERIN,  knrt  ( hristoph  TOD,  count,  a  Ger- 
man field  marshal,  born  in  Swedish  Pome- 
rania,  Oct.  16,  1684,  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Prague,  May  6,  1757.  He  was  an  ensign  in 
the  Dutch  army  at  the  age  of  16,  fought  un- 
der Marlborotigh  and  Eugene,  and  entered  the 
service  of  Prussia  in  1720,  with  the  rank 'of 
major  general.  On  the  accession  of  Frederick 
the  Great  (1740)  he  was  made  field  marshal 
with  the  title  of  count,  and  in  1741  gained  the 
decisive  battle  of  Mollwitz,  by  which  the  Prus- 
sians secured  possession  of  Silesia.  In  1744 
he  took  Prague,  and  in  the  seven  years'  war 
fell  in  the  great  battle  before  that  city. 

SCHWIND,  Morltz  Ton,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1804,  died  in  Munich,  Feb.  8, 
1871.  He  studied  under  Cornelius,  and  in 
1839  designed  frescoes  for  the  art  hall  at 
Carlsruhe.  In  1847  he  became  professor  at 
the  academy  of  Munich.  His  best  known 
productions  are  the  designs  for  St.  Michael's 
church,  London,  and  for  the  Vienna  opera 
house.  He  excelled  in  fairy  and  fanciful  sub- 
jects. His  best  and  last  work  waa  "  The 
.beautiful  Melusina." 

SCHWYTZ,  a  N.  E.  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bordering  on  the  cantons  of  Zurich,  St.  Gall, 
Glarus,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Lucerne,  and  Zug ; 
area,  850  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  47,705,  nearly 
all  Germans  and  Roman  Catholics.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  chains  of  mountains  with  offsets  in 
every  direction.  The  Rossberg,  which  is  part- 
ly in  this  canton  and  partly  in  Zag,  is  5,188 
ft.  above  the  sea;  in  1806  a  portion  of  it 
fell  with  most  destructive  effect.  The  other 
points  of  greatest  elevation  are  the  Drusberg, 
in  the  east,  7,480  ft. ;  the  Mythen,  near  the 
centre,  6,250  ft. ;  and  the  Rigi,  in  the  west, 
5,902  ft.  The  whole  canton  belongs  to  the 
basin  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  drainage  flows  into 
the  Limmat  and  the  lakes  of  Zurich  on  the 
north  and  Lucerne  on  the  west,  mainly  by  the 
rivers  Sihl  and  Muotta.  The  minerals  are  not 
valuable ;  there  is  some  iron,  and  formerly 
the  sands  were  washed  for  gold.  The  climate 
is  milder  than  in  many  other  parts  of  Switz- 
erland, as  none  of  the  mountains  rise  above 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Very  little  of 
the  soil  is  arable ;  the  country  is  almost  whol- 
ly pastoral,  and  the  finest  cattle  in  Switzer- 
land are  reared  here.  Schwytz  is  one  of  the 


three  original  cantons  that  resisted  Austria 
and  formed  the  primitive  confederation  ;  and 
it  gave  a  name  to  the  whole  country.  The 
inhabitants  made  spirited  efforts  to  resist  the 
French  in  1798,  and  suffered  severely  in  1799, 
when  the  war  was  carried  into  their  country. 
— SOHWTTZ,  the  capital,  is  built  at  the  foot 
of  the  rocky  eminences  Kaken  and  Mythen, 
55  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  6,154. 
In  the  council  house  are  portraits  of  43  grand 
bailiffs  of  the  canton,  dating  from  1534.  Oth- 
er places  of  historical  interest  are  Ktissnacht, 
Brunnen,  and  Einsiedeln. 

SCIACCA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  8.  "W. 
coast,  in  the  province  and  80  m.  N".  W.  of 
Girgenti ;  pop.  about  14,000.  It  is  on  the 
verge  of  a  lofty  cliff,  is  surrounded  by  walls 
with  towers,  and  has  a  cathedral  with  a  fa- 
mous echo,  and  numerous  other  churches. 
Pottery  is  manufactured.  It  was  anciently 
called  Thermte  Selinuntias,  from  the  hot  sul- 
phur and  saline  springs  at  the  foot  and  on 
the  summit  of  Mt.  San  Calogero,  outside  the 
present  walls,  and  from  its  vicinity  to  Selinus. 

SCIATICA.     See  NEURALGIA. 

SCIGUO,  or  Sdlla  (anc.  Scyllceum,  or  Scylld). 
I.  A  promontory  of  S.  Italy,  in  Calabria  Ulte- 
rioro,  on  the  strait  of  Messina,  in  lat.  38°  14' 
30"  N.,  Ion.  15°  45'  E.  It  is  a  bold  headland, 
200  ft.  high,  the  rocks  at  the  base  being  deeply 
scooped  out  by  the  action  of  the  waves,  and  is 
crowned  by  an  ancient  castle.  It  is  in  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  strait,  opposite  the  rocks 
and  shoals  of  Charybdis,  and  was  the  terror 
of  ancient  mariners.  (See  CHARYBDIS  AND 
SOYLLA.)  II.  A  town  on  the  promontory,  9  m. 
N.  by  E.  of  Reggio  ;  pop.  about  6,700.  It  has 
extensive  silk  manufactures,  an  active  com- 
merce, and  considerable  fisheries,  and  its  wine 
is  celebrated.  It  is  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Anaxilus,  tyrant  of  Rhegium.  It  was 
nearly  destroyed  and  half  its  inhabitants  were 
lost  by  an  earthquake,  Feb.  6,  1783. 

SULLY  ISLANDS,  a  group  at  the  W.  entrance 
of  the  English  channel,  belonging  to  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  about  30  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Land's 
End ;  lat.  of  the  lighthouse  on  St.  Agnes,  49° 
53'  N.,  Ion.  6°  20'  W. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,090. 
The  group  is  circular,  about  30  m.  in  circum- 
ference, and  contains  about  140  islands  and 
islets,  besides  numerous  rocks.  St.  Mary's, 
Tresco,  St.  Martin's,  St.  Agnes,  and  Bryher 
are  the  only  ones  with  more  than  100  inhab- 
itants. They  have  steep  and  bold  shores,  on 
which  many  ships  have  been  wrecked ;  but 
between  the  islands  the  water  is  shallow,  and 
some  of  them  are  connected  by  strips  of  land 
at  low  water.  The  inhabited  islands  have  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  3,500  acres,  but  the 
soil  is  generally  barren,  and  trees  grow  only  in 
sheltered  spots.  Some  oats  and  potatoes  are 
raised  on  St.  Mary's,  and  there  is  a  little  pas- 
ture land  on  the  others.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  fishermen,  pilots,  and  sailors.  The 
local  government  consists  of  a  court  of  12 
principal  inhabitants  presided  over  by  a  mill- 


SCINDE 

tary  officer.  The  largest  of  the  group  is  St. 
Mary's,  with  the  capital,  Hughtown.  On  the 
W.  side  of  the  island  is  Star  Castle,  and  a 
garrison  with  numerous  batteries. — The  Scilly 
islands  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  Cassi- 
terides  or  Tin  islands  of  the  ancients;  but  as 
that  metal  is  not  now  found  upon  them,  it  is 
thought  that  the  western  extremity  of  Corn- 
wall was  also  included  under  that  name.  The 
group  was  sometimes  used  by  the  Romans  as  a 
place  of  banishment,  and  was  called  by  them 
Selling  or  Silurum  insulce.  They  were  an- 
nexed to  the  English  crown  in  the  10th  century. 

SCDiDE.     See  SINDE. 

S( INDIA,  or  Siudla.     See  GWALIOR. 

SCIO,  Skio,  Chio,  or  khio  (anc.  Chios ;  Turk. 
Sakis-Adassi),  an  island  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  off  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
strait  of  Scio,  4  in.  wide  in  its  narrowest  part; 
area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  50,000, 
most  of  whom  are  Turks.  The  surface  is  rocky 
and  uneven,  being  traversed  by  limestone  ridges, 
and  the  scenery  is  picturesque.  There  are 
beautiful  valleys  and  several  small  streams,  but 
much  of  the  irrigation  is  by  means  of  water 
obtained  from  wells ;  and  the  country  presents 
a  scene  of  perpetual  verdure,  though  only  a 
small  part  of  the  land  is  arable.  The  chief 
productions  are  silk,  cotton,  wool,  fruit,  oil, 
and  gum  mastic,  the  last  of  which  is  the  staple 
of  the  island.  The  wine  of  Chios  was  highly 
esteemed  in  antiquity,  and  still  enjoys  some 
repute. — Chios  is  said  to  have  been  anciently 
peopled  by  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians  and  Leleges, 
after  whom  it  was  occupied  by  an  Ionian  col- 
ony; and  the  chief  city,  also  called  Chios, 
claimed  the  honor  of  being  the  birthplace  of 
Homer.  It  was  invaded  by  the  Persians  and 
devastated  in  494  B.  C.  After  the  battle  of 
Mycale  (479)  it  became  a  member  of  the  Athe- 
nian league;  in  358  it  recovered  its  indepen- 
dence ;  in  201  it  was  taken  by  Philip  V.  of 
Macedon,  and  it  afterward  became  subject  to 
Borne.  In  the  early  part  of  the  14th  century 
the  Turks  captured  the  capital  and  massacred 
the  inhabitants.  From  1346  to  1566  it  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Genoese.  It  then  again  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  and,  except- 
ing a  short  interval  during  which  it  was  sub- 
ject to  Venice,  it  has  since  been  in  their  pos- 
session. During  the  Greek  revolution  its  in- 
habitants rose  against  the  Turks  (1822),  but 
were  soon  subdued.  "Within  two  months  23,- 
000  Sciotes,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
were  put  to  the  sword,  47,000  were  sold  into 
slavery,  and  5,000  sought  safety  in  other  parts 
of  Greece.  By  the  end  of  August  the  former 
Christian  population  of  nearly  104,000  was  re- 
duced to  2,000.  In  June,  two  months  after 
the  massacre,  Canaris  attacked  the  Turkish 
fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Scio  with  fire  ships,  and 
destroyed  the  vessel  of  the  capudan  pasha, 
who  perished  in  the  flames.  In  1827  a  Greek 
force  under  Col.  Fabvier,  a  French  philhel- 
Iwiist,  landed  in  Scio  and  attacked  the  Turk- 


SCIPIO 


693 


ish  garrison,  but  were  compelled  to  withdraw. 
— Scio,  or  Kastro,  the  capital,  is  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  E.  coast;  pop.  14,500.  It  has  a 
harbor,  is  defended  by  a  castle,  and  manufac- 
tures velvet,  silk,  and  cotton. 

SCIOTO,  a  river  of  Ohio,  rising  in  Hardin  co., 
and  flowing  first  nearly  E.  and  then  S.  by  E. 
to  Columbus,  thence  S.  to  the  Ohio,  which  it 
joins  at  Portsmouth.  It  is  about  200  m.  long, 
and  navigable  130  m.  Its  principal  tributaries 
are  the  Olentangy  or  Whetstone  river,  which 
unites  with  it  at  Columbus,  and  Darby,  Walnut, 
and  Paint  creeks.  The  Ohio  and  Erie  canal 
follows  its  lower  course  for  90  m.  The  Scio- 
to  valley  is  famed  for  its  fertility  and  wealth. 
— The  Little  Scioto  is  a  small  stream  which 
flows  into  the  Ohio  8  m.  above  Portsmouth. 

SCIOTO,  a  S.  county  of  Ohio,  bounded  S.  by 
the  Ohio  river  and  watered  by  the  Scioto  and 
Little  Scioto  rivers  and  branches ;  area,  about 
500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,302.  The  surface 
is  uneven  and  the  soil  fertile.  In  the  E.  part 
of  the  county  iron  is  plentiful,  and  large  fur- 
naces and  founderies  are  in  operation.  The 
Portsmouth  branch  of  the  Marietta  and  Cin- 
cinnati railroad  traverses  it.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1873  were  73,365  bushels  of  wheat, 
818,603  of  Indian  corn,  116,569  of  oats,  60,701 
of  potatoes,  7,179  tons  of  hay,  2,619  Ibs.  of  to- 
bacco, 204,384  of  butter,  and  11,232  of  wool; 
91,266  bushels  of  coal  and  27,576  tons  of  iron 
ore  were  mined,  and  14,876  tons  of  pig  iron 
manufactured.  In  1874  there  were  5,579 
horses,  12,886  cattle,  6,979  sheep,  and  13,976 
swine.  In  1870  there  were  8  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  charcoal,  10  of 
cooperage,  7  of  furniture,  2  of  forged  and  rolled 
iron,  1  of  nails  and  spikes,  6  of  pig  and  3  of 
cast  iron,  4  of  tanned  and  2  of  curried  leather, 
1  of  engines  and  boilers,  3  of  marble  and  stone 
work,  6  saw  mills,  2  planing  mills,  2  flour  mills, 
and  2  woollen  mills.  Capital,  Portsmouth. 

SCIPIO,  a  Roman  patrician  family  belonging 
to  the  Cornelia  gens.  The  tomb  of  the  Scipios, 
discovered  in  1616  and  excavated  in  1780,  is 
near  the  modern  gate  of  St.  Sebastian.  The 
most  distinguished  members  of  the  family  are : 
I.  Publics  Cornelias  Sfiplo  Afrieanas  Mnjor,  a  Ro- 
man general,  born  about  234  B.  C.,  died  about 
183.  He  was  the  son  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio, 
who  with  his  brother  Cneius  Cornelius  Scipio 
was  defeated  and  killed  in  Spain  by  the  Car- 
thaginian generals  Mago  and  Hasdrubal  (211). 
He  is  first  mentioned  at  the  battle  of  the  Ti- 
cinus  in  218.  In  216  he  was  at  the  battle  of 
Cannse,  and  Livy  and  other  writers  ascribe  to 
his  influence  the  prevention  of  the  scheme  en- 
tertained by  the  Roman  nobles  after  that  dis- 
astrous day  of  fleeing  from  Italy ;  but  better 
authorities  attribute  this  to  Varro,  the  defeated 
general.  In  212  he  was  made  curule  sedile. 
After  the  defeat  and  death  of  his  father  in 
Spain,  being  then  24  years  of  age,  he  offered 
to  take  command  of  the  Roman  armies  in  that 
province  as  proconsul.  He  arrived  in  Spain  in 
the  summer  of  210,  and  found  the  three  Car- 


694 


SCIPIO 


thaginian  generals,  who  were  on  ill  terms  with 
each  other,  in  different  parts  of  the  peninsula. 
At  the  head  of  25,000  foot  and  2,500  horse,  he 
made*a  rapid  march  from  the  Iberus  (Ebro)  to 
New  Carthage  (Cartagena),  the  centre  of  Pu- 
nic power  in  Spain,  in  which  were  the  Cartha- 
ginian treasure,  magazines,  and  hostages.  The 
city,  remote  from  all  succor,  and  ill  defended 
by  a  garrison  of  1,000  men,  was  soon  taken. 
The  captive  Spaniards  were  dismissed  with 
kindness,  and  in  this  manner  Scipio  began  his 
work  of  conciliating  the  natives.  He  returned 
to  Tarraco,  and,  strengthened  by  an  alliance 
with  several  of  the  Spanish  tribes,  in  209  took 
the  field  against  Hasdrubal,  over  whom  he  is 
said  to  have  gained  a  great  victory  at  Baecula, 
but  failed  to  prevent  him  from  inarching  to 
the  assistance  of  his  brother  Hannibal  in  Italy. 
In  207  Scipio,  at  the  head  of  45,000  foot  and 
8,000  horse,  defeated  a  superior  force  of  the 
enemy  under  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Gisco,  and 
Mago,  near  a  town  called  Silpia  or  Elinga,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  power  of  the  Carthaginians 
in  Spain.  Scipio,  anxious  to  carry  the  war 
into  Africa,  gained  over  Masinissn,  the  Numid- 
ian  ally  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  had  come 
to  Spain;  and  to  win  the  support  of  Syphax, 
the  king  of  the  Masseesylians  in  Numidia,  he 
crossed  over  with  only  two  quinquiremes  to 
negotiate  with  him  personally.  There  he 
found  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Gisco,  present 
with  a  similar  intention,  and  the  Carthaginian 
prevailed  principally  through  the  charms  of 
his  daughter  Sophonisba.  On  his  return  Sci- 

Sio  found  Spain  in  a  general  revolt,  but  put  it 
own  in  a  short  campaign  marked  by  the  mer- 
ciless treatment  of  llliturgi,  and  the  despera- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  Astapa,  who  fell  to 
a  man.  He  quelled  a  mutiny  which  had  bro- 
ken out  while  he  was  confined  by  a  severe  ill- 
ness in  the  Roman  camp  on  the  Sucro  (Jucar), 
and  defeated  the  Spaniards,  who  had  taken  the 
same  opportunity  to  revolt.  In  a  short  time 
the  Carthaginians  abandoned  Spain  entirely, 
and  in  206  Scipio  handed  over  the  government 
to  his  successor,  and  returned  to  Rome.  There 
he  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  was 
elected  consul  for  the  following  year.  He  had 
now  an  opportunity  of  attacking  the  Punic 
power  in  Africa;  but  the  senate  would  only 
allow  him  to  go  to  Sicily,  with  the  right  of 
crossing  into  the  Carthaginian  territory  if  ad- 
vantageous, but  denied  him  an  army.  Volun- 
teers, however,  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  in 
204  he  sailed  with  his  army  from  Lilybseum, 
and  landed  near  Utica,  where  he  was  joined 
by  Masinissa.  The  Romans  began  the  siege  of 
Utica,  but  the  approach  of  a  vast  Carthaginian 
and  Numidian  army  compelled  them  to  aban- 
don the  project.  During  the  winter  he  amused 
Syphax  with  negotiations  in  regard  to  peace, 
but  early  in  203  by  a  stratagem  burned  the 
camps  and  almost  annihilated  the  armies  op- 
posed to  him.  The  Carthaginians  collected 
another  army,  which  suffered  another  total 
defeat,  and  thereupon  they  recalled  Hannibal 


and  Mago  from  Italy,  and  made  a  truce.  *  Han- 
nibal was  not  indisposed  to  peace,  but  was 
compelled  to  take  the  field,  and  the  two  armies 
met  near  Zama  (202).  A  complete  victory  for 
the  Romans  ended  the  second  Punic  war  and 
the  power  of  Carthage.  Scipio  returned  to 
Rome  in  201,  and  was  welcomed  with  extra- 
ordinary enthusiasm.  The  surname  of  Afri- 
canus  was  given  him,  but  he  declined  the  dis- 
tinction of  statues  in  the  public  places,  and 
took  no  part  in  the  government  for  a  few 
years.  He  was  censor  in  199,  and  consul  a 
second  time  in  194,  and  several  times  received 
the  title  of  princepa  senatm.  In  193  he  was 
one  of  the  three  commissioners  sent  to  medi- 
ate between  Masinissa  and  the  Carthaginians. 
In  190  he  accompanied  his  brother  Lucius  (af- 
terward known  as  Asiaticus)  as  legatus  in  the 
war  against  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria. 
On  their  return  to  Rome  in  189,  after  the  close 
of  the  war,  his  brother  was  accused  of  taking 
bribes  from  Antiochus,  and  appropriating  the 
public  moneys  to  his  own  use.  In  187,  at  the 
instigation  of  M.  Porcius  Cato,  Lucius  was  re- 
quired by  the  tribunes  to  give  an  account  of 
the  sums  he  had  received.  He  prepared  to  do 
so,  but  Africanus  snatched  the  papers  from  his 
hands  and  tore  them  up  before  the  senate. 
During  the  same  year  Lucius  was  tried,  found 
guilty,  and  carried  to  prison,  but  was  rescued 
by  his  brother.  The  tribune,  Tiberius  Gracchus, 
released  Lucius  from  his  sentence  of  imprison- 
ment, and  his  friends  paid  the  fine.  His  adver- 
saries now  ventured  to  attack  Africanus  himself. 
Scipio  made  no  defence,  but  simply  recounted 
his  services  to  the  state,  and  thus  triumphed 
over  his  enemies.  He* spent  the  remainder  of 
his  days  on  his  estate  at  Liternum.  The  accounts 
of  Scipio's  life  are  confused  and  contradictory. 
Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  was  his 
daughter.  II.  Pnbiins  Cornelius  Sriplo  .Emilianns 
Afriranns  Minor,  a  Roman  general,  born  about 
185  B.  0.,  died  in  129.  He  was  the  son  of  L. 
yEmilius  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Macedon, 
and  was  adopted  by  P.  Scipio,  the  son  of  Afri- 
canus Major.  Ho  was  with  his  father  at  the 
battle  of  Pydna  in  168,  in  151  went  as  mili- 
tary tribune  to  Spain,  where  he  gained  a  high 
reputation,  and  in  150  was  sent  to  Africa  to  ob- 
tain elephants  from  Masinissa.  In  149,  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  third  Punic  war,  he  accom- 
panied the  army  to  Africa  as  military  tribune, 
and  saved  it  from  the  disasters  which  would 
naturally  have  resulted  from  the  incapacity  of 
Manilius.  In  147  he  was  elected  consul,  and  in 
the  spring  of  146  he  took  the  city  of  Carthage, 
and  ended  the  third  Punic  war.  He  returned 
to  Rome,  celebrated  a  triumph,  and  received 
the  surname  of  Africanus.  In  142  he  was 
made  censor,  and  endeavored  to  repress  the 
growing  luxury  of  the  Roman  people.  In  139 
he  was  tried  on  the  charge  of  majestas,  but 
was  acquitted.  After  this  he  went  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Egypt  and  Asia,  and  in  134  he  was 
elected  to  the  consulship  in  order  to  carry  on 
the  war  in  Spain.  Having  brought  the  disor- 


SCIRE  FACIAS 


SCOLITHUS 


695 


ganized  troops  into  a  proper  state  of  discipline, 
he  took  Numantia  in  133,  after  a  memorable 
siege  and  desperate  defence,  ending  in  the  self- 
immolation  of  nearly  all  its  inhabitants;  for 
this  he  received  the  surname  of  Numantinus. 
During  this  time  the  civil  troubles  in  Kome  had 
culminated  in  the  murder  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus, whose  sister  Scipio  had  married  ;  a  deed 
which  he  approved,  notwithstanding  their  re- 
lationship. The  people  were  consequently  es- 
tranged from  him,  and  in  129,  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing his  speech  against  the  agrarian  law,  he 
was  found  dead  in  his  chamber.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  literary  men  of  his 
time,  well  acquainted  with  Greek  philosophy 
and  literature,  and  the  friend  and  patron  of  the 
historian  Polybius,  the  philosopher  Pansetius, 
and  the  poets  Lucilius  and  Terence.  III.  Quin- 
tns  Csei'ilins  Metellns  Pins,  a  Roman  general,  killed 
himself  in  46  B.  0.  He  was  the  son  of  P.  Cor- 
nelius Scipio  Nasica  and  the  adopted  son  of 
Metellus  Pius,  and  in  consequence  he  has  been 
called  P.  Scipio  Nasica,  or  Q.  Metellus  Scipio. 
In  63  B.  C.  he  came  to  Cicero  by  night  to  in- 
form him  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  He 
became  tribune  in  60,  was  accused  of  bribery 
by  his  opponent  and  defended  by  Cicero,  and 
in  53  was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship  and 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Clodian  mob  opposed 
to  Milo.  When  the  senate  allowed  Pompey  to 
be  made  sole  consul,  that  leader,  who  was  his 
son-in-law,  chose  him  (August,  52)  as  his  col- 
league. He  labored  assiduously  to  destroy  the 
power  of  Caosar,  and  the  breach  between  the 
aristocratic  and  democratic  parties  at  Rome 
and  the  civil  war  were  largely  due  to  him.  He 
grossly  misgoverned  the  province  of  Syria,  as- 
signed to  him,  joined  Pompey  in  Greece  after 
Cesar's  repulse  at  Dyrrachium,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  fled  to  Africa,  where  he 
took  command  of  the  army  of  Attius  Varus, 
and  where  he  also  practised  extortion  and  op- 
pression. In  December,  47,  Csesar  crossed  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  April,  46,  routed  the 
forces  of  Scipio  and  Juba,  king  of  Numidia,  at 
the  battle  of  Thapsus;  and  Scipio  stabbed  him- 
self and  sprang  into  the  sea  to  escape  capture. 
SCIRE  FACIAS,  in  law,  a  judicial  writ  founded 
upon  some  record,  and  requiring  the  person 
against  whom  it  is  brought  to  show  cause  why 
the  person  bringing  it  should  not  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  such  record,  or  (in  the  case  of  a 
scire  facias  to  repeal  letters  patent)  why  the 
record  should  not  be  annulled  and  vacated.  It 
is  so  called  from  the  words  of  the  writ  (when 
in  Latin,  as  all  writs  originally  were)  to  the 
sheriff:  Quod  scire  facias  prcefato,  &c.,  and 
can  only  issue  from  the  court  having  the  rec- 
ord upon  which  it  is  founded.  It  is  most  com- 
monly used  for  the  purpose  of  reviving  a  judg- 
ment after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  time,  or  on  a 
change  of  parties,  or  otherwise  to  have  execu- 
tion of  the  judgment,  in  which  cases  it  is  mere- 
ly a  continuation  of  the  original  action.  It  is 
used  more  rarely  as  a  method  of  proceeding 
against  a  debtor's  bail,  when  the  original  debt- 


or has  absconded,  commanding  them  to  show 
cause  why  the  plaintiff  should  not  have  exe- 
cution against  them  for  his  debt  or  damages 
and  costs; -and  also  on  a  recognizance  to  the 
commonwealth,  as  well  as  to  obtain  execution 
against  the  indorser  of  an  original  writ,  in  case 
of  the  avoidance  or  inability  of  the  plaintiff  to 
pay  the  costs  recovered  against  him  by  the 
defendant.  It  also  lies  where  an  execution  has 
been  returned  into  court  as  satisfied  by  means 
of  a  levy,  but  it  afterward  appears  that  the 
lands  levied  upon  did  not  belong  to  the  judg- 
ment debtor,  or  the  levy  was  otherwise  imper- 
fect or  insufficient ;  and  in  England  it  may  be 
obtained  by  the  patron  or  owner  of  an  advow- 
son  for  the  purpose  of  removing  a  usurper's 
clerk  improperly  admitted  by  the  bishop.  It  is 
further  used  as  a  means  of  repealing  letters 
patent  which  have  been  obtained  by  fraud  or 
issued  improvidently,  and  in  this  case  it  is  an 
original  proceeding  or  action. — The  action  of 
scire  facias  is  the  proper  method  of  proceeding 
to  ascertain  judicially  and  enforce  the  forfei- 
ture of  a  charter  by  a  corporation  for  default 
or  abuse  of  power,  when  such  corporation  is 
a  legally  existing  body  capable  of  acting,  but 
which  has  abused  its  power ;  though  when 
the  corporation  is  a  body  de  facto  only,  and 
on  account  of  a  defect  in  the  charter  or  for 
any  other  reason  cannot  legally  exercise  its 
powers,  the  proceeding  is  by  quo  warranto. 

SCLOPIS  DE  SALERANO,  Paolo  Federigo,  count, 
an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  Turin  in  1798.  He 
studied  law  at  the  university  of  Turin,  distin- 
guished himself  in  drawing  up  the  Sardinian 
civil  code  of  1837  and  in  other  departments 
of  jurisprudence,  became  in  1848  minister  of 
justice  and  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  presided 
over  the  committee  for  framing  more  liberal 
laws  for  the  press ;  but  he  soon  exchanged  his 
place  in  the  cabinet  for  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties. At  the  close  of  1849  he  took  his  seat 
in  the  senate,  of  which  he  was  president  till 
1861,  and  subsequently  held  the  same  office 
in  the  senate  of  Italy  till  1864.  In  1872  he 
was  appointed  by  Victor  Einanuel  arbitrator 
at  Geneva  on  the  part  of  Italy  under  the  treaty 
of  Washington,  and  he 
was  made  president  of 
the  court  of  arbitra- 
tion. The  American 
government  sent  him 
a  service  of  silver  plate 
in  1874.  His  principal 
work  is  a  history  of 
Italian  legislation  (3 
vols.,  Turin,  1840-'57). 

MOLJTIHS,  a  sup- 
posed fossil  burrowing 
worm  of  the  arenico- 
la  family,  whose  long 
vertical  holes  are  very  Scoiithus  Hnearis. 

common  in  the  Pots- 
dam sandstones,  of  the  lower  Silurian  period. 
These  holes,  now  filled  with  rocky  material, 
were  for  a  long  time  believed  to  be  the  re- 


696 


SCOPAS 


SCORPION 


mains  of  a  fucoid  plant,  and  afterward  until 
recently  to  indicate  the  existence  of  a  long 
marine  worm,  which  inhabited  the  sanda  not 
far  below  tide  level.  The  most  common  form 
has  been  named  S.  linearis,  and,  whatever  it 
be,  is  one  of  the  earliest  fossils.  Since  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  habits  of  sponges, 
especially  to  those  of  cliona  and  its  allies, 
which  mine  and  perforate  shells,  some  palse- 
ontologists  are  disposed  to  attribute  the  sco- 
lithus  marks  to  these  rather  than  to  marine 
worms.  Sponges  are  known  to  have  existed 
at  the  period  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  next 
above  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  most  if  not  all  of  those  burrows 
are  due  to  ancient  mining  sponges. 

SCOPAS,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in  the  island 
of  Paros,  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the 
4th  century  B.  0.  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Praxiteles,  and  with  him  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  later  Attic  school  of  sculpture.  Among  his 
most  famous  works  are  the  slabs  from  the  mau- 
soleum of  Halicarnassus  representing  a  battle 
of  Amazons.  The  celebrated  group  of  Niobe 
and  her  children  in  the  Uffizi  gallery,  Flor- 
ence, and  the  Venus  of  Milo  in  the  Louvre, 
are  also  attributed  to  Scopas,  though  the  lat- 
ter probably  belongs  to  the  school  of  Phidias. 
He  was  employed  on  the  temples  of  Athena 
Alea  in  Arcadia  and  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  His 
masterpiece,  according  to  Pliny,  jwas  a  group 
representing  Achilles  conducted  to  the  island  of 
Leuce  by  sea  divinities. — See  Skopas's  Leben 
und  Werke,  by  Ulrichs  (Greifswald,  1863). 

SCORESBY.  I.  William,  an  English  navigator, 
born  at  Cropton,  Yorkshire,  May  3,  1760,  died 
in  1829.  Ho  was  bred  a  farmer,  and  at  the 
age  of  29  entered  on  a  seafaring  life ;  and  he 
became  an  adventurous  and  successful  whaling 
master,  having  held  command  in  30  voyages. 
He  made  numerous  improvements  in  whale- 
fishing  apparatus  and  operations,  and  invented 
the  observatory  attached  to  the  maintopmast, 
called  the  "  round  topgallant  crow's  nest," 
which  was  generally  adopted  by  arctic  navi- 
gators. II.  William,  an  English  arctic  explorer 
and  clergyman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Cropton,  Oct.  5,  1790,  died  in  Torquay,  March 
21, 1857.  At  the  age  of  10  he  ran  away  to  sea 
in  one  of  his  father's  ships,  and  in  his  16th 
year  attained  the  rank  of  chief  mate.  He  was 
second  officer  of  the  Resolution,  commanded 
by  his  father,  which  in  1806  sailed  to  lat.  81° 
30',  the  northernmost  point  that  had  then  been 
reached.  After  several  years  spent  in  study, 
partly  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  he  be- 
came in  1810  captain  of  the  Resolution.  Some 
communications  which  he  made  to  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  resulted  in  the  series  of  explorations  in 
the  north  which  have  distinguished  the  present 
century.  He  was  the  first  to  attempt  scientific 
observations  on  the  electricity  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  high  northern  regions.  He  explored 
in  the  ship  Baffin  in  1822  the  E.  coast  of  Green- 
land, and  after  his  return  devoted  himself  to 
study,  graduating  at  Cambridge  as  bachelor  of 


divinity  in  1834,  and  subsequently  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D.  After  serving  as  chaplain  of 
the  mariners'  church  in  Liverpool,  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1839  vicar  of  Bradford  in  Yorkshire. 
Here  he  labored  until  his  failing  health  obliged 
him  to  retire  to  Torquay,  where  he  engaged 
in  scientific  and  philanthropic  labors.  He  vis- 
ited the  United  States  in  1847,  and  shortly 
before  his  death  made  a  voyage  round  the 
world,  reaching  home  Aug.  14,  1856.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  royal  society.  His  principal 
works  are :  "  An  Account  of  the  Arctic  Re- 
gions" (2  vols.  8vo,  1820);  "Journal  of  a  Voy- 
age to  the  Northern  Whale  Fishery"  (1823); 
"Discourses  to  Seamen"  (1831);  "Magneti- 
cal  Observations"  (3  parts,  8vo,  1889-'52) ; 
"American  Factories  and  their  Female  Ope- 
ratives" (1848);  "Zoistic  Magnetism"  (1849); 
"Sabbaths  in  the  Arctic  Regions"  (1850); 
"  The  Franklin  Expedition  "  (1850)  ;  "  My  Fa- 
ther" (1851);  and  "Voyage  to  Australia  and 
round  the  World  for  Magnetical  Research," 
edited  by  Archibald  Smith  (1859).  His  life 
has  been  written  by  his  nephew,  R.  E.  Scores- 
by-Jackson  (London,  1861). 

SCORPION,  an  articulate  animal  of  the  class 
arachnida  or  spiders,  division  pulmonarice  or 
those  which  breathe  by  air  sacs,  order  pedipal- 
pi,  and  genus  scorpio  (Linn.).  The  body  is 
long,  the  head  and  thorax  in  a  single  piece, 
the  thorax  and  abdomen  intimately  united  and 
followed  by  six  joints  of  nearly  equal  breadth, 
and  then  by  six  others  very  narrow,  and  form- 
ing what  is  called  the  tail ;  the  last  joint  ends 
in  a  sharp  curved  sting  connected  with  a  gland 
secreting  an  oily,  whitish,  poisonous  fluid, 
which  is  discharged  by  two  small  openings 
near  the  end ;  the  body  is  clothed  with  a  firm, 
coriaceous  skin  composed  of  chitine.  The 
mandibles,  according  to  Siebold,  are  wanting, 
the  parts  usually  called  such  being  only  anten- 
nas transformed  into  prehensile  and  masticatory 
organs ;  the  cheliceres  have  three  joints,  move 
vertically,  and  under  them  have  the  first  pair 
of  jaws  changed  into  long  prehensile  palpi,  like 
extended  arms,  ending  in  a  didactyle  claw  or 
pincer,  an  in  the  lobster,  endowed  with  a  deli- 
cate sense  of  touch ;  there  are  eight  legs,  three- 
jointed,  ending  each  in  a  double  hook ;  the 
eyes  are  six  or  eight,  one  pair  of  which  is  often 
median  and  larger  than  the  others;  at  the  base 
of  the  abdomen  are  two  laminated  organs, 
called  combs.  On  the  lower  and  lateral  parts 
of  the  abdomen  are  eight  spiracles  or  stigmata, 
opening  into  as  many  pulmonary  sacs,  each  en- 
closing 20  delicate  laminfe  for  respiratory  pur- 
poses; the  heart  consists  of  eight  chambers, 
and  at  each  end  is  prolonged  into  an  arterial 
trunk ;  there  is  also  a  venous  system ;  the 
blood  is  colorless,  and  contains  a  few  cells  and 
granules ;  no  blood  vessels  have  been  discov- 
ered on  the  pulmonary  lamina?,  and  the  blood 
is  probably  effused  into  the  parts  surrounding 
these  sacs  or  lungs.  The  intestine  is  straight 
and  narrow,  with  the  anal  opening  on  the 
penultimate  caudal  segment ;  the  liver  is  very 


SCORPION 


SCOTLAND 


697 


large,  and  salivary  glands  distinct ;  the  urinary 
organs  are  ramified  tubes  opening  into  the  clo- 
aca; the  reproductive  organs  are  double,  at 
the  base  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  sexes  distinct; 
the  two  ventral  nervous  cords  proceeding  from 
the  head  form  eight  ganglia,  the  last  four  be- 
longing to  the  tail.  Scorpions  feed  on  insects, 
which  they  hold  by  their  palpi  and  sting  to 
death,  and  then  suck  the  blood ;  they  are  gen- 
erally found  in  dark  places  in  warm  climates, 
and  in  some  tropical  parts  of  the  old  world 
render  whole  districts  uninhabitable ;  they  live 
on  the  ground,  concealing  themselves  under 
stones,  in  ruins,  in  the  interior  of  houses,  and 
even  in  beds ;  they  run  very  fast,  keeping  the 
tail  elevated  and  ready  to  strike  in  any  direc- 
tion ;  the  females  are  larger  and  less  numerous 
than  the  males.  Under  certain  circumstances 
they  kill  and  devour  their  own  progeny ;  they 
renew  their  skin  several  times,  and  can  live 
very  long  without  food ;  gestation  is  said  to 
continue  nearly  a  year,  the  young  being  born 
alive  and  in  succession.  The  scorpion  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  as  its  place 
in  the  ancient  zodiac  proves ;  on  Egyptian 
monuments  Anubis  is  often  represented  as 
facing  it  as  if  to  destroy  its  influence ;  Pliny 
gives  a  long  account  of  the  fabled  powers 
of  this  animal. — The  S.  Europceus  (Linn.),  of 
southern  Europe,  is  about  an  inch  long,  brown, 
with  the  feet  and  end  of  tail  yellowish,  and 
the  palpi  angular  and  heart-shaped  ;  the  female 
produces  her  young  alive  in  succession,  carry- 
ing them  on  her  back  for  a  few  days  and  pro- 
tecting them  for  about  a  month ;  it  has  six 
eyes,  and  nine  teeth  in  the  comb ;  its  sting  is 
harmless.  The  reddish  scorpion  (S.  occitanm, 
Latr.)  is  a  little  larger,  yellowish  red,  having 
the  tail  a  little  longer  than  the  body  with  raised 
and  finely  notched  lines ;  there  are  eight  eyes, 
and  more  than  30  teeth  in  the  comb ;  it  is 
found  in  Spain  and  in  N.  Africa,  but  not  with 
the  preceding  species ;  its  sting  is  more  to  be 
feared,  and  may  be  dangerous  to  persons  of 
weak  constitution.  The  black  scorpion  (S. 
afer,  Linn.)  is  blackish  brown,  with  the  claws 


Black  Scorpion  (Scorpio  afer). 

rough  and  a  little  hairy  and  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  corslet  strongly  emarginated ;  there  are 
eight  eyes,  and  18  teeth  in  the  comb.  It  is 
found  in  Ceylon  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  attains  a  length  of  5  or  6  in. ;  the 
sting  is  sometimes  fatal ;  the  best  remedy  has 


been  found  to  be  ammonia  externally  and  in- 
ternally, to  neutralize  the  poison  in  the  first 
case,  and  to  guard  against  prostration  in  the 
other  ;  other  caustics  and  stimulants  are  used, 
and  embrocations  of  various  kinds  of  oil. — 
Nearly  allied  to  the  scorpions  are  the  small 
book  scorpions  (chelifer),  common  in  old  books 
and  neglected  drawers.  Small  scorpions  of  the 
genus  Iruchus  are  found  in  our  southern  states. 

SCOT,  Reginald,  an  English  author,  died  in 
1599.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  but  never 
took  a  degree,  and  passed  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  on  his  paternal  estate  near  Smeeth  in 
Kent.  His  "  Discoverie  of  Witchcraft "  (1584), 
in  which  he  combats  the  popular  opinion  that 
the  devil  has  the  power  of  controlling  the 
course  of  nature,  was  burned  by  the  common 
hangman.  James  I.  wrote  his  "Demonologie," 
he  informs  us,  "  chiefly  against  the  damnable 
opinions  of  Wierus  and  Scot,  the  latter  of 
whom  is  not  ashamed  in  public  print  to  deny 
there  can  be  such  a  thing  as  witchcraft."  Scot's 
work  passed  through  three  editions,  and  was 
translated  into  French  and  German.  It  is 
now  exceedingly  rare.  In  1576  he  published 
a  "  Perfect  Platform  of  a  Hop  Garden." 

SCOTER.    See  DUCK,  vol.  vi.,  p.  291. 

SCOTLAND,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  bor- 
dering on  Iowa,  and  intersected  by  the  Wya- 
conda,  North  Fabius,  and  Middle  Fabius  riv- 
ers; area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,670,  of 
whom  129  were  colored.  The  surface  is  most- 
ly prairie,  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  95,862 
bushels  of  wheat,  30,035  of  rye,  736,703  of 
Indian  corn,  350,516  of  oats,  45,246  of  pota- 
toes, 18,328  tons  of  hay,  10,972  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
110,698  of  wool,  327,960  of  butter,  19,450  of 
honey,  and  42,556  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  5,898  horses,  919  mules  and  asses, 
5,326  milch  cows,  10,089  other  cattle,  29,957 
sheep,  and  24,849  swine.  Capital,  Memphis. 

SCOTLAND,  the  N.  part  of  the  island  of  Great 
Britain,  and  one  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  the 
British  empire  in  Europe.  It  consists  of  a 
mainland  and  several  groups  of  islands  on  the 
N.  and  W.  coasts,  and  is  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  the  North  sea,  S.  by  England,  from  which 
it  is  partly  separated  by  the  river  Tweed,  and 
the  Irish  sea,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
The  mainland  extends  from  lat.  54°  38'  to  58° 
40'  30"  N.,  and  from  Ion.  1°  45'  to  6°  15'  W. 
The  extreme  N.  point  of  the  islands  is  Unst, 
in  the  Shetland  group,  lat.  60°  50',  and  their 
most  westerly  point  St.  Kilda,  in  the  Hebrides, 
Ion.  8°  35'.  The  greatest  length  of  the  main- 
land, from  Dunnet  Head  in  the  north  to  the 
Mull  of  Galloway  in  the  south,  is  about  280 
m. ;  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Buchan 
Ness  in  the  east  to  Ardnamurchan  point  in  the 
west,  about  170  m.  The  seacoast  is  extremely 
irregular,  and  so  frequently  and  so  deeply  in- 
dented that  its  total  extent  is  estimated  at 
3,000  m.  By  these  indentations  the  breadth 
of  the  mainland  is  in  some  places  greatly  re- 


698 


SCOTLAND 


duced,  the  distance  between  Alloa  on  the  E. 
coast  and  Dumbarton  on  the  W.  coast  being 
only  32  ra.,  and  between  Loch  Broom  on  the 
west'and  the  Dornoch  frith  on  the  east  only 
24  m.  On  the  north  are  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land islands,  each  group  containing  a  popula- 
tion of  about  31,000.  On  the  west  are  the 
Hebrides  or  Western  islands,  divided  into  the 
outer  and  inner  groups,  with  a  total  popula- 
tion of  about  99,000.  (See  HEBRIDES,  ORKNEY 
ISLANDS,  and  SHETLAND  ISLANDS.)  The  island 
of  Stroma  lies  between  the  Orkneys  and  the 
mainland.  On  the  E.  coast  are  May,  Inch- 
keith,  and  Inchcolm  islands,  in  the  frith  of 
Forth,  and  Inchcape  or  Bell  Rock,  off  the  frith 
of  Tay. — The  mainland  of  Scotland  is  geo- 
graphically divided  into  two  distinct  regions, 
the  highlands  N.  of  the  Grampian  mountains, 
and  the  lowlands  S.  of  that  range ;  but  there 
is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  country  in  which 
mountain  ranges  are  not  visible.  There  are 
five  principal  chains  nearly  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  having  a  general  direction  from  N. 
E.  to  S.  W.  1.  The  northern  highlands  com- 
mence in  detached  groups  at  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Caithness,  and  cover  a  large  portion  of 
the  counties  of  Sutherland,  Ross,  and  Inver- 
ness. They  separate  the  streams  which  flow 
into  the  Atlantic  from  those  that  reach  the 
North  sea  through  the  Moray  frith.  The  prin- 
cipal summits  are  Ben  Attow,  3,998  ft.;  Ben 
Wyvis,  3,420;  Ben  Dearg,  3,656;  Ben  More, 
8,230;  Ben  Clibrich,  8,165;  and  Morven, 
2,331.  2.  The  Grampians,  extending  from  Loch 
Awe  on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  near  Stoneha- 
ven  and  Aberdeen  on  the  coast  of  the  North 
sea,  with  their  ramifications,  form  in  general 
the  boundary  between  the  highlands  and  low- 
lands, with  a  height  of  from  2,000  to  4,000  ft. 
The  principal  summits  are  Ben  MacDhui,  4,296 
ft. ;  Cairntoul,  4,245  ;  Cairngorm,  4,090 ;  Ben 
Avon,  3,826;  Ben-y-Gloe,  3,690;  Schiehallion, 
8,564;  and  Ben  Lomond,  8,192.  Ben  Nevis, 
N.  of  the  W.  extremity  of  the  Grampians,  and 
sometimes  reckoned  as  belonging  to  them,  is 
4,406  ft.  (according  to  older  measurements 
4,870  ft.)  high.  3.  The  Ochil  and  Sidlaw  range 
is  separated  from  the  Grampians  by  the  valley 
of  Strathmore,  and  consists  of  three  small 
chains  which  extend  from  Forfarshire  to  Stir- 
lingshire, and  form  the  N.  watershed  of  the 
basins  of  the  rivers  Tay,  Forth,  and  Clyde. 
The  Sidlaw  hills  extend  from  the  river  Dean 
to  Perth  on  the  Tay.  Their  highest  summit, 
King's  Seat,  is  1,149"  ft.  high.  The  Ochils,  be- 
tween Stirling  and  the  frith  of  Tay,  attain  an 
elevation  of  2,350  ft.,  and  the  Campsie  Fells  in 
Stirlingshire  are  1,500  ft.  high.  4.  The  Lam- 
mermoor  and  Pentland  range  is  separated  from 
the  third  range  by  the  frith  of  Forth,  and  forms 
the  S.  boundary  of  the  Forth  basin.  This  range 
consists  of  the  Lammermoor  hills  between  Had- 
dington  and  Berwick,  with  an  elevation  of  1,750 
ft. ;  the  Moorfoot  hills,  a  western  continua- 
tion of  the  Lamraermoors ;  the  Pentland  hills 
in  Midlothian,  1,838  ft.  high  ;  and  lastly  Tinto 


hill  in  Lanarkshire,  2,308  ft.  high.  6.  The 
Cheviot  and  Lowther  range,  or  the  southern 
highlands,  extends  from  the  English  border  to 
Loch  Ryan,  and  separates  the  basins  of  the 
Clyde  and  the  Tweed  on  the  north  from  those 
of  the  Solway  and  the  Tyne  on  the  south.  The 
highest  summits  of  this  range  are  Broadlaw, 
2,741  ft.;  Cheviot  peak,  2,677;  Hart  Fell, 
2,638  ;  and  Lowther  hill,  2,520.  The  glens  or 
deep  and  rocky  valleys  among  the  Scottish 
mountains  are  famous  for  the  wild  beauty  and 
grandeur  of  their  scenery.  Chief  among  them 
is  Glenmore,  the  "  great  glen,"  which  extends 
in  a  straight  line  nearly  60  m.  from  Loch  Eil 
on  the  W.  coast  to  Beauly  frith  on  the  E.  It 
contains  three  long  lochs  or  lakes,  whose  ag- 
gregate length  is  87  m. — The  rivers  are  com- 
prised in  nine  principal  basins,  those  of  the 
Tweed,  the  Forth,  the  Tay,  the  Deo  and  Don, 
the  Spey,  the  Ness  and  Nairn,  the  Linnhe,  the 
Clyde,  and  the  Solway.  The  first  six  discharge 
their  waters  into  the  North  sea,  and  the  re- 
maining three  into  the  Atlantic.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Tay,  Clyde,  Forth,  Tweed, 
South  Esk,  and  Dee.  They  are  not  navigable 
by  large  vessels  for  any  considerable  distance 
above  their  estuaries,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Clyde,  which  has  been  rendered  navigable 
to  Glasgow  by  artificial  deepening  and  em- 
bankment. The  lakes  (or  lochs,  as  they  are 
called  in  the  Scottish  dialect)  are  numerous, 
and  are  mostly  in  the  glens  of  the  highlands. 
They  are  generally  of  a  length  altogether  dis- 
proportioned  to  their  breadth,  and  the  scenery 
around  them  is  celebrated  for  grandeur  and 
beauty.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
noted,  with  the  number  of  square  miles  in  the 
area  of  each :  Lomond,  45 ;  Ness,  30 ;  Awe, 
80;  Shin,  25;  Maree,  24;  Tay,  20;  Archaig, 
18;  Shiel,  16;  Lochy,  15;  Laggan,  12;  Mor- 
rer,  12;  Fannich,  10;  Ericht,  10;  Naver,  9; 
Earn,  9;  Leven,  7;  Ken,  6;  and  Katrine,  5. 
A  still  more  characteristic  feature  of  the  coun- 
try are  the  sea  lochs,  or  friths  or  firths  as  they 
are  called,  deep  inlets  which  indent  the  coast. 
The  most  extensive  on  the  E.  coast  are  the 
friths  of  Forth,  Tay,  Moray,  and  Dornoch. 
Between  the  last  two  is  Cromarty  frith,  cele- 
brated for  its  beauty  and  for  its  excellence  as 
a  harbor  of  refuge.  On  the  N.  coast  is  Loch 
Eriboll,  also  a  good  harbor,  and  on  the  W. 
coast  the  two  lochs  Broom,  Loch  Ewe,  Loch 
Torridon,  Loch  Carron,  Loch  Alsh,  Loch  Su- 
nart,  and  Loch  Linnhe.  The  frith  of  Clyde  is 
the  largest  and  most  useful  of  these  inlets, 
of  which  only  a  few  have  been  mentioned. — 
Geologically  Scotland  is  divided  into  three  dis- 
tinct regions:  1.  The  southern  or  older  pala3o- 
zoic,  which  includes  the  region  between  the 
southern  boundary  and  a  line  running  E.  N.  E. 
from  Girvan  on  the  frith  of  Clyde  to  the  Sic- 
car  point  on  the  E.  coast.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  lower  Silurian  strata,  which  have  been  forc- 
ed up  in  various  anticlinals  and  convolutions, 
and  broken  through  in  several  places  by  feld- 
spar porphyries,  trap  rocks,  granite,  and  eye- 


7O  l.ong-iUideK.ttiit  71  I'nim  Wiuhin^Um         72 


SCOTLAND 


699 


nite.  The  mountain  range  called  the  southern 
highlands,  which  crosses  the  island  from  St. 
Abb's  Head  on  the  North  sea  to  Loch  Kyan,  is 
formed  by  these  strata.  These  mountains  sel- 
dom rise  above  2,000  ft.,  and  are  clothed  to  the 
summit  by  grass  or  moss.  On  the  English  bor- 
der are  the  Cheviots,  a  group  consisting  of 
feldspar  porphyry  and  trap  rocks.  The  princi- 
pal valley  of  this  region  is  that  of  the  Tweed, 
which  embraces  some  very  fertile  land.  West 
of  the  valley  of  the  Tweed  are  the  vales  of  the 
Liddel,  Esk,  and  Annan,  the  lower  portions  of 
which  are  peat  bogs,  the  site  of  ancient  forests, 
which  have  been  in  great  part  drained  and 
cultivated.  2.  The  central  or  newer  palaeozoic 
region  embraces  the  basins  of  the  friths  of 
Clyde,  Forth,  and  Tay,  and  has  an  area  of 
about  5,000  sq.  m.  It  consists  of  the  Devo- 
nian or  old  red  sandstone  and  the  carbonifer- 
ous formations,  with  the  surface  extensively 
covered  by  trap  rocks.  The  coal  measures  are 
largely  productive  in  rich  beds  of  bituminous 
coal,  iron  ores,  and  fire  clay.  Much  of  the 
coal  is  cannel,  and  is  largely  exported  for  gas 
works  and  domestic  consumption  in  other 
countries.  The  boghead  cannel  is  especially 
famous  for  producing  gas  and  coal  oil.  The 
iron  ores  are  worked  on  an  immense  scale, 
especially  the  variety  known  as  the  black 
band;  and  the  product  of  the  blast  furnaces 
of  this  region  has  long  been  exported  in  large 
quantities  to  the  United  States,  where  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Scotch  pig.  South  of 
the  Forth  are  the  Pentland  hills,  and  north  of 
it  the  Kilpatrick,  Campsie,  Ochil,  and  Sidlaw 
hills,  a  range  of  trap  rocks.  Among  the  re- 
markable isolated  trap  hills  in  this  district  are 
Arthur's  Seat  and  the  Lomond  hills,  and  the 
rocks  on  which  are  built  the  castles  of  Edin- 
burgh, Stirling,  and  Dumbarton.  3.  The  north- 
ern division,  or  the  region  of  the  crystalline 
and  metamorphic  rocks,  comprises  the  whole 
of  Scotland  N.  and  W.  of  the  central  division, 
or  beyond  a  line  drawn  from  the  frith  of  Clyde 
on  the  S.  "W.  to  Stonehaven  on  the  opposite 
coast.  This  region  has  an  area  of  19,000  sq. 
m.,  and  comprises  the  highlands.  Its  south- 
ern boundary  is  a  narrow  zone  of  clay  slate, 
•which  is  extensively  quarried  for  roofing  slates. 
North  of  this  is  an  irregular  band  of  mica  slate, 
which  begins  in  the  peninsula  called  the  Mull 
of  Cantyre,  and  extends  in  a  N.  E.  direction 
to  the  E.  coast.  Beyond  this  is  an  extensive 
formation  of  gneiss  covering  about  11,000  sq. 
m.  This  is  throughout  broken  by  granite, 
sometimes  in  small  veins  and  in  other  places 
in  huge  mountain  masses,  forming  some  of  the 
highest  summits  in  Scotland.  Among  the  oth- 
er igneous  rocks  of  this  region,  the  most  im- 
portant is  porphyry,  which  forms  the  moun- 
tains of  Glencoe  and  the  summit  of  Ben  Nevis, 
the  highest  point  of  the  British  islands.  Next 
on  the  W.  coast  is  the  red  sandstone  formation, 
with  the  superposed  quartzite  and  limestone, 
constituting  a  series  of  lofty  mountains,  of 
which  the  principal  peaks  are  about  3,000  ft. 


high.  The  N.  and  E.  extremity  of  the  main- 
land is  mostly  covered  by  the  old  red  sand- 
stone or  Devonian  formation,  which  spreads 
N.  over  the  Orkneys  and  part  of  Shetland. 
On  the  N.  E.  coast  are  newer  secondary  de- 
posits of  limited  extent,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  patches  of  lias  and  oolite  in  Aber- 
deenshire,  Elgin,  Cromarty,  and  Sutherland, 
and  greensand  and  chalk  flints  in  Aberdeen- 
shire.  Lias  and  oolite  beds  are  widely  diffused 
on  the  W.  coast  and  around  the  shores  of  some 
of  the  islands.  In  the  islands  of  Skye,  Mull, 
and  Morven,  and  in  Lorn  on  the  mainland, 
these  beds  are  covered  by  trap  rock,  showing 
that  for  a  long  period  this  part  of  Scotland 
was  subject  to  volcanic  action. — The  climate  is 
so  tempered  by  the  influence  of  the  ocean  that, 
notwithstanding  the  high  northern  latitude  of 
the  country,  the  thermometer  rarely  falls  to 
zero,  nor  does  it  often  rise  above  80°  in  sum- 
mer ;  the  mean  temperature  is  47°.  The  prev- 
alent winds  are  from  the  west,  and  the  record 
of  meteorological  observations  shows  that  du- 
ring more  than  two  thirds  of  the  year  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  is  from  N.  W.  or  S.  W.  In 
some  places  among  the  mountains  the  annual 
fall  of  rain  is  nearly  100  inches,  while  in  other 
parts  of  the  country  it  is  only  24  inches.  Ob- 
servations made  at  55  stations  during  1872 
showed  the  following  results:  highest  temper- 
ature in  the  shade  85-3°,  lowest  10°;  mean 
day  temperature  52'6°,  mean  night  tempera- 
ture 41'1°,  mean  temperature  46'9°;  number 
of  rainy  days,  217;  rainfall,  54'15  inches; 
mean  barometer,  29-698.  Easterly  winds  pre- 
vailed 112  days,  and  westerly  147  days. — The 
flora  of  Scotland  does  not  differ  materially 
from  that  of  England,  though  there  are  some 
peculiar  plants  which  grow  only  in  certain  re- 
stricted localities.  The  number  of  flowering 
plants  and  ferns  is  estimated  at  1,200.  Among 
those  of  a  peculiarly  Scottish  type  are  the 
globe  flower,  crowberry,  trientalis  Europcea, 
primula  farinosa,  haloscias  Scoticum,  and  Mer- 
tensia  maritima.  There  are  37  species  of  in- 
digenous land  quadrupeds,  among  them  the 
red,  fallow,  and  roe  deer,  the  hare,  rabbit,  fox, 
badger,  otter,  wild  cat,  weasel,  and  hedgehog. 
Bears  and  wolves  have  been  exterminated,  the 
last  wolf  having  been  killed  in  1680.  A  few 
specimens  of  the  native  wild  cattle  are  pre- 
served in  a  park  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Hamilton.  Of  birds  about  270  species  have 
been  noted,  one  half  of  them  water  birds,  of 
which  great  numbers  are  found  on  the  coast. 
The  golden  eagle  inhabits  the  mountains,  and 
the  pheasant,  ptarmigan,  blackcock,  grouse, 
and  partridge  are  abundant.  Reptiles  are  al- 
most unknown.  Fish  abound  in  the  lakes, 
rivers,  and  adjacent  seas,  and  a  great  variety 
of  shell  fish  occurs,  among  which  is  a  mussel 
found  in  the  rivers  containing  in  some  cases 
tolerably  large  pearls. — Politically,  the  king- 
dom is  divided  into  33  counties,  grouped  in 
eight  geographical  divisions.  The  population 
of  these  counties  according  to  the  official  cen- 


700 


SCOTLAND 


BUS  returns  of  1871,  and  their  shire  towns,  are 

given  in  the  following  table  : 

• 

COUNTIES. 

Pop.  la  1871. 

8UIKE  TOWNS. 

NORTHERN. 

Shetland              

81,603 
81.274 
8'J,9i»2 
24,317 

80,055 
87,531 

10,225 
43.013 
62,023 
244,603 
84,630 

837.567 
127,768 
160.7*5 
7,193 
28,747 

93,213 
5S.S57 
75,679 

Lerwick. 

Kirk  wall. 
Wick. 
Dornoch. 

j  Dinsrwall    and 
|     Cromarty. 
Inverness. 

Nairn. 
Elgin. 
Banff. 
Aberdeen. 
Stonohaven. 

Forfar. 
Perth. 
Cupar. 
Kinross. 
Clackmannan. 

Stirling. 
Dumbarton. 
Invcrary. 
liothesay. 

Renfrew. 
Ayr. 
Lanark. 

Unlithgow. 
Edinburgh. 
HuddingtoD. 
Oreenlaw. 
Peebles. 
Selkirk. 

Jedburgh. 
Dumfries. 
Kirkcudbright. 
Wigtown. 

Caithness  

NORTHWESTER*. 

Rosa  and  Cromarty  

NORTHEASTERN. 

Nairn    .  .  ;  

Banff              

EAST  MIDLAND. 

Fortar  .  .  . 

Perth  

Fife   

Clackmannan  

WEST  MIDLAND. 

Stirling  

Dumbarton  

Anrvle.  .  .  . 

Bute  

16,977 

218,047 

2iMt.st>9 
765,339 

40,635 
821,379 
87.771 
86,4-6 
1-2.830 
14,005 

68,974 
74,  sOS 
41.S59 
8S.S30 

SOUTHWESTERN. 
Renfrew  

Ayr  

L&wt..  

SOUTHEASTER*. 

Linlithgow  

Edinburgh  

lladdington  

Berwick  

Peebles.  .  . 

Selkirk  

SOUTHERN. 

Roxburgh  

Dumfries  

Kirkcudbright  

WUrtown  .  .  . 

The  total  area  is  80,463  sq.  m.,  of  which  the 
islands  comprise  about  5,000.  The  population 
has  been  steadily  increasing  for  more  than  a 
century,  chiefly  by  natural  growth.  In  1700 
the  number  of  inhabitants  was  estimated  at 
1,000,000;  in  1755,  at  1,265,000.  The  first 
government  census  was  in  1801,  and  the  result 
was  1,608,420  inhabitants.  By  the  successive 
censuses  at  intervals  of  10  years  it  was  found 
that  the  population  increased  in  each  decade 
from  10  to  13  per  cent.  The  enumeration  of 
1811  gave  1,805,864;  of  1821,  2,091,521;  of 
1831,  2,364,386;  of  1841,  2,620,184;  of  1851, 
2,888,742;  of  1861,  3,062,294;  and  of '1871, 
3,360,018,  of  whom  1,603,143  were  males  and 
1,756,875  females ;  161,909  lived  on  the  islands. 
Scotland  contains  168  cities  and  towns,  of 
which  70  are  royal  and  79  municipal  burghs. 
Edinburgh  is  the  capital  and  the  sent  of  the 
chief  courts,  but  Glasgow  is  the  largest  city. 
Besides  these  the  following,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  their  populousness,  had  each  in  1871 
more  than  25,000  inhabitants :  Dundee,  Aber- 
deen, Greenock,  Paisley,  Leith,  and  Perth; 


and  the  following  more  than  10,000  inhabi- 
tants :  Kilmarnock,  Arbroath,  Kirkcaldy,  Ayr, 
Coatbridge,  Airdrie,  Dumfries,  Dunfermline, 
Montrose,  Inverness,  Stirling,  Hamilton,  Dum- 
barton, Hawick,  Port  Glasgow,  and  Galashiels. 
The  kingdom  in  1872  contained  887  parishes. 
The  people  are  divided  into  two  great  and  dis- 
tinct stocks,  differing  in  language,  manners,  and 
dress,  viz. :  the  highlanders  and  the  lowland- 
ers,  the  former  living  in  the  mountainous  north 
and  the  latter  in  the  south.  The  highlanders 
wear  a  short  coat,  a  vest,  and  a  kilt  or  tilli- 
beg,  a  kind  of  petticoat  reaching  scarcely  to 
the  knees,  which  are  left  entirely  uncovered, 
the  lower  part  of  the  legs  being  covered  with 
short  hose.  These  garments  are  usually  of  tar- 
tan, a  kind  of  checkered  stuff  of  various  colors. 
On  the  head  is  worn  a  peculiar  covering  called 
a  bonnet.  Sometimes  the  plaid,  a  large  piece 
of  tartan,  is  worn  around  the  body  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Roman  toga.  The  language  of  the 
highlanders  is  the  Erse  or  Gaeh'c,  a  Celtic  dia- 
lect bearing  no  analogy  to  the  English.  (See 
CELTS,  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURE  OF  THE.) 
Both  the  peculiar  language  and  the  peculiar 
costume  of  the  highlands  are  gradually  falling 
into  disuse,  the  people  adopting  the  manners, 
dress,  and  dialect  of  the  lowlands.  The  clans 
or  tribes  into  which  they  were  formerly  divided 
have  also  ceased  to  have  any  legal  existence, 
and  the  hereditary  chiefs  who  once  governed 
them  with  almost  absolute  sway  have  no  longer 
any  authority.  The  highlanders,  who  at  no 
very  remote  period  were  noted  for  their  war- 
like and  predatory  habits,  have  ceased  to  carry 
arms  about  their  persons,  and  are  as  peaceable 
and  orderly  as  any  other  part  of  the  British 
population.  But  they  are  still  fond  of  military 
life,  and  enlist  in  great  numbers  in  the  British 
army,  of  which  they  form  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  regiments.  The  peculiar  lan- 
guage of  the  lowland  Scots  closely  resembles 
the  English,  though  some  regard  it  as  a  dia- 
lect of  the  Scandinavian.  It  is  mixed  with 
Anglo-Saxon  words  and  idioms,  and  with  a 
few  French  terms  which  have  not  found  their 
way  into  English.  This  dialect  prevails  not 
only  in  the  lowlands,  but  in  Caithness,  Orkney, 
and  Shetland  in  the  north.  The  lowlanders, 
especially  those  of  the  towns,  do  not  differ 
much  from  the  English,  and  the  two  nations 
have  been  rapidly  assimilating  during  the  pres- 
ent century.  Among  the  peasantry,  however, 
many  traits  are  preserved  of  a  character  es- 
sentially Scotch.  They  are  marked  by  an  ath- 
letic, bony  frame,  broad  and  high  cheek  bones, 
and  a  hard,  weather-beaten  countenance.  No 
people  have  shown  a  more  resolute  determina- 
tion in  defence  of  civil  and  religious  freedom. 
Their  chief  vices  are  intemperance  and  un- 
chastity.  In  1872,  out  of  a  total  of  118,873 
births  in  the  kingdom,  10,817  or  more  than  9 
per  cent,  were  illegitimate;  and  in  eight  coun- 
ties, Kincardine,  Kinross,  Aberdeen,  Kirkcud- 
bright, Wigtown,  Elgin,  Dumfries,  and  Banff, 
the  proportion  was  above  12  per  cent.  In 


SCOTLAND 


701 


Banff  it  was  16'4  per  cent.  Notwithstanding 
the  smallness  of  its  population,  Scotland  has 
produced  an  array  of  names  eminent  in  litera- 
ture and  science  which  scarcely  any  other  na- 
tion can  boast  of  surpassing. — The  agriculture 
of  Scotland  has  attained  to  a  high  pitch  of  ex- 
cellence, and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  is 
conducted  with  a  skill  and  energy  not  surpassed 
anywhere  in  the  world.  The  climate  is  in 
many  respects  unfavorable  to  agriculture,  its 
chief  defects  being  the  low  summer  tempera- 
ture, the  lateness  of  the  spring,  the  occasional 
prevalence  of  N.  E.  winds  and  fogs,  and  heavy 
rain  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  which  often 
causes  great  damage  to  the  crops,  and  a  cold, 
wet  harvest.  Still,  the  Lothians,  the  carses 
of  Stirling,  Falkirk,  and  Gowrie,  the  Mearns, 
Clydesdale,  and  Strathearn,  large  portions  of 
Fifeshire,  Strathmore,  Annandale,  Nithsdale, 
Kyle,  Cunningham,  and  of  the  low  grounds 
along  the  Moray  and  Cromarty  friths,  are  so 
well  tilled  and  productive  that  they  bear  com- 
parison with  the  best  lands  in  England.  The 
whole  system  of  cultivation  in  them  is  gener- 
ally very  perfect.  The  grain  is  usually  sown 
by  the  drill,  and  much  of  the  crop  is  reaped 
and  all  of  it  threshed  by  machinery.  In  the 
rich  and  level  plains  of  the  Lothians  and  Stir- 
lingshire, where  the  climate  is  comparatively 
dry,  the  land  is  worth  more  in  crop  than  as 
pasture,  and  the  following  is  the  common  rota- 
tion: 1,  oats;  2,  beans  or  potatoes;  3,  wheat; 
4,  turnips ;  5,  wheat  or  barley ;  6,  grass.  In 
these  districts  guano  and  other  light  manures 
are  liberally  applied  to  the  crops.  In  the  high- 
er and  more  moist  districts  a  different  system 
prevails;  the  land  lies  longer  under  pasture, 
the  following  being  the  rotation  of  a  six  years' 
course:  1,  oats;  2,  turnips;  3,  oats  or  barley; 
4,  5,  and  6,  grass.  Bearing  and  feeding  of  cat- 
tle are  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  in  these 
districts,  as  the  most  profitable  way  of  consu- 
ming the  grass  and  green  crops.  In  the  moun- 
tains, heaths  and  natural  grasses  occupy  the 
soil,  affording  a  scanty  herbage  for  sheep  or  cat- 
tle. Much  care  has  been  taken  and  great  skill 
shown  in  improving  the  breeds  of  stock  and 
in  distributing  them  over  the  most  eligible  pas- 
ture lands.  The  black-faced  highland  sheep 
is  kept  in  the  wildest  and  stormiest  mountain 
region  of  the  north,  as  best  suited  to  with- 
stand the  climate.  The  Cheviot  breed  is  lit- 
tle inferior  in  the  same  respect,  and  has  been 
largely  introduced  into  the  north.  These  an- 
imals are  exposed  to  great  hardships  during 
snow  storms,  and  usually  receive  no  other 
food  than  what  they  find  on  the  hills.  In  1871 
the  total  number  of  acres  under  all  kinds  of 
crops,  bare  fallow,  and  grass,  was  4,516,090. 
The  number  of  live  stock  was  as  follows: 
horses  used  solely  for  agriculture,  174,434; 
cattle,  1,070,107;  sheep,  6,882,747;  pigs,  195,- 
642.— The  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland  con- 
sists chiefly  of  coal  and  iron.  In  1870  there 
were  411  collieries  at  work  in  the  counties  of 
Lanark,  Ayr,  Fife,  Clackmannan,  Haddington, 


Edinburgh,  Linlithgow,  Stirling,  Dumbarton, 
Renfrew,  Dumfries,  Peebles,  and  Perth,  the 
aggregate  product  of  which  was  14,934,558 
tons  of  coal.  In  the  same  year  the  iron  works, 
mostly  in  Lanark  and  Ayr,  produced  1,206,000 
tons  of  pig  iron.  There  were  also  in  1870  six 
lead  mines  in  Argyle,  Kirkcudbright,  Lanark, 
and  Dumfries,  which  yielded  2,390  tons  of 
lead  and  5,680  oz.  of  silver.  Granite  is  large- 
ly quarried  and  exported  from  Aberdeen,  Pe- 
terhead,  and  the  coast  of  Mull. — The  fisheries 
constitute  a  very  important  branch  of  Scottish 
industry.  Before  the  export  of  salmon  to 
England  grew  to  be  considerable,  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  domestic  servants  were  accus- 
tomed to  stipulate  that  they  should  not  be 
compelled  to  eat  it  more  than  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  The  fishery  is  now  chiefly  in 
the  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  Dee,  Don,  Findhorn, 
Spey,  Ness,  and  other  rivers  on  the  E.  coast. 
The  herring  fishery  has  long  been  important. 
In  1870  the  total  product  of  this  fishery  was 
928,613  bbls.,  of  which  833,160  were  cured. 
In  the  same  year  the  cod  and  ling  fisheries 
yielded  227,224  cwt.  The  herring,  cod,  and 
ling  fisheries  in  1870  employed  14,935  boats, 
of  the  aggregate  tonnage  of  103,946.  The 
whole  number  of  persons  engaged  in  these 
fisheries  was  89,790.  The  total  value  of  the 
boats,  nets,  and  lines  employed  was  £953,814. 
— The  linen  manufacture  was  the  earliest  and 
once  the  most  important  branch  of  the  manu- 
facturing industry  of  Scotland.  Its  principal 
seats  are  in  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  and 
Perth.  In  1870  there  were  191  factories,  with 
330,599  spindles,  and  17,419  power  looms ; 
hands  employed,  49,917,  of  whom  13,555  were 
males  and  36,362  females.  In  recent  years  the 
cotton  manufacture  has  excelled  that  of  linen 
in  extent  and  value.  It  is  carried  on  chiefly 
in  the  counties  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew,  and 
it  all  centres  in  or  is  dependent  upon  the  city 
of  Glasgow.  In  1870  there  were  98  cotton 
factories,  with  1,487,871  spindles  and  25,903 
power  looms,  employing  30,960  hands,  of 
whom  5,148  were  males  and  25,812  females. 
The  woollen  manufacture,  though  less  consid- 
erable than  either  the  linen  or  the  cotton,  is 
more  widely  diffused,  being  carried  on  in  27 
of  the  33  counties,  but  most  largely  in  Aber- 
deen, Ayr,  Clackmannan,  Dumfries,  Lanark, 
Peebles,  Perth,  Renfrew,  Roxburgh,  Selkirk, 
and  Stirling.  The  cloth  made  is  chiefly  coarse. 
In  1870  there  were  218  factories,  with  469,- 
524  spindles  and  10,543  power  looms,  employ- 
ing 23,000  hands,  of  whom  8,515  were  males 
and  14,485  females.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  28  worsted  factories,  with  71,556  spin- 
dles and  1,201  power  looms,  employing  5,968 
hands,  of  whom  2,605  were  males  and  8,363 
females.  There  were  also  four  silk  factories 
in  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  with  12,643  spindles 
and  243  power  looms ;  and  2  hemp,  48  jute, 
3  hosiery,  and  5  hair  factories.  Whiskey  and 
ale  are  manufactured  to  a  large  extent.  In 
the  year  ending  in  March,  1871,  14,501,983 


702 


SCOTLAND 


gallons  of  spirits  were  distilled,  and  2,435,247 
bushels  of  malt  were  consumed  by  brewers. 
Edinburgh  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  beer  man- 
ufacture, and  Campbeltown  in  Argyleshire, 
Gleulivat,  and  Lochnagar  of  the  distillery  busi- 
ness. Other  important  manufactures  are  pa- 
per, leather,  soap,  earthenware,  glass,  hard- 
ware, hats,  and  combs.  Ship  building  is  car- 
ried on  extensively,  and  large  numbers  of 
steamboats,  steam  engines,  and  other  machi- 
nery are  made,  especially  on  the  Clyde.  The 
principal  ship  yards  are  at  Aberdeen,  Banff, 
Dundee,  Glasgow,  Greenock,  and  Port  Glas- 
gow. In  1872  there  were  built,  exclusive  of 
foreign  orders,  216  vessels  of  145,181  aggre- 
gate tonnage,  of  which  159  were  of  iron,  58 
of  wood,  and  4  composite ;  GO  were  sailing 
vessels  of  19,414  aggregate  tonnage,  and  156 
steamers  of  125,767  tons.  Besides  these  there 
were  built  for  foreigners  39  vessels  of  33,810 
tons,  all  but  two  of  which  were  steamers. — The 
shipping  of  Scotland  on  Dec.  81,  1872,  com- 
prised 2,5(>8  sailing  vessels  of  689,768  tons 
burden,  and  657  steam  vessels  of  267,837  tons. 
The  number  of  sailing  vessels  entered  coast- 
wise in  1872  was  12,881,  tonnage  987,304; 
steam  vessels  8,658,  tonnage  2,022,801.  The 
number  of  sailing  vessels  entered  from  the 
colonies  in  1872  was  546  (49  foreign),  tonnage 
369,187;  cleared,  623,  tonnage  380,118.  In 
the  same  year  48  steamers,  of  45,139  tons,  en- 
tered from  the  colonies;  cleared  116,  of  101,- 
976  tons.  The  number  of  sailing  vessels  en- 
tered from  foreign  ports  in  1872  was  6,402 
(1,685  British),  of  1,071,762  tons;  cleared  for 
foreign  ports,  6,721  (1,866  British),  of  678,687 
tons.  The  number  of  steamers  entered  from 
foreign  ports  the  same  year  was  1,368  (188 
foreign),  tonnage-684,383  ;  cleared  for  foreign 
ports,  1,509  (206  foreign),  tonnage  744,139. — 
Scotland  is  well  supplied  with  roads,  canals, 
and  railways.  Her  turnpike  roads,  of  which 
more  than  7,000  m.  are  open,  are  among  the 
best  in  the  world.  The  greatest  of  her  canals 
is  the  Caledonian,  which  affords  a  passage 
for  ships  from  the  North  sea  to  the  Atlantic 
ocean.  (See  CANAL.)  Another  canal  con- 
nects the  opposite  coasts  of  the  island,  and 
extends  from  Glasgow  to  Edinburgh  in  two 
divisions  :  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal,  finished 
in  1790,  38  m.  long ;  and  the  Union  canal,  fin- 
ished in  1822,  31  m.  long.  Paisley  canal,  from 
Glasgow  through  Paisley  to  Johnstone,  is  11 
m.  long ;  Monkland  canal,  between  Glasgow 
and  Airdrie,  12  m. ;  Glenkens  canal,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Dee  through  Loch  K«n  to 
Dairy,  26  in.  The  first  railway  in  Scotland 
was  opened  in  1810  between  Kilmarnock  and 
Troon,  10  m.  On  Dec.  31,  1873,  2,612  m.  of 
railway  were  in  operation.  The  aggregate 
authorized  capital  of  all  the  companies  was 
£76,461,819.  During  1878  the  passage  re- 
ceipts amounted  to  £1,963,979;  freight  re- 
ceipts, £4,343,809;  total,  £6,307,788.  The 
total  working  expenditure  for  the  same  year 
was  £2,943,518.  Most  of  the  smaller  railway 


lines  are  leased  or  worked  by  the  great  trunk 
lines,  of  which  there  are  five :  the  Caledonian, 
which  monopolizes  half  the  trade  of  Scotland, 
particularly  on  the  E.  side,  and  controls  11 
branch  roads;  the  Glasgow  and  Southwest- 
ern, between  Carlisle  and  Glasgow,  with  sev- 
eral branches;  the  Great  North  of  Scotland, 
from  Aberdeen  to  Torres,  where  it  connects 
with  the  Highland,  and  which  works  four 
other  roads ;  the  Highland,  from  Perth  to  In- 
verness and  Golspie,  which  is  extending  its 
line  further  north,  and  which  works  three 
other  roads ;  and  the  North  British,  from  Car- 
lisle to  Edinburgh  via  Hawick,  which  works 
six  other  lines  and  has  many  branches.  The 
principal  ports  are  connected  by  lines  of  steam- 
ers with  each  other  and  with  many  ports  of 
the  world. — In  general  government  Scotland 
forms  an  integral  part  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  stands  on  the  same  footing  with  England 
except  in  regard  to  law  and  law  courts  and 
the  form  of  church  government,  upon  which 
points  express  stipulations  exist  in  the  articles 
of  union  between  the  two  kingdoms.  To  the 
imperial  parliament  the  Scottish  nobles  elect 
of  their  own  number  16  peers  to  represent 
them  in  the  house  of  lords.  In  1874  Scotland 
was  represented  in  the  house  of  commons  by 
60  members,  of  whom  82  were  elected  by  the 
counties,  26  by  the  parliamentary  burghs,  and 
2  by  the  four  universities.  The  number  of 
electors  on  the  register  in  the  same  year  was 
280,308,  of  whom  82,807  were  county  voters, 
and  187,991  borough  electors.  At  the  head 
of  the  judiciary  in  Scotland  is  the  court  of 
session,  which  is  supreme  in  civil  matters,  and 
consists  of  13  judges.  The  court  holds  two 
terms  annually,  during  which  it  sits  five  days 
in  the  week.  The  court  of  justiciary,  which 
is  supreme  in  criminal  causes,  consists  of  five 
of  the  judges  of  the  court  of  session.  The 
high  court  of  justiciary  sits  in  Edinburgh,  but 
circuit  courts  are  held  to  the  number  of  four 
in  Glasgow  and  two  in  the  other  circuit  dis- 
tricts annually.  This  court  has  jurisdiction  in 
all  important  criminal  charges,  and  the  deci- 
sions of  its  high  court  are  without  appeal.  Its 
presiding  officer  is  the  president  of  the  court 
of  session,  who  when  sitting  in  this  court  is 
termed  the  lord  justice  general.  Causes  are 
tried  by  the  verdict  of  a  jury  of  15  persons, 
who  are  not  required  to  be  unanimous,  and 
who,  when  the  case  is  not  clear,  can  bring  in 
a  verdict  of  "  not  proven,"  which  leaves  the 
accused  liable  to  be  tried  again  for  the  same 
offence  should  additional  evidence  be  found. 
The  judges  of  this  court  when  upon  circuit 
possess  a  civil  jurisdiction  by  way  of  appeal. 
The  chief  local  courts  are  those  of  the  sher- 
iffs, of  which  there  is  one  in  each  county,  the 
business  of  the  court  being  conducted  before 
an  officer  called  -the  sheriff  substitute,  acting 
for  a  sheriff  principal,  who  has  within  certain 
limits  a  power  to  revise  his  proceedings,  while 
there  are  certain  acts  both  judicial  and  execu- 
tive which  must  be  performed  by  the  sheriff 


SCOTLAND 


703 


principal.  The  counties  have  been  grouped 
into  districts,  and  one  sheriff  principal  serves 
for  all  the  counties  in  a  district.  The  sheriff's 
court  has  no  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  land 
rights  nor  of  personal  status,  as  marriage  or 
legitimacy,  but  in  other  matters  of  civil  right 
there  is  no  limit  in  pecuniary  value  to  the 
causes  that  may  come  before  it.  The  proceed- 
ings in  the  civil  department  of  this  court  are 
chiefly  conducted  in  written  pleadings.  The 
sheriff  has  a  separate  court  for  the  recovery 
of  small  debts,  in  which  the  procedure  is  oral 
and  summary.  The  magistrates  of  municipal 
corporations  and  justices  of  the  peace  appoint- 
ed by  the  king  have  jurisdiction  both  in  civil 
and  criminal  matters  in  a  limited  sphere.  In 
many  particulars  the  law  of  Scotland  differs 
from  that  of  England,  and  bears  much  affin- 
ity in  theory  and  practice  to  the  systems  of 
the  continent,  especially  to  the  old  systems  of 
judicature  in  France,  on  which  it  was  mod- 
elled.— The  public  revenue  of  Scotland  for  the 
year  ending  March  31,  1874,  was  £7,138,543, 
and  was  derived  from  customs,  excise,  stamps, 
land  and  assessed  taxes,  property  and  income 
tax,  and  the  post  office.  The  assessed  taxes 
comprise  duties  on  inhabited  houses,  servants, 
carriages,  horses,  dogs,  game,  &c.,  for  the  sup- 
port and  relief  of  the  poor.  In  1872,  out  of 
a  total  of  117,611  poor  persons,  74,752  were 
classed  as  paupers  and  42,859  as  dependants. 
The  whole  amount  received  from  poor  rates 
was  £888,002,  of  which  £862,171  was  ex- 
pended in  relief.  In  the  same  year  3,042 
criminals,  of  whom  2,354  were  males  and 
688  females,  were  committed  for  trial.  Of 
these  2,259  were  convicted,  and  744  acquitted. 
— The  established  church  of  Scotland  is  the 
Presbyterian,  from  which  there  are  several  se- 
ceding bodies,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Free  church  and  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian church.  In  1874  the  established  church 
had  16  synods,  84  presbyteries,  1,280  congre- 
gations, and  about  1,300  ministers;  the  Free 
church,  16  synods,  77  presbyteries,  954  con- 
gregations, and  957  ministers ;  and  the  United 
Presbyterian,  31  presbyteries  and  611  congre- 
gations (including  those  in  England).  The  In- 
dependents had  119  ministers;  Episcopalians, 
6  bishops  and  about  220  clergy ;  and  Eoman 
Catholics,  3  vicars  apostolic  and  228  clergy. 
In  1695  it  was  enacted  "  that  there  be  a  school 
founded  and  a  schoolmaster  appointed  in  every 
parish  by  advice  of  the  presbyteries;  and  to 
this  purpose  that  the  heritors  do  in  every  con- 
gregation meet  among  themselves  and  provide 
a  commodious  house  for  a  school,  and  modify 
a  stipend  to  the  schoolmaster,  which  shall  not 
be  under  100  merks  (£5  11«.  1-Jrf.),  nor  above 
200  merks  (£11  2s.  2fd.),  to  be  paid  yearly 
at  two  terms."  This  was  the  foundation  of 
a  system  of  common  schools,  under  which  the 
Scottish  people  in  the  18th  century  became 
more  generally  educated  than  any  other  in 
Europe.  In  1803  the  salary  of  the  schoolmas- 
ter was  raised  so  that  it  should  not  be  less  than 
729  VOL.  xiv. — i5 


£16  13«.  4d.  per  annum.  In  1828  it  was  again 
raised  so  that  it  should  not  be  less  than  £25 
13s.  8fd.  A  further  increase  was  made  in 
1859,  dependent  somewhat  on  the  price  of  oat- 
meal. In  addition  to  the  salary  fixed  by  law, 
the  teachers  receive  fees  commonly  averaging 
for  each  pupil  not  more  than  5*.  a  year.  Be- 
sides the  parish  schools  there  are  many  schools 
maintained  by  the  "Society  in  Scotland  for 
Propagating  Christian  Knowledge,"  and  by  the 
established  church  and  other  denominations. 
There  are  also  a  large  number  of  private  schools. 
In  the  cities  and  larger  towns  there  are  gram- 
mar or  high  schools  and  academies,  and  there 
are  several  normal  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers.  In  1873  the  number  of  primary 
schools  inspected  by  the  government  inspec- 
tors was  2,108,  of  which  1,379  belonged  to  the 
established  church,  577  to  the  Free  church,  86 
to  the  Episcopal  church,  and  66  to  the  Catholic 
church.  The  average  number  of  children  in 
attendance  was  225,178,  number  of  certificated 
teachers  2,657,  and  number  of  pupil  and  as- 
sistant teachers  3,623.  The  income  of  these 
schools  from  government  grants  was  £100,370, 
from  endownments  £28,853,  from  voluntary 
contributions  £66,921,  from  school  pence  £115,- 
706,  and  from  other  sources  £802;  total  in- 
come, £312,652.  The  total  number  of  schools 
under  inspection  was  2,507,  with  241,798  pu- 
pils present  at  annual  inspection.  The  whole 
number  of  children  in  Scotland  from  5  to  13 
years  of  age  in  1871  was  629,235,  of  whom 
494,860  wore  receiving  education.  The  num- 
ber of  reformatory  schools  was  12,  with  791 
boys  and  257  girls ;  the  number  of  industrial 
schools  27,  with  2,493  boys  and  992  girls.  The 
higher  seats  of  education  in  Scotland  are  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen, 
and  St.  Andrews,  for  accounts  of  which  see 
the  articles  on  those  cities.  The  periodical 
press  of  Scotland  has  long  been  distinguished 
for  its  vigor  and  ability.  The  "Edinburgh 
Review,"  "Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Magazine," 
the  "  North  British  Eevievv,"  and  "Chambers's 
Journal "  stand  in  the  front  rank  of  that  spe- 
cies of  literature ;  and  the  first  two  especially 
attained  in  the  first  half  of  this  century  a  repu- 
tation that  has  no  superior  of  its  kind.  As  a 
place  of  publication  Edinburgh  is  the  only  rival 
of  London  in  the  British  empire,  and  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  its  issues  of  books. — Scot- 
land was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name 
of  Caledonia,  and  was  inhabited  by  21  savage 
tribes  of  shepherds  and  hunters  of  Celtic  race, 
who  jvere  polygamists  and  idolaters,  their  re- 
ligion being  druidical,  and  their  habits  so  dis- 
orderly that  the  Roman  writers  call  them  rob- 
bers. They  were  exceedingly  brave  and  hardy, 
and  their  arms  were  short  spears,  daggers,  and 
shields.  Their  habitations  were  miserable  huts, 
and  they  disdained  the  use  of  clothes.  To  their 
Roman  invaders  they  offered  a  fierce  and  ob- 
stinate opposition.  In  the  reign  of  Titus  (A. 
D.  79-81)  Julius  Agricola  led  a  Roman  army 
beyond  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  pene- 


704 


SCOTLAND 


trated  to  the  frith  of  Tay,  and  in  84  defeated 
the  Caledonians  under  Galgacus,  while  his  fleet 
explored  the  coasts,  and  first  made  certain  that 
Britain  was  an  island.  He  was  unable  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  the  country,  and  finally 
withdrew  his  forces  behind  a  wall  and  chain 
of  forts  with  which  he  had  connected  the 
friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde.  Several  other  at- 
tempts were  made  by  the  Romans  to  subdue 
the  north  of  the  island,  the  most  memorable 
of  which  was  that  of  the  emperor  Septimius 
Severus,  who  in  209  led  an  expedition  as  far 
as  Moray  frith,  where  he  made  a  peace  with 
the  Caledonians.  But  on  his  withdrawal  to 
the  south  they  rose  in  insurrection,  and  a  sec- 
ond expedition  was  preparing  to  march  for 
their  subjugation  when  the  emperor  died  at 
York  (Eboracum)  in  211.  During  his  resi- 
dence in  Britain  Severus  reconstructed  a  wall 
originally  built  by  Hadrian  between  the  Tyne 
and  the  Solway;  and  shortly  before  the  final 
abandonment  of  Britain  by  the  Romans  in  the 
early  part  of  the  5th  century,  they  repaired 
this  rampart  and  that  between  the  friths  of 
Clyde  and  Forth.  From  this  period  for  several 
centuries  the  predominant  race  of  Scotland  is 
known  in  history  as  Picts.  (See  Piers.)  Be- 
tween the  two  walls  in  the  province  of  Va- 
lentia  (Northumberland,  Dumfriesshire,  &c.) 
dwelt  five  tribes  who  had  become  practically 
Romanized  and  civilized,  and  after  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Romans  formed  a  union  and 
established  a  kingdom  which  was  called  Reg- 
num  Cumbreiwe,  and  is  also  known  as  the 
kingdom  of  Strathclyde.  Of  this  kingdom  at 
the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  the  famous 
Arthur  Pendragon  was  the  sovereign.  In  this 
half  fabulous  period  of  Scottish  history  38  Pic- 
tish  kings  are  enumerated,  from  Drest,  who 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  451,  to  Brud,  who 
died  in  843.  The  most  important  event  of 
this  period  was  the  arrival  in  Scotland  of  the 
Saxons  in  449,  and  their  eventual  conquest 
and  settlement  of  the  lowlands,  where  one  of 
their  leaders,  Edwin,  founded  the  present  cap- 
ital, Edinburgh  (Edwinsburgh).  About  503 
Scotland  was  also  invaded  by  the  Scots,  a 
Celtic  tribe  from  Ireland,  who  settled  on  the 
W.  coast  and  established  a  kingdom  beginning 
with  the  reign  of  Fergus,  one  of  their  chiefs, 
and  continuing  under  a  series  of  kings,  of  whom 
little  is  known  till  the  accession  of  Kenneth 
Macalpin  in  836,  under  whom  the  Scoto-Irish 
or  Scotch  became  the  dominant  race  in  the 
country,  which  now  began  to  be  called  Scot- 
land. During  the  reign  of  Kenneth  the  Picts 
disappeared  as  a  people,  being  according  to 
some  authors  massacred  by  the  orders  of  Ken- 
neth, but  according  to  a  more  probable  theory 
amalgamated  with  and  absorbed  by  the  Scots. 
The  most  important  event  of  the  Pictish  period 
was  the  conversion  of  the  natives  to  Chris- 
tianity in  the  6th  century  by  St.  Columba  and 
other  missionaries  from  Ireland.  In  866,  un- 
der the  reign  of  Constantino  I.,  the  second  of 
the  successors  of  Kenneth,  the  Danes,  led  by 


the  vikings,  began  to  invade  Scotland.  Their 
incursions  for  plunder  and  conquest  continued 
with  little  intermission,  in  spite  of  frequent 
repulses,  till  1014,  when,  after  a  series  of  de- 
feats by  King  Malcolm  II.,  they  gave  up  the 
contest.  Meantime  the  Scottish  kingdom  was 
gradually  enlarged  by  the  peaceful  annexation 
of  Cumberland  about  950,  by  the  conquest  of 
Strathclyde  about  970,  and  of  Lothian  from 
England  in  1018.  This  last  acquisition  was 
owing  to  the  valor  and  energy  of  Malcolm  II., 
who  after  a  vigorous  reign  was  succeeded  in 
1033  by  his  grandson,  the  "  gracious  Duncan  " 
of  Shakespeare,  who  six  years  later  was  killed 
by  Macbeth  at  Bothgowanan,  near  Elgin.  Mac- 
beth himself  was  defeated  and  slain  in  1056  or 
1057,  after  a  vigorous  reign,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  Malcolm  III.  in  1057.  During  his  reign 
England  was  conquered  by  the  Normans,  and 
Malcolm,  who  had  married  the  Saxon  princess 
Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  the  heir  of 
the  Saxon  line,  invaded  and  ravaged  the  north 
of  England.  In  retaliation  William  the  Con- 
queror invaded  Scotland  in  1072  with  so  pow- 
erful a  force  that  Malcolm  submitted  without 
a  struggle,  and  performed  homage  to  William 
as  his  feudal  superior  for,  as  the  English  sub- 
sequently alleged,  his  whole  kingdom,  though 
the  Scotch  maintained  that  the  homage  was 
rendered  only  for  the  12  manors  which  Mal- 
colm held  in  England.  The  question  was  long 
a  source  of  dissension  between  the  two  king- 
doms, and  led  to  a  war  between  Malcolm  and 
William  Rufus,  in  which,  in  1093,  the  Scottish 
king  was  slain  in  a  battle  near  Alnwick  castle. 
Of  his  successors  the  most  conspicuous  were 
Alexander  I.,  David  I.,  Malcolm  IV.,  William 
the  Lion,  Alexander  II.,  and  Alexander  III., 
in  whose  reign,  terminating  in  1286,  Scotland 
made  rapid  progress  in  power  and  civilization. 
The  reign  of  William  the  Lion,  which  lasted 
48  years,  from  1165  to  1214,  was  memorable 
for  his  capture  by  Henry  II.  of  England,  and 
his  disgraceful  treaty  with  that  monarch  in 
1174,  by  which  he  regained  his  liberty  and 
surrendered  the  independence  of  Scotland, 
agreeing  to  become  the  vassal  of  Henry  and 
to  receive  English  garrisons  in  Edinburgh, 
Stirling,  and  other  important  places.  This 
state  of  dependence  continued  till  the  death  of 
Henry  in  1189,  when  his  successor,  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion,  anxious  to  obtain  money  for  his 
crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  agreed  for  the  sum  of 
10,000  marks  to  renounce  all  claim  on  the  part 
of  the  English  crown  to  supremacy  over  Scot- 
land. William  the  Lion  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Alexander  II.,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most 
vigorous  of  the  Scottish  monarchs,  whose  son 
Alexander  III.,  dying  in  1286,  left  the  crown 
to  an  infant  granddaughter,  Margaret,  daugh- 
ter of  Eric,  king  of  Norway.  On  her  voyage 
from  Norway  to  take  possession  of  the  throne, 
Margaret  died  in  one  of  the  Orkneys.  Various 
competitors  for  the  crown  appeared,  the  prin- 
cipal of  whom  were  John  Balliol  and  Robert 
Bruce.  Edward  I.  of  England  offered  or  was 


SCOTLAND 


705 


invited  to  mediate  between  them,  for  which 
purpose  a  conference  was  held  at  Norham  in 
1291  between  the  English  monarch  and  the 
principal  nobility  and  clergy  of  Scotland.  Ed- 
ward awarded  the  crown  to  Balliol,  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  do  homage  to  him  as 
his  feudal  superior.  He  swore  allegiance,  but 
when  called  upon  soon  after  to  aid  Edward 
against  France,  he  renounced  his  allegiance 
and  declared  war,  upon  which  Scotland  was 
overrun  by  a  powerful  English  army,  Balliol 
taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  the  tower  of  Lon- 
don, and  the  principal  strongholds  of  the  king- 
dom captured.  At  this  juncture,  when  nearly 
all  the  great  nobles  had  submitted  to  the  con- 
queror, Sir  William  "Wallace  of  Ellerslie  ap- 
peared in  arms  at  the  head  of  a  small  band 
of  followers,  and  continued  the  contest  with 
heroic  energy  for  several  years,  until  he  was 
at  length  betrayed  into  the  bands  of  Edward, 
who  caused  him  to  be  cruelly  executed  at  Lon- 
don (1305).  The  struggle  was  continued  by 
Bobert  Bruce,  grandson  of  the  competitor  of 
Balliol,  at  first  with  marked  ill  fortune,  but 
finally  culminating  in  the  great  battle  of  Ban- 
nockburn,  June  24,  1314,  where  the  English 
under  Edward  II.  were  utterly  routed  and  dis- 
persed by  a  much  inferior  force  of  Scots.  The 
war  continued  14  years  longer,  during  which 
England  was  12  times  invaded  and  scourged 
with  fire  and  sword,  until,  by  a  treaty  ratified 
in  1328,  Edward  III.  renounced  his  claim  of 
sovereignty.  Bruce  died  in  1329.  During  the 
century  which  succeeded  the  sceptre  was  sway- 
ed by  three  kings,  one  of  whom,  Eobert  II. 
(1371-'90),  was  the  son  of  the  steward  of  Scot- 
land, whence  the  origin  of  the  name  of  the 
royal  house  of  Stuart,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
sovereign.  His  successor,  Eobert  III.  (1390- 
1406),  devolved  the  cares  of  government  upon 
his  eldest  son,  the  duke  of  Eothesay,  who 
quarrelled  with  his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Albany, 
and  was  starved  to  death  by  order  of  that  pow- 
erful magnate.  The  king's  second  son,  James, 
on  his  voyage  to  France  in  1405,  was  captured 
by  the  English  and  carried  a  prisoner  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  detained  for  19  years,  du- 
ring the  greater  part  of  which  the  government 
of  Scotland  was  administered  by  Albany  as 
regent.  In  1424  the  captive  prince  was  re- 
leased, and  returning  to  Scotland  began  a 
brief  reign  of  great  energy,  devoted  mainly  to 
reducing  to  order  the  powerful  and  turbulent 
nobility.  He  made  many  great  reforms,  insti-. 
tuted  the  court  of  session  and  other  tribunals, 
and  introduced  law  and  order  in  the  place  of 
license  and  turbulence.  He  was  assassinated 
in  1437,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  James 
II.,  a  boy  of  six  years,  during  whose  minority 
the  kingdom  was  torn  by  factions,  one  of 
which  was  headed  by  the  earl  of  Douglas, 
whose  immense  possessions  made  him  the  most 
powerful  baron  of  Scotland.  The  king  on 
attaining  his  majority  assumed  the  reins  of 
government  with  vigor  and  decision,  and  ef- 
fectually humbled  the  house  of  Douglas,  whose 


chief  he  stabbed  with  his  own  hand  in  the 
castle  of  Stirling  in  1452.  The  king  sub- 
sequently took  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  Eng- 
land on  the  side  of  Henry  VI.,  and  was  ac- 
cidentally killed  while  besieging  Eoxburgh  in 
1460.  His  son  James  III.  was  then  in  his 
eighth  year,  and  during  his  minority  the  coun- 
try, in  spite  of  the  turbulence  of  the  nobles, 
was  comparatively  prosperous,  while  after  his 
accession  civil  war  raged  almost  constantly  be- 
tween the  king  and  his  brother  the  duke  of 
Albany,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Alexander, 
king  of  Scotland,  and  was  supported  by  the 
Douglases,  by  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  and  many 
other  great  nobles.  Albany  was  finally  de- 
feated in  1483 ;  but  a  new  rebellion  broke  out 
a  few  years  later,  the  chiefs  of  which  arrayed 
the  king's  son,  a  youth  of  16,  against  his  fa- 
ther, and  the  latter  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Sauchie-burn  in  1488.  The  rebellious  son, 
who  succeeded  under  the  title  of  James  IV., 
maintained  a  magnificent  court,  promoted  the 
civilization  of  the  country,  and  curbed  the 
power  of  the  nobles  and  of  the  great  highland 
chiefs,  the  most  considerable  of  whom,  the 
lord  of  the  Isles,  having  rebelled,  was  prompt- 
ly subdued  and  stripped  of  his  extensive  do- 
minions, which  were  forfeited  to  the  crown. 
In  1513  he  was  imprudently  led  by  French 
influence,  which  had  long  been  very  great  in 
Scotland,  to  declare  war  against  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  and  to  invade  that  kingdom  with 
a  powerful  army.  He  was  met  by  the  earl  of 
Surrey  at  Flodden,  Sept.  9,  and  defeated  and 
slain,  together  with  so  many  chiefs,  nobles, 
and  common  soldiers,  that  all  Scotland  was 
plunged  in  mourning;  and  to  this  day  the 
defeat  is  regarded  by  the  Scotch  as  the  great- 
est disaster  in  their  national  annals.  A  long 
series  of  misfortunes  followed  during  the  mi- 
nority of  James  V.,  the  son  of  James  IV., 
whose  mother,  Margaret  Tudor,  daughter  of 
Henry  VII.  of  England,  was  made  regent,  and 
speedily  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  the 
nobles.  She  had  rashly  married  the  earl  of 
Angus,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Douglas,  and 
that  faction  retained  possession  of  the  young 
king's  person  till  in  his  17th  year  he  freed  him- 
self from  their  yoke  and  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  and,  after  a  struggle  in  which  the 
Douglases  were  supported  by  England,  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  them  into  exile.  During  his 
reign  Protestantism  made  great  progress  in 
Scotland,  though  severely  persecuted  by  Car- 
dinal Beaton,  the  Catholic  primate.  In  1542 
James  became  involved  in  war  with  England, 
and  died  in  the  same  year  of  a  broken  heart 
caused  by  the  mutinous  conduct  of  the  nobles, 
which  had  led  to  a  disgraceful  defeat  of  his 
army  at  Solway  Moss.  The  crown  descended 
to  his  only  child,  a  daughter  a  few  days  old, 
the  celebrated  and  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of 
Scots.  (For  the  history  of  Scotland  during  her 
reign,  see  MARY  STUART.)  Mary  was  driven  into 
exile  in  England  in  1568,  and  her  absence  left 
her  natural  brother,  the  regent  Murray,  mas- 


706         SCOTLAND  (CHTTBCH  OF) 


SCOTT 


ter  of  the  kingdom.  Her  son  James  VI.  had 
been  crowned  king  in  1567,  while  yet  an  infant. 
During  his  minority,  after  Murray's  assassina- 
tion in  1570,  the  earls  of  Lennox,  Mar,  and 
Morton  were  successively  regents,  till  in  1581 
Morton  was  tried  and  executed  for  treason, 
and  the  king  took  the  government  into  his 
own  hands.  During  all  this  period  the  king- 
dom was  distracted  by  civil  war,  which  had 
gradually  assumed  a  religious  character  from 
the  contest  between  Catholicism  and  Protes- 
tantism for  supremacy,  in  which  the  Protes- 
tants were  finally  successful,  and  Presbyteri- 
anism  became  the  established  religion  of  Scot- 
land. James,  by  his  descent  from  Margaret 
Tudor,  the  mother  of  James  V.,  was  the  heir 
to  the  English  crown  on  the  death  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  accordingly  in  1603  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne  of  England.  This  event, 
which  united  the  two  nations  under  one  head, 
closed  the  history  of  Scotland  as  a  separate 
kingdom,  though  it  was  not  till  1707  that  the 
countries  were  legislatively  united.  During 
the  great  civil  wars  of  England  in  the  17th 
century  Scotland  was  the  scene  of  many  im- 
portant events,  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  in  the  article  ENGLAND.  Since  the 
union  the  most  remarkable  occurrences  in  her 
annals  are  the  two  rebellions  of  1715  and  1745, 
the  object  of  which  was  the  restoration  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts  to  the  throne. — See  "History 
of  Scotland  during  the  Reigns  of  Mary  and 
James  VI.,"  by  William  Robertson  (2  vols.  4to, 
1759);  P.  F.  Tytler's  " History  of  Scotland" 
(9  vols.,  1828-'48);  and  "History  of  Scotland 
from  Agricola's  Invasion  to  the  Revolution  of 
1688,"  by  John  Hill  Burton  (7  vols.,  Edinburgh 
and  London,  1867-'70). 

SCOTLAND,  ( liurch  of.     See  PRESBTTEKIANISM. 

SCOTT,  the  name  of  11  counties  in  the  United 
States.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia,  bound- 
ed S.  by  Tennessee  and  intersected  by  Clinch 
river  and  the  N.  fork  of  Holston  river;  area, 
about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 18,036,  of  whom 
524  were  colored.  The  Clinch  mountain  and 
several  parallel  ridges  traverse  it.  The  soil  is 
generally  good,  and  adapted  to  grazing.  Bitu- 
minous coal  and  iron  abound.  The  "  Natural 
Tunnel,"  perforated  through  a  lofty  ridge  by 
a  branch  of  the  Clinch  river,  is  in  this  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  58,583 
bushels  of  wheat,  222,254  of  Indian  corn,  68,- 
730  of  oats,  16,557  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  24,249  of 
wool,  95,354  of  butter,  6,645  of  flax,  31,818  of 
maple  sugar,  22,539  of  honey,  and  13,980  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  2,528 
horses,  2,991  milch  cows,  4,430  other  cattle, 
13,415  sheep,  and  10,076  swine.  Capital,  Es- 
tillville.  II.  A  central  county  of  Mississippi, 
drained  by  several  tributaries  of  Pearl  river ; 
area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,847,  of 
whom  3,167  were  colored.  There  are  large 
forests  of  pine,  and  the  soil  is  sandy  and  sterile. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Vicksburg  and  Meridian 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  wore 
131,775  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,450  of  oats, 


and  3,560  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  988 
horses,  567  mules  and  asses,  2,843  milch  cows, 
956  working  oxen,  3,296  other  cattle,  2,399 
sheep,  and  11,429  swine.  Capital,  Hillsboro. 
III.  A  W.  county  of  Arkansas,  drained  by  the 
Fourche  la  Fave,  Petit  Jean,  and  other  tribu- 
taries of  the  Arkansas  river ;  area,  about  800 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,483,  of  whom  121  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  uneven  and  the  soil 
generally  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  13,141  bushels  of  wheat,  304,408 
of  Indian  corn,  9,940  of  oats,  30,411  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  3,128  of  wool,  71,530  of  butter,  and 
678  bales  of  cotton.  There  are  2,514  horses, 
296  mules  and  asses,  3,057  milch  cows,  1,218 
working  oxen,  4,374  other  cattle,  2,268  sheep, 
and  21,753  swine.  Capital,  Waldron.  IV.  A 
N.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Ken- 
tucky, and  drained  by  the  Big  South  fork  of 
the  Cumberland  river;  area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,054.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Cumber- 
land mountains,  and  has  an  abundance  of  tim- 
ber and  coal.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  88,311  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  17,793  of 
oats,  9,283  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  12,560  of  wool,  71,- 
810  of  butter,  and  22,268  of  honey.  There 
were  824  horses,  1,400  milch  cows,  2,587  other 
cattle,  6,589  sheep,  and  13,189  swine.  Capital, 
Huntsville.  V.  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky, 
drained  by  tributaries  of  the  Kentucky  river  ; 
area,  240  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 11,607,  of  whom 
3,955  were  colored.  The  surface  is  generally 
hilly  and  the  soil  extremely  fertile.  Fine  blue 
limestone  is  found  in  great  abundance.  The 
Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Lexington  railroad 
crosses  the  S.  portion.  The  chief  productions 
in  187.0  were  47,770  bushels  of  wheat,  26,774 
of  rye,  573,620  of  Indian  corn,  76,156  of  oats, 
82,900  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  31,829  of  wool,  70,499 
of  butter,  and  10,838  gallons  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses. There  were  3,728  horses,  1,413  mules 
and  asses,  2,242  milch  cows,  5,171  other  cattle, 
7,743  sheep,  and  16,397  swine.  Capital,  George- 
town. VI.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  affluents  of  White  river ;  area,  about  200 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,873.  The  surface  is 
flat,  except  in  the  west,  where  are  some  high 
hills  called  the  Knobs.  The  soil  is  good.  The 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  and  the  Jeffersonville, 
Madison,  and  Indianapolis  railroads  traverse 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  41,756 
bushels  of  wheat,  213,475  of  Indian  corn,  69,- 
235  of  oats,  6,729  tons  of  hay,  16.700  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  28,007  of  wool,  131,080  of  butter,  and 
30,814  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  2,342  horses,  1,509  milch  cows,  2,309 
other  cattle,  9,652  sheep,  and  8,815  swine ; 
5  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  and 
11  sawmills.  Capital,  Lexington.  VII.  A  W. 
county  of  Illinois,  bounded  W.  by  Illinois  river 
and  intersected  by  Plume  and  other  creeks ; 
area,  255  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,530.  The 
surface  is  mostly  level  and  well  timbered,  and 
the  soil  very  fertile.  Coal  and  limestone  abound. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Rockford,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific,  and  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  West- 


SCOTT 


SIR  WALTER  SCOTT 


707 


era  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  266,123  bushels  of  wheat,  752,771  of 
Indian  corn,  13,462  of  oats,  12,457  of  potatoes, 
4,735  tons  of  hay,  21,174  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  45,- 
670  of  butter.  There  were  3,257  horses,  2,151 
milch  cows,  5,958  other  cattle,  6,077  sheep, 
and  17,285  swine;  5  manufactories  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  5  of  stone  and  earthen 
ware,  and  4  saw  mills.  Capital,  Winchester. 
VIII.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded  N. 
W.  by  the  Minnesota  river;  area,  about  420 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,11,042.  The  surface  is 
undulating,  with  a  variety  of  prairie  land  and 
large  forests,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  Timber  is 
a  valuable  product.  The  St.  Paul  and  Sioux 
City  and  the  Hastings  and  Dakota  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  362,406  bushels  of  wheat,  186,012  of  In- 
dian corn,  165,247  of  oats,  19,700  tons  of  hay, 
13,446  Ibs.  of  wool,  319,142  of  butter,  and 
8,750  of  hops.  There  were  2,042  horses,  4,262 
milch  cows,  6,993  other  cattle,  3,863  sheep, 
and  6,654  swine;  3  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  3  of  lime,  1  railroad  repair  shop, 
4  breweries,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Shako- 
pee.  IX.  An  E.  county  of  Iowa,  bounded  E. 
and  S.  by  the  Mississippi,  which  separates  it 
from  Illinois,  and  N.  by  the  Wapsipinicon ; 
area,  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  38,599.  It  has 
an  elevated,  rolling  surface,  thinly  timbered, 
and  a  fertile  soil.  Coal  and  limestone  are 
found.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Davenport  and 
St.  Paul  railroad,  and  the  Iowa  division  of  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  620,954  bushels  of 
wheat,  1,855,226  of  Indian  corn,  538,102  of 
oats,  638,440  of  barley,  361,647  of  potatoes, 
34,376  tons  of  hay,  18",635  Ibs.  of  wool,  702,- 
706  of  butter,  55,640  of  cheese,  and  11,726  of 
honey.  There  were  9,386  horses,  9,846  milch 
cows,  11,771  other  cattle,  3,721  sheep,  and 
32,757  swine ;  5  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  1  of  boats,  5  of  brick,  26  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  19  of  men's  clothing,  4  of 
cooperage,  13  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  castings, 
3  of  lime,  13  of  saddlery  and  harness,  16  of 
cigars,  1  of  woollen  goods,  8  flour  mills,  7  saw 
mills,  and  9  breweries.  Capital,  Davenport. 
X.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  separated  from 
Illinois  by  the  Mississippi  river;  area,  about 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,317,  of  whom  326 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and  the 
soil  generally  fertile.  There  are  vast  cypress 
swamps  in  the  S.  part.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
St.  Louis  and  Columbus  division  of  the  St. 
Louis  and  Iron  Mountain  railroad,  and  the 
Cairo,  Arkansas,  and  Texas  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  77,020  bushels 
of  wheat,  428,857  of  Indian  corn,  19,291  of 
oats,  22,659  of  potatoes,  6,440  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
4,932  of  wool,  and  6,531  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  1,780  horses,  764  mules 
and  asses,  1,777  milch  cows,  2,687  other  cattle, 
3,225  sheep,  and  17,343  swine ;  1  flour  mill,  and 
6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Benton.  XI.  An  un- 
organized W.  county  of  Kansas,  watered  by 


affluents  of  Smoky  Hill  river  and  of  Walnut 
creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Arkansas;  area,  720 
sq..m.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  fertile. 

SCOTT,  David,  a  Scottish  artist,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Oct.  10  or  12,  1806,  died  there,  March 
5,  1849.  He  was  an  engraver  and  painter, 
and  engraved  after  Stothard  a  series  of  illus- 
trations for  Thomson's  "Scottish  Melodies." 
He  painted  in  1828  u  The  Hopes  of  Early  Ge- 
nius dispelled  by  Death,"  and  in  1830  sent 
to  the  British  institution  his  "  Lot  and  his 
Daughters  fleeing  from  Sodom,"  which  was 
rejected.  In  1831  he  exhibited  the  "Mono- 
grams of  Man,"  a  series  of  outline  etchings, 
and  the  first  of  25  illustrations  of  Coleridge's 
"Ancient  Mariner."  In  1832  he  painted  "  Sar- 
pedon  carried  by  Sleep  and  Death,"  and  "  Dis- 
cord, or  the  Household  Gods  destroyed ;"  and 
subsequently  "Ariel  and  Caliban,"  "TbeAl- 
chymist,"  "Silenus  praising  Wine,"  and  his 
masterpiece,  "Vasco  da  Gama  encountering 
the  Spirit  of  the  Cape."  He  also  illustrated 
the  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  contributed  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine  "  a  series  of  essays  on 
the  "Characteristics  of  the  Great  Masters" 
(1840).  His  journal  in  Italy,  with  poems, 
notes  on  art,  and  other  papers,  have  been 
published  with  a  memoir  by  his  brother,  W. 
B.  Scott  (8vo,  London,  1850). 

SCOTT,  Michael,  a  reputed  Scotch  wizard  of 
the  13th  century,  born  probably  in  Fifeshire, 
died,  it  is  supposed,  in  1291.  He  was  proba- 
bly educated  at  some  foreign  university,  and 
passed  many  years  on  the  continent,  residing 
for  some  time  at  the  court  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.,  at  whose  request  he  wrote  a 
number  of  works.  A  few  treatises  on  natural 
history,  the  occult  sciences,  and  other  subjects 
are  attributed  to  him.  His  reputation  was 
European;  traditions  of  his  wonderful  powers 
are  still  extant  in  Scotland.  Dante  introduces 
him  in  the  Inferno,  and  he  is  mentioned  by 
Boccaccio  and  other  Italian  authors.  Camden 
says  in  his  Britannia  that  in  his  time^  Scott's 
magic  books  were  still  preserved  at  Ulme,  in 
Cumberland,  and  adds  that  he  was  a  monk 
of  that  place  about  the  year  1290,  who  from 
his  reputation  for  abstruse  learning  was  com- 
monly looked  upon  as  a  conjurer. 

SCOTT,  Thomas,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Bray  toft,  Lincolnshire,  Feb.  16,  1747,  died 
at  Aston  Sandford,  Buckinghamshire,  April 
16,  1821.  He  was  ordained  in  1773,  became 
a  curate  in  Buckinghamshire,  and  through  the 
influence  of  John  Newton  was  converted  to 
Calvinism.  In  1781  he  removed  to  Olney,  and 
in  1785  to  London,  where  he  was  chaplain 
of  Lock  hospital.  In  1801  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  Aston  Sandford.  He  published  "A 
Commentary  on  the  Bible  "  (6  vols.  4to) ;  "De- 
fence of  Calvinism  "  against  Bishop  Tomline ; 
and  a  small  work  entitled  "The  Force  of 
Truth,"  many  times  reprinted. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walter,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  15,  1771,  died  at  Abbotsford, 
Sept.  21,  1832.  He  was  a  younger  son  of 


708 


SIR  WALTER  SCOTT 


Walter  Scott,  a  writer  to  the  signet,  allied  to 
the  Scotts  of  Harden,  an  offshoot  from  the 
house  .of  Buccleuch.  His  mother  was  Anne, 
daughter  of  John  Rutherford,  a  medical  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Being 
delicate,  he  was  sent  at  three  years  of  age  to 
reside  on  his  paternal  grandfather's  farm  of 
Sandyknowe,  in  Roxburghshire.  In  1779  he 
returned  to  Edinburgh  greatly  improved  in 
health,  with  the  exception  of  a  lameness  which 
appeared  in  his  second  year  and  never  left  him. 
Soon  after  he  entered  the  high  school  of  Edin- 
burgh, whence,  in  October,  1783,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  university.  He  was  apprenticed 
in  May,  1786,  to  legal  business  in  the  office  of 
his  father,  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar 
in  July,  1792.  His  earliest  publications  were 
metrical  versions  of  Burger's  "  Leonora "  and 
"  Wild  Huntsman  "  (4to,  1796).  Subsequently 
he  composed  the  ballads  "  Glenfinlas,"  "The 
Eve  of  St.  John,"  and  "  The  Grey  Brother," 

Sublighed  in  1799  in  Lewis's  "Tales  of  Won- 
er."  About  the  same  time  he  produced  a 
translation  of  Goethe's  Gdtz  von  Berliehingen. 
He  had  meanwhile  (December,  1797)  married 
Charlotte  Margaret  Carpenter,  a  young  lady  of 
French  extraction,  and  was  in  the  enjoyment 
of  a  comfortable  income.  In  1799  he  was  ap- 
pointed sheriff  depute  of  Selkirkshire.  In  1802 
appeared  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  "  Min- 
strelsy of  the  Scottish  Border,"  a  collection  of 
ancient  ballads,  in  1803  the  third  volume,  and 
in  1804  his  annotated  edition  of  the  ancient 
poem  of  "  Sir  Tristrem."  These  works  were 
preliminary  to  "  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel," 
of  which  the  first  draught  had  been  written  in 
the  autumn  of  1802,  and  which  on  its  appear- 
ance in  1805  met  with  an  enthusiastic  recep- 
tion. Scott's  appointment  in  1806  to  one  of 
the  principal  clerkships  in  the  Scottish  court 
of  session,  with  a  salary  of  £800  (subsequently 
increased  to  £1,300),  enabled  him  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  literature.  He  produced 
a  collection  of  "  Ballads  and  Lyrical  Pieces " 
(1806),  and  edited  a  complete  edition  of  the 
works  of  Dryden,  with  a  life  of  the  poet  (1808). 
In  1808  appeared  "Marmion,  a  Tale  of  Flod- 
den  Field,"  followed  in  1810  by  "The  Lady 
of  the  Lake."  His  succeeding  poems,  "  The 
Vision  of  Don  Roderick"  (1811),  "Rokeby" 
(1812),  a  tale  of  the  English  civil  wars,  "  The 
Bridal  of  Triermain"  (anonymous,  1813), 
"The  Lord  of  the  Isles"  (1814),  "  The  Field  of 
Waterloo  "  (1815),  and  "  Harold  the  Dauntless" 
(1817),  are  far  inferior,  though  having  occa- 
sional passages  of  great  beauty.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1814  some  mislaid  sheets  of  a  novel  de- 
signed to  illustrate  highland  scenery  and  cus- 
toms in  the  era  of  1745,  which  had  been  com- 
menced in  1805,  but  laid  aside,  fell  in  his 
way.  The  second  and  third  volumes  were 
written  in  three  weeks,  and  in  July  of  the 
same  year  the  work  was  published  anonymous- 
ly under  the  title  of  "  Waverley,  or  'tis  Sixty 
Years  Since."  The  publication  marked  an  era 
in  the  history  of  English  fiction.  He  had  been 


in  the  habit  of  passing  his  summers  at  Ashes- 
tiel  on  the  Tweed,  near  Selkirk,  an  estate  be- 
longing to  a  kinsman,  and  in  1811  he  pur- 
chased a  small  farm  on  that  river,  within  a 
few  miles  of  Melrose,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Abbotsford,  and  which  by  successive 
purchases,  often  made  at  exorbitant  prices, 
gradually  expanded  into  a  large  domain.  The 
modest  dwelling  first  erected  upon  it  grew  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  into  a  large  Gothic 
castellated  mansion ;  and  it  was  the  owner's 
chief  occupation,  in  the  intervals  of  literary 
labor  or  of  hospitable  duties,  to  add  to  the 
embellishments  of  both  house  and  grounds. 
He  now  produced  his  novels  in  rapid  succession ; 
and  perhaps  one  reason  for  maintaining  his 
incognito  was  his  unwillingness  to  impair  his 
standing  as  a  landed  proprietor  by  allowing  it 
to  be  known  that  he  was  an  author  writing 
for  fortune.  To  "  Waverley "  succeeded  in 
1815  "Guy  Mannering,"  and  in  1816  "The 
Antiquary,"  both  "  by  the  author  of  Waver- 
ley." His  next  tales,  "  The  Black  Dwarf  "  and 
"Old  Mortality"  (1816),  constituted  the  first 
series  of  the  "  Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  while 
"Rob  Roy"  (1817)  was  "by  the  author  of 
Waverley."  In  1818  appeared  "  The  Heart  of 
Mid-Lothian,"  and  in  1819  "The  Bride  of 
Lammermoor  "  and  "  A  Legend  of  Montrose," 
forming  additional  series  of  "  Tales  of  my 
Landlord."  "  Ivanhoe  "  (1819),  which  was  to 
have  appeared  under  a  new  incognito,  was,  in 
consequence  of  the  publication  of  a  novel  in 
London  pretending  to  be  a  fourth  series  of 
"  Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  announced  as  "  by  the 
author  of  Waverley."  "  The  Monastery  "  and 
"  The  Abbot "  appeared  in  1820,"  Kenilworth  " 
and  "The  Pirate"  in  1821,  "The  Fortunes  of 
Nigel "  in  1822,  "  Peveril  of  the  Peak,"  "  Quen- 
tin  Durward,"  and  "St.  Ronan's  Well"  in 
1823,  "Redgauntlet"  in  1824,  and  "Tales  of 
the  Crusaders,"  comprising  "  The  Betrothed  " 
and  "The  Talisman,"  in  1825,  all  "by  the 
author  of  Waverley."  Down  to  the  end  of 
1825  he  was  engaged  in  a  variety  of  miscella- 
neous enterprises  besides  those  specified.  In 
1809  he  edited  the  "  State  Papers  and  Letters 
of  Sir  Ralph  Sadlier,"  in  1809-'12  "Lord  Som- 
ers's  Collection  of  Tracts"  (18  vols.  4to),  and 
in  1814  the  works  of  Swift  in  19  volumes, 
with  a  life  of  the  author.  An  excursion  to 
the  continent  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo  fur- 
nished the  materials  for  "Paul's  Letters  to 
his  Kinsfolk."  lie  was  also  an  occasional  con- 
tributor to  the  "Edinburgh"  and  "Quarter- 
ly "  reviews  and  other  periodicals,  including 
the  "  Edinburgh  Annual  Register,"  the  histori- 
cal department  of  which  he  conducted  in  1814 
-'15.  To  these  must  be  added  his  dramatic 
sketches,  "Halidon  Hill"  (1822)  and  "Mac- 
dufFs  Cross,"  and  the  articles  on  "  Chivalry," 
"  Romance,"  and  the  "  Drama,"  for  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica."  With  the  increase 
of  his  prosperity  he  kept  state  at  Abbotsford 
like  a  wealthy  country  gentleman,  and  from 
March  to  December  it  was  the  resort  of  in- 


SIR  WALTER  SCOTT 


709 


numerable  visitors  of  every  rank  and  degree. 
His  mornings  until  11  o'clock  were  devoted 
to  composition,  and  the  rest  of  the  day  to 
the  superintendence  of  the  works  of  improve- 
ment on  his  grounds,  or  the  entertainment 
of  his  guests  and  family.  In  spite  of  his 
lameness  he  was  an  indefatigable  walker  and 
rider.  His  winters  were  passed  at  his  house 
in  Edinburgh.  His  literary  fame,  greatly  en- 
hanced by  the  steadily  growing  belief  that 
he  was  identical  with  the  author  of  "  Waver- 
ley,"  seems  never  to  have  disturbed  his  equa- 
nimity ;  and  the  baronetcy  conferred  upon 
him  by  George  IV.  in  1820  was  probably  re- 
ceived with  more  satisfaction  than  the  praises 
of  the  public.  In  January,  1826,  Constable 
and  co.  of  Edinburgh,  his  publishers,  were 
obliged,  in  consequence  of  a  commercial  crisis, 
to  suspend  payment,  and  Scott  was  found  to 
have  incurred  liabilities  to  their  creditors  to 
the  amount  of  £72,000.  In  his  eagerness. to 
enlarge  and  embellish  Abbotsf  ord,  and  to  main- 
tain his  style  of  living,  he  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  receiving  from  Constable  and  co. 
large  sums  in  anticipation  of  works  in  pro- 
gress or  which  he  proposed  to  write,  and  was 
thus  led,  on  the  principle  of  mutual  accommo- 
dation, to  give  the  firm  counter  acceptances  or 
to  indorse  their  bills.  This  disaster  was  almost 
immediately  followed  by  the  failure  of  the 
printing  house  of  James  Ballantyne  and  co., 
which  had  printed  Scott's  works  since  1802, 
and  of  which,  it  was  now  discovered,  he  had 
been  a  secret  partner  since  1805.  The  affairs 
of  the  two  firms  had  become  badly  involved 
with  each  other ;  and  Scott  was  found  to  be 
liable,  as  partner  of  Ballantyne  and  co.,  for  the 
total  amount  of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  which 
somewhat  exceeded  £100,000.  As  about  half 
of  the  £72,000  due  to  the  creditors  of  Constable 
and  co.  was  included  in  the  debts  of  Ballan- 
tyne and  co.,  his  actual  liabilities  on  account 
of  both  firms  amounted  to  a  little  less  than 
£150,000.  He  refused  the  composition  which 
.his  creditors  offered  him,  and,  having  procured 
an  extension  of  time,  at  the  age  of  55  set  about 
the  task  of  reimbursing  them  by  his  literary  la- 
bors. He  surrendered  his  town  house  and  most 
of  his  available  assets,  but  still  clung  to  Ab- 
botsford,  although  obliged  to  live  there  in  hum- 
bler style.  In  1826  appeared  "  Woodstock,"  a 
novel  written  during  the  crisis  of  his  financial 
troubles,  and  in  1827  "Chronicles  of  the  Can- 
ongate,  First  Series,"  and  the  "Life  of  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,"  the  latter  of  which  produced 
for  his  creditors  £18,000.  At  a  dinner  giv- 
en for  the  benefit  of  the  Edinburgh  theatri- 
cal fund  on  Feb.  23,  1827,  he  finally  threw  off 
the  mantle  of  disguise,  which  he  observed  to 
a  friend  had  become  somewhat  tattered,  and 
declared  himself  to  be  the  sole  author  of  the 
"  Waverley  novels,"  a  fact  long  before  estab- 
lished to  the  public  satisfaction.  His  remain- 
ing works  are  the  "  Chronicles  of  the  Can- 
ongate,  Second  Series"  (1828);  "Tales  of  a 
Grandfather,"  first,  second,  and  third  series 


(1827-'9),  devoted  to  Scottish  history;  "Anne 
of  Geierstein  "  (1829) ;  "  The  Doom  of  Devoir- 
goil"  and  "  The  Auchindrane  Tragedy  "  (1830); 
a  "  History  of  Scotland"  (2  vols.,  1829-'30),  in 
Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia ;"  "  Letters  on 
Demonology  and  Witchcraft "  (1830),  published 
in  Murray's  "  Family  Library ;"  another  series 
of  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather"  (1880),  on  French 
history;  and  a  fourth  series  of  "Tales  of  my 
Landlord"  (1831),  containing  "Count  Robert 
of  Paris"  and  "Castle  Dangerous."  He  also 
furnished  the  notes  and  prefaces  for  a  cheap 
uniform  series  of  the  Waverley  novels,  com- 
menced in  1829  by  Robert  Cadell,  who  had 
purchased  half  of  the  copyright ;  and  the  prof- 
its of  the  new  edition  aided  very  considerably 
the  liquidation  of  his  debts.  In  his  later  works 
he  began  to  give  evidence  of  mental  exhaus- 
tion, and  his  bodily  health  declined  under  the 
influence  of  incessant  mental  application  and 
confinement.  In  the  winter  of  1830-'31  symp- 
toms of  gradual  paralysis,  a  disease  hereditary 
in  his  family,  began  to  be  manifested.  Absti- 
nence from  literary  labor  was  enjoined  upon 
him,  and  in  October,  1831,  he  sailed  for  Italy 
in  a  ship  furnished  by  the  admiralty.  Honors 
seldom  paid  to  literary  men  awaited  him  at 
Naples,  Rome,  and  elsewhere.  Feeling  that 
his  strength  was  rapidly  failing,  he  requested 
to  be  conveyed  at  once  to  his  native  country, 
that  he  might  die  within  sight  and  sound  of 
the  Tweed.  The  journey  was  accomplished 
too  rapidly  for  his  strength,  and  on  his  arri- 
val in  London  in  June,  1832,  he  had  become 
insensible  to  the  presence  of  his  friends  and 
relatives.  He  reached  Abbotsf  ord  on  July  11, 
seeming  to  revive  a  little  in  the  presence  of 
familiar  scenes  and  faces,  but  soon  after  re- 
lapsed into  insensibility,  in  which  condition, 
after  occasional  intervals  of  consciousness,  death 
finally  overtook  him.  He  was  buried  in  an 
aisle  in  Dryburgh  abbey,  which  had  belonged 
to  one  of  his  ancestors,  and  his  memory  is  per- 
petuated by  a  noble  Gothic  tabernacle  erected 
in  Edinburgh  in  1844-'6.  He  had  paid  at  the 
time  of  his  death  upward  of  £100,000  of  his 
debts,  and  soon  afterward,  chiefly  through  the 
liberal  advances  of  Cadell,  who  received  in 
return  Scott's  share  of  the  profits  accruing 
from  copyright  property  in  the  Waverley  nov- 
els, the  claims  of  all  his  creditors  were  fully 
satisfied.  His  two  sons  and  two  daughters 
survived  him,  but  have  since  died,  leaving  no 
male  issue.  His  eldest  daughter  was  married 
to  John  Gibson  Lockhart,  and  their  daughter 
was  married  to  James  Robert  Hope,  who  by 
act  of  parliament  assumed  the  name  of  Hope- 
Scott.  She  died  in  1858,  and  her  only  survi- 
ving child,  Mary  Monica,  born  in  1852,  is  the 
last  lineal  descendant  of  Walter  Scott  and  the 
present  owner  of  Abbotsford.  The  centenary 
of  Scott's  birth  was  celebrated  in  the  princi- 
pal towns-  of  Scotland  in  1871.— Scott  was 
tall  and  vigorous,  and  in  walking  betrayed  his 
lameness  only  by  a  slight  sinking  of  the  right 
limb.  His  head  was  long  and  cylindrical,  his 


710 


WINFIELD  SCOTT 


complexion  fair,  and  his  eyes,  surmounted  by 
large  bushy  eyebrows,  small  and  gray.  The 
expression  of  his  countenance  was  somewhat 
heavy,  but  in  conversation  or  in  moments  of 
relaxation  it  lightened  up  with  great  anima- 
tion. Of  his  generosity,  his  affability,  his 
passion  for  field  sports,  his  love  of  dogs  and 
horses,  and  the  innumerable  little  traits  which 
endeared  him  to  the  domestic  circle,  as  well 
also  as  of  his  strong  prejudices,  particular- 
ly on  political  subjects  (his  opinions  being 
strongly  tory),  many  details  may  be  found  in 
the  biography  by  Lockhart,  which  is  the  most 
complete  record  of  his  life.  A  new  life  of 
Scott,  by  Francis  Turner  Palgrave,  was  pre- 
fixed to  a  new  edition  of  his  poems  (London, 
1867).  His  novels  have  been  translated  into 
nearly  all  the  European  languages. 

SCOTT,  Wlnfield,  an  American  general,  born 
in  Petersburg,  Va.,  June  13, 1786,  died  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  May  29,  1866.  He  was  educated 
at  William  and  Mary  college,  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806,  and  in  1808  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  captain  of  light  artillery. 
While  stationed  at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  in  1809, 
he  was  court-martialled  for  remarks  on  the 
conduct  of  his  superior  officer,  Gen.  Wilkinson, 
and  was  suspended  for  one  year,  which  he 
devoted  to  the  study  of  military  tactics.  In 
July,  1812,  he  was  made  lieutenant  colonel, 
and  ordered  to  the  Canada  frontier.  Arriving 
at  Lowiston  while  the  affair  of  Queenstown 
heights  was  in  progress,  he  crossed  the  river, 
and  the  field  was  won  under  his  direction  ;  but 
it  was  finally  lost,  and  he  and  his  command 
wore  taken  prisoners,  from  the  refusal  of  the 
troops  at  Lewiston  to  cross  to  their  assistance. 
In  January,  1813,  he  was  exchanged  and  joined 
the  army  under  Gen.  Dearborn,  as  adjutant 
general  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  the  attack 
on  Fort  George,  May  27,  ho  was  severely  hurt 
by  the  explosion  of  a  powder  magazine.  In 
the  autumn  he  commanded  the  advance  in  Wil- 
kinson's descent  of  the  St.  Lawrence — an  op- 
eration directed  against  Montreal,  but  which 
was  abandoned.  In  March,  1814,  he  was  made 
a  brigadier  general,  and  established  a  camp  of 
instruction  at  Buffalo.  On  July  3  Scott's  and 
Ripley's  brigades,  with  Hindman's  artillery, 
crossed  the  Niagara  river  and  took  Fort  Erie 
and  a  part  of  its  garrison.  On  the  5th  was 
fought  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  resulting  in 
the  defeat  of  the  enemy  (see  CHIPPEWA),  and 
on  July  25  that  of  Lundy's  Lane,  or  Bridge- 
water,  near  Niagara  Falls,  in  which  Scott  had 
two  horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  twice 
severely  wounded  (see  LUNDY'S  LANE).  His 
wound  of  the  left  shoulder  was  critical,  his 
recovery  painful  and  slow,  and  his  arm  was 
left  partially  disabled.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  Scott  was  offered  and  declined  a  seat  in 
the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  war,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major  general,  with  the  thanks 
of  congress  and  a  gold  medal  for  his  services. 
He  assisted  in  the  reduction  of  the  army  to  a 
peace  establishment,  and  then  visited  Europe 


in  a  military  and  diplomatic  capacity.  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  1816,  and  in 
1817  married  Miss  Mayo  of  Richmond,  Va. 
A  part  of  his  time  he  now  devoted  to  the 
elaboration  of  military  manuals.  In  1832  he 
set  out  with  a  detachment  to  take  part  in  the 
hostilities  against  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  but  the 
capture  of  Black  Hawk  ended  the  war  before 
Scott's  arrival  on  the  field.  In  the  same  year 
he  commanded  the  federal  forces  in  Charles- 
ton harbor  during  the  nullification  troubles, 
and  his  tact,  discretion,  and  decision  did  much 
to  prevent  the  threatened  civil  war.  In  1835 
he  went  to  Florida  to  engage  in  the  war  with 
the  Seminoles,  and  afterward  to  the  Creek 
country.  He  was  recalled  in  1837,  and  sub- 
jected to  inquiry  for  the  failure  of  his  cam- 
paigns, the  court  finding  in  his  favor.  In  1838 
he  was  efficient  in  promoting  the  peaceful  re- 
moval of  the  Cherokees  from  Georgia  to  a  new 
reservation  beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  threat- 
ened collision  with  Great  Britain,  growing  out 
of  the  disputed  boundary  line  between  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick,  was  averted  in  1839, 
mainly  through  the  pacific  efforts  of  Scott,  and 
the  question  was  finally  settled  by  the  Ash- 
burton  treaty  of  1842.  By  the  death  of  Gen. 
Macomb  in  1841  Gen.  Scott  became  command- 
er-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  United  States. 
In  1847  he  was  assigned  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  army  in  Mexico.  Drawing  a  portion  of 
Taylor's  troops  and  assembling  his  force  at  Lo- 
bos  island,  on  March  9  ho  landed  12,000  men 
and  invested  Vera  Cruz.  On  the  26th  the 
castle  of  San  Juan  do  Ulua  capitulated,  and  on 
the  29th  the  garrison  of  6,000  men  grounded 
their  arms  outside  of  the  city.  On  April  8 
Scott  advanced  toward  Jalapa,  and  on  the  18th 
fought  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo,  driving  Santa 
Anna  from  his  strong  position  in  the  defile 
formed  by  the  Rio  del  Plan,  and  capturing 
Jalapa  on  the  19th,  Perote  on  the  22d,  and 
Puebla  May  15,  where  he  remained  for  reen- 
forcements  till  Aug.  7.  On  the  10th  his  force, 
numbering  10,748  men,  was  in  front  of  Mexico. 
Advancing  by  the  Acapulco  road,  he  was  op- 
posed by  Gen.  Valencia  with  7,000  picked  men 
supported  by  a  reserve  of  12,000  under  Santa 
Anna,  but  on  Aug.  20  successively  carried  Con- 
treras  and  Churubusco  (see  CHURUBUBCO),  and 
could  have  taken  the  capital ;  but  an  armistice 
till  Sept.  7  was  agreed  upon,  to  allow  the  peace 
commissioner,  Mr.  N.  P.  Trist,  an  opportunity 
to  negotiate.  At  its  close  operations  began 
on  the  S.  W.  avenue  of  the  city,  defended  by 
14,000  Mexicans  occupying  the  wooded  and 
strongly  fortified  eminence  of  Chapultepec. 
On  Sept.  8  Gen.  Worth  with  3,500  men  at- 
tacked this  position,  capturing  much  materiel 
and  more  than  800  prisoners,  but  losing  one 
fourth  of  his  command,  including  58  officers. 
On  the  13th  Chapultepec  was  stormed  and 
carried,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  14th  Scott's 
army  marched  into  the  city  and  ran  up  the 
United  States  flag  on  the  national  palace.  There 
was  some  street  fighting  and  firing  upon  the 


SCOTUS 

troops  from  the  buildings,  but  this  was  soon 
suppressed,  order  was  established,  and  a  con- 
tribution levied  on  the  city  of  $150,000,  two 
thirds  of  which  Gen.  Scott  remitted  to  the  Uni- 
ted States  to  found  military  asylums.  Taxes 
were  laid  for  the  support  of  the  army,  and  a 
civil  organization  under  the  protection  of  the 
troops  was  created.  The  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo,  negotiated  by  Mr.  Trist,  was  signed 
on  Feb.  2,  1848,  and  soon  after  Mexico  was 
evacuated  by  the  United  States  troops.  A 
court  of  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  war 
only  redounded  to  the  fame  of  Scott.  In  1852 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  whig  party  for  the 
presidency,  and  received  the  electoral  votes  of 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Kentucky,  and  Ten- 
nessee, all  the  other  states  voting  for  the  demo- 
cratic candidate,  Gen.  Pierce.  In  1859  Gen. 
Scott  as  commissioner  successfully  settled  the 
difficulty  arising  from  the  disputed  boundary 
line  of  the  United  States  and  British  America 
through  the  straits  of  Fuca.  Age  and  infir- 
mity prevented  him  from  taking  an  active  part 
in  the  civil  war,  and  on  Oct.  31,  1861,  he  re- 
tired from  service,  retaining  his  rank,  pay, 
and  allowances.  Soon  afterward  he  made  a 
brief  visit  to  Europe,  and  he  passed  most  of 
the  remainder  of  his  days  at  West  Point,  where 
he  was  buried. — He  was  the  author  of  a  pam- 
phlet against  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors 
(1821) ;  "  General  Regulations  for  the  Army  " 
(1825);  "Letter  to  the  Secretary  of  War" 
(1827);  "Infantry  Tactics,"  translated  from 
-the  French  (1835);  "Letter  on  the  Slavery 
Question"  (1843);  and  "Memoirs  of  Lieut. 
Gen.  Scott,  written  by  Himself"  (2  vols.  12mo, 
1864).  Biographies  of  him  have  been  writ- 
ten by  E.  D.  Mansfield  (1846),  J.  T.  Headley 
(1852),  and  O.  J.  Victor  (1861).  See  also 
"Campaign  of  Gen.  Scott  in  the  Valley  of 
Mexico,"  by  Lieut.  Eaphael  Semmes  (1852). 

SCOTUS,  Dans.    See  DUNS  SCOTUS. 

SCOTCS,  Jolin.    See  EKIGENA. 

SCOUGAL,  Henry,  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born 
at  Saltoun,  East  Lothian,  in  June,  1650,  died 
in  Aberdeen,  June  13,  1678.  He  was  the  son 
of  Patrick  Scougal,  bishop  of  Aberdeen.  In 
1669  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  there, 
and  in  1674  professor  of  divinity.  His  chief 
work  is  "  The  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man, 
or  the  Nature  and  Excellency  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  edited  by  Bishop  Burnet  (1671), 
which  has  been  many  times  reprinted. 

SCRANTON,  a  city  of  Luzerne  co.,  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  left  or  S.  E.  bank  of  the  Lacka- 
wanna  river,  105  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Philadelphia; 
pop.  in  1853,  about  3,000;  in  1860,  9,223;  in 
1870,  35,092,  of  whom  15,887  were  foreigners, 
including  3,056  Germans,  1,445  English,  6,491 
Irish,  and  4,177  Welsh.  It  occupies  the  plateau 
at  the  confluence  of  Roaring  brook  and  the 
Lackawanna,  is  handsomely  laid  out,  with  wide 
straight  streets,  and  is  lighted  with  gas  and 
well  supplied  with  water.  It  contains  many 
fine  residences  and  public  buildings,  but  its 
general  appearance  is  sombre.  Its  importance 


SCREAMER 


711 


is  due  to  its  situation  in  the  most  northern  of 
the  anthracite  basins  and  to  its  railroad  facili- 
ties. Five  lines  centre  here,  viz. :  the  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna,  and  Western,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania coal  company's  railroad,  the  Lehigh  and 
Susquehanna,  the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  and 
the  Lackawanna  and  Bloomsburg.  The  trade 
in  mining  supplies  is  extensive,  and  the  ship- 
ments of  coal  are  immense.  Its  manufactures, 
especially  of  iron,  are  also  large.  There  are 
blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills,  founderies,  ma- 
chine shops,  saw  mills,  flouring  mills,  brewer- 
ies, gunpowder  works,  &c.  The  city  has  12 
banking  institutions,  with  an  aggregate  capi- 
tal of  $1,351,450 ;  a  hospital  and  a  home  for 
friendless  women  and  children ;  excellent  pub- 
lic schools,  with  about  7,500  pupils;  several 
private  schools  and  academies ;  two  daily  and 
seven  weekly  (two  German  and  one  Welsh) 
newspapers;  and  31  churches,  in  five  of  which 
the  services  are  in  German  and  in  seven  in 
W'elsh. — Scranton  was  incorporated  as  a  bor- 
ough in  1854  and^  as  a  city  in  1866.  It  has 
grown  with  great  rapidity,  its  site  having  been 
occupied  by  a  farm  and  a  swamp  previous  to 
1844,  when  a  rolling  mill  was  started. 

SCREAMER,  the  name  of  a  group  of  South 
American  wading  birds,  of  the  subfamily  pala- 
medeince,  so  named  from  the  loudness  and  shrill- 
ness of  the  voice.  The  bill  is  short,  elevated, 
and  curved  like  that  of  a  gallinaceous  bird ; 
nostrils  large  and  exposed;  wings  long,  with 
the  shoulder  armed  with  two  or  three  strong 
spurs ;  tail  moderate  and  rounded ;  tarsi  long, 
strong,  with  numerous  small  scales ;  toes  long, 
the  anterior  united  by  a  short  membrane,  and 
the  claws  long  and  curved. — In  the  genus  pala- 


Horned  Screamer  (Palamedea  cornuta). 

medea  (Linn.),  the  third  and  fourth  quills  are 
the  longest,  and  the  forehead  is  ornamented  by 
a  slender  cylindrical  horn ;  the  lores  are  feath- 
ered. The  horned  screamer  (P.  cornuta,  Linn.), 
or  kamichi,  is  larger  than  a  goose,  about  3£  ft. 
long,  blackish  with  a  red  spot  on  each  shoulder, 


712 


SCREW 


SCRIBE 


and  lower  parts  from  the  breast  white;  the  bill 
is  black  and  2£  in.  long,  the  horn  3  in.  and 
movable  in  all  directions,  and  the  largest  spur 
1£  in*  They  live  generally  in  pairs  in  the  in- 
undated districts  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  espe- 
cially near  the  sea ;  they  are  shy  and  timid,  and 
have  a  very  piercing  voice,  uttered  at  the  slight- 
est alarm ;  they  occasionally  perch  on  trees ; 
the  food  consists  of  aquatic  seeds  and  plants, 
and  perhaps  of  reptiles.  They  are  strictly 
monogamous.  The  nest  is  made  on  or  near 
the  ground,  in  the  form  of  an  oven ;  the  eggs 
are  two,  as  large  as  those  of  a  goose,  and  the 
young  are  abroad  by  January  or  February ; 
the  flesh  of  the  young  is  good  eating. — The 
faithful  screamer  (channa,  chavaria,  111.)  is 
nearly  3  ft.  long,  of  a  blackish  lead  color,  with 
a  white  spot  at  the  back  of  the  wings  and 
another  at  the  base  of  some  of  the  large  quills ; 
there  is  no  horn  on  the  head,  and  the  occiput 
is  adorned  with  a  circle  of  erectile  plumes,  the 
other  feathers  of  the  part  being  downy;  the 
collar  is  black.  It  possesses.the  singular  power 
of  inflating  the  skin  of  the  body  and  legs  with 
air.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America  as  far 
south  as  Paraguay,  and  the  food  consists  of 
aquatic  plants.  They  are  easily  domesticated. 
SCREW,  a  device  constituting  one  of  the  me- 
chanical powers.  It  is  in  two  forms :  one, 
known  as  the  external,  convex,  or  male  screw, 
is  a  cylinder  of  wood  or  metal  surrounded 
with  either  a  spiral  groove  or  ridge,  which 
makes  equal  angles  with  lines  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder ;  the  other,  called  the  in- 
terior, concave,  or  female  screw,  is  a  hollow 
cylinder  with  grooves  around  its  interior  fit- 
ted to  the  ridges  of  the  corresponding  solid 
screw.  When  very  short  and  used  as  a  fasten- 
ing upon  the  external  screw,  it  is  called  a  nut. 
The  spiral  ridges  are  called  the  thread  of  the 
screw,  and  these  are  made  more  or  less  close 
together  according  to  the  purposes  for  which 
the  screw  is  designed.  The  action  of  the 
screw  is  indefinitely  extended  and  its  power 
increased  by  adding  to  it  a  wheel  and  axle,  so 
arranged  that  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  engage 
in  the  threads  of  the  screw  and  are  brought 
round  continually  while  the  screw  is  made  to 
turn  in  a  fixed  position  against  the  wheel.  In 
this  arrangement  it  is  known  as  the  endless 
screw.  (See  MECHANICS.)  The  small  screws 
in  general  use,  answering  instead  of  nails,  are 
commonly  known  as  wood  screws,  and  are 
made  of  all  sizes  from  3  or  4  in.  in  length  to 
i  in.  or  less.  Screws  of  the  same  character 
for  the  special  uses  of  the  watchmaker  and 
instrument  maker  are  of  still  smaller  sizes. 
The  wood  screw  tapers  slightly  from  the  head 
downward,  and  the  thread  usually  occupies 
about  two  thirds  of  the  length  from  the  point. 
The  under  side  of  the  head  is  of  a  true  taper, 
and  when  the  screw  is  set  in  its  place  accu- 
rately fits  the  hole  that  has  been  rimmed  out 
for  it  to  the  same  taper.  The  upper  side  is 
flat,  and  is  crossed  by  a  narrow  slit  for  the 
edge  of  the  screw  driver,  by  which  it  is  turned 


round.  The  most  approved  form  has  the  gim- 
let point,  which  allows  of  the  screw  enter- 
ing the  wood  without  first  boring  a  hole  for 
its  reception.  The  thread  is  a  thin  fillet  left 
by  removing  the  intervening  metal. — Several 
methods  have  been  devised  for  making  screws. 
By  one,  now  rarely  used,  the  cylindrical 
lengths  cut  from  rolled  iron  or  iron  wire  were 
at  a  red  heat  headed  in  dies,  and  the  thread 
was  then  cut  by  a  file,  its  place  being  pre- 
viously marked  around  the  cylinder  by  one 
of  several  devices  employed  for  this  purpose. 
By  the  machine  process  in  use  in  Birmingham, 
England,  the  first  operation  consists  in  clipping 
off  the  pieces  from  a  coil  of  wire  and  striking 
up  each  piece  at  one  end  to  form  the  head. 
The  blanks  thus  formed  are  in  the  next  opera- 
tion placed  one  at  a  time  in  a  lathe,  and  prop- 
er shape  is  given  to  the  head  and  neck  by  cut- 
ting away  the  superfluous  metal.  Each  blank 
is  then  placed  by  hand  in  a  receptacle  which 
holds  it  firmly,  and  is  raised  by  a  lever  so  as  to 
present  the  head  to  a  steel  circular  saw,  which 
cuts  in  an  instant  the  slit  for  the  screw  driver. 
The  cutting  of  the  thread,  called  worming,  is 
done  in  a  lathe,  the  mandrel  of  which  at  one 
end  carries  an  iron  box  which  works  upon  a 
fixed  regulating  screw.  This  gives  the  required 
longitudinal  movement  to  the  blank  which  is 
secured  to  the  other  end  of  the  mandrel,  and  is 
pushed  by  the  revolution  point  first  through 
the  steel  cutters.  These  are  made  by  levers  to 
press  more  or  less  firmly  upon  the  blanks,  and 
their  action  is  to  turn  out  a  shaving  of  the 
metal,  leaving  a  sharp  thread  or  worm.  By 
other  methods  the  cutters  are  dies  having  the 
same  thread  as  the  required  screw,  and  corre- 
sponding for  external  screws  to  the  nut  or  tap, 
except  that  they  are  either  in  two  or  four  parts, 
which  may  gradually  be  brought  together  to 
close  the  circle  while  the  shank  of  the  blank  is 
worked  down  in  them  to  the  size  required. 
Each  variety  of  screw  in  this  method  of  cut- 
ting requires  its  own  die,  and  various  sizes  are 
cut  by  hand  with  dies.  Internal  screws  are  cut 
by  steel  tools  called  taps,  having  the  thread  of 
the  corresponding  external  screw,  but  partly 
cut  away  along  the  whole  length  in  order  to 
produce  cutting  edges  and  afford  room  for  the 
escape  of  the  shreds  of  metal  removed. 

SCREW  PROPELLER.  See  STEAM  NAVIGA- 
TION; 

SCRIBE,  Anzustin  Engine,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  24,  1791,  died  there,  Feb. 
20,  1861.  He  studied  law,  and  produced  at 
the  age  of  20  Let  dervi*,  a  light  comedy,  which 
failed.  His  next  attempts  were  scarcely  more 
successful,  and  some  of  his  plays  were  hissed. 
Finally  he  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Deles- 
tre  Poirson,  Une  nuit  de  hi  garde  nationale, 
which  succeeded.  In  1816  he  brought  out 
Le  nouveau  Pourceaugnae  and  L«  tolliciteur, 
which  Schlegel  thought  better  than  Moliere's 
Misanthrope.  A  new  theatre  having  been  es- 
tablished in  1820  by  his  friend  Poirson,  he 
was  engaged  to  write  exclusively  for  it,  and 


SCRIBES 

within  ten  years  (1821-'30)  produced  over  100 
plays,  many  of  which  are  still  considered  mas- 
terpieces of  their  kind,  such  as  Le  mariage 
enfantin,  La  loge  du  portier,  La  reine  de  seize 
ans,  La  marraine,  and  Le  mariage  de  raison. 
In  many  of  his  plays  he  was  assisted  by  sev- 
eral other  dramatists,  the  chief  of  whom  were 
Germain  Delavigne,  Melesville,  Dupin,  Var- 
ner,  Carmouche,  and  Bayard.  In  1822  he 
brought  out  at  the  Theatre  Francais  the  drama 
of  Valerie,  the  success  of  which  was  mainly 
due  to  the  acting  of  Mile.  Mars.  He  also 
produced  there,  among  other  plays,  Une  pas- 
sion secrete  (1834) ;  Le  verre  d'eau  (1842) ; 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur  (with  Legouv6,  1849) ; 
La  bataille  de  dames  (1851) ;  Mon  etoile 
(1853)  ;  and  Les  doigts  de  fee  (with  Legouve, 
1858).  He  wrote  the  libretti  of  La  dame 
blanche  for  Boi'eldieu;  La  neige,  Ira  Diavolo, 
Le  domino  noir,  La  sirene,  Hay  dee,  La  Cir- 
cansienne,  La  fiancee  du  roi  de  Garbe  (pro- 
duced in  1864),  and  other  operas,  for  Auber; 
La  fee  aux  roses  and  Le  Jmf  errant,  for  Ha- 
levy;  Les  vepres  siciliennes,  for  Verdi;  Let 
martyrs  and  Don  Sebastien,  for  Donizetti ;  and 
Robert  le  Didble,  Les  Huguenots,  Le  prophete, 
L1  etoile  du  Nord,  and  D Africaine  (posthumous- 
ly produced  in  1865),  for  Meyerbeer ;  besides 
writing  a  great  number  of  libretti  for  Masse, 
Adam,  Clapisson,  Boisselot,  Balfe,  Thomas, 
Offenbach,  and  other  composers.  He  also 
wrote  several  novels,  as  Carlo  BroscM,  Une 
maitresse  anonyme,  and  Piquillo  Alliaga.  In 
1836  he  was  elected  to  the  French  academy. 
At  an  early  stage  of  his  career  he  had  secured 
a  competence  by  his  literary  labors ;  his  wealth 
increased  afterward  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  he  left 
a  large  fortune.  As  early  as  1836  a  catalogue 
of  his  works  filled  36  columns  of  La  France 
litteraire;  now  the  whole  number  of  his  plays 
alone  is  estimated  at  more  than  350.  These 
have  been  printed  separately,  and  in  various 
dramatic  collections.  The  first  complete  edi- 
tion of  Scribe's  works  is  now  in  course  of 
publication  in  Paris  (vols.  xi.  and  xii.,  1875), 
to  be  comprised  in  50  volumes. 

SCRIBES  (Heb.  sopherim),  a  learned  order 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews.  It  was  their  duty 
to  keep  the  official  records  of  the  kingdom,  to 
make  transcripts  of  the  law,  and  to  expound 
and  teach  it.  In  the  time  of  David  the  name 
of  a  scribe  is  mentioned  among  the  high  offi- 
cers; and  under  his  successors  they  consti- 
tuted a  much  esteemed  and  highly  influential 
body,  recognized  and  supported  by  the  state. 
In  the  later  times  of  the  nation  they  recorded 
and  expounded  the  oral  traditions.  In  the 
New  Testament  they  appear  as  a  body  of  high 
officers,  members  of  the  sanhedrim. 

SCRIPTURES,  Holy.     See  BIBLE. 

SCRIVEN,  an  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bordering 
on  South  Carolina,  bounded  E.  by  the  Savan- 
nah river,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Ogeechee ;  area, 
540  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,175,  of  whom  4,888 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the 
soil  sandy.  Pine  timber  is  exported  largely.  It 


SCRIVENERS'  PALSY 


T13 


is  traversed  by  the  Central  railroad  of  Georgia. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  153,242 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  10,962  of  peas  and 
beans,  30,789  of  sweet  potatoes,  3,086  bales  of 
cotton,  and  12,552  gallons  of  molasses.  There 
were  609  horses,  565  mules  and  asses,  8,067 
milch  cows,  6,049  other  cattle,  3,225  sheep, 
and  9,416  swine.  Capital,  Sylvania. 

SCRIVENER,  Frederick  Henry,  an  English  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Bermondsey,  Surrey,  Sept.  29, 
1813.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1835,  was  appointed  assistant  master 
of  the  king's  school,  Sherborne,  and  in  1839 
became  curate  of  Sandford  Orcas,  Somerset. 
In  1846  he  was  appointed  head  master  of  Fal- 
mouth  school,  and  since  1861  has  been  rector 
of  Gerrans,  Cornwall.  In  1870  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  company  of  revisers  of  the  author- 
ized version  of  the  New  Testament.  His  pub- 
lications include  "A  Supplement  to  the  Au- 
thorized Version  of  the  New  Testament" 
(1845) ;  "  A  Collation  of  about  Twenty  Manu- 
scripts of  the  Greek  Testament  deposited  in 
England"  (1853);  "Contributions  to  the  Criti- 
cism of  the  New  Testament,  being  the  Intro- 
duction to  the  Codex  Augiensis  and  Fifty 
other  Manuscripts"  (1859);  Novum  Testa- 
mentum  Grcecum,  text  of  Stephens  of  1550, 
with  various  readings  of  Beza,  Tischendorf, 
Tregelles,  &c.  (1860  ;  new  ed.,  1867);  "Plain 
Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New 
Testament"  (1861);  "Full  Collation  of  the 
Codex  Sinaiticus  with  the  Received  Text  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  Critical  Introduc- 
tion" (1863);  and  "Bezse  Codex  Cantabri- 
giensis,  1581,  edited  with  Prolegomena,  Notes, 
and  Facsimiles  "(1864). 

SCRIVENERS'  PAISY,  or  Writers'  Cramp,  a  de- 
ranged condition  of  the  motor  nerves  distrib- 
uted to  the  muscles  of  the  fingers  and  thumb 
holding  the  pen.  It  often  completely  prevents 
writing,  and,  although  not  precisely  paralysis, 
is  equivalent  to  it.  Th«re  appears  to  be  a  want 
of  coordination  of  the  muscular  movements 
engaged  in  writing,  and  in  this  respect  it  lias 
some  connection  with  locomotor  ataxy.  The 
constant  employment  of  the  same  movements 
creates  an  irritation,  which  is  often  attended 
by  pain  and  excites  uncontrollable  movements 
in  the  thumb  and  index  finger,  causing  motions 
which  make  the  writing  illegible.  A  persistent 
attempt  to  write  only  increases  the  irritation 
and  confusion,  and  the  irregular  contractions 
extend  from  the  muscles  of  the  fingers  to  those 
of  the  forearm  and  even  the  upper  arm.  The 
disease  often  attacks  musicians,  sempstresses, 
milkmaids,  shoemakers,  and  nail  smiths,  and 
therefore  it  has  also  been  known  under  the 
names  cobblers'  spasm  and  milkers'  spasm.  It 
is  more  frequent  among  men  than  among  wo- 
men, and  most  common  between  the  ages  of 
30  and  50.  It  chiefly  attacks  clerks,  teachers, 
and  professional  penmen,  and  most  frequently 
those  who  pay  little  regard  to  the  mechanism 
of  writing.  Rest  and  a  good  diet,  with  tonics, 
particularly  iron,  form  the  most  rational  gen- 


714 


SCROFULA 


SCUDDER 


eral  treatment.  Niemeyer  found  benefit  in 
the  use  of  the  galvanic  current,  which  may  be 
passed  from  above  on  the  muscles  of  the  fore 
arm, 'the  tendons  of  which  pass  to  the  thumb 
and  index  finger.  Strychnine  has  sometimes 
produced  good  results,  and  where  the  patient 
labors  under  malarious  influence  the  use  of 
quinine  has  been  found  beneficial. 

SCROFULA,  a  blood  disease  manifesting  itself 
in  a  great  variety  of  organs,  and  characterized 
when  fully  developed  by  the  presence  of  a  pe- 
culiar unorganized  matter  termed  scrofulous. 
The  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
Latin  acrofa,  a  sow,  that  animal  being  regarded 
as  especially  liable  to  humors  of  a  similar  char- 
acter. It  was  called  struma  by  Celsus,  Pliny, 
and  other  Latin  writers,  from  ttruere,  to  heap 
up.  The  disease  is  transmitted  from  parent  to 
child,  though  like  other  hereditary  diseases  it 
frequently  passes  over  one  generation  to  attack 
the  next.  It  is  closely  allied  to  pulmonary 
consumption ;  consumptive  parents  have  often 
a  scrofulous  or  strumous  progeny,  and  vice 
versa.  A  damp  cold  atmosphere  is  favorable 
to  its  development,  while  it  is  probable  that 
overcrowding  and  want  of  ventilation,  aided 
by  unwholesome  and  insufficient  food,  may  ori- 
ginate it  de  novo.  When  the  predisposition  to 
the  disease  exists,  everything  that  tends  to  de- 
press the  vital  forces  exercises  an  unfavorable 
influence. — The  scrofulous  habit,  when  strong- 
ly marked,  is  easily  recognized.  If  the  skin  be 
fair,  the  complexion  is  often  peculiarly  bril- 
liant, but  the  color  seems  laid  on  in  one  large 
patch,  leaving  the  surrounding  skin  of  an  un- 
natural whiteness ;  the  winga  of  the  nose  are 
thick,  the  upper  lip  often  swollen,  and  the  lips 
become  cracked  and  rough  on  exposure  to  cold. 
The  skin  is  unusually  delicate  and  irritable ; 
the  patient  suffers  very  readily  from  chilblains, 
and  in  childhood  is  more  liable  than  others  to 
cutaneous  diseases.  The  mucous  membranes 
partake  the  delicacy  and  irritability  of  the  skin. 
The  edges  of  the  eyelids  are  apt  to  be  red  and 
swollen ;  the  eye  is  very  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  a  peculiar  inflammation  (see  OPHTHALMIA)  ; 
haemorrhage  from  the  nose,  cold  in  the  head, 
and  enlarged  tonsils  are  frequent.  The  muscles 
commonly  want  firmness,  and  the  whole  sys- 
tem is  deficient  in  stamina.  Sometimes  the 
scrofulous  diathesis  is  marked  by  a  dark  com- 
plexion, a  rough,  dry  skin,  and  a  pasty,  un- 
healthy look  ;  the  movements  are  sluggish,  the 
habit  of  body  indolent,  and  the  intellect  dull. 
When  scrofula  is  fairly  developed,  its  essen- 
tial element  is  the  deposition  of  an  unorgan- 
ized, brittle  material,  generally  of  the  consis- 
tence of  new  cheese.  In  the  lungs  the  presence 
of  this  matter  constitutes  tubercular  consump- 
tion ;  in  the  mesenteric  glands,  tdltet  mesente- 
rica  ;  in  the  arachnoid  membrane  of  the  brain, 
acute  hydrocephalus ;  in  the  lymphatic  glands, 
bones,  &c.,  scrofula.  Scrofula  is  eminently  a 
disease  of  childhood,  while  consumption  be- 
longs to  a  later  period  ;  but  neither  is  confined 
to  any  age.  One  of  the  forms  in  which  scrofu- 


la most  commonly  and  earliest  shows  itself  is 
swellings  of  the  lymphatic  glands  in  various 
parts  of  the  body,  more  particularly  about  the 
neck.  These  become  enlarged  and  firmer,  and 
after  a  time  a  deposition  of  the  peculiar  curd- 
like  matter  is  found  to  have  taken  place  in  their 
interior.  After  a  time  suppuration  occurs,  the 
swellings  become  softer,  and  the  skin  over 
them  assumes  a  dusky  red  hue,  gradually  be- 
comes thinner,  and  finally  bursts,  giving  outlet 
to  an  unhealthy  pus  mixed  with  the  curd-like 
deposit  of  the  disease.  The  ulcers  thus  left 
heal  slowly  and  with  difficulty,  and  unless  great 
care  is  exercised  produce  deformed  cicatrices. 
Occasionally,  but  rarely,  scrofulous  glands  un- 
dergo a  process  of  cure  without  the  occurrence 
of  suppuration,  the  swelling  gradually  subsi- 
ding, and  the  tuberculous  matter,  by  the  absorp- 
tion of  its  thinner  part,  being  converted  into 
a  chalky  concretion. — In  the  management  of 
strumous  infants  much  can  be  done  to  guard 
against  the  development  of  the  disease.  If  the 
mother  be  affected,  a  healthy  wet  nurse  if  pos- 
sible should  be  employed ;  the  sleeping  room 
of  the  child  should  be  large  and  well  ventilated; 
it  should  be  bathed  daily,  at  first  in  warm,  and 
as  it  acquires  strength  in  cold  water,  well  dried, 
and  thoroughly  rubbed ;  it  should  be  warmly 
clothed,  and  exposed  as  much  as  possible  to 
the  light  and  air.  As  it  advances  in  age,  the 
diet  should  be  simple  and  digestible,  but  abun- 
dant and  nutritious;  the  child  should  have  rea- 
sonable but  not  excessive  exercise,  and  should 
be  in  the  open  air  as  much  as  possible ;  while 
if  it  be,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  bright  and 
precocious,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
stimulate  its  intellect  too  early  and  too  much. 
When  the  disease  shows  itself,  a  residence  by 
the  seaside  during  summer  is  frequently  of  ser- 
vice. Remedial  agents  are  to  be  sought  in  the 
preparations  of  iron  and  iodine,  in  quinine  and 
the  bitter  tonics. 

SCRIPLE  (Lat.  scrtipulum,  a  little  pebble),  a 
weight  equal  to  the  third  part  of  a  dram  or  the 
24th  part  of  an  ounce,  as  used  by  apothecaries. 
The  scrupnJum  (also  written  scripulum  and 
tcriptulum)  was  Jf  of  the  Roman  uncia,  and 
afterward  ^  of  an  hour.  The  60th  part  of 
this  was  scrupulum  secundum,  and  the  60th  of 
this  icrupulum  tertium,  whence  our  terms 
seconds  and  thirds  applied  to  these  divisions. 

SCI  ODER,  John,  an  American  missionary,  born 
in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Sept.  8,  1793,  died  at 
Wynberg,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Jan.  13,  1855. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1813,  studied 
medicine,  and  settled  in  New  York.  He  sub- 
sequently offered  himself  to  the  American  board 
as  a  missionary,  studied  theology,  and  in  1819 
was  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  church  on  board  the  ship  which  carried 
him  to  India.  For  19  years  he  labored  in 
Ceylon,  where  he  conducted  a  large  hospital. 
In  1839  he  was  transferred  to  Madras.  In 
1842  he  visited  America,  and  after  his  return 
to  India  in  1846  resumed  his  labors,  but  in 
1854  went  for  his  health  to  the  Cape  of  Good 


SCUDERY 


SCULPTURE 


715 


Hope.  He  published  "The  Redeemer's  Last 
Command,"  "The  Harvest  Perishing,"  "An 
Appeal  to  Mothers,"  "Knocking  at  the  Door," 
"  Passing  over  Jordan,"  "  Letters  to  Children 
on  Missionary  Subjects,"  "  Grandpapa  and  Lit- 
tle Mary,"  &c. — His  eight  sons  and  two  daugh- 
ters all  became  missionaries.  One,  the  Rev. 
Henry  Martyn  Scudder,  returned  to  America 
in  1864,  and  became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  San  Francisco  in  1865,  and  of  a  Con- 
gregational church  in  Brooklyn  in  1871. 

SCUDERY,  or  Sender!.  I.  Georges  de,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Havre  about  1601,  died  in  Pa- 
ris, May  14,  1667.  After  serving  without  dis- 
tinction in  the  army,  he  became  known  by  at- 
tacks upon  Corneille's  Cid,  and  by  his  devotion 
to  Richelieu,  who  had  him  admitted  to  the  acad- 
emy, and  appointed  governor  of  a  small  fort- 
ress near  Marseilles ;  and  in  1662  he  received 
a  pension  of  600  livres.  His  factitious  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  his  name  being  published 
as  the  author  of  his  sister's  most  celebrated 
works,  though  they  were  mainly  written  by 
her  alone.  Boileau  finally  destroyed  the  ephem- 
eral prestige  of  his  plays  and  of  his  epic  Ala- 
ric.  II.  Madeleine  de,  Mile.,  a  French  authoress, 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Havre,  June 
15,  1607,  died  in  Paris,  June  2, 1701.  She  was 
called  "another  Sappho"  and  a  "tenth muse," 
although  her  excessive  mannerism  injured  the 
h6tel  Rambouillet,  where  she  was  conspicuous, 
and  Boileau  satirized  her  exaggerated  senti- 
mentality. But  her  romances,  Ibrahim  (4  vols., 
1641),  Artamene,  ou  le  grand  Cyrus  (10  vols., 
1649-'53),  and  Clelie  (10  vols.,  1656  ;  new  ed., 
1731),  enjoyed  great  popularity  on  account  of 
their  delineations  of  contemporary  characters, 
especially  Artamene,  which  served  as  the  ba- 
sis of  Cousin's  Societe  francaise  du  17'  siecle 
(1858).  Among  her  other  writings  are  Alma- 
hide,  ou  VEtclave  reine  (8  vols.,  1660) ;  Dis- 
cours  sur  la  gloire  (1671),  which  received  the 
first  rhetorical  prize  ever  awarded  by  the  acad- 
emy; Conversations  sur  divers  sujets  (4  vols., 
1680-'84) ;  Conversations  de  morale  (4  vols., 
1686-'8) ;  and  letters  which,  though  not  col- 
lected, are  among  her  brightest  efforts.  A  se- 
lection from  her  writings  appeared  in  1766, 
and  in  many  later  editions,  under  the  title  of 
Esprit  de  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery ;  and  a 
memoir  of  her  was  published  in  Paris  in  1873. 

SCULPIN.    See  BULLHEAD. 

SCULPTURE  (Lat.  sculpere,  to  cut  out,  to 
carve),  literally,  the  art  of  cutting  or  carving 
any  substance  into  images.  The  term  is  used 
generally  to  indicate  any  process  by  which  the 
forms  of  objects  are  represented  by  solid  sub- 
stances, and  therefore  includes  carving,  mod- 
elling, casting,  whether  in  metal  or  other  ma- 
terials, and  gem  engraving.  Sculptured  im- 
ages consist  either  of  insulated  figures  or  parts 
of  figures  or  groups,  technically  called  the 
"round;"  of  figures  attached  to  a  background, 
from  which  they  are  more  or  less  raised,  and 
designated  according  to  the  degeee  of  the 
"  relief,"  as  it  is  termed,  alto  rilievo,  lasso  ri- 


lievo,  and  mezzo  rilievo ;  or  of  figures  which, 
without  projecting  from  the  face  of  the  origi- 
nal ground,  have  their  outlines  sunk  into  it,  and 
are  rounded  on  the  principles  of  basso  rilievo. 
This  method  of  working  occurs  chiefly  in  Egyp- 
tian sculpture,  and  may  be  termed  relieved  in- 
taglio. The  materials  employed  by  the  sculp- 
tor include  almost  every  substance  capable  of 
being  carved,  cast,  or  moulded.  For  carving, 
porphyry,  basalt,  granite,  marbles  of  many  va- 
rieties, alabaster,  ivory,  bone,  and  wood  have 
been  in  use  from  a  remote  period,  the  three 
first  named  substances  being  those  used  by 
the  Egyptians,  while  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
worked  chiefly  in  marble.  Of  the  latter  mate- 
rial, that  most  esteemed  by  the  ancients  was  the 
pure  white  marble  found  in  the  island  of  Paros, 
and  thence  called  Parian,  next  to  which  in 
quality  was  that  procured  from  Mounts  Pen- 
telicus  and  Hymettus  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Athens.  The  finest  Italian  marble  was  the 
Carrara,  which  still  maintains  its  old  celebrity ; 
but  many  Roman  sculptors  wrought  from  mar- 
bles procured  in  Africa.  The  finest  marbles  in 
modern  use  are  from  Italy.  Alabaster  sculp- 
ture is  best  illustrated  by  specimens  exhumed 
at  Nineveh.  "Wood  was  chiefly  employed  in 
the  primitive  stages  of  the  art,  and  the  kinds 
most  in  vogue  were  oak,  cedar,  cypress,  syca- 
more, pine,  box,  fig,  and  ebony.  Few  works 
of  this  description  are  extant,  notwithstanding 
Pliny  and  other  ancient  authors  speak  of  the 
durability  of  ebony,  cedar,  and  other  species. 
Occasionally  figures  for  special  purposes,  as 
funeral  ceremonies,  were  made  of  aromatic 
gums,  and  even  of  hay.  For  modelling,  clay, 
stucco,  plaster,  and  wax  were  used  in  the  in- 
fancy of  the  art;  and  images  of  baked  clay, 
known  as  terra  cotta  work,  were  indefinitely 
multiplied  by  means  of  moulds  of  the  same 
material,  into  which  the  soft  clay  was  pressed. 
Terra  cotta  was  used  for  an  infinite  variety  of 
purposes  besides  statuary,  the  objects  formed 
from  it  being  generally  small  and  painted,  and 
of  a  hardness,  produced  by  the  action  of  fire, 
almost  equalling  that  of  stone.  The  metals 
employed  in  casting  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  tin, 
copper,  lead,  and  their  compounds.  Electrum, 
a  substance  formed  of  one  part  of  gold  to  four 
parts  of  silver,  was  used  as  remotely  as  the 
Homeric  age ;  but  the  composition  called  by 
the  Greeks  ^aA/tdf,  by  the  Romans  «>«,  and  by 
the  moderns  bronze,  has  in  all  ages  been  pre- 
ferred for  the  purposes  of  sculpture  to  any 
other  metal,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  an- 
tique statues  and  sculptured  ornaments  now 
extant  have  been  formed  from  it.  From  the 
varieties  mentioned  by  ancient  writers,  it  apj 
pears  that  many  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era  a  very  considerable  degree  of  skill 
had  been  acquired  in  its  preparation  ;  and  the 
colossal  proportions  of  many  of  the  bronze 
works  extant  or  on  record  point  to  a  facility 
in  the  processes  of  casting  not  inferior  to  the 
art  of  modern  times.  Metal  statues,  however, 
were  not  always  cast,  but,  in  the  earlier  ages 


716 


SCULPTURE 


at  least,  were  made  of  small  plates  hammered 
into  the  desired  shape,  and  fastened  by  nails  or 
cramps,  or  of  solid  pieces  beaten  into  shape. 
Sometimes,  according  to  ancient  authors,  pe- 
culiar effects  of  color,  such  as  a  blush  or  pallor 
upon  the  cheeks,  were  given  by  Greek  sculptors 
to  works  of  this  class  by  a  fusion  of  different 
metals ;  but  the  descriptions  by  Plutarch  and 
others  do  not  afford  a  very  satisfactory  account 
of  the  process,  and  it  seems  more  probable 
that  the  statues  were  colored  after  being  cast, 
as  Pliny  says  was  the  practice  with  the  Egyp- 
tians. Coloring  was  not  confined  to  bronzes, 
but  among  eastern  nations,  as  well  as  with 
the  Greeks,  statues  in  marble  and  other  mate- 
rials were  frequently  heightened  by  color  and 
a  profusion  of  ornament,  whence  they  were 
termed  by  the  Greeks  polychromic.  When 
different  kinds  of  marble  or  stone  and  of  dif- 
ferent colors  were  combined  in  the  same  work, 
it  was  called  polylithic,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  simpler  monolithic  sculpture.  Both  meth- 
ods are  distinct  from  the  so-called  toreutic  art 
of  the  ancients,  which  included  the  working  of 
precious  metals  combined  with  other  substan- 
ces, as  exemplified  in  Homer's  description  of 
the  shield  of  Achilles.  The  Greek  sculptors 
sometimes  introduced  foreign  substances  into 
marble  statues,  as  precious  stones  or  glass  for 
eyes.  A  species  of  sculpture  called  chrysele- 
phantine, in  which  the  flesh  parts  of  the  figure 
were  of  ivory  and  the  draperies  of  gold,  was 
also  employed  by  the  Greeks  for  statues  of 
tutelar  divinities  intended  to  testify  to  the 
wealth,  liberality,  or  piety  of  a  state  or  indi- 
vidual. The  statue  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  by 
Phidias  affords  the  most  illustrious  example  of 
this. — Sculpture  was  probably  the  earliest  de- 
veloped of  the  imitative  arts.  So  far  as  experi- 
ence has  shown,  it  had  no  special  birthplace,  but 
sprung  up  naturally  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
taking  its  origin  everywhere  in  the  imitative 
faculty  of  man,  although  the  practice  of  it  in 
certain  countries  was  undoubtedly  influenced 
by  the  higher  civilization  of  others.  The  first 
efforts  in  sculpture  were  probably  monumental. 
A  block  of  stone  rudely  fashioned  into  some 
simple  form,  or  even  a  pile  of  atones,  original- 
ly sufficed  for  a  memorial ;  and  repeated  in- 
stances occur  in  the  Mosaic  history  of  the  erec- 
tion of  monuments  of  this  kind.  The  next 
step  may  be  traced  to  the  desire  in  a  primi- 
tive state  of  society  for  some  visible,  tangible 
object  representing  the  deity  commonly  wor- 
shipped. But  as  the  deities  worshipped  by  the 
earliest  races  were  heavenly  bodies  or  abstract 
qualities,  such  representations  could  only  be 
symbolical ;  hence  in  all  probability  the  first 
statues  of  gods  were  simple  pillars  of  stone 
having  no  resemblance  to  the  human  figure, 
and  indicating  their  purpose  only  by  certain 
marks  or  hieroglyphics  carved  upon  them ;  and 
the  first  statues  fulfilling  in  any  considerable 
degree  the  conditions  of  art  were  of  men  dis- 
tinguished as  heroes,  benefactors,  or  founders 
of  nations.  When  in  process  of  time  such  indi- 


viduals became  invested  with  divine  attributes, 
the  visible  representation  of  their  forms  as  ob- 
jects of  worship  became  necessary,  and  sculp- 
ture first  assumed  its  legitimate  functions.  The 
art,  thus  early  associated  with  religious  wor- 
ship, was  naturally  considered  inapplicable  to 
ordinary  purposes,  and  in  many  instances  was 
wholly  controlled  by  hierarchical  influence. 
The  supernatural  character  assigned  by  grossly 
superstitious  races  to  the  forms  of  these  newly 
created  deities,  as  exemplified  in  the  monstrous 
creations  of  the  Chinese,  Hindoo,  and  Egyptian 
mythology,  was  gradually  embodied  in  certain 
fixed  types  from  which  no  deviation  was  per- 
mitted; and  this  circumstance,  together  with 
the  limited  field  of  practice,  caused  sculpture 
in  many  parts  of  the  world  to  remain  almost 
from  its  birth  a  mere  mechanical  art. — The  first 
artists  on  record  as  sculptors  are  Bezaleel  and 
Aholiab  (about  1500  B.  C.),  who  made  the  or- 
naments of  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxxi.),  al- 
though long  previous  to  their  time  the  art  of 
working  in  metal,  stone,  and  wood  was  known 
to  various  eastern  nations.  Abundant  passages 
in  the  Old  Testament  show  that  the  Hebrews 
practised  it  with  success,  as  did  also  the  Phoe- 
nicians ;  but  no  specimens  of  the  sculpture  of 
either  nation  remain.  Of  Assyrian  sculpture 
nothing  was  known  from  actual  observation 
previous  to  the  excavations  of  Botta,  Layard, 
and  their  successors,  by  which  the  arts  of 
a  race  whose  history  is  lost  in  the  mythical 
ages  have  been  suddenly  and  minutely  brought 
to  light.  The  specimens  exhumed  are  for 
the  most  part  bass  reliefs  on  alabaster  slabs, 
the  subjects  delineated  being  colossal  human- 
headed  bulls  and  other  grotesque  personages 
from  the  Assyrian  mythology,  battles,  hunting 
scenes,  processions,  ceremonials,  &c.,  executed 
according  to  a  code  of  conventional  rules.  (See 
NINEVEH.)  Although  none  of  them  can  be 
assigned  a  high  rank  as  works  of  art,  the  spec- 
tator cannot  but  be  struck  by  the  majesty  and 
even  the  severe  grandeur  of  some  of  the  larger 
figures,  and  by  the  skill  with  which  the  char- 
acteristics of  individual  animals  and  the  de- 
tails of  elaborate  compositions  are  represented. 
The  Assyrians  also  excelled  in  bronze  castings. 
Of  th«  wonders  of  Babylon  and  the  perfec- 
tion to  which  the  Chaldeans  carried  the  art  of 
casting  in  bronze  and  the  precious  metals,  we 
know  nothing  beyond  the  accounts  of  Herod- 
otus and  other  ancient  writers.  Among  the 
Persians  sculpture  was  never  employed  for 
religious  purposes,  and  the  art  as  practised  by 
them  was  evidently  derived  from  the  Assyri- 
ans. Worshipping  no  deity  which  could  bo 
represented  by  any  form,  they  regarded  images 
of  gods  as  marks  of  barbarism  and  impie- 
ty ;  and  wherever  they  appeared  as  conquerors 
such  works,  with  the  temples  enclosing  them, 
were  invariably  destroyed.  But  their  art, 
notwithstanding  it  was  unrestrained  by  hie- 
rarchical influences,  was  never  marked  by  taste 
or  in  any  sense  progressive.  The  sculptures 
of  Persepolis  represent  principally  processions 


SCULPTURE 


and  combats,  the  figures  in  which  are  heavily 
draped  and  exhibit  little  variety,  action,  or 
character.  The  sculpture  of  the  remoter  east- 
ern nations,  including  the  Chinese  and  Hin- 
doos, has  little  to  recommend  it  in  the  qualities 
of  art,  and  affords  no  assistance  in  tracing  the 
history  of  our  subject.  The  hierarchical  au- 
thority, by  confining  its  exercise  to  mytho- 
logical subjects,  prevented  it  from  becoming 
imitative  or  progressive.  In  vastness  of  scale 
and  the  sentiment  of  repose  the  Hindoo  sculp- 
tures at  Ellora,  Elephanta,  and  elsewhere,  are 
equal  to  the  productions  of  any  Asiatic  race. — 
The  Egyptians,  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
nation  of  antiquity,  associated  the  practice  of 
sculpture  with  religious  worship ;  hence  most 
of  their  extant  works  of  this  class  comprise 
conventional  representations  of  deities  and 
their  attributes  or  qualities.  Kecent  discov- 
eries, however,  show  that  their  earliest  sculp- 
tures were  free  from  restraint,  and  represent- 
ed animate  and  inanimate  forms  with  great 
accuracy ;  whence  the  remark  of  Lenormant : 
"Alone  of  all  the  world  the  Egyptians  began 
with  living  reality  to  finish  with  hieratic  con- 
vention." A  striking  example  of  their  early 
proficiency  is  afforded  in  a  wooden  statue  of 
one  Ra-em-ke,  preserved  in  the  museum  at 
Boolak  near  Cairo,  and  attributed  to  the  era 
of  the  fifth  dynasty,  or  nearly  4000  B.  0.  (ac- 
cording to  Mariette).  The  body  is  admirably 
modelled,  and  the  head  life-like.  This  primi- 
tive art  period  expired  with  the  sixth  dynasty, 
and  from  the  eleventh  dynasty,  or  formation 
of  the  middle  empire,  about  3000  B.  C.,  Egyp- 
tian artists  formed  a  sort  of  hereditary  craft, 
whose  labors,  controlled  by  a  rigid  code  of 
rules  prescribed  by  the  sacerdotal  authority, 
exhibit  a  uniformity  of  results  so  striking  as 
to  justify  the  statement  that  until  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Macedonian  Greeks,  332 
B.  C.,  a  period  of  nearly  2,800  years,  there  was 
but  one  epoch  in  Egyptian  sculpture.  A  Grae- 
co-Egyptian  style  succeeded  with  the  Ptole- 
mies, and  expired  with  the  art  itself.  Not 
only  were  the  artists  forbidden  to  make  inno- 
vations, but  they  were  never  allowed,  Plato 
tells  us,  "  to  invent  any  new  subjects  or  any 
new  habits.  Hence  the  art  remains  the  same, 
the  rules  of  it  the  same."  The  standard  types 
of  form  were  archaic  in  character  and  deficient 
in  action  and  expression,  which  will  account 
for  the  utter  absence  of  anything  approach- 
ing grace,  symmetry,  or  elegance  in  Egyptian 
art.  The  figures  are  generally  equally  poised 
on  both  legs,  one  of  which  is  sometimes 
slightly  advanced ;  the  arms  either  hang  down 
straight  on  each  side,  or  if  one  be  raised,  it  is 
at  a  right  angle  across  the  body ;  and  the  head 
looks  directly  in  front.  Many  statues,  how- 
ever, are  seated  or  kneeling,  the  former  atti- 
tude being  that  in  which,  on  the  whole,  Egyp- 
tian sculptors  excelled ;  and  the  colossal  sitting 
figures  of  their  kings  frequently  exhibit  gran- 
deur of  proportion  and  repose  and  dignity  of 
expression.  Anatomy  was  little  regarded  in 


representations  of  the  human  form,  and  the 
draperies  were  of  the  simplest  character,  fre- 
quently falling  straight  to  the  ground,  with- 
out folds.  Where  elaborate  representations  in 
bass  relief  or  intaglio  of  battles,  processions, 
or  religious  ceremonies  were  attempted,  great- 
er freedom  seems  to  have  been  allowed  the 
artist ;  and  in  this  class  of  works,  as  well  as  in 
occasional  heads,  such  as  the  so-called  Young 
Memnon  in  the  British  museum,  there  are  evi- 
dences of  inventive  power  and  a  feeling  for 
ideal  beauty,  which,  but  for  tbe  restraints  im- 
posed upon  the  sculptor,  might  have  borne 
worthy  fruits.  Egyptian  sculpture  of  all  kinds 
was  usually  colored,  and  statues  of  the  hard- 
est granite,  the  material  most  commonly  em- 
ployed, are  as  cleanly  cut  as  marble  and  beau- 
tifully polished. — Etruscan  sculpture,  so  far  as 
can  be  ascertained  by  existing  specimens,  was 
connected  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  that 
of  the  Greeks,  although  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Greek 
colonists  in  Etruria  a  purely  national  style 
was  in  existence  there.  K.  O.  Muller  has 
observed  that  the  art  of  the  country,  being 
receptive  rather  than  creative,  and  not  indi- 
genous, began  to  decline  as  soon  as  deprived 
of  the  Greek  influence.  The  best  specimens 
of  Etruscan  sculpture  in  existence  are  bronze 
works  of  the  kind  known  as  Tuscanica  signa, 
which  were  highly  esteemed  by  Roman  con- 
noisseurs. They  are  characterized  by  a  stiff, 
archaic  style  resembling  the  early  Greek,  which 
seems  to  have  been  retained  as  the  standard. 
Well  known  examples  of  Etruscan  bronzes 
are  the  "  She  Wolf  "  of  the  capitol  at  Rome, 
and  the  "  Chimaera  "  at  Florence.  Innumer- 
able smaller  figures  have  been  found,  and 
such  was  the  facility  of  the  people  in  cast- 
ing, that  after  the  capture  of  Volsinii  by  the 
Romans,  about  280  B.  C.,  2,000  statues  in 
bronze  were  carried  away  by  the  victors. 
Etruscan  carvings,  whether  in  wood  or  stone, 
are  unskilful,  but  their  terra  cotta  vases  and 
ornamental  work  are  of  high  artistic  value. 
The  Etruscan  vases,  however,  so  celebrated 
for  their  elegance  of  form  and  the  paintings 
with  which  they  are  embellished,  are  now  be- 
lieved to  be  of  Greek  origin. — In  the  hands  of 
the  Greeks  sculpture  was  brought  to  a  degree 
of  perfection  scarcely  approached  in  modern 
times,  and  quite  as  marked,  in  comparison 
with  the  progress  of  other  ancient  nations,  as 
their  superiority  in  every  department  of  imi- 
tative art  and  literature.  Similar  causes  con- 
tributed to  this  universal  excellence,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which,  according  to  Winckelmann, 
were  the  innate  genius  of  the  people,  their  re- 
ligion, and  their  social  and  political  institutions. 
While  in  the  East,  and  even  among  the  Etrus- 
cans, art  never  advanced  beyond  the  types  es- 
tablished almost  at  its  birth,  the  Greeks,  led 
on  by  an  intuitive  sense  of  beauty,  which  was 
with  them  almost  a  religious  principle,  aimed 
at  an  ideal  perfection,  and,  by  making  nature 
in  her  most  perfect  forms  their  model,  "  ac- 


718 


SCULPTURE 


quired  a  facility  and  a  power  of  representing 
every  class  of  form  unattained  by  any  other 
people,  and  which  have  rendered  the  terms 
Greefc  and  perfection,  with  reference  to  art, 
almost  synonymous."  In  respect  to  climate, 
physical  beauty,  mechanical  ingenuity,  or  man- 
ual dexterity,  the  Greeks  had  little  if  any  ad- 
vantage over  contemporary  races;  and  yet, 
whatever  was  the  purpose  to  which  sculpture 
was  applied,  their  superiority  was  indisputable. 
Like  the  works  of  the  painters  who  effected 
the  revival  of  art  in  modern  times,  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  best  period  in  Greek  history  were 
almost  exclusively  public,  and  intended  for  the 
moral  or  religious  improvement  of  the  people, 
or  as  an  incentive  to  noble  deeds.  When  the 
sculptor  ceased  to  be  influenced  by  those  mo- 
tives, his  art  began  to  decline,  as  Italian  art 
under  similar  conditions  languished  after  the 
brilliant  period  of  Raphael  and  Michel  Angelo. 
Greek  sculpture  may  be  divided  into  a  semi- 
mythic  or  archaic  period,  a  period  of  grandeur 
and  power,  a  period  of  refinement  or  physical 
beauty,  and  a  period  of  decline.  The  remains 
of  the  first  period  are  not  unlike  the  earlier 
attempts  of  other  nations,  although  at  its  close, 
notwithstanding  the  hierarchical  influence,  a 
steady  progress  toward  excellence  is  discerni- 
ble. The  first  sculptors  on  record  are  purely 
mythical,  and  may  be  regarded  as  personifica- 
tions of  particular  branches  of  art,  or  the  rep- 
resentatives of  families  of  artists,  rather  than 
actual  personages.  Such  was  Dredalus,  whoso 
name  indicates  merely  an  artist  in  general,  and 
of  whom  it  has  been  observed  that  "  the  sto- 
ries respecting  him  are  more  like  allegorical 
accounts  of  the  progress  of  the  arts  than  any- 
thing else."  For  many  ages  sculptors  claimed 
an  actual  descent  from  Da>dalus,  whence  they 
wore  called  Daodalids;  and  their  works,  known 
as  iatdafa,  represent  the  first  attempts  to  re- 
place the  blocks  of  wood  and  stone  whioh  ori- 
ginally symbolized  tho  images  of  deities,  by 
statues  having  some  resemblance  to  life  or 
nature.  These  were  generally  of  wood,  orna- 
mented with  gilding,  colors,  and  real  drapery, 
although  long  before  the  commencement  of 
authentic  history  other  materials  began  to  be 
used.  Phidon  of  Argos,  who  is  said  to  have 
struck  the  first  money  in  Greece  (748  B.  0.), 
probably  introduced  the  employment  of  met- 
als in  statuary;  and  the  most  ancient  Greek 
statue  in  this  material  mentioned  by  classical 
authors  was  one  in  bronze  of  Zeus,  by  Learchus 
of  Rhegium,  who  is  supposed  to  have  flour- 
ished as  early  as  700  B.  0.  This,  however, 
was  constructed  of  thin  plates  bent  into  the 
required  shape,  and  riveted  together.  Glaucus 
of  Chios  or  Samos  (690)  was  the  reputed  in- 
ventor of  the  art  of  soldering  metals ;  and  to 
Rho3cus  of  Samos,  and  his  son  Theodorus,  was 
ascribed  the  invention  of  modelling  and  cast- 
ing metals,  besides  other  improvements  in  the 
art  (about  600).  Pliny  is  of  opinion  that  the 
first  marble  statues  date  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Olympiads,  although  Dipoenus  and 


Scyllus  of  Crete,  who  flourished  in  the  early 
part  of  the  6th  century  B.  C.,  are  the  first  ar- 
tists who  were  celebrated  for  their  works  in 
marble.  Sculptured  figures  on  architectural 
monuments  were  executed  as  early  as  the  Ho- 
meric epoch,  such  as  the  two  lions  in  relief  on 
the  ancient  gate  of  Mycena),  which,  with  other 
archaic  remains  of  Greek  statuary  and  metal 
work,  reflect,  it  is  asserted,  the  influence  of  As- 
syrian civilization.  The  period  between  the 
age  of  Homer  and  the  60th  Olympiad  (580), 
comprising  about  three  centuries,  witnessed 
the  discovery  of  the  chief  processes  essential 
to  the  practice  of  sculpture ;  but,  from  tho  re- 
straints imposed  by  religion,  the  art  made  lit- 
tle progress  even  among  the  Asiatic  Greeks, 
by  whom  it  was  most  successfully  cultivated. 
Statues  of  gods  after  fixed  types  were  almost 
the  only  ones  made.  Toward  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  those  changes  took  place  by 
which  the  early  archaic  style  was  gradually 
merged  in  that  of  the  second  epoch.  The 
athletic  contests  at  the  public  games  familiar- 
ized the  artists  with  the  beautiful  forms  of 
the  human  body,  and  the  practice  of  erecting 
statues  of»  the  victors  in  these  contests,  which 
began  about  550,  gave  a  surprising  impulse  to 
the  art.  The  subject,  not  being  religious,  ad- 
mitted of  a  greater  play  of  inventive  powers, 
and  the  improvement  thus  produced  in  the 
statues  of  men  was  extended  to  those  of  gods, 
which  gradually  began  to  assume  grace  and 
grandeur.  The  hereditary  cultivation  of  sculp- 
ture, under  the  influence  of  which  conventional 
types  were  carefully  transmitted  to  successive 
generations,  also  ceased  about  this  time,  and 
individual  artists  were  left  free  to  follow  the 
dictates  of  their  own  genius.  These  circum- 
stances, with  tho  disastrous  consequences  to 
Asiatic  art  of  the  Ionian  revolt  against  Darius 
Hystaspis,  and  the  patriotic  spirit  evoked  by 
the  Persian  invasion,  gave  increasing  vigor  to 
sculpture  in  Greece  proper,  where  the  hard- 
ness and  stiffness  of  the  first  period  are  lost  in 
the  grandeur  and  ideal  beauty  of  Phidias  and 
his  contemporaries,  who  united  "the  principles 
and  the  stability  of  the  Dorian  genius  with  the 
liberty  and  grace  of  the  Ionian."  Many  works 
in  marble  and  bronze  belonging  to  the  latter 
or  transition  portion  of  the  archaic  period  are 
still  extant,  the  most  characteristic  being  the 
Selinuntine  and  yEginetan  marbles,  now  de- 
posited in  Palermo  and  Munich,  which  formed 
part  of  the  decorations  of  temples.  Sicyon, 
. Kirina,  and  Argos  had  hitherto  been  the  chief 
schools  of  the  art ;  but  during  the  period  upon 
which  we  are  now  entering,  from  480  to  about 
400  B.  C.,  Athens  was  its  most  distinguished 
seat,  her  supremacy  being  disputed  only  by 
Argos.  The  Athenian  and  Argive  sculptors, 
animated  by  the  intellectual  activity  which  the 
Persian  invasion  developed,  and  which  mani- 
fested itself  not  merely  in  the  cultivation  of 
literature  and  the  fine  arts,  but  in  all  the  social 
and  political  relations  of  the  Hellenic  races, 
vied  with  each  other  in  disseminating  over 


SCULPTURE 


719 


Greece  and  her  colonies  a  series  of  works 
which  became  the  models  of  form  for  their 
countrymen  as  well  as  for  all  succeeding  sculp- 
tors.    Statuary  was  at  this  time  almost  exclu- 
sively public,  and  the  chief  sculptors,  Hegias, 
Pythagoras  of  Rbegium,    Calamis,   Ageladas, 
Phidias,  Agoracritus  and  Alcamenes,  both  pu- 
pils of  Phidias,  Myron,   and    Polycletus,  are 
known  mainly  by  their  statues  of  gods  and 
heroes  and  their  historical  groups  for  the  tem- 
ples, porticoes,  theatres,  and  gymnasia,  built 
from  the  spoils  of  war  or  the  profits  of  new- 
ly developing  commerce.     Of  these  Phidias, 
Myron,  and  Polycletus,  all  scholars  of  Ageladas 
of  Argos,  were  the  most  famous,   and  their 
works  exhibited  the  dignity  and  almost  pas- 
sionless tranquillity  of  mind  characteristic  of  a 
heroic  age,  and  of  the  lofty  purposes  for  which 
its  artists  labored.     Phidias  of  Athens,  whose 
name  is  associated  with  the  noblest  architec- 
tural monuments  and  sculptures  of  the  splendid 
era  of  Pericles,  is  generally  placed  at  the  head 
of  all  the  sculptors  of  antiquity  in  the  qualities 
of  sublimity  and  severe  beauty,  his  works  bear- 
ing the  same  relation  to  those  of  subsequent 
stages  of  the  art  that  the  dramas  of  ^Eschylus 
do  to  the  more  polished  productions  of  Sopho- 
cles or  Euripides.    His  chryselephantine  statues 
of  Athena  and  the  Olympian  Zeus,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  kind  ever  made,  exist  only 
in  the  descriptions  of  ancient  authors ;  but  in 
the  Elgin  marbles,  executed  under  his  direction 
and  in  part  perhaps  by  himself,  as  has  been 
generally  supposed,  we  fortunately  have  splen- 
did and  characteristic  specimens  of  his  genius. 
(See  ELGIN  MARBLES,  and  PHIDIAS.)    The  Phi- 
galian  marbles  in  the  British  museum  and  the 
casts  of  the  sculptured  fragments  from  the 
temple  of  Theseus,  in  the  same   institution, 
are  also  in  the  style  of  Phidias  or  his  school. 
Myron,  who  worked  chiefly  in  bronze,  was  a 
great  master  of  expression,  and,  from  the  fre- 
quent and  honorable  mention  of  him  by  classi- 
cal authors,  must  have  been  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  sculptors  of  antiquity.     He  was  cele- 
brated for  his  figures  of  animals,  but  the  dis- 
cobolus or  quoit  player,  of  which  the  palazzo 
Massimi  in  Rome  and  the  British  museum 
possess  copies,  is  the  only  work  by  which  he 
is  now  known.     Polycletus,  the  head  of  the 
Argive  school,  as  Phidias  was  of  that  of  Athens, 
rivalled  his  great  contemporary  in  every  de- 
partment of  his  art,  except  the  representations 
of  gods,  in  which  Phidias  was  never  equalled. 
He  even  gained  a  victory  over  him  in  the  rep- 
resentation of  an  Amazon.    His  statues  of  ath- 
letes were  considered  the  perfection  of  man- 
ly beauty,  and  a  youthful  doryphorus  (spear 
bearer)  was  so  accurately  proportioned  as  to  be 
a  standing  model  for  sculptors.     Toward  the 
close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  a  change  took 
place  in  the  habits  and  feelings  of  the  Athe- 
nian people,  under  the  influence  of  which  a  new 
school  of  statuary  was  developed.    The  people, 
spoiled  by  luxury  and  craving  the  pleasures 
and  excitements  which  the  prosperity  of  the 
730  VOL.  xiv.— 46 


age  of  Pericles  had  opened  to  them,  regarded 
the  severe  forms  of  the  older  masters  with 
even  less  patience  than  the  austere  virtues  of 
the  generation  which  had  driven  the  Persians 
out  of  Greece.     The  sculptors,  giving  a  reflex 
of  the  time  in  their  productions,  instead  of 
the  grand  and  sublime,  cultivated  the  soft,  the 
graceful,  and  the  flowing,  and  aimed  at  an  ex- 
pression of  stronger  passion  and  more  dramatic 
action.    Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  the  favor- 
ite subjects  of  the  Phidian  era,  gave  place  to 
such  deities  as  Venus,  Bacchus,  and  Amor; 
and  with  the  departure  of  the  older  gods  de- 
parted also  the  serene  and  composed  majesty 
which  had  marked  the  representations  of  them. 
The  great  sculptors  of  this  period  of  refine- 
ment or  sensuous  beauty,  which  begins  about 
400,  were  Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippus,  by 
whom  the  art  was  brought  to  almost  absolute 
perfection  in  respect  to  gracefulness  of  form 
and  expression  and  technical  qualities.    Sco- 
pas excelled  in  single  figures  and  groups,  com- 
bining strength  of  expression  with  grace,  rath- 
er than  in  architectural  sculpture.     The  cele- 
brated group  of  Niobe  and  her  children  in  the 
museum  at  Florence  is  attributed  to  him.    The 
Venus  Victrix  of  the  Louvre,  called  also  the 
Venus  of  Milo,  was  formerly  also  considered 
his  work,  but  may  more  reasonably  be  regard- 
ed as  a  remnant  of  the  sublime  style  developed 
under  Phidias.     The  slab  from  the  mausoleum 
of  Halicarnassus,  representing  the  battle  of 
the  Amazons,  now  in  the  British  museum,  is 
undoubtedly  from  his  hand.     Praxiteles  was 
almost  unrivalled  as  a  sculptor  of  the  female 
figure,  and  his  statue  of  the  Cnidian  Aphro- 
dite, modelled  from  the  courtesan  Phryne,  was 
a  masterpiece  of  sensual  charms.     This  work 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  instance  in  which 
any  artist  had  ventured  to  represent  the  god- 
dess entirely  divested  of  drapery,  and  the  new 
ideal  thus  formed  was  frequently  imitated  by 
succeeding  sculptors.     It  is  doubtful  whether 
any  copies  of  it  are  in  existence,  although  the 
Venus  of  the  Vatican  and  that  of  the  museo 
Pio  Clementino  are  supposed  to  be  such.     The 
works  of  these  two  artists  were  executed  chiefly 
in  Parian  marble,  a  material  which  now  came 
into  general  use  for  single  figures  or  groups, 
while  the  costly  chryselephantine  statues,  and 
those  made  of  wood  and  stone,  called  acroliths, 
gradually  disappear.     While  Scopas  and  Praxi- 
teles represented  what  is  known  as  the  later 
Attic  school,  Lysippus  of  Sicyon  carried  out 
the  principles  of  the  Argive  school  of  Poly- 
cletus by  representing  the  human  form  and 
athletic  power  in  the  highest  perfection.  *  He 
paid  great  attention  to  details,  and  by  a  care- 
ful imitation  of  nature  gave  a  realistic  charac- 
ter to  his  productions,  under  the  influence  of 
which  portrait  statues  began  to  take  the  place 
of  ideal  creations.     He  appears  to  have  worked 
only  in  bronze,  and  was  the  favorite  sculptor 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  whose  statues  he  had 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  making.    The  com- 
mencement of  the  fourth  and  last  period  in 


720 


SCULPTURE 


Greek  sculpture,  about  320  B.  C.,  found  the 
schools  of  Praxiteles  and  Lysippus  in  consid- 
erable vigor,  although  the  artists  contented 
themselves  with  imitating  their  predecessors 
rather  than  opening  any  original  path  of  de- 
sign. Sculpture  consequently  began  to  decline, 
its  decay  being  hastened  by  the  disturbances 
which  followed  the  dismemberment  of  Alex- 
ander's vast  empire.  Until  the  middle  of  the 
3d  century  B.  C.,  however,  there  appears  to 
have  been  no  lack  of  reputable  artists,  and  new 
schools  sprang  up  in  Rhodes,  Alexandria,  Per- 
gamus,  Ephesus,  and  elsewhere  in  the  East, 
the  followers  of  which  too  frequently  lent 
their  talents  to  the  execution  of  grossly  tiatter- 
ing  portraits  of  kings,  and  other  unworthy  pur- 
poses. The  school  of  Rhodes  could  boast  of 
Chares,  the  sculptor  of  the  famous  Colossus. 
To  this  period  are  generally  attributed  by  art 
critics  Agesander's  group  of  Laoeoon  and  his 
sons,  which,  together  with  the  Farnese  bull  at 
Naples,  emanated,  according  to  Pliny,  from 
the  Rhodian  school;  the  Apollo  Belvedere  in 
the  Vatican,  the  "  Hermaphrodite "  at  Paris, 
the  torso  of  the  Belvedere  at  Rome,  the  Far- 
nese Hercules,  and  the  "  Dying  Gladiator." 
Bronze  and  marble  were  the  materials  princi- 
pally in  vogue,  and  the  former  was  gradually 
superseded  by  the  latter.  Shortly  before  the 
capture  of  Corinth  by  the  Roman  general 
Mummius,  146  B.  C.,  a  transient  revival  took 
place  in  Athens,  during  which  the  statue 
known  as  the  Venus  de'  Medici  was  produced 
by  Cleomenes,  although  according  to  some  au- 
thorities it  is  possibly  the  work  of  Alcamenes, 
the  pupil  of  Phidias ;  but  the  reduction  of 
Greece  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman  province 
gave  the  death  blow  to  the  art,  which  degen- 
erated into  a  mere  handicraft.  The  ancient 
seats  of  civilization,  stripped  by  the  conquer- 
ors of  their  choicest  art  treasures,  no  longer 
afforded  to  the  sculptor  the  models  consecrated 
by  time  and  national  pride ;  and  the  Greeks, 
having  neither  the  means  nor  the  high  in- 
ducements to  practise  their  art  at  home  pos- 
sessed by  preceding  generations,  transferred 
their  labors  in  the  1st  century  B.  C.  to  Italy. 
— As  early  as  the  consulship  of  P.  Cornelius 
Scipio  Nasica,  162  B.  C.,  the  city  of  Rome  pos- 
sessed numerous  statues  of  gods  and  public 
men,  executed  probably  by  Greek  and  Etrus- 
can sculptors,  the  latter  of  whom  had  long 
previously  made  the  Romans  familiar  with 
their  peculiar  artistic  creations.  The  over- 
throw of  Greece  and  her  colonies,  however, 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  cultivation  of 
sculpture  in  Rome ;  and  after  the  wholesale 
plundering  of  Greek  cities  by  Sulla  in  86  B. 
C.,  a  taste  for  art  and  for  collecting  choice 
specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting  began 
to  be  developed  among  the  wealthy  Romans. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  republic  Rome  was 
full  of  Greek  sculptors,  some  of  whom,  with- 
out having  originality  of  conception,  were  not 
unworthy  descendants  of  the  great  schools  of 
their  native  country.  A  creditable  specimen 


of  their  skill  is  afforded  in  the  so-called  statue 
of  Germanicus  in  the  Louvre.  Julius  Csesar 
was  an  intelligent  collector  of  statuary,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  art  was  lib- 
erally encouraged  by  the  emperor  and  other 
powerful  patrons.  Caligula  and  Nero  ran- 
sacked Greece  for  sculptures,  and  the  former 
introduced  the  barbarous  custom  of  decapita- 
ting the  statues  of  gods  and  illustrious  men 
for  the  purpose  of  substituting  his  own  like- 
ness, in  which  he  was  imitated  by  many  of 
his  successors.  Down  to  the  time  of  Trajan, 
the  principal  sculptured  works  consisted  of 
reliefs  on  public  monuments,  such  as  those 
adorning  the  arches  of  Titus  and  Trajan,  and 
statues  and  busts  of  the  emperors,  many  of 
which  are  meritorious  in  point  of  execution, 
and  display  considerable  fancy  and  invention 
in  the  treatment.  The  vigorous  character  of 
Trajan  gave  new  life  to  the  arts  in  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  his  reign  and  those  of  his  succes- 
sors Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius  have  been 
called  the  golden  age  of  Italian  sculpture. 
Hadrian  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
connoisseurs  of  the  time,  as  was  evinced  by 
the  modern  excavations  at  his  villa  near  Tivoli, 
and  by  his  influence  induced  contemporary 
sculptors  to  exchange  the  representations  of 
common  subjects,  to  which  they  had  gradually 
begun  to  confine  themselves,  for  those  more 
characteristic  of  earlier  artists.  The  pure 
Greek  style  was  revived  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, and  contemporary  with  it  flourished  an- 
other, half  Greek  and  half  Egyptian,  suggested 
by  the  recent  introduction  of  the  worship  of 
Egyptian  deities  into  Italy.  The  portrait  stat- 
ues of  this  period  are  particularly  fine,  and  the 
ideal  creations,  of  which  the  statues  and  busts 
of  the  emperor's  favorite  Antinous  may  be  re- 
garded as  specimens,  have  been  placed  on  an 
equality  with  the  works  of  the  most  finished 
Greek  period.  The  efforts  of  Herodes  Atti- 
cus,  one  of  the  most  liberal  and  enlightened 
patrons  of  art  on  record,  also  did  much  to 
prolong  this  revival ;  but  after  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century  of  our  era  the  art  exhibited  an 
uninterrupted  decline.  The  sculptures  on  the 
arch  of  Septimius  Severus  (A.  D.  203)  are 
far  inferior  to  the  productions  of  Hadrian's 
time;  and  those  on  the  arch  of  Constantino, 
erected  a  century  later,  show  that  originality 
of  design  and  executive  ability  were  then  near- 
ly extinct.  The  dismemberment  of  the  em- 
pire completed  the  destruction  of  the  arts  in 
Italy,  and  during  the  troubled  ages  which  suc- 
ceeded, the  finest  efforts  of  the  old  sculptors 
fell  a  prey  to  barbarian  or  iconoclastic  fury, 
or  were  destroyed  in  conflagrations.  Constan- 
tinople, in  which  a  vast  number  of  bronzes, 
marbles,  and  pictures  had  been  collected  by 
the  eastern  emperors,  continued  for  several 
centuries  to  be  almost  the  only  repository  of 
such  objects;  but  the  capture  of  the  city  by 
the  Latins  in  1204  having  involved  these  in 
destruction,  the  knowledge  of  antique  art  for 
a  time  passed  away  from  the  world. — Roman 


SCULPTURE 


721 


sculpture  may  be  described  in  general  terms 
as  a  continuation  of  that  of  Greece ;  the  best 
artists  were  Greeks,  and  there  is  no  record  of 
the  production  of  a  work  of  any  considerable 
merit  by  a  native  sculptor.  Italy  nevertheless 
claims  the  honor  of  having  been  the  seat  of 
the  revival  in  modern  times,  not  of  sculpture 
merely,  but  of  all  the  imitative  arts.  During 
the  period  known  as  the  dark  ages  the  arts 
were  in  some  degree  kept  alive  by  the  monks 
of  the  early  Greek  and  Latin  churches  ;  but  a 
style  and  treatment  founded  on  new  concep- 
tions of  the  purposes  to  which  art  should  be 
applied  and  guided  by  Christianity,  had  gradu- 
ally superseded  those  of  pagan  artists.  The 
general  causes  which  produced  this  result  are 
enumerated  in  the  article  PAINTING.  With 
Nicola  Pisano,  who  flourished  in  the  first  half 
of  the  13th  century,  the  authentic  history  of 
modern  sculpture  properly  begins,  notwith- 
standing the  preceding  century  had  witnessed 
the  production  of  works  of  decided  originality, 
if  rude  and  repulsive  in  comparison  with  the 
wonders  of  the  Greek  schools.  The  mission  of 
the  sculptor  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Greek 
artists  in  the  archaic  and  Phidian  periods ;  but 
unlike  the  latter,  who  improved  upon  estab- 
lished types,  he  was  compelled  to  have  direct 
recourse  to  nature  as  it  existed  about  him,  the 
remains  of  antique  art  then  extant  being  too 
insignificant  to  afford  models,  and  according 
in  no  respect  with  the  character  of  the  age. 
Hence  modern  sculpture,  and  indeed  every  de- 
partment of  modern  art,  was  at  the  outset 
as  widely  separated  from  that  of  the  Greek 
schools,  as  the  religion  which  inspired  it  dif- 
fered from  every  system  which  had  preceded. 
Nicola  and  his  son,  Giovanni  Pisano,  were 
among  the  earliest  to  practise  sculpture  as  a  sep- 
ara^fr  art,  and  the  distinctive  character  which 
it  assumed  in  their  hands  gave  the  first  deci- 
ded impulse  to  its  cultivation  in  Italy.  Their 
works,  consisting  of  bass  reliefs  on  the  facades 
and  pulpits  of  churches  in  Pisa,  Orvieto,  Siena, 
and  other  Italian  cities,  exhibit  a  beauty  and 
simplicity  of  composition,  and  a  force  of  ex- 
pression, which  abundantly  compensate  for 
technical  shortcomings.  Their  conceptions  of 
nature  are  naive  and  original,  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  trace  of  the  influence  of  the  antique 
in  their  productions  or  those  of  their  contem- 
poraries, notwithstanding  that  their  superior- 
ity to  any  preceding  artist  is  supposed  to  have 
been  acquired  only  by  the  study  of  such  ancient 
sculptures  as  were  preserved  in  Pisa  and  else- 
where. The  art  inaugurated  by  the  Pisani  was 
further  developed  during  the  succeeding  cen- 
tury by  Andrea  Pisano,  who  executed  in  bronze 
the  oldest  door  of  the  baptistery  of  St.  John 
in  Florence ;  by  Andrea  Orcagna,  the  Masucci, 
and  others,  whose  genius  was  chiefly  devoted 
to  monumental  sculpture  and  the  execution  of 
elaborate  ornaments,  bass  reliefs,  and  small 
figures  on  altars.  Of  the  latter  kind  of  work 
the  altar  in  the  chapel  of  San  Michele  in  Flor- 
ence, by  Orcagna,  is  a  celebrated  specimen. 


At  the  close  of  the  14th  century  sculpture, 
under  the  influence  given  to  modern  art  by 
Giotto,  who  in  turn  owed  much  to  the  exam- 
ple of  Nicola  Pisano,  had  attained  a  consider- 
able degree  of  perfection ;  but  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  15th,  which  has  been  called 
the  golden  age  of  modern  sculpture,  as  the  16th 
was  of  painting,  it  entered  upon  a  grander 
epoch,  the  chief  production  of  which  was  Lo- 
renzo Ghiberti's  celebrated  bronze  doors  for 
the  baptistery  of  St.  John  in  Florence,  which 
not  only  exceeded  every  previous  effort  of 
modern  sculpture,  but  have  remained  to  the 
present  time  a  masterpiece  of  the  art  of  bass 
relief.  Among  the  competitors  for  the  first 
door  of  St.  John  were  Donato  di  Betto  Bardi, 
better  known  as  Donatello,  and  Brunelleschi, 
called  by  the  Italians  Filippo  di  Brunellesco, 
both  of  whom  were  the  friends  and  contem- 
poraries of  Ghiberti.  Brunelleschi  was  most 
distinguished  as  an  architect,  but  Donatello,  by 
his  noble  statues  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  George, 
and  other  works  distinguished  by  bold  concep- 
tion and  vigorous  execution,  gained  a  foremost 
place  among  modern  sculptors.  Luca  della 
Robbia  is  celebrated  for  his  groups  of  the  Vir- 
gin and  Christ,  and  other  sacred  subjects,  exe- 
cuted in  terra  cotta,  and  hardened  by  a  pecu- 
liar process,  the  secret  of  which  is  said  to  have 
perished  with  him.  Among  other  sculptors  of 
the  15th  century  were  Simone,  the  brother, 
and  Giovanni  da  Pisa,  one  of  the  many  schol- 
ars of  Donatello  ;  the  Pollajuoli ;  Andrea  Ve- 
rocchio,  at  one  time  a  painter  and  the  master 
of  Perugino  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  and  An- 
drea Ferrucci ;  all  of  whom  were  chiefly  em- 
ployed on  sacred  subjects  for  churches  and 
convents.  Toward  the  close  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury sculpture,  in  common  with  the  other  arts, 
began  to  feel  the  influence  of  the  newly  awa- 
kened taste  for  the  antique;  and  religious  sub- 
jects were  succeeded  by  those  suggested  by 
classical  history  or  mythology,  the  treatment 
being  founded  upon  the  ancient  marbles  and 
bronzes  which  the  zeal  of  the  Medici  and  oth- 
er enlightened  art  patrons  then  first  caused  to 
be  exhumed.  But  if  the  classical  mode  of  rep- 
resentation was  appropriate  to  strictly  classical 
subjects,  and  the  study  of  the  antique  of  ad- 
vantage with  respect  to  the  technicalities  of 
the  art,  the  introduction  of  pagan  forms  and 
ideas  into  works  of  a  purely  Christian  charac- 
ter was  calculated  to  check  the  healthful  devel- 
opment which  art  had  already  taken,  and  to 
weaken  its  influence  in  addressing  modern 
sympathies.  A  pseudo-classical  style,  founded 
on  mere  imitation,  uninspired  by  the  sentiment 
which  influenced  the  ancient  artists,  and  irre- 
concilable with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  thence- 
forth made  rapid  innovations  upon  the  prac- 
tice of  sculpture,  and  the  art,  while  in  the 
maturity  of  its  promise,  began  to  decline.  At 
this  period  the  most  extraordinary  charac- 
ter in  the  history  of  modern  art  produced  his 
masterpieces  of  form.  The  works  of  Michel 
Angelo  Buonarroti  are  beyond  comparison  the 


Y22 


SCULPTURE 


grandest  efforts  of  modern  plastic  art,  and  his 
colossal  Moses  in  the  monument  of  Pope  Ju- 
lius II.,  his  monumental  statues  of  Lorenzo 
and  (jriuliano  de'  Medici,  and  his  group  called 
La  Pietd  in  St.  Peter's,  show  that  the  influ- 
ences of  the  antique  were  unavailing  to  de- 
stroy his  original  conceptions  of  character  and 
design.  Grandeur  and  energy  of  expression 
and  action  were  his  chief  characteristics,  and 
his  intimate  knowledge  of  anatomy  enabled 
him  to  follow  the  suggestions  of  his  imagi- 
nation to  an  extent  attained  by  no  other  ar- 
tist, and  which  was  calculated  to  mislead  or 
bewilder  others  brought  under  his  influence, 
but  destitute  of  his  genius.  He  had  numer- 
ous followers,  whose  works,  for  the  most 
part  mannered  and  exaggerated  imitations  of 
their  master's  style,  are  now  forgotten.  Con- 
temporary artists  of  the  16th  century  were 
Jacopo  Tatti,  called  Sansovino,  of  Venice,  who 
had  many  eminent  scholars ;  Pietro  Torri- 
giano ;  Baccio  Bandinelli,  who  restored  the 
right  arm  of  the  Laocoon ;  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini, equally  distinguished  as  a  sculptor  and  as 
a  worker  in  the  precious  metals ;  Guglielmo 
della  Porta,  famous  for  his  admirable  restora- 
tions to  the  Farnese  Hercules ;  and  Giovanni 
da  Bologna,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  sculptor  of 
the  celebrated  "  Rape  of  the  Sabines  "  and  the 
bronze  statue  of  Mercury  at  Florence ;  all  of 
whom  possessed  great  merit  as  sculptors,  al- 
though their  works  are  conceived  after  a  lower 
ideal  than  those  of  the  masters  of  the  previous 
century,  and  are  imitations  of  the  antique. 
Profuse  ornamentation,  high  finish,  illusive  ef- 
fects, and  a  great  elaboration  of  details  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  the  artist,  and  nobil- 
ity of  form  and  force  of  expression  were  lost 
in  vain  attempts  to  represent  anatomical  im- 
possibilities. Giovanni  Lorenzo  Bernini,  born 
in  Naples  in  1598,  affords  an  example  of  this 
perversion  of  the  principles  of  the  art,  and 
his  works,  notwithstanding  the  fertility  of 
imagination  and  the  executive  ability  which 
they  display,  are  deservedly  considered  to  vio- 
late taste  and  propriety.  Alessandro  Algardi, 
Francesco  Mocchi,  and  other  sculptors  of  the 
17th  century,  exhibited  similar  characteristics, 
although  in  occasional  efforts  they  rose  above 
the  spirit  of  the  age.  Francesco  di  Quesnoy 
(originally  Duqnesnoy),  called  II  Fiammingo 
(the  Fleming),  deserves  mention  as  an  artist 
of  purer  taste,  who  excelled  in  portraying  chil- 
dren. With  the  commencement  of  the  18th 
century  sculpture  in  Italy  had  degenerated  into 
a  purely  ornamental  art,  in  which  mechanical 
skill  was  more  appreciated  than  taste  or  ori- 
ginality. In  the  latter  half  of  the  century  the 
enlightened  efforts  of  Popes  Clement  XIV. 
and  Pius  VI.,  and  Cardinal  Albani,  the  pub- 
lications of  Winckelmann,  and  the  unearthing 
of  the  buried  treasures  of  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum,  had  the  effect  of  reviving  a  love  for 
the  antique ;  and  with  the  appearance  of  Ca- 
nova  (1757-1822)  succeeded  an  era  of  purer 
taste.  Some  of  the  early  works  of  Canova 


reflect  the  true  antique  spirit;  but  he  subse- 
quently cultivated  a  meretricious  gracefulness 
of  form,  particuarly  in  his  female  figures,  with 
a  frivolous  and  ignoble  mannerism.  Among 
the  successors  of  Canova  have  been  Tenerani, 
Fraccaroli,  Bartolini,  Finelli,  Magni,  and  Vela, 
the  sculptor  of  the  well  known  statue  of  Na- 
poleon dying  at  St.  Helena.  Their  works  are 
gracefully  designed,  though  somewhat  feeble 
and  affected,  and  admirably  finished.  Gio- 
vanni Dupre  of  Siena  (born  1817)  rises  above 
academical  conventionality,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered the  leading  sculptor  of  the  time  in  re- 
ligious subjects.  His  Pietd  for  the  cemetery 
of  the  Misericordia  in  Siena  is  his  most  stri- 
king production.  Bastianini  of  Fiesole  (died 
1868)  was  also  a  sculptor  of  remarkable  prom- 
ise.— The  history  of  Italian  sculpture  may  be 
considered  to  describe  in  general  terms  the 
progress  of  the  art  in  modern  times  in  other 
European  nations.  In  all  of  them  it  probably 
received  its  impulse  from  Italian  artists,  fol- 
lowed almost  similar  phases  of  improvement 
and  decline,  was  influenced  by  similar  fash- 
ions, and  has  been  so  slightly  modified  by  na- 
tional habits  or  feelings  as  to  render  unneces- 
sary any  elaborate  account  of  its  progress  out 
of  Italy.  The  chief  masterpieces  of  ancient 
and  modern  art  are  still  to  be  found  in  that 
country,  and  thither  it  is  still  the  custom  for 
sculptors  of  other  countries  to  resort.  In 
France  the  earliest  names  of  note  are  Germain 
Pilon  and  Jean  Goujon,  who  flourished  in  the 
16th  century.  The  florid  style  of  Giovanni  da 
Bologna  was  subsequently  followed  with  con- 
siderable success,  and  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  Girardon  and  Puget  were  the  precursors 
of  a  long  lino  of  sculptors,  among  whom  were 
Coysevox,  Falconnet,  celebrated  for  his  eques- 
trian statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  Guillaume 
Coustou,  sculptor  of  the  famous  "  Horses  of 
Marly  "  in  the  Champs  Elys6es  of  Paris,  his 
brother  Nicolas  Coustou,  Pigalle,  Bouchar- 
don,  Houdon,  noted  for  his  fine  portrait  statue 
of  "Washington,  Chaudet,  and  other  artists  of 
merit.  In  the  first  half  of  the  present  century 
flourished  David  d'Angers,  a  great  and  original 
artist,  author  of  the  sculptures  on  the  pedi- 
ment of  the  Pantheon  in  Paris ;  Barye,  Bosio, 
Rude,  Cortot,  Pradier,  Lemaire,  Duret,  Jouf- 
froy,  Simart,  Foyatier,  and  Preault.  Contem- 
porary French  sculptors  are  Guillaume,  Per- 
raud,  Carpeaux,  Crauk,  Falguiere,  Gumery, 
Millet,  and  Dubois.  Sculpture  in  Spain  has 
since  the  16th  century  been  identical  or  nearly 
so  with  that  of  Italy,  except  that  it  has  been 
more  exclusively  devoted  to  religious  pur- 
poses, a  practice  which  led  to  the  manufacture 
of  images  of  sacred  personages  colored  to  rep- 
resent life  and  habited  in  real  drapery.  The 
thirty  years'  war  and  other  disturbing  causes 
checked  the  development  of  the  art  in  Ger- 
many during  the  17th  century ;  and  in  the  18th 
we  find  few  sculptors  of  note  besides  Andreas 
Schluter,  who  produced  the  equestrian  statue 
of  the  Great  Elector  in  Berlin,  and  Donner. 


SCULPTURE 

"Within  the  present  century  German  sculptors 
have  infused  a  certain  amount  of  healthful  re- 
alism into  their  monumental  works  and  por- 
trait statues.  Eauch  excelled  in  this  partic- 
ular, and  his  equestrian  monument  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  in  Berlin  is  one  of  the  finest 
works  of  its  class  executed  in  modern  times. 
Other  sculptors  of  note  are  Dannecker,  Scha- 
dow,  Drake,  Schievelbein,  Rietschel,  Hahnel, 
Kiss,  Schilling,  Begas,  and  Schwanthaler,  most 
of  whom  have  followed  a  style  partaking  of 
the  qualities  of  modern  romantic  art  and  of 
the  antique.  Denmark  has  produced  in  Thor- 
waldsen  an  artist  who  cooperated  with  Ca- 
nova  in  bringing  back  the  severity  and  sim- 
plicity of  antique  art,  and  who  at  the  same 
time  bad  no  lack  of  religious  feeling.  Until 
the  present  century  the  art  was  pursued  in 
England  principally  by  foreigners,  and  the  first 
native  sculptor  of  note  was  Flaxman,  a  man 
of  singularly  pure  ideal  conceptions,  whose 
works  bear  a  striking  affinity  to  the  antique. 
His  designs  from  Homer  are  in  this  respect 
among  the  most  remarkable  productions  of 
modern  art.  Next  in  ability  to  him  was  Gib- 
son, who  passed  a  great  part  of  his  life  in 
Rome,  and  cultivated  the  antique  style  with 
considerable  success.  Other  British  sculptors 
of  repute  are  Chantrey,  the  two  "VVestmacotts, 
Wyatt,  Thomas,  Watson,  Lough,  Macdowell, 
Bailey,  Marshall,  Weekes,  Thorny  croft,  Bell, 
Woolner,  and  Foley.  No  sculptures  worthy  of 
the  name  were  produced  in  the  United  States 
previous  to  the  time  of  Greenough  (1805-'52), 
but  within  the  past  half  century  the  art  has 
been  followed  with  various  degrees  of  success 
by  a  considerable  number  of  Americans.  The 
most  promising  of  these  was  Thomas  Craw- 
ford^ whose  equestrian  monument  to  Wash- 
ington in  Richmond,  Va.,  possesses  more  than 
ordinary  merit.  Powers,  for  many  years  a 
resident  of  Florence,  acquired  a  reputation 
by  his  "Greek  Slave;"  and  Story,  Randolph 
Rogers,  and  Ward  are  contemporary  sculptors 
of  ability.  Besides  these  may  be  mentioned 
Palmer,  Brown,  Ball,  Clevenger,  Akers,  Bar- 
tholomew, Harriet  Hosmer,  Hart,  Rinehart, 
and  Launt  Thompson.  John  Rogers  is  noted 
as  a  successful  designer  of  statuette  groups. 
The  sculptured  remains  of  Central  and  South 
America,  like  those  of  eastern  Asia  and  India, 
are  chiefly  of  value  to  the  archaeologist,  and  do 
not  illustrate  the  progress  of  the  art.  They 
are  distinguished  by  vastness  of  scale  and  a 
certain  grotesque  fancy,  and  in  some  instances 
by  a  beauty  and  symmetry  of  form  remarkable 
in  a  semi-civilized  people. — The  most  compre- 
hensive work  on  the  history  of  sculpture  is 
Schnaase's  Geschichte  der  bildenden  JTunate 
(7  vols.,  Dftsseldorf,  1843-'64 ;  2d  ed.  by  Lut- 
zow  and  Friederichs,  1866-'75),  still  unfinished. 
See  also  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  most  eminent 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects"  (English 
translation  by  Mrs.  Jonathan  Foster,  5  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1850-'53);  Flaxman,  "Lectures 
on  Sculpture,"  with  52  plates  (London,  1829) ; 


SCUPPAUG 


723 


Lubke,  Getchichte  der  Plattik,  with  231  wood- 
cuts (Leipsic,  18G3  ;  2d  ed.,  1870;  English 
translation  by  Mrs.  Bunnett,  2  vols.,  London, 
1872);  Westmacott,  "Handbook  of  Sculp- 
ture" (Edinburgh,  1864);  Perkins,  "Tuscan 
Sculptors"  (2  vols.,  London,  1864);  Tucker- 
man,  "  Book  of  the  Artists  "  (New  York, 
1867);  and  Viardot,  Merteilles  de  la  sculpture 
(Paris,  1872). 

SCIIPPAIJG,  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  family 
sparidce  and  genus  pagrus  (Cuv.);  it  is  also 
called  scup  and  porgy  in  some  localities.  In 
this  family  the  gill  covers  are  shining  and 
scaly,  and  unarmed ;  the  palate  without  teeth 
and  the  jaws  not  protractile ;  the  spinous  rays 
of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  bare,  and  received 
when  depressed  in  grooves  at  their  base ;  pec- 
torals and  ventrals  sharp-pointed ;  branchios- 
tegal  rays  six ;  the  scales  large  and  thin,  broad- 
er than  long,  the  centre  of  growth  being  near 
the  posterior  border.  In  pagrus  the  molars  are 
rounded  and  in  two  rows,  and  the  front  teeth 
conical  with  a  villiform  card-like  band  behind 
them.  There  are  more  than  a  dozen  species  in 


Scuppaug  or  Porgy  (Pagrus  argyrops). 

the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  and  the  East 
Indian  and  S.  Pacific  archipelagos.  The  com- 
mon species  on  the  American  coast  (P.  argy- 
rops, Cuv.)  attains  a  length  of  8  to  12  in. ; 
when  first  taken  from  the  water  it  is  pink- 
ish or  flesh-colored  above  and  silvery  below; 
about  the  eyes  reddish ;  a  narrow  green  ridge 
at  the  base  of  the  dorsal,  and  one  just  back 
of  the  eyes ;  iris  mostly  silvery ;  dorsal  red- 
dish, with  the  anterior  rays  silvery ;  the  body 
is  much  compressed  toward  the  back,  which  is 
high ;  the  lips  large  and  loose ;  caudal  deeply 
forked;  there  is  a  large  purple  scale  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lateral  line.  The  food  con- 
sists of  cuttle  fish,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and 
sea  weeds.  It  is  found  from  Massachusetts  to 
South  Carolina,  and  is  largely  used  as  food  in 
a  fresh  state.  The  P.  vulgaru  (Cuv.)  of  the 
Mediterranean  is  about  the  same  size,  silvery, 
with  reddish  tinges  or  bars  on  the  back;  its 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed ;  it  was  known  as  the 
phagros  by  Aristotle,  and  was  placed  in  the 
old  genus  sparus  (Linn.)  until  separated  by 
Cuvier ;  it  is  not  found  in  northern  waters. 


724 


SCURVY 


SCURVY  GRASS 


SCURVY,  or  Seorbntvs,  a  disease  depending 
upon  insufficient  and  faulty  nourishment,  which 
was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  has  been  more 
common  since  long  sea  voyages  have  been 
undertaken.  Sea  scurvy  depends  on  an  im- 
poverished condition  of  the  blood,  in  which 
the  albumen  becomes  less  easily  coagulable  and 
the  fibrine  less  coherent.  The  most  marked 
symptoms  are  swollen  gums,  pale  and  bloated 
complexion,  lassitude,  lowness  of  spirits,  ex- 
treme debility,  and  a  tendency  to  haemorrhages, 
which  may  take  place  from  the  intestines,  un- 
der the  skin,  or  among  deeper-seated  struc- 
tures, even  beneath  the  periosteum.  Ulcera- 
tion,  sloughing,  separation  of  epiphyses,  dis- 
uniting of  old  fractures,  and  intercurrent  dis- 
eases of  a  low  type,  may  be  observed.  The 
scorbutic  taint,  when  not  manifest  as  a  distinct 
disease,  sometimes  complicates  other  affections. 
Sea  scurvy  was  formerly  the  scourge  of  a  sea- 
faring life.  In  1593  Admiral  Hawkins  said 
that,  within  his  experience,  as  many  as  10,000 
seamen  had  died  of  scurvy.  Lord  Anson,  in 
his  voyage  round  the  world,  at  a  much  later 
period,  lost  more  than  four  fifths  of  his  men ; 
and  when  ho  arrived  at  Juan  Fernandez,  of 
the  200  men  then  surviving,  only  eight  were 
capable  of  duty.  The  whole  crew  of  the 
Spanish  ship  Oriflamma  perished  in  this  man- 
ner, and  the  vessel  was  discovered  floating 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds,  with  the  dead 
bodies  on  board.  Though  principally  occur- 
ring during  long  sea  voyages,  it  has  been  seen, 
in  very  destructive  forms,  in  besieged  cities, 
camps,  prisons,  and  even  among  a  destitute 
rural  population.  Dr.  Joseph  Jones,  a  con- 
federate surgeon,  estimates  that  nine  tenths  of 
the  great  mortality  in  the  Andersonville  prison 
was  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  scurvy. — Many 
causes,  such  as  depressing  mental  emotions, 
fatigue,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  neglect  of 
ventilation  and  cleanliness,  and  insufficient  food, 
undoubtedly  contribute  to  the  production  of 
scurvy ;  but  its  essential  cause  is  a  deficiency 
of  some  important  constituent  of  the  food.  It 
has  not  been  determined  with  chemical  accu- 
racy what  the  missing  constituent  is,  though  it 
has  undoubtedly  a  near  connection  with  some 
of  the  organic  acids,  namely,  tartaric,  acetic, 
citric,  malic,  and  lactic.  But  the  class  of  ali- 
ments which  furnish  the  substances  needed  are 
well  known,  and  there  are  few  diseases  which 
can  be  more  completely  cured,  or  still  better 
prevented,  by  judicious  hygienic  management. 
The  aliments  which  have  this  power  are  mostly 
vegetable,  though  fresh  meat  and  milk  have 
been  found  to  play  an  important  part  in  some 
cases.  Salt  meat  is  not  a  cause  of  scurvy,  ex- 
cept as  excluding  more  nourishing  and  diges- 
tible food.  The  efficacy  of  lemon  juice  as  an 
antiscorbutic  seems  to  have  been  known  in 
1609,  but  it  was  not  till  1795  that,  by  order  of 
the  admiralty,  it  was  regularly  supplied  to  the 
British  navy.  Since  that  time  the  amount  of 
scurvy  has  vastly  diminished.  The  lemon  juice 
should  be  pure,  should  have  10  per  cent,  of 


brandy  or  rum  added  to  prevent  fermentation, 
and  should  be  packed  in  jars,  covered  with  a 
layer  of  oil,  and  sealed.  Nearly  all  esculent 
vegetables,  especially  raw  and  unripe,  before 
the  acids  have  given  place  to  sugar  and  jelly, 
are  antiscorbutics.  Potatoes  are  among  the 
best.  Cabbage,  in  the  form  of  sour  crout,  in 
which  acetic  acid  has  been  developed,  water 
cress,  and  onions  rank  next.  Gooseberries  and 
tamarinds  are  useful ;  and  a  decoction  of  the 
leaves  and  bark  of  a  tree,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  spruce  fir,  restored  to  health  the  crew 
of  Jacques  Cartier  in  1535-'6.  Several  other 
vegetables  are  likely  to  be  useful  in  an  emer- 
gency, such  as  sorrel  (rumex  acetosella),  lamb's 
quarter  (chenopodium  album),  wild  artichoke, 
the  American  aloe  (agave  Americana),  indige- 
nous in  Texas,  California,  and  Mexico,  the 
prickly  pear,  and  the  dandelion.  Desiccated 
vegetables  may  be  used,  but  are  less  efficient 
as  well  as  less  agreeable  than  the  fresh.  Dr. 
Parkes  recommends  the  issue  of  vinegar  with 
the  daily  rations,  in  addition  to  the  lemon 
juice,  and  also  the  citrates,  tartratcs,  lactates, 
and  malates  of  potash  in  bulk,  to  be  used  as 
drinks  or  added  to  the  food. 

SCl'RYY  GRASS,  a  plant  of  the  mustard  family, 
so  called  originally  on  account  of  its  supposed 
antiscorbutic  properties,  eochlearia  ojficiiuiUs 
(Lat.  cochlcar,  a  spoon,  from  the  shape  of  the 
leaves),  found  on  the  seacoast  of  Great  Britain 
and  all  around  the  Arctic  circle.  It  is  a  low, 
smooth  annual  or  biennial,  with  a  rosette  of 
heart-shaped  root  leaves;  flower  stalks  G  to  12 
in.  high,  with  numerous  small  white  flowers. 
The  odor  of  the  leaves  when  bruised  is  un- 
pleasant, and  the  taste  acrid  and  bitter ;  it  is 
sometimes  eaten  as  a  salad,  but  more  from  some 


Scurvy  Grass  (Cochlearia  offlcinalis). 

supposed  medicinal  effect  than  for  its  palata- 
bleness.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  Europe. 
— The  plant  called  scurvy  .grass  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  southward  is  a  native  of  this  coun- 
try as  well  as  of  Europe,  where  it  is  known  as 
winter  cress,  Barbarea  vulgaris;  it  is  common 


SCUTARI 


SCYTUIA 


725 


in  low  grounds,  has  dark  green  leaves,  and 
produces  its  yellow  flowers  in  early  spring.  A 
small  variety  of  it  (formerly  called  B.  praecox) 
is  sometimes  cultivated,  and  is  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets as  water  cress,  to  which  it  is  much  infe- 
rior in  flavor. 

SCt'TARI.  I.  A  town  (Turk.  Uskudar ;  anc. 
Chrysopolis)  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Bospo- 
rus, opposite  Constantinople  and  the  largest 
suburb  of  that  city;  pop.  about  70,000.  It  is 
built  on  several  hills,  and  has  an  imperial  pal- 
ace, eight  mosques,  a  convent  of  howling  der- 
vishes, celebrated  Turkish  burial  grounds,  and 
an  English  cemetery,  where  about  8,000  soldiers 
are  buried,  and  which  contains  a  large  obelisk 
by  Marochetti  with  an  inscription  in  several 
languages.  Near  the  cemetery  are  barracks, 
in  the  building  which  during  the  Crimean  war 
was  used  as  a  hospital,  celebrated  through  Flor- 
ence Nightingale's  labors.  Scutari  is  a  great 
centre  of  traffic  between  the  capital  and  the 
Asiatic  provinces.  II.  A  fortified  town  (Al- 
banian, Skodra;  Turk.  Iskenderieh)  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  in  N.  Albania,  on  the  river 
Boyana,  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  lake  of 
Scutari,  15  m.  from  the  Adriatic  coast;  pop. 
about  25,000.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bish- 
op. About  half  the  population  are  Catholics 
under  the  united  archbishopric  of  Antivari 
and  Scutari,  the  rest  being  Greeks  and  Mo- 
hammedans. It  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
goods  and  firearms,  and  ship  yards,  and  con- 
siderable trade  is  carried  on.  On  an  adjacent 
lofty  hill  is  a  citadel. — The  lake  of  Scutari  or 
Zanta  (anc.  Ldbeatis),  on  the  S.  W.  border  of 
Montenegro,  is  about  18  m.  long  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.  and  6  m.  wide.  It  contains  small  isl- 
ands, receives  most  of  the  streams  of  Monte- 
negro, the  principal  being  the  Moratcha,  and 
communicates  with  the  sea  by  the  river  Bo- 
yana. It  abounds  with  fish,  especially  of  the 
carp  family. 

SCCTIBRANCHIATES,  an  order  of  gasteropod 
mollusks,  so  named  by  Cuvier  because  the 
gills  or  branchiae  are  protected  by  a  scutum  or 
shield,  as  in  the  haliotidce  or  ear  shells. 

SCYLLA.     See  SCIGLIO. 

SCYTHE,  and  Sickle,  long  knives  with  a 
curved  edge,  the  former  commonly  used  for 
mowing  grass,  bushes,  &c.,  and  the  latter, 
called  also  a  reaping  hook,  for  cutting  grain. 
These  implements  in  ancient  times  were  also 
employed  as  weapons.  In  ancient  Roman 
cameos  they  are  depicted  in  the  various  forms 
in  which  they  were  employed  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  falx;  as  the  falx  messoria,  the 
crooked  sickle,  still  used  for  reaping  grain ; 
falxfcenaria,  the  long  scythe  for  mowing  grass, 
constructed  with  a  handle  at  right  angles  to 
the  blade,  very  much  as  at  present;  falx  vi- 
natoria,  arboraria,  silvatica,  &c.,  the  pruning 
knife,  bill  hook,  bush  scythe,  &c.  The  imple- 
ment was  a  symbol  of  Saturn,  the  senex  falcifer, 
personifying  time,  who  cuts  down  and  destroys 
all  things  as  with  a  scythe.  Aa  a  weapon  the 
scythe  was  also  made  in  several  forms.  The 


sword  with  the  curved  edge  was  the  falcatus 
ensis;  and  in  the  shape  of  a  short  hooked 
knife,  the  handle  terminating  beyond  in  a  dag- 
ger, it  was  made  of  convenient  use  for  one 
hand,  or  attached  to  the  end  of  a  pole.  In 
another  form,  which  was  used  by  the  Assy- 
rians, Medes,  Persians,  Gauls,  and  Britons,  the 
long  crooked  scythe  blades  were  fastened  to 
the  axles  of  their  chariots  or  to  the  felloes  of 
the  wheels,  and  were  thus  made  to  cut  down 
those  among  whom  the  chariots  were  driven. 
In  modern  warfare  scythes  have  been  used  in 
close  combat,  and  make  a  formidable  weapon. 
— As  agricultural  instruments,  there  was  little 
difference  in  the  forms  of  the  ancient  scythes 
and  sickles  from  those  of  the  present  time,  and 
they  appear  from  the  representations  of  them 
to  have  been  as  well  adapted  for  their  uses  as 
any  made  up  to  the  17th  century.  The  same 
forms  appear  in  the  illustrations  of  Strutt  in 
his  "  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  People  of 
England,"  and  were  there  in  use  more  than 
ten  centuries  ago ;  but  the  snath  or  handle  was 
straight,  and  was  furnished  with  only  one  short 
holding  piece.  Among  the  earliest  recorded 
improvements  is  the  stiffening  of  the  back 
edge  by  welding  to  it  a  strip  of  iron.  This  was 
also  one  of  the  earliest  American  mechanical 
inventions,  being  made  by  Joseph  Jenks,  who 
established  iron  works  in  1646  on  the  Saugus 
river  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  and  in  May,  1655,  received 
from  the  legislature  a  special  grant  or  patent 
running  seven  years  for  this  improvement. 
In  the  notices  of  early  iron  works  in  New 
England,  scythes  are  generally  named  among 
the  most  important  products.  Among  the 
manufacturers  especially  noted  for  this  and 
similar  productions  was  Hugh  Orr,  a  Scotch- 
man, who  emigrated  to  Bridgewater,  Mass., 
in  1738.  His  son  Robert  Orr  established  the 
present  mode  of  forging  scythes  with  the  trip 
hammer.  The  business  has  since  been  largely 
conducted  in  Sutton,  Worcester  co.,  and  also 
in  several  towns  in  Maine  and  New  York ;  but 
it  is  gradually  disappearing  before  the  intro- 
duction of  mowing  and  reaping  machines.  In 
England  the  manufacture  has  been  important 
for  the  last  300  years,  and  has  been  particu- 
larly successful  in  the  N.  extremity  of  Derby- 
shire, extending  about  6  m.  S.  from  Sheffield. 
It  was  established  there  by  a  party  of  Flem- 
ings who  were  driven  from  the  Netherlands, 
the  scythe  makers  among  them  settling  in  the 
parish  of  Norton  and  the  sickle  makers  in 
the  adjoining  one  of  Eckington.  The  best  of 
these  tools  are  still  made  in  this  neighbor- 
hood, and  in  Bristol  and  Dudley. — Scythes  for 
cutting  grain,  having  a  framework  of  wooden 
bars  parallel  with  the  blade  for  laying  the  grain 
straight,  are  called  cradles. 

SCYTHIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  vast  area, 
of  indeterminate  boundaries,  in  eastern  Eu- 
rope and  western  Asia.  Its  native  population, 
according  to  Herodotus,  called  themselves  Sco- 
loti.  The  name  Scythians  is  found  in  a  verse 
of  Hesiod,  as  given  by  Strabo,  but  it  appears 


726 


SCYTHIA 


SEA  CAT 


from  internal  evidence  that  it  is  an  interpola- 
tion, or  a  correction  of  some  copyist.  Homer 
speaks  of  races  who  were  "milkers  of  mares 
and  Cheese-eaters,"  which  description  agrees 
with  what  Hesiod  says  of  the  people  he  men- 
tions. Herodotus  describes  Scythia  as  a  square 
area,  extending  4,000  stadia  (nearly  500  m.)  on 
every  side,  the  southern  boundary  being  the 
coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  (not  in- 
cluding the  Tauric  Chersonesus)  to  the  sea  of 
Azov  (Niebuhr),  or  to  the  mouth  of  the  Don 
(Rawlinson).  Scythia,  as  described  by  him, 
probably  comprehended  the  whole  territory 
from  the  E.  Carpathians  to  the  lower  Don. 
On  the  north  were  the  nations  called  Aga- 
thyrsi,  Neuri,  Androphagi  (cannibals),  and  Me- 
lanchlieni  (black-coats).  The  Sarmatians,  a 
Scythic  tribe,  subsequently  gained  the  ascen- 
dancy, and  their  name  was  thereupon  given 
to  the  territory  comprised  in  the  Scythia  of 
Herodotus.  (See  SARMATIA.)  Afterward  the 
Greeks  applied  the  name  to  the  Asiatic  region 
N.  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  confines  of  China,  and  divided  it  by  the 
northern  Imaus  range  (the  Thian-shan)  into 
Scythia  intra  Imaum  and  Scythia  extra  Imaum. 
— Herodotus  visited  the  Greek  settlements  on 
the  northern  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  de- 
scribes the  Scythians  as  nomadic  tribes,  living 
on  animal  food,  keeping  large  troops  of  horses, 
and  excelling  in  horsemanship  and  archery. 
Hippocrates  describes  them  as  gross  and  fleshy, 
with  loose  and  yielding  joints,  and  little  hair. 
It  was  customary  for  a  Scythian  to  drink  the 
blood  of  the  first  man  he  slew  in  battle,  and  to 
preserve  as  trophies  the  scalps  and  skins  of 
the  enemies  he  overthrew.  They  entombed 
their  kings  amid  sacrifices  of  men  and  beasts, 
and  put  great  faith  in  soothsaying  and  magic 
arts.  They  were  the  successors  of  the  Cim- 
merians in  the  order  of  migration  westward, 
and  invaded  the  Median  empire  near  the  close 
of  the  7th  century  B.  C.  (See  MEDIA.)  Cyrus 
is  said  to  have  fallen  in  a  battle  against  the 
Scythian  Massaget®  in  Asia,  and  Darius  I., 
who  led  a  vast  expedition  against  the  Scyths 
in  Europe  through  Thrace,  was  compelled  to 
retreat  with  severe  loss.  The  Parthians  too 
are  believed  to  have  been  of  Scythic  descent. 
The  hordes  which  about  200  B.  C.  came  from 
the  western  confines  of  China  and  overran 
parts  of  Turkistan  and  modern  Persia,  were 
also  Scyths;  they  turned  toward  India,  and  a 
portion  of  them  founded  a  settlement  known 
as  Indo-Scythia.  The  names  of  the  principal 
tribes  engaged  in  the  Scythian  incursions,  as 
far  as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  are  Sacte 
(often  used  in  a  wide  sense,  and  sometimes 
applied  to  the  Soyths  in  general),  Massagetee, 
Dana?,  Tochari,  Asii  or  Asiani,  and  Sacarauli. 
— Some  scholars  maintain  that  the  Scyths  were 
Turanians,  others  that  they  were  Indo-Euro- 
peans;  Rawlinson  thinks  that  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  applied  the  name  to  any  nomad  race, 
whether  Indo-Europeans  or  Turanians. — For 
the  family  of  languages  to  which  many  phi- 


lologists apply  the  term  Scythic,  see  TURA- 
NIAN RACES  AND  LANGUAGES. 

SCYTHOPOL1S,  an  ancient  town  of  Palestine, 
about  12  m.  S.  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  4  m. 
W.  of  the  Jordan.  The  village  now  occupying 
its  site  is  called  Beisan,  preserving  its  Scriptural 
name  Bethshean  or  Bethsan.  It  is  supposed 
that  its  classical  name  was  given  it  after  the 
invasion  of  the  Scyths,  because  a  large  number 
of  Scyths  had  permanently  settled  in  it.  The 
Philistines  fastened  the  corpses  of  Saul  and  his 
sons  to  the  walls  of  Bethshan,  which,  though 
belonging  to  Manasseh,  was  never  really  a  Jew- 
ish city.  Scythopolis  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
the  decapolis.  Pompey  devastated  it,  Gabi- 
nius  rebuilt  it,  and  Saladin  burned  it.  Ruins 
of  temples,  a  theatre,  and  walls  are  scattered 
over  the  neighborhood  of  the  present  village. 

SEA.     See  OCEAN. 

SEA  ANEMONE.    See  ACTINIA. 

SEA  BEAR.    See  SEAL. 

SEABl'RY.  I.  Samuel,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  Nov.  30,  1729, 
died  Feb.  25,  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1748,  studied  medicine  in  Scotland, 
and  then  theology,  and  was  ordained  in  Lon- 
don in  1753.  He  became  rector  of  Christ's 
church,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  1757  of 
Grace  church,  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  and  in 
1766  of  St.  Peter's,  West  Chester,  N.  Y.  Du- 
ring most  of  the  war  of  the  revolution  he  resi- 
ded in  the  city  of  New  York,  being  a  royalist. 
He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Connecticut  at 
Aberdeen,  Nov.  14,  1784,  and  was  chosen  rec- 
tor of  St.  James's  church,  New  London.  He 
took  part  in  revising  the  prayer  book  and  fra- 
ming the  constitution  of  the  church  which  was 
adopted  in  1789.  Three  volumes  of  his  ser- 
mons were  published  in  1791-'8.  II.  Samuel, 
an  American  clergyman,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  hew  London,  Conn.,  June  9, 
1801,  died  in  New  York,  Oct.  10,  1872.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church,  April  12,  1826,  and  priest  in 
July,  1827.  He  was  a  missionary  for  a  time 
at  Huntington  and  Oyster  Bay,  Long  Island, 
whence  he  removed  to  Ballet's  Cove  (now  As- 
toria). In  1881  he  removed  to  New  York,  and 
for  18  years  was  editor  of  "The  Churchman," 
and  from  1888  to  1868  he  was  rector  of  the 
church  of  the  Annunciation.  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  Biblical  learning  in  the  Episcopal 
general  theological  seminary  in  June,  1862. 
He  published  "  The  Continuity  of  the  Church 
of  England  in  the  Sixteenth  Century"  (1853)  ; 
"  Discourses  on  the  Supremacy  and  Obligation 
of  Conscience"  (I860);  "American  Slavery 
Justified"  (1861);  and  "The  Theory  and  Use 
of  the  Church  Calendar"  (1872).  After  his 
death  appeared  "  Discourses  Illustrative  of  the 
Nature  and  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  oth- 
er Papers,"  edited  by  his  son  (1874). 

SEA  CAT,  the  common  name  of  the  cartila- 
ginous fishes  of  the  order  holocephala  and  fam- 
ily chimceroidei.  They  seem  to  form  a  group 
intermediate  between  the  sturgeons  and  sharks ; 


SEA  OAT 

the  dorsal  cord  is  continuous,  with  cartilaginous 
neural  arches  and  transverse  processes;  the 
skull  is  short  and  rounded,  produced  on  each 
side  into  a  process  to  which  the  lower  jaw  is 
connected  instead  of  to  an  o»  quadratum  ;  the 
upper  jaw  and  palate  are  fused  with  the  skull, 
without  traces  of  suture;  the  upper  jaw  has 
four  broad  plates  or  teeth,  and  the  lower  two ; 
the  eyes  very  large  and  without  lids;  nasal 
cavities  very  large  and  convoluted,  opening  on 
the  under  side  of  the  snout  in  front  of  the 
mouth,  which  is  small ;  the  branchiae  are  not 
fixed  by  their  outer  margin,  and  are  covered 
by  a  small  operculum,  adhering  to  the  hyoid 
arch,  with  only  a  single  aperture  on  each  side 
behind  the  head,  communicating  interiorly  with 
five  branchial  sacs  opening  separately  into  the 
pharynx ;  there  is  no  air  bladder,  and  the  in- 
testine has  a  spiral  valve.  The  skin  is  covered 
with  placoid  granules ;  between  the  eyes  is  a 
fleshy  club-shaped  process,  with  serrated  edge 
and  ending  in  a  spine,  which  somewhat  resem- 
bles a  crown,  and  has  given  rise  to  one  of  its 
popular  names,  "the  king  of  the  herrings." 
The  ventrals  are  abdominal,  the  anal  small,  the 
pectorals  powerful,  and  the  tail  heterocercal ; 
the  anterior  dorsal  is  short,  triangular,  with  a 
strong  spine  for  the  first  ray,  and  is  placed  over 
the  pectorals.  They  are  oviparous,  the  large 
eggs  being  enclosed  in  a  leathery  capsule ;  the 
males  have  trifid  claspers. — The  northern  sea 
cat  (chimcera  monstrosa,  Linn.)  has  a  conical 
snout,  the  dorsals  contiguous  and  reaching  to 
the  end  of  the  tail,  which  is  prolonged  into  a 
slender  filament;  the  body  is  elongated  and 
shark-like ;  the  eyes  have  a  greenish  pupil  sur- 
rounded by  a  white  iris,  and  they  shine,  espe- 
cially at  night,  like  cats'  eyes,  whence  the  com- 
mon ^jame;  the  color  is  silvery  with  brown 
spots ;  the  tail  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body. 
It  attains  a  length  of  3  or  4  ft.,  and  is  found 
in  the  North  sea  and  northern  Atlantic,  where 
it  pursues  the  shoals  of  herring  and  other  mi- 


SEA  CUCUMBER 


727 


Northern  Sea  Cat  (Chimsera  monstrosa). 

gratory  fish ;  it  also  feeds  on  jelly  fishes  and 
crustaceans.  The  flesh  is  tough,  but  the  Nor- 
wegians use  the  eggs  as  food,  and  employ  the 
oil  of  the  liver  in  diseases  of  the  eyes  and  for 


wounds. — In  the  southern  sea  cat  (callorhynchut 
auatralis,  Gronov.)  the  snout  ends  in  a  gristly 
appendage,  bent  backward  at  the  end  so  as  to 
resemble  a  hoe ;  the  anterior  dorsal  is  very  far 
forward  over  the  pectorals,  the  second  over 
the  ventrals  and  reaching  to  the  caudal,  and 
the  tail  does  not  end  in  a  filament.  It  is  of 
about  the  same  size  as  the  northern  animal, 
and  silvery,  tinged  with  yellowish  brown. 

SEA  COW.    See  MANATEE. 

SEA  CUCUMBER,  one  of  the  popular  names 
of  the  holothuria,  the  highest  order  of  the 
echinoderms,  which  are  the  highest  class  of  ra- 


Sea  Cucumber  (Holothuria  lutea). 

diated  animals ;  the  name  is  derived  from  their 
generally  elongated  and  more  or  less  cylindri- 
cal and  warty  form ;  they  are  also  called  sea 
slugs  from  their  vermicular  mode  of  creeping. 
The  body  is  rather  soft,  with  a  leathery  skin 
sometimes  furnished  with  calcareous  plates  or 
granules  without  spines ;  the  mouth  is  at  one 
end  and  the  cloacal  opening  at  the  other,  the 
former  surrounded  by  branching  and  retractile 
tentacles  supported  on  an  osseous  ring  which 
forms  the  rudiment  of  an  internal  skeleton; 
the  ambulacra  (feet)  or  suckers  are  arranged 
usually  in  longitudinal  rows  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  alternating  with  spaces  having  no  such 
apparatus,  and  corresponding  to  the  spiny  rows 
of  star  fishes  and  sea  urchins;  motion  is  effected 
principally  by  these  suckers,  the  mouth  for- 
ward. By  the  introduction  or  ejection  of  wa- 
ter at  the  posterior  extremity  the  body  may  be 
made  to  assume  great  variations  in  length  and 
width,  and  the  general  appearance  externally  is 
more  that  of  an  annelid  than  a  radiate.  Some 
of  the  genera  (as  synapta)  have  cutaneous  an- 
chor-like hooks  by  which  they  attach  them- 
selves, each  inserted  obliquely  under  a  small 
subcutaneous  scale  perforated  by  a  canal.  The 
muscular  layer  under  the  skin  is  very  thick, 
and  so  powerful  in  its  constrictions  that  the 
animal  can  discharge  all  its  viscera  through  the 


728 


SEA  CUCUMBER 


mouth.  They  have  a  well  developed  cesopha- 
geal  ring,  which  sends  off  nerves  to  the  body 
and  tentacles ;  the  intestinal  canal  is  very  long, 
retained  in  place  by  a  kind  of  membranous 


Synapta  Duvenue. 

mesentery,  and  generally  unsymmetrical ;  they 
have  a  distinct  vascular  system,  but  no  heart; 
the  tubes  for  the  water  for  respiration  are 
much  branched,  and  open  from  the  cloaca; 
respiration  is  also  effected  partly  by  the  tenta- 
cles around  the  mouth,  which  communicate 
with  the  aquiferous  system,  and  by  the  water 
introduced  into  the  visceral  cavity.  The  feet 
are  either  in  five  rows  as  on  the  ribs  of  a 
melon,  or  only  on  the  lower  surface,  or  on  a 
kind  of  ventral  disk ;  their  motions  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea  are  aided  also  by  the  oral  pre- 
hensile tentacles.  The  quinary  system  prevails 
among  holothurians  as  among  other  echino- 
derms.  The  sexes  are  distinct;  some  multiply 
by  fissuration,  but  most  by  means  of  eggs ;  in 
the  first  form  the  young  has  an  oval  ciliated 
body,  like  an  infusorial  animalcule,  without  ex- 
ternal organs  or  distinction  of  parts;  in  the 
next  larval  change  the  organs  are  developed, 
at  first  in  a  bilateral  manner  (according  to  Mul- 
ler),  and  then  pass  into  the  radiated  type  by  a 
process  of  internal  gemmation,  receiving  new 
locomotive  organs  in  the  ciliated  fringe  as  they 
pass  into  the  pupa  form,  from  which  the  true 
echinoderm  is  developed. — The  old  genus  holo- 
thuria  (Linn.)  has  been  variously  subdivided. 
They  are  generally  small  on  the  New  England 
coast,  but  attain  a  large  size  in  the  bay  of 
Fundy  and  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland ;  on 
the  mud  flats  of  the  Florida  reefs  they  are  some- 
times seen  more  than  a  foot  long  and  3  or  4  in. 
in  circumference.  All  along  the  American  coast 
is  found  the  sclerodactyla  Briareua  (Ayres), 
from  3  to  6  in.  long,  dark  brown,  with  10  very 
branching  tentacles ;  it  lives  on  muddy  bot- 
toms in  shallow  water  among  the  roots  of  zo»- 
tera.  The  Cuvieria  Fabricii  (Dub.  and  Kor. ; 


SEA  ELEPHANT 

H.  gquamata,  Fabr.)  is  about  3  in.  long,  and 
bright  brick-red,  the  color  being  readily  im- 
parted to  alcohol  and  even  to  water ;  it  is 
scaled  and  granulated  above,  and  has  10  tenta- 
cles ;  it  is  generally  caught  on  hooks,  and  oc- 
curs on  the  coast  of  New  England.  The  chiro- 
dota  arenata  (Gould)  is  5  to  6  in.  long,  club- 
shaped,  ending  posteriorly  in  a  tube  about  the 
size  of  a  crow  quill ;  the  color  is  light  drab, 
with  calcareous  granules;  it  is  found  on  our 
beaches  after  storms,  and  lives  in  shallow  wa- 
ter. The  botryodactyla  grandis  (Ayres)  is  very 
abundant  in  the  bay  of  Fundy  and  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  attains  a  length 
of  6  to  8  in. ;  when  boiled  it  is  very  palatable. 
From  researches  made  on  the  American  coast 
it  appears  that  the  laminarian  zone  just  below 
low-water  mark  is  the  favorite  residence  of 
holothurians,  though  a  few  occur  in  deep  wa- 
ter. Those  found  in  shallow  water  are  the 
most  common.  The  sea  urchins  live  in  deeper 
water,  and  the  star  fishes  are  the  lowest  both 
in  habitat  and  in  the  radiated  scale.  The 
breeding  season  here  seems  to  be  the  winter 
and  spring.  For  a  description  of  the  8  genera 
and  13  species  of  the  American  coast,  all  of 
which  are  different  from  those  of  Europe,  see 
"  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,"  vol.  iv.  (1851-'2),  where  Dr.  W.  O. 
Ayres  has  carefully  compared  them. — Among 
the  European  species  are  the  II.  (psolut) phan- 
tapus  (Linn.),  with  an  almost  scaly  envelope, 
and  the  feet  of  its  central  disk  arranged  in 
three  series ;  the  //.  squamata  (Fabr.),  a  small 
species,  with  the  lower  surface  flat  and  soft 
with  a  great  number  of  feet,  and  rough  and 
scaly  above ;  and  the  H.  tremula  (Gmel.),  of 
the  Mediterranean,  blackish,  bristled  above, 
with  numerous  feet  below,  and  20  branched 
tentacles,  which  grows  to  a  foot  in  length,  and 
is  one  of  the  species  eaten  by  the  Italian  fisher- 
men. Several  species  of  holothnrians  are  col- 
lected in  the  East  Indies  for  food,  under  the 
name  of  biche  de  mar  or  tripang,  the  taking 
and  preparation  of  which  employ  great  num- 
bers of  the  Malays  and  Polynesians;  the  best 
are  found  on  reefs  of  mixed  coral  and  sand  in 
the  Feejee  group  in  one  or  two  fathoms  of  wa- 
ter, and  are  obtained  by  diving.  They  are 
boiled  in  their  own  liquid,  then  dried  on  stages 
in  large  heated  houses,  and  meet  with  a  ready 
sale  at  high  prices  in  the  Chinese  markets  as 
ingredients  for  rich  soups.  For  an  account  of 
the  mode  of  preparation,  see  vol.  iii.  of  the 
"  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring 
Expedition,"  under  Capt.  Wilkes,  pp.  218-222, 
with  a  plate.  Dr.  Karl  Semper  has  described 
and  figured  in  great  detail  the  holothurians 
of  the  Philippine  islands  in  his  Reisen  im 
Archipel  der  Philippinen  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1867-72).  See  also  Wallace's  "Malay  Archi- 
pelago" (1869). 

SEA  DEVIL.     See  GOOSE  FISH. 

SEA  DOVE.     See  AUK. 

SEA  EGG.    See  EOHINFS. 

SEA  ELEPHANT.     See  SEAL. 


SEA  FAN 

SEA  FAN,  a  name  popularly  given  to  the  al- 
cyonarian  polyps  of  the  family  gorgonidce,  from 
their  minutely  branched  and  fan-like  appear- 
ance. They  are  composed  of  a  horn-like  inter- 
nal central  axis,  having  sometimes  in  its  sub- 


SEA  KALE 


729 


Sea  Fan. 

stance  a  little  carbonate  of  lime,  but  never 
enough  to  give  them  a  coral-like  rigidity.  The 
external  covering  is  gelatinous,  tenacious,  and 
sometimes  almost  fleshy,  secreted  by  numerous 
cylindrical,  short,  laterally  connected  polyps. 
The  branches  rise  irregularly,  and  are  joined 
together  by  a  network.  They  live  in  all  seas 
and  in  deep  water ;  several  species,  4  or  5 
in.  high,  are  found  on  the  New  England  coast, 
but  in  the  tropics  they  attain  a  height  of  2  or 
3  ft.  s  The  sea  fan  of  the  West  Indies  (gorgo- 
nia  ftabellum,  Linn.)  attains  a  height  and 
width  of  2  ft. ;  it  is  reddish  or  yellowish,  of 
delicate  texture  and  branching  form. 

SEA  FOX.     See  SHABK. 

SEA  HOG.     See  PORPOISE. 

SEA  HORSE.  I.  See  WALRUS.  II.  An  osse- 
ous fish  of  the  order  lophobranchs  (with  tuft- 
ed gills),  of  the  family  of  pipe  fishes,  and  of  the 
genus  hippocampus  (Cuv.).  The  ordinal  and 
family  characters  have  been  described  in  the 
articles  LOPHOBBANCHS  and  PIPE  FISH.  In  the 
present  genus,  which  includes  several  species, 
the  snout  is  prolonged  and  the  head  elevated 
posteriorly,  somewhat  resembling  a  miniature 
horse's  head,  the  ears  being  represented  by  a 
spiny  coronet  on  the  occiput ;  the  orbits,  pec- 
toral ring,  and  the  other  rings  of  the  mailed 
body  are  more  or  less  spiny ;  the  tail  is  without 
a  fin  and  prehensile,  and  by  means  of  it  they 
suspend  themselves  to  sea  weeds  and  other  sub- 
marine objects ;  the  eyes  are  prominent,  and 
can  be  moved  independently  of  each  other,  and 
in  opposite  directions ;  the  pouch  in  which  the 
males  carry  the  eggs  till  they  are  hatched 
opens  at  the  commencement  of  the  tail ;  the 
ventrals  are  absent,  and  the  pectorals  very 
small  and  just  behind  the  head ;  there  is  a 
single  short  dorsal  on  the  middle  of  the  back, 


whose  edge  has  a  spiral  motion ;  the  females 
have  a  small  anal ;  the  mouth  is  terminal  and 
without  teeth.  They  inhabit  all  parts  of  the 
temperate  and  especially  of  the  tropical  oceans ; 
the  food  consists  of  minute  marine  animals, 
especially  ova ;  a  kind  of  hibernation  has 
been  observed  in  the  Mediterranean  species  by 
Rusconi;  they  swim  vertically,  with  the  tail 
ready  to  wind  around  any  object  they  meet. 
There  is  one  species  in  the  British  seas,  the  H. 
Irevirostris  (Cuv.),  6  in.  or  more  in  length, 
with  much  compressed,  short,  and  deep  body, 
divided  by  longitudinal  and  transverse  ridges, 
with  tubercles  at  the  line  of  intersection;  the 
snout  is  comparatively  short ;  the  color  is  pale 
ashy  brown,  with  iridescent  tints  about  the 
head.  De  Kay  describes  the  H.  Hudsonim,  3 
to  6  in.  long,  from  the  coast  of  S.  New  Eng- 


Sea  Horse  (Hippocampus  brevlrostris). 

land  and  New  York ;  it  is  yellowish  brown, 
with  12  rings  in  the  body  and  36  in  the  tail. 
Other  species  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  more  abundantly  in  the  East  Indies. 

SEA  KALE,  a  cruciferous  plant,  crambe  mari- 
tima  (Gr.  KpA/Lt[3ij,  a  kind  of  cabbage),  which 
grows  upon  the  western  coasts  of  Europe  and 
on  the  Baltic  and  Black  seas,  and  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  European  gardens.  Sea  kale  is  a 
perennial  with  a  long  fleshy  root ;  the  root 
leaves  are  roundish,  6  to  12  in.  across,  thick, 
wavy,  and  often  lobed  on  the  margin,  and  of 
a  peculiar  grayish  green ;  the  flower  stalk  is  2 
to  4  ft.  high,  branching,  and  bears  loose  pani- 
cles of  white  flowers  which  have  a  strong  odor 
of  honey;  the  pod,  about  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  cherry  stone,  contains  but  one  seed.  The 
wild  plant  has  long  been  used  as  a  pot  herb, 
and  was  eaten  by  the  ancient  Romans ;  its  cul- 
tivation in  England  dates  back  a  little  more 
than  100  years;  it  is  now  held  in  high  esteem 
there,  and  is  cultivated  for  market.  In  this 
country  it  is  almost  unknown,  even  in  private 
gardens.  Those  who  live  upon  the  shores 


730 


SEAL 


where  it  grows  wild  cook  the  leaf  stalks  and 
midribs  of  the  leaves,  after  peeling  them  ;  but 
when  cultivated  it  is  so  managed  that  the  buds 
as  they  push  shall  be  blanched,  and  the  edible 
portion  is  the  tender,  undeveloped  leaves.  The 
plant  is  raised  from  seeds,  the  seedlings  re- 
maining a  year  in  the  seed  bed,  or  from  cut- 
tings, 2  to  4  in.  long,  of  the  roots  of  old  plants, 
started  in  spring  on  a  hotbed.  Either  year-old 
seedlings  or  plants  from  cuttings  are  set  out  in 
well  enriched  soil,  2  ft.  apart,  and  the  rows  3 
ft.  distant.  On  the  approach  of  winter  the 
plants  are  covered  with  8  or  10  in.  of  sand  or 
leaf  mould,  so  that  the  shoots  in  forcing  their 
way  up  through  this  in  spring  will  bo  blanched 
and  tender ;  when  the  tip  of  the  shoot  reaches 
the  surface  the  blanching  material  is  drawn 
away  and  the  shoot  cut  at  its  junction  with  the 


Be*  Kale  (Crambe  marttlma).    Blanched  Young  Shoots. 

root.  In  England,  one  method  of  blanching 
is  to  use  pots  or  cylinders  of  earthenware,  tall- 
er in  proportion  than  flower  pots,  or  wooden 
boxes.  By  surrounding  the  pots  with  ferment- 
ing manure  the  plant  may  be  forced. 

SEAL  (Ang.  Sax.  *»»/),  an  aquatic  carnivorous 
mammal,  the  type  of  the  family  phocidce,  con- 
stituting the  old  genus  phoca  (Linn.),  which 
has  been  variously  subdivided.  The  group  of 
seals  is  at  once  distinguishable  from  other  mam- 
mals by  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  the 
limbs ;  the  toes  of  all  the  feet  are  included  al- 
most to  the  end  in  a  common  integument,  con- 
verting them  into  broad  fins,  the  bones  being 
to  a  great  extent  within  the  skin  of  the  trunk, 
and  the  tips  armed  with  strong  non-retractile 
claws ;  the  hind  feet  are  thrown  out  backward, 
nearly  horizontally,  the  very  short  tail  being 
between  them,  and  are  the  principal  agents  in 
swimming  and  diving;  the  fore  paws  when 
swimming  are  applied  close  to  the  body,  and 
are  used  only  in  turning  about.  The  body  is 
cylindrical,  tapering  gradually  backward ;  the 
head  is  small  and  rounded,  and  the  neck  short ; 
the  skin  has  an  under  woolly  down,  over  which 
is  a  covering  of  long,  smooth,  and  shining  hairs, 
shedding  water  by  an  oily  secretion,  and  offer- 
ing no  resistance  in  swimming;  between  the 


skin  and  muscles  is  a  layer  of  fat,  as  in  ceta- 
ceans, giving  that  plumpness  to  the  body  ex- 
pressed in  the  common  saying  "  as  fat  as  a 
seal."  The  skull  is  thin,  which  renders  the 
head  light  in  the  water,  in  the  smaller  species 
without  the  crests  for  muscular  origins  usually 
seen  in  carnivora ;  the  face  short  and  broad ; 
zygomatic  arches  perfect  and  strong ;  anterior 
nasal  opening  not  terminal,  and  in  some  di- 
rected almost  vertically  for  facilitating  respira- 
tion when  the  animal  comes  to  the  surface ; 
the  tentorium  separating  the  cerebrum  and 
cerebellum  is  formed  wholly  from  the  occi- 
pital bone;  the  orbits  are  continuous  with 
the  temporal  fossffl,  and  the  skull  is  very  nar- 
row between  them,  the  cranial  cavity  seeming 
like  a  box  shut  off  from  the  facial  portion  of 
the  head ;  the  lower  part  of  the  occipital  bone 
is  broad  and  thin,  with  an  oval  opening  in  the 
young  in  front  of  the  great  foramen  covered 
with  membrane,  but  closed  by  bone  in  the 
adults,  and  the  condyles  are  much  larger  than 
in  other  carnivora ;  the  inf raorbital  foramina 
are  very  large,  for  the  exit  of  the  branch  of 
the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  which  supplies  the  sen- 
sitive whiskers ;  the  nasal  bones  are  very  short. 
The  incisor  teeth  are  small  and  pointed,  the 
canines  not  generally  very  projecting,  but 
much  worn,  and  the  molars  with  laterally  com- 
pressed crowns,  sharp  cutting  edges,  many- 
pointed,  and  usually  single-rooted ;  the  number 
varies  in  the  different  genera.  The  cervical 
vertebras  are  short,  the  dorsals  and  pairs  of  ribs 
15,  and  the  lumbar  5  (in  the  common  seal),  the 
caudals  very  imperfectly  developed,  the  ante- 
rior portion  of  the  sternum  prolonged  far  up 
the  neck  and  movable,  the  scapula  small  with 
a  moderate  and  nearly  central  spine,  and  the 
coracoid  and  clavicles  absent;  the  bones  of 
the  forearm  short,  wide,  and  flattened ;  the  fe- 
mur at  a  right  angle  with  the  spine  and  the  leg, 
very  short  and  comparatively  immovable,  giv- 
ing greater  freedom  of  motion  to  the  rest  of 
the  limb ;  tibia  and  fibula  long  and  flat,  the  for- 
mer with  a  double  curvature ;  metatarsal  bonea 
and  toes  long  and  slender,  and  the  foot  wide 
and  paddle-like.  The  mouth  has  thick  fleshy 
lips,  with  many  long,  knotted,  and  exceedingly 
sensitive  bristly  whiskers  with  nerves  from  the 
fifth  pair ;  the  tongue  rough  and  bifurcated  at 
the  end ;  nostrils  capable  of  being  completely 
closed  under  water;  external  ears  in  most 
merely  small  valves  which  close  the  auditory 
opening;  the  eyes  (with  nictitating  membrane) 
large,  full,  bright,  and  expressive  of  great  in- 
telligence ;  brain  large,  and  with  many  convo- 
lutions ;  mammas  two  or  four,  ventral,  near  the 
umbilicus,  enclosed  in  folds  of  the  skin ;  the 
intestinal  canal  is  very  long  for  a  carnivorous 
animal ;  the  posterior  vena  cava,  close  to  the 
liver,  has  a  large  sac  or  sinus  which  receives 
five  hepatic  veins,  serving  to  retain  a  portion 
of  the  blood  from  the  heart  while  the  animal  ia 
under  water ;  the  foramen  male  in  the  heart 
and  the  ductus  arteriosu*  are  often  found  per- 
vious ;  the  stomach  is  elongated,  and  has  a  vil- 


SEAL 


lous  coat ;  the  right  lung  is  two-lobed,  and  the 
left  undivided ;  the  kidneys  are  divided  each 
into  120  to  140  parts  like  a  bunch  of  grapes ; 
the  testes  are  permanently  retained  within  the 
abdomen.  The  crystalline  lens  is  more  spher- 
ical than  in  land  animals,  and  the  sclerotic 
very  thick  in  front  and  behind,  and  thin  in  the 
middle,  allowing  a  change  of  its  antero-poste- 
rior  diameter  by  compression  of  the  muscles 
to  suit  aquatic  and  aerial  vision ;  the  tapetum 
is  remarkably  brilliant.  They  live  in  the  arctic 
and  antarctic  seas,  near  the  coasts,  and  often  at 
the  mouth  of  rivers,  preying  upon  migratory 
and  other  fish,  crustaceans,  and  cephalopod 
mollusks.  They  are  gregarious  and  migratory, 
fond  of  particular  spots,  leaving  the  coldest 
arctic  regions  in  winter  for  milder  seas;  the 
herds  are  usually  of  the  same  species,  or  when 
different  each  species  keeps  by  itself,  rarely 
fighting  with  the  others.  Most  are  polyga- 
mous, each  male  having  three  or  four  females, 
forming  small  families ;  gestation  lasts  nine  or 
ten  months,  and  one  or  two  young  are  born  at  a 
time,  which  are  tenderly  cared  for ;  parturition 
and  lactation  occupy  two  or  three  months,  in 
autumn,  winter,  or  spring,  which  are  passed  on 
shore,  the  food  being  such  as  can  be  picked 
up  on  land  or  near  the  coasts,  even  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  both  sexes  at  this  time 
grow  very  lean.  They  are  fond  of  crawling 
out  of  water  upon  rocks,  beaches,  and  ice  floes, 
for  the  purpose  of  basking  in  the  sun,  always 
keeping  a  good  lookout,  and  plunging  into  the 
water  at  the  approach  of  an  enemy;  they 
never  go  far  from  their  favorite  element. 
They  are  playful,  but  at  times  fight  fiercely,  as 
in  the  breeding  season ;  their  bite  is  severe, 
and  the  wounds  made  by  their  teeth  are  not 
disposed  to  heal  readily  either  on  their  own  or 
the  human  body;  some  of  the  larger  species 
are  very  powerful.  The  voice  is  a  kind  of 
snapping  bark,  which,  with  their  canine  ex- 
pression of  face,  has  given  them  the  name  of 
sea  dogs.  They  can  remain  under  water  20 
minutes  or  longer ;  their  animal  heat  is  among 
the  highest  found  in  mammals.  They  swim 
with  considerable  speed,  and  are  most  expert 
divers ;  their  movements  on  land  are  awkward 
and  laborious,  consisting  of  a  series  of  short 
jerking  leaps  forward  by  means  of  the  power- 
ful muscles  of  the  back,  assisting  themselves 
occasionally,  as  in  climbing  rocks  and  ice,  by 
the  anterior  limbs ;  they  can  advance  more 
rapidly  on  the  ice,  by  a  vertical  motion  of  the 
spine,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  caterpillar, 
rendered  possible  by  the  short  spinous  proces- 
ses, large  and  elastic  intervertebral  cartilages, 
and  the  uncommonly  strong  spinal  muscles. 
The  senses  of  smell  and  sight  are  very  acute. 
They  are  easily  tamed,  affectionate,  and  docile ; 
at  zoological  gardens  they  are  taught  to  sit 
erect,  to  bow,  kiss  the  hand,  pretend  to  be 
asleep  and  to  snore,  turn  the  crank  of  an  or- 
gan, shoulder  a  gun,  shake  hands,  and  perform 
other  similar  simple  tricks ;  in  captivity  they 
are  much  disposed  to  be  drowsy  and  almost 


lethargic.  Few  animals  are  more  tenacious  of 
life  than  seals,  and  the  most  needless  cruelties 
used  to  be  practised  in  their  capture;  now  the 
larger  species  are  generally  killed  at  once  with 
the  lance  thrust  into  the  heart,  and  the  smaller 
ones  are  stunned  by  a  blow  on  the  nose  from  a 
long-handled  hammer,  with  a  sharp  spike  on 
the  opposite  side  to  hook  into  the  skull.  The 
Esquimaux  hunt  them  in  light  boats  with  lan- 
ces, or  spear  them  at  holes  in  the  ice  where 
they  come  up  to  breathe;  to  them  the  seal 
supplies  food,  oil  for  light  and  warmth,  skins 
for  clothes,  boots,  utensils,  tents,  and  boats, 
sinews  for  thread  and  lines,  and  membranes 
for  under  garments  and  window  coverings. 
The  oil  is  of  superior  quality,  and,  if  prepared 
from  the  fresh  animals,  is  transparent,  free 
from  odor,  and  not  unpleasant  to  the  taste ; 
the  skin,  by  a  peculiar  process  of  Esquimaux 
tanning,  makes  a  water-proof  leather. — As  ar- 
ticles of  commerce  seal  skins  are  of  two  kinds, 
hair  skins  and  fur  skins ;  the  former  are  used 
for  making  garments,  the  latter,  now  chiefly 
from  Alaska,  for  finer  purposes ;  all  seal  skins, 
however,  have  a  mixture  of  coarse  hairs  and 
finer  fur.  Millions  of  skins  have  been  used  in 
Europe  and  in  this  country,  and  thousands  of 
tons  of  shipping  are  employed  in  their  capture. 
Large  herds  of  seals  of  various  species,  espe- 
cially the  Greenland  and  hooded  seals,  are 
found  on  fields  of  floating  ice,  called  seal  mea- 
dows; on  these  the  hunters  try  to  surprise 
them  when  sleeping,  killing  the  young  with 
clubs  and  shooting  the  resisting  adults.  The 
seal  fishery  is  extensively  carried  on  from 
Newfoundland,  in  sailing  vessels  of  from  50 
to  200  tons  burden,  each  manned  by  from  25 
to  90  men;  recently  steamers  have  also  been 
employed,  ranging  from  175  to  450  tons,  with 
from  100  to  200  men  each.  The  seals  are 
taken  on  the  ice  off  the  E.  and  N.  coasts  of 
the  island ;  the  season  lasts  from  the  first  of 
March  to  the  close  of  May.  The  principal 
species  taken  are  the  harp  and  hooded  seals, 
chiefly  the  former;  two  other  varieties  are 
also  taken  in  Newfoundland,  the  square-flip- 
per seal,  a  large  species,  and  the  dotard  or  na- 
tive seal,  which  never  leaves  the  island ;  the 
skins  of  the  latter  are  more  valuable  than 
those  of  the  other  species,  being  spotted,  and 
are  much  used  for  trunk  covers,  coats,  gloves, 
&c.  The  fishery  was  not  prosecuted  by  New- 
foundlanders prior  to  1763  ;  in  1787  4,900 
seals  were  taken  from  the  ice,  and  the  oil  ex- 
tracted ;  in  1871  there  were  201  sailing  vessels 
and  13  steamers  employed,  with  an  aggregate 
crew  of  9,791  men;  the  number  of  steamers 
is  increasing.  The  exports  of  seal  skins  from 
Newfoundland  between  1838  and  1848  varied 
from  400,000  to  nearly  700,000  annually;  for 
the  exports  of  oil  and  skins  from  1868  to  1872 
inclusive,  see  FISHERIES,  vol.  vii.,  p.  234.  (See 
also  NEWFOUNDLAND.)  Many  seals  are  taken 
in  early  spring  at  the  Magdalen  islands  and  on 
the  Labrador  coast  among  the  floating  ice,  and 
also  by  nets  set  across  narrow  channels.  Be- 


732 


SEAL 


sides  man,  the  seal  has  to  guard  against  bears 
on  land  and  on  the  ice,  and  against  sharks  and 
carnivorous  cetaceans  in  the  water. — In  the 
genns  phoca,  as  restricted  by  modern  natural- 
ists, the  dental  formula  is :  incisors  J,  canines 
\~fa  and  molars  flf  =  82 ;  the  molars  have 
three  or  four  triangular  cusps,  all  except  the 
first  with  double  roots,  and  placed  obliquely 
along  the  jaw ;  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
palate  is  acutely  and  deeply  notched,  and  the 
palatal  foramen  is  on  the  maxillary  bone.  The 
group  to  which  the  common  seal  belongs  was 
named  callocephalus  by  F.  Cuvier,  on  account 
of  the  fine  shape  and  large  size  of  the  cranium 
and  the  shortness  of  the  face;  the  brain  is 
nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  most  intelligent 
monkeys.  This  species — the  P.  (C.)  vitulina 
(Linn.),  the  phoque  commun  and  teau  marin 
of  the  French,  the  Seehund  of  the  Germans — 
attains  a  length  of  4  to  6  ft. ;  the  color  varies 
much,  but  is  generally  brownish  above  and 
yellowish  white  below,  variously  mottled,  and 
sometimes  pied  and  marbled.  It  is  common 
in  the  European  seas,  especially  those  washing 
the  northern  countries ;  it  is  fattest  in  spring ; 
a  single  large  animal  will  yield  from  8  to  12 
gallons  of  oil  excellent  for  lamps ;  the  leather 
is  used  for  boots,  and  the  hide  for' caps,  trunk 
covers,  &c. ;  the  matter  which  lubricates  the 
hair  has  a  penetrating  and  offensive  odor. 
Along  the  New  Brunswick  coast  this  species, 
which  is  called  there  the  harbor  seal,  is  often 
seen  in  summer;  the  fur  is  very  handsome,  and 
is  highly  prized  by  the  Micmac  Indians ;  it  is 
also  common  all  along  the  New  England  shore. 
The  Greenland  or  harp  seal  (P.  [C.]  Groen- 
landica,  Mull.)  is  about  6  ft.  long;  the  males 
are  grayish  white,  with  the  face  and  a  broad 
lunate  mark  on  the  back  and  sides  black ;  the 
females  are  brownish  with  blackish  spots,  and 
the  young  snow-white;  the  molars  are  in  a 
straight  line,  with  a  small  interval  between 
them  and  the  anterior  tubercle  obsolete ;  the 
posterior  margin  of  the  palate  almost  directly 
transverse.  They  are  found  in  herds  on  the 
coast  of  Greenland  on  floating  ice,  rarely  ven- 
turing on  shore  or  shore  ice;  they  are  some- 
times floated  to  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain, 


from  their  kaiaks ;  the  oil  is  the  best  and  most 
abundant  in  this  species,  and  the  skins  form  an 
important  article  in  the  fur  trade.  The  young 


Common  Seal  (Phoca  vitullna). 

and  are  not  uncommon  on  those  of  Labrador 
and  Newfoundland.  This  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  to  the  Esquimaux,  who  harpoon  it 


Greenland  Seal  (Phoca  Groenlandlca). 

are  born  in  spring.  A  species  of  seal  (P.  Cat- 
pica^  Pall.),  about  the  size  of  the  common  seal, 
occurs  in  the  Caspian  sea,  the  sea  of  Aral,  and 
Lake  Baikal ;  it  affords  an  excellent  oil,  to  ob- 
tain which  many  thousands  are  annually  killed. 
— In  the  narrow-muzzled  seals  belongs  the 
genus  ttenorhynchtu  (F.  Cuv.),  with  the  in- 
cisors },  pointed,  and  the  molars  |i|,  divided 
into  three  to  five  long  points,  conical,  some- 
what hooked,  and  usually  two-rooted;  the 
snout  is  long  and  narrow,  and  the  claws,  espe- 
cially on  the  hind  feet,  very  small,  hence  called 
leptonyx  by  Wagner  and  Gray.  The  leopard 
seal  or  sea  leopard  (S.  Weddellii,  Less. ;  L. 
leopardiniu,  Wagn.)  is  9  or  10  ft.  long,  spotted 
above  somewhat  as  a  leopard,  whitish  on  a 
grayish  brown  ground,  and  yellowish  below ;  the 
head  is  long  and  small,  the  neck  long  and  taper- 
ing, and  the  hair  soft  and  thin ;  it  frequents  the 
frozen  seas  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  about 
the  South  Shetland  and  South  Orkney  islands. 
In  the  genus  pelagiu*  (F.  Cuv.)  the  snout  is 
broad  and  long;  the  number  of  teeth  is  the 
same  as  in  the  last  genus,  but  the  incisors  are 
indented  and  shut  into  each  other,  and  the  mo- 
lars are  thick,  compressed  toward  the  crown, 
with  rudimentary  points  and  central  conical 
cusp.  The  white-bellied  or  monk  seal  (P.  mo- 
nachvt,  F.  Cuv.)  grows  to  a  length  of  8  or  10 
ft. ;  it  is  shining  dark  brown  above,  spotted 
with  gray  on  the  neck  and  head,  and  the  lower 
parts  and  portions  of  the  sides  white;  eyes 
large  and  ox-like ;  it  is  gentle,  easily  tamed,  in- 
telligent, and  affectionate;  it  is  found  in  the 
Adriatic  sea  and  on  the  coast  of  Sardinia,  and 
was  the  one  best  known  to  the  ancients;  its 
skin  was  believed  by  the  old  Romans  to  be  a 
preservative  against  lightning,  and  tents  were 
made  of  it  under  which  they  took  refuge  in 
thunder  storms. — In  the  genus  stemmatoptu  (F. 
Cuv.)  or  cystophora  (Nilss.),  the  incisors  are  f 
and  conical,  the  canines  large,  and  the  molars 
|C|,  simple-rooted,  compressed  and  striated, 
with  three  lobes  and  many  small  indentations; 


SEAL 


733 


the  generic  name  is  derived  from  a  soft  crown- 
like  appendage  from  the  nose  to  the  back  of 
the  head.  The  hooded  cr  crested  seal  (P.  leo- 
nina,  Fabr. ;  8.  cristatus,  F.  Cuv.)  attains  a 
length  of  7  or  8  ft. ;  the  color  is  dark  brown 
above  with  gray  spots,  the  young  being  light- 
colored  ;  they  have  on  the  head  a  membranous 
and  muscular  sac  covered  with  hair,  divided 
into  chambers  by  a  prolongation  of  the  nasal 
septum ;  when  the  nostrils  are  closed  this  can 
be  inflated  with  air ;  the  skins  are  among  the 
most  common  in  the  market.  They  are  fond 
of  the  ice  islands  of  high  northern  latitudes, 
coming  down  to  the  coast  of  Labrador ;  they 
are  polygamous,  fierce  when  wounded,  and  fight 
furiously  with  each  other.  The  appendage  on 
the  head  may  be,  as  the  fishermen  suppose,  a 
reservoir  of  air  for  use  during  submersion,  or 


Hooded  Seal  (Stemmatopus  cristatus). 

an  accessory  to  the  organ  of  smell,  as  its  vas- 
cular nature  seems  to  indicate. — In  macrorhi- 
nus  (F.  Cuv.)  the  incisors  are  far  apart,  hooked 
like  small  canines,  the  central  ones  the  small- 
est ;  the  canines  are  strong  tusks ;  the  molars 
have  simple  roots,  the  crowns  appearing  like 
nipples  on  a  rounded  base;  the  number  of 
teeth  is  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  genus ; 
the  forehead  is  very  prominent,  the  bones  as 
in  the  elephant  for  supporting  a  trunk ;  the 
nasal  bones  are  very  short,  and  the  maxillaries 
long  with  a  very  large  nasal  opening  between 
them.  The  bottle-nosed  seal  or  sea  elephant 
(M.  [morunga,  Gray]  prdboscideus,  F.  Cuv.)  is 
the  largest  of  the  seal  family,  attaining  a  length 
of  25  ft.  or  more,  with  a  circumference  of 
about  16  ft.,  the  size  as  w.ell  as  the  proboscis 
justifying  the  popular  name.  The  males  are 
generally  dark  grayish  blue  or  brown;  they 
can  elongate  the  muzzle  to  a  foot  in  length ; 
the  females  are  dark  olive-brown  above  and 
yellowish  below,  and  do  not  have  the  nasal 
appendage ;  they  are  polygamous,  and  the 
males  in  the  breeding  season  are  very  pugna- 
cious ;  they  have  four  fingers  and  a  short  thumb 
on  the  fore  limbs  with  perfect  nails,  and  the 
hind  toes  nailless.  The  hair  is  rather  coarse, 
but  the  thick  skin  is  in  much  request  for  har- 
nesses ;  a  single  animal  will  yield  14  to  15 
bbls.  of  blubber,  from  which  the  oil  is  obtained 
as  in  the  whale ;  the  oil  is  clear,  without  bad 


odor  or  taste,  and  burns  slowly  and  without 
smoke;  in  England  it  is  used  for  softening 
wool  and  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth;  the 
salted  tongues  are  esteemed  as  food.  They  are 
found  in  large  herds  on  the  shores  of  the  isl- 
ands of  the  antarctic  seas,  going  north  in  win- 
ter to  the  coasts  of  Patagonia,  remaining  be- 
tween lat.  35°  and  55°  S. ;  they  prefer  sandy 
and  desert  beaches,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
fresh  water,  in  which  they  like  to  wallow. 
They  never  attack  man  unless  brutally  treated 
by  him ;  from  indiscriminate  slaughter  they 
are  now  very  scarce  in  their  former  accessible 
haunts.  This  species  is  half  as  large  as  the 
Greenland  whale,  and  very  much  larger  than 
the  largest  elephant. — The  family  of  otariadce 
or  eared  seals  is  very  distinct  from  that  of  the 
phocidce.  Dr.  T.  Gill,  in  his  "Monograph  of 
the  Pinnipeds  "  (1856),  first  introduced  some 
order  into  the  confused  nomenclature  and 
characters  of  these  seals ;  and  after  him  J.  A. 
Allen,  in  the  "  Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology"  (vol.  ii.,  No.  1,  1870),  gave 
special  attention  to  the  family.  Mr.  Allen 
divides  them  into  trichophocince  or  hair  seals, 
with  the  genera  otaria,  eumetopias,  and  za- 
lophus,  and  oulophocince  or  fur  seals,  with  the 
genera  arctocephalus  and  callorhinus.  In  the 
otariadce,  which  includes  the  sea  lions  and 
sea  bears,  the  incisors  are  f,  the  four  upper 
middle  ones  with  broad  crown  divided  by  a 
transverse  groove,  the  outer  two  conical ;  mo- 
lars f~£,  sometimes  with  one  less  above;  the 
fore  feet  are  further  back  than  in  the  other 
seals ;  the  hind  feet  have  the  membrane  pro- 
longed beyond  the  nails  into  long  straps  or 
ribbons ;  the  fore  feet  are  nailless,  and  the 
lower  surface  of  all  the  limbs  is  without  hair  ; 
there  are  also  small  external  ears,  from  which 
these  seals  are  called  otaries.  The  name  of  sea 
lion  has  been  given  to  a  number  of  large  seals 
of  both  hemispheres,  either  from  their  savage 
appearance,  roaring  voice,  powerful  canines, 
or  maned  neck.  The  northern  or  Steller's  sea 
lion  (eumetopias  Stelleri,  Peters)  is  about  15  ft. 
long,  with  a  weight  of  about  1,600  Ibs. ;  the 
males  have  stiff  curled  hair  on  the  neck,  a 


Southern  Sea  Lion  (Otaria  jubata). 

thick  hide,  coarse  tawny  reddish  hair,  and  s 
mane  of  erect  hair ;  the  head  is  large,  the  nose 
long  and  truncated,  the  eyebrows  bushy,  and 


734 


SEAL 


the  ears  distinct.  They  are  found  on  the  E. 
shores  of  Kamtchatka,  about  the  Kurile  isl- 
ands, and  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America,  on  rug- 
ged shores  and  desert  rocks  in  the  ocean  ;  their 
food  consists  of  fish,  the  smaller  seals,  sea  ot- 
ters, and  marine  birds  and  animals.  The  south- 
ern sea  lion  (0.  jubata,  De  Blainv.)  is  of  about 
the  same  size  and  general  appearance  as  the 
last,  with  similar  habits,  is  heavy  and  clumsy  in 
its  gait,  and  fears  man ;  it  is  found  in  the  south 
seas,  sometimes  coming  to  the  Patagonian 
coasts ;  it  is  rarely  hunted  except  by  savages, 
though  the  oil  is  excellent.  The  name  of  sea 
bear  has  been  applied  to  many  smaller  seals  of 
both  hemispheres,  with  a  less  ferocious  aspect 
but  fiercer  disposition  than  the  sea  lions.  The 
northern  ursine  seal  or  sea  bear  (callorhinut 
ursinm,  Gray)ia  about  the  size  of  a  large  bear, 
between  7  and  8  ft.  in  length ;  the  forehead  is 
much  arched,  the  lips  tumid,  and  the  ears  nearly 
2  in.  high ;  close  to  the  skin  is  a  soft  reddish 


Sea  Bear  (Callorhlnus  ursinus). 

wool,  over  which  is  a  dark  coarse  hair ;  the 
females  and  young  are  ashy.  It  is  very  fat  in 
spring  before  the  young  are  born ;  it  is  poly- 
gamous, the  males  tender  to  the  young  but 
tyrannical  to  the  females ;  if  wounded,  it  will 
attack  a  boat,  and  is  very  tenacious  of  life; 
it  is  the  terror  of  the  smaller  seals  and  sea 
otters,  and  is  itself  afraid  of  the  sea  lion. 
This  species  furnishes  the  greater  portion  of 
the  fur  seal  skins  of  commerce.  It  is  found 
chiefly  on  the  Pribyloff  islands  in  Behring  sea, 
a  group  belonging  to  Alaska,  collecting  espe- 
cially on  St.  Paul's  and  St.  George's  islands. 
The  "  rookeries  "  contain  several  millions  of 
seals;  the  adult  males  begin  to  arrive  about 
the  first  of  May  (the  great  body  about  the  first 
of  June)  and  the  females  about  the  middle  of 
June,  giving  birth  to  their  young  soon  after 
landing;  the  "bachelor"  seals,  as  males  un- 
der six  years  old  are  called,  do  not  collect  on 
the  "rookeries,"  but  have  separate  "hauling 


grounds;"  nearly  all  leave  the  islands  about 
the  end  of  October  or  middle  of  November. 
The  males  on  the  "rookeries"  do  not  go  into 
the  water  from  the  time  of  "hauling  up"  in 
May  till  after  the  first  of  August,  being  sus- 
tained in  the  mean  time  by  the  absorption  of 
their  own  fat.  After  leaving  the  islands  in 
autumn,  the  seals  spread  out  over  the  North 
Pacific,  following  schools  of  fish,  or  frequent- 
ing shoals  and  banks  where  cod  are  abundant ; 
at  this  time  they  are  shy  and  difficult  to  ap- 
proach, unless  asleep,  in  which  condition  they 
are  captured  by  the  natives  all  along  the  N.  W. 
coast  from  the  Columbia  river  to  Behring  sea ; 
in  spring  they  return  to  the  breeding  grounds 
on  the  islands.  The  capture  of  the  seals  for 
their  fur  begins  with  their  first  landing  on  the 
islands,  and  may  continue  till  they  begin  shed- 
ding their  fur  in  August  or  September ;  they 
are  killed  by  the  natives  with  clubs ;  only  the 
"  bachelor  "  seals  are  allowed  to  be  captured. 
The  blubber  of  the  fur  seal  is  of  a  faint  yel- 
lowish white,  and  lies  entirely  between  the 
skin  and  flesh;  it  possesses  an  odor  exceed- 
ingly offensive,  and  difficult  to  wash  from  the 
hands.  The  flesh,  when  carefully  cleaned  of 
fat,  can  be  eaten ;  it  resembles  poor,  tough, 
overdone  beef.  (See  FUR,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  536  and 
538.)  The  southern  sea  bear  (arctoceplialus 
Falklandicus,  Gray)  is  smaller  than  the  last,  to 
which  it  is  similar  in  habits,  but  larger  than 
the  common  seal,  the  males  being  about  7  ft. 
long,  and  the  females  considerably  smaller; 
the  hair  is  of  different  colors,  black,  brownish, 
gray,  and  variously  spotted  with  grayish  and 
yellowish,  and  the  under  fur  is  short  and  fine. 
It  was  formerly  very  abundant  about  the  isl- 
ands of  the  southern  ocean,  especially  the 
Falkland,  but  is  now  almost  extirpated.  Some 
thousands  of  skins  have  recently  been  obtained, 
however,  at  the  South  Shetland  islands  by  ves- 
sels from  New  London,  and  there  is  a  small 
rookery  on  the  Lobos  islands  protected  by  the 
Argentine  government.  It  was  from  this  spe- 
cies that  the  market  was  formerly  supplied. — 
A  few  fossil  remains  of  species  nearly  allied 
to  the  common  and  monk  seals  have  been 
found  in  the  upper  tertiary  formations  of  Eu- 
rope and  North  America,  and  recently  in  the 
Yorktown  (miocene)  strata  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  with  those  of  the  whale,  dolphin,  and 
walrus. — See  "  The  Seal  and  Herring  Fisheries 
of  Newfoundland,"  by  Michael  Carroll  (Mon- 
treal, 1878),  and  "  The  Marine  Mammals  of  the 
Northwestern  Coast  of  North  America,"  by 
Charles  M.  Scammon  (4to,  New  York,  1874). 

SEAL  (Lat.  sigillum),  a  piece  of  metal,  stone, 
or  other  hard  substance  on  which  is  engraved 
some  image  or  device,  and  sometimes  a  legend 
or  inscription.  It  is  used  for  making  impres- 
sions on  wax  or  like  material  affixed  to  legal 
instruments,  as  evidence  of  their  authenticity. 
The  word  seal  sometimes  means  only  the  imple- 
ment employed,  but  both  in  legal  and  in  com- 
mon language  it  is  applied  also  to  the  thing  im- 
pressed. The  Bible  contains  frequent  allusions 


SEAL 


735 


to  seals,  and  they  abound  among  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  remains.  From  the  East  the  use 
of  seals  passed  to  Greece  and  thence  to  Kome ; 
and  it  has  been  common  in  all  the  European 
states  from  the  earliest  periods.  Among  both 
the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  the  seal  was  usu- 
ally set  in  a  ring,  whence  annulus  came  to 
be  a  Latin  name  for  a  seal.  The  word  bulla 
has  always  been  used  in  Europe  to  designate 
specifically  an  impression  in  metal,  and  thus 
came  to  be  the  distinctive  appellation  of  a  class 
of  instruments  sealed  in  that  way.  Such,  for 
example,  are  the  edicts  and  briefs  of  the  Bo- 
man  pontiffs  (see  BULL,  PAPAL),  and  some  con- 
stitutions of  the  German  emperors. — The  cir- 
cular form  is  common  to  all  periods.  The 
ogive,  the  spade  form  of  the  escutcheon  in  her- 
aldry, appeared  with  the  pointed  style  in  archi- 
tecture, and  in  the*  course  of  time  was  exclu- 
sively appropriated  by  abbeys,  chapters,  bish- 
ops, and  other  ecclesiastical  bodies  and  persons. 
The  oval  form  was  particularly  frequent  in 
France  during  the  reigns  of  the  Merovingian 
and  Carlovingian  kings.  The  size  varied  at 
different  periods,  and  in  general  the  smaller 
and  thicker  the  seal,  the  older  it  is.  Those  of 
the  Merovingian  kings  are  hardly  more  than  an 
inch  in  diameter,  while  that  of  Francis  I.  of 
France  had  a  breadth  of  four  inches.  The 
Egyptian  priests  used  in  sealing  a  sort  of  clay. 
The  Byzantine  emperors  sealed  in  the  form  of 
l)ull(R  with  lead,  and  sometimes  with  silver  and 
gold.  Silver  bullcs  are  much  rarer  than  those 
of  gold.  The  wax  most  anciently  employed 
was  white.  When,  about  the  9th  or  10th  cen- 
tury, wax  was  made  of  various  colors,  only 
emperors  and  kings  might  seal  in  red.  In  the 
12th  century  it  was  customary  in  France  to 
seal  with  green  wax  letters  addressed  to  per- 
sons of  high  eminence.  This  color  was  intro- 
duced into  Germany  in  the  14th  century,  and 
was  appropriated  by  religious  houses  and  cities. 
Blue  seals  are  very  rare,  and  Charles  V.  of 
Germany  is  said  to  be  the  only  European  mon- 
arch who  used  this  color.  The  patriarchs  of 
Jerusalem  and  Constantinople,  and  the  grand 
masters  of  the  order  of  Malta  and  of  the  Teu- 
tonic order  in  Germany,  sealed  in  black.  Pri- 
vate persons  commonly  used  yellow  wax,  and 
this  color  is  frequent  in  public  documents  of 
about  the  12th  century. — The  devices  upon 
seals  throw  not  a  little  light  upon  the  manners 
and 'usages  of  different  ages,  and  some  of  them 
have  positive  historical  value.  The  seals  of 
the  Romans  were  engraved  with  the  portraits 
of  their  ancestors  or  friends,  with  mythologi- 
cal subjects,  or  with  symbolical  allusions  to 
the  real  or  mythical  history  of  their  families. 
Perhaps  the  earliest  authentic  instance  of  a 
seal  bearing  armorial  devices  is  that  of  Ar- 
nulphus,  count  of  Flanders  (941).  Such  seals 
were  not  common  until  the  13th  century.  The 
early  seals  of  religious  communities  and  of 
cities  were  inscribed  with  the  image  of  their 
patron  saint  or  of  some  sacred  relic,  or  with 
the  figures  of  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  or  ma- 
731  VOL.  xiv. — 47 


gistrates.  The  name  of  the  owner  in  seals  at- 
tached to  public  documents  usually  forms  part 
of  the  inscription.  The  ancient  intaglios  were 
frequently  used  for  seals  in  the  times  of  the 
early  French  kings.  They  \vere  used  chiefly 
for  counter-seals,  and  by  the  addition  of  a 
pious  text  or  legend  it  was  attempted  to  give 
a  sacred  character  to  their  profane  subjects. 
The  most  ancient  mode  of  sealing  was  probably 
that  of  applying  the  wax  directly  to  the  parch- 
ment. When  the  instrument  was  written  upon 
two  or  more  leaves,  the  wax  was  made  to  reach 
them  all  by  impressing  it  upon  an  incision 
made  in  the  parchment  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
The  seal  was  sometimes  also  made  upon  the 
ends  of  thongs  or  strips  of  parchment  run 
through  the  several  sheets.  Lead,  silver,  or 
gold  bulla  were  almost  of  necessity  appended 
by  a  cord  or  strip.  In  the  12th  century  it 
seems  that  in  France  at  least  pendent  seals  had 
displaced  the  other  sort.  They  are  still  used 
generally  for  letters  patent,  treaties,  and  oth- 
er important  public  documents.  During  the 
12th  century,  too,  though  the  practice  was  not 
well  established  until  the  13th,  arose  the  contri- 
vance of  counter-seals,  that  is  to  say,  the  use 
of  a  different  impression  upon  the  reverse  of 
the  proper  seal.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
first  applied  to  the  pendent  seals.  They  were 
in  these  cases  made  of  the  same  size  with  the 
chief  seals,  and  the  mottoes  interrupted  on 
these  were  continued  on  the  counter-seals. — 
Although  in  some  periods  seals  have  taken  the 
place  of  signatures,  yet  very  often  seal  and 
signature  have  been  employed  together.  In 
Rome,  the  praetorian  law  had  recognized  the 
validity  of  testaments  that  were  only  sealed  by 
the  witnesses ;  yet  an  imperial  constitution  af- 
terward required  the  adscription  of  their  names 
also.  In  the  constitutions  of  the  Merovingian 
and  Carlovingian  kings,  the  seal  ordinarily  sup- 
ports the  monogram  or  signature  of  the  sov- 
ereign, but  sometimes  it  stands  alone.  From 
the  8th  to  the  10th  century  the  use  of  seals 
in  France  was  confined  almost  entirely  to  the 
kings.  Most  instruments  of  this  period  are  at- 
tested, so  far  as  the  witnesses  at  least  are  con- 
cerned, only  by  the  mention  of  their  names. 
About  the  12th  or  13th  century  the  use  of  seals 
among  all  classes  became  general,  and  contin- 
ued so  until  the  revival  of  learning  and  the 
diffusion  of  correct  writing  rendered  seals  of 
less  use.  In  England  charters  and  grants 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Anglo-Danish  reigns 
were  authenticated  by  the  signature  of  the 
grantor  preceded  by  the  figure  of  a  cross. 
The  execution  was  attested  by  the  subscrip- 
tion of  the  names  of  the  witnesses,  each  name 
being  preceded  by  a  cross.  Seals  were  cer- 
tainly not  often  used  in  England  until  late  in 
the  llth  century,  and  then  by  no  means  com- 
monly. There  are  extant  unquestioned  seals 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  he  certainly 
first  adopted  a  great  seal  for  England;  but 
their  general  use  for  authenticating  charters 
and  other  instruments  was  not  fairly  estah- 


736 


SEAL  ENGRAVING 


SEAMAN 


lished  till  near  the  middle  of  the  13th  centu- 
ry. In  Scotland,  a  statute  of  the  time  of  Rob- 
ert III.  (1390-1406)  declared  that  every  baron 
or  tenant  in  capita  of  the  king  must  have  a 
peculiar  seal  for  his  sovereign's  service ;  and 
a  statute  apparently  in  aid  of  this  one,  passed 
in  the  next  reign  (James  I.),  enacts  that  every 
freeholder  shall  appear  at  the  lord's  court 
with  his  seals,  or  if  he  cannot  appear  in  per- 
son, he  shall  send  them  by  his  attorney ;  and 
it  seems  to  have  been  customary  for  gentle- 
men at  this  time  to  deposit  copies  of  their 
seals  in  the  office  of  the  court  of  their  county, 
the  seal  then  sufficing  without  signature  to 
authenticate  an  instrument.  In  1540  a  statute 
of  James  V.  declared  that,  inasmuch  as  seals 
might  be  lost  or  counterfeited,  all  documents 
must  henceforth  be  not  only  sealed  but  sub- 
scribed.— From  the  universal  use  of  seals  in 
England  it  came  to  be  English  law  that  no 
charter,  grant,  or  other  instrument  of  convey- 
ance was  fiii-tnin,  that  is,  done,  or  in  other 
phrase  a  deed,  until  it  was  sealed ;  and  such 
was  the  virtue  of  a  seal  that  down  to  the  time 
of  Charles  II.  it  alone  sufficed  to  make  a  wri- 
ting valid  and  binding.  The  statute  29  Charles 
II.,  the  so-called  statute  of  frauds,  enacted 
that  certain  writings  should  for  the  future 
be  signed ;  but  it  is  probably  the  better  opinion 
that,  even  since  the  statute,  a  deed  duly  sealed 
is  good  without  the  subscription  of  a  name. — 
The  old  common  law  definition  of  a  seal  is 
that  given  by  Lord  Coke :  Sigillum  est  ctra 
impretsa — "  A  seal  is  an  impression  in  wax ;" 
but  it  has  long  been  held  that  a  wafer  or  other 
tenacious  substance,  on  which  an  impression 
is  or  may  be  made,  is  a  good  seal.  In  many, 
perhaps  indeed  most  of  the  United  States, 
neither  wax,  wafer,  nor  any  other  substance 
is  required;  a  scroll  or  ring  made  with  the 
pen  in  imitation  of  the  seal,  or  as  marking  its 
place,  being  sufficient.  One  piece  of  wax  suf- 
fices for  several  signers  if  stamped  with  their 
separate  impressions,  or  several  signers  may 
adopt  one  seal ;  and  an  adoption  of  this  sort 
is  inferred  when  the  deed  recites  the  sealing 
"with  our  seals,"  and  those  who  did  not  in 
fact  seal  do  yet  sign  and  deliver  the  deed.  The 
significance  of  the  seal  in  law  at  present  is, 
that  it  imports  a  deliberate  and  considered  act 
on  the  part  of  him  who  affixes  it.  The  rule 
has  established  itself  firmly  in  the  law,  that  an 
instrument  thus  executed  with  a  seal  implies 
a  consideration,  or  in  other  words  that  full  as- 
sent which  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  every 
contract,  and  which  can  be  inferred  only  from 
a  seal,  or  from  something  of  value  passing  be- 
tween the  parties  as  the  cause  of  the  contract. 

SEAL  ENGRAVING.    See  GEM,  vol.  vii.,  p.  663. 

SEA  LEOPARD.     See  SEAL. 

SEAL  FISHERY.     See  SEAL. 

SEA  LION.    See  SEAL. 

SEALSFIELD,  Charles,  a  German  author,  whose 
real  name  was  KARL  POSTEL,  born  at  Poppitz, 
Moravia,  March  8,  1793,  died  near  Solothurn, 
Switzerland,  May  26,  1864.  He  became  secre- 


tary of  a  religious  order  at  Prague,  but  escaped 
from  his  convent  about  1822,  and  in  1832  set- 
tled in  a  farm  house  at  Solothurn,  both  be- 
fore and  after  which  time  he  resided  much 
in  the  United  States,  and  visited  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  II is  principal  works  are: 
"Tokeah,  or  the  White  Rose"  (2  vols.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1828;  in  German  under  the  title  Der 
Legitime  und  der  Republikaner,  8  vols.,  Zu- 
rich,  1833);  Trantatlantitche  Reiseskizzen  (2 
vols.,  1838) ;  Der  Virey  und  die  ArMokraten, 
a  Mexican  novel  (2  vols.,  1884);  Lelentbilder 
au«  beiden  Hemitphdren  (2  vols.,  1834;  2d  cd., 
entitled  Morton,  oder  die  groue  Tour,  1846) ; 
and  Siiden  und  Norden  (8  vols.,  1842-'3). 
These  and  others  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  and  several  of  them 
into  French.  Two  complete  editions  have 
been  published  at  Stuttgart  (15  vols.,  1845-7, 
and  18  vols.,  1846). — See  Erinnerungen  an 
Seahfield,  by  Kertb6ny  (Brussels  and  Leipsic, 
1864).  A  monument  to  him  was  erected  in 
1875  in  his  native  place. 

SEAMAN,  a  sailor.  Seamen  may  be  hired  in 
four  ways.  1.  They  may  be  employed  for  a 
certain  voyage  and  receive  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  freight  earned.  This  contract  is  prob- 
ably rarely  made  in  this  country,  except  for 
small  coasting  vessels.  2.  They  may  be  hired 
for  a  certain  voyage  or  by  the  run,  and  paid  a 
round  sum  at  the  close,  and  this  is  not  very 
unusual.  8.  They  may  be  hired  on  shares, 
which  is  a  practice  nearly  if  not  quite  con- 
fined to  whaling  and  fishing  vessels.  4.  But 
much  the  most  common  nsage  is  to  hire  them 
for  some  definite  voyage  or  voyages,  or  for  a 
definite  period,  on  monthly  wages.  Under 
penalty  of  a  considerable  forfeiture,  the  Uni- 
ted States  laws  require  that  every  master  of  a 
vessel  bound  from  a  port  in  the  United  States 
to  any  foreign  port,  or  of  any  ship  or  vessel  of 
the  burden  of  75  tons  or  upward  bound  from 
an  Atlantic  to  a  Pacific  port  or  vice  reran,  shall 
have  shipping  articles,  which  must  be  signed 
by  every  seaman  on  board,  and  must  describe 
accurately  the  voyage  and  the  terms  upon 
which  the  seaman  ships.  Articles  which  are 
less  particular  are  required  in  case  of  vessels 
of  50  tons  and  upward  bound  from  a  port  in 
one  state  to  a  port  in  any  other  than  an  adjoin- 
ing state.  Wherever  there  is  doubt  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  obligation,  the  sailor,  rather 
than  the  ship  owner,  has  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt.  The  shipping  articles  ought  therefore 
to  declare  explicitly  the  ports  of  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  voyage,  and  in  all  other  respects 
ought  to  be  clear  and  fair.  To  all  clauses  or 
stipulations  which  tend  to  lessen  the  usual 
rights  of  the  seaman,  it  must  appear  that  he 
gave  intelligent  and  deliberate  assent.  Acci- 
dental omissions  in  the  articles  may  be  supplied 
by  parol;  and  a  seaman  may  also  by  parol 
show  that  the  voyage  or  time  represented  to 
him  was  not  that  which  appears  in  the  papers, 
or  that  the  articles  have  been  altered  since 
they  were  subscribed.  The  owner  is  bound  to 


SEAMAN 


737 


provide  a  seaworthy  ship,  and  our  statutes 
furnish  the  means  of  lawfully  ascertaining  her 
condition  on  the  complaint  of  one  of  the  mates 
and  a  majority  of  the  crew,  by  a  regular  sur- 
vey at  home  or  abroad.  If  seamen,  after  ship- 
ping, refuse  to  proceed  on  the  voyage  and  are 
arrested  for  the  mutiny,  the  condition  of  the 
vessel,  if  that  is  the  excuse,  is  inquired  into  by 
the  court;  and  if  she  is  found  unseaworthy, 
their  punishment  is  reduced  and  mitigated  ac- 
cordingly. So,  unseaworthiness  is  a  sufficient 
defence  to  the  charge  of  endeavoring  to  com- 
mit a  revolt  by  compelling  the  master  to  re- 
turn to  port.  Provisions  of  due  quality  and 
quantity  are  to  be  furnished  by  the  owner, 
under  the  general  principles  of  law  as  applied 
from  the  earliest  times  to  this  particular  con- 
tract. The  quantity  for  each  man  on  board  is 
here  prescribed  by  statute,  under  penalty  of  a 
day's  wages  to  every  seaman  for  the  days  on 
which  he  is  on  short  allowance.  But  these 
wages  are  not  to  be  paid  if  the  necessity  of 
short  allowance  arose  from  a  peril  of  the  sea 
or  any  accident  of  the  voyage,  or  the  delivery 
of  a  part  of  the  provisions  to  another  vessel 
in  distress.  Nor,  as  it  is  clear  that  the  master 
must  have  a  discretion  in  the  expenditure  of 
the  provisions,  is  putting  the  crew  on  an  al- 
lowance necessarily  the  same  thing  as  putting 
them  on  short  allowance.  A  deficiency  in  one 
kind  of  provisions  is  not  compensated  by  an 
abundance  of  another.  By  the  general  law 
merchant  there  is  an  obligation  upon  every 
ship  owner  or  master  to  provide  for  a  seaman 
who  becomes  sick,  wounded,  or  maimed  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duty,  whether  at  home  or 
abroad,  at  sea  or  on  land,  if  it  be  not  by  his 
own  fault,  suitable  care,  medicine,  and  medi- 
cal treatment,  including  nursing,  diet,  and 
lodging.  Sickness  is  provided  for  by  express 
statutes,  which  go  so  far  as  to  require  that 
every  ship  bound  from  a  port  of  the  United 
States  to  any  foreign  port,  or  being  of  the  bur- 
den of  75  tons  and  upward  and  bound  from 
an  Atlantic  to  a  Pacific  port  or  vice  versa, 
should  have  a  proper  medicine  chest  on  board. 
Whenever  other  appliances  are  required,  or 
whenever  surgical  skill,  or  attendance,  or 
nursing,  other  and  better  than  that  which  the 
ship  can  afford,  becomes  necessary,  the  ex- 
pense will  be  charged  on  the  owners  under 
the  general  maritime  law.  By  other  statutes 
the  master  may  deduct  40  cents  a  month  from 
every  seaman's  wages  to  make  up  a  fund  for 
the  support  of  marine  hospitals,  in  which 
every  sailor  may  have  medical  treatment. — 
Disobedience  or  misconduct  of  a  sailor  is  of 
necessity  punishable  with  great  severity.  For- 
merly there  was  no  specific  limit  to  the  right 
of  punishment ;  it  might  be  administered  by 
the  master  in  any  form  and  in  any  measure, 
he  always  being  responsible  for  any  excess  or 
cruelty,  both  criminally  and  in  damages  to  the 
seaman.  But  by  the  statute  of  1850  flogging 
is  abolished  and  prohibited.  This  has  been 
declared  by  very  high  authority  to  include  the 


use  of  the  cat  and  every  similar  form  of  pun- 
ishment, but  not  necessarily  to  include  all  cor- 
poral punishment,  such  as  a  blow  with  the 
hand,  or  a  stick  or  rope.  The  statute  contem- 
plates deliberate  flogging,  and  not  that  sudden 
violence,  like  blows,  which  may  be  inflicted 
in  an  emergency,  to  compel  immediate  obedi- 
ence. Generally  the  only  punishments  which 
can  now  be  resorted  to,  to  secure  good  con- 
duct, are  forfeiture  of  wages,  irons,  impris- 
onment, hard  labor,  and  such  other  means  as 
may  be  invented  in  the  place  of  flogging.  The 
penalty  of  forfeiture  of  wages  may  not  be  im- 
posed for  one  trivial  act  of  irregularity,  nor 
for  a  single  or  occasional  act  of  intemperance ; 
the  offence  must  be  habitual  to  warrant  the 
infliction  of  the  penalty.  The  master  or  a  sea- 
man may  forfeit  all  his  wages  for  smuggling; 
or  the  damage  actually  sustained  by  the  own- 
ers of  the  vessel  from  this  offence  may  be 
charged  upon  the  wages  of  the  offender,  but 
only  those  wages  earned  before  the  act  of  mis- 
conduct are  forfeitable. — Desertion  is  distin- 
guished from  absence  without  leave  by  the  in- 
tention not  to  return.  Thus,  it  is  not  deser- 
tion for  the  seaman  to  leave  the  ship,  against 
orders,  for  the  purpose  of  entering  complaints 
for  ill  treatment  before  the  consul ;  nor  is  it 
desertion  when  the  vessel  is  left  for  a  good 
cause,  as  a  change  of  the  voyage  without  con- 
sent, cruelty,  insufficient  provisions,  or  unsea- 
worthiness of  the  ship.  The  seaman  must  be 
received,  if  he  offers  to  return  in  a  proper 
way  and  in  a  reasonable  time,  before  any  oth- 
er person  is  engaged  to  take  the  place.  If 
he  returns  after  desertion  and  is  received  by 
the  master,  or  by  the  owner,  this  is  a  condo- 
nation of  his  offence  and  a  waiver  of  the  for- 
feiture, and  it  has  this  effect  even  if  there  be 
a  clause  to  the  contrary  in  the  shipping  arti- 
cles. If  the  sailor  deserts  before  the  voyage 
begins,  by  not  rendering  himself  on  board,  he 
forfeits  his  advance  wages  and  an  equal  sum 
in  addition,  or  he  may  be  apprehended  under 
the  warrant  of  a  justice  and  be  compelled  to 
go  on  board.  If  he  deserts  on  the  voyage,  he 
forfeits  all  or  any  part  of  his  wages  and  all  or 
any  part  of  his  property  on  board  the  ship. 
— The  right  of  the  sailor  to  be  brought  back 
to  his  home  is  very  jealously  guarded  by  our 
laws.  Every  ship  must  be  provided  with  the 
shipping  articles  and  a  shipping  list  verified 
under  the  oath  of  the  master;  this  he  is  re- 
quired to  present  to  the  consul  or  commercial 
agent  of  the  United  States  at  every  port  which 
lie  visits,  when  so  requested,  and  is  under 
bond  to  deliver  to  the  boarding  officer  who 
comes  on  board  his  ship  at  the  first  home  port 
which  he  reaches,  and  to  produce  the  persons 
named  therein  that  it  may  be  ascertained  that 
he  has  his  whole  crew  on  board.  If  it  ap- 
pears that  any  of  them  are  missing,  he  must 
account  for  their  absence.  If  he  discharges 
any  of  them  abroad,  with  his  or  their  own 
consent,  he  must  pay  to  the  American  consu 
of  the  port  or  the  commercial  agent,  over  and 


738 


SEAMAN 


SEA  PORCUPINE 


above  the  wages  then  due,  three  months' 
wages,  of  which  two  thirds  are  paid  to  the 
saaruan,  and  one  third  retained  by  the  consul 
and  remitted  to  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States,  to  form  a  fund  for  the  maintenance 
of  American  seamen  abroad  and  for  bringing 
them  home.  If  repairs  to  the  ship  become 
necessary,  or  if  the  ship  is  captured,  the  sea- 
men may  hold  on  for  a  reasonable  time  await- 
ing the  prosecution  of  the  voyage ;  and  if  dis- 
charged before  this  time  has  elapsed,  they 
may  claim  their  extra  wages.  The  discharge 
of  a  seaman  for  good  cause,  like  disobedience, 
misconduct,  or  disability  by  his  own  fault  of 
extreme  degree,  may  be  authorized  by  our 
consuls  or  commercial  agents  in  foreign  ports. 
If  the  ship  is  unseaworthy,  the  shipping  arti- 
cles are  violated  by  the  master,  or  the  sailor  is 
subjected  to  cruel  treatment,  he  may  be  dis- 
charged by  a  consul  and  recover  his  three 
months1  pay.  If  the  master  discharges  the 
seaman,  against  his  consent  and  without  good 
cause,  in  a  foreign  port,  he  is  liable  to  a  fine  of 
$500  or  six  months1  imprisonment,  and  the 
seaman  may  recover  full  indemnity  for  all  loss 
or  expense  incurred  by  such  discharge. — It  is 
an  ancient  maxim  of  the  maritime  law  that 
freight  is  the  mother  of  wages,  so  that  where 
no  freight  is  earned  no  wages  are  earned.  But, 
more  properly  speaking,  wages  are  earned 
whenever  freight  is  or  might  be  earned,  for 
the  sailor  ought  not  to  and  does  not  lose  his 
dues  when  the  ship  fails  to  earn  freight  oh  ac- 
count of  the  fraud  or  wrongful  act  of  the  mas- 
ter or  owner.  Nor  will  any  special  contract 
between  the  owner  and  the  freighter,  varying 
the  obligation  to  pay  freight  from  that  implied 
by  the  general  law,  have  any  effect  upon  wages. 
If  the  voyage  is  broken  up,  or  the  seamen  are 
dismissed  without  cause  before  the  voyage  be- 
gins, they  have  their  wages  for  the  time  they 
serve,  and  a  reasonable  compensation  for  spe- 
cial damages.  In  cases  where  the  voyage  is 
broken  up  by  misfortune,  so  that  the  master 
would  be  justified  in  discharging  the  crew,  they 
are  still  entitled  to  their  wages.  So  a  seaman 
has  full  wages  if  he  is  compelled  to  desert  by 
the  cruelty  of  the  master,  or  if  he  is  disabled 
by  sickness,  even  if,  by  reason  of  that  sickness, 
he  was  obliged  to  be  left  at  a  foreign  port. 
Seamen  have  a  lien  for  their  wages  on  the  ship 
and  freight.  Statutes  give  the  same  lien  to 
fishermen  on  shore.  It  attaches  not  only  to 
ship  and  freight  in  re,  but  to  the  proceeds  of 
both  or  either,  and  follows  them  into  whose 
hands  soever  they  may  go.  It  prevails  over 
bonds  of  bottomry  and  other  like  hypotheca- 
tions, because  the  services  of  the  sailor  save 
the  ship  for  all  claimants.  Pilots,  engineers, 
firemeu,  and  deck  hands  are  seamen,  and  have 
this  lien,  and  so  have  all  persons  whose  service 
is  materially  and  directly  useful  to  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  vessel.  A  seaman  cannot  insure  his 
wages,  nor  derive  any  benefit  from  the  insu- 
rance effected  by  owners  on  ship  or  freight. 
It  ia  the  policy  of  the  law,  for  obvious  rea- 


sons, to  make  the  sailor  find  all  his  interest  in 
the  security  and  welfare  of  the  ship. 

SEA  MOSSES.     See  POLYZOA. 

SEA  NETTLE.  See  ACALEPH.E,  and  JELLY 
FISH. 

SEA  PIE.    See  OYSTER  CATCHER. 

SEA  PORCUPINE,  a  common  name  of  the  os- 
seous fishes  of  the  order  plectognathi  (with 
comb-like  gills),  family  diodontidce  or  gymno- 
donts,  and  genera  diodon,  tetraodon,  &c.,  so 
called  from  the  spines  with  which  the  body  is 
studded.  This  order,  which  contains  the  sun 
fish,  trunk  fish  (see  TRUNK  FISH),  and  file  fish, 
has  the  internal  skeleton  partly  ossified,  and 
the  skin  covered  with  ganoid  scales  or  spines ; 
the  maxillaries  and  intermaxillaries  are  wholly 
or  in  part  united,  and  the  upper  jaw  in  most  is 
immovably  fixed  to  the  cranium ;  there  are  no 
pancreatic  craca,  no  well  developed  ventrals,  no 
duct  to  the  air  bladder,  and  only  vestiges  of 
ribs.  In  the  family  of  gyrnnodonts  the  teeth 
are  incorporated  with  the  bone  of  the  jaws, 
and  resemble  a  parrot's  beak  with  or  without 
mesial  division,  their  plates  consisting  of  hard 
dentine  adapted  for  bruising  and  cutting  the 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  sea  weeds  upon 
which  they  feed.  The  skin  is  thick,  leathery, 
and  armed  with  spines  which  stand  out  in  every 
direction  when  the  body  is  inflated  by  filling 
with  air  the  stomach,  or  more  properly  a  large 
sac  beneath  this  organ  communicating  with  the 
oesophagus ;  the  air  is  forced  into  this  sac  by 
swallowing ;  when  thus  distended  the  fish  loses 
all  command  over  its  fins,  and  rolls  over  belly 
upward,  floating  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind  and 
waves ;  as  it  is  a  considerable  time  before  the 
air  can  be  sufficiently  expelled  to  allow  the  fish 
to  resume  the  full  control  of  its  movements, 
many  are  caught  in  this  helpless  condition ; 
they  emit  a  blowing  sound  when  taken,  from 
the  expulsion  of  the  air ;  the  tail  is  short  and 
feeble;  the  spinal  cord,  according  to  Owen,  is 
very  short.  Some  of  the  family  have  no  ex- 
ternal openings  to  the  nostrils,  the  nerve  of 
smell  being  expanded  on  cutaneous  tentacles. 
The  flesh  of  some  is  poisonous.  They  are  very 
tenacious  of  life,  on  account  of  the  small  size 
of  the  gill  openings,  and  have  a  disagreeable 
odor  which  is  retained  even  in  alcohol  for 
years;  they  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  tropical 
seas,  and  are  rarely  more  than  2  ft.  in  length, 
with  the  diameter  of  the  inflated  body  more 
than  half  of  this. — In  the  genus  diodon  (Linn.) 
there  is  no  mesial  division  of  the  jaws,  and  the 
teeth  are  apparently  only  two ;  the  spines  are 
long,  thin,  sharp,  with  two  root-like  processes, 
and  capable  of  erection.  There  are  nine  spe- 
cies, of  which  three  are  described  by  Mitchill 
as  occurring  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States, 
under  the  name  of  balloon  fishes ;  these  are  the 
D.  maculo-atriatus,  about  6  in.  long,  greenish 
spotted  and  striped  with  dark ;  the  D.  pilosut, 
smaller,  with  most  of  the  body  furnished  with 
soft,  flexible  bristles  of  a  golden  color;  and  the 
D.  verrucotus,  with  a  warty  and  spiny  skin. 
The  atinga  (D.  hystrix,  Bk>ch),  of  the  East  In- 


SEA  RAVEN 

dian,  8.  African,  and  South  American  coasts 
is  the  best  known  to  seamen;  it  is  caugh 
in  nets  or  on  hooks,  and  is  very  difficult  t 
handle  from  the  sudden  erection  of  the  spine 


SEARCH 


739 


Balloon  Fish  (Diodon  pilosus). 

and  the  active  motions  of  the  body. — In  tetra- 
odon  (Linn.)  there  is  a  mesial  suture  in  the 
jaws,  so  that  there  appear  to  be  two  teeth 
above  and  two  below ;  the  spines  are  very 
short,  and  the  head,  back,  and  tail  are  gen- 
erally smooth.  The  T.  eleetricus  (Paterson), 
with  electric  properties,  has  the  skin  entirely 
smooth.  (See  ELECTRIC  FISHES.)  There  are 
several  species  on  the  American  coast,  of  which 
the  most  common  is  T.  turgidus  (Mitch.),  6  to 
14  in.  long,  olive-green  above  and  whitish  be- 
low ;  the  abdomen  lax,  covered  with  prickles 


Puffer  or  Swell  Fish  (Tetraodon  turgidus). 

and  capable  of  considerable  distention;  it  is 
not  uncommon  about  Martha's  Vineyard,  and 
on  the  Massachusetts  and  New  York  coasts, 
where  it  goes  by  the  names  of  puffer  and  swell 
fish.  Other  names  for  this  and  the  preceding 
genus  are  globe  fish,  urchin  fish,  and  spine- belly. 
SEA  RAVEX,  an  acanthopterous  fish  of  the 
bullhead  or  sculpin  family,  and  genus  hemi- 
tripterus  (Cuv.),  one  of  the  ugliest  of  this 
ugly  group.  The  head  is  flattened,  rough,  and 
spiny;  the  pectorals  are  large  and  wing-like, 
advancing  far  under  the  throat,  and  with  no 
free  rays;  ventrals  under  the  pectorals,  con- 
sisting of  a  spine  and  three  or  four  soft  rays ; 


the  first  dorsal  deeply  notched,  and  all  the  fin 
rays  simple  ;  the  head  and  jaws  are  furnished 
with  numerous  cutaneous  branching  filaments 
which  with  the  spines  and  huge  mouth  ren- 
der the  physiognomy  of  the  fish  anything  but 
pleasing;  there  are  sharp,  card-like  teeth  on 
the  jaws,  vomer,  palate,  and  pharyngeal  bones- 
the  tongue  is  smooth,  the  branchiostegal  rays 
six,  and  the  body  without  scales.  The  typical 
species  is  the  common  sea  raven  (H  Acadi 
anus,  Storer),  called  also  the  Acadian  bullhead 
and  deep-water  sculpin;  it  attains  a  length  of 
2  ft.  and  a  weight  of  4  or  5  Ibs.  The  colors 
present  every  shade  of  dark  brown,  blood  red, 
pinkish  purple,  and  yellowish  brown,  with 
various  markings  and  bands;  yellowish  white 
below.  The  form  is  sculpin-like ;  the  head  is 
large,  about  a  quarter  of  the  whole  length, 
with  enormous  gape  and  hideous  appearance; 
the  whole  body  above  the  lateral  line  is  granu- 
lated, and  thickly  studded  with  tubercles ;  the 
first  three  rays  of  the  first  dorsal  are  longest, 
and  with  the  other  rays  of  this  fin  are  fringed 
at  the  end.  It  is  not  unfrequently  taken  on 


Common  Sea  Karen  (Hemitripterus  Acadianus). 

hooks  by  cod  fishermen  in  deep  water  in  Nova 
Scotia,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  near 
the  New  England  and  New  York  coasts,  espe- 
cially around  the  ledges  of  Massachusetts  bay. 
Like  the  land  raven,  it  is  omnivorous  and  vo- 
racious, acting  the  part  of  a  useful  scavenger 
in  removing  decaying  matters. 
SEARCH,  Right  of,  the  right  of  a  belligerent 

0  visit,  by  his  lawfully  commissioned  cruisers, 
all  private  ships  sailing  on  the  high  seas,  and 
;o  examine  their  papers,  and  their  cargoes  if 

need  be,  in  order  to  ascertain  their  destination 
and  character.  It  is  a  familiar  doctrine  of  in- 
;ernational  law  that  the  ships  of  a  state  form 

1  part  of  its  domain,  and  that  over  them,  as 
>ver  its  landed  territory,  the  sovereignty  of 
he  state  extends  supreme  and  inviolable.    In 

a  time  of  general  peace,  these  ships  cannot  be 
"etained  or  boarded  by  the  public  ships  of  an- 
ther power  for  the  purpose  of  inquiry  into 
heir  character  or  business,  because  such  an  act 
s  an  intrusion  upon  and  in  derogation  of  the 
overeignty  of  the  state  whose  ships  are  so 
isited.  In  time  of  war,  however,  the  general 
onsent  of  nations  yields  to  the  belligerents 
le  privilege  of  visiting  and  searching  ships 
rofessing  to  be  neutral,  in  order  that  they 
may  know  that  the  neutral  flag  does  not  mask 


74:0 


SEARCY 


SEA  SERPENT 


an  enemy  or  cover  contraband  of  war.  So 
firmly  is  this  rule  or  right  established  that 
th^re  is  no  doubt  or  dispute  about  it  among 
institutional  writers,  and  it  has  never  been 
successfully  resisted  in  the  practice  of  nations. 
During  the  American  revolutionary  war,  and 
in  1801,  the  Baltic  powers  declared  that  the 
flag  of  a  state  was  a  substitute  for  all  documen- 
tary proof,  and  excluded  the  right  of  search. 
They  armed  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
fending and  maintaining  this  position,  but  they 
were  soon  compelled  to  abandon  it,  and  since 
that  time  the  usual  war  right  has  been  consid- 
ered incontrovertible.  The  question  was  once 
submitted  in  the  English  admiralty  whether 
neutrals  might  not  compel  a  belligerent  to  re- 
frain from  exercising  his  right  by  putting  their 
ships  under  the  convoy  of  a  public  ship  of  their 
country.  It  was  adjudged  that  the  belligerent 
was  not  bound  to  accept  such  a  substitution, 
nor  indeed  in  any  respect  to  vary  his  right  of 
personal  visitation.  It  may  be  remarked  in 
passing  that  two  powers  sometimes  regulate 
or  restrain  by  treaty  the  right  of  maritime 
search  by  ships  of  war.  The  English  doctrines 
upon  the  war  right  of  search  have  been  gen- 
erally admitted  in  this  country,  except  as  to 
the  claim  put  forth  by  England  of  a  right  to 
search  neutral  vessels  on  the  high  seas  for  de- 
serters and  other  persons  liable  to  military  and 
naval  service.  The  difference  upon  this  point 
was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  war  of  1812, 
and  the  matter  has  never  yet  been  specifically 
settled,  but  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the 
British  claim  will  ever  be  reasserted.  Recent 
modifications  of  belligerent  rights  have  not 
materially  limited  or  affected  the  right. 

SEARCY,  a  N.  county  of  Arkansas,  intersect- 
ed by  the  Buffalo  fork  of  White  river ;  area  in 
1870,  about  950  sq.  m.,  subsequently  reduced 
by  a  portion  taken  to  form  Stone  county; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,614,  of  whom  80  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  productive. 
Extensive  forests  cover  a  large  portion  of 
the  county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  21,961  bushels  of  wheat,  263,812  of  In- 
dian corn,  11,852  of  oats,  25,008  Ibs.  of  tobac- 
co, 4,389  of  wool,  and  2,180  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,512  horses,  200  mules  and  asses, 
1,619  milch  cows,  2,886  other  cattle,  2,711 
sheep,  and  15,682  swine.  Capital,  Marshall. 

SEA  ROBIN.    See  GURNARD. 

SEARS,  Bxrnas,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Sandisfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  19, 1802.  He  grad- 
uated at  Brown  university  in  1825,  studied 
theology  at  Newton,  Mass.,  was  pastor  of  the 
first  Baptist  church  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  for 
two  years,  and  in  1829  became  a  professor  in 
the  Hamilton  literary  and  theological  institu- 
tion, now  Madison  university,  New  York.  In 
1833  he  went  to  Germany  to  study,  and  on 
his  return  was  appointed  to  a  professorship 
in  the  theological  seminary  at  Newton,  and 
for  several  years  was  its  president.  In  1848 
he  was  made  secretary  and  executive  agent 
of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  education.  In 


August,  1855,  he  was  elected  president  of 
Brown  university,  which  office  he  held  till 
February,  1867,  when  he  became  general  agent 
of  the  Peabody  education  fund.  He  received 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Harvard  university 
in  1841,  and  LL.  D.  from  Yale  college  in  1862. 
Dr.  Sears  has  published  "  Ciceroniana,  or  the 
Prussian  Mode  of  Instruction  in  Latin  "  (1844) ; 
"  Select  Treatises  of  Martin  Luther  in  'the  Ori- 
ginal German  "  (1846),  with  philological  notes ; 
"  Life  of  Luther,  with  special  reference  to  its 
earlier  Periods  and  the  Opening  Scenes  of  the 
Reformation"  (1850);  and  a  revised  edition 
of  Roget's  "Thesaurus"  (1854).  He  edited 
the  "  Christian  Review  "  for  several  years. 

SEARS,  Edmnnd  Hamilton,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Sandisfield,  Mass.,  in  1810.  He 
graduated  at  Union  college  in  1834,  and  at  the 
Harvard  divinity  school  in  1887.  In  1839-'40 
he  was  pastor  of  the  first  Unitarian  church  in 
Wayland,  Mass.,  and  in  1840-'47  in  Lancaster, 
Mass.  In  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  Rufus  El- 
lis, he  edited  for  several  years  the  "Monthly 
Religious  Magazine,"  Boston ;  and  in  1865  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  in  Wes- 
ton,  Mass.  He  has  published  "  Regeneration  " 
(Boston,  1853;  9th  ed.,  1878);  "Pictures  of 
the  Olden  Time"  (1857);  "Athanasia"  (1857; 
llth  ed.,  enlarged,  1873,  with  the  title  "Fore- 
glearns  and  Foresplendors  of  Immortality  ") ; 
"The  Fourth  Gospel  the  Heart  of  Christ" 
(1872) ;  and  "  Sermons  and  Songs  of  the 
Christian  Life"  (1875).  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.  D.  from  Union  college  in  1871. 

SEA  SERPENT,  a  marine  animal,  by  many  con- 
sidered fabulous,  said  to  inhabit  chiefly  the 
northern  seas,  especially  about  the  coasts  of 
Norway  and  New  England.  The  idea  of  a  sea 
serpent  originated  in  northern  Europe,  and 
was  at  first  clearly  mythological.  Though  hun- 
dreds of  witnesses  aver  that  they  have  seen 
this  animal,  naturalists  have  failed  to  discover 
any  certain  traces  of  it.  For  an  account  of 
its  visits  to  Norway  the  reader  may  consult 
Pontoppidan's  "  Natural  History  of  Norway  " 
(fol.,  London,  1755),  and  vol.  viii.  of  the  "  Nat- 
uralist's Library"  (Edinburgh,  1841);  and  for 
its  occurrence  on  the  American  coasts,  vols.  ii., 
xi.,  xii.,  and  xxviii.  of  the  "American  Jour- 
nal of  Science,"  the  "  Report  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  the  Linnaean  Society  of  New  England  " 
(Boston,  1817),  Sir  Charles  Lyell's  "Second 
Visit  to  the  United  States"  (London,  1849), 
and  Gosse's  "  Romance  of  Natural  History " 
(London,  1860-'62).  This  animal  is  said  to 
appear  in  calm  weather,  with  a  slender  body 
from  60  to  100  ft.  long,  a  broad  snake-like 
head  as  large  as  that  of  a  horse,  large  eyes, 
and  a  long  and  narrow  neck,  and  of  a  general 
dark  brown  color ;  some  describe  it  as  having 
fins.  It  is  seen  swimming  at  the  surface,  with 
the  head  and  neck  elevated,  progressing  swift- 
ly, apparently  by  a  vertical  undulating  motion. 
There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  fish  to  which 
this  animal  can  be  referred.  Many  fossil  types 
of  marine  animals  have  been  transmitted,  with 


SEA  SICKNESS 

or  without  interruption,  from  remote  geologi- 
cal epochs  to  the  present  time ;  among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  Port  Jackson  shark  (cea- 
traciori),  and  the  gar  pike  (lepidosteus),  which 
have  come  down  to  us  without  interruption, 
chimcera,  percop»i»  of  Lake  Superior,  and  soft- 
shelled  tortoises  (trionychidce),  with  more  or 
less  apparent  disappearance.  Several  years 
ago  it  was  suggested  that  the  closest  affinities 
of  the  sea  serpent  are  with  the  marine  lizards 
or  enaliosaurians  of  the  secondary  age,  and 
especially  with  the  plesiosaurus.  (See  PLE- 
siosAURUS.)  On  the  above  principle  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  enaliosaurians,  found  in  the 
secondary,  may  have  disappeared,  actually  or 
apparently,  in  the  tertiary,  to  reappear  at  the 
present  time.  This  is  also  the  opinion  of 
Agassiz,  as  given  in  the  report  of  his  lectures 
in  Philadelphia  in  1849,  and  reaffirmed  in  his 
"Geological  Researches"  (1871).  Mr.  Gosse 
has  collected  from  various  sources  the  argu- 
ments showing  that  the  non-occurrence  of 
dead  animals  is  of  little  weight  as  disproving 
the  existence  of  the  sea  serpent;  its  carcass 
would  float  only  a  short  time,  and  the  rock- 
bound  coasts  of  Norway  would  be  very  un- 
likely to  retain  any  fragment  cast  up  by  the 
waves ;  many  whales  are  known  to  natural- 
ists only  from  two  or  three  specimens  in  as 
many  centuries.  The  zeuglodon,  a  mamma- 
lian type  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  coming  near 
to  the  cetaceans  and  in  some  respects  to  the 
seals,  may  present  some  claim  to  be  the  sea 
serpent.  (See  ZEUGLODON.)  The  conclusion 
of  the  best  naturalists  is  that  the  existence 
of  the  sea  serpent  is  possibly  a  verity,  and 
that  it  may  prove  to  be  some  modified  type 
of  the  secondary  enaliosaurians,  or  possibly 
some  form  intermediate  between  them  and 
the  elongated  cetaceans. — See  "Proceedings 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History," 
vol.  xvi.  (March,  1874). 

SEA  SICKNESS,  an  affection  attended  with 
nausea  and  vomiting,  produced  by  the  motion 
of  a  vessel  at  sea.  Similar  symptoms  are  also 
produced  by  swinging,  waltzing,  and  riding 
backward  in  a  coach ;  but  the  greater  and 
more  regular  oscillations  of  a  ship  have  a 
stronger  effect  upon  the  nervous  system.  The 
susceptibility  to  this  malady  varies  greatly ; 
some  persons  never  experience  nausea  from 
this  cause ;  others  may  only  suffer  a  few  hours 
during  a  voyage  of  several  days ;  while  still 
others  are  almost  constantly  sick  while  aboard 
ship,  and  fatal  cases  have  been  known.  The 
premonitory  symptoms  are  vertigo  and  some- 
times headache,  and  a  peculiar  feeling  of  "sink- 
ing" and  distress  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 
Nausea  soon  appears,  attended  by  distressing 
and  convulsive  vomiting  and  frequently  diar- 
rhoea. It  is  more  likely  to  attack  those  who 
are  debilitated,  or  who  have  suffered  nervous 
exhaustion  or  excitement  consequent  upon^ma- 
king  preparations  for  the  voyage,  especially 
if  there  has  been  imprudence  in  taking  food. 
Dr.  Chapman,  who  wrote  a  pamphlet  "  On  Sea 


SEASONS 


741 


Sickness,  its  Nature  and  Treatment "  (London, 
1864),  is  of  opinion  that  "  the  motions  of  the 
vessel  cause  the  accumulation  of  an  undue 
amount  of  blood  in  the  nervous  centres  along 
the  back,  and  especially  in  those  segments  of 
the  spinal  cord  related  to  the  stomach  and  the 
muscles  concerned  in  vomiting."  The  remedy 
which  he  asserts  is  the  most  scientific  and 
efficacious  is  the  application  of  ice  bags  to  the 
spinal  column,  which  act,  according  to  his 
theory,  as  a  sedative.  They  are  made  of  thin 
caoutchouc,  and  are  worn  by  the  patient  while 
walking  about  in  ordinary  apparel.  Dr.  For- 
dyce  Barker,  in  a  pamphlet  on  sea  sickness, 
advises  the  observance  of  the  following  rules, 
which  are  principally  preventive.  In  short  pas- 
sages over  rough  water,  those  who  are  suscep- 
tible should  make  a  hearty  meal  not  more  than 
two  or  three  hours  before  going  on  board,  and 
should  keep  as  near  as  possible  to  the  centre 
of  the  vessel,  and  lie  down  before  she  gets 
under  way.  The  person  should  be  well  cov- 
ered and  shielded  as  much  as  possible  from 
disagreeable  sights  and  smells.  For  ocean  pas- 
sages similar  care  as  to  location  should  be  ob- 
served in  selecting  berths.  As  a  general  rule 
of  prevention,  Dr.  Barker  advises  regular  and 
hearty  eating  in  bed  for  one  or  two  days,  and 
during  the  voyage  to  take  coffee  or  tea  or 
some  drink  and  food  before"  rising  in  the  morn- 
ing. There  is  often  a  tendency  to  constipa- 
tion, which  may  be  overcome  by  the  use  of 
laxatives.  During  an  attack,  especially  if  ac- 
companied by  diarrhoea,  medicines  similar  to 
those  used  in  cholera  morbus  may  be  taken, 
as  tincture  of  camphor,  tincture  of  lavender 
combined  with  tincture  of  opium  and  tincture 
of  capsicum,  or  a  few  drops  of  chloroform. 
Stimulating  liniments  may  be  applied  to  the 
pit  of  the  stomach.  If  during  the  voyage  the 
weather  becomes  rough,  it  is  advisable  to  go 
to  bed  before  getting  sick. 

SEA  SNIPE.  See  BELLOWS  FISH,  and  PIPE 
Fisn. 

SEASONS  (Fr.  saisons),  the  quarters  of  the 
year,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter. 
These  periods  are  determined  astronomically 
by  the  apparent  movements  of  the  sun  (the  real 
movements  of  the  earth)  in  the  ecliptic.  The 
passage  of  the  sun  across  the  equator,  bring- 
ing on  days  of  greater  length  than  the  nights, 
marks  the  vernal  or  spring  equinox,  and  oc- 
curs about  March  21  for  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere and  Sept.  23  for  the  southern.  These 
dates  also  mark  the  autumnal  equinox  or  com- 
mencement of  the  autumn,  the  hemispheres 
being  reversed.  The  summer  solstice,  when 
the  day  is  of  greatest  length  and  the  astro- 
nomical summer  begins  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, is  about  June  21,  and  the  winter  sol- 
stice about  Dec.  21.  In  the  figure,  S  repre- 
sents the  position  of  the  sun,  A  the  position 
of  the  earth  at  the  vernal  equinox  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  (about  March  21),  and 
N  the  north  pole.  Both  poles  just  catch  the 
light  of  the  sun,  and  in  all  other  parts  of  the 


742 


SEA  SPIDER 


SEBASTIAN 


world  the  days  and  nights  are  equal ;  but  at 
the  north  pole  the  sun  is  just  rising,  at  the 
south  pole  he  is  just  setting.  B  represents 
the  position  of  the  earth  at  the  summer  sol- 
stice (about  June  21).  The  north  pole  has 
been  continually  exposed  to  the  sun  for  three 
months,  and  it  is  the  noon  of  the  north  po- 
lar day.  The  direct  light  of  the  sun  reaches 
about  23°  28'  beyond  the  pole,  and  consequent- 
ly anywhere  within  that  distance  of  the  pole 
the  sun  is  visible  during  the  whole  24  hours. 
Within  the  same  distance  of  the  south  pole  it 
is  continual  night.  (See  POLAR  CIRCLES.)  0 
is  the  position  of  the  earth  at  the  autumnal 
equinox  of  the  northern  hemisphere  (about 
Sept.  23),  but  the  sun  is  just  setting  at  the 
north  pole  and  just  rising  at  the  south,  and 
again  everywhere  else  the  days  and  nights  are 
equal.  D  is  the  position  of  the  earth  at  the 
winter  solstice  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
(about  Dec.  21);  it  is  the  noon  of  the  south 
polar  day,  the  midnight  of  the  north  polar 
night.  It  will  be  seen  that  at  the  poles  the 
day  and  the  year  are  coincident,  if  we  consid- 
er a  day  as  made  up  of  one  period  during 


Positions  of  the  Earth  in  its  Orbit 

which  the  sun  is  visible  and  one  during  which 
he  is  invisible. — The  popular  divisions  of  the 
year  do  not  correspond  with  those  of  the  as- 
tronomer, and  are  not  the  same  in  different 
countries.  In  England  the  spring  begins  with 
February,  summer  with  May,  autumn  with 
August,  and  winter  with  November;  but  in 
the  United  States  the  seasons  begin  respective- 
ly with  the  months  succeeding  those  named. 
The  marked  changes  in  the  amount  of  heat 
and  light  imparted  by  the  sun  in  the  different 
seasons  upon  those  portions  of  the  earth  out- 
side the  tropics  are  not  experienced  in  the 
equatorial  regions.  The  sun  as  it  passes  twice 
each  year  over  these  regions  sends  down  its 
rays  so  directly  upon  them,  that  the  variations 
of  temperature  are  comparatively  inconsider- 
able ;  but  the  regular  winds  and  rains  and  dry 
periods  consequent  on  the  movement  of  the 
sun  in  the  ecliptic  are  the  most  marked  peri- 
odic phenomena,  and  by  these  the  year  is  di- 
vided into  two  dry  and  two  wet  seasons. 

SEA  SPIDER.  I.  See  SPIDER  CRAB.  II.  The 
common  name  of  certain  marine  arachnids  of 
the  order  podosomata.  They  have  no  respira- 
tory organs,  and  only  four  pairs  of  legs,  which 


Sea  Spider  (Pycnogo- 
nuiu  Httoralo). 


in  some  forms  attain  an  extraordinary  length ; 
they  are  grotesque-looking,  and  are  found  at 
low   water    on    stones    or 
marine  plants,  or  attached 
as  parasites  to  other  ani- 
mals. 

SEA  SQUIRT,  a  name  pop- 
ularly given  to  the  sin- 
gle ascidians  or  tunicates, 
from  their  power  of  forci- 
bly ejecting  water  from 
their  muscular  sacs.  (See 
MOLLUBCOIDS.) 

SEA  SWALLOW.  See  TERN. 

SEATON,  William  Winston,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  in  King  William  co.,  Va.,  Jan.  11, 
1785,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  June  16,  1866. 
He  successively  edited  the  "  Petersburg  Regis- 
ter," the  "  North  Carolina  Journal  "  at  Halifax, 
and  the  "  Register  "  at  Raleigh,  N.  C. ;  and  in 
1812  became  partner  with  his  brother-in-law 
Joseph  Gales,  jr.,  in  the  "  National  Intelligen- 
cer "  at  Washington,  which,  after  the  death  of 
Mr.  Gales  in  1860,  he  continued  to  edit  alone 
till  1865.  From  1812  to  1820  Gales  and  Seaton 
were  the  exclusive  reporters  as  well  as  editors 
of  their  journal,  one  of  them  devoting  himself 
to  the  senate  and  the  other  to  the  house  of 
representatives.  Their  "  Register  of  Debates  " 
is  one  of  the  standard  sources  of  American 
history.  For  12  consecutive  years,  beginning 
with  1840,  Mr.  Seaton  was  elected  mayor  of 
Washington  city.  (See  GALES,  JOSEPH.) 

SEA  UNICORN.    See  NARWHAL. 

SEA  URCHIN.    See  ECHINUS. 

SEA  WEEDS.     See  A  i .. .r.. 

SEA  WOLF.    See  WOLF  Fisn. 

SKBASTE.     See  SAMARIA. 

SEBASTIAN,  a  W.  county  of  Arkansas,  bound- 
ed W.  by  the  Indian  territory  and  N.  by  the 
Arkansas  river ;  area,  about  600  aq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,940,  of  whom  1,354  were  colored. 
The  Poteau  hills,  a  southern  offshoot  of  the 
Ozark  mountains,  traverse  a  part  of  the  coun- 
ty, and  are  rich  in  minerals.  The  soil  is  well 
adapted  to  grazing  and  the  production  of  grain 
and  cotton.  Bituminous  coal  is  abundant. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  18,518 
bushels  of  wheat,  862,019  of  Indian  corn, 
16,084  of  oats,  25,453  of  sweet  and  13,708  of 
Irish  potatoes,  2,215  bales  of  cotton,  28,289 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  8,494  of  wool,  142,347  of  but- 
ter, 11,675  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses,  and 
1,099  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,060  horses, 
670  mules  and  asses,  4,284  milch  cows,  1,040 
working  oxen,  5,437  other  cattle,  2,788  sheep, 
and  85,848  swine.  Capital,  Greenwood. 

SEBASTIAN,  Dom,  king  of  Portugal,  born  in 
Lisbon,  Jan.  20, 1554,  killed  in  battle  in  Africa, 
Aug.  4,  1578.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather 
John  III.  in  1557,  and  in  his  21st  year  un- 
dertook with  800  or  900  soldiers  an  expedi- 
tion against  Tangier,  the  result  of  which  en- 
couraged him  to  still  greater  effort.  The  war 
raging  in  Morocco  between  Muley-Malek  and 
his  nephew  Muley-Mohammed,  the  latter  of 


SEBASTIAN 

whom  had  been  deprived  of  the  throne  by  the 
former,  seemed  to  offer  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity for  the  Portuguese  monarch  to  inter- 
fere. With  a  large  fleet,  having  on  board  15,- 
000  or  20,000  soldiers,  he  sailed  to  Africa  to 
support  the  cause  of  the  nephew  in  1578.  He 
found  Muley- Mohammed  at  Tangier,  but  the 
landing  of  his  forces  took  place  at  Azila,  where 
he  was  joined  by  Muley-Mohammed  with  his 
forces,  and  together  they  began  the  campaign 
by  the  siege  of  Alcazar.  Muley-Malek,  who 
had  collected  an  immense  army,  gave  battle, 
Aug.  4.  After  a  desperate  engagement,  in 
which  Sebastian  displayed  great  heroism  but 
no  generalship,  his  army  was  routed  and  al- 
most all  killed  or  taken  prisoners ;  and  he  him- 
self disappeared,  but  his  dead  body  is  said  to 
have  been  recognized  on  the  field  by  a  page. 
Muley-Mohammed  was  drowned  in  the  flight, 
and  Muley-Malek,  who  had  risen  from  his  sick 
bed  to  participate  in  the  action,  died,  so  that 
all  the  chiefs  perished.  The  flower  of  the  Por- 
tuguese nobility  was  destroyed  in  this  expedi- 
tion, and  Portugal,  becoming  a  prey  to  anarchy, 
soon  fell  into  the  power  of  Spain.  But  the 
Portuguese  could  not  believe  that  their  king 
had  been  killed,  and  many  adventurers  sprung 
up  who  gave  themselves  out  as  the  true  Sebas- 
tian. Among  these  impostors  the  most  re- 
markable was  one  who  appeared  in  Venice  20 
years  after  the  battle,  and  asserted  that  he  was 
left  upon  the  field  among  the  dead  and  wound- 
ed; that  he  had  remained  in  Barbary,  finally 
took  the  resolution  of  disclosing  himself  to  the 
pope,  on  the  way  was  plundered  by  robbers, 
and  was  recognized  by  a  few  Portuguese  and 
taken  to  Venice.  The  senate  of  that  city  ban- 
ished him,  and  on  his  return  imprisoned  him  ; 
but  his  case  excited  universal  sympathy  in 
Europe,  and  he  was  finally  set  at  liberty.  He 
was  imprisoned  again  at  Florence,  then  taken 
to  Naples,  and,  insisting  upon  his  statements, 
was  treated  as  a  galley  slave.  He  is  said  to 
have  died  in  prison  in  Castile. — See  Le  faux 
Don  Sebastien,  by  D'Antas  (Paris,  1865). 

SEBASTIAN,  Saint,  a  Roman  martyr,  born  at 
Narbonne  in  Gaul  about  255,  died  in  Rome, 
Jan.  20,  288.  According  to  the  "  Acts  of  St. 
Sebastian,"  written  before  403  and  attributed 
to  St.  Ambrose,  he  was  educated  in  Milan,  be- 
came a  captain  of  the  praetorian  guard,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  spreading 
the  Christian  faith.  Being  summoned  for  this 
before  the  emperor  Diocletian,  he  refused  to 
abjure  Christ,  and  was  shot  with  arrows  and 
left  for  dead,  but  was  found  still  alive  by  a 
Christian  woman,  through  whose  care  he  was 
restored.  Having  ventured  to  appear  before 
Diocletian  to  remonstrate  against  his  cruelty, 
he  was  beaten  to  death  with  clubs  and  his 
body  thrown  into  a  sewer,  but  afterward  re- 
covered. A  church  was  built  over  his  tomb 
by  Pope  Damasus  (366-384)  ;  and  his  remains, 
according  to  some  writers,  were  given  to  the 
abbot  of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  by  Pope  Euge- 
nius  II.  (824-827),  but  were  deposited  at  St. 


SEBASTOl'UL 


743 


Medard  in  Soissons.  Portions  of  his  relics 
were  distributed  throughout  Christendom.  He 
became  one  of  the  most  popular  saints  of  the 
middle  ages,  innumerable  churches  were  named 
after  him,  and  the  acts  of  his  martyrdom  were 
a  favorite  theme  for  artists.  He  is  generally 
represented  as  tied  to  a  tree  and  pierced  with 
arrows.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  Jan.  20  in 
the  Latin  church,  and  on  Dec.  20  by  the  Greeks. 

SEBASTIAN!,  Francois  Horace  Bastifn,  count,  a 
French  soldier,  born  near  Bastia,  Corsica,  Nov. 
11,  1775,  died  in  Paris,  July  21,  1851.  After 
several  years'  service,  he  became  prominent  in 
the  Italian  campaigns  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
aided  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire, 
and  who  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  (1805) 
appointed  him  general  of  division.  In  1802 
he  visited  Constantinople  to  alienate  Selim  III. 
from  Russia  and  England.  In  1806  he  went 
there  again  as  ambassador,  and  thwarted  Eng- 
lish intervention  ;  but  the  success  of  his  mis- 
sion was  frustrated  by  the  sultan's  deposition. 
Subsequently  he  joined  the  army  in  Spain, 
from  which  he  withdrew  in  May,  1810,  after 
incurring  Napoleon's  displeasure  by  boasting 
too  much  of  his  exploits.  In  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  and  in  the  battles  of  1813  and 
1814,  he  displayed  great  valor.  On  the  first 
abdication  of  the  emperor  he  joined  the  Bour- 
bons, but  went  over  to  Napoleon  after  his  re- 
turn from  Elba.  In  1819  he  was  elected  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  of  which  he  remained 
a  member  for  many  years.  Under  Louis  Phi- 
lippe he  became  minister  of  marine  in  August, 
1830,  and  of  foreign  affairs  in  November.  His 
blind  devotion  to  the  king's  peace  policy  led 
to  his  retirement  in  October,  1832,  but  in  the 
following  March  he  reentered  the  cabinet  as 
minister  without  a  portfolio.  He  finally  with- 
drew, April  1,  J834,  on  the  rejection  by  the 
chamber  of  his  provisional  indemnity  treaty 
with  the  United  States.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Naples  in  1834-'6,  and  to  London  in  1836- 
'40,  after  which  he  was  made  a  marshal.  In 
1847  his  only  daughter  was  murdered  by  her 
husband,  the  duke  de  Praslin. 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  Sevastopol,  a  fortified  city  of 
Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  on  a  peninsula  on  the 
S.  side  of  the  roadstead  of  the  same  name,  an 
arm  of  the  Black  sea,  190  m.  S.  E.  of  Odessa; 
pop.  about  12,000.  It  has  a  celebrated  harbor 
3£  m.  long  and  from  700  yards  to  1  m.  wide. 
In  1854~'5  the  place  was  invested  by  the  allied 
English,  French,  Sardinian,  and  Turkish  ar- 
mies, and  after  a  protracted  siege  was  taken, 
Sept.  8,  1855.  (See  CRIMEA.)  One  of  the 
churches  was  erected  by  Vladimir  I.,  the  first 
Christian  czar,  out  of  the  remains  of  the  an- 
cient cities  of  the  Chersonesus.  In  1780,  when 
Russia  commenced  fortifying  Sebnstopol,  il 
was  a  small  Tartar  village  named  Akhtiar.  It 
became  a  city  remarkable  for  fine  streets, 
buildings,  and  quays,  and  as  one  of  the  great- 
est military  harbors  in  the  world  ;  and  before 
the  Crimean  war  it  had  a  population  of  about 
47,000,  including  many  marines  and  soldiers, 


744 


SECCHI 


SECOND 


but  only  4,500  women.  Much  of  it  has  since 
been  rebuilt. 

SECCHI,  Pletro  Angeto,  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  in  Reggio  in  Emilia,  July  29,  1818.  He 
became  a  Jesuit  Nov.  8,  1833,  studied  mathe- 
matics under  Padre  de  Vico,  and  taught  phys- 
ics in  the  college  of  Loreto  from  1841  to  1843. 
In  1844  he  began  his  course  of  theology  in  the 
Roman  college,  completed  it  at  Georgetown 
college,  D.  C.,  in  1848-'9,  and  taught  physics 
and  mathematics  there  till  the  autumn  of  1850, 
when  he  was  recalled  to  Rome.  He  was  then 
appointed  director  of  the  observatory  of  the 
Roman  college,  reconstructed  it  on  a  new  site 
and  plan,  invented  and  perfected  a  system  of 
meteorological  observation,  published  a  month- 
ly bulletin  continued  till  1873,  and  constructed 
a  meteorograph  much  admired  at  the  Paris 
exhibition  of  1867.  He  was  commissioned  by 
Pius  IX.  to  complete  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  the  Papal  States  begun  by  Boscovich  in 
1751,  and  to  rectify  the  measurements  already 
made  of  the  meridional  arc,  and  executed  suc- 
cessfully a  commission  to  bring  a  supply  of 
water  to  Rome  from  Frosinone,  48  in.  distant. 
The  results  of  his  labors  in  every  field  of  as- 
tronomical research  since  1850  are  chronicled 
in  the  scientific  periodicals  of  Italy,  France, 
Germany,  and  England.  He  is  especially  dis- 
tinguished for  his  discoveries  in  spectroscopio 
analysis  and  in  solar  and  stellar  physics.  After 
the  closing  of  the  Roman  college  and  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jesuits  (1870-'73)  Secchi  was 
allowed  to  retain  his  post,  continued  to  lecture 
on  astronomy  in  the  ecclesiastical  schools  of 
Rome,  and  in  1875  he  was  sent  by  the  Italian 
government  on  a  scientific  mission  to  Sicily. 
Among  his  important  publications  are :  "  Re- 
searches on  Electrical  Rheometry,"  originally 
in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowl- 
edge "  (Georgetown,  1852) ;  Quadra  fi»ico  del 
tisteina  tolare  teeondo  le  piu  reeenti  otterva- 
zto;u(Roine,  1859);  Catalogo  dalle  ttelle  (Paris, 
1867) ;  Sugli  spettri  prismatici  dalle  ttelle  fitse 
(Rome,  1868);  Le  reeenti  scoperta  a&tronomiche 
(1868) ;  None  ricerche  guile  protubarama  solari 
(1889) ;  Sur  V influence  de  Fattnosphere  »ur  let 
raiet  du  spectre  et  sur  la  constitution  du  toleil 
(1869);  Fitica  tolare:  tulle  ultima  tcoperte 
tpettrotcopiche  fatte  nel  tola  (1869) ;  "  Spec- 
trum Observations  on  the  Rotation  of  the 
Sun"  (London,  1870);  Le  soleil:  expose  dot 
principales  decouvertct  modernet  sur  la  struc- 
ture de  cat  astre,  son  influence  et  tet  relations 
atec  let  autret  corps  celestas  (Paris,  1870;  Gor- 
man translation  by  Schellen,  Brunswick,  1872); 
and  DelF  unitd  dellefortefltiche  (Rome,  1875 ; 
French  translation,  Paris,  1875). 

SECK.E3DORF.  I.  Veit  Lvdwig  Ton,  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Erlangen,  Dec.  20,  1626, 
died  in  Halle,  Dec.  18,  1692.  In  1642  his 
father,  Joachim  Ludwig  von  Seckendorf,  was 
executed  for  attempting  to  desert  from  the 
Swedish  army,  in  which  he  was  a  colonel,  and 
the  son  found  a  patron  in  Duke  Ernest  the 
Pious  of  Gotha.  Shortly  before  his  death  the 


elector  Frederick  III.  of  Brandenburg  (the 
future  king  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia),  to  whom 
he  had  dedicated  his  often  republished  Far- 
stenstaat,  appointed  him  chancellor  of  the  new 
university  of  Halle.  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  works,  Commentariut  Historicut  et  Apo- 
logeticut  de  Lutheranismo  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1688-'92),  was  written  in  refutation  of  Maim- 
bourg's  Histoira  du  Lutheran  isme.  II.  Frie- 
drich  Hciiirioli,  count,  a  German  soldier,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Konigsberg,  Fran- 
conia,  July  5,  1673,  died  at  Meuselwitz,  near 
Altenburjg,  Nov.  23,  1763.  In  1695  he  entered 
the  English  and  Dutch  service,  but  afterward 
joined  the  imperial  army  and  fought  under 
Prince  Eugene  against  the  Turks  and  in  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  He  subse- 
quently became  a  major  general  in  the  army 
of  Augustus  II.  of  Poland  and  Saxony,  and  in 
1713  was  the  Polish  ambassador  to  the  Hague 
in  the  conferences  which  led  to  the  peace  of 
Utrecht.  After  the  fall  of  Stralsund  in  1715 
he  reentered  the  imperial  service,  in  1719  be- 
came count  of  the  empire,  and  in  1721  Feld- 
zeugmeister  and  governor  of  Leipsic.  Five 
years  later  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Ber- 
lin by  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1726,  concluded  the  treaty  of  Wuster- 
hausen.  Subsequently  he  negotiated  the  mar- 
riage of  the  future  Frederick  the  Great  with 
the  princess  Elizabeth,  for  which  the  former 
never  forgave  him.  In  the  war  of  the  Polish 
succession  he  defeated  the  French  at  Klausen, 
Oct.  20, 1785.  On  the  death  of  Prince  Eugene 
in  1736,  he  received  the  command  of  the  army 
against  the  Turks.  In  the  campaign  of  1737 
Seckendorf  s  intentions  were  all  thwarted  by 
orders  from  the  court  of  Vienna,  and  he  was 
recalled  and  imprisoned  for  three  years  in  the 
castle  of  Gratz.  After  his  release  he  com- 
manded the  troops  of  the  elector  Charles  Al- 
bert of  Bavaria  (crowned  in  1742  as  Charles 
VII.  of  Germany),  with  varying  success,  against 
Austria,  and  finally  in  1744  recovered  Munich 
for  Charles.  In  April,  1745,  he  appeared  at 
Fussen  in  what  Carlyle  calls  "  the  questionable 
capacity"  of  negotiator  of  a  peace  with  Aus- 
tria, which  caused  his  reinstatement  in  his 
dignities  at  Vienna,  but  gave  umbrage  to  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  who  had  him  imprisoned  at 
Magdeburg  on  some  slight  pretext,  and  released 
after  six  months  on  his  paying  10,000  thalers. 

SEC&ER,  Thomas,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Sibthorpe,  Nottinghamshire,  in  1693,  died  in 
London,  Aug.  3, 1768.  He  belonged  to  a  fam- 
ily of  nonconformists,  and  studied  for  the  dis- 
senting ministry,  but  became  a  physician.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  induced  to  conform,  and  was 
ordained  in  1723.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
preacher,  and  became  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1735 
and  of  Oxford  in  1737,  and  in  1758  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  His  works  comprise  sermons, 
lectures,  and  charges  (last  ed.,  with  a  memoir 
by  Bishop  Porteous,  6  vols.,  London,  1811). 

SECOND,  the  60th  part  of  a  minute,  whether 
of  an  hour  or  of  a  degree.  The  minutes,  being 


SECOND  ADVENTISTS 

the  first  divisions  of  these  units,  are  called  in 
the  old  mathematical  treatises  "  primes,"  and 
were  marked  thus  ',  the  seconds  (minutce  se- 
cundai)  thus  ".  The  next  sexagesimal  division 
was  called  thirds.  The  time  divisions  are  now 
commonly  marked  m.  and  sec. 

SECOND  ADVE3NTISTS,  or  Adventists,  a  religious 
sect  who  believe  in  the  speedy  second  advent 
of  Christ  and  the  end  of  the  world.    They 
owe  their  origin  as  a  body  in  the  United  States 
to  William  Miller.     (See  MILLER,  WILLIAM.) 
Under  his  preaching  and  that  of  some  of  his 
followers,  the  number  of  adherents  rapidly  in- 
creased.    The  time  at  which  they  at  first  ex- 
pected the  second  appearing  of  Christ  was 
October,  1842,  and  subsequently  some  of  them 
have  fixed  upon  different  dates,  among  others 
1843,   1847,   1848,   1857,  and  1861.     In  1840 
Joshua  V.  Himes,  one  of  their  preachers,  be- 
gan the  publication  in  Boston  of  a  semi-monthly 
journal  in  advocacy  of  their  views,  called  the 
"  Signs  of  the  Times  and  Exposition  of  Proph- 
ecy," and  two  years  later  changed  it  to  a 
weekly,  called  the  "Advent  Herald,"  which 
had  a  very  large  circulation.     The  number  of 
members  continued  to  increase,  notwithstand- 
ing the  repeated  errors  into  which  they  fell  in 
regard  to  the  date  of  the  second  advent.    After 
the  death  of  Mr.  Miller  (1849)  there  was  some 
division  in  their  views,  a  part  holding  to  some 
modification  of  the  usual  Trinitarian  view  of 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  some  of  them  adopt- 
ing the  doctrine  of  the  annihilation  of  the 
wicked;  while  the  remainder  adhered  to  the 
usual  views  of  Trinitarians,  except  as  to  the 
second  coming  of  Christ,  which  they  believe 
will  be  speedy  and  pre-millennial,  and  that  the 
first  resurrection,  that  of  the  righteous,  will 
then  occur,  while  the  wicked  will  not  be  raised 
till  1,000  years  later;  that  during  this  thousand 
years  he  will  reign  on  the  earth,  and  while  his 
reign  will  be  a  period  of  happiness  for  the 
righteous,  it  will  be  one  of  terror  and  judg- 
ment for  the  wicked.    The  Adventist  churches 
are  entirely  independent,  and  generally  receive 
their  members  by  immersion  on  a  profession 
of  faith. — The  "  Advent  Christian  Association  " 
is  a  body  of  Adventists  who  believe  in  the  final 
destruction  of  the  wicked.     At  the  16th  annual 
meeting  of  this  body,  held  at  Springfield,  Mass., 
in  August,  1875,  it  was  resolved,  in  order  to 
complete  the  congregational  form  of  govern- 
ment which  has  been  adopted  by  the  denomina- 
tion, to  convoke  at  once  a  general  conference. 
The  chief  organ  of  this  denomination  is  the 
"  World's  Crisis,"  edited  by  John  Couch  and 
Miles  Grant.     The  "  American  Millennial  As- 
sociation," founded  in  Boston  in  1858,  is  the 
centre  of  the  "  evangelical "  Adventists,  who 
do  not  believe  in  the  final  destruction  of  the 
wicked.     Their  principal  organ  is  the  "  Messi- 
ah's Herald,"  published  at  Boston.     The  |k  Life 
and  Advent  Union  "'  is  another  organization  of 
Adventists  believing  in  the  annihilation  of  the 
wicked.     Its  organ  is  the  "  Herald  of  Life,"  pub- 
lished at  Springfield,  Mass. — Another  branch 


SECRETARY  BIRD 


745 


of  Adventists  observe  the  seventh  day  as  the 
sabbath,  and  are  called  Seventh  Day  Adven- 
tists. They  originated  as  early  as  1844.  They 
set  no  time  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  believing  that  the  prophecies  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  other  Adventists,  fix  the  second 
advent  in  or  about  the  year  1844,  really  brought 
the  world  only  to  the  "  cleansing  of  the  taber- 
nacle," a  period  of  brief  but  uncertain  duration 
preceding  the  coming  of  Christ.  One  of  the 
first  organizers  of  this  movement,  Elder  James 
White,  began  in  1850  the  publication  of  the 
first  organ  of  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists,  the 
"  Advent  Review  and  Herald  of  the  Sabbath," 
which  in  1855  was  removed  to  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.,  which  place  was  henceforth  the  cen- 
tre of  all  the  denominational  interests.  The 
u  Seventh  Day  Adventist  Publishing  Associa- 
tion "  published  in  1874,  at  Battle  Creek,  four 
denominational  papers  in  English,  one  in  Da- 
nish, and  one  in  Swedish.  Another  English 
paper  was  established  in  California  in  1874. 
The  churches  are  organized  into  state  confer- 
ences, of  which  in  1875  there  were  13.  A  gen- 
eral conference,  consisting  of  delegates,  min- 
isters, and  laymen,  meets  annually.  A  mission 
has  been  established  in  Switzerland,  where 
200  believers  were  reported  in  1876.  The 
general  conference  of  1875  resolved  to  send 
missionaries  as  soon  as  possible  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Germany,  Holland,  Italy,  Hun- 
gary, Africa,  and  Australia.  Strict  temperance 
views,  including  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of 
tobacco,  prevail,  and  abstinence  from  pork, 
tea,  and  coffee  is  recommended.  According  to 
a  report  made  to  the  general  conference  of 
1875,  the  number  of  ministers  was  69,  of 
churches  339,  and  of  members  8,022. 

SECRETARY  BIRD,  a  rapacious  bird  of  the  ge- 
nus serpentariua  (Cuv.)  or  gypogeranut  (111.). 
The  bill  is  moderate,  broad,  elevated  at  the 
base,  and  the  culmen  much  arched  to  the 
hooked  tip;  nostrils  with  large  and  oblique 
lateral  opening;  wings  long,  with  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  quills  nearly  equal  and  long- 
est, armed  on  the  wrist  joint  with  an  obtuse 
spur ;  tail  very  long  and  wedge-shaped,  with 
the  two  middle  feathers  prolonged ;  tarsi  much 
lengthened,  slender,  covered  in  front  with 
transverse  scales ;  toes  very  short,  the  anterior 
ones  united  at  base  by  a  membrane,  the  hind 
one  rather  elevated,  and  all  covered  above  with 
transverse  scales ;  claws  nearly  straight  and 
blunt;  the  lores  and  space  round  the  eyes  na- 
ked. The  best  known  species  is  the  S.  reptili- 
vorus  (Daud. ;  gypogeranus  serpentarius,  111.), 
about  3  ft.  long,  inhabiting  the  sandy  plains 
of  S.  Africa ;  the  general  color  is  bluish  gray, 
the  quills,  thighs,  crest,  and  abdomen  more  or 
less  marked  with  black  ;  the  throat  and  chest 
shaded  with  white,  and  lower  tail  coverts  red- 
dish ;  cere  and  naked  parts  yellow ;  it  has  a 
long  erectile  crest  on  the  back  of  the  head, 
looking  when  depressed  like  a  pen  behind  a 
clerk's  ear,  whence  the  common  name ;  it  is 
also  called  serpent  eater  from  its  favorite  food, 


74:6 


SECRETION 


SEDAINE 


and  messenger  from  its  long  steps  and  rapid 
gait.  These  birds  are  usually  seen  in  pairs, 
and  devour  serpents  and  other  reptiles ;  when 
attacking  a  serpent  they  approach  with  one 


Secretary  Bird  (Serpentarlus  reptilivorus). 

wing  extended  and  acting  as  a  shield  to  the 
body,  and  with  the  other  strike  the  reptile, 
wounding  it  with  the  wing  spur,  tossing  it  into 
the  air,  and  safely  wearying  out  the  most  ven- 
omous species ;  they  also  eat  lizards,  tortoises, 
rats,  small  birds,  and  largo  insects.  They  run 
and  hop  very  swiftly ;  they  are  very  voracious, 
Le  Vaillant  mentioning  that  he  took  from  the 
crop  of  one  11  good-sized  lizards,  3  serpents  as 
long  as  his  arm,  11  small  tortoises  ("many  of 
which  were  about  2  in.  in  diameter"),  and  a 
number  of  insects.  They  are  often  introduced, 
partly  domesticated,  into  poultry  yards  to  rid 
them  of  rats,  snakes,  and  other  animals  which 
devour  young  birds  or  eggs,  and  they  rarely 
attack  the  fowls  while  supplied  with  reptiles 
and  meat.  The  nest  is  made  on  trees,  and  is 
large,  built  of  sticks  and  lined  with  wool  and 
feathers;  they  lay  two  or  three  eggs.  This 
bird  in  its  long  tarsi  resembles  the  waders,  and 
has  been  placed  among  them  by  Vieillot,  and 
among  the  gallirut  with  the  bustard  by  others 
on  account  of  the  wing  spurs,  terrestrial  hab- 
its, and  some  details  of  internal  structure.  If 
a  raptorial  bird,  as  Nitzsch  maintains,  it  comes 
nearer  the  vulture  than  the  falcon  family  in  the 
naked  cheeks,  loose  plumage  about  the  head, 
straightness  and  bluntness  of  the  claws,  and 
greater  webs  between  the  toes.  A  species  is 
found  in  the  Philippine  islands,  which  is  prob- 
ably distinct  from  the  African  bird. 

SECRETION.     See  GLAND. 

SECTOR,  in  geometry,  the  portion  of  the  area 
of  a  circle  included  between  two  radii  and  an 
arc.  The  instrument  called  by  this  name  is 
used  for  solving  mechanically  numerous  ques- 
tions of  proportions  in  geometry  and  trigono- 
metry. It  is  called  by  the  French  the  compass 
of  proportion.  It  is  made  of  two  strips  of 


ivory,  wood,  or  metal,  each  of  them  6  in.  or  a 
foot  long,  and  is  hinged  in  the  centre  like  a 
carpenter's  rule.  The  pivot  represents  the 
centre  of  the  circle,  and  the  lines  drawn  from 
it  upon  the  two  limbs  the  radii.  Upon  these 
lines  are  drawn  the  several  scales  specially 
adapted  to  the  sector.  Other  scales  not  direct- 
ly belonging  to  it  may  be  placed  in  the  blank 
spaces  on  the  limbs.  The  scales  for  the  radial 
lines  are  selected  and  arranged  according  to  the 
particular  uses  for  which  the  instrument  is  in- 
tended. They  commonly  consist  of  a  line  of 
chords  by  which  we  may  protract  an  angle  of 
any  number  of  degrees,  find  the  degrees  cor- 
responding to  any  arc,  &c. ;  a  scale  of  equal 
parts,  which  affords  the  means  when  the  limbs 
are  opened  to  the  proper  extent  of  finding 
with  a  pair  of  dividers  a  third  proportional  to 
two  given  lines,  or  a  fourth  to  three  given 
lines,  &c. ;  also  lines  of  sines,  secants,  tangents, 
and  polygons.  The  sector  is  a  convenient  in- 
strument in  plotting  for  giving  without  calcula- 
tion angles  and  the  lengths  of  required  lines ; 
but  all  instruments  are  necessarily  imperfect, 
and  since  the  introduction  of  logarithmic  tables 
this  one  is  little  used. — An  instrument  called 
the  astronomical  or  equatorial  sector  is  used  for 
taking  the  difference  of  right  ascensions  and 
declinations  of  stars ;  and  the  zenith  sector  is 
used  in  trigonometrical  surveys  to  determine 
the  zenith  distances  of  stars  whose  declinations 
differ  little  from  the  latitude  of  the  observer. 

SECULAR  GAMES,  in  Roman  history,  games 
celebrated  at  long  and  irregular  intervals.  Un- 
der the  republic  they  were  known  as  the  Ta- 
rentine  games  from  a  place  in  the  Campus 
Martins,  called  Tarentum,  where  they  were 
celebrated,  and  appear  to  have  been  instituted 
about  the  time  of  the  consul  Valerius  Publico- 
la.  Nothing  is  known  of  their  origin  beyond 
the  fact  that  they  were  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Pluto  and  Proserpine  for  the  purpose  of  avert- 
ing from  the  state  some  great  calamity.  Down 
to  the  time  of  Augustus  they  were  held  but 
three  times;  they  were  revived  by  that  em- 
peror in  17  B.  C.  with  considerable  pomp, 
occupying  three  days  and  nights,  and  being 
accompanied  by  sacrifices  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and 
all  the  superior  deities.  For  this  occasion 
Horace  wrote  his  Carmen  Sceculare.  The  sec- 
ular games  were  celebrated  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius  in  A.  I  >.  47,  in  that  of  Domitian  in 
88,  and  in  that  of  Philip  in  248. 

SECULARISM.   See  HOLYOAKE,  GEORGE  JACOB. 

sKU'.MU'S,  Johannes.    See  JOHANNES  SECUN- 

DU8. 

SKDAIXE,  Mlthel  Jean,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris,  July  4,  1719,  died  there,  May 
17,  1797.  He  was  a  stone  cutter,  but  became 
known  in  175fi  by  his  comic  opera  Le  diable  d 
quatre,  for  which  Philidor  composed  the  mu- 
sic. Among  his  other  pieces,  set  to  music  by 
Gr6try  and  others,  was  Richard  C&ur  de  Lion 
(1784).  His  best  comedy,  Le  philosophe  «ant 
le  savoir  (1765),  was  revived  in  1875,  at  the 
Theatre  Francais. 


SEDALIA 

SEDALIi,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  o 
Pettis  co.,  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific 
railroad,   at  the   junction    of  the  Lexington 
branch,  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texa 
railroad,  189  m.  by  rail  W.  of  St.  Louis,  64  m 
W.  by  N.  of  Jefferson  City,  and  94  m.  E.  S 
E.  of  Kansas  City;   pop.  in  1870,  4,560,  o: 
whom  845  were  colored ;  in  1875,  about  8,000 
It  was  laid  out  in  1860,  on  one  of  the  high 
est  swells  of  a  rolling  prairie.     The  principa 
street  is  120  ft.  wide,  is  finely  shaded,  and  has 
many  handsome  buildings.    Sedalia  is  lightec 
with  gas,  and  is  supplied  with  water  by  th< 
Holly  system.     It  has  a  large  and  rapidly  in 
creasing  trade.    It  contains  the  shops  of  the 
two  railroad  companies,  several  founderies  anc 
machine  shops,  flouring  mills,  and  manufac- 
tories of  agricultural  implements,   carriages, 
soap,  and  woollens.     There  are  three  hotels, 
two  national   banks,   good  public  schools,  t 
public  library  and  reading  room,  three  daily 
and  four  weekly  newspapers,  and  11  churches. 
SEDAN  (anc.  Sedanum),  a  fortified  town  ol 
France,  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse,  130  m.  N.  E. 
of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,   14,345.      It  has  fine 
squares    and    promenades,  a  Protestant  and 
three   Catholic    churches,    and  a  chateau  in 
which  Turenne  was  born.    Fine  black  cloths 
and  cassimeres,  linen,  hosiery,  leather,  hard- 
ware,  and  firearms   are   manufactured.     Se- 
dan was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  principali- 
ty, which  in  1591  came  into  possession  of  the 
Turenne   family,   who    in    1642   ceded  it  to 
France.     It  had  a  celebrated  Protestant  uni- 
versity, which  was  suppressed  on  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in   1685.     The 
chairs  commonly  known  as  sedans  took  their 
name  from  this  town.     The  fortress  surren- 
dered to  the  Hessians  in  1815,  and  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Prussians  till  November,   1816. 
Here  the 'Germans,  on  Sept.  1,  1870,  obtained 
a  victory  over  the  French,  which  led  to  the 
capitulation  of  the  fortress,  and  the  capture 
of  Napoleon  III.  and  his  army.     (See  FBANOE, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  397.) 

SEDGE  (A.  S.  secg  or  sacg,  a  dagger,  for- 
merly applied  to  sharp-pointed  plants  in  gen- 
eral which  grew  in  marshes),  a  name  for  plants 
of  the  genus  carex,  but  sometimes  applied  in  a 
general  way  to  other  plants  of  the  cyperacea, 
or  sedge  family,  to  which  it  belongs.  There 
are  about  200  species  of  the  genus  carex  in 
North  America ;  they  are  found  in  great  abun- 
dance in  wet  places  (though  some  are  met  with 
only  in  dry  localities  and  on  the  tops  of  moun- 
tains), where  they  form  a  large  portion  of  the 
vegetation,  and  are  often  mistaken  for  grasses, 
from  which  they  differ  in  several  important 
particulars.  The  sedges  are  perennial,  and, 
especially  those  in  wet  localities,  often  form 
dense  tufts  or  tussocks ;  the  culms  or  stems 
are  triangular  and  solid ;  the  leaves  are  grass- 
like,  often  rough  on  the  margin  and  keel,  with 
the  sheaths  (which  in  grasses  are  generally 
split  down  on  one  side)  quite  closed  or  entire; 


SEDGE 


747 


at  the  upper  portion  of  the  stem  are  leafy 
or  scale-like  bracts,  in  the  axils  of  which  are 
borne  the  flower  spikes,  which  are  also  termi- 
nal. The  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  separate 


A  Sedge  (Carex  umbellate),  with  separate  Perigonlum  and 
Bract,  Pistil,  and  section  of  Ovary. 

flowers,  either  on  the  same  spike  (androgy- 
nous), or  on  separate  spikes  on  the  same  plant 
(monoecious),  or  rarely  on  distinct  plants  (dioe- 
cious).    Both  kinds  of  flowers  are  subtended 
by  a  scale-like  bract,  and  these  scales  overlap 
one  another  equally  around  the  axis  to  form 
a  more  or  less  cylindrical  (sometimes  ovoid) 
spike.     The  staminate  flowers  consist  of  three 
(rarely  two)  stamens  to  each  bract;  the  pis- 
tillates  have  a  single  ovary  and  two  or  three 
long  stigmas;  the  ovary  is  enclosed  in  a  bag 
or  sac  with  a  narrow  orifice  from  which  the 
styles  are  protruded;  this  bag  (perigynium) 
increases  with  the  ripening  fruit,  and  in  some 
species  becomes  large  and  bladdery ;  the  fruit 
is  a  lens-shaped,  plano-convex  or  triangular 
akene.     The  carices  vary  in  height  front  a 
few  inches  to  3  ft.  and  over;    in  some  the 
stems  are  weak  and  thread-like,  and  in  oth- 
ers very  wiry  and  rigid;  they  for  the  most 
part  flower  early  in  spring,  and  perfect  their 
fruit  during  the  summer.    It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  in  all  about  1,000  species,  which  are 
more  abundant  in  arctic  and  cold  countries, 
and  diminish  toward  the  tropics,  where  they 
are  found  only  in  the  mountainous  portions. 
While  the  species  are  numerous,  the  number 
of  individuals  is  also  very  great,  and  in  many 
)laces  they  form  a  large  share  of  the  vegeta- 
;ion;   but  they  are  of  little  direct  value  to 
man;    their  stems  and  foliage  are  dry  and 
larsh,  and  contain  very  little  sngar  or  starch  ; 
,heir  chief  office  is  to  furnish  mould  for  the 
lustenance  of  other  plants.    They  can  hardly 
)e  regarded  as  weeds,   though    some    make 
heir  appearance  in  pastures  which  are  too  wet 
or  the  growth  of  nutritious  grasses ;  the  large 
ussocks  which  the  sportsman  and  botanist 


748 


SEDGWICK 


uses  as  "stepping  stones"  in  crossing  swamps 
are  mostly  produced  by  C.  striata,  in  some  of 
its  sewral  forms. — The  sand  sedge  (C.  arena- 
ria),  common  on  the  shores  of  Europe,  has 
a  slender  but  strong  running  and  branching 
root  stock,  several  feet  long,  which  serves  to 
bind  the  sands  where  it  grows  naturally,  and 
is  planted  for  the  same  purpose  upon  the  dikes 
in  Holland ;  the  roots  of  this  species  have  a 
reputation  for  diuretic  and  sudorific  properties, 
and  are  known  in  Europe  as  German  sarsa- 
parilla.  The  Laplanders  are  said  to  convert 
the  leaves  of  C.  tyhatica,  by  drying  and  card- 
ing, into  a  sort  of  vegetable  wool,  which  they 
use  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  to  stuff  their 
winter  shoes.  In  some  localities  carices  form 
a  considerable  part  of  the  marsh  hay  which  is 
cut  for  use  as  a  mulch,  and  for  bedding  ani- 
mals in  the  stable ;  when  saturated  with  urine, 
it  is  thrown  upon  the  manure  heap  and  soon 
converted  into  a  fertilizer.  The  carices,  though 
regarded  by  novices  in  botany  as  difficult,  have 
been  favorite  objects  of  study  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  botanists.  An  important  mono- 
graph on  the  American  species  was  published 
by  Schweinitz  and  Torrey  in  the  "  Annals  of 
the  New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  "  in 
1824;  later  the  species  of  the  northern  states 
were  elaborated  for  Gray's  "  Manual  of  Bot- 
any "  by  John  Carey ;  numerous  papers  on 
the  genus  by  the  late  Dr.  Chester  Dewey  are 
to  be  found  running  through  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Science,"  in  which  the  number  of 
species  is  increased  to  an  extent  not  accepted 
by  other  botanists ;  and  Mr.  8.  T.  Olney  of 
Rhode  Island  has  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  our  knowledge  of  these  plants.  One 
of  the  finest  monographs  upon  any  specialty 
in  botany  is  the  "Illustrations  of  the  Genus 
Carex,"  by  Francis  Boot  (4  vols.  fol.,  London, 
1858-'67),  with  600  plates. 

SEDGWICK,  a  S.  county  of  Kansas,  inter- 
sected by  the  Arkansas  river,  and  drained 
by  the  Little  Arkansas  and  other  affluents  of 
that  stream;  area,  1,512  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,095.  The  southwestern  branch  of  the  Atchi- 
son,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6  railroad  terminates 
at  the  county  seat.  The  surface  is  undulating 
and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  6,652  bushels  of  wheat,  1,100  of 
oats,  1,290  of  potatoes,  and  2,000  Ibs.  of  wool. 
There  were  407  horses,  760  cattle,  807  sheep, 
and  165  swine.  Capital,  Wichita. 

SEDGWICK,  Vdara.  an  English  geologist,  born 
at  Dent,  Yorkshire,  about  1785,  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Jan.  27,  1878.  He  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity college,  Cambridge,  in  1808,  became  a  fel- 
low of  the  college,  and  in  1818  succeeded  Hail- 
stone as  professor  of  geology.  He  was  elect- 
ed a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  in  1819,  and 
from  1829  to  1831  was  president  of  the  geo- 
logical society.  In  1827  he  made  a  geological 
tour  of  Scotland,  and  in  1829,  in  conjunction 
with  Mnrchison,  visited  different  portions  of 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland,  especially 
studying  the  Alps.  In  1831  he  commenced 


a  critical  survey  of  the  lower  palaeozoic  strata 
of  England  and  Wales.  He  first  applied  the 
term  Cambrian  to  a  series  of  rocks  interme- 
diate between  the  Silurian  of  Murchison  and 
the  subjacent  crystalline  schists  and  granites ; 
and  a  bitter  controversy  arose  between  the 
two  geologists  respecting  the  use  of  the  terms 
Cambrian  and  Silurian.  (See  GEOLOGY,  and 
MURCHISON.)  In  1834  Prof.  Sedgwick  became 
prebendary  of  Norwich.  Besides  numerous 
contributions  to  the  transactions  of  societies, 
he  published  "  Discourse  on  the  Studies  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge"  (1850),  and  "A 
Synopsis  of  the  Classification  of  the  Palaeozoic 
Rocks"  (1855).  He  was  a  strenuous  oppo- 
nent of  the  theory  of  evolution,  and  attacked 
Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species."  For  detailed 
accounts  of  his  researches,  see  "Memoirs  of 
Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison,"  by  Archibald 
Geikie  (2  vols.,  London,  1874),  and  "  Chemi- 
cal and  Geological  Essays,"  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt 
(Boston,  1875). 

SEDGWICK,  John,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Cornwall,  Conn.,  Sept.  18,  1813,  killed  at 
Spottsylvania  Court  House,  Va.,  May  9,  1864. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837,  was  ap- 
pointed second  lieutenant  in  the  second  artil- 
lery, served  in  Florida,  in  the  removal  of  the 
Cherokee  nation,  and  on  the  northern  fron- 
tier, and  became  first  lieutenant  in  1839.  In 
the  war  with  Mexico  he  was  successively  bre- 
vetted  captain  and  major  for  gallantry  at  Con- 
treras  and  Churubusco  and  at  Chapultepec. 
In  1855  he  was  commissioned  major  in  the 
first  cavalry.  He  was  made  a  brigadier  gen- 
eral of  volunteers  on  Aug.  81,  1861,  received 
command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  in  March,  1862,  participated  in  the 
peninsular  campaign,  was  wounded  at  Glen- 
dale,  June  80,  and  was  appointed  major  gen- 
eral of  volunteers  July  4.  At  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  Sept.  17,  he  was  severely  wounded. 
On  Dec.  22  he  took  command  of  the  9th  army 
corps,  and  on  Feb.  5,  1863,  was  transferred 
to  the  6th  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  was  in  command  at  the  storming  of  Marye's 
heights,  near  Fredericksburg,  and  in  the  final 
battle  near  Chancellorsville,  May  8,  4 ;  and  in 
the  Pennsylvania  campaign  he  made  a  forced 
march  of  85  m.  to  Gettysburg,  where  he  com- 
manded the  left  wing  of  the  army  in  the  bat- 
tle of  July  2,  8,  and  took  part  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  enemy  to  Warreuton.  In  the  Rapidan 
campaign,  September  to  December,  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing,  composed  of  the  5th 
and  6th  corps,  and  was  engaged  in  the  combat 
of  Rappahannock  station,  Nov.  7,  and  in  the 
operations  at  Mine  run,  Nov.  26  to  Dec.  8. 
In  the  Richmond  campaign  in  May,  1864,  he 
commanded  the  6th  corps,  which  had  become 
known  as  Sedgwick's  corps,  and  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  6.  Three 
days  later,  while  making  a  personal  reconnois- 
sance,  and  directing  the  placing  of  a  battery 
for  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania  Court  House, 
he  was  shot  by  a  sharpshooter. 


SEDGWICK 

SEDCWICK.  I.  Theodore,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  May,  1746, 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  24,  1813.  After  a 
partial  course  at  Yale  college,  he  studied  law, 
and  in  April,  1766,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  began  practice  at  Sheffield,  Berkshire  co., 
Mass.,  which  he  represented  several  times  in 
the  legislature.  In  1776  he  served  as  aid  to 
Gen.  Thomas  in  the  expedition  to  Canada. 
About  the  close  of  1785  he  removed  to  Stock- 
bridge,  and  in  that  year  and  the  next  was  a 
member  of  the  continental  congress.  In  the 
winter  of  1787  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
suppression  of  Shays's  rebellion.  In  1788  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  conven- 
tion which  ratified  the  federal  constitution,  and 
speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives  of  the 
state.  He  was  a  representative  in  congress 
from  1789  to  1796,  and  U.  S.  senator  l796-'9, 
and  in  1799  again  a  representative  and  speaker 
of  the  house.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  to 
the  bench  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachu- 
setts, where  he  remained  till  his  death.  Judge 
Sedgwick  was  an  active  member  of  the  old  fed- 
eral party,  and  was  ardently  hostile  to  slavery. 
Shortly  after  the  adoption  of  the  Massachu- 
setts constitution  (1780),  Elizabeth  Freeman, 
a  negro  woman  belonging  to  a  Mr.  Ashley 
of  Sheffield,  having  fled  in  consequence  of  ill 
treatment,  her  master  sued  to  regain  his  slave. 
She  was  defended  by  Mr.  Sedgwick,  and  by 
the  decision  of  the  court  pronounced  free. 
This,  it  is  believed,  was  the  first  fruit  of  the 
declaration  in  the  Massachusetts  bill  of  rights 
that  "  all  men  are  born  free  and  equal,"  and 
led  to  the  extinction  of  slavery  in  that  state. 
II.  Theodore,  an  American  lawyer,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  Dec. 
31,  1780,  died  in  Pittsfield,  Nov.  7,  1839.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1798,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1801,  and  practised  at  Alba- 
ny, N.  Y.,  till  1821,  when  he  retired  to  Stock- 
bridge.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature in  1824,  1825,  and  1827,  and  carried 
through  a  bill  for  a  railroad  across  the  moun- 
tains from  Boston  to  Albany.  He  advocated 
free  trade,  temperance,  and  anti-slavery,  and 
published  "Hints  to  my  Countrymen"  (1826), 
and  "  Public  and  Private  Economy,  illustrated 
by  Observations  made  in  Europe  in  1836-'7" 
(3  vols.  12mo,  New  York,  1838).— His  wife, 
SUSAN  RIDLEY  (died  1867),  was  the  author, 
among  other  works,  of  "  The  Morals  of  Plea- 
sure" (1829);  "The  Young  Emigrants"  and 
"The  Children's  Week"  (1830);  "Allen  Pres- 
cott"  (1835);  "Alida"  (1844);  and  "Walter 
Thornley"  (1859).  III.  Catharine  Maria,  an 
American  authoress,  daughter  of  Judge  Theo- 
dore Sedgwick,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  in 
1789,  died  near  Roxbury,  July  31,  1867.  She 
published  "The  New  England  Tale"  anony- 
mously in  1822,  and  it  had  an  immediate  and 
wide  popularity.  In  1824  she  published  "  Red- 
wood," which  was  republlshed  in  England, 
and  translated  into  French,  Italian,  German, 
and  Swedish.  Her  subsequent  publications  in- 


SEDUCTION 


749 


elude  "  Hope  Leslie,  or  Early  Times  in  Amer- 
ica" (1827) ;  "  Clarence,  or  a  Tale  of  our  own 
Times"  (1830);  "Le  Bossu,"  a  story  for  the 
young  (1832);  "The  Linwoods,"  a  romance 
of  the  revolution,  and  a  collection  of  tales 
(1835);  a  series  of  juveniles,  including  "The 
Poor  Rich  Man  and  Rich  Poor  Man,"  "Live 
and  Let  Live,"  "  Means  and  Ends,"  "  Home," 
and  "Love  Token  for  Children"  (1836-'9) ; 
the  life  of  Lucretia  Maria  Davidson,  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography "  (1837);  "Letters from 
Abroad  to  Kindred  at  Home,"  after  a  visit  to 
Europe  (1841);  "Wilton  Harvey,  and  other 
Tales"  (1845);  and  "Married  or  Single?" 
(1857).— See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Miss  Sedg- 
wick," edited  by  Mary  E.  Dewey  (New  York, 
1871).  IV.  Theodore,  an  American  lawyer,  son 
of  Theodore  Sedgwick,  2d,  born  in  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  Jan.  27,  1811,  died  in  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
Dec.  9,  1859.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  col- 
lege, New  York,  in  1829,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  May,  1833.  The  next  15  months 
he  passed  in  Europe,  chiefly  at  Paris,  where 
he  was  attached  to  the  legation  of  Edward 
Livingston.  Oh  his  return  home  he  com- 
menced practice  in  New  York,  which  he  pros- 
ecuted with  great  industry  and  success  till 
about  1850.  He  published  a  memoir  of  Wil- 
liam Livingston  (1833);  "Treatise  on  the 
Measure  of  Damages,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  which  govern  the  Amount  of  Com- 
pensation recovered  in  Suits  at  Law"  (1847; 
5th  ed.,  1869);  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Rules 
which  govern  the  Interpretation  and  Appli- 
cation of  Statutory  and  Constitutional  Law  " 
(1857).  In  January,  1858,  he  was  appointed 
United  States  attorney  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  New  York.  He  edited  the  political 
writings  of  William  Leggett  (2  vols.  8vo,  New 
York,  1840). 

SEDLEY,  Sir  diaries,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Aylesford,  Kent,  in  1639,  died  Aug.  20,  1701. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  John  Sedley,  and  after 
the  restoration  went  to  London,  where  accord- 
ing to  Wood  he  set  up  for  a  satirical  wit.  He 
soon  obtained  great  favor  with  Charles  II.,  and 
his  private  fortune  was  wasted  in  debauchery. 
He  was  once  engaged  in  a  riot  at  a  public 
house,  where  he  made  a  speech  to  the  mob, 
naked,  from  the  balcony,  and  was  fined  £500. 
He  now  applied  himself  to  serious  business, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  parliament  by  his 
opposition  to  James  II.  His  activity  in  bring- 
ing about  the  revolution  is  attributed  to  the 
king's  intrigue  with  his  (laughter,  who  became 
his  mistress  and  was  created  countess  of  Dor- 
chester. His  collected  works,  consisting  of 
short  amatory  poems,  parliamentary  speeches, 
plays,  and  some  translations  from  the  classics, 
were  published  with  a  memoir  in  1722. 

SEDUCTION,  the  persuading  a  woman  to  sur- 
render her  chastity.  It  has  been  often  made  a 
reproach  to  the  common  law  that  it  does  not 
regard  the  seducer  as  a  criminal,  or  at  least 
hold  him  to  a  direct  responsibility.  The  French 
and  Prussian  codes  also,  composed  as  they  have 


750 


SEDUCTION 


been  by  the  deliberate  act  of  the  lawgivers, 
though,  like  the  Roman  laws,  they  throw  the 
strongest  defences  against  violence  around  the 
chastity  of  women,  yet  denounce  no  penalties 
against  the  mere  seducer.  But  though  the 
common  law  does  not  hold  the  seducer  to  any 
'direct  responsibility,  yet  indirectly  it  does  reach 
him.  The  seducer  who  renders  a  female  ser- 
vant incapable  of  her  usual  labor  and  service  is 
bound  to  make  indemnity.  This  is  the  princi- 
ple and  basis  of  almost  all  suits  for  seduction  ; 
they  are  actions  on  the  case,  and  rest  immedi- 
ately on  the  loss  of  service  consequent  upon 
the  seduction.  By  a  fiction  of  the  law  the 
relation  of  master  and  servant  is  conceived  to 
exist  between  parent  and  child,  and  thus  a  fa- 
ther may  have  an  action  for  the  seduction  of 
his  daughter.  The  father  may  also  found  his 
suit  on  the  seducer's  illegal  entry  upon  his 
premises,  and  may  then  state  the  seduction 
and  loss  of  service  in  aggravation.  But  it  is 
essential  to  this  mode  of  proceeding  that  the 
daughter  lived  with  the  father  at  the  time  of 
the  seduction,  or,  if  away,  was  subject  to  recall 
at  his  will ;  and  it  is  therefore  inapplicable  to 
very  many  cases.  In  the  more  usual  form  to 
which  we  have  referred,  namely,  of  case,  the 
consequential  injury  being  the  ground  of  ac- 
tion, it  is  unimportant  whether  the  seduced  lived 
with  the  father  at  the  time  of  the  seduction  or 
not. — -It  is  now  the  general  rule  that  exemplary 
or  punitory  damages  are  properly  given  in  such 
a  case,  and  the  amount  of  them  is  very  much 
in  the  discretion  of  the  jury.  One  of  the  earli- 
est cases  in  which  such  damages  are  recom- 
mended by  the  court  is  a  case  of  the  year  1800, 
in  which  Lord  Eldon,  at  that  time  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas,  told  the  jury  they  were 
to  regard  not  merely  the  loss  of  service  but  the 
wounded  feelings  of  the  parent.  In  1805  Lord 
Ellenborough  said  that  redress  was  to  be  given 
to  the  father  not  only  for  his  loss  of  the  socie- 
ty and  comfort  of  his  child,  but  also  for  the 
dishonor  which  he  received;  and  in  1811  that, 
though  it  was  difficult  to  conceive  on  what 
legal  principle  the  damages  could  be  extended 
beyond  the  injury  resulting  from  loss  of  ser- 
vices, yet  the  practice  was  now  inveterate  and 
could  not  be  shaken,  and  that  the  feelings  of 
parents  and  of  those  who  stood  in  loco  parentit 
were  always  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
In  all  cases  then,  if  the  suit  is  at  the  common 
law,  however  the  damages  may  be  increased 
by  other  considerations,  some  loss  of  service 
must  always  be  alleged  in  the  declaration,  and 
proved.  The  English  law  requires  that  the 
actual  relation  of  master  and  servant  shall  have 
existed  between  the  plaintiff  and  the  person 
seduced  at  the  time  of  the  seduction ;  so  that 
where  a  daughter  under  age  was  seduced  by 
her  master,  while  living  in  service  away  from 
her  father's  house  with  his  consent,  and  with 
no  intention  of  returning  to  it,  the  father  was 
held  to  have  no  ground  of  action.  The  rule  is 
not  so  strict  in  the  United  States;  and  in  a 
leading  case  in  New  York,  where  a  daughter 


under  age,  with  the  consent  of  her  father,  lived 
with  her  uncle,  who  agreed  to  pay  her  for  such 
work  as  she  chose  to  do,  but  made  no  agree- 
ment with  her  for  any  fixed  time  of  service, 
and  while  in  her  uncle's  house  she  was  seduced 
and  returned  to  the  house  of  her  father,  who 
paid  the  expense  attending  her  confinement,  it 
was  held  that,  as  the  father  had  made  no  con- 
tract binding  out  his  daughter,  he  could  still 
control  her  services ;  the  fact  that  the  daugh- 
ter had  no  intention  of  returning  could  not 
affect  the  father's  right ;  she  was  his  servant 
de  jure;  and  as  the  defendant  had  done  an  act 
which  deprived  the  father  of  services  that  he 
had  the  right  to  exact,  he  must  respond  in 
damages. — The  father's  legal  right  to  the  ser- 
vices of  his  daughter  extends  to  her  majority, 
which  at  the  common  law  is  the  ago  of  21 
years.  If  she  is  living  with  her  father  during 
her  minority,  proof  of  this  fact  alone  suffices 
to  maintain  the  issue  in  respect  to  the  fact  of 
service  ;  service  is  presumed.  If  the  daughter 
is  already  of  full  age,  there  must  be  proof  of 
service  in  fact  rendered  to  the  father.  Proof 
of  very  slight  service  suffices,  if  she  is  still  liv- 
ing with  him ;  but  if  she  is  absent  from  home 
under  a  contract  made  by  herself  since  attain- 
ing her  majority,  the  father  has  no  right  of  suit. 
His  action,  however,  will  not  be  defeated  if  the 
defendant  hired  the  daughter  for  the  purpose 
of  getting  her  into  his  possession  and  out  of 
the  father's  control,  even  though  she  were  of 
full  age  at  the  time  of  the  hiring,  provided  she 
were  then  living  in  her  father's  family.  The 
hiring  being  fraudulent  and  therefore  null,  the 
relation  of  master  and  servant  was  never  con- 
tracted between  the  daughter  and  her  seducer, 
and  so  was  never  interrupted  as  between  her 
and  her  father. — The  action  may  be  maintained 
by  any  one  who  stands  in  loco  parentit^  by  a 
guardian,  for  example,  or  by  a  relative  who 
has  adopted  the  female  as  his  own  child,  in  the 
same  cases  and  under  the  same  conditions  that 
give  a  cause  of  action  to  the  natural  parent. 
A  mother  cannot  maintain  an  action  for  the 
seduction  of  her  daughter  during  the  father's 
life,  though  the  child  be  not  born  until  after 
the  father's  death.  There  must  be  an  actual 
or  constructive  right  to  the  daughter's  service 
at  the  time  the  injury  is  committed,  that  is  to 
say,  at  the  time  of  the  seduction.  If  the  rela- 
tion of  master  and  servant  first  arises  after  the 
injury  has  been  done,  there  is  no  ground  to 
claim  indemnity  for  the  resulting  loss  of  ser- 
vice.— Upon  the  trial  of  the  cause,  the  fact  of 
the  seduction  may  be  proved  by  the  woman 
herself.  Her  general  character  for  chastity  is 
considered  to  be  in  issue,  and  may  be  im- 
peached by  general  evidence  on  the  part  of  the 
defendant,  and  be  supported  by  the  plaintiff 
in  like  manner.  But  though  the  evidence  dis- 
closes the  woman's  previous  criminality  with 
others,  it  will  avail  nothing  if  the  jury  are  sat- 
isfied that  the  defendant  is  the  father  of  her 
child,  and  so  the  cause  of  the  plaintiff's  loss  of 
service.  It  has  been  held  that  if  an  attempt 


SEDUM 


751 


be  made  by  the  defendant  to  destroy  on  trial 
the  good  character  of  the  seduced  woman,  and 
this  attempt  be  defeated,  the  making  the  at- 
tempt may  be  regarded  by  the  jury  in  estima- 
ting damages ;  and  so  indeed  may  all  circum- 
stances which  aggravate  the  seduction,  and 
increase  the  harm  caused  by  it. — Eecent  stat- 
utes have  made  great  inroads  on  the  common 
law  of  seduction  in  several  of  the  states.  The 
action  is  allowed  to  be  brought  by  the  father 
or  other  near  relative,  irrespective  of  any  ques- 
tion of  the  right  to  service,  and  in  some  states 
even  by  the  woman  herself.  It  is  also  in  some 
of  the  states  made  a  felony.  The  terms  in 
which  the  offence  is  described  differ  in  differ- 
ent statutes,  some  providing  for  the  punish- 
ment of  any  man  who  shall  "seduce  and  de- 
bauch any  unmarried  woman,"  while  others 
make  a  promise  of  marriage  an  essential  ele- 
ment of  the  seduction.  In  respect  to  the  prom- 
ise of  marriage,  it  has  been  held  not  necessary 
to  aver  a  mutual  or  valid  promise.  It  is  there- 
fore immaterial  that  the  seducer  is  a  married 
man,  provided  the  woman  was  ignorant  of  it. 
SEDUM  (Lat.  sedere,  to  sit,  in  allusion  to  the 
manner  in  which  some  of  the  plants  are  at- 
tached to  rocks),  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants 
some  of  which  are  known  as  orpine,  stone- 
crop,  and  live-for-ever,  while  the  botanical 
name  is  in  common  use  for  the  ornamental 
species.  It  belongs  to  the  family  crassulacece 
with  several  other  genera  of  mostly  succulent 
plants,  one  of  which,  sempervivum,  is  described 
under  HOUSELEEK.  The  sedums  include  annual 
and  perennial  plants  of  very  variable  habit; 
some  are  low  and  creep  along  the  ground, 
forming  moss-like  tufts,  while  others  are  erect, 
and  a  few  are  somewhat  woody ;  the  leaves 
are  fleshy,  and  variable  in  shape,  being  cylin- 
drical and  linear, 
or  flat  and  broad, 
and  both  oppo- 
site and  alter- 
nate ;  the  flow- 
ers, mostly  in 
cymes,  are  white, 
yellow,  and  rose- 
colored;  the  pe- 
tals, sepals,  and 
pistils  are  four 
or  five,  and  the 
stamens  twice 
that  number,  the 
mostly  distinct 
ovaries  ripening 
into  many-seed- 
ed pods.  About 
six  species  are  in- 
digenous to  the 
Atlantic  states, 
and  two  have 
been  introduced 


Live-for-ever  (Sedum  telephium). 


from  Europe,  one  of  which,  S.  telephium,  the 
live-for-ever,  has  long  been  a  garden  plant,  and 
has  become  naturalized  as  a  troublesome  weed 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Its  strong 
732  VOL.  xiv. — 48 


stems  form  a  dense  clump  2  ft.  high  ;  the  large 
oval  leaves  are  toothed  on  the  margins ;  the 
flowers  are  pale  purple  in  a  dense  terminal 
cluster,  and  appear  in  July.  This,  like  many 
others  of  the  species,  is  very  tenacious  of  life ; 
a  stem  cut  and  pinned  up  against  the  wall  will 
continue  to  grow,  and  even  flower,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  lower 
leaves  and  the  base  of  the  stem ;  it  is  often 
called  Aaron's  rod,  and  in  England  it  is  known 
as  midsummer-men ;  the  country  girls  on  mid- 
summer's eve  set  up  two  stems  of  it,  one  for 
themselves  and  the  other  for  their  lover ;  the 
fidelity  of  the  lover  is  estimated  by  his  plant 
turning  to  theirs.  In  Europe  it  has  a  repu- 
tation as  a  remedy  for  diarrhoea,  being  muci- 
laginous and  slightly  astringent.— Stonecrop 


Stonecrop  (Sedum  acre). 

(S.  acre)  naturally  grows  upon  rocks  and  walls ; 
it  is  a  low  moss-like  species,  forming  a  dense 
mat  of  light  green,  and  producing  numerous 
yellow  flowers  in  July.  It  has  long  been  cul- 
tivated, and  is  sometimes  used  for  edgings,  and 
often  to  cover  the  earth  in  flower  vases,  hang- 
ing baskets,  and  the  like ;  it  has  also  become 
naturalized.  It  is  exceedingly  acrid  to  the 
taste,  and  one  of  its  common  names  in  England 
is  wall  pepper ;  it  is  emetic  and  cathartic  in 
large  doses,  and  if  the  bruised  leaves  be  kept 
long  in  contact  with  the  skin  a  blister  will 
be  produced. — Among  the  native  species  is 
S.  ternatum,  with  low  spreading  stems,  flat 
wedge-shaped  leaves,  and  ternate  or  three- 
spiked  cymes  of  white  flowers,  is  found 
from  Pennsylvania  south  and  westward,  and 
is  often  cultivated.  The  showiest  native  spe- 
cies, properly  named  S.  pulchellum,  as  it  is 
one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  genus,  is  a 
more  southern  plant;  its  stems,  often  a  foot 
high,  are  crowded  with  linear  cylindrical 
leaves,  and  at  the  top  bear  a  broad  cyme,  the 
spikes  of  which  are  arranged  in  a  very  regular 
manner,  and  bear  a  profusion  of  rose-purple 
flowers;  it  is  now  and  then  cultivated,  and  in 
some  localities  is  known  as  the  widow's  cross. 
Eose-root  (S.  rhodiola)  is  a  dioecious  species 
with  greenish  yellow  and  purplish  flowers, 
and  a  rose-scented  root;  it  grows  sparingly 
in  Pennsylvania,  but  is  plenty  on  the  extreme 


752 


SEGOVIA 


Bednm  Sieboldli. 


eastern  coast.  Several  sednms  are  peculiar  to 
the  far  west  and  the  Pacific  coast.  About 
125«pecies  in  all  are  enumerated,  some  being 
only  of  botanical  interest,  while  several  are 
prized  in  cultivation.  One,  under  the  name 
of  S.  carneum  variegatum,  is  a  popular  garden 
plant ;  it  is  of  low 
growth  and  has  its  small 
leaves  edged  with  white ; 
nothing  is  known  of  its 
origin,  and  it  has  not 
produced  flowers. — The 
Japan  sedum,  S.  specta- 
lile  (called  in  the  cata- 
logues S.  Fabaria)  is  a 
fine  species,  12  to  18  in. 
high,  with  rose-purple 
flowers  in  dense  cymes, 
which  are  6  in.  across; 
it  is  especially  valuable 
on  account  of  blooming 
in  September,  when 
flowers  of  delicate  tints 
are  scarce.  Another  Ja- 
panese species  is  Sie- 
bold's  sedum  (S.  Siebol- 
dii\  with  slender  stems, 
which  soon  become  pros- 
trate, and  nearly  round 
leaves  in  whorls  of  three, 
of  a  fine  glaucous  green  ;  the  terminal  cymes 
of  pink  or  purplish  flowers  open  in  October ; 
there  is  a  variegated  form  in  which  the  leaves 
are  distinctly  marked  with  yellowish  white ; 
though  perfectly  hardy,  both  the  plain  and  the 
variegated  forms  are  seen  to  much  better  ad- 
vantage if  grown  as  house  plants,  in  a  hang- 
ing pot  or  a  vase.  The  sedums  are  easily  mul- 
tiplied by  dividing  the  clump  or  making  cut- 
tings of  the  stems. 

8EEBACH,  Marie,  a  German  actress,  born  in 
Riga,  Feb.  24,  1835.  She  is  the  daughter  of 
an  actor,  and  was  educated  at  Cologne  for  the 
opera.  After  appearing  in  minor  parts  in 
Nuremberg  and  Cassel,  chiefly  in  vaudevilles, 
she  became  celebrated  by  her  personation  of 
Margaret  in  Goethe's  Faust  and  of  Clarchen 
in  Egmont  in  Hamburg,  Munich,  Vienna,  and 
Hanover.  She  performed  chiefly  at  Hanover 
from  1856  to  1865,  when  she  and  her  husband, 
the  tenor  singer  Albert  Niemann,  removed  to 
Berlin.  She  was  afterward  divorced,  and  in 
1870-71  made  a  tour  of  the  United  States. 

SEELAND  (Dan.  Sjcelland),  an  island  of  Den- 
mark, bounded  N.  by  the  Cattegat,  separated 
E.  by  the  Sound  from  Sweden,  S.  by  the  Bal- 
tic from  the  islands  of  Moen,  Falster,  and  Laa- 
land,  and  W.  by  the  Great  Belt  and  its  con- 
tinuations from  Langeland,  Funen,  and  Samso ; 
length  81  m.,  greatest  breadth  06  m. ;  area, 
2,721  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  560,510.  It  is 
irregular  in  shape  and  much  indented  by  arms 
of  the  Baltic,  and  in  the  north  an  arm  of  the 
Cattegat  extends  far  into  the  interior.  The 
surface  is  generally  flat.  The  soil  is  an  ex- 
tremely fertile  alluvium  resting  on  beds  of 


mussel  shells  and  corallines.  The  chief  pro- 
duct is  grain.  Extensive  forests  once  covered 
the  island,  but  timber  is  now  scarce.  The  cli- 
mate is  humid  and  milder  than  in  other  places 
in  the  same  latitude.  Frederiksborg,  the  new 
part  of  the  city  of  Copenhagen,  stands  on  this 
island,  which  together  with  Moen  and  Sams6 
forms  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  Denmark. 

SEELEY,  John  Robert,  an  English  author,  born 
in  London  about  1834.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
London  publisher.  He  graduated  at  Christ 
Church,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a 
fellow  in  1858,  was  for  several  years  principal 
classical  assistant  at  the  city  of  London  school, 
was  appointed  in  1863  professor  of  Latin  in 
University  college,  London,  and  in  1869  was 
made  professor  of  modern  history  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1865  he  published  anonymously 
"Ecce  Homo:  The  Life  and  Work  of  Jesus 
Christ."  He  has  also  published  "  Classical 
Studies,  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Moral  Sci- 
ences," a  lecture  (1864);  "An  English  Prim- 
er, or  Course  of  English  Instruction  for 
Schools,"  with  E.  A.  Abbott  (London,  1869 ; 
republished  in  Boston  under  the  title  "  Eng- 
lish Lessons  for  English  People  ") ;  "  Roman 
Imperialism"  (Boston,  1869);  "Lectures  and 
Essays"  (1870) ;  and  an  edition  of  Livy. 

SEEMAM,  BerthoM,  a  German  naturalist,  born 
in  Hanover,  Feb.  28,  1825,  died  in  Nicaragua, 
Oct.  10,  1871.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  nat- 
uralist to  an  English  expedition  around  the 
world,  which  returned  to  London  in  1851. 
He  explored  the  Feejee  islands  in  1860,  and 
purchased  a  gold  and  silver  mine  in  Nicaragua. 
His  principal  works  are:  "Narrative  of  the 
Voyage  of  II.  M.  S.  Herald,  and  three  Cruises 
to  the  Arctic  Regions  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin"  (London,  1852;  German,  2  vols., 
Hanover,  1868) ;  "  Botanical  Researches  "  (Lon- 
don, 1852-'7) ;  "Popular  History  of  the  Palms " 
(1856);  "Viti,  an  Account  of  a  Government 
Mission  to  the  Vitian  or  Fijian  Islands"  (1862) ; 
and  "Dottings  of  the  Roadside"  (1868). 

SEGNERI,  Paolo,  an  Italian  orator,  born  at 
Nettuno  in  the  Roman  Campapna,  March  21, 
1624,  died  in  Rome,  Dec.  9,  1694.  He  early 
joined  the  order  of  Jesus,  and  labored  as  a 
missionary  in  Italy  from  1665  to  1692,  when 
he  was  appointed  by  Innocent  XII.  preacher 
to  the  papal  court.  His  principal  works  are : 
a  course  of  Lenten  sermons  entitled  II  Quare- 
simale  (fol.,  Florence,  1679;  4to,  Rome,  1752; 
8  vols.  8vo,  Padua,  1826) ;  Tl  Cristiano  istruito 
(8  vols.  4to,  Florence,  1686 ;  French  transla- 
tion, 5  vols.,  Avignon,  1836) ;  II  incredulo 
senza  scum  (Florence,  1690);  Panegirici  sagri 
(Venice,  1692);  and  Prediche  dette  nel  palazzo 
apostolico  (4to,  Rome,  1694).  Complete  edi- 
tions were  published  at  Venice  (4  vols.  4to, 
1712,  1758),  Parma  (3  vols.  fol.,  1714,  with  a 
life  by  Maffei),  and  Milan  (3  vols.  8vo,  1837-'8). 

SEGOVIA.  I.  A  central  province  of  Spain, 
in  Old  Castile,  bordering  on  Valladolid,  Bur- 
gos, Soria,  Guadalajara,  Madrid,  and  Avila ; 
area,  2,714  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  150,812. 


SEGOVIA 


SEGUR 


753 


The  S.  E.  portion  is  mountainous,  being  bor- 
dered by  the  Guadarrama  chain,  and  the  re- 
mainder in  general  level.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Eresma  and  several  other  tributaries  of 
the  Douro.  Some  fine  marbles  are  quarried, 
besides  large  quantities  of  limestone,  chalk, 
and  granite.  The  climate  is  generally  cold, 
and  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  vine  and  other 
fruits  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  moun- 
tainous region  contains  important  pine  forests 
and  rich  pastures.  The  manufactures,  once 
flourishing,  are  now  limited  to  cloth,  glass, 
paper,  and  wines  and  brandies,  on  a  small 
scale.  II.  A  fortified  city,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, on  the  Eresma,  43  m.  N.  W.  of  Madrid ; 
pop.  about  12,000.  It  stands  on  a  rocky 
ridge,  occupies  two  hills  and  a  valley,  and  is 
surrounded  by  dilapidated  walls  with  round 
towers  and  seven  gates.  The  streets  are  tor- 
tuous and  narrow,  lined  with  lofty  and  gen- 
erally antique  houses.  There  are  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  a  handsome  mint  erected  in  the  15th 
century,  and  five  old  bridges;  but  Segovia  is 
chiefly  famous  for  its  ancient  alcdaar  or  Moor- 
ish castle,  used  as  the  treasury  building  down 
to  1730,  and  since  as  a  school  of  artillery; 


The  Alcdzar  of  Segovia. 

and  for  its  magnificent  aqueduct,  attributed  to 
Trajan,  with  160  arches  in  double  tiers,  three 
of  which  are  100  ft.  high.  The  woollen  man- 
ufactures, once  employing  30,000  hands,  are 
now  comparatively  insignificant.  Wool  is  the 
staple  article  of  export. — Segovia  was  found- 


ed before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  by 
whom,  as  well  as  by  the  Goths  and  Arabs,  it 
was  embellished.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
French  from  1808  to  1814. 

SEtil'IN,  Edonard,  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Clamecy,  department  of  Nievre,  Jan.  20,  1812. 
He  was  educated  at  the  colleges  of  Auxerre 
and  St.  Louis  in  Paris,  studied  medicine  and 
surgery,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  treatment 
of  idiots.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
settled  in  Ohio.  In  1860  he  revisited  his  na- 
tive country,  and  has  since  lived  in  New  York. 
Since  1866  he  has  done  much  for  the  study  of 
animal  heat  by  his  publications,  new  instru- 
ments, and  methods  of  thermography.  He 
represented  the  United  States  as  commissioner 
on  education  at  the  Vienna  exhibition  in  1873. 
His  works  are :  Resume  de  ce  que  nous  awns 
fait  pendant  quatorze  mois,  with  Esquirol 
(Paris,  1839);  Conseils  a  M.  0.  sur  T education 
de  son  enfant  idiot  (1839) ;  Theorie  et  pratique 
de  V education  des  idiots  (two  parts,  1841-'2) ; 
Hygiene  et  education  (1843)  ;  Images  graduees 
a  Vusage  des  enfants  arrieres  et  idiots  (1846); 
Traitement  moral,  hygiene  et  education  des 
idiots,  et  des  autres  enfants  arrieres  (1846),  the 
standard  authority  on  the  subject;  /.  B.  Pe- 
reire,  analyse  raisonnee  de  sa  methode  (1847) ; 
Jacob  Bodrigue  Pereire,  notice  sur  sa  vie  et 
ses  travaux  (1847);  "  Origin  of  the  Treatment 
and  Training  of  Idiots"  (Hartford,  1856); 
"  Idiocy,  its  Diagnosis  and  Treatment  by  the 
Physiological  Method"  (Albany,  1864);  "Idi- 
ocy and  its  Treatment  by  the  Physiological 
Method"  (New  York,  1866);  "New  Facts  and 
Remarks  concerning  Idiocy"  (1870);  "Pre- 
1  scription  and  Clinic  Record  "(1870);  "Medical 
Thermometry,"  with  C.  A.  "Wunderlich  (1871) ; 
"Clinical  Charts"  (1872);  "Thermometry  in 
the  Family"  (1872);  "Manual  of  Thermome- 
try for  Mothers"  (1873);  TJiermometres  phy- 
siologiques,  &c.  (Paris,  1873);  Tableaux  de 
thermometrie  mathematiques  (1873);  and  part 
of  his  report  on  education  at  Vienna  (1875). 
(See  IDIOCY.) 

SEGIB.  I.  Philippe  Henri,  marquis  de,  a  French 
soldier,  born  Jan.  20,  1724,  died  in  Paris,  Oct. 
8,  1801.  He  distinguished  himself  in  various 
battles  in  l746-'7,  was  wounded,  and  lost  an 
arm ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  seven  years' 
war,  and  was  finally  made  prisoner  at  Closter- 
camp.  In  1763  he  was  appointed  inspector 
general  of  infantry,  in  1780  minister  of  war, 
and  in  1783  a  marshal.  He  resigned  his  office 
in  1787.  During  the  reign  of  terror  he  was 
imprisoned  and  lost  all  his  property.  Napo- 
leon gave  him  in  1800  a  pension  of  4,000 
francs.  II.  Lonis  Philippe,  count,  a  French  his- 
torian, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris, 
Dec.  10,  1753,  died  there,  Aug.  27,  1830.  ^He 
served  under  Rochambeau  in  America  in  1  <82, 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg  in 
1784,  and  was  a  favorite  of  Catharine  II.  He 
afterward  became  a  brigadier  general  and  am- 
bassador to  Berlin,  and  in  1812  a  member  of 
the  senate.  Under  the  first  restoration  he  was 


754 


SEIDLITZ  POWDEKS 


SEINE  INFERIEURE 


a  peer,  but  he  rejoined  the  emperor  during  the 
hundred  days,  and  in  vain  sought  to  share  his 
exile.  His  complete  works  (33  vols.,  1824-'30) 
are  chiefly  historical,  but  include  plays  which 
he  wrote  for  the  Russian  empress,  under  the 
title  Thedtre  de  V Hermitage  (2  vols.,  1798), 
and  his  Hemoires,  ou  souvenirs  et  anecdotes 
(3  vols.,  1824;  English  translation,  Boston, 
1825).  III.  Philippe  Paul  de,  count,  a  French 
historian,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris, 
Nov.  4,  1780,  died  there,  Feb.  25,  1873.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1800,  became  a  favorite  of 
Napoleon,  who  employed  him  on  confidential 
missions,  and  for  some  time  was  a  prisoner  of 
war  in  Russia.  In  1812  he  accompanied  the 
emperor  in  the  Russian  campaign  as  his  aide- 
de-camp  ;  and  in  1813  he  was  instrumental  in 
saving  the  French  army  at  Hanau.  Under  the 
first  restoration  he  accepted  a  commission 
from  Louis  XVIII.,  but  joined  Napoleon  du- 
ring the  hundred  days,  and  was  only  nominally 
restored  to  his  rank  in  1818.  In  1831  Louis 
Philippe  appointed  him  lieutenant  general  and 
peer.  His  works  include  HUtoire  de  Napoleon 
et  de  la  grande  armee  pendant  Vannee  1812 
(2  vols.,  1824),  which  involved  him  in  many 
controversies  and  in  a  duel  with  Gen.  Gour- 
gaud ;  Hiitoire  de  Hussie  et  de  Pierre  le  Grand 
(1829) ;  and  ffistoire  de  Charles  VIII.  (2  vols., 
1834;  2d  ed.,  1842;  English  translation,  2 
vols.,  Philadelphia,  1842),  a  continuation  of 
his  father's  Histoire  de  France. 

SEIDLITZ  POWDERS.    See  ROCIIELLE  SALT. 

SEIDLITZ  WATER,  the  product  of  certain 
saline  springs  in  Seidlitz  or  Sedlitz,  a  village  of 
Bohemia  near  Bilin,  used  as  an  agreeable  and 
effective  aperient.  The  solid  contents  in  a 
wine  pint,  according  to  Bergman,  are  192*8 
grains,  consisting  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  180 
grains ;  sulphate  of  lime,  5 ;  chloride  of  mag- 
nesium, 4'5 ;  carbonate  of  magnesia,  2'5  ;  car- 
bonate of  lime,  0*8.  To  prepare  an  artificial 
Seidlitz  water,  dissolve  from  -J  to  1J  oz.  of 
sulphate  of  magnesia  in  three  times  its  weight 
of  water,  and,  after  filtering,  introduce  it  into 
a  bottle,  to  be  filled  with  water  charged  with 
carbonic  acid  gas. 

SEINE  (anc.  Sequana},  a  river  of  France, 
rising  in  the  department  of  C6te-d'Or,  on  the 
slope  of  Mt.  Tasselot,  flowing  first  N.  W.,  then 
W.  8.  W.,  and  again  N.  W.,  through  the  depart- 
ments of  Aube,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et-Oise, 
Seine,  Eure,  and  Seine-Infdrieure,  and  falling 
into  the  English  channel  between  Havre  and 
Honfleur.  The  direct  distance  from  its  source 
to  its  mouth  is  250  m.,  but  its  windings  make 
it  nearly  500  m.  long.  It  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels  to  Rouen,  and  for  small  vessels  350  m. 
to  Mery-sur-Seine.  It  is  connected  by  canals 
with  the  Loire,  the  Saone  and  Rh6ne,  the 
Somme  and  Scheldt,  and  the  Ourcq.  Its  ele- 
vation at  its  source  is  about  1,500  ft.  above 
the  sea.  At  Paris  its  width  is  from  300  to 
500  ft.,  and  at  its  embouchure  about  7  m.  Its 
chief  tributaries  on  the  right  are  the  Aube, 
Marne,  and  Oise,  and  on  the  left  the  Yonne, 


Loing,  Essonne,  Eure,  and  Rille.  The  princi- 
pal towns  on  its  banks  are  Chatillon,  Bar-sur- 
Seine,  Troyes,  Nogent,  Melun,  Paris,  Poissy, 
Mantes,  Rouen,  and  Havre. 

SEINE,  the  metropolitan  department  of 
France,  in  the  old  province  of  tie-de-France, 
entirely  enclosed  by  the  department  of  Seine- 
et-Oise;  area,  183  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  2,220,- 
060.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
Paris,  St.  Denis,  and  Sceaux,  the  first  of  which 
is  coterminous  with  the  city  of  Paris.  The 
surface  is  generally  level.  The  Seine  flows 
through  the  department  very  circuitously  from 
S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  and  the  Marne  joins  it  from 
the  eastward.  The  most  valuable  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  excellent  building  stone  and  gyp- 
sum, producing  plaster  of  Paris.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and  cultivated  with  great  care.  Capi- 
tal, Paris. 

SEINE-ET-MARNE,  a  N.  department  of  France, 
in  the  old  province  of  lle-de-France,  border- 
ing on  the  departments  of  Oise,  Aisne,  Marne, 
Aube,  Yonne,  Loiret,  and  Seine-et-Oise ;  area, 
2,215  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  341,490.  The  sur- 
face is  undulating,  and  has  many  extensive 
plains.  The  Seine  and  the  Marne  flow  through 
it.  It  contains  sandstone,  fine  millstones,  and 
potter's  clay.  The  soil  is  rich  and  well  culti- 
vated. It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Melun,  Meaux,  Fontainebleau,  Coulommiers, 
and  Provins.  Capital,  Melun. 

SEINE-ET-OISE,  a  N.  department  of  France, 
in  the  old  province  of  tie-de-France,  bordering 
on  the  departments  of  Oise,  Seine-et-Marne, 
Loiret,  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Euro,  and  enclosing 
the  department  of  Seine;  area,  2,164  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  580,180.  The  surface  is  diver- 
sified, but  there  are  no  high  hills.  The  Seine 
flows  through  it,  and  is  here  joined  by  the 
Oise  from  the  northeast.  Millstones,  sand- 
stone, paving  stone,  gypsum,  chalk,  and  pot- 
ters' clay  are  found;  and  there  are  sulphur 
springs.  The  soil  is  not  naturally  very  fer- 
tile, but  it  is  carefully  cultivated.  The  manu- 
factures include  cloth,  hosiery,  paper,  fire- 
arms, and  Sevres  porcelain,  the  last,  which 
is  conducted  by  the  government,  being  the 
most  important.  It  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements of  Versailles,  Rambouillet,  Cor- 
beil,  Mantes,  Etampes,  and  Pontoise.  Capi- 
tal, Versailles. 

SEINE-INFERIETRE,  a  N.  "W.  department  of 
France,  in  Normandy,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the 
English  channel,  E.  by  the  departments  of 
Somme  and  Oise,  and  S.  by  Eure  and  the  em- 
bouchure of  the  Seine ;  area,  2,330  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  790,022.  It  has  a  generally  low 
surface,  the  coast  being  skirted  by  chalk  cliffs 
of  no  considerable  elevation  except  near  Fe- 
camp, where  they  are  about  700  ft.  high,  and 
it  is  traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  low  offshoot 
of  the  Ardennes.  It  is  watered  by  the  Seine 
in  the  southern  districts,  and  by  the  Bresle, 
Yeres,  and  Arques  in  the  northeastern.  Cot- 
ton, linen,  cloth,  lace,  silks,  and  watch  and 
clock  movements  are  manufactured,  and  there 


SEISIN 

are  machine  works  and  ship  yards.  It  has  im- 
portant fisheries.  It  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements  of  Rouen,  Havre,  Dieppe,  Yvetot, 
and  JSTeufchatel.  Capital,  Rouen. 

SKIS1.N.     See  LIVERY  OF  SEISIN. 

SEISTAN  (anc.  Sacastane,  the  country  of  the 
Sacce),  a  province  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  Afghan- 
istan, with  an  adjoining  part  included  in  Per- 
sia, It  is  between  lat.  30°  and  32°  N.,  and 
Ion.  61°  and  63°  E.,  in  the  lower  basin  of  the 
river  Helmund.  The  lake  of  Seistan,  or  Ha- 
moon  (in  its  S.  "W.  part  known  as  Lake  Zurrah 
or  Zirreh),  into  which  flow  the  Helmund  from 
the  south,  the  Khash-rud  from  the  east,  and 
the  Furrah-rud  and  the  Harut  from  the  north, 
is  a  low  and  swampy  expanse  from  15  to  30  m. 
wide,  and  nearly  200  m.  long  from  1ST.  to  S., 
mainly  between  the  61st  and  62d  meridians. 
A  great  part  of  this  depressed  area,  partly  in- 
cluded in  Persia  and  Beloochistan,  is  now  dry, 
though  subject  to  inundation.  In  the  north, 
near  lat.  31°  30',  it  is  occupied  by  two  shallow 
and  reedy  lakes,  about  15  m.  apart,  each  of 
which  is  also  called  Hamoon.  Seistan  prop- 
er is  a  well  watered  and  fertile  alluvial  plain 
of  sand  and  clay  W.  of  the  Helmund  in  the 
lower  part  of  its  northward  course,  bounded 
S.  by  the  main  irrigation  canal,  and  N.  and 
W.  by  the  Hamoon;  estimated  area,  947  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  45,000,  of  whom  20,000  are 
Seistanis,  the  purest  type  of  Aryan  Persians, 
and  10,000  nomadic  Beloochees.  The  Afghans 
are  few,  but  politically  powerful.  Wheat, 
barley,  and  melons  are  produced  abundantly, 
with  some  cotton,  peas,  beans,  and  oil-seeds. 
Snow  rarely  falls,  but  the  winters  are  windy 
and  the  mercury  sinks  to  5°  F.,  rising  above 
90°  in  spring  and  summer.  Traces  of  an  elab- 
orate civilization  abound,  and  among  the  nu- 
merous ruins  those  of  Zaranj,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital as  the  Arab  writers  call  it,  are  the  most 
celebrated.  The  principal  existing  towns  are 
in  the  district  watered  by  the  main  canal; 
among  them  is  Sekuha,  the  modern  capital. 
Outer  Seistan  is  30  m.  wide,  and  extends  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Helmund  about  120  m.  S. 
along  the  right  or  E.  bank.  It  also  includes 
a  plain  about  80  m.  long  and  40  m.  broad, 
stretching  southward  from  Seistan  proper. 
The  only  important  town  is  Charkansur,  S. 
of  the  Khash-rud,  containing  a  fort  and  150 
houses. — Seistan  was  in  antiquity  a  part  of 
Drangiana  or  Zarangia.  It  is  believed  that 
the  Aria  Palus  of  Ptolemy  was  the  lake  of 
Seistan.  Some  time  before  the  Christian  era 
it  was  overrun  by  Scythian  hordes,  of  which 
the  paramount  tribe  were  the  Sacae,  who  gave 
their  name  to  the  country.  The  Scythians 
were  overcome  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  inva- 
sion, and  Seistan  afterward  became  a  province 
of  Persia.  It  now  belongs  mainly  to  Afghan- 
istan. In  1871  an  arbitration  commission  un- 
der Sir  F.  J.  Goldsmid  fixed  the  boundary  so 
as  to  give  Persia  nearly  all  of  Seistan  proper. 
SEJANCS,  Lucius  /Wins,  a  Roman  conspirator, 
born  at  Volsinii  in  Etruria,  put  to  death  A.  D. 


SELDEN 


755 


31.  He  was  first  attached  to  the  interests  of 
the  infant  Caius  Caesar  (Caligula^,  the  son  of 
Germanicus,  but  shortly  after  the  accession  of 
Tiberius  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
praetorian  guard  in  conjunction  with  his  father, 
Seius  Strabo,  who  had  held  the  post  under 
Augustus;  and  when  his  father  became  gov- 
ernor of  Egypt,  the  sole  command  of  the  prse- 
torian  cohort  devolved  upon  Sejanus.  As  his 
popularity  with  the  guard  increased  he  aspired 
to  the  imperial  power.  To  remove  Drusus, 
the  heir  of  Tiberius,  he  caused  his  wife  Livia 
or  Livilla  to  poison  him,  promising  to  marry 
her  afterward.  He  procured  the  banishment 
of  Nero  and  Drusus,  the  sons  of  Germanicus, 
and  of  their  mother  Agrippina.  His  wife  Api- 
cata  had  been  divorced  soon  after  the  death  of 
Drusus,  but  Tiberius  refused  to  consent  to  his 
marriage  with  Livia.  In  26  he  induced  Tibe- 
rius to  reside  permanently  in  the  island  of 
Capraea,  and  give  himself  up  to  a  life  of  sen- 
sual pleasure,  and  for  nearly  five  years  Sejanus 
acted  and  was  recognized  as  the  representative 
of  the  emperor.  He  was  about  to  hasten  the 
development  of  his  plan  when  Tiberius,  being 
informed  of  it,  gave  the  command  of  the  prae- 
torian guard  to  Nervius  Sertorius  Macro,  and 
had  the  death  of  Sejanus  decreed  by  the  sen- 
ate. He  was  strangled,  and  his  body  was  torn 
to  pieces  by  the  populace. 

SEJOIR,  Victor,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1816,  died  there,  Sept.  20,  1874.  His 
first  drama,  Diegarais,  was  performed  at  the 
Theatre  Francais  in  1844,  and  he  wrote  plays 
for  the  Porte  Saint-Martin,  Odeon,  Ambigu, 
and  Gait6  theatres,  including  Richard  III. 
(1852),  Les  noces  venitiennes  (1855),  Andre 
Gerard  (for  Lemaitre's  farewell  performances, 
1857),  and  Les  fils  de  Charles  Quint  (1864). 

SELACHIANS  (Gr.  cMaxog,  a  cartilaginous  fish), 
a  name  applied  from  Aristotle  to  the  present 
day  to  the  families  of  cartilaginous  fishes  with 
fixed  branchiffl,  comprising  the  rays  and  sharks, 
also  called  plagiostomes.  (See  PLAGIOSTOMKS.) 

si:i.BOK.\ K,  Lordt    See  PALMER,  ROUNDELL. 

SELDEN,  John,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Salvington,  Sussex,  Dec.  16, 1584,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  30,  1654.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, was  called  to  the  bar,  and  became  known 
as  "the  great  dictator  of  learning  of  the  Eng- 
lish nation."  He  was  a  member  of  Ben  Jon- 
son's  Literary  club.  His  earliest  work,  the 
Analecton  Anglo- Britannicon  (1615),  was  writ- 
ten in  1606.  He  also  published  "England's 
Epinomis,"  Jani  Anglorum  Fades  Altera,  and 
"The  Duel  or  Single  Combat"  (1610),  law 
treatises;  "Titles  of  Honor  "  (1614);  De  Diis 
Syris  (1617) ;  and  "  History  of  Tithes  "  (1618). 
In  the  last  named  work  he  denied  the  divine 
right  of  the  clergy  to  receive  tithes,  and  was 
obliged  to  make  a  public  acknowledgment  of 
his  regret  at  having  promulgated  his  opinions, 
which  however  he  was  careful  not  to  retract. 
In  1621  he  underwent  a  brief  imprisonment 
for  advising  the  commons  to  insist  upon  certain 
privileges  in  dispute  between  themselves  and 


756 


SELENE 


SELEUCUS  I. 


the  crown ;  and  in  1625,  being  then  a  member 
of  parliament,  he  took  part  against  the  royal 
favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  whom  in 
the  succeeding  parliament  he  aided  in  impeach- 
ing. From  1629  to  1634  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  tower  on  a  charge  of  sedition.  He  had 
meanwhile  produced  a  variety  of  works,  inclu- 
ding his  Marmora  Arundeliana  (1 628).  In  1 635 
appeared  his  Mare  Clausum,  in  answer  to  the 
Mare  Liberum  of  Grotius.  In  the  long  par- 
liament, to  which  he  was  elected  in  1640  for 
the  university  of  Oxford,  he  frequently  sided 
with  the  king.  He  opposed  the  exclusion  of 
the  bishops  from  the  house  of  peers,  and  also 
the  condemnation  of  Strafford,  although  he 
was  one  of  the  members  named  to  prepare 
the  articles  against  him.  Subsequently  he  was 
keeper  of  the  records  in  the  tower,  and  hav- 
ing subscribed  the  u  Solemn  League  and  Cove- 
nant," he  was  appointed  in  1644  one  of  the 
12  commoners  chosen  commissioners  to  the 
admiralty.  When  it  became  apparent  that 
the  struggle  between  the  crown  and  the  com- 
mons could  have  no  peaceful  issue,  he  gradu- 
ally withdrew  from  political  life.  He  died  at 
the  house  of  the  countess  of  Kent,  to  whom  he 
is  said  to  have  been  married.  He  is  now  best 
known  by  his  "Table  Talk,"  published  in  1689 
by  Richard  Milward,  his  amanuensis.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works,  with  a  memoir  by 
David  Wilkins,  appeared  in  1726  (6  vols.  fol.). 

SELENE.    See  LUNA. 

SELEMTE.     See  GYPSUM. 

SELENIUM,  an  elementary  substance  discov- 
ered by  Berzelius  in  1817  in  the  refuse  of  a 
sulphuric  acid  manufactory  near  Fahlun.  It 
resembles  sulphur  in  many  of  its  physical,  and 
tellurium  in  many  of  its  chemical  characteris- 
tics. It  is  always  found  in  combination,  its 
compounds  with  the  metals  being  called  sele- 
nides,  and  they  are  very  rare,  the  least  rare 
being  the  selenides  of  iron,  copper,  and  silver. 
The  symbol  of  selenium  is  Se ;  its  atomic 
weight,  79 -5 ;  its  specific  gravity  when  crys- 
tallized, 4'788 ;  its  observed  vapor  specific 
gravity  at  2,588°  F.,  5-68.  When  heated  as 
an  amorphous  powder  to  212°  it  softens,  and 
when  raised  a  few  degrees  higher  it  melts,  and 
on  cooling  forms  a  dark  brown  vitreous  solid 
with  a  metallic  lustre  and  a  specific  gravity 
varying  from  4*3  to  4'8.  Selenium  has  neither 
taste  nor  smell,  and  is  a  bad  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity. It  combines  with  hydrogen  to  form 
eeleniuretted  hydrogen,  which  has  an  offensive 
odor.  The  gas  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  on  selenide  of  potassium  or  iron. 
Selenium  forms  with  oxygen  and  water  sele- 
nious  acid,  IIsSeOs,  and  selenic  acid,  Il-iSeO*, 
which  correspond  in  composition  to  sulphurous 
and  sulphuric  acids  (see  SULPHUR),  and  form 
salts  called  respectively  selenites  and  seleniates. 

SELECCIA,  the  name  of  numerous  ancient 
cities  of  Asia,  situated  in  Assyria,  Margiana, 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Pisi- 
dia,  Curia,  and  other  countries.  I.  Stteida  on 
the  Tigris  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  of  Syria, 


on  the  right  bank  of  that  river,  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  royal  canal  of  Babylonia,  and 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Delas  (now  Diala) 
river,  a  little  S.  of  the  modern  city  of  Bagdad. 
Commanding  the  plains  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates, and  the  principal  caravan  roads  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  peopled  by  set- 
tlers from  various  countries  of  western  Asia, 
it  rapidly  rose  in  wealth  and  splendor,  eclipsing 
Babylon,  until  it  was  in  its  turn  eclipsed  by 
Ctesiphon,  built  by  the  Parthians  on  the  op- 
posite bank.  The  later  wars  of  the  Romans 
against  that  people  proved  destructive  to  Se- 
leucia.  It  had  more  than  half  a  million  in- 
habitants in  the  1st  century,  in  the  2d  was 
burned  by  Trajan  and  Lucius  Aurelius  Verus, 
and  captured  by  Septimius  Severus,  and  in 
the  expedition  of  Julian  against  the  Persians 
in  the  4th  century  was  found  deserted.  II. 
Stleida  Pleria,  a  strong  fortress  of  northern 
Syria,  also  founded  by  Seleucus  I.,  was  built 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Pieria,  on  a  rock  overhang- 
ing the  Mediterranean,  a  few  miles  N.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and  W.  of  Antioch, 
with  which  it  was  simultaneously  founded, 
and  of  which  it  formed  the  seaport.  It  sur- 
rendered to  Ptolemy  III.  of  Egypt,  was  re- 
covered by  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  in  the 
later  period  of  the  Syrian  kingdom  became  in- 
dependent. Under  the  Romans  it  rapidly  de- 
cayed. Considerable  ruins  of  its  harbor,  forti- 
fications, and  necropolis  are  still  to  be  seen. 

SKLKM I S  L,  Mrator,  the  founder  of  the  Syrian 
monarchy,  and  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleuci- 
dre,  born  about  858  B.  C.,  assassinated  at  Ly- 
simachia  in  280.  He  was  the  son  of  Antiochus, 
one  of  the  generals  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and 
accompanied  Alexander  in  his  Asiatic  expedi- 
tion. After  the  death  of  that  monarch  ho  ad- 
hered to  the  fortunes  of  Perdiccas,  but  soon 
after  headed  his  assassins  at  Pelusium  (321). 
On  the  second  division  of  the  empire  he  re- 
ceived the  satrapy  of  Babylonia,  joined  An- 
tigonus  against  Eumenes,  and  received  from 
the  form'er  the  government  of  Susiana.  Anti- 
gonus  very  soon  became  jealous  of  his  power, 
and  planned  his  destruction.  Seleucus  escaped 
with  about  50  horsemen,  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
formed  a  league  with  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus, 
and  Cassander  against  the  common  enemy. 
Seleucus  regained  possession  of  the  government 
of  Babylonia  in  312,  and  from  this  year  the 
Syrian  monarchy  is  reckoned  to  commence.  In 
806  he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  in  302 
joined  the  new  league  formed  by  Ptolemy, 
Cassander,  and  Lysimachus  against  Antigo- 
nus.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  victory  of 
the  allies  at  Ipsus  in  301,  when  Antigonus  was 
killed,  and  Seleucus  obtained  all  the  Asiatic 
territory  conquered  by  the  Greeks,  with  the 
exception  of  lower  Syria  and  western  Asia 
Minor.  His  empire,  extending  over  about 
1,000,000  sq.  m.,  included  parts  of  Cappado- 
cia  and  Phrygia,  Armenia,  upper  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, Media,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Susiana, 
Persia,  Parthia,  Bactria,  and  the  territory  east- 


SELF-DEFENCE 

ward,  probably  including  some  parts  of  In- 
dia. He  founded  the  city  of  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris,  and  removed  the  seat  of  government 
thither ;  but  soon  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus  he 
made  Antioch  his  capital.  The  change  of- 
fended most  of  his  Asiatic  peoples,  and  served 
to  hasten  the  disintegration  of  his  dominions. 
The  dissatisfaction  increased  when  he  divided 
the  empire  into  72  satrapies,  setting  over  each 
a  Macedonian  or  Greek.  He  afterward  allied 
himself  with  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  the  son 
of  Antigonus,  whose  daughter  Stratonice  he 
married;  but  Demetrius  having  made  himself 
king  of  Macedonia,  Seleucus  joined  the  alli- 
ance against  him  in  288,  and  took  possession 
of  the  greater  part  of  his  Asiatic  dominions. 
Demetrius  surrendered  to  him  in  286,  and  re- 
mained at  Apamea  in  Syria  till  his  death.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  widow  of  Agathocles, 
put  to  death  by  his  father  Lysimachus,  Se- 
leucus invaded  the  dominions  of  his  rival  with 
a  large  army.  Lysimachus  met  him  in  a  deci- 
sive battle  on  the  plain  of  Corus  in  Phrygia  in 
281,  and  was  routed  and  slain.  Seleucus  now 
determined  to  add  Macedonia  to  his  domin- 
ions, and  crossed  the  Hellespont  with  a  large 
army,  but  was  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Cerau- 
nus.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Antiochus. 
He  founded  Greek  colonies  in  almost  every 
province  of  his  empire. — The  dynasty  of  the 
SeleucidaB  lasted  247  years,  from  312  to  65 
B.  0.  The  most  important  successors  of  Se- 
leucus were  his  son  Antiochus  I.,  280-261 ; 
Antiochus  II.,  261-246;  Antiochus  III.,  the 
Great,  223-187 ;  and  Antiochus  IV.,  Epi- 
phanes,  175-164.  The  vast  empire  of  Seleu- 
cus I.  constantly  diminished  in  power  and  ex- 
tent, until  it  was  finally  absorbed  by  the  Ro- 
man  empire. — The  era  of  the  Seleucidse,  in 
chronology,  is  considered  as  beginning  Oct.  1, 
312  B.  0.  It  was  used  in  Syria,  and  by  Jew- 
ish and  Arab  historians,  until  the  15th  century. 

SELF-DEFENCE.  The  law  requires  no  man 
to  submit  passively  to  the  infliction  of  vio- 
lence upon  his  person.  He  may  always  de- 
fend himself.  If  he  is  assaulted  with  blows, 
he  may  return  blows ;  and  if  need  be  he  may 
kill  an  assailant  who  attempts,  or,  rationally 
considered,  seems  to  attempt  to  take  his  life. 
The  principle,  in  all  cases,  is  that  the  counter 
violence  must  be  only  so  much  as  is  necessary 
for  defence. — The  old  rule  of  the  law  that  any 
who  was  guilty  of  a  felony  deserved  death, 
probably  founded  the  rule  that  it  is  justifiable 
to  kill  any  one  who  is  attempting  to  commit 
a  felony,  such  for  example  as  murder,  may- 
hem, or  rape.  This  rule  is  generally  included 
in  the  law  of  self-defence.  A  man  may  also 
justify  any  violence  done  in  defence  of  his 
wife,  child,  or  servant,  and  either  of  these 
persons  may  justify  violence  in  behalf  of  hus- 
band, father,  or  master. 

SELIMS,  the  most  westerly  of  the  ancient 
Greek  colonies  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Sicily,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Selinus  (now  Madiuni)  river. 
It  was  founded  in  the  7th  century  B.  C.,  de- 


SELKIRK 


757 


strpyed  by  the  Carthaginians  in  409  and  re- 
built, but  decayed  after  the  removal  of  the  in- 
habitants to  Lilybaaum  in  249.  The  ruins  of 
the 'city  of  Selinus  (now  known  as  Selinunte 
and  also  as  Madiuni)  are  47  m.  S.  W.  of  Paler- 
mo, with  vestiges  of  temples,  one  of  which  was 
dedicated  to  Heron,  as  shown  by  an  inscrip- 
tion discovered  in  1865.  The  largest  were 
those  on  the  hill  E.  of  the  city,  outside  the 
walls.  One  of  these,  with  8  columns  in  front 
and  17  on  the  sides,  359  ft.  long  and  162  ft 
wide,  is  described  in  Swinburne's  "  Travels  " 
(2  vols.,  1777)  as  one  of  the  most  gigantic  and 
sublime  ruins  imaginable.  A  new  temple  with 
many  relics  was  discovered  in  1874  by  the 
architect  Carellari,  who  continued  his  excava- 
tion in  1875.  There  is  a  fine  collection  of 
sculptured  Selinuntine  marbles  in  the  museum 
of  Palermo. — See  Selinus  und  sein  Gebiet,  by 
Eeinganum  (Leipsic,  1827),  and  Die  Metopen 
von  Selinunt,  by  Benndorf  (Berlin,  1873). 

SELJUKS,  or  Seljooks,  a  Turco-Tartaric  tribe, 
of  the  Uiguric  division  of  the  race,  originally 
inhabiting  the  plain  N.  of  the  Caspian  sea. 
They  received  their  name  from  Seljuk,  one  of 
their  chiefs,  under  whose  guidance  in  the  10th 
century  they  settled  in  Bokhara,  and  embraced 
Mohammedanism.  His  grandson  Togrul  Beg 
received  the  title  of  sultan,  conquered  succes- 
sively Khorasan  and  other  Persian  provinces, 
and  in  1055  made  himself  master  of  Bagdad, 
which  he  occupied  nominally  as  the  servant  and 
guardian  of  the  caliph,  but  really  with  sover- 
eign power,  under  the  title  of  emir  el-omra 
or  "  commander  of  the  faithful."  He  died  in 
1063,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Alp 
Arslan,  famous  for  his  victories  over  Roma- 
nus  Diogenes.  (See  ALP  AESLAN.)  He  was 
succeeded  in  1072  by  his  son  Malek  Shah,  who 
made  Ispahan  his  capital,  and  extended  his 
dominions  from  the  frontiers  of  China  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople.  The  ill 
treatment  of  the  Christian  pilgrims  to  Jerusa- 
lem by  his  viceroys  was  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  crusades.  On  his  death  in  1092  the 
succession  to  the  throne  was  disputed  by  his 
brother  and  his  four  sons,  and  a  series  of  civil 
wars  ensued,  which  ended  in  the  partition  of 
the  Seljukian  empire  among  four  branches  of 
the  imperial  family,  of  which  the  principal 
dynasty  ruled  in  Persia,  and  the  three  younger 
dynasties  at  Kerman,  Damascus,  and  Iconium. 
The  last  named,  whose  kingdom  was  called 
by  the  orientals  the  sultanate  of  Roum  (that 
is,  of  the  Romans),  outlasted  the  others,  en- 
during till  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  when 
it  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Ottomans. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  13th  century 
the  Seljukian  sultans  were  tributary  to  the 
Mongol  emperors,  who  deposed  and  put  them 
to  death  at  pleasure. 

SELKIRK,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  seaman,  born 
at  Largo,  Fifeshire,  about  1676,  died  on  board 
H.  B.  M.  ship  Weymonth  in  1723.  He  went 
from  England  in  1703  as  sailing  master  of  the 
privateer  Cinque  Ports,  and  in  September, 


758 


SELKIRKSHIRE 


SEMINOLES 


1704,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  his 
captain,  was  put  ashore  at  his  own  request  on 
the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  which  was  then 
much  frequented  by  vessels  navigating  the 
Pacific,  lie  was  supplied  with  clothes,  arms, 
ammunition,  and  other  necessaries,  and  re- 
mained on  the  island  in  solitude  four  years 
and  four  months,  when  he  was  taken  off  by 
Oapt.  Woodes  Rogers  of  the  privateer  The 
Duke,  Feb.  12,  1709,  and  carried  to  England, 
where  he  arrived  Oct.  1,  1711.  He  returned 
to  Largo,  but  after  some  time  eloped  with  a 
girl,  whom  he  married,  and  went  to  London. 
Subsequently  he  entered  the  navy,  and  was 
lieutenant  when  he  died.  Capt.  Rogers,  in  his 
narrative  of  his  cruise  (London,  1712),  gave  an 
account  of  Selkirk's  residence  on  Juan  Fernan- 
dez ;  and  John  Ho  well  published  "  Life  and  Ad- 
ventures of  Alexander  Selkirk"  (Edinburgh, 
1829).  (See  DEFOE,  and  JUAN  FERNANDEZ.) 

SELKIRKSHIRE,  a  S.  county  of  Scotland, 
bordering  on  the  counties  of  Edinburgh,  Rox- 
burgh, Dumfries,  and  Peebles ;  area,  260  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 14,005.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally hilly,  the  hills  varying  from  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  in  height  to  about  2,800.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Tweed  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Yarrow  and  Ettrick ;  and  there  are  sev- 
eral small  lakes,  that  of  St.  Mary's  being  the 
finest  sheet  of  water  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
Only  about  one  tenth  of  the  surface  is  arable. 
— SELKIRK,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Ettrick,  2  m. 
from  its  mouth  in  the  Tweed,  80  m.  S.  S.  E. 
of  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1871,  4,640.  It  has  a 
fine  town  hall,  a  monument  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  whose  seat  of  Abbotsford  is  4  m.  dis- 
tant, and  manufactures  of  wool.  Its  formerly 
celebrated  manufacture  of  shoes  has  declined. 
The  only  other  town  is  Galashiels. 

SELMA,  a  city  of  Alabama,  capital  of  Dallas 
co.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Alabama  river, 
95  m.  below  Montgomery  by  the  course  of  the 
river,  and  about  44  m.  W.  in  a  direct  line ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,484,  of  whom  8,660  were  col- 
ored (by  a  more  recent  census,  8,112).  In  very 
dry  seasons  it  is  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navi- 
gation. It  stands  on  an  elevated  plateau,  which 
terminates  abruptly  in  a  steep  bluff  forming 
the  bank  of  the  river.  Six  railroads  converge 
at  Selma:  the  Selma,  Rome,  and  Dalton,  the 
Alabama  Central,  the  Western,  the  Selma  and 
Gulf,  the  New  Orleans  and  Selma,  and  the 
Selma,  Marion,  and  Memphis.  The  last  three 
are  only  partially  constructed,  and  work  upon 
them  has  been  suspended.  It  has  two  banks, 
a  cotton  factory,  an  oil  mill,  a  sash  and  blind 
factory,  a  car-wheel  factory,  three  railroad  and 
machine  shops,  a  planing  mill,  a  steam  cotton 
press,  six  cotton  warehouses,  and  three  grist 
mills.  Two  daily  and  three  weekly  newspapers 
are  published.  There  are  18  churches,  viz. : 
8  Presbyterian,  3  Methodist,  2  Baptist,  2  Prot- 
estant Episcopal,  1  Cumberland  Presbyterian, 
1  Congregationalist,  and  1  Roman  Catholic. 
There  are  two  public  and  five  private  schools. 
— Selma  was  an  important  military  and  naval 


depot  of  the  confederate  government  during 
the  civil  war.  An  arsenal,  a  navy  yard,  nitre 
works,  and  founderies  for  shot  and  shell  were 
established,  giving  employment  to  about  1,800 
men.  The  place  was  strongly  fortified,  but  the 
works  were  carried  by  assault  by  the  federal 
forces  under  Maj.  Gen.  J.  H.  Wilson,  April  2, 
1865,  after  a  short  but  severe  contest  with  the 
garrison,  under  Lieut.  Gen.  Forrest. 

SELTZER  WATER  (properly  SELTERS).  See 
MINERAL  SPRINGS,  vol.  xi.,  p.  594. 

SELWYN,  George  Augustas,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1809.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  college,  Cambridge,  was  rector  at  Wind- 
sor for  a  short  time,  and  was  consecrated  mis- 
sionary bishop  of  New  Zealand  in  1841,  where 
he  labored  for  many  years.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Lichfield.  He  has  pub- 
lished "Are  Cathedral  Institutions  Useless?" 
(1838);  "Sermons"  (1842);  "  Tribal  Analysis 
of  the  Bible"  (1855);  and  "The  Work  of 
Christ  in  the  World  "  (1855). 

SEMELE,  in  Greek  mythology,  daughter  of 
Cadmus,  and  sister  of  Ino,  Agave,  AutonoS, 
and  Polydorus.  She  was  beloved  by  Jupiter, 
and  Juno,  jealous  and  indignant,  persuaded  her 
to  ask  him  that  he  would  appear  to  her  clothed 
in  the  attributes  of  his  majesty.  Having  sworn 
to  grant  her  every  request  she  would  make, 
and  warned  her  in  vain  to  desist  from  this,  he 
unwillingly  consented,  appeared  as  the  god  of 
thunder,  and  she  was  consumed  by  the  light- 
ning ;  but  the  child  with  which  she  was  preg- 
nant was  saved  by  Jupiter,  who  enclosed  him 
in  his  own  thigh  until  the  period  for  his  birth. 
This  child  was  Dionysus  (Bacchus). 

SEMENDRIA  (Serb,  Smederevo),  a  town  of 
Servia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Yesava,  25  m.  E.  S.  E. 
of  Belgrade;  pop.  about  5,000.  Next  to  Bel- 
grade it  is  the  most  important  Servian  town 
and  fortress,  and  it  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  arch- 
bishop. Good  firearms  are  made  here.  For- 
merly it  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Servia> 
and  it  was  often  taken  and  retaken  by  the 
Turks  and  Hungarians  or  Austrians,  ultimate- 
ly remaining  in  possession  of  the  Turks,  who 
evacuated  it  in  1867,  together  with  the  other 
fortresses  in  Servia. 

SEMINOLES,  a  nation  of  Florida  Indians,  made 
up  chiefly  of  two  bands  of  Creeks  who  with- 
drew from  the  main  body  in  1750  and  1808, 
and  of  remnants  of  tribes  partly  civilized  by 
the  Spaniards,  some  Mickasuckees,  and  ne- 
groes. They  became  known  as  a  distinct  na- 
tion under  King  Payne.  During  the  Ameri- 
can revolution  they  were  under  English  influ- 
ence, and  very  hostile.  The  Spaniards  on  re- 
covering Florida  made  a  treaty  with  the  Tal- 
lapoosas  and  Seminoles  at  Pensacola  in  May. 
1784.  The  Creeks,  who  called  them  Stminoles 
or  Wanderers,  still  claimed  them  as  part  of 
their  nation  in  the  treaty  with  the  United 
States  in  1790.  The  Seminoles  disavowed  this 
claim,  and  began  hostilities  against  the  Ameri- 
cans in  1793,  which  they  renewed  in  the  war 


SEMINOLES 

of  1812,  although  under  Spanish  rule.  They 
were  then  divided  into  seven  tribes,  and  were 
rich  in  cattle,  horses,  and  slaves.  The  war  was 
very  destructive  to  them.  Their  king  Payne 
was  killed  in  battle  at  Alachua  in  1812,  and  his 
brother  Bowlegs  died  soon  after.  The  Creek 
war  led  to  further  trouble  between  them  and 
the  Georgians.  In  1817  they  surprised  settle- 
ments on  the  Saltillo,  and  cut  off  Lieut.  Scott 
and  40  persons  on  the  Appalachicola,  in  re- 
venge for  the  destruction  of  one  of  their  forts. 
Gen.  Gaines  finally  took  the  field  against  them, 
and  Gen.  Jackson  at  the  head  of  a  large  force 
invaded  Florida,  and  destroyed  the  Mickasuc- 
kee  and  Suwanee  towns,  in  April,  1818,  after 
hard  fighting.  The  purchase  of  Florida  the 
next  year  made  them  subject  to  the  United 
States.  In  1822  they  numbered  3,899,  with 
800  negroes,  in  .villages  from  St.  Augustine  to 
the  Appalachicola,  but  roaming  the  whole  coun- 
try. By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Moultrie,  Sept.  18, 
1823,  the  Seminoles  gave  up  all  their  territory 
but  a  small  portion,  for  $6,000  in  goods  and  a 
20  years'  annuity  of  $5,000 ;  but  as  Neamathla 
and  other  head  chiefs  refused  to  join,  small 
reserves  were  allowed  them  and  their  follow- 
ers by  an  additional  article,  Jan.  2,  1824.  They 
also  agreed  to  arrest,  hunt  up,  and  deliver  fugi- 
tive slaves.  The  enforcement  of  this  led  to 
great  trouble.  The  settlers  clamored  for  the 
removal  of  the  Indians,  and  a  strange  treaty 
was  made  at  Payne's  Landing  (1832),  by  which 
the  Seminoles  agreed  that  if  certain  commis- 
sioners, Indians  and  others,  were  satisfied  as 
to  the  character  of  the  country  offered  them 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  disposition  of 
the  Creeks  to  receive  them,  the  treaty  should 
be  binding,  and  they  were  to  give  up  all  their 
lands  in  Florida  for  $15,400  and  $3,000  a  year 
for  15  years,  but  $7,000  was  to  be  retained  for 
slaves  not  surrendered.  The  Seminole  dele- 
gates were  induced  to  sign  a  document  at  Fort 
Gibson  in  March,  1833,  declaring  themselves 
satisfied.  Although  they  denied  having  done 
so  under  standingly,  and  the  so-called  addition- 
al treaty  did  not  follow  the  terms  of  the  ori- 
ginal treaty  of  Payne's  Landing,  the  latter  was 
held  to  have  become  absolute,  and  was  ratified 
by  the  president  and  senate  in  August,  1834. 
Gen.  Thompson,  when  sent  as  agent,  finding 
the  chiefs  opposed  to  emigration,  undertook 
to  depose  five,  and  put  Osceola  in  irons.  The 
Seminoles  killed  a  chief  who  favored  emigra- 
tion, and  then  prepared  for  war.  On  Dec.  28, 
1835,  Osceola  killed  Thompson,  a  lieutenant, 
and  some  others  at  Fort  King,  and  the  same 
day  cut  to  pieces  a  body  of  troops  under  Ma- 
jor Dade  near  "Wahoo  swamp.  A  long  and 
desolating  war  ensued,  which  cost  the  Uni- 
ted States  $10,000,000  and  1,466  lives.  The 
Seminoles  met  Gen.  Clinch  on  the  Withlacoo- 
chee,  Dec.  31,  and  subsequently  baffled  Gen. 
Scott ;  but  they  were  so  hard  pressed  by  Gen. 
Call  and  Gen.  Jesup  that,  after  losing  seve- 
ral battles,  they  asked  for  peace,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1837  agreed  to  emigrate.  Osceola, 


SEMIPOLATINSK 


759 


however,  fled  to  the  woods,  and  renewed  the 
war.  He  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Taylor  in  the 
battle  of  Okeechobee,  and  soon  after  was 
treacherously  seized  and  kept  in  confinement 
till  he  died.  The  war  was  kept  up  by  Coa- 
coochee  till  he  was  taken.  The  prisoners  and 
those  who  came  in  were  transported  to  In- 
dian territory,  and  1,900  had  been  removed 
in  1839.  In  1842  those  in  Florida  were  re- 
duced to  300,  and  the  war  ended.  No  prop- 
er provision  was  made  for  the  emigrants,  and 
the  Creeks  wished  to  absorb  them;  but  a 
treaty  made  in  1845  gave  them  some  relief  and 
a  separate  tract.  The  negroes  among  them 
were  claimed  by  the  Creeks  or  white  men,  and 
taken  in  such  numbers  that  Coacoochee  with 
a  large  body  retired  to  Mexico.  The  treaty 
of  Aug.  7,  1856,  between  the  United  States, 
the  Creeks,  and  the  Seminoles,  recognized 
them  as  a  nation,  and  assigned  them  lands 
west  of  the  Creeks,  which  were,  however,  laid 
off  so  incorrectly  that  they  were  found  to  be 
all  within  the  Creek  district.  It  gave  also 
$90,000  to  the  Seminole  council,  and  $12,500 
as  an  annuity.  Of  those  in  Florida,  164  emi- 
grated under  Bowlegs  in  1858,  and  the  next 
year,  with  those  who  returned  from  Mexico, 
their  number  swelled  to  2,253.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  the  tribe  was  divi- 
ded. The  Confederate  States  made  a  treaty 
with  them,  Aug.  1,  1861,  guaranteeing  their 
lands,  assuming  the  obligations  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  agreeing  to  indemnify  them 
for  slaves  taken  from  them  by  Gen.  Gaines. 
Those  who  adhered  to  the  government  suf- 
fered heavy  loss  in  the  battle  of  Dec.  25, 1861, 
and  the  survivors  retired  to  Kansas.  A  trea- 
ty was  made  with  the  northern  and  southern 
bands  in  December,  1865,  by  which  their  old 
reservation  was  ceded  to  government  at  15 
cents  an  acre,  and  a  new  reservation  purchased 
for  them  of  the  Creeks  at  50  cents  an  acre. 
They  then  numbered  2,959,  including  negroes. 
They  are  steady,  sober,  and  industrious,  and  A 
progress  rank  next  to  the  Cherokees,  Creeks, 
and  Choctaws.  Under  the  treaties  of  1856 
and  March  21,  1866,  they  receive  $25,000  as 
an  annuity,  $2,500  for  schools,  and  $1,000 
toward  the  support  of  the  tribal  government. 
In  1874  they  had  one  mission  and  four  district 
schools;  they  numbered  2,438,  and  cultivated 
7,600  acres.  Their  personal  property  was  val- 
ued in  1870  at  $237,000.  There  are  still  some 
Seminoles  and  negroes  in  Mexico,  and  150  or 
more  in  the  Everglades  of  Florida.  There  are 
also  in  Texas  some  500  negroes  formerly  slaves 
to  the  Seminoles,  who  returned  from  Mexico, 
and  in  1875  asked  government  for  lands  in 
Florida  or  elsewhere. 

SEMIPOLATLVSK.  I.  A  province  of  Asiatic 
Russia,  in  the  division  of  Central  Asia,  bound- 
ed by  the  governments  of  Tomsk  and  To- 
bolsk, the  province  of  Akmolinsk,  Russian 
Turkistan,  and  China;  area,  188,298  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  510,163.  It  comprises  part  of 
the  country  of  the  Kirghiz,  and  is  divided 


760 


SEMIRAMIS 


SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES 


into  the  circles  of  Semipolatinsk,  Karkara- 
linsk,  Kokpekty,  and  Pavlodar.  II.  A  fortified 
town,  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Irtish, 
460  m.  S.  W.  of  Tomsk ;  pop.  in  1867,  14,135. 
It  contains  several  government  establishments, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Bo- 
khara, Tashkend,  Kashgar,  and  the  Kirghiz. 

SEMIRAMIS,  a  queen  of  Assyria,  who,  accord- 
ing to  fabulous  traditions  handed  down  by  clas- 
sical authors,  reigned  about  2000  B.  C.  As- 
syriologists  suppose  that  she  is  the  queen  Sam- 
muramit,  wife  of  Iva-lush,  who  lived  about  800 
B.  C.  Ctesias,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus, 
describes  her  as  the  daughter  of  the  fish  god- 
dess Derceto  of  Ascalon,  and  as  the  wife  first 
of  Cannes,  and  then  of  Ninus,  who  died  soon 
after  his  marriage  with  her,  and  left  her  the 
sole  mistress  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  She 
then  caused  the  city  of  Babylon  to  be  built, 
encircling  it  with  a  wall  flanked  by  many 
towers  and  of  great  height,  throwing  bridges 
over  the  Euphrates,  providing  it  with  aque- 
ducts and  canals,  and  erecting  in  it  gorgeous 
palaces  and  temples.  This  done,  she  made  an 
expedition  into  Media,  Persia,  and  Armenia, 
subdued  Egypt  and  the  greater  part  of  Ethio- 
pia, and  would  have  conquered  India  also  if 
her  army  had  not  been  put  to  flight  by  the 
war  elephants  of  King  Stratobatis.  Thencefor- 
ward she  devoted  herself  entirely  to  the  in- 
ternal improvement  of  her  empire,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo,  in  course  of  time  every  great 
work  in  Asia  was  popularly  attributed  to  her. 
Learning  that  her  son  Ninyas  was  plotting 
against  her,  she  abdicated,  left  the  empire  to 
him,  and  disappeared  as  a  dove.  The  real 
Sammuramit  was  a  queen  who  had  some  im- 
portant works  executed  at  Babylon,  but  was 
otherwise  of  little  significance  in  the  political 
history  of  the  country.  It  is  probable  that  the 
accounts  of  the  Greeks  are  a  blending  of  some 
of  the  mythological  conceptions  of  the  Baby- 
lonians with  the  facts  and  popular  legends  of 
the  early  history  of  the  empire. — See  F.  Lenor- 
mant,  La  Ugende  de  Semiramu  (Paris,  1874). 

SEMITIC  RACE  AXD  LANGC1GES.  The  Semitic 
race  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  and 
largest  divisions  of  the  Mediterranean  or  Cau- 
casian type  of  mankind.  (See  ETHNOLOGY.) 
The  name  Semitic  (properly  Shemitic),  first 
applied  by  Eichhorn,  is  in  a  measure  a  misno- 
mer, inasmuch  as  modern  ethnology  and  lin- 
guistic science  designate  by  it  a  much  larger 
family  of  peoples  than  are  represented  in  Gen- 
esis as  descendants  of  Shorn.  The  inhabitants 
of  Syria  and  adjoining  parts  of  Mesopotamia, 
and  the  coast  lands  of  Palestine,  forming  the 
division  of  North  Semites,  and  the  population 
of  Arabia  and  parts  of  N.  E.  Africa,  consti- 
tuting the  South  Semites,  are  now  grouped  to- 
gether as  Semites  proper,  or  Eusemites.  Thus 
the  Aramroans  (Syrians  and  Chaldeans),  He- 
brews, and  Phoenicians  are  North  Semites; 
and  the  central  Arabs  or  Ishmaelites,  South 
Arabs  or  Joktanites,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Ethiopia  or  Abyssinia,  are  South  Semites. 


Furthermore,  the  term  Semitic  is  made  to 
embrace  not  only  the  Phoenicians  and  Ethio- 
pians, but  almost  all  the  large  group  of  peo- 
ples usually  called  Hamites  in  reference  to 
the  Biblical  genealogies.  The  Hamitic  Sem- 
ites, or  Dysseraites,  include,  besides  the  primi- 
tive Assyrians,  Babylonians,  and  Phoenicians, 
the  following  three  branches:  the  Egyptian, 
comprising  the  ancient  Egyptians  and.the  Copts 
or  modern  Egyptians ;  the  Libyan,  formed  by 
the  Berbers  and  Tuariks  (Amazirgh  or  Imo- 
sharh),  the  Kabyles,  Shelloohs,  and  Guanches; 
and  the  Ethiopian,  represented  by  the  Bedjas, 
Bogos,  Saho,  Agow,  Fellatahs  or  Foolahs, 
Galla,  Danakil,  and  Somauli.  Lepsius,  adopt- 
ing the  opinion  of  Bleek,  the  great  student  of 
the  African  languages,  includes  still  another 
branch,  which  he  calls  the  South  African, 
and  in  which  ho  reckons  the  Hottentots  and 
Bushmen,  but  of  course  only  from  a  linguis- 
tic point  of  view.  The  wide  meaning  thus 
given  to  the  term  Semitic  has  been  found  ne- 
cessary on  account  of  the  almost  inextricable 
interrelationship  between  the  Harnites  and  the 
Semites  proper.  Whether  in  Mesopotamia,  in 
Palestine,  in  north  Africa,  or  even  in  Ara- 
bia, the  Hamites  not  only  appear  as  the  neigh- 
bors of  the  Semites,  but  as  having  generally 
been  ethnologically  absorbed  by  them.  The 
Bible  indicates  the  close  relationship  existing 
between  Hamites  and  Semites  by  represent- 
ing the  Cushites  as  children  of  Ham,  and  the 
Canaanites  as  descendants  of  Cush,  and  re- 
peatedly applying  the  name  Cush  to  peoples 
closely  connected  with  Semites  proper.  (See 
CCSH.)  The  enormous  gaps  between  the  his- 
torical beginnings  of  the  various  divisions  of 
the  Hamito-Semitic  family  render  futile  ev- 
ery attempt  to  trace  a  line  of  migration  con- 
necting them  all,  or  to  place  their  common 
cradle  in  any  one  portion  of  the  globe.  To 
ascertain  the  original  physical  type  of  the  race, 
anthropologists  turn  to  the  pictorial  represen- 
tations on  Egyptian  monuments,  and  examine 
the  proportions  of  mummies.  They  were  of 
medium  height,  the  skin  reddish  yellow,  head 
and  face  oval,  hair  dark  and  curly;  the  nose 
was  set  so  as  to  continue  almost  in  a  straight 
line  the  massive  forehead,  and,  though  often 
gently  turned  at  the  extremity,  was  never  thick 
and  flat.  The  skeletons  of  mummies  have  al- 
ways exhibited  the  same  proportions  as  those 
of  the  rest  of  the  Caucasian  or  Mediterranean 
race.  This  early  type,  5n  which  the  character- 
istics of  the  Hamites  are  supposed  to  prepon- 
derate, becomes  gradually  modified  from  age  to 
age,  until  the  monuments  and  mummies  of  a 
more  recent  date  show  those  forms  and  facial 
outlines  which  are  to  this  day  the  distinguish- 
ing features  of  Semites  proper,  namely :  a  long 
face;  a  medium  broad  and  high  forehead;  a 
protruding  and  strongly  bent  nose;  deep  set, 
vivid  eyes,  underneath  black  and  heavy  brows; 
undulating,  curly  hair  and  beard  of  brilliant 
black ;  the  color  of  the  skin  of  all  shades  be- 
tween white,  yellow,  and  brown;  well  devel- 


SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES 


761 


oped  muscles,  and  symmetrical  extremities.  It 
is  generally  assumed  that  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  the  Karaites  and  Semites  proper.  If 
the  Egyptians,  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  and 
Phoenicians  are  essentially  Hamitic,  the  Sem- 
ites must  be  considered  inferior  to  them.  The 
Hamites  were  rather  an  agricultural  race.  They 
early  organized  into  states  and  empires,  and 
centralized  the  executive  power.  They  erect- 
ed colossal  monuments  and  edifices,  like  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt  and  the  palaces  of  Assyria. 
Their  minds  had  essentially  an  objective  ten- 
dency, and  their  materialism  found  utterance 
in  the  lascivious  religious  rites  of  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  in  the  strange  views  and  worship 
of  the  people  of  the  Nile.  Their  literature  was 
principally  historical,  though  recent  Assyrian 
«ind  Egyptian  discoveries  have  also  brought  to 
light  literary  productions  in  other  arts  and 
sciences.  The  peoples  designated  as  Semites 
proper  were  generally  nomadic.  They  con- 
sisted of  independent  tribes,  which  united 
under  some  form  of  patriarchal  government. 
They  lived  in  tents,  and  had  but  little  taste 
for  architecture  and  other  plastic  arts.  The 
Hebrews  and  Arabs,  however,  have  displayed 
a  peculiar  versatility  of  mind,  which  allowed 
them  to  build  up  states  in  various  forms,  adapt 
the  arts  and  sciences  of  other  nations,  develop 
extensive  literatures,  and  produce  the  foremost 
religions  of  the  world.  Monotheism  prevails 
in  the  religious  conceptions  of  the  Semites 
proper,  and  the  lyric  element  in  their  poe- 
try. To  the  Hamito-Semitic  peoples  the  civil- 
ized world  is  indebted  also  for  the  art  of  wri- 
ting. The  Greeks  borrowed  their  alphabet 
from  the  Phoenicians,  who  imitated  the  hiero- 
glyphs of  the  Egyptians.  (See  WRITING.) — 
LANGUAGES.  No  comparative  grammar  of  the 
Semitic  languages  proper,  or  of  the  Hamitic 
group  alone,  much  less  of  the  entire  Hamito- 
Semitic  family,  has  been  written,  and  hence  it 
is  not  fully  established  in  what  their  common 
linguistic  property  consists.  There  are  many 
minor  treatises  on  special  branches  of  Semitic 
comparative  philology,  but  no  one  has  even 
attempted  to  sum  up  the  general  results  so  far 
reached,  which  are  very  meagre.  The  opinion 
that  the  Assyro-Babylonian  language  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  is  the  Sanskrit  of  the 
Semitic  family,  rests  on  a  very  insecure  foun- 
dation of  philological  facts.  It  cannot  be  de- 
nied that  the  Canaauite  group  of  peoples,  He- 
brews and  Phoenicians,  spoke  languages  much 
akin  to  Babylonian ;  Aramaic  manifests  a  sim- 
ilar relationship  by  the  prevalence  of  reflexive 
formations,  the  want  of  an  article,  the  tran- 
scription of  the  genitive  by  a  relative  pronoun, 
and  by  the  assimilation  of  the  nasal  in  nun 
verbs.  But  on  the  other  hand  it  is  much  more 
consistent  with  the  principles  applied  to  the 
Indo-European  family  to  allow  the  claim  of 
priority  to  the  Arabic  language,  and  to  con- 
sider the  other  Semitic  tongues  as  shortened 
or  shrunken  forms  of  it,  or  as  having  pro- 


ceeded from  a  primordial  language  of  which 
Arabic  is  now  the  representative.  The  mutual 
connection  of  the  Semitic  idioms  proper  is  very 
close,  so  much  so  that  they  seem  to  be  dialects 
of  a  single  tongue,  and  the  differences  between 
them  are  no  greater  than  between  the  subdi- 
visions of  any  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
family.  Ordinarily  the  type  of  Semitic  speech 
is  spoken  of  as  being  inflective  like  the  Indo- 
European  languages  ;  but  it  does  not  necessa- 
rily follow  that  both  families  are  of  one  ori- 
gin, even  if  the  system  of  inflection  in  Semi- 
tic were  much  more  like  the  Aryan  than  it  is. 
What  is  above  all  characteristic  of  the  Semi- 
tic languages  is  the  triliterality  of  the  roots, 
which  in  Indo-European  tongues  are  always 
monosyllabic.  Then  again,  while  Indo-Euro- 
pean roots  are  vocalic  in  form,  the  Semitic 
are  consonantal.  In  Semitic  the  vowel  is  sub- 
ordinate, and  changeable  in  inflection,  while 
the  consonant  is  not.  The  vowel  determines 
only  the  manner  or  form  of  the  idea  or  thing 
conceived;  the  idea  itself  can  only  be  repre- 
sented by  consonants.  There  is  sometimes  a 
semblance  of  a  vocalic  root,  but  there  is  none 
such  in  fact.  There  are  many  reasons  for  con- 
cluding that  the  roots  originally  numbered  only 
two  consonants,  and  that  the  triliters  and  plu- 
riliters  are  subsequent  developments.  Accord- 
ing to  E.  Meier,  the  third  radical  consonant 
must  be  regarded  as  a  reduplication  of  the  ori- 
ginally monosyllabic  root,  and  he  has  under- 
taken in  his  Hebraisches  Wurzelworterbuch  to 
analyze  the  entire  root  matter  of  the  Hebrew 
verbs,  and  to  reduce  the  triliters  to  radicals  of 
two  consonants  only.  In  the  opinion  of  many 
Semitic  scholars,  however,  his  theory  is  an  illu- 
sion. The  fact  that  all  the  Semitic  phonetical 
graphic  systems,  among  which  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphs  and  the  Assyrian  cuneiforms  are 
not  included,  are  composed  of  consonants  only, 
is  of  great  significance.  Some  of  them  have 
a  larger  number  of  letters  than  the  Phoenician 
alphabet  from  which  they  are  derived,  but  the 
nature  of  the  sounds  and  the  manner  of  utter- 
ing them  remain  the  same,  and  the  additional 
ones  are  only  reduplicated  forms  of  them. 
Though  the  graphic  systems  are  of  the  same 
origin,  and  are  of  a  distinctive  character  con- 
stituting them  a  separate  family  among  the 
methods  of  writing,  yet  they  may  be  sub- 
divided into  two  groups :  one  consisting  of  the 
primitive  Hebrew  and  Samaritan,  and  called 
the  Hebrew-Samaritan  group ;  the  other  com- 
prising Palmyrene,  Pamphylian,  the  square 
Hebrew  characters,  Estranghelo  and  the  oth- 
er Syriac  alphabets,  the  Sabaean  or  Mendai- 
tic,  the  Auranitic,  the  Nabathean  and  the  Ara- 
bic, Cufic,  and  Neshky,  and  known  as  the 
Arama?an  group.  While  the  latter  subdivision 
is  a  direct  descendant  from  the  early  Aramae- 
an style  of  writing,  the  former  is  a  derivate 
from  the  archaic  Hebrew  of  the  inscriptions. 
The  line  of  descent  will  be  easily  seen  on  com- 
paring the  following  alphabets  witli  those  giv- 
en in  the  article  PHOENICIA,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  456 : 


762  SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES 


SEMMERING 


Names  of 
characters. 

0 

Archaic 
Hebrew. 

Palmy- 
rene  of 
10  B.  C. 

Modem 
Hebrew 

type. 

English 
equivalents. 

Aleph  
Beth  

*/ 

3 

£ 

"1 

N 

2 

a 

b 

Gimel  
Daleth  .... 
He  

-\ 
T 
3- 

X 

M 

7T 

3 

"I 

n 

g 
d 

h 

Vav  

-^ 

1 

i 

V 

Zayin  

77 

\ 

7 

z 

Cheth  
Teth  

•Zfr 

a 

y\ 

it 

n 

L3 

kh 
t 

Yod  

<*\ 

i 

v 

Kaph  
Lamed  
Mem  

/?v 

±/ 
L 
°j 

tJ 

I* 

>T 

D 
b 

o 

k 

1 
m 

Nun  

/ 

«i 

•J 

I 

3 

n 

Samech  .  .  . 
Ain  

* 

ty 

•J 

t) 

y 

D 

U 

8 
Indefinite. 

Pe  

-/ 
a 

D 

p 

Tsade  

*M 

o 

» 

y 

ta 

Qoph  .  . 

w  \ 
p 

K 

P 

q 

Resh  

q 

^ 

r 

1 

r 

Shin  

w 

I 

V 

ih 

Tav  

v 

y> 

rv 

th 

Besides  the  vowel  modifications  influencing  the 
sense  of  the  word  itself,  the  Semitic  tongues 
make  a  wide  use  of  external  formative  ele- 
ments, of  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and  to  a  more 
limited  extent  also  of  infixes  or  inserted  letters 
or  syllables.  There  is  a  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  Semitic  and  the  Indo-European  verb. 
While  equally  distinguishing  the  singular,  dual, 
and  plural  numbers,  and  the  first,  second,  and 
third  persons,  and  forming  in  a  measure  after 
the  same  fashion  the  various  personal  endings, 
namely,  by  adding  pronominal  elements  to  the 
verbal  roots,  yet  the  Semitic  conception  of  the 
order  of  time  is  so  utterly  at  variance  with  the 
Aryan  conception  of  it  as  to  produce  an  en- 
tirely different  system  of  conjugation.  There 
are  in  Semitic  but  two  tenses,  the  one  deno- 
ting generally  completed  action,  and  the  other 
incomplete,  but  both  are  capable  of  expressing 
in  certain  circumstances  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture time.  Though  subjunctive,  imperative, 
and  other  less  important  modal  forms  appear 


in  conjunction  with  the  imperfect,  yet  the  Se- 
mitic languages  are  almost  wholly  devoid  of 
genuine  modal  expressions.  In  their  stead  the 
verb  admits  of  a  large  number  of  conjugations, 
giving  to  it  either  a  transitive,  causal,  inten- 
sive, iterative,  conative,  reflexive,  or  other  sim- 
ilar meaning.  Every  conjugation  has  special 
forms  of  verbal  nouns  and  adjectives,  infini- 
tives, and  participles.  The  system  of  conjuga- 
tions is  not  equally  developed  in  all  the  lan- 
guages belonging  to  the  Semitic  family;  but, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Arabic,  it  is  possible  for  a 
verb  to  have  15  conjugational  forms.  With 
the  exception  of  Arabic,  no  Semitic  language 
distinguishes  case,  and  in  Arabic  no  other  than 
the  nominative,  genitive,  and  accusative  is  in- 
dicated. Otherwise  nouns  are  either  mascu- 
line or  feminine,  and  admit  of  singular,  plural, 
and  dual  number. 

SEMLER,  Johann  Salomo,  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Saalfeld,  Dec.  18,  1725,  died  in  Halle, 
March  14,  1791.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in 
1750  became  editor  of  the  Cdburger  Zeitung, 
in  1751  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf,  and  in 
1752  professor  of  theology  at  Halle,  where  he 
was  made  director  of  the  theological  seminary 
in  1757.  He  was  at  first  a  pietist,  but  became 
a  leader  of  the  rationalists.  He  distinguished 
between  the  canonicity  and  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures,  maintaining  that  they  are  divine 
only  so  far  as  their  contents  are  of  an  ethical 
nature,  that  the  sacred  writers  "  accommoda- 
ted" their  expressions  to  the  mistaken  ideas 
of  their  times,  and  that  a  just  criticism  can  re- 
tain the  divine  element  while  rejecting  what  i& 
accommodated  and  false.  He  was  however  an 
earnest  opponent  of  deism.  His  works  include 
Selecta  Capita  Historic  Ecclesiastics  (3  vols., 
1767-'9);  Commentationes  Historic®  de  Anti- 
quo  Christianorum  Statu  (2  vols.,  l771-'2); 
Abhandlung  non  der  Untersuchung  des  Kanont 
(4  vols.,  177l-'6);  Apparatus  ad  liberalem 
Veterit  Testamenti  Interpretationem  (1778); 
Imtitutio  ad  Doctrinam  Christianam  (1774); 
Versuch  einer  biblischen  Damonologie  (1776) ; 
Versuch  christlicher  JahrMcher  (2  vols.,  1783- 
'6);  and  Observations  Nova,  quibus  Historia 
Christianorum  usque  ad  Constantinum  Mag- 
num illustratur  (1784).  He  also  published  an 
autobiography  (2  vols.,  1781-'2). 

SEMLIN  (Slavonian,  Zemun ;  Hun.  Zimony), 
a  town  of  the  Hungarian  kingdom,  in  Slavonia 
(formerly  in  the  Military  Frontier),  at  the 
junction  of  the  Save  with  the  Danube,  3  in. 
N.  W.  of  Belgrade  in  Servia;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,915,  mostly  Slavonians,  Serbs,  Germans,  and 
Jews.  It  is  the  principal  entrepot  of  the  trade 
between  Austria  and  Turkey.  During  the  Hun- 
garian and  Austrian  wars  with  the  Turks  its 
situation  often  gave  it  importance. 

SEMMEREVG,  or  Sommering,  a  branch  of  the 
Noric  chain  of  Alps,  between  Austria  prop- 
er and  Styria,  4,416  ft.  high,  containing  the 
principal  pass  between  Lower  Austria  and 
the  more  southern  provinces  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  In  the  14th  century  a  duke  of  Styria 


SEMMES 

founded  a  hospital  for  travellers  on  the  Styrian 
side  of  the  pass.  A  post  and  carriage  road 
over  the  mountain  was  completed  by  the  em- 
peror Charles  VI.  in  1728 ;  it  rises,  partly  by 
zigzags,  upward  of  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  A 
new  highway,  longer,  but  more  practicable, 
was  completed  in  1840.  A  railway  over  the 
Semmering,  projected  and  undertaken  by  a 
private  company,  was  executed  for  the  Aus- 
trian government  by  the  engineer  Carlo  Chega 
between  1848  and  1854.  It  extends  25  m. 
from  Gloggnitz,  at  the  N".  extremity  of  the 
pass,  to  Murzzuschlag,  at  the  S.  extremity.  It 
rises  from  Gloggnitz,  crossing  the  Schwarzer 
on  a  curved  viaduct  of  13  arches,  and  sweep- 
ing along  the  shoulders  of  the  hills  through  a 
series  of  magnificent  engineering  works,  in- 
cluding 15  tunnels  and  15  bridges,  till  it  at- 
tains a  height  of  2,893  ft.  above  the  sea, 
when  any  further  ascent  is  avoided  by  a  tun- 
nel nearly  a  mile  long. 

SOLVES,  Raphael,  an  officer  in  the  confederate 
navy,  born  in  Charles  co.,  Md.,  Sept.  27, 1809. 
He  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman in  1826,  became  lieutenant  in  1837, 
and  commander  in  1855.  In  1834,  while  await- 
ing orders,  he  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Cumberland,  Md.  During  the 
Mexican  war  he  served  both  on  board  ship 
and  as  an  aide  to  Gen.  Worth.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  he  resigned  the  secre- 
taryship of  the  lighthouse  board  at  Washing- 
ton, took  command  of  the  confederate  steamer 
Suinter  at  New  Orleans,  ran  the  blockade  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  July,  1861, 
captured  several  American  merchant  vessels 
in  the  gulf.  He  then  went  to  Southampton, 
England,  where  he  was  for  some  time  closely 
watched  by  the  United  States  steamer  Tuscaro- 
ra.  When  he  put  to  sea,  the  Tuscarora  was 
detained  24  hours  by  the  British  authorities ; 
but  she  followed  him  to  the  straits  of  Gibral- 
tar, and  so  closely  blockaded  him  in  the  port 
of  Tangier,  that  he  sold  his  vessel  and  returned 
to  England.  In  August,  1862,  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  steamer  Alabama,  built  for  him  at 
Birkenhead,  England,  and  manned  by  an  Eng- 
lish crew,  and  continued  his  career  of  cap- 
turing and  destroying  merchant  vessels.  On 
Jan.  11,  1863,  off  Galveston,  Texas,  he  en- 
gaged the  United  States  gunboat  Hatteras,  and 
after  a  short  action  sunk  her.  On  June  19, 
1864,  in  an  engagement  9  m.  off  the  harbor  of 
Cherbourg,  France,  the  United  States  steamer 
Kearsarge,  Capt.  Winslow,  sunk  the  Alabama. 
Semmes  was  taken  up  by  the  English  yacht 
Deerhound  and  carried  to  England.  After  the 
close  of  the  war  he  entered  upon  the  practice 
of  law  in  Mobile,  Ala.  He  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  Washington  in  December,  1865,  but 
was  only  imprisoned  four  months.  He  has 
delivered  public  lectures  on  his  exploits,  and 
has  published  "Service  Afloat  and  Ashore 
during  the  Mexican  War"  (1851);  "Campaign 
of  Gen.  Scott  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  "  (1852) ; 
"The  Cruise  of  the  Alabama  and  the  Sum- 


SENAO 


763 


ter"  (London  and  New  York,  1864);  and 
"Memoirs  of  Service  Afloat  during  the  War 
between  the  States"  (8vo,  Baltimore,  1869). 

SEMPACH,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  on  the 
lake  of  the  same  name,  in  the  canton  and  10 
m.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Lucerne ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,109.  It  is  celebrated  for  a  battle  fought 
July  9,  1386,  in  which  1,300  Swiss  vanquished 
a  large  Austrian  army,  through  the  heroic  self- 
sacrifice  of  Arnold  of  Winkelried.  (See  Wra- 
KELEIED.)  The  Austrian  duke  Leopold  and 
1,400  of  his  knights,  with  thousands  of  his 
foot  followers,  were  slain.  A  chapel  marks 
the  site  of  the  battle  field.— See  Lie  Quellen 
zur  SempacJier  Schlacht  und  die  Winkelried- 
Sage,  by  Otto  Kleissner  (Gottingen,  1873). 

SEMPER.  I.  Gottfried,  a  German  architect, 
born  in  Hamburg  in  1804.  He  completed  his 
studies  in  Italy  and  Greece,  and  was  profes- 
sor at  the  academy  of  art  in  Dresden  and  at 
the  school  of  architecture  from  1834  to  1849, 
when,  being  implicated  in  revolutionary  move- 
ments, he  fled  to  London.  Here  he  taught  at 
the  royal  academy  till  1856,  when  he  became 
connected  with  the  polytechnic  institute  at 
Zurich.  His  principal  works  are  the  obser- 
vatory at  Zurich,  the  Festtheater  at  Munich, 
new  theatres  at  Dresden  and  Darmstadt,  and 
the  new  museum  and  the  new  imperial  palace 
in  Vienna.  He  has  published  Die  vier  Ele- 
mente  der  Baulcunst  (1851),  Wissenschaft,  In- 
dustrie und  Kunst  (1852),  and  Der  Styl  in 
den  technischen  und  telctonischen  Kiimten  (2 
vols.,  1860-'65). — His  son  HANS,  born  in  Dres- 
den in  1845,  and  since  1871  professor  of  Ger- 
man in  Rome,  has  published  Uebersicht  der 
Oeschichte  der  toscanischen  Sculptur  bis  gegen 
das  Ende  des  14.  Jahrhunderts  (1869),  and  Do- 
natello,  seine  Zeit  und  seine  Schule  (1870  et 
seq.).  II.  Karl,  a  German  traveller,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Altona,  July  6,  1832. 
He  explored  the  Philippine  islands,  and  in 
1868  became  professor  of  zoology  at  Wttrz- 
burg.  He  has  published  Reisen  im  Archipel . 
der  PUlippinen  (3  vols.,  1867-'72)  ;  Die  Phi- 
lippinen  und  Hire  Bewohner  (1869)  ;  and  Die 
Palau-Inseln  im  Stillen  Ocean  (1873). 

SEJIPLE,  Robert  Baylor,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Rose  Mount,  King  and  Queen 
co.,  Va.,  Jan.  20,  1769,  died  at  Fredericksburg, 
Va.,  Dec.  25,  1831.  He  studied  theology,  be- 
came in  1790  pastor  of  the  Bruington  Baptist 
church,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  educa- 
tional and  missionary  operations  of  his  de- 
nomination, and  in  the  colonization  society. 
In  1820  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Bap- 
tist triennial  convention,  and  held  the  office 
till  his  death.  In  1827  he  became  the  finan- 
cial agent  of  Columbian  college,  D.  C.,  retain- 
ing his  pastorate.  He  published  a  catechism  ; 
a  "  History  of  Virginia  Baptists,"  with  several 
biographical  notices  appended  (1810) ;  a  "  Me- 
moir of  Elder  Straughan ;"  and  "  Letters  to 
Alexander  Campbell." 

SENAC.  I.  Jean  Baptist*,  a  French  physician, 
born  near  Lombez,  Gascony,  in  1693,  died  in 


764 


SENATE 


Paris,  Dec.  20,  1770.  He  became  physician  to 
Marshal  Saxe  in  1745,  and  accompanied  him 
through  his  campaigns.  In  1752  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  physician  to  Louis  XV.,  by  whom 
he  was  subsequently  made  a  councillor  of  state 
and  superintendent  general  of  the  mineral 
waters  of  the  kingdom,  llis  principal  work  is 
a  Traite  de  la  structure  du  cceur  (2  vols.  4to, 
!748-'9 ;  new  ed.,  enlarged  by  Portal,  1774). 
II.  Gabriel  Senae  de  Meilhan,  son  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  in  Paris  in  1736,  died  in  Vienna, 
April  5,  1803.  He  held  various  important 
public  offices,  and  published  several  works,  the 
best  of  which  is  Le  gouvernement,  let  mceurs 
et  les  conditions  en  France  avant  la  revolution 
(latest  edition,  with  introduction  and  notes  by 
U.  de  Lescure,  Paris,  1862). 

SENATE  (Lat.  senatus,  an  assembly  of  elders), 
the  deliberative  assembly  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple. It  was  composed  originally  of  100  mem- 
bers, each  representing  one  of  the  decurice 
into  which  the  populus  Romanus,  or  body  of 
the  Roman  citizens,  when  it  comprehended 
but  a  single  tribe,  the  Ramnenses,  was  divi- 
ded. When  the  Sabines  or  Titienses  were  in- 
corporated with  the  Ramnenses  as  a  second 
tribe,  an  equal  number  of  senators  was  add- 
ed ;  and  on  the  admission  of  the  third  tribe, 
the  Luceres  or  Lucerenses,  in  the  reign  of 
Tarquinius  Priscus  (according  to  the  opinion 
of  recent  critics),  the  number  was  increased 
to  800.  The  new  senators  were  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  two  earlier  tribes  (who  were 
called  patres  majorum  gentium)  by  the  title  of 
patres  minorum  gentium.  The  number  was 
diminished  considerably  during  the  reign  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud,  but  at  the  formation  of 
the  republic  was  recruited  to  the  established 
standard  from  the  principal  plebeians  of  the 
equestrian  order,  who  were  thence  called  con- 
scripti,  and  it  was  thereafter  customary  to  ad- 
dress the  whole  senate  as  patres  conscripti, 
that  is,  patres  et  conscripti.  No  permanent 
change  seems  to  have  been  made  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  senators  until  the  time  of  Sulla, 
when  it  was  increased  to  about  600  by  the  ad- 
dition of  about  300  equites.  Julius  Caesar  cre- 
ated several  hundred  new  senators,  and  during 
the  second  triumvirate  the  number  exceeded 
1,000.  Augustus  reduced  it  to  600.  The  sen- 
ators held  office  for  life,  and  were  originally 
men  of  advanced  age;  but  under  Augustus 
they  were  admitted  in  their  25th  year.  They 
were  elected  during  the  kingly  period  by  the 
decurice,  under  the  republic  by  the  consuls  and 
consular  tribunes,  and  after  the  establishment 
of  the  censorship  by  the  censors  exclusively. 
The  persons  eligible  to  fill  vacancies  were 
those  who  had  been  qurostors  or  curule  magis- 
trates, and  the  latter  held  seats  ex  cfficio,  and 
were  entitled  to  speak  but  not  to  vote.  The 
plebeians  as  an  order  were  never  eligible,  but 
after  the  quasstorship  and  curule  magistracies 
were  opened  to  them,  they  of  course  frequent- 
ly attained  to  the  senatorial  dignity.  Hence 
the  senate  became  gradually  the  real  repre- 


sentative of  the  people.  No  property  quali- 
fication seems  to  have  been  required  previous 
to  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  established  a 
senatorial  census,  which  was  increased  from 
400,000  sesterces  to  1,200,000 ;  and  any  sen- 
ator falling  short  of  this  amount  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  from  office.  Senators  were  for- 
bidden to  engage  in  mercantile  pursuits,  and 
no  one  was  eligible  to  office  whose  parents 
were  not  of  free  birth ;  but  from  both  these 
requirements  there  appear  to  have  been  fre- 
quent deviations.  The  senate  met  on  the  kal- 
ends, nones,  and  ides  of  each  month  during 
the  republic,  and  under  Augustus  on  the  kal- 
ends and  ides  only ;  but  extraordinary  meet- 
ings could  be  convoked  on  any  day  not  a 
dies  comitialis  or  a  dies  ater,  by  a  variety  of 
magistrates,  who  on  such  occasions  exercised 
the  privilege  of  presiding.  At  regular  meet- 
ings under  the  empire  one  of  the  consuls, 
or  the  emperor  if  a  consul,  generally  presi- 
ded ;  and  the  number  of  senators  constituting 
a  quorum  seems  to  have  varied  from  about  70 
to  400.  The  title  of  princeps  senatus,  which 
was  originally  associated  with  that  of  custos 
urbis,  and  conferred  the  power  of  convoking 
and  presiding  over  the  senate,  became  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  republic  purely  honorary, 
and  was  usually  borne  by  the  emperors.  After 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  the  proceedings  were 
regularly  recorded  by  scribes  appointed  for 
the  purpose.  The  powers  of  the  senate  during 
the  republic  comprehended  the  general  care 
of  the  public  welfare,  the  superintendence  of 
all  matters  of  religion,  the  management  of  all 
affairs  with  foreign  nations,  and  the  disposition 
of  the  finances  requisite  for  these  purposes. 
Its  enactments,  called  senatus  consul  ta,  which 
were  passed  by  a  majority  of  votes,  under 
Augustus  and  his  successors  took  the  place  of 
the  leges  enacted  by  the  comitia  tributa.  Its 
authority  was  considerably  impaired  after  the 
institution  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  republic  it  frequently 
became  merely  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
ambitious  generals.  The  establishment  of  the 
empire  reduced  it  to  a  condition  of  purely 
subordinate  power,  whose  functions  and  very 
existence  were  dependent  on  the  will  of  the 
emperor ;  but  as  a  high  court  of  justice  it  still 
possessed  a  considerable  degree  of  importance. 
A  second  senate  was  established  by  Constantino 
at  Byzantium,  upon  which  Julian  conferred 

¥owers  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman  senate, 
he  latter  body  continued  in  existence  until 
the  Gothic  conquest  of  Italy,  and  seems  to 
have  been  the  last  depository  of  what  remained 
of  the  old  national  spirit. — The  affairs  of  the 
Italian  cities  and  provincial  towns  of  the 
Roman  empire  were  administered  by  bodies 
called  senates,  whose  functions  were  general- 
ly civic ;  and  the  term  is  frequently  employed 
in  modern  times  to  designate  the  upper  house 
of  the  legislature  in  republican  or  limited 
monarchical  governments.  The  senate  of  the 
United  States  is  composed  of  two  members  for 


SENECA 


765 


each  state  of  the  Union,  who  are  elected  by 
the  legislatures  of  the  states  and  hold  office 
for  six  years.  In  addition  to  its  legislative 
functions,  it  has  the  power  of  ratifying  for- 
eign treaties  and  nominations  to  office  made 
hy  the  president,  and  is  the  high  court  of 
impeachment  for  public  functionaries.  Each 
state  of  the  Union  has  a  legislative  chamber 
which  exercises  functions  of  a  similar  nature, 
though  differing  in  degree. — The  French  senate, 
called  the  senat  conservateur,  came  into  exis- 
tence after  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire 
(1799),  and  was  originally  composed  of  80 
members  of  at  least  40  years  of  age.  Its  chief 
functions  were  to  prevent  violations  of  the 
constitution,  to  introduce  changes  into  that 
instrument,  and  to  elect  the  consuls,  tribunes, 
and  members  of  the  legislature  from  lists  pre- 
pared by  the  departments.  It  soon  became  a 
tool  in  the  hands  of  the  first  consul,  and  on 
the  establishment  of  the  empire  was  reduced 
to  the  condition  of  a  state  council.  It  was  re- 
placed by  the  chamber  of  peers  at  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons,  but  was  revived  by  Na- 
poleon III.  in  1852.  This  senate  was  abolish- 
ed by  the  revolution  of  Sept.  4,  1870.  In  the 
present  French  republic,  as  constituted  by  the 
organic  laws  of  Feb.  25,  1875,  the  senate  is 
to  consist  of  300  members,  225  elected  by  the 
departments,  and  75  appointed  for  life  by  the 
national  assembly. — The  Hanseatic  towns  are 
governed  by  senates,  and  similar  bodies,  hav- 
ing legislative  functions  of  various  degrees  of 
importance,  are  recognized  by  the  constitu- 
tions of  Belgium,  Denmark,  Italy,  and  some 
other  European  governments.  The  Russian 
senate  is  the  supreme  judicial  tribunal  of  the 
empire,  and  its  decrees,  when  not  vetoed  by 
the  emperor,  have  the  force  of  law.  In  many 
countries  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Germany, 
the  affairs  of  universities  are  administered  by 
academic  senates,  composed  of  the  professors, 
over  which  the  government  exercises  a  control. 
SENECA.  I.  A  W.  central  county  of  New 
York,  bounded  E.  by  Cayuga  lake  and  Sene- 
ca river  and  W.  chiefly  by  Seneca  lake,  and 
drained  by  the  Seneca  and  Clyde  rivers;  area, 
330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  27,823.  The  sur- 
face is  hilly  and  the  soil  generally  very  fertile. 
The  New  York  Central  and  the  Geneva,  Itha- 
ca, and  Athens  railroads,  and  the  Erie  and  the 
Cayuga  and  Seneca  canals,  traverse  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  542,407  bushels 
of  wheat,  420,366  of  Indian  corn,  627,190  of 
oats,  409,340  of  barley,  22,995  of  buckwheat, 
182,704  of  potatoes,  37,048  tons  of  hay,  166,- 
416  Ibs.  of  wool,  812,811  of  butter,  and  100,- 
901  of  flax.  There  were  8,314  horses,  7,073 
milch  cows,  6,422  other  cattle,  28,663  sheep, 
and  6,997  swine;  17  manufactories  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  3  of  fire  engines,  7  of  iron 
castings,  2  of  machinery,  7  of  malt,  12  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  wooden  ware^,  3  of 
woollen  goods,  9  brick  yards,  4  tanneries,  2 
distilleries,  12  flour  mills,  and  15  saw  mills. 
Capitals,  Ovid  and  Waterloo.  II.  A  N.  coun- 


ty of  Ohio,  intersected  by  Sandnsky  river  and 
Honey  and  Green  creeks,  and  traversed  by 
several  railroads ;  area,  540  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  30,827.  The  surface  is  almost  level,  well 
timbered,  and  very  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1873  were  621,176  bushels  of  wheat, 
900,915  of  Indian  corn,  336,564  of  oats,  77,- 
232  of  potatoes,  484,844  of  apples,  34,712  tons 
of  hay,  339,966  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  708,252  of 
butter.  In  1874  there  were  11,226  horses, 
23,091  cattle,  75,914  sheep,  and  28,644  swine. 
In  1870  there  were  14  manufactories  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  4  of  brick,  12  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  6  of  iron  castings,  1  of  woollen,  8 
breweries,  7  flour  mills,  17  saw  mills,  3  planing 
mills,  and  7  tanneries.  Capital,  Tiffin. 

SENECA.  I.  Marcos  Annseus,  a  Roman  rhetori- 
cian, born  in  Corduba  (Cordova),  Spain,  about 
61  B.  C.,  died  in  Italy  probably  about  A.  D. 
85.  He  was  a  member  of  the  equestrian  or- 
der, and  appears  to  have  spent  part  of  his 
early  life  in  Rome,  but  afterward  returned  to 
Spain,  and  there  married.  It  is  said  that  he 
compiled  at  the  request  of  his  children  the 
brilliant  and  famous  sayings  which  he  him- 
self had  heard  from  the  rhetoricians  of  his 
time.  This  work  was  entitled  Oratorum  et 
EJietorum  Sentential,  &c.,  and  consisted  of  two 
divisions,  one  called  Controversies,  the  other 
Suasoria,  only  fragments  of  which  are  ex- 
tant. See  Koerber,  Ueber  den  Rhetor  Seneca, 
und  die  JRomische  Ehetorilc  seiner  Zeit  (Cassel, 
1864).  II.  Lucius  Anna-ns,  a  Roman  stoic  phi- 
losopher, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Cordu- 
ba a  few  years  before  the  Christian  era,  died 
in  Rome,  A.  D.  65.  He  studied  rhetoric  and 
philosophy  in  Rome,  travelled  in  Greece  and 
Egypt,  and  became  an  advocate,  and  subse- 
quently qusestor.  Messalina,  the  wife  of  the 
emperor  Claudius,  having  accused  him  of  adul- 
tery with  Julia,  the  emperor's  niece,  he  was 
banished  to  Corsica  for  eight  years,  during 
which  he  wrote  one  of  his  best  treatises,  the 
Consolatio  ad  ffelviam,  addressed  to  his  moth- 
er, and  the  Consolatio  ad  PolyUum,  to  a  pow- 
erful freedman  of  Claudius.  The  authenticity 
of  the  latter  has  been  doubted.  In  A.  D.  49, 
through  the  influence  of  Agrippina,  who  after 
the  death  of  Messalina  had  married  her  uncle 
Claudius,  Seneca  was  recalled,  and  was  made 
pr&tor.  Subsequently,  with  Afranius  Bur- 
rhus,  he  became  tutor  to  the  young  Domi- 
tius,  the  future  emperor  Nero.  After  Claudius 
had  been  poisoned  by  his  wife,  Nero  ascended 
the  throne,  and  Burrhus  and  Seneca  placed 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  pretensions  of 
Agrippina.  Not  long  afterward  Nero  put  his 
mother  to  death  for  her  opposition  to  Pop- 
pa?a,  fled  to  Naples,  and  sent  to  the  senate  a 
letter  written  by  Seneca,  in  which  he  charged 
Agrippina  with  a  conspiracy  against  himself, 
and  with  having  committed  suicide  in  conse- 
quence of  its  failure.  In  63  Burrhus  died,  and 
Seneca,  conscious  that  the  emperor  coveted  his 
wealth,  offered  to  surrender  his  property  and 
retire.  This  the  emperor  refused,  and  from 


766 


BENEOA  FALLS 


SENEGAS 


this  period,  says  Tacitus,  Seneca  "  kept  no 
more  levees,  declined  the  usual  civilities  which 
had  been  paid  to  him,  and  under  pretence  of 
indisposition  avoided  appearing  in  public."  It 
is  said  that  Nero  tried  to  poison  him,  and  soon 
afterward  he  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Piso,  and  ordered  to  commit 
suicide.  Without  showing  any  sign  of  alarm, 
Seneca  had  the  veins  of  his  arms  opened ;  but 
as  he  was  thin  from  age  and  meagre  diet,  the 
blood  flowed  slowly,  and  the  veins  in  his  legs 
were  also  opened.  As  he  suffered  excessively,  a 
dose  of  hemlock  was  given,  but  without  produ- 
cing any  effect.  He  was  then  placed  in  a  warm 
bath  and  afterward  taken  into  a  vapor  stove 
and  suffocated.  His  wife,  Paulina,  caused  her 
own  veins  to  be  opened,  but  by  order  of  Nero 
they  were  tied  up  by  her  attendants,  and  she 
lived  a  few  years  longer.  Besides  the  two 
treatises  already  mentioned,  Seneca  wrote  De 
Ira ;  De  Comolatione  ad  Marciam ;  De  Pro- 
videntia  ;  De  Animi  Tranquillitate ;  D«  Con- 
itantia  Sapienti* ;  De  dementia  ad  Neronem 
Ccssarem ;  De  Brevitate  Vitas  ad  Paulinum ; 
De  Vita  Beata  ad  (r'allionem,  to  which  is  some- 
times added  De  Otio  ant  Secettu  Sapientis  ;  De 
Beneficiis  ;  124  Epistolat  ad  Lucilium,  contain- 
ing moral  maxims  and  observations ;  Apocolo- 
cyntosis,  a  satire  on  the  emperor  Claudius;  and 
Qumitionum  Naturalium  Libri  VII.  Several 
other  works  by  Seneca  are  now  lost.  Ten 
tragedies  are  attributed  to  him,  but  their  au- 
thenticity has  been  denied:  Hercule*  Furent, 
Thyestes,  Thebau  or  Phoenmas,  Hippolytu*  or 
Phcedra,  CEdiput,  Troades  or  Hecuba,  Medea, 
Agamemnon,  Hercules  CEteut,  and  Octavia. 
The  character  and  the  works  of  Seneca  have 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  Though 
a  stoic  philosopher,  he  was  charged  by  a  con- 
temporary with  having  amassed  an  immense 
fortune  by  extortion.  He  was  no  believer  in 
the  superstitions  of  his  country,  and  has  been 
called  an  atheist ;  but  his  religion  appears  to 
have  been  pure  deism.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  asserted  that  he  was  a  Christian,  and 
was  acquainted  with  St.  Paul;  and  14  spurious 
letters  purporting  to  be  written  by  him  to  that 
apostle  were  printed  in  the  old  editions  of  his 
works.  The  editio  princeps  of  Seneca  is  that 
of  Naples  (fol.,  1475).  Of  the  numerous  later 
editions,  that  of  Schroder  (4to,  Delft,  1728), 
the  Bipont  edition  (Strasburg,  1809),  and  that 
of  F.  II.  Bothe  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1819)  are 
valuable.  There  have  been  several  transla- 
tions into  English. 

SENECA  FALLS,  a  village  of  Seneca  co.,  New 
York,  on  the  outlet  of  Seneca  lake,  the  Cayuga 
and  Seneca  canal,  and  the  New  York  Central 
railroad,  160  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Albany;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,890  ;  in  1875,  6,125.  It  has  abundant 
water  power  and  a  variety  of  manufactures. 
The  chief  articles  produced  are  steam  fire  en- 
gines, woollens,  pumps,  flour,  machinery,  and 
farming  utensils.  There  are  two  national 
banks,  an  academy,  two  weekly  newspapers, 
and  seven  churches. 


SENECA  LAKE,  a  narrow  sheet  of  water,  lying 
nearly  N.  and  S.  in  the  W.  part  of  New  York, 
bordered  by  Seneca,  Schuyler,  Yates,  and  On- 
tario cos.  It  is  about  37  m.  long  by  2  to  4  m. 
broad,  has  an  elevation  of  about  450  ft.  above 
the  Atlantic,  and  about  200  ft.  above  Lake  On- 
tario, and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery. 
It  flows  into  Lake  Ontario  through  the  Seneca 
and  Oswego  rivers,  and  is  connected  by  canals 
with  the  Erie  canal,  with  Keuka  or  Crooked 
lake  near  its.W.  border,  and  with  the  Chemung 
river.  It  is  630  ft.  deep,  and  was  never  known 
to  be  frozen  over  till  March  22,  1856.  It  is 
navigated  by  steamboats  running  from  Wat- 
kins  at  the  S.  to  Geneva  at  the  N.  extremity. 

SENECA  OIL.     See  PETROLEUM. 

SENECAS,  one  of  the  five  Iroquois  nations  in 
New  York,  W.  of  Sodus  bay,  Seneca  lake,  and 
Elmira.  They  called  themselves  Tsonnunda- 
waono,  but  received  from  the  Dutch  the  name 
of  Sinnekaas,  which  in  time  became  Senecas. 
They  were  the  hereditary  doorkeepers  of  the 
cabin,  and  had  eight  sachemships,  belonging  to 
the  Turtle,  Snipe,  Hawk,  Bear,  and  Wolf  fam- 
ilies. When  first  known  to  the  French  they 
were  bounded  W.  by  the  Attiwandaronk  or 
Neuters  on  the  Niagara,  and  the  Erike  S.  of 
Lake  Erie.  By  conquest  the  Scannonaenrat,  a 
nation  of  the  Hurons,  most  of  the  Neuters,  the 
Eries,  and  the  Andastes  or  Susquehannas  were 
successively  incorporated  with  them.  Chau- 
monot  began  a  mission  among  them  in  1657, 
followed  by  Fremin  in  1668.  They  permitted 
La  Salle  to  put  up  a  block  house  at  Niagara ; 
they  were  afterward  hostile,  but  were  won  over 
by  Joncaire,  and  in  1712  permitted  the  French 
to  build  a  fort  at  Niagara.  When  Pontiao 
formed  his  general  league  of  tribes  against  the 
English,  the  Senecas  alone  of  the  Six  Nations 
joined  him,  destroying  Venango,  attacking  Fort 
Niagara,  and  cutting  off  an  army  train  near 
Devil's  Hole  in  1763.  In  the  revolution  they 
sided  with  the  English.  Gen.  Sullivan  invaded 
their  country,  and,  after  defeating  the  allied 
tribes  at  Newtown,  destroyed  several  towns, 
and  ravaged  the  whole  canton  in  1779.  They 
made  peace  at  Fort  Stanwix  in  1784.  Much 
of  their  lands  were  soon  after  ceded  or  yielded 
to  speculators,  including  the  preemption  right 
of  what  they  still  retained.  In  1812,  though 
earnestly  solicited  by  their  countrymen  of  the 
Six  Nations  in  Canada,  they  formally  declared 
against  the  English  and  rendered  service  to  the 
American  armies  on  the  frontier.  A  part  of 
the  tribe  settled  at  Sandusky  and  Stony  Creek, 
Ohio,  joined  the  hostile  tribes  in  the  west,  but 
made  peace  at  Spring  Valley  in  September, 
1815.  This  band  ceded  all  but  a  reservation 
with  the  Shawnees  in  1818,  and  in  1831  sold 
that  and  removed  to  the  Indian  territory  on 
the  Neosho.  The  Senecas  in  New  York  still 
occupy  the  Alleghany,  Cattaraugus,  and  Tona- 
wanda  reservations  (66,000  acres),  but  white 
settlers  have  encroached  so  that  there  are  thri- 
ving towns  there.  The  Senecas  in  New  York 
in  1870  numbered  3,060 ;  those  in  the  Indian 


SENEFELDER 

territory  206.  Protestant  missions  were  be- 
gun among  the  Senecas  in  New  York  in  1805, 
and  the  society  of  Friends  has  done  much  to 
aid  and  protect  them.  Their  most  illustrious 
men  have  been  the  great  orator  Red  Jacket 
(see  RED  JACKET)  and  Cornplanter.  Portions 
of  Scripture  have  been  printed  in  the  Seneca 
language,  and  a  grammar  and  dictionary  were 
prepared  by  the  late  Rev.  Ashur  Wright. 

SENEFELDEK,  Aloys,  the  inventor  of  lithogra- 
phy, born  in  Prague,  Nov.  6,  1771,  died  in 
Munich,  Feb.  26,  1834.  He  was  sent  to  In- 
golstadt  to  study  law,  and  while  there  occa- 
sionally performed  in  private  theatricals,  and 
in  1789  wrote  a  comedy,  Die  Madchenkenner. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  an  actor,  he  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  be  an  actor  and  dramatist. 
Having  learned  something  of  printing,  he  ex- 
perimented to  invent  a  process  of  his  own,  and 
finaHy  made  by  accident  his  great  discovery. 
(See  LITHOGRAPHY.)  His  first  prints  were 
some  pieces  of  music.  Subsequently  he  made 
important  improvements,  contrived  a  press, 
obtained  a  patent,  and  set  up  an  establishment, 
which  he  carried  on  for  some  time  successful- 
ly. In  1809  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the 
royal  lithographing  establishment  at  Munich. 
He  published  Lehrbueh  der  Lithographic  (Mu- 
nich, 1819;  English  translation,  "Complete 
Course  of  Lithography,"  4to,  London,  1819). — 
See  Aloys  Senefelder  und  der  geistliche  Bath 
Simon  Schmidt,  by  Nagler  (Munich,  1862). 

SENEGAL,  a  river  of  Senegambia  in  western 
Africa,  formed  in  lat.  14°  10'  N.,  Ion.  10°  30' 
"W.,  by  the  junction  of  the  Ba-fing  and  the 
Ba-Woolima,  and  flowing  thence  N.  W.,  W., 
and  S.  W.  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  at  Fort 
St.  Louis,  in  lat.  16°  7'  N.,  Ion.  16°  30'  W.  The 
Ba-fing,  which  is  regarded  as  the  main  stream, 
rises  near  Timbo,  the  principal  town  of  the 
native  state  of  Foota  Jallon,  not  far  from  lat. 
10°  30'  N.,  Ion.  10°  45'  W.,  in  the  Kong  moun- 
tains ;  and  if  this  be  considered  as  its  source, 
the  total  length  of  the  river,  which  is  exceed- 
ingly tortnons,  is  about  1,000  m.  Between  the 
13th-  and  15th  meridians,  where  the  Senegal 
flows  westward,  it  separates  into  three  parallel 
branches,  thus  forming  two  long  islands  with 
a  stream  between  them,  each  over  50  m.  long 
and  averaging  6  m.  wide.  It  again  becomes 
double  before  reaching  the  sea,  into  which 
however  it  flows  as  a  single  stream,  250  yards 
wide,  over  a  shifting  sand  bar  which  will  admit 
vessels  of  12  ft.  draught.  The  largest  tribu- 
tary is  the  Ba-Faleme  from  the  south.  The 
Senegal  is  navigable  for  river  boats  only  in  the 
wet  season.  There  is  a  fall  of  80  ft.  a  few 
miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Ba-Woolima. 

SENEGAL,  an  aggregation  of  French  colonial 
settlements  on  the  Senegal  river  and  its  tribu- 
tary the  Faleme,  including  the  island  and  town 
of  St.  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  and 
Goree,  off  Cape  Verd ;  pop.  estimated  in  1874 
at  100,000.  The  French  have  here  attempted 
the  system  of  military  colonization  applied  in 
Algeria,  with  but  limited  success ;  and  a  con- 
733  VOL.  xiv. — 49 


SENEGAMBIA 


T67 


sidcrable  portion  of  the  territory  claimed  and 
to  some  extent  occupied  by  them  in  this  re- 
gion prior  to  1870  was  abandoned  in  that  year. 
In  1872  the  value  of  the  exports  to  France 
was  10,800,000  francs,  and  of  the  imports 
from  France  6,400,000  francs,  the  commerce 
being  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
French.  The  establishment  is  under  a  colo- 
nial governor,  with  a  military  and  naval  force 
under  his  command. — French  trading  posts 
were  established  in  this  region  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17th  century,  and  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  were  controlled  successively  by 
the  West  India  company,  the  Senegal  compa- 
nies, and  the  East  India  company.  The  Eng- 
lish held  them  by  conquest  from  1758  to  1779, 
and  from  1803  to  1814. 

SENEGAMBIA,  a  region  of  western  Africa, 
formerly  comprising  only  the  territory  lying 
between  the  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name,  but  now  held  to 
include  the  whole  of  the  country  between  the 
former  river  and  the  British  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Sahara,  E.  by 
Soodan,  S.  by  Sierra  Leone,  and  W.  by  the  At- 
lantic, and  extends  from  lat.  9°  to  17°  N.,  and 
from  about  Ion.  10°  W.  to  Cape  Verd,  in  Ion. 
17°  34'  W.  Its  eastern  boundary  is  so  indefi- 
nite that  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  area  is 
impossible  ;  it  can  hardly  be  less  than  200,000 
sq.  m.,  and  has  been  placed  much  higher.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  9,000,000.  It  in- 
cludes the  French  colony  of  Senegal,  and  French 
power  predominates  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
country.  There  are  English  settlements  along 
the  Gambia,  of  which  Bathurst  at  its  mouth 
is  the  principal  town  and  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment; and  the  Portuguese  establishments  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  in  the  inte- 
rior in  1873  embraced  a  territory  of  43  sq.  m., 
with  8,500  inhabitants.  The  objects  of  these 
foreign  establishments  are  purely  commercial. 
The  coast  region  of  Senegambia  consists  of  a 
belt  of  level  land  extending  inland  from  150  to 
200  m.,  which  in  the  north  is  for  the  most  part 
open,  sandy,  low,  and  barren,  with  here  and 
there  a  few  rocky  cliffs ;  but  S.  of  the  Gambia 
the  aspect  of  the  country  changes,  the  vege- 
tation becomes  luxuriant,  and  the  deeply  and 
frequently  indented  coast  is  bordered  by  man- 
grove swamps,  back  of  which  rises  a  rich  for- 
est region.  The  principal  rivers,  described  un- 
der their  own  titles,  are  the  Senegal  and  Gam- 
bia, S.  of  which  three  others  of  considerable 
size  empty  into  the  Atlantic :  the  Casamanza  or 
Casemanche,  navigable  80  m.  from  its  mouth ; 
the  Rio  Grande,  400  m.  long ;  and  the  Nunez, 
of  about  half  that  length.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  coast  and  the  alluvial  flats  along 
the  rivers,  tke  country  is  undulating,  and  rises 
in  terraces  from  the  ocean  to  the  mountains 
of  the  interior,  which  overspread  the  S.  E. 
portion,  and  attain  an  elevation  variously  sta- 
ted at  from  8,000  to  6,000  ft.  Little  is  known 
of  Senegambian  geology,  except  the  pcsurrence 
of  gramite  in  the  mountainous  region.  Iron 


768 


SENEGAMBIA 


SENNA 


ore  is  abundant  in  the  elevated  districts,  and 
gold  is  found  in  large  grains  lower  down.  The 
climate  is  reputed  to  be  the  most  continuously 
hot- of  any  in  the  world.  The  highest  tem- 
perature is  experienced  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Sahara,  in  the  north,  where  the  mercury  some- 
times rises  to  110°  F.  in  the  shade;  on  the 
coast  the  average  is  about  80°.  Throughout 
most  of  the  country  the  rainy  season  lasts 
from  June  to  December  inclusive,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  tornadoes  at  midsummer,  with 
thunder  and  lightning  of  tropical  intensity. 
Much  of  the  land  is  exceedingly  fertile.  In 
the  forests  are  found  the  oil-producing  palm 
and  many  valuable  kinds  of  timber,  gums,  and 
caoutchouc ;  cardamoms,  ground  nuts,  and  cas- 
sia are  also  obtained,  and  indigo  grows  wild. 
Wild  coffee  also  is  abundant  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nufiez.  Rice,  maize,  and  millet  are  the 
chief  grains  cultivated.  Hemp  is  extensively 
grown.  All  the  domestic  animals  of  Europe 
are  found,  in  addition  to  which  there  are 
camels  in  the  desert  country  of  the  Jaloofs. 
Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised  on  the  pas- 
ture lands  of  the  terraces.  Elephants  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  hippopotamus  is  found  in 
all  the  rivers.  Buffalo,  deer,  a  species  of  eland, 
antelopes,  wild  boars,  hares,  porcupines,  lions, 
panthers,  and  hynenas  are  all  natives  of  the 
country.  Crocodiles  are  numerous,  and  the 
boa  frequents  the  marshy  grounds. — The  in- 
habitants consist  of  the  aboriginal  negro  tribes, 
Moors,  and  the  offspring  of  these  two  races,  a 
people  of  middle  size,  of  a  light  copper  color, 
well  made  and  active.  Many  of  the  women 
are  remarkably  handsome,  and  both  sexes  dress 
neatly.  They  are  much  more  civilized  than 
the  black  tribes,  of  which  the  lower  type  is 
found  along  the  coast,  while  the  Mandingoes, 
the  Jaloofs,  and  others  of  this  mixed  descent 
dwell  further  inland,  and  live  nnder  regular 
governments,  generally  consisting  of  a  king 
and  hereditary  nobility.  They  keep  large  num- 
bers of  slaves.  The  Mohammedan  religion  pre- 
vails among  them.  There  are  about  20  native 
states  in  the  country.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  the  Foolah  state  of  Foota  Jallon,  with 
its  capital  at  Timbo,  occupying  an  elevated  pla- 
teau over  80  m.  square,  in  the  south,  near  the 
head  waters  of  the  Senegal.  (See  FOOTA  JAL- 
LOX.)  The  kingdom  of  Bondoo  and  the  terri- 
tory of  Foota  are  described  under  their  own 
titles,  as  is  also  the  Mandingo  country  proper, 
which  some  include  in  Senegambia.  Besides 
the  trade  carried  on  by  the  French,  English, 
and  Portuguese  from  their  settlements  upon 
the  three  rivers,  which  is  mainly  in  palm  oil, 
gum,  hides,  beeswax,  ground  nuts,  and  wild 
coffee,  a  considerable  traffic  exists  between 
Senegambia  and  the  countries  lying  further 
E.  Much  of  the  gold  found  in  the  elevated 
districts  is  carried  to  Timbuctoo,  and  thence 
finds  its  way  to  the  countries  N.  of  the  Sahara. 
— The  Carthaginians  visited  this  part  of  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Portuguese  reached 
it  between  1444  and  1469.  The  latter  nation 


formed  several  commercial  establishments,  but 
afterward  neglected  them  when  they  discov- 
ered the  route  to  India.  The  British  acquired 
their  possessions  on  the  Gambia  in  1631,  and 
the  French  settled  on  the  Senegal  in  1637. 

SENIOR,  Nassau  William,  an  English  political 
economist,  born  at  Uffington,  Berkshire,  Sept. 
26,  1790,  died  June  4,  1864.  He  graduated  at 
Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  in  1811,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1819.  From  1825  to  1830, 
and  again  from  1847  to  1852,  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  Oxford.  From 
1836  to  1853  he  was  a  master  in  chancery.  His 
works  are :  "  Introductory  Lectures  on  Political 
Economy  "  (1826) ;  "  On  Foreign  Poor  Laws 
and  Laborers  "  (1840)  ;  "Treatise  on  Political 
Economy"  (1850);  u  A  Journal  kept  in  Tur- 
key and  Greece  in  1857  and  1858"  (1859); 
"American  Slavery"  (1862);  "Biographical 
Sketches  "  (1864) ;  "  Essays  on  Fiction  "  (1864) ; 
"Historical  and  Philosophical  Essays"  (1865); 
"Journals,  Conversations,  and  Essays  relating 
to  Ireland"  (1868);  "Journal  kept  in  France 
and  Italy  in  1848-'52  "  (1871) ;  and  "  Corre- 
spondence and  Conversations  with  Alexis  de 
Tocqueville  "  (1872).  (See  POLITICAL  ECONO- 
MY, vol.  xiii.,  p.  672.) 

SENLIS  (anc.  Augu«tomagu»),  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Oise,  near  the 
forests  of  Chantilly  and  Ermenonville,  20  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1872,  6,085.  The 
old  town  retains  its  feudal  walls  and  16  watch 
towers,  and  remains  of  a  castle  of  the  time  of 
Louis  XII.,  as  well  as  vestiges  of  the  Roman 
fortifications  and  other  relics ;  and  remains  of 
amphitheatres  were  discovered  in  1865.  The 
church  of  Notre  Dame  was  originally  a  cathe- 
dral, ascribed  to  Charlemagne.  Cotton,  crino- 
line, and  other  articles  are  made.  The  town  is 
conspicuous  in  the  history  of  various  French 
wars.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1493 
between  the  future  emperor  Maximilian  and 
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  which  settled  the 
Burgundian  inheritance. 

SENNA  (Arab,  sene),  a  drug  which  consists  of 
the  dried  leaves  of  several  species  of  cassia,  of 
the  order  leguminosce.  In  th.e  most  familiar 
plants  of  this  family,  as  the  pea,  locust,  lupin, 
and  others,  the  corolla  is  papilionaceous,  and 
the  stamens  are  united  to  form  a  more  or  less 
complete  tube.  In  the  genus  cassia  and  its 
allies,  the  corolla  is  of  distinct  and  spread- 
ing petals,  with  distinct  stamens.  The  cassias 
which  furnish  senna  are  bushy  shrubs,  2  to  4  ft. 
high,  with  unequally  pinnate  leaves,  the  leaflets 
of  which  are  unequal  at  the  base  and  in  four 
to  eight  pairs ;  the  yellow  flowers  are  in  erect 
axillary  racemes,  and  the  broad  flattened  pods 
contain  six  or  more  seeds.  C.  acut\folia,  with 
ovate  or  lanceolate  leaves,  and  C.  angustifolia, 
with  narrower  and  longer  leaves,  furnish  most 
of  the  drug,  which  was  in  use  as  early  as  the 
9th  century,  and  still  retains  its  popularity. 
The  principal  commercial  varieties  are  the 
Alexandrian,  produced  by  0.  acutifolia,  and 
collected  in  various  districts  of  Nubia;  the 


SENNA 

Bombay  or  East  Indian,  from  C.  angustifolia 
of  southern  Arabia  and  various  parts  of  India ; 
and  the  Tinnevelly,  which  is  merely  the  last 
named  species  cultivated  in  India ;  the  leaves 


6ENNAAR 


769 


Cassia  acuti  folia.    Plant  reduced ;  leaf  and  pod  of  natural  size. 

of  this  are  much  larger,  as  the  plant  is  more 
luxuriant.  The  gathering  of  the  first  two  is 
done  mainly  at  the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  in 
September ;  the  bushes  are  cut  and  exposed  to 
the  sun  until  the  leaves  are  quite  dry,  when 
they  are  separated  by  beating  with  sticks ;  the 
whole  and  broken  leaves,  the  small  stems,  and 
the  pods  are  sent  to  the  place  of  export.  Some 
of  it  is  garbled  to  remove  extraneous  matters 
before  it  is  shipped.  Tinnevelly  senna,  being 
a  cultivated  product,  is  collected  with  more 
care,  and  is  a  very  superior  variety  of  the 


American  Senna  (Cassia  Marilandica). 

drug.  Senna  was  formerly  much  more  con- 
taminated by  foreign  leaves  than  now  ;  the 
poisonous  coriaria  myrtifolia  of  southern  Eu- 
rope was  used  to  adulterate  it ;  in  Alexandria 


senna  argel  leaves  may  be  often  found,  but  as 
this  (sarcostemma  argel)  grows  with  the  senna 
plants,  it  is  supposed  to  be  an  accidental  ad- 
mixture. Senna  is  an  active  cathartic,  and  is 
largely  used  both  by  physicians  and  in  domes- 
tic practice ;  it  is  usually  given  in  infusion,  but 
sometimes  in  the  fluid  extract,  tincture,  and 
confection.  It  contains  two  bitter  principles, 
and  a  cathartic  acid  upon  which  its  activity 
chiefly  depends.  The  active  principle  is  read- 
ily changed  by  long  continual  heat  and  expo- 
sure to  the  air ;  hence  the  infusion  should  al- 
ways be  made  in  a  covered  vessel. — American 
senna,  or  wild  senna  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  cassia  Ma/rilandica,  a  perennial  herbaceous 
plant,  which  grows  from  New  England  south- 
ward and  westward;  the  root  produces  nu- 
merous erect  stems  2  to  4  ft.  high,  clothed 
with  leaves  which  have  six  to  nine  pairs  of 
lance-oblong,  obtuse  leaflets,  the  common  peti- 
ole bearing  at  its  base  a  conspicuous  club- 
shaped  gland ;  the  bright  yellow  flowers  are 
in  axillary  racemes,  the  two  lower  petals  are 
the  largest,  and  the  anthers  of  the  three  upper 
stamens  are  deformed  and  imperfect ;  the  fruit 
is  a  narrow,  somewhat  curved,  hairy  pod,  3  to 
4  in.  long.  This  is  a  very  showy  plant,  and  is 
now  and  then  seen  in  gardens,  though  it  is  not 
so  well  appreciated  here  as  it  is  in  Europe. 
The  leaves  are  gathered  for  medicinal  use ;  they 
possess  properties  similar  to  those  of  the  im- 
ported senna,  but  are  less  active,  a  third  larger 
dose  being  required  to  produce  the  same  effect. 
SEMAAR,  a  country  of  Africa,  forming  part 
of  the  territory  commonly  known  as  Nubia, 
and  now  included  in  the  aggregation  of  Nile 
provinces  constituting  the  dependency  of  Egypt 
officially  known  as  Soodan.  It  is  bounded  E. 
by  Abyssinia  and  W.  by  Kordofan,  and  ex- 
tends S.  from  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and 
White  Nile  in  lat.  15°  36'  N.  to  about  lat.  10°, 
but  its  boundaries  are  not  well  defined;  area 
about  50,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,500,000.  It  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  peninsular  territory  lying 
between  the  Bahr  el-Azrek  or  Blue  Nile  on 
the  east  and  the  Bahr  el-Abiad  or  White  Nile 
on  the  west,  with  its  N.  extremity  at  Khar- 
toom.  The  chief  towns  are  Khartoom,  where 
the  governor  resides,  Sennaar,  the  former  cap- 
ital, on  the  Blue  Nile,  and  Wat  Medineh,  de- 
scribed by  Sir  Samuel  Baker  as  the  principal 
trading  place  on  the  same  river.  The  country 
consists  of  a  plain  from  1,400  to  1,500  ft.  above 
the  sea.  There  are  some  isolated  summits 
nearly  1,000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  coun- 
try; and  toward  the  S.  boundary  the  surface 
becomes  very  mountainous.  The  plain  of  Sen- 
naar rests  upon  a  regular  horizontal  stratum  of 
sandstone,  and  the  mountains  consist  of  crys- 
talline rocks,  clay  slate,  and  limestone;  while 
many  of  the  isolated  hills  are  composed  of 
granite,  and  some  contain  veins  of  auriferous 
quartz  and  gneiss.  Iron  ore  is  abundant,  and 
salt  is  found  on  the  White  Nile  and  at  Khar- 
toom. The  soil  of  the  plain  is  for  the  most  part 
a  rich  black  mould,  though  there  are  many 


770 


SENNACHERIB 


SEPOYS 


sterile  and  unproductive  tracts.  Rain  seldom 
falls  in  the  north,  sometimes  not  for  two  or 
thre*e  years  together;  but  in  the  south  it  is 
abundant  between  May  and  September.  The 
climate  is  exceedingly  hot,  the  thermometer 
rising  to  120°  in  the  shade.  Extensive  forests 
border  the  flat  tracts  along  the  White  Nile, 
and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  country  whore 
the  river  overflows  its  banks  abundant  crops 
of  durra  and  beans  are  raised.  These  are  the 
principal  products,  but  wheat,  cotton,  and  to- 
bacco are  also  cultivated.  Much  of  the  coun- 
try is  well  adapted  for  pasturage,  and  large 
numbers  of  horses,  camels,  sheep,  goats,  and 
cattle  are  raised.  Among  the  leading  exports 
are  leather  and  cotton  goods  to  the  neigh- 
boring countries,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  and 
honey.  The  elephant,  giraffe,  rhinoceros,  an- 
telope, lion,  leopard,  hysena,  baboon,  hippo- 
potamus, wild  boar,  crocodile,  heron,  and  ibis 
are  met  with.  The  inhabitants  represent  a 
number  of  races,  and  vary  from  light  yellow  to 
black.  There  are  several  Arab  tribes,  and  the 
territory  of  the  Dinkas  embraces  the  S.  W. 
corner  of  Sennaar.  The  better  classes  are  gen- 
erally well  made  and  handsome,  but  about  half 
the  population  are  negro  slaves.  The  people 
understand  working  in  metals,  and  are  good 
weavers  and  potters,  and  particularly  skilled 
in  leather  making,  which  is  their  chief  manu- 
facture. Cotton  stuffs  are  also  made.  Mo- 
hammedanism is  the  prevailing  religion,  but 
its  requirements  are  little  regarded,  and  there 
are  many  Christians  and  pagans  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  the  country. — Sennaar  formerly  be- 
longed to  Abyssinia,  and  was  subsequently  an- 
nexed to  the  government  of  Nubia,  but  appears 
to  have  achieved  independence  about  the  14th 
century.  Its  history  is  imperfectly  known, 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  during  the 
last  200  years  its  territory  has  been  parcelled 
out  among  various  chiefs  practically  indepen- 
dent of  one  another.  Since  the  invasion  by 
Ismail  Pasha  in  1820-'22  Sennaar  has  been 
subject  to  Egypt. 

SKVV  \(  IIKK1K.     See  ASSYRIA,  vol.  ii.,  p.  35. 

SENS  (anc.  Agendicum  or  Civitat  Senonurri), 
a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Yonne, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yonne,  60  m.  S.  E. 
of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  11,514.  It  is  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  museum  of  anti- 
quities, an  episcopal  seminary,  a  theatre,  and 
an  ancient  Gothic  cathedral.  Serge,  druggets, 
dials,  pottery,  cutlery,  and  nails  are  manufac- 
tured.— In  the  time  of  .Julius  Csesar  Sens  was 
one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Senones,  and 
subsequently  as  capital  of  Lugdunensis  Quarta 
it  was  a  focus  of  great  Roman  roads.  It  was 
strongly  fortified  and  often  besieged.  It  was 
taken  by  the  allies,  Feb.  11, 1814,  after  a  brave 
resistance  by  the  inhabitants. 

SENSITIVE  PLANT.    See  MIMOSA. 

SEPIA,  a  pigment  made  from  the  black  secre- 
tion of  the  sepia  or  cuttle  fish,  which  it  ejects 
when  pursued  or  annoyed.  This  secretion 
was  used  as  an  ink  by  the  ancients.  Several 


varieties  of  sepia  yield  the  ink,  but  the  sepia 
officinalis,  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  af- 
fords the  most,  and  is  the  one  chiefly  sought. 
The  sac  containing  the  secretion  is  extirpated, 
and  the  juice  dried  as  soon  as  possible,  as  it 
quickly  putrefies.  Caustic  alkalies  render  it 
soluble  in  water,  but  absorption  of  carbonic 
acid  again  precipitates  the  sepia.  The  dried 
native  sepia  is  prepared  for  the  painter  by 
triturating  with  caustic  lye,  adding  more  lye, 
boiling  half  an  hour,  filtering,  neutralizing 
with  an  acid,  filtering,  washing  the  filtrate, 
and  drying  it  with  a  gentle  heat.  It  has  a 
beautiful  brown  color  with  a  fine  grain,  and 
has  given  name  to  a  species  of  drawing. 

SEPOYS  (probably  from  Pers.  sipuhi,  a  sol- 
dier), the  native  soldiers  of  the  British  army 
in  India.  The  practice  of  employing  the  na- 
tives as  troops  originated  with  the  French 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  in 
1748  the  East  India  company  organized  a  small 
body  of  sepoys  at  Madras,  which  had  increased 
to  14  battalions,  numbering  10,000  men,  at  the 
time  of  the  battle  of  Plassey.  Two  of  the  bat- 
talions took  part  in  the  expedition  under  Clive, 
who  at  once  began  to  form  a  similar  native 
army  in  Bengal,  which  as  early  as  1765  con- 
tained 19,000  troops.  A  sepoy  force  was  also 
raised  in  Bombay,  which  consisted  of  about 
3,500  men  in  1772;  and  in  1773,  when  the 
office  of  governor  general  was  established,  the 
estimated  strength  of  the  East  India  company's 
native  army  was  45,000  men.  This  entire  mil- 
itary establishment  was  reorganized  in  1796  on 
a  basis  which  remained  essentially  unchanged 
till  1861.  A  native  regiment  was  about  1,100 
strong  in  Bengal,  and  900  in  Madras  and  Bom- 
bay ;  there  were  about  120  native  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  20  native  commissioned  officers, 
and  theoretically  25  European  officers,  but  in 
fact  only  12  or  15.  The  highest  rank  to  which 
a  native  could  attain  was  that  of  subahdar  or 
captain ;  native  lieutenants  were  known  as  je- 
madar$,  and  sergeants  as  havildars.  The  se- 
poys were  volunteer  troops.  Those  of  tho 
Bengal  army  were  mainly  high-caste  Hindoos, 
but  in  the  armies  of  Madras  and  Bombay  the 
aristocratic  element  was  not  so  prominent. 
According  to  Kaye,  the  Bengal  sepoy  was  to 
the  outward  eye  the  finest  soldier,  tallest,  best 
formed,  and  of  the  noblest  presence;  but  he 
was  less  docile  and  serviceable  than  the  sepoy 
of  the  southern  and  western  armies.  Notwith- 
standing occasional  local  mutinies  and  murder- 
ous outbreaks  on  the  part  of  the  native  sol- 
diery, their  discipline,  fidelity,  and  good  ser- 
vice in  the  field,  extending  through  so  many 
years,  inspired  an  extraordinary  and  almost 
universal  confidence  in  their  loyalty,  which 
existed  throughout  India  up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  great  sepoy  revolt  in  1857.  (See  IN- 
DIA.) When  it  began,  the  East  India  com- 
pany's army  consisted  of  about  300,000  men, 
all  sepoys  with  the  exception  of  40,000.  The 
mutiny  was  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  Ben- 
gal army ;  in  Madras  but  a  single  regiment  was 


SEPS 

disaffected,  and  in  Bombay  none  at  all ;  while 
the  native  forces  from  the  Punjaub  assisted  in 
repressing  the  rebellion.  Upon  the  subsequent 
transfer  of  the  army  to  the  crown,  a  reorgani- 
zation became  necessary.  This  was  effected 
in  1861,  by  a  reduction  of  its  numbers  one 
half,  the  abolition  of  promotion  by  seniority, 
and  the  permanent  appointment  of  seven  effec- 
tive officers  to  each  regiment.  The  troops  are 
nominally  on  the  footing  of  irregulars.  There 
are  137  battalions  of  infantry,  40  regiments  of 
cavalry,  and  a  few  batteries  of  artillery.  The 
number  of  men  in  1873  was  128,447,  of  whom 
103,343  were  infantry. 

SEPS  (Daud.),  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles  of 
the  skink  family,  divided  by  modern  authors 
into  several  subgenera.  In  the  group  the  feet 
are  very  short,  and  have  three  or  four  toes, 
with  claws ;  the  apex  of  the  tongue  is  notched, 
the  eyes  lizard-like  with  transparent  lower 
lid ;  teeth  numerous  and  conical ;  body  snake- 
like,  and  the  scales  smooth  and  imbricated; 
no  femoral  pores.  The  four-toed  seps  (tetra- 
dactylus  Decresiensis,  Peron)  has  the  nostrils 
in  the  nasal  scute,  and  a  conical  tail  about  as 
long  as,  and  hardly  distinct  from,  the  body ; 
the  color  above  is  brownish  spotted  with 
black,  the  sides  grayish  with  dark  dots,  and 
whitish  below ;  it  is  about  5£  in.  long,  the  an- 
terior limbs  one  fourth  and  the  posterior  five 
eighths  of  an  inch;  it  is  found  in  Australia 
and  the  neighboring  islands.  The  three-toed 
seps  (hemiergis  Decresiensis,  Dum.  and  Bibr.) 
is  distinguished  from  the  last  chiefly  by  the 
number  of  the  toes,  of  which  the  central  is  the 
longest ;  the  color  and  habitat  are  the  same ; 
the  length  is  about  4  in.,  the  anterior  limb  j 
in.,  and  the  posterior  about  half  as  long.  The 
common  seps  (seps  tridactylus,  Merr.)  has  a 


SEQUOIA 


771 


Seps  tridactylus. 

more  elongated  body*  and  shorter  limbs,  and 
the  nostrils  are  between  the  nasal  and  rostral 
scutes;  the  feet  are  three-toed.  The  color  is 
bronze  above,  usually  with  four  longitudinal 
darker  stripes,  and  greenish  white  below ;  the 
number  of  stripes  and  the  black  and  white 
markings  vary ;  the  length  is  16  in.,  the  ante- 
rior limbs  f  in.  and  the  posterior  £  in.  It  is 


viviparous,  and  is  found  in  southern  Europe 
and  northern  Africa;  the  food  consists  of 
worms,  small  land  mollusks,  spiders,  and  in- 
sects. An  allied  species  (heteromeles  M<turi- 
tanicus,  Dum.  and  Bibr.)  of  N.  Africa  has 
only  two  toes  on  the  fore  feet ;  it  is  grayish 
white  dotted  with  black  above,  and  whitish 
below ;  the  length  is  4J^  in.,  the  anterior  limbs 
£  in.  and  the  posterior  J  in. 

SEPTEMBER  (Lat.  septem,  seven),  the  ninth 
month  of  the  year,  but  the  seventh  with  the 
early  Romans,  their  year  beginning  with 
March,  as  the  legal  year  did  in  England  until 
the  change  of  style  in  1752.  The  name  is  still 
retained  in  most  European  languages,  like 
those  of  the  three  succeeding  months,  not- 
withstanding their  present  inaccuracy.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  called  it  Gerstmonath,  or  barley 
month ;  and  in  Switzerland  it  is  still  called 
Herbstmonat,  harvest  month.  It  has  30  days. 

SEPTIMUS  SEVEBIS.     See  SEVERUB. 

SEPTUAGINT.     See  BIBLE,  vol.  5i.,  p.  613. 

SEPULVEDA,  Juan  Ginez  de,  a  Spanish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Pozoblanco,  near  Cordova,  in 
1490,  died  in  1574.  He  assisted  Cardinal  Ca- 
ietan  at  Naples  in  the  revision  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  in  1529  went  to  Rome,  and  in  1536 
was  appointed  chaplain  and  historiographer  to 
Charles  V.  He  wrote  a  work  justifying  the 
wars  and  acts  of  the  Spaniards  in  America, 
which  was  never  printed.  He  also  wrete  his- 
tories of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.  (whose 
education  he  had  superintended),  and  a  narra- 
tive of  the  Spanish  conquests  in  Mexico.  His 
works  have  been  published  by  the  royal  acad- 
emy of  history  at  Madrid  (4  vols.  4to,  1780). 

SKQl  AY\.     See  SEINE. 

SEQUATCHIE,  a  S.  county  of  Tennessee,  in- 
tersected by  the  Sequatchie  river,  a  tributary 
of  the  Tennessee ;  area,  about  250  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870, 2,335,  of  whom  175  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  very  hilly  and  the  soil  mod- 
erately productive.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  12,472  bushels  of  wheat,  13,010 
of  Indian  corn,  6,905  of  oats,  9,353  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  and  5,904  of  wool.  Iron  and  other 
valuable  minerals  abound.  Capital,  Dunlap. 

SEQt'IN  (Ital.  eecchino,  from  zccca,  the  mint), 
an  old  Italian  and  Turkish  gold  coin.  It  was 
first  struck  at  Venice  about  the  end  of  the 
13th  century,  and  afterward  in  all  the  other 
Italian  cities,  and  by  the  Levant  trade  intro- 
duced into  Turkey.  The  Tuscan  sequin  is 
worth  $2-313 ;  the  Turkish  varies  according  to 
the  date  of  coinage. 

SEQUOIA,  the  botanical  name  of  a  genus  of 
large  coniferous  evergreen  trees,  consisting  of 
but  two  speci«s,  both  of  which  are  natives  of 
our  Pacific  coast.  The  name  was  imposed  by 
Endlicher,  who  left  its  derivation  unexplained, 
but  it  has  since  been  maintained  that  it  was 
given  in  honor  of  the  Cherokee  Sequoyah  or 
George  Guess.  (See  GUESS.)  The  species  first 
made  known  was  the  redwood  of  the  Cah- 
fornians,  S.  sempercirens,  which  was  discov- 
ered by  Menzies  in  1796,  and  from  imperfect 


772 


SEQUOIA 


specimens  was  referred  to  taxodium,  the  genus 
of  our  deciduous  cypress.  Endlicher  found 
that  it  did  not  belong  to  the  cypress  subfamily, 
but  that  its  affinities  were  with  the  pines  and 


Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens).    Male  and  Female 
Flowers. 

cedars;  its  awl-shaped  or  linear  leaves  are 
scattered,  or  somewhat  two-rowed ;  its  flow- 
ers monoecious,  terminal  and  solitary;  sterile 
aments  globular,  on  slender  stalks ;  the  cones 
oval  or  globular  with  woody  shield-shaped 
scales,  beneath  each  of  which  are  three  to 
seven  winged  seeds.  The  redwood  has  leaves 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  long,  two-rowed,  flat, 
dark  shining  green  above  and  glaucous  beneath; 
as  is  the  case  with  many  other  conifers,  the 
leaves  of  the  redwood  are  quite  unlike  in  the 
young  tree,  where  they  are  spreading,  to  those 
on  the  older  trees,  where  they  are  closely  ap- 
pressed.  The  cones  are  an  inch  or  more  long, 
roundish,  with  thick  roughish  scales,  each  of 
which  has  a  strong  obtuse  point.  The  tree  is 
found  from  the  boundary  of  Mexico  north- 
ward, its  northern  limits  being  not  well  ascer- 
tained, and  never  very  far  from  the  coast; 
upon  the  Coast  range  of  mountains  it  often 
forms  forests  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  tim- 
ber. It  sometimes  reaches  a  diameter  of  15 
ft.  and  a  height  of  800  ft. ;  1,008  annual  rings 
have  been  counted  upon  a  slab  taken  from  a 
tree  15  ft.  through.  The  redwood  has  been  of 
more  value  to  the  settlers  in  California  than 
perhaps  any  other  tree,  the  forests  being  near 
the  ocean,  though  in  many  cases  they  have 
been  found  so  inaccessible  that  it  was  cheaper 
to  purchase  lumber  brought  from  Oregon  than 
to  transport  redwood  from  the  rugged  hills 
only  a  few  miles  distant ;  the  timber  is  light 
and  close-grained,  but  not  very  strong;  it 
much  resembles  in  appearance  that  of  the  red 
cedar,  but  is  darker ;  it  splits  with  remarkable 
facility,  and  in  some  localities  has  been  largely 
used  for  fencing ;  it  may  be  made  into  planks 
and  boards  without  the  use  of  a  saw;  being 


eminently  durable,  and  not  attacked  by  insects, 
it  is  used  for  building  purposes  and  for  cabinet 
work;  it  is  said  to  dry  without  shrinking. — 
The  second  and  only  other  species  of  sequoia 
is  S.  gigantea  (Torrey),  popularly  known  as  the 
"great  tree  of  California,"  and  the  "mam- 
moth tree,"  and  the  groves  of  which  are  gen- 
erally called  "the  big  trees."  This  species 
was  first  discovered  by  some  miners,  who  in 
prospecting  came  upon  what  is  now  known  as 
the  Calaveras  group ;  afterward  the  Mariposa 
and  Fresno  groups  were  discovered,  and  later 
Prof.  "William  H.  Brewer  made  known  the  ex- 
istence of  extensive  forests  of  the  tree  along 
the  western  flanks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
California  botanists  early  secured  specimens 
of  the  tree  and  forwarded  them  to  Drs.  Torrey 
and  Gray,  proposing,  should  it  prove  to  be  a 
new  genus,  to  call  it  Washingtonia;  the  spe- 
cimens were  lost  upon  the  way;  about  the 
same  time  an  English  collector,  Mr.  Lobb,  sent 
incomplete  materials  to  England,  and  Lindley 
named  it  as  a  new  genus,  Wellingtonia.  In 
1855  Dr.  Torrey  received  very  complete  mate- 
rials, and  found  that  the  tree  belonged  to  the 
already  established  genus  sequoia,  and  pub- 
lished it  as  -S'.  gigantea.  The  English  still  re- 
tain "Wellingtonia  as  their  name  for  the  tree, 
and  some  of  their  leading  botanists,  while  ad- 
mitting that  the  tree  is  sequoia,  so  far  ignore 


Mammoth  Tree  (Sequoia  gifrantea).    Leaves  reduced,  with 
three  of  natural  size ;  cone  and  section,  half  size. 

the  rules  of  nomenclature  as  to  call  it  S.  Wel- 
lingtonia. Books  of  California  travel  have 
made  the  trees  of  this  species  well  known,  and 
until  the  recent  discovery  of  Australian  euca- 
lypti as  large  if  not  larger,  they  were  regarded 
as  the  most  gigantic  of  vegetable  productions ; 
80  ft.  is  not  an  unusual  diameter,  and  some 
have  measured  33  and  86  ft.,  and  with  their 
buttresses  even  more  in  diameter,  and  their 
heights  are  estimated  at  275  to  450  ft.  A 
striking  peculiarity  of  these  trees  is  the  dis- 
proportion between  the  expanse  of  the  foliage 


SEQUOYAH 

and  the  size  of  the  trunk.  It  is  now  known 
that  the  trees  grow  with  astonishing  rapidity 
when  young,  but  after  they  have  reached  their 
maturity  (something  over  1,000  years)  they 


SERF 


773 


Group  of  Mammoth  Trees. 


make  but  little  growth.  The  bark,  often  15 
in.  thick,  is  of  a  brown  or  cinnamon  color,  and 
the  wood  is  similar  to  that  of  the  redwood; 
when  oiled  and  exposed  to  the  light  it  be- 
comes of  a  very  deep  mahogany  color.  This 
species  differs  from  the  redwood  in  its  shorter 
leaves  of  a  light  glaucous  green,  and  its  larger 
ovate  cones,  the  scales  of  which  have  each  a 
slender  prickle.  The  cultivation  of  both  spe- 
cies has  been  tried  in  the  eastern  states,  but 
without  encouraging  success;  specimens  that 
gave  great  promise  have  one  after  another 
succumbed  either  to  severe  winters  or  to  mil- 
dew, and  they  have  both  failed  entirely,  at 
least  north  of  Virginia.  In  England  they 
flourish  remarkably  well,  and  S.  gigantea  has 
made  a  growth  remarkable  for  any  tree,  and 
especially  rapid  for  a  conifer,  and  it  will  prob- 
ably prove  important  for  planting  in  forests. 
(See  CALIFORNIA,  vol.  iii.,  p.  606.) 

SEQUOYAH,  an  unorganized  S.  W.  county  of 
Kansas,  intersected  by  the  Arkansas  river; 
area,  720  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  elevated,  and 
consists  chiefly  of  rolling  prairies. 

SERAGLIO.    See  CONSTANTINOPLE. 

SERAING,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
and  3  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Li6ge,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Meuse;  pop.  in  1866, 19,414, 


against  2,000  in  1820.  It  has  mines  of  iron 
and  coal,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  works  estab- 
lished in  1816  by  John  Cockerill,  and  now 
managed  by  a  company,  producing  locomotives 
steamboats,  and  all  kinds  of  machinery 

SERAMPORE,  a  town  of  British  India,'  in  the 
Hoogly  district  of  Bengal,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Hoogly  13  m.  N.  of  Calcutta,  with  which 
:  is  connected  by  rail;  pop.  about  15,000.  It 
extends  about  a  mile  along  the  river,  and  is 
well  built  and  clean.  Serampore  was  a  colony 
of  Denmark  from  1676  to  1845,  when  it  was 
purchased  by  the  English.  The  first  Baptist 
mission  in  Hindostan  was  established  here  and 
here  also  was  published  the  first  native  news- 
paper, printed  by  the  missionaries  from  1818 
to  1823.  The  principal  industry  of  Serampore 
is  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

SERAPIS,  or  Sarapis,  an  Egyptian  divinity, 
whose  worship  prevailed  in  the  reign  of  the 
Ptolemies.    The  name  is  supposed  to  be  a  com- 
pound of  Osiris  and  Apis,  or  a  conversion  of 
the  name  Osir  Hapi  given  to  the  dead  Apis. 
The  worship  of  Apis,  but  little  developed  in 
the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  became  in  another 
form  of  primary  importance  under  the  Ptole- 
mies.    According   to   Plutarch   and  Tacitus, 
Ptolemy  I.,  warned  by  a  dream,  sent  to  Sinope 
for  a  colossal  statue,  which  on  its  arrival  at 
Alexandria  was  declared  to  represent  the  god 
Serapis.     The  temple  Serapeum  was  built  at 
Alexandria  for  the  reception  of  the  statue,  and 
was  the  last  hold  of  the  pagans  in  that  city 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity.    It  was 
a  magnificent  structure,  supported  by  arches, 
and  divided  within  into  spacious  apartments. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  bishop  Theophilus,  by 
order  of  Theodosius,  in  389;  and  "the  colos- 
sal statue  of  Serapis  was  involved  in  the  ruin 
of  his  temple  and  religion."    Canopus  was  the 
seat  of  a  shrine  and  oracle  of  Serapis.    The 
worship  of  Serapis  prevailed  for  a  short  time 
in  Eome  in  A.  D.  146,  under  Antoninus  Pius, 
but  was  soon  suppressed  on  account  of  its 
licentious  character.     At  Puteoli    (Pozzuoli) 
there  was  a  Serapeum,  the  ruins  of  which  were 
uncovered  in  1750,  and  are  regarded  as  among 
the  most  remarkable  remains  of  ancient  archi- 
tecture in  Italy.    In  1850  Mariette  discovered 
the  site  of  the  Serapeum  or  Apis  mausoleum 
at  Memphis.    It  has  now  been  completely  un- 
earthed.   It  is  divided  into  three  distinct  parts ; 
one  served  as  the  burial  place  of  the  sacred 
bulls  from  Amunoph  III.  of  the  18th  dynasty 
io  the  end  of  the  20th  dynasty  ;  another  corn- 
arises  the  tombs  of  the  Apis  until  the  end  of 
;he  25th  dynasty ;  and  the  third,  which  is  the 
jest  preserved,  those  of  the  time  till  the  later 
Ptolemies.     Nearly  200   sphinxes  have  been 
aid  bare,  and  the  inscribed  tablets  which  cov- 
ered the  walls,  numbering  about  500,  have  been 
removed  to  the  Louvre. 
SERAYEVO.     See  BOSNA-SERAI. 
SERBATI.    See  ROSMINT  SERBATI. 
SERF  (Lat.  servus,  a  servant  or  slave),  a  term 
lescriptive  of  the  condition  of  a  large  portion 


774 


SERF 


of  the  people  of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  and 
in  later  times.  Slavery  and  various  forms  of 
bondage  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Roman  empire,  and  slavery  was  known  to 
some  of  the  races  by  whom  that  empire  was 
overthrown ;  and  out  of  the  social  and  politi- 
cal conflicts  produced  by  the  barbarian  inva- 
sions of  the  empire  arose  the  feudal  system. 
(See  FEUDAL  SYSTEM.)  The  invaders  found  a 
portion  of  the  agricultural  populations  of  the 
countries  they  acquired  in  a  condition  between 
servitude  and  freedom.  These  were  the  coloni, 
or  bond  laborers,  who  were  attached  to  estates. 
Under  the  German  conquerors  of  Gaul,  where 
the  feudal  system  experienced  its  greatest  de- 
velopment, and  where  serfdom  became  the  most 
extensive  and  severe  in  its  application  to  the 
masses  of  the  people,  labor  was  almost  entirely 
servile  and  compulsory.  Some  lords  possessed 
more  than  20,000  slaves  each.  The  capitulary 
de  Villit  shows  that  the  royal  farms  were  cul- 
tivated by  slaves,  and  it  is  estimated  that  they 
embraced  a  fourth  part  of  the  land.  In  time 
the  benefices  that  were  granted  became  herita- 
ble, so  that  the  beneficiary  exercised  over  the 
slaves  not  merely  the  power  of  an  owner,  but 
also  that  of  a  magistrate.  Montesquieu  asserts 
that  at  the  beginning  of  the  ascendancy  of  the 
third  dynasty,  in  the  10th  century,  nearly  all 
the  people  of  France  were  serfs.  The  extreme 
sufferings  of  the  people  from  famine  compelled 
many  of  them  to  sell  themselves  into  slavery  ; 
others  exchanged  liberty  for  the  protection  of 
powerful  men.  Offenders  against  the  laws, 
who  could  not  pay  the  compositions  demanded 
of  them,  and  persons  who  had  failed  to  perform 
their  military  duties,  were  made  serfs,  or  were 
liable  to  be  so  made.  Some  men  voluntarily 
became  the  property  of  churches  and  monas- 
teries. The  effect  of  the  barbarian  conquests 
had  been  on  the  whole  advantageous  to  the 
slaves  found  in  the  conquered  countries,  though 
it  had  considerably  depressed  the  coloni.  The 
two  classes  of  forced  laborers  had  been  brought 
nearer  together,  the  more  favored  class  suffer- 
ing somewhat  from  the  change,  while  the  less 
favored  class  gained  a  little  therefrom.  For 
several  centuries  this  state  of  things  lasted,  to 
the  detriment  of  the  coloni,  or  villeins,  as  they 
were  called  by  the  jurisconsults.  The  effect 
of  the  establishment  of  the  feudal  system,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  beneficial  to  both  the  serfs 
and  villeins.  Chattel  slavery  ceased  to  exist, 
and  they  could  no  longer  be  bought  and  sold. 
This  was  principally  owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  church,  which  denounced  traffic  in  Chris- 
tians. The  serfs  became  hereditary  bondmen, 
and  were  employed  on  the  soil,  with  which  they 
were  transferred.  The  difference  between  the 
serfs  and  the  villeins,  however,  was  so  faint  in 
many  respects  that  they  are  generally  spoken 
of  as  forming  one  and  the  same  class,  even 
by  the  highest  authorities.  But  the  distinc^ 
tion  was  real,  the  villeins  holding  a  medium 
position  between  the  serfs  and  the  ingenuous 
classes,  or  freemen.  The  serfs,  who  are  some- 


times spoken  of  as  a  lower  class  of  villeins, 
were  in  theory  in  the  most  abject  state,  and 
practically  they  often  were  so.  Beaumanoir, 
after  pointing  out  the  two  conditions  of  gen- 
tlemen and  freemen,  says :  "  The  third  estate 
of  men  is  that  of  such  as  are  not  free ;  and 
these  are  not  all  of  one  condition,  for  some  are 
so  subject  to  their  lord  that  he  may  take  all 
they  have,  alive  or  dead,  and  imprison  them 
whenever  ho  pleases,  being  accountable  to  none 
but  God ;  while  others  are  treated  more  gen- 
tly, from  whom  the  lord  can  take  nothing  but 
customary  payments,  though  at  their  death  all 
they  have  escheats  to  him."  The  former  were 
serfs,  the  latter  villeins.  The  villein  was 
obliged  to  remain  upon  his  lord's  estate.  He 
could  not  sell  his  lands,  and  his  person  was 
bound,  and  he  could  be  reclaimed  and  brought 
back  if  he  left  his  superior.  This  was  the  con- 
dition of  both  serfs  and  villeins ;  but  the  for- 
mer were  bound  to  the  performance  of  ignoble 
services,  from  which  the  latter  were  exempt. 
It  was  only  against  his  lord  that  the  villein 
was  without  rights,  at  least  in  England ;  and 
"  he  might  inherit,  purchase,  sue  in  the  courts 
of  law,  though,  as  defendant  in  a  real  action  or 
suit  wherein  land  was  claimed,  he  might  shel- 
ter himself  under  the  plea  of  villenage."  Chil- 
dren generally  followed  the  condition  of  their 
mother,  but  in  England  the  state  of  the  father 
determined  that  of  the  children  as  far  back  as 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  the  first  third  of  the 
12th  century.  There  the  law  presumed  that 
the  fathers  of  the  bastards  of  female  villeins 
were  free,  or  that  bastards  were  the  sons  of 
nobody,  and  therefore  could  not  be  the  sons  of 
slaves.  In  France,  the  free  woman  who  mnr- 
ried  a  serf  was  treated  as  being  of  her  hus- 
band's condition ;  and  in  Flanders,  if  a  free 
man  married  a  villein,  he  became  a  villein  him- 
self after  living  with  her  a  year.  Before  the 
establishment  of  the  feudal  system,  and  under 
the  Carlovingian  rule,  it  had  been  provided 
that  a  free  man  who  had  taken  a  villein  to  wife 
could  divorce  her  if  he  had  been  deceived  as  to 
her  condition.  Villeins  could  not  marry  with- 
out their  lord's  consent,  or  they  forfeited  their 
property,  or  were  fined.  The  treatment  of  the 
servile  classes  differed  much  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  villenage  literally  disappeared  from 
England  long  before  it  was  broken  up  in 
France.  It  was  never  abolished  by  statute. 
— In  France,  the  rise  of  men  from  a  servile 
condition  began  very  early  and  continued  until 
great  changes  were  effected.  Many  of  the 
coloni  aspired  to  freedom  at  the  time  when  the 
feudal  system  was  in  its  most  flourishing  state, 
and  not  a  few  of  them  were  successful  in 
throwing  off  their  bonds.  Those  on  the  estates 
of  kings  arid  churchmen  were  soonest  enabled 
to  do  this,  for  obvious  reasons.  By  the  middle 
of  the  13th  century  so  many  villeins  had  be- 
come possessed  of  fiefs,  that  even  St.  Louis, 
who  favored  the  rise  of  the  people,  became 
alarmed,  and  sought  to  put  a  stop  to  the  prac- 
tice. But  he  did  not  take  from  them  the  fiefs 


SERF 


775 


they  had  acquired,  -which  has  justly  been  held 
to  prove  that  the  number  of  such  fiefs  was 
large,  and  the  class  of  emancipated  coloni  too 
numerous  to  be  assailed.  Louis  X.,  in  1315, 
emancipated  all  persons  in  the  royal  domains 
upon  their  paying  a  fair  composition,  his  object 
being  to  set  an  example  to  all  seigneurs ;  but 
his  example  was  not  extensively  followed. 
Philip  the  Fair  had  emancipated  the  villeins  on 
the  royal  domains  in  Languedoc,  but  the  num- 
ber of  freemen  was  always  greater  in  southern 
France  than  in  the  north,  except  in  Normandy. 
One  of  the  chief  effects  of  the  crusades  was  to 
favor  emancipation.  Previously  the  obstacles 
in  the  way  to  emancipation  were  almost  insur- 
mountable. The  labor  of  the  villeins  was  very 
valuable  to  their  lords,  and  a  lay  noble  "  was 
unable  to  enfranchise  the  serf  without  the  con- 
currence of  each  in  turn  of  the  various  other 
lords  who,  in  the  long  chain  of  feudal  depen- 
dence, might  have  an  interest,  mediate  or  im- 
mediate, or  more  or  less  remote,  in  the  fief  to 
which  the  serf  belonged."  To  emancipate  a 
serf  on  an  ecclesiastical  estate  would  have  been 
to  alienate  a  part  of  the  church's  property,  and 
that  property  was  inalienable  according  to  the 
canon  law.  The  crusades  operated  to  change 
this,  as  military  service  was  incompatible  with 
the  servile  condition.  The  serf  who  took  the 
cross  became  free,  not  through  the  force  of 
positive  law,  but  because  opinion  was  so  strong 
in  his  favor  that  his  owner  durst  not  reclaim 
him,  either  while  in  service  or  after  his  return. 
The  crusades,  too,  by  introducing  unwonted 
habits  of  change  of  place,  greatly  increased  the 
numbers  of  those  vagrants  whom  the  law  had 
previously  presumed  to  be  serfs,  and  assigned 
to  the  lord  on  whose  property  they  remained 
beyond  a  year  and  a  day,  unless  they  acknowl- 
edged themselves  to  be  the  property  of  some 
other  lord.  The  crusaders  were  soldiers  of 
the  cross,  and  it  would  not  answer  to  deal 
with  them  as  slaves.  It  was  allowed  to  va- 
grants to  declare  themselves  the  king's  vassals, 
and  such  vassals  were  free.  Further,  this 
movement  of  the  people  caused  great  additions 
to  be  made  to  the  populations  of  the  communes, 
and  the  gates  of  the  communes  stood  constant- 
ly open  to  refugees ;  and  whoever  resided 
therein  for  a  year  and  a  day,  being  a  serf  at 
the  beginning  of  that  term,  became  a  free  man. 
No  serf  could  be  a  bourgeois,  for  in  the  citizens 
of  a  bourg  resided,  collectively,  its  seigneury  ; 
and  a  serf  could  not  hold  seigneurial  rights. 
But  when  the  serf  who  had  taken  refuge  in  a 
bourg  had  acquired  freedom,  he  became  a  citi- 
zen on  easy  terms.  Before  the  crusades  these 
bourgs  had  become  so  many  places  of  refuge 
to  men  of  servile  condition ;  and  the  crusades 
led  to  the  great  increase  of  the  number  of  such 
fugitives,  promoted  commerce,  and  created  new 
sources  of  wealth,  which  things  were  favorable 
to  freedom.  Nevertheless,  serfdom  was  not 
abolished  throughout  France  until  the  French 
revolution,  and  serfs  could  not  be  manumitted 
without  letters  patent  from  the  king.  It  was 


a  French  rule  of  law,  and  as  such  put  in  prac- 
tice concerning  foreigners  as  early  aa  the  18th 
century,  that  whoever  entered  France,  being 
a  slave,  became  free;  but  the  practice  of  the 
country  was  very  different  toward  the  mass- 
es of  the  natives.  That  terrible  insurrection 
known  as  the  Jacquerie,  which  occurred  in 
1358,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  was 
caused  by  the  sufferings  of  the  people  at  the 
hands  of  the  seigneurs,  though  its  immediate 
occasion  was  the  additional  suffering  created 
by  the  English  wars.  The  fierceness  of  the 
peasants  afforded  an  excuse  for  keeping  them 
in  a  subordinate  condition;  and  from  that 
time  the  progress  of  emancipation  became 
slow.  The  triumph  of  the  central  power,  too, 
was  injurious  to  the  servile  classes,  as  the 
kings  no  longer  had  occasion  to  favor  the  peo- 
ple at  the  expense  of  the  nobles.  From  the 
closing  years  of  the  14th  century,  therefore, 
the  condition  of  the  French  people  ceased  to 
be  directly  affected  by  those  causes  which 
previously  had  tended  to  their  elevation ;  but 
general  causes  to  that  end  still  remained  in 
operation,  and  at  least  prevented  their  condi- 
tion from  becoming  worse. — In  Italy  the  peo- 
ple had  become  free  by  the  13th  century ;  and 
in  some  of  the  German  countries  the  peasants 
acquired  their  freedom  before  the  close  of  the 
18th,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  country  they 
remained  in  a  condition  of  modified  villenage 
until  the  present  century. — In  England  the 
state  of  most  of  the  laboring  people  was  on 
the  whole,  and  comparatively  speaking,  mild 
down  to  the  time  of  Henry  II.  (1154-'8y).  The 
mllani  of  Domesday  Book  were  the  ceorh  of 
Anglo-Saxon  law ;  and  in  the  second  genera- 
tion after  the  Norman  conquest  the  villein  was 
mentioned  as  a  freeman.  But  in  the  next  gen- 
eration he  became  completely  dependent  upon 
the  lord,  and  his  general  condition  was  very 
harsh,  though  somewhat  mitigated  by  the  exis- 
tence of  legal  fictions,  and  by  opinion.  "This 
class,"  says  Hallam,  "was  distinguished  into 
villeins  regardant,  who  had  been  attached  from 
time  immemorial  to  a  certain  manor,  and  vil- 
leins in  gross,  where  such  territorial  prescrip- 
tion had  never  existed,  or  had  been  broken. 
In  the  condition  of  these,  whatever  has  been 
said  by  some  writers,  I  can  find  no  manner  of 
difference ;  the  distinction  was  merely  techni- 
cal, and  affected  only  the  mode  of  pleading." 
Gradually  the  condition  of  the  English  villeins 
was  improved,  until  the  system  silently  disap- 
peared. By  the  middle  of  the  14th  century 
there  were  many  peasants  who  had  become 
free  laborers,  and  who  worked  for  wages. 
The  English  villeins  of  that  time  shared  in 
that  general  aversion  to  servitude  which  led 
the  Jacques  to  rise  in  France,  and  the  rebellion 
that  takes  its  name  from  Wat  Tyler  was  of 
substantially  the  same  nature  as  that  in  which 
Guillaume  Callet  figured,  though  the  English 
revolt  was  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  than 
the  French.  From  the  close  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury the  tendency  to  the  abolition  of  English 


776 


SERGEANT 


SERINGAPATAM 


villenage  was  very  strong.  The  last  unequiv- 
ocal evidence  as  to  its  existence  is  believed  to 
be  a  commission  of  Elizabeth,  dated  1574,  di- 
rectfag  the  enfranchisement  of  her  bondmen 
and  bondwomen  on  certain  manors,  upon  pay- 
ment of  a  fine ;  but  no  doubt  it  existed  some- 
what later  than  that  period. — The  Polish  peas- 
antry were  enslaved  by  the  nobles,  though  they 
were  never  chattel  slaves ;  and  among  the 
causes  of  the  fall  of  Poland  was  the  serfdom 
that  there  existed.  After  its  last  partition  the 
condition  of  the  Polish  peasants  underwent  va- 
rious modifications  under  the  Prussian,  Aus- 
trian, and  Russian  governments,  until  eman- 
cipation, though  at  different  periods,  was  de- 
creed in  each  division.  In  Hungary,  the  last 
remnants  of  serfdom  were  abolished  by  the 
laws  of  1848.  In  Russia,  serfdom  was  un- 
known till  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  though 
chattel  slavery  had  long  existed  there.  Serf- 
dom was  introduced  by  Boris  Godunoff,  and 
in  a  few  years  all  the  rural  populations  wore 
subject  to  it,  with  the  exception  of  those  per- 
sons who  resided  in  the  free  communes  con- 
stituting the  crown  domains.  The  legislation 
of  Peter  the  Great  transformed  the  serfs  on 
private  estates  into  a  condition  of  chattelhood, 
while  those  on  the  royal  domains  enjoyed 
comparative  freedom ;  but  as  great  grants  of 
land  and  serfs  were  made  by  the  Russian  sov- 
ereigns to  individuals,  myriads  of  peasants 
were  thus  converted  into  serfs  of  the  lowest 
grade.  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas  were  friend- 
ly to  the  liberation  of  the  peasants ;  and  Alex- 
ander II.  soon  after  his  accession  began  his 
labors  in  the  cause  of  emancipation,  proposing 
to  free  all  the  serfs,  but  gradually.  He  en- 
countered considerable  opposition,  and  long 
preparations  were  unavoidable ;  but  on  March 
8  (Feb.  19,  O.  S.),  1861,  the  "  imperial  mani- 
festo "  emancipating  the  serfs  was  published,  to 
take  effect  at  the  end  of  two  years.  Serious 
difficulties  were  anticipated  from  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  nobles  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
serfs  ;  but  the  manifesto  was  carried  out  with 
little  disturbance.  (See  RUSSIA.) 

s  HUG  KIM,  John,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  5,  1779,  died  there,  Nov. 
23,  1852.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1795, 
became  distinguished  as  a  lawyer,  and  between 
1815  and  1842  served  six  terms  in  congress. 
In  1826  he  was  one  of  the  two  envoys  ap- 
pointed to  represent  the  United  States  in  the 
Panama  congress.  In  1882  he  was  the  whig 
candidate  for  vice  president  with  Mr.  Clay. 
A  volume  of  his  "  Select  Speeches"  was  pub- 
lished at  Philadelphia  in  1832. 

SERGIPE,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil,  the 
smallest  in  the  empire,  bounded  N.  by  Alag6as, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Rio  Sao 
Francisco,  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  and  S.  and  W. 
by  Bahia;  area,  12,240  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
275,000.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  130  m.,  with  few 
indentations  and  no  good  harbors.  The  shore 
in  the  southern  half  is  mostly  low  and  sandy ; 
in  the  northern  there  are  scattered  hills.  The 


E.  part  of  the  province  is  called  the  mattat, 
from  its  forests,  which  produce  valuable  tim- 
ber, and  are  here  and  there  separated  by  culti- 
vable land ;  the  western,  called  the  agrestes,  is 
mostly  a  barren  waste,  with  some  portions  tit 
for  pasturage  in  the  rainy  season.  The  latter 
region  is  the  higher,  and  somewhat  mountain- 
ous, the  principal  range  being  the  low  Serra 
d'ltabayana.  Besides  the  Sao  Francisco,  there 
are  several  small  rivers  falling  into  the  Atlan- 
tic, none  of  them  navigable  by  small  craft  for 
more  than  27  m.  from  the  sea.  In  the  shore 
region  the  climate  is  hot  and  the  soil  fertile, 
yielding  large  crops  of  cotton,  sugar  cane,  to- 
bacco, mandioca,  rice,  and  millet ;  some  flax 
is  produced,  and  mangoes  and  oranges  abound. 
The  exports  include  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
rum,  and  ipecacuanha.  The  number  of  schools 
reported  in  1875  was  149,  with  a  total  attend- 
ance of  5,247.  Capital,  Aracaju,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Cotinguiba  river. 

SERIN  ACIR,  a  city  of  India,  capital  of  Cash- 
mere,  by  which  name  it  has  also  sometimes 
been  called,  in  lat.  84°  6'  N.,  Ion.  74°  55'  E., 
near  the  centre  of  the  valley  of  Cashmere, 
5,246  ft.  above  the  sea,  170  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Lahore;  pop.  about  135,000.  It  extends  about 

4  m.  along  both  sides  of  the  Jhylum,  which  is 
crossed  by  five  wooden  bridges,  and  winds 
through  the  town  as  a  deep  and  placid  stream 
about  100  yards  wide.    The  exterior  appear- 
ance of  Serinagur  is  picturesque  and  attractive. 
From  its  delightful  situation  and  innumerable 
canals  it  has  been  called  the  Venice  of  Asia ; 
but  within  it  is  for  the  most  part  extremely 
filthy.     The  houses,  which  are  generally  dilap- 
idated, are  built  of  thin  bricks  witli  timber 
frames,  many  of  them  three  stories  high.    The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  Jumna  Mes- 
jid,  or  great  mosque,  in  which  it  is  said  60,000 
persons  can  worship  together,  and  the  dun- 
geon-like palace  of  the  maharajah,  surmount- 
ed by  a  shining  cupola.     On  the  east  is  a  lake 

5  m.  long  and  2£  m.  broad,  known  as  the  Dal 
of  Serinagur,  which  is  connected  with   the 
Jhylum  by  a  canal,  is  surrounded  by  beautiful 
scenery,  and  was  formerly  a  favorite  resort 
of  the  Mogul  emperors,  many  of  whose  plea- 
sure grounds  and  palaces  still  remain ;   the 
most  noted  is  the  Shalimar  Bagh,  laid  out  by 
the  emperor  Jehanghir,  which  Moore  select- 
ed for  the  closing  scene  of  "  Lalla  Rookh." 
This  lake  is  celebrated  for  its  floating  gardens, 
formed  by  placing  layers  of  soil  on  tangled 
masses  of  aquatic  plants,  where  the  finest  mel- 
ons and  cucumbers  are  cultivated.     Serinagur 
is  the  centre  of  the  shawl  manufacture  of  Cash- 
mere.    Silk  is  also  raised  and  manufactured. 

SERINGAPATAM  (Hindoo,  Sringa-patnd),  a 
city  of  India,  in  Mysore,  7  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Mysore,  2,412  ft.  above  the  sea;  pop.  about 
13,000.  It  is  on  tfie  upper  end  of  an  island, 
about  3  m.  long,  in  the  Cavery  river,  and  was 
strongly  fortified  under  native  rule.  The  more 
prominent  buildings  are  a  Hindoo  temple,  a 
handsome  mosque,  the  mausoleum  of  Hyder 


SEEOUS  MEMBRANES 

All  and  Tippoo  Sahib,  and  the  ancient  palace 
of  the  rajahs  of  Mysore.  Seringapatam  first 
appears  historically  in  1610  as  the  capital  of  a 
Mysore  chief  named  Raj  Wadeyar,  and  was  un- 
successfully besieged  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1697. 
In  1765  Hyder  Ali  established  his  government 
there,  and  a  Mahratta  army  again  attacked  the 
city  in  1772  and  forced  him  to  a  humiliating 
peace.  During  the  reign  of  Tippoo  Sahib,  in 
1792,  it  was  invested  by  a  large  British  force 
under  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  exacted  a  war  in- 
demnity of  £3,300,000  from  the  native  mon- 
arch, together  with  the  cession  of  about  half 
his  dominions  to  the  English  and  their  allies. 
In  1799  Seringapatam  underwent  a  celebrated 
siege.  It  was  invested  by  the  British  and  the 
allied  forces  of  the  nizam,  about  31,000  strong, 
under  Gen.  Harris,  on  April  6,  and  was  stormed 
and  captured  on  May  4,  after  four  days'  bom- 
bardment, and  a  loss  to  the  British  of  1,164 
killed  and  wounded.  The  assault  was  led  by 
Gen.  Baird,  and  Col.  "Wellesley,  afterward  duke 
of  Wellington,  participated  in  it.  Tippoo  Sa- 
hib was  killed,  and  929  pieces  of  ordnance, 
together  with  enormous  amounts  of  treasure 
and  jewels,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors ; 
£1,100,000  in  prize  money  was  divided  among 
the  troops.  In  1809  the  discontent  with  the 
management  of  the  Madras  army  led  to  a  mu- 
tiny of  the  European  officers  stationed  at  Se- 
ringapatam, who  fired  xipon  the  royal  troops, 
but  subsequently  submitted.  Seringapatam  is 
now  included  within  the  Ashtagram  commis- 
sionership  of  Mysore. 

SEROUS  MEMBRANES.     See  MEMBEANE. 

SERPENT,  a  musical  wind  instrument  of  cur- 
vilinear form,  consisting  of  a  conical  tube  of 
brass,  divided  into  three  parts,  a  mouthpiece, 
neck,  and  tail,  and  having  six  circular  aper- 
tures for  the  production  of  the  notes.  Its 
compass  extends  from  B  flat  below  the  bass 
staff  to  G,  the  treble  clef  line,  and  its  use  is 
confined  to  military  bands.  It  was  invented 
by  Edme  Guillaume  of  Auxerre  in  1590. 

SERPENT,  or  Snake,  the  common  name  of  the 
ophidian  reptiles,  including,  according  to  the 
earlier  naturalists,  all  air-breathing  oviparous 
vertebrates,  of  elongated  and  rounded  body, 
without  limbs  and  creeping  on  the  ventral  sur- 
face. The  body  is  very  flexible  and  narrow, 
without  distinct  neck  and  with  conical  tail ; 
bones  of  the  face  movable,  making  the  mouth 
very  dilatable ;  teeth  sharp,  separate,  usually 
hooked  on  both  jaws  and  almost  always  on 
the  palate ;  no  eyelids,  nor  tympanum,  nor 
apparent  external  auditory  foramen ;  skin  ex- 
tensible, protected  by  thin  scalea  covered  by 
an  epidermis  which  is  shed  in  a  single  piece 
by  a  process  of  inversion ;  the  plates  of  the 
under  surface  are  larger,  and  used  for  pro- 
gression ;  the  male  reproductive  organs  are 
double,  concealed,  and  capable  of  protrusion, 
which  has  led  some  to  the  belief  that  snakes 
have  posterior  limbs ;  they  are  oviparous,  and  a 
few  are  ovoviviparous,  and  the  young  undergo 
no  metamorphosis  after  leaving  the  egg.  The 


SERPENT 


777 


spine  consists  of  very  numerous  and  movable 
vertebrae,  concave  in  front  and  hemispherically 
convex  behind,  distinguishable  only  into  costal 
and  caudal;   the  occipital  condyle  is  single, 
and  the  jaws  are  connected  by  a  very  movable 
interarticular  bone;  the  very  numerous  ribs 
are  always  distinct  and  free  at  the  lower  end, 
there  being  no  sternum  nor  pectoral  arch. 
The  tongue  is  soft  and  fleshy,  protractile,  deep- 
ly forked,  and  held  in  a  sheath ;  the  visceral 
organs  are  very  long,  closely  fitting  in  the 
abdominal  cavity ;  only  a  single  lung  well  de- 
veloped, generally  the  left,  forming  a  cavity 
with  spongy  walls,  and  the  hinder  portion  fre- 
quently without  cells,  its  simple  sac  serving 
probably  as  a  reservoir  of  air ;  opening  of  the 
cloaca  transverse.    The  vertebra?  are  rarely 
fewer  than  100,  and  in  some  boas  and  pythons 
as  many  as  400,  presenting  the  largest  number 
among  animals ;  progression  is  almost  always 
by  lateral  undulations,  the  ribs  with  their  at- 
tached ventral  plates  being  so  many  pairs  of 
feet,  like  those  of  myriapods,  in  some  boas 
more  than  300  pairs ;  the  anterior  limbs  are 
wanting,  but  in  some  boas  and  pythons  there 
are  horny  hooks  appearing  externally,  sup- 
ported on  a  rudimentary  pelvic  arch ;  with 
these  few  exceptions  posterior  limbs  are  want- 
ing.   Most  of  the  muscles  are  specially  adapt- 
ed for  acting  on  the  spinal  column,  and  are 
arranged  in  a  very  complicated  manner,  espe- 
cially those  in  connection  with  the  ribs.     The 
brain  is  small,  and  the  spinal  cord  very  long, 
with  exceedingly  numerous  vertebral  nerves. 
For  other  details  of  structure  see  COMPABA- 
TIVE  ANATOMY,  and  REPTILES.      They  creep, 
spring,  climb,  swim,  constrict,  suspend  them- 
selves by  the  tail,  burrow,  and  raise  the  body 
almost  erect.     Like  most  reptiles,  they  are 
very  sensitive  to  cold,  becoming  lethargic  in 
winter ;  the  muscular  irritability  is  remarkably 
great  and  persistent,  depending  on  the  spinal 
nervous  agency  and  the  inherent  property  of 
the  muscular  tissue ;  the  heart  palpitates  long 
after  it  has  been  removed  from  the  body, 
and  the  jaws  open  and  shut  in  the  decapitated 
head.    The  senses  of  smell,  hearing,  and  taste 
are  very  imperfect ;  the  eyes,  without  lids  and 
constantly  open,  appear  immovable ;  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  touch  is  in  the  soft  and  exten- 
sile tongue.     The  scales  offer  every  variety 
of  color  and  marking,  but  in  most  the  general 
color  resembles  the  objects  on  which  they 
habitually  live ;  the  coloring  matter  is  in  the 
middle  layer  of  the  skin,  the  inner  or  dermis 
being  strong  and  holding  the  scales,  and  the 
outer  or  epidermis  shed  several  times  a  year  ; 
the  animal  is  dull  and  does  not  eat  at  the  pe- 
riod of  casting  its  skin.    These  characters  are 
sufficient  to  distinguish  serpents  from  large 
annelids,  eel-like  fishes,  the  scincoid  and  chal- 
cidian  saurians,  and  many  elongated  batrachi- 
ans ;  they  are  reptiles  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word.    For  the  systems  of  classification  see 
HKRPETOLOGT  ;  they  are  generally  divided  into 
the  two  groups  of  the  venomous  and  non-ven- 


778 


SERPENT 


SERRANO 


omons;  the  first,  like  the  cobra,  rattlesnake, 
and  viper,  have  movable  fangs  in  the  upper 
jaw  communicating  with  a  poison  gland.  All 
feed-  on  living  prey,  which  is  swallowed  whole ; 
while  some  are  rapid  in  pursuit,  others  crush 
their  victims  to  death,  or  poison  them,  or  bring 
them  within  reach  of  their  jaws  by  a  kind  of 
fascination,  terrifying  by  their  hideous  and 
menacing  aspect  some  of  the  active  and  small- 
er mammals  and  birds  into  a  momentary  -loss 
of  power.  They  eat  and  drink  rarely,  and  are 
capable  of  sustaining  very  long  fasts ;  digestion 
is  performed  very  slowly ;  the  secretion  of  the 
large  salivary  glands  is  profuse.  For  details 
on  the  poison  apparatus  see  COBRA  DE  CAPEL- 
LO,  RATTLESNAKE,  and  VIPER.  The  stomach  is 
little  more  than  a  prolongation  of  the  oesoph- 
agus, and  the  intestines  are  very  short;  the 
heart  is  in  a  fibrous  pericardium,  and  consists 
of  two  auricles,  and  one  ventricle  with  two 
unequal  apartments  communicating  with  each 
other ;  hence  a  mixed  arterial  and  venous 
blood  is  sent  over  the  system ;  the  growth  ia 
slow,  and  the  life  prolonged ;  the  hissing  at- 
tributed to  serpents  is  a  faint  sound  produced 
by  the  slow  escape  of  air  through  the  mouth 
or  nostrils  during  expiration,  and  only  ex- 
ceptionally would  be  noticeable  by  an  indif- 
ferent observer ;  the  animal  heat  is  low.  The 
males  are  smaller,  more  slender,  brighter,  and 
more  active  than  the  females ;  no  nest  is  made, 
there  is  no  incubation  (except  in  the  python) 
by  the  heat  of  the  body,  no  food  is  stored  up 
for  the  young,  and  no  education  nor  paren- 
tal care  is  necessary.  The  mother  hides  the 
eggs  in  a  suitable  place,  and  leaves  them  to 
bo  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  air ; 
sometimes  the  young  are  brought  to  maturity 
in  the  mother's  body,  as  in  the  vipers.  There 
are  about  1,000  described  species,  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  world,  especially  in  the  warm- 
er regions ;  doubtless  many  varieties  from  age, 
sex,  and  climate  have  been  described  as  spe- 
cies.— Fossil  remains  of  serpents  have  been 
found  in  all  the  divisions  of  the  tertiary  age ; 
pal&ophis  (Owen),  attaining  a  length  of  20 
ft.,  has  been  found  in  the  eocene  of  England, 
showing  a  higher  temperature  than  now  exists 
in  N.  Europe;  many  more  species,  probably 
belonging  near  the  genus  coluber  (Linn.)  if  not 
in  it,  are  met  with  in  the  middle  and  upper 
tertiary  and  the  diluvium  of  Europe.  Prof. 
Marsh  describes  in  the  "  American  Journal 
of  Science  "  (1870)  the  dinophis  grandis  from 
the  New  Jersey  tertiary  greensand,  a  verte- 
bra of  which  indicated  an  animal  80  ft.  long, 
allied  to  the  present  marine  boas.  Almost  all 
the  species  older  than  the  post-pliocene  are 
related  to  the  constrictors.  He  draws  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  of  the  occurrence  of  closely 
related  large  serpents  in  the  same  geological 
formations  in  Europe  and  in  this  country,  just 
after  the  disappearance  of  the  snake-like  mo- 
sasaurus  and  its  allies,  interesting  in  view  of 
the  probable  derivation  of  the  serpents.  Oth- 
er large  species  have  since  been  described  in 


the  same  journal. — For  interesting  information 
on  serpents,  see  Broderip's  "  Note  Book  of  a 
Naturalist,"  part  13,  and  F.  Buckland's  "  Cu- 
riosities of  Natural  History  "  (London,  1859). 

SKRI'EXTIXE.    See  MARBLE,  vol.  xi.,  p.  147. 

SERRANO,  Frandsco,  duke  de  la  Torre,  a  Span- 
ish statesman,  born  at  San  Fernando,  near  Ca- 
diz, in  1810.  He  entered  the  army  when  still 
a  boy,  and  took  part  in  the  war  against  the 
Carlists.  In  1848,  during  the  contest  between 
the  partisans  of  Maria  Christina  and  Espartero, 
he  espoused  the  interests  of  the  former,  and 
was  one  of  the  juuta  of  Barcelona  which  de- 
clared the  majority  of  Queen  Isabella  and 
deposed  Espartero.  After  the  restoration  of 
Maria  Christina  he  joined  Narvaez  in  over- 
throwing the  ministry  of  Olozaga.  In  1846 
his  extraordinary  influence  over  the  queen, 
whose  lover  he  was,  led  to  dissensions  be- 
tween her  and  her  husband,  and  caused  much 
scandal ;  and  the  ministry  of  Sotomayor  at- 
tempted to  remove  him  from  court,  but  was 
overthrown  by  him.  The  Pacheco-Salamauca 
ministry,  which  ho  supported,  fell  before  pub- 
lic opposition ;  and  Serrano  then,  as  an  offset 
to  the  rising  favor  of  Narvaez,  caused  the  re- 
call of  O16zaga  and  Espartero.  On  the  advent 
of  Narvaez  to  power  in  1849,  Serrano  was 
made  captain  general  of  Granada ;  and  he  after- 
ward vigorously  opposed  in  the  senate  the  min- 
istries which  rapidly  succeeded  each  other.  In 
February,  1854,  he  was  implicated  in  an  insur- 
rectionary movement  at  Saragossa,  and  exiled, 
but  was  restored  by  the  revolution  of  July,  and 
joined  the  "  liberal  union  "  which  supported 
the  coalition  of  Espartero  and  O'Donnell ;  and 
when  they  separated,  Serrano  declared  for 
the  latter.  He  had  been  made  in  1854  captain 
general  of  artillery,  which  office  he  exchanged 
some  time  later  for  that  of  captain  general  of 
New  Castile.  Madrid  being  thus  under  his 
control  at  the  time  of  O'Donnell's  coup  d'etat 
in  July,  1856,  he  suppressed  the  insurrection 
in  the  Prado  and  the  Retiro,  and  soon  after- 
ward superseded  O16zaga  as  ambassador  to 
Paris,  but  was  recalled  on  the  fall  of  O'Don- 
nell in  October.  On  his  return  he  joined  in 
the  senate  the  opposition  which  led  to  the 
downfall  of  Narvaez  in  November,  1857.  In 
1860  he  was  appointed  captain  general  of 
Cuba,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dulce,  Dec.  11, 
1862.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  created 
duke  de  la  Torre  for  his  services  in  the  rean- 
nexation  of  Santo  Domingo  to  Spain  in  1861. 
In  June,  1865,  he  was  made  captain  general  of 
Madrid.  On  the  return  of  Narvaez  to  power  in 
1866,  Serrano  as  president  of  the  senate,  with 
Rios  Rosas,  president  of  the  deputies,  pre- 
sented a  protest  against  the  prorogation  of  the 
cortes,  and  in  consequence  was  imprisoned  for 
a  short  time  at  Alicante.  In  the  revolution  of 
1868  he  took  a  prominent  part.  With  other 
generals  he  had  been  exiled  to  the  Canary 
islands  in  July,  but  the  revolutionists  sent  a 
vessel  for  them,  and  they  landed  on  Sept.  19  at 
Cadiz.  At  the  head  of  the  insurgents  Serrano 


SERTORIUS 

defeated  the  government  troops  at  Alcolea, 
Sept.  28,  and  entered  Madrid  on  Oct.  3.  The 
junta  made  him  president  of  the  council  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army ;  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1869,  with  the  consent  of  the  cortes,  he 
assumed  the  executive  power.  The  new  eon- 
stitution  was  promulgated  in  June,  and  on  the 
15th,  by  a  vote  of  the  cortes,  Serrano  became 
regent.  He  resigned  that  office  on  the  arrival 
of  Amadeus  to  take  the  throne,  Jan.  2,  1871, 
and  was  made  prime  minister.  In  April,  1872, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
forces  sent  against  the  Carlists,  with  whom  he 
concluded  in  May  the  convention  of  Amoro- 
vieta;  and  on  his  return  he  succeeded  Sagasta  as 
head  of  the  ministry.  His  concessions  to  the 
Carlists  in  the  late  convention  were  the  cause 
of  much  popular  dissatisfaction,  but  the  cortes 
passed  a  vote  of  approval.  The  insurrection 
however  was  still  active  ;  the  republicans  also 
threatened  armed  opposition  ;  and  in  the  diffi- 
culties which  beset  Amadeus,  Serrano  sug- 
gested that  the  ministry  should  have  the  power 
to  suspend  the  constitutional  guarantees  when 
they  should  deem  it  necessary.  Amadeus  re- 
fused; Serrano  and  his  cabinet  resigned,  and 
he  was  succeeded  by  Zorrilla.  After  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  republic  following  the  abdica- 
tion of  Amadeus  (Feb.  11,  1873),  Serrano  was 
conspicuous  in  the  opposition  to  the  new  gov- 
ernment, in  April  became  implicated  in  a  se- 
ditious movement,  and  fled  from  the  country. 
With  the  restoration  of  quiet  he  soon  returned, 
and  in  February,  1874,  after  the  coup  d'etat  by 
Pavia,  which  followed  the  resignation  of  Cas- 
telar's  administration,  he  was  elected  by  the 
cortes  president  of  the  republic.  He  almost 
immediately  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
army  against  the  Carlists,  whom  he  engaged 
with  varying  success  till  May,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Madrid.  In  August  he  obtained  a 
recognition  of  his  government  and  the  repub- 
lic by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany, 
in  September  resumed  command  of  the  army 
against  the  Carlists,  and  in  January,  1875, 
retired  from  office  on  the  proclamation  of 
Alfonso  XII.  as  king  of  Spain. 

SERTORIUS,  Qiitotus,  a  Roman  general,  born 
at  Nursia,  in  the  country  of  the  Sabines,  about 
121  B.  0.,  assassinated  in  72.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  Marius  against  the 
Cimbri  and  Teutons,  was  tribune  in  Spain 
under  the  prsetor  Didius,  joined  the  party  of 
Cinna  and  Marius  upon  his  return,  and  when 
Marius  was  driven  from  Italy  raised  fresh 
troops  with  Cinna  and  upheld  the  fortunes  of 
the  party.  In  the  subsequent  triumph  of  Ma- 
rius, Sertorius  was  the  only  one  of  his  adherents 
who  exhibited  any  moderation  of  conduct ;  'and 
so  strongly  was  he  incensed  by  the  excesses 
committed  at  this  time,  that  after  the  death  of 
their  chief  he  put  to  the  sword  4,000  slaves 
who  had  been  the  body  guard  of  Marius,  and 
had  perpetrated  every  possible  crime  against 
the  citizens.  When  Sulla  returned  to  Italy  in 
83,  Sertorius  obtained  the  post  of  proconsul  of 


SERVETUS 


779 


Spain,  where  he  governed  with  justice.  An 
army  having  been  sent  against  him  by  Sulla, 
he  was  forced  after  a  temporary  success  to 
cross  into  Africa,  where,  joining  the  native 
princes,  he  defeated  Sulla's  general  Paccianus. 
Returning  to  Spain,  he  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Lusitanians,  and  defeated  the  four 
Roman  generals  who  held  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  country.  His  design  was 
to  found  an  independent  power  in  Spain,  in 
which  the  native  Spaniards  should  enjoy  equal 
rights  with  the  Roman  settlers.  He  gained  the 
affection  of  the  inhabitants,  and  impressed 
them  with  a  superstitious  awe  by  means  of  a 
white  fawn  which  he  pretended  had  been  given 
to  him  by  Diana.  The  Roman  senate  at  length 
sent  Pompey  with  a  large  force  against  Ser- 
torius, and  the  first  battle  took  place  near  Su- 
cro.  The  force  under  the  command  of  Per- 
perna  was  beaten  by  the  Romans  under  Me- 
tellus;  but  the  Romans  under  Pompey  were 
beaten  by  Sertorius,  and  Pompey  himself  was 
wounded.  Pompey  was  a  second  time  beaten 
on  the  plains  of  Saguntum,  and  compelled  to 
withdraw  beyond  the  Pyrenees.  Reenforced 
from  Rome,  he  began  a  second  campaign,  but 
through  the  summer  «of  73  failed  to  bring 
Sertorius  to  battle  or  to  gain  any  material 
advantage.  An  offer  was  finally  made  of  100 
talents  and  20,000  acres  of  land  to  any  Roman 
citizen  who  should  kill  Sertorius ;  and  he  was 
slain  by  conspirators  at  a  banquet  to  which  he 
had  been  invited  by  his  own  general  Perperna. 
SERVAL  (felis  serval,  Linn.),  a  carnivorous 
animal  of  the  cat  family,  a  native  of  southern 
Africa.  It  is  about  4  ft.  long,  of  which  the 
tail  is  15  in. ;  the  color  above  is  ochrey  yel- 
low, darkest  on  the  back,  and  shading  into 
white  on  the  under  parts;  body  with  dark 
brown  spots  forming  longitudinal  marks  on  the 
neck  and  shoulders;  inside  of  fore  legs  with 
two  transverse  black  bands;  tail  tipped  and 


Serval. 

ringed  with  black.  The  legs  are  rather  long, 
the  body  slender,  the  head  small  and  rounded, 
and  the  hair  long  and  shaggy,  especially  on  the 
flanks.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  lynx,  and 
preys  upon  the  smaller  mammals  and  birds ; 
is  not  very  savage,  and  the  young  are  gentle 
like  the  common  cat. 

SERVANT.    See  MASTER  AND  SERVANT. 

SERVETIS,  Michael,  a  Spanish  author,  born  ai 
Villanueva,  near  Saragossa,  in  1509,  burned  at 


780 


SERVETUS 


SEE  VIA 


the  stake  in  Geneva,  Oct.  27, 1653.  His  proper 
Spanish  name  was  Miguel  Servedo.  He  studied 
law^at  Toulouse,  but  having  become  a  disbe- 
liever in  the  Trinity,  he  removed  in  1530  for 
safety  to  Basel.  In  his  22d  year  he  published 
De  Trinitatia  Erroribut  (Hagenau,  1531),  for 
which  he  was  banished  from  Basel.  In  1532 
he  published  at  Hagenan  Dialogorum  de  Tri- 
nitate  Libri  duo :  de  Justitia  Regni  Christi 
Capitula  quatuor,  in  which  he  defended  his 
former  book,  and  advanced  a  new  heresy  con- 
cerning the  eucharist.  Changing  his  name  on 
entering  France  to  Michel  de  Villeneuve,  he 
devoted  himself  for  some  years  to  the  study  of 
medicine  in  Lyons  (where  he  also  worked  as  a 
corrector  of  the  press),  and  afterward  in  Paris. 
He  was  at  the  university  of  Orleans  in  1584. 
In  1535  he  edited  the  works  of  Ptolemy  with 
Latin  notes.  In  the  next  year  he  graduated 
M.  D.  at  Paris,  and  soon  became  celebrated  as 
a  lecturer  on  medical  science.  He  divined  the 
true  method  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  with  this  and  other  conjectures  in  physi- 
ology anticipated  Harvey  and  Hunter.  In 
1537  he  published  Syruporum  Unitersa  Ratio. 
He  established  himself  at  Charlieu,  near  Lyons, 
in  1538,  and  in  1540  removed  to  Vienne  in 
Dauphiny,  where  he  lived  for  several  years  in 
the  palace  of  his  former  pupil  the  archbishop, 
lie  revised  a  new  edition  of  the  Bible,  found- 
ed upon  the  manuscripts  of  Sanctes  Pagninns, 
which  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  church ; 
and  gathered  the  materials  for  Chrittianumi 
Rettitutio,  the  manuscript  of  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1540,  and  sent  to  Calvin  for  cor- 
rections and  suggestions.  But  the  Genevan 
reformer  retained  it,  and  freely  accused  the 
author  of  heresy  in  letters  to  others  of  the 
Reformed  clergy.  The  work  was  printed  at 
Vienne  in  1553,  and  the  author  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  for  trial.  On  April  7  he  es- 
caped in  disguise  and  reached  the  frontier ; 
but  his  trial  went  on,  and  he  was  sentenced 
to  pay  a  heavy  Hue  and  be  burned  by  a 
slow  fire.  The  edition  of  his  book  was  de- 
stroyed, only  thi*ee  copies  being  saved.  Ser- 
vetus,  on  his  way  to  Naples,  stopped  at  Ge- 
neva for  a  month,  and  at  the  instance  of  Cal- 
vin was  arrested.  On  Aug.  14  he  was  brought 
before  the  municipal  court,  accused  of  heresy, 
of  publishing  seditious  books,  of  disturbing  the 
churches,  of  escaping  from  the  lawful  author- 
ity, and  of  insulting  the  ancient  fathers  and 
the  living  divines  of  the  Protestant  church,  es- 
pecially Calvin.  On  the  following  days  new 
charges  were  added,  of  Anabaptism,  of  pan- 
theism, of  contempt  of  the  Bible,  and  of  mate- 
rialism. Though  the  result  of  the  trial  could 
not  be  doubtful,  it  was  agreed  that  the  mat- 
ter should  be  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the 
Swiss  churches.  A  paper  containing  38  arti- 
cles was  drawn  up  by  Calvin,  and,  with  the 
answers  of  Servetus  annexed,  was  sent  to  the 
various  churches.  The  opinion  of  all  was  that 
Servetus  should  be  condemned  as  a  heretic, 
while  they  differed  as  to  the  severity  of  the 


punishment.  In  the  final  council  of  60  sum- 
moned in  October,  the  discussion  lasted  three 
days,  but  in  the  end  the  extreme  party  pre- 
vailed. The  execution  took  place  on  a  hill  a 
short  distance  from  the  city.  No  exhortations 
could  induce  Servetus  to  retract,  and  his  last 
words  were  a  repetition  of  his  heresy.  His 
books  and  the  manuscript  which  he  had  sent 
to  Calvin  were  burned  with  him.  Servetus 
had  no  disciples  while  living,  but  after  his 
death  the  name  of  "  Servetists  "  was  fixed  as 
a  stigma  upon  the  Swiss  Anabaptists,  and  ac- 
cepted by  a  email  party  who  rejected  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity. — His  life  has  been  writ- 
ten by  Mosheim  (Helmstedt,  1750),  Trechsel 
(Heidelberg,  1839),  and  W.  H.  Drummond 
(London,  1848).  See  also  Brunnemann,  M. 
Serretut  (Berlin,  18G5). 

SERVIA  (Slav.  Serbia;  Turk.  Syrp),  a  state 
of  Europe,  tributary  to  Turkey,  bounded  N. 
by  Slavonia  and  Hungary  proper,  E.  by  Wal- 
lachia  and  Bulgaria,  S.  by  districts  of  the  vila- 
yets of  Prisrend  and  Bosnia  known  as  Old  or 
Turkish  Servia,  and  W.  by  Bosnia;  area,  16,- 
817  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1873,  1,338,505,  all  Serbs, 
of  Slavic  origin,  excepting  about  140,000  Wal- 
lachs,  26,000  gypsies,  and  15,000  Turks,  Bul- 
garians, Jews,  Germans,  and  Hungarians.  The 
surface  is  broken  by  ramifications  of  the  Car- 
pathians in  the  northeast,  of  the  Balkan  in  the 
southeast  and  south,  and  of  the  Dinaric  Alps 
in  the  west.  The  highest  summits  in  the  east 
and  south  reach  an  altitude  of  upward  of  4,000 
and  5,500  ft.  respectively.  Most  of  the  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  dense  forests.  In  the 
centre  and  along  the  banks  of  the  principal 
rivers  are  extensive  plains.  The  Danube  and 
its  tributary  the  Save  flow  on  the  N.  frontier 
(the  former  for  some  distance  also  on  the  east- 
ern), and  receive  the  drainage  of  the  country 
by  several  streams,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  Drina,  Morava,  and  Timok. 
The  principal  towns  are  Belgrade,  the  capital, 
Kraguyevatz,  Semendria,  Uzhitza,  and  Sha- 
batz.  The  climate  is  severe  in  the  uplands, 
but  mild  in  the  valleys;  in  winter  the  ther- 
mometer generally  ranges  between  6°  and  14° 
F.  The  low  grounds  are  very  fertile,  and  cere- 
als are  raised  in  abundance ;  good  white  wine 
is  produced  near  Semendria;  tobacco,  hemp, 
fruit,  and  some  cotton  are  raised ;  but  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are  the  principal 
sources  of  wealth.  The  exports,  including 
grain,  skins,  wool,  cattle,  and  especially  hogs, 
amounted  in  1872  to  $6,000,000,  and  the  im- 
ports, chiefly  salt,  sugar,  and  manufactured 
goods,  to  about  the  same.  Valuable  minerals 
abound,  but  are  not  fully  worked.  Manufac- 
tures consist  mainly  of  articles  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  powder,  firearms,  and  accou- 
trements required  for  the  army  are  made  in 
the  government  works  at  and  near  Kraguye- 
vatz. Complete  freedom  of  commerce  is  guar- 
anteed in  the  Ottoman  empire. — The  Serbs 
are  among  the  most  spirited  of  the  Slavic 
races.  There  is  no  nobility,  and  the  peas- 


SERVIA 


781 


ants  are  free  householders.  Community  of 
interests  prevails  among  the  laboring  classes, 
who  live  together  under  the  authority  of  a 
chief  or  "father  of  the  house,"  of  their  own 
selection.  The  Greek  religion  is  that  of  al- 
most all  the  inhabitants,  and  there  is  a  synod 
consisting  of  the  metropolitan  at  Belgrade 
and  three  bishops.  Secession  from  the  church 
is  rigorously  prohibited ;  but  Roman  Catho- 
lics (about  5,000),  Protestants  (400),  and  Jews 
(1,500)  enjoy  religious  liberty.  Education  in 
the  higher  branches  is  better  provided  for  by 
the  government  than  in  the  lower  by  the  com- 
munes, and  in  the  elementary  schools  is  free 
and  obligatory.  The  academy  of  Belgrade  was 
made  a  university  in  1869. — Servia  pays  to 
Turkey  an  annual  tribute  of  2,300,000  piasters, 
and  has  enjoyed  since  1834  a  perfect  autonomy, 
which  was  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
March  80,  1856,  and  guaranteed  by  the  Euro- 
pean powers.  The  right  of  garrisoning  Bel- 
grade and  other  fortresses  was  finally  relin- 
quished by  the  Porte  in  1867.  In  1872  a  postal 
treaty  was  made  with  Roumania.  Commercial 
treaties  were  concluded  with  Russia  and  Aus- 
tria in  1874,  and  Servia  established  her  own 
coinage  in  1875.  There  are  Servian  diplomatic 
agents  at  Constantinople  and  Bucharest,  and 
many  foreign  consular  and  diplomatic  agents 
reside  in  Belgrade,  the  national  capital.  The 
government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  vested  in  a 
hereditary  prince  of  the  Obrenovitch  dynasty, 
who  appoints  responsible  ministers.  The  ori- 
ginal charter  dates  from  1838.  The  latest  re- 
vised constitution,  that  of  1869,  converts  the 
senate,  consisting  of  17  life  members  appointed 
by  the  government,  into  a  permanent  coun- 
cil of  state,  and  vests  legislative  power  solely 
in  the  slcupshtina  or  assembly  (the  origin  of 
which  is  traced  back  to  the  earliest  period  of 
Servian  history),  and  provides  for  its  annual 
meetings  at  Kraguyevatz.  In  1874  the  skup- 
shtina  consisted  of  134  members,  101  elected 
by  the  people  for  three  years,  and  33  appointed 
by  the  government.  A  so-called  great  skup- 
shtina,  with  about  500  members,  assembles  in 
the  event  of  a  vacancy  on  the  throne,  or  in 
other  extraordinary  emergencies.  Suffrage  is 
universal  for  all  Christian  Servians  21  years 
old  and  over,  who  pay  direct  taxes ;  only  me- 
nials and  gypsies  are  disfranchised.  All  elec- 
tors are  eligible  to  the  skupshtina  excepting 
members  of  the  government  and  of  the  clergy. 
The  prefects  of  the  17  circles  and  the  54  dis- 
tricts are  appointed  by  the  government,  and 
the  presidents  of  the  communes,  who  are  at  the 
same  time  justices  of  the  peace,  are  elected  by 
the  people.  There  are  superior  courts  of  law 
in  each  circle,  besides  a  court  of  appeal  at  Bel- 
grade. The  courts  are  all  public,  and  the  in- 
dependence of  the  judges  is  guaranteed  by  the 
constitution.  The  military  forces  comprise  a 
standing  army  and  a  national  army  (militia). 
The  second  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  military 
organization;  the  standing  army  is  only  em- 
ployed on  ordinary  garrison  duty  and  in  train- 


ing the  national  army  for  war.  All  able-bod- 
ied men  must  serve  between  the  ages  of  20  and 
50 ;  the  period  of  service  in  the  standing  army 
is  three  years,  and  in  the  national  army  27. 
The  officers  of  the  national  army  are  trained  at 
a  central  military  college,  and  the  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  men  in  district  schools  and 
shooting  grounds.  The  strength  of  the  stand- 
ing army  is  about  12,000  men  (divided  into 
garrison  troops  and  reserve),  and  of  the  na- 
tional army  (first  and  second  levies)  150,000. — 
The  original  inhabitants  of  Servia  were  chief- 
ly Thracians.  Conquered  by  the  Romans  du- 
ring the  early  period  of  the  empire,  Servia 
formed  part  of  Illyricum  under  the  name  of 
Moesia  Superior.  During  the  great  migration 
of  nations  it  was  overrun  by  the  Huns,  Ostro- 
goths, and  other  barbarians,  and  subsequently 
was  under  Byzantine  rule  from  the  middle  of 
the  6th  till  early  in  the  7th  century,  when  it 
was  devastated  by  the  Avars.  The  latter  were 
driven  out  by  the  Serbs,  a  Slavic  people,  who 
had  been  living  N.  of  the  Carpathians,  and 
whose  aid  the  emperor  Heraclius  (died  641) 
had  invoked.  He  allotted  to  them  the  depop- 
ulated regions,  and  introduced  Christianity. 
Servia  remained  a  vassal  state  of  the  emperors 
of  the  East ;  but  a  spirit  of  liberty  was  fos- 
tered by  powerful  and  well  organized  local 
governments,  whose  chiefs  (zhupans)  repeat- 
edly attempted  to  make  themselves  altogeth- 
er independent.  But  the  imperial  authority 
was  fully  restored  in  the  latter  part  of  the  9th 
century  by  Basil  I.,  surnamed  the  Macedonian. 
Subsequently  the  Bulgarians  held  the  ascen- 
dancy in  Servia  for  a  long  period,  but  their 
power  was  broken  by  John  Zimisces,  and 
finally  destroyed  by  Basil  II.  in  1018.  Ste- 
phen Bogislas  was  the  first  Serb  to  found  an 
independent  principality,  about  1043;  his  son 
Michael  (1050-'80)  styled  himself  king  (Jcral), 
and  was  recognized  by  the  Roman  see.  Ste- 
phen's grandson  Bodin  (1080-'90)  extended 
his  dominions,  but  was  captured  by  the  By- 
zantines, with  whom  his  successor  Vulkan  or 
Vuk  made  peace  in  1094.  Urosh  I.  joined 
(1127-'9)  the  Hungarians  against  the  Greek 
emperors,  laying  the  foundation  of  repeated 
alliances  with  Hungary;  and  the  contests  with 
Constantinople  continued  under  his  succes- 
sors. Stephen  Nemania,  grandson  of  Urosh 
II.,  founded  a  new  dynasty  in  1165.  He  con- 
quered Bosnia  and  other  territories,  and  made 
Rassa  (now  Novibazar)  his  capital,  from  which 
his  realm  was  called  the  Rascian,  but  could  not 
cope  with  the  emperors  of  Constantinople. 
His  son  Stephen  I.  was  crowned  in  1217  as 
king  of  Servia,  and  his  successors  acquired 
much  additional  territory.  The  most  illus- 
trious of  them  was  Stephen  Dushan  (1336- 
'56),  who  had  himself  crowned  czar.  He  con- 
quered nearly  all  Macedonia,  Albania,  Thessa- 
ly,  northern  Greece,  and  Bulgaria,  and  greatly 
improved  the  laws,  learning,  and  trade.  But 
conflicts  among  the  governors  of  his  provinces 
undid  his  work,  and  most  of  his  conquests 


782 


SERVIA 


were  lost  by  his  son,  King  Urosh  V.,  whose 
assassination  in  1367  closed  this  dynasty.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  waywode  (governor) 
Vukashin,  who  fought  with  the  Greeks  against 
the  Turks,  and  conquered  Salonica  in  1369,  but 
was  defeated  and  fell  in  battle  in  1371.  Laza- 
rus I.  in  1374  established  a  new  dynasty  by 
conquering  most  of  the  Servian  dominions. 
In  1389  he  was  defeated  by  Amurath  I.  on  the 
high  plains  of  Kosovo,  and  executed  by  order 
of  the  sultan,  who  had  received  a  mortal 
wound  from  the  hands  of  a  brother-in-law  of 
Lazarus.  His  son  and  successor  Stephen,  first 
as  a  vassal  and  then,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Hungarians,  an  adversary  of  Turkey,  died  in 
1427  without  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew  George  Brankovitch.  He  combated 
his  son-in-law  Amurath  II.,  together  with 
John  Hunyady,  who,  after  repeated  victories, 
was  vanquished  in  October,  1448,  also  on  the 
plains  of  Kosovo.  The  sultan  Mohammed  II. 
completed  the  conquest  of  Servia  in  1454,  but 
in  1456  was  compelled  by  Hunyady  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Belgrade,  a  year  before  the  death 
of  Prince  George  of  Servia.  The  latter's  son 
Lazarus  II.  obtained  the  succession  by  poison- 
ing his  mother  and  expelling  his  two  brothers. 
He  died  in  1458,  the  last  and  the  worst  of  his 
dynasty.  In  1459  Mohammed  II.  incorporated 
Servia  with  Turkey,  excepting  Belgrade,  which 
was  held  by  the  Hungarians  until  taken  by 
Solyman  the  Magnificent  in  1521.  The  Turks 
resented  the  heroic  resistance  of  Servia  by 
sending  200,000  of  her  citizens  into  captivity, 
and  by  exterminating  whole  families,  while 
others  emigrated  to  Hungary;  and  rapacious 
pashas  ruled  abominably  for  several  centuries, 
and  reduced  the  country  almost  to  a  wilder- 
ness. Austria  received  Belgrade  and  most  of 
northern  Servia  at  the  close  of  her  war  with 
Turkey  in  1718,  but  the  peace  of  Belgrade 
(1739)  restored  the  Turkish  domination,  and 
the  Serbs  were  again  subjected  to  dire  calami- 
ties, especially  by  the  excesses  of  the  janis- ' 
saries.  Their  repeated  applications  for  re- 
dress remaining  unheeded  at  Constantinople, 
the  people  at  length  rose  against  the  Turks,  and 
Czerny  George,  a  peasant,  became  in  1805  a 
successful  leader  of  the  revolt,  and  in  1807  was 
recognized  as  chief  of  the  Servians  by  the  sul- 
tan. (See  CZERNY  GEORGE.)  After  the  treaty 
of  Bucharest  of  1812,  Servia  was  deserted  by 
Russia  and  France,  and  in  1813  the  Turks  again 
became  masters  of  the  country.  But  in  1815 
Milosh  Obrenovitch  put  a  final  end  to  their 
absolute  domination.  The  stepbrother  of  Mi- 
lan Obrenovitch  (son  of  Obren),  whose  name 
he  assumed,  he  began  life  as  a  grazier,  but 
subsequently  became  one  of  the  most  valiant 
officers  of  Czerny  George,  and  in  1813  showed 
so  much  firmness  that  the  Turks  left  him  in 
charge  of  several  districts  and  at  the  head  of 
several  thousand  men,  in  the  hope  that  he 
would  reconcile  the  people  to  their  rule.  But 
he  awaited  only  an  opportunity  for  its  over- 
throw, and  finally  on  Palm  Sunday,  1815,  gave 


the  signal  for  an  insurrection.  He  defeated 
the  Turks  repeatedly,  and  secured  in  1816  a 
partial  independence  for  Servia;  and  after 
being  head  of  the  provisional  government, 
he  was  elected  hospodar  or  prince  in  Novem- 
ber, 1817,  and  subsequently  recognized  by  the 
sultan.  He  incurred  the  hostility  of  former 
chiefs,  and  attempted  in  vain  to  allay  agitation 
by  adopting  in  1835  a  liberal  statute  and  the 
code  Napoleon.  Russia  and  Turkey  concocted 
a  new  statute,  which  the  sultan  promulgated, 
Dec.  24,  1838,  in  the  form  of  a  haUi-shertf, 
instituting  a  senate,  the  members  of  which 
could  not  be  displaced  without  the  sultan's 
consent.  This  body  was  chiefly  composed  of 
Milosh's  enemies,  who  brought  charges  of 
peculation  against  him,  it  being  known  that 
he  had  large  estates  in  Wallachia  and  Austria, 
besides  vast  funds  deposited  in  Vienna.  He 
was  compelled  to  abdicate,  June  13,  1839,  in 
favor  of  his  son  Milan,  who  died  on  July  7 
and  was  succeeded  by  Milosh's  younger  son 
Michael.  Soon  after  assuming  the  govern- 
ment he  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  Turks 
by  banishing  their  most  zealous  partisans,  Vu- 
tchitch  and  Petronievitch,  who  in  1842  headed 
an  insurrection  against  him,  which  resulted  in 
his  ignominious  defeat.  He  was  driven  from 
Servia  on  Sept.  7,  his  dynasty  was  deposed, 
and  Alexander  Karageorgevitch,  a  son  of  Czer- 
ny (or  Kara)  George,  was  elected  prince,  Sept. 
14.  His  complacency  toward  the  Turks  du- 
ring the  Crimean  war  secured  their  assent  to 
the  placing  of  Servia,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 
of  1856,  under  the  collective  protection  of  the 
European  powers;  but  at  the  same  time  he 
made  himself  odious  in  Servia  for  having  in- 
voked Turkish  assistance  for  the  punishment 
of  his  enemies,  and  Turkish  protection  in  the 
citadel  of  Belgrade  against  his  own  country- 
men. He  was  deposed  Dec.  23,  1858,  and  Mi- 
losh, though  almost  an  octogenarian,  was  re- 
instated. He  died  Sept.  26,  1860,  and  Michael 
again  became  reigning  prince.  After  the  dis- 
turbances at  Belgrade  in  1862,  Michael  ob- 
tained in  1867  the  withdrawal  of  the  Turkish 
garrisons  from  this  and  all  other  fortresses. 
He  was  assassinated  June  10, 1868.  (See  ALEX- 
ANDER KARAGEORGEVITCH.)  Prince  Michael 
married  Julia  Hunyady,  but  had  no  children, 
and  had  adopted  as  his  son  his  nephew  Milan 
(born  in  Jassy,  of  a  Moldavian  mother,  Aug. 
22, 1854),  who  was  educated  in  Paris  (1864-'8), 
and  was  elected  prince  July  2,  1868,  as  Milan 
Obrenovitch  IV.  The  sultan,  fearing  the  al- 
leged preference  of  Russia  for  the  prince  of 
Montenegro  as  ruler  of  Servia,  not  only  at 
once  recognized  him,  but  also  acknowledged 
for  the  first  time  the  hereditary  rank  of  the 
dynasty.  A  regency  of  three  members,  of 
whom  the  minister  Blagnavatz,  who  had  chief- 
ly promoted  his  election,  was  the  chief,  con- 
ducted public  affairs  during  his  minority  (1868- 
'72).  Turkey  had  in  1834  restored  six  Servian 
districts  which  she  had  retained  since  1813, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1872  she  relinquished  a 


few  additional  localities,  though  not  all  which 
Servia  claims  as  her  own.  The  majority  of 
Prince  Milan  was  declared  on  Aug.  22,  1872. 
His  relations  with  Turkey  were  complicated  in 
the  summer  of  1875  by  the  outbreak  of  the  in- 
surrection in  Herzegovina,  which  excited  in 
Servia  a  strong  sympathy.  The  seat  of  the 
legislature,  which  had  always  been  at  Kragu- 
yevatz,  was  in  October  removed  to  Belgrade. 
At  the  first  session  held  in  the  latter  city 
(Oct.  4)  the  prince  declared  himself,  contrary 
to  the  wishes  of  the  skupshtina,*  opposed  to 
a  war  with  Turkey,  and  appointed  a  new  cabi- 
net in  harmony  with  his  conservative  views, 
thereby  impairing  his  popularity. — See  Ranke, 
Die  serbische  Revolution  (Hamburg,  1829 ;  2d 
ed.,  1844);  Milutinovitch,  Oeschichte  Serbiens 
von  1389-1815  (Leipsic,  1837) ;  Ounibert,  Essai 
historique  sur  lea  revolutions  et  Vindependance 
de  la  Serbie  depuis  1804  jusqu'd  1850  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1855);  Hilferding,  Geschichte  der  Ser- 
ben  und  Bulgaren  (Bautzen,  1856);  the  Rev. 
W.  Denton,  "Servia  and  the  Servians"  (Lon- 
don, 1862);  Elodie  Lawton  Mijatovics  (Wil- 
liam Tweedie),  "  History  of  Modern  Servia  " 
(London,  1874);  and  Saint-Ren6  Taillandier, 
La  Serbie  au  XIX'  siecle,  Kara  George  et  Mi- 
lotch  (Paris,  1875). 

SERVIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  The 
Servian  language  forms,  together  with  the 
Russian  and  Bulgarian,  the  eastern  stem  of 
the  Slavic  languages.  In  the  wider  sense  of 
the  word,  in  which  it  is  frequently  called  the 
Illyrian  or  Illyrico-Servian,  it  comprises  the 
languages  of  the  Serbs  proper,  the  Croats,  and 
the  Sloventzi  or  Vinds.  The  first  of  these  dia- 
lects is  spoken  by  the  Serbs  in  the  principality 
of  Servia  and  in  Hungary  (in  which  country 
they  are  called  Rascians),  by  the  Bosnians, 
Herzegovinians,  Montenegrins,  Slavonians,  and 
Dalmatians ;  the  second  in  the  Austrian  prov- 
ince of  Croatia ;  the  third  in  the  Austrian 
provinces  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola. 
Those  Serbs  who  belong  to  the  Greek  church 
use  the  Cyrillic  alphabet,  while  those  belong- 
ing to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  (compri- 
sing chiefly  the  Dalmatians,  Croats,  and  Slo- 
ventzi) have  adopted  the  Roman  alphabet. 
Among  the  Dalmatians,  in  former  times,  the 
'Glagolitic  alphabet  was  in  use.  (See  GLAGO- 
LITIO.)  Altogether,  according  to  an  estimate 
of  Schafarik,  the  Servian  language  is  spoken 
by  about  7,250,000  persons,  of  whom  more 
than  4,500,000  live  under  Austrian,  more  than 
2,500,000  under  Turkish,  and  about  100,000 
under  Russian  rule. — There  are  in  the  Servian 
language  four  declensions  of  substantives  and 
two  of  adjectives ;  the  dual  number  has  be- 
come extinct;  the  instrumental  and  the  loca- 
tive cases  are  found  as  in  other  Slavic  idioms. 
The  comparative  of  the  adjective  is  formed 
by  annexing  a  syllable,  generally  yi  ;  the  su- 
perlative by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  com- 
parative (nay).  The  verb,  which  is  inflected 
after  three  conjugations,  lacks  a  subjunctive, 
which  is  supplied  by  circumlocution,  and  a 
734  VOL.  xiv. — 50 


783 

passive,  which  is  expressed   by  means  of  a 
special  participle.     The  tenses  are  the  pres- 
ent, the  future,  the  imperfect  (with  iterative 
signification),  and  the  preterite.     Of  the  pre- 
positions,  some   govern  the  genitive,   others 
the  dative  or  accusative,  and  the  accusative 
and  locative,   others  the  accusative  and   in- 
strumental,  others   the  genitive  and  instru- 
mental.    The  Servian  surpasses  all  the  other 
Slavic  idioms  in  euphony,  and  has  often  been 
called  the  Italian  of  the  Slavic  family  of  lan- 
guages.    The  language  of  the  eastern  Serbs 
has  received  many  Turcisms,  but  they  have  not 
affected  its  essential  structure.    The  best  gram- 
matical work  on  these  languages  is  the  Servian 
grammar  (in  the  Servian  language)  by  Vuk  Ste- 
fanovitch  Karajitch,  of  which  Jacob  Grimm 
published  a  German  translation  (Berlin,  1824) 
with  an  excellent  introduction.     Other  scien- 
tific grammatical  treatises  are  those  of  Danicic, 
Srpslca  grammatika  (3d  ed.,  Belgrade,  1863) 
and  Srpslca  sintafaa  (1868).     A  grammar  of 
the  Croat  language  was  published  by  Berlic 
(Agram,  1842),  and  another  in  Latin  by  Bud- 
mani  (Vienna,  1867) ;  one  of  the  Dalmatian  by 
Babukic  (German  translation  by  Frohlich,  Vi- 
enna, 1839).     Of  the  language  of  the  Sloventzi 
we  have  a  grammar  from  Kopitar  (Laybach, 
1808).     A  dictionary  of  the  Servian  language 
has  been  published  by  Karajitch ;  an  Illyrian- 
German  and   German-Illyrian  dictionary  by 
Richter  and  Ballmann  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1839- 
'40) ;  a  German-Illyrian  by  Mazuranic  and  Uza- 
revic  (Agram,  1842);  and  a  Croat  by  Drob- 
nitsch  (Gratz,   1852).     An   extensive  Serbo- 
Croat  dictionary  is  now  (1875)  in  course  of 
preparation  by  the  South  Slavic  academy  of 
sciences  in  Agram. — The  Serbs  who  belong  to 
the  Greek  church  had  no  literature  in  their 
own  language  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury.    Their  writers  used  the  Old  or  Church 
Slavic,  which  however  was  generally  mixed 
with  the  popular  dialect.     The  most  ancient 
remnants  of  this  style  reach  back  to  the  llth 
century,  and  consist  principally  of  documents, 
diplomas,  acts  of  government,  &c.,  a  collection 
of  which  was  published  at  Belgrade  in  1840. 
Among  the  most  ancient  writers  of  Servia  are 
Stephen,  the  first  king  of  Servia  (crowned  in 
1217),  who  wrote  the  history  of  his  father; 
his  brother,  Archbishop  Sava  (died  1237),  who 
wrote  monastic  rules  and  other  works;  Do- 
mentian  (about  1263),  who  wrote  biographies 
of  saints;   and  especially  Archbishop  Daniel 
(1291-1338),  the  author  of  the  chief  work  on 
the  ancient  history  of  Servia,  called  Rodoslov 
("  Genealogical  Register  ").     Count  Pucic  has 
collected  and  published  the  records,  deeds,  and 
laws  of  the  period  in  his  Monumenta  Serbica 
(Vienna,  1858)  and  Srbski  spomenici  (Belgrade, 
1858-'62).     Of  great  importance  also  are  the 
statutes  of  King  Stephen  Dushan  (1336-'56). 
The  Gospels  were  printed  in  Belgrade  in  1552. 
During  the  following  two  centuries  the  only 
work  of  note  was  a  "History  of  Servia,"  from 
the  origin  of  the  people  until  the  reign  of  the 


784      SERVIAN  LANGUAGE,  <ko. 


SERVICE   TREE 


emperor  Leopold  I.  of  Germany,  by  Branko- 
vitch  (1645-1711).  A  partial  revival  began  in 
17.\s.  when  a  Slavic  press  was  founded  at 
Venice.  The  archimandrite  J.  Raitch  (1726- 
1801)  gained  a  lasting  reputation  by  his  "  His- 
tory of  the  Slavs"  (4  vols.,  Vienna,  1792  '5). 
But  the  first  who  undertook  to  write  a  work 
in  the  popular  dialect  was  Dosithei  Obrado- 
vitch  (1739-1811),  a  monk,  who  for  25  years 
had  travelled  all  over  Europe,  and  at  his  death 
was  senator  and  instructor  of  the  children  of 
Czerny  George.  His  complete  works  were 
published  at  Belgrade  in  1838  in  9  vols.  De- 
metrius Davidovitch  from  1814  to  1822  edited 
at  Vienna  the  first  Servian  newspaper,  and 
Vuk  Stefanovitch  Karaiitch  (1787-1864)  fixed 
the  present  Servian  alphabet,  and  reduced  the 
language  to  certain  general  rules  and  prin- 
ciples. His  collection  of  the  Servian  popular 
songs  (4  vols.,  Vienna,  1814-'38)  drew  the  at- 
tention of  foreign  nations  to  their  beauty.  In 
Germany,  a  general  interest  in  them  was  ex- 
cited by  Goethe,  Talvi  (  Volktliedtr  der  Serben, 
2  vols.,  Halle,  1825-'6),  J.  Grimm,  and  others; 
and  many  translations  have  since  been  pub- 
lished. In  England  some  of  the  songs  have 
been  made  known  by  Bowring  and  Robert  Bul- 
wer  ("  Owen  Meredith  ").  Among  the  best 
modern  Servian  writers  are  Simeon  Milutino- 
vitrh,  author  of  a  national  epic,  Serbianka 
(Leipsic,  1826),  describing  the  Servian  war  of 
1812,  and  of  a  history  of  Servia  during  the 
years  1813-'14  (Leipsic,  1887),  and  Archbish- 
op Mushitzki  of  Carlovitz,  whose  works  were 
published  at  Pesth  in  1888.  The  chief  seats 
of  Servian  literature  are  Pesth,  Neusatz,  and 
Belgrade.  The  last  named  city  now  has  sev- 
eral newspapers,  and  a  university  in  which 
law,  philosophy,  and  the  sciences  are  taught. 
There  is  also  a  Servian  society  of  savants, 
formed  in  1847,  and  reorganized  in  1863  with 
the  title  of  Srpsko  utcheno  drustvo.  Collec- 
tions of  the  popular  poetry  of  Montenegro 
have  been  published  by  Tchubar  Tchoikovitch. 
— Among  the  Roman  Catholic  Serbs,  the  Dal- 
matians had  as  early  as  the  12th  century  an 
interesting  literature.  An  old  chronicle  of 
1161,  written  in  Slavic  by  a  priest  of  Dioclea, 
is  still  partly  extant  in  the  original,  and  wholly 
in  a  Latin  translation.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  15th  century  the  city  of  Ragusa  became 
an  Illyrian  Athens,  and  produced  many  dis- 
tinguished authors,  especially  poets.  The  Ra- 
gusan  and  Dalmatian  dialects  which  appear  in 
their  literary  productions  were  very  similar 
to  the  Servian  as  purified  by  Karajitch,  and 
through  the  study  of  these  ancient  poets  and 
the  labors  of  L.  Gaj,  editor  of  an  "Illyrian  Na- 
tional Gazette  "  at  Agrara,  the  literary  language 
of  almost  all  the  Serbs  is  now  very  much  the 
same,  though  still  written  partly  with  the 
Cyrillic  instead  of  the  Roman  alphabet.  In 
the  beginning  of  1868,  14  political,  5  literary,  2 
agricultural,  3  pedagogic,  and  2  religious  peri- 
odicals were  published  in  the  Servian  language. 
— A  good  account  of  the  history  of  Servian 


literature,  in  English,  is  given  in  Talvi's  "  His- 
torical View  of  the  Languages  and  Literature 
of  the  Slavic  Nations  "  (New  York,  1850).  See 
also  Schafarik,  Oetchichte  der  sudslawischen 
Literatur  (Vienna,  1863-'4). 

SERVICE  BERRY.    See  JUNE  BERBT. 

SERVICE  TREE  (formerly  spelled  ,«erri*e,  from 
Lat.  ceretisia,  beer,  a  fermented  drink  having 
been  made  from  the  fruit),  a  European  tree 
belonging  to  that  section  of  the  genus  pyrus 
which  includes  the  mountain  ashes.  The  true 
service  tree,  P.  sorbus  (or  sorbus  domettica),  is 
barely  hardy  in  England ;  it  is  most  abundant 
in  France  and  Italy,  and  occurs  in  north- 
ern Africa  and  western  Asia.  This  and  the 
mountain  ash  were  placed  by  Linnaeus  in  the 
genus  sorbus  (Lat.  sorbere,  to  drink  down,  in 
allusion  to  their  use  for  making  a  beverage),  and 
they  are  sometimes  in  England  called  sorbs; 
but  later  botanists,  finding  that  the  chief  dif- 
ference between  these  trees  and  the  apples  and 


Service  Tree  (Pyrus  sorbus). 

pears  consisted  in  the  former  having  compound 
leaves  and  flowers  in  broad  cymes,  included 
them  all  in  the  genus  pyrus.  The  service  tree 
is  long-lived,  some  specimens  being  thought  to 
be  1,000  years  old;  it  grows  from  20  to  60  ft. 
high,  with  a  large  pyramidal  head;  the  bark- 
is  smooth  except  on  old  trees,  where  it  is 
rough  and  full  of  cracks ;  the  leaves  have  six 
or  more  pairs  of  serrate  leaflets,  with  an  odd 
one;  the  flowers  are  cream-colored,  and  the 
fruit,  which  is  much  larger  than  in  any  of  the 
mountain  ashes,  is  when  ripe  greenish  brown, 
with  a  reddish  tinge ;  eight  or  more  varieties 
of  fruit  have  been  described,  but  the  principal 
ones  are  the  apple-shaped  and  pear-shaped, 
both  about  the  size  of  a  common  gooseberry. 
Its  chief  value  is  in  its  wood,  which  is  consid- 
ered to  be  harder  and  heavier  than  that  of  any 
other  European  tree,  weighing  when  dry  72 
Ibs.  2  oz.  to  the  cubic  foot,  having  a  compact 
grain  and  reddish  tinge,  and  taking  a  very  fine 
polish ;  when  not  properly  seasoned  it  twists 


SERVITES 

and  splits  badly ;  it  is  much  used  for  screws  to 
wine  presses,  cogs  to  wheels,  rollers,  pulleys, 
and  rules ;  and  for  the  coarser  kinds  of  en- 
graving it  is  one  of  the  best  substitutes  for 
box  wood.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  eaten,  but 
only  when  it  is  ready  to  decay ;  when  recent 
it  is  very  acid  and  austere ;  its  use  to  make  a 
fermented  drink  is  mentioned  by  both  Virgil 
and  Pliny ;  in  Brittany  a  cider  or  perry  is 
made  from  it  which  is  said  to  be  good,  though 
having  a  very  unpleasant  smell. — The  wild  ser- 
vice tree  of  England  is  P.  torminalis  ;  and  the 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  the  European  and 
the  American  mountain  ash,  P.  aucuparia  and 
P.  Americana.  (See  ASH.) 

SERVITES,  or  Servants  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  an 
order  of  monks  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
founded  in  Florence  in  1233  by  seven  patri- 
cian Florentines.  Their  main  object  was  to 
propagate  devotion  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  They 
lived  at  first  as  hermits,  but  soon  became  a 
monastic  community  under  the  Augustinian 
rule.  They  were  approved  in  1255  by  Pope 
Alexander  IV.,  founded  establishments  in  ev- 
ery state  of  western  Europe,  and  were  ranked 
as  a  mendicant  order  by  Pope  Martin  V.  In 
1593  a  branch  of  the  order,  under  Bernardino 
di  Ricciolini,  adopted  the  original  eremetical 
mode  of  life.  The  Servites  have  produced  a 
large  number  of  distinguished  men,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  St.  Philip  Benizi 
(died  1285),  one  of  the  apostles  of  western 
Europe  in  the  13th  century,  and  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi.  There  were  also  female  Servites,  who 
were  never  very  numerous,  and  a  large  body 
of  Tertiarians.  (See  TERTIARIANS.)  The  or- 
der in  1870  was  divided  into  27  provinces,  the 
central  house  being  the  monastery  of  the  An- 
nunziazione  in  Florence.  They  were  subse- 
quently involved  in  the  decrees  suppressing 
religious  orders  in  Italy  and  Germany.  They 
were  introduced  into  the  United  States  in 
1870  by  Bishop  Melcher  of  Green  Bay. 

SERVIUS  TILLItS,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome, 
reigned  from  about  578  to  about  534  B.  C. 
According  to  the  legendary  accounts  of  his 
life,  he  was  brought  up  in  the  palace  of  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus.  One  day,  while  he  was  asleep, 
flames  appeared  about  his  head,  and  Queen 
Tanaquil  prophesied  that  he  would  do  great 
things.  He  grew  up  in  high  favor  with  the 
king,  and  received  in  marriage  one  of  his 
daughters.  The  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  fear- 
ing that  he  would  be  made  heir  to  the  throne, 
put  the  king  to  death  ;  but  Tanaquil  declared 
that  Tarquinius  was  not  mortally  wounded, 
and  caused  Servius  Tullius  to  rule  in  his  name. 
Servius  not  long  after  assumed  the  sovereign 
power.  He  added  to  the  city  the  Viminal, 
Esquiline,  and  Quirinal  hills,  divided  the  peo- 
ple into  tribes,  classes,  and  centuries,  and  made 
a  new  constitution  which  was  designed  to  give 
political  independence  to  the  commons.  ^His 
regard  for  their  interests  awakened  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  nobles,  and  a  horrible  tragedy  was 
the  consequence.  His  two  daughters  were 


SETON 


785 


'married  to  the  two  sons  of  Tarquinius,  and 
both  wives  and  husbands  being  of  unlike  na- 
tures, Lucius  Tarquinius  secretly  killed  his 
wife,  and  married  his  sister-in-law  Tullia,  who 
had  murdered  her  husband.  Lucius  then  plot- 
ted with  the  nobles  against  the  king,  and  in 
the  summer,  when  the  commons  were  gath- 
ering their  harvests,  entered  the  forum  with 
a  band  of  armed  men,  and  seated  himself  on 
the  throne  before  the  doors  of  the  senate 
house.  Some  of  his  followers  slew  the  king 
on  the  way  toward  the  Esquiline  hill,  and  left 
his  body  in  the  road,  where  the  chariot  of  his 
daughter  Tullia  was  driven  over  it.  Many  of 
the  incidents  of  this  reign  are  unquestionably 
fabulous.  The  constitution,  which  is  histori- 
cal, was  swept  away  entirely  during  the  suc- 
ceeding reign.  What  are  called  the  walls  of 
Servius  Tullius  were  the  walls  of  Rome  down 
to  the  time  of  the  emperor  Aurelian. 

SESOSTRIS.     See  EGYPT,  vol.  vi.,  p.  462. 

SESTERCE  (Lat.  sestertius),  an  ancient  Ro- 
man brass  or  silver  coin,  worth  a  quarter  of  a 
denarius,  or  originally  2-fr  asses,  whence  its 
name  (semis  tertius,  the  third  a  half,  the  Ro- 
man expression  for  two  and  a  half);  but  the 
denarius  being  early  divided  into  16  instead  of 
10  asses,  the  sesterce  became  equal  to  4  asses. 
Its  value  down  to  the  time  of  Augustus  was 
4*1  cents,  and  afterward  3-6.  The  sestertium 
was  1,000  sesterces,  and  large  sums  were  often 
counted  in  sestertia.  There  was  a  common  for- 
mula for  the  expression  of  that  value  in  thou- 
sands, as:  88,  1,000  sestertia;  Mna  88,  2,000; 
dena  88,  10,000  ;  and  centena  SS,  100,000. 

SESTOS,  or  Sestns,  in  antiquity,  the  principal 
city  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (now  penin- 
sula of  Gallipoli),  on  the  Hellespont,  opposite 
Abydos,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  1  m. 
Though  never  large,  it  was  important  from  its 
position.  Its  chief  celebrity  is  from  its  con- 
nection with  the  romantic  story  of  Hero  and 
Leander,  the  former  of  whom  was  a  priestess 
in  the  temple  of  Venus  at  Sestos.  The  west- 
ern end  of  the  bridge  by  which  Xerxes  crossed 
the  Hellespont  was  a  little  S.  of  Sestos ;  and 
from  its  port  the  army  of  Alexander  sailed 
over  into  Asia.  Its  site  is  now  called  Yalova. 

SET,  or  Typhon.  See  DEMONOLOGY,  vol.  v., 
p.  794. 

SETI  I.  and  II.  See  EGYPT,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  461-9. 

SETON,  Elizabeth  Ann,  founder  of  the  sisters 
of  charity  in  the  United  States,  born  in  New 
York,  Aug.  28,  1774,  died  at  Emmettsburp, 
Md.,  Jan.  4,  1821.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Dr.  Richard  Bayley,  and  in  her  20th  year  be- 
came the  wife  of  William  Seton,  whom  she 
accompanied  to  Italy  in  1803.  After  his  death 
in  Pisa  she  returned  to  New  York,  and  en- 
tered the  Roman  Catholic  chureh  March  14, 
1805.  The  ruin  of  her  husband's  fortune  hav- 
ing left  her  dependent  on  her  own  exertions, 
she  opened  a  school  in  Baltimore ;  but  having 
received  $8,000  from  the  Rev.  Samuel  Cooper, 
and  being  joined  by  her  two  sisters-in-law, 
Harriet  and  Cecilia  Seton,  with  two  other  la- 


780 


SETTER 


SETTLEMENT 


dies,  they  assumed  the  religious  habit,  Jan.  1, 
180!),  at  Emmettsburg,  and  opened  there  a 
conventual  establishment  on  July  30.  In  1812 
the 'sisterhood  numbered  20  members,  and 
chose  Mother  Seton  as  superior  general,  which 
post  she  occupied  till  her  death.  In  1814  they 
took  charge  of  an  orphan  asylum  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  in  1817  were  incorporated  by  the 
legislature  of  Maryland.  In  the  latter  year 
they  took  charge  of  an  orphan  asylum  in  New 
York,  and  thenceforward  their  increase  kept 
pace  with  the  spread  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  the  United  States.  The  community 
numbered  50  members  at  the  death  of  the 
foundress.  (See  CHARITY,  SISTERS  OF.) — See 
White's  "Life  of  Eliza  A.  Seton,"  for  the 
most  part  an  autobiography  (New  York,  1853 ; 
5th  ed.,  Baltimore,  1865) ;  and  the  Right  Rev. 
Robert  Seton's  "  Memoir,  Letters,  and  Jour- 
nal of  Elizabeth  Ann  Seton"  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1869). 

•  SETTER  (cani*  index,  Caius),  a  sporting  dog 
of  the  hound  group.  The  head  is  remarkably 
developed,  the  brain  very  large,  and  the  ani- 


Setter. 

mal  evinces  intelligence,  affection,  and  docility. 
The  figure  is  intermediate  between  that  of  the 
pointer  and  spaniel,  and  it  is  generally  consid- 
ered as  descended  from  the  crossing  of  these 
two  varieties ;  it  resembles  a  large  breed  of 
the  spaniel,  and  is  probably  of  Spanish  origin  ; 
the  hair  is  long  and  silky,  less  smooth  than  in 
the  pointer,  with  much  of  the  waved  character 
seen  in  the  spaniel,  even  on  the  ears.  The 
best  breeds  are  those  of  England  and  Ireland ; 
the  most  ancient  colors  were  deep  chestnut  and 
white ;  the  English  setter  is  generally  white 
with  large  spots  or  blotches  of  liver  color  or 
reddish  brown ;  many  are  marked  with  black. 
The  natural  instinct  to  crouch  at  the  sight  or 
scent  of  game  has  been  cultivated  in  the  set- 
ter, but  they  have  been  taught  also  to  point 
with  the  fore  foot  raised,  so  that  practically 
the  setter  and  pointer  are  used  in  the  same 
way ;  they  are  used  only  as  gun  dogs  and  for 
birds  ;  their  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute.  They 
take  to  the  water  better  than,  the  pointer,  and 
.are  better  in  close  coverts;  they  will  work 


well  with  pointers  ;  in  the  United  States  they 
are  taught  to  bring  game;  they  will  almost 
always  point  at  the  scent  of  turkeys,  but  not 
of  other  domestic  fowls. 

SETTLEMENT.  I.  Under  the  poor  laws,  the 
right  which  one  acquires  to  be  considered  a 
resident  of  a  particular  place,  and  to  claim 
relief  from  such  city,  town,  or  village,  if  he 
stands  in  need  of  it.  The  conditions  deter- 
mining settlement  are  almost  entirely  prescribed 
by  statutes,  which  provide  generally  in  respect 
to  adults  that  their  residence  in  any  place  for 
a  denned  term  of  years  gives  them  a  settlement 
therein.  A  married  woman  has  the  same  set- 
tlement as  her  husband,  though  if  he  has  none 
within  the  state  it  may  be  provided  that  her 
own  at  the  time  of  the  marriage,  within  the 
state,  is  not  lost  or  suspended.  Legitimate 
children  have  the  settlement  of  the  father,  or 
of  the  mother  if  the  father  has  none  in  the 
state.  Illegitimate  children  take  the  settlement 
of  the  mother.  In  different  states  serving 
under  articles  of  apprenticeship  or  for  wages, 
and  the  payment  of  taxes,  are  made  to  give  a 
right  to  a  settlement.  II.  In  the  limitation  or 
disposition  of  property,  a  deed  or  instrument 
commonly  made  previous  to  or  in  contempla- 
tion of  marriage,  the  object  of  which  is  gen- 
erally to  limit  property  in  such  modes  and  to 
such  uses  as  will  assure  a  provision  for  the  wife 
and  the  issue  of  the  marriage.  Settlements 
may  be  made  by  the  wife,  but  then  they  are 
very  often  made  in  consideration  of  a  settle- 
ment by  the  husband ;  or  they  may  be  made 
mutually  by  husband  and  wife  upon  a  separa- 
tion, during  the  coverture.  The  common  law 
troubles  itself  but  little  with  the  equitable  right 
of  a  woman  to  retain  after  her  marriage  some 
enjoyment  of  her  own  property,  but  chancery 
has  to  a  considerable  extent  interposed  in  her 
favor.  Whenever  the  husband  was  compelled 
to  seek  its  assistance  in  order  to  reach  the  wife's 
property,  chancery  obliged  him  to  make  equi- 
table settlements  out  of  it  in  the  wife's  behalf. 
It  invented  also  and  supported,  for  the  wife's 
benefit,  the  contrivance  of  a  separate  use  and 
estate ;  and  it  favored  those  contracts,  named 
settlements,  which,  employing  the  equity  de- 
vices of  uses,  trusts,  and  powers,  were  framed 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  by  express  stipu- 
lation this  same  benefit  of  a  separate  estate  for 
the  wife.  The  legislature  came  in  time  to  re- 
form the  law  in  the  same  direction,  and  has  en- 
acted, both  in  England  and  the  United  States, 
those  "married  woman's  statutes"  which  have 
materially  modified  the  common  law  touch- 
ing the  rights  of  husbands  over  the  estates  of 
their  wives. — In  general,  every  person  who 
may  alienate  his  property  may  make  a  settle- 
ment of  it.  All  persons  therefore  of  full  age, 
and  masters  of  their  estates,  may  settle  them 
as  they  please.  Yet  a  woman,  even  if  she  is  of 
full  age,  cannot  in  contemplation  of  marriage, 
without  the  knowledge  of  her  intended  hus- 
band, make  a  settlement  of  her  property  real 
or  personal ;  the  disappointment  of  the  future 


SETUBAL 

husband's  expectations  respecting  the  property 
of  the  wife  is  a  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
and  invalidates  the  settlement.  Nor,  at  com- 
mon law,  can  a  woman  under  coverture  make 
a  settlement  without  the  concurrence  of  her 
husband,  unless  she  is  acting  under  a  power 
or  is  disposing  of  property 'which  she  holds  in 
her  separate  right.  Great  inconvenience  and 
disadvantage  having  arisen  from  the  state  of 
.the  law  in  regard  to  the  right  of  infants  to  make 
settlements,  a  statute  was  passed  in  England  in 
1858  which  enabled  male  infants  at  the  age  of 
20  and  female  infants  at  the  age  of  17,  with  the 
approbation  of  the  court  of  chancery,  to  make 
valid  settlements,  or  contracts  for  the  settle- 
ment of  all  their  property,  real  or  personal, 
whether  in  possession  or  in  reversion,  remain- 
der, or  expectancy. — Settlements  or  agreements 
for  settlements  may  be  made  before  marriage 
or  after  it.  Equity  will  enforce  ante-nuptial 
agreements,  provided  they  are  fair  and  valid, 
and  do  not  contravene  the  general  policy  and 
principles  of  the  law.  A  subsequent  marriage 
is  consideration  enough  to  support  an  other- 
wise voluntary  deed.  Post-nuptial  settlements 
may  be  made  either  voluntarily  or  in  pursuance 
of  articles  entered  into  prior  to  the  marriage. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  marriage  being  of  itself 
a  valuable  consideration,  the  settlement  is  valid 
both  against  creditors  and  purchasers.  A  vol- 
untary settlement  made  after  marriage,  and  not 
resting  on  any  ante-nuptial  agreement, ,  is  in 
general  void  as  against  creditors  existing  when 
the  settlement  was  made  ;  yet  it  may  be  good, 
if  made  for  a  consideration  which  bears  a  rea- 
sonable proportion  to  the  amount  tied  up  by 
the  settlement.  The  concurrence  of  a  wife  in 
destroying  an  existing  settlement,  and  her  join- 
ing in  barring  her  dower,  have  been  held  suf- 
ficient considerations  to  support  settlements 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  held  volun- 
tary and  invalid. — In  framing  marriage  settle- 
ments, it  is  expedient  to  vest  the  property  in  a 
trustee,  though  this  is  by  no  means  indispen- 
sable. The  control  of  the  separate  estate  may 
be  committed  to  the  wife.  Regard  must  be 
had  to  the  provisions  of  the  statutes  which  fix 
the  limits  to  the  suspension  of  the  power  of 
alienation,  and  to  the  statutes  respecting  trusts 
and  powers  which  are  enacted  as  checks  upon 
the  disposition  to  tie  up  property  in  certain 
hands. — The  necessity  of  making  settlements 
is  materially  lessened  by  the  very  general  en- 
actment of  the  so-called  married  woman's  stat- 
utes to  which  we  have  already  referred.  It  is 
the  chief  object  of  the  statutes  to  give  the  wife 
rights,  independent  of  the  husband,  to  take  by 
inheritance,  or  by  gift,  grant,  or  bequest,  any 
real  or  personal .  property ;  to  hold  it  to  her 
sole  and  separate  use ;  to  dispose  of  it  as  she 
pleases  during  her  lifetime,  and  to  demise  it  as 
she  will  at  her  death. 

SETUBAL,  St.  Cbes,  or  St.  Hbes,  a  maritime  city 
of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Estremadura, 
on  the  N.  side  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  18 
m.  S.  E.  of  Lisbon;  pop.  about  15,000.  It 


SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR 


787 


stands  in  a  valley,  and  is  defended  by  a  castle 
and  forts.  There  are  several  squares  and  pro- 
menades, all  superior  to  any  in  Lisbon ;  and 
the  environs  are  interspersed  with  numerous 
picturesque  villas  and  orange  groves.  Some 
of  the  churches  are  handsome;  and  among  the 
convents  are  that  of  the  Capuchin  nuns,  found- 
ed in  1480,  and  that  of  Arrabida,  on  a  moun- 
tain 1,700  ft.  high.  The  quays  are  broad,  and 
the  harbor  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  Lisbon. 
The  well  known  St.  Ubes  salt  of  commerce  is 
manufactured  here  from  the  neighboring  salt 
marshes  of  the  river  Sado,  and  shipped  in 
immense  quantities,  principally  to  Scandina- 
vian ports.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  fishing,  and  sardines  are  extensively 
exported,  with  oranges  and  other  southern 
fruits,  muscatel  wines,  and  cork.  Setubal  is  a 
place  of  great  antiquity.  It  suffered  severely 
from  the  earthquake  of  1755. 

SEVASTOPOL.     See  SEBASTOPOL. 

SEVEN  PINES,  Battle  of.  See  CHICKAHOMINT, 
vol.  iv.,  p.  411. 

SEVENTEEN  YEARS'  LOCUST.  See  HARVEST 
FLY. 

SEVENTH  DAI  ADVENTISTS.  See  SECOND 
ADVENTISTS. 

SEVENTH  DAI  BAPTISTS,  a  religious  denom- 
ination known  in  England  as  Sabbatarians, 
where  they  have  existed  since  the  early  part 
of  the  17th  century.  In  the  United  States 
they  originated  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1671. 
In  1818  the  general  conference  rejected  the 
name  Sabbatarians,  and  adopted  that  of  Sev- 
enth Day  Baptists.  Their  views  of  baptism, 
communion,  and  doctrine  generally,  corre- 
spond with  those  of  the  Baptists.  Their  pe- 
culiarity is  the  observance  of  the  seventh  day 
of  the  week  as  the  sabbath.  They  are  scat- 
tered through  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa, 
the  greater  number  being  in  Rhode  Island  and 
New  York.  They  have  a  missionary  society 
supporting  a  prosperous  mission  at  Shanghai, 
China ;  four  academies,  at  Alfred  and  De  Ruy- 
ter,  N.  Y.,  Shiloh,  N.  J.,  and  Milton,  Wis. ;  a 
sabbath  tract  and  publication  society,  and  an 
educational  society  which  issues  a  weekly  and 
a  monthly  periodical.  The  number  of  church- 
es in  1874  was  83,  and  of  members  8,237,  an 
increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  298. 

SEVENTH  DAY  BAPTISTS,  German.  See  BON- 
KERS. 

SEVEN  IEARS'  WAR,  a  contest  involving  the 
principal  European  powers  from  1756  to  1763, 
and  extending  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 
The  empress  Maria  Theresa,  though  forced  in 
the  treaty  of  Dresden  (1745)  to  confirm  Frede- 
rick the  Great  in  the  possession  of  Silesia,  did 
not  relinquish  the  hope  of  recovering  it.  She 
determined  to  secure  a  coalition  that  would 
crush  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  made  active 
preparations  for  war.  She  courted  the  alliance 
of  Louis  XV.,  and  by  flattering  Mme.  de  Pom- 
padour gained  over  the  French  court.  The 


788 


SEVEN  YEARS'   WAR 


SEVERUS 


friendship  between  Great  Britain  and  Austria 
was  severed,  and  the  system  of  European  alli- 
ances was  dissolved.  George  II.,  who  was  al- 
ready involved  in  the  French  and  Indian  war, 
perceived  that  a  continental  conflict  would 
at  once  expose  his  Hanoverian  dominions  to 
French  invasion,  and  to  protect  himself  against 
this  danger  he  concluded  a  defensive  treaty 
with  Frederick  the  Great  on  Jan.  16,  1756. 
Maria  Theresa  now  openly  consummated  the 
alliance  with  France  (May  1).  Elizabeth  of 
Russia,  whom  Frederick  had  provoked  by  his 
satire,  and  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland  and 
elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  eager  to  wipe  out 
the  disgrace  of  the  previous  war,  joined  the 
league ;  the  mass  of  the  German  states  fol- 
lowed ;  Sweden  was  gained  by  the  hope  of 
conquests  in  Pomerania;  and  a  coalition  was 
effected  the  most  powerful  that  Europe  had 
ever  witnessed.  The  main  events  of  the  seven 
years'  struggle  in  Europe  have  been  described 
under  FREDERICK  II.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Sile- 
sia, and  Brandenburg  were  the  principal  thea- 
tres of  the  war.  Here  the  Prussian  king,  sec- 
onded by  his  brother  Prince  Henry,  Schwerin, 
Keith,  Seydlitz,  the  prince  of  Bevern,  Ziethen, 
Dohna,  Lewald,  and  others,  was  opposed  to  the 
Austrian  commanders  Daun,  Laudon,  Browne, 
and  Charles  of  Lorraine,  and  to  the  Russian 
generals  Apraxin,  Fermor,  Soltikoff,  and  Tcher- 
nitcheff.  In  western  Germany,  where  the  in- 
capable duke  of  Cumberland  was  defeated  at 
Hastenbeck  by  the  French  under  D'Estrees 
(July  26,  1757),  and  forced  by  Marshal  Riche- 
lieu to  sign  the  capitulation  of  Closter  Seven 
(Klosterseeven),  the  glory  of  the  Prussian  arms 
was  sustained  by  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, who  frustrated  the  efforts  of  Clermont, 
Oontades,  Soubise,  and  Broglie,  and  by  victo- 
ries like  those  of  Crefeld  (June  23,  1758)  and 
Minden  (Aug.  1,  1759).  Still,  Frederick  was 
on  the  point  of  being  overwhelmed  by  num- 
bers, when  the  death  of  the  empress  Elizabeth 
(Jan.  5,  1762)  and  the  accession  of  Peter  III. 
changed  the  state  of  affairs.  France,  while 
lavishing  her  armies  in  the  service  of  Austria, 
and  her  treasures  in  subsidizing  a  dozen  allies, 
was  compelled  to  witness  the  downfall  of  her 
colonial  power.  A  French  expedition  under 
Marshal  Richelieu  had  succeeded  in  conquer- 
ing Minorca  from  the  English,  whom  the  first 
reverses  in  America  and  the  fear  of  a  French 
invasion  had  plunged  into  the  utmost  despon- 
dency; but  the  nation  rallied,  and  under  the 
guidance  of  the  elder  Pitt  entered  upon  a  re- 
markable career  of  success.  Louisburg  was 
taken  in  1758,  Quebec  fell  in  the  following 
year,  all  Canada  submitted,  and  Guadeloupe 
(1759),  Martinique  (1762),  and  other  West  India 
islands  were  conquered.  Admiral  Hawke  won 
a  brilliant  victory  over  the  French  fleet  in  the 
bay  of  Quiberon  in  November,  1759,  and  the 
island  of  Belleisle,  on  the  coast  of  France,  was 
taken  in  June,  1761.  Clive  humbled  the  French 
power  in  India,  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
a  mighty  empire.  On  the  African  coast  the 


English  were  equally  successful.  France,  where 
Choiseul  assumed  the  ministry  in  1758,  sought 
to  restore  her  fortunes  by  a  new  alliance,  and 
in  1761  concluded  the  family  compact,  which 
united  the  various  branches  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  A  declaration  of  war  between  Eng- 
land and  Spain  followed.  While  Charles  III., 
the  Spanish  king,  unsuccessfully  attacked  Por- 
tugal, the  English  reduced  Havana,  where  they 
obtained  immense  booty  (August,  1762),  and 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  Philippines. 
The  war  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(Feb.  10,  1763)  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  the  preliminaries  to  which  had  been 
signed  on  Nov.  3, 1762,  and  by  that  of  Huberts- 
burg  (Feb.  15, 1763)  between  Prussia  and  Aus- 
tria. Great  Britain  was  aggrandized  at  the 
expense  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  while  the 
terms  of  the  peace  provided  for  a  mutual  res- 
titution of  conquests  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. Silesia  remained  in  possession  of  Fred- 
erick. England  retained  her  Canadian  and  a 
portion  of  her  West  Indian  conquests,  as  well 
as  those  on  the  river  Senegal,  and  acquired 
Florida  from  Spain,  to  whom  as  a  compen- 
sation France  ceded  Louisiana.  Martinique, 
Guadeloupe,  and  other  islands  (to  which  Santa 
Lucia  was  added),  and  Pondicherry  were  re- 
stored to  France,  and  the  privilege  of  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  and  a  portion  of  the  New- 
foundland coast  was  secured  to  French  fisher- 
men. In  return  Louis  XV.  agreed  to  disman- 
tle Dunkirk  on  the  sea  side. — See  Schafer, 
Qetchichte  des  iiebenjahrigen  Kriegs  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1867-'8),  and  Ranke,  Ursprung  det  sie- 
benjahrigen  Kriegeg  (Leipsic,  1871). 

SEVERN,  next  to  the  Thames  the  largest  and 
most  important  river  of  England,  rising  in 
the  S.  part  of  Montgomeryshire,  Wales,  and 
falling  into  the  Bristol  channel,  10  m.  S.  W. 
of  Bristol,  after  a  generally  N.  E.,  S.,  and  S. 
W.  course  of  210  m. '  Its  most  important  trib- 
utaries are  the  Tern,  Teme,  Upper  Avon,  Wye, 
and  Lower  Avon.  It  is  navigable  178  m.  from 
its  mouth,  and  the  navigation  has  been  ex- 
tended by  locks  and  canals.  Below  Gloucester 
extensive  embankments  have  been  raised  to 
prevent  inundation.  At  the  mouth  the  tide 
rises  48  ft.,  and  at  Chepstow  on  the  Wye  60  ft. 

SEVERUS,  Alexander.  See  ALEXANDER  SE- 
VERUS. 

SEVKRIS,  Lndus  Septimins,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  of  a  family  of  equestrian  rank  near  Leptis, 
Africa,  April  11,  A.  D.  146,  died  in  Eboracum 
(York),  Britain,  Feb.  4,  211.  He  studied  law 
at  Rome,  became  adtocatu*  fitci,  and  afterward 
held  many  offices  under  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
Commodns,  at  Rome  and  in  the  provinces,  gain- 
ing the  favor  of  the  people  whom  he  governed, 
especially  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  by  his  integ- 
rity and  moderation,  combined  with  firmness. 
When  Commodus  was  assassinated  (192)  Seve- 
rus  was  commander  of  the  army  in  Pannonia 
and  Illyria ;  and  after  the  brief  reign  of  Perti- 
nax  and  the  sale  of  the  empire  by  the  prae- 
torian guard  to  Didius  Julianus,  he  was  pro- 


SEVIER 

claimed  emperor  by  his  troops  at  Carnuntum, 
and  inarched  upon  Rome.  No  sooner  had  he 
appeared  before  the  city  (June,  193)  than  he 
was  acknowledged  emperor  by  the  senate,  and 
Julianus  was  deposed  and  killed.  His  first  care 
was  to  disarm  and  banish  the  praetorian  guard, 
.and  put  to  death  all  concerned  in  the  murder 
of  Pertinax.  Clodius  Albinus,  commander  of 
the  Roman  forces  in  Britain,  and  Pescennius 
Niger,  in  Syria,  had  each  at  the  same  time  with 
Severus  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army. 
The  former,  whom  he  most  feared,  Severus 
associated  with  himself  as  Caesar  ;  and  against 
the  latter,  having  distributed  an  immense  lar- 
gess to  the  troops,  he  marched  within  30  days 
after  his  arrival  at  Rome,  defeated  his  legate 
./Emilianus  near  Cyzicus,  and  Pescennius  Niger 
himself  near  Nicsea,  and  again  on  the  gulf  of 
Issus,  where  Niger  was  slain.  Byzantium  held 
out  for  three  years,  when  it  was  taken  (196), 
devastated,  and  dismantled,  Rome  being  thus 
deprived  of  its  strongest  bulwark  against  the 
Asiatic  barbarians.  Meanwhile  Severus  had 
crossed  the  Euphrates  and  subdued  the  bor- 
der tribes.  He  next  attempted  to  procure  the 
assassination  of  Clodius  Albinus,  who,  hearing 
of  his  intention,  passed  over  into  Gaul.  Seve- 
rus marched  against  him,  and  the  armies,  each 
150,000  strong,  met  near  Lugdunum  (Lyons), 
Feb.  19,  197;  after  a  terrible  slaughter,  during 
which  Severus  came  near  losing  the  battle  and 
his  life,  Albinus  was  routed,  and  died  by  his 
own  hand.  Severus  trampled  the  body  under 
his  horse's  feet,  ordered  the  head  to  be  cut  off 
and  carried  to  Rome,  whither  he  soon  followed, 
and  put  to  death  the  family  of  Albinus,  as  he 
had  previously  that  of  Niger,  besides  many 
senators  and  others.  Soon  after,  marching 
against  the  Parthians,  he  took  and  plundered 
Ctesiphon  and  other  cities,  but  was  less  success- 
ful against  the  Arabs.  After  spending  three 
years  more  in  settling  the  affairs  of  Arabia, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  202, 
and  gave  shows  and  distributed  money  with 
unparalleled  profusion,  on  occasion  of  his  son 
Caracalla's  marriage,  and  the  completion  of 
the  10th  year  of  his  reign.  The  next  few 
years  were  passed  in  prosperous  administra- 
tion at  Rome,  but  were  disturbed  by  the  dis- 
cord and  profligacy  of  his  sons  Caracalla  and 
Geta,  both  of  whom  he  associated  with  him- 
self as  Augusti.  In  208,  a  war  breaking  out 
in  Britain,  he  went  thither  with  them.  Cale- 
donia was  overrun  by  his  soldiers  to  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  island;  but  50,000  of 
them  were  destroyed  by  the  climate  and  the 
attacks  of  concealed  foes,  and  Severus  retired 
southward  and  began  building  the  wall  known 
ty  his  name.  The  Caledonians  nominally  sub- 
mitted, but  again  rebelled,  and  he  was  prepar- 
ing for  a  new  campaign  when  he  died. 

SEVIER.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bordering  on  the  Indian  territory  and  bound- 
ed S.  by  Little  river ;  area,  about  825  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,492,  of  whom  968  Avere  colored. 
The  surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  mod- 


SEVIGNE 


789 


erately  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  1,919  bushels  of  wheat,  123,045  of  Indian 
corn,  11,873  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,189  bales  of 
cotton,  3,367  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  8,761  of  wool. 
There  were  757  horses,  363  mules  and  asses, 
1,472  milch  cows,  2,906  other  cattle,  2,507 
sheep,  and  8,658  swine.  Capital,  Lockesburgh. 
II«  An  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on 
North  Carolina  and  traversed  by  French  Broad 
and  Little  Pigeon  rivers ;  area,  520  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  11,028,  of  whom  583  were  col- 
ored. Much  of  the  surface  is  mountainous, 
and  the  soil  along  the  streams  is  fertile.  Lime- 
stone and  iron  ore  abound.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  63,488  bushels  of  wheat, 
260,214  of  Indian  corn,  42,460  of  oats,  13,997 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  16,109  of  wool,  79,135  of 
butter,  15,528  of  honey,  and  16,588  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,954  horses, 
2,264  milch  cows,  3,950  other  cattle,  9,578 
sheep,  and  13,088  swine.  Capital,  Sevier- 
ville.  III.  An  E.  county  of  Utah,  bordering 
on  Colorado,  and  intersected  by  the  Green 
and  Grand  rivers;  area,  about  7,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  19.  The  "W.  part  is  crossed  by 
the  Wahsatch  mountains,  and  watered  by  Se- 
vier  river.  Capital,  Richfield. 

SEVIGIVE,  Marie  de  Rabntjn-Chantal,  marquise 
de,  a  French  epistolary  writer,  born  in  Paris, 
Feb.  6,  1626,  died  at  Grignan,  April  18,  1696. 
Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  six,  she  was 
brought  up  by  her  maternal  grandfather,  and 
afterward  by  her  uncle,  the  abbe1  de  Coulanges, 
whom  she  used  to  style  in  her  letters  Bienbon. 
She  received  lessons  and  advice  from  Chapelain 
and  Manage,  who  taught  her  Latin,  Spanish,  and 
Italian.  As  soon  as  she  appeared  in  society,  she 
was  greatly  admired  on  account  of  her  beauty, 
wit,  and  wealth.  In  1644  she  married  the 
marquis  Henri  de  S6vigne,  a  nobleman  of  Brit- 
tany and  a  relative  of  the  Retz  family,  who 
in  1645  was  appointed  governor  of  Fougerea. 
Owing  to  her  husband's  family  relations,  she 
was  involved  in  the  civil  troubles  of  the  Fronde, 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  duchesses  of 
Longueville  and  Chevreuse.  Her  husband  was 
killed  in  a  duel  in  1651,  and  she  devoted  her- 
self to  the  education  of  her  son  and  daughter. 
Mme.  de  S6vigne  received  the  homage  of  many 
distinguished  personages,  including  the  prince 
of  Conti,  Marshal  Turenne,  the  count  de  Bussy 
(her  cousin),  and  Fouquet.  Her  letters  to  her 
daughter,  the  marquise  de  Grignan,  which  are 
admired  for  their  vivacity,  delicacy,  and  wit, 
were  not  intended  for  publication,  and  they 
were  not  printed  till  30  years  after  her  death 
(1726).  One  of  the  most  complete  editions  is 
by  Regnier,  included  in  Les  grands  ecrivaim 
de  la  France  (14  vols.,  1862-'6).  A  selection 
from  the  English  editions  has  been  edited  by 
Mrs.  S.  J.  Hale  (12mo,  New  York,  1856).— See 
Walckenaer,  Memoir  e*  touchant  la  tie  et  let 
ecrits  de  Mme.  de  Semgne  (5  vols.  12mo,  Paris, 
1842-'52),  and  "Madame  de  S6vSgn6,  her  Cor- 
respondence and  Contemporaries,"  by  Coun- 
tess de  Puliga  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1872). 


790 


SEVILLE 


SEVILLE  (Sp.  Sevilla).  I.  A  S.  W.  province 
of  Spain,  in  Andalusia,  bordering  on  Bada- 
joz,  Cordova,  Malaga,  Cadiz,  and  Huelva;  area, 
5,296  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1870, 515,011.  The  north- 
ern portion  is  traversed  by  the  Sierra  Morena, 
and  the  southern  by  the  Sierra  Ronda,  with 
some  peaks  of  considerable  elevation ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  province  mainly  consists  of  vast 
and  fertile  plains,  drained  by  the  Guadalquivir 
and  its  tributaries,  the  largest  of  which  are 
the  Genii,  Viar,  and  Huelva.  The  climate  is 
extremely  hot  in  summer,  but  very  salubrious. 
Agriculture  is  well  advanced,  and  the  vine  and 
olive  are  particularly  abundant.  There  are  large 
numbers  of  cattle,  horses  of  superior  breed, 
mules,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine.  Among  the 
mineral  products  are  silver,  iron,  copper,  and 
lead,  with  coal,  marble,  and  limestone.  Wines 
and  oil  of  superior  quality  are  produced ;  and 
there  are  manufactories,  chiefly  at  the  capital, 
of  silk,  woollen,  and  linen  fabrics,  soap,  leath- 
er, brandy,  hats,  porcelain,  common  earthen- 
ware, leather,  &c.  The  principal  town  besides 
the  capital  is  Ecija.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Hupalit), 
capital  of  the  province  and  of  Andalusia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  62  m.  N.  X . 
E.  of  Cadiz,  and  242  m.  8.  W.  of  Madrid ;  pop. 
(including  its  seven  suburbs)  about  115,000. 
It  is  situated  in  a  delightful  plain,  and  sur- 
rounded by  Moorish  walls  with  66  towers  and 
14  gates.  In  1864  it  had  564  streets,  mostly 


The  Giralda. 


narrow  and  tortuous,  but  well  lighted,  and  62 
public  squares.  Many  of  the  houses  are  re- 
markable for  architectural  beauty,  and  have 


magnificent  colonnades  and  courtyards,  paved 
with  porcelain  tiles  or  marble  and  embellished 
with  fountains.  The  cathedral,  one  of  the  lar- 
gest and  finest  in  Spain,  exquisitely  decorated 
within  and  without,  was  completed  in  1519, 
on  the  site  successively  occupied  by  the  tem- 
ples of  Astarte  and  Salambo,  and  the  ancient 
mosque  of  Seville.  Although  repeatedly  de- 
spoiled, it  still  contains  some  of  its  finest  pic- 
tures by  Murillo  and  other  masters.  The  main 
tower,  the  Giralda,  erected  in  1196  as  the  chief 
muezzin  tower  of  the  ancient  mosque,  was  at 
first  but  250  ft.  high ;  but  in  1568  was  added 
a  superb  filigree  belfry  surmounted  by  a  bronze 
figure  of  "  Faith,"  and  the  present  height  is 
about  850  ft.  The  cathedral  has  one  of  the 
largest  organs  in  the  world,  and  contains  the 
tombs  of  St.  Ferdinand,  who  conquered  the 
city  from  the  Moors,  Queen  Beatrice  his  first 
wife,  Alfonso  the  Wise,  and  other  celebrities. 
Attached  to  the  tagrario  or  parish  church,, 
contiguous  to  the  cathedral,  is  a  library  of 
about  18,000  volumes,  the  gift  of  Fernando  Co- 
lumbus, the  son  of  Christopher,  and  contain- 
ing several  manuscripts  by  him  and  his  father. 
The  city  has  a  large  number  of  other  parish 
churches,  chapels,  convents,  and  nunneries. 
The  benevolent  institutions  are  also  numerous. 
Among  the  other  edifices  of  note  are  the  alcd- 
zar  or  Moorish  castle,  in  many  respects  equal 
to  the  Alhambra  of  Granada ;  the  archiepisco- 
pal  palace ;  the  casa  de  Pilato,  so  called  from  a 
reputed  resemblance  to  Pontius  Pilate's  house 
at  Jerusalem,  and  now  the  palace  of  the  duke 
of  Medina-Celi;  the  city  hall  and  other  gov- 
ernment buildings ;'  the  court  house,  mint,  ex- 
change, custom  house,  and  tobacco  factory. 
The  torre  de  oro  or  tower  of  gold,  long  the 
storehouse  for  the  treasures  from  America,  i» 
said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Romans.  The 
bull  ring,  commenced  in  1760,  but  still  unfin- 
ished, accommodates  11,000  spectators.  The 
university,  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century,  has  a  good  collection  of  picture* 
and  sculptures,  museums  of  chemistry,  phys- 
ics, mineralogy,  and  zoology,  and  a  botanical 
garden.  Seville  has  also  a  school  of  fine  arts, 
colleges  of  law,  medicine,  and  commerce,  a 
nautical  academy,  and  a  large  number  of  other 
schools,  many  of  which  are  for  females  alone. 
In  the  grand  tobacco  factory  are  employed 
3,000  women,  chiefly  from  the  Canaries,  and 
600  men;  and  brass  cannon,  small  firearms, 
saltpetre,  and  gunpowder  are  made  in  the  ord- 
nance foundery.  Seville  formerly  carried  on  a 
large  portion  of  the  trade  with  the  new  world. 
This  business  was  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century  transferred  to  Cadiz  in  consequence 
of  the  silting  up  of  the  Guadalquivir,  which 
rendered  it  unnavigable  by  vessels  of  over  100 
tons.  The  staple  articles  of  export  are  oil, 
oranges,  wine,  silk,  leather,  quicksilver,  cop- 
per, and  lead. — Seville  was  called  Sephela  by 
the  Phoenicians,  Hispalis  by  the  Romans,  and 
Ishbiliah  by  the  Moors.  It  was  captured  in 
45  B.  C.  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  made  it  a  Ro- 


SEVRES 


SEWARD 


791 


Interior  of  the  Alcazar  of  Seville. 


man  colony,  patronizing  it  in  opposition  to 
Cordova,  which  had  espoused  the  cause  of 
Pompey.  When  the  Goths  invaded  the  coun- 
try they  made  it  their  seat  of  power,  but  in 
the  6th  century  the  court  was  removed  to 
Toledo.  It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors 
from  711  till  1248,  and  under  them  attained 
great  splendor,  and  a  population  of  300,000. 
In  1248  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  and  Leon 
took  it  after  a  long  siege,  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  those  united  kingdoms,  which  it 
remained  until  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  A 
treaty  was  concluded  at  Seville  in  1729  be- 
tween Spain,  France,  and  England.  The  city 
surrendered  to  the  French  under  Soult  in 
1810,  when  the  inhabitants  were  cruelly  treat- 
ed, the  plunder  and  money  extorted  from 
them  being  estimated  at  $30,000,000.  They 
evacuated  it  in  August,  1812,  when  the  Eng- 
lish entered  the  town.  It  was  besieged  by 
Espartero  in  July,  1843. 

SEVRES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  6  m.  S.  W.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872, 
7,096.  It  stands  in  a  valley  between  the  hills 
of  Meudon  and  St.  Cloud,  and  the  main  street 
is  of  great  length,  being  traversed  by  the  Ver- 
sailles road.  The  celebrated  porcelain  factory 
was  removed  hither  in  1756  from  Vincennes, 
and  in  1760  became  the  sole  property  of  Louis 
XV.  (See  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN,  vol.  xiii., 
p.  785.)  Connected  with  it  is  a  museum,  and 
in  1875  a  school  of  mosaics  was  established. 
There  are  also  manufactories  of  shawls,  cord- 
age, leather,  and  chemical  substances,  and  va- 
rious chemical  arts  are  carried  on. — Sevres 
was  occupied  by  the  Germans  Sept.  19,  1870, 
bombarded  by  the  French  Oct.  5,  and  attacked 
by  the  troops  of  the  commune  April  4,  1871. 


SEVRES,  Deux,  a  W.  department  of  France, 
in  the  old  provinces  of  Poitou  and  Angou- 
mois,  bordering  on  Maine-et-Loire,  Vienne, 
Charente,  Charente-Inferieure,  and  Vendee; 
area,  2,317  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  331,243.  A 
chain  of  hills  which  have  a  mean  height  of 
450  ft.  traverses  the  department  S.  E.  and 
N.  W.,  dividing  it  into  two  distinct  por- 
tions. The  Sevre-Nantaise  and  Sevre-Nior- 
taise,  which  rise  in  the  department  and  give 
it  its  name,  flow  respectively  N.  W.  to  the 
Loire  at  Nantes  and  W.  to  the  Atlantic,  pass- 
ing Niort.  The  Thouet  and  several  other  small 
rivers  also  have  their  sources  here.  The  de- 
partment is  traversed  by  seven  canals.  Iron, 
rock  crystals,  and  saltpetre  are  found.  The 
vineyards  in  the  S.  W.  part  produce  good 
brandy  and  white  wines.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton  goods, 
leather,  earthenware,  brandy,  cutlery,  and  pa- 
per. It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Bressuire,  Melle,  Niort,  and  Parthenay. 
Capital,  Niort. 

SEWiRD.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska, 
intersected  by  the  Big  Blue  river  and  its  forks ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  6,601.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  productive. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Midland  Pacific  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  58,579 
bushels  of  wheat,  58,637  of  Indian  corn,  81,- 
620  of  oats,  18,488  of  potatoes,  35,601  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  5,205  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
1,214  horses,  718  milch  cows,  1,161  other  cat- 
tle, 509  sheep,  1,296  swine,  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Seward.  II.  An  unorganized  S.  W. 
county  of  Kansas,  bordering  on  Indian  terri- 
tory ;  area,  720  sq.  m.  It  is  watered  by  afflu- 
ents of  the  Cimarron  river.  The  surface  con- 
sists of  rolling  prairies. 


792 


SEWARD 


SEWARD,  Anna,  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Eyam,  Derbyshire,  in  1747,  died  in  Lichfield, 
Marclj  25,  1809.  At  nine  years  of  age  she 
could  repeat  the  first  three  books  of  "Para- 
dise Lost."  At  Lichfield,  where  the  greater 
part  of  her  life  was  passed,  she  became  inti- 
mate with  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin,  of  whom  in 
1804  she  published  a  memoir,  in  which  she 
lays  claim  to  the  first  50  lines  of  his  "  Botani- 
cal Garden."  Her  poetical  works  consist  of 
"Louisa,"  a  metrical  novel  (1782),  and  "Son- 
nets" (1799).  Her  elegies  on  Captain  Cook 
and  Major  Amliv  had  great  celebrity.  She 
was  called  by  her  contemporaries  of  the  Delia 
Cruscan  school  "  the  swan  of  Lichfield."  She 
bequeathed  a  mass  of  manuscript  poetry  and 
correspondence  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  which  he 
edited  in  1810.  Constable  also  published  six 
volumes  of  her  correspondence  (1811). 

SEWAED,  William  Henry,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Florida,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  May 
16,  1801,  died  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  10, 1872. 
He  graduated  at  Union  college  in  1820,  having 
passed  six  months  of  his  senior  year  in  teach- 
ing in  Georgia,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1822.  He  commenced  practice  in  Auburn, 
where  in  1824  he  entered  upon  political  life 
by  preparing  an  address  for  a  republican  con- 
vention, announcing  an  opposition  to  the  "Al- 
bany regency,"  as  the  leaders  of  the  democrat- 
ic party  of  New  York  were  then  styled,  which 
was  continued  until  crowned  with  success  in 
1838.  In  August,  1828,  he  presided  over  a 
young  men's  convention  in  New  York,  called 
to  favor  the  reelection  of  John  Quincy  Adams 
to  the  presidency,  and  on  his  return  home  was 
tendered  a  nomination  as  member  of  congress, 
which  he  declined.  In  1830  he  was  elected  to 
the  state  senate  as  an  anti-mason  by  a  majority 
of  2,000,  although  the  district  had  given  a  large 
adverse  majority  the  preceding  year.  He  ori- 
ginated an  opposition  to  corporate  monopolies 
which  has  since  ripened  into  a  system  of  gen- 
eral laws.  In  1833  he  made  a  rapid  tour  of 
Great  Britain  and  a  portion  of  the  continent, 
and  contributed  a  series  of  letters  to  the  Al- 
bany "  Evening  Journal."  In  1834  he  was  the 
whig  candidate  for  governor,  and  was  defeated 
by  W.  L.  Marcy;  but  in  1838  he  was  elected 
governor  by  a  majority  of  10,000  over  Gov. 
Marcy.  Among  the  measures  to  which  he  di- 
rected his  attention  were  the  extension  of  pub- 
lic education,  the  prosecution  of  the  public 
works,  including  the  enlargement  of  the  Erie 
canal,  and  the  removal  of  the  legal  disabili- 
ties imposed  on  foreigners.  A  prominent  fea- 
ture of  his  administration  was  his  effort  to  se- 
cure the  diffusion  of  common  school  education 
among  children  of  every  class,  especially  those 
in  large  cities  and  of  foreign  parentage,  advo- 
cating an  equal  distribution  of  the  public  funds 
among  all  schools  established  with  that  object. 
Amid  much  opposition  he  exerted  all  his  in- 
fluence in  favor  of  a  reform  in  the  courts  of 
law  and  of  chancery,  preparing  the  way  for  the 
radical  changes  effected  in  the  constitution  of 


1846.  The  geological  survey  of  the  state,  the 
perfection  of  the  general  banking  system,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  lunatic  asylum  were 
also  measures  of  his  administration.  Imprison- 
ment for  debt  was  entirely  abolished,  the  anti- 
rent  rebellion  was  subdued,  and  every  vestige 
of  slavery  was  cleared  from  the  statute  books. 
In  a  controversy  between  Gov.  Seward  and 
the  executive  of  Virginia  on  the  application 
of  the  latter  for  the  return  of  two  seamen 
charged  with  abducting  slaves,  Seward  main- 
tained that  no  state  could  force  a  requisition 
upon  another  state  founded  on  an  act  which 
was  only  criminal  by  its  own  legislation,  and 
which,  compared  with  general  standards,  was 
not  only  innocent,  but  humane  and  praise- 
worthy. The  correspondence,  known  as  "the 
Virginian  controversy,"  was  widely  published. 
Mr.  Seward  was  reflected  in  1840.  On  retiring 
from  office  (Jan.  1,  1843)  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  first  in  the  state  courts,  and  after- 
ward acquiring  a  lucrative  share  of  patent 
causes  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States.  He 
occasionally  appeared  in  criminal  cases  where 
persons  were,  as  he  thought,  unjustly  accused, 
when  he  not  only  gave  his  best  efforts  gratui- 
tously, but  sometimes  furnished  large  sums 
for  a  proper  defence.  His  arguments  in  the 
cases  of  Van  Zandt,  charged  with  harboring 
fugitive  slaves  in  Ohio,  of  Freeman,  charged 
with  murder,  and  of  50  citizens  of  Michigan 
indicted  for  conspiracy,  hold  a  high  rank  in 
the  records  of  criminal  trials.  In  1844  Mr. 
Seward  entered  with  energy  into  the  presiden- 
tial contest  in  behalf  of  Henry  Clay,  and  again 
in  1848  in  support  of  Gen.  Taylor.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1849,  he  was  elected  United  States  sen- 
ator. On  the  meeting  of  congress  in  Decem- 
ber following,  the  members  from  the  south, 
apprehending  the  adoption  of  an  anti-slavery 
policy,  took  ground  in  opposition  to  Gen.  Tay- 
lor's administration,  and  Mr.  Seward  soon  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  administration  party. 
In  his  subsequent  speeches  he  avowed  a  de- 
termination to  make  no  further  concessions  to 
the  slave  power,  and  was  denounced  as  a  sedi- 
tious and  dangerous  agitator.  In  a  speech  on 
the  admission  of  California  into  the  Union, 
March  11,  1850,  he  used  the  following .  lan- 
guage :  "  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  national 
domain  is  ours.  It  is  true,  it  was  acquired 
by  the  valor  and  with  the  wealth  of  the  whole 
nation.  But  we  hold,  nevertheless,  no  arbi- 
trary power  over  it.  We  hold  no  arbitrary 
authority  over  anything,  whether  acquired 
lawfully  or  seized  by  usurpation.  The  consti- 
tution regulates  our  stewardship ;  the  consti- 
tution devotes  the  domain  to  union,  to  justice, 
to  defence,  to  welfare,  and  to  liberty.  But 
there  is  a  higher  law  than  the  constitution, 
which  regulates  our  authority  over  the  do- 
main, and  devotes  it  to  the  same  noble  pur- 
poses. The  territory  is  a  part,  no  inconsider- 
able part,  of  the  common  heritage  of  man- 
kind, bestowed  upon  them  by  the  Creator  of 
the  universe.  We  are  his  stewards,  and  must 


SEWARD 


793 


so  discharge  our  trust  as  to  secure  in  the  high- 
est attainable  degree  their  happiness."  The 
phrase  "higher  law,"  thus  applied  to  the  law 
of  God,  was  the  subject  of  much  excited  com- 
ment in  the  senate  and  in  the  public  press, 
and  was  afterward  urged  as  a  ground  of  re- 
proach by  the  political  enemies  of  Mr.  Seward. 
The  death  of  President  Taylor  in  July,  1850, 
and  the  accession  of  Vice  President  Fillmore, 
brought  the  conservative  wing  of  the  whig 
party  into  prominence;  but  Mr.  Seward  still 
maintained  his  position  as  a  leader  on  the 
anti-slavery  side.  Besides  his  speeches  on  the 
compromises  of  1850,  he  delivered  several  oth- 
ers on  the  commercial  and  industrial  relations 
of  the  country.  His  speeches  on  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  compromise  and  the  admission 
of  Kansas,  like  those  on  the  compromises  of 
1850,  were  widely  circulated.  In  1858  he 
made  a  speech  at  Rochester,  in  which,  after 
alluding  to  the  constant  collision  between  the 
systems  of  free  and  slave  labor  in  the  United 
States,  he  said:  "It  is  an  irrepressible  con- 
flict between  opposing  and  enduring  forces, 
and  it  means  that  the  United  States  must  and 
will,  sooner  or  later,  become  either  entirely  a 
slaveholding  nation,  or  entirely  a  free  labor 
nation."  The  southern  secession  threatening 
during  the  last  session  of  the  36th  congress 
(1860-'61),  Mr.  Seward  in  the  senate  expressed 
his  views  on  "the  state  of  the  Union"  in  two 
speeches,  in  which  he  said:  "I  avow  my  ad- 
herence to  the  Union  with  my  friends,  with 
my  party,  with  my  state,  or  without  either,  as 
they  may  determine ;  in  every  event  of  peace 
or  war,  with  every  consequence  of  honor  or 
dishonor,  of  life  or  death."  He  declared  also 
in  conclusion  :  "I  certainly  shall  never  direct- 
ly or  indirectly  give  my  vote  to  establish  or 
sanction  slavery  in  the  common  territories  of 
the  United  States,  or  anywhere  else  in  the 
world."  Mr.  Seward's  second  term  closed 
with  the  36th  congress,  March  4,  1861.  He 
had  been  reflected  in  1855  under  circum- 
stances of  peculiar  interest.  He  was  strenu- 
ously opposed  both  by  those  who  disliked  his 
uncompromising  resistance  to  the  slave  in- 
terest, and  by  those  who  could  not  tolerate  his 
opposition  to  the  "  American "  party,  at  that 
time  a  rising  power  throughout  the  Union. 
The  whig  party  having  adopted  in  1852  a  plat- 
form approving  of  the  slavery  compromises 
of  1850,  and  nominated  Gen.  Scott  for  the 
presidency,  Mr.  Seward  declined  to  sustain 
the  platform,  while  he  yielded  his  support  to 
the  candidate.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of 
1856  he  was  very  active  in  behalf  of  Col.  Fre- 
mont, the  republican  candidate.  In  1859  he 
made  a  second  visit  to  Europe,  and  extended 
his  travels  to  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land.  In 
1860,  as  in  1856,  a  large  portion  of  the  re- 
publican party  favored  his  nomination  for  the 
presidency.  In  the  convention,  on  the  first 
ballot,  he  received  173£  votes,  Mr.  Lincoln, 
the  next  highest,  102 — necessary  for  a  choice, 
233.  Lincoln  having  been  nominated,  Seward 


actively  canvassed  the  western  states  in  his  be- 
half. Lincoln  tendered  the  chief  place  in  his 
cabinet  to  Mr.  Seward,  and  on  March  4,  1861, 
he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  secretary  of  state. 
Secession  was  then  imminent,  but  Seward  ap- 
parently failed  at  first  to  apprehend  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  movement.  He  declined  (March, 
1861)  to  negotiate  with  confederate  commis- 
sioners, but  believed  that  the  difficulties  of  the 
two  sections  could  be  settled  without  recourse 
to  arms;  and  he  favored  as  a  peace  measure 
the  evacuation  of  Forts  Pickens  and  Sumter. 
During  the  entire  war  his  management  of  for- 
eign affairs  was  eminently  politic  and  effective. 
Conspicuous  among  these  efforts  were  his  con- 
duct in  the  Trent  affair  (November,  1861) ;  his 
declining  the  proposal  of  France  to  unite  with 
Russia  and  Great  Britain  to  mediate  between 
the  federal  government  and  the  confederates ; 
his  course  in  respect  to  the  French  invasion  of 
Mexico;  and  his  thorough  reorganization  of 
the  diplomatic  service  abroad,  so  that  by  the 
American  representatives,  as  well  as  by  his 
own  despatches,  the  real  issues  at  stake  in  the 
civil  war  were  constantly  made  prominent  to 
foreign  governments.  His  diplomatic  manage- 
ment during  this  critical  period  more  than 
once  kept  the  country  from  involvement  in  a 
foreign  war.  On  Lincoln's  election  to  a  second 
term  Seward  continued  as  secretary  of  state. 
Early  in  the  spring  of  1865  he  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage,  and  his  jaw  and  one  arm 
were  broken.  While  he  was  confined  to  his 
bed  by  these  injuries,  on  the  night  of  the  assas- 
sination of  Lincoln,  April  14,  one  of  the  con- 
spirators penetrated  to  Seward's  room  and 
struck  him  several  times  with  a  knife,  and  also 
severely  wounded  Frederick  W.  Seward,  who 
came  to  his  father's  rescue.  The  assassin  es- 
caped from  the  house,  but  was  soon  arrested, 
and  was  hanged  with  other  conspirators,  July 
7.  Mr.  Seward's  recovery  was  slow  and  pain- 
ful ;  but  as  soon  as  he  was  able  he  resumed  the 
duties  of  his  office  under  President  Johnson, 
becoming  unpopular  with  a  large  portion  of  his 
party  from  his  support  of  the  president's  re- 
construction policy.  In  March,  1869,  he  retired 
from  public  life,  and  soon  after  made  an  ex- 
tended tour  through  California  and  Oregon, 
and  went  to  Alaska,  which  had  been  acquired 
during  his  secretaryship  and  mainly  through 
his  efforts.  In  August,  1870,  accompanied  by 
members  of  his  family,  he  set  out  upon  a  tour 
around  the  world,  returning  to  Auburn  in  Oc- 
tober, 1871.  He  was  everywhere  received  with 
the  greatest  distinction,  and  the  results  of  his 
observations  were  embodied  in  "  William  H. 
Seward's  Travels  around  the  World,"  edited 
by  his  adopted  daughter,  Olive  Risley  Seward 
(8vo,  New  York,  1873).— Mr.  Seward^contrib- 
uted  a  historical  essay,  entitled  "Notes  on 
New  York,"  to  the  great  work  on  the  natural 
history  of  the  state,  to  which  it  forms  the  in- 
troduction. In  the  senate  he  delivered  eulo- 
giums  on  Clay,  Webster,  Clayton,  Rusk,  and 
Broderick.  In  1849  he  prepared  a  life  of  John 


794 


SEWELL 


SEWERAGE 


Quincy  Adams  in  a  popular  form,  which  had 
an  immense  sale.  He  also  wrote  a  biography 
of  De.Witt  Clinton,  an  abstract  of  which  he 
prepared  for  this  Cyclopaedia.  "  The  Works  of 
William  H.  Seward  "  (4  vols.  8vo,  New  York, 
1853-'62)  include  a  biographical  memoir  and 
historical  notes,  edited  by  George  E.  Baker. 
Most  of  his  public  orations  have  been  printed 
separately ;  the  latest  is  "  Speech  at  Sitka, 
Aug.  12,  1869."  See  also  "Review  of  Mr. 
Seward's  Correspondence  of  1862,"  by  Wil- 
liam B.  Reed  (Philadelphia,  1862).;  "  The  Life, 
Character,  and  Services  of  William  H.  Sew- 
ard," a  memorial  address  before  the  New  York 
legislature,  April  18,  1873,  by  Charles  Francis 
Adams  (New  York,  1873);  and  "Lincoln  and 
Seward,"  remarks  on  Mr.  Adams's  address,  by 
Gideon  Welles  (New  York,  1874). 

SEWELL.  I.  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  the  isle  of  Wight  about  1805,  died  at 
Leachford  hall,  near  Manchester,  Nov.  14,  1874. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  solicitor,  was  educated  at 
Harrow  and  Oxford,  and  became  fellow  of 
Exeter  college  and  incumbent  of  Carisbrook 
castle  chapel,  isle  of  Wight.  He  was  public 
examiner  in  the  university  from  1886  to  1841, 
and  in  1852  was  appointed  principal  of  St.  Po- 
ter'a  college  at  Radley.  He  was  a  supporter  of 
the  tractarian  movement.  He  published  "  Hora 
Philologica  "  and  "  Conjectures  on  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Greek  Language"  (1830);  "  Sacred 
Thoughts  in  Verse"  (1881 ;  2d  ed.,  1842);  "Pa- 
rochial Sermons"  (1832);  "Christian  Morals" 
(1840;  new  ed.,  1849);  "Introduction  to  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato"  (1841);  "Christian  Poli- 
tics" (1844);  "The  Agamemnon  of  ^Eschylus," 
translated  (1846);  literal  and  rhythmical  trans- 
lations of  "The  Georgics  of  Virgil"  (1846) 
and  "  The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace  "  (1860) ; 
and  "Christian  Vestiges  of  Creation"  (1861). 
II.  Elizabeth  Missing,  an  English  authoress,  sister 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  the  isle  of  Wight  in 
1815.  Her  first  publication  was  "Amy  Her- 
bert "  (1844),  a  high  church  religious  novel. 
Among  her  later  works  are  :  "  Gertrude  " 
(1847);  "Experience  of  Life"  and  "Journal 
of  a  Summer  Tour  on  the  Continent"  (1862); 
"  Katherine  Ashton  "  (1854) ;  "  Ivors  "  (1856) ; 
"Ursula,  a  Tale  of  Country  Life,"  "Clove 
Hall,"  "  Earl's  Daughter,"  and  "  Margaret 
Percival "  (1858) ;  "  History  of  the  Early 
Church "  (1859)  ;  "  Impressions  of  Rome, 
Florence,  and  Turin"  (1862);  "Isabel  Grey" 
and  "The  Poor  Brother"  (1863);  "Homely 
Ballads  and  Stories  in  Verse"  (1865);  "Rose 
of  Cheriton,  a  Ballad "  (1866) ;  and  several 
religious  works  and  histories  of  Greece  and 
Rome  for  the  young. 

SEWELLEL,  a  North  American  rodent  of  the 
genus  aplodontia  (Rich.),  so  called  from  the 
simple  structure  of  the  molars,  apparently  con- 
necting the  beaver  with  the  squirrels  through 
the  spermophiles.  It  resembles  the  prairie 
dogs  in  the  hairy  and  obtuse  nose,  fore  feet 
with  five  claws,  distinct  ears,  very  short  tail, 
and  the  flattened  outline  of  the  skull ;  but  the 


rootless  molars  and  the  absence  of  post-orbi- 
tal process  bring  it  near  the  beaver.  The  fore 
claws  are  much  larger  than  the  hind  ones, 


Sewellel  (Aplodontia  leporina). 

even  the  short  thumb  having  one;  the  soles 
and  heels  naked ;  the  mouth  is  rather  small, 
the  lips  thick,  and  cheek  pouches  absent ;  the 
incisors  are  strong,  flat,  without  grooves,  and 
yellow,  and  the  molars  |-i|,  prismatic,  the  an- 
terior very  small ;  the  bony  orbits  very  large, 
and  the  cranial  cavity  small ;  the  descending 
branch  of  the  lower  jaw  is  twisted  so  as  to 
be  horizontal  behindhand  its  lower  angles  are 
extended  inward  as  far  as  the  molars,  the 
whole  jaw  being  very  strong.  The  only  de- 
scribed species  of  the  genus  is  the  A.  leporina 
(Rich.),  about  the  size  of  a  muskrat,  with  a 
short,  thick,  and  heavy  body ;  the  color  is  red- 
dish brown,  grayish  plumbeous  below ;  the 
eyes  are  very  small,  the  whiskers  long  and 
stiff,  the  ears  rounded  and  covered  with  hair, 
and  the  tail  much  flattened ;  the  fur  is  denso 
and  soft,  with  longer  bristly  dark  hairs  inter- 
spersed ;  the  limbs  are  short  and  robust ;  mam- 
mae six,  the  interior  two  between  the  fore 
legs;  the  length  is  16  in.,  of  which  the  head 
I  is  3|  in.  and  the  tail  H  in-  It  is  found  on 
the  N.  W.  coast,  in  Washington  territory,  in 
I  Oregon,  and  in  California,  in  timber  lands  near 
j  the  coast.  They  form  small  societies,  living  in 
burrows,  and  feeding  on  vegetables;  the  na- 
tives make  robes  of  the  skins. 

SEWERAGE,  a  system  of  drainage  under  the 
streets  of  towns  for  carrying  off  the  surface 
waters  and  the  liquid  refuse  matters  from 
houses.  The  necessity  of  underground  chan- 
nels of  this  character  to  the  comfort  and  health 
of  thickly  populated  places  was  well  under- 
stood by  the  ancient  Romans,  who  at  a  very 
early  period  adopted  a  regular  system  of  drain- 
age in  their  famous  sewers.  (See  CLOAOJI.) 
These  included  not  merely  the  spacious  sub- 
terranean vaults  by  which  the  drainage  of 
the  pestilential  marshes  about  the  city  was 
effected,  but  also  the  wooden  pipes,  clay  tubes, 
or  drains  of  whatever  kind  by  which  the  im- 
purities were  conveyed  from  the  houses  into 
the  main  conduits.  An  elaborate  system  of 
sewerage  has  recently  been  discovered  in  con- 


SEWERAGE 


795 


nection  with  the  Colosseum.  So  completely 
was  the  city  underlaid  by  these  passages,  that 
it  was  designated  by  Pliny  as  urbs  pentilis,  a 
city  supported  upon  arches.  The  avaskara 
mandira  (filth  temple)  of  the  ancient  Hindoos 
was  beyond  doubt  connected  with  channels 
and  receptacles  for  its  accumulations.  The 
great  canal  system  of  Egypt,  executed  under 
Kameses  I.  and  his  successors,  served  exten- 
sive sewerage  purposes ;  and  probably  also  the 
magnificent  canals  of  Assyria  and  Babylon, 
fed  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  ancient 
Chaldean  tomb  mounds  possess  great  interest 
on  account  of  their  system  of  drainage.  Long 
shafts  of  baked  clay  extend  from  the  surface 
of  the  mound  to  its  base,  composed  of  a  succes- 
sion of  rings  2  ft.  in  diameter  and  about  1-J-  ft. 
wide,  joined  together  by  thin  layers  of  bitu- 
men. (See  Rawlinson's  "  Five  Ancient  Mon- 
archies," vol.  i.,  p.  89.)  The  recent  discoveries 
of  Dr.  Pierotti  among  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem 
have  shown  that  the  ancient  city  contained 
a  complex  and  perfect  system  of  aqueducts, 
drains,  and  reservoirs.  The  preservation  of 
many  of  the  aqueducts  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  were  excavated  in  the  solid  rock, 
and  have  not  been  affected  by  the  demolition 
of  the  structures  above.  It  appears  that  the 
pool  of  Siloam  received  the  washings  of  the 
temple,  and  the  liquid  was  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  irrigating  the  king's  gardens.  The 
discoveries  clearly  show  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem  were  fully  aware  of  the  necessity 
of  speedily  removing  all  decomposable  refuse 
matter. — The  system  of  sewerage  of  Paris  has 
during  the  last  half  century  been  made  among 
the  finest  in  the  world.  Previous  to  the  14th 
century,  Paris  being  walled  only  on  the  south, 
the  drainage  of  the  faubourgs  St.  Germain  and 
St.  Marceau  was  poured  into  the  Bievre ;  but 
when  this  district  was  surrounded  by  ditches 
about  1356,  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  the  sew- 
ers of  the  quarter  St.  Germain-des-Pres  were 
turned  into  these  ditches,  and  they  have  since 
taken  the  same  course,  being  carried  by  the 
vaulted  sewer  which  starts  from  near  the  ecole 
de  medecine,  and  empties  into  the  Seine  below 
the  palais  des  arts.  On  the  opposite  bank  an 
open  sewer  was  covered  over  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.  by  Hugues  Aubriot,  and  hence  he 
is  said  to  have  commenced  the  system  of  cov- 
ered sewers  in  Paris.  The  open  sewer  of  St. 
Catharine  was  very  offensive  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  palais  des  tournelles,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence Francis  I.  bought  the  site  of  the  Tuile- 
ries.  As  late  as  1663,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XII.,  there  were  only  1,207  toises  of  covered 
sewers  in  Paris,  and  4,120  toises  of  open  sew- 
ers or  ditches.  The  sewer  formed  by  the  an- 
cient rivulet  of  Menilmontant,  then  and  now 
called  the  grand  egout  de  ceinture,  was  not 
walled  and  covered  till  1740.  In  1805  Napo- 
leon authorized  necessary  repairs  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  covered  sewers  of  Paris.  In 
1806  there  were  about  23,000  metres  of  cov- 
ered sewers,  but  in  1862  they  amounted  to 


about  226,000;  at  present  (1875)  the  total 
length  of  covered  sewers  is  about  400,000  me- 
tres, or  nearly  250  m.  To  organize  the  great 
system  of  sewerage,  Paris  was  divided  into  five 
basins,  of  which  three  are  on  the  right  and 
two  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine.  Six  prin- 
cipal galleries  cut  the  city  at  right  angles,  and 
receive  15  secondary  galleries,  and  these  in 
turn  numerous  minor  galleries.  Besides  these 
galleries,  the  old  grand  sewer,  the  egout  de 
ceinture,  serves  as  a  collector,  into  which  the 
others  empty.  This  grand  sewer  now  starts 
from  the  rue  des  Coutres-Saint-Gervais,  fol- 
lows the  rues  Vielle-du-Temple  and  Filles-du- 
Calvaire,  crosses  the  boulevards,  follows  the 
rue  des  Fosses-du-Temple,  traverses  the  lower 
end  of  the  boulevard  Prince  Eugene,  continues 
its  course  through  the  rues  du  Ch&teau-d'Eau, 
des  Petites-Ecuries,  Richer,  de  Provence,  and 
de  Saint  Nicolas-d'Antin,  and  falls  into  the 
general  collector  at  Asnieres,  under  the  boule- 
vard Malesherbes.  Formerly  it  emptied  into 
the  Seine  at  Chaillot.  The  principal  galleries 
on  the  left  bank  are :  1,  that  along  the  line  of 
quays ;  2,  that  which  follows  the  boulevard 
Saint-Michel ;  and  3,  the  vast  subterranean 
canal  which  receives  the  Bievre.  These  sewers 
also  fall  into  the  general  collector  at  Asnieres, 
under  the  place  de  la  Concorde,  crossing  the 
Seine  by  means  of  a  reversed  iron  siphon  over 
a  yard  in  diameter  and  217  yards  long,  en- 
tering the  river  about  6  ft.  below  low-water 
mark.  In  many  of  the  galleries  there  are  rail- 
ways, on  which  cars  are  run  in  cleaning  the 
sewers,  and  also  for  carrying  visitors.  The 
water  and  gas  mains  are  also  carried  in  the 
galleries  covering  the  principal  sewers. — In 
England  sewer  commissioners  were  appointed 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  but  their  powers 
were  restricted  to  surface  drainage  and  sea 
walls,  the  subject  of  municipal  sewerage  being 
left  principally  to  local  commissions,  and  in 
some  of  the  cities  to  corporations  empowered 
by  special  acts  of  parliament.  The  drainage 
of  London  was  provided  for  by  legislative 
enactments  commencing  in  1225,  and  the  whole 
subject  was  thoroughly  revised  by  Sir  Thomas 
More  in  the  celebrated  "  bill  of  sewers,"  passed 
in  1531.  The  use  of  the  sewers  of  London, 
even  up  to  the  present  century,  was  limited  to 
the  removal  of  the  waters  that  ran  in  the  gut- 
ters of  the  streets,  including  those  thrown  out 
from  the  houses ;  and  in  the  reign  of  George 
III.  an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  the  dis- 
charge of  other  matters  into  them  under  penalty 
of  a  fine.  Every  house  was  provided  with  a 
cesspool,  and  this  was  occasionally  discharged 
by  the  night  carts  which  conveyed  away  the 
offensive  matters.  Upon  the  gravelly  soil  to 
which  the  city  was  then  limited  this  answered 
very  Well;  but  its  extension  over  the  more 
impervious  clay  beds,  and  the  introduction  of 
abundant  supplies  of  water  into  every  house, 
followed  by  the  invention  of  water  closets,  led 
to  a  new  use  of  the  sewers,  and  to  various  re- 
sults not  at  all  contemplated  in  their  originaJ 


796 


SEWERAGE 


construction.  The  refuse  matters  of  the  cess- 
pools, instead  of  being  transported  into  the 
counfry  to  serve  as  manure,  were  turned  into 
the  river  Thames,  polluting  its  waters,  while 
the  sewers  themselves  in  the  lower  parts  of 
the  city  were  incompetent  to  discharge  the 
increased  burdens,  and  the  ventilating  flues 
through  the  streets  became  avenues  of  the 
most  poisonous  gases.  A  reconstruction  of 
many  of  the  sewers  upon  a  larger  scale  became 
necessary,  and  they  were  laid  out  upon  a  regu- 
lar system,  coming  down  to  the  river  from 
each  side  for  a  distance  of  6  m.  along  its  course. 
Their  total  length  exceeded  2,000  m.,  and  when 
they  were  completed  London  was  regarded  in 
1855  as  one  of  the  best  drained  cities  in  the 
world.  The  principal  sewers  were  of  extra- 
ordinary dimensions,  several  being  from  12  to 
14  ft.  high  and  6}  ft.  wide.  Notwithstanding 
the  great  scale  of  this  drainage  system,  the 
most  serious  difficulties  were  experienced  in 
its  operation.  The  outlets  of  the  sewers,  in 
order  to  get  sufficient  fall  for  discharge,  were 
placed  but  little  above  low-water  mark,  the 
surface  of  some  portions  of  the  city  itself 
being  below  high-water  mark.  Consequently 
the  sewers  were  closed  by  the  tide  except  at 
low  water,  and  the  gaseous  contents  of  the 
sewage  turned  back  into  the  city  and  up  the 
drains  into  every  street  and  house.  The  dis- 
charge moreover  tuking  place  only  about  the 
time  of  lowest  water,  the  accumulated  con- 
tents of  the  sewers  were  kept  up  the  river  un- 
til the  ebb,  and  when  at  last  carried  down  the 
stream  they  were  replaced  by  the  same  amount 
of  fresh  filth.  Foul  banks  of  black  mud,  from 
which  most  offensive  odors  emanated  when 
laid  bare  at  low  tide,  collected  along  the  banks 
and  in  the  shallow  parts  of  the  river.  In  1858 
it  was  decided  to  adopt  some  active  measures 
for  the  abatement  of  the  nuisance.  It  was  at- 
tempted to  disinfect  the  sewage  by  discharging 
every  day  during  the  warm  weather  immense 
quantities  of  lime  and  chloride  of  lime  into  the 
river.  The  quantities  of  these  thus  thrown  in 
in  the  summer  of  1859  amounted  to  110  tons 
of  lime  and  12  tons  of  the  chloride  every  day, 
at  a  weekly  cost  of  about  £1,500;  and  in  that 
season  £20,000  more  were  also  expended  in 
flushing  the  sewers  in  order  to  aid  in  expelling 
their  contents  at  extreme  low  water.  Plans 
were  also  sought  for  from  scientific  and  prac- 
tical men  by  which  the  serious  difficulties 
encountered  might  be  permanently  overcome ; 
and  at  last  one  submitted  by  Mr.  Bazalgette, 
chief  engineer  of  the  board  of  works,  was 
adopted  and  executed.  The  main  feature  of 
this  plan  consists  in  a  series  of  three  grand 
parallel  main  sewers  at  different  levels  and  dis- 
tances from  the  river,  and  on  each  side  of  it, 
which  cross  the  old  sewers  and  outfalls  at 
right  angles  and  intercept  the  contents  of  the 
old  system,  conveying  them  on  the  north  of 
the  Thames  down  the  river  to  Barking,  a  dis- 
tance of  7m.,  and  on  the  south  side  to  Cross- 
ness in  the  Erith  marshes,  7f  m.  At  this  point 


the  sewage  is  received  in  enormous  reservoirs, 
which  principally  discharge  at  favorable  con- 
ditions of  tide  into  the  Thames ;  but  a  portion 
is  used  in  making  what  is  called  "  native  gua- 
no "  by  the  "  A,  B,  C  "  process.  The  work  of 
constructing  these  great  intercepts,  pumping 
stations,  &c.,  was  immense;  the  intercepting 
sewers  alone,  82  m.  in  length,  cost  £4,250,- 
000,  which  was  raised  by  a  third  rate  levied  on 
the  metropolis,  yielding  £180,262  per  annum, 
principal  and  interest  to  be  paid  off  in  40  years. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  total  cost  of  these  great 
works  will  not  be  far  from  £30,000,000.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  improvements  that  have 
been  effected  in  England,  serious  defects  still 
exist  affecting  the  water  supply  of  London, 
from  sewage  outfalls  above  the  city,  but  which 
were  being  remedied  in  1875. — In  America, 
sewer  construction  has  both  an  ancient  and 
a  modern  history.  The  works  of  the  mound 
builders  prove  them  to  have  been  expert  in 
the  building  of  reservoirs,  aqueducts,  and  con- 
duits ;  and  various  places  between  the  north- 
west and  Central  America  exhibit  remains 
of  their  sewer  constructions.  The  modern 
history  of  sewers  in  America  is  not  marked  by 
any  special  achievements,  the  sewer  systems 
of  her  principal  cities  being  the  result  of  rap- 
idly increasing  necessity.  As  a  rule,  there- 
fore, the  sewers  of  the  cities  have  been  built 
piecemeal  and  rarely  on  a  far-sighted  plan,  and 
generally  discharge  into  the  nearest  available 
body  of  water. — The  construction  of  sewers 
depends,  as  to  material,  size,  shape,  &c.,  upon 
the  uses  they  are  to  serve,  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  must  be  built,  embracing  the 
consideration  of  area  to  be  sewered,  its  geologi- 
cal and  topographical  characters,  the  amount 
of  rainfall,  the  water  supply,  the  present  and 
prospective  population,  and  the  disposal  of  the 
sewage.  The  difficulties  encountered  are  in 
part  the  character  of  the  earth,  this  being 
often  so  soft  as  to  demand  artificial  supports 
for  the  pipes  and  sides  of  trench,  or  so  hard  as 
to  require  expensive  excavation,  the  difficulty 
of  securing  sufficient  fall,  and  that  of  providing 
for  varying  degrees  of  foulness  in  street  wash, 
and  securing  safe  escape  for  sewer  gases.  For 
cleaning  purposes  large  man-holes  are  now 
depended  upon,  together  with  facilities  for 
flushing.  The  form  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  surface  water,  of  manufacturing  waste  and 
excrement,  and  of  subsoil  water.  If  the  sew- 
age contains  little  solid  matter,  a  flat  or  ob- 
tuse oval  bottom  will  answer ;  but  it  is  found 
that  less  fluid  matters  will  be  more  efficient- 
ly discharged  by  an  egg-shaped  oval,  which 
secures  a  greater  depth  and  velocity  of  flow. 
An  important  change  has  of  late  years  been 
made  by  the  substitution,  where  the  drain- 
age is  comparatively  small,  of  small  earthen- 
ware pipes  for  large  brick  and  stone  sewers, 
whereby  leakage  and  earth  contamination  have 
been  reduced.  A  difficulty  attending  their  use 
is  the  removing  of  sections  for  repairs.  The 
cloaca  maxima  of  Rome  and  the  great  sewers 


SEWERAGE 


797 


of  Paris  are  built  of  cut  stone,  as  were  some 
of  the  conduits  of  the  mound  builders.  The 
great  main  drainage  works  of  London  are  cy- 
lindrical sewers  of  brick.  The  system  of  Capt. 
Liernur,  now  so  highly  lauded  and  being  adopt- 
ed in  Europe  generally,  has  its  pipes  all  of 
riveted  wrought  or  cast  iron.  Sewers  are  gen- 
erally laid  along  the  middle  of  the  street  and 
at  depths  according  to  the  grades.  At  many 
street  corners  "  catch  pools  "  are  built  of  brick- 
work, which,  covered  by  open  gratings,  re- 
ceive the  wash  of  the  street,  retaining  in  the 
bottom  the  mud  and  sand  and  discharging  the 
water  into  the  sewer.  In  towns  having  dis- 
tricts whose  surface  is  scarcely  above  high 
tide,  the  principle  of  interception  requires  at- 
tention from  the  engineer.  Intercepting  sewers 
receive  the  surface  water,  and  often  also  the 
sewage,  and  divert  it  from  the  common  sewer 
which  passes  to  the  lower  districts.  In  towns 
where  the  sewage  is  pumped  from  the  lower 
districts  to  higher  levels  on  account  of  tide- 
locked  sewers,  the  system  of  interception  be- 
comes of  great  importance  and  greatly  reduces 
the  cost  of  drainage.  This  is  well  understood 
in  the  great  drainage  works  in  the  fen  districts 
of  England,  where  large  areas  are  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  intercepting  drains,  which  lead  the 
water  off  by  gravitation.  The  great  intercept- 
ing sewers  of  London,  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, have  been  constructed  to  convey  rain- 
fall at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth 
over  the  whole  area  drained  every  24  hours,  at 
the  time  the  maximum  flow  of  sewage  is  being 
discharged.  When  the  flow  in  a  sewer  does 
not  carry  off  the  solid  contents,  it  is  convenient 
to  clean  it  by  washing  it  out,  or  "flushing"  as 
it  is  technically  termed.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed by  letting  in  water  at  the  higher  levels, 
or  by  retaining  the  sewage  in  sections  by  means 
of  gates,  and,  when  the  portion  below  has  be- 
come partly  empty  and  that  above  nearly  full, 
allowing  the  collection  by  its  gravity  to  sweep 
away  accumulations  below.  The  grounds  oc- 
cupied by  the  annual  fair  at  Nizhni  Novgo- 
rod, Russia,  have  sewers  built  of  cut  stone  ar- 
ranged in  regular  streets.  They  are  lofty  and 
well  ventilated,  and  are  entered  by  stairways 
through  towers  placed  at  intervals.  They  are 
flushed  every  day  with  water  pumped  from 
the  Volga. — The  ventilation  of  sewers  is  a 
subject  of  great  importance  in  a  sanitary  point 
of  view.  The  effluvium  from  the  ventilating 
holes  in  pavements  has  been  found  to  taint 
meat  in  butchers'  stalls  in  their  vicinity,  to 
avoid  which  connections  have  been  made  with 
the  chimneys  of  manufacturing  establishments. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  solution  of  the 
problem  will  be  in  the  erection  of  special  chim- 
ney stacks.  The  relative  efficiency  of  deo- 
dorizers has  received  attention.  In  1858  the 
commissioners  of  London  sewers  reporte'd  that 
wood  charcoal  has  a  power  of  deodorizing 
currents  of  foul  gases  which  is  not  much  dimi- 
nished by  long  use.  The  comparative  cost  of 
disinfectants  to  purify  a  given  amount  of  sew- 


age in  a  uniform  condition,  made  previous  to 
the  report,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Boghead  charcoal  (coke).  1  ton ...  $8  00 

Nitric  acid g  fl> 

Black  oxide  of  manganese ° .     .    9  20 

Chloride  of  lime "  10  76 

Peat  charcoal '.'.'."..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.','.  II  00 

Animal  charcoal \\  16  75 

Bichloride  of  mercury ig  < HI 

Impure  chloride  of  zinc  in  damp  powders 26  IK) 

Chloride  of  zinc  in  solution  (Sir  William  Burnett's.). . .  87  00 
Sulphate  of  copper 80  00 

Other  sulphates,  as  well  as  a  number  of  other 
substances  sometimes  employed  as  disinfec- 
tants, proved  ineffectual  even  in  very  large 
quantities  to  produce  complete  deodorization ; 
but  arsenious  acid,  creosote,  and  carbolic  acid 
were  found  to  possess  great  deodorizing  power. 
Baldwin  Latham  has  devised  a  combination 
of  man-hole,  street-water,  and  dirt  catch  with 
overflow  pipe,  and  a  charcoal  ventilator  pro- 
tected from  wet,  which  has  been  put  in  use  in 
London  with  fair  results.  The  gases  princi- 
pally found  in  sewers  are  carbonic  acid,  sul- 
phuretted and  carburetted  hydrogen,  ammonia, 
nitrogen,  and  fetid  organic  vapor ;  but  it  is 
only  in  the  most  unfavorable  localities  that 
the  permanent  gases  are  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  produce  of  themselves  bad  effects.  It  is  the 
poisonous  germs  contained  in  the  accompany- 
ing organic  vapor,  and  which  may  not  have 
any  very  offensive  or  at  least  powerful  smell, 
that  confer  on  "sewer  gas"  its  most  dele- 
terious properties.  To  prevent  the  entrance 
of  sewer  gas  into  houses  is  a  problem  which 
presents  many  practical  difficulties.  Various 
forms  of  traps  are  placed  at  the  discharge 
of  the  house  pipe  into  the  sewer,  and  also 
in  the  water  closets  and  beneath  the  wash 
bowls.  In  the  discharge  into  the  sewer  the 
pipe  usually  dips  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  a  receptacle  which  empties  into  the 
sewer.  In  water  closets  a  "  sealing  pan,"  as  it 
is  called,  holds  water  in  its  cavity  when  its  rim 
is  horizontal,  the  level  of  which  is  above  the 
lower  rim  of  the  hopper.  The  joints  of  the 
hopper  at  the  upper  rim  being  made  tight,  no 
gas  can  escape  into  the  room.  The  waste  pipe 
below  the  hopper  has  a  syphon  crook,  which 
when  filled  with  water  prevents  the  escape  of 
gas  from  the  pipe  below.  Other  kinds  of  clos- 
ets, which  involve  some  additional  expense,  are 
preferred.  A  pump  closet,  used  upon  ships 
and  below  the  water  line,  is  modified  for  house 
purposes,  and  made  to  exhaust  the  hopper 
and  force  the  contents  out  of  the  soil  pipe. — 
Disposal  of  Sewage.  This  is  one  of  the  vexed 
and  unsettled  problems  of  the  day,  both  in  an 
economical  and  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  and 
embraces  the  question  of  utilization  of  sewage, 
which  also  includes  many  plans,  none  of  which 
have  been  confirmed  as  satisfactory.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  many  that  when  a  town  is  so  situ- 
ated that  its  sewage  may  be  safely  run  off 
into  a  harbor  or  a  river,  so  as  not  to  become 
a  nuisance  afterward,  this  is  the  best  method 
to  pursue,  as  by  a  proper  system  of  sewers 


798 


SEWERAGE 


with  house  connections  it  offers  leas  danger 
than  any  other  system  of  producing  infection. 
When^such  disposal  is  impossible  without  rais- 
ing the  sewage  from  reservoirs  by  pumps  and 
discharging  it  into  a  river  which  at  the  same 
time  has  a  tide  that  will  carry  much  of  the 
sewage  back  to  the  town,  as  is  the  case  at  Lon- 
don, the  question  of  utilization  presents  itself. 
There  are  five  principal  systems  of  utilization  : 
1,  irrigation ;  2,  nitration ;  3,  precipitation ; 
4,  dry  earth;  5,  the  pneumatic  system.  Irri- 
gation has  been  the  most  largely  practised, 
but  it  is  contended  by  its  opponents  that  de- 
leterious organic  compounds  are  taken  up  by 
the  growing  plants  as  well  as  scattered  through 
the  air  in  the  process,  and  by  exhalation  from 
the  soil.  Its  advocates  insist  not  only  that 
a  large  yield  is  secured,  but  that  the  crop  is 
grown  in  as  healthful  a  condition  as  by  or- 
dinary culture.  It  consists  in  distributing 
the  sewage  over  the  surface  of  the  soil,  from 
reservoirs  into  which  the  sewers  empty  or 
into  which  their  contents  are  pumped.  The 
objections  are  that  infection  is  not  sufficiently 
prevented,  as  before  stated,  and  that,  on  ac- 
count of  topographical  and  geological  condi- 
tions of  the  surrounding  country,  it  is  often 
impracticable.  The  advocates  of  filtration  con- 
tend that  it  is  economical  and  innocuous.  In- 
termittent downward  filtration  is  described 
as  a  variety  of  irrigation  combined  with  deep 
drainage,  so  that  the  soil  may  be  made  to  al- 
ternately receive  the  sewage  and  the  air  by 
which  it  is  decomposed,  freed  of  its  poisonous 
qualities,  and  made  fit  to  give  nourishment  to 
plants.  Weare's  process  of  filtration  consists 
in  filtering  the  sewage  through  charcoal,  ashes, 
and  soil  contained  in  boxes,  and  is  said  to  an- 
swer very  well  on  a  small  scale.  Precipitation 
is  performed  by  several  methods.  The  lime 
process  of  Gen.  Scott,  architect  of  the  Albert 
hall,  London,  consists  in  mixing  the  sewage 
with  a  small  proportion  of  milk  of  lime,  agi- 
tating the  mixture,  and  allowing  it  to  subside. 
The  precipitate  is  a  very  putrescible  mud,  and 
the  liquid  Hows  off  in  a  tolerably  clear  condi- 
tion, and  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
a  hydraulic  mortar.  But  the  precipitate  con- 
tains only  a  small  portion  of  valuable  manu- 
rial  constituents,  and  the  drying  of  it  is  a  very 
offensive  operation.  The  superphosphate  of 
lime  (or  Blythe's)  process  attempts  to  recover 
the  ammonia  from  the  sewage.  Superphos- 
phate of  lime  and  a  salt  of  magnesia  are  added 
under  the  supposition  that  an  insoluble  phos- 
phate of  magnesia  and  ammonia  will  be  thrown 
down,  but  analyses  show  that  a  part  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  runs  off  in  the  solution.  It 
was  rejected  by  the  English  sewage  commis- 
sion. Holden's  process  mixes  the  sewage  with 
sulphate  of  iron,  lime,  and  coal  dust.  The  "A, 
B,  0  "  process,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  process 
with  albumen,  blood,  clay,  and  charcoal,  has 
been  worked  by  the  "Native  Guano  Compa- 
ny," and  is  said  to  be  successful.  It  consists 
in  coagulating  blood  obtained  from  slaugh- 


ter houses,  together  with  whatever  coagulable 
matters  may  be  in  the  sewage,  with  sulphate 
of  alumina,  producing  a  fiocculent  precipitate 
which  shall  drag  down  by  the  aid  of  the  heavy 
particles  of  clay  the  organic  solids  contained  in 
the  sewage ;  and  the  charcoal  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  absorbing  gases.  A  company  is  work- 
ing at  Crossness,  between  Plumstead  and  the 
Erith  marshes,  at  the  southern  outfall  of  the 
London  drainage,  which  is  there  discharged  at 
the  rate  of  60,000,000  gallons  daily;  of  this 
1  per  cent,  or  500,000  gallons  is  used  by  the 
company.  A  15-horse-power  steam  engine 
throws  the  sewage  into  mixing  tanks  made 
of  concrete,  which  are  about  50  ft.  long,  20 
ft.  wide,  and  8  ft.  deep.  The  details  of  the 
process,  together  with  the  sanitary  and  agri- 
cultural results,  are  given  in  the  "  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science"  for  January,  1878.  Dis- 
posal by  dry  pulverized  earth  in  movable  box- 
es has  many  advocates,  who  think  that  it  could 
be  advantageously  applied  to  large  towns ;  but 
it  is  the  general  belief  that  it  is  only  adapted 
to  those  of  considerably  less  than  100,000  in- 
habitants, requiring  as  it  would  the  bringing  in 
daily  of  dry  earth  to  the  amount  of  from  5  to 
10  Ibs.  for  each  individual.  The  pneumatic  sys- 
tem of  disposal  and  utilization  devised  by  Capt. 
Liernur  has  been  applied  at  Amsterdam,  Ley- 
den,  and  other  towns  in  Holland,  where  the 
disposal  of  excreta  by  water-carriage  sewage 
is  highly  objectionable  in  consequence  of  the 
level  of  the  canals  being  lower  than  that  of 
the  sea.  It  consists  of  the  ordinary  sewers 
for  surface  and  house  draining,  and  a  second 
pipe  system  connected  with  an  apparatus  for 
manufacturing  immediately  and  without  loss 
the  excreta  into  poudrette.  The  outlines  of 
the  process  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 
The  earthen  hoppers  of  the  houses  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  excreta  fall  to  the  lowest 
level  of  the  soil  pipe.  Each  hopper  is  covered 
with  a  rubber-seated  lid,  and  is  connected  with 
a  ventilator  which  passes  up  through  the  roof. 
At  street  corners,  under  ground,  are  large  iron 
air-tight  tanks,  to  a  single  opening  in  each  of 
which  all  neighboring  house  pipes  converge, 
this  opening  being  closed  with  a  gate.  These 
tanks  are  connected  in  turn  with  large  tanks 
at  the  great  central  sewage  works  of  the  cities. 
By  means  of  air  pumps  a  vacuum  is  created  in 
the  great  tanks,  and  the  gates  of  the  pipes  lead- 
ing to  the  common  receptacles  being  opened, 
the  air  is  quickly  removed  from  them  and  a 
vacuum  created  in  each.  The  gates  between 
them  and  their  connecting  house  pipes  being 
now  opened,  the  matter  within  them  is  ex- 
hausted into  the  corner  receivers,  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  great  tanks  at  the  central  station, 
where  it  is  manufactured  into  poudrette.  This 
is  accomplished  by  allowing  the  sewage  to  run 
into  retorts  perfectly  fresh,  all  houses,  tanks, 
pipes,  &c.,  being  emptied  every  few  hours, 
mixing  it  with  a  small  percentage  of  sulphu- 
ric acid  to  fix  the  free  ammonia,  and  then  run- 
ning it  into  troughs  in  which  revolve  large 


SEWING  MACHINE 


799 


copper  cylinders  heated  to  a  high  degree,  and 
the  whole  working  in  covered  jackets.  A  thin 
layer  of  sewage  is  taken  on  at  each  turn  of 
the  cylinder,  and  by  its  heat  is  converted  into 
dry  poudrette,  which  is  scraped  off  by  a  knife 
at  the  end  of  one  revolution,  and  falls  into  a 
trough.  No  water  is  used  in  the  house  closets 
except  the  urine.  The  pipes  being  closed  below 
and  ventilated  above,  effluvia  cannot  escape 
into  the  houses,  and  there  is  no  escape  of  sewer 
gas  anywhere  but  at  the  central  station  under 
the  furnace  fires.  The  system,  although  em- 
bracing considerable  outlay,  is  said  to  be  not 
only  self-supporting,  but  profitable,  and  to  be 
extending  over  Europe. — See  F.  0.  Krepps, 
"  The  Sewage  Question  "  (London,  1867) ;  Bald- 
win Latham,  "Sanitary  Engineering"  (Lon- 
don, 1873)  ;  and  Dr.  Whitty,  "  On  the  Water 
Supply  and  Sewerage  of  Jerusalem." 

SEWING  MACHINE,  a  mechanical  contrivance 
for  uniting  fabrics  by  means  of  needle  and 
thread.  The  earliest  inventions  for  this  pur- 
pose were  attempts  to  imitate  hand  sewing, 
making  a  running  through-and-through  stitch 
with  but  a  needleful  of  thread.  This  being 
impracticable  in  consequence,  among  other  de- 
fects, of  the  wearing  of  the  thread,  it  was 
sought  to  produce  the  old  crochet  stitch  by 
means  of  machinery.  The  first  needle  suitable 
for  use  in  sewing  machines  was  introduced  by 
Charles  F.  Weisenthal,  to  whom  a  patent  was 
granted  in  England  June  24,  1755.  It  was 
pointed  at  both  ends,  with  an  eye  in  the  mid- 
dle, for  passing  each  way  through  the  cloth 
without  being  turned  around ;  but  it  was  only 
used  for  hand  embroidery.  The  first  applica- 
tion of  machinery  was  contained  in  a  patent 
to  Robert  Alsop  in  England,  dated  March  22, 
1770,  for  embroidering  in  a  loom  with  one, 
two,  or  more  shuttles.  Machine  embroidery 
with  a  large  number  of  needles  was  patent- 
ed by  John  Duncan,  May  30,  1804.  He  used 
hooked  needles,  attached  in  a  straight  line  to 
a  horizontal  bar,  the  forward  motion  of  which 
carried  all  the  hooked  ends  through  the  cloth, 
when,  on  being  supplied  with  thread  by  a  feed- 
ing needle,  the  reverse  motion  carried  back 
loops  which  passed  through  and  secured  those 
of  the  previous  stitch.  Patterns  were  worked 
by  a  sliding  motion  of  the  fabric  with  its  ver- 
tical frame.  This  was  the  first  important  step 
in  embroidering  machinery,  which  was  carried 
to  great  perfection  in  the  machine  of  Heil- 
mann.  This  however  used  Weisenthal's  two- 
pointed  needle  with  the  eye  in  the  middle,  and 
also  nippers  to  pull  the  needle  through,  after- 
ward used  by  Greenough.  There  has  lately 
been  found  in  the  archives  of  the  English  pat- 
ent office  a  patent  for  a  sewing  machine  made 
by  Thomas  Saint,  dated  July  17,  1790,  which 
has  excited  considerable  interest  and  surprise 
in  consequence  of  its  possessing  many  of  the 
elements  of  successful  modern  sewing  ma- 
chines. This  might  have  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  sewing  leather,  but  could  not  have 
succeeded  with  woven  fabrics  containing  fibres, 
735  VOL.  xiv. — 51 


for  they  would  have  been  caught  in  the  forked 
needle  by  which  the  thread  was  pushed  through. 
It  was  intended,  as  the  patent  states,  "  for 
quilting,  stitching,  and  making  shoes  and  oth- 
er articles  by  means  of  tools  and  other  ma- 
chines." It  had  an  arm,  upon  the  overhanging 
end  of  which  there  was  a  vertically  reciproca- 
ting straight  needle.  The  arm  also  supported 
a  spool  which  gave  out  its  thread  continuously. 
It  had  a  horizontal  cloth  plate,  made  a  chain 
or  crochet  stitch,  and  had  thread  tighteners 
above  and  below.  In  fig.  1,  representing  this 
machine,  a  is  the  bed  plate,  I  an  upright  post 
bearing  a  horizontal  overhanging  arm,  upon 
the  end  of  which  are  placed  a  needle /and  an 
awl  ^,  which  were  adjusted  by  means  of  set 
screws,  and  moved  by  cams  h  and  i,  on  the 
shaft  Ic.  The  needle  was  notched  at  its  low- 
er end,  to  push  the  thread  through  the  hole 
made  by  the  awl,  and  thus  form  a  loop.  The 
work  was  supported  on  a  box  Z,  sliding  be- 
tween guides  m,  m,  and  moved  by  a  screw  n 


FIG.  1.— Saint's  Sewing  Machine,  1790. 

turned  by  a  toothed  wheel  o,  which  in  turn 
was  moved  by  an  arm  upon  the  shaft  Te.  One 
loop  was  carried  over  the  other  by  the  bent 
point  of  the  spindle  d  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  which  has  been  employed  in  some  chain- 
stitch  machines.  The  screw  r  adjusted  the 
box  I  on  the  guide  plate.  In  1830  B.  Thimo- 
nier  patented  a  sewing  machine  in  France,  80 
of  which,  made  of  wood,  were  in  use  in  1841 
for  sewing  army  clothing  at  a  shop  in  Paris. 
They  were  destroyed  by  a  mob,  as  the  Jac- 
quard  loom  and  Hargreaves  spinning  jenny 
had  been  years  before ;  but  during  the  revo- 
lution of  1848  Thimonier  was  again  at  work 
with  other  machines  capable  of  making  200 
stitches  a  minute.  The  mob  again  broke  up 
his  establishment,  threatened  his  life,  and  de- 
feated his  enterprise,  and  he  died  in  poverty 
in  1857.  Like  that  of  Saint,  his  machine  had 
a  vertical  needle  descending  from  an  over- 
hanging arm,  the  fabric  being  fed  upon  a  hor- 
izontal table  by  hand..  The  needle  was  driven 


800 


SEWING  MACHINE 


by  a  treadle  instead  of  a  crank  as  in  Saint's 
machine,  and  was  carried  back  by  a  spring. 
It  Wad  the  form  of  a  crochet  hook,  and  being 
driven  through  the  fabric  caught  a  lower 
thread  from  a  thread  carrier  and  looper  be- 
neath, and  brought  a  loop  which  it  laid  upon 
the  upper  surface,  and  at  the  next  passage 
brought  up  another  and  passed  it  over  the 
loop  previously  made,  thus  making  a  double 
loop  or  chain  stitch,  with  the  loops  on  the 
upper  side.  The  Thimonier  machine  which 
was  patented  in  France  Aug.  5,  1848,  and  in 
the  United  States  Sept.  3,  1850,  was  an  im- 
provement upon  that  of  1830,  but  retained 
its  principal  features,  the  needle  being  still 
worked  by  a  treadle  and  spring.  It  is  said 
that  between  1832  and  1834  Walter  Hunt  of 
New  York  made  a  sewing  machine  in  which 
he  used  an  eye-pointed  needle,  attached  to  the 
end  of  a  vibrating  arm,  which  carried  a  thread 
through  the  fabric  and  made  a  loop  which  was 
pierced  by  a  shuttle  carrying  another  thread, 
making  what  is  known  as  the  lock  stitch. 
When  he  applied  for  a  patent  in  1854  he  was 
refused,  because  the  main  features  which  he 
claimed  for  his  machine  had  been  patented 
eight  years  previously  by  Elias  Howe,  and  it 
was  held  that  his  right  to  a  patent  was  for- 
feited by  abandonment.  A  machine  for  ma- 
king a  through-and-through  or  shoemaker's 
stitch  was  patented  Feb.  21,  1842,  by  J.  J. 
Greenough  of  Washington.  The  needle  was 
pointed  at  both  ends,  with  the  eye  in  the 
middle,  and  was  drawn  through  one  way  and 
then  the  other  by  a  pair  of  pincers  travelling 
on  a  track  and  opening  and  closing  automati- 
cally. It  was  designed  for  sewing  leather  and 
other  hard  material,  and  an  awl  pierced  the 
hole  in  advance  of  the  needle.  The  leather 
was  held  between  clamps,  which  by  means  of 
a  rack  could  bo  moved  each  way  alternately 
to  make  a  back  stitch,  or  continuously  forward 
to  make  the  shoemaker's  stitch.  The  needle 
was  threaded  with  a  length  of  thread,  and  re- 
quired refilling.  The  rack,  after  passing  for- 
ward its  length,  was  each  time  set  back.  An- 
other form  of  a  through-and-throngh  sewing 
machine  employs  fluted  rollers,  between  which 
the  cloth  is  drawn  and  crimped,  and  in  this 
condition  forced  upon  the  needle  and  thence 
on  the  thread.  In  1844  a  patent  was  granted 
in  England  to  Fisher  and  Gibbons  for  work- 
ing ornamental  designs  by  machinery,  in  which 
two  threads  were  looped  together,  one  pass- 
ing through  the  fabric,  the  other  looping  with 
it  on  the  surface  without  passing  through. 
Curved  needles  were  used  beneath  the  fabric, 
and  other  needles  with  looped  guides  or  re- 
tainers above,  the  several  sets  being  arranged 
in  a  row  across  the  machine.  When  the  point 
of  the  curved  needle  ascended  through  the  fab- 
ric, the  point  of  the  upper  needle  entered  be- 
tween it  and  its  thread,  and  when  the  curved 
needle  descended  it  left  upon  the  upper  needle 
a  loop  which  was  then  pressed  further  on  by 
the  guide.  The  fabric  was  moved  according  to 


the  pattern  required,  when  the  curved  needle 
again  ascended  and  the  upper  needle  passed  its 
thread  around  it  so  as  to  be  withdrawn  through 
the  loop  previously  on  its  stem.  After  this 
the  upper  needle,  again  advancing,  entered  be- 
tween the  curved  needle  and  its  thread  as 
before,  producing  a  highly  ornamental  double 
chain  stitch. — Sewing  machines  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  stitch  they  make:  1,  those  making  the 
through,  either  continuous  or  back  stitch ;  2, 
those  making  the  lock  stitch  ;  3,  those  making 
a  single-thread  chain  stitch,  either  the  ordinary 
crochet  stitch,  or  a  twisted  one  called  a  twisted 
loop  stitch;  and  4,  those  making  a  double- 
thread  loop  or  chain  stitch.  Thethrough-and- 
through  stitching  machines,  being  no  longer  in 
use,  will  not  be  further  described.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  lock  stitch  has  been  claimed  for 
Walter  Hunt,  but  it  has  been  generally  con- 
ceded by  sewing  machine  inventors  that  the 
machine  of  Elias  Howe  was  independently  de- 
vised ;  and  as  it  had  a  more  perfected  construc- 
tion and  formed  the  basis  upon  which  subse- 
quent improvements  were  made,  fitting  it  for 
a  practically  working  machine,  and  obtained 
the  first  patent,  he  has  been  generally  accred- 
ited as  the  originator  of  the  lock-stitch  ma- 
chine. Howe's  machine,  as  patented  in  1846, 
used  a  grooved  and  curved  eye-pointed  nee- 
dle, carried  upon  the  end  of  a  vibrating  arm, 
which  passing  through  the  cloth  formed  a 
loop  through  which  a  shuttle  passed  another 
thread.  The  needle  moved  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  the  cloth  being  held  in  a  vortical  po- 
sition by  pins  projecting  from  a  baster  plate, 
which  was  moved  intermittingly  by  a  toothed 
wheel.  On  reaching  the  end  of  the  plate,  the 
machine  was  stopped,  the  baster  plate  returned 
to  its  original  position,  and  the  cloth  again  at- 
tached. This  construction  prevented  the  suc- 
cessful use  of  the  machine.  One  of  its  serious 
wants  was  a  device  by  which  the  cloth  could 
be  moved  along  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  inter- 
"  fere  with  the  functions  of  the  needle,  and  this 
defect  was  then  common  to  all  sewing  ma- 
chines. Such  a  device  is  called  the  "feed," 
and  was  sought  for  a  long  time  before  the 
desired  end  was  accomplished.  One  of  the 
first  steps  was  to  make  the  needle  vibrate  ver- 
tically, and  move  the  fabric  along,  or  feed  it  on 
a  horizontal  plate,  by  the  action  of  a  notched 
wheel  which  rotated  with  its  upper  edge  just 
passing  through  a  slot  in  the  horizontal  plate. 
An  intermitting  motion  was  given  to  this  wheel, 
which  was  sought  to  be  so  timed  as  to  alter- 
nate with  the  passage  of  the  needle  through 
the  cloth ;  but  this  arrangement  was  far  from 
perfect,  although  it  was  for  a  time  used  with 
some  success  in  the  early  machines  made  by 
Mr.  I.  M.  Singer  and  others.  It  was  not  till 
the  device  known  as  the  A.  B.  Wilson  "four- 
motion  feed  "  was  introduced  that  this  feature 
of  the  sewing  machine  approached  perfec- 
tion. This  device  consists  in  moving  a  serra- 
ted bar,  in  a  slot  in  the  horizontal  plate  upon 


SEWING  MACHINE 


801 


FIG.  2.—  Four-motion  Feed. 


which  the  cloth  is  fed,  in  the  direction  of  the 
four  sides  of  a  parallelogram.  The  teeth  carry 
the  cloth  forward  while  moving  horizontally 
a  short  space  above  the  surface  of  the  plate  ; 
the  bar  then  drops  (the  second  motion),  then 
passes  backward  horizontally  beneath  the  plate 
(the  third  motion),  and  rising  brings  the  teeth 
through  the  slot  and 
above  the  surf  ace  (the 
fourth  motion).  The 

I  '  -  ^        -  1  1     directions    of    these 
motions     are     indi- 

Cated  in  fig.  2.      The 

motion  which  carries 
the  cloth  forward  is  so  timed  by  cams  upon  a 
wheel,  or  by  eccentrics  or  other  devices,  as  to 
take  place  while  the  needle  is  raised  above 
the  cloth,  and  never  to  interfere  with  its  pas- 
sage. The  four  motions  are  obtained  in  the 
Willcox  and  Gibbs  machine  by  a  single  eccen- 
tric, and  the  number  of  stitches  to  the  inch 
may  be  determined  by  a  device  which  em- 
ploys a  dial  with  numbers  upon  it,  showing 
through  an  opening  in  the  cloth  plate.  Most 
of  the  sewing  machines  now  in  use  are  lock- 
stitch machines,  the  stitch  being  precisely  the 
same  in  all,  and  the  principle  upon  which  it 
is  formed  being  nearly  the  same  also.  It  is  al- 
ways made  by  passing  loops  of  thread  through 


FIG.  8.— Lock  Stitch. 

the  fabric,  by  means  of  an  eye-pointed  needle, 
and  then  passing  another  thread  through  these 
loops,  this  latter  part  of  the  process  being  usu- 
ally produced  by  means  of  a  shuttle  which  is 
made  to  pass  through  the  loops.  "When  the 
shuttle  thread  is  pulled  back  half  way  through 
the  fabric,  the  stitch  has  the  construction  shown 
in  fig.  3,  where  the  threads  are  raised  from  the 
cloth  to  give  a  better  view.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  position  of  either  thread  is  the  same 
in  relation  to  either  side  of  the  cloth ;  but  when 
the  loops  formed  by  the  needle  are  not  drawn 
into  the  body  of  the  fabric,  the  shuttle  thread 
will  lie  straight  on  the  under  side  of  the  cloth, 
as  shown  in  fig.  4.  The  manner  of  making 


FIG.  4— Lock  Stitch. 

the  stitch  with  the  shuttle  is  shown  in  fig.  5. 
In  most  machines  the  needle  vibrates  in  a 
right  line,  being  carried  by  a  vertically  mov- 
ing needle  bar  which  slides  in  grooves.  A 
shuttle  bar  carrying  a  shuttle  underneath  the 
cloth  plate  is  made  to  pass  through  the  loop, 
which  opens  to  receive  it  when  the  needle  be- 
gins to  retract.  The  two  bars,  the  needle  bar 
and  the  shuttle  bar,  being  actuated  by  the 
same  motor,  are  so  adjusted  that  their  times 
of  motion  exactly  correspond  to  each  other. 
The  shuttle,  passing  backward  with  its  bobbin 


while  the  loop  is  drawn  up  into  the  cloth, 
only  carries  its  thread  through  the  loops  in  one 
direction,  and  unwinds  just  as  much  thread 
at  each  passage  as  corresponds  to  the  curved 


FIG.  5.— Shuttle. 

length  of  the  thread  necessary  to  form  a  stitch. 
It  is  prevented  from  unwinding  more  than  this 
by  haying  the  thread  held  by  a  device  called 
a  tension.  The  thread  which  is  delivered  by 
the  needle  is  also  held  in  the  same  way,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  loop  is  retracted  when 
the  needle  is  drawn  upward,  the  degree  of 
retraction  depending  upon  the  tension,  or  the 
tightness  with  which  the  thread  is  held.  The 
celebrated  Singer  and  Howe  machines  are  of 
this  class,  as  also  the  well  known  Weed,  Do- 
mestic, Florence,  Remington,  Wilson,  Ameri- 
can, Secor,  and  others.  The  Florence  machine 
differs  from  the  other  lock-stitch  machines  in 
having  a  curved  needle  attached  to  the  end  of 
a  vibrating  arm,  instead  of  being  carried  by 
a  needle  bar  moving  vertically  in  guides ;  and 
there  are  various  ways  of  actuating  the  needle 
bars  in  all  of  them.  Another  form  of  lock- 
stitch machine,  instead  of  causing  a  shuttle 
or  movable  bobbin  to  pass  through  the  loop 


FIG.  0. 


FIG.  7. 


formed  by  the  needle,  catches  this  loop  by 
means  of  a  rotary  hook  and  passes  it  over  a 
stationary  bobbin,  which  answers  to  the  mova- 
ble shuttle,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  station- 
ary shuttle.  The  lock  stitch  of  the  Wheeler 
and  Wilson  machine  may  be  made  by  hand, 
and  its  formation  explained  by  reference  to 
Bg.  6.  Take  a  piece  of  fabric,  c,  an  ordinary 
needle,  A,  threaded  with  e,  and  a  small  ball 
of  thread,  /;  tie  the  ends  of  the  two  threads 
together,  thrust  the  needle  threaded  head  first 
ihrough  the  fabric,  and  instead  of  passing  the 
ball  of  thread  through  the  loop  e,  hold  the  ball 
and  pass  the  loop  around  it;  withdraw  the 
needle  and  draw  the  interlocked  portion  of  the 
;hreads,  e  and  2,  into  the  fabric.  A  succession 
of  stitches  thus  made  will  form  a  seam.  The 
ock  stitch  is  formed  by  the  machine  in  an 


802 


SEWING  MACHINE 


analogous  manner.  The  upper  thread  e  is  car- 
ried by  an  eye-pointed  needle  (35,  tig.  7),  and 
a  loop  of  it  is  thrust  through  the  fabric  by  the 
needle;  the  loop  is  then  entered  by  the  point 
a  of  the  rotating  hook.  The  lower  thread  z 
is  carried  upon  a  thin  metallic  bobbin  lying  in 
the  concavity  of  the  hook,  where  it  is  held  by 
a  concave  ring  (not  shown).  The  bobbin  has 
no  axis,  so  that  a  loop  of  thread  can  be  freely 
passed  around  it.  The  loop  of  the  upper  thread 
is  enlarged  by  the  hook  (fig.  8),  and  carried 
forward  and  around  the  bobbin  containing  the 


it  X 


Fio.  9. 


lower  thread,  as  in  fig.  9,  and  being  drawn  up 
as  in  fig.  8,  in  the  process  of  enlarging  the 
next  loop,  interlocks  with  it,  and  the  point  of 
interlocking  is  drawn  into  the  fabric  and  forms 
a  stitch.  Wheeler  and  Wilson  have  made  an- 
other form  of  lock-stitch  machine,  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  James  A.  House,  which  also  em- 
ploys a  rotary  hook,  but  completes  a  stitch  at 
each  revolution,  drawing  it  up  by  a  separate 
arm  known  as  an  independent  "  take-up."  An 
eccentric  attachment  causes  the  hook  to  rotate 
more  rapidly  during  one  part  of  its  revolution, 
and  there  is  a  "  pad  "  or  projection  of  steel  on 
the  revolving  hook,  or  rather  the  wheel  that 
carries  it,  by  which  the  under  thread  is  held 
firmly  during  a  short  period,  which  assists  in 
the  completion  of  the  stitch.  This  produces 
the  "tension,"  which  can  be  regalated  while 
the  machine  is  in  motion,  and  differs  there- 
fore from  that  just  described  in  the  family  ma- 
chine, which  depends  upon  the  friction  of  the 
revolving  hook  against  the  bobbin.  The  new 
machine  is  made  of  different  sizes,  some  very 
large  and  strong,  for  heavy  manufacturing 
work.  The  needle,  being  straight,  is  capable 
of  penetrating  stout  leather.  The  medium 
sizes  may  also  be  used  for  tailoring  as  well 
as  light  domestic  sewing. — The  single-thread 
chain  or  crochet  stitch  is  shown  in  fig.  10.  It 
is  formed  by  passing  a  thread  through  the  fab- 
ric and  making  a  loop,  then  making  a  second 


Fio.  10.— Crochet  Stitch. 


loop  and  passing  it  through  the  first,  and  again 
making  a  third  and  passing  it  through  tlio 
second,  and  so  on.  This  may  be  done  with 


an  eye-pointed  needle  and  a  reciprocating  or 
vibrating  hook,  but  does  not  form  a  very  du- 
rable stitch,  from  its  tendency  to  ravel.  If, 
however,  each  loop  is  twisted,  as  shown  in  fig. 


FIG.  11.— Twisted  Loop  Stitch. 

11,  ravelling  is  difficult,  and  when  the  work 
is  well  done  not  liable  to  occur,  except  by  de- 
sign. A  mechanism  for  producing  such  a  twist 
was  patented  by  J.  E.  A.  Gibbs  of  Millpoint, 
Va.  A  rotating  hook  causes  the  relations  of 
the  threads  on  each  side  to  become  changed 
toward  each  other.  The  different  parts  of  the 
hook  are  shown  in  fig.  12,  in  which  18  is  the 
shank,  19  the  point  of  the  hook,  20  the  "  cast- 
off,"  and  21  the  heel;  K  K  is  the  shield  for 
protecting  the  thread  from  oil.  In  fig.  13  the 
needle,  having  descended  to  the  lowest  point, 
carrying  down  the  thread,  has  just  begun  to 
ascend;  and  a  loop  is  thrown  oil  on  the  back 


Fio.  12. 


Fio.  18. 


side  of  the  needle  just  in  time  for  the  point  of 
the  hook  to  enter  it.  As  the  needle  rises,  the 
hook,  moving  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow, 
passes  into  the  loop,  drawing  it  down  and 
spreading  it.  As  the  hook  advances  from  this 
point  the  loop  begins  to  twist ;  thread  No.  1, 


20 


Fio.  H. 


Fio.  15. 


fig.  14,  moving  to  the  right,  slides  off  the 
shoulder  at  the  centre  of  the  hook  and  falls 
down  to  the  shank,  near  the  shield  K,  while 
the  heel,  21,  catches  the  back  side  of  the  loop 
2,  and  swinging  it  around  passes  into  the  loop 
which  is  being  reversed.  As  the  hook  still 
advances  and  the  heel  passes  further  into  the 
loop,  thread  No.  2  slides  into  the  angle  at 
the  centre  of  the  hook,  as  seen  in  fig.  15. 
The  loop  is  now  completely  reversed,  thread 
No.  2  being  on  this  side  of  the  needle,  and 


SEWING  MACHINE 

thread  No.  1  on  the  back  side.  While  the  old 
loop  thus  twisted  and  spread  out  is  held  open 
on  the  body  of  the  hook,  the  point  19  enters 
the  new  loop  and  carries  it  into  the  old  one, 
as  seen  in  fig.  16;  and  as  the  hook  continues 
to  revolve  the  cast-off,  20,  passes  out  of  the 
old  loop  and  leaves  it  to  be  drawn  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  fabric,  as  in  fig.  17,  which 
completes  the  stitch.  One  feature  of  the  ma- 
chine consists  in  the  application  of  what  is 
called  an  automatic  tension,  lately  devised  and 
patented  by  Mr.  Charles  H.  Willcox.  Instead 
of  subjecting  the  thread  to  a  continuous  ten- 
sion produced  by  partially  confining  it  in  a 


SEXTANT 


803 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  IT. 


groove  or  clamp  through  which  the  motion 
of  the  machine  draws  it,  it  is  made  to  pass 
between  two  disks  held  together  by  a  spiral 
spring  firmly  enough  to  hold  the  thread  in- 
flexibly and  draw  it  through  the  fabric  to  a 
definite  distance  until  more  is  required  to  make 
a  new  loop,  when  it  is  instantly  relieved  by  a 
little  piston  rod  striking  against  the  lower  end 
of  a  rod  attached  to  the  upper  disk.  A  uni- 
formity in  the  drawing  up  of  each  stitch  is 
thus  secured,  and  as  the  necessity  for  change 
in  tensioD  when  different  sizes  of  thread  or 
thicknesses  of  cloth  are  used  is  done  away 
with,  no  provision  is  made  for  change  by  the 
operator. — The  Grover  and  Baker  machine 
makes  what  is  called  the  double-loop  stitch, 
employing  two  threads.  Instead  of  passing  a 
single  thread  through  the  loop  formed  by  the 
eye-pointed  needle  in  piercing  the  cloth,  as  in 
the  lock-stitch  machines,  a  loop 
made  by  a  circular  horizontally 
moving  needle  (fig.  18)  below  the 
cloth  is  passed  through  the  former 
loop,  and  the  needle  at  its  next 
descent  passes  through  the  loop 
formed  by  the  lower  needle,  so 
that  the  stitch  is  really  formed  by 
passing  a  loop  of  one  of  the  threads 
through  that  of  the  other.  The  construction 
of  the  stitch  thus  made  will  be  understood  by 
inspecting  fig.  19,  where  the  threads  are  wide- 
ly drawn  apart  for  the  purpose  of  showing  it. 
When  the  loops  are  properly  drawn  to  their 
places  underneath  the  cloth,  a  durable  elastic 
stitch  is  produced,  which  is  very  desirable  in 
elastic  as  well  as  other  goods,  and  may  be  used 
•with  advantage  in  embroidery  by  using  differ- 
ent sized  threads. — In  this  article  it  has  been 
sought  to  explain  the  actions  of  some  of  the 
principal  sewing  machines,  without  entering 
into  the  details  of  their  construction  or  a  de- 


FIG.  18. 


scription  of  the  various  attachments  for  hem- 
ming, felling,  ruffling,  cording,  &c.,  or  of  but- 
tonhole machines,  which  are  either  attachments 


Fio.  19. 

to  sewing  machines,  or  made  specially  for  this 
work,  and  which  are  employed  with  more  or 
less  perfection  of  execution. 

SEXTANT  (the  sixth  part),  an  instrument  used 
in  nautical  observations  and  in  hydrographic 
and  land  surveying  for  measuring  the  angu- 
lar distance  between  objects.  Its  principle 
and  the  manipulation  of  it,  in  its  ordinary 
form,  are  explained  in  the  article  QUADRANT, 
which  instrument  it  has  entirely  superseded 
for  observations  at  sea,  partly  on  account 
of  its  greater  portability,  but  mainly  because 
of  its  capability  of  measuring  a  wider  range 
of  angles.  For  important  land  surveys  a  full 
circle  is  preferred,  of  which  there  are  the  fol- 
lowing forms:  1.  A  simple  reflecting  circle, 
made  by  extending  the  arc  of  the  sextant  to  a 
whole  circumference  and  producing  the  index 
arm  so  that  it  can  carry  a  vernier  on  each  ex- 
tremity. Observations  with  this  are  free  from 
the  error  of  eccentricity,  and  in  part  from  the 
accidental  errors  of  graduation  and  of  reading, 
since  they  are  derived  from  the  mean  of  two 
readings  at  opposite  divisions  of  the  arc.  2. 
The  repeating  reflecting  circle,  which  differs 
from  the  first  only  in  having  its  horizon  glass 
and  telescope  fixed  to  the  arm  which  revolves 
about  the  centre  of  the  instrument,  instead 
of  permanently  attached  to  the  frame.  By  ta- 
king a  sufficient  number  of  cross  bearings  with 
this,  errors  of  reading,  eccentricity,  and  imper- 
fect graduation  are  essentially  eliminated.  In 
theory,  therefore,  the  repeating  circle  is  very 
nearly  perfect,  capable  of  eliminating  its  own 
errors.  But  as  we  cannot  pretend  to  measure 
"  what  we  cannot  see,"  the  refinement  of  the 
circle  is  really  thrown  away  so  long  as  an  op- 
tical power  is  used  so  feeble  as  that  of  the  tele- 
scope now  employed ;  for  in  fact  its  results  do 
not  surpass  those  of  the  common  sextant  so 
much  as  was  expected  from  its  theoretical  per- 
fection. 8.  The  prismatic  reflecting  and  re- 
peating circles,  which  differ  from  the  above 
only  in  substituting  for  the  horizon  glass  a 
glass  prism,  which  is  fixed  on  the  line  of  sight 
behind  instead  of  in  front  of  the  index  glass. 
The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  an- 
gles of  all  magnitudes  can  then  be  measured. 
These  are  the  transformations  which  the  sex- 
tant has  undergone  to  adapt  it  for  the  varied 
requirements  of  the  practical  astronoiner  and 
surveyor  on  land ;  but  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  the  nautical  astronomer  and  hydrographic 
surveyor,  changes  even  more  radical  and  varied 


804 


SEXTUS  EMPIRICUS 


SEYMOUR 


have  been  made.  To  the  navigator  the  sex- 
tant is  invaluable ;  and  in  the  special  work  of 
hydrography  along  a  coast  line,  where  the  posi- 
tion of  the  boat  or  vessel  is  generally  deter- 
mine^ by  observing  from  the  boat,  the  sextant 
is  the  only  available  instrument  of  precision  in 
use.  And  yet  in  its  ordinary  form  it  has  cer- 
tain deficiencies  which  prevent  its  universality 
of  application.  This  fails  to  measure  the  an- 
gles between  140°  and  180°,  and  the  hydrogra- 
phers  of  all  countries  have  studied  to  remedy 
this  defect,  with  varied  success.  M.  Daussy,  a 
very  skilful  French  hydrographer,  and  Messrs. 
Piston  and  Martius,  instrument  makers  of  Ber- 
lin, have  in  different  ways  modified  the  form 
of  the  sextant  so  as  to  overcome  this  difficulty ; 
but  their  instruments  are  embarrassing  in  their 
manipulation,  especially  when  the  objects  are 
indistinct  or  the  observation  must  be  made 
from  a  boat  continually  disturbed  by  the  action 
of  the  waves.  Mr.  T.  J.  Lowry  of  the  United 
States  coast  survey  has  succeeded  in  removing 
this  imperfection  in  the  sextant,  and  has  also 
made  other  improvements  by  which  many 
other  difficulties  are  overcome.  The  improved 
instruments  are  handled  with  the  same  facil- 
ity as  the  old  soxtant,  and  are  equally  adapted 
to  rough  usage  in  a  boat.  By  means  of  some 
additional  glasses  and  certain  improvements  in 
the  graduated  arcs  and  verniers,  the  following 
objects  are  accomplished :  any  angle  from  0° 
to  180°  can  be  measured  without  inverting 
the  instrument  and  while  reflecting  but  one 
object;  two  angles,  one  to  the  right  and  the 
other  to  the  left  of  an  object,  either  angle  be- 
ing any  number  of  degrees  from  0  to  120,  can 
be  measured  at  the  same  instant.  By  certain 
additions  which  are  easily  made  to  the  ordi- 
nary sextant,  Mr.  Lowry  makes  the  instrument 
capable  of  measuring  two  angles,  one  to  the 
right  and  the  other  to  the  left  of  the  central 
object,  in  quick  succession,  without  previously 
estimating  their  relative  magnitudes,  or  invert- 
ing the  instrument  or  lengthening  its  arc. 
Lastly,  by  a  modification  of  M.  Daussy's  im- 
provement, Mr.  Lowry  makes  the  ordinary 
sextant  capable  of  measuring  an  angle  and 
giving  an  inter-range  at  the  same  instant,  and 
also  of  fulfilling  many  other  conditions  which 
M.  Daussy's  will  not. 

SEXTUS  EMPIRICl'S,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a 
native  of  Mytilene,  in  the  first  half  of  the  8d 
century  A.  D.  His  medical  writings  are  lost ; 
but  his  Pyrrhonia  Hypotypoaet,  in  three  books, 
an  exposition  of  the  doctrines  of  the  skeptics, 
and  a  treatise  against  the  mathematicians,  in 
11  books,  in  which  he  attacks  all  the  sciences, 
both  physical  and  metaphysical,  remain.  An 
edition  of  both,  with  a  Latin  translation,  was 
prepared  by  J.  A.  Fabricius  in  1718.  Bekker 
published  an  amended  edition  (Berlin,  1842). 

SEYCHELLES.  See  MAUBITIUS,  vol.  xi.,  p. 
293. 

SF.MH.IT/,  or  Stldlitz,  Friedrirh  Wilhelm  TOD,  a 
Prussian  soldier,  born  at  Ealkar,  near  Cleves, 
Feb.  3,  1721,  died  near  Namslau,  Silesia,  Nov. 


7,  1773.  He  excelled  in  horsemanship  from 
his  boyhood.  After  serving  as  a  page  of  the 
margrave  of  Schwedt,  he  entered  the  Prussian 
army  in  1739,  and  won  the  rank  of  major  at 
Hohenfriedberg,  June  4,  1745,  and  that  of  ma- 
jor general  at  the  battle  of  Kolin,  June  18, 
1757.  In  the  same  year  he  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  cavalry,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  Rossbach,  Nov.  5,  at  Zorndorf  and  Iloch- 
kirch  in  1758,  and  especially  at  Kunersdorf, 
Aug.  12,  1759,  where  he  was  seriously  wound- 
ed, and  at  Freiberg,  Saxony,  Oct.  29,  1762. 
He  was  then  made  inspector  of  the  cavalry  in 
Silesia,  and  in  1767  general  of  cavalry,  to  which 
branch  of  arms  he  had  imparted  a  wonderful 
efficiency. — See  Leben  dea  Generals  von  Seyd- 
litz,  by  Varnhagen  von  Ense  (Berlin,  1834), 
and  Der  General  Friedrich  Don  Seydlitz,  by 
Count  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  JBismark  (1837). 

SEYFFARTH,  Gnstav,  a  German  archaeologist, 
born  at  Uebigau,  Saxony,  July  13,  1796.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  where  in  1825  he  became 
extraordinary  professor  of  archreology.  In 
1824  he  published  De  Sonis  Litterarum  Grce- 
carum  (Leipsic).  He  edited  and  continued 
Spohn's  De  Lingua  et  Litteris  Veterum  JEgyp- 
tiorum  (2  vols.,  1825-'31),  and  published  Ru- 
dimenta  Hieroglyph  ices  (1826).  His  Grund- 
siitze  der  Mythologie  (1843)  and  Untersuch- 
unyen  fiber  das  Geburttyahr  Christi  (1846) 
involved  him  in  bitter  controversies.  His  pe- 
culiar theory  of  hieroglyphics  he  maintained 
against  Champollion,  and  he  now  (1875)  claims 
that  the  Champollionists  have  passed  off  his 
system  as  their  own.  In  1855  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  and  was  for  six  years 
professor  in  the  Lutheran  seminary  of  St. 
Louis.  In  1857  he  published  at  New  York  a 
"  Summary  of  recent  Discoveries  in  Biblical 
Chronology,  Universal  History,  and  Egyptian 
Archrcology,"  both  in  English  and  German, 
and  in  1860  a  pamphlet  in  German  refuting 
the  chiliasts.  He  has  for  some  time  been  en- 
gaged on  a  work  entitled  "  The  actual  Histori- 
cal Chronology  of  the  Romans,  Greeks,  Baby- 
lonians," &c.  His  last  publication  is  "  Clavis 
^Egyptiaca,  a  Collection  of  all  Bilingual  and 
some  other  Hieroglyphic  Inscriptions,  trans- 
lated and  explained." 

SEYMOUR.  I.  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset,  an 
English  statesman,  known  as  the  protector 
Somerset,  born  about  1500,  beheaded  on  Tower 
hill,  London,  Jan.  22, 1552.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  John  Seymour,  and  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  After  the  marriage  of  his  sister,  Jane 
Seymour,  with  Henry  VIII.,  he  was  created 
Viscount  Beauchamp  and  earl  of  Hertford,  and 
gradually  became  one  of  the  most  powerful 
noblemen  about  the  person  of  the  king,  his  pres- 
tige being  strengthened  by  military  successes 
in  Scotland  and  France  in  1544.  He  was  one 
of  the  16  persons  appointed  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
his  will  to  be  his  executors  and  the  governors 
of  the  young  king,  Edward  VI. ;  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1547,  he  was  created  duke  of  Somerset 
and  earl  marshal  of  England.  On  March  12 


SEYMOUR 


805 


he  was  appointed  by  patent  protector  and  gov- 
ernor of  the  king  and  his  realms.  His  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Scots  at  Pinkie,  Sept.  10, 
greatly  strengthened  his  influence,  and  for  up- 
ward of  two  years  after  the  accession  of  his 
nephew  his  authority  was  invested  with  all  the 
attributes  of  royalty.  His  leaning  toward  the 
commons  and  his  attempts  to  reform  various 
social  evils  aroused  against  him  a  powerful 
party,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Warwick,  who 
had  been  one  of  his  most  confidential  coun- 
sellors ;  while  the  zeal  with  which  he  had  pro- 
moted the  unjust  condemnation  and  execution 
for  high  treason  of  his  brother,  Lord  Thomas 
Seymour,  disgusted  the  people.  On  Oct.  14, 
1549,  he  was  deprived  of  the  protectorship  and 
committed  to  the  tower,  whence  he  was  re- 
leased, with  a  full  pardon,  Feb.  16,  1550.  He 
resumed  hia  place  in  the  council,  but  in  Oc- 
tober, 1551,  was  again  arrested  through  the 
influence  of  "Warwick ;  and  being  convicted 
of  felony  committed  in  an  attempt  to  im- 
prison the  latter,  he  was  executed.  Somerset 
was  sincere  and  consistent  in  his  attempts  to 
establish  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation  in 
England,  and  his  government  afforded  protec- 
tion to  refugees,  both  political  and  religious. 
(See  EDWARD  VI.)  II.  Lady  Jane,  sister  of  the 
preceding,  and  third  queen  of  Henry  VIII., 
born  about  1510,  died  Oct.  24, 1537.  She  was 
a  maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn  when 
the  king  first  fell  in  love  with  her,  was  mar- 
ried to  Henry  on  the  day  succeeding  Anne's 
execution,  and  died  12  days  after  giving  birth 
to  Edward  VI. 

SEYMOUR,  Horatio,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Pompey,  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  May 
31,  1810.  When  he  was  nine  years  of  age  his 
parents  removed  to  Utica.  He  was  educated 
at  the  academies  of  Oxford  and  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
and  Partridge's  military  school,  Miildletown, 
Conn.,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1832.  The  death  of  his  father  devolved 
upon  him  the  settlement  of  a  large  estate,  and 
withdrew  him  from  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. From  1833  to  1839  he  served  on  the 
military  staff  of  Gov.  Marcy.  In  1841  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  assembly  as  a  democrat, 
was  reflected  three  times,  and  in  1845  was 
chosen  speaker.  In  1842,  while  in  the  assem- 
bly, he  was  elected  mayor  of  Utica  for  one 
year.  In  1848  he  supported  Lewis  Cass  for 
the  presidency.  In  1850  he  was  nominated  by 
the  democrats  for  governor,  and  was  defeat- 
ed by  Washington  Hunt,  the  whig  candidate, 
by  a  plurality  of  262  votes;  but  in  1852  he 
was  elected  governor  by  a  plurality  of  22,596 
votes  over  the  same  competitor.  A  prohibi- 
tory liquor  bill  passed  in  March,  1854,  -was 
vetoed  by  him  on  the  ground  that  it  was  un- 
constitutional. He  was  renominated  in  1854. 
The  prohibition  question  entered  largely  into 
the  canvass,  which  was  further  complicated  by 
the  Know-Nothing  issue  and  the  anti-slavery 
agitation  growing  out  of  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri compromise.  There  were  four  candidates 


for  governor,  and  Myron  II.  Clark,  whig  and 
prohibitionist,  was  elected  by  a  plurality  of 
309  votes  over  Gov.  Seymour.  In  1862  Mr. 
Seymour  was  again  elected  governor  over  Gen. 
James  S.  Wadsworth  by  a  majority  of  10,752 
votes.  In  his  inaugural  address  on  Jan.  1, 1863, 
he  said :  u  Under  no  circumstances  can  the 
division  of  the  Union  be  conceded.  We  will 
put  forth  every  exertion  of  power ;  we  will 
use  every  policy  of  conciliation  ;  we  will  guar- 
antee them  every  right,  every  consideration 
demanded  by  the  constitution  and  by  that 
fraternal  regard  which  must  prevail  in  a  com- 
mon country ;  but  we  can  never  voluntarily 
consent  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  union  of 
these  states  or  the  destruction  of  the  consti- 
tution." On  June  15  Secretary  Stanton,  by 
direction  of  President  Lincoln,  telegraphed  to 
Gov.  Seymour  asking  if  he  could  raise  and  for- 
ward 20,000  militia  to  assist  in  repelling  the 
threatened  invasion  of  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania by  Lee's  army ;  and  within  three  days 
12,000  soldiers  were  on  their  way  from  New 
York  to  Harrisburg.  While  these  troops  were ' 
absent  from  the  state  the  draft  was  ordered 
to  be  enforced  in  the  city  of  New  York  on  July 
11.  On  the  9th  Gen.  John  E.  Wool,  command- 
ing the  department  of  the  East,  addressed  a 
letter  to  Gov.  Seymour  setting  forth  that  the 
city  of  New  York  was  in  a  defenceless  condi- 
tion, and  asked  that  he  might  be  furnished 
with  four  companies  of  infantry.  These  compa- 
nies were  on  their  way  thither  from  the  inte- 
rior of  the  state  when  Gen.  Wool  telegraphed, 
July  13:  "Please  countermand  any  militia  that 
is  ordered  to  this  place."  On  the  same  day 
the  draft  riots  began.  The  governor  immedi- 
ately went  to  New  York,  where  on  the  14th 
he  issued  two  proclamations,  one  calling  on 
the  rioters  to  disperse,  and  the  other  declar- 
ing the  city  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  He 
divided  it  into  districts,  which  were  placed  un- 
der the  control  of  military  men  who  were  di- 
rected to  organize  the  citizens ;  and  3,000  stand 
of  arms  were  issued  to  these  and  other  organi- 
zations. Boats  were  chartered  to  convey  po- 
licemen and  soldiers  to  any  point  on  the  shores 
of  the  island  where  disturbances  were  threat- 
ened. The  governor  visited  all  the  riotous  dis- 
tricts in  person,  and  by  persuasion  as  well  as 
by  the  use  of  the  force  at  his  command  aided 
in  quelling  the  disturbance.  During  his  term 
Gov.  Seymour  commissioned  more  than  1£,000 
officers  in  the  volunteer  service  of  the  United 
States.  In  1864  he  addressed  a  message  to 
the  legislature  advocating  the  payment  of  the 
interest  on  the  state  bonds  in  gold ;  and  the 
refusal  of  the  legislature  to  adopt  this  policy 
greatly  depreciated  their  value.  In  August  he 
presided  over  the  democratic  national  conven- 
tion at  Chicago,  which  nominated  Gen.  McClel- 
lan  for  the  presidency.  He  also  presided- over 
the  convention  of  1868,  held  in  New  York. 
The  leading  candidates  for  the  nomination 
were  George  H.  Pendleton,  Andrew  Johnson, 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  and  Gen.  W.  S.  Han- 


806 


SFORZA 


cock.  Gov.  Seymour  had  positively  declined 
to  permit  the  use  of  his  name  as  a  candidate ; 
bat  on  the  22d  ballot  the  Ohio  delegation,  to 
forestall  a  threatened  movement  in  favor  of 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  cast  their  united  vote  for  Ho- 
ratio Seymour.  When  Wisconsin  was  reached 
in  the  call  of  states  its  delegation  seconded  his 
nomination,  and  every  state  changed  its  vote 
to  Seymour,  who  was  declared  the  unanimous 
choice  of  the  convention.  Gen.  Francis  P. 
Blair,  jr.,  was  nominated  for  vice  president. 
At  the  election  Seymour  and  Blair  received 
2,703,600  votes,  against  3,013,188  votes  for 
Grant  and  Colfax.  Mr.  Seymour  lives  on  an 
extensive  and  well  cultivated  farm  in  Deer- 
field,  near  Utica.  He  is  president  (1875)  of 
the  national  dairymen's  association,  and  has 
delivered  many  addresses  before  agricultural 
societies.  He  is  also  president  of  the  prison 
association  of  the  United  States-. 

SFORZA,  an  Italian  family,  several  members 
of  which  were  sovereign  dukes  of  Milan  du- 
ring the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  I.  GUeomnzzo 
Attf ndolo,  the  son  of  a  peasant  and  the  founder 
of  the  house,  born  at  Cotignola,  in  the  Ro- 
magna,  in  1369,  died  in  1424.  He  became  one 
of  the  most  redoubtable  condottieri  of  Italy, 
and  was  surnamed  Sforza  on  account  of  his 
muscular  strength.  He  fought  in  the  service 
of  various  princes,  and  Queen  Joanna  II.  of 
Naples  made  him  grand  constable.  In  1420, 
yielding  to  the  influence  of  Pope  Martin  V., 
who  had  made  him  a  count,  he  aided  Louis  III. 
of  Anjou  against  the  queen;  but  soon  return- 
ing to  Joanna,  he  protected  her  against  Alfonso 
of  Aragon,  and  while  marching  against  Braccio 
di  Montone  was  drowned  in  the  Pescara.  II. 
Francesco,  duke  (if  Milan,  natural  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1401,  died  in  1466.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  command  of  the  mer- 
cenary bands  upon  whom  his  power  rested. 
Enlisting  in  1425  in  the  service  of  Filippo  Ma- 
ria Visconti,  duke  of  Milan,  then  at  war  with 
a  formidable  league  headed  by  the  republic  of 
Venice,  he  was  defeated  at  Macalo  by  Carma- 
gnola  in  1427,  but  vanquished  him  in  1431  at 
Soncino.  Under  pretence  of  giving  force  to 
the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Basel  against  Eu- 
genius  IV.,  he  wrested  the  province  of  Anco- 
na  from  the  pope.  Entering  the  service  of  the 
Florentine  republic  against  Visconti,  he  beat 
the  Milanese  under  Piccinino  and  conquered 
Lunegiana  in  1437;  returning  to  his  former 
ally,  was  sent  by  him  to  Naples  to  support 
Rene"  of  Anjou  against  Alfonso  of  Aragon; 
then  going  over  again  to  the  Venetians,  defeat- 
ed Visconti  in  1440,  and  invaded  his  territory ; 
and  finally,  receiving  the  hand  of  the  duke's 
illegitimate  daughter  Bianca,  forced  Florence 
and  Venice  to  grant  that  prince  the  peace  of 
Capriana  (1441).  Visconti  treacherously  at- 
tempted to  crush  his  son-in-law  by  forming  a 
league  of  nearly  all  the  Italian  princes  against 
him ;  but,  concentrating  his  whole  force  in 
the  province  of  Ancona,  Sforza  routed  his  ene- 
mies at  Monte  Lauro  and  Mont'  Olmo  in  1444; 


and  when,  notwithstanding  these  successes, 
he  was  on  the  eve  of  succumbing  to  superior 
forces,  he  received  timely  aid  from  the  repub- 
lic of  Venice  and  from  Florence,  now  under 
the  control  of  his  friend  Cosmo  de'  Medici. 
On  the  death  of  Visconti  without  a  male  heir 
in  1447,  the  Milanese  adopted  a  republican 
government ;  but  Sforza,  after  serving  the  re- 
public for  a  time,  seized  its  principal  towns, 
blockaded  Milan,  and  in  1450  was  proclaimed 
duke.  Venice  and  Naples  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge his  title ;  but  he  defeated  the  former 
in  a  short  war,  made  peace  and  contracted  an 
alliance  with  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  king  of  Na- 
ples, made  himself  master  of  Genoa  in  1464, 
and  secured  a  controlling  influence  in  all  Italy. 
His  protection  of  science  and  literature,  his 
liberality  toward  the  learned  exiles  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  public  improvements  ac- 
complished under  his  reign,  entitle  him  to  a 
high  rank  among  the  princes  of  his  age.  III. 
Cateazzo  Maria,  son  and  successor  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  in  1444,  assassinated  in  1476.  He 
was  serving  Louis  XI.  of  France  at  the  time  of 
his  father's  death,  and  returned  hastily  in  dis- 
guise to  Milan,  where,  owing  to  his  mother's 
energy,  he  was  proclaimed  duke ;  but  he  gave 
himself  up  to  luxury  and  debauchery,  and  was 
charged  with  poisoning  his  first  wife  and  his 
mother.  His  second  wife  was  Bona  of  Savoy, 
sister-in-law  of  Louis  XI.  He  was  assassina- 
ted by  three  conspirators,  and  Giovanni  Gale- 
azzo,  about  eight  years  old,  was  proclaimed 
duke  under  the  regency  of  his  mother.  IV. 
Lndovieo,  called  IL  Mono,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  August,  1451,  died  in  1508 
or  1510.  In  1479  he  assumed  the  title  of  re- 
gent in  Milan.  His  nephew,  a  son-in-law  of 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Naples,  being  treated  as  a 
prisoner,  Ferdinand  was  arming  against  Ludo- 
vico,  when  the  latter  in  1494  invited  Charles 
VIII.  of  France  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Naples ;  and  Galeazzo  dying  soon  after, 
Ludovico  proclaimed  himself  duke.  He  now 
formed  a  league  of  all  the  northern  powers 
of  Italy  to  prevent  Charles's  return  from  Na- 
ples; but  the  French  baffled  his  efforts,  and 
in  1499  he  was  attacked  by  Louis  XII.,  who 
claimed  the  duchy  in  the  right  of  his  grand- 
mother Valentina  Visconti,  and  being  forced 
to  fly  from  Milan  took  refuge  at  Innspruck, 
with  the  emperor  Maximilian.  The  French 
gave  such  dissatisfaction  to  the  Milanese  that, 
with  the  aid  of  mercenary  Swiss  troops,  Ludo- 
vico was  enabled  to  reconquer  his  duchy ;  but 
on  a  new  invasion  of  the  French  in  1500,  he 
was  taken  while  trying  to  escape,  and  con- 
fined for  life  in  the  castle  of  Loches.  V.  Mas- 
similiano,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1491, 
died  in  June,  1530.  lie  was  made  duke  by  the 
"holy  league"  in  1512,  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  French,  but  was  overthrown  on  their  re- 
turn in  1513.  On  the  defeat  of  the  French 
army  at  Novara  he  reentered  Milan,  but  final- 
ly lost  his  crown  in  1515,  when  Francis  I.  of 
France  won  the  victory  of  Marignano  (Me- 


'SGEAVESANDE 

legnano),  and  gave  up  all  his  rights  to  it  on 
condition  of  receiving  a  pension,  and  went 
to  France.  VI.  Francesco  II.,  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1492,  died  Oct.  24, 
1535.  In  1522  he  received  the  duchy  in  fief 
from  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  but  made  him- 
self odious  by  imposing  onerous  taxes.  He  left 
no  issue,  and  the  duchy  reverted  to  Charles  V. 

'SGBAVESANDE.     See  GBAVESANDE. 

SHACKLEFORD,  an  unorganized  N.  W.  county 
of  Texas,  intersected  by  the  Clear  fork  of  the 
Brazos  river;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
425,  of  whom  55  were  colored.  Stock  raising 
is  the  chief  occupation. 

SHAD,  a  well  known  fish  of  the  herring  fam- 
ily, of  the  genus  alosa  (Cuv.),  differing  from 
the  herrings  proper  (clupea)  in  having  the  cen- 
tre of  the  upper  jaw  deeply  notched.  The 
lower  jaw  is  the  longer ;  the  teeth  are  small 
and  deciduous,  in  the  jaws  only ;  the  air  blad- 
der is  simple,  opening  from  the  stomach.  The 
genus  comprises  more  than  20  species,  among 
which  are  the  alewife,  blue-back,  menhaden, 
and  shad  herring.  The  American  shad  (A. 
prasstabilis,  De  Kay,  or  A.  sapidissima,  Storer) 
attains  a  length  of  about  20  in.,  and  varies  in 
weight  from  2  to  6  Ibs. ;  the  upper  parts  of  the 


SHAD 


807 


American  Shad  (Alosa  prsestabilis). 

sides  and  gill  covers  are  coppery,  lower  part  of 
sides  silvery,  abdomen  pearly,  and  top  of  head 
and  back  bluish ;  a  more  or  less  distinct  black 
blotch  at  the  posterior  angle  of  the  gill  cover ; 
irides  silvery ;  dorsal  on  anterior  part  of  back, 
quadrangular,  transparent,  and  shutting  in  a 
groove ;  pectorals  and  ventrals  small,  and  anal 
low  and  partly  received  in  a  groove;  caudal 
deeply  forked,  with  a  patch  of  small  scales  and 
two  membranous  appendages  at  its  base ;  scales 
large,  and  abdominal  ridge  serrated.  They 
come  from  the  south  to  deposit  their  spawn, 
running  up  the  rivers  from  the  sea ;  they  ap- 
pear at  Charleston  in  January,  at  Norfolk  in 
February,  at  New  York  by  the  end  of  March 
or  beginning  of  April,  at  Boston  by  the  end  of 
April,  and  in  the  bay  of  Fundy  by  the  middle 
of  May.  They  appear  in  the  Massachusetts 
rivers  early  in  May,  the  greatest  run  being 
when  the  apple  trees  are  in  full  blossom ;  the 
shad  fly  (hemerolius)  appears  at  the  same  time, 
covering  the  houses  and  fences;  the  old  return 
to  the  sea  in  August,  and  the  young,  3  or  4  in. 
long,  migrate  in  September.  It  is  a  common 
belief  that  the  life  of  the  shad  is  limited  to  a 
single  year.  The  Massachusetts  fish  commis- 
sioners in  1874  hatched  great  numbers  of  shad 
in  the  Merrimack  river  at  North  Andover.  The 


number  caught  there  in  that  year  was  1,680, 
which  furnished  6,249,000  spawn;  of  these 
3,500,000  were  hatched  and  distributed  in  vari- 
ous waters  of  the  state.  The  average  of  the 
yield  of  eggs  was  10,278  to  each  female.  For 
other  efforts  toward  the  propagation  of  shad, 
see  Fisn  CULTURE,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  219  and  222. 
In  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rivers,  whence 
New  York  is  mainly  supplied,  the  shad  fishery 
is  prosecuted  by  drift  and  stake  nets,  and  its 
commercial  value  is  considerable.  The  fish  are 
with  us  mostly  eaten  fresh,  and  are  delicious, 
the  only  drawback  being  the  innumerable 
bones ;  they  lose  their  flavor  the  longer  they 
remain  in  fresh  water.  They  will  rise  to  a 
gaudy  fly  in  fresh  water,  and  afford  very  exci- 
ting sport.  Their  food  in  salt  water  consists 
principally  of  worms  like  the  shad  or  sing 
worm,  and  shrimps.  The  shad  fishery  is  of 
considerable  importance  to  the  British  prov- 
inces ;  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bay  of  Fundy, 
on  the  New  Brunswick  side,  the  fishing  is 
mostly  carried  on  in  the  channel  by  drift  nets 
from  25  to  30  fathoms  long,  sinking  to  a  depth 
of  about  16  ft.,  with  meshes  of  4J  to  5  in. ;  it 
continues  from  July  to  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber ;  the  fish  are  split  and  salted,  and  mostly 
used  in  the  neighborhood.  Shad  are  some- 
times caught  in  standing  weirs  set  on  the  flats, 
but  these  soon  destroy  the  fishery,  as  fish  of 
all  sizes  are  taken ;  in  standing  nets  many  fine 
fish  are  lost  by  falling  out  unless  narrowly 
watched.  Stake  nets  are  each  about  100  fath- 
oms long,  set  on  stakes  or  poles  about  15  ft. 
apart  on  the  mud  flats,  and  are  dry  at  low 
water  ;  most  of  the  fish  in  these  are  caught  on 
the  ebb  tide.  This  fishery  is  also  of  impor- 
tance on  the  Nova  Scotia  side  of  the  bay  of 
Fundy ;  shad  are  also  taken  in  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence. — The  hickory  shad  (A.  lineata,  Sto- 
rer) is  about  15  in.  long,  silvery  on  the  sides, 
with  six  or  eight  indistinct  bluish  longitudinal 
bands;  it  is  lean,  and  is  not  used  for  food. — 
The  European  shad  (A  vulgaris,  Val.)  ascends 
the  Thames  and  the  Severn,  the  Elbe,  Rhine, 
Seine,  Loire,  Garonne,  Volga,  and  other  rivers, 
from  the  Atlantic  and  other  seas,  in  numerous 
troops  during  the  spring,  varying  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  It  attains  a  length  of  2  to  3  ft., 
and  is  dark  green  above  and  silvery  below,  with 
a  dusky  patch  behind  the  gill  covers ;  its  flesh  is 
little  esteemed  in  England.  Cuvier  and  Yarrell 
describe  the  A.finta,  the  twaite  shad  or  May 
fish,  about  14  in.  long,  with  teeth  in  both  jaws 
and  seve'ral  black  spots  on  the  sides,  and  a  dry 
insipid  flesh.  Valenciennes  maintains  that  this 
is  only  the  young  of  the  A.  vulgaris  before  the 
teeth  have  fallen,  and  declares  that  only  one 
species  is  found  in  the  waters  of  Europe. — The 
head  of  the  shad  presents  a  good  example  of 
the  water  tubes  through  which,  in  many  fish- 
es, fluid  is  introduced  into  the  blood  and  the 
system  generally;  the  object  of  this  appara- 
tus, often  very  extensive,  is  commonly  said  to 
be  for  accommodating  the  body  to  the  pres- 
sure of  different  ocean  depths. 


808 


SHAD  BUSH 


SHAFTESBURY 


SHAD  BUSH.     See  JUNE  BERRY. 

SHADDOCK,  a  fruit  of  the  citrus  or  orange 
genus,  noted  for  its  great  size.  In  treating 
o£  other  members  of  this  genus  the  difficulty 
of  tracing  the  commercial  varieties  to  botan- 
ical species  has  been  alluded  to,  and  the  same 
doubt  surrounds  the  shaddock.  The  fruit  was 
brought  from  Asia  to  the  "West  Indies  by  an 
Englishman,  Capt.  Shaddock.  De  Candolle  is 
disposed  to  regard  it  as  a  species,  not  on  ac- 
count of  the  size  of  the  fruit,  but  because  the 
leaves  are  downy  on  the  under  side  and  ciliate 
on  the  margins.  The  shaddock  is  a  native  of 
China  and  Cochin  China,  but  is  thoroughly 
established  in  the  West  Indies,  where  it  pre- 
sents many  varieties.  The  tree  and  fruit  are 


Shaddock  (Citrus  decutnana). 

much  larger  than  those  of  the  common  orange, 
but  it  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  valuable 
fruit,  as  its  quality  is  very  inferior.  Its  spe- 
cific name,  decumcrna  (Lat.,  immense),  refers 
to  its  size,  the  fruit  of  shaddock  often  weigh- 
ing 6  or  8  Ibs. ;  it  is  mainly  useful  in  making 
up  ornamental  collections  of  tropical  fruits. 

SHADWELL,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  1640,  died  in  1692.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  settled  in  Lon- 
don, and  wrote  for  the  stage.  He  obtained  so 
great  a  reputation  as  a  writer  that  he  was  set 
up  as  a  rival  of  Dryden,  on  whose  dismissal 
in  1688  he  became  poet  laureate.  He  is  now 
chiefly  known  as  the  hero  of  Dryden's  satire 
of  "  MacFlecknoe ;"  but  the  dulness  there 
ascribed  to  him  is  altogether  imaginary.  His 


works  were  published  collectively  in  1720  (4 
vols.  12mo). 

SHAFTESBrRY.  I.  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  first 
earl  of,  an  English  statesman,  born  at  Wim- 
borne  St.  Giles,  Dorsetshire,  July  22,  1621, 
died  in  Amsterdam,  Jan.  22,  1683.  His  father 
was  Sir  John  Cooper,  of  Rockbourne,  Hants, 
and  his  mother  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony 
Ashley,  Queen  Elizabeth's  secretary  of  war. 
He  studied  at  Exeter  college,  Oxford,  and  at 
Lincoln's  Inn,  and  represented  Tewkesbury  in 
the  short  parliament  of  1640.  In  the  civil  war 
he  first  supported  Charles  I.,  but  in  1644  went 
over  to  the  parliament,  raised  a  force  in  Dor- 
setshire, stormed  Wareham,  and  reduced  the 
surrounding  country.  He  was  a  member  of 
Cromwell's  parliaments,  and  was  appointed  by 
the  Barebones  parliament  one  of  the  council 
of  state,  though  openly  opposed  to  many  of 
Cromwell's  measures.  He  retired  from  the 
council  in  1654,  and  was  a  leader  of  the  oppo- 
sition in  parliament  both  before  and  after 
Cromwell's  death.  He  was  active  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  second  protectorate  and  the  res- 
toration of  Charles  II.,  being  a  member  of  the 
commission  sent  to  Breda  to  invite  his  return, 
and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  isle  of 
Wight,  lord  lieutenant  of  Dorsetshire,  chancel- 
lor of  the  exchequer,  and  a  privy  councillor, 
and  in  April,  1661,  was  created  Baron  Ashley. 
He  was  one  of  the  commission  for  the  trial  of 
the  regicides,  whom  he  prosecuted  with  zeal. 
In  1667  he  was  made  joint  commissioner  of  the 
treasury.  His  title  furnished  the  second  letter 
for  the  name  Cabal  given  to  the  Clifford  min- 
istry (see  CABAL),  and  he  has  been  charged 
with  the  scheme  of  shutting  up  the  exchequer. 
In  1672  he  was  created  earl  of  Shaftesbury 
and  made  lord  chancellor.  He  had  no  legal 
knowledge,  was  ignorant  of  his  duties,  and  ser- 
vile to  the  king.  Suddenly  he  began  to  oppose 
the  government  of  which  he  was  a  member, 
and  the  king  dismissed  him  (1673).  His  oppo- 
sition now  became  very  violent,  and  in  1677 
he  was  committed  to  the  tower,  where  he  re- 
mained more  than  a  year,  and  was  not  released 
until  he  begged  pardon  on  his  knees.  Oates's 
"  popish  plot "  made  him  powerful,  and  he 
was  the  author  of  the  test  bill  of  1678,  under 
which  Catholics  were  excluded  from  parlia- 
ment during  151  years.  As  president  of  the 
new  permanent  council  he  became  nominal 
chief  of  the  government ;  but,  aware  of  the 
instability  of  his  condition,  he  determined  that 
the  duke  of  York  should  be  excluded  from  the 
succession.  In  1679  he  framed  and  caused  to 
be  passed  the  habeas  corput  act.  Parliament 
being  dissolved  and  Shaftesbury  dismissed, 
he  became  more  violent  than  ever,  induced 
Monmouth  to  return  home,  and  tried  to  pro- 
cure the  indictment  of  the  duke  of  York  as  a 
recusant.  In  the  parliament  of  1679  the  com- 
mons were  completely  under  his  influence, 
and  he  carried  resolutions  against  the  duke 
of  York,  and  caused  the  exclusion  bill  to  be 
again  brought  forward,  which  rapidly  passed 


SHAG 

the  lower  house,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the 
lords.  The  king  again  dissolved  parliament, 
and  the  next  one  met  at  Oxford ;  but  Shaftes- 
bury  being  still  all-powerful  in  the  commons, 
it  was  soon  dissolved  (1681).  The  earl  was 
arrested  by  order  of  council  on  the  charge 
of  high  treason,  and  the  benefit  of  his  own 
habeas  corpus  act  was  denied  him ;  but  the 
grand  jury  threw  out  the  bill,  and  the  earl 
was  liberated.  He  left  England,  and  reached 
Amsterdam  in  1682,  where  he  was  admitted 
to  the  magistracy.  This  secured  his  personal 
safety,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
lived  in  splendor.  He  wrote  memoirs  of  his 
own  times,  and  intrusted  them  to  his  friend 
John  Locke,  who  destroyed  them,  frightened, 
it  is  said,  by  the  execution  of  Algernon  Sidney. 
His  life  was  written  and  privately  printed 
under  the  direction  of  his  great-grandson  (new 
ed.,  1836).  See  also  "  Life  of  the  first  Lord 
Shaftesbury,"  by  W.  D.  Christie  (London, 
1871).  II.  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  third  earl  of, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London, 
Feb.  26,  1671,  died  in  Naples,  Feb.  15,  1713. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1693,  and  made  a 
famous  speech  in  behalf  of  the  proposal  to 
allow  counsel  to  persons  charged  with  high 
treason.  Illness  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
public  life  in  1698.  He  entered  the  house  of 
lords  in  1700,  supported  the  measures  of  Wil- 
liam III.,  and  on  the  king's  death  retired.  He 
was  a  philanthropist  and  a  leading  free  thinker, 
and  wrote  "  A  Letter  on  Enthusiasm  "  (1708) ; 
"Moralists"  and  Sensus  Communis  (1709); 
and  "A  Soliloquy,  or  Advice  to  Authors" 
(1710).  A  complete  collection  of  his  works 
was  published  under  the  title  "  Characteristics 
of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions,  and  Times"  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1713).  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  was  engaged  in  Naples  upon  a  work  on  the 
arts  of  design.  III.  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  sev- 
enth earl  of,  born  April  28,  1801.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Christ  Church  college,  Oxford,  in  1822, 
was  returned  to  parliament  in  1826,  and  sup- 
ported the  administration  of  George  Canning. 
He  was  repeatedly  a  member  of  the  house  of 
commons,  and  entered  the  house  of  lords  in 
1851.  He  has  continually  striven  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  has 
taken  part  in  many  religious  and  benevolent 
enterprises. 

SHAG.     See  CORMORANT. 

SHAGREEN  (Pers.  sagri,  shagrain),  a  prepa- 
ration of  the  skins  of  horses,  wild  asses,  and 
camels,  resembling  parchment  more  than  leath- 
er. It  is  a  product  of  Astrakhan  in  Russia  and 
the  countries  of  the  East.  Thick  strips  are  cut 
from  the  skins  along  the  chine,  and  having 
been  deprived  of  the  hair  and  dressed  in  the 
usual  process  of  currying,  each  one  is  stretched 
by  strings  fastened  to  its  edges  in  a  square 
wooden  frame.  It  is  kept  moist,  and  is  occa- 
sionally stretched  still  more,  till  it  becomes 
smooth  and  tense  as  a  drum  head.  While  still 
moist,  the  hair  side  is  sprinkled  over  with  the 
hard  shining  black  seeds  of  a  species  of  cheno- 


809 

podium,  and  these  being  covered  with  a  piece 
of  felt  or  thick  cloth,  the  seeds  are  pressed 
into  the  skin  by  trampling  or  by  a  simple 
press.  'The  skin  retaining  the  seeds  is  then 
dried  in  the  shade,  and  being  afterward  beat- 
en the  seeds  fall  out,  leaving  the  surface  in- 
dented with  their  pits.  The  opposite  smooth 
side  is  then  shaved  down  nearly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  pits,  and  on  macerating  the  skin  in  wa- 
ter the  depressions  appear  in  little  swellings  on 
this  side,  which  remain  permanent,  and  become 
hard  with  the  rest  of  the  skin  when  dried. 
When  the  strips  have  been  steeped  in  a  warm 
solution  of  soda,  and  cleansed  with  salt  brine, 
they  are  ready  for  dyeing.  Shagreen  was  for- 
merly much  used  for  scabbards  of  swords  and 
for  the  cases  of  instruments,  spectacles,  &c. 

SHAKERS,  the  popular  name  of  a  religious 
sect  who  call  themselves  the  "  United  Society  of 
Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Appearing."  They 
originated  in  England  about  the  year  1770,  but 
are  now  confined  to  the  United  States,  where 
they  have  17  societies  and  about  4,000  full 
members,  besides  some  hundreds  of  novitiates. 
They  were  at  first  an  offshoot  from  the  Friends 
or  Quakers,  and  generally  held  similar  views 
relative  to  spiritual  illumination,  giving  testi- 
monies, objecting  to  the  legal  oath,  to  war, 
slavery,  &c. ;  but  in  their  theological  ideas,  as 
well  as  in  their  practice  of  celibate  life,  and 
in  community  of  goods,  they  now  differ  en- 
tirely from  the  Friends.  In  1747  some  mem- 
bers of  the  society  of  Friends  near  Manches- 
ter, England,  formed  a  distinct  association,  of 
which  Jane  and  James  Wardley  were  the  lead- 
ers. Of  this  society  the  parents  of  Ann  Lee 
were  members,  and  in  1758  she  became  one 
of  its  adherents.  For  several  years  this  lit- 
tle company  were  only  remarkable  for  greater 
physical  manifestations  of  their  spiritual  illu- 
mination than  most  of  the  assemblages  of 
Quakers,  such  as  dancing,  shouting,  trembling, 
speaking  with  tongues,  &c.  These  manifesta- 
tions excited  the  hostility  of  the  populace,  and 
even  of  some  magistrates  and  clergymen,  who 
charged  them  with  thereby  violating  the  sab- 
bath. Several  of  the  members,  including  the 
Wardleys  and  Ann  Lee  and  her  family,  were 
imprisoned,  fined,  and  roughly  used.  In  1770 
Ann  Lee  professed  to  have  received,  by  a  spe- 
cial manifestation  of  divine  light,  those  reve- 
lations in  virtue  of  which  her  followers  have 
ever  since  given  her  the  name  of  Mother  Ann, 
and  have  regarded  her  as  a  person  inspired  by 
the  Christ  of  the  female  order,  as  Jesus  was  in- 
spired by  the  Christ  of  the  male  order.  *Christ 
is  applied  by  them,  as  a  generic  term,  to  the 
highest  or  innermost  sphere,  exterior  to  the 
deific  sphere,  called  in  the  Scriptures  eternity : 
"  the  high  and  lofty  One  that  inhabiteth  eter- 
nity." In  1774,  under  authority  of  a  revela- 
tion to  Mother  Ann,  ten  of  the  more  promi- 
nent members  of  the  society,  including  Ann 
Lee,  emigrated  to  America,  arriving  in  New 
York  Aug.  6 ;  and  eight  of  them  subsequently 
settled  at  Niskayuna  (now  Watervliet),  7  m. 


810 


SHAKERS 


from  Albany.  Here  they  remained,  without 
any  considerable  accession  to  their  numbers, 
for  3J  years.  In  1779  a  religious  excitement, 
<w  revival,  occurred  at  New  Lebanon,  Columbia 
co.,  N.  Y.,  accompanied  by  those  extraordina- 
ry physical  manifestations  which  subsequent- 
ly characterized  a  similar  revival  in  Kentucky. 
When  these  manifestations  had  subsided,  in 
the  spring  of  1780,  some  of  those  who  had  been 
most  affected  by  them  visited  Mother  Aim  at 
Watervliet,  and  there,  as  they  believed,  found 
the  key  to  their  religious  experiences.  The 
number  of  adherents  to  her  doctrines  increased 
rapidly  up  to  the  time  of  her  death  in  1784, 
and  indeed  for  some  years  after. — The  idea  of 
a  community  of  property,  and  of  Shaker  fam- 
ilies or  unitary  households,  was  first  broached 
by  Mother  Ann,  who  formed  her  little  family 
into  a  model  after  which  the  general  organ- 
izations of  the  Shaker  order  as  they  now  ex- 
ist have  been  arranged.  In  1787  Joseph  Mea- 
cham,  formerly  a  Baptist  preacher,  who  had 
been  one  of  Mother  Ann's  first  converts  at 
"Watervliet,  collected  her  adherents  in  a  settle- 
ment at  New  Lebanon,  and  organized  them  in 
this  form,  probably  adding  some  principles  not 
found  in  Mother  Ann's  revelations.  Within 
five  years,  under  the  administration  of  Mea- 
cham,  11  Shaker  settlements  were  founded, 
viz. :  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  which  has  always 
been  regarded  as  the  parent  society ;  at  Water- 
vliet, N.  Y. ;  at  Hancock,  Tyringham,  Harvard, 
and  Shirley,  Mass. ;  at  Enfield,  Conn. ;  at  Can- 
terbury and  Enfield,  N.  II. ;  and  at  Alfred  and 
New  Gloucester,  Me.  No  other  societies  were 
formed  till  1805,  when  three  missionaries  from 
New  Lebanon  visited  Ohio  and  Kentucky,  and 
were  ultimately  successful  in  founding  four 
societies  in  Ohio  (Union  Village,  Watervliet, 
White  Water,  and  North  Union),  and  two  in 
Kentucky  (Pleasant  Hill  and  South  Union). 
These  settlements  are  composed  of  from  two 
to  eight  "families,"  or  households.  A  large 
house,  divided  through  the  middle  by  wide 
halls,  and  capable  of  accommodating  from  30 
to  150  inmates,  is  erected  for  each  family,  the 
male  members  occupying  one  end  and  the  fe- 
males the  other.  The  property  is  owned  by 
each  family  as  a  community.  The  societies  ail 
possess  considerable  tracts  of  land,  averaging 
nearly  seven  acres  to  each  member.  They  be- 
lieve idleness  to  be  sinful,  and  every  member 
who  is  able  to  work  is  employed.  They  have 
usually  very  extensive  gardens  connected  with 
their  settlements,  and  the  culture  of  flowers, 
medicinal  herbs,  fruits,  and  vegetables  has  been 
a  favorite  business  with  them ;  and  they  have 
dealt  largely  in  garden  and  flower  seeds,  dried 
herbs,  and  medicinal  extracts.  Of  late  years 
they  give  more  attention  to  agriculture  and  to 
manufacturing  than  formerly.  The  broom  busi- 
ness is  extensively  carried  on  by  all  the  socie- 
ties. They  usually  have  at  their  villages  store- 
houses and  separate  buildings  for  dairy  or  me- 
chanical purposes,  a  school  house  for  the  chil- 
dren they  adopt  or  who  come  in  with  their 


parents,  and  a  meeting  house  or  hall.  Their 
schools  are  supplied  abundantly  with  apparatus 
and  libraries. — In  their  mode  of  worship  they 
exercise  both  soul  and  body.  The  two  sexes 
are  frequently  arranged  in  ranks  opposite  to 
and  facing  each  other,  the  front  ranks  about 
6  ft.  apart.  There  is  usually  an  address  by  one 
of  the  elders  upon  some  doctrinal  subject,  or 
some  practical  virtue,  after  which  they  sing  a 
hymn ;  then  they  form  in  circles  around  a  band 
of  singers,  to  whose  music  they  "go  forth  in 
the  dances  of  them  that  make  merry."  At 
times  the  excitement  and  fervency  of  spirit 
become  very  great,  and  their  bodily  evolutions, 
while  maintaining  the  order  and  regularity  of 
the  dance  and  the  music,  are  almost  incon- 
ceivably rapid.  They  believe  themselves  to  be 
frequently  under  the  immediate  influence  of 
spirit  agency,  both  of  angels  and  of  departed 
members  of  their  own  fraternity,  who  have 
advanced  further  in  the  work  of  the  resurrec- 
tion or  redemption  from  the  generative  nature 
and  order  than  those  still  in  the  body.  They 
have  a  ministry,  composed  of  two  brethren 
and  two  sisters,  who  have  the  oversight  of 
from  one  to  four  societies;  also  each  family 
in  every  society  has  four  elders,  two  breth- 
ren and  two  sisters,  who  have  charge  of  the 
family.  The  temporalities  of  each  family  are 
cared  for  by  two  deacons  and  two  deaconesses. 
There  are  three  classes  of  members:  1.  The 
novitiates,  who,  receiving  the  doctrines  of  the 
Shakers,  and  living  up  to  the  general  require- 
ments of  their  faith,  still  prefer  to  reside  with 
their  own  families,  and  manage  their  own  tem- 
poral concerns,  for  a  time.  They  are  not  con- 
trolled by  the  society,  either  as  to  their  prop- 
erty, families,  or  children,  and  enjoy  their 
spiritual  privileges  in  connection  with  it,  un- 
less they  violate  its  rules  and  principles.  2. 
The  junior  class,  composed  of  persons  who 
have  become  members  of  the  Shaker  communi- 
ties, and  unite  in  their  labors  and  religious  ex- 
ercises, but  who  have  not  relinquished  their 
property  to  the  society,  or,  if  they  have  given 
the  society  the  improvement  of  it,  may  at  any 
time  resume  it,  though  without  interest.  8. 
The  senior  class,  comprising  those  who,  after 
full  experience  of  the  system  of  the  Shakers, 
voluntarily  and  deliberately  consecrate  them- 
selves, their  services,  and  all  their  property  to 
the  society,  never  to  be  reclaimed  by  them  or 
their  legal  heirs.  Those  belonging  to  this  class 
are  called  the  church  or  senior  order.  No  dif- 
ference is  ever  made  in  this  order  on  account 
of  the  amount  of  property  any  individual  may 
have  contributed.  They,  as  well  as  all  who 
retain  their  connection  with  the  community, 
are  amply  provided  for,  in  health,  sickness, 
and  old  age. — The  Shakers  hold  that  the  reve- 
lation of  God  is  progressive ;  that  in  the  first 
or  antediluvian  period  of  human  history,  God 
was  known  only  as  a  Great  Spirit ;  that  in  the 
second  or  Jewish  period,  he  was  revealed  ns 
the  Jehovah,  lie,  She,  or  a  dual  being,  male 
and  female,  the  "I  am  that  I  am;"  that  Jesus, 


SHAKERS 


811 


in  the  third  cycle,  made  God  known  as  a  Fa- 
ther ;  and  that  in  the  last  cycle,  commencing 
with  1770,  "God  is  revealed  in  the  character 
of  Mother,  an  eternal  Mother,  the  hearing 
Spirit  of  all  the  creation  of  God."  This  last 
they  regard  as  a  revelation  of  God's  affectional 
nature,  as  a  manifestation  of  the  divine  love 
and  tenderness.  The  Christs  they  helieve  to 
be  also  dual,  male  and  female,  supramundane 
beings.  Jesus,  in  their  system,  was  a  divinely 
instructed,  pure,  and  perfect  man,  and  by  virtue 
of  his  anointing  became  Jesus  Christ.  Among 
the  doctrines  of  the  new  revelation  are  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  which  Moses  never 
taught,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  soul,  by 
which  they  understand  the  quickening  of  the 
germ  of  a  new  and  spiritual  life,  after  the  death 
of  the  first  Adamic  or  generative  life.  All  who 
marry  and  are  given  in  marriage,  or  who  in- 
dulge in  the  earthly  procreative  relation,  they 
term  "  the  children  of  this  world,"  and  follow- 
ers of  the  first  Adam.  They  do  not  condemn 
them  for  living  in  the  marriage  relation,  pro- 
vided they  confine  its  use  simply  to  the  pur- 
pose of  procreation,  the  production  of  offspring 
being  the  only  justification  of  sexual  inter- 
course ;  all  beyond  that  they  designate  as  "  the 
unfruitful  works  of  darkness,"  and  they  sin- 
cerely condemn  it  as  mere  sensual  gratification. 
But  Shakers,  as  Christians,  hold  that  they  are 
called  to  lead  a  spiritual  and  holy  life,  not  only 
free  from  all  lust  and  carnal  sexual  indulgence, 
but  even  to  rise  above  the  order  of  natural  and 
innocent  human  reproduction  (proper  enough 
for  the  "children  of  this  world,"  and  in  a 
measure  for  gentile  Christians),  Shakers  being 
the  "  children  of  the  resurrection,"  daily  dying 
to  the  generative  nature,  as  Jesus  and  the  apos- 
tles died  to  it,  and  thus  becoming  new  crea- 
tures who  are  able  to  comprehend  the  "  mys- 
teries of  God."  Another  doctrine,  in  which 
they  believe  "  Christ  instructed  Jesus,"  is  hu- 
man brotherhood,  and  its  development  in  a 
community  of  goods,  according  to  the  example 
of  Jesus  and  his  apostles.  The  doctrines  of 
non-resistance,  non-participation  in  any  earthly 
government,  and  the  necessity  of  a  life  of  celi- 
bacy and  virgin  purity  to  a  perfect  Christianity, 
they  regard  as  having  been  communicated  to 
Jesus  by  a  Christ  Spirit ;  and,  though  neglected 
by  the  church  in  the  past,  of  prime  obligation 
to  the  true  believer.  The  second  appearing  of 
the  Christ,  "without  sin  unto  salvation,"  they 
believe  to  have  taken  place,  through  Mother 
Ann  Lee,  in  1770.  She,  "by  strictly  obeying 
the  light  revealed  in  her,  became  righteous  even 
as  Jesus  was  righteous.  She  acknowledged 
Jesus  Christ  as  her  Head  and  Lord,  and  formed 
the  same  character  as  a  spiritual  woman  that 
he  did  as  a  spiritual  man."  The  necessity  for 
the  appearing  of  Christ  in  the  female  form  re- 
sulted from  the  dual  nature  of  Christ  and  of 
Deity.  "  Still  it  was  not  Jesus  nor  Ann,  but 
the  principles  already  stated,  which  were  the 
foundation  of  the  second  Christian  church. 
Their  importance  is  derived  from  the  fact  of 


their  being  the  first  man  and  the  first  woman 
perfectly  identified  with  the  principles  and 
spirit  of  Christ."  This  second  appearing  of 
Christ  they  hold  to  be  the  true  resurrection 
state,  and  repudiate  a  physical  resurrection  as 
repugnant  to  science,  reason,  and  Scripture. 
As  they  recognize  four  dispensations  or  cycles 
of  human  religious  progress,  so  they  believe 
there  are  heavens  and  hells  to  each  cycle, 
which  are  still  places  of  probation.  The  first 
dispensation,  and  its  heaven  and  hell,  were 
respectively  for  the  good  and  wicked  among 
the  antediluvians,  and  the  wicked  of  that  cycle 
were  "the  spirits  in  prison"  to  whom  Jesus 
preached  in  the  interval  between  his  death  and 
ascension.  The  second  dispensation  (by  Mo- 
ses) was  designed  to  teach  by  revelation  God's 
truth  pertaining  to  the  earth-life  chiefly.  The 
second  hell  they  name  Gehenna,  and  consign 
to  it  the  Jews  and  heathen  who  died  before 
the  coming  of  Jesus ;  the  second  heaven  is 
paradise,  where  the  thief  on  the  cross  had  the 
promise  of  going  after  his  death.  They  be- 
lieve that  a  perfect  system  of  agriculture,  hor- 
ticulture, and  hygiene  was  gradually  unfolded 
in  the  statutes  of  Moses,  obedience  to  which, 
then  and  now,  would  give  entire  exemption 
from  physical  disease  or  bodily  infirmity ;  and 
that  the  principles  contained  in  those  laws  and 
statutes  are  to-day  as  binding  upon  all  Chris- 
tians as  are  the  ten  commandments.  (The 
Shakers  eat  no  pork.)  All  human  sickness, 
they  say,  is  the  result  of  some  physiological 
sin,  direct  or  indirect,  against  the  teachings  of 
Moses.  In  proof  of  this  position  they  cite  the 
promise  of  Moses  to  Israel:  in  obedience,  "the 
Lord  thy  God  shall  take  all  sickness  away  from 
the  midst  of  thee ;"  but  in  disobedience,  he  will 
"  bring  back  upon  thee  all  the  diseases  of  the 
Egyptians,"  of  which  they  were  afraid,  and  of 
which  diseases  Moses  had  cured  them  in  the 
wilderness,  by  means  of  the  physiological  treat- 
ment under  which  he  put  at  least  2,000,000 
persons,  giving  them  for  food  simple  manna, 
for  drink  and  bathing  cold  water,  and  to 
breathe  pure  air  in  open  well  ventilated  tents. 
The  third  dispensation  is  that  of  the  church  of 
the  first  appearing  of  Christ,  and  to  its  heaven 
Paul  was  caught  up.  The  fourth  heaven  is 
now  forming ;  in  it  Jesus  and  Mother  Ann  re- 
side, and  to  it  will  all  those  go  who  have  resist- 
ed temptation  until  all  their  evil  propensities 
and  lusts  are  destroyed,  and  the  life  of  the  gen- 
erative natural  man  is  dead  in  them,  for  such 
are  born  of  God  and  cannot  sin.  No  one  but 
Jesus  had  ever  attained  to  this  previous  to  the 
second  appearing  of  Christ  in  Ann  Lee.  It  is 
the  heaven  of  heavens,  and  to  it  will  be  gath- 
ered not  only  all  who  accept  the  doctrines  of 
the  Shakers  in  this  world,  and  attain  to  the 
new  birth,  but  all  those  in  the  lower  heavens 
and  hells  who  shall  yet  accept  them ;  and  when 
their  decision  is  finally  made,  the  lower  heavens 
and  hells  and  the  earth  will  be  destroyed,  and 
only  the  fourth  heaven  for  the  true  believers, 
and  the  fourth  hell  for  the  finally  impenitent, 


812 


SHAKERS 


SHAKESPEARE 


will  remain.  Each  cycle  has  had  its  own  Holy 
Spirit,  the  spiritual  influx  from  the  church  in 
the  heaven  of  that  cycle  to  the  inhabitants  of 
earth  at  the  time.  They  hold  to  oral  confes- 
sion of  sins  to  God,  in  the  presence  of  one  or 
t\vo  witnesses,  as  essential  to  the  reception  of 
the  power  to  forsake  sin.  They  also  believe 
in  the  power  of  some  of  their  members  to 
heal  physical  diseases,  by  means  of  prayer  and 
dietetics.  The  Bibles  of  different  races  they 
consider  as  records  of  the  most  divine  angelic 
ministrations  to  man  (for  they  hold  that  the 
natural  man  never  has  seen  and  never  will  see 
God),  and  as  more  or  less  imperfect  records  of 
the  religious  experience  and  history  of  the  Jews 
and  other  peoples.  They  believe  that  the  men- 
tal and  spiritual  condition  of  those  seers  and 
prophets,  whose  prophecies  form  a  considera- 
ble part  of  all  Bibles,  has  materially  modified 
the  revelation,  and  that  it  has  been  further 
modified  and  impaired  by  the  translators  of 
the  Scriptures;  the  book  of  Revelation  has 
suffered  less  in  this  respect  than  any  other, 
mainly  because  it  is  utterly  unintelligible  to 
the  generative  man,  and  could  not  be  compre- 
hended till  the  second  appearing  of  Christ,  as 
that  was  the  only  key  to  unlock  its  mysteries. 
The  revelations  of  Ann  Lee,  and  others  of  their 
ministers  and  elders  who  have  been  inspired 
by  God  to  speak,  they  regard  as  valid  and  im- 
portant.— The  movement  of  the  spiritualists 
has  excited  great  hopes  in  their  minds  of  a  re- 
markable inilux  of  disciples  to  Shakerism,  inas- 
much as  they  consider  it  a  preparation  of  the 
people  to  receive  their  doctrines.  Their  in- 
crease during  the  present  century  has  been  mod- 
erate, only  three  societies  having  been  formed 
within  the  past  60  years,  and  the  growth  of 
those  previously  in  existence  having  been  slow ; 
but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  they  are  the  only 
people  on  this  continent,  if  not  in  the  world, 
who  have  maintained  successfully  for  nearly 
a  century  a  system  of  living,  one  of  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  which  is  a  community 
of  property.  The  Shakers  are  spiritualists  in 
a  practical  sense.  They  hold  Swedenborg  as 
the  angel  of  spiritualism  mentioned  in  the  18th 
chapter  of  Revelation.  He  is  their  John  Bap- 
tist. Spiritualism  had  very  much  subsided  in 
the  order  until  1837,  when  a  renewal  of  it 
occurred,  lasting  seven  years.  This  was  the 
commencement  of  modern  spiritualism,  four 
years  before  the  Hydeville  rappings.  The 
spirits  predicted  that  after  performing  a  cer- 
tain work  in  the  world,  they  would  return  to 
the  Shakers,  and  replenish  their  numbers  from 
the  ranks  of  the  spiritualists.  According  to 
Elder  Frederick  W.  Evans,  this  return  of  the 
spirits  is  now  occurring  in  the  form  of  world- 
troubling  materialization.  He  visits  the  most 
trustworthy  of  the  mediums,  and  invites  them 
to  Mount  Lebanon  to  have  their  powers  test- 
ed.— The  Shakers  have  published  since  1870 
the  "  Shaker  and  Shakeress,"  a  monthly,  edit- 
ed by  F.  W.  Evans  and  Antoinette  Doolittle, 
at  Mount  Lebanon,  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y. 


SHAKESPEARE,  William,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Stratford-upon-Avon,  Warwickshire, 
in  April,  1564,  died  there,  April  23, 1616.  The 
exact  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known ;  but  as 
there  is  a  tradition  that  he  died  on  its  anni- 
versary, and  as  the  parish  record  of  Stratford 
shows  that  he  was  baptized  April  26, 1564,  and 
it  was  common  at  that  period  to  baptize  chil- 
dren on  the  third  day  after  their  birth,  the 
23d  of  that  month  has,  with  much  probabili- 
ty, been  assumed  as  the  day  of  his  birth.  His 
father  was  John  Shakespeare,  probably  the  son 
of  Richard  Shakespeare,  a  well-to-do  farmer 
of  Snitterfield,  3  m.  from  Stratford.  Traces 
have  been  discovered  of  the  family's  existence 
in  various  parts  of  that  country  as  early  as  the 
14th  century.  John  Shakespeare  was  a  sub- 
stantial yeoman,  who  is  called,  in  parish  rec- 
ord and  tradition,  successively  a  glover,  a  yeo- 
man, a  gentleman  and  freeholder,  a  butcher, 
and  a  wool  stapler  or  wholesale  dealer  in  wool. 
Ho  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  intelligence 
and  character ;  for  he  passed  through  the 
offices  of  ale-taster,  burgess,  constable,  affee- 
ror,  chamberlain,  alderman,  and  high  bailiff,  to 
that  of  chief  alderman  and  ex  officio  justice  of 
the  peace.  Like  many  others  of  even  higher 
rank  than  his  at  that  time,  he  could  not  write 
his  own  name.  He  married  Mary  Arden,  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Robert  Arden  of  Wil- 
mecote,  a  hamlet  partly  in  the  parish  of  Strat- 
ford. The  Ardens  were  of  the  acknowledged 
gentry  of  Warwickshire ;  their  family  was  an- 
cient, and  of  some  note  in  the  county.  Rob- 
ert Arden  was  a  considerable  landed  proprie- 
tor, although  his  daughter  Mary  inherited  from 
him  only  an  estate  of  about  54  acres,  called 
Ashbies,  at  Wilmecote,  and  a  small  interest  in 
some  other  land  and  tenements  near  by,  with 
£6  13s.  4<Z.  in  money,  which  was  equal  to 
about  £40  at  this  time.  The  marriage  took 
place  in  the  latter  part  of  1557.  William 
Shakespeare  was  the  third  child  and  the  first 
son  of  a  family  of  eight.  He  had  three  broth- 
ers, none  of  whom  attained  any  distinction. 
In  his  infancy  and  early  youth  his  father's  cir- 
cumstances were  easy.  He  owned  two  houses, 
each  having  a  garden  and  one  a  croft  attached 
to  it;  he  rented  a  small  farm,  and  bought  at 
least  two  more  houses  with  gardens  and  or- 
chards. The  house  in  Henley  street,  Stratford, 
in  which  it  may  safely  bo  assumed  that  he 
lived  from  his  marriage,  if  not  five  years  be- 
fore it,  until  his  death,  was  a  pretty  and  com- 
modious dwelling.  It  was  divided  into  two, 
and  allowed  to  go  to  ruin  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  17th  century.  There  was  an  endowed 
grammar  school  at  Stratford,  among  the  pu- 
pils at  which  we  may  safely  assume,  having 
the  support  of  tradition,  was  the  son  of  the 
high  bailiff  and  chief  alderman  of  the  town. 
What  amount  of  learning  Shakespeare  acquired 
before  he  entered  active  life  has  been  much 
disputed.  Certain  critics,  the  most  prominent 
of  whom  are  Charles  Gildon  and  John  Up- 
ton, have  asserted  for  him  a  very  considerable 


SHAKESPEARE 


813 


scholarship ;  others,  at  the  head  of  whom  is 
Dr.  Richard  Farmer,  with  much  ingenuity  and 
some  reason,  argue  that  he  was  ignorant  of 
any  language  but  that  of  which  he  was  the 
greatest  master.  But  his  friend  Ben  Jonson, 
himself  a  very  thorough  and  laborious,  if  not 
a  very  profound  or  variously  learned  scholar, 
said  that  Shakespeare  had  "small  Latin  and 
less  Greek ;"  from  which  statement  we  may 
reasonably  infer  that  he  knew  enough  of  the 
former  language  to  master  such  passages  of  it 
as  he  encountered  in  the  course  of  discursive 
reading  (and  in  his  day  these  were  many), 
though  not  enough  to  read  Latin  authors  for 
pleasure,  and  that  he  had  the  benefit  of  some 
instruction  in  the  latter  tongue.  His  notably 
frequent  use  of  Latin  derivatives  in  their  rad- 
ical sense  favors  this  view.  Of  Italian  and 
French  he  seems  to  have  acquired  some  knowl- 
edge in  his  youth  or  early  manhood.  Shortly 
previous  to  1578  John  Shakespeare's  affairs 
became  much  embarrassed.  In  that  year  he 
mortgaged  his  property ;  his  assessments  by 
the  corporation  were  reduced  to  one  third  of 
those  paid  by  other  aldermen ;  he  was  next 
excused  from  paying  anything  for  the  relief 
of  the  poor ;  and  finally  an  execution  against 
him  was  returned  "  No  effects,"  and  another 
Stratford  burgess  was  elected  in  his  place, 
because  he  had  long  neglected  to  attend  the 
"halls"  or  corporation  meetings.  He  also, be- 
cause he  feared  process  for  debt,  which  could 
then  be  executed  on  Sunday,  remained  away 
from  church,  and  thus  incurred  suspicion  of 
nonconformity.  He  however  contrived  to  re- 
tain possession  of  his  house  in  Henley  street. 
Thus  straitened  in  his  means  of  livelihood, 
John  Shakespeare  would  naturally  seek  to 
make  his  eldest  son  contribute  something  to 
the  support  of  the  family ;  and  tradition  tells 
us  that  he  labored  first  with  his  father  as  a 
wool  stapler  and  a  butcher,  and  afterward  as 
a  schoolmaster  and  an  attorney's  clerk.  The 
story  that  he  was  a  butcher  rests  only  on  the 
relation  of  an  old  parish  clerk,  born  too  late 
to  have  any  personal  knowledge  of  the  mat- 
ter. That  Shakespeare  had  more  than  a  lay- 
man's knowledge  of  law,  his  plays  afford  evi- 
dence, the  weight  of  which  cannot  be  dissipa- 
ted by  the  plea  of  the  universality  of  his  genius. 
Upon  the  authority  of  a  tradition  recorded 
by  the  Rev.  Richard  Davies,  who  died  in  1708, 
Shakespeare  was  "much  given  to  all  unlucki- 
nesse  in  stealing  venison  and  rabbits."  In  his 
rovings  he  had  fallen  in  with  Anne  Hathaway, 
the  daughter  of  Richard  Hathaway,  a  yeoman 
of  Shottery,  a  village  near  Stratford.  This 
young  woman,  who  was  eight  years  older  than 
Shakespeare,  bore  a  daughter  in  May,  1583,  of 
which  he  assumed  the  paternity  by  marrying 
the  mother  at  some  time  after  Nov.  28,  1582, 
at  which  date  the  bishop  of  Worcester  granted 
a  license  for  the  marriage  of  "  William  Shag- 
spere  one  thone  partie,  and  Anne  Hathwey  of 
Stratford  in  the  dioces  of  Worcester,  maiden," 
upon  "  once  asking  of  the  bannes,"  the  bride- 


groom being  at  that  time  18  and  the  bride  26 
years  old.  Thus  did  Shakespeare  find  himself, 
the  son  of  a  ruined  man,  without  a  settled  oc- 
cupation, and  lacking  three  years  of  his  ma- 
jority, a  prospective  father  and  the  husband 
of  a  woman  old  enough  to  be  his  father's  wife. 
We  should  not  lightly  pass  over  circumstances 
which  he  remembered  long  and  sadly,  as  we 
learn  from  his  sonnets,  and  by  a  passage  in 
one  of  his  plays  ("  Twelfth  Night,"  act  ii.  sc. 
4),  written  18  years  after,  in  the  height  of  his 
reputation  and  his  prosperity.  How  and  where 
he  lived  with  his  wife,  whether  in  Stratford  or 
Shottery,  we  do  not  know.  Nor  has  it  been 
discovered  how  long  he  lived  with  her;  but 
Hamnet  and  Judith,  twin  children  of  William 
and  Anne  Shakespeare,  were  baptized  at  Strat- 
ford, Feb.  20,  1584-'5 ;  after  which  we  hear  of 
no  other  offspring  of  this  ill-starred  union. — 
We  know  nothing  positively  of  Shakespeare 
from  his  birth  until  his  marriage,  and  from  that 
date  nothing  but  the  birth  of  his  three  children 
until  we  find  him  an  actor  in  London  about 
the  year  1589.  Play-going  was  a  favorite  di- 
version in  the  days  of  Elizabeth,  and  in  fact 
may  be  regarded  as  a  means  of  popular  amuse- 
ment and  instruction,  which  then  supplied  the 
place  of  the  popular  lecture,  the  light  litera- 
ture, and  the  newspaper  of  our  day.  The  best 
players  performed  of  course  at  London ;  but 
strolling  bands  went  through  the  rural  districts, 
and  even  the  metropolitan  companies  some- 
times travelled  into  the  provinces.  During 
Shakespeare's  boyhood  plays  had  often  been 
performed  at  Stratford ;  and  there  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  several  of  his  seniors 
among  the  youth  of  Stratford  had  gone  upon 
the  London  stage.  Besides  his  urgent  need, 
his  consciousness  of  dramatic  ability,  and  his 
certainty  of  finding  acquaintances  in  the  Lon- 
don theatres,  another  motive  has  been  fur- 
nished him  by  tradition.  It  is  said  that  his 
poaching  propensities  led  him  to  steal  a  deer 
from  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  of  Charlecote,  near 
Stratford,  and  that,  being  harshly  treated  by 
the  knight,  he  revenged  himself  by  a  lampoon- 
ing ballad  which  he  stuck  upon  the  gates  of  the 
park  he  had  violated.  The  ballad,  as  it  has 
come  down  to  us,  is  coarse,  though  clever ;  it 
irritated  Sir  Thomas  so  much  that  he  redoubled 
his  persecution  of  Shakespeare,  and  being  the 
most  important  man  in  that  vicinity,  he  drove 
the  poor  lad  out  of  Stratford.  This  story,  first 
told  by  Rowe,  on  the  information  of  Betterton 
the  actor,  in  "  Some  Account  of  the  Life  of 
William  Shakespeare,"  prefixed  to  his  edition 
of  the  poet's  works,  is  sustained  by  indepen- 
dent tradition.  It  has  been  attacked  with 
vigor  and  ingenuity  by  those  who  would  fain 
have  the  world  believe  that  the  boy  Shake- 
speare neither  stole  deer  nor  wrote  coarse  lam- 
poons ;  but  its  credibility  has  never  been  ma- 
terially impaired,  and  it  is  certainly  supported 
by  the  sharp  cut  at  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  in  the 
opening  of  the  first  scene  of  "  The  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor."  Shakespeare  probably  arrived 


814 


SHAKESPEARE 


in  London  in  1585  or  1586;  the  earlier  date 
best  according  with  all  the  facts  and  circum- 
stances to  be  considered.  One  tradition  says 
that  he  was  received  into  the  company  at  first 
in  a  very  mean  rank ;  and  another  that  his 
earliest  position  was  that  of  "a  servitor," 
which  is  probable.  Young  players  were  then 
apprenticed ;  he  would  have  been  expected  to 
begin  as  an  apprentice ;  and  apprentices  were 
then  called  servants.  Tradition  also  says  that 
he  began  his  London  life  by  holding  horses  at 
the  playhouse  doors,  a  story  which  has  nei- 
ther probability  nor  concurrent  testimony  to 
support  it.  Be  this  as  it  may,  his  rise  to 
eminence  was  rapid ;  though  not  as  an  ac«- 
tor,  for  he  seems  never  to  have  risen  above 
the  position  known  on  the  French  stage  as 
"  general  utility."  We  are  tolerably  well  in- 
formed by  contemporary  writers  as  to  the  per- 
formances of  the  eminent  actors  of  that  time, 
but  of  Shakespeare's  we  read  nothing.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  he  played  the  Ghost  in  his 
own  "Hamlet;"  and  it  is  recorded  by  Oldys 
that  one  of  his  younger  brothers,  who  lived 
to  a  great  age,  when  questioned  in  his  last 
days  about  William,  said  that  he  could  remem- 
ber nothing  of  his  performances  but  seeing 
him  "act  a  part  in  one  of  his  own  comedies, 
wherein,  being  to  personate  a  decrepit  old 
man,  he  wore  a  long  beard,  and  appeared  so 
weak  and  drooping,  and  unable  to  walk,  that 
he  was  forced  to  be  supported  and  carried  by 
another  person  to  a  table,  at  which  he  was 
seated  among  some  company,  and  one  of  them 
sung  a  song."  If  this  story  may  bo  believed, 
we  know  that  Shakespeare  played  Adam  in 
"  As  You  Like  It."  There  is  a  tradition  also 
that  lie  played  kingly  parts,  for  which  his  fine 
person  and  graceful  bearing  fitted  him.  We 
learn  from  Ben  Jonson's  own  edition  of  his 
comedies  (folio,  1616)  that  Shakespeare  played 
a  principal  part  in  "Every  Man  in  his  Hu- 
mour "  when  it  was  first  performed  in  1598, 
and  also  in  "Sejanus"  when  it  was  brought 
out  in  Ifi03 ;  but  what  characters  he  sustained 
in  these  plays  we  do  not  know.  Shakespeare's 
pen  seems  to  have  been  soon  employed,  but 
not  at  first  in  purely  original  composition. 
In  his  time  there  was  an  inordinate  craving 
for  new  plays.  Public  taste  was  rapidly  im- 
proving ;  and  plays  the  subjects  of  which  were 
popular  were  rewritten  again  and  again  to 
meet  the  demands  of  an  advancing  standard  of 
criticism.  Young  lawyers  and  poets  produced 
plays  rapidly.  Each  theatrical  company  not 
only  "kept  a  poet,"  but  had  three  or  four 
in  its  pay;  and  there  was  hardly  a  theatre 
which  could  not  boast  of  as  many  of  its  actors 
who  could  write  as  well  as  act.  There  was  a 
never-ceasing  writing  of  new  plays  and  fur- 
bishing up  of  old  ones.  Two,  three,  and  even 
half  a  dozen  playwrights  were  employed  upon 
one  drama,  when  haste  was  necessary  for  the 
theatre,  or  when  the  junto  needed  money, 
which  was  almost  always.  It  was  upon  this 
field  of  labor  that  Shakespeare  entered;  not 


seeking  from  it  fame,  but  fortune ;  not  conse- 
crating himself  to  literature,  but  working  for 
the  wherewithal  to  return  to  the  Stratford 
which  he  had  left  almost  a  fugitive  to  live  there 
like  a  gentleman,  under  the  very  noses  of  the 
Lucys.  It  has  been  generally  believed  that 
Shakespeare  on  his  arrival  in  London  joined 
at  once  the  company  which  played  at  the 
Blackfriars  theatre,  known  as  the  lord  cham- 
berlain's servants,  and  that  he  wrote  for  no 
other.  But  although  there  is  no  doubt  that 
he  soon  became  engaged  with  that  company, 
and  although  it  is  quite  possible  that  he  never 
played  in  any  other,  there  seems  to  be  reason 
for  believing  that  he  began  his  career  as  a 
dramatist  by  writing  in  company  with  Robert 
Greene  and  Christopher  Marlowe,  who  were 
already  playwrights  of  established  reputation, 
and  who  wrote  chiefly  for  a  company  known 
as  the  earl  of  Pembroke's  servants.  In  con- 
junction with  them  he  appears  to  have  written 
a  part  of  the  "  Taming  of  a  Shrew,"  of  "  The 
First  Part  of  the  Contention  betwixt  the  Two 
Famous  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,"  and 
of  "The  True  Tragedy  of  Richard  Duke  of 
York,"  which  he  afterward  rewrote  alone,  and 
brought  out  as  his  own,  as  "  The  Taming  of 
the  Shrew  "  and  the  second  and  third  parts  of 
"King  Henry  VI."  He  soon  obtained  that 
degree  of  eminence  which  insures  the  enmity 
of  surprised,  eclipsed,  and  envious  contempo- 
raries. The  first  public  notice  of  him  that  has 
yet  been  discovered  is  the  bitter  sneer  of  an 
unworthy,  dying,  disappointed  rival.  Robert 
Greene,  writing  from  the  fitting  deathbed  of 
a  grovelling  debauchee,  warns  three  of  his 
literary  companions  to  shun  intercourse  with 
actors,  whom  ho  styles  "puppits  that  speake 
from  our  mouths,  those  anticks  garnished  in 
our  colours."  He  goes  on  to  eny :  "  Yes,  trust 
them  not:  for  there  is  an  upstart  crow  beauti- 
fied with  our  feathers,  that  with  his  Tygres 
heart  wrapped  in  a  players  hide,  supposes  he 
is  as  well  able  to  bombast  out  a  blanke  verse 
as  the  best  of  you;  and  beeing  an  absolute 
Johannes  Fac-totum,  is,  in  his  own  conceyt, 
the  only  Shake-scene  in  a  countrey."  The 
allusion  here  to  Shakespeare  is  unmistakable ; 
the  words  "  Tygres  heart,"  &c.,  are  slightly 
altered  from  a  line  which  is  found  both  in  the 
"  Third  Part  of  King  Henry  VI."  and  in  "  The 
True  Tragedy;"  and  the  former  play  is  plain- 
ly indicated  aa  one  of  those  in  which  the 
upstart  crow  is  beautified  with  the  feathers 
of  Greene  and  of  the  friends  whom  he  address' 
es,  Marlowe,  Lodge,  and  Peele.  The  letter  in 
which  this  exhortation  occurs  was  published  in 
1592,  shortly  after  th&  writer's  death,  under 
the  direction  of  his  friend  Henry  Chettle.  It 
gave  offence  to  Marlowe  and  Shakespeare,  as 
we  know  from  a  pamphlet  published  by  Chettle 
three  months  after,  in  which  he  says :  "  With 
neither  of  them  that  take  offence  was  I  ac- 
quainted, and  with  one  of  them  [Marlowe]  I 
care  not  if  I  never  be  ;  the  other  [Shakespeare] 
...  I  am  as  sorry  as  if  the  original  fault  had 


SHAKESPEARE 


815 


beene  my  fault,  because  myselfe  have  seene 
his  demeanor  nor  lesse  civill  than  he  exclent 
in  the  qualitie  he  professes;  besides  divers  of 
worship  have  reported  his  uprightnes  of  deal- 
ing which  argues  his  honesty,  and  his  facetious 
grace  in  writting  that  approves  his  art."  Thus 
we  find  Shakespeare  at  the  age  of  28,  only  be- 
tween six  and  seven  years  after  his  departure 
from  Stratford,  in  possession  of  the  regard  of 
his  equals,  the  respect  of  his  superiors,  the 
admiration  of  the  public,  and  the  consequent 
jealous  hate  of  his  inferiors.  From  this  time 
to  the  end  of  his  career  in  London  our  knowl- 
edge of  his  life  is  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  production  of  his  plays  and  poems ; 
and  the  date  at  which  these  were  written  has 
in  most  cases  to  be  inferred  or  conjectured. 
Before  this  time,  in  addition  to  his  share  in 
the  old  plays  already  named,  and  perhaps  some 
others  which  are  lost,  including  an  older  form 
of  "  The  First  Part  of  King  Henry  VI.,"  he 
had  quite  surely  written  "  Titus  Andronicus," 
"Love's  Labor's  Lost,"  "The  Two  Gentlemen 
of  Verona,"  "The  Comedy  of  Errors,"  and 
perhaps  a  part  of  an  early  and  unpublished 
form  of  "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  and  a  part  of 
"  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream."  In  1593  ap- 
peared his  first  published  poem,  "  Venus  and 
Adonis,"  in  which  the  glow  of  youthful  ardor 
is  chilled,  but  not  extinguished,  by  the  cold 
and  elaborate  style  in  which,  in  imitation  of 
the  poets  most  in  vogue  at  that  time,  he,  going 
thus  the  way  of  all  young  authors,  studiously 
wrote.  This  poem  is  filled  with  evidences  of 
an  intimate  knowledge  and  genuine  love  of  na- 
ture, and,  apart  from  the  attractiveness  of  its 
subject,  it  is  not  surprising  that  five  editions 
of  it  were  called  for  within  nine  years.  It  was 
dedicated  to  the  earl  of  Southampton,  who 
loved  literature  and  the  drama,  and  encouraged 
men  of  letters  and  even  players.  It  is  said  that 
the  poet  received  from  him  £1,000  as  a  free 
gift.  As  this  sum  at  that  time  was  equal  to 
about  $30,000  in  America  to-day,  the  amount 
has  probably  been  much  exaggerated,  possibly 
by  the  addition  of  a  cipher.  Rowe,  who  first 
told  this  story,  says  that  Southampton  gave 
the  money  that  Shakespeare  "  might  go  through 
with  a  purchase  which  he  heard  he  had  a  mind 
to;"  and  it  has  been  reasonably  conjectured 
that  this  purchase  was  an  interest  in  the  com- 
pany to  which  Shakespeare  attached  himself 
soon  after  his  arrival  in  London,  and  in  which 
he  became  a  principal  owner.  Mr.  John  Payne 
Collier  produced  in  1835,  as  one  of  several  of  a 
similar  nature  which  he  had  discovered  among 
the  manuscripts  of  the  earl  of  Ellesmere  at 
Bridgewater  house,  a  certificate  dated  "  Nov'r 
18,  1589,"  in  which  Shakespeare's  name  ap- 
pears as  the  12th  in  a  list  of  16  "  sharers  in 
the  Blacke  Fryers  play-house."  This  document 
has  been  pronounced  spurious  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  and  respectable  palseographists 
and  English  scholars  in  England.  If  it  is 
genuine,  and  Shakespeare  was  indebted  to  his 
noble  patron  for  any  share  in  the  company,  the 
736  VOL.  xiv. — 52 


dedication  was  an  acknowledgment  of  the  gift, 
and  not  the  contrary.  In  any  case  we  may  be 
sure  that  the  poem  was  written  some  years  be- 
fore it  was  printed.  In  the  dedication  Shake- 
speare calls  it  "  the  first  heir  of  his  invention," 
and  promises  his  patron  to  take  advantage  of  all 
idle  hours  until  he  has  honored  him  with  some 
graver  labor.  In  1594  Shakespeare  published 
"  Lucrece,"  which  he  also  dedicated  to  South- 
ampton, saying :  "  The  love  I  dedicate  to  your 
lordship  is  without  end.  .  .  .  What  I  have 
done  is  yours ;  what  I  have  to  do  is  yours ; 
being  in  part  all  I  have  devoted  yours."  Be- 
tween 1592  and  1596  he  probably  wrote,  and 
In  this  order,  "  Richard  III.,"  "  All's  Well  that 
Ends  Well "  (which  seems  to  have  been  first 
called  "Love's  Labor's  Won"),  "A  Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream"  in  its  latest  form,  "King 
Richard  II.,"  and  "The  Merchant  of  Venice." 
With  the  two  last  named  plays  begin  the  indi- 
cations of  that  mental  development  of  their 
author  which  has  been  called  "  the  middle  pe- 
riod" of  his  genius.  "King  John,"  the  re- 
written "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "  The  First  and 
Second  Parts  of  King  Henry  IV.,"  "The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  "As  You  Like  It," 
"Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  "King  Henry 
V.,"  "  Twelfth  Night,"  and  "  Hamlet "  (found- 
ed probably  upon  an  older  play)  seem  to  have 
succeeded  each  other  rapidly  from  1596  to 
1600  inclusive.  "The  Second  Part  of  King 
Henry  IV."  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  ex- 
isting presentation  of  his  many-sided  genius. 
It  is  surpassed  in  some  one  respect  by  several 
of  the  comedies  and  tragedies ;  but  in  no  other 
single  play  does  the  supremacy  of  his  powers 
as  poet,  dramatist,  philosopher,  wit,  and  hu- 
morist so  manifestly  appear.  In  this  history 
the  character  of  Falstaff  attains  its  highest 
development.  The  great  tragedies  were  the 
fruit  of  the  first  decade  of  the  17th  century. 
As  several  of  them  were  not  printed  until  the 
publication  of  their  author's  collected  works 
after  his  death,  the  order  of  their  production 
is  not  easily  determinable.  They,  with  two  com- 
edies, were  probably  produced  in  the  following 
order:  "Troilus  and  Cressida,"  "The  Taming 
of  the  Shrew,"  "  Measure  for  Measure,"  "  Othel- 
lo," "King  Lear,"  "Macbeth,"  "Julius  Cae- 
sar," "  Antony  and  Cleopatra,"  "  Coriolanus ;" 
but  the  last  named  tragedy  was  not  improba- 
bly written  after  1610.  "King  Lear,"  the 
grandest  exhibition  of  its  author's  genius,  may 
be  safely  attributed  to  the  year  1605,  when 
Shakespeare  was  40  years  old.  Between  1610 
and  1613  "Cymbeline,"  "Timon  of  Athens," 
"The  Winter's  Tale,"  "The  Tempest,"  and 
"King  Henry  VIII."  were  produced;  and 
about  the  latter  year  Shakespeare  ceased  to 
write.  It  is  remarkable  that  among  his  very 
latest  productions  were  two  plays,  in  one  of 
which,  "  The  Tempest,"  he  preserves  the  uni- 
ties of  time  and  place  with  classic  tenacity, 
while  in  the  other,  "  The  Winter's  Tale,"  he 
sets  them  at  naught  with  a  recklessness  which 
has  no  parallel  even  in  his  pages.  "  Pericles," 


816 


SHAKESPEARE 


published  in  his  lifetime  as  his,  shows  marks 
of  his  latest  style,  which  increase  in  frequency 
toward  its  close ;  it  is  doubtless  the  work  of 
another  hand  which  he  undertook  to  embel- 
lish. Of  "The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen,"  pub- 
lished in  1634  as  by  Fletcher  and  Shakespeare, 
there  can  be  hardly  a  question  that  he  was  in 
part  the  author ;  but  it  was  probably  an  old 
play  to  which  he  made  additions,  and  to  which 
again  Fletcher,  after  Shakespeare's  death,  put 
a  modifying  hand.  In  addition  to  the  works 
which  have  been  enumerated,  he  wrote  "  A 
Lover's  Complaint,"  a  very  charming  amatory 
elegy,  which  bears  the  marks  of  his  style  in 
the  earlier  part  of  his  "  middle  period;"  some 
minor  pieces,  which  were  embodied  in  a  mis- 
cellany called  "The  Passionate  Pilgrim  ;"  and 
his  sonnets.  These  sonnets,  though  deformed 
with  occasional  conceits,  far  surpass  all  other 
poems  of  their  kind  m  our  own  language,  or 
perhaps  in  any  other.  To  whom  they  were 
written,  and  in  whose  person,  is  among  the 
most  difficult  of  unsolved  literary  problems. 
They  were  published  in  1609  with  a  dedication 
by  the  publisher  to  a  "  Mr.  W.  H.,"  whom  he 
styles  their  "onlie  begetter;"  and  who  this 
begetter  was  no  man  has  yet  been  able  satis- 
factorily to  show.  Most  of  them  are  addressed 
in  terms  of  the  warmest  endearment  to  a 
beautiful  young  man ;  many  of  them  reproach, 
in  the  words  of  a  man  who  is  wroth  with  one 
he  loves,  a  beautiful  and  faithless  woman ;  a 
few  belong  to  the  class  called  "  occasional."  It 
has  been  ingeniously  argued  by  Mr.  Boaden 
that  the  gentleman  so  unceremoniously  ad- 
dressed by  a  bookseller  as  Mr.  W.  H.  was  Wil- 
liam Herbert,  earl  of  Pembroke ;  but  Chalmers 
had  almost  as  much  reason  for  his  notion  that 
he  was  Queen  Elizabeth  in  doublet  and  hose. 
Conjecture  upon  this  subject  has  been  various 
and  futile ;  and  it  has  been  reasonably  sup- 
posed, in  the  words  of  the  Rev.  Alexander 
Dyce,  one  of  the  most  accomplished,  learned, 
and  candid  of  Shakespeare's  commentators, 
that  "  most  of  them  were  composed  in  an  as- 
sumed character,  on  different  subjects  and  at 
different  times,  for  the  amusement,  if  not  at 
the  suggestion,  of  the  author's  intimate  asso- 
ciates." This  opinion  as  to  their  origin  is  sus- 
tained by  the  first  quotation  from  Francis 
Meres  given  below.  But  the  sonnets  them- 
selves forbid  us  to  accept  this  theory  as  satis- 
factory.— Meagre  as  this  record  is,  compared 
with  the  eminence  of  its  subject,  we  have 
nearly  approached  the  limits  of  our  knowledge 
of  Shakespeare's  life.  A  century  ago  George 
Steevens  wrote :  "  All  that  is  known  with  any 
degree  of  certainty  concerning  Shakespeare  is, 
that  he  was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon, 
married  and  had  children  there ;  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  commenced  actor,  and  wrote 
poems  and  plays;  returned  to  Stratford,  made 
his  will,  died,  and  was  buried."  The  assidu- 
ous researches  of  100  years  have  discovered 
little  more  than  this.  The  antiquaries  have 
found  his  name  in  a  few  public  documents 


and  private  letters,  telling  of  the  purchase  of 
lands  and  tithes,  the  leasing  of  houses,  and  the 
borrowing  of  money.  The  notion  for  a  long 
time  prevailed,  and  to  a  certain  extent  still 
prevails,  that  Shakespeare  was  unappreciated 
and  neglected  in  his  lifetime,  and  owes  his 
fame  to  the  discovery  of  his  genius  by  his 
posthumous  critics.  The  fact  is  quite  other- 
wise. We  have  seen  what  his  reputation  was 
both  as  an  author  and  a  man  in  1592.  His 
u  Venus  and  Adonis,"  published  in  the  next 
year,  had  run  through  five  editions  by  1602. 
Both  it  and  "  Lucrece  "  are  highly  extolled  by 
contemporary  writers.  Spenser  alludes  to  him 
in  "  Colin  Clout,"  written  in  1594,  as  one 

Whoso  muse,  full  of  high  thought's  invention, 
Doth  like  limit-rift-  heroically  sound. 

Francis  Meres,  in  his  "Palladis  Tamia"  (1598), 
said  that  "  the  sweete  wittie  soul  of  Ovid  lives 
in  mellifluous  and honey-tongued  Shakespeare; 
witness  his  'Venus  and  Adonis,'  his  'Lucrece,' 
his  sugred  sonnets  among  his  private  friends." 
"As  Plautus  and  Seneca  are  accounted  the 
best  for  comedy  and  tragedy  among  the  La- 
tines,  so  Shakespeare  among  the  English  is  the 
most  excellent  in  both  kinds  for  the  stage." 
And  this  was  before  his  greatest  works  were 
written.  Meres  adds :  "  As  Epius  Stolo  said 
that  the  Muses  would  speake  with  Plautus' 
tongue,  if  they  would  speake  Latin,  so  I  say 
that  the  Muses  would  speake  with  Shake- 
speare's fine  filed  phrase  if  they  would  speake 
English."  We  know,  too,  that  his  plays  were 
as  attractive  to  the  public  as  they  were  satis- 
factory to  those  critics  who  were  not  his  ri- 
vals. Leonard  Digges,  born  in  1588,  tells  us, 
in  verses  not  published  till  1640,  that  when  the 
audience  saw  Shakespeare's  plays  they  were 
ravished  and  went  away  in  wonder;  and  that, 
although  Ben  Jonson  was  admired,  yet  when 
his  best  plays  would  hardly  bring  enough  money 
to  pay  for  a  sea-coal  fire,  Shakespeare's  would 
fill  "  cock-pit,  galleries,  boxes,"  and  scarce  leave 
standing  room.  Wealth  was  the  sure  result  of 
such  success ;  and  so  we  find  that  as  early  as 
1597  he  had  bought  a  fine  mansion  in  his  native 
town,  built  originally  by  Sir  Hugh  Clopton  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  known  as  "the 
great  house,"  and  afterward  as  New  Place. 
It  was  the  largest  and  best  house  in  Stratford, 
and  as  such,  when  in  the  possession  of  Shake- 
speare's granddaughter,  Mrs.  Nash,  afterward 
Lady  Barnard,  was  occupied  by  Queen  Henri- 
etta Maria  in  1643,  during  the  civil  war.  In 
1597,  also,  Shakespeare  opened  a  negotiation 
for  the  purchase  of  a  part  of  the  lease  of  the 
tithes  of  Stratford,  which  however  was  not 
perfected  for  some  years,  when  he  invested  a 
sum  equal  to  about  $13,000  in  this  public  se- 
curity. He  otherwise  increased  in  substance, 
and,  like  his  own  "Justice  Shallow,"  had 
"land  and  beeves."  In  1596  John  Shake- 
speare obtained  from  the  heralds'  college  a 
"  confirmation  "  of  an  alleged  previous  grant 
of  arms,  in  which  confirmation  it  is  said  that 


SHAKESPEARE 


817 


the  grantee's  "parents  and  late  antecessors" 
"were  for  their  valiant  and  faithful  services 
advanced  and  rewarded  of  the  most  prudent 
prince  Henry  the  Seventh."  But  no  record  of 
such  advancement,  or  of  the  original  grant  of 
arms,  has  been  discovered ;  and  as  these  alle- 
gations were  true  of  William  Shakespeare's 
"  antecessors  "  on  the  mother's  side,  it  has  been 
reasonably  conjectured  that  the  "  confirma- 
tion "  of  arms  was  applied  for  by  John  Shake- 
speare at  his  son's  instance,  and  procured  by 
his  influence.  Tradition  tells  us  that  Shake- 
speare's memory  clung  to  Stratford  in  the 
midst  of  his  metropolitan  triumphs  and  suc- 
cesses, and  that  he  visited  his  family  once  a 
year.  His  townsmen  respected  and  looked  up 
to  him,  and  in  some  cases  leaned  confidently 
upon  his  good  offices  in  the  way  of  influence 
and  the  advancement  of  money.  We  know 
nothing  of  his  intercourse  with  actors  and 
men  of  letters  in  London,  save  that  he  won 
gruff  Ben  Jonson  to  say  in  his  "Discover- 
ies:" "I  loved  the  man,  and  do  honor  his 
memory  on  this  side  idolatry  as  much  as  any." 
And  indeed,  according  to  the  tradition  fur- 
nished by  Betterton  to  Rowe,  Jonson  was  in- 
debted to  Shakespeare  for  the  reception  and 
performance  of  his  first  play  at  the  Blackfriars 
theatre.  It  had  been  tossed  aside  as  the  pro- 
duction of  an  unknown  writer,  when  Shake- 
speare read,  admired,  and  recommended  it. 
Fuller  says  in  his  "  Worthies "  that  the  two 
friends  had  many  "  wit  combats  "  together,  in 
which  he  compares  Jonson  to  "  a  Spanish  great 
galleon,"  "  solid  but  slow  in  his  performances," 
and  Shakespeare  to  an  "  English  man-of-war, 
lesser  in  bulk  but  lighter  in  sailing."  It  has 
been  supposed  that  these  encounters  took  place 
at  the  Mermaid  tavern,  where  a  club  met  which 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  had  founded,  and  of  which 
Jonson,  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  Selden,  Donne, 
and  others  of  their  sort  were  members.  There 
is  no  evidence  whatever  to  show  that  Shake- 
speare ever  met  with  this  club' ;  but  it  is  ex- 
tremely improbable  that  he  was  not  a  member 
of  it.  There  is  a  tradition  that  King  James 
was  so  much  his  admirer  that  he  wrote  him 
"  an  amicable  letter  "  in  autograph.  It  is  not 
very  improbable  that  James  should  have  done 
so ;  and  there  is  evidence  of  some  weight  to 
show  that  the  letter  was  in  the  possession  of 
Sir  William  Davenant,  although  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  last  century  it  had  been  lost. — 
Shakespeare  is  supposed  to  have  abandoned 
the  stage  about  1604,  and  to  have  returned  to 
Stratford  to  live  at  some  time  between  1610 
and  1613.  No  record  or  noteworthy  tradition 
of  any  event  of  importance  or  interest  in  this 
part  of  his  Stratford  life  has  reached  us.  Rowe 
says  that  he  spent  it  "  in  ease,  retirement,  and 
the  conversation  of  his  friends,"  who  were 
"the  gentlemen  of  the  neighborhood."  We 
have  no  account  of  the  manner  of  his  death 
except  the  following  entry  in  the  diary  of  the 
Rev.  John  Ward,  who  was  appointed  vicar  of 
Stratford  in  1662,  nearly  50  years  after  the 


event  to  which  it  relates :  "  Shakespeare, 
Drayton,  and  Ben  Jonson  had  a  merie  meet- 
ing, and  it  seems  drank  too  hard,  for  Shake- 
speare died  of  a  feavour  there  contracted."  It 
is  not  impossible  that  this  piece  of  gossiping 
tradition  is  true.  Shakespeare  was  buried  on 
the  second  day  after  his  death,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  chancel  of  Stratford  church.  Over 
his  grave  there  is  a  flat  stone  with  this  inscrip- 
tion, said  to  have  been  written  by  himself : 

Good  frend  for  lesus  sake  forbears 
To  dig-g  the  dust  encloased  heare : 
Blest  be  y«  man  y'  spares  thes  stones, 
And  curst  be  he  y'  moves  my  bones. 

By  whomsoever  these  lines  were  written,  they 
have  happily  been  effectual  in  keeping  at  Strat- 
ford what  might  otherwise  have  been  carried 
to  Westminster.  Against  the  north  wall  of  the 
chancel  is  a  monument  which  was  erected  be- 
fore 1623,  and  in  which  the  poet's  bust  appears 
under  an  arch ;  his  right  hand  holds  a  pen,  and 
he  appears  to  be  in  the  act  of  writing  upon  a 
sheet  of  paper  placed  on  a  cushion  before  him. 
This  bust,  which  is  of  life-size,  was  originally 
colored  after  nature.  The  eyes  were  of  light 
hazel,  the  hair  and  beard  auburn.  The  same 
Rev.  Mr.  Davies  who  records  his  "  unluckinesse 
in  stealing  venison  and  rabbits,"  also  writes 
that  he  died  a  papist;  but,  considering  the 
extreme  puritanical  notions  then  prevalent,  a 
very  moderate  degree  of  high  churchmanship 
would  be  likely  to  be  stigmatized  among  the 
people  as  papistry,  especially  in  an  actor.  His 
works  are  imbued  with  a  high  and  heartfelt 
appreciation  of  the  vital  truths  of  Christianity, 
without  leaning  toward  any  form  of  religious 
observance  or  of  church  government,  or  any 
theological  tenet  or  dogma.  His  character 
seems  to  have  been  one  of  singular  complete- 
ness, and  of  perfect  balance.  An  actor  at  a 
time  when  actors  were  held  in  the  lowest  pos- 
sible esteem,  he  won  respect  and  consideration 
from  those  who  held  the  highest  rank  and  sta- 
tion ;  a  poet,  he  was  yet  not  only  thrifty  but 
provident.  Surpassing  all  his  rivals  among  his 
social  equals,  he  was,  after  the  recoil  of  the 
first  surprise,  loved  by  all  of  them.  " Sweet" 
and  "  gentle  "  are  the  endearing  epithets  which 
they  delighted  to  apply  to  him.  His  integ- 
rity was  early  noticed,  as  has  already  been 
remarked;  and  Jonson,  in  his  "Discoveries," 
says  he  was  "indeed  honest,  and  of  an  open 
and  free  nature."  In  person  he  appears  to 
have  been  no  less  agreeable  than  in  mind. 
Aubrey  heard  that  he  was  "  a  handsome,  well 
shapt  man."  With  this  report  the  bust  at 
Stratford,  and  the  portrait  engraved  by  Droes- 
hout  for  the  first  collected  edition  of  his  works, 
agree.  They  are  the  only  existing  authentic 
portraits  of  him  ;  and  hard  and  poorly  drawn 
as  the  latter  is,  there  is  a  conformity  between 
the  two  which  sustains  the  authenticity  of  both. 
Both  show  a  somewhat  unusual  length  of  up- 
per lip ;  otherwise  the  features  are  remarkably 
well  shaped  and  proportioned,  and  the  head  i 


818 


SHAKESPEARE 


large  and  symmetrical.  Many  other  portraits, 
some  on  canvas,  two  in  bust  form,  and  even 
lately  one  in  the  shape  of  a  plaster  mask,  have 
been  brought  forward  as  representations  of 
Shakespeare  ;  but,  whatever  their  pretensions, 
all  of  them  fail  just  where  the  pedigree  of  the 
so-called  Ohandos  portrait  fails,  in  a  direct 
connection  with  the  poet. — Such  brief  criticism 
as  could  be  here  passed  upon  his  works  would 
be  superfluous,  almost  impertinent.  By  the 
voice  of  the  whole  civilized  world  his  name 
is  "the  first  in  all  literature ;"  in  imagination, 
in  fancy,  in  knowledge  of  man,  in  wisdom,  in 
wit,  in  humor,  in  pathos,  in  strength,  in  versa- 
tility, in  felicity  of  language,  in  the  music  of 
his  verse,  and  in  that  mysterious  power  which 
fuses  all  these  separate  powers  into  one,  and 
makes  them  a  single  means  to  a  single  end, 
he  stands  unapproached,  and  seemingly  unap- 
proachable. According  to  the  custom  of  his 
time,  his  dramas  were  founded  upon  others, 
the  subjects  of  which  were  favorites  with 
the  public,  or  upon  popular  tales,  or  passages 
in  history.  But  in  the  interweaving  of  two 
stories  into  one  plot  (as  in  "  The  Merchant 
of  Venice  "),  and  in  the  elaboration  of  a  bald 
and  barren  subject,  he  exhibited  a  constructive 
faculty  not  inferior  to  his  other  gifts.  He  did 
not  hesitate  to  avail  himself  of  the  very  lan- 
guage of  the  chronicler  or  novelist  to  whom 
he  went  for  incidents ;  but  in  passing  through 
his  mind  it  was  transformed  from  perishable 
prose  into  imperishable  poetry.  His  chief  ex- 
cellence is  in  the  unity  and  consistent  action 
of  his  characters.  He  gave  each  one  an  indi- 
vidual soul;  they  speak  their  own  thoughts 
and  feelings,  not  his.  In  this  respect  his  pow- 
er seems  almost  supernatural. — Unlike  Dante, 
unlike  Milton,  unlike  Goethe,  unlike  the  great 
poets  and  tragedians  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
Shakespeare  left  no  trace  upon  the  political 
or  even  the  social  life  of  his  era.  Among  his 
contemporaries  and  countrymen  were  Raleigh, 
Sidney,  Spenser,  Bacon,  Coke,  Oamden,  Ce- 
cil, Hooker,  Drake,  and  Inigo  Jones ;  and  yet 
there  is  no  evidence,  even  traditionary,  that 
he  had  any  acquaintance  with  either  of  these 
men,  or  with  any  others  of  less  note  among 
the  statesmen,  scholars,  soldiers,  or  artists  of 
his  day.  In  making  his  will  Shakespeare  left 
his  wife  (who  survived  him  seven  years),  by 
an  interlined  bequest,  only  his  "  second  best 
bed  with  the  furniture."  This  looks  like  a 
slight ;  but  his  wife  was  amply  provided  for 
by  her  dower  right,  and  the  knowledge  of  this 
might  very  probably  cause  him  to  pass  over 
her  at  first  unnamed.  Yet  in  a  will  containing 
so  many  small  bequests,  the  interlineation  of  a 
wife's  name  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  evidence 
of  some  lack  of  consideration.  His  family  be- 
came extinct  in  the  third  generation.  His  son 
Hamnet  died  in  1596  at  the  age  of  11  years. 
His  elder  daughter  married  a  physician,  Dr. 
John  Hall,  to  whom  she  bore  one  daughter, 
who  married  Thomas  Nash,  and  after  his  eleath 
Sir  John  Barnard,  and  died  childless  (1670). 


His  second  daughter,  Judith,  married  Thomas 
Quiney,  and  had  three  children,  who  all  died 
without  issue.  Upon  the  death  of  Lady  Bar- 
nard, New  Place  was  sold.  It  passed  again 
into  the  hands  of  a  Sir  Hugh  Clopton,  and 
finally  became  the  property  of  the  Rev.  Fran- 
cis Gastrell,  who  in  1759,  having  quarrelled 
with  the  town  magistrates  about  assessments, 
razed  the  building  to  the  ground,  after  having 
in  1756  cut  down  the  mulberry  tree  planted  by 
Shakespeare,  because  he  was  annoyed  by  the 
pilgrims  who  came  to  visit  it.  The  house  in 
Henley  street  has  at  last  been  purchased  by  an 
association  which  has  had  it  restored  as  far  as 
possible,  and  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  proper 
keepers. — Of  Shakespeare's  87  plays,  17  were 
printed  separately  in  quartos,  in  almost  every 
instance,  it  would  appear,  without  his  coop- 
eration, and  in  many  instances  from  copies 
surreptitiously  obtained.  The  text  of  most  of 
these  quarto  copies  is  very  corrupt  and  imper- 
fect. In  1623  two  of  his  fellow  actors,  John 
Heminge  and  Henry  Condell,  superintended 
the  publication  of  the  first  collected  edition 
of  his  "  Comedies,  Histories,  and  Tragedies," 
from  which  however  "Pericles"  was  omitted. 
This  volume,  known  as  the  first  folio,  contains 
the  only  authentic  text  of  Shakespeare's  plays. 
But  its  authority  is  grievously  impaired  by  the 
careless  manner  in  which  it  was  printed,  and 
by  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  it  was  put  in 
type  from  the  surreptitious  and  imperfect  quar- 
tos which  it  was  intended  to  supersede,  and 
the  errors  of  which  it  not  infrequently  perpet- 
uates ;  but  it  corrects  vastly  more  errors  than 
it  makes  and  repeats,  and  it  supplies  serious 
deficiencies,  although  it  leaves  some  to  be  sup- 
plied. Plainly,  too,  most  of  the  quarto  copies 
from  which  it  was  printed  had  been  used  as 
stage  copies  by  Shakespeare's  company,  and 
thus  received  many  corrections  which  were  at 
least  quasi  authoritative.  Of  the  text  of  20 
of  the  plays  it  is  the  only  source.  In  1632  a 
second  edition  of  the  collected  plays  appeared. 
It  corrected  the  text  of  its  predecessor  in  a  few 
passages,  corrupted  it  in  many,  and  modernized 
it  in  some.  It  is  of  no  authority.  A  third 
edition  appeared  in  1664  (some  copies  are  dated 
1668),  which  is  chiefly  noticeable  from  its  con- 
taining "Pericles"  (as  to  which  see  above), 
and  six  spurious  plays  attributed  to  Shake- 
speare by  booksellers  in  his  lifetime,  but  re- 
jected by  his  friends  and  fellow  actors  :  "  The 
London  Prodigal,"  "  Thomas  Lord  Cromwell," 
"  Sir  John  Oldcastle,"  "  The  Puritan  Widow," 
"A  Yorkshire  Tragedy,"  and  "Locrine."  A 
fourth  folio  was  published  in  1685.  Original 
copies  of  the  folio  of  1623  are  eagerly  sought 
at  very  high  prices  by  Shakespearian  students 
and  collectors.  They  are  rare,  and  the  condi- 
tion and  recent  history  of  each  one  is  known 
and  recorded.  The  last  three  sales  (down  to 
1875)  of  fine  copies  were  for  £525,  £585,  and 
£716  respectively..  But  even  these  were  not 
absolutely  perfect  according  to  bibliographic 
standard.  Should  a  copy  be  found  in  that 


SHAKESPEARE 


819 


condition,  it  would  probably  fetch  not  less 
than  £1,000.  The  folio  of  1623  was  reprint- 
ed with  a  tolerable  approach  to  accuracy  in 
London  in  1808 ;  a  very  beautiful  reprint,  in 
which  no  errors  have  been  detected,  was  put 
forth  by  Lionel  Booth  (London,  1862-'4) ;  and 
a  photo-zincographic  facsimile,  made  under 
the  care  of  Mr.  Howard  Staunton,  appeared  in 
1865.  The  quartos  have  also  been  reissued  in 
facsimile  at  various  dates  under  the  care  of 
Mr.  J.  O.  Halliwell ;  and  the  two  remarkable 
quartos  of  "  Hamlet"  (1603  and  1604),  in  the 
possession  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  were 
reprinted  together  on  parallel  pages,  as  "  The 
Devonshire  Hamlets "  (London,  1860),  edited 
by  Mr.  Samuel  Timmins.  Justin  Winsor,  su- 
perintendent of  the  Boston  public  library,  has 
published  "Bibliography  of  the  original  Quar- 
tos and  Folios  of  Shakespeare,  with  particular 
reference  to  Copies  in  America,  with  62  He- 
liotype  Facsimiles  "  (Boston,  1875).— The  text 
of  Shakespeare's  works,  excepting  his  poems, 
was  left  in  so  corrupt  a  state  by  the  early 
printers,  that,  the  author's  manuscripts  hav- 
ing perished,  it  needed  much  editorial  care  to 
bring  it  even  into  a  tolerably  sound  condition. 
This  subject  has  engaged  the  attention  of  crit- 
ics and  scholars  for  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half,  and  has  produced  a  literature  in  which 
much  learning,  ingenuity,  and  philological  and 
even  philosophical  speculation  are  mingled 
with  ignorance,  stupidity,  frivolity,  and  bad 
temper.  "When  to  the  works  of  the  editors  and 
textual  critics  are  added  those  of  the  philo- 
sophical and  the  exegetical,  and  the  illustra- 
tors, we  have  a  library  in  itself.  The  best  in- 
dex to  Shakespearian  literature  yet  published 
is  that  of  Franz  Thimm  (12mo,  London,  1865  ; 
2d  ed.,  1872),  which  has  superseded  that  of  P. 
H.  Sillig  (8vo,  Leipsic,  1854) ;  but  the  former 
is  often  incorrect,  and  is  imperfect  even  up 
to  its  date ;  while  that  published  by  J.  O.  Hal- 
liwell (London,  1841)  is  very  incomplete.  A 
nearly  perfect  and  generally  correct  catalogue 
of  Shakespeariana  is  to  be  found  in  Bohn's  edi- 
tion of  Lowndes's  "Bibliographer's  Manual" 
(London,  1864)  ;  but  it  is  badly  arranged,  and 
deformed  by  many  important  errors  in  names, 
dates,  and  titles.  A  complete  and  accurate 
critical  catalogue  of  Shakespeariana  is  still  a 
desideratum. — The  editions  of  Shakespeare's 
works  which,  for  their  text  or  comments,  are 
worthy  of  notice  are  :  Nicholas  Kowe's  (7  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1709),  the  first  in  which  the  text 
was  submitted  to  collation  and  revision ;  Alex- 
ander Pope's  (6  vols.  4to,  1725),  probably  the 
worst  ever  published ;  Lewis  Theobald's  (7 
vols.  8vo,  1733),  in  which  a  great  advance  was 
made  in  the  rectification  of  the  text;  Sir 
Thomas  Hanmer's  (6  vols.  4to,  Oxford,  1744)  ; 
Bishop  Warburton's  (8  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1747) ;  Dr.  Johnson's  (8  vols.  8vo,  1765),  the 
value  of  which  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 
reputation  of  its  editor ;  Edward  Capell's  (10 
vols.  8vo,  1767),  most  laboriously  and  care- 
fully edited,  but  with  little  judgment  or  taste ; 


Johnson's  edition  with  additional  notes  by 
George  Steevens  (11  vols.  8vo,  1773);  the 
same  with  additional  notes  by  Isaac  Reed  (16 
vols.  8vo,  1793) ;  Edmund  Malone's  edition,  a 
most  important  one  (11  vols.  8vo,  1790)  ;  Isaac 
Reed's,  an  enlargement  of  that  of  1793,  with 
the  notes  and  readings  of  various  commenta- 
tors, commonly  called  the  first  variorum  (21 
vols.,  1813) ;  Malone's  second  edition,  com- 
pleted and  superintended  after  his  death  by 
James  Boswell,  jr.  (21  vols.,  1821),  "the"  va- 
riorum ;  Samuel  Weller  Singer's  (10  vols.  fcp. 
8vo,  Cm'swick,  1826),  an  edition  marked  by 
all  the  traits  of  the  critical  school  of  the  last 
century,  but  very  popular  from  its  beauty  of 
typography  and  its  judicious  selections  from 
the  notes  of  previous  editors.  Much  had  thus 
far  been  done  to  correct  and  illustrate  the  text 
of  Shakespeare ;  but  it  had  suffered  almost 
as  much  from  the  presumption,  the  perverse- 
ness,  and  the  narrow  precision  of  his  editors 
and  commentators,  as  it  had  profited  by  their 
laborious  investigation  of  the  literature  and 
the  manners  of  his  time.  The  critical  spirit 
of  the  last  century  was  narrow  and  oppressed 
with  deference  to  classical  models.  The  au- 
thoritative position  of  the  first  folio  was  little 
regarded,  and  its  readings  were  set  aside  with- 
out cause  as  well  as  with  cause,  at  the  caprice 
of  the  editor.  But  the  minds  of  men  had  come 
more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  Shake- 
speare's genius.  It  was  found  that  he  was  not 
to  be  judged  by  the  standards  of  the  schools, 
but  that  he  was  a  law  unto  himself.  During 
the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century  there 
!  was  a  growing  dissatisfaction  with  the  re- 
sults of  the  editorial  labor  of  the  last  upon  the 
works  of  Shakespeare.  The  result  was  a  new 
school  of  commentators  and  new  editions  of 
the  plays.  First  in  point  of  time,  and  most  near- 
ly absolute  in  deference  to  the  first  folio,  was 
the  pictorial  edition  of  Mr.  Charles  Knight  (8 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1839-'41 ;  revised  ed.,  1867). 
This  was  the  extreme  recoil  of  the  pendulum. 
It  was  immediately  followed  by  the  edition  of 
Mr.  John  Payne  Collier  (8  vols.  8vo,  1841-'4). 
Mr.  Collier  worked  in  the  spirit  of  an  antiquary 
rather  than  a  critic,  and  made  much  of  readings 
derived  from  the  rarest  and  most  inaccessible 
quarters.  He  opposed  conjectural  emendation 
with  a  bigotry  which  rivalled  Mr.  Knight's 
Quixotic  championship  of  the  first  folio,  and 
often  set  reason  at  naught  in  favor  of  ' '  the 
oldest  authority."  A  judicious  eclectic  use 
was  made  of  the  labors  of  Mr.  Knight  and  Mr. 
Collier  by  Gulian  C.  Verplanck,  who  prepared 
an  edition  (3  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1847),  to 
which  he  contributed  a  large  amount  of  origi- 
nal matter  distinguished  for  soundness  of  judg- 
ment and  elegance  of  taste.  An  edition  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.^H.  .N. 
Hudson  (11  vols.  12mo,  Boston,  1850- 
noticeable  chiefly  for  the  true  appreciation, 
subtle  thought,  and  manly  vigorous  style  of  tb< 
essays  introductory  to  each  play.  In  ll 
J.  O.  Halliwell  began  the  publication  of  a  stu- 


820 


SHAKESPEARE 


pendous  edition,  in  20  vols.  folio,  which  was 
intended  to  present  all  of  interest  that  has 
been  discovered  or  written  for  the  illustration 
of  Shakespeare  down  to  the  present  day.  This 
great  undertaking  was  several  years  in  attain- 
ing a  completion  which  fell  somewhat  short 
of  the  editor's  expectations.  Mr.  Halliwell  has 
not  done  much  for  the  correction  of  the  text ; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Mr.  Howard  Staunton's 
pictorial  edition,  in  which  much  of  Mr.  Knight's 
matter  has  been  used.  One  of  the  most  judi- 
cious editions  ever  published  is  that  of  the 
Rev.  Alexander  Dyce  (6  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1850-'58),  of  which  a  second  edition  (9  vols. 
8vo,  1864-'7)  and  a  third  (1875)  have  appeared, 
the  last  being  posthumous,  and  each  showing 
many  and  noticeable  changes  from  the  text 
of  its  predecessor.  The  edition  of  Mrs.  Mary 
Cowden  Clarke  (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1860) 
gives  the  text  very  carefully  and  judiciously. 
In  his  revisions  Mr.  Dyce  availed  himself  large- 
ly of  the  next  edition  of  the  poet's  works,  pre- 
pared from  a  new  recension  and  collation  of 
the  text,  that  of  Mr.  R.  Grant  White  (12  vols. 
crown  8vo,  Boston,  1857-'62),  which  seeks  to 
present  the  reader  with  all  that  is  necessary 
to  a  critical  study  of  the  poet,  and  which  is 
distinguished  by  its  numerous  and  successful 
restorations  of  corrupted  passages.  The  last 
complete  edition  of  importance  is  that  of  Cam- 
bridge, edited  by  W.  G.  Clark  and  W.  Aldis 
Wright  (9  vols.  8vo,  London  and  Cambridge, 
1863-' 6),  which  gives  all  the  readings  of  all 
the  folios  and  all  the  quartos,  and  of  all  the  edi- 
tors, and  the  suggestions  and  conjectures  of  all 
the  commentators  whose  labors  are  generally 
deemed  worthy  of  consideration.  In  1871  Mr. 
Horace  Howard  Furness  began  the  publica- 
tion of  a  great  variorum  edition,  intended  to 
include  everything  essential  or  even  important 
as  to  its  subject.  The  plays  which  have  ap- 
peared, "  Romeo  and  Juliet "  and  "  Macbeth," 
have  been  received  with  marked  approval  by 
Shakespearian  scholars. — Of  the  books  writ- 
ten upon  Shakespeare's  life,  text,  and  genius, 
forming  a  mass  of  which  a  very  imperfect 
record  of  the  mere  titles  fills  89  octavo  pages 
in  Sillig's  book,  mentioned  above,  only  a  few 
of  the  most  noteworthy  can  be  indicated  here. 
"A  short  View  of  Tragedy;  its  original  Ex- 
Oillency,  and  Corruption,  with  some  Reflec- 
tions on  Shakespeare  and  other  Practition- 
ers for  the  Stage,"  by  Thomas  Rymer  (8vo, 
London,  1693),  is  noticeable  only  as  being  the 
first  book  on  this  subject.  But  Dryden  in  his 
"Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy"  (1668),  and  in  the 
prefaces  to  "The  Tempest"  (1670)  and  "Troi- 
lus  and  Cressida"  (1679),  and  the  defence  of 
the  epilogue  to  "The  Conquest  of  Granada" 
(1672),  and  Langbaine  in  his  "Account  of  the 
English  Dramatic  Poets"  (1691),  had  previ- 
ously criticised  Shakespeare's  plays,  the  for- 
mer very  elaborately.  Of  subsequent  critical 
works  these  are  worthy  of  particular  remark : 
"  Shakespeare  Restored,  or  Specimens  of  Blun- 
ders committed  and  unamended  in  Pope's  Edi- 


'  tion  of  this  Poet,"  by  Lewis  Theobald  (4to, 
London,  1726);  "Miscellaneous  Observations 
on  the  Tragedy  of  Macbeth,  with  Remarks  on 
Sir  T[homas]  H[anmer's]  Edition  of  Shake- 
speare ;  to  which  is  affixed  Proposals  for  a  new 
Edition  of  Shakespeare  with  a  Specimen,"  by 
Samuel  Johnson  (12mo,  London,  1745);  "Crit- 
ical Observations  on  Shakespeare,"  by  John 
Upton  (8vo,  London,  1746  and  1748);  "The 
Canons  of  Criticism,"  by  Thomas  Edwards 
(London,  1748,  and,  with  additions,  1765);  "A 
Revisal  of  Shakespeare's  Text,"  by  Benjamin 
Heath  (8vo,  London,  1765);  "Twenty  of  the 
Plays  of  Shakespeare,  being  the  whole  num- 
ber printed  in  Quarto  during  his  Lifetime,  or 
before  the  Restoration ;  collated  where  there 
were  different  copies,  and  published  from  the 
originals,"  by  George  Steevens  (4  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1766);  "An  Essay  on  the  Learning 
of  Shakespeare,"  by  Richard  Farmer,  D.  D. 
(8vo,  London,  1767,  and,  greatly  enlarged, 
Cambridge,  1767) ;  "  Notes  and  Various  Read- 
ings of  Shakespeare,"  by  Edward  Capell  (4to, 
London,  1775,  and,  with  important  additions 
and  "  The  School  of  Shakespeare,"  8  vote. 
4to,  1783) ;  "  Six  Old  Plays  on  which  Shake- 
speare founded  '  Measure  for  Measure,'  '  Com- 
edy of  Errors,'  '  Taming  the  Shrew,'  '  King 
John,'  'King  Henry  IV.,'  'King  Henry  V./ 
and  'King  Lear'"  (2  vols.  12mo,  London, 
1779);  "Comments  on  the  Last  Edition  of 
Shakespeare's  Plays,"  by  John  Monck  Mason 
(8vo,  Dublin,  1785);  "A  Dissertation  on  the 
Three  Parts  of  Henry  VI.,"  by  Edmond  Ma- 
lone  (London,  1792) ;  "  A  Specimen  of  a  Com- 
mentary on  Shakespeare,  containing :  1st, 
Notes  on  'As  You  Like  It;'  2dly,  An  At- 
tempt to  explain  and  illustrate  various  Pas- 
sages on  a  new  Principle  of  Criticism  derived 
from  Mr.  Locke's  Doctrine  of  the  Association 
of  Ideas,"  by  Walter  Whiter  (8vo,  London, 
1794);  "An  Apology  for  the  Believers  in  the 
Shakespeare  Papers  which  were  exhibited  in 
Norfolk  Street,  London,"  by  George  Chalmers 
(8vo,  London,  1797),  and  "  A  Supplemental 
Apology  for  the  Believers  in  the  Shakespeare 
Papers"  (1799;  these  volumes,  with  "An  Ap- 
pendix" published  in  1800,  in  spite  of  the 
speciality  of  their  titles,  are  filled  with  gen- 
eral comment  and  the  results  of  careful  inves- 
tigation); "Illustrations  of  Shakespeare  and 
of  Ancient  Manners,"  &c.,  by  Francis  D6uce 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1807);  "Characters  of 
Shakespeare's  Plays,"  by  William  Hazlitt  (Lon- 
don, 1817)  ;  Vorlesungen  uber  dramatische 
Kunst  und  Literatur,  by  August  Wilhelm  von 
Schlegel  (3  vols.  8vo,  Heidelberg,  1817;  trans- 
lated by  J.  Black,  London,  1818);  "Shake- 
speare and  his  Times,"  by  Nathan  Drake,  M.  D. 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1817);  "A  Glossary,  or 
a  Collection  of  Words,  Phrases,  Names,  and 
Allusions  to  Customs,  Proverbs,  &c.,  which 
have  been  thought  to  require  Illustration  in 
the  Works  of  English  Authors,  particularly 
Shakespeare  and  his  Contemporaries,"  by 
Archdeacon  Nares  (4to,  London,  1822;  and 


SHAKESPEARE 


821 


edited  by  J.  O.  Halliwell  and  Thomas  Wright, 
2  vols.  8vo,  1859),  a  learned  and  accurate 
work ;  Shakespeare's  Vorschule,  edited,  and 
accompanied  with  prefaces,  by  Ludwig  Tieck 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1823  and  1829);  "New 
Facts  regarding  the  life  of  Shakespeare,"  by 
J.  P.  Collier  (8vo,  London,  1835) ;  "  New  Par- 
ticulars regarding  the  Works  of  Shakespeare," 
by  the  same  (8vo,  London,  1836) ;  "  On-  the 
Sonnets  of  Shakespeare,  identifying  the  Per- 
sons to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and  elucida- 
ting several  points  in  the  Poet's  History," 
by  James  Boaden  (8vo,  London,  1837) ;  Ueber 
Shakespeare's  dramatische  Kunst  und  sein  Ver- 
hdltniss  zu  Calderon  und  Goethe,  by  H.  Ulrici 
(8vo,  Halle,  1839;  translated,  8vo,  London, 
1846);  "  Shakespeare's  Library,  a  Collection  of 
the  Stories,  Novels,  and  Tales  used  by  Shake- 
speare as  the  Foundation  of  his  Plays,"  edited 
by  J.  P.  Collier  (8vo,  London,  1840-'41 ;  new 
and  enlarged  ed.,  by  W.  Carew  Hazlitt,  1875) ; 
"Remarks  on  Mr.  J.  P.  Collier's  and  Mr. 
Charles  Knight's  Editions  of  Shakespeare,"  by 
the  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce  (8vo,  London,  1844) ; 
G.  G.  Gervinus,  Shakspeare  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1849-'50) ;  Shakspeare  et  son  temps,  etude  lit- 
teraire,  by  Guizot  (8vo,  Paris,  1852);  "The 
English  of  Shakespeare,"  by  George  L.  Craik 
(12mo,  London,  1857)  ;  "  A  Critical  Examina- 
tion of  the  Text  of  Shakespeare,"  by  William 
Sidney  Walker  (3  vols.  16mo,  London,  1860). 
Mrs.  Mary  Cowden  Cfarke's  "Complete  Con- 
cordance "  or  verbal  index  to  the  dramatic 
works  of  Shakespeare,  the  product  of  almost 
incredible  labor  and  patience,  appeared  in 
1846,  and  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  critical 
study  of  the  poet.  The  multitudinous  publi- 
cations of  the  Shakespeare  society  of  London 
contain,  among  much  that  is  either  trivial  or 
mere  antiquarian  rubbish,  many  volumes  of 
valuable  and  well  edited  reprints  of  scarce  old 
plays,  of  dramatic  history,  and  of  critical  sug- 
gestions for  the  improvement  of  the  text  of 
Shakespeare.  The  "New  Shakespeare  Soci- 
ety" was  established  at  London  in  1874,  under 
the  directorship  and  chiefly  by  the  exertions 
of  the  distinguished  English  scholar  Frederick 
J.  Furnivall.  Its  purposes  and  its  publications 
thus  far  are  more  critical  than  those  of  the 
elder  and  extinct  society. — Eminent  among 
the  philosophical  critics  of  Shakespeare  is  Sam- 
uel Taylor  Coleridge,  who  by  his  lectures  and 
by  his  essays  (see  his  "  Friend  "  and  his  "  Lit- 
erary Remains ")  did  more  perhaps  than  any 
other  one  writer  to  bring  about  a  profound  and 
thoughtful  appreciation  of  the  poet's  works. 
Mrs.  Jameson's  "Characteristics  of  Women, 
Moral,  Poetical,  and  Historical "  (2  vols.  8vp, 
London,  1832),  as  a  minute  and  sympathetic 
analysis  of  Shakespeare's  principal  female  char- 
acters, must  ever  rank  high  in  this  department 
of  literature.  The  Rev.  H.  N.  Hudson's  "  Lec- 
tures on  Shakespeare"  (2  vols.  12mo,  New 
York,  1848)  are  remarkable  for  the  same  qual- 
ities, which  appear  in  a  higher  degree  in  the 
essays  in  his  edition  of  the  works  above  no- 


ticed. Those  essays  he  has  embodied  with 
other  kindred  matter  in  "Shakespeare,  his 
Life,  Art,  and  Characters  "  (2  vols.  12mo,  Bos- 
ton, 1872).  Mr.  R.  Grant  White,  in  "  Shake- 
speare's Scholar  "  (8vo,  New  York,  1854),  pub- 
lished historical  and  critical  studies  of  the 
poet's  text,  characters,  and  commentators,  and 
an  examination  of  Mr.  Collier's  folio  of  1682, 
the  conclusions  of  which  were  sustained  by 
discoveries  made  in  England  five  years  after- 
ward. The  same  writer,  in  his  "  Essay  on  the 
Authorship  of  the  three  Parts  of  King  Henry 
the  Sixth"  (8vo,  Cambridge,  1859,  privately 
printed),  has,  by  the  general  consent  of  Shake- 
spearian scholars,  settled  that  interesting  and 
long  mooted  question  "  so  far  as  criticism  can 
do  it."  This  essay  was  afterward  embodied 
in  its  author's  edition  of  the  poet's  works. — In 
1852  Mr.  J.  P.  Collier,  who  had  previously 
brought  forward  many  documents  of  ancient 
date  in  relation  to  Shakespeare,  announced 
that  he  had  become  the  possessor  of  a  copy 
of  the  second  folio  edition  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  (1632),  which  from  the  first  page  to  the 
last  contained  "notes  and  emendations  in  a 
hand  not  much  later  than  the  time  when  it 
went  to  press."  He  published  a  history  of  his 
acquaintance  with  this  volume,  and  detailed 
accounts,  accompanied  with  comment,  of  its 
most  plausible  marginal  changes  in  the  text : 
"  Notes  and  Emendations  to  the  Text  of  Shake- 
speare's Plays,  from  early  Manuscript  Correc- 
tions in  a  copy  of  the  Folio,  1632,  in  the  Pos- 
session of  J.  Payne  Collier,  F.  S.  A."  The 
sensation  caused  by  this  publication  was  wide- 
spread and  profound.  The  majority  of  read- 
ers hailed  it  almost  as  a  revelation  from  the 
tomb  of  Shakespeare  himself ;  and  it  seemed 
for  the  moment  as  if  all  previous  editions  of 
his  works  had  become  waste  paper.  A  small 
minority  doubted  and  wondered,  and  a  few 
stoutly  protested.  The  critics  on  the  one  hand 
supported  it  enthusiastically,  and  on  the  other 
attacked  it  vigorously.  It  was  found  that  the 
greater  part  of  its  corrections  had  been  antici- 
pated by  the  conjectural  emendations  of  edi- 
tors and  verbal  critics ;  and  of  the  compara- 
tively small  remainder,  there  were  very  few 
which  commanded  the  general  assent  of  Eng- 
lish scholars  and  students  of  Shakespeare.  It 
was  shown  first  in  a  paper  in  "  Putnam's  Mag- 
azine "  (New  York)  for  October,  1853,  by  R. 
Grant  White,  that  the  corrections,  upon  their 
own  evidence,  were  made  at  so  late  a  date  as 
to  have  no  authority  from  their  antiquity. 
The  folio  having  been  placed  for  a  time  in 
the  British  museum,  certain  officers  of  that  in- 
stitution, including  the  eminent  palaeographer 
Sir  Francis  Madden,  superintendent  of  the 
manuscript  department,  pronounced  its  margi- 
nal corrections  spurious  imitations  of  ancient 
handwriting,  and  announced  that  they  had 
discovered  partially  erased  guides  in  pencil,  in 
modern  handwriting,  for  the  antique-seeming 
words  in  ink,  and  that  in  many  instances  the 
modern  pencil  writing  appeared  under  that  in 


822 


SHAKESPEARE 


ink,  which  professed  to  be  more  than  200 
years  old.  Upon  this  announcement,  in  July, 
1859,  in  the  London  "Times,"  a  tierce  discus- 
sion* arose,  which  continued  for  more  than  two 
years.  It  had  for  its  subject  not  only  the  no- 
torious folio,  but  all  the  manuscripts  which 
Mr.  Collier  had  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
public  as  containing  contemporary  notices  of 
Shakespeare  or  his  works,  nearly  all  of  which 
were  pronounced  forgeries  by  the  same  high 
authorities  which  condemned  the  folio.  So 
extensive  and  so  important  a  literary  fraud 
had  never  before  been  detected.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  last  century  a  scapegrace  named 
William  Ireland  professed  to  have  discovered 
miscellaneous  papers  and  legal  instruments 
under  the  hand  and  seal  of  William  Shake- 
speare, which  were  outrageous  forgeries ;  but 
they  were  palpably  spurious,  and  were  quickly 
exposed,  although  they  deceived  many  men  of 
erudition  for  a  time.  The  result  of  the  exam- 
ination and  discussion  in  Mr.  Collier's  case 
has  been  to  leave  him  with  a  damaged  reputa- 
tion both  for  judgment  and  veracity,  his  folio 
without  a  semblance  of  authority,  and  his 
manuscripts  under  the  gravest  suspicion,  at 
the  very  least ;  although  his  accusers  have  not 
succeeded  in  making  out  all  their  case.  Most 
of  the  corrections  in  this  folio  seem  to  have 
been  made  about  1675;  but  there  is  evidence 
which  goes  strongly  to  show  that  Mr.  Collier 
is  responsible  for  some  of  them.  See  "  An 
Inquiry  into  the  Genuineness  of  the  Manuscript 
Corrections  in  Mr.  J.  Payne  Collier's  Annota- 
ted Shakespeare  Folio,  1632,  and  of  certain 
Shakespearian  Documents  likewise  published 
by  Mr.  Collier,"  by  N.  E.  S.  A.  Hamilton  (4to, 
London,  1860) ;  Mr.  Collier's  "  Reply"  to  this 
volume  (London,  1860);  "A  Complete  View 
of  the  Shakespeare  Controversy,"  &c.,  by  C. 
Mansfield  Ingleby,  LL.  D.,  with  numerous  fac- 
similes (8vo,  London,  1861);  and  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  whole  subject  in  "The 
Shakespeare  Mystery,"  an  article  by  R.  Grant 
White  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  (Boston) 
for  September,  1861. — Books  upon  themes  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  connected  with  Shake- 
speare multiply  so  fast  that  a  complete  list  of 
them  must  be  sought  in  the  professed  cata- 
logues of  Shakespeariana ;  but  among  the  more 
recent  the  following  deserve  special  mention  : 
"  A  Letter  on  Shakespeare's  Authorship  of 
the  4  Two  Noble  Kinsmen,' "  by  W.  Spalding 
(8vo,  Edinburgh,  1833)  ;  "  Shakespeare's  Puck 
and  his  Folk  Lore,"  by  William  Bell  (3  vols. 
16mo,  London,  1852-'64);  "Remarks  on  the 
Differences  of  Shakespeare's  Versification  in 
Different  Periods  of  his  Life,"  by  C.  Bathurst 
(8vo,  London,  1857);  "A  New  Exegesis  of 
Shakespeare  and  Interpretation  of  his  Plays 
on  the  Principle  of  Races,"  (8vo,  Edinburgh, 
1859);  "On  the  Received  Text  of  Shake- 
speare's Dramatic  Writings,"  by  Samuel  Bailey 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1862-'6);  "Shakespeare 
no  Deer  Stealer,"  by  C.  Holte  Bracebridge 
(8vo,  London,  1862)  ;  "A  Key  to  Shakespeare's 


Sonnets,"  by  C.  Barnstoff,  translated  from 
the  German  by  T.  J.  Graham  (8vo,  London, 
1862);  "  Skakespeare's  Home  at  New  Place," 
by  J.  C.  M.  Bellew  (8vo,  London,  1863); 
"  Shakespeare  Commentaries,"  by  G.  G.  Ger- 
vinus,  translated  from  the  German  by  F.  E. 
Bunnett  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1863;  2d  ed., 
with  a  valuable  introduction  on  the  study  of 
Shakespeare  by  F.  J.  Furnivall,  1  vol.,  1875) ; 
"An  Historical  Account  of  New  Place,"  by 
J.  O.  Halliwell  (privately  printed,  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1864) ;  Shakespeare  jest  books  (under 
various  titles),  edited  by  W.  Carew  Hazlitt 
(3  vols.  16mo,  London,  1864);  "On  Shake- 
speare's Knowledge  and  Use  of  the  Bible," 
by  Charles  Wordsworth  (8vo,  London,  1864)  ; 
"Shakespeare's  Editors  and  Commentators," 
by  W.  R.  Arrowsmith  (8vo,  London,  1865) ; 
"  Shakespeare  in  Germany,"  by  Albert  Cohn 
(4to,  London,  1865) ;  "  Notices  of  the  Drama, 
.  .  .  chiefly  in  the  16th  and  17th  Centuries," 
by  William  Kelly  (8vo,  London,  1865)  ;  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  William  Shakespeare, 
with  an  Essay  toward  the  Expression  of  his 
Genius,"  &c.,  by  R.  Grant  White  (8vo,  Boston, 

1865)  ;  "  Shakespeare's  Delineations  of  Insan- 
ity," &c.,  by  A.  O.  Kellogg  (16mo,  London, 

1866)  ;    "  Shakespeare's  Sonnets  never  before 
Interpreted,"  by  Gerald  Massey  (8vo,  London, 
1866;  enlarged  ed.  of  only  100  copies,  with  the 
title  "  The  Secret  Drama  of  Shakespeare's  Son- 
nets Unfolded,"  1872) ;  "  On  Early  English  Pro- 
nunciation, with  especial  reference  to  Shake- 
speare and  Chaucer,"  by   Alexander  J.  Ellis 
(3  vols.  8vo,  London,  1867  et  «eq.)  ;  "  The  Au- 
thorship of  Shakespeare,"  by  Nathaniel  Holmes 
(12mo,  New  York,  1867);  "The  Mad  Folk  of 
Shakespeare,"  by  John  Charles  Bucknill  (12mo, 
London,  1867);  "The  Shakespeare  Expositor, 
an  Aid  to  the  perfect  Understanding  of  Shake- 
speare's Plays,"  by  Thomas  Keightly  (16mo, 
London,  1867) ;  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Shakespeare's  Sonnets,"  by  Richard 
Simpson  (16mo,  London,  1868);  "A  Shake- 
spearian Grammar,"  by  E.  A.  Abbott  (16mo, 
London,  1869;  2d  ed.,  1871);    "  Genealogica 
Shakespeariana,"   by  George  Russel    French 
(8vo,   London  and   Cambridge,   1869) ;    "  On 
the  Authorship  of  Works  attributed  to  Shake- 
speare," by  C.  Mansfield  Ingleby  (8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1869);   "Notes  and  Conjectural  Emen- 
dations," &c.,  by  P.  A.  Daniel  (8vo,  London, 
1870) ;  "The  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare  Solved," 
by  Henry  Brown  (8vo,  London,  1870);  "In- 
dex to  the  Pages  of  William  Sidney  Walker," 
by  Mrs.  Horace  Howard  Furness  (50  copies 
privately  printed,  16mo,  Philadelphia,  1870); 
"  The  Method  of  Shakespeare  as  an  Artist," 
by  Henry  J.  Ruggles  (16mo,  New  York,  1870) ; 
"Shakespeare  and  Topography,"  by  William 
Blades  (8vo,  London,  1872) ;  "  New  Readings 
in  Shakespeare,"  by  Robert  Cartwright  (8vo, 
London,  1873) ;  "  Caliban,  the  Missing  Link," 
by  Daniel  Wilson  (8vo,  London,  1873);  "  Body 
and  Mind,  an  Inquiry  into  their  Connection 
and  mutual  Influence,  specially  in  reference 


SHALE 


SIIAMOKIN 


823 


to  Mental   Disorders,"   by  Henry  Maudsley, 
including  a  profound  essay  on  Hamlet  (12mo, 
London,   1873)  ;    u  Essays  on   Shakespeare," 
by  Karl  Elze,  translated  from  the  German  by 
L.  D.  Schmitz   (8vo,  London,   1874)  ;    "  Jot- 
tings on  the  Text  of  Hamlet,  first  Folio  ver- 
sus Cambridge  Edition,"  by  Hiram   Corson, 
(8vo,  Ithaca,  1874) ;  "  A  Concordance  to  Shake- 
speare's Poems,"  by  Mrs.  H.  H.  Furness  (8vo, 
Philadelphia,    1874) ;    "  Shakespeare's  Centu- 
rie  of  Prayse,"  by  C.  M.  Ingleby  (8vo,  London, 
1874)  ;  "  An  Essay  on  the  Authorship  of  ... 
Henry  VI.,"  by  George  L.  Rives,  a  Cambridge 
university  (England)  prize  essay,  but  founded 
on,  and  chiefly  an  abridgment  of,  Mr.  Grant 
White's  essay  on  the  same  subject  (8vo,  Cam- 
bridge, 1874) ;  "  Shakespeare  Lexicon,  a  Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  all  the  English  Words  and 
Phrases,"  &c.,  by  Alexander  Schmidt  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Berlin,   1874-'5) ;   and  "Shakespeare,  a 
Critical  Study  of  his  Mind  and  Art,"  by  Ed- 
ward Dowden  (8vo,  London,  1875).     The  Ger- 
mans have  taken  a  lively  interest  in  this  dis- 
cussion ;  and  indeed  Shakespeare  for  75  years 
has  been  almost  as  assiduously  studied  in  Ger- 
many as  in  Great  Britain  and  America.     But 
there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  assertion 
that  the  Germans  taught  the  English  race  to 
understand  him.     The  best  German  thought 
of  the  day  upon  this  subject  is  gathered  in  the 
Jdhrbuch  der  Deutschen  Shakespeare- Gesell- 
schaft,  edited  by  F.  Bodenstedt  and  F.  Leo 
(Berlin,  1865  et  seq.).     Shakespeare's  works 
have  been  translated  into  all  the  languages 
of  the  civilized  world,  but  best  into  German. 
The  version  of  Schlegel  and  Tieck,  which  has 
been   often  reprinted,  is   probably  the  most 
perfect  transfusion  of  thought  from  one  form 
into  another  that  ever  was  accomplished.     A 
German  version  has  recently  been  produced 
jointly  by  Bodenstedt,  Freiligrath,  Paul  Heyse 
Herwegh,  and  others  (38  vols.,  Leipsic,  1868- 
'72).     No  adequate  French  translation  has  yet 
appeared.      Three  of  importance  have   been 
made  :  the  first  by  Le  Tourneur  (1776-'82),  in 
which  the  poet's  thought  is  often  ludicrous- 
ly perverted;  the  next  by  Francisque  Michel 
(1839-'40) ;  and  the  third  by  Francois  Victor 
Hugo  (1859-'65).     Of  these,  the  second  is  the 
most   faithful   and    scholarly.— Shakespeare's 
name  is  found  in  the  manuscripts  of  his  pe- 
riod spelled  with  all  varieties  of  letters  and  ar- 
rangement of  letters  which  express  its  sound 
or  a  semblance  of  it ;  but  he  himself,  and  his 
friend  Ben  Jonson,  when  they  printed  the 
name,  spelled  it  Shakespeare.     In  this  form, 
too,  it  is  found  in  almost  every  book  of  their 
time  in  which  it  appeared.     Therefore,  al- 
though he  sometimes  wrote  it  Shakspere,  there 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  deviating  from 
the  orthography  to  which  he  gave  a  sort  of 
formal  recognition.     The  spelling  Shakspeare 
was  long  prevalent. 

SHALE  (Ger.  scMlen,  to  peel,  to  split),  a  rock 
composed  of  clayey  sediments  consolidated  in 
layers  which  are  fissile  like  the  original  clay. 


but  not  often  divisible  into  smooth  sheets  like 
the  argillaceous  slates.  Beds  of  shale  are 
ommon  throughout  the  range  of  the  secondary 
rocks,  and  constitute  a  large  portion  of  some 
of  the  formations.  They  alternate  with  the 
sandstone  and  other  strata  of  these  forma- 
tions, and  in  the  coal  measures  are  abundant 
in  beds  blackened  by  the  carbonaceous  mat- 
ters intermixed  with  the  clayey  sediments.  In 
the  red  sandstone  groups  they  are  commonly 
also  red  from  oxide  of  iron,  and  in  other  for- 
mations they  are  olive,  and  sometimes  green 
and  variegated.  They  are  soft  and  earthy,  and 
are  easily  worn  down  into  a  muddy  powder. 
By  intermixture  of  carbonate  of  lime  they  be- 
come calcareous,  and  as  the  proportion  of  this 
increases  they  pass  from  calcareous  shale  to 
argillaceous  limestone.  Sand  renders  them 
arenaceous,  and  with  excess  of  it  they  become 
sandstones.  Carbonaceous  matter  renders 
them  bituminous,  and  when  the  proportion  is 
large  the  material  is  used  for  some  of  the  pur- 
poses of  coal.  Shales  of  this  character  yield 
oil.  (See  COAL,  and  PETROLEUM.) 

SHAMANISM,  in  a  wide  sense,  all  spirit  wor- 
ship connected  with  magic  arts,  but  common- 
ly only  that  of  the  north  Asiatic  races.  The 
name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Sanskrit  cramana, 
a  Buddhist  ascetic  or  mendicant.  Shamanism 
is  one  of  the  earliest  phases  of  religious  life, 
and  is  met  in  various  forms  among  all  the 
savage  races  of  the  world.  It  is  akin  to  or  a 
mixture  of  fetichism,  or  the  adoration  of  magic 
stones  and  trees,  and  other  material  objects 
considered  as  abodes  of  spirits,  and  sabaism, 
or  the  worship  of  the  stars.  Shamanic  priests 
affect  to  know  the  secret  of  controlling  the 
coming  and  departing  of  evil  spirits.  Their 
offices  are  generally  called  into  requisition  in 
cases  of  sickness  or  death,  which  most  rude 
peoples  ascribe  to  the  presence  or  ill  will  of 
demons.  In  Siberia  the  priest  usually  sucks 
the  part  of  the  body  of  the  patient  which 
aches  the  most,  and  finally  takes  out  of  his 
mouth  either  a  thorn,  a  bug,  a  stone,  or  some 
other  object,  which  he  exhibits  as  the  cause 
of  the  complaint.  The  process  is  sometimes 
accompanied  with  beating  of  drums  and  blow- 
ing of  horns,  while  the  priest  works  himself 
into  a  state  of  trance  and  epilepsy.  Simi- 
lar practices  are  recorded  in  the  Vedic  litera- 
ture of  the  Hindoos,  and  the  historical  exten- 
sion of  shamanism  among  the  tribes  of  north- 
ern Asia  runs  parallel  with  the  spread  of 
Buddhism.  It  appears  also  that  some  of  the 
ancient  religious  schisms  among  the  Iranians 
were  due  to  the  prevalence  of  shamanism. 
Until  the  reign  of  Genghis  Khan  the  Mongols 
were  almost  wholly  given  to  similar  magic 
and  sorcery ;  but  subsequently  many  of  them 
passed  over  to  lamaisin,  which  is  in  a  measure 
also  a  kind  of  shamanism,  but  infused  with 
Buddhistic  doctrines. 

SHAMOKIN,  a  borough   of  "Northumberli 
co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  Shamokin  creek  and  the 
Northern  Central  and  Philadelphia  and  Read- 


824 


SHAMROCK 


SHANGHAI 


ing  railroads,  95  m.  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,320;  in  1875,  estimated  by  lo- 
cal authorities  at  7,500.  It  contains  many 
brick  buildings,  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is 
supplied  with  water  by  the  Shamokin  water 
company  from  a  distance  of  about  4  m.  It  is 
situated  in  the  middle  coal  field,  and  its  prin- 
cipal business  is  the  mining  of  anthracite  coal. 
The  product  of  the  Shamokin  region  in  1874 
was  about  1,250,000  tons.  The  borough  con- 
tains three  founderies  and  machine  shops,  three 
banks,  four  public  school  houses  with  21  de- 
partments and  about  1,400  pupils,  two  pri- 
vate schools  with  about  150  pupils,  two  week- 
ly newspapers,  and  ten  churches. 

SHAMROCK.     See  OXALIS. 

Nil  tMl  L  (SAMCEL),  a  chieftain  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, born  at  Aul  Himry,  in  northern  Daghes- 
tan,  about  1797,  died  in  Medina,  Arabia,  in 
March,  1871.  In  his  youth  he  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  Kasi-Mollah,  an  energetic  mysti- 
cism founded  on  Su- 
fism.  Several  tribes 
of  Daghestan  united  in 
1823,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Kasi-Mollah, 
in  a  religious  war 
against  the  northern 
infidels.  In  1834,  on 
the  death  of  Hamsad 
Bey,  the  successor  of 
Kasi-Mollah,  Shamyl 
was  chosen  head  of  the 
sect.  Having  organ- 
ized a  sort  of  theocra- 
cy among  the  eastern 
Caucasian  mountain- 
eers, he  began  a  war- 
fare against  Russia.  In 
1837  he  defeated  Gen. 
Ivelitch.  At  the  storm- 
ing of  Akulgo  by  Gen. 
Grabbe  in  1839  Sha- 
myl was  supposed  to 
have  perished,  but  he 
soon  after  suddenly  re- 
appeared. In  1844,  after  having  foiled  anoth- 
er Russian  campaign,  he  completed  the  organ- 
ization of  his  government,  uniting  numerous 
tribes  hitherto  hostile,  made  Dargo  his  capi- 
tal, and  established  a  code  of  laws  and  a  sys- 
tem of  taxation  and  internal  communication. 
In  1845,  Czar  Nicholas  having  renewed  the 
war,  Shamyl  was  able  to  bring  a  large  army 
into  the  field.  After  1852,  however,  he  lost 
to  some  extent  the  confidence  of  the  moun- 
taineers, and  his  attempts  to  bring  the  neigh- 
boring tribes  into  his  confederation  failed. 
The  growth  of  religious  indifference  and  polit- 
ical dissensions  had  begun  to  undermine  his 
power,  and  he  was  able  to  take  but  little  part 
in  the  Crimean  war.  After  the  peace  of  Paris, 
Russia  attempted  again  the  subjection  of  the 
Caucasus.  Shamyl  held  out  bravely  for  three 
years,  but,  weakened  by  the  successive  defec- 
tion of  many  tribes,  and  discouraged  by  the 


death  of  his  eldest  son,  he  was  at  last  over- 
powered and  taken  prisoner  at  the  siege  of 
the  mountain  fort  of  Ghunib,  Sept.  6,  1859. 
He  was  treated  with  respect  by  Alexander 
II.,  and  after  a  short  stay  in  St.  Petersburg 
was  assigned  a  residence  at  Kaluga,  receiving 
a  pension  of  10,000  rubles.  From  here  he  re- 
moved in  December,  1868,  to  Kiev,  and  in  Jan- 
uary, 1870,  went  to  Mecca.  (See  CAUCASUS.) 

SHANGHAI,  or  Shanghae  ("approaching  the 
sea  "),  a  city  and  seaport  of  China,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Kiangsu,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wu- 
sung  river,  about  12m.  above  its  junction  with 
the  Yangtse-kiang,  in  lat.  31°  10'  N.,  Ion.  121° 
30'  E. ;  pop.  variously  estimated  from  250,000 
to  320,000.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  plain  inter- 
sected by  numerous  streamlets,  and  consists  of 
old  Shanghai,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  and 
moat  about  3  m.  in  circumference,  and  several 
suburbs.  The  walled  town,  which  is  entered 
by  six  gates,  has  narrow,  filthy  streets,  and 


Custom  House,  Shanghai. 

most  of  the  buildings  are  small  and  mean ;  but 
some  of  the  guild  halls  and  tea  shops  are  fine 
specimens  of  Chinese  architecture.  Of  its 
many  temples,  the  largest  is  the  Ching-hwang- 
mian  (city  and  moat  temple),  on  a  rocky  island 
in  a  serpentine  sheet  of  water.  The  Roman 
Catholics  have  a  large  cathedral  and  the  Bap- 
tists a  church  within  the  walls,  and  the  Amer- 
ican and  London  missionary  societies  have 
large  schools.  The  foreign  suburb,  which  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  .the  French,  British, 
and  American  concessions,  is  laid  out  like  a 
European  city,  with  broad,  paved,  well  lighted 
streets,  and  handsome  houses  and  gardens. 
The  Anglican  church,  club  house,  and  ma- 
sonic temple  are  among  the  principal  build- 
ings. Back  of  the  quay,  which  has  a  bulwark 
of  stone  and  stone  jetties,  stand  the  hongs  of 
the  foreign  merchants.  In  the  British  conces- 
sion is  a  race  course,  and  lower  down  are  ship 


SHANNON 


SHANNY 


yards,  machine  shops,  and  dry  docks.  Many 
square-rigged  vessels  lie  at  the  foreign  quays, 
and  in  front  of  the  Chinese  town  the  river  is 
.thronged  with  junks  lashed  close  together. 
The  population  of  the  foreign  suburbs  in  1873 
consisted  of  62,844  resident  Chinese,  5,566 
Chinese  employed  in  foreign  hongs,  9,957  boat 
population  and  vagrants,  and  2,000  foreign- 
ers; total,  80,367.  The  climate  of  Shanghai 
is  subject  to  sudden  changes  in  spring  and  au- 
tumn, and  pulmonary  and  rheumatic  complaints 
are  common.  The  day  temperature  in  sum- 
mer is  from  80°  to  93°,  and  in  winter  from  45° 
to  60°.  From  June  to  October  heavy  rains 
fall.  Shanghai  has  a  mint,  and  manufactures 
of  silk,  cotton,  vegetable  oils  and  oil  cake,  iron 
ware,  glass,  paper,  and  ivory  goods.  It  is  con- 
nected by  the  grand  canal  and  the  Yangtse- 
kiang  and  other  rivers  with  a  large  part  of  the 
empire,  and  is  visited  annually  by  5,000  or 
6,000  canal  and  river  boats,  and  by  1,500  or 
1,600  coasting  junks.  Its  foreign  trade  is  also 
very  large.  The  number  of  entrances  in  the 
foreign  trade  in  1872  was  2,111,  tonnage  1,165,- 
967  ;  940  vessels  were  British,  741  American, 
135  Chinese,  127  German,  and  47  French.  The 
total  value  of  foreign  imports  was  $82,169,- 
694;  of  imports  of  native  goods,  $61,549,673. 
The  value  of  the  total  exports  of  native  pro- 
duce was  $45,504,851  ;  of  foreign  products  re- 
exported,  $50,880,627.  The  principal  exports 
are  tea,  silk,  cotton,  straw  braid  and  hats,  mats, 
wool,  skins,  oil  and  oil  cake,  drugs,  porcelain, 
and  fans  ;  imports,  opium,  treasure,  grain, 
flour,  manufactured  goods,  and  coal.  The  value 
of  the  exports  to  the  United  States  in  1874 
was  $15,868,556,  of  which  $13,869,522  was  in 
tea.  —  Shanghai  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
June,  1842,  but  was  given  up  in  1843,  after  the 
ratification  of  their  treaty  with  the  Chinese, 
when  it  became  one  of  the  five  ports  opened 
to  foreign  commerce.  In  September,  1853,  it 
was  captured  by  the  Taiping  rebels,  who  soon 
evacuated  it.  In  1860-'62  it  was  again  threat- 
ened by  them,  but  was  protected  by  the  Brit- 
ish and  French.  Its  commerce  declined  in 
1865-'6,  but  it  is  again  increasing.  It  is  now 
one  of  the  14  Chinese  treaty  ports. 

SHANNON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  inter- 
sected by  Current  river;  area,  about  1,150  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,339,  nearly  all  white.  The 
surface  is  uneven,  and  partly  occupied  by  pine 
forests.  Mines  of  copper  and  iron  are  worked. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  7,243  bush- 
els of  wheat,  104,725  of  Indian  corn,  7,496 
of  oats,  9,045  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  3,294  of  wool, 
25,129  of  butter,  and  4,812  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses.  There  were  637  horses,  657 
milch  cows,  1,658  other  cattle,  2,549  sheep, 
and  6,362  swine.  Capital,  Eminence. 

SHANNON,  the  largest  river  of  Ireland,  rises 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Cuilcagh  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  county  Cavan,  flows  S.  W.  for  a  few 
miles  to  Lough  Allen,  thence  by  a  circuitous 
hut  generally  S.  course  to  Lough  Derg,  passing 
through  Lough  Kee,  and  thence  S.  S.  W.  to 


Limerick,  below  which  the  river,  here  called 
the  Lower  Shannon,  flows  W.  S.  W.  through  a 
broad  estuary  to  the  Atlantic.  Its  total  length 
is  about  250  m.  Portions  of  its  course  are 
very  picturesque.  Its  largest  affluent  is  the 
Suck,  which  enters  it  from  the  west  between 
Loughs  Ree  and  Derg ;  others  are  the  Boyle, 
Fergus,  Inny,  Brosna,  Mulkear,  and  Maig. 
The  principal  towns  on  its  banks  besides  Lim- 
erick are  Leitrim,  Carrick,  Athlone,  and  Killa- 
loe.  The  tides  in  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon 
vary  between  14  and  18  ft.,  and  vessels  of  400 
tons  can  ascend  as  far  as  Limerick ;  the  navi- 
gation has  been  improved  throughout  the  en- 
tire length  at  a  cost  of  about  £500,000,  and 
parliament  in  1874  appropriated  £300,000  for 
its  further  improvement;  and  canals  connect 
it  with  many  parts  of  Ireland. 

SHANNY,  the  name  of  the  marine  spiny-rayed 
fishes  of  the  blenny  family,  and  the  genus 
pholis  (Flem.).  They  differ  from  the  blen- 
nies  proper  in  having  the  head  without  crests 
or  tentacles;  the  body  is  elongated  and  com- 
pressed, with  large  pectorals,  rounded  caudal, 
ventrals  under  the  throat  and  of  two  rays,  and 
a  single  interrupted  dorsal  all  along  the  back, 
simple  and  flexible ;  the  skin  is  naked ;  mouth 
small,  with  large  lips  and  semicircular  open- 
ing; teeth  in  single  series,  numerous,  small, 
and  pointed ;  there  is  no  air  bladder ;  the  stom- 
ach is  thin,  without  caecal  dilatation,  and  the 
intestine  simple  without  pancreatic  caeca ;  ap- 
erture of  oviduct  between  anus  and  urinary 
canal,  and  a  tuft  of  papilla?  around  the  semi- 
nal opening.  The  European  shanny  (P.  lavis, 
Flem.)  is  rarely  more  than  5  in.  long;  the 
colors  vary  much,  some  being  mottled  with 
reddish  brown,  black,  and  white,  and  others 
uniformly  dusky;  the  head  over  the  eyes  is 
rounded,  from  these  the  profile  being  nearly 
vertical,  and  between  them  a  deep  groove ;  the 
irides  are  scarlet,  and  the  cheeks  tumid ;  the 
eyes  have  movements  independent  of  each 
other.  They  are  abundant  on  the  rocky  coasts 
of  England  and  France,  keeping  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  hiding  under  stones  at  low  tide  to 
guard  against  voracious  fishes  and  long-billed 
birds ;  the  food  consists  of  small  mollusks  and 
crustaceans ;  they  spawn  in  summer ;  they  are 
small,  swim  in  shoals,  and  are  of  no  value  as  food 
to  man.  The  larger  specimens  have  the  habit 


European  Shanny  (Pliolis  Itevis). 

of  creeping  out  of  water,  by  means  of  the  ven- 
trals, as  the  tide  recedes,  hiding  in  holes  of  the 
rocks,  and  there  remaining  until  the  tide  ogam 
rises-  they  have  been  known  to  live  30  hours 


826 


SHAKJA 


SHARK 


in  a  dry  box,  and  are  very  soon  killed  by  fresh 
water.  It  is  a  matter  of  considerable  physio- 
logical interest  to  ascertain  how  this  fish  is  en- 
abled to  live  so  long  a  time  out  of  water ;  it  has 
no  air  bladder  or  rudimentary  lung  for  the  aera- 
tion of  the  blood ;  it  is  not  known  to  have  any 
special  arrangement  of  the  gills  or  accessory 
sac  for  retaining  water ;  the  gill  openings  are 
very  large,  just  the  opposite  from  the  case  in 
the  eels  and  other  fishes  which  live  long  out  of 
water,  and  would  permit  the  gills  to  become 
very  soon  dry  and  improper  to  circulate  the 
blood.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  body 
is  soft  and  scaleless;  cutaneous  respiration  is 
very  important  in  batrachians,  and  perhaps  the 
necessary  oxygenation  of  the  blood  is  effected 
through  the  skin,  as  in  the  synbranchtu  of  Suri- 
nam, when  the  gills  are  not  in  action,  under  the 
control  of  the  par  vagum  nerve ;  perhaps  also 
air  may  be  swallowed,  and  intestinal  respiration 
supply  the  necessary  oxygen,  as  in  cdbitit. 
The  gill  openings,  though  large,  may  be  accu- 
rately shut,  and  the  bulging  cheeks  may  t  Im- 
retain  sufficient  water  to  prevent  the  desicca- 
tion of  the  gills,  assisted  probably  by  the  skin 
as  a  respiratory  organ. — The  radiated  shanny 
(P.  subbifurcatus,  Storer),  found  rarely  on  the 
coasts  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  is  about 
5  in.  long,  reddish  brown  above  and  yellow- 
ish white  below,  with  three  dark-colored  bands 
passing  backward  from  the  eyes;  the  lateral 
line  is  subbifurcated,  and  there  are  filaments 
on  the  nostrils. 

SIIIRJA,  a  seaport  town  of  Oman,  Arabia, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Persian  gulf,  in  lat.  25°  20'  N.,  Ion.  65°  36'  E., 
215  m.  N.  W.  of  Muscat;  pop.  about  25,000. 
It  has  a  wall  on  the  land  side,  but  is  open 
toward  the  harbor,  which  is  a  narrow  creek  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  coast,  and  deep  enough 
for  only  small  vessels.  It  has  a  large  market 
place  in  the  S.  end,  in  the  middle  of  which 
is  the  government  treasury,  a  stone  building 
strongly  guarded.  The  shops  are  well  built, 
and  display  Indian  and  Persian  goods,  and 
the  manufactures  of  the  place,  principally  red 
cloaks,  carpets,  curtains,  arms,  and  filigree 
jewelry.  A  large  part  of  the  population  are 
weavers,  who  occupy  the  N.  quarter.  Sharja 
is  the  principal  port  through  which  are  im- 
ported the  goods  of  Persia,  and  it  is  the  chief 
place  on  the  coast  for  the  sale  of  cotton,  wool, 
the  metals,  asses,  and  dromedaries.  It  has  a 
large  trade,  and  but  for  its  inferior  harbor  it 
would  be  a  place  of  much  commercial  impor- 
tance. It  is  virtually  independent. 

SHARK,  an  extensive  family  of  marine  car- 
tilaginous fishes,  with  the  rays  or  skates  and 
the  chimrara  or  sen  cat  forming  the  order  of 
plagiostotnes  or  selachians,  elevated  under  the 
latter  name  to  a  class  by  Agassiz.  The  sharks 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  rays  by  their 
elongated  fusiform  body,  branchial  apertures 
on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  pectoral  fins  of  the 
usual  form  and  situation,  and  large,  fleshy,  and 
powerful  tail,  which  is  the  principal  organ  of 


locomotion;  the  nose  is  pointed  and  projects 
beyond  the  mouth,  which  is  large  and  armed 
with  formidable  cutting  teeth  in  several  rows; 
the  upper  surface  of  the  head  often  presents  a 
pair  of  respiratory  spiracles;  the  eyelids  are 
distinct,  with  a  free  margin,  and  many  have  a 
nictitating  membrane ;  the  cartilaginous  scapu- 
lar arch  is  not  attached  to  the  spinal  column, 
which  contains  more  ossific  matter  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  skeleton ;  the  gills  have  their 
margins  attached,  the  water  escaping  by  five 
branchial  openings  (sometimes  more) ;  the  skin 
is  rough  with  osseous  tubercles ;  the  aortic  bulb 
has  several  series  of  valves,  and  the  shortness 
of  the  intestine  is  counterbalanced  by  an  ex- 
tended spiral  valve.  They  are  essentially  car- 
nivorous, and,  as  in  the  birds  of  prey,  the  fe- 
males are  larger  and  fiercer  than  the  males; 
they  swim  with  great  ease  and  rapidity,  play- 
ing around  the  fastest  ships  and  steamers;  they 
devour  either  living  or  dead  animal  matters, 
but,  from  the  situation  of  the  mouth  on  the 
under  side  of  the  head,  are  obliged  to  turn  on 
the  side  or  back  to  seize  a  large  object.  Many 
of  the  smaller  species  have  received  the  names 
of  dog  and  hound,  with  various  canine  epithets, 
from  their  habit  of  following  their  prey  in 
packs.  Sharks  are  higher  than  ordinary  fish- 
es in  the  phenomena  of  reproduction;  there 
is  with  them  true  sexual  union,  and  they  are 
ovo viviparous,  that  is,  the  eggs  are  hatched  in 
the  oviducts,  though  they  are  often  expelled 
before  the  embryo  has  quitted  them ;  the  egg 
presents  in  its  early  development  many  pecu- 
liarities of  those  of  the  higher  vertebrates.  In 
some  the  eggs  are  received  into  the  villous 
oviduct,  in  which  as  in  a  uterus  the  young  are 
developed ;  under  these  circumstances  ova  are 
observed  in  different  stages  of  development, 
and  frequently  one  in  each  oviduct.  In  oth- 
ers the  egg  is  received  in  a  horny,  semi-trans- 
parent, oblong  case,  with  long  convoluted  ten- 
drils at  each  corner,  deposited  near  the  shore 
in  the  winter  months,  and  moored  by  the  ten- 
drila ;  the  case  has  an  elongated  fissure  at  each 
end  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  water;  the 
young  animal  swims  about  for  a  time,  deriving 
its  nourishment  from  the  attached  yolk  bag. 
The  egg  cases  are  often  cast  ashore  by  the  waves, 
and  are  commonly  known  as  sailors'  purses. 
About  100  species  of  sharks  are  known,  mostly 
in  northern  waters  and  the  eastern  hemisphere ; 
some  are  almost  cosmopolite,  while  others 
have  a  limited  geographical  distribution;  the 
family  contains  the  largest  of  the  fishes,  the 
great  basking  shark  attaining  a  length  of  more 
than  80  ft. — In  the  family  scylliidce,  generally 
called  dog  fishes  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
sharks  proper,  spiracles  are  present ;  the  snout 
is  short  and  blunt;  the  gill  openings  are  five, 
the  last  one  over  the  base  of  the  pectoral; 
two  dorsals,  far  back  and  behind  the  ven- 
trals ;  an  anal  present ;  caudal  long,  truncated 
at  the  end,  with  a  notch  on  the  under  side  ; 
no  caudal  pit ;  a  furrow  at  the  corners  of  the 
mouth ;  teeth  with  a  pointed  median  cusp,  and 


SHARK 


827 


four  or  five  small  points  on  each  side;  the 
parts  about  the  mouth  and  nose  in  some  gen- 
era are  divided  into  flaps  and  barbels,  evident- 
ly organs  of  touch,  necessary  in  their  rapid 
passage  along  the  bottom.  They  are  ovipa- 
rous, and  the  eggs  resemble  those  of  a  skate. 
In  the  genus  scylUum  (Mull,  and  Henle)  the 
spiracles  are  close  behind  the  eyes,  and  the 
nostrils  near  the  mouth  and  valved ;  dermal 
scales  tricuspid.  Most  of  the  species  are  found 
around  the  southern  coasts  of  Africa;  they 
are  among  the  smallest  of  the  sharks,  and  live 
near  the  ground.  There  are  two  species  on  the 
English  coast,  the  8.  catulus  (Cuv.)  and  S.  ca- 
nicula  (Cuv.).  The  former  is  2  or  3  ft.  long, 
brownish  gray  above,  with  a  few  large  black- 
ish and  white  spots,  and  whitish  below;  the 
food  consists  of  fish,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans ; 
it  deposits  about  20  eggs,  according  to  Cu- 
vier.  The  latter,  the  small  spotted  dog  fish, 
about  2  ft.  long,  is  more  reddish,  with  more 
numerous  and  smaller  spots ;  it  is  widely  dis- 
tributed, following  ships  and  seizing  whatever 
falls  overboard;  it  eats  chiefly  fish,  but  has 
been  known  to  attack  fishermen  and  bathers ; 
it  lies  in  ambush  in  the  mud  or  among  weeds. 
Both  these  species  are  the  pests  of  the  fishing 
stations  all  along  the  coast,  especially  among 
the  Orkney  islands,  robbing  the  lines  at  every 
opportunity,  and  not  unfrequently  caught 
themselves;  the  flesh  is  white,  but  dry  and 
fibrous,  and,  though  eaten  by  the  fishermen, 
is  rarely  brought  to  market ;  in  the  Orkneys 
they  are  skinned,  split,  and  dried ;  the  skin  is 
used  by  cabinet  makers  as  a  fine  rasp,  and 
the  liver  is  valuable  for  its  oil.  Among  the 
genera  and  species  of  N.  E.  Asia  are  many 
whose  fins  are  used  for  soups  by  the  Chinese. 
— Under  the  name  of  squali  Cuvier  compre- 
hended all  the  other  sharks,  except  the  ham- 
mer-head and  monk  fish,  of  which  he  made 
distinct  genera ;  Owen  gives  the  name  of  nic- 
titantes  to  a  portion  of  the  squali,  chiefly  car- 
chariadce  and  galeidce  (described  below),  the 
presence  of  a  nictitating  membrane  to  the  eye 
being  accompanied  with  a  greater  induration 
of  the  skeleton.  In  the  family  carchariadce 
there  are  two  dorsals  and  an  anal,  the  first 
dorsal  over  the  space  between  the  pectorals 
and  ventrals ;  there  are  no  spiracles,  and  the 
last  two  gill  openings  are  over  the  pectorals; 
nostrils  generally  small,  pupil  perpendicularly 
oval,  and  mouth  boldly  convex ;  the  teeth  are 
compressed,  triangular,  with  an  entire  or  ser- 
rated edge,  arranged  in  a  linear  series  like 
those  of  a  saw,  in  several  rows,  of  which  the 
anterior  only  are  erected  for  use ;  the  tail  has 
a  short  under  lobe  and  a  notch  near  the  end 
of  the  upper ;  there  is  a  pit  above  and  below 
the  base  of  the  tail;  the  intestinal  valve  is 
longitudinally  and  not  spirally  rolled;  skin 
comparatively  smooth.  The  genus  carcharia* 
(Mull,  and  Henle)  has  been  divided  into  various 
subgenera,  but  all  have  the  nostrils  midway 
between  the  mouth  and  end  of  the  flattened 
snout,  the  labial  cartilages  very  small,  and  the 


yolk  bag  connected  with  a  kind  of  uterine  pla- 
centa in  the  smooth  or  villous  oviduct.  The 
white  shark  (C.  vulgaru,  Cuv.)  attains  a  length 
of  30  to  35  ft.,  and  a  weight  of  more  than 
2,000  Ibs. ;  the  color  is  ashy  brown  above  and 
whitish  below;  the  head  is  large,  the  gape 


White  Shark  (Carcharias  vulgaris). 

enormous,  and  the  body  stout;  the  teeth  form 
such  a  perfect  cutting  apparatus,  that  the  body 
of  a  man  may  be  cleanly  divided  at  a  single 
bite ;  some  of  the  jaws  of  this  species  (which 
are  not  the  true  jaw  bones,  however)  are  large 
enough,  even  when  shrunk  by  drying,  to  slip 
over  the  body  of  a  man ;  it  has  been  seen  near 
Calcutta  to  swallow  a  bullock's  head  and  horns 
entire.  This  is  the  man-eater  shark  about  which 
so  many  stories  have  been  circulated,  and  hu- 
man remains  have  been  found  in  its  stomach ; 
it  is  gluttonous,  savage,  and  bold ;  its  ordinary 
food  consists  of  large  fish,  seals,  cuttle  fishes, 
and  decaying  animal  matters.  It  is  found  in 
almost  all  oceans,  though  most  abundantly  in 
tropical  waters,  and  is  a  rapid  and  surface 
swimmer ;  it  occasionally  makes  its  appear- 
ance in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  British 
coasts.  It  is  the  terror  of  sailors,  who  always 
kill  it  when  possible;  as  it  follows  ships  to 
feed  upon  the  garbage  thrown  overboard,  and 
bites  eagerly  at  any  large  bait  dragging  at  the 
stern,  it  is  not  unfrequently  caught,  the  pre- 
caution being  taken  to  cut  off  the  tail  as  soon 
as  it  is  brought  on  board  in  order  to  prevent 
injury  from  its  blows.  The  sense  of  hearing 
is  very  fine,  if  we  can  judge  from  the  large 
size  of  the  semicircular  canals  and  vestibule  of 
the  ears.  The  young  are  born  alive  at  different 
periods,  until  20  or  30  are  produced ;  they  are 
7  or  8  in.  long  at  birth.  This  species  meets 
with  a  formidable  enemy  in  the  sperm  whale, 
and  is  often  destroyed  by  it  after  a  long  and 
bloody  combat ;  like  all  sharks,  it  is  greatly  in- 
fested with  intestinal  worms.  The  blue  shark 
(C.  glaucus,  Cuv.)  is  a  smaller  species,  rarely 
more  than  8  ft.  long ;  it  is  more  slender  and 


828 


SHARK 


elegantly  formed,  and  the  most  beautiful  in 
color  of  the  sharks,  being  fine  slate-blue  above 
and  white  below;  the  skin  is  granulated  and 
rough.  It  is  distributed  in  most  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  is  very  bold  and  voracious ;  its  prin- 
cipal food  consists  of  herring,  shad,  and  oth- 
er migratory  fishes ;  it  is  a  great  pest  to  the 
British  fishermen ;  when  hooked,  if  it  cannot 
divide  the  line,  it  rolls  over  and  over  so  as  to 
wind  it  around  the  body,  sometimes  beyond 
the  power  of  extrication  except  by  the  knife  ; 
it  also  makes  great  havoc  in  the  pilchard  fish- 
ery, destroying  the  nets  and  devouring  the  fish. 
Like  the  white  shark,  this  species  is  often  at- 
tended by  the  pilot  fish.  (See  PILOT  FISH.)  There 
are  many  stories  of  the  affection  of  this  species 
for  its  young,  which  are  said  to  take  refuge 
when  alarmed  in  the  stomach  of  the  parent; 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  small  sharks  are 
often  found  in  the  stomachs  of  the  larger,  but 
this  is  rather  a  proof  of  cannibalism  than  of 
parental  affection.  Of  the  American  species 
of  this  genus  may  be  mentioned  the  dusky 
shark  (C.  <>!>.•«•  nr>i*.  Lesueur),  attaining  a  length 
of  10  to  12  ft,  dark  brown  above  and  dirty 
white  below,  occasionally  found  on  tlie  coast  of 
the  eastern  and  middle  states ;  the  small  blue 
shark  (C.  earuleua,  Mitch.),  8  to  6  ft.  long,  slate- 
blue  above  and  whitish  below,  found  in  the 
same  waters;  and  At  wood's  shark  (C.  Atwoodi, 
Storer),  coming  nearest  the  great  white  shark, 
attaining  a  length  of  13  or  14  ft.,  and  a  weight 
of  1,500  llis.  The  color  of  the  last  named  is 
leaden  gray  above  and  white  below ;  it  has 
been  caught  off  the  coast  of  Massachusetts. 
— In  the  a/'iiniciil'i-,  piked  dog  fishes,  spiracles 
are  present;  the  anal  fins  are  wanting,  and  the 
dorsals,  two  in  number,  are  each  preceded  by 
a  strong  spine.  The  genus  acantfiias  belongs 
to  this  family,  and  is  described  under  DOG 
FISH. — In  the  family  galeidce,  topes  or  hounds, 
the  fins,  nostrils,  gill  openings,  and  mouth  are 
as  in  the  carchariada ;  there  are  very  small 
spiracles ;  the  teeth  are  alike  in  both  jaws,  with 
cutting  edges  and  u  cusp  pointing  obliquely 
outward ;  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  is  much 
the  longer  and  notched  near  the  end ;  the 
scales  small,  three-ridged,  with  a  median  cusp. 
In  the  genus  galeut  (Guv.)  the  pupil  is  round 
above  and  angular  below ;  the  teeth  smooth 
on  the  inner  edge,  serrated  on  the  outer,  with 
the  cusp  smooth ;  the  median  teeth  straight, 
jagged  at  the  base  on  each  side ;  no  tail  pits, 
and  the  intestinal  valve  spiral.  The  common 
tope  or  penny  dog  (0.  vulgarit,  Cuv.)  attains 
a  length  of  6  ft. ;  the  body  is  fusiform,  slate- 
gray  above  and  grayish  white  below  ;  it  is  less 
rapacious  than  the  blue  shark,  and  is  a  pest 
to  the  fishermen  in  summer  on  the  southern 
coasts  of  England  ;  when  hooked,  if  it  cannot 
bite  off  the  line,  it  rolls  itself  up  in  it;  the 
young,  to  the  number  of  30  or  more,  are  born 
in  May  and  June ;  the  liver  is  of  some  value 
for  its  oil.  The  genus  muttelu*  (Artedi)  of  this 
family  has  been  described  under  DOG  FISH;  in 
this  the  teeth  are  pavement-like  as  in  the  rays. 


— In  the  family  lamnida  the  gill  openings  are 
very  large,  all  anterior  to  the  pectorals ;  they 
have  no  nictitating  membrane,  and  the  spira- 
cles are  small,  tail  pits  evident,  caudal  broadly 
forked  and  nearly  crescentic,  tail  keeled  on 
the  sides,  and  the  intestinal  valve  spiral.  In 
the  genus  lamna  (Cuv.)  the  snout  is  a  three- 
sided  pyramid  with  a  short  nasal  fiap,  the  spi- 
racles far  behind  the  eyes,  and  the  mouth  wide ; 
the  teeth  are  triangular,  not  serrated,  with  an 
acute  toothlet  at  the  base  on  each  side,  the 
surface  resting  on  the  jaw  being  deeply  con- 
cave ;  there  is  a  vacant  space  above  and  below 
instead  of  mesial  teeth ;  skin  comparatively 
smooth,  and  the  scales  very  small.  The  por- 
beagle shark  (L.  cornubica,  Cuv.),  found  on 
the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  especially  in 
autumn,  attains  a  length  of  9  ft. ;  it  is  uniform 
grayish  black  above  and  white  below.  They 
associate  in  small  packs,  from  which  and  the 
porpoise-like  form  of  the  body  the  common 
name  is  derived ;  they  feed  chiefly  on  fishes 
and  cephalopods ;  they  are  ovoviviparous.  The 
mackerel  shark  (L.  [oxyrhina]punctata,  Mitch.) 
of  North  America  is  greenish  on  the  back, 
lighter  on  the  sides,  and  white  below ;  the 
teeth  are  narrow,  long  and  nail-like,  calculated 
for  holding  rather  than  cutting  prey  ;  the  head 


Mackerel  Shark  (Ltunna  punctata). 

and  sides  are  punctured  by  a  series  of  mucous 
pores.  Like  the  English  porbeagle,  this  spe- 
cies from  its  size  and  formidable  teeth  is  the 
most  dangerous  of  the  common  sharks,  though 
it  is  not  known  to  attack  man  unless  in  self- 
defence  ;  it  is  common  in  summer  on  the  New 
England  coasts,  and  is  a  great  pest  to  the  mack- 
erel and  cod  fishers ;  it  may  attain  the  length 
of  10  ft.,  but  is  usually  not  more  than  half 
this;  it  received  its  name  from  its  following 
the  shoals  of  mackerel  on  which  it  feeds  ;  the 
liver  is  valuable  for  oil,  a  single  fish  often 
yielding  six  or  seven  gallons ;  though  generally 
used  by  curriers  only,  when  made  carefully 
from  fresh  livers  it  is  as  good  as  whale  oil 
to  burn.  The  gray  shark  (odontaspis  griseus, 
Ag.)  has  the  fore  teeth  simple,  long,  conical, 
with  smooth  edges  and  one  or  more  basal 
toothlets;  toward  the  corners  the  teeth  are 
smaller  and  more  incisorial ;  it  attains  a  length 
of  4  to  7  ft.,  and  is  light  bluish  gray  above, 
lighter  on  the  sides,  and  white  below ;  it  is 
not  uncommon  in  Long  Island  sound,  and  of 
late  years  in  Massachusetts  bay.  In  the  genus 
selachus  (Cuv.)  the  snout  is  short  and  blunt, 
and  the  gill  openings  almost  meet  under  the 
throat ;  the  teeth  are  very  small  and  numerous, 
conical,  without  serrations,  curving  backward, 
and  without  toothlets  and  notches ;  scales 


SHARK 


829 


small,  with  radiating  curved  points,  so  that 
the  skin  feels  rough ;  the  eyes  are  very  small. 
The  great  basking  shark  (S.  maximus,  Ouv.)  is 
the  largest  of  this  .class  of  fishes,  attaining  a 
length  of  30  or  40  ft.,  and  even  over  60  ft., 
if  the  shark  stranded  at  Stronsay  in  1808,  and 


Great  Basking  Shark  (Selachus  maximus). 

described  as  the  sea  serpent,  belonged  to  this 
species.  It  descends  in  summer  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen 
to  the  English  channel  and  the  middle  United 
States.  Notwithstanding  its  size  and  strength, 
it  is  the  least  ferocious  of  the  sharks  ;  it  does 
not  appear  to  feed  on  fishes,  but  on  cuttle 
fishes,  crustaceans,  medusae,  and  echini,  and, 
according  to  Pennant,  also  on  sea  weeds.  It 
is  sluggish,  and  fond  of  reposing  at  the  surface 
in  the  sun  with  the  dorsal  raised  in  the  air, 
and  hence  called  sun  fish,  sail  fish,  and  bask- 
ing shark ;  under  these  circumstances  it  is 
easily  approached  and  harpooned ;  this  is  often 
done  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  of  the  liver,  which 
amounts  to  several  barrels  in  a  full-grown 
fish ;  from  its  speed  and  strength  it  is  apt  to 
pull  a  boat  under  water  or  overturn  it ;  it  has 
been  known  to  drag  a  vessel  of  70  tons  against 
a  fresh  gale,  and  requires  often  24  hours  to 
fatigue  and  kill  it.  It  is  dark  slate-colored 
above,  and  lighter  below.  The  S.  elephas  (Le- 
sueur)  is  probably  the  same  species;  it  has 
been  taken  in  the  bay  of  Fundy  40  ft.  long ; 
on  the  New  England  coast  it  is  called  the  bone 
shark  by  fishermen. — In  the  family  alopeciida 
the  snout  is  short  and  conical,  the  spiracles 
and  nostrils  very  small,  the  gill  openings  small, 
the  last  one  over  the  pectorals ;  mouth  com- 
paratively small,  the  teeth  not  serrated,  trian- 
gular, sharp,  and  alike  in  both  jaws ;  no  tooth 
on  the  mesial  line,  and  a  crescentic  fold  of 
skin  behind  the  upper  teeth ;  the  second  dorsal 


Sea  Fox  (Alopias  vulpes). 

opposite  the  anal  and  very  small;  pectorals 
large  and  triangular;  upper  lobe  of  tail  as 
long  as  the  body,  with  a  pit  at  the  root ;  scales 
small  and  three-pronged,  and  intestinal  valve 
spiral.  It  contains  the  single  genus  alopias 
(Raf.),  and  the  single  species  A.  vulpe*  (Raf.), 


the  sea  fox,  swingle-tail,  or  thresher  shark; 
it  attains  a  length  of  15  ft.,  but  is  generally 
much  smaller  than  this  ;  the  body  is  fusiform, 
bluish  lead-colored  above,  white  below,  with 
light  blue  blotches  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
abdomen.  It  attacks  its  prey  and  enemies  and 
defends  itself  by  blows  of  the  tail ;  the  food 
consists  principally  of  herring,  mackerel,  and 
other  surface  and  shoal  fish.  It  is  found  in 
the  European  seas  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  coast  of  England,  and  also  on  the  Amer- 
ican side  from  the  British  provinces  to  the 
middle  states ;  it  has  been  known  to  attack 
fishing  boats  in  the  bay  of  Fundy. — In  the 
family  cestraciontida  the  nostrils  are  slit  to 
within  the  mouth,  which  is  at  the  fore  end  of 
the  snout ;  the  spiracles  are  rather  behind  the 
eyes ;  the  gill  openings  small,  the  last  one 
above  the  pectorals ;  a  spine  forming  the  front 
of  each  dorsal ;  tail  short  and  wide,  strongly 
notched  below ;  teeth  pavement-like,  in  round- 
ed oblique  scrolls ;  the  body  short  and  stout, 
head  large,  and  eyes  prominent.  The  genus 
cestracion  (Cuv.)  furnishes  the  only  living  rep- 
resentative of  a  family  numerous  in  the  sec- 
ondary geological  epoch ;  the  C.  Phillipsii 
(Cuv.)  is  2  or  3  ft.  long,  brownish  above  and 
whitish  below ;  it  inhabits  the  Pacific  from 
Australia  to  Japan ;  it  is  called  nurse  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  cat  or  kitten  shark  in  China ;  the 
young  are  often  seen  in  Canton  insect  boxes. 
— In  the  family  scymnidce  the  dorsals  are  with- 
out spines,  and  there  is  no  anal  nor  nictitating 
membrane ;  the  upper  teeth  are  pointed,  the 
lower  broader  and  cutting  and  not  denticula- 
ted ;  no  tail  pits ;  intestinal  valve  spiral.  In 
the  genus  scymnus  (Cuv.)  the  spiracles  are  far 
behind  the  eyes,  the  gill  openings  small,  the 
body  short  and  thick,  and  the  lobes  of  the  tail 
not  very  unequal.  The  Greenland  shark  (S. 
lorealis,  Flem.)  attains  a  length  of  about  14  ft., 
and  is  ashy  gray ;  it  inhabits  the  arctic  seas, 
sometimes  visiting  the  northern  shores  of  Eu- 
rope and  America.  It  attacks  whales  fiercely, 
and  scoops  out  at  every  bite  a  piece  as  large  as 
a  man's  head,  the  mouth  being  20  to  24  in. 
wide.  According  to  Scoresby,  they  generally 
attend  the  cutting  up  of  whales,  helping  them- 
selves freely  to  blubber;  the  men  often  fall 
into  the  water  among  them,  but  are  not  at- 
tacked ;  they  are  so  tenacious  of  life,  and  so 
insensible  to  wounds,  that  they  will  return  to 
their  prey  after  receiving  lance  stabs  which 
would  kill  any  other  shark ;  the  muscles,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  jaws,  retain  their  irrita- 
bility for  several  hours  after  death  ;  the  heart 
is  said  to  be  very  small,  and  its  pulsations  only 
six  or  eight  in  a  minute,  which  would  explain 
their  tenacity  of  life  and  the  difficulty  of  reach- 
in?  any  vital  organ.  They  also  eat  small  fishes 
and  crustaceans.  They  are  liable  to  the  attacks 
of  a  parasitic  crustacean  (lerruea  elongata, 
Grant),  2  or  3  in.  long,  which  fixes  itself  so 
often  to  the  cornea  of  the  eyes,  that  it  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  a  natural  appendage; 
this  sometimes  makes  them  apparently  blind. 


830 


SHARK 


SHARP 


The  nurse  or  sleeper  shark  (S.  brevipinna,  De 
Kay ;  somniosus,  Lesueur)  attains  a  length  of  8 
ft. ;  the  color  is  leaden  gray,  darkest  on  the 
back,  with  a  black  lateral  line ;  the  fins  are  so 
small  that  it  must  be  rather  slow  in  its  move- 
ments, and  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  ground 
shark ;  the  skin  is  rough  and  prickly ;  a  few 
specimens  have  been  caught  on  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts. — In  the  family  squatinida,  the 
only  genus,  squatina,  has  been  treated  under 
the  title  ANGEL  FISH. — In  the  family  zygcenidce 
there  is  a  nictitating  membrane,  no  spiracles, 
and  two  spineless  dorsals ;  the  head  is  flat, 
with  the  orbits  extended  laterally  in  a  most 
extraordinary  manner,  flexible  and  doubled  on 
themselves  in  the  foetus,  but  standing  out  at 
right  angles  and  to  a  greater  distance  as  age 
advances ;  on  the  end  of  these  lateral  processes 
are  the  large  eyes.  This  strange  form  of  head 
is  found  in  no  other  vertebrate,  and  only  in 
some  dipterous  insects  (diopiis,  &c.),  and  in 
many  decapod  crustaceans  whose  eyes  are  at 
the  end  of  long  pedicels.  The  snout  is  trun- 
cated, so  that  the  head  resembles  a  double 
hammer ;  the  nostrils  are  on  the  front  border, 
and  have  a  small  nasal  flap ;  the  teeth  are  alike 
above  and  below,  compressed  pyramids,  some- 
times with  a  serrated  external  basal  ridge,  and 
a  mesial  tooth  in  both  jaws ;  tail  pits  distinct, 
and  oviduct  villous.  Such  are  the  characters 
of  the  only  genus,  zygcena  (Guv.)  or  sphyra 
(Van  der  Hoeven),  of  which  the  best  known 
species  is  the  hammer-headed  shark  ('/..  [&] 
malleus,  Guv.)  ;  it  attains  a  length  of  12  ft.  or 
more,  and  is  grayish  above  with  head  nearly 
black,  and  whitish  below  ;  the  iris  is  yellow ; 


Hammer-beaded  Shark  (Zygtena  malleus). 

the  first  dorsal  is  high,  triangular,  falcate,  and 
toward  the  upper  part  of  the  back,  the  second 
smaller  and  near  the  tail.  It  is  found  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  the  warm  seas  of  most 
parts  of  the  globe,  especially  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  generally  in  deep  water.  It  is  so  ferocious 


as  to  attack  persons  bathing,  and  is  very  vora- 
cious, feeding  chiefly  on  rays  and  flat  fishes ; 
great  numbers  of  them  are  sometimes  seen  to- 
gether ;  the  flesh  is  leathery  and  unfit  to  eat, 
but  the  liver  yields  considerable  oil ;  a  fe- 
male opened  at  Penang  was  found  to  contain 
over  35  living  young.  The  common  species 
of  America,  between  Massachusetts  and  Brazil, 
once  considered  the  Z.  malleus,  has  been  de- 
'  scribed  by  Dr.  Storer  ("Proceedings  of  the 
I  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  iii., 
!  1848)  as  the  Z.  arcuata;  it  attains  a  length 
of  11  or  12  ft.,  and  is  much  dreaded  by  fisher- 
men.— Large  sharks  abounded  in  former  geo- 
logical epochs,  especially  during  the  secondary 
and  primary  periods.  In  some  of  the  tertiary 
formations,  as  at  Malta,  teeth  of  sharks  have 
been  found  7  in.  long  and  4^  in.  wide  at  the 
base. — The  principal  shark  fisheries  are  on  the 
N.  and  N.  W.  coasts  of  Iceland,  in  Norway, 
and  on  the  arctic  shores  of  Russia  W.  of  the 
White  sea,  where  they  are  pursued  chiefly  for 
the  oil,  and  on  the  W.  coast  of  Hindostan  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bombay,  where  they  are  pur- 
sued chiefly  for  the  fins.  These  are  sent  to 
China,  the  annual  exports  from  Bombay 
amounting  to  £15,000  or  £20,000.  The  fins 
are  also  collected  in  the  Indian  archipelago. 

SHARON,  a  borough  of  Mercer  co.,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  Shenango  river,  here  spanned 
by  two  iron  bridges,  and  on  the  Erie  and  Pitts- 
burgh railroad,  60  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  the  latter 
and  64  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  the  former  city ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,221.  The  Mahoning  division  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Great  Western  railroad  affords  a 
direct  route  to  Cleveland  and  the  west.  There 
are  large  coal  fields  in  the  vicinity.  Iron 
manufacturing  is  the  chief  business,  the  bor- 
ough containing  two  large  rolling  mills  with 
nail  factories  of  more  than  40  machines  each, 
two  extensive  fonnderies  and  machine  shops, 
and  about  half  a  dozen  blast  furnaces.  There 
are  two  large  planing  mills,  several  smaller 
manufactories,  two  national  banks,  a  savings 
bank,  and  a  private  bank,  four  hotels,  three 
large  brick  school  houses,  a  masonic  hall,  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  nine  churches. 

SHARON  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  Schoharie  co., 
New  York,  on  a  branch  of  the  Albany  and  Sus- 
quehanna  railroad,  45  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Albany ; 
pop.  in  1870,  520.  It  is  in  a  narrow  valley 
surrounded  by  high  hills,  and  is  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  mineral 
springs,  of  which  there  are  four,  chalybeate, 
magnesia,  white  sulphur,  and  blue  sulphur. 
These,  together  with  a  spring  of  pure  water, 
are  near  each  other  and  near  the  base  of  a 
wooded  bluff  W.  of  the  village,  and  flow  into 
a  small  stream  below.  The  village  contains 
several  hotels,  and  is  visited  by  more  than 
10,000  persons  annually. 

SHARP,  GranvUte,  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  in  Durham  in  1734,  died  in  London,  July 
6, 1813.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Thomas  Sharp, 
archdeacon  of  Northumberland,  author  of  sev- 
eral philological,  antiquarian,  and  religious 


SHARP 

works,  and  grandson  of  Dr.  John  Sharp,  arch- 
bishop of  York.  He  quitted  the  study  of  law 
for  a  place  in  the  ordnance  office,  which  he 
resigned  at  the  commencement  of  the  American 
war,  from  disapprobation  of  the  course  pur- 
sued by  the  government.  In  1769  he  befriended 
a  negro  slave  named  Somerset,  who  had  been 
brought  to  England,  and  on  falling  ill  had  been 
turned  into  the  streets  by  his  master.  When 
two  years  later  the  negro's  master  claimed  him, 
and  had  him  arrested  and  imprisoned,  Sharp 
summoned  them  both  before  the  lord  mayor, 
who  discharged  the  slave ;  but  the  master  re- 
fusing to  give  him  up,  Sharp  brought  the  case 
before  the  court  of  king's  bench,  the  12  judges 
of  which,  in  May,  1772,  decided  that  a  slave 
could  not  be  held  in  or  transported  from  Eng- 
land. From  this  time  Mr.  Sharp  devoted  his 
powers  to  the  overthrow  of  slavery  and  the 
slave  trade.  He  wrote  numerous  pamphlets 
on  the  subject,  and  was  chairman  of  the  meet- 
ing held  in  London,  May  22,  1787,  which 
formed  the  "  Association  for  the  Abolition  of 
Negro  Slavery."  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  drew  up 
a  plan  for  its  temporary  government,  and  sent 
many  negroes  there  at  his  own  expense.  He 
also  opposed  the  impressment  of  seamen,  and 
advocated  parliamentary  reform  and  the  ex- 
tension of  privileges  to  Ireland.  Besides  pam- 
phlets, he  published  "  Representation  of  the 
Injustice  and  dangerous  Tendency  of  Tolerating 
Slavery  in  England"  (8vo,  London,  1772); 
"  Declaration  of  the  People's  Natural  Right 
to  a  Share  in  the  Legislature"  (1774);  "The 
Law  of  Retribution"  (1776);  "Remarks  on 
the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in  the  Greek 
Testament "  (1798) ;  "  Account  of  the  Ancient 
Division  of  the  English  Nation  into  Hun- 
dreds and  Tithings,  and  View  of  Frankpledge  " 
(1784)  ;  and  "  Three  Tracts  on  the  Syntax  and 
Pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  Tongue"  (1804). 
His  biography  was  written  by  Prince  Hoare 
(4to,  London,  1810). 

SHARP,  James,  a  Scottish  prelate,  born  in 
the  castle  of  Banff  in  May,  1618,  assassina- 
ted on  Magus  Muir,  near  St.  Andrews,  May 
3,  1679.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  in 
the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  was  one  of 
its  students  who  in  1638  declared  themselves 
against  the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant." 
In  1640  he  was  chosen  professor  of  philoso- 
phy in  St.  Leonard's  college,  St.  Andrews,  and 
shortly  after  became  minister  of  the  parish  of 
Crail.  In  1656  he  was  chosen  to  plead  for  the 
Presbyterians  before  the  protector ;  and  in 
1660,  when  Monk  marched  upon  London,  he 
was  regularly  accredited  to  that  general  as 
their  representative,  and  was  sent  over  to 
Charles  II.  at  Breda  to  procure  the  establish- 
ment of  presbytery.  He  was  received  very 
favorably  by  the  king,  and  obtained  the  royal 
word  "  to  protect  and  preserve  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  of  Scotland,  as  it  is  settled 
by  law,  without  violation."  The  next  Scottish 
parliament  however  repealed  all  acts  passed 
737  VOL.  xiv. — 53 


SHASTA 


831 


since  1633,  the  church  "  settled  by  law "  thus 
becoming  the  old  Episcopal  church ;  and  it 
was  asserted  that  Sharp  was  an  accomplice  in 
this  scheme.  While  in  London  he  had  been 
elected  professor  of  divinity  in  St.  Mary's  col- 
lege, St.  Andrews,  and  also  appointed  the  king's 
chaplain  for  Scotland  with  a  salary  of  £200. 
In  December,  1661,  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  an  appointment  which 
rendered  him  excessively  odious.  The  wanton 
cruelty  with  which  the  Covenanters  were  per- 
secuted was  attributed  to  him,  and  it  is  certain 
that,  after  the  rout  at  Pentland  hills,  when  he 
had  received  the  king's  order  to  stop  the  exe- 
cutions, he  kept  it  for  some  time  private.  A 
creature  of  Sharp's  named  Carmichael  had 
made  himself  particularly  obnoxious  to  the 
Presbyterians,  and  nine  men  formed  a  plan  to 
waylay  and  murder  him.  While  they  were 
waiting  for  this  person,  the  archbishop  passed 
by  with  his  daughter  and  a  few  attendants ; 
shouting,  "  The  Lord  has  delivered  him  into 
our  hands,"  they  dragged  him  from  his  coach 
and  despatched  him. 

SHARP,  John,  an  English  prelate,  grandfather 
of  Granville  Sharp,  born  in  Bradford,  York- 
shire, Feb.  16,  1644,  died  in  Bath,  Feb.  2, 
1714.  He  entered  Christ's  college,  Cambridge, 
in  1660,  was  ordained  in  1667,  was  made  arch- 
deacon of  Berkshire  in  1672,  prebendary  of 
Norwich  in  1675,  rector  of  St.  Bartholomew's, 
London,  in  1676,  of  St.  Giles-in-the-fields  in 
1677,  and  dean  of  Norwich  in  1681.  He  was 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  and  attended  as  court 
chaplain  at  the  coronation  of  James  II.  For  a 
sermon  in  1686  against  the  claim  of  the  Ro- 
man church  to  be  called  "  the  only  visible 
Catholic  church,"  the  king  suspended  him,  but 
he  was  reinstated  in  1687.  In  1689  he  was 
made  dean  of  Canterbury,  and  in  1691  arch- 
bishop of  York.  His  sermons  have  appeared 
in  several  editions  (7  vols.,  1729-'35 ;  5  vols., 
1829). — His  son  THOMAS  (1693-1758),  archdea- 
con of  Northumberland,  wrote  his  life  (edited 
by  Dr.  Newcome,  2  vols.,  1825),  and  published 
works  against  Hutchinsonianism,  on  "  The 
Rubric  and  Canons  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land," "Antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  Tongue  and 
Character,"  &c.  (collected,  5  vols.  8vo,  1768). 

SHARPE,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Arkansas,  bor- 
dering on  Missouri,  and  intersected  by  Spring 
and  Strawberry  rivers,  tributaries  of  Black 
river;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,400,  of  whom  114  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  a  plateau,  divided  into  a  series  of  ridges  by 
numerous  clear  streams,  with  much  good  soil. 
Iron,  lead,  and  zinc  occur,  and  the  last  is  mined. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  13,443 
bushels  of  wheat,  200,090  of  Indian  corn, 
13,447  of  oats,  56,600  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,046 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,704  horses,  2,004 
milch  cows,  3,376  other  cattle,  4,837  sheep, 
and  9,581  swine.  Capital,  Evening  Shade. 

SHASTA,  a  N.  county  of  California,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Coast  mountains,  and  intersected 
by  the  Sacramento  river ;  area,  4,500  sq.  m. ; 


832 


SHASTA 


SIIAWNEES 


pop.  in  1870,  4,173,  of  whom  574  were  Chi- 
nese. The  surface  is  greatly  diversified.  Las- 
sen'*  peak  is  10,557  ft.  high.  The  climate  of 
the  valleys  is  warm  in  summer,  but  mild  and 
equable  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  and  many 
of  them  have  a  fertile  soil.  The  N.  and  W. 
portions  are  covered  with  forests  of  conifers, 
while  the  E.  part  abounds  in  hot  and  boiling 
springs.  The  county  contains  gold,  silver,  and 
copper.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Oregon  division 
of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  29,569  bushels  of 
wheat,  54,636  of  barley,  9,748  of  potatoes, 
19,287  gallons  of  wine,  15,820  Ibs.  of  wool, 
80,150  of  butter,  and  5,034  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,473  horses,  1,207  milch  cows, 
2,545  other  cattle,  3,520  sheep,  and  11,155 
swine  ;  2  fiour  mills,  7  saw  mills,  and  3  quartz 
mills.  Capital,  Shasta. 

SHASTA,  Mtmiil.  See  GLACIER,  ROCKY  MOUN- 
TAINS, and  SISKIYOC. 

SH ASTRA,  or  Shtster.     See  VEDA. 

SHAT-EL-ARAB.     See  EUPHRATES. 

SHAW,  Ltmnel,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Barnstable,  Mass.,  Jan.  9,  1781,  died  in  Boston, 
March  30,  1861.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1800,  and  became  an  usher  in  the 
Franklin  (now  Brimmer)  school  in  Boston,  and 
assistant  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Gazette."  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  September,  1804, 
and  was  a  representative  to  the  state  legislature 
from  1811  to  1815,  and  again  in  1819.  In  1820 
he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  for  re- 
vising the  constitution  of  the  state.  In  1821 
and  1822  he  was  a  member  of  the  senate,  and 
again  in  1828  and  1829.  The  charter  of  the 
city  of  Boston  was  drafted  by  him.  He  was 
appointed  chief  justice  Au^.  23, 1830,  and  re- 
signed Aug.  31,  1860.  His  reported  decisions 
are  found  in  the  last  16  volumes  of  Picker- 
ing's reports,  and  in  those  of  Metcalf,  Cush- 
ing,  and  Gray ;  in  all,  upward  of  50  volumes. 
He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
Harvard  university  in  1831,  and  from  Brown 
university  in  1850.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
corporation  of  Harvard  college  for  27  years. 

SHAWANO,  a  N".  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  in- 
tersected by  the  Oconto,  Wolf,  Embarras,  and 
Red  rivers ;  area,  about  1,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  3,166.  The  surface  is  generally  level 
and  the  soil  fertile.  Lake  Shawano  is  in  the 
central  part,  and  fine  streams  of  water  abound. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  27,272 
bushels  of  wheat,  3,144  of  rye,  7,996  of  Indian 
corn,  27,631  of  oats,  20,273  of  potatoes,  and 
1,964  Ibs.  of  wool.  Capital,  Shawano. 

SHAWL,  a  garment  worn  upon  the  shoulders 
or  about  the  waist,  and  formed  of  wool,  silk, 
hair,  or  cotton.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  shawls:  those  of  Cashmere, 
woven  in  India  or  imitated  in  Europe,  with 
the  designs  either  embroidered  upon  the  fab- 
ric, or  by  the  more  costly  method  worked  into 
the  web  in  the  process  of  weaving,  thus  ma- 
king both  sides  alike;  crape  shawls,  made  of 
silk  in  imitation  of  the  Chinese  fabrics ;  gren- 


adines, made  of  silk  of  a  peculiar  twist ;  che- 
nilles, of  silk,  often  combined  with  cotton ; 
chine,  made  with  a  warp  printed  before  weav- 
ing; barege,  of  wool,  in  imitation  of  shawls 
made  by  the  peasantry  at  Bareges  in  the  Pyre- 
nees ;  woollen  shawls  of  various  kinds ;  and 
tartan  plaids,  made  for  centuries  in  Scotland. 
A  description  of  the  colors  of  tartans  worn  by 
the  different  clans  in  1570  is  extant.  Their 
use  was  prohibited  by  act  of  parliament  from 
1747  to  1782 ;  and  they  became  fashionable 
from  about  1828,  and  have  so  continued  to 
some  extent.  The  printing  of  shawl  figures 
is  done  with  blocks  as  in  calico  printing,  and 
with  the  same  elaborateness,  as  many  as  100 
blocks  and  1,600  printings  or  applications  be- 
ing sometimes  necessary  for  the  production  of 
a  single  pattern.  The  manufacture  of  Cash- 
mere shawls  was  introduced  from  India  in  1784 
at  Norwich,  England,  with  the  imported  Thibet 
wool,  and  afterward  with  Piedmont  silk  warp 
and  fine  worsted  shoot,  the  designs  being 
worked  in  by  hand.  In  1805  the  shawls  were 
there  first  completed  entirely  upon  the  loom. 
About  the  same  time  the  manufacture  was  in- 
troduced in  Paisley  and  Edinburgh,  and  is  still 
continued  at  the  former  place  of  the  Indian 
pattern  with  real  Cashmere  wool.  In  Paris 
the  manufacture  was  begun  in  1802,  and  led 
Jacquard  to  the  invention  of  his  loom.  In 
England  the  principal  shawl-printing  establish- 
ment is  at  Crayford  in  Kent.  In  the  United 
States,  the  business  was  begun  at  Lowell,  Mass., 
but  has  since  been  established  at  several  oth- 
er places,  and  has  been  very  greatly  extended. 
(For  statistics  on  the  India  shawl  trade  and 
other  information,  see  CASHMERE.) 

SII.4  \V.\KK,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Kansas,  inter- 
sected by  the  Kansas  river ;  area,  546  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  18,121.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Kan- 
sas Pacific  railroads.  The  surface  is  undula- 
ting or  level,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Coal  and 
limestone  abound.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  46,726  bushels  of  wheat,  602,475 
of  Indian  corn,  60,853  of  oats,  84,656  of  pota- 
toes, 238,005  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  19,122  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  8,461  horses,  3,562  milch 
cows,  6,556  other  cattle,  1,832  sheep,  and  4,904 
swine;  1  bookbindery,  2  flour  mills,  2  saw 
mills,  3  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
4  of  furniture,  1  of  machinery,  and  7  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware.  Capital,  Topeka, 
which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 

SIIAWNEES,  an  erratic  tribe  of  the  Algonquin 
family.  A  tradition  of  recent  origin  makes 
them  primarily  one  with  the  Kickapoo  nation ; 
but  they  moved  eastward,  and  a  part  are  said 
to  have  remained  in  1648  along  the  Fox  river, 
while  the  main  body,  met  south  of  Lake  Erie 
by  the  Iroquois,  were  driven  to  the  banks  of 
the  Cumberland.  Some  passed  thence  into 
Carolina,  and  others  into  Florida.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  17th  century  one  band  went 
north,  and  was  among  the  tribes  occupying 
Pennsylvania  when  it  was  granted  to  Penn, 


SHAYS 

who  made  treaties  with  them  in  1682  and  1701. 
In  1693  and  in  1722  they  made  treaties  at 
Albany  with  the  Iroquois  of  New  York  and 
Virginia.  The  portion  in  Florida  maintained 
friendly  relations  with  the  Spaniards  for  a 
time,  but  finally  joined  the  English  in  Caro- 
lina, and  were  known  as  Savannahs  or  Ye- 
massees.  After  their  war  they  retired  to  the 
Creeks,  and  finally  joined  the  northern  Shaw- 
nees. The  Iroquois  claimed  sovereignty  over 
the  Shawnees,  and  drove  them  to  the  west.  In 
1731,  rejecting  the  English  missionaries,  they 
negotiated  with  the  French,  and  gave  early 
aid  to  them  in  the  final  struggle ;  but  in  1758 
they  were  won  over  by  Post,  and  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  Gen.  Forbes.  After  the  fall  of 
Canada  they  joined  Pontiac,  and  were  active  in 
hostilities  till  subdued  by  Bouquet.  In  1774, 
enraged  at  Cresap's  attack,  they  roused  most 
of  the  western  tribes,  and  in  October  defeated 
the  Virginians  at  Pleasant  Point,  but  made 
peace  the  next  year.  In  1779  Col.  Bowman 
marched  against  the  Shawnee  towns,  but  was 
twice  defeated.  They  joined  in  the  peace  of 
1786,  but,  under  English  influence,  took  part 
in  the  Miami  war,  in  the  campaigns  against 
Harmar  and  St.  Clair,  till  they  were  finally 
reduced  by  Gen.  Wayne,  and  they  submitted 
under  the  treaty  of  Greenville  (1795).  The 
main  party  were  at  this  time  on  the  Scioto ; 
but  some  had  crossed  into  Missouri,  where 
the  Spaniards  gave  them  land.  Another  band 
moved  south.  In  the  war  of  1812  some  of  the 
bands  were  won  by  the  English.  Urged  by 
Tecumseh  and  his  brother  the  prophet,  they 
endeavored  to  unite  all  the  Indians  of  the  west 
against  the  Americans,  but  those  in  Ohio  re- 
mained faithful.  The  Missouri  band  ceded 
their  lands  to  the  government  in  1825,  and 
the  Ohio  band  in  1831.  In  1854  the  band  of 
Shawnees  proper,  in  that  part  of  the  Indian 
territory  now  included  in  Kansas,  numbered 
900  on  a  reservation  of  1,600,000  acres;  but 
by  treaty  the  tribal  relation  was  ended  and 
the  lands  were  divided  in  severalty.  Besides 
these,  there  were  in  1872  90  in  the  Quapaw 
agency,  and  663  in  the  Sac  and  Fox  agency. 
The  Methodists,  Baptists,  and  Friends  have  all 
labored  among  this  tribe. 

SHAYS,  Daniel,  leader  in  1786-'7  of  the  re- 
bellion in  Massachusetts  which  bears  his  name, 
born  in  Hopkinton,  Mass.,  in  1747,  died  in 
Sparta,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1825.  He  served  as  a 
sergeant  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  became  a  captain 
during  the  revolution.  Although  not  promi- 
nent in  the  first  movements  of  the  rebellion, 
Shays  was  chosen  commander.  The  insurgents 
complained  that  the  governor's  salary  was  too 
high,  the  senate  aristocratic,  the  lawyers  ex- 
tortionate, and  taxes  too  burdensome  to  bear ; 
and  they  demanded  an  issue  of  paper  money 
and  the  removal  of  the  legislature  (general 
court)  from  Boston.  An  effort  was  made  to 
allay  the  discontent  by  the  passage  of  an  act 
to  diminish  costs  in  the  collection  of  debts  and 
allow  certain  back  taxes  and  debts  to  be  paid 


SHEARWATER 


833 


in  produce,  but  the  mob  was  not  satisfied. 
Bodies  of  armed  men  interrupted  the  sessions 
of  the  courts  in  several  counties,  and  in  De- 
cember, 1786,  Shays  appeared  with  a  large 
force  at  Worcester  and  Springfield,  and  pre- 
vented the  holding  of  the  courts  at  those 
places.  In  January  following,  at  the  head  of 
nearly  2,000  men,  he  marched  to  capture  the 
arsenal  at  Springfield,  but  was  opposed  by  the 
militia  under  Gen.  Shepherd,  and  the  insur- 
gents were  fired  upon  and  fled,  leaving  three 
killed  and  one  wounded  on  the  field.  Next 
day  they  were  pursued  by  a  large  force  under 
Gen.  Lincoln,  and  at  Petersham  150  were  ta- 
ken prisoners,  the  remainder  dispersed,  and 
the  leaders  made  their  escape  into  New  Hamp- 
shire. A  free  pardon  offered  to  all  who  would 
lay  down  their  arms  was  generally  accepted ; 
14  were  tried  and  sentenced  to  death,  but  were 
pardoned.  Shays  sought  safety  for  about  a 
year  in  Vermont,  and  at  his  petition  was  after- 
ward pardoned,  and  settled  at  Sparta,  N.  Y. 

SHEA,  John  D.  Oilman,  an  American  author, 
born  in  New  York,  July  22,  1824.  He  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Columbia 
college,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  devo- 
ted himself  to  literature.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  works  on  American  history,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are :  "  The  Discovery  and 
Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  "  (New 
York,  1853);  "History  of  the  Catholic  Mis- 
sions among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United 
States"  (1854;  German  translation,  Wurzburg, 
1856);  "The  Fallen  Brave"  (1861);  "Early 
Voyages  up  and  down  the  Mississippi "  (Al- 
bany, 1862) ;  "  Novum  Belgium,  an  Account 
of  New  Netherland  in  1643-'4"  (New  York, 
1862);  "The  Operations  of  the  French  Fleet 
under  Count  de  Grasse"  (1864);  "The  Lin- 
coln Memorial  "  (1865) ;  and  a  translation  of 
Charlevoix's  "History  and  General  Descrip- 
tion of  New  France,"  with  extensive  notes  (6 
vols.  8vo,  1866-'72).  He  is  also  the  joint  au- 
thor and  the  translator  of  De  Courcy's  "  Cath- 
olic Church  in  the  United  States"  (1856).  He 
has  edited  the  Cramoisy  series  of  "  Relations  " 
and  documents  bearing  on  the  early  history  of 
the  French  American  colonies  (24  vols.,  1857- 
'68);  "Washington's  Private  Diary "  (1861); 
Colden's  "History  of  the  Five  Indian  Na- 
tions," edition  of  1727  (1866);  Alsop's  "Mary- 
land "  (1869) ;  and  a  series  of  grammars  and 
dictionaries  of  the  Indian  languages  (15  vols. 
8vo,  1860-'74).  He  has  also  published  "  Bibli- 
ography of  American  Catholic  Bibles  and  Tes- 
taments" (1859),  corrected  several  of  the  very 
erroneous  Catholic  Bibles,  and  revised  by  the 
Vulgate  Challoner's  original  Bible  of  1750 
(1871 ;  2d  ed.,  with  a  translation  of  Allioli's 
commentary,  1875);  and  has  issued  several 
prayer  books,  school  histories,  and  translations. 
He  edited  for  eight  years  the  "  Historical  Mag- 
azine," and  has  contributed  largely  to  periodi- 
cals and  publications  of  historical  societies. 

SHEARWATER,  a  web-footed  bird  of  the  pe- 
trel family,  and  genus  puffinut  (Briss.).  The 


834 


SHEARWATER 


SHEBOYGAN 


bill  is  about  as  long  as  tbe  head,  slender,  com- 
pressed near  the  end  and  grooved  obliquely  on 
the  sides,  with  strong,  curved,  and  acute  tip ; 
nostrils  basal,  with  two  distinct  tubes,  side  by 
side ;  wings  very  long  and  pointed,  the  first 
quill  longest ;  tail  short  and  rounded ;  tarsi  as 
long  as  middle  toe  and  compressed  ;  toes  long 
and  united  by  a  full  web ;  in  some  there  is  a 
straight  claw  in  place  of  a  hind  toe.  They  are 
moderate-sized,  found  in  both  hemispheres, 
and  are  met  with  at  sea,  often  many  hundred 
miles  from  land,  even  in  the  most  tempestuous 
weather,  skimming  and  running  over  the  waves 
in  search  of  food  ;  they  are  light  and  graceful 
swimmers,  good  divers,  and  pat  the  surface  of 
the  water  with  their  feet  like  the  petrels ;  they 
are  rapid  fliers,  and  can  keep  on  the  wing  all 
day,  resting  on  the  ocean  if  need  be  at  night ; 
they  breed  in  company,  in  burrows  made  by 
themselves  or  small  mammals ;  they  lay  only 
one  egg,  and  the  young  are  covered  with  long 
down. — The  greater  shearwater  (P.  major,  Fa- 
ber)  is  about  20  in.  long  and  45  in.  in  alar  ex- 
tent ;  the  upper  plumage  is  brownish  ash,  the 


Greater  Shearwater  (I'urtiuus  major). 

lower  grayish  white;  lower  back  and  upper 
tail  coverts  dark  brown ;  primaries  and  tail 
brownish  black,  the  feathers  of  the  wings  with 
white  on  the  inner  webs ;  bill  yellowish  green, 
with  dark  tip;  tarsi  and  feet  yellow.  This 
species  is  found  on  the  European  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  ranges  on  the  American  coast 
from  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Florida.  It 
mingles  with  the  fulmars,  and  on  being  ap- 
proached ejects  from  the  nostrils  an  oily  sub- 
stance ;  on  land,  where  it  goes  only  to  breed, 
it  walks  as  well  as  a  duck.  The  food  consists 
of  fishes,  crustaceans,  algee,  and  other  marine 
products,  and  floating  animal  substances.  The 
Manx  shearwater  (P.  Anglorum,  Ray)  is  15 
in.  long  and  32  in.  in  alar  extent;  the  upper 
plumage  is  black,  the  under  white,  bill  brown- 
ish black,  legs  and  feet  dull  orange.  It  is 
abundant  on  the  Orkney  and  other  northern 
islands,  and  on  the  American  coast  from  New 
Jersey  to  Labrador ;  it  breeds  in  rabbit  bur- 
rows in  the  Orkneys  between  March  and  Au- 
gust, and  all  the  rest  of  the  year  is  at  sea;  the 
young  are  fat,  and  the  natives  salt  and  eat 


them. — Some  writers  give  the  name  shear- 
water to  the  genus  rhynchops.  (See  SKIMMER.) 

SHEATHBILL  (chionis,  Forst.),  a  genus  placed 
by  Gray  among  the  gallinaceous  birds,  but  by 
Latham,  Cuvier,  and  Van  der  Hoeven  among 
the  waders.  The  bill  is  short,  strong,  com- 
pressed toward  the  tip,  the  culmen  curved,  and 
the  base  covered  with  a  movable  horny  sub- 
stance, more  or  less  concealing  the  nostrils ; 
base  of  bill  and  cheeks  covered  with  a  warty 
naked  skin;  wings  moderate,  the  second  quill 
the  longest,  and  the  bend  with  a  blunt  knob ; 
tail  moderate  and  even ;  tarsi  short,  strong, 
covered  with  small  rough  scales ;  toes  moder- 
ately strong,  with  transverse  scales,  the  outer 
united  to  the  middle  one  by  a  membrane  at  the 
base,  and  the  hind  one  small,  elevated,  and  on 
one  side ;  claws  short  and  blunt.  The  white 
sheathbill  (<7.  alba,  Forst.)  is  from  15  to  18 
in.  long ;  the  plumage  is  pure  white,  the  bill 
and  knob  of  wing  black ;  the  legs  bare  a  little 
above  the  joint,  and  reddish.  It  is  found  in 
New  Zealand,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Antarctic  ocean,  where  it  frequents  the  shores 
in  flocks,  searching  for  food,  which  consists 
of  mollusks,  sea  weeds,  and  animal  remains; 
numbers  have  sometimes  been  seen  by  south- 
ern voyagers  at  a  great  distance  from  land, 
resting  on  icebergs  and  feeding  on  refuse  mat- 
ters. The  flight  is  like  that  of  the  pigeon; 
the  flesh  is  said  to  be  excellent.  With  the 
general  appearance  of  a  gallinaceous  bird,  the 
sheathbill  has  the  habits  of  a  wader. 

SHKBA,  or  S*bt,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
capital  city  of  the  Sabroans  in  'Arabia  Felix. 
Its  exact  site  is  unknown.  The  territory  of 
the  Sabseans  lay  near  the  Red  sea,  and  ran  up 
to  the  borders  of  the  desert.  They  were,  part- 
ly at  least,  Semitic  tribes,  monarchically  gov- 
erned, the  first  child  born  in  a  certain  number 
of  noble  families  after  the  accession  of  a  mon- 
arch being  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  throne. 
They  held  for  centuries  the  keys  of  the  com- 
merce between  Europe  and  India,  and  Egypt 
and  Syria,  produced  and  sold  frankincense  and 
aromatics,  and  were  reputed  for  their  opulence 
and  luxury  among  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and 
Romans.  A  queen  of  Sheba  was  attracted  by 
the  fame  of  Solomon  to  visit  Jerusalem  (1  Kings 
x.  1-18).  The  Sabseans  were  ultimately  sub- 
jected by  the  Himyarites.  The  traveller  Nie- 
buhr  was  the  first  to  assert  that  the  country 
could  never  have  produced  gold,  and  that  some 
of  its  finest  spices  and  perfumes  were  proba- 
bly imported. — The  name  of  Saba  was  given 
by  classical  writers  to  other  cities  both  on  the 
Arabian  and  Ethiopian  sides  of  the  Red  sea. 
In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  contradistinc- 
tion from  the  Arabian  Sheba,  the  region  of 
the  Ethiopian  Sabseans  is  called  Seba. 

SHEBOYGAN,  an  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bor- 
dering on  Lake  Michigan,  drained  by  Sheboy- 
gan  river  and  its  tributaries,  and  by  tributaries 
of  Milwaukee  river;  area,  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  81,749.  It  is  traversed  by  several  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 


SHEBOYGAN 

604,531  bushels  of  wheat,  93,165  of  rye,  75,198 
of  Indian  corn,  418,083  of  oats,  56,767  of  bar- 
ley, 21,810  of  buckwheat,  138,786  of  potatoes, 
96,984  of  peas  and  beans,  39,351  tons  of  hay, 
127,241  Ibs.  of  wool,  710,010  of  butter,  120,005 
of  cheese,  31,954  of  hops,  and  25,522  of  maple 
sugar.  There  were  6,403  horses,  10,487  milch 
cows,  11,322  other  cattle,  31,734  sheep,  and 
8,977  swine;  7  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  9  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of 
cheese,  41  of  cooperage,  9  of  furniture,  4  of 
iron  castings,  1  of  railroad  cars,  3  of  wood 
work,  2  of  woollen  goods,  10  breweries,  7  brick 
yards,  5  tanneries,  12  flour  mills,  and  12  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Sheboygan. 

SHEBOYGAN,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  She- 
boygan co.,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan,  at 
the  mouth  of  Sheboygan  river,  52  m.  N.  of 
Milwaukee;  pop.  in  1870,  5,310;  in  1875, 
6,828.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  ships  annual- 
ly to  Buffalo  about  500,000  bushels  of  wheat. 
It  is  on  the  Milwaukee,  Lake  Shore,  and  West- 
ern railroad,  and  is  the  E.  terminus  of  the  She- 
boygan and  Fond  du  Lac  railroad.  It  contains 
two  extensive  chair  factories,  besides  52  other 
manufacturing  establishments  of  various  kinds. 
It  has  one  national  and  one  private  bank,  a  high 
school  and  other  public  schools,  three  weekly 
newspapers  (one  German),  and  ten  churches. 
It  was  first  settled  in  1836. 

SHECHEM,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  called 
also  Sichem,  Sychem,  and  Sychar,  30  m.  N. 
of  Jerusalem,  on  or  near  the  site  of  the  mod- 
ern Nablus.  The  allusions  to  it  in  the  Old 
Testament  are  numerous.  Abraham  wor- 
shipped under  an  oak  near  Shechem  on  his  first 
visit  to  the  land  of  promise ;  Jacob  encamped 
near  it,  and  the  defilement  of  his  daughter 
Dinah  by  the  son  of  the  local  chieftain  led  to 
the  capture  of  the  place  and  slaughter  of  all 
the  male  inhabitants  by  his  sons  Simeon  and 
Levi.  After  the  conquest  of  Palestine  She- 
chem was  assigned  to  the  Levites  and  became 
a  city  of  refuge;  the  bones  of  Joseph  were 
buried  here  in  the  field  purchased  by  his  fa- 
ther from  Hamor ;  hither  Joshua  assembled 
the  tribes  to  hear  his  last  counsels.  After  the 
death  of  Gideon,  his  illegitimate  son  Abime- 
lech  induced  the  Shechemites  to  revolt  and 
make  him  their  king.  Three  years  later  they 
expelled  him,  and  he  destroyed  the  city ;  but 
it  was  soon  rebuilt,  and  the  reign  of  Reho- 
boam  was  here  inaugurated.  Here  the  ten 
tribes  renounced  their  allegiance  to  the  house 
of  David,  and  chose  for  their  king  Jeroboam, 
who  made  the  city  his  capital.  After  the  cap- 
tivity Shechem  became  the  chief  seat  of  Sa- 
maritan worship,  and  remained  such  until  its 
destruction  by  Vespasian,  after  which  it  was 
rebuilt  and  called  Neapolis.  (See  NABLUS.) 

SHEDD,  William  Greenongh  Thtyer,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  in  Acton,  Mass.,  June  21, 
1820.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Ver- 
mont in  1839,  and  at  Andover  theological 
seminary  in  1843,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  in  Brandon,  Vt.,  in 


SHEEP 


880 


1844.  In  1845  he  became  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  university  of  Vermont,  in  1852 
of  homiletics  in  Auburn  theological  seminary, 
and  in  1854  of  church  history  in  the  Andover 
theological  seminary.  In  1862  he  was  installed 
as  associate  pastor  of  the  Brick  church  (Pres- 
byterian) in  New  York,  resigned  in  1863,  and 
became  professor  of  Biblical  literature  in  the 
Union  theological  seminary,  and  in  1874  of 
doctrinal  theology.  He  has  published  "  Out- 
lines of  a  System  of  Rhetoric,"  from  the  Ger- 
man of  F.  Theremin  (12mo,  New  York,  1850); 
"  Lectures  upon  the  Philosophy  of  History " 
(Andover,  1856);  "Discourses  and  Essays" 
(Andover,  1856);  "A  Manual  of  Church  His- 
tory," from  the  German  of  II.  E.  F.  Guericke 
(8vo,  Andover  and  Edinburgh,  1857);  "A 
History  of  the  Christian  Doctrine "  (2  vols., 
New  York,  1863) ;  "  Homiletics  and  Pastoral 
Theology  "  (1867) ;  and  "  Sermons  to  the  Nat- 
ural Man  "  (1871).  Prof.  Shedd  has  also  ed- 
ited the  works  of  Coleridge  (7  vols.  12mo,  New 
York,  1853),  "  The  Confessions  of  Augustine," 
with  an  introductory  essay  (Andover,  1860), 
and  the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  trans- 
lation of  Lange's  commentary;  and  has  con- 
tributed an  introduction  to  Asbury's  transla- 
tion of  Ackermann's  work  on  the  Christian 
element  in  Plato,  and  to  the  American  edition 
of  McCosh's  "  Intuitions  of  the  Mind." 

SHEE,  Sir  Martin  Archer,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Dublin,  Dec.  23, 1770,  died  in  Brighton, 
Aug.  19,  1850.  He  studied  painting  in  Dublin 
under  F.  R.  West,  and  at  the  age  of  16  was  a 
successful  portrait  painter.  In  1788  he  went 
to  London,  and  became  a  pupil  in  the  royal 
academy,  to  the  exhibition  of  which  he  con- 
tributed his  first  pictures  in  1789.  In  1798  he 
was  chosen  an  associate,  and  in  1800  a  member 
of  the  royal  academy,  and  in  1830  he  became 
president  and  was  knighted.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  was  granted  a  pension  of  £200, 
with  succession  to  his  daughters.  He  published 
two  parts  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Rhymes  on 
Art "  (1805,  1809) ;  "  The  Commemoration  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  other  Poems  "  (1814) ; 
"Alasco,"  a  tragedy  (1824);  "  Oldcourt,"  a 
novel  (1829) ;  and  "  Outline  of  a  Plan  for  the 
National  Encouragement  of  Historical  Paint- 
ing "  (1837).  His  life  has  been  written  by  his 
son  (2  vols.,  London,  1860). 

SHEEAHS.     See  SHIAHS. 

SHEEP,  a  hollow-horned,  wool-bearing,  ru- 
minating animal,  of  the  genus  ovis  (Linn.). 
The  genus  is  characterized  by  horns  common 
to  both  sexes  in  the  wild  state  (though  some- 
times wanting  in  the  females),  large,  angular, 
transversely  wrinkled,  yellowish  brown,  curved 
backward,  laterally,  and  spirally,  the  tip  coming 
forward,  and  with  a  porous  bony  axis ;  arched 
forehead,  distinct  lachrymal  sinus,  and  hairy 
muzzle ;  absence  of  inguinal  pores  and  of  beard 
under  the  chin ;  two  mammae,  small  ears,  slen- 
der legs,  and  short  tail ;  and  hair  of  two  kinds, 
one  woolly,  the  other  exterior,  closer,  and 
harsher.  In  a  domesticated  state  the  wool 


836 


SHEEP 


predominates  over  the  hair,  the  horns  vary 
or  disappear,  the  ears  and  tail  lengthen,  and 
other  characters  undergo  great  modifications. 
Though  the  sheep  is  externally  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct from  the  goat  (capra)  in  general  appear- 
ance, covering,  and  horns,  the  generic  differ- 
ences are  not  so  evident  when  the  whole  series 
of  these  animals  is  examined;  they  run  into 
each  other  so  closely  that  some  naturalists  have 
included  them  in  a  single  genus.  The  sheep 
differs  from  the  goat  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the 
horns,  absence  of  beard,  and  presence  of  an 
opening  on  the  anterior  part  of  each  foot  be- 
tween the  hoofs,  whence  issues  a  sebaceous  se- 
cretion ;  the  males  are  not  so  odorous  as  in  the 
goat.  Sheep  are  gregarious,  timid,  defenceless, 
and  more  dependent  on  man's  care  than  the 
goat ;  they  inhabit  the  mountainous  regions  of 
temperate  climates,  and  climb  rocks  and  preci- 
pices with  facility  and  speed.  Some  natural- 
ists count  four  or  five  distinct  species,  one 
of  which  is  found  native  in  each  continent ; 
there  are  few  parts  of  the  globe  except  the 
polar  regions  where  some  breed  of  the  sheep 
is  not  found  ;  they  thrive  remarkably  in  tem- 
perate Australia,  producing  fine  fleeces ;  in  the 
tropics  the  wool  degenerates  into  hair.  In 
the  skeleton  the  parietal  bone  is  in  the  form 
of  a  flattened  band,  encircling  the  cranium  be- 
tween the  orbital  wings  of  the  sphenoid,  and 
is  narrower  than  in  the  goats ;  f rentals  large 
and  broad ;  aquamous  portion  of  temporals 
small,  and  the  tympanic  bnllte  large,  termina- 
ting anteriorly  by  a  sharp  styloid  process ; 
nasals  long  and  convex,  forming  a  single  V- 
shaped  bone ;  ascending  portion  of  intermaxil- 
laries  at  a  very  oblique  angle,  and  the  incisive 
openings  very  large  and  elongated  ;  infraorbi- 
tal  opening  on  a  line  with  the  second  premo- 
lar ;  lachrymals  large,  articulating  with  the  na- 
sals ;  malar  bones  broad,  thick,  and  much  pro- 
longed on  the  cheek  ;  palate  bones  largely  de- 
veloped, deeply  notched  posteriorly.  Accord- 
ing to  Cuvier  there  are  46  vertebrae,  of  which 
7  are  cervical,  13  dorsal,  6  lumbar,  4  sacral, 
and  16  caudal.  The  intestinal  canal  is  very 
long  and  simple,  the  small  intestines  very  much 
convoluted,  and  the  large  of  nearly  the  same 
size,  the  whole  28  times  as  long  as  the  body ; 
the  stomach  compound ;  hepatic  duct  enor- 
mously large ;  brain  elongated,  narrowed  in 
front ;  organ  of  smell  highly  developed.  (For 
other  anatomical  details,  see  RUMINAXTIA.) 
The  dental  formula  is :  incisors  $,  canines  none, 
molars  gi| ;  they  begin  to  change  their  teeth 
in  the  first  year,  and  have  all  their  permanent 
teeth  at  three  years,  except  the  outer  two  in- 
cisors; the  last,  according  to  Owen,  in  the 
lower  jaw,  represent  canines,  as  shown  by  the 
analogy  of  the  camels,  their  lateness  of  devel- 
opment and  peculiarity  of  form;  this  holds 
true  in  all  the  cavicornia  or  hollow-horned  ru- 
minants.— Sheep  formed  the  principal  wealth 
of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  and  the  term  pecus 
(cattle)  of  the  Latins,  whence  was  derived  pe- 
cunia,  wealth,  was  applied  especially  to  them ; 


!  they  came  into  N.  and  W.  Europe  long  after  the 
goat,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  their  cross- 
ing the  Rhine  or  upper  Danube  until  about  the 
|  time  of  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  though 
I  they  then  existed  in  8.  Europe.  In  old  times 
they  were  bred  chiefly  for  their  skins  and  milk, 
the  last  being  abundant,  agreeable,  and  high- 
ly nutritious.  Now  they  are  valued  most  for 
their  wool,  flesh,  and  fat;  their  flocks  well 
managed  carry  fertility  wherever  they  go,  the 
droppings  being  richer  than  any  other  manure 
except  that  of  fowls ;  they  are  even  employed 
as  beasts  of  burden  in  the  mountains  of  India ; 
the  skins  with  the  wool  on  are  used  in  some 
countries  for  garments,  and  in  the  form  of 
leather  for  gloves,  book  covers,  and  for  various 
other  purposes ;  the  wool  has  the  property  of 
felting  on  account  of  the  imbricated  scaly  sur- 
face of  the  fibres. — The  Corsican  musimon  or 
moufflon  (0.  musimon,  Pall.),  placed  by  Bona- 
parte in  the  genus  capra  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  interdigital  glandular  openings,  and 
the  type  of  the  genus  caprovit  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  goat,  grows  as  large  as  a  small 
fallow  deer,  and  has  very  large  horns ;  it  in- 
habits the  mountains  of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  the 
southern  part  of  Spain,  European  Turkey,  and 
the  eastern  Mediterranean  islands,  where  how- 
ever it  is  comparatively  little  known.  The 
head  is  long,  with  compressed  muzzle,  swollen 
forehead,  and  large,  erect,  and  sharp  ears ;  the 
horns  of  the  male  are  long  and  triangular,  com- 
prising more  than  half  a  circle,  their  bases 
occupying  almost  all  the  forehead  and  separa- 
ted only  by  a  small  space ;  they  grow  gradual- 
ly smaller  to  the  obtuse  tip,  with  transverse 
wrinkles  and  raised  rings;  the  body  is  large 
and  muscular,  the  tail  with  12  vertebra,  turned 
down  and  bare  on  the  under  side;  the  legs 
long  and  muscular,  and  the  hoofs  short ;  there 
is  an  appearance  of  a  moderate  dewlap.  The 
general  color  is  yellowish,  with  a  chestnut 
tinge,  deepest  on  the  neck ;  head  ash-gray ; 
muzzle,  space  about  eyes,  interior  of  ears,  ab- 
domen, inside  of  thighs,  edges  of  tail  and  end 
of  legs,  white ;  horns  ochrey  brown ;  the  un- 
der wool  is  ashy  or  rusty  white,  and  the  hair 
is  darker  and  thicker  in  winter;  the  females 
are  without  horns,  or  have  very  small  ones. 
The  average  size  is  about  4  ft.  in  length  and 
32  in.  in  height;  there  is  sometimes  a  tuft 
under  the  chin,  and  other  marks  also  indicate 
it  to  be  intermediate  between  sheep  and  goats. 
They  are  seen  in  flocks  of  100  or  more,  headed 
by  an  old  male;  they  breed  with  the  domestic 
races,  and  have  been  themselves  domesticated. 
— The  Asiatic  argali  (0.  Ammon,  Cuv.),  very 
similar  to  the  moufflon  in  general  form,  is  large 
and  powerful,  the  male  standing  8  ft.  high  at 
the  shoulders  and  weighing  200  Ibs. ;  the  horns 
4  ft.  in  their  curve,  with  a  weight  of  80  Ibs. 
The  fur  is  short,  fulvous  gray  in  winter,  with 
a  ferruginous  or  buff  dorsal  stripe,  and  a  light 
brown  anal  disk;  it  is  more  rufous  in  sum- 
mer. It  inhabits  the  highest  mountain  ranges 
of  Asia,  the  Caucasus,  and  the  plains  of  Sibe- 


SHEEP 


837 


ria ;  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  in  Russia 
the  skins  are  still  used  as  articles  of  dress ;  it 
is  easily  domesticated,  and  is  generally  believed 
to  be  the  source  of  some  of  the  eastern  breeds 


Asiatic  Argali  (Ovls  Ammon). 

of  sheep ;  the  females  have  small  horns.  The 
African  argali  or  bearded  sheep  (0.  tragela- 
phus,  Cuv.),  the  aoudad  and  ammotragus  of 
some  authors,  is  another  species  intermediate 
between  the  sheep  and  goats,  having  the  inter- 
digital  glands  of  the  former,  and  the  absence 
of  lachrymal  sinuses  of  the  latter;  it  is  one 
fifth  larger  than  the  European  sheep,  with  a 
tail  about  7  in.  long,  ending  in  a  pencil  of 
hairs ;  the  horns  are  small  in  comparison  with 
the  size  of  the  body,  and  rather  smooth.  The 
color  is  uniform  reddish  yellow,  with  dorsal 
stripe  and  anterior  part  of  limbs  brownish; 
under  parts  and  inside  of  limbs  whitish;  the 
anterior  parts. of  the  neck,  body,  and  legs  are 
furnished  with  hair  6  to  12  in.  long.  It  in- 


Kocky  Mountain  Sheep  (Ovis  montana). 

habits  the  mountains  of  N.  Africa,  from  Abys- 
sinia to  Barbary,  in  small  flocks;  it  is  fierce, 
and  bravely  defends  itself.  America  has  also 
an  argali,  the  Rocky  mountain  sheep  (0.  mon- 


tana, Cuv.),  called  big-horn  from  the  great  size 
of  the  horns ;  it  is  found  in  flocks  of  8  to  80, 
from  the  upper  Missouri  and  the  Yellowstone 
river  to  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  high 
grounds  on  their  eastern  slope,  as  far  S.  as  the 
Rio  Grande,  E.  to  the  Mauvaises  Terres  of  Ne- 
braska, and  W.  to  the  coast  ranges  of  Wash- 
ington territory,  Oregon,  and  California;  it  IB 
said  to  range  as  far  N.  as  lat.  68°,  but  is  not 
found  in  the  hilly  regions  near  Hudson  bay. 
None  of  the  domestic  breeds  have  been  traced 
to  this,  though  it  would  no  doubt  cross  with 
them ;  the  effect  of  all  domestication  is  to  im- 
prove the  fleece,  shortening  the  hair  and  in- 
creasing the  wool. — The  musimon  of  Corsica 
and  the  Asiatic  argali,  though  differing  some- 
what in  the  skeletons  from  the  domesticated 
races,  have  generally  been  considered  as  their 
most  probable  origins.  The  domestic  sheep 
(ovis  aries,  Linn.),  from  whichever  of  the  pre- 
ceding it  be  derived,  presents  a  great  variety 
of  breeds,  only  a  few  of  the  principal  of  which 
can  be  noticed  here ;  several  of  them  have 
received  distinct  specific  names.  Among  the 
African  sheep  is  the  Fezzan  breed,  remarkable 
for  the  long  legs,  pendulous  ears,  arched  fore- 
head, and  short,  curled,  and  crispy  fleece,  like 
a  mane  on  the  neck  and  whorled  on  the  shoul- 
ders; the  usual  colors  are  black  and  white. 
Nearly  allied  to  this  is  the  Persian  sheep,  with 
black  head  and  neck,  and  the  rest  of  the  body 
white ;  it  is  very  docile  and  affectionate.  From 
the  last  or  the  Fezzan  seem  to  have  sprung  the 
Morocco,  Congo,  Guinea,  and  Angola  breeds; 
H.  Smith  figures  a  variety  called  the  Zunu  or 
goitred  breed,  having  a  high  collar  of  fat  be- 
hind the  horns  and  a  goitre-like  fatty  mass  on 
the  larynx.  There  are  several  breeds  of  large- 
tailed  or  fat-rumped  sheep  in  S.  Africa,  extend- 
ing over  that  continent  and  also  to  Asia ;  the 
Hottentot  or  broad-tailed  breed  is  below  the 
medium  size,  with  short  and  soft  fleece,  and  two 
large  masses  of  fat  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  tail,  which  are  so  esteemed  as  a  deli- 
cacy that  various  contrivances  are  used  to  pre- 
vent them  from  dragging  on  the  ground ;  the 
fat-rumped  sheep  of  Tartary  and  temperate  Asia 
(0.  steatopyga)  has  a  similar  growth  of  fat  upon 
the  croup,  and  long  and  pendulous  ears;  the 
reason  of  this  accumulation  of  fat,  sometimes 
70  to  80  Ibs.,  has  not  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined.— The  most  important  breed  of  sheep  as 
regards  the  texture  of  the  wool  is  the  merino 
(0.  Hispanica),  in  modern  times  brought  to 
the  greatest  perfection  in  Spain,  though  its 
originals  probably  formed  the  flocks  of  the 
patriarchs  thousands  of  years  ago,  and  have 
been  the  stock  of  all  the  fine-wooled  sheep. 
Unlike  the  British  breeds,  they  have  wool  on 
the  forehead  and  cheeks ;  the  horns  are  very 
large  and  heavy,  and  convoluted  laterally ;  the 
wool  is  fine,  long,  soft,  twisted  in  silky  spiral 
ringlets,  and  naturally  so  oily  that  the  fleece 
looks  dingy  and  unclean  from  the  dust  and 
dirt  adhering  to  the  outside,  but  perfectly 
white  underneath ;  the  form  is  not  so  sym- 


838 


SHEEP 


metrical  as  in  many  English  breeds,  and  there 
is  generally  a  loose  skin  hanging  from  the 
neck.  They  are  kept  in  the  milder  regions 
in  winter,  and  are  transferred  to  the  most  fa- 


Merino  Sheep  (Ovis  Hlspanica). 

vorable  localities  for  shearing  and  grazing; 
they  are  most  hardy  in  the  Pyrenees.  They 
are  brought  every  night  to  a  sheltered  level 
valley,  but  are  never  housed  nor  under  cover  ; 
four  shepherds  and  six  large  dogs  are  sufficient 
for  2,000  sheep  ;  the  dogs  can  easily  master  a 
wolf,  alone  protect  the  flock  at  night,  and  are 
fed  only  on  bread  and  milk.  Most  of  these 
sheep  have  the  horns  removed ;  the  legs  are 
white  or  reddish ;  the  face  is  in  some  speck- 
led, and  in  others  white  or  reddish ;  they  are 
sometimes  black ;  they  are  excellent  travellers ; 
they  have  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  mellow 
softness  under  the  skin  which  Bakewell  con- 
siders an  indication  of  a  disposition  to  fatten 
in  any  breed  ;  they  are  extremely  docile.  The 
average  fleece  is  4  to  5  Ibs. ;  several  million 
pounds  are  annually  exported  from  Spain. 
They  readily  form  cross  breeds,  called  demi- 
merinos,  which  have  been  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  France,  whence,  as  well  as  from 
Spain,  they  have  been  imported  into  America. 
Other  flne-wooled  varieties  of  the  merino  are 
the  Saxon,  Silesian,  and  Flemish  breeds,  the 
last  abundant  in  France  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  generally  hornless,  high  on  the  legs,  and 
mixed  with  the  Barbary  long-legged  variety. 
The  Astrakhan  or  Bokharan  breed  has  a  fine 
spirally  twisted  wool,  and  furnishes  a  great 
portion  of  the  lamb  skins  so  highly  valued  by 
furriers ;  it  is  generally  a  mixed  black  and 
white ;  in  the  very  young  each  lock  is  divided 
into  two  small  twisted  curls.  The  Oaucasian 
breed  (0.  dolichura)  is  very  handsome,  resem- 
bling some  of  the  Spanish  and  English  varie- 
ties ;  the  males  are  horned,  the  wool  of  the 
adults  coarse,  and  the  tail,  which  consists  of 
20  vertebrae,  is  covered  with  a  fine  wool,  which 
drags  on  the  ground  ;  they  are  generally  white ; 
by  gentle  pressure  on  the  wool  by  linen  cover- 
ings as  the  lamb  grows,  and  by  pouring  warm 
water  over  it  daily,  it  is  made  to  lie  in  beauti- 
ful glossy  ringlets,  constituting  a  delicate  fur 
much  esteemed  for  lining  robes  and  dressing 


gowns;  the  black  is  most  prized.  The  My- 
sore breed  of  India  is  without  horns,  with  pen- 
dulous ears,  short  tail,  and  very  fine  wool, 
curled  in  small  meshes  and  twisted  like  a  cork- 
screw.— There  is  no  country  where  more  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of 
the  breeds  of  sheep,  both  domestic  and  for- 
eign, or  where  more  success  has  been  attained, 
than  Great  Britain ;  there  are  very  valuable 
British  breeds  suited  for  the  rich  soil,  luxu- 
riant pastures,  and  mild  climate  of  southern 
England,  the  thinner  soil  and  rich  grasses  of 
the  upland  counties,  and  the  alpine  herbage 
and  cold  weather  of  the  Scottish  highlands ; 
looking  to  a  combination  of  advantages,  some 
of  the  English  breeds  take  the  first  rank  for 
the  small  farmer.  The  Leicester  or  Dishley 
breed  is  the  most  esteemed  of  the  long-wooled 
sheep  of  England,  and  is  extensively  reared 
on  the  rich  and  lower  pasture  lands.  It  may 
be  known  by  the  clean  head  without  horns, 
lively  eyes,  straight,  broad,  and  flat  back,  round 
body,  small  bones,  thin  pelt,  disposition  to 
make  fat  at  an  early  age,  and  a  fine-grained 
and  well  flavored  flesh.  It  was  once  known 
as  the  Lincolnshire  breed,  noted  for  the  quan- 
tity of  the  wool  and  the  coarseness  of  the  mut- 
ton ;  Mr.  Bakewell  effected  the  improvement 
in  the  breed,  with  great  profit  to  himself  and 
advantage  to  the  wool-growing  interest  of  lii- 
country  •  it  has  extended  to  the  south  of  Scot- 
land, and  a  few  are  kept  by  almost  every  small 
farmer  for  the  wool ;  the  fleece  is  abundant, 
the  flesh  excellent,  and  the  habits  docile  and 
home-loving ;  a  valuable  breed  has  sprung 
from  its  mixture  with  the  black-faced  and 
Cheviot  varieties.  The  black-faced  or  heath 
breed  extends  from  the  N.  W.  parts  of  York- 
shire to  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  especially 
on  the  W.  coast ;  it  is  active,  hardy,  almost 
goat-like  in  its  climbing  habits,  with  a  com- 
pact shape  and  bright,  wild-looking  eyes ;  the 
horns  of  the  male  are  very  large  and  convo- 
luted ;  the  wool  is  long,  coarse,  and  shaggy, 
and  the  face  and  slender  legs  always  jet-black ; 


Leicester  Sheep. 

in  some  mixed  breeds  the  face  and  legs  are 
brownish  spotted  with  black  ;  the  flesh  is  fine- 
grained and  of  excellent  flavor,  but  the  wool 
is  comparatively  unprofitable,  the  Cheviot,  an- 


SHEEP 

other  northern  breed,  being  generally  preferred 
as  equally  hardy  and  better  fleeced.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  it,  and 
the  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Dorset  breeds  are 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  it.  In  the  Che- 
viot the  head  is  bare  and  clean,  the  face  and 
legs  white,  the  body  long,  bones  small,  and 
fleece  of  about  3  Ibs.  The  Dorset  is  an  old 
but  handsome  breed,  with  strong  and  well 
formed  body,  finely  curved  horns,  and  clear 
white  fleece ;  they  drop  their  lambs  as  early 
as  September.  The  Southdown  breed  is  dark- 
faced,  without  horns,  with  long  small  neck, 
very  short  and  fine  fleece  of  2^  to  3  Ibs.,  and 
celebrated  for  the  fine  flavor  of  the  mutton ; 
it  is  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  Sussex,  on 
the  chalky  downs.  Other  British  breeds  with- 
out horns  and  with  white  face  and  legs  are 
the  Teeswater,  Dartmoor,  Hereford,  and  Rom- 
ney  Marsh ;  and  with  horns,  the  Exmoor  and 
Spanish. — America  has  no  indigenous  domestic 
sheep.  The  first  sheep  were  introduced  into  the 
United  States  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  from  Eng- 
land in  1609,  which  in  40  years  had  increased 
to  3,000 ;  they  were  introduced  into  New  York 
and  Massachusetts  about  1625.  Both  Spanish 
and  French  merinos  have  been  introduced,  the 
former  by  David  Humphreys,  minister  to  the 
court  of  Madrid,  in  1802,  and  the  latter  by  Mr. 
Taintor,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1846.  They 
are  hardy,  yielding  a  large  amount  of  fine 
wool  for  their  size,  the  males  10  to  16  Ibs.  of 
washed  wool,  and  the  females  4  to  8,  the  for- 
mer weighing  from  140  to  175  Ibs.,  the  latter 
•  from  80  to  130.  They  thrive  in  summer  on 
grass  and  clover,  and  in  winter  on  hay,  wheat 
bran,  barley,  oats,  and  root  crops ;  in  winter 
they  require  sheds  for  protection,  free  space, 
pure  air,  and  water  accessible.  The  best  breeds 
are  generally  considered  to  be  the  Vermont 
Brewer  and  Atwood  flocks ;  some  regard  the 
Saxon  merinos  as  the  best,  and  the  French 
have  less  oil  in  their  wool  than  the  Spanish. 
The  Leicester  breed  has  a  heavier  fleece  and 
carcass,  but  requires  more  food ;  as  combining 
the  advantages  of  wool  and  meat,  this  is  the 
best  breed  for  the  farmer,  and  is  excellently 
bred  in  New  Jersey ;  the  wool  is  long  staple, 
and  is  used  mostly  for  combing  purposes,  for 
delaines  and  similar  cloths.  The  Southdowns 
are  by  many  preferred  to  the  merinos,  as  a 
third  larger,  hardier,  and  better  mutton ;  they 
are  very  prolific,  and  the  lambs  are  hardy ;  the 
wool  is  large  in  quantity  and  fair  in  quality. 
The  Cotswold  also  is  highly  esteemed.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  fine-wooled  sheep,  like  the 
merino,  Saxon,  French,  and  Silesian,  are  not  so 
profitable  for  the  mutton  as  the  coarse-wooled, 
like  the  Leicester,  Southdown,  and  Cotswold ; 
it  seems  impossible  to  combine  in  a  single 
breed  both  these  qualities  in  their  greatest 
perfection.  The  northern  and  western  states 
raise  the  best  sheep  for  mutton,  and  the  middle 
and  southern  for  wool. — Sheep  are  remarkably 
affected  by  changes  of  external  condition,  as 
of  climate,  food,  &c.,  and  congenital  varieties 


SHEEP'S   HEAD 


thence  arising  may  be  easily  perpetuated.  In 
Massachusetts  in  1791  a  lamb  was  born  with  a 
longer  body  and  shorter  legs  than  the  rest  of 
the  flock,  with  longer  joints  and  crooked  fore 
legs ;  as  it  could  not  leap  over  fences,  it  was 
determined  to  propagate  its  peculiarities,  and 
from  it  arose  the  famous  otter  breed,  now  ex- 
tinct; when  both  parents  were  of  the  otter 
breed,  the  lambs  inherited  the  form. — Sheep 
are  subject  to  many  diseases,  of  which  the 
most  troublesome  is  the  foot  rot,  from  sup- 
pression of  the  secretion  of  the  gland  between 
the  hoofs,  and  consequent  inflammation,  gen- 
erally caused  by  standing  on  too  wet  ground ; 
the  best  remedy  is  to  pare  the  diseased  hoof 
thoroughly  and  apply  a  solution  of  blue  vit- 
riol (sulphate  of  copper),  1  Ib.  to  a  quart  of 
water;  the  animal  should  also  be  kept  in  a 
dry  place.  They  suffer  from  insects,  especial- 
ly a  hot  fly  (oestrus  ovis\  the  larvas  of  which 
get  from  the  lips  and  nostrils  into  the  frontal 
and  maxillary  cavities,  causing  fatal  disease; 
the  wild  sheep  of  elevated  regions  suffer  least 
from  these.  They  are  infested  with  a  spe- 
cies of  tick,  which  may  be  killed  after  shearing 
by  a  weak  solution  of  tobacco  and  water,  or 
a  preparation  of  oil,  lampblack,  and  umber. 
Sheep  are  more  choice  in  their  food  than 
goats,  and  yet  will  thrive  where  most  other 
animals  would  starve ;  they  prefer  alpine  and 
aromatic  plants,  and  will  soon  clear  a  field  of 
weeds,  briers,  and  bushes,  and  by  their  drop- 
pings prepare  it  for  the  plough.  They  cannot 
be  economically  kept  amid  a  dense  popula- 
tion, as  they  would  occupy  too  much  land ; 
and  they  are  not  profitable  to  pasture  with 
cows,  as  they  bite  the  grass  too  close  for  the 
latter  to  thrive  upon. — For  full  information 
on  the  statistics  and  profits  of  sheep  husban- 
dry, see  the  agricultural  reports  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  interior  at  Washington,  and 
the  publications  of  the  various  state  agricultu- 
ral societies.  It  need  only  be  stated  here  that 
lambs  may  be  weaned  at  from  two  to  three 
months ;  that  the  female  is  fit  for  procreation 
at  one  year  and  the  male  at  one  and  a  half ; 
that  gestation  lasts  about  five  months;  that 
one  or  two  young  are  born  at  a  time;  that 
one  male  may  be  kept  to  30  females ;  and  that 
they  can  produce  till  the  age  of  10  or  12,  and 
be  fatted  with  the  best  advantage  at  8  years.— 
The  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  States,  as 
reported  by  the  census  of  1870,  was  28,477,- 
961.  The  states  having  the  largest  numbers 
were:  Ohio,  4,fi28, 635;  California,  2,768,187; 
New  York,  2,181,578;  Minnesota,  1,985,906; 
Pennsylvania,  1,794,801;  Indiana,  1,612,680; 
Illinois,  1,568,286 ;  Missouri,  1,352,001 ;  and 
Wisconsin,  1,069,282.  According  to  the  re- 
port of  the  bureau  of  agriculture,  the  tota 
number  in  the  United  States  in  January,  1874, 
was  34,038,200,  valued  at  about  $89,000,000. 

SHEEP'S  HEAD,  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  fam- 
ily sparidce  and  genus  sargus  (Cuv.);  the  scup- 
paug  (pagrus)  belongs  to  the  same  family. 
The  gill  covers  are  unarmed,  the  palate  tooth 


840 


SHEERNESS 


SHEFFIELD 


less,  the  jaws  not  protractile,  and  the  scales 
large;  the  front  incisors  are  cutting,  almost 
like  £hose  of  man,  and  there  are  several  rows 
of  rounded  molars.  This  fish  (8.  ovis,  Guv.) 
is  about  20  in.  long,  though  some  grow  con- 
siderably larger ;  the  ground  color  is  light 


Sheep's  Head  (Sargus  ovis). 

gray,  with  six  distinct,  dark  brown,  transverse 
bands,  broad  and  nearly  equidistant,  and  an- 
other across  the  neck ;  the  head  is  much  dark- 
er, the  gill  covers  with  silvery  and  golden  re- 
flections, throat  somewhat  reddish,  and  irides 
golden ;  scales  with  dark  margins ;  the  pec- 
torals nearly  colorless,  the  other  fins  blackish 
brown.  The  body  is  short  and  thick,  and  the 
back  rounded ;  lips  large  and  fleshy,  laws 
equal,  eyes  large,  and  nostrils  high  on  the  head 
and  double;  the  first  12  rays  of  the  dorsal  and 
first  three  of  the  anal  strongly  spinous,  pecto- 
rals very  long,  ventrals  stout,  with  spinous 
process  at  base  and  first  ray  spinous ;  air  blad- 
der large.  The  form  of  the  head  and  black- 
ness of  the  face  give  it  a  slight  resemblance  to 
the  physiognomy  of  the  sheep.  It  is  caught 
readily  in  nets  and  seines ;  it  is  difficult  to 
take  with  the  hook,  as  the  line  is  very  liable 
to  be  cut  off  by  the  sharp  incisors ;  its  food 
consists  of  mollusks  and  crustaceans.  Its  flesh 
is  highly  esteemed.  There  are  several  allied 
species  found  on  the  coast  from  New  York  to 
New  Orleans,  and  one  in  the  Mediterranean. 

SHEERVESS,  a  town  of  Kent,  England,  at  the 
N.  W.  end  of  the  island  of  Sheppey,  on  the 
river  Medway  at  its  junction  with  the  Thames, 
37  m.  E.  by  8.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871, 
13,956.  There  is  here  an  extensive  naval  es- 
tablishment, defended  by  batteries  mounting 
100  guns,  the  dockyard  and  buildings  in  con- 
nection with  which  occupy  60  acres,  and  have 
cost  since  1815  £3,000,000.  There  are  some- 
times as  many  as  70  ships  of  war  moored  at 
Blackstakes,  a  little  above  Sheerness.  The 
town  has  recently  been  much  improved,  and  is 
becoming  a  favorite  watering  place.  In  the 
time  of  the  commonwealth  the  ground  on 
which  it  stands  was  unoccupied,  and  after  the 
restoration  a  small  fort  was  begun,  but  the 
Dutch  destroyed  it  in  1667.  Soon  afterward 
strong  fortifications  were  constructed  and  the 
dockyard  was  commenced. 


SHEFFIELD,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
in  the  West  riding,  at  the  junction  of  the  Sheaf 
and  three  smaller  streams  with  the  Don,  141 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  239,- 
946 ;  in  1874  reported  at  261,029.  The  streams 
which  unite  here  have  their  source  in  the 
surrounding  high  lands,  and  supply  a  large 
amount  of  effective  water  power.  The  town 
occupies  a  natural  amphitheatre  opening  to- 
ward the  northeast,  and  was  originally  con- 
fined to  the  angle  between  the  Don  and  the 
Sheaf,  but  has  extended  up  the  slopes  of  the 
hills.  The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted 
with  gas,  and  the  rivers  are  crossed  by  fine 
bridges.  The  original  parish  Church  was  erect- 
ed in  the  time  of  Henry  I.,  and  there  are  sev- 
eral handsome  modern  churches.  In  1872 
there  were  123  places  of  worship,  of  which  28 
belonged  to  the  church  of  England,  62  to  various 
denominations  of  Methodists,  13  to  the  Con- 
gregationalists,  4  to  the  Baptists,  and  4  to  the 
Roman  Catholics.  The  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  People's  college,  the  church 
of  England  institute,  the  Wesley  college,  the 
collegiate  school,  the  old  endowed  grammar 
school,  the  mechanics'  institution,  and  the  gov- 
ernment school  of  art,  one  of  the  best  con- 
ducted in  England.  Its  benevolent  institutions 
are  numerous  and  well  sustained.  A  great 
music  hall  was  opened  in  1878,  and  a  public 
park  in  1874.  The  town,  partly  from  the  want 
of  suitable  drainage  and  partly  from  the  un- 
healthfulness  of  some  of  the  occupations,  has  a 
higher  rate  of  mortality  than  most  of  the  large 
towns  of  England.  The  river  Don  was  made 
navigable  to  within  8  m.  in  1751,  and  a  canal 
subsequently  prolonged  the  navigation  to  the 
town.  The  canal  basin  is  accessible  to  vessels 
of  60  tons.  Sheffield  has  for  several  centuries 
been  renowned  for  its  knives,  and  it  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  English  manufacture  of  cast, 
shear,  and  blister  steel  of  all  kinds,  steel  wire, 
cutlery  and  tools  of  almost  every  variety, 
railway  and  carriage  springs  and  buffers,  and 
many  other  kinds  of  steel  and  iron  ware,  as 
well  as  all  classes  of  silver,  silver-plated,  elec- 
tro-plated, German  silver,  britannia,  and  other 
white  metal  goods.  Britannia  metal  and  the 
process  of  silver-plating  were  invented  here. 
Snuff  is  largely  produced.  There  are  exten- 
sive iron  and  brass  founderies,  and  plates  have 
been  made  for  iron-clad  ships.  Among  other 
important  manufactures  are  those  of  optical 
instruments,  especially  spectacle  glasses,  and 
of  articles  in  great  variety  from  pressed  horns 
and  hoofs.  The  cutlers'  company  had  its  ori- 
gin in  the  16th  century,  and  was  incorporated 
by  statute  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  Its  re- 
strictions, which  interfered  with  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  trade,  were  mitigated  in  1801,  and 
wholly  abolished  in  1814.  It  is  the  trustee 
of  several  important  charities,  besides  which 
its  only  duties  are  the  granting  of  trade  marks 
to  cutlers. — Sheffield  was  a  Saxon  town,  and 
received  a  charter  as  a  market  town  from  Ed- 
ward I.  in  1296.  Early  in  the  15th  century  it 


SHEFFIELD 

came  under  the  control  of  the  earls  of  Shrews- 
bury, who  had  a  castle  in  the  town,  and  a 
manor  house  in  a  park  a  mile  east,  in  one  or 
the  other  of  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
captivity  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  passed. 
The  castle  was  demolished  in  1648  by  order  of 
parliament,  and  the  park  divided  into  farms  in 
1707.  The  great  development  of  the  town  as 
a  centre  of  manufacture  has  made  it  the  scene 
of  some  of  the  most  violent  demonstrations  in 
connection  with  the  trades  unions.  In  1864 
the  bursting  of  the  Bradfield  reservoir  in  the 
hills  above  it  resulted  in  the  loss  of  300  lives 
and  of  property  valued  at  about  £1,000,000. 

SHEFFIELD,  John.  See  BUCKINGHAM,  or 
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,  DUKE  OF. 

SHEFFOKI),  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Can- 
ada; area,  559  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  19,077, 
of  whom  12,683  were  of  French,  3,020  of 
English,  2,510  of  Irish,  and  610  of  Scotch 
origin.  It  is  drained  by  the  Yamaska  river, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Stanstead,  Shefford, 
and  Chambly  railway.  Capital,  Waterloo. 

SHEIL,  Richard  Lalor,  an  Irish  orator,  born 
near  Waterford,  Aug.  17,  1791,  died  in  Flor- 
ence, May  23,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Jesuit  school  of  Stonyhurst,  Lancashire,  and 
at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated 
in  1811 ;  and  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  in  1814.  Between  1814  and  1822 
he  produced  six  dramas,  "Adelaide"  (1816), 
"The  Apostate"  (1817),  "Bellamira"  (1818), 
"  Evadne"  (1819),  founded  on  Shirley's  "  Trai- 
tor," "  Montoni "  (1820),  and  "The  Huguenot" 
(1822),  all  of  which  but  the  last  obtained  a  de- 
cided success.  In  1822  also  appeared  the  first 
of  a  series  of  "Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar," 
since  collected  and  edited  by  R.  S.  Macken- 
zie (2  vols.  12mo,  New  York,  1854;  London, 
1855),  which  are  among  his  most  successful 
literary  performances.  About  this  time  he 
began  to  be  known  in  Ireland  and  England  as 
a  political  orator  and  agitator,  and  also  by  his 
forensic  efforts.  He  joined  the  Catholic  asso- 
ciation in  1822,  and  in  1825  was  chosen  with 
O'Connell  to  plead  at  the  bar  of  the  house  of 
commons  against  its  suppression.  In  1829  he 
entered  parliament,  and  almost  immediately 
took  his  place  as  a  most  brilliant  and  impulsive 
speaker.  After  seconding  O'Connell  in  the 
repeal  agitation,  he  accepted  a  sinecure  office 
under  the  Melbourne  ministry,  and  in  1839 
was  made  a  privy  councillor.  He  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  the  mint  by  the  Russell 
ministry,  and  in  1850  accepted  the  mission  to 
Florence.  His  memoirs  have  been  written  by 
W.  T.  McCullagh  (2  vols.,  London,  1855). 

SHEKEL  (Heb.,  weight),  the  Hebrew  unit  of 
weight,  and  hence,  as  payments  were  origi- 
nally made  by  weight,  also  of  money.  It  was 
equal  to  220  grains  troy,  or  about  $  oz.  avoir- 
dupois, which  is  the  weight  of  the  earliest  coin 
of  the  name  known,  the  silver  shekel  of  Simon 
Maccabaeus.  Its  value,  as  differently  stated, 
was  from  50  to  62$  cts.  The  golden  shekel 
was  of  a  little  more  than  half  this  weight,  and 


SHELBY 


841 


worth  about  $4.  Both  as  weight  and  money 
it  was  divided  in  reckoning  into  the  beka, 
reba,  and  gerah,  respectively  i,  £,  and  ^  of  a 
shekel.  The  Scriptures  mention  the  sacred 
and  the  royal  shekel,  which  are  supposed  by 
some  to  be  two  standards  of  weight ;  the  rela- 
tive value  was  supposed  by  Michaelis  to  have 
been  as  5  to  3. 

SHELBOtNE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  ocean; 
area,  948  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  12,417,  of 
whom  7,426  were  of  English,  1,780  of  Scotch, 
1,325  of  Irish,  and  1,064  of  German  origin  or 
descent.  The  coast  is  deeply  indented  with 
numerous  excellent  harbors,  into  which  flow 
several  considerable  streams.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  along  the  shore,  but  further  in- 
land it  is  mostly  level.  Capital,  Shelburne. 

SHELBURNE,  William  Petty,  earl  of.     See  LANS- 

DOWNE. 

SHELBY,  the  name  of  counties  in  nine  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of 
Alabama,  bounded  E.  by  the  Coosa  river  and 
intersected  by  the  Cahawba ;  area,  about  900 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  12,218,  of  whom  8,878 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  with  con- 
siderable forests,  and  the  soil  is  well  watered 
and  highly  fertile.  Coal  and  iron  ore  abound. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Selma,  Rome,  and  Dai- 
ton,  and  the  South  and  North  Alabama  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
30,275  bushels  of  wheat,  221,618  of  Indian 
corn,  26,189  of  oats,  22,358  of  sweet  potatoes, 
2,194  bales  of  cotton,  3,710  Jbs.  of  tobacco,  and 
6,283  of  wool.  There  were  1,174  horses,  2,680 
milch  cows,  3,923  other  cattle,  3,524  sheep,  and 
9,787  swine ;  1  manufactory  of  cotton  thread, 
1  of  pig  and  1  of  cast  iron,  2  of  lime,  and 
5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Columbiana.  II.  An 
E.  county  of  Texas,  bordering  on  Louisiana, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Sabine  and  W.  by  the  At- 
toyac  river;  area,  844  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,732,  of  whom  1,755  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  generally  level  and  the  soil  rich.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  168,827  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  21,416  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
4,090  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,597 
horses,  3,219  milch  cows,  1,058  working  oxen, 
7,276  other  cattle,  2;173  sheep,  and  13,709 
swine.  Capital,  Shelbyville.  ID.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Mississippi, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Mississippi  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Arkansas,  intersected  by 
Loosahatchee  and  Wolf  rivers,  and  traversed 
by  several  railroads ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  76,378,  of  whom  36,640  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  very  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  19,025 
bushels  of  wheat,  940,796  of  Indian  corn, 
22,419  of  Irish  and  50,747  of  sweet  potatoes, 
32,434  bales  of  cotton,  and  1,264  Ibs.  of  wool. 
There  were  4,857  horses,  3,715  milch  cows, 
6,117  other  cattle,  17,591  sheep,  and  33,687 
swine.  There  are  many  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, chiefly  in  Memphis,  the  county 
seat.  IV.  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  drained 


842 


SHELBY 


SHELDRAKE 


by  Beech  and  other  large  creeks ;  area,  about 
565  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  15,733,  of  whom 
5,383  were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
diversified  with  fine  forests;  the  soil  is  very 
rich.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Louisville,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  Lexington  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  171,562  bushels  of 
wheat,  62,097  of  rye,  1,125,787  of  Indian  corn, 
156,935  of  oats,  240,435  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  37,512 
of  wool,  229,050  of  butter,  and  13,497  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  6,781  horses, 
2,022  mules  and  asses,  4,191  milch  cows,  8,980 
other  cattle,  9,436  sheep,  and  39,852  swine; 
9  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  1  flour  mill,  and  4  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Shelbyville.  V.  A  W.  county 
of  Ohio,  intersected  by  the  Miami  river ;  area, 
425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,748.  The  N.  part 
is  level,  the  S.  undulating,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Miami  canal  and  the 
Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indian- 
apolis, and  the  Dayton  and  Michigan  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1873  were  331,293 
bushels  of  wheat,  831,417  of  Indian  corn,  253,- 
484  of  oats,  87,323  of  barley,  35,095  of  pota- 
toes, 11,404  tons  of  hay,  131,970  Ibs.  of  tobac- 
co, 67,709  of  wool,  336,884  of  butter,  and  9,845 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  In  1874  there 
were  7,390  horses,  14,605  cattle,  22,461  sheep, 
and  25,169  hogs.  In  1870  there  were  2  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  implements,  14  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  1  of  woollen  goods,  8  tan- 
neries, 7  flour  mills,  and  19  saw  mills.  Capi- 
tal, Sidney.  VI.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana, 
drained  by  the  Blue  river  and  numerous  other 
streams,  and  traversed  by  several  railroads; 
area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,892. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  669,509  bushels 
of  wheat,  1,509,448  of  Indian  corn,  40,227  of 
oats,  12,754  of  barley,  8,574  tons  of  hay,  22,- 
780  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  39,494  of  wool,  414,863  of 
butter,  and  31,637  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  7,789  horses,  5,202  milch  cows, 
7,928  other  cattle,  14,250  sheep,  and  34,918 
swine ;  11  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  2  of  woollen  goods,  1  distillery,  9 
flour  mills,  16  saw  mills,  and  1  planing  mill. 
Capital,  Shelbyville.  VII.  A  central  county  of 
Illinois,  intersected  by  the  Kaskaskia  and  Little 
Wabash  rivers,  and  traversed  by  several  rail- 
roads ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
25,476.  The  surface  is  almost  level,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  467,541  bushels  of  wheat,  2,082,578  of 
Indian  corn,  637,812  of  oats,  138,314  of  pota- 
toes, 23,687  tons  of  hay,  6,469  Ibs.  of  tobac- 
co, 222,042  of  wool,  368,649  of  butter,  and 
75,183  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  18,059  horses,  1,271  mules  and  asses, 
7,513  milch  cows,  11,204  other  cattle,  62,868 
sheep,  and  43,411  swine;  6  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  woollen  goods,  2 
brick  yards,  9  flour  mills,  and  9  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Shelbyville.  VIII.  A  W.  county  of 
Iowa,  drained  by  Boyer  and  other  rivers ; 


area,  about  625  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,540. 
The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  fertile.  A 
portion  of  the  county  is  traversed  by  the  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  155,320  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  25,594  of  oats,  6,492  tons  of 
hay,  11,103  Ibs.  of  wool,  61,834  of  butter,  and 
3,002  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  1,199  horses,  1,151  milch  cows,  1,516 
other  cattle,  2,806  sheep,  and  2,060  swine. 
Capital,  Harlan.  IX.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Mis- 
souri, intersected  by  the  North  fork  of  Salt 
river  and  the  South  Fabius  river,  and  by  the 
Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  railroad  ;  area,  about 
520  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,119,  of  whom 
571  were  colored.  The  surface  is  moderately 
hilly  and  the  soil  good.  Bituminous  coal  and 
limestone  are  abundant,  and  timber  is  scarce. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  41,258 
bushels  of  wheat,  297,982  of  Indian  corn, 
161,559  of  oats,  18,715  tons  of  hay,  36,596 
Ibs.  of  wool,  146,905  of  butter,  and  9,418  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  3,741 
horses,  541  mules  and  asses,  8,504  milch  cows, 
7,776  other  cattle,  18,028  sheep,  and  14,223 
swine.  Capital,  Shelbyville. 

SHELBY,  Isaac,  an  American  officer,  born  near 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  Dec.  11,  1750,  died  in  Lin- 
coln co.,  Ky.,  July  18,  1826.  He  removed  to 
the  west  in  1771,  and  in  1774  served  as  a 
lieutenant  in  an  expedition  against  the  Indians. 
When  the  revolution  broke  out  he  became 
captain  of  a  military  company  in  Virginia,  and 
in  1777  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  commissary 
department  for  the  frontier  militia.  In  1779 
he  was  elected  to  the  house  of  delegates  of 
Virginia,  and  received  a  major's  commission, 
and  the  next  year  was  made  a  colonel.  For 
his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain, 
Oct.  7,  1780,  he  received  a  vote  of  thanks  and 
a  sword  from  the  legislature  of  North  Caro- 
lina, of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  in 
1781  and  1782.  In  1781  he  served  in  Marion's 
campaign.  On  the  organization  of  the  state 
of  Kentucky  in  1792  he  was  chosen  governor, 
and  held  the  office  four  years,  and  again  from 
1812  to  1816.  In  1813  he  joined  Gen.  Harri- 
son at  the  head  of  4,000  Kentuckians,  served 
at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  and  received  a 
gold  medal  from  congress. 

SHELBYVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Shelby  co.,  Indiana,  on  the  Blue  river  and  the 
Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  and  Lafayette  rail- 
road, at  the  junction  of  a  branch  of  the  Jeffer- 
sonville,  Madison,  and  Indianapolis  line,  27  ni. 
S.  E.  of  Indianapolis;  pop.  in  1870,  2,731;  in 
1875,  estimated  by  local  authorities  at  4,000. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  farming  country,  is 
lighted  with  gas,  and  has  a  good  fire  depart- 
ment. It  contains  a  planing  mill,  two  sa\v 
mills,  three  flouring  and  grist  mills,  two  banks; 
five  hotels,  a  seminary,  three  weekly  news- 
papers, and  seven  churches. 

SHELDRAKE,  or  Shieldrake,  the  common  name 
of  the  river  ducks  of  the  subfamily  anatitue 
and  of  the  genera  tadorna  (Leach)  and  casarka 


SHELDRAKE 


SHELLEY 


843 


(Bonap.)-  In  tadorna  the  bill  is  shorter  than 
the  head,  higher  at  the  base  than  broad,  with 
culmen  concave  in  the  middle,  depressed,  curved 
upward  at  the  tip,  which  is  suddenly  hooked 
and  has  a  strong  narrow  nail ;  lamellae  slender 
and  widely  set ;  nostrils  large,  near  the  culmen ; 
wings  moderate,  pointed,  the  second  quill  long- 
est, and  armed  on  the  shoulder  with  a  tubercle ; 
tail  moderate,  nearly  even ;  tarsi  strong,  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe ;  toes  short,  fully  webbed ; 
hind  toe  elevated,  slightly  lobed ;  claws  mod- 
erate and  curved.  They  are  widely  distributed 
over  the  old  world,  on  the  seacoast  as  well  as 
on  rivers  and  lakes,  migrating  in  winter  from 
the  north;  they  feed  on  marine  plants  and 
worms,  crustaceans,  and  mollusks ;  the  nest  is 
made  of  grass  lined  with  down,  and  is  often 
placed  in  the  deserted  burrows  of  rabbits  and 
other  rodents;  they  lay  12  to  14  eggs.  The 
common  sheldrake  (T.  vulpanser,  Flem.)  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  of  water  fowl,  the  colors 
being  brilliant  and  pure,  and  strongly  con- 
trasted. In  the  male  the  bill  is  vermilion; 
the  head  and  upper  neck  green  bounded  by  a 


Common  Sheldrake  (Tadorna  vulpanser). 

white  collar,  below  which  is  another  of  rich 
chestnut  covering  the  upper  breast  and  back ; 
rest  of  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail  coverts 
white ;  scapulars  nearly  black,  outer  webs  of 
long  tertials  chestnut,  point  of  wing  and  its 
coverts  white,  primaries  dark  brown,  and  spe- 
culum green;  tail  white,  tipped  with  black; 
abdomen  rich  dark  brown;  sides,  vent,  and 
under  tail  coverts  white ;  the  length  is  24  to 
26  in. ;  the  female  is  smaller  and  not  so  bright, 
and  the  young  are  more  brownish.  The  wind- 
pipe is  about  10  in.  long,  having  on  each  side 
at  its  lower  portion  a  hollow,  globular,  bony 
protuberance,  generally  much  larger  on  one 
side  than  the  other.  The  note  is  a  shrill  whis- 
tle ;  the  flesh  is  coarse,  dark,  and  of  unpleasant 
odor  and  flavor;  the  eggs  are  shining  white, 
2f  by  2  in.;  incubation  lasts  30  days,  both 
sexes  sitting ;  they  are  easily  domesticated,  and 
are  often  raised  by  hens.  Yarrell  thinks  the 
names  are  derived  from  their  favorite  shell 
food,  and  from  their  frequent  use  on  heraldic 
shields;  they  are  also  called  burrow  ducks 
from  their  common  places  of  breeding,  also 


skeeling  geese  in  Scotland,  and  sly  geese  (from 
their  devices  for  leading  intruders  from  their 
nests  and  young)  in  the  Orkney  islands.  Two 
other  species  are  found  in  Australia. — In  the 
genus  casatka  the  bill  is  as  long  as  the  head, 
nearly  straight,  the  width  equal  to  the  height 
at  the  base,  the  anterior  half  depressed,  scarcely 
curved  upward  at  tip,  which  has  a  strong  and 
broad  nail;  wings  moderate,  the  second  quill 
the  longest ;  tail  short  and  rounded  ;  tarsi  ro- 
bust, shorter  than  the  middle  toe ;  toes  long, 
fully  webbed ;  hind  toe  long,  elevated,  and  lobed. 
The  ruddy  sheldrake  (0.  rutila,  Bonap.)  is 
about  the  same  size  as  the  last,  with  similar 
breeding  habits ;  in  the  male  the  bill  is  lead- 
colored;  the  head,  cheeks,  and  chin  buff,  be- 
coming orange  brown  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck  all  round,  where  there  is  a  ring  of  black ; 
the  back,  tertials,  breast,  and  under  parts  like 
the  head;  wing  coverts  pale  buff  white;  pri- 
maries and  tail  dark  leaden  gray,  secondaries 
lighter,  and  speculum  brilliant  green ;  the  fe- 
male is  rather  smaller  and  lighter  colored,  with 
white  on  the  throat  and  wings,  but  without 
the  black  collar.  It  is  sometimes  called  col- 
lared duck,  and  ruddy  goose ;  it  is  a  native  of 
eastern  Europe  and  western  Asia,  coining  as 
far  west  as  England  and  south  to  Italy  and 
Africa ;  it  is  fond  of  breeding  in  the  holes  of 
marmots  in  river  banks,  and  the  eggs  are  8  to 
10.  Other  species  are  found  in  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  and  they  all  resemble  geese  in 
general  form,  and  especially  in  the  females 
having  the  plumage  colored  nearly  like  the 
males. — In  America  the  name  of  sheldrake  is 
!  given  to  the  red-breasted  merganser,  which 
resembles  the  European  sheldrake  only  in  the 
color  of  its  breast.  (See  MERGANSER.) 

SHELL  LAC.     See  LAC. 

SHELLEY.  I.  Perty  Bysshe,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  Sussex, 
Aug.  4,  1792,  drowned  in  the  bay  of  Spezia, 
July  8,  1822.  His  ancestors  had  long  been 
large  landholders  in  Sussex.  His  father,  Sir 
Timothy  Shelley,  was  a  country  gentleman, 
who  had  studied  at  Oxford.  Bysshe  was  sent 
in  his  sixth  year  to  a  day  school  near  home, 
and  in  his  tenth  to  a  seminary  at  Brentford, 
where  he  excelled  in  his  studies.  At  the  age 
of  13  he  went  to  Eton,  where  he  refused  to 
fag  and  consequently  was  harshly  treated  by 
his  schoolfellows,  till  he  alarmed  them  by  his 
storms  of  anger  or  won  their  love  by  his  kind- 
ness. He  was  already  in  love  with  Miss  Grove, 
a  cousin  of  his  own  age,  with  whom  he  wrote 
a  romance  entitled  "  Zastrozzi "  (London,  1£  [0), 
with  the  payment  for  which  he  gave  a  mag- 
nificent banquet  to  his  friends.  He  wrote  an- 
other romance,  "  St.  Irvyne,  or  the  Rosicru- 
cian"  (London,  1811),  translated  a  portion  of 
Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  and  composed  in 
conjunction  with  Capt.  Medwin  the  poem  of 
"Ahasuerus,  or  the  Wandering  Jew,'  a  poi 
tion  of  which  was  afterward  published;  I 
his  greatest  passion  was  for  chemistry,  and 
he  continued  eagerly  to  experiment  with  elec- 


844 


SHELLEY 


tricity  and  acids  after  his  return  home  in  1809. 
In  1810  he  went  to  Oxford,  and  became  an  un- 
dergraduate of  University  college.  At  first  de- 
voted to  physics,  he  abandoned  them  for  meta- 
physics. Hume  and  the  French  exponents  of 
Locke  were  his  text  books,  and  he  soon  rushed 
to  materialism  and  atheism.  At  the  age  of 
17,  says  De  Quincey,  satisfied  that  atheism  was 
the  sheet  anchor  of  the  world,  he  determined 
to  accomplish  a  general  apostasy  successively 
in  the  university,  the  church  of  England,  and 
the  whole  Christian  world.  He  began  with 
printing  a  pamphlet  of  two  pages  on  the  "  Ne- 
cessity of  Atheism,"  setting  forth  the  defective 
logic  of  the  usual  arguments  for  the  divine 
existence.  He  sent  it  with  a  letter  to  the 
heads  of  colleges  and  professors  of  the  univer- 
sity, inviting  them  to  notify  him  of  their  as- 
sent to  the  accompanying  argument ;  for  this 
he  was  expelled,  and  ordered  to  quit  the  col- 
lege by  the  next  morning.  His  father  at  first 
forbade  his  appearance  at  Field  Place.  All 
communication  was  forbidden  between  him 
and  Miss  Grove,  who  soon  married  another. 
He  took  lodgings  in  Poland  street,  London, 
and  his  sisters,  who  were  at  school  at  Bromp- 
ton,  sent  him  small  sums  saved  from  their 
pocket  money,  the  bearer  being  their  school- 
mate Harriet  Westbrook,  a  beautiful  daughter 
of  a  retired  hotel-keeper,  residing  in  London ; 
and  after  his  reconciliation  with  his  father, 
who  settled  upon  him  an  allowance  of  £200  a 
year,  he  suddenly  eloped  with  her  and  married 
her  at  Gretna  Green.  He  was  aged  19,  and 
she  16.  The  young  pair  went  to  Edinburgh, 
thence  to  York,  and  at  length  fixed  their  resi- 
dence at  Keswick.  There  Shelley  became  in- 
timate with  Southey  and  De  Quincey,  and  re- 
ceived many  favors  from  the  duke  of  Norfolk. 
He  had  already  obtained  the  friendship  of  Leigh 
Hunt,  and  proposed  to  him  a  scheme  for  form- 
ing an  association  of  liberals ;  and  he  began  a 
correspondence  with  Godwin,  whose  advice 
probably  saved  him  from  extreme  imprudence 
in  the  championship  of  Irish  wrongs,  when 
soon  after  he  removed  to  Dublin.  There,  in 
February,  1812,  he  published  a  pamphlet  en- 
titled "  An  Address  to  the  Irish  People," 
copies  of  which  he  threw  from  his  window 
and  distributed  to  passers  on  the  street.  The 
police  suggested  to  him  the  propriety  of  quit- 
ting Ireland,  and  he  resided  successively  in 
the  isle  of  Man,  in  North  Wales,  and  in  Lyn- 
nioutli.  From  the  last  named  place  he  ad- 
dressed an  eloquent  letter  to.  Lord  Ellenbor- 
ough  against  his  sentence  on  the  publisher  of 
the  third  part  of  Paine's  "Age  of  Reason." 
Soon  afterward  he  took  a  cottage  in  Tanyrallt, 
Carnarvonshire;  and  prior  to  May,  1813,  he 
had  visited  London,  resided  again  in  Dublin, 
made  a  tour  to  the  lakes  of  Killarney,  and  re- 
turned to  London.  In  Tanyrallt,  as  elsewhere, 
he  visited  and  relieved  the  poor  and  suffer- 
ing. A  mysterious  attempt  on  his  life,  which 
was  never  explained,  occasioned  his  immediate 
removal.  In  London  was  born  his  daughter, 


1  lanthe  Eliza.     He  soon  after  removed  to  the 

i  cottage  of  High  Elms  in  Berkshire,  where  he 
passed  the  summer,  with  the  exception  of  visits 
to  London  and  Field  Place.  Toward  the  close 
of  1813  the  estrangement  which  had  been  slow- 
ly growing  between  him  and  his  wife  resulted 
in  their  separation  by  mutual  consent,  and  she 

,  returned  to  her  father's  house,  where  she  gave 
birth  to  a  second  child,  which  died  in  1826. 

j  He  was  soon  after  travelling  abroad,  chiefly 
in  Switzerland,  with  Mary,  afterward  the  sec- 
ond Mrs.  Shelley,  daughter  of  William  Godwin 
and  Mary  Wollstonecraft,  all  of  whom  deemed 
marriage  a  useless  institution.  His  father, 
succeeding  to  the  family  estates,  settled  on 
him  from  this  time  an  allowance  of  £1,000  a 
year.  In  the  winter  he  frequented  a  hospital  to 
acquire  some  knowledge  of  surgery,  that  he 
might  become  more  serviceable  to  the  poor; 
made  several  trips  in  England  in  1815;  and 
again  visited  Switzerland  in  1816,  where  he  first 
met  Byron.  The  same  year  his  wife  drowned 
herself.  He  now  married  his  second  wife,  who 
had  been  his  companion  for  two  years,  and 
fixed  his  residence  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mar- 
low  in  Buckinghamshire.  He  claimed  the  cus- 
tody of  his  children,  which  was  refused  by  the 
court  of  chancery  on  the  ground  of  the  alleged 
depravity  of  his  religious  and  moral  opinions, 
and  after  this  decision  he  again  left  England. 
He  had  become  acquainted  with  Keats,  whose 
genius  he  defended  against  the  reviewers,  and 
afterward  wrote  to  his  memory  the  dirge  of 
"Adonais."  In  1810  he  had  published  at 
Oxford  "Posthumous  Fragments  of  Margaret 
Nicholson,"  a  small  volume  of  poems ;  and  in 
September  of  that  year,  in  London,  "  Original 
Poetry,  by  Victor  and  Cazire,"  of  which  about 
100  copies  got  into  circulation  before  he  sup- 
pressed it,  but  none  can  now  be  found.  He 
had  commenced  at  the  age  of  18,  and  com- 
pleted in  1812,  a  poem  in  the  rhythm  of 
Southey's  "  Thalaba,"  entitled  "  Queen  Mab." 
It  was  printed  privately  in  1813,  and  an  edi- 
tion was  surreptitiously  issued  in  1821,  when 
he  was  in  Italy.  He  applied  to  chancery  for 
an  injunction  to  restrain  the  sale,  which  was 
refused  on  the  ground  that  the  law  could  give 
no  protection  to  a  heretical  book,  nor  even 
recognize  it  except  by  prosecution.  In  1815 
he  wrote  at  Bishopsgate,  on  the  Thames,  his 
poem  of  "  Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude." 
At  Marlow  he  wrote  "  The  Revolt  of  Islam." 
There  he  suffered  a  severe  attack  of  ophthal- 
mia, caught  while  visiting  the  cottages  of  the 
poor.  In  1818  he  left  England,  never  to  re- 
turn. At  Lucca  he  completed  the  poem  of 
"Julian  and  Maddalo,"  a  dialogue  between 
himself  and  Lord  Byron,  and  began  his  "  Pro- 
metheus Unbound,"  which  was  finished  in 
Rome  in  1819  (London,  1821).  His  next  pro- 
duction was  "  The  Cenci,"  a  tragedy  repulsive 
in  its  subject,  but  the  most  elaborate  in  exe- 
cution orall  his  writings.  In  1819  he  wrote 
"The  Witch  of  Atlas"  in  three  days  after  a 
pedestrian  excursion,  and  in  1821  produced  his 


SHELLEY 

" Epipsychidion,"  "  Adonais,"  and  "Hellas." 
Among  his  minor  poems,  the  most  exquisite 
and  original  are  the  "Address  to  the  Skylark," 
"  The  Sensitive  Plant,"  and  "  The  Cloud."  He 
had  renewed  his  intimacy  with  Byron  in  Italy, 
and  enjoyed  boating  as  his  favorite  amusement. 
On  July  8,  1822,  he  sailed  with  his  friend  Wil- 
liams, in  a  boat  of  peculiar  build,  and  requiring 
skilful  management,  from  Leghorn  for  Lerici. 
In  a  sudden  squall  the  boat  disappeared,  and 
the  bodies  of  Shelley  and  his  companions  were 
washed  ashore.  The  quarantine  regulations  of 
Tuscany  required  that  everything  drifting  from 
the  sea  should  be  burned,  and  the  remains  of 
the  poet  were  therefore  reduced  to  ashes  on  a 
funeral  pile,  after  the  ancient  fashion,  in  the 
presence  of  Lord  Byron,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Mr. 
Trelawney.  The  ashes  were  deposited  in  the 
Protestant  burial  ground  at  Eome,  near  the 
grave  of  Keats,  with  the  inscription :  Cor  Cor- 
dium.  His  reputation  both  as  a  poet  and  a  man 
has  risen  as  the  misapprehensions  of  his  con- 
temporaries have  passed  away,  and  his  sincerity, 
benevolence,  noble  aims,  and  peculiar  graces 
of  character  and  genius  have  been  fully  recog- 
nized.— Mrs.  Shelley  published  an  edition  of 
his  poetical  works,  with  biographical  notes,  in 
1839,  and  a  selection  from  his  letters,  transla- 
tions, and  prose  writings,  in  1840.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  works,  from  the  origi- 
nal editions,  was  edited  by  R.  H.  Shepherd  (4 
vols.,  London,  1875).  See  also  the  "Life"  by 
Oapt.  Thomas  Medwin  (London,  1847) ;  "  Rec- 
ollections of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  By- 
ron," by  E.  J.  Trelawney  (London  and  Boston, 
1858) ;  the  unfinished  "  Life  of  Shelley,"  by 
Thomas  Jefferson  Hogg  (2  vols.,  London,  1858) ; 
the  "Shelley  Memorials,"  by  Lady  Shelley 
(London  and  Boston,  1859);  and  "Shelley's 
Early  Life,  from  Original  Sources,"  by  Denis 
Florence  Mac-Oarthy  (London,  1872).  II.  Mary 
Wollstoneeraft  Godwin,  an  English  authoress,  sec- 
ond wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in 
1797,  died  there,  Feb.  1,  1851.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary  Woll- 
stonecraft,  received  a  careful  and  peculiar  edu- 
cation, and  married  Shelley  in  1816,  after  having 
lived  with  him  two  years  previous  to  his  first 
wife's  death.  In  1816,  on  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
she  joined  in  a  compact  with  Shelley  and  By- 
ron each  to  write  a  romance  in  imitation  of  the 
German  ghost  stories  which  they  were  read- 
ing. The  result  was  her  novel  of  "  Franken- 
stein" (London,  1818),  the  hero  of  which  dis- 
covers the  secret  of  generation  and  life,  and 
creates  a  man  by  the  resources  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, who  proves  to  be  a  powerful  and 
mischievous  monster.  She  completed  the  nov- 
el of  "Valperga"  just  before  the  death  of 
Shelley,  and  afterward  published  "The  Last 
Man,"  "Lodore"  (1835),  and  "The  Fortunes 
of  Perkin  Warbeck."  She  also  wrote  a  se- 
ries of  biographies  of  foreign  artists  and  po- 
ets for  the  "  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia"  (1835),  and 
"  Rambles  in  Germany  and  Italy  "  (1844),  and 
edited  Shelley's  works  (2  vols.,  1839-'40). 


SHENANDOAU 


845 


SHELTON,  Frederick  WlilUn,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  N.  Y., 
about  1814.  He  graduated  at  the  college  of 
New  Jersey  in  1834,  took  orders  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  church  in  1847,  and  has  been 
successively  settled  at  Huntington,  Long  Island, 
at  Fishkill  on  the  Hudson,  and  at  Montpelier, 
Vt.,  whither  he  went  in  1854.  He  now  (1875j 
resides  at  Carthage  Landing,  Dutchess  co.,  N. 
Y.  He  has  published  "The  Trollopiad,  or 
Travelling  Gentleman  in  America"  (New  York, 
1837),  a  satirical  poem;  "Salander  and  the 
Dragon,  a  Romance"  (1851);  "  Chrystalline, 
or  the  Heiress  of  Fall-Down  Castle"  (1854); 
"  The  Rector  of  St.  Bardolph's,  or  Superannu- 
ated," and  "Up  the  River"  (1853),  a  series  of 
rural  sketches;  and  "Peeps  from  the  Belfry, 
or  the  Parish  Sketch  Book"  (1855). 

SHE9I  (Heb.,  name,  or  fame),  one  of  the 
three  sons  of  Noah,  according  to  most  com- 
mentators the  eldest.  He  was  the  progenitor  ' 
of  the  southwestern  nations  of  Asia,  being  the 
father  of  Elam  (Susiana),  Ashur  (Assyria),  Ar- 
phaxad  (according  to  Josephus,  Chaldea),  from 
whom  descended  the  Hebrews  and  Arabs,  Lud 
(Lydia),  and  Aram  (Syria).  The  region  occu- 
pied by  the  Biblical  Shemites  or  Semites  thus 
extended  from  the  mountains  E.  of  the  Tigris 
to  the  western  offshoots  of  the  Taurus,  and 
from  the  Armenian  mountains  to  the  south- 
ern extremities  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  (See 
SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES.) 

SHENANDOAH,  a  river  of  Virginia,  the  prin- 
cipal tributary  of  the  Potomac.  The  main  riv- 
er, or  South  fork,  rises  in  Augusta  and  Rock- 
ingham  cos.  in  three  streams  which  unite 
near  Port  Republic,  Rockingham  co.,  flows  N. 
E.  through  the  valley  of  Virginia,  W.  of  and 
nearly  parallel  with  the  Blue  Ridge,  receives 
the  North  fork  at  Front  Royal,  Warren  co., 
and  falls  into  the  Potomac  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
W.  Va.  Its  length  from  Port  Republic  is 
about  170  m.,  and  it  is  navigated  by  small 
boats,  called  gondolas,  for  more  than  100  m. 
above  Front  Royal.  It  passes  through  the 
richest  portion  of  Virginia,  and  affords  im- 
mense water  power.  The  valley  of  the  She- 
nandoah  was  very  conspicuous  in  the  military 
operations  of  the  civil  war. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  N.  county  of  Virginia,  in- 
tersected by  the  North  fork  of  the  Shenandoah 
river;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,936,  of  whom  676  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  hilly  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Iron 
ore,  lead,  copper,  coal,  and  limestone  are  found. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Winchester,  Potomac, 
and  Harrisonburg  division  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  239,045  bushels  of  wheat,  19,860  of 
rye,  154,813  of  Indian  corn,  81,023  of  oats, 
8,329  tons  of  hay,  18,757  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
165,338  of  butter.  There  were  3,466  horses, 
9,946  cattle,  6,645  sheep,  and  9,364  swine;  1 
manufactory  of  bar  and  1  of  pig  iron,  7  of 
stone  and  earthenware,  10  flour  mills,  and  J 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Woodstock. 


846 


SHENSTONE 


SHERIDAN 


SHENSTONE,  William,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
the  Leasowes  in  Hales-Owen,  Shropshire,  in 
November,  1714,  died  there,  Feb.  11,  1T63. 
He  passed  several  years  at  Pembroke  college, 
Oxford,  but  never  took  a  degree.  About  1746 
he  retired  to  his  hereditary  estate  of  the  Lea- 
sowes, which  it  thenceforth  became  the  busi- 
ness of  his  life  to  beautify.  He  wrote  ele- 
gies, odes,  ballads,  and  miscellaneous  pieces, 
but  is  best  known  by  the  "  Schoolmistress,"  a  I 
poem  published  in  1742.  Dodsley  published  his 
works  and  letters  (3  vols.  8vo,  1764-'9).  An  j 
edition  of  his  poems,  with  a  memoir  by  the 
Rev.  George  Gilfillan,  appeared  at  Edinburgh 
in  1854,  and  a  new  edition  of  hi-  "  Essays  on 
Men  and  Manners,"  &c.,  at  London  in  1868. 

SHEPARD,  Charles  I  pliant,  an  American  physi- 
cist, born  at  Little  Compton,  R.  I.,  Juae  29, 
1804.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in 
1824,  taught  botany  and  mineralogy  in  Boston, 
was  for  two  years  assistant  in  the  laboratory 
of  Prof.  Silliman  at  Yale  college,  and  took 
charge  for  one  year  of  an  institution  opened  in 
New  Haven  by  James  Brewster  for  popular 
lectures  on  science.  In  the  winter  of  1882-'3 
Mr.  Shepard,  under  a  commission^  from  the 
United  States  government,  investigated  the 
culture  of  the  sugar  cane  and  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  in  the  southern  states,  and  incorpo- 
rated the  results  of  his  observations  in  Prof. 
Silliman's  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury in  1888.  He  had  previously  been  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  natural  history  in  Yale  col- 
lege, a  post  which  he  held  till  1847.  From 
1884  to  1861  he  was  professor  of  chemistry  in 
the  Charleston  medical  college,  8.  0.  In  1835 
he  was  appointed  associate  of  Dr.  Percival  in 
the  state  geological  survey  of  Connecticut.  In 
1845  he  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry  and 
natural  history  in  Amherst  college,  where  he 
is  now  (1875)  professor  of  natural  history. 
His  collection  of  minerals  and  meteorites,  now 
deposited  in  Amherst  college,  is  the  finest  in 
the  United  States,  and  surpassed  in  Europe 
only  by  those  of  the  British  museum  and  the 
imperial  cabinet  of  Vienna.  He  has  published 
"Treatise  on  Mineralogy"  (1882;  3d  ed.,  en- 
larged, 1855),  a  report  on  the  geology  of  Con- 
necticut (1837),  and  numerous  scientific  papers. 

SHERBROOKE.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  drained  by  the  St.  Francis  and  Magog 
rivers ;  area,  219  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  8,516, 
of  whom  3,544  were  of  French,  2,442  of  Eng- 
lish, 1,601  of  Irish,  and  777  of  Scotch  origin 
or  descent.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Massawippi  Valley,  and  the  St. 
Francis  and  Lake  Megantic  International  rail- 
ways. II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  county,  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Magog,  at  its  entrance 
into  the  St.  Francis,  on  the  Portland  division 
of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  Massawippi  Valley  railway,  80  m. 
E.  by  S.  of  Montreal ;  pop.  in  1871,  4,432.  It 
contains  manufactories  of  woollen  and  cotton 
cloths,  flannels,  iron  castings,  machinery,  axes, 
pails,  dec.,  several  saw  mills  and  breweries,  a 


bank,  a  branch  bank,  an  academy,  and  three 
weekly  newspapers  (one  French). 

SHERBCRNE,  a  central  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Mississippi  and  inter- 
sected by  Snake  river ;  area,  445  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,050.  It  contains  several  small  lakes. 
The  surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  produc- 
tive. It  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Paul  and  Pa- 
cific railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  26,457  bushels  of  wheat,  87,006  of  Indian 
corn,  17,797  of  oats,  17,987  of  potatoes,  8,303 
tons  of  hay,  2,556  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  56,610  of 
butter.  There  were  412  horses,  716  milch 
cows,  1,490  other  cattle,  1,112  sheep,  and  542 
swine.  Capital,  Orono. 

SHERIDAN.  I.  An  unorganized  N.  W.  coun- 
ty of  Kansas ;  area,  900  sq.  m.  It  is  drained 
by  Prairie  Dog  creek,  the  North  and  South 
forks  of  Solomon  river,  and  the  Saline  river. 
It  consists  of  undulating  and  fertile  prairies, 
and  is  well  adapted  to  grazing.  II.  A  N.  cen- 
tral county  of  Dakota,  recently  formed  and  not 
included  in  the  census  of  1870 ;  area,  about 
1,750  sq.  m.  It  contains  several  small  lakes, 
and  the  N.  part  is  watered  by  one  of  the  head 
streams  of  the  Cheyenne  and  by  an  affluent  of 
Mouse  river.  The  W.  part  is  occupied  by  the 
Plateau  du  Coteau  du  Missouri. 

SHERIDAN,  Philip  Henry,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Somerset,  Perry  co.,  Ohio,  March  6, 
1831.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853, 
served  in  Texas  in  1854-'5,  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast  till  May  14,  1861,  when  he  was  made 
captain  of  the  13th  infantry,  chief  quarter- 
master and  commissary  of  the  army  of  S.  W. 
Missouri,  and  subsequently  quartermaster  to 
Gen.  Halleck  in  the  Mississippi  campaign  of 
the  spring  of  1862.  On  May  25,  1862,  he  was 
made  colonel  of  the  2d  Michigan  volunteer 
cavalry,  and  took  part  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
confederates  from  Corinth,  May  80  to  June  10, 
and  in  the  engagement  at  Booneville,  July  1, 
when  he  was  made  brigadier  general  of  vol- 
unteers. In  command  of  the  llth  division  of 
the  army  of  the  Ohio  he  led  the  advance  into 
Kentucky,  and  was  in  the  battle  of  Perryville, 
Oct.  8,  and  in  the  subsequent  march  to  the  re- 
lief of  Nashville.  Assigned  to  the  army  of  the 
Cumberland,  his  division  was  in  the  campaign 
of  Tennessee  from  November,  1862,  to  Sep- 
tember, 1868,  taking  active  part  in  the  battle 
of  Murfreesboro  (see  MTJRFBKKSBOBO),  when 
he  was  made  major  general  of  volunteers.  He 
captured  a  train  and  prisoners  at  Eagleville 
in  March ;  crossed  the  Cumberland  mountains 
and  Tennessee  river  in  August;  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  Sept.  19,  20,  and 
in  the  operations  about  Chattanooga,  inclu- 
ding the  battle  of  Missionary  ridge,  Nov.  23- 
25 ;  and  was  subsequently  engaged  in  E.  Ten- 
nessee till  March,  1864.  From  April  4  to  Aug. 
3  he  was  in  command  of  the  cavalry  corps  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  with  his  10,000 
men  was  actively  employed  in  operations  in  the 
Wilderness,  and  between  it  and  Richmond,  in 
May,  June,  and  July.  While  mainly  employed 


SHERIDAN 


847 


in  reconnoitring  and  in  protecting  the  flank 
of  the  army,  his  corps  made  several  vigorous 
raids,  cutting  off  railway  connections  and  cap- 
turing or  destroying  stores,  was  more  than  20 
times  engaged  with  the  confederate  cavalry, 
and  took  an  important  part  in  the  actions  in 
and  about  Cold  Harbor.  On  Aug.  4  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Shenandoah,  and  on  the  7th  to  that  of  the 
middle  military  division.  He  defeated  Early 
on  the  Opequan,  Sept.  19,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  brigadier  general  in  the  United  States 
army ;  at  Fisher's  Hill,  Sept.  22 ;  and  at  Cedar 
creek,  Oct.  19,  where  he  turned  a  rout  into  a 
brilliant  victory,  for  which  he  received  the 
thanks  of  congress.  On  Nov.  8  he  was  made 
a  major  general.  From  Feb.  27  to  March  24, 
1865,  he  was  engaged  in  the  raid  from  Winches- 
ter to  Petersburg,  during  which  he  destroyed 
the  James  river  and  Kanawha  canal,  cut  impor- 
tant railway  connections,  destroyed  military 
and  commissary  stores,  and  had  numerous  skir- 
mishes with  the  enemy.  From  March  25  to 
April  9  he  was  in  the  Eichmond  campaign. 
On  April  1  he  gained  the  battle  of  Five  Forks, 
which  insured  the  abandonment  by  the  con- 
federates of  Petersburg  and  Richmond  (see 
PETERSBURG,  SIEGE  OF),  and  he  led  in  the  pur- 
suit of  Lee,  and  was  present  at  his  capitulation, 
April  9.  He  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  military  division  of  the  Southwest  June 
3,  and  of  the  military  division  of  the  Gulf  July 
17 ;  of  the  department  of  the  Gulf  Aug.  15, 
1866;  of  the  fifth  military  district,  including 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  March^ll,  1867;  and  of 
the  department  of  the  Missouri,  with  head- 
quarters at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Sept.  12.  On 
March  4,  1869,  he  was  made  lieutenant  gen- 
eral and  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  divi- 
sion of  the  Missouri,  including  the  depart- 
ments of  Dakota,  of  the  Missouri,  of  the  Platte, 
and  of  Texas,  with  headquarters  at  Chicago, 
which  office  he  still  holds  (1875).  Early  in 
1875,  political  disturbances  threatening  in  Lou- 
isiana, he  was  stationed  for  a  few  weeks  in 
New  Orleans,  and  then  returned  to  his  com- 
mand in  Chicago. 

SHERIDAN.  I.  Thomas,  an  Irish  clergyman, 
born  in  county  Cavan  about  1684,  died  in  Dub- 
lin, Sept.  10,  1738.  He  was  educated  by  pri- 
vate charity  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  took 
orders,  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  was 
named  chaplain  to  the  lord  lieutenant.  Losing 
his  college  fellowship  by  marriage,  he  opened 
a  school  in  Dublin,  which  proved  highly  suc- 
cessful, but  finally  ruined  it  by  negligence  and 
extravagance.  In  1725  he  was  presented  to  a 
living  through  the  influence  of  Dean  Swift,  but 
lost  his  chaplaincy  by  preaching  a  sermon  on 
the  birthday  of  George  I.  from  the  text :  "  Suf- 
ficient unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof."  After 
several  changes  of  "fortune  he  died  in  great  pov- 
erty and  distress,  having  maintained  through 
all  a  gay  and  careless  cheerfulness,  not  allow- 
ing a  day  to  pass,  according  to  Lord  Cork, 
"  without  a  rebus,  an  anagram,  or  a  madri- 
738  VOL.  xiv. — 54 


gal."  He  published  a  translation  of  Persius 
in  prose,  and  one  of  Sophocles's  "Philoctetes" 
in  verse.  Many  of  his  letters  are  included  in 
Swift's  "Miscellanies."  II.  Thomas,  an  elocu- 
tionist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Quilca, 
the  residence  of  Dean  Swift,  near  Dublin,  in 
1721,  died  at  Margate,  Aug.  14, 1788.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  in  1743  went  upon  the 
stage.  In  1744  he  played  at  Covent  Garden 
theatre,  and  in  1745  at  Drury  Lane,  and  was  set 
up  as  a  rival  of  Garrick.  For  eight  years  he 
managed  the  Dublin  theatre,  but  in  1754,  dis- 
regarding a  clamor  for  the  repeated  recitation 
of  certain  popular  and  political  passages  in  a 
play,  a  fierce  riot  broke  out,  and  he  retired. 
He  resumed  the  management  in  the  next  year, 
but  the  erection  of  a  rival  theatre  and  other 
causes  ruined  his  business.  He  then  engaged 
with  great  success  in  lecturing  on  elocution 
in  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Scotland. 
He  received  a  pension  from  the  crown  on  the 
accession  of  George  III.  In  1760  he  appeared 
again  briefly  at  Drury  Lane,  when  his  quarrel 
with  Garrick  was  renewed.  He  subsequently 
appeared  at  the  Haymarket,  and  his  last  per- 
formance was  at  Covent  Garden  in  1776.  Af- 
ter Garrick' s  retirement  in  that  year,  Sheridan 
was  for  three  years  manager  of  Drury  Lane, 
his  son  Richard  Brinsley  being  lessee.  He 
then  retired  altogether  from  the  theatre,  and 
in  1780  published  his  "  Complete  Dictionary  of 
the  English  Language,  both  with  regard  to 
Sound  and  Meaning,  one  main  Object  of  which 
is  to  establish  a  plain  and  permanent  Stan- 
dard of  Pronunciation."  Among  his  other 
works  are :  "  Lectures  on  the  Art  of  Read- 
ing," "  Course  of  Lectures  on  Elocution,"  and 
a  "  Life  of  Swift."  III.  Frances,  a  novelist,  wife 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Ireland  in  1724,  of 
English  parentage,  died  in  Blois,  France,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1766.  At  the  age  of  15  she  wrote  a 
romance,  "Eugenia  and  Adelaide,"  which  was 
afterward  adapted  for  the  stage  by  her  daugh- 
ter as  a  comic  drama,  and  acted  with  success 
in  Dublin.  She  became  acquainted  with  Sher- 
idan by  means  of  a  pamphlet  which  she  pub- 
lished in  his  defence  during  his  managerial 
troubles  in  Dublin,  and  they  were  soon  after 
married.  Her  romances,  "Sidney  Biddulph" 
and  "  Nourjahad,"  are  still  admired.  She  was 
also  the  author  of  two  less  successful  comedies, 
"  The  Discovery  "  and  "  The  Dupe,"  and  wrote, 
but  never  published,  "  The  Trip  to  Bath,"  from 
which  her  son  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
hints  for  his  "  Rivals."  IV.  Richard  Brin>le>. 
an  English  dramatist  and  politician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Dublin  in  September,  1751, 
died  in  London,  July  7,  1816.  In  1762  he  was 
sent  to  Harrow,  whence  in  his  18th  year  he 
went  to  Bath,  where  his  family  had  settled, 
and  in  conjunction  with  a  friend  named  Hal- 
hed  wrote  some  fugitive  pieces,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Aristametus.  He  fell  in  love  with  Miss 
Linley,  a  young  and  beautiful  singer  of  Bath, 
and  to  save  her  from  the  persecutions  of  a  lib- 


848 


SHERIDAN 


SHERIFF 


ertine  named  Matthews  he  fled  with  her  early 
in  1772  to  France,  and  they  were  secretly  mar- 
ried*! Calais.  The  result  was  two  duels  with 
Matthews,  in  the  last  of  which  Sheridan  was 
wounded.  In  1773  he  entered  the  Middle 
Temple  as  a  student  of  law,  and  shortly  after- 
ward was  married  anew  by  license,  and  retired 
to  a  cottage  at  East  Burnham.  On  Jan.  17, 
1775,  his  comedy  of  "  The  Rivals  "  was  brought 
out  at  Covent  Garden,  and,  though  it  failed 
the  first  night,  speedily  became  the  universal 
favorite  it  has  ever  since  remained.  It  was 
followed  the  same  year  by  the  farce  of  "  St. 
Patrick's  Day,  or  the  Scheming  Lieutenant," 
and  the  comic  opera  of  "  The  Duenna,"  which 
had  the  then  unparalleled  run  of  75  represen- 
tations during  the  season.  In  1776,  with  his 
father-in-law  and  Dr.  Ford,  he  purchased  Gar- 
rick's  share  of  Drury  Lane.  In  the  following 
year  he  brought  out  "  The  School  for  Scandal," 
which  placed  him  at  once  at  the  head  of  comic 
dramatists.  This  was  followed  in  1779  by  a 
monody  on  the  death  of  Garrick,  and  the  farce 
of  "  The  Critic."  Embracing  the  principles 
of  the  whig  party,  his  first  service  was  in  con- 
nection with  a  periodical  called  "  The  Eng- 
lishman." In  1780  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  parliament  from  Stafford,  and  entered  the 
ranks  of  the  opposition  to  the  administra- 
tion of  Lord  North.  His  first  speech,  in  re- 
ply to  accusations  brought  against  him  for  bri- 
bery and  corruption  in  securing  his  election, 
disappointed  both  his  friends  and  his  enemies. 
He  rarely  spoke  after  this,  and  only  after  great 
preparation.  In  1782  Lord  North  went  out 
of  office,  and  in  the  short-lived  ministry  of 
Rockingham  which  followed,  Sheridan  was 
one  of  the  under-secretaries  of  state.  After 
the  accession  of  Shelburne  to  the  treasury, 
he,  with  most  of  the  friends  of  Fox,  resigned. 
In  the  coalition  ministry  of  Fox  and  North  in 
1788,  Sheridan  was  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
but  retired  on  the  accession  of  William  Pitt. 
Parliament  having  been  dissolved,  he  was  one 
of  the  few  adherents  of  the  coalition  that  were 
reflected  in  1784.  On  Feb.  7,  1787,  Sheri- 
dan brought  forward  the  charge  against  War- 
ren Hastings  touching  the  spoliation  of  the 
begums  or  princesses  of  Onde,  in  an  oration 
which  was  the  greatest  effort  of  his  life,  but 
no  good  report  of  which  exists.  In  the  trial 
of  Hastings  Sheridan  was  one  of  the  man- 
agers of  the  impeachment,  and  made  a  second 
oration  little  inferior,  which  lasted  four  days. 
In  1790  he  was  reflected  to  parliament  from 
Stafford.  A  rupture  took  place  between  him 
and  Burke,  caused  somewhat  by  a  mutual  jeal- 
ousy, but  ostensibly  by  a  difference  of  opin- 
ion on  the  French  revolution.  In  June,  1792, 
his  wife  died,  and  in  1795  he  married  a  Miss 
Ogle,  daughter  of  the  dean  of  Winchester.  His 
careless  and  extravagant  style  of  living  re- 
sulted in  pecuniary  embarrassment,  and  irreg- 
ularities of  his  private  life  placed  him  under 
the  ban  of  public  opinion.  In  the  house  of 
commons  he  vehemently  assailed  the  adminis- 


tration, but  at  the  time  of  the  mutiny  at  the 
Nore  lent  it  his  support.  In  1799  he  brought 
out  the  play  of  "  Pizarro,"  which  is  largely  a 
translation  from  Kotzebue.  Sheridan  support- 
ed the  short-lived  ministry  of  Addington,  and 
in  this  differed  from  Fox,  between  whom  and 
himself  a  feeling  of  reserve  and  even  aliena- 
tion had  been  for  some  time  growing.  In  the 
ministry  of  Grenville  and  Fox,  which  succeed- 
ed the  death  of  Pitt,  he  accepted  the  compara- 
tively unimportant  office  of  treasurer  of  the 
navy.  He  was  elected  from  Westminster  after 
a  severe  contest;  but  in  1809,  while  speak- 
ing in  the  house  of  commons,  he  saw  himself 
involved  in  almost  total  ruin  by  the  burning 
of  Drury  Lane  theatre,  in  rebuilding  which 
he  had  already  loaded  himself  with  debt.  In 
1812  he  failed  to  be  reflected  from  Stafford, 
and  this  filled  up  the  measure  of  his  ruin.  Hia 
health  had  been  destroyed  by  drink,  and  his 
spirits  were  depressed  by  harassing  duns.  His 
books,  his  furniture,  his  presents  were  sold  or 
passed  into  the  hands  of  pawnbrokers ;  even 
the  portrait  of  his  first  wife  by  Reynolds  went 
out  of  his  possession  ;  and  he  was  imprisoned 
two  or  three  days  for  debt.  While  in  his  last 
illness  an  officer  arrested  him  in  his  bed,  and 
would  have  carried  him  to  the  sponging  house 
had  he  not  been  threatened  with  prosecution 
by  Sheridan's  physician.  He  died  near  hia 
sick  wife,  deserted  by  all  except  his  medical 
adviser  and  Peter  Moore,  Rogers,  and  Lord 
Holland,  the  few  friends  who  had  remained 
faithful  to  him  in  his  misfortunes.  He  was 
buried  in  the  poets'  corner  in  Westminster 
abbey.  His  life,  by  Thomas  Moore,  was  pub- 
lished in  1825,  and  his  "Speeches"  were  "ed- 
ited by  a  Constitutional  Friend  "  (5  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1816).  His  "Dramatic  Works  "  form 
a  volume  of  Bohn's  "  Standard  Library " 
(1848),  and  have  been  edited,  with  a  memoir, 
by  James  P.  Browne,  M.  D.  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1878).  A  collection  of  Sheridan's  dramas, 
poems,  translations,  speeches,  and  unfinished 
sketches,  with  a  memoir  and  a  collection  of 
ana,  has  been  edited  by  F.  Stainforth  (1874). 

SHERIFF  (A.  S.  scyre,  shire,  and  gerefa  or 
refa,  keeper  or  steward),  in  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  the  chief  officer  of  a  county. 
The  office  of  sheriff  is  of  ancient  Saxon  origin, 
as  appears  from  the  composition  of  the  word, 
which  successively  assumed  the  forms  of  shyre- 
greve,  shiregreve,  shirereeve,  and  shireve. 
Cowell  writes  the  word  shireve,  and  Blount 
shirif  or  shiref.  In  the  Norman  period  the 
earl  or  count  (comes)  was  the  one  to  whom 
was  committed  the  custody  of  the  shire  or 
county ;  and  when  in  course  of  time  he  was 
relieved  of  the  active  functions  of  the  office, 
they  were  devolved  upon  an  inferior  officer, 
called  therefore  t  ice-comes,  who  is  identical 
with  the  sheriff.  Gradually  the  earls  were 
discharged  not  only  of  the  duties  of  the  office 
but  also  of  the  commission,  and  the  sheriffs 
thus  came  to  be  the  immediate  officers  of  the 
crown  and  not  of  the  earls ;  and  the  sheriff 


SHERIFF 


849 


succeeded  to  almost  all  the  authority,  judicial 
and  ministerial,  that  the  comes  or  earl  had 
hitherto  possessed.  Until  the  time  of  Edward 
II.  the  sheriff  was  elected  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  several  counties;  but  a  statute  of  the 
ninth  year  of  that  reign  abolished  election, 
and  ever  since,  with  few  exceptions,  the  sheriff 
has  been  appointed,  upon  nomination  by  the 
king's  councillors  and  the  judges  of  certain 
ranks,  by  the  approval  of  the  crown.  In  some 
cities  and  towns  the  sheriff  is  elected  either  by 
the  whole  body  of  the  freeholders  or  by  some 
particular  body  of  the  corporation.  London 
claims  prescriptive  right  to  elect  her  two  sher- 
iffs. The  office  of  sheriff  is  still  in  England 
one  of  eminent  honor,  and  is  conferred  on  the 
wealthiest  and  most  notable  commoners  in 
the  counties. — The  English  sheriff,  the  sheriff 
of  the  common  law,  we  may  say,  is  the  cus- 
todian of  the  county  and  the  conservator  of 
the  king's  peace  therein.  In  virtue  of  these 
functions  he  is  bound  to  apprehend  all  disturb- 
ers of  the  peace  and  bind  them  to  good  be- 
havior or  commit  them  for  examination,  and 
to  arrest  and  commit  all  felons.  To  these 
ends  he  has  the  right  to  summon  to  his  aid 
whenever  it  is  necessary  the  posse  comitatus, 
or  power  of  the  county,  and  he  has  the  cus- 
tody of  the  county  jail.  In  a  ministerial  ca- 
pacity it  is  his  office  to  execute  all  writs  and 
processes  directed  to  him  by  the  superior 
courts  of  judicature,  to  take  recognizances 
and  bail,  to  summon  juries,  and  to  execute 
final  process  and  judgments  of  the  courts 
whether  civil  or  criminal.  As  king's  bailiff, 
he  is  to  take  into  his  charge  all  lands  falling 
to  the  crown  under  attainders  or  by  escheats, 
levy  all  fines  and  forfeitures,  and  collect  all 
waifs  and  estrays.  Finally,  in  his  judicial  ca- 
pacity he  may  adjudicate  in  certain  petty  civil 
suits.  He  also  determines  matters  touching 
the  election  of  knights  of  the  shire,  of  coro- 
ners, and  other  officers. — The  sheriff  retains 
in  the  United  States  many  of  the  faculties  of 
the  sheriff  at  common  law;  yet  his  capacity 
in  all  respects  is  much  dependent  on  the  pro- 
visions of  special  statutes.  His  judicial  pow- 
ers are  particularly  restricted  here ;  his  du- 
ties are  in  fact  almost  entirely  ministerial. 
Generally  in  the  United  States  the  sheriff, 
like  every  other  considerable  officer,  is  elected 
by  the  whole  body  of  the  people,  and  holds 
his  office  for  a  prescribed  term  of  years.  In 
New  York  and  some  other  states  he  is  ineligi- 
ble for  the  three  years  next  succeeding  his 
term  of  office.  As  he  cannot  perform  in  his 
own  person  the  manifold  duties  of  his  office, 
the  sheriff  may  appoint  deputies.  He  is  also 
in  some  states  required  to  appoint  an  under 
sheriff.  This  officer  is  the  equal  of  the  sheriff 
himself,  and  acts  in  his  stead  in  all  respects 
when  he  is  absent  or  his  office  is  vacated.  _  The 
sheriff  may  create  as  many  general  deputies  as 
he  thinks  proper.  The  deputy  sheriff  in  this 
country,  though  not  in  England,  is  an  officer 
known  and  recognized  by  the  law.  He  is  sep- 


arately sworn,  and  has  his  distinct  rights  and 
liabilities.  Primarily,  however,  the  sheriff  is 
responsible  for  all  the  deputy's  defaults  in 
respect  to  duties  imposed  by  the  law  upon  the 
sheriff. — As  conservator  of  the  peace  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  sheriff  (and  generally  speaking  the 
deputy  may  do  what  the  sheriff  may  do)  to 
suppress  all  unlawful  assemblages,  to  quell  all 
riots  and  affrays,  and  to  arrest  and  commit  to 
jail,  if  need  be,  those  engaged  in  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  public  order.  For  any  breach  of 
the  peace  or  any  crime  or  misdemeanor  com- 
mitted within  his  view  the  sheriff  may  make 
an  arrest  without  a  warrant.  To  suppress  an 
affray  actually  going  on,  he  may  even  break 
into  a  dwelling  house,  and  so  he  may  if  he  is 
in  fresh  pursuit  of  one  who  has  committed  an 
offence  within  his  view,'  and  there  is  danger 
that  he  may  escape  if  he  is  not  followed.  "When 
the  breach  of  the  peace  has  been  committed 
at  a  time  past,  it  is  the  sheriff's  duty  in  most 
cases  to  provide  himself  with  a  warrant  before 
making  an  arrest.  In  the  service  of  this  pro- 
cess, the  sheriff  appears,  in  a  ministerial  capa- 
city, as  the  officer  of  the  court  which  issues  it. 
In  making  the  arrest,  the  officer  ought,  prop- 
erly speaking,  to  show  his  warrant,  and  make 
known,  to  a  reasonable  degree,  the  contents 
and  purport  of  it;  but  every  person  within 
his  bailiwick  is  bound  to  take  notice  of  his 
official  character.  If  the  warrant  is  issued  for 
the  arreat  of  one  who  has  committed  a  felony, 
the  sheriff  may  even  break  the  outer  door  of  a 
house  in  order  to  execute  the  process.  If  the 
warrant  of  arrest  appears  upon  its  face  to  be 
defective  in  any  essential  respect,  it  is  abso- 
lutely void,  and  all  who  participate  in  the  exe- 
cution of  it  are  trespassers.  The  party  arrested 
under  a  warrant  ought  to  be  brought  presently 
before  the  court  or  magistrate  who  issued  the 
process.— The  sheriff's  duties  and  powers  in 
the  execution  of  civil  process  differ  in  some 
respects  from  those  imposed  upon  him  in  the 
execution  of  process  in  criminal  matters.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  officer  is  liable  to  the  suitor 
at  whose  instance  the  process  issues,  if  through 
negligence  or  error  he  fails  to  perform  his  whole 
duty  in  the  service  of  it ;  while  he  is  respon- 
sible to  the  party  wronged  if  he  exceeds  the 
power  conferred  upon  him.  Wherever  then 
he  has  reasonable  grounds  to  doubt  his  author- 
ity to  act  in  the  premises,  the  sheriff  may  ask 
an  indemnity.  This  is  often  done  in  cases 
where  the  title  to  property  which  is  directed 
to  be  attached  is  doubtful,  or  where  the  officer 
questions  the  identity  of  a  person  whom  he  is 
ordered  to  arrest.  Service  of  summons  in  a 
suit  is  made  by  reading  it  to  the  party  to  whom 
it  is  addressed,  or  ordinarily  by  delivering  to 
him  a  copy  of  it,  or  by  leaving  the  copy  at  his 
last  usual  place  of  residence.  Attachment  < 
property,  as  the  first  step  in  the  suit,  is  un- 
known to  the  common  law,  and  is  founded 
upon  statutes.  To  constitute  a  valid  attach- 
ment of  personal  property,  the  officer  must 
take  actual  possession  of  the  goods.  The  sub- 


850 


SHERLOCK 


SHERMAN 


sequent  use  of  the  property  by  the  owner  with 
the  officer's  permission,  when  no  harm  is  done 
to  th«  goods  by  the  using,  or  even  a  resump- 
tion of  the  possession  by  the  owner  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  delivery  subject  to  the 
officer's  attachment,  does  not  vacate  this  at- 
tachment. A  warehouse  may  be  broken  into 
in  order  to  make  an  attachment  of  goods  de- 
posited there.  Goods  in  a  store  are  well  at- 
tached by  locking  the  door  and  taking  the  key. 
Shares  of  stock  may  be  attached  by  leaving 
an  attested  copy  of  the  writ  and  of  the  return 
of  the  attachment  with  the  treasurer  or  other 
clerk  of  the  corporation  at  the  business  office. 
The  duties  of  the  sheriff  in  respect  to  the  draw- 
ing of  jurors,  the  service  of  summonses  or  sub- 
poenas, and  other  incidents  of  the  trial  of  causes, 
are  treated  elsewhere.  (See  JCRY,  and  SUB- 
PCKNA.) — When  judgment  is  docketed  in  a  civil 
suit  against  a  defendant,  it  is  the  sheriff's  busi- 
ness to  levy  the  execution  which  thereupon 
issues  at  the  instance  of  the  plaintiff.  Subject 
in  some  respects  to  the  direction  of  the  plain- 
tiff or  his  attorney,  it  is  the  officer's  duty  to 
secure  the  amount  of  the  execution,  or  the 
portion  of  it  directed  to  be  collected.  If  the 
defendant  will  not  upon  request  satisfy  by 
payment  the  amount  of  the  judgment,  the 
sheriff  proceeds  to  satisfy  it  by  the  seizure  of 
any  goods  of  the  defendant  which  can  be  found 
within  the  county.  The  levy  may  be  made  at 
any  time  before  the  return  day  of  the  execu- 
tion, but  it  is  expedient  to  make  it  at  once  lest 
there  be  any  alienation  of  the  property.  Any 
property  supposed  to  belong  to  the  defendant 
and  found  in  his  possession,  even  though  he 
asserts  that  it  has  been  sold,  mortgaged,  or 
otherwise  encumbered,  ought  to  be  levied  upon 
by  the  officer ;  for  if  he  neglects  to  do  so,  he 
assumes  the  responsibility  of  showing  that  it 
was  in  fact  exempt ;  and  yet  if  he  does  levy 
and  the  defendant's  statement  was  indeed  true, 
he  becomes  liable  as  trespasser  to  the  real  owner 
or  party  holding  a  prior  lien,  and  therefore  he 
has  a  right  to  demand  indemnity  in  any  such 
case.  In  order  to  make  a  valid  levy,  the  prop- 
erty ought  to  be  present  or  in  the  view  of  the 
officer,  and  he  should  do  some  act  to  signify 
his  claim  to  control  it  henceforth.  Making  a 
memorandum  upon  the  execution,  making  an 
inventory  of  the  goods,  or  taking  a  receipt  for 
them  from  some  responsible  party,  may  per- 
haps be  a  sufficient  indication  of  a  levy.  The 
sheriff  may  not  break  into  a  house  to  make  a 
levy,  but  he  may  enter  if  the  door  is  open, 
and  remain  a  reasonable  time.  The  levy  in 
the  case  of  real  property,  where  the  statute 
does  not  make  the  judgment  itself  a  sufficient 
lien,  is  made  by  mere  indorsement  on  the  exe- 
cution. Property  taken  on  execution,  whether 
real  or  personal,  is  regularly  exposed  by  the 
sheriff  to  sale  by  public  auction  ;  and  the  sher- 
iff can  sell  such  property  only  for  cash. 

SHERLOCK.  I.  William,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  Southwark  about  1641,  died  in 
Hampstead,  June  19,  1707.  He  was  educated 


at  Eton  and  at  Peter  house,  Cambridge,  and 
became  rector  of  the  parish  of  St.  George,  Bo- 
tolph  lane,  London,  in  1669,  prebend  of  St. 
Pancras  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  in  1681, 
master  of  the  Temple  in  1684,  and  dean  of  St. 
Paul's  in  1691.  He  refused  the  oaths  of  alle- 
giance to  William  and  Mary,  and  was  suspended 
from  his  preferment,  but  at  length  submitted 
and  took  them.  The  principal  of  his  numer- 
ous works  are :  "  Case  of  the  Allegiance  due  to 
the  Sovereign  Powers,"  "  Vindication  of  the 
Doctrine  of  -the  Trinity,"  and  "A  Practical 
Discourse  on  Death."  II.  Thomas,  an  English 
prelate,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London 
in  1678,  died  there,  July  18, 1761.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Catharine  hall,  Cambridge,  of  which 
college  he  became  master.  In  1704  he  was 
made  master  of  the  Temple,  in  1714  vice  chan- 
cellor of  the  university,  and  in  1715  dean  of 
Chichester.  For  his  opposition  to  Dr.  Hoadley 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy  he  incurred  the 
royal  displeasure,  and  in  1717  was  removed 
from  the  list  of  the  king's  chaplains.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Bangor  in  1728,  of  Salisbury 
in  1734,  and  of  London  in  1748.  His  works 
consist  principally  of  sermons,  and  were  pub- 
lished in  5  vols.  8vo  in  1880.  Of  his  "Pas- 
toral Letter,"  published  after  the  earthquake 
in  1750,  nearly  100,000  copies  were  printed. 

SHERMAN.  I.  A  central  county  of  Nebraska, 
intersected  by  Loup  fork ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1 875, 496.  It  has  been  recently  formed, 
and  is  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870.  It 
consists  mostly  of  prairies.  II.  An  unorgan- 
ized N.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  bordering  on 
Colorado ;  area,  900  sq.  m.  It  is  drained  by 
affluents  of  the  Republican  river.  The  surface 
consists  of  undulating  prairies. 

SHERMAN,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Gray- 
son  co.,  Texas,  situated  in  a  plain,  12  m.  S.  of 
Red  river,  240  m.  N.  N".  E.  of  Austin,  and  by 
rail  878  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Galveston  and  632  m. 
S.  W.  of  St.  Louis;  pop.  in  1870,  1,439,  of 
whom  490  were  colored ;  in  1875,  estimated 
by  local  authorities  at  7,000.  It  is  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  railroad 
with  the  Transcontinental  branch  of  the  Texas 
and  Pacific  railroad,  is  regularly  laid  out,  and 
has  many  substantial  brick  buildings,  some  of 
them  with  iron  and  stone  fronts.  A  court 
house  of  brick  and  stone,  to  cost  about  $80,000, 
is  in  course  of  construction  (1875).  Sherman 
supplies  several  counties  with  merchandise, 
and  ships  large  quantities  of  cotton,  hides,  &c. 
It  contains  an  iron  foundery,  five  flouring  mills, 
a  cracker  factory,  a  tobacco  factory,  a  soap 
factory,  two  banks,  ten  schools,  three  news- 
papers (one  daily),  and  eight  churches. 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Newton,  Mass.,  April  19,  1721,  died  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  July  23,  1793.  He  was  a 
shoemaker  till  after  he  was  22  years  old.  In 
1743  he  removed  to  New  Milford,  Conn.,  where 
with  a  brother  he  kept  a  small  store.  In  1745 
he  was  appointed  surveyor  of  lands  for  the 
county,  and  for  several  years  after  1748  he 


SHERMAN 


851 


furnished  the  astronomical  calculations  for  an 
almanac  published  in  New  York.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1754,  was  several  times 
elected  to  the  colonial  assembly,  and  in  1759 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  Having  removed  to  New  Haven  in  1761, 
he  became  judge  of  common  pleas  there  in 
1765,  and  the  next  year  an  assistant  or  member 
of  the  upper  house  in  the  legislature  (a  body 
consisting  of  12  persons),  both  which  offices 
he  held  for  about  19  years,  and  his  judgeship 
till  1789,  the  latter  portion  of  the  time  on  the 
bench  of  the  superior  court.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  continental  and  the  United  States 
congress  from  1774  to  1791,  when  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  governor's  council  of  safety, 
and  from  1784  till  his  death  mayor  of  New 
Haven ;  and  he  was  for  many  years  treasurer 
of  Yale  college.  In  1776  he  was  a  member 
of  the  committee  appointed  to  draft  the  dec- 
laration of  independence,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  signers ;  and  during  the  war  he 
performed  important  services  on  committees 
and  boards.  In  1783  he  was  associated  with 
another  judge  in  codifying  the  laws  of  Con- 
necticut. He  had  been  one  of  the  committee 
which  framed  the  old  articles  of  confedera- 
tion ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  efficient 
members  of  the  constitutional  convention  of 
1787,  and  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  secu- 
ring the  ratification  of  the  constitution  by  the 
state  convention  of  Connecticut. 

SHKKMAX.  I.  William  Teenmseh,  an  American 
soldier,  born  at  Lancaster,  Ohio,  Feb.  8,  1820. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840,  served  in 
the  Florida  war  in  1840-'42,  and  was  at  various 
military  posts  in  the  south  till  1847,  when  he 
went  to  California,  and  was  acting  assistant 
adjutant  general  there  till  1850.  He  was  on 
commissary  duty  at  St.  Louis  in  1850-'52,  and 
at  New  Orleans  till  Sept.  6,  1853,  when  he  re- 
signed. From  1853  to  1857  he  was  a  banker 
in  San  Francisco  and  New  York,  and  in  1858-'9 
he  practised  law  in  Leavenworth,  Kansas.  He 
was  superintendent  of  the  Louisiana  military 
school  at  Alexandria  from  1859  to  January, 
1861,  when  he  went  to  St.  Louis.  On  May  14, 

1861,  he  was  reappointed  in  the  army  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  on  the  17th  was  made 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers ;  and  he  com- 
manded a  brigade  in  the. first  battle  of  Bull 
Run  (July  21).     In  October  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command   of  the  department  of  the 
Cumberland,  but  afterward  took  charge  of  a 
camp  of  instruction  at  St.  Louis  till  February, 

1862,  when  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
district  of  Paducah,  Ky.     He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  cam- 
paign, was  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6,  7, 
where  he  was  wounded,  was  in  the  advance 
upon  and  siege  of  Corinth,  April  15  to  May 
30,  and  was  made  major  general  of  volunteers 
May  1.     He  commanded  the  hastily  organized 
expedition  which  attempted  to  capture  Vicks- 
burg,  Dec.  27-29.     In  1863,  in  command  of  the 


15th  army  corps,  he  led  the  expedition  which 
carried  Arkansas  Post  by  assault,  Jan.  11,  and 
till  July  3  was  actively  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Vicksburg.  He  was  made  brigadier  general  in 
the  regular  army,  his  commission  dating  from 
July  4,  and  during  the  summer  and  autumn 
was  engaged  in  various  operations  in  Missis- 
sippi and  Tennessee.  He  commanded  the  left 
wing  of  the  army  at  Chattanooga,  Nov.  23-25, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  December  compelled 
Gen.  Longstreet  to  raise  the  siege  of  Knox- 
ville.  In  February,  1864,  with  20,000  men,  he 
marched  to  Meridian,  Miss.,  and  broke  up  the 
railroads  centring  there.  He  held  the  com- 
mand of  the  department  and  army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee till  March  12,  when  he  took  that  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  composed 
of  the  departments  of  Ohio,  Cumberland,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Arkansas.  Having  organized  at 
Chattanooga  an  army  of  100,000  men,  he  inva- 
ded Georgia,  engaging  the  confederate  forces 
under  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston,  whom  he  forced 
to  evacuate  Dalton  (May  12),  at  Resaca  (15). 
Cassville  (19),  Dallas  (25-28),  and  afterward 
almost  daily  till  the  protracted  operations  about 
Kenesaw  mountain,  near  Marietta  (June  20- 
July  2),  which  involved  a  severe  repulse  (June 
27).  He  occupied  Marietta  on  July  8,  and 
after  several  other  engagements  repeatedly 
defeated  Gen.  Hood,  Johnston's  successor  in 
command,  before  Atlanta,  the  severest  battle 
being  fought  on  July  22,  and  began  the  siege 
of  that  city.  On  Aug.  12  he  was  made  a  major 
general  in  the  regular  army.  The  battle  of 
Jonesboro  was  fought  Aug.  31.  In  the  night 
of  Sept.  1  Atlanta  was  evacuated  by  Hood, 
and  Gen.  Sherman  occupied  the  city  till  the 
middle  of  November,  when  he  began  his  fa- 
mous march  to  the  sea.  He  reached  Savan- 
nah Dec.  13,  stormed  and  captured  Fort  Mc- 
Allister, and  on  the  21st  received  the  sur- 
render of  the  city.  "With  the  Savannah  river 
as  his  base  he  marched  into  the  Carolines,  and 
occupied  Columbia,  S.  C.,  on  Feb.  17.  He 
captured  Cheraw  on  March  3,  and  Fayetteville, 
N.  C.,  on  the  12th.  On  the  16th  he  fought 
the  battle  of  Averysboro,  and  on  the  19th, 
20th,  and  21st  that  of  Bentonville,  and  on  the 
23d  entered  Goldsboro.  On  April  13  he  oc- 
cupied Raleigh,  and  on  the  26th  the  confed- 
erate army  under  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  surren- 
dered at  Durham  Station,  N.  C.,  upon  terms 
which  were  rejected  by  the  government.  Sher- 
man's advance  to  Richmond  and  Washington, 
from  April  28  to  May  24,  ended  his  southern 
marches  of  more  than  2,600  m.  On  June  27 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  mili- 
tary division  of  the  Mississippi,  comprising  the 
departments  of  the  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Arkan- 
sas, with  headquarters  at  St.  Louis.  On  July 
25  1866,  he  succeeded  Gen.  Grant  as  lieuten- 
ant general,  and  on  Aug.  11  took  command  c 
the  division  of  the  Missouri.  In  November 
and  December  he  was  employed  on  a  specia 
mission  in  Mexico.  He  was  made  general  on 
the  vacation  of  that  grade  by  President  Grant, 


852 


SHEW   BREAD 


March  4,  1869.  In  November,  1871,  he  ob- 
tained leave  of  absence  for  a  year,  during  which 
he  travelled  in  Europe  and  the  East,  and  was 
everywhere  received  with  great  distinction. 
On  his  return  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Wash- 
ington as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army, 
but  in  October,  1874,  removed  his  headquar- 
ters to  St.  Louis.  He  has  published  "  Memoirs 
of  General  W.  T.  Sherman,  by  Himself  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  New  York,  1875).  II.  John,  an  American 
statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Lancaster,  Ohio,  May  10,  1828.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1844,  and  in  1854  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  34th  congress,  and 
was  reelected  to  the  35th  and  36th  congresses. 
He  was  the  republican  candidate  for  speaker 
in  the  36th  congress,  and  after  a  protracted 
contest  failed  of  election  by  one  or  two  votes, 
and  was  made  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means.  In  1860  he  was  again  elect- 
ed to  congress,  but  in  1861  was  chosen  a  Uni- 
ted States  senator  from  Ohio,  to  which  office 
he  was  reelected  in  1867  and  in  1873.  He  has 
been  from  his  first  entry  into  the  senate  chair- 
man of  the  committee  on  finance. 

SHERRY.     See  SPAIN,  WIXES  OF. 

SHERWOOD,  Mary  Martha,  an  English  author- 
ess, born  at  Stanford,  Worcestershire,  July  6, 
1775,  died  at  Twickenham,  near  London,  Sept. 
30,  1851.  She  was  a  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
George  Butt.  Her  earliest  work,  "The  Tra- 
ditions," was  published  when  she  was  17 
years  old ;  and  in  her  20th  year  she  published 
"  Margarita,"  a  fiction.  "  Susan  Grey,"  "  The 
Beautiful  Estelle,"  and  some  smaller  works 
appeared  prior  to  1800.  In  1803  she  married 
her  cousin  Henry  Sherwood,  a  captain  in  the 
army,  and  in  1804  accompanied  him  to  India, 
where  she  instructed  the  orphan  children  of  his 
regiment.  In  1818  Capt.  Sherwood  returned 
to  England  with  his  family,  and  in  1821  re- 
tired on  half  pay,  settling  at  Wickwar,  Glou- 
cestershire, where  they  resided  for  the  next 
27  years.  Mrs.  Sherwood's  works  amount  to 
90  volumes,  including  "  Chronology  of  Ancient 
History  "  and  "  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Types." 
Her  best  known  works  are  "  Little  Henry  and 
his  Bearer,"  "  History  of  Henry  Milner  "  (8 
vols.),  "  Ermina  "  (3  vols.),  "  RoxobeL  a  Nov- 
el "  (3  vols.),  and  "  The  Lady  of  the  Manor  " 
(7  vols.).  Her  memoir,  mainly  an  autobiogra- 
phy, has  been  published  by  her  daughter. 

SHETLAND  ISLMDS,  or  Zetland,  a  group  in 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  forming  the  northernmost 
part  of  Great  Britain,  mainly  extending  from 
lat.  59°  50'  to  60°  50'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  0°  45' 
to  1°  45'  W. ;  area,  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  81,608.  There  are  about  100  islands,  not 
more  than  one  fourth  of  which  are  inhabited. 
The  largest  island  is  Mainland,  which  contains 
about  three  fifths  of  the  total  area  and  two 
thirds  of  the  population ;  and  those  next  in 
importance  are  Foula  or  Foul  (the  western- 
most), Papa-Stour,  Muckle  Roe,  Whalsey,  Yell, 
Bressa,  Fetlar,  Unst,  E.  and  W.  Burra,  Fair 
(the  southernmost),  and  the  three  Skerries. 


Lerwick,  on  the  E.  coast  of  Mainland,  is  the 
capital.  The  coasts  are  generally  bold  and 
precipitous ;  they  vary  in  height  from  500  to 
1,200  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  are  indented  with 
numerous  deep  landlocked  bays  and  by  long 
narrow  arms  of  the  sea  called  voes.  The  in- 
terior is  not  generally  much  elevated  above 
the  coasts,  the  highest  summit  in  the  group, 
in  the  N.  part  of  Mainland,  rising  1,476  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  surface  is  mostly  rugged, 
or  covered  with  moss,  and  the  only  tolerably 
fertile  soil  is  in  a  few  of  the  valleys  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  some  of  the  bays.  The 
geological  formation  consists  of  sandstone, 
gneiss,  blue  limestone,  clay  and  mica  slate,  and 
granite.  Copper  has  been  discovered  on  one 
of  the  islands,  and  chromate  of  iron  is  ex- 
ported from  Unst.  The  climate  is  not  remark- 
ably cold,  but  there  is  much  wet  and  tempes- 
tuous weather,  and  fogs  are  frequent.  In  win- 
ter it  is  dark  and  dreary,  but  about  midsummer 
the  sun  scarcely  disappears  below  the  horizon. 
Very  little  of  the  soil  is  arable.  The  principal 
crops  are  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips. 
The  live  stock  on  the  group  are  very  diminu- 
tive; and  small  ponies,  or  shelties,  are  bred 
wild  on  the  heaths  and  pastures  and  export- 
ed in  great  numbers.  About  4,000  of  the  in- 
habitants are  employed  in  fishing.  Herring, 
cod,  ling,  and  tusk  are  the  principal  kinds 
caught.  The  fishing  season  lasts  about  three 
months  during  summer.  The  only  important 
manufactures  are  hosiery,  straw  plaiting,  and 
the  preparation  of  kelp;  but  the  two  latter 
have  fallen  off  greatly  of  late  years.  The  ex- 
ports are  fish,  oil,  cattle,  horses,  eggs,  and 
woollen  articles  knit  by  hand.  The  value  of 
exports  is  £100,000  a  year.  Places  of  worship 
are  numerous,  and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants 
can  read  and  write.  The  people  are  small, 
active,  and  hardy. — Shetland  is  supposed  to 
be  the  Thule  of  the  ancients,  and  the  first 
people  known  to  have  inhabited  the  islands 
were  of  Scandinavian  origin.  The  present  in- 
habitants are  of  their  race.  About  875  Harold 
Harfager  reduced  all  the  northern  and  western 
islands  to  his  authority.  Sigurd  became  earl 
of  Orkney,  Caithness,  and  Shetland;  but  the 
authority  of  the  earls  was  little  felt  in  the  last, 
as  they  had  no  jurisdiction  in  civil  affairs,  and 
were  merely  military  protectors  or  leaders. 
When  James  III.  of  Scotland  married  the  prin- 
cess Margaret  of  Denmark  in  1469,  he  received 
as  a  pledge  for  the  payment  of  her  dowry  the 
Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  and  they  were 
never  redeemed.  The  Shetland  islands  with 
the  Orkneys  form  a  district  which  returns  one 
member  to  parliament. 

SHEW  BREAD  (Heb.  Uhem  happanim),  the 
name  of  12  unleavened  loaves  placed  upon  a 
table  in  the  outer  compartment  of  the  Jewish 
sanctuary.  Though  the  number  12  represented 
the  12  tribes,  it  was  not  diminished  after  the 
secession  of  10  of  the  tribes  from  the  Mosaic 
worship,  probably  because  the  covenant  with 
the  whole  people  was  regarded  as  eternally 


SHIAHS 

binding.  The  loaves  were  placed  in  two  piles, 
one  above  another,  and  were  changed  every 
sabbath  day  by  the  priests.  The  removed 
bread  became  the  property  of  the  priests,  who 
alone  had  a  right  to  eat  of  it,  and  only  in  the 
holy  place.  But  in  cases  of  emergency  they 
incurred  no  blame  by  giving  it  to  persons  who 
were  in  a  state  of  ceremonial  purity,  as  in  the 
instance  of  David  and  his  men  (1  Sam.  xxi.). 

SHIAHS,  Sheeahs,  or  Shlites  (Ar.  ahia,  a  faction), 
a  sect  of  Mohammedans,  who  believe  that  Ali, 
the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  was  by  right 
entitled  to  be  his  immediate  successor.  The 
proper  name  of  the  sect  is  Shiat  Ali,  or  All's 
party.  After  the  death  of  the  prophet  the  party 
that  supported  Ali's  rivals,  Abubekr,  Omar, 
and  Othinan,  successively  effected  their  eleva- 
tion to  the  caliphate  before  him,  and  he  did  not 
attain  that  office  till  23  years  after  the  death 
of  Mohammed.  The  Shiahs  consisted  mainly 
of  the  Persian  portion  of  the  early  adherents 
of  Islam.  They  entertained  the  most  exag- 
gerated notions  concerning  Ali,  and  even  du- 
ring his  lifetime  propounded  doctrines  assign- 
ing to  him  a  certain  participation  in  the  na- 
ture and  attributes  of  God,  and  placing  him 
above  Mohammed.  The  Shiahs  reject  such 
of  the  traditions  of  Islam  as  relate  to  the 
first  three  caliphs  or  any  other  enemies  of  Ali, 
and  they  accept  certain  traditions  which  are 
rejected  by  the  Sunnis,  or  orthodox  Moham- 
medans. To  the  common  formula  of  faith, 
"There  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and  Moham- 
med is  his  prophet,"  they  add,  "Ali  is  the 
vicar  of  God."  The  Shiah  doctrines  made 
rapid  progress,  and  in  the  early  centuries  of 
Islam  repeatedly  attained  to  power  (see  CA- 
LIPHS) ;  and  at  present  they  form  the  majority 
of  the  Persian  and  Hindoo  Mohammedans. 

SHIiWASSEE,  a  central  county  of  Michigan, 
intersected  by  Shiawassee  river,  a  head  stream 
of  the  Saginaw;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1874,  21,773.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
the  soil  fertile ;  timber  is  abundant,  and  bitu- 
minous coal  is  found.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Detroit  and  Milwaukee  railroad,  and  the  Jack- 
son, Lansing,  and  Saginaw  division  of  the  Mich- 
igan Central.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  484,587  bushels  of  wheat,  262,861  of  In- 
dian corn,  202,510  of  oats,  17,341  of  barley, 
•240,162  of  potatoes,  32,464  tons  of  hay,  192,- 
612  Ibs.  of  wool,  491,606  of  butter,  and  32,999 
of  maple  sugar.  There  were  4,718  horses, 
5,864  milch  cows,  1,480  working  oxen,  6,142 
other  cattle,  45,536  sheep,  and  8,399  swine;  4 
manufactories  of  furniture,  7  of  iron  castings, 
2  tanneries,  10  saw  mills,  6  flour  mills,  and  1 
woollen  mill.  Capital,  Corunna. 

SHIELD  (Ger.  Schild),  &  piece  of  defensive 
armor,  which  before  the  invention  of  gunpow- 
der was  in  almost  universal  use,  but  is  now 
employed  chiefly  by  barbarous  races.  It  was 
sometimes  called  also  buckler  and  target.  The 
shield  of  the  ancients  from  the  earliest  times 
was  a  framework  of  twisted  osiers  or  light 
Tvood,  over  which  one  or  more  thicknesses  of 


SHIELD 


868 


ox  hide  and  sometimes  ornamental  or  defen- 
sive metal  work  were  fastened;  and  those  de- 
scribed by  Homer  covered  the  body  from  the 
face  to  the  knee.  Shields  were  carried  on  the 


FIG.  1.— 1.   Scutum,   from   Trajan's  Column.    2.  Clipeus, 
from  a  Greek  Vase. 

left  arm,  and  were  of  various  shapes  and  sizes. 
The  shield  called  by  the  Romans  clipeus  was 
large  and  round,  having  sometimes  a  projec- 
tion in  the  centre  of  the  exterior,  called  the 
umbo,  which  frequently  terminated  in  a  spike. 
The  scutum  of  the  Roman  legionary  soldiers 
was  oblong  and  rectangular,  and  was  general- 
ly 4  ft.  high  by  2£  ft.  wide.  The  parma,  a 
smaller  round  framework  of  iron  covered  with 
hides,  was  used  by  light  troops;  the  pelto, 
which  was  lighter  still  and  sometimes  ellipti- 
cal, but  oftener  truncated  at  the  top  with  one 
or  more  semicircular  indentations,  was  intro- 
duced among  the  Greeks  by  Iphicrates,  and 
the  troops  armed  with  it  were  called  peltasta. 
The  cetra  was  a  small  round  target,  borne  by 
many  ancient  races,  and  probably  identical 
with  that  formerly  used  by  the  Scottish  high- 
landers.  In  time  of  peace  the  Greeks  hung 
their  shields  in  the  temples,  removing  the  han- 
dles to  render  them  unserviceable  in  case  of  a 
popular  outbreak.  The  Roman  soldiers  in- 
scribed their  names  upon  their  shields,  and 
men  of  family  emblazoned  them  with  devices 
illustrating  the  heroic  feats  of  their  ancestors, 


FIG.  2.— 1.  2.  Amazons  with  the  Pelta,  from  a  marble  bass 
relief.    8.  Parma,  from  a  terra  cotta  bass  relief. 

and  sometimes  with  their  own  portraits,  a 
practice  to  which  may  be  ascribed  the  modern 
use  of  armorial  bearings.  To  lose  a  shield  in 
battle,  or  to  return  without  it,  was  a  mark 


854 


SHIELDS 


SHILOH 


of  cowardice.  In  the  middle  ages  the  knighta 
and  men-at-arms,  being  clothed  in  complete 
rnail^  had  less  need  of  a  shield,  and  it  fell  into 
gradual  disuse.  The  Norman  shield  until  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  was  long  and  of 
the  form  called  kite  or  pear-shaped ;  but  sub- 
sequently it  became  smaller,  and  as  a  vehicle 
for  bearing  heraldic  devices  assumed  a  variety 
of  shapes  which  have  been  preserved  to  the 
present  day.  (See  ARMOR,  and  HERALDRY.) 

slim. US,  North  and  Smith,  two  towns  of  Eng- 
land, situated  respectively  in  the  counties  of 
Northumberland  and  Durham,  on  the  N.  and 
S.  banks  of  the  river  Tyne,  near  its  mouth  in 
the  North  sea,  6  m.  below  Newcastle,  and  250 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  of  North  Shields 
in  1871,  8,619 ;  of  South  Shields,  46,836.  The 
manufactures  of  both  consist  principally  of  ar- 
ticles used  for  nautical  purposes,  and  of  glass, 
pottery,  and  alum.  Ship  building,  once  exten- 
sively carried  on,  has  much  declined,  and  is 
now  chiefly  confined  to  repairing,  for  which 
there  are  large  docks.  The  entrance  to  the 
Tyne  is  difficult,  but  there  are  two  lighthouses, 
one  123  and  the  other  77  ft.  above  the  sea. 
There  is  an  extensive  stone  pier  at  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor.  The  name  Shields  is  derived 
from  the  sheeh,  or  sheds,  in  which  the  fisher- 
men of  the  Tyne  formerly  lived.  Interesting 
Roman  remains  were  discovered  at  South 
Shields  in  1875. 

SHIITES.     See  SIIIAHS. 

SHIKARPOOR,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
province  of  Sinde,  15  ra.  W.  of  Sukkur  on  the 
Indus,  on  the  route  by  the  Bolan  pass  between 
Hindostan  and  Afghanistan;  pop.  about  80,- 
000,  one  third  Mohammedans.  It  stands  on  a 
low  plain  abounding  with  fruit  trees,  and  in- 
undated by  the  river  at  certain  seasons.  The 
place  is  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance, and  fine  cotton  goods  are  manufactured. 

SHILLING,  an  English  silver  coin  equivalent 
to  12  pence  sterling,  or  js  of  a  pound.  In 
reducing  English  money  of  account  to  Uni- 
ted States  money,  a  shilling  is  equivalent  to 
24-3325  cts.,  or,  within  the  1200th  part  of  a 
cent,  to  24^  cts.  The  value  of  the  coin  as 
compared  with  the  United  States  silver  trade 
dollar,  according  to  the  proclamation  of  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury  of  Jan.  1,  1876,  is 
21-4365  cts.,  or,  within  less  than  the  125th 
part  of  a  cent,  to  21$  cts. — Many  of  the  states 
while  colonies  had  issued  bills  of  credit  which 
had  depreciated  in  different  degrees  in  the 
different  colonies.  Thus  in  New  England  cur- 
rency (used  also  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Mississippi, 
Alabama,  and  Florida),  after  the  adoption  of 
the  decimal  system,  the  pound  in  paper  money 
was  worth  only  $3-333,  and  the  shilling  16| 
cts.,  or  6«.  to  $1 ;  in  New  York  currency  (also 
in  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  and  Michigan)  the 
pound  was  worth  $2  60,  and  the  shilling  12$ 
cts.,  or  8*.  to  $1 ;  in  Pennsylvania  currency 
(also  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland) 
the  pound  was  worth  $2  70,  and  the  shilling 


13^  cts.,  or  Is.  6d.  to  $1 ;  and  in  Georgia  cur- 
rency (also  in  South  Carolina),  the  pound  was 
worth  $4  20f,  and  the  shilling  21  f  cts.,  or 
4s.  8d.  to  $1.  In  many  parts  of  the  country 
these  denominations  continued  to  be  used  long 
after  they  ceased  to  be  represented  by  actual 
money,  and  the  reckoning  by  shillings  and 
pence  is  not  yet  entirely  abandoned.  In  Can- 
ada the  shilling  was  formerly  reckoned  at  20 
cts.,  or  5*.  to  $1 ;  but  since  the  introduction  of 
decimal  currency  in  1871,  4«.  2d.  make  a  dollar. 

SHILOH  (Heb.,  rest,  peace),  a  town  of  ancient 
Palestine,  in  the  division  of  Ephraim,  on  a  high 
mountain  N.  of  Bethel.  It  was  the  seat  of  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  from  the  last  days  of 
Joshua  to  the  time  of  Eli.  An  annual  "  feast 
of  the  Lord  "  was  observed  at  Shiloh,  and  one 
of  these  celebrations  was  made  an  opportunity 
for  the  remnants  of  the  defeated  Benjamitea 
to  supply  themselves  with  wives,  by  lying  in 
ambush  in  the  vineyards  and  seizing  some 
hundreds  of  the  dancing  women.  After  the 
carrying  off  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines,  at 
the  close  of  Eli's  life,  Shiloh  sank  into  total 
insignificance.  Its  site  is  now  identified  with 
Seilun,  a  small  place"  with  some  Roman  re- 
mains, 20  m.  N.  of  Jerusalem. — The  words  in 
Gen.  xlix.  10,  which  are  rendered  in  the»author- 
ized  English  version  "until  Shiloh  coirie,"  and 
are  by  Christian  theologians  referred  to  Christ 
as  prince  of  peace,  are  explained  by  Jewish 
writers  as  meaning  "until  he  (Judah)  como 
to  Shiloh,"  and  by  Vater,  Gesenius,  and  other 
critics  translated  "  until  rest  come." 

SHILOH,  a  locality,  so  called  from  a  church 
situated  there,  near  Pittsburgh  Landing,  on 
the  Tennessee  river,  in  Hardin  co.,  Tenn., 
where  a  battle  was  fought,  April  6,  7,  1862, 
between  the  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Grant 
and  the  confederates  under  Gens.  A.  S.  John- 
ston and  Beauregard.  The  battle  is  sometimes 
called  that  of  Pittsburgh  Landing.  After  the 
evacuation  of  Nashville,  the  confederate  forces 
in  the  west  were  concentrated  near  Corinth, 
Miss.,  while  Grant  was  preparing  to  move  so- 
as  to  cut  off  their  communications  in  western 
Tennessee.  On  April  1,  with  about  32,000 
men,  he  reached  Pittsburgh  Landing,  where 
he  was  to  be  joined  by  Gen.  Buell.  Johnston, 
who  had  about  45,000  men,  moved  from  Cor- 
inth and  attacked  Grant  on  the  morning  of  the 
6th.  The  attack  fell  first  upon  the  division* 
of  W.  T.  Sherman  and  Prentiss,  both  of  which 
were  driven  back,  three  regiments  of 'the  lat- 
ter being  captured  and  the  whole  army  forced 
back  almost  to  the  landing.  In  the  afternoon 
Buell's  advance  appeared  on  the  opposite  bank, 
and  a  single  division  crossed  while  the  battle 
was  going  on.  Gen.  Johnston  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  the  command  devolved  upon 
Beauregard,  who  assailed  the  Union  centre  and 
left,  on  which  most  of  the  artillery  had  been 
concentrated,  and  which  were  also  covered  by 
two  gunboats.  The  attack  was  repelled,  and 
at  night  a  bombardment  was  opened,  which 
compelled  the  confederates  to  retire  a  little. 


SHIMONOSEKI 

The  remainder  of  Buell's  command  crossed 
during  the  night,  raising  the  Union  force  to 
about  45,000.  Grant  opened  the  action  early 
on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  by  an  artillery 
fire,  before  which  the  confederates  fell  back. 
This  was  followed  by  a  general  assault,  which 
was  obstinately  resisted.  The  action  con- 
tinued till  4  P.  M.,  when  the  confederates  re- 
treated. The  Union  loss,  as  officially  reported, 
was  1,700  killed,  7,495  wounded,  and  3,022 
prisoners;  in  all,  12,217.  The  confederate 
loss,  as  reported  by  Beauregard,  was  1,728 
killed,  8,012  wounded,  and  959  missing;  in 
all,  10,699.  (See  OOEINTH.) 

SHIMONOSEKI,  a  seaport  of  Japan,  in  the 
province  of  Nagato  (Choshiu),  on  the  S.  W. 
point  of  the  main  island ;  pop.  about  10,000. 
It  commands  the  strait  of  Shimonoseki,  which 
connects  the  Inland  sea  and  the  sea  of  Japan. 
The  town  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street. 
A  famous  naval  battle  between  the  fleets  of 
the  Taira  and  Minamoto  families,  in  which 
1,200  junks  were  engaged,  was  fought  near  it 
in  1185.  In  1864  the  forts  near  Shimonoseki 
were  bombarded  and  destroyed  by  a  combined 
fleet  of  one  United  States,  five  British,  three 
French,  and  four  Dutch  men-of-war,  in  retali- 
ation for  the  act  of  the  daimio  of  Choshiu  in 
firing  on  the  vessels  of  those  nations  while 
they  were  passing  through  the  strait.  Besides 
$420,000  demanded  as  a  compensation  for  in- 
juries, the  Japanese  government  was  obliged 
to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $3,000,000,  of  which 
the  United  States  received  $750,000.  In  1873 
Shimonoseki  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

SHINER.     See  DACE. 

SHINKING,  or  Liaotnng,  a  province  of  south- 
ern Mantchooria,  sometimes  included  in  China 
proper,  bounded  N.  W.  and  W.  by  Mongolia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  palisade  bar- 
rier, E.  by  Corea,  S.  by  the  bay  of  Corea  and 
the  gulf  of  Liaotung,  and  S.  W.  by  the  great 
wall ;  pop.  according  to  the  census  of  1812, 
2,167,286.  It  is  mountainous  and  traversed 
by  the  Liau-ho,  Shin-orn,  and  other  rivers. 
The  products  include  timber,  iron,  coal,  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  various  cereals,  silk,  ginseng, 
and  rhubarb,  the  last  two  a  government  mo- 
nopoly. The  chief  town  is  Mukden  or  Shin- 
yang.  (See  MANTCHOORIA.) 

SHINTO,  or  Sinto.  See  JAPAN,  vol.  ix.,  pp. 
537  and  562. 

SHIP,  a  term  applied  in  general  to  all  ves- 
sels navigating  the  sea,  and  in  particular  to 
sailing  vessels  with  at  least  three  masts  carry- 
ing square  sails.  The  masts  are  known  as  fore, 
main,  and  mizzen.  The  mizzen  is  sometimes 
merely  fore-and-aft  rigged,  carrying  no  yard ; 
the  vessel  is  then  known  as  a  bark.  Brigs 
have  two  masts  rigged  with  square  sails,  and 
are  generally  smaller  than  ships ;  they  are  con- 
venient for  handling  with  few  men,  and  were 
formerly  very  popular,  especially  in  the  "West 
India  trade.  Hermaphrodite  brigs  (partly  brig 
and  partly  schooner)  carry  on  the  mainmast 
only  fore-and-aft  sails;  they  are  usually  of 


SHIP 


855 


inferior  size  to  full-rigged  brigs.  Schooners 
are  two-masted  and  fore-and-aft  rigged,  car- 
rying jib  and  flying  jib,  foresail  and  mainsail, 
with  a  gaff  topsail  over  each  of  the  latter, 
and  a  long  square  sail  for  the  foremast,  only 
brought  out  for  use  when  the  wind  blows 
steadily  from  astern.  The  topsail  schooner 
has  a  square  topsail  and  sometimes  a  topgallant 
sail  on  the  foremast,  but  the  lower  sail  is  the 
usual  fore-and-aft  foresail.  These  are  light 
and  easy  to  navigate,  and  excellent  sea  boats. 
Cutters  used  for  revenue  service  were  formerly 
topsail  schooners;  steamers  have  now  taken 
their  place.  "When  it  is  desired  to  increase  the 
capacity  of  schooners  without  increasing  their 
draught,  they  are  considerably  lengthened,  and 
a  third  mast  is  added  to  them,  when  they  are 
known  as  three-masted  schooners.  Pink  stern 
schooners,  or  those  with  high-pointed  sterns, 
were  once  favorites  in  the  cod  and  mackerel 
fishery  of  New  England ;  they  carried  no  jib, 
but  only  a  foresail  and  mainsail.  Sloops  are 
small,  generally  less  than  125  tons,  with  one 
mast.  They  carry  a  jib  and  mainsail ;  the  lat- 
ter by  the  great  length  of  the  mast  and  boom 
is  very  large.  They  commonly  have  a  gaff  top- 
sail, and  sometimes  a  square  topsail,  and  a  long 
square  sail  occasionally  set.  They  are  adapted 
only  for  rivers  and  comparatively  smooth  wa- 
ters. A  vessel  is  sometimes  seen  in  our  har- 
bors with  three  masts,  the  foremast  rigged  like 
that  of  a  ship  and  the  others  schooner-rigged 
without  topsails ;  this  is  known  as  a  barkan- 
tine. — The  nations  of  antiquity  inhabiting  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  and 
foremost  among  them  the  Phoenicians,  attained 
considerable  skill  in  the  construction  of  ves- 
sels, and  made  long  voyages.  The  Bible  con- 
tains the  description  of  an  antediluvian  vessel, 
Noah's  ark ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  its  pro- 
portions of  length,  breadth,  and  depth  are  al- 
most precisely  the  same  as  those  considered  by 
our  most  eminent  architects  the  best  for  com- 
bining the  elements  of  strength,  capacity,  and 
stability.  According  to  Gen.  vi.  15,  the  ark 
was  300  cubits  long,  50  cubits  broad,  and  80 
cubits  high ;  i.  e.,  six  times  the  breadth  for  the 
length,  and  three  fifths  of  the  breadth  for  the 
depth.  The  ships  represented  upon  ancient 
Egyptian  tombs  were  long  galleys  with  one 
mast  and  a  large  square  sail,  which  was  some- 
times of  linen  colored  or  white,  and  sometimes 
of  papyrus  with  one,  and  in  the  later  periods 
with  two  yards.  These  were  of  great  size  and 
length,  so  that  men  could  walk  out  upon  the 
lower  one,  holding  on  by  the  ropes  by  which 
it  was  suspended  from  the  top.  The  vessels 
were  made  of  planks  of  pine,  fir,  or  cedar,  each 
end  rising  up  out  of  the  water  by  a  long  slope, 
well  adapted  in  shape  for  easy  propulsion,  and 
were  furnished  with  oars,  upon  which  the  war 
vessels  were  wholly  dependent  when  in  action, 
and  all  of  them  indeed  except  when  the  wind 
was  favorable.  The  ships  of  war  alone  wer 
decked  wholly  or  in  part,  and  upon  the  larger 
ones  the  deck  was  high,  and  in  some  instances 


- 


snip 


covered  with  structures  resembling  houses. 
According  to  Pliny,  the  Thasiaus  were  the  first 
to  construct  full  decks.  Merchant  vessels  were 
round-bottomed  for  the  sake  of  capacity.  The 
pro  xv  was  furnished  with  an  elaborately  carved 
image,  as  a  boar's  head,  dog's  head,  &e.,  which 
•was  the  symbol  after  which  the  ship  was 
named.  This  symbol  was  termed  the  intiynt 
(whence  our  word  ensign),  and  has  descended 
to  our  own  times  as  the  figurehead.  Upon  the 
stern,  which  rose  high  out  of  water,  like  that 
of  a  Chinese  junk,  was  the  image  of  the  tutelar 
god  with  other  ornamental  devices.  A  pecu- 
liar feature  in  the  war  vessels  was  a  projecting 
beak,  at  first  made  above  the  water  line,  and 
afterward  below  it,  armed  with  pointed  irons 
or  the  head  of  a  ram,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  pierce  the  sides  of  other  vessels  against 
which  it  was  run.  This  was  the  only  part 
built  of  oak  or  hard  wood.  From  want  of 
strength  in  the  construction  of  ancient  vessels, 
and  the  necessity  in  their  voyages  of  avoid- 
ing exposure  to  rough  seas,  they  were  bound 
around  the  outside  with  broad  and  thick  ropes. 
During  the  gale  which  preceded  its  shipwreck 
the  vessel  which  bore  St.  Paul,  bearing  the  sign 
of  Castor  and  Pollux,  had  to  be  "  undergirded  " 
(Acts  xxvii.  17).  The  great  ships  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia  were  provided  with  as  many  as 
12  such  bands,  each  of  which  was  900  ft.  long. 
They  were  sometimes  carried  on  board  the 
vessels,  to  be  put  on  when  needed  in  rough 
weather.  As  the  ships  depended  chiefly  upon 
the  use  of  oars,  the  arrangements  for  these 
were  their  most  marked  feature,  and  gave  dis- 
tinctive names  to  the  several  classes  of  vessels. 
(See  GALLEY,  and  NAVY.)  A  Roman  ship  of 
the  time  of  Trajan,  sunk  in  the  lake  of  Kiccia 
and  raised  after  it  had  lain  there  more  than 
1,800  years,  was  described  by  Leo  Baptista 
Albert!  in  his  book  of  "Architecture  (v. 
12);  it  was  built  of  planks  of  pine  and  cypress, 
daubed  over  with  Greek  pitch  and  calked  with 
linen  rags ;  the  wood  was  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation ;  the  outside  was  sheathed  with 
sheet  lead  fastened  with  small  copper  nails. — 
In  the  middle  ages  navigation  and  ship  building 
declined,  and  little  is  known  of  the  vessels  of 
that  period.  The  expedition  made  by  the  An- 
glo-Saxons to  England,  A.  1  >.  449,  was  in  frail 
vessels,  their  sides  made  of  wicker  work  and 
covered  with  skins.  Better  vessels  were  un- 
doubtedly used  by  the  Northmen  in  their  per- 
ilous voyages.  For  war  purposes  the  long  low 
galleys  of  the  Mediterranean  gradually  replaced 
the  ancient  triremes.  Alfred  the  Great  adopt- 
ed them  in  his  wars  with  the  Northmen,  and 
he  first  made  the  English  navy  unequalled.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century  the  best 
ships  were  of  Norman  construction;  in  the 
representations  of  their  war  vessels  of  this  pe- 
riod the  rudder  is  first  seen  as  a  substitute  for 
the  great  steering  oars  always  before  in  use. 
In  southern  Europe  the  credit  of  first  build- 
ing vessels  to  be  propelled  by  sails  alone  has 
generally  been  conceded  to  the  Genoese.  In 


England  many  snch  vessels  were  employed  as 
early  as  1344.  The  use  of  cannon  in  naval 
waraura  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  111.  led  to  the  enrolment  of  - 
belonging  to  the  crown.  Shins  of  war  had 
been  numerous  in  the  reign  of  John,  but  were 
owned  by  individuals  ;  the  government  pro- 
vided at  that  time  for  their  accommodation 
the  royal  dockyards  at  Portsmouth.  The 
ships  of  these  periods  were  remarkable  for  the 
great  height  of  their  sides,  their  bulky  rounded 
models,  and  the  simplicity  of  their  rig.  They 
had  no  bowsprit,  and  seldom  more  than  one 
mast ;  the  sail  was  attached  to  a  yard,  which 
was  let  down  to  the  deck  when  not  used.  They 
were  navigated  by  17  to  20  sailors  only,  Hen- 
rv  V.  added  to  the  number  of  English  ships. 
llis  vessels  were  of  100  to  600  tons  each,  some 
with  three,  others  with  two  masts,  with  short 
topmasts  and  a  forestnge  or  forecastle  built  up 
to  a  considerable  height  for  the  soldiers.  At 
the  mast  heads  were  topeastles,  in  which  men 
were  stationed  during  an  engagement  to  annoy 
the  enemy  with  darts  and  other  missiles.  In 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century  William  Can- 
ynge,  a  famous  merchant  of  Bristol,  built  many 
large  ships,  one  at  least  of  900  tons  burden, 
and  employed  altogether  not  less  than  2,850 
tons  of  shipping  and  800  mariners  for  eight 
years.  The  navies  of  the  Netherlands,  Ven- 
ice, Spain,  and  Portugal  attained  great  im- 
portance in  that  century.  Many  of  the  ships 
being  so  far  improved  as  to  sail  upon  a  wind. 
and  the  compass  and  astrolabe  having  come 
into  use,  it  was  now  possible  to  engage  in 
longer  voyages  and  prosecute  explorations  in 
unknown  seas.  The  discovery  of  America  and 
of  the  passage  round  the  cape  of  Good  Hope 
were  early  fruits  of  these  improvements.  The 
Portuguese  employed  small  vessels  in  their 
voyages  of  discovery,  as  the  best  adapted  for 
explorations  along  unknown  coasts;  out  the 
Spaniards  cultivated  the  art  of  building  large 
ones,  and  long  maintained  a  superiority  in  this 
respect.  The  Great  Harry,  built  in  1488,  is 
considered  to  have  been  the  first  shin  of  the 
English  navy  as  it  is  seen  to-day,  although  a 
standing  fleet  was  first  formed  under  Henry 
VIII.  She  had  four  masts,  carried  courses, 
fore  and  main  topsails,  and  topgallant  sails, 
and  had  guns  in  broadside  on  two  covered 
docks.  (Sv-o  N.WY.)  The  vessels  of  this  pe- 
riod, built  up  with  high  castellated  structures 
at  each  end,  seem  intended  rather  for  display 
than  for  actual  service,  and  must  have  been 
far  inferior  sailers  to  the  galleasses  and  gal- 
leons of  the  Mediterranean,  which  had  suc- 
ceeded the  galleys.  These  were  of  moderate 
height  above  the  water,  and  the  tirst  had  oxer- 
hanging  bulwarks  like  the  guards  of  modern 
steamboats,  greatly  adding  to  the  xvidth  of  the 
decks  and  affording  room  for  the  rowers.  The 
galleons,  on  the  contrary,  which  depended  on 
sails  alone,  wore  drawn  in  at  the  top  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  contract  their  breadth  from 
the  water  line  fully  one  half;  this  feature  has 


snip 


801 


Miioe  prevailed  in  ninny  F.nropoan  ships. 
Honry  VIII.  established  the  dockyards  at  Dcpt 
ford  and  Chatham,  ami  brought  together  from 
ii    countries,   and  especially  from  Italy, 
many   skilful   shipwrights  and   workmen.      in 
th   th 


F.li/ahct  te  superor  manage- 
Knglish ships  over  tho  much  larger 
Spaniards,  with  thoir  throo  tier- 
*  fully  ostahlishod  in  tho  ooittosts 
gress  \\  a- 
tho 
inor 


the  reign  o 
ment  i  •'!'  the 
onos  of  tho 
of  guns,  \\ 

with  thoso  vossols;  and  groat  p 
inado  undor  tho  encouragement  o 
in  increasing  and  perfecting  tho 
inarino.  Tho  Kast  India  I'onipany 
tered  in  1  000,  and  tho  increasing  traili 
tho  distant  countries  of  Kuropo  and  A  morion 
rapidly  stimulatod  tho  domniul  for  tho  host 
vossols  and  oallod  forth  tho  ingonuiiv  of  tho 
ship  builders.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  gave  much 
attontioii  to  tho  improvement  of  shi|)s,  and  liis 
publications  entitled  "Invention  of  Shipping" 
and  "Concerning  tho  Royal  Navy  ami  Sea 
Service"  greatly  added  to  tho  general  interest 
in  the  suhjoot.  Tho  shipwrights'  company, 
ostahlishod  in  100f>,  was  incorporated  in  10  12, 
and  general  charge  was  given  to  the  associa- 
tion over  ship  building  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Tho  lirst  master  was  Phinoas  Pott,  of 
a  family  distinguished  for  the  principal  engi- 
neers it  furnished  to  the  royal  navy  from  about 
tlio  middle  of  the  loth  century  to  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  William  HI.  Ho  built  tho  Itoyal 
Prince  in  1010,  a  ship  of  114  ft.  keel,  44  ft. 
breadth,  and  1,400  tons  burden,  introducing 
the  groat  improvement  of  cutting  off  the  long 
projection  of  the  prow,  hitherto  universally 
adopted,  and  also  much  of  the  cumbersome  top 
hamper  of  the  older  ships.  Tho  first  Knglish 
throo-doekor  was  built  by  his  son  Peter  Pett  in 
Iti.'iT.  She  was  called  the  Sovereign  of  tho 
Seas,  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
man-of-war  in  tho  world  until  she  was  acci- 
dentally burned  in  10NO.  An  account  of  her 
armament  is  given  in  NAVY.  She  was  282  ft. 
in  length  over  all,  12S  ft.  length  of  keel,  4H  ft. 
in  breadth,  and  of  1,087  tons.  The  drawings 
represent  her  as  a  full-rigged  ship  carrying 
square  sails  altogether,  topgallant  sails,  and 
rovals,  but  no  jibs  or  staysails.  Under  the 
bowsprit  was  a  square  sail  suspended  from  a 
vanl,  such  as  is  now  called  the  spritsail.  The 
hull  was  somewhat,  lofty  in  the  bow  and  stern 

but  still  greatly 


dern  ship 

lder  ones.     A  considerable 

itional  length  above  water 

was 


compared  with 
reduced  from  t 
portion  of  the 

to  that  of  the  kc.-l  was  from  a  long  triangular 
beak.  Tho  Constant  \Varvvick,  also  built  by- 
Peter  Pett  in  1040,  and  designated  a  frigate, 
was  specially  intended  for  fast  sailing;  she  was 
light,  \\iih  low  docks,  of  sr,  ft.  keel,  20  ft.  A 
in.  breadth,  l.'i  ft.  '.'  in.  depth,  and  !U:>  tons 
Inn-den;  she  carried  .12  guns  and  a  crew  of 
1  10  men,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation 
for  her  conquests  among  tho  I  Mitch  privateers. 
Hut  the  Dutch  ships  at  this  time  were  quite 
equal  to  the  Knglish,  and  their  navy  was  alto- 
get  her  (lie  best  in  Kuropo,  the  result  of  their 


continual    wars    wiih    Spain.      The   merchant 

vessels  of   Knglaiid  wore  supori -.:i;.ii.. 

qualities  to  thoso  of  the  royal  navy,  and  during 
the  wars  with  Franco  and  Spain  ihev  boldlv 
continued  their  trading  voyages,  two  "i  iln.. 
of  them  usually  sailing  in  conipimy.  During 
the  18th  century  the  French  attained  n  .l.,i,|,,| 
superiority  in  tho  sl/o  ami  models  of  ib.  it- 
ships,  and  the  Spaniards  readily  adopted  the 
improvements  of  the  French.  Tlieir  largest 
vessels  wore  two-deckers  only  until  after  I7HI1, 
and  their  largest  armaments  were  of  H4  guiiK, 
In  this  respect  they  were  inferior  to  tho  Eng- 
lish three-deckers  carrying  100  guns;  but  in 
1708  the  French  adopted  the  Knglish  *y 
and  built  shins  of  110  and  120  guns,  and  of 
I  Ml  ft.  length  bv  ftO  ft.  breadth  and  25  ft. 
depth  of  hold,  while  the  I'm-li  b  in  HOIIIO  In- 
stances  copied  the  lines  of  the  French  ships 
that  fell  into  their  hands.  Hut  it  in  admitted 
even  by  the  Knglish  themselves  that  their  ny»- 
loin  of  ship  building  received  no  aid  from 
the  applications  of  science,  while  the  French 
availed  themselves  of  the  highest  mathemati- 
cal talent  as  well  an  of  practical  experience 
and  skill.  To  the  latter  and  to  the  Hpaniards 
also  is  duo  the  credit  of  the  important  im- 
provements made  in  ship  building  in  modern 
times  up  to  the  present  century  ;  and  yet  in 
the  United  States,  where  the  same  course  has 
been  pursued  as  in  Kngland,  of  seeking  aid 
only  from  experience  and  natural  talent,  the 
highest  success  has  since  been  attained  in  de- 
signing the  most  perfect  models  for  tho  n|>o- 
cial  purposes  required.  The  American  snip 
builders  were  the  tirct  to  entirely  abandon  the 
cherished  features  of  the  Kuropean  models,  as 
the  high  poop  and  inflected  topside.  Thoir 
frigates  proved  their  superiority  to  all  other 
vessels  of  war  in  actual  service,  and  hofore  the 
introduction  of  steam  their  Liverpool  packet 
ships  wore  the  llnost  vessels  atloat,  Their 
fore-and-aft,  rigged  vessels,  less  known  abroad 
than  the  larger  ships,  were  still  more  ivnmrK 
able  for  originality  and  perfect  success  in  their 
designs.  The  river  sloops  and  coasting  schoon- 
ers were  peculiarly  American.  The  schooner* 
of  the  Chesapeake  were  especially  famous  un- 
der the  name  of  Haltimoro  clippers.  Hroad  <>f 
beam  before  the  centre  but  above  the  water- 
line,  sharp  in  the  bow,  deep  aft,  long  and  low. 
they  presented  admirable  forms  for  capacity, 
for 'stability  to  sustain  a  largo  amount  of  can- 
vas, for  great  speed,  and  for  holding  th.ir 
course  on  a  wind  with  little  drifting  to  lee- 
ward. The  masts  were  long  and  slender,  lh. 
sails  unusually  large  for  vessels  of  their  ni/e, 
and  of  so  true  cut  and  perfect  set  that  no  por- 
tion of  the  propelling  effect  of  the  breeze 
that  reached  them  was  wasted.  Close-hauled, 

||,,-V  drew  Well  With  (he  VOSSt'l  nilllllllg  Witlllll 
40°  Or  45°  of  Hie  wind,  while  the  I,,-!  equipped 

frigate  would  be  sharp  sot  at  «o°.  The  W- 
porior  sailing  qualities  of  those  schooner*  were 
shown  in  their  success  as  privateers  and  free- 
,|,,m  from  capture  in  the  war  ,.f  1H12,  Olid 


858 


SHIP 


were  most  conclusively  established  when  the 
yacht  America,  built  on  the  same  principles, 
carried  off  the  prize  in  1851  in  competition 
with  the  English  yachts  that  had  confident- 
ly challenged  the  world  to  a  trial  of  speed. 
From  these  schooners  the  step  was  natural  to 
the  famous  clipper  ships  by  the  adoption  of 
the  square  rig  for  larger  vessels  of  similar 
model.  They  were  called  into  existence  by  the 
increasing  importance  of  the  East  India  trade, 
in  which  speed  and  punctuality  were  more 
essential  than  mere  stowage  capacity,  and  still 
more  by  the  sudden  springing  up  of  the  Cali- 
fornia trade  with  its  immense  passenger  traffic. 
In  vessels  of  this  class  the  voyage  round  Cape 
Horn  lost  its  terrors,  and  the  passage  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco  was  confidently  calcu- 
lated within  a  few  days,  and  this  at  hardly 
half  its  former  length.  The  clipper  ship  Great 
Republic,  built  by  Donald  McKay  of  East  Bos- 
ton, was  an  excellent  type  of  this  class,  and 
was  the  largest,  if  not  the  fastest,  merchantman 
ever  constructed.  Her  capacity  was  about 
4,000  tons,  and  her  original  dimensions  were 
325  ft.  length,  53  ft.  width,  and  37  ft.  depth. 
A  peculiar  feature  in  her  model  was  the  rising 
of  her  keel  for  60  ft.  forward,  gradually  curv- 
ing into  the  arc  of  a  circle  as  it  blended  with 
the  stem.  She  had  four  masts,  all  provided 
with  lightning  rods.  The  after  one,  called 
the  spanker  mast,  was  fore-and-aft  rigged,  of 
a  single  spar;  the  others  were  built  of  hard 
pine,  the  parts  dowelled  together,  bolted  and 
hooped  over  all  with  iron.  The  main  yard  was 
120  ft.  long.  A  single  suit  of  her  sails  con- 
sisted of  15,653  yards  of  canvas.  Even  in 

1851  the  performances  of  some  of  the  clipper 
ships  on  long  voyages  were  far  superior  for 
days  together  to  those  of  the  steam  vessels  of 
that  time,  and  on  the  whole  run  hardly  infe- 
rior.    In  that  year  the  Flying  Cloud  made  the 
passage  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  in 
89  days  and  21  hours.     Her  greatest  distance 
from  noon  to  noon  of  any  day  was  874  knots 
(433}  statute  miles),  which,  allowing  for  dif- 
ference of  longitude,  was  made  in  24  h.  19  m. 
4  sec.,  or  at  the  rate  of  17*77  m.  an  hour.    In 

1852  the  Comet  arrived  in  New  York  from 
San  Francisco  in  83  days,  and  the  Sovereign  of 
the  Seas  from  the  Sandwich  islands  in  82  days. 
The  greatest  distance  made  by  the  latter  from 
noon  to  noon  in  any  day  (in  this  case  23  h.  2.  m. 
4  sec.)  was  362  knots  (419  in.),  or  at  the  rate 
of  17'88  m.  an  hour.     From  March  9  to  March 
31,  from  lat.  48°  S.  in  the  Pacific  to  36  S.  in 
the  Atlantic,  the  ship  made  29°  of  latitude  and 
126°  of  longitude,  equal  to  6,246  statute  miles, 
or  a  daily  average  of  283*9  in.     During  11  of 
these  days  consecutively  her  daily  average  was 
354  m.,  and  during  4  consecutive  days  898}  m. 
Her  daily  average  for  the  whole  distance  of 
17,597  m.  was  222-7  statute  miles,  or  at  the 
rate  of  over  9  m.  an  hour  for  1,896  consecutive 
hours. — The  two  prominent  features  that  con- 
stitute the  essential  improvements  of  modern 
times  are  the  shape  of  the  bow  and  the  in- 


creased length  of  the  vessel.  In  place  of  the 
convex  form  noticed  in  the  older  ships  in  tra- 
cing the  lines  from  the  stem  aft  along  and  be- 
low the  water,  is  now  substituted  a  concave 
surface  giving  to  the  bow  the  shape  of  an  elon- 
gated wedge  slightly  hollowed  on  the  face, 
by  which  the  waters  are  more  easily  parted 
and  thrown  aside.  This  wedge  shape  is  ex- 
tended even  to  beyond  the  centre  of  the  ship, 
so  that  the  broadest  part,  instead  of  being  as 
formerly  one  third  the  distance  from  the  bow, 
is  now  about  the  same  proportional  distance 
from  the  stern.  Above  the  water  line  the  old 
proportions  may  still  be  retained.  This  form 
of  bow  is  not  by  any  means  altogether  new, 
having  been  adopted  by  the  Spaniards  in  past 
times  and  by  various  barbarous  nations  for 
their  small  craft ;  but  its  merits  not  being  ap- 
preciated by  other  European  nations,  it  was 
sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  greater  stowage,  es- 
pecially by  the  English,  who  were  the  more 
impelled  to  this  course  by  reason  of  the  old 
tonnage  laws,  in  force  up  to  1836,  as  regards 
the  method  of  measurement  for  regulating  the 
dues,  the  increase  of  capacity  gained  in  the 
bow  not  being  reckoned  in  the  estimate.  Thus 
the  round  swelling  bow  became  the  established 
form,  in  the  correctness  of  which  the  builders 
felt  confirmed  by  the  sfmilar  shape  in  the  head 
of  the  whale  and  of  the  codfish.  The  hol- 
lowed lines  drawn  from  the  stem  back  on  each 
side  the  ship  were  designed  by  Mr.  Scott  Rus- 
sell from  his  observations  made  as  far  back  as 
1832  upon  the  shape  of  the  wave  set  in  mo- 
tion, as  by  the  influx  of  water  from  the  dis- 
charging of  a  lock  of  a  canal,  which  travels 
at  rates  corresponding  to  the  depth,  as  8  m. 
an  hour  for  5  ft.  depth,  10  m.  for  7  ft.,  15  m. 
for  15  ft.,  18  for  20,  20  for  30,  25  for  40, 
and  30  for  50.  Hence  he  designated  them 
wave  lines,  and  the  form  of  the  bow  they 
produced  he  called  the  wave  form.  The  lines 
for  the  stern  he  also  established  by  study  of 
the  refilling  or  replacing  or  following  wave, 
as  necessarily  fulling  in  cycloidal  curves. 
Definite  lengths  indicate  definite  rates  with 
a  given  power,  and  it  would  be  impossible 
to  force  a  ship  through  the  water  at  rates 
much  exceeding  those  indicated  as  adapt- 
ed to  the  length  of  her  lines  without  an  ex- 
travagant expenditure  of  power.  Additional 
length  of  body  inserted  in  the  centre  seems  to 
have  no  effect,  except  as  it  presents  an  increased 
surface  for  adhesion  of  the  water.  Thus  the 
old  idea  that  there  must  be  a  certain  proportion 
between  the  length  and  breadth  of  a  vessel,  as 
that  which  for  a  long  time  was  adopted  in  prac- 
tice of  one  fourth  the  length  for  the  breadth, 
proves  to  be  entirely  false.  The  speed  does  not 
appear  to  be  affected  by  the  shape  of  the  vessel 
across  her  middle  or  her  midship  section,  nor 
by  differences  of  depth  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. The  proportion  between  the  speed  for 
which  a  ship  is  to  be  designed  and  the  length 
of  entrance  and  run,  Mr.  Russell  states  to  be 
three  fifths  of  the  whole  length  for  fore  body 


snip 


859 


and  two  fifths  for  after  body.     For  a  speed  of 
six  statute  miles  an  hour  the  length  of  entrance 
should  be,  according  to  his  rule,    15-12  ft., 
length  of  run  10-8  ft. ;  for  8  m.,  26-88  ft.  for 
entrance  and  19*2  for  run  ;  for  10  m.,  42  and 
30 ;  for  15  m.,  94'50  and  67'5  ;  for  20  m.,  168 
and  120.     The  great  experiments  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  construction  of  their  largest  steam- 
ers have  been  made  on  these  principles.     Be- 
fore their  adoption  it  was  taught  by  the  most 
experienced  ship  builders,  and  in  this  opinion 
Mr.  Scott  Kussell  was  himself  educated,  that  it 
was  impossible  to  force  steamboats  through 
the  water  at  a  greater  rate  than  9  m.  an  hour. 
He  had  even  seen  engines  of  50  horse  power 
taken  out  of  one  of  the  short  bluff -bow  steam- 
boats, and  replaced  with  others  of  75  horse 
power,  with  the  effect  of  increasing  her  speed 
only  about  a  quarter  of  a  knot  an  hour.     With 
the  increased  power  the  resistance  in  front 
was  much  more  than  proportionally  increased, 
keeping  down  the  speed  in  this  instance  to 
about  the  same  amount.     This  was  in  accor- 
dance with  the  mathematical  deduction  of  the 
resistance  in  passing  through  water  increasing 
as  the  squares  of  the  velocities,  or  nearly  so, 
and  the  power  necessary  to  impart  an  increased 
velocity  varying  nearly  as  the  cube  of  such  in- 
creased velocity.     It  is  not  strange  therefore 
that  the  opinion  prevailed,  that  if  a  rate  of  12 
or  14  m.  could  ever  be  attained  in  sea-going 
steamers  against  the  enormous  resistance,  in- 
creased as  it  must  be  by  the  tremendous  shock 
of  opposing  waves,  no  vessel  could  be  strong 
enough  to  complete   a  voyage.     Yet  in   the 
United  States  the  fallacy  of  these  views  had 
been  practically  demonstrated  in  the  steam- 
boats on  the  Hudson  river  for  several  years 
before  the  principles  of  their   success  were 
recognized  by  the  English  ship  builders.     In 
1827  these  boats  were  making  the  trip  from 
New  York  to  Albany  in  12  hours,  the  distance 
being  about  145  statute  miles,  and  the  trip  usu- 
ally including  12  stoppings,  at  six  of  which  the 
boats  were  brought  to    and  fastened  to  the 
wharves.     Several  crossings  of  the  river  also 
added  to  the  distance  and  the  time  over  a  trip 
direct.     In  1829  the  passage  had  been  accom- 
plished in  10^  hours,  in  1831  in  10J-  hours,  and 
in  1832  in  9  h.  18  m.     (See  paper  by  William 
O.  Redfieldin  "American  Journal  of  Science," 
vol.  xxiii.,  1833.*)     These  boats  were  long  and 
sharp,  furnished  with  "  cut-water  bows,"  and 
of  dimensions  in  some  instances  as  follows: 
length  233  ft.,  breadth  of  hull  at  the  water  lines 
28  ft.,  depth  of  hold  10  ft.,  draught  of  water 
44  ft. ;  length  180  ft.,  breadth  at  the  water 
line  28  ft. ;  length  220  ft.,  breadth  25  ft. ;  and 
length  145  ft.,  breadth  27  ft.     In  1832  Mr. 
Eussell  demonstrated  theoretically  the  pnnci- 

*  Since  the  publication  of  the  paper  by  Mr.  E«dfleld  still 
increased  rates  of  speed  have  been  attained  by  these  boats, 
till,  in  October,  1860,  the  steamboat  Daniel  Drew  made 
trip  in  6  h.  50  m.,  including  in  this  five  landings  and  sever* 
crossings  involved  by  them  :  these  may  fairly  be  considered 
aa  consuming  50  minutes,  thus  making  the  rate  24  m.  an 
hour,  the  highest  speed  ever  recorded  upon  the  water. 


pies  upon  which  such  speed  was  attainable, 
and  in  1837  a  river  steamer  called  the  Ves- 
per, built  on  the  lines  he  recommended,  was 
actually  run  on  the  Thames  at  about  12  m.  an 
hour. — The  direction  in  which  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  fast  ships  were  to  be 
made  being  thus  determined  by  theory  and 
practice  both  in  England  and  the  United  States, 
an  active  rivalry  sprang  up  between  the  two 
nations,   each   producing   almost  every  year 
steamers  of  surpassing  excellence.     But  the 
American  government  refusing  to  pay  subsi- 
dies to  steamship  lines,  the  scale  turned  in  fa- 
vor of  the  English,  whose  resources  were  great- 
er in  other  respects  than  those  of  the  Ameri- 
cans.    This  was  especially  apparent  when  in 
the  course  of  the  contest  it  was  discovered 
that  a  limft  was  encountered  to  the  required 
elongation   of  the  ships,  from  the  want  of 
strength  in  wooden  timbers,  however  large 
and  well  put  together,  to  bear  the  increased 
strain ;   and  that  resort  must  be  had  to  iron 
plates  riveted  together,  the  suitability  of  which 
for  such  use  was  fully  established  by  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Britannia  bridge.     In  1855  the 
Cunard  iron  steamer  Persia  was  constructed, 
of  360  ft.  length  of  hull,  45  ft.  breadth,  and 
32  ft.  depth,  and  of  capacity  exceeding  by 
1,200  tons  the  largest  of  the  other  ships  of  the 
same  line.    The  next  of  these  grand  attempts 
was  the  construction  of  the  Great  Eastern,  in 
which  the  principle  was  put  to  an  extreme  test 
upon  a  length  of  hull  of  680  ft.,  a  breadth  of 
82£  ft.,  and  a  depth  of  58  ft.     Her  lines  were 
designed  by  Mr.  Scott  Russell  in  exact  con- 
formity with  his  theoretical  wave  lines.    Those 
of  the  bow  are  330  ft.  in  length,  and  the  length 
of  the  run  is  226  ft.,  the  filling  in  of  parallel 
body  to  afford  the  capacity  wanted  being  120 
ft.     This  middle  portion,  as  already  remarked, 
is  supposed  to  have  no  effect  so  long  as  the 
length  in  other  respects  is  sufficient  for  attain- 
ing the  required  speed  with  the  given  power. 
In  this  case  the  power  furnished  could  be  ex- 
pected to  give  only  15  m.  an  hour,  and  this  she 
attained.    For  further  account  of  the  use  of 
steam  in  navigation  and  the  history  of  this  ap- 
plication, see  STEAM  NAVIGATION.— The  sub- 
stitution of  iron  for  wood  in  the  construction 
of  vessels  was  first  made   experimentally  i 
1821,  but  did  not  come  into  practical  use  till 
1829-'30.    In  these  years  the  late  John  Laird  of 
Birkenhead  built  some  iron  cargo  lighters  at 
his  works  there,  where  the  business  of  iron  ship 
building  has  since  been  uninterruptedly  con- 
tinued and  upward  of  400  iron  vessels  have  been 
completed.    In  1830-'31  the  late  Sir  William 
Fairbairn  built  a  small  iron  steamer  at  Man- 
chester, and  he  afterward  constructed  at  Mill- 
wall  many  steamers  of  the  same  material.    In 
France  and  in  the  United  States  iron  has  been 
partially  introduced  into  wooden  ships,  bars 
of  iron  being  employed  to  great  advantage 
for  a  diagonal  bracing  covering  the  inner 
face  of  the  timbers  with  a  complete  network  ; 
horizontal  stringers  of  plate  iron  are  also  fas- 


860 


SHIP 


tened  to  the  sides  within  at  intervals  from 
the  deck  to  the  keelson,  which  ia  also  of  iron. 
The  beams  are  also  made  of  iron,  shaped  like 
thoSe  used  in  house  architecture,  and  in  various 
other  parts  this  metal  is  substituted  for  wood, 
the  advantage  being  greater  strength  with  less 
weight  and  the  occupation  of  less  room.  Iron 
frames  are  now  used  exclusively  in  the  English 
navy.  Ships  constructed  wholly  of  iron  are 
lighter  than  those  of  the  same  tonnage  made 
of  wood,  and  consequently  can  carry  larger 
freights.  Their  size  moreover  being  capable 
of  enlargement  beyond  the  dimensions  to  which 
wooden  vessels  mast  be  limited,  they  admit 
more  than  the  latter  of  profiting  by  the  prin- 
ciple, that  the  larger  the  capacity  the  less  pro- 
portional part  of  it  need  be  devoted  to  the 
transportation  of  the  fuel  required,  and  the 
more  may  be  devoted  to  the  cargo.  Iron  ships 
are  built  upon  a  frame  of  ribs  and  longitudinal 
pieces,  upon  which  the  outer  plates  are  secured 
by  bolts  and  rivets  passing  through  their  over- 
lapping edges.  Lloyd's  rules  for  iron  ships 
will  be  found  in  "  Ship  Building  in  Iron  and 
Steel, "  by  E.  J.  Reed,  p.  49 1 .  In  1 858  a  steamer 
called  the  Rainbow,  of  170  tons  and  130  ft. 
length  by  16  ft.  beam,  intended  for  the  Niger 
expedition,  was  built  with  plates  of  steel.  These 
were  rolled  from  lumps  of  crude  steel  which 
were  exposed  four  hours  in  a  close  furnace  to 
a  temperature  a  little  below  the  melting  point; 
by  this  process  the  steel  was  made  to  assume 
a  more  homogeneous  texture  and  uniform 
strength.  Its  advantage  over  ordinary  iron 
plates  is  that  equal  strength  to  that  of  the  lat- 
ter is  obtained  with  only  half  the  weight.  The 
boilers  of  the  steamer  were  also  made  of  it. — 
The  recent  important  changes  in  ships  intended 
for  naval  service  are :  1,  the  introduction  of 
light  and  swift  vessels  propelled  by  steam,  car- 
rying a  few  heavy  guns,  and  able  by  their  light 
draught  to  run  into  rivers  and  shoal  waters ; 
and  2,  that  of  floating  batteries,  some  account 
of  which  has  been  given  in  the  article  IRON- 
CLAD SHIPS.  Since  1858  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish governments  have  vied  with  each  other 
in  the  construction  of  fighting  ships  in  which 
the  maximum  powers  of  offence  are  afforded 
the  utmost  security  from  hostile  shot  consistent 
with  buoyancy.  The  contest  between  offence 
and  defence  is  in  reality  coeval  with  the  histo- 
ry of  ship  building.  In  the  earliest  sea  fights 
protection  from  the  missiles  of  the  enemy  was 
sought  by  placing  shields,  interlaced,  on  what 
now  would  be  called  the  "gunwale"  of  war 
galleys.  During  the  middle  ages  the  same 
expedient  was  resorted  to.  At  the  siege  of 
Tunis  in  1535  the  Santa  Anna,  one  of  the  fleet 
of  the  renowned  Andrea  Doria,  was  plated 
with  lead,  and  successfully  resisted  the  artil- 
lery of  the  enemy.  The  light  armaments  of 
the  last  century  often  failed  to  penetrate  the 
stout  oak  or  teak  sides  of  well  built  ships. 
Even  so  late  as  70  years  ago  the  ships  of  Nelson 
and  Colling  wood,  so  long  under  a  concentrated 
fire  as  they  bore  down  on  the  enemy's  line  at 


Trafalgar,  would  have  been  completely  demol- 
ished had  not  the  powers  of  attack  and  defence 
been  so  nearly  equal.  (See  IRON-CLAD  SHIPS.) 
— Composite  ships  are  designed  to  combine 
the  advantages  of  an  iron  frame  or  hull  with 
those  of  a  wooden  bottom  sheathed  with  cop- 
per or  zinc.  As  the  bottoms  of  iron  sea-going 
ships  get  so  foul  by  the  adhesion  of  shell  fish 
and  sea  weed  as  to  materially  reduce  the  speed, 
the  protection  of  the  iron  becomes  a  very  im- 
portant consideration.  The  bottoms  of  wood- 
en vessels  are  protected  by  a  sheathing  of 
copper,  which  by  exfoliation  sheds  or  sloughs 
off  such  adhesions.  The  chlorine  contained  in 
sea  water  has  a  strong  affinity  for  copper,  form- 
ing a  green  chloride  of  copper,  which  is  dis- 
solved by  the  water,  and  thus  the  copper  is 
wasted  away.  This  waste,  which  constitutes 
one  chief  value  of  copper  as  a  sheathing,  can 
readily  be  prevented.  Chlorine  is  electro-neg- 
ative. If  the  copper  sheathing  were  rendered 
electro-negative  also,  the  chlorine  would  be 
repelled  instead  of  attracted,  and  the  metal 
would  be  protected  from  corrosion.  Sir  H. 
Davy  proposed  to  do  this  by  driving  zinc  nails 
into  the  copper.  The  zinc  at  once  becomes  elec- 
tro-positive, attracts  the  chlorine  to  itself,  and 
generates  an  electrical  current  which  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  copper ;  it  thus  becomes  the  gen- 
erating plate  of  a  battery,  while  the  copper  be- 
comes the  conducting  plate.  But  while  chlo- 
rine is  repelled,  lime  and  magnesia,  electro- 
positives,  are  attracted  to  the  copper,  forming 
an  earthy  coating  to  which  shell  fish  and  sea 
weed  readily  and  firmly  adhere.  This  expla- 
nation shows  why  all  the  patent  applications 
for  the  bottoms  of  iron  ships  fail  to  prevent 
fouling.  No  artificial  coating  possessed  of  the 
essential  property  of  exfoliation  has  yet  been 
devised.  As  any  communication,  through  the 
medium  of  salt  water,  between  copper  sheath- 
ing and  an  iron  hull  would  generate  galvanic 
action  highly  destructive  to  the  latter,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  insulate  the  iron  by  apply- 
ing planking  to  the  bottom  and  then  sheathing 
that ;  hence  we  have  what  are  now  common- 
ly known  as  composite  ships.  With  copper 
sheathing  the  iron  must  be  perfectly  insulated ; 
with  zinc  this  is  not  necessary,  as  it  decom- 
poses instead  of  the  iron  when  they  are  in 
galvanic  communication  with  each  other.  The 
English  frigates  Shah  and  Inconstant  are  com- 
posite. They  have  a  double  thickness  of  wood 
sheathing  outside  the  iron  skin,  with  copper 
over  all,  and  brass  stems  and  stern  posts.  A 
sheathing  of  three-inch  teak  is  first  laid  fore 
and  aft  and  bolted  to  the  shell  of  the  ship ; 
next  comes  a  layer  of  planking  of  the  same 
thickness,  but  of  lighter  wood,  secured  with 
shifting  butts  and  seams  to  the  first  by  brass 
wood  screws.  The  wood  sheathing  is  calked, 
paid  with  pitch,  and  then  coppered.  The  com- 
posite system  will  be  adopted  in  the  new  mon- 
itors now  (1875)  in  course  of  construction  in 
this  country. — Ship  Building.  Few  if  any 
mechanical  operations  demand  such  a  variety 


SHIP 


Nil 


of  considerations  as  the  building  of  a  ship. 
A  hollow  shell  is  to  be  constructed  in  which 
lightness  and  stability  are  the  first  requisites. 
If  the  vessel  be  a  man-of-war,  it  is  a  nice  point 
to  determine  her  displacement,  or  the  entire 
weight  of  the  structure  itself  with  all  that  she 
carries  of  spars,  armament,  men,  supplies,  &c., 
that  from  this  her  depth  in  the  water  may  be 
known,  and  the  line  of  her  lower  ports  be  fixed 
so  high  as  not  to  be  washed  into  in  time  of 
action.  The  form  is  to  be  specially  suited  for 
easy  and  rapid  progress,  and  at  the  same  time 
must  be  adapted  to  resist  the  severest  strains, 
caused  not  merely  by  the  weight  of  the  struc- 
ture and  of  its  load,  but  by  the  shock  of  the 
waves,  and  their  constantly  varying  figure,  the 
effect  of  which  is  to  continually  change  the 
places  of  support,  and  throw  large  portions 
of  the  weight  first  upon  one  point  and  then 
upon  another.  It  has  often  been  observed 
that  after  a  vessel  has  left  the  stocks  upon 
which  she  was  put  together,  and  lies  upon 
still  water,  a  line  that  had  previously  been 
drawn  straight  along  her  top  side  from  stem 
to  stern  is  deflected  several  inches  by  the  set- 
tling of  the  ends,  which  is  owing  to  a  want 
of  precision  and  strength  in  the  work  to  meet 
the  inequality  of  the  weights  on  the  different 
transverse  sections.  The  effect  is  to  separate 
to  some  extent  the  planks  and  connecting 
pieces  at  the  top,  and  compress  those  in  the 
bottom  of  the  structure.  When  the  ship  en- 
ters rough  water,  she  is  at  one  moment  sup- 
ported at  the  two  extremities  like  a  bridge, 
and  the  great  weight  bears  down  the  middle, 
threatening  to  bend  the  whole  structure  and 
produce  the  effect  called  sagging;  the  next 
instant  her  bow  and  stern  hang  unsupported 
over  the  great  wave  which  bears  up  the  ship 
across  her  centre,  and  the  two  ends  tend  to 
droop ;  the  latter  change  of  form  is  called 
hogging.  If  the  ship  was  thus  affected  when 
first  launched,  it  is  obvious  that  the  distortion 
must  increase  as  she  works  in  a  heavy  sea,  and 
that  her  timbers  and  fastenings  must  be  great- 
ly weakened  by  the  motion.  In  various  other 
ways  the  strength  of  her  framing  is  severely 
tried.  Driven  obliquely  across  the  waves,  she 
is  lifted  high  upon  their  summits,  and  at  any 
moment  is  dashed  into  the  trough  against  the 
next  coming  swell,  the  force  of  which  she 
receives  upon  her  bow,  side,  or  quarter,  with 
a  shock  that  quivers  through  every  timber. 
When  following  too  nearly  the  line  of  the 
waves,  she  is  rolled  violently  from  side  to  side, 
and  the  great  weight  and  long  purchase  of  the 
heavy  yards  and  masts  act  with  fearful  power 
to  strain  the  sides,  to  which  they  are  fastened 
by  the  shrouds  and  stays.  Again,  when  mov- 
ing directly  across  the  waves,  each  end  is  in 
turn  elevated  and  depressed.  In  all  these 
movements  the  force  of  the  strain  is  told  by 
the  creaking  of  the  timbers.  The  structure 
is  put  to  still  severer  tests  when  the  ship 
touches  an  uneven  bottom,  and  the  weight  is 
supported  by  a  few  points  upon  a  hard  un- 


yielding surface.  Then,  beaten  by  the  waves, 
raised  up  and  dashed  down  again  by  them,  her 
frame  is  most  perfect  if  she  is  not  soon  parted 
and  broken  up.  Indeed,  the  only  vessels  ever 
known  to  come  off  from  a  rocky  exposed  coast 
after  remaining  aground  for  a  considerable 
time  were  iron  ones,  as  the  Great  Britain, 
which  lay  a  whole  winter  on  the  coast,of  Ire- 
land, and  the  Vanguard,  which  was  for  several 
days  on  a  rocky  beach.  The  strength  of  ships, 
like  that  of  roofs  and  bridges  of  long  span, 
depends  on  the  skilful  arrangement  and  fitting 
of  the  timbers,  so  that  they  shall  take  the 
strains  they  are  to  meet  to  the  best  advantage, 
as  well  as  on  the  bolts  and  fastenings  by  which 
they  are  held  in  their  places.  The  keel  is  the 
foundation  or  backbone  upon  which  the  whole 
structure  is  built  up.  It  receives  the  great 
upright  timbers  of  the  stem  and  stern,  and 
those  called  floor  timbers  that  support  the 
ribs,  which  give  form  to  the  sides.  The  deck 
beams  at  different  stages,  securely  fastened 
at  their  ends  to  opposite  ribs,  hold  these  to- 
gether against  any  spread  of  the  sides  or  lat- 
eral hogging,  and  also  act  as  struts  to  prevent 
collapsing  of  the  sides.  Curvature  on  the 
length  of  the  ship  is  guarded  against  by  the 
planking  on  the  ribs  and  that  of  the  decks,  the 
planks  being  laid  longitudinally  and  strongly 
bolted  down  to  the  timbers.  In  northern  Eu- 
rope since  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  sys- 
tem of  trussing  has  been  introduced  for  greater 
security  in  this  respect.  Three  parallel  rows 
of  pillars  were  set  up  extending  from  one  end 
of  the  ship  to  the  other,  one  row  on  the  keel- 
son, and  one  each  side  on  timbers  laid  for  the 
purpose  and  bolted  to  the  ribs.  On  the  top 
of  the  pillars  of  each  row  and  directly  under 
the  lower  deck  was  secured  a  longitudinal  tim- 
ber like  an  architrave;  and  diagonal  braces 
extended  from  the  top  of  one  pillar  to  the  foot 
of  the  next  in  the  same  row.  By  such  arrange- 
ment the  stiffness  was  materially  increased, 
but  at  the  expense  of  stowage  room,  and  the 
trussing  was  not  altogether  secure  of  remain- 
ing in  place  in  the  violent  movements  of  the 
ship.  A  much  superior  method  was  introduced 
in  1810  by  Sir  Kobert  Seppings,  surveyor  of 
the  navy,  which  is  known  as  the  diagonal  bra- 
cing. This  was  formed  of  a  system  of  timbers 
crossing  the  ribs  on  the  inside  of  the  ship  at 
angles  of  about  45°,  and  braced  by  diagonals 
or  struts.  This  framing  started  below  at  the 
keelson  or  horizontal  timbers  at  its  side,  t< 
which  it  was  strapped  down,  and  terminated 
above  under  the  horizontal  shelf  which  sup- 
ported the  ends  of  the  cross  beams  under  the 
lower  deck.  The  shelf  was  thus  braced  up  and 
supported ;  and  in  large  ships  the  second  hon 
zontal  shelf  was  likewise  sustained  by  a  coi 
tinuation  of  the  diagonal  bracing  above  t 
lower  deck.  These  shelves  secured  to 
sides  of  the  ship  are  always  provided  for 
support  of  the  deck  beams,  and  serve  t 
selves  to  stiffen  the  structure  in  their  acti« 
like  internal  hoops.  In  place  of  this  method 


862 


SHIP 


iron  plates  or  straps  are  now  commonly  em- 
ployed in  all  important  wooden  ships  for  diag- 
onal bracing.  Diagonal  braces  are  from  £  to 
|  in* thick,  and  from  3  in.  to  5  in.  wide,  laid 
at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  keel.  There  are 
two  tiers,  which  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles,  and  end  on  a  belt  of  iron  above  the 
spar  deck,  called  a  head  strap,  somewhat  larger 
than  the  diagonal  straps.  Straps  are  put  either 
inside  or  outside  of  the  frame  in  the  merchant 
service;  in  the  United  States  navy  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  put  them  inside.  As  wooden  ves- 
sels now  are  not  so  deep  in  proportion  to  their 
length  as  in  former  years,  the  strength  secured 
by  this  system  of  iron  strapping  is  indispensa- 
ble.— In  designing  a  ship,  the  old  plan,  after 
deciding  on  her  tonnage,  is  to  determine  the 
proper  midship  section  for  the  proposed  capa- 
city, with  due  reference  to  the  desired  speed, 
degree  of  stability,  &c.  The  next  thing  is  to 
plan  the  horizontal  section  called  the  load 
water  section,  and  then  prepare  the  drawing 
on  a  scale  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 
The  three  principal  draughts  are  known  as  the 
sheer  plan,  the  half  breadth  plan,  and  the 
body  plap.  The  first  is  a  vertical  section  ex- 
tending the  whole  length  of  the  ship,  and  pre- 
senting her  full  depth,  the  inclination  of  her 
stem  and  stern,  her  masts,  ports,  water  lines, 
and  generally  whatever  belongs  to  the  side  of 
the  ship.  The  water  lines  are  drawn  straight 
and  parallel,  numbered  from  stem  to  stern. 
The  half  breadth  plan  is  a  horizontal  section 
of  half  the  ship  divided  lengthwise  as  seen 
from  above.  The  several  water  lines,  num- 
bered as  in  the  sheer  plan,  are  dotted  in,  or 
drawn  in  blue  ink,  and  designate  the  width 
and  horizontal  curves  of  the  hull  at  the  dif- 
ferent levels.  The  body  plan  is  a  midship  sec- 
tion, representing  the  height  and  breadth  of 
this  portion  of  the  ship ;  it  is  divided  vertically 
into  halves,  that  to  the  left  showing  the  curves 
and  arrangement  of  the  timbers  toward  the 
stern,  and  the  other  those  toward  the  bow; 
the  heights  of  the  several  water  lines  are  also 
indicated.  Instead  of  these  plans,  the  Ameri- 
can ship  builder  has  generally  substituted  a 
half  model  of  the  vessel  built  up  of  thin  strips 
of  wood  laid  horizontally  upon  each  other. 
These  strips  represent  the  parallel  water  lines, 
and  can  be  taken  apart  for  any  alteration  of 
the  plan,  or  for  laying  off  from  them  the  full 
size  lines  upon  the  floor  of  the  moulding  loft. 
This  loft  is  a  large  room  specially  devoted  to 
the  preparation  of  the  designs  and  patterns 
from  which  all  the  timbers  are  to  be  shaped. 
The  designs  being  drawn  upon  the  floor,  the 
plank  patterns  or  moulds  are  obtained  from 
them,  which  are  of  the  exact  dimensions  of 
one  face  of  the  timber,  and  are  furnished  with 
marks  that  designate  the  other  dimensions. 
The  ship  yard  is  situated  by  the  edge  of  the 
water,  and  sufficiently  elevated  to  secure  a 
proper  slope  for  the  completed  vessel  to  slide 
down  the  ways.  At  a  convenient  distance 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  tide  a  row  of  blocks,  4 


ft.  or  more  apart  and  3  ft.  high,  is  set  in  the 
ground,  extending  back  from  the  water  the 
proposed  length  of  the  ship,  and  their  flat  upper 
surface  sloping  toward  it  about  3°  from  the 
horizontal.  On  these  blocks  the  timbers  which 
make  the  keel  are  laid,  being  nicely  fitted 
together  by  scarfing  and  secured  by  bolts.  In 
Europe  elm  is  preferred  for  the  keel,  being 
tough,  holding  the  fastenings  well,  and  long 
remaining  sound  under  water ;  but  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  live  oak  is  commonly  used.  The 
latter  is  the  most  valuable  native  timber  em- 
ployed in  ship  building  ;  but  white  oak  of 
second  growth  obtained  near  the  coast  in  New 
England  is  also  excellent,  and  far  superior  to 
the  same  timber  brought  from  the  interior. 
Locust  and  cedar  are  strong  and  durable,  and 
hackmatack  is  valuable  for  knees.  Chestnut 
is  employed  to  some  extent,  and  white  and 
yellow  pine  largely,  the  latter  being  the  best 
foF  decks.  It  is  recommended  that  the  trees 
be  killed  by  girdling  in  the  beginning  of  the 
winter  when  the  sap  is  down,  and  left  to  dry 
and  harden  before  they  are  felled.  After  this 
the  timber  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  airy 
place  to  season.  False  keels  or  shoes  are  from 
4  to  6  in.  thick,  and  fastened  to  the  lower  side 
of  the  main  keel  with  spikes  or  short  bolts, 
after  the  frame  bolts,  which  pass  through  the 
frame  and  the  main  keel,  are  clinched.  The 
chief  object  of  the  false  keel  is  to  save  the 
main  keel  from  injury  in  case  the  ship  should 
strike  the  bottom.  Ships  are  generally  built 
with  the  stern  nearest  the  water,  although 
sometimes  it  is  more  convenient  to  build  and 
launch  sidewise.  On  the  fore  end  of  the  keel 
is  erected  the  stem,  on  the  after  end  tho 
stern  post,  with  its  lower  end  tenoned  into  the 
keel.  The  frames  which  cross  the  keel  are 
formed  of  floor  timbers  and  futtocks.  They 
are  put  together  while  in  a  horizontal  position, 
with  the  floor  timbers  lying  across  the  keel. 
When  all  are  calked  and  bolted  together  the 
whole  frame  is  canted  up  by  proper  purchases, 
cross  pawls  preventing  it  from  spreading.  The 
frames  thus  crossing  the  keel  are  called  square 
frames,  as  they  are  placed  at  right  angles  to 
the  keel ;  forward  and  abaft  of  the  square 
frames  are  the  "cants"  or  cant  frames,  so 
called  because  they  cant  toward  the  round  of 
the  bow  or  stern.  The  keelson  is  a  longitu- 
dinal timber  parallel  to  the  keel,  and  occupy- 
ing a  place  on  the  inside  of  the  frames  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  keel  on  the  outside. 
The  spaces  between  the  frames  are  generally 
filled  in  solid  with  white  or  live  oak  timber. 
The  keelson  is  built  in  one  or  more  pieces 
varying  with  the  size  of  the  vessel.  After  the 
frames  are  erected  they  are  regulated  so  as  to 
stand  square  with  the  keel  longitudinally  and 
level  transversely.  Heavy- rib  bands  are  at- 
tached to  the  frames  on  the  outside,  and  se- 
cured by  heavy  shores.  The  inside  of  the  ship 
is  then  prepared  for  strapping,  ceiling,  placing 
and  kneeing  of  beams,  laying  decks,  &c.  The 
outside  of  the  frame  is  covered  with  plank 


SHIP 


8G3 


nearly  parallel  in  width  and  of  various  thick- 
nesses; the  plank  or  wales  above  water  are 
the  thickest,  being  in  a  large  ship  from  5-J-  to 
7&  in.,  the  bottom  plank  from  3£  to  4£  in. 
The  lowest  tier  or  strake  of  planks  outside, 
known  as  the  "garboard  strake,"  meets  the 
keel  along  an  angular  recess  called  a  rabbet, 
which  is  cut  into  its  side  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  to  these  planks  a  tight  fit  along  their 
lower  edge.  The  keel  is  thus  interlocked  along 
its  whole  line  between  the  planks  each  side  of 
it.  In  large  ships  this  lower  tier  is  sometimes 
of  timbers  rather  than  of  planks.  The  other 
planks  are  from  3  to  7  in.  thick.  To  obtain 
the  curves  required  for  the  planks  to  fit  the 
bends,  these  are  steamed  in  tanks,  and  then 
are  brought  into  shape  by  bending  them  with 
screws  and  levers  between  fixed  supports.  The 
inner  planking,  known  as  the  ceiling,  begins 
near  the  keelson  with  what  is  called  the  lim- 
ber strake,  extending  along  the  whole  bottom 
of  the  hold,  one  on  each  side  the  keelson.  The 
narrow  space  between  is  for  a  gutter  to  col- 
lect the  drainage  water,  for  delivering  it  to  the 
pumps.  Such  a  passage  is  called  a  limber.  The 
strakes  over  the  heads  and  heels  of  the  timbers 
are  thicker  than  elsewhere,  to  give  additional 
security  against  their  ends  being  pressed  in. 
As  the  planking  is  carried  up,  the  projecting 
pieces  called  shelves  are  set  in  their  places 
and  strongly  secured,  the  deck  beams  are  laid 
npon  them,  and  the  ends  of  these  are  fastened 
with  wooden  or  iron  knees  of  great  strength. 
Under  the  middle  of  the  beams  are  placed 
pillars,  starting  from  the  keelson;  these  pre- 
vent the  settling  of  the  beams,  which  are 
arched  upward,  and  their  consequent  thrust- 
ing outward  of  the  sides  instead  of  tying  them 
to  a  fixed  width.  As  in  the  rolling  of  the  ship 
a  powerful  strain  is  exerted  to  lift  the  ends 
of  the  beams,  this  is  also  guarded  against  by 
another  projecting  timber  set  in  the  planking 
directly  over  the  beams.  This  is  called  the 
waterway,  and  is  secured  by  vertical  bolts  ex- 
tending through  the  beam  and  shelf,  and  by 
horizontal  bolts  that  pass  through  the  frame 
and  outer  planking.  The  planks  are  fastened 
to  the  timbers  with  treenails  (i.  <?.,  pins  of  lo- 
cust) or  with  bolts  or  spikes.  Treenails  have 
sometimes  been  made  with  a  thread  cut  round 
them  and  a  square  head  by  which  they  are 
seized  and  screwed  into  the  holes.  For  the 
decks  yellow  pine  planks  are  commonly  used, 
except  along  the  sides  of  the  ship,  where  a 
strake  of  hard  wood  thicker  than  the  rest  of 
the  planks,  called  the  binding  strake,  is  laid  for 
a  waterway.  In  laying  the  deck  planks  atten- 
tion should  always  be  directed  not  merely  to 
their  use  as  a  covering,  but  also  to  their  action 
as  longitudinal  ties  for  the  frame.  In  some 
instances  decks  have  been  laid  diagonally  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  obviously  involving  a 
loss  of  strength;  ships  have  also  been  built 
with  three  layers  of  planks  for  the  decks  and 
outer  covering,  two  diagonal  layers  crossing 
each  other,  and  a  third  upper  layer  running 
739  VOL.  xiv. — 55 


longitudinally.  At  the  ends  of  the  ship  the 
shelf  pieces,  waterway  planks,  and  strakes  are 
secured  to  the  beams,  and  crutches  attached  to 
the  stern  post  and  to  the  timbers  called  breast 
hooks,  that  spread  out  from  the  stem.  The 
openings  left  in  the  deck  for  hatch  and  ladder 
ways  necessarily  weaken  it  somewhat,  though 
they  are  provided  with  stout  framing  secured 
to  the  beams.  The  holes  for  the  masts  are 
large  enough  to  receive  wedges  all  around  of  8 
to  6  in.  thickness.  For  supporting  the  masts 
blocks  called  steps  are  fastened  to  the  keelson, 
or  for  light  masts  to  one  of  the  beams,  and  into 
a  cavity  of  these  blocks  the  heel  of  the  mast  is 
set.  A  great  variety  of  work  still  remains  for 
the  ship  carpenter  to  complete  before  he  can 
give  place  to  the  calker,  whose  office  it  is  to 
make  the  seams  of  the  deck  and  outer  planking 
water-tight.  The  bulwarks  have  to  be  finished, 
the  pumps  placed,  the  capstan  or  windlass  for 
raising  the  anchor,  the  catheads  for  suspend- 
ing it  over  the  sides,  &c.  Calking  consists  in 
driving  threads  of  oakum,  rolled  up  in  the 
hand,  into  the  seams  between  the  planks ;  and 
that  it  may  reach  to  the  bottom  and  make 
the  seam  perfectly  tight,  the  planks  should 
be  bevelled  on  the  outer  edge  to  present  an 
opening  gradually  closing  toward  the  bottom. 
The  widm  of  the  opening  is  sometimes  in- 
creased by  driving  in  an  iron  wedge-shaped 
tool,  and  the  oakum  is  then  crowded  in  with 
great  force  by  the  calking  iron.  "When  the 
seams  are  filled  they  are  payed  over  with 
melted  pitch ;  but  a  much  better  material 
sometimes  used  is  the  marine  glue,  prepared 
from  shell  lac  and  caoutchouc.  (See  GLUE.) 
The  rudder  is  sometimes  hung  before  launch- 
ing, but  more  frequently  afterward.  This  is 
made  of  timbers  as  thick  as  the  stern  post,  up 
and  down  which  it  extends,  and  to  which  it  is 
suspended  by  pintals  on  the  rudder  fitting  into 
braces  on  the  stern  post.  The  head  of  the  rud- 
der passes  up  through  the  stern  above  the  deck, 
and  to  this  a  handle  called  a  tiller  is  fastened 
for  turning  the  rudder.— The  ship  being  ready 
for  the  launch,  two  parallel  lines  of  heavy 
timbers  are  laid  along  her  length,  one  on  each 
side,  and  continued  down  into  the  water  till 
sufficient  depth  is  reached  for  the  vessel  to 
float.  The  fall  of  the  water  at  low  tide  affords 
the  opportunity  for  doing  this.  The  slope  of 
this  track,  or  of  the  "ways,"  is  about  seven 
eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  for  large  vessels ; 
small  vessels  require  a  little  more  inclination. 
The  timbers  are  held  together  by  others  under- 
neath crossing  them,  and  the  frame  is  kept 
down  by  being  loaded  with  stones;  this  at 
least  is  the  practice  where  the  sliding  ways 
are  not  permanent.  The  top  of  each  timber  is 
well  covered  with  melted  tallow,  and  upon  this 
when  cold  is  added  soft  soap  or  oil.  On  the 
top  along  the  outer  edge  a  ribbon  of  hard  wood 
full  5  in.  square  is  fastened  down,  and  braced 
by  a  succession  of  shores  extending  back  on 
each  side  against  some  solid  support  in  the 
ground ;  the  object  of  this  ribbon  is  to  prevent 


864 


snip 


any  outward  deviation  of  the  npper  timbers 
that  make  the  cradle  in  which  the  ship  is  held 
as 'the  whole  slides  down  together.  This 
second  system  is  loosely  piled  up  under  the 
ship,  the  lowest  portion  being  timbers  smooth 
and  well  greased  on  the  under  side  and  laid 
directly  on  the  ways.  Between  these  timbers, 
called  the  bilgeways,  and  the  bottom  of  the 
ship  over  them,  the  space  is  filled  in  partly 
with  blocks  of  timber  and  planks,  and  toward 
the  bow  and  stern  by  short  shores,  called  pop- 
pets, set  up  from  the  bilgeways  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ship,  their  steadiness  being  secured  by 
stout  planks  temporarily  fastened  along  the 
bottom  against  the  heads  of  the  poppets.  Near 
the  stem  and  stern  chains  are  passed  across  to 
hold  the  cradle  together.  To  the  front  of  the 
timbers  of  the  cradle  are  fastened  ropes  that 
are  passed  over  the  bow  into  the  ship,  and  are 
intended  to  hold  these  when  they  float  away 
from  under  the  vessel.  To  bring  the  weight 
of  the  ship  upon  the  cradle  after  this  is  fitted 
under  it,  long  wedges  are  driven  in  over  the 
bilgeways  from  one  or  both  sides  of  each  of 
them.  The  shores  at  the  sides  of  the  ship, 
which  had  heretofore  aided  to  sustain  her,  and 
the  blocks  beneath  the  keel,  which  took  the 
chief  portion  of  the  weight,  may  now  be  re- 
moved, with  the  exception  of  a  few^f  the  lat- 
ter under  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel.  All 
this  preparatory  work  is  done  on  the  rise  of 
the  tide ;  and  when  this  is  at  about  its  height, 
and  two  short  shores,  called  dog  shores,  have 
been  placed,  one  on  each  side  the  vessel,  to 
brace  from  the  ways  as  a  fixed  point  forward 
against  the  bilgeways,  and  thus  hold  the  cradle 
with  its  load  from  sliding  too  soon,  the  fore 
blocks  are  split  up  with  wedges  and  drawn 
out,  letting  the  whole  weight  settle  down  on 
the  ways.  At  an  order  the  dog  shores  are 
knocked  down,  and  the  structure  begins  to 
move,  at  first  slowly  and  then  with  rapidly  in- 
creasing velocity.  In  rivers  and  contracted 
places  the  course  of  the  vessel  is  checked  by  a 
hawser  made  fast  on  shore,  or  she  is  brought 
up  by  letting  go  an  anchor.  The  French  have 
long  practised  launching  vessels  without  side 
ways,  the  weight  being  entirely  supported 
upon  a  sliding  plank  fitted  under  the  keel.  A 
strip  of  timber  is  fastened  along  under  the 
bilge  on  each  side,  and  a  few  timbers  are  laid 
up  in  the  usual  place  of  the  ways,  reaching 
within  about  half  an  inch  of  these  strips.  It 
is  not  expected  that  they  will  come  in  contact 
except  in  case  of  the  vessel  heeling,  when  they 
will  serve  to  prevent  her  falling  over.  After 
the  launch  the  vessel  is  conducted  to  the  wharf 
to  receive  her  spars,  rigging,  and  machinery, 
if  a  steam  vessel,  and  interior  finish ;  or  she 
may  be  taken  into  the  dry  dock  to  be  sheathed. 
It  is  important  to  protect  the  bottom  of  a  vessel 
with  a  metallic  covering,  as  without  this  it 
soon  collects  an  incrustation  of  marine  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  bodies,  which  seriously  inter- 
feres with  their  progress  through  the  water, 
and  the  timbers  are  liable  to  be  attacked  by 


the  ship  worm.  Sheet  lead  was  used  in  an- 
cient times,  and  sheet  copper  was  first  applied 
to  the  ships  of  the  royal  navy  in  1783.  The 
great  expense  incurred  in  suits  of  copper,  which 
need  frequent  replacing,  is  much  reduced  by 
the  use  of  Muntz's  yellow  metal,  a  combination 
of  copper  and  zinc  described  in  the  article 
BRASS.  The  metallic  sheets  are  of  different 
thicknesses  for  surfaces  more  or  less  exposed, 
the  weights  being  32,  28,  18,  and  16  oz.  to  the 
square  foot.  The  thickest  sheets  are  used  for 
the  bow  and  about  the  load  water  line.  The 
size  of  the  sheets  is  4  ft.  by  14  in.,  and  a  120- 
gun  ship  would  require  of  them  4,444.  They 
are  fastened  with  copper  nails,  and  are  laid 
so  that  each  sheet  laps  upon  the  edge  of  the 
next  one  to  it  behind  and  below. — Masts  and 
Rigging.  The  spars  include  the  masts,  yards, 
booms,  and  gaffs,  used  to  support  the  rigging 
and  sails.  The  masts  of  the  smaller  vessels 
are  single  sticks  of  pine  timber  well  rounded 
and  with  a  gentle  taper.  For  large  ships  it  is 
necessary,  on  account  of  the  size  of  the  masts, 
to  construct  them  of  a  central  stick  of  a  num- 
ber of  sides,  with  longitudinal  pieces  closely 
fitted  and  securely  attached  to  them  and  then 
hooped  with  iron ;  these  are  called  made  masts, 
and  are  stronger  than  the  single  sticks  of  the 
same  size.  Hollow  masts  of  plate  iron  are  in 
use,  particularly  for  iron  vessels.  Rules  for 
the  length  of  the  mainmast  of  a  ship  have 
been  half  the  sum  of  the  length  of  the  load 
water  line  and  the  main  breadth  of  the  vessel, 
and  also  twice  the  breadth  added  to  the  depth. 
About  the  head  of  each  of  the  lower  masts  are 
framed  timbers  making  a  horizontal  scaffold- 
ing or  platform,  which  is  known  as  the  top. 
On  large  ships  it  is  railed  around,  and  on  ves- 
sels of  war  it  used  to  be  the  custom  to  station 
men  in  it  during  an  engagement  armed  with 
muskets.  Upon  the  rounded  front  edge  of  the 
top  stands  the  topmast,  secured  in  part  by 
passing  above  through  a  strong  iron-bound 
flat  block  set  horizontally  upon  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  lower  mast  and  called  a  cap. 
The  topmast  is  about  three  fifths  the  length 
of  the  lower  mast ;  and  above  it  succeed  in 
like  manner  the  topgallant  mast  and  royal 
mast ;  and  in  seas  where  the  prevailing  winds 
are  light  and  are  felt  more  aloft,  still  another 
mast  is  added,  called  the  skysail  mast.  At  the 
head  of  the  topmasts  are  cross  trees  in  place 
of  the  top  on  the  lower  masts.  Each  of  these 
masts  carries  its  own  yard,  from  which  de- 
pends the  square  sail  designated  by  the  same 
name  as  the  mast  to  which  it  belongs.  Its 
lower  corners  are  sheeted  out  to  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  yard  below,  or,  in  case  of  the 
courses  or  lower  sails,  to  the  deck.  The  yards 
slide  up  and  down  their  masts,  the  lower  yards 
hanging  in  slings  by  their  middle  part,  and 
most  of  them  by  lifts  attached  to  the  yard- 
arms,  and  passing  thence  through  a  block  at 
the  head  of  the  mast.  The  foremast  is  about 
one  tenth  shorter  than  the  mainmast,  and  is 
furnished  with  similar  yards,  rigging,  and 


snip 


865 


sal's ;  those  of  the  two  masts  are  distinguished 
by  the  terms  main  and  fore.  The  mizzen 
mast  of  a  ship  carries  no  square  sail  hanging 
from  the  mizzen  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
cross-jack  yard,  but  a  mizzen  topsail,  topgal- 
lant sail,  and  royal.  In  place  of  the  lower 
square  sail  there  is  a  fore-and-aft  sail  called  a 
spanker,  which  extends  aft  from  the  mast 
over  the  taffrail,  and  is  sheeted  out  to  the  end 
of  a  gaff  above  and  to  that  of  a  boom  below. 
This  is  of  great  service  as  a  steering  sail,  act- 
ing as  it  pushes  the  stern  off  from  the  wind  to 
bring  the  bow  up  as  it  is  hauled  in  and  kept 
flat.  Similar  sails  are  sometimes  attached  to 
the  other  masts  and  used  for  storm  sails.  The 
masts  are  supported  by  shrouds  and  stays. 
The  former  are  strong  ropes,  each  one  2£ 
times  as  long  as  the  mast,  the  head  of  which 
it  encircles  by  its  middle  part.  Several  of 
these  pairs  are  thus  secured  over  the  head  of 
the  mast,  and  the  ends  are  brought  down  over 
the  side,  diverging  as  they  descend.  They  ter- 
minate outside  the  ship  in  blocks  called  dead- 
eyes,  which  connect  by  a  lanyard  to  others  fas- 
tened on  the  outer  edge  of  the  channels  or 
chain  wales,  which  are  heavy  planking  secured 
edgewise  to  the  side  of  the  vessel  below  the 
bulwarks.  This  edge  is  held  down  by  iron 
braces  bolted  below  to  the  futtocks.  Though 
the  main  object  of  the  shrouds  is  to  hold  the 
masts  steady,  they  also  serve  as  ladders,  small 
ropes  called  ratlines  being  hitched  across  from 
one  to  another  for  steps.  The  topmast  shrouds 
are  set  up  by  dead-eyes  secured  to  the  out- 
er edge  of  the  top,  and  this  edge  is  braced 
down  by  iron  rods  or  chains  called  futtock 
shrouds  attached  below  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  lower  mast.  The  futtock  shrouds  and 
those  of  the  topmast  have  ratlines  also,  but 
those  for  the  masts  still  higher  have  none. 
The  stays  are  ropes  which  support  the  masts 
longitudinally,  starting  generally  from  their 
heads,  and  secured  to  the  foot  of  the  next 
mast  in  front,  those  for  the  foremast  to  the 
bowsprit.  The  back  stays  pass  from  the  heads 
of  the  topmast  directly  down  to  the  chain 
wales,  somewhat  aft  qf  the  foot  of  the  mast 
to  which  they  belong.  The  stays  that  pass 
from  the  several  masts  forward  sometimes 
support  triangular  fore-and-aft  sails,  called 
stay  sails.  The  main  and  mizzen  masts  stand 
nearest  together,  the  former  somewhat  aft  of 
the  centre,  and  both  of  them  usually  are  set 
raking  or  inclining  aft.  The  foremast  stands 
well  forward  and  upright.  The  bowsprit  ex- 
tends forward  over  the  bow,  rising  at  an  an- 
gle of  30°  to  33°,  its  heel  resting  in  a  step  on 
the  first  deck  below  close  to  the  foremast.  A 
cap  is  fixed  upon  the  head  of  it,  presenting  a 
round  hole  above  the  bowsprit,  through  which 
is  passed  the  spar  called  the  jib  boom,  which 
is  the  extension,  of  the  bowsprit.  As  the  fore- 
mast is  stayed  forward  to  the  bowsprit,  and 
several  fore-and-aft  sails,  called  the  foretop- 
mast  stay  sail,  jib,  and  flying  jib,  are  support- 
ed on  the  stays  between  them,  it  is  essential 


that  the  bowsprit  itself  be  well  secured.    This 
is  done  first  by  the  bobstay,  a  very  strong 
rope,  sometimes  double  and  triple,  which  con- 
nects the  outer  portion  of  the  bowsprit  with 
the  stem ;  and  by  the  bowsprit  shrouds,  which 
are  ropes  extending  from  the  end  of  the  bow- 
sprit to  the  bows.     The  dolphin  striker  is  a 
stiff  brace  or  strut  extending  down  from  the 
outer  end  of  the  bowsprit ;  it  is  kept  in  place 
by  the  jib  and  flying-jib  martingale  stays  and 
the  back  ropes.    From  the  great  angle  which 
it  forms  with  the  head  booms  it  amply  coun- 
teracts the  lifting  effects  of  the  jibs  and  the 
strain  of  the  foretopgallant  mast.     The  sails 
over  the  head  booms  are  triangular.     The 
rope  by  which  their  lower  corners  are  made 
fast  to  the  deck  is  called  the  sheet ;  this  is  also 
the  name  of  the  ropes  by  which  the  lower 
corners  of  the  square  sails  are  hauled  out  to 
the  ends  of  the  yards.    Of  the  courses  or  low- 
er square  sails  the  corners  on  the  lee  side, 
which  in  sailing  on  a  wind  are  hauled  aft,  are 
secured  by  sheets ;   but  the  corners  on  the 
windward  side,  which  are  hauled  forward,  are 
made  fast  to  the  deck  by  ropes  called  tacks.    It 
is  with  reference  to  tending  these,  to  shift 
them  as  the  yard  swings  in  going  about,  that 
the  preparatory  order  is  given  of  "  Rise  tacks 
and  sheets,"  succeeded,  as  the  evolution  is  com- 
pleted, by  "Let  go  and  haul."    The  braces  are 
the  ropes  by  which  the  yards  are  swung  round. 
The  sail  is  made  to  lie  still  flatter  by  bowlines 
which  are  attached  to  the  leach  or  edge  of  the 
square  sails  and  lead  forward.    In  sailing  as 
close  to  the  wind  as  possible,  the  weather  bow- 
line is  hauled  taut,  whence  the  expression  "  to 
sail  on  a  bowline,"  or  "  on  a  taut  bowline," 
for  lying  up  close  to  the  wind.    In  running 
before  the  wind  the  yards  are  set  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  line  of  the  keel.    The  head  sails 
are  partially  becalmed  by  the  after  ones,  and 
the  fore-and-aft  sails  over  the  head  booms  are 
of  no  service ;  the  progress  of  the'  ship  there- 
fore is  not  so  rapid  as  with  the  same  wind  on 
the  quarter  or  abeam  and  filling  all  the  sails. 
In  order  to  spread  a  grenter  surface  of  canvas 
when  the  winds  are  light  and  fair,  provision 
is  made  for  lengthening  the  yardarms  by  means 
of  booms  called  studdingsail  booms,  which  are 
run  out  through  an  iron  ring  on  the  end  of 
the  yard,  and  to  the  outer  extremity  of  which 
are  hauled  the   tacks   of  the    studdingsails. 
With  a  side  wind  these  sails  are  advantage- 
ously carried  on  the  weather  side.    The  as- 
semblage   of    ropes  upon  a    ship,  many  of 
which  have  already  been  named,  are  known 
as  the  rigging.    Those  which  are  fixed,  as  the 
shrouds,  stays,  &c.,  are  called  the  standing 
rigging ;  and  the  rest,  as  the  halyards,  sheets, 
and  tacks,   are  the  running  rigging.— Sail*. 
The  larger  sails  are  made  of  the  heaviest  No. 
1  flax  canvas,  while  the  smaller  are  formed  of 
lighter  varieties  running  to  No.  8  of  the  same 
material,  known  as  duck  of  different  degrees  of 
strength.      The  strips  of  cloth  are  sewed  to- 
gether with  twine,  usually  with  a  double  seam, 


866 


SHIP 


and  the  patterns  are  skilfully  cut  for  a  smooth 
and  even  fit.  The  edges  are  bound  around  with 
a  rope  called  a  bolt  rope  to  take  the  strain  from 
the  canvas,  and  in  each  corner  an  iron  ring  or 
thimble  is  inserted  and  held  fast  by  a  rope 
called  a  cringle,  which  goes  round  the  outer 
concave  surface  of  the  ring,  and  is  spliced  each 
end  into  the  bolt  rope.  Through  these  rings 
are  passed  the  ropes,  called  earings,  by  which 
the  sail  is  stretched  or  bent  to  its  place.  The 
same  contrivance  is  repeated  at  one  or  two 
places  on  the  edge  of  the  sail,  that  it  may  be 
ithortened  in  single  or  double  reefing ;  and  on 
the  line  horizontally  with  these  oarings  short 
lengths  of  cord,  called  reef  points,  are  secured 
through  the  sail  and  hang  loosely  on  each  side, 
which  are  used  when  the  sail  is  reefed  to  tie 
around  the  part  which  is  taken  in.  Sails  may 
be  classed  as  square  sails  and  as  fore-and-aft 
sails.  The  former  hang  by  the  earings  and 
rope  bands  from  yards,  and  are  drawn  out  by 
the  lower  corners  or  clows  to  the  ends  of 
the  yards  below.  They  are  made  to  swing 
round  with  the  yards  so  as  to  present  their 
surface  to  a  side  wind;  but  the  fore-and-aft 
sails  are  better  designed  for  sailing  on  the 
wind,  and  the  square  sails  for  running  with 
a  free  wind.  Shoulder-of-mutton  sails  and 
gaff  topsails  are  triangular  fore-and-aft  sails, 
the  foot  of  which  may  be  attached  to  a  boom, 
or  in  the  latter  case  to  the  gaff,  and  the  top, 
by  which  they  are  hoisted,  terminates  in  a 
point  against  the  mast.  Lateen  sails,  much 
used  in  the  Mediterranean,  are  suspended  from 
a  very  long  yard,  which  is  hoisted  by  the  mid- 
dle from  the  dock.  One  end  of  the  yard  is 
brought  down  by  a  brace,  and  the  other  pro- 
jects above  the  top  of  the  mast,  and  rakes 
with  it  well  aft.  The  sail  serves  very  well 
as  a  fore-and-aft  sail.  The  great  superior- 
ity in  the  rig  of  American  fore-and-aft  ves- 
sels, by  which  they  have  been  able  to  attain 
the  highest  speed  of  sailing  craft,  is  in  the 
great  spread  of  their  sails,  their  skilful  cut,  and 
perfect  stretch,  which  causes  them  to  keep 
full  while  their  plane  is  more  nearly  in  a  line 
with  the  wind  than  could  formerly  be  practised. 
— It  belongs  to  the  naval  architect  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  and  disposition  of  sail  which 
his  ship  is  to  carry.  The  former  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  immersed  midship  section, 
for  every  square  foot  of  which  a  well  de- 
signed ship  may  carry  35  or  even  86  sq.  ft. 
of  plain  sails,  i.  «.,  courses,  topsails,  topgallant 
sails,  jib,  and  spanker.  Yachts  often  carry 
as  much  as  100  to  1.  In  regard  to  the  manner 
of  disposing  the  various  sails,  it  is  important 
that  their  common  centre  of  effort  should  be 
at  such  a  point  that  the  ship  when  in  trim 
will  carry,  on  a  wind,  a  small  weather  helm. 
It  has  been  found  that  when  the  pressure  of 
the  wind  on  the  sails  forward  of  a  perpen- 
dicular erected  on  the  centre  of  load  water 
line,  is  to  the  pressure  on  the  sails  abaft  as  '78 
to  1,  the  ship  will  work  well,  all  other  con- 
ditions of  a  good  ship  being  fulfilled. — The 


Theory  of  Working  Ship.  The  principle  upon 
which  a  vessel  is  made  to  advance  against  the 
wind  may  be  explained  as  follows :  Sustained 
in  a  state  of  equilibrium  in  the  water,  she  is 
readily  susceptible  to  any  force  applied  to 
change  her  position.  This  involves  a  move- 
ment of  the  water  to  admit  her  passing  through 
it.  On  the  line  of  the  keel  this  easily  takes 
place  from  the  wedge-like  shape  of  the  hull ; 
but  a  movement  sidewise  is  resisted  by  the 
great  body  of  water  pressing  against  the  hull 
for  its  full  length.  Whenever  therefore  the 
sails  are  filled  by  a  breeze  blowing  against  them 
from  behind,  even  if  at  a  considerable  angle 
with  the  length  of  the  ship,  it  is  easy  to  per- 
ceive that  her  motion  must  be  forward  on  the 
line  of  the  keel.  As  the  wind  draws  further 
forward  the  sails  are  braced  further  round,  so 
that  they  may  still  receive  it  upon  their  after 
side.  The  wind  of  course  strikes  them  to  a 
greater  disadvantage  the  nearer  their  plane  ap- 
proaches its  direction;  but  so  long  as  it  im- 
pinges even  obliquely  upon  their  after  surface, 
a  portion  of  the  force  is  exerted  to  press  out 
the  sails  in  a  forward  direction,  while  the  re- 
mainder passes  uselessly  along  the  plain  of  the 
sails.  The  former  portion  tends  to  push  the 
ship  directly  in  a  course  at  right  angles  with 
this  plane;  but  the  shape  of  the  ship  being 
opposed  to  this  movement,  this  force  also  is 
resolved  into  two,  one  acting  to  propel  the 
ship  sidewise  and  the  other  forward.  Thus 
this  last  result  may  prove  effective  even  when 
the  head  of  the  ship  is  pointed  obliquely  to- 
ward the  wind,  as  mentioned  of  fore-and- 
afters,  at  an  angle  of  40°  or  46°,  and  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  sailing  frigates  at  an  angle 
of  60°.  This  may  be  shown  by  the  annexed 
figure,  where  the  sail  A  B,  oblique  to  the 
line  of  the  keel  and  to  the  wind  V  0,  is  im- 
pelled in  the  direction  C  D  with  a  force  ex- 
pressed by  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  incidence  A  0  V.  If  C  D  represent  the 


force  of  the  wind  on  the  sail,  as  expressed  by 
the  square  of  the  sine  of  incidence  A  V,  we 
have  only  to  construct  G  II  to  see  that  such  a 
direction  is  composed  of  the  two  effects  0  H 
and  0  G  with  respect  to  the  body  E  F  on 
which  it  acts.  Now  the  sharper  we  brace  the 


snip 


867 


yard  A  B,  the  more  acute  becomes  the  angle 
A  0  E,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  augment  0  H 
and  diminish  0  G.  For  as  A  0  E  becomes 
more  acute  the  angle  D  C  H  is  lessened,  so  that 
C  D  perpendicular  to  the  centre  of  the  yard 
will  approach  more  to  0  H  perpendicular  to 
the  keel  E  F.  Hence  a  portion  of  the  force  is 
applied  in  the  direction  C  G,  the  length  of  the 
ship.  When  braced  sharp  up,  A  C  E  =  about 
20°.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larger  the  angle 
A  0  E  the  more  the  effect  C  G  will  increase, 
in  the  same  proportion  as  the  increase  of  the 
sine  of  that  angle  when  the  impulse  of  the 
wind  upon  the  sail  is  the  same ;  for  the  sines 
of  the  angle  are  in  proportion  to  their  oppo- 
site sides  in  the  triangle  0  D  G,  of  which  the 
angle  0  D  G  is  equal  to  the  angle  ACE. 
Though,  when  sailing  thus  partially  toward  the 
wind,  but  a  small  portion  of  its  propelling 
effect  is  available,  something  is  recovered  by 
its  greater  force  caused  by  running  against  it ; 
while  in  sailing  in  the  opposite  direction  its 
effect  is  diminished  by  running  away  from  it. 
If,  after  sailing  for  any  time  with  the  sails 
sharply  braced,  the  head  of  the  vessel  can  be 
brought  round,  so  that  the  sails  shall  fill  on  the 
other  side,  the  ship  will  proceed  on  the  other 
tack  on  a  line  reaching  further  and  further  to 
the  windward  of  that  before  passed  over,  and 
thus  by  a  succession  of  zigzags  progress  is  con- 
tinually made  against  the  course  of  the  wind. 
This  is  called  beating  to  windward,  and  the 
turning  of  the  ship  toward  the  wind  and  thence 
around  is  tacking.  This  is  done  as  follows : 
The  helmsman,  having  carefully  kept  the  head 
of  the  ship  as  near  the  wind  as  practicable 
with  the  sails  remaining  full,  at  the  order  puts 
the  helm  gradually  down,  and  soon  after,  at 
another  order,  "  hard  a-lee."  As  the  head  of 
the  vessel  is  thus  brought  up  toward  the  wind, 
the  head  sails  are  let  fly  by  casting  off  their 
sheets,  so  that  they  shall  present  the  least  im- 
pediment in  the  way  of  this  movement.  The 
spanker  on  the  contrary  is  hauled  more  toward 
the  centre,  that  the  wind  continuing  to  strike 
it  may  push  the  stern  round  the  other  way. 
Soon  the  square  sails  on  the  foremast  catch 
aback,  or  receive  the  wind  on  their  forward 
side.  This,  while  it  checks  the  headway,  also 
tends  to  throw  the  bow  still  further  round. 
The  after  yards  are  then  swung  for  the  wind  to 
strike  them  on  the  other  side,  and  the  same  is 
next  done  to  the  head  yards.  As  the  sails  fill, 
the  ship  soon  gathers  headway  on  the  new 
tack.  Fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  are  much 
better  adapted  for  working  to  windward  than 
those  with  square  sails.  Their  sails  keep  full 
at  a  smaller  angle  with  the  wind,  and  in  going 
about  or  tacking  they  do  not  lose  headway,  but 
even  run  some  distance  directly  in  the  eye  of 
the  wind,  which  other  vessels  are  prevented 
from  doing  by  their  great  square  sails  catching 
aback.  As  a  storm  comes  up  at  sea,  the  first 
precaution  is  to  shorten  sail.  The  lighter  sails 
are  taken  in  and  furled,  and  the  topsails  are 
first  single-reefed,  and  next  double-reefed; 


mainsail  is  reefed ;  mizzen  topsail  close-reefed ; 
next  the  fore  and  main  topsail  the  same;  main- 
sail is  then  furled,  and  the  jib  also.  The  fore- 
sail is  then  reefed  and  the  mizzen  topsail  is 
furled.  The  main  spencer  may  now  be  set, 
and  the  fore  topsail  furled  unless  the  ship  is  too 
stiff.  "With  close-reefed  main  topsail  and  reefed 
foresail,  with  the  main  spencer  and  stay  sails, 
the  ship  is  now  under  good  sail  for  either  run- 
ning or  lying  to.  With  increasing  wind  and 
the  ship  lying  to,  the  foresail  may  be  taken  in. 
When  the  main  topsail  is  taken  in,  the  last  re- 
sort is  setting  tarpaulins  in  the  weather  mizzen 
rigging  of  the  ship.  The  practice  is  somewhat 
varied  with  different  ships  according  to  their 
manner  of  working.  In  case  the  vessel  does 
not  lie  to  well,  she  may  in  a  favorable  lull  of 
the  storm  be  put  before  the  wind,  and  run  off 
under  bare  poles.  An  expedient  sometimes 
resorted  to  with  good  effect  is  the  drag.  This 
may  be  made  of  spare  spars  with  an  anchor 
attached  to  give  it  a  hold  on  the  water.  A 
long  stout  hawser  secured  to  this  and  brought 
in  over  the  weather  bow  will  enable  a  ship  to 
"  cathead  "  the  sea,  and,  with  all  sails  snugly 
furled,  ride  out  the  heaviest  gale.  With  such 
resources,  ships  at  sea  in  good  trim  with  plenty 
of  room  usually  escape  in  the  severest  storms, 
sometimes  indeed  with  the  sails  torn,  the  top- 
masts carried  away,  and  occasionally  with  a 
mizzen  mast  cut  away  to  ease  the  vessel,  or 
otherwise  dismasted.  The  great  danger  is  in 
proximity  to  land,  especially  a  lee  shore. — 
Cables  are  made  of  rope  and  of  iron,  the  latter 
being  used  the  most  in  recent  times.  They  are 
worked  by  means  of  a  capstan  or  kind  of  wind- 
lass which  may  have  a  vertical  or  horizontal 
axis,  and  may  be  turned  by  hand  or  by  steam. 
The  method  of  making  the  different  kinds  of 
chain  cables  is  given  in  the  article  CABLE.  A 
table  showing  the  comparative  sizes  of  chain 
cables  and  anchors  which  are  used  together 
according  to  the  United  States  navy  regula- 
tions will  be  found  in  the  article  ANCHOR. 
The  following  table  gives  the  navy  regulation 
for  the  number,  size,  and  length  of  both  hemp 
and  chain  cables  for  ships  of  the  line,  frigates, 
and  sloops  of  the  first  class : 


8I1IP8  OF  THE  LINK. 

NAMES  OF 

TWO  DECKS. 

THREE  DECKS. 

FlntcbM. 

Second  clan. 

No 

In. 

Fath. 

No. 

In. 

Km  lh. 

No. 

In. 

Fatb. 

Sheets,  hemp- 
Sheets,  chain.. 
Bowers,  chain. 
Stream,  hemp. 

2 
1 
2 
1 

25 
2i 
2i 
16 

120 
180 
180 
120 

2 
1 

2 

1 

24 
2* 
2* 
15 

120 
180 
180 
120 

2 
1 
2 

1 

X8 
21 

| 

120 
180 
180 
120 

FBIGATE8. 

SLOOPS. 

CABLES. 

FInt  clui. 

Second  clau. 

FInt  clan. 

No. 

In. 

Fath. 

No. 

In. 

Fath. 

No. 

In. 

Fatb. 

Sheets,  hemp- 
Sheets,  chain  . 
Bowers,  chain. 

Stream,  hemp. 

1 
1 
2 
1 

22 

!ti 

18* 

120 
165 
165 
120 

1 
1 
2 
1 

21 

!t! 

12 

120 
165 
165 
120 

1 
1 
2 
1 

17 

,!« 

120 
150 
1M 
120 

868 


SHIPP 


SHIPPING 


SHIPP,  Albert  M.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Stokes  co.,  N.  C.,  Jan.  15,  1819.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  North  Carolina 
in  1840,  and  was  received  into  the  South  Car- 
olina conference  in  1841.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  Greensboro  female  college  in  1848, 
professor  of  history  and  English  literature  in 
the  university  of  North  Carolina  in  1849,  and 
president  of  Wofford  college,  Spartanburg,  S. 
0.,  in  1859,  and  was  chosen  to  be  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  Vanderbilt  univer- 
sity, Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1874.  He  has  been 
a  member  of  every  general  conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  South,  since  1850. 

SHIPPING.  The  law  of  shipping,  the  law  of 
marine  insurance,  and  the  law  of  negotiable 
paper  have  a  common  origin  in  the  custom  of 
merchants.  This  custom  and  its  authority  as- 
cend to  a  remote  antiquity,  and  the  books  to 
which  we  must  refer  for  it  give  us  the  rules 
of  the  commercial  world  during  many  ages. 
Many  of  the  present  rules  and  principles  of 
the  law  of  shipping  have  an  earlier  origin 
than  anything  in  the  common  law,  or  indeed 
in  any  existing  system  of  law.  Even  the  Ro- 
man law,  in  the  rubric  de  lege  Rhodia  de  jactu 
(concerning  jettison),  quotes  and  confirms  the 
law  of  Rhodes,  whose  commerce  flourished  at 
least  1,000  years  before  the  Christian  era.  In 
the  fragment  to  which  we  have  alluded,  the 
modern  law  of  jettison,  average,  and  contribu- 
tion is  as  distinctly  stated  as  in  any  recent  text 
book ;  and  in  the  title  </e  nautico  foenore,  which, 
however,  like  many  other  rubrics  of  the  Corpus 
Juris  relating  to  shipping,  is  not  traceable  to 
any  earlier  source  than  the  law  of  Rome,  we 
have  the  present  rules  regulating  loans  on  bot- 
tomry and  respondentia.  Passing  over  several 
centuries,  we  find  other  still  ancient  but  useful 
repositories  of  the  customs  of  merchants  and 
of  the  maritime  law  in  the  Consolato  del  mare, 
a  collection  or  digest  of  the  principal  rules  and 
usages  established  among  commercial  nations 
from  the  12th  to  the  14th  century,  and  in  the 
laws  of  Oleron  and  the  laws  of  Wisby,  codes 
of  maritime  usages  promulgated  about  the  12th 
or  13th  century.  Later,  Le  guidon,  a  book  of 
the  16th  century ;  the  Ordonnanee  de  la  marine 
of  Louis  XIV.,  published  in  1681,  a  work  of  the 
highest  excellence  covering  the  whole  ground 
of  maritime  law ;  Valin's  commentaries  upon 
the  ordinance ;  Cleirac's  Us  et  continues  de  la 
mer ;  and  the  writings  of  Roccus  and  Casare- 
gis,  Italian  jurisconsults  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  reflect  the  commercial  usages  of  their 
respective  periods,  and  are  the  abundant,  au- 
thoritative, and  often  sought  sources  of  the 
modern  law  of  shipping. — A  ship  is  personal 
property,  a  chattel ;  and  unless  some  positive 
law  interposes,  it  may  be  transferred  from 
seller  to  buyer  by  the  same  forms  that  attend 
the  transfer  of  chattels  of  any  ojther  descrip- 
tion ;  and  in  fact  it  can  hardly  admit  of  a  doubt 
that  an  oral  contract  suffices  to  pass  the  prop- 
erty in  a  ship,  and  that  no  written  evidence  of 
the  sale  is  essential  to  its  validity.  Still  it  is 


the  ancient  usage  of  the  maritime  law  to  make 
a  bill  of  sale  or  other  written  instrument  the 
almost  inseparable  accompaniment  and  evi- 
dence of  the  sale,  and  it  is  convenient  and 
proper  that  it  should  continue  to  be  so.  But 
apart  from  expediency  and  established  usage, 
written  evidence  of  the  sale  of  a  ship  is  made 
an  essential  condition  of  registration  under  the 
laws  of  the  United  States.  Though  the  statute 
does  not  prevent  the  property  from  vesting  in  a 
purchaser  under  a  merely  oral  contract,  yet  it 
renders  a  bill  of  sale  a  practically  indispensable 
formality,  because  registration,  of  which  it  is 
the  condition,  gives  to  the  ship  all  its  substan- 
tial value  as  an  instrument  of  commerce. — The 
laws  which  regulate  commerce  confer  exclusive 
privileges  in  the  carrying  and  coasting  trade 
on  United  States  ships.  No  merchandise  may 
be  brought  from  any  foreign  country  to  this 
except  in  American  vessels,  or  in  vessels  be- 
longing to  that  country  of  which  the  merchan- 
dise is  the  product,  or  from  which  it  can  only 
be  or  most  usually  is  first  shipped  for  trans- 
portation ;  and  no  merchandise  shall  be  car- 
ried from  port  to  port  in  the  United  States 
by  any  foreign  vessel  unless  it  formed  a  part 
of  her  original  cargo.  Ships  intended  for  the 
fishing  or  coasting  trade  must,  if  not  regis- 
tered, be  enrolled  and  licensed.  In  short,  a 
ship  that  is  neither  registered  nor  enrolled  and 
licensed  cannot  sail  on  any  voyage  with  the 
privilege  or  protection  of  a  national  character 
or  national  papers.  This  national  character  and 
the  benefit  of  it  can  be  acquired  only  by  com- 
pliance with  the  registry  laws.  The  ships  which 
may  be  registered  under  these  laws  are  those 
built  within  the  United  States  and  owned 
wholly  by  citizens  thereof,  and  those  captured 
and  condemned  as  prizes  or  adjudged  forfeited 
by  violation  of  law,  if  owned  wholly  by  citi- 
zens of  this  country.  No  ship  can  be  regis- 
tered if  an  owner  or  part  owner  usually  resides 
abroad,  although  a  citizen,  unless  he  be  a  consul 
of  the  United  States  or  an  agent  for  and  a 
partner  in  a  mercantile  house  established  and 
doing  business  here ;  nor  if  the  master  be  not 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States ;  nor  if  the  own- 
er or  a  part  owner  be  a  naturalized  citizen  and 
reside  in  the  country  whence  he  oame  more 
than  a  year,  or  in  any  foreign  country  more 
than  two  years,  unless  he  be  a  consul  or  pub- 
lic agent  of  the  United  States.  If  a  registered 
American  ship  be  sold  or  transferred  in  whole 
or  in  part  to  an  alien,  the  certificate  of  registry 
must  be  delivered  up,  or  the  vessel  is  forfeited. 
As  soon  as  a  registered  vessel  arrives  from  a 
foreign  port,  her  documents  must  be  deposited 
with  the  collector  of  the  port  of  arrival,  and 
the  owner,  or,  if  he  does  not  reside  in  the  dis- 
trict, the  master  must  make  oath  that  the  regis- 
ter contains  the  names  of  all  persons  who  are 
at  that  time  owners  of  the  ship,  and  at  the 
same  time  report  any  transfer  of  the  ship  or  of 
any  part  that  has  been  made  within  his  knowl- 
edge since  the  registry,  and  also  declare  that 
no  foreigner  has  any  interest  in  the  ship.  If 


SHIPPING 


869 


a  ship  be  transferred  while  at  sea  or  abroad, 
the  old  register  must  be  given  up,  and  all 
the  requirements  of  law  as  to  registry  must 
be  complied  with  within  three  days  after  her 
arrival  at  the  home  port. — The  rights  of  part 
owners  of  ships  form  an  important  branch 
of  the  law  of  shipping.  Two  or  more  per- 
sons may  become  part  owners  by  building  a 
ship  together,  or  by  joining  in  purchasing  it, 
or  each  may  purchase  his  share  independent- 
ly of  the  others ;  and  their  rights  and  obliga- 
tions are  the  same  in  all  these  cases.  A  ship 
may  form  part  of  the  stock  or  capital  of  a  co- 
partnership, and  then  it  will  be  governed  in  all 
respects  by  the  law  of  partnership.  But  part 
owners  are  not  necessarily  partners.  Any  one 
of  them  may  at  any  time  sell  his  share,  but  he 
cannot  sell  the  share  of  any  other  part  own- 
er without  his  authority.  A  majority  of  the 
owners  may  generally  direct  the  employment 
of  the  ship  at  their  discretion  ;  but  a  court  of 
admiralty  will  interfere  to  do  justice  between 
them,  and  prevent  any  one  from  inflicting  in- 
jury on  the  others.  In  the  absence  of  the  rest, 
and  without  prohibition  from  them,  one  part 
owner  may,  in  the  exercise  of  good  faith  and  a 
sound  discretion,  manage  the  ship  as  for  him- 
self and  them;  and  the  contracts  into  which 
he  enters  in  relation  to  the  employment  or 
preservation  of  the  ship  bind  all  the  part  own- 
ers in  favor  of  an  innocent  third  party.  In 
general,  all  the  part  owners  are  liable  in  soli- 
do,  or  each  one  for  the  whole  amount,  for  all 
the  repairs  of  a  ship  or  for  necessaries  actually 
supplied  to  her  in  good  faith ;  but  if  it  can  be 
clearly  shown  that  especial  credit  was  given 
and  intended  to  be  given  to  one  owner  person- 
ally to  the  exclusion  of  the  others,  the  others 
cannot  be  holden.  One  of  the  part  owners 
generally  acts  as  ship's  husband.  His  ordina- 
ry duty  and  authority  include  equipping  and 
repairing  the  ship,  taking  care  of  her  while 
in  port,  furnishing  her  with  all  regular  and 
proper  papers,  and  making  contracts  for  freight 
or  passage.  He  cannot  unless  specially  em- 
powered make  insurance,  buy  a  cargo,  borrow 
money,  or  surrender  the  owners'  lien  on  the 
cargo  for  freight. — The  owner  of  a  ship  may 
employ  it  in  carrying  his  own  goods  or  those 
of  another.  He  may  carry  the  goods  of  oth- 
ers while  he  himself  retains  the  possession 
and  direction  of  the  ship,  or  he  may  lease  it 
to  others.  In  one  case,  he  carries  goods  on 
freight ;  in  the  other,  he  lets  his  ship  by  char- 
ter party.  When  goods  are  carried  on  freight, 
the  rights  and  obligations  of  ship  owner  and 
shipper  are  stated  generally  in  the  bill  of  lading, 
which  is  now  in  universal  use  among  commer- 
cial nations  with  but  little,  variety  of  form 
It  should  contain  the  names  of  the  consignor 
and  consignee  of  the  vessel,  of  the  master,  of 
the  places  of  departure  and  destination;  also 
the  price  to  be  paid  as  freight,  with  primage 
and  other  charges  if  any  there  be ;  and  either 
in  the  body  of  the  bill  or  in  the  margin  the 
marks  and  numbers  of  the  things  shipped 


The  bill  should  be  signed  by  tho  master  of  the 
ship,,  who  by  the  strict  maritime  law  has  no 
authority  to  sign  a  bill  of  lading  until  the  goods 
are  actually  on  board.  One  copy  of  the  bill 
of  lading  is  usually  retained  by  the  master,  and 
three  copies  are  given  to  the  consignor;  of 
these  he  retains  one,  and  the  others  he  sends 
to  the  consignee,  one  of  them  with  tho  goods 
and  the  other  by  some  other  conveyance.  The 
bill  promises  delivery  to  the  consignee  or  his 
assigns.  The  consignee  may  designate  his  as- 
signs by  a  particular  indorsement,  or  he  may 
indorse  the  bill  in  blank.  As  the  bill  is  evi- 
dence against  the  ship  owner  as  to  the  recep- 
tion of  the  goods,  and  their  quantity  and  quali- 
ty, it  is  common  to  say  :  "  Contents  unknown." 
Yet  between  the  ship  owner  and  the  shipper 
the  bill  is  not  conclusive,  and  the  former  may 
show  that  the  goods  were  injured  or  destroyed 
on  the  passage  by  reason  of  some  intrinsic  de- 
fect, which  was  not  apparent  or  easily  to  be  as- 
certained when  the  goods  were  shipped.  But 
if  the  bill  has  altered  the  situation  of  parties 
relying  on  its  truth,  so  that  either  an  innocent 
party  must  suffer  or  else  the  ship  owner  whose 
agent  signed  the  bill  either  fraudulently  or 
heedlessly,  it  is  he  and  not  the  innocent  party 
who  must  bear  the  loss. — The  contract  of  af- 
freightment is  entire ;  therefore  no  freight  is 
earned  unless  the  whole  is  earned  by  carrying 
the  goods  quite  to  their  destination.  If  the 
transportation  is  incomplete,  having  been  in- 
terrupted by  wreck  or  other  cause,  there  is  no 
absolute  right  of  freight.  Yet  there  is  a  con- 
ditional right ;  for  as  soon  as  the  ship  receives 
the  goods,  it  not  only  comes  under  the  obligation 
of  carrying  them  to  their  destination,  but  at  the 
same  time,  or  perhaps  more  exactly,  on  break- 
ing ground  and  beginning  the  voyage,  acquires 
the  right  of  so  carrying  them.  Therefore,  if 
any  interruption  intervene,  the  ship  owner  has 
the  right  of  transshipping  the  goods  and  carry- 
ing them  on  to  their  original  destination.  The 
goods  are  to  be  delivered  by  the  bill  of  lading 
in  good  condition  excepting  "  the  dangers  of 
the  seas,"  and  such  other  risks  or  perils  as  may 
be  expressed.  Damage  caused  to  goods  by  an 
excepted  risk  is  therefore  the  loss  of  the  ship- 
per or  consignor,  and  not  the  loss  of  the  own- 
er. But  if  goods  are  lost  in  substance,  even 
if  not  in  form,  as  if  sugar  is  washed  out  of 
boxes  or  hogsheads,  or  wine  leaks  out  of  casks 
by  reason  of  injury  sustained  from  a  peril  of 
the  sea,  though  the  master  may  deliver  the 
hogsheads  or  casks,  this  is  not  a  delivery  of 
the  sugar  or  of  the  wine,  and  no  freight  is  due. 
But  freight  must  be  paid  if  the  goods  are  in- 
jured or  actually  perish  and  disappear  from  any 
internal  defect  or  decay  or  change;  that  is, 
from  causes  inherent  in  the  goods  themselves 
If  goods  are  delivered,  although  damaged  am 
deteriorated  from  faults  for  which  the  ship 
owner  is  responsible,  as  bad  stowage,  deviation, 
negligent  navigation,  or  the  like,  freight  is  due, 
the  amount  of  the  damage  being  first  deducted. 
The  rules  in  respect  to  passage  money  are  quit 


SIIHMMNC 


sun-  \voi;\i 


analogous  ti>  those  which  regulate  tho  pnymont 
of  freight;  but  nn  tho  money  is  in. I  earned 
except  by  carrying  tin-  passenger,  or  /mi  r>it<t 
h\  carrying  liini  u  part  of  the  way  with  his 
consent,  it  may  1 10  recovered  hack  when  il  IIMH 
lie  MI  p:iiil.  as  it  usually  is,  in  advance,  ami  n»l 
earned.  Not  niily  is  Iho  owner  of  the  ship 
bound  to  tho  o \vnor  of  tho  cargo,  IIM  noun  us 
ho  receives  it,  to  lado  it  proporly,  to  tak 
of  it  wbilo  on  hoard,  to  furry  it  safoly,  HO  far 
as  tho  seaworthiness  of  tho  ship  is  concerned, 
to  its  dostiiiod  port,  and  thon  deliver  it  all  in 
a  prop.-r  way,  but  tlio  ship  itself  is  bound  to 
tho  discharge  of  these  duties. — An  owner,  \vo 
liavo  said,  may  lot  his  ship  to  others.  Tho  in 
Htrumont  which  contains  the  evidence  of  such 
a  contract  is  called  a  charter  party,  an  ancient 
u  HMO,  tho  origin  of  which  is  not  quite  certain. 
Tlio  form  of  tho  instrument  varies  with  the 
bargain  between  the  iwrtics.  (inn-rally  only 
tho  burden  of  the  ship  is  let,  tho  owner  holding 
possession  of  her,  finding  and  paying  inasU-r 
and  crew,  supplies  and  repairH,  and  navigating 
her  as  is  agreed  upon.  Sometimes,  however, 
tho  owner  lets  his  ship  as  he  might  lot  a  house, 
and  tho  hirer  takes  possession,  mans,  navigates, 
sup|. lies,  and  even  repairs  her.  Tho  charter 
party  should  designate  particularly  tho  -hip 
and  inaHtor  and  tho  parties;  Hhould  describe 
tho  ship  generally  and  particularly  us  to  her 
tonnage  and  capacity ;  sin  mid  deHtgnato  esno- 
cially  what  partH  of  tho  -hip  are  let,  and  what 
parts  if  any  aro  reserved  to  tho  owner  or  to 
tho  muster  to  carry  goods,  or  for  tho  purpoHo 
of  navigation ;  Hhould  describe  tho  voyage  or 
tho  period  of  tirno  for  which  tho  ship  is  hired 
with  proper  particularity ;  and  Hhould  set  forth 
tho  lay  days,  tho  demurrage,  tho  obligations 
upon  oithor  party  in  respect  to  the  navigation 
or  furnishing  of  the  ship,  and  all  tho  other 
particulars  of  tho  bargain.  Lay  days  are  those 
which  are  allowed  tho  charterer  for  loading  or 
unloading  tho  vessel.  If  more  time  than  tliaso 
agreed  lay  days  is  occupied,  it  tnunt  be  paid 
for,  and  the  amount  tliun  paid  in  called  de- 
murrage. By  tho  charter  party  tho  hirer  (or 
charterer)  usually  agreed  to  pay  HO  much  do 
murrogo  a  day.  If  tirno  ho  occupied  in  repairs 
of  tho  ship  which  aro  made  necessary  without 
tho  fault  of  the  owner  or  matter  or  of  the  ship 
itself,  that  is,  if  they  do  not  arise  from  In  r 
original  unseaworthiness,  the  charterer  pays 
during  this  time.  Hut  gum-rally  speaking,  tin-re 
lit  no  claim  for  demurrage  on  tho  charterer 
for  any  delay  which  is  induced  by  the  action 

of    the     elements,    as     ire,    tide,    or    tempest,    or 

from  any  act  of  government,  or  from  any  real 
disability  »(   the  consignee  which  could  nut    he 
imputed  to  his  own  act  or  to  bis  own  wrong- 
ful neglect.     Tin-  contract  of  charter  pai : 
be  dissolved  hy  tho  parties  by  mutual  eon  ,  ni, 
or  without    tin  ir  consent   by  any  eireiiin 
which  renders  the  contract    illegal;   as   f. . 
ample,  a  declaration  of  war,  an  embargo,  or  a 
blockade.  —  In   the  navigation   of  the  ship,  the 
whole  care  and  supreme  command  are  iutniHt- 


0(1  to  the  master,      lie  mil'.!  see  ID  everything 
that  respects  her  condition,  includin 
pairs,  supplies,  loading,  and   unloading,      lie  is 
principally    I  he  agent  of  theowinr.  I 
•  •ertain  extent    tho  agent  of  the  shipper  and  of 
the  insurer,  and  of  all  who  are  ini.t-    i.d    in 
the   properly   under   his  charge.      Much   of    In. 
authority  as  agent  of  the  owner  springs  from 
necessity.       In    a    case  of   extreme  IK 
mav  e\eii  sell  the  ship  ;    ho  may  pledge  In 
a  debt   by  a  bottomry   bond;   In    ma\   .-bailer 
her   for  a  voyage  or  a  term  of   lime;    ami 
raise  money  for  repairs  or  incur  a  debt  there 
for,   and    make    his   owners    liable,      (.•ncrally 
the   master  has  nothing  to  do  with    the  • 
h,  i  \\.en   tho   lading  and   the  delivery;    but    if 
the  necessity  arises,  he  may  sell  the  cargo  or  a 
part  of  it  nl  an    intermediate  port   if    In-  cannot 
carry  it  or  transmit  it,  and  it  must  perish  bef..i.- 
ho  can  rocoivc  specific  orders.     So  he  may  sell 
it  or  a  part  of  it,  or  pledge  it  by  means  of  a 
respondent!)!  bond,  in  order  to  raise  mom 
tho  common  benefit.     A  bond  of  «••  pondcntiu 
is  much  the  same  thing  UN  to  the  cargo  tint 

bottomry  is  as  to  the  ship.      It  seem m  \ 

borrowed  at  maritime  interest  and  on  mari- 
timo  rink  I  y  nlodgo  of  the  goods,  and  the  d.-l-t. 
is  discharged  when  the  goods  perish.  I  I,. 
owner  is  liable  for  the  master's  \\rong  doings; 
that  in,  for  every  injury  done  by  the  n 
while  acting  in  that  capacity. —  1'iider  our  pi 
lot  age  laws,  every  ship  entering  or  leaving  a 
harbor  must,  within  certain  limits,  accept  tin- 
services  of  a  pilot  if  they  are  offered,  or  pay 
the  proscribed  fees  even  if  those  services  aro 
declined;  and  if  a  ship  neglect  to  take  a  pilot 
when  it  should  and  can  do  so,  the  o\\  nors  will 
be  answerable  in  damages  to  shippers  or  others 
for  any  loss  which  may  bo  caused  by  such  neg- 
lect or  refusal.  As  soon  as  tho  pilot  stands  on 
deck  he  has  control  of  the  ship,  and  is  aiiswor- 
aMe  for  any  damage  resulting  from  Ids  own 
negligence  or  default.  Vet  it  remains  the 
master's  duty  and  power,  in  case  of  obvious 
and  certain  disability,  or  dangerous  ignorance 
or  error,  to  disobey  the  pilot  and  disposHORB 
him  of  his  authority.  See  also  A  \  I;I;AUI.,  K«i 
•IOMKY,  SAI.VAUK,  SKAMAN,  and  STOITAOK  IN 
TUANSI  1 1 

SHU'  WORN,  or  Fife  Worm,  the  popular  name 
of  the  hividve  shells  of  the  family  i>/it>l<n/i,l<r 
and  genus  l,n,l,i  (I. inn.),  so  called  from  their 
perforating  ship  and  other  I  ini!><  r.  The  .shell 
is  thick,  short,  globular,  ci|iial-valved,  wi<h 
ly  open  in  front  nnd  behind,  lodp  d  at  Iho 
larger  or  inner  extremity  of  a  cylindrical  lube, 
straight  or  sinuous,  partly  or  entirely  lim-d 
\\ith  white  calcareoii.  mailer,  and  often  open 
at  both  ends.  'I  he  \  al\  es  an-  reduced  to  UN  i  .- 
appendages  of  the  foot  ;  in  tin-  centre  of  their 
circular  opening  this  organ  is  protruded,  llm 
whole  forming  a  very  ell'ectual  boring  appara 
Ins,  which  is  indicate. I  by  their  peculiar  -.bape, 
strength,  arrangement  of  the  valvular  rii 
and  r1  "f  the  adductor  muscle.  I  In- 

animal  is  elongated  and  worm  like,  tin-  length 


SHIP  WORM 

being  due  chiefly  to  the  prolongation  back- 
\v:inl  oftoach  respiratory  tube,  the  si|tlionsof 
which  uro  provided  with  two  calcareous  tri- 
angular flattened  platen,  the  palette*,  which  arc- 
always  turned  to  the  external  aperture.  Tlio 
lust  known  species  is  the  teredo  mim/ix 
(Linn.),  whoso  calcareous  tubes  are  from  1  to 
2^  ft.  long.  They  attack  wood  immersed  in 
Ml  water,  boring  in  the  direction  of  the  grain, 
and  turning  out  only  for  a  hard  knot,  or  a 
companion  whose  presence  they  detect  by  the 
sense  of  hearing;  the  dust  of  tho  rasped  wood 
is  introduced  by  tho  foot  into  the  cavity  of  the 
mantlo  and  swallowed,  and  is  usually  found 
filling  tho  long  intestine.  They  are  ovovivip- 
arotifl,  and  tho  young  after  leaving  tho  body 
of  tho  mother  have  a  smooth  bivalve  shell, 
swim  by  means  of  long  vibratilo  cilia,  and 
creep  by  the  tongue-shaped  foot ;  they  soon 
attach  themselves  to  wood  and  begin  to  bore, 
secreting  the  calcareous  tube  as  they  go  along ; 
they  grow  in  the  wood  and  enter  it  when 
young,  as  is  evident  from  the  external  aper- 
ture being  too  small  to  admit  tho  body  of  tho 
enclosed  adult.  From  the  tropical  seas  they 
have  been  introduced  into  the  temperate  waters 
of  Europe  and  America,  and  in  many  places 
have  been  exceedingly  destructive.  Tho  best 
protection  has  been  found  to  bo  metal  sheath- 
ing and  broad-headed  nails;  and  in  some  cases 
ky.'inizing  or  otherwise  poisoning  the  timber 
has  prevented  their  attacks.  Other  species 
have  been  found  whose  tubes  extend  from  3 
to  0  ft.,  with  walls  ^  to  ^  in.  thick,  and  some- 


SIIIRAZ 


871 


perforates  floating  wood.  Tho  perforations 
are  general! y  for  a  few  feet  below  low-wnt.-r 
mark,  and  in  preference  in  tho  direction  of  tin- 
grain  between  tho  annual  rings;  and  their 


Ship  Worm  (Teredo  navalls). 

times  diverging  into  two  ;  one  burrows  in  tho 
husks  of  cocoanuts  and  other  woody  tropical 
fruits  floating  on  the  ocean,  making  very  crook- 
ed channels.  For  details  see  the  abstract  of 
a  paper  read  before  the  national  institute  at 
Washington,  D.  0.,  by  James  Jarvis,  giving 
tho  results  of  his  experiments  since  184!)  on 
various  kinds  of  timber,  in  the  "Annual  of 
Scientific  Discovery"  for  1857,  p.  359.— An- 
other pile  or  timber  worm  is  a  minute  sessile- 
eyed  crustacean,  of  tho  order  isopoda,  and 
genus  fiiiiiiorfu  (I, each).  The  best  known  spe- 
cies is  ihc  /,.  f<-r,-t>r>in*  (Leach),  j  to  i  in.  long, 
rounded  at  each  end,  with  sides  parallel ;  there 
are  14  segments,  tho  h'st  two  much  the  largest, 
tho  seven  next  to  the  head  each  hearing  a  pair 
of  short  le^s  ;  there  are  two  pairs  of  jaws  and 
a  pair  of  strong  mandibles,  which  are  the 
boring  organs  ;  the  general  color  is  olive  gray. 
It  can  swim  as  well  as  creep.  All  WOOO6B 
structures  immersed  in  salt  water  are  attacked 
by  it,  especially  sen  bulwarks,  and  the  piles  and 
piers, >f  bridges,  docks,  uiul  canals;  it  rarely 


Wood  Perforated  by  Ship  Worm. 

numbers  are  so  great  that  by  tho  time  one  has 
perforated  an  inch  the  timber  is  riddled.  They 
are  common  on  both  sides  of  tho  Atlantic,  and 
are  everywhere  destructive.  They  may  bo 
guarded  against  in  tho  same  manner  as  the 
teredo.  These  creatures  have  their  uses  in 
disintegrating  sunken  vessels  and  substances 
which  would  obstruct  navigable  channels. 

Mill!  t/,  a  city  of  Persia,  capital  of  Farsistnn, 
in  a  beautiful  and  well  cultivated  plain,  about 
4,750  ft.  above  tho  sea,  217  in.  8.  by  E.  of 
Ispahan,  and  115  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Bushiro;  pop. 
about  40,000.  There  arc  few  other  Persian 
cities  so  substantial  in  construction,  or  so  at- 
tractive in  appearance  and  surroundings.  The 
walls  are  nearly  4  m. 
in  circumference,  and 
the  buildings  within  are 
constructed  principally 
of  stone  and  a  mixture 
of  sun-dried  and  kiln- 
dried  bricks.  Among 
the  finest  are  the  cita- 
del, the  mosques  sur- 
mounted with  domes  of  green  ai  d  blue,  the 
bazaars,  and  tho  largest  of  tho  ten  college*. 
Considerable  portions  of  Shiru  are  ruined 
and  dilapidated.  The  adjoining  plain  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile,  abounding  in  fruits  and  flow- 
en,  and  the  rose  gardens  of  tho  suburbs  are 
celebrated  throughout  the  world.  The  posi- 
tion of  Shiraz  on  the  trade  route  between  U 
pahan  and  tho  Persian  gulf  makes  it  a  place 
of  considerable  commercial  importance;  mid 
it  is  a  station  of  tho  Indo-European  telegraph. 
In  addition  to  rose  water,  wine  of  a  very  fair 
quality  resembling  Madeira,  and  tobacco  of 
remarkable  fragrance,  are  the  chief  industrial 
products  of  vegetable  origin,  (ilass  bottles 
and  sword  cutlery  are  manufactured, 
mint,  and  its  lapidaries  are  renowned  for  tl 

HkiH Shiraz  was  founded  in  the  7th  century, 

Captured  by  Tamerlane  in  I:ts7.  and  made  the 
(,.,pital  of  Persia  by  Kerim  Khan  in  1760,  WfiO 
greatly   enriched   and    beautified   the   city, 
was   visited    by   severe    earthquakes    in       -I'-, 
IS"  I,  and  1858,  tho  last  one  being  very  dcstruc 


872 


SHIRE 


SHODDY 


tive.  It  is  famous  among  Persians  as  the  birth- 
place and  residence  of  the  poets  Saadi  and 
Haffz,  both  of  whose  tombs  are  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. There  are  numerous  antiquities  in 
the  vicinity,  including  the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 

SHIRE.     See  COUNTY. 

SHIRK,  a  river  of  S.  E.  Africa,  which  flows 
out  of  the  S.  extremity  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and 
after  a  southerly  course  of  about  800  m.  falls 
into  the  Zambesi,  90  in.  above  its  mouth.  A 
series  of  rapids,  about  40  m.  long,  terminating 
100  m.  from  the  Zambesi,  separates  the  up- 
per from  the  lower  valley  of  the  Shire,  by  a 
descent  of  1,200  ft.  Except  in  these  cataracts 
the  river  is  navigable  for  boats,  being  nearly 
150  yards  wide  and  from  12  to  15  ft.  deep  at 
its  point  of  exit  from  the  lake,  while  it  enters 
the  Zambesi  with  a  width  of  200  yards.  Its 
upper  course  is  broad  and  deep,  and  one  day's 
march  S.  of  Nyassa  it  expands  into  a  lake  10 
m.  long  and  5  m.  wide,  known  as  Pamalombe. 
Below  the  rapids  the  river  flows  over  great 
shallows,  and  through  marshes  where  the 
aquatic  vegetation  is  so  abundant  as  some- 
times to  impede  navigation.  The  Shirr  was 
first  explored  in  1859  by  Livingstone. 

SHIRLEY,  Janes,  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  London  about  1594,  died  Oct.  29,  1666. 
He  graduated  at  Catharine  hall,  Cambridge, 
took  orders,  and  was  appointed  to  a  living  in 
Hertfordshire,  which  he  soon  resigned,  having 
become  a  Roman  Catholic.  After  teaching  a 
few  years  in  the  grammar  school  of  St.  Albans, 
he  settled  about  1625  in  London  as  a  writer 
for  the  stage.  He  had  produced  83  plays  when 
parliament  in  1642  prohibited  theatrical  per- 
formances. He  fought  in  the  civil  wars  under 
the  earl  of  Newcastle,  and  afterward  resumed 
teaching.  The  great  fire  of  London  drove  him 
and  his  wife  into  the  suburbs,  where  from  ex- 
posure they  died  on  the  same  day  and  were 
buried  in  the  same  grave.  He  published  five 
grammatical  treatises,  assisted  in  the  composi- 
tion of  several  plays  published  by  his  patron 
Newcastle,  and  wrote  the  notes  for  Ogilby's 
translations  of  Virgil  and  Homer.  His  "  Trai- 
tor," partly  recast  by  Sheil,  was  produced  at 
Oovent  Garden  theatre  in  1819,  under  the  title 
of  "  Evadne,  or  the  Statue."  The  only  col- 
lection of  his  works  is  that  of  Gifford  and 
Dyce  (6  vols.  8vo,  London,  1833). 

SHIRWA,  a  lake  in  S.  E.  Africa,  30  m.  S.  by 
E.  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and  separated  from  the  val- 
ley of  the  Shir6  river  to  the  west  by  a  moun- 
tain ridge  having  an  estimated  elevation  of 
7,000  ft.  It  is  60  m.  long  from  N.  to  S.,  20  m. 
wide,  and  about  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea  level, 
with  brackish  waters  and  no  known  outlet.  It 
was  discovered  by  Livingstone,  April  18, 1859. 

SHOA,  one  of  the  great  political  divisions  of 
Abyssinia,  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  that  conn- 
try,  sometimes  under  the  same  sovereignty  and 
at  others  an  independent  state,  situated  be- 
tween lat.  8°  30'  and  11°  N.,  and  Ion.  88°  and 
40°  30'  E.  Its  boundaries  are  ill  defined,  but 
it  is  bordered  N.  W.  by  Amhara,  N.  E.  by 


Adal,  E.  by  the  Galla  desert  country,  S.  by 
the  river  Hawash,  and  terminates  on  the  W. 
in  the  valley  of  the  Abai;  pop.  estimated  at 
2,500,000,  of  whom  1,000,000  are  Coptic  Chris- 
tians and  the  remainder  Mohammedans  and 
pagans.  Shoa  consists  of  a  series  of  plateaus, 
varying  from  3,000  to  10,000  ft.  in  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  A  mountain  range 
traverses  the  country  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E., 
forming  an  eastern  watershed  down  which 
flow  the  aifluents  of  the  Hawash,  while  the 
western  slope  gives  rise  to  the  Jamma,  one  of 
the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Abai.  The 
valley  of  this  river  occupies  the  central  and 
western  part  of  Shoa,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
8,000  ft.  A  broad  plain  lies  between  the 
mountains  and  the  Hawash  river  on  the  south, 
and  from  the  highlands  the  descent  is  rapid 
through  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  called 
Efat,  to  the  desert.  Shoa  is  watered  by  nu- 
merous streams;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  large 
crops  of  grain  are  raised.  The  higher  lands 
are  used  chiefly  for  pasturage.  The  valleys 
are  very  beautiful  and  well  wooded,  but  in 
summer  they  are  hot  and  unhealthy,  and  par- 
ticularly subject  to  fever.  They  produce  cof- 
fee, cotton,  drugs,  and  different  sorts  of  dye 
woods.  Ancient  volcanic  rocks  predominate 
in  the  geology  of  Shoa.  Iron  and  sulphur  are 
the  chief  mineral  products,  and  coal  is  suid  to 
exist.  It  has  but  little  external  trade,  and 
its  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  principal- 
ly through  ports  on  the  gulf  of  Aden.  There 
is  a  caravan  route  from  Ankobar  to  Tajurrah, 
on  the  gulf  of  that  name,  but  the  difficulty  of 
transporting  goods  across  the  desert  is  very 
great.  Gold  dust,  spices,  gums,  ostrich  feath- 
ers, and  ivory  are  the  chief  exports,  but  some 
of  these  articles  merely  pass  through  the  coun- 
try from  the  surrounding  territories.  Cotton 
cloth  is  manufactured,  and  the  natives  work  in 
iron.  Ankobar,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  highlands,  near  the  mountain  range 
already  mentioned,  in  lat.  9°  35'  N.,  Ion.  39° 
54'  E.,  8,198  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  enjoys  a 
climate  of  perpetual  spring;  pop.  about  10,- 
000. — Shoa  has  frequently  been  a  province  of 
the  Abyssinian  monarchy,  but  is  now  an  in- 
dependent kingdom.  The  British  government 
established  friendly  relations  with  the  country 
in  1841,  through  a  diplomatic  mission  under 
Major  Harris.  The  government  is  an  absolute 
despotism,  and  the  name  of  the  present  king 
(1875)  is  Menelek. 

SHODDY,  a  rag  wool  obtained  from  old  blank- 
ets, stockings,  carpets,  flannels,  &c.,  and  now 
largely  employed  together  with  the  similar  ar- 
ticle called  mungo,  obtained  from  old  woollen 
garments  and  tailors'  clippings,  in  mixing  with 
new  wool  for  manufacturing  blankets,  druggets, 
carpets,  table  covers,  pilot  cloths,  petershams, 
&c.  In  some  of  these  rag  wool  constitutes 
nine  tenths  of  the  whole  material,  and  in  oth- 
ers not  more  than  one  tenth.  Its  use  in  some 
degree  is  the  cause  of  the  apparent  cheapening 
of  many  kinds  of  woollen  goods  within  a  few 


SHOE 


873 


years.  In  some  parts  of  England  the  business 
of  working  up  woollen  rags  is  very  extensive. 
About  one  third  of  the  whole  amount  is  pro- 
duced at  Batley,  Yorkshire,  and  the  remainder 
in  neighboring  towns.  The  rags  pass  through 
a  number  of  hands  in  the  course  of  preparation 
for  the  powerful  machines  employed  in  tearing 
them  to  fibres.  In  the  United  States  shoddy 
has  become  a  manufacture  of  considerable  im- 
portance, and  the  article  is  also  imported  from 
England.  The  manufacture  in  Germany  is  also 
extensive.  Its  presence  is  detected  in  wearing 
garments  by  the  collection  of  rolls  of  short 
wool  between  the  cloth  and  the  lining.  Un- 
less the  admixture  is  excessive,  the  wear  of  the 
cloth  is  not  materially  affected. 

SHOE,  a  covering  for  the  foot,  commonly 
made  of  leather.  If  furnished  with  a  top  for 
enclosing  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  it  is  called 


FIG.  1.— Sandals.  I.  Foot  of  Statue  of  Elpis,  in  the  Vati- 
ican.  2.  Female  Foot  with  simple  Sandal.  3.  Foot  of 
Apollo  Belvedere. 

a  boot.  The  oldest  form  is  that  of  the  san- 
dal, a  flat  sole  to  be  worn  under  the  foot,  and 
secured  to  it  by  thongs  in  various  ways,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  made  sandals  of  leather,  and 
others  for  the  priests  of  palm  leaves  and  papy- 
rus. Specimens  from  their  tombs  are  pre- 
served in  the  British  museum,  formed  of  strips 
of  palm  leaf  nicely  fitted  together  and  fur- 
nished with  bands  of  the  stem  of  the  papyrus. 
The  Hebrews  used  similar  protections  for  the 
feet,  sometimes  formed  of  linen  and  of  wood, 
while  those  for  soldiers  were  of  brass  or  iron. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Komans  the 
use  of  shoes  was  not  general.  Spartan  youths 
were  trained  to  go  barefoot,  and  the  heroes  of 


Fio.  2.— Shoes.  1.  From  an  Antique  Statue.  2.  Foot  of 
the  Statue  of  Hermes  in  the  Vatican.  8.  From  a  Statue 
of  Demosthenes  in  the  Vatican. 

Homer  are  usually  described  as  without  shoes 
when  armed  for  battle.  Greek  women,  how- 
ever, wore  shoes,  and  their  use  finally  became 
universal.  There  was  great  diversity  in  their 
fashion,  and  the  several  sorts  were  named  from 
the  person  who  introduced  them  or  from  the 
place  whence  they  came ;  as  the  "  shoes  of  Al- 
cibiades,"  "Persian,"  "Cretan,"  "Athenian 
shoes,"  &c.  The  Spartans  wore  red  shoes,  and 
the  same  were  put  on  by  the  chief  magistrates 
of  Rome  on  ceremonial  occasions.  The  calce- 


ut  was  like  modern  shoes  in  form,  covering  the 
whole  foot,  and  tied  with  latchets  or  strings. 
Those  of  senators  and  patricians  were  high 
like  buskins,  ornamented 
with  an  ivory  crescent,  and 
called  calcei  lunati.  Some 
were  made  with  tops,  and 
of  all  lengths,  even  to  cov- 
ering the  whole  leg;  these 
were  called  calceamenta  and 
cothurni.  The  tops  were 
often  of  the  skins  of  wild 
animals,  lacing  up  in  front, 
and  ornamented  at  the  up- 
per extremity  with  the  paws 
and  heads  arranged  in  a  flap 
that  turned  over.  The  skin 
was  dyed  purple  or  some 
other  bright  color,  and  the 
shoes  were  variously  orna- 
mented with  imitations  of 
jewels,  and  sometimes  with 
cameos.  It  was  common  to 
make  them  open  at  the  toe, 
so  that  this  part  of  the  foot 
was  left  exposed. — Wooden  shoes  were  in 
common  use  throughout  Europe  in  the  9th 
and  10th  centuries,  and  were  worn  even  by 
the  first  princes ;  but  sometimes  highly  orna- 
mented leather  sandals  or  shoes  were  worn. 
Great  attention  was  directed  in  the  middle 
ages  to  this  portion  of  the  dress,  as  well  as  to 


FIG.  8.— Shoe  and 
Boot.  1.  Shoe, 
from  an  Antique 
Statue.  2.  Hunt- 
ing Boot,  from  • 
Statue  of  Diana. 


FIG.  4.— Shoe  of  Charlemagne,  Abbey  of  St.  Dento. 


the  covering  for  the  head  (see  HAT),  and  equal 
extravagances  were  adopted  in  both  articles. 
The  shoes  were  worn  of  different  colors,  and 
the  stockings  also  were  unlike  each  other,  and 
of  different  colors  from  either  of  the  shoes.  In 
the  reign  of  William  Rufus  a  famous  beau,  Rob- 
ert, surnamed  the  Horned,  introduced  shoes 


FIG   5—1.  From  a  Portrait  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  III. 
2.  Italian  Shoe  of  the  14th  Century. 

with  long-pointed  toes  twisted  like  a  ram's 
horn.  Though  strongly  inveighed  against,  the 
style  became  fashionable,  and  in  the  reign  oi 


874 


SUOE 


Richard  II.  the  points  had  increased  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  reached  the  knee,  to  which 
th£jr  were  secured  by  chains  of  silver  or  gold. 
The  upper  parts  were  cut  to  imitate  the  win- 
dows of  a  church,  and  the  whole  was  made  ex- 
travagantly conspicuous.  For  three  centuries 
the  clergy,  popes,  and  public  officers  sought 
in  vain  by  declamations,  bulls,  and  orders  to 
break  up  the  fashion.  By  act  of  parliament  in 
1463  shoemakers  were  prohibited  from  making 
for  the  "unprivileged  classes"  any  shoes  with 
points  more  than  2  in.  long;  and  afterward 
excommunication  was  denounced  against  any 
person  wearing  such.  The  extravagant  taste 
was  then  directed  to  the  width  of  the  toe,  till 
at  last  Queen  Mary  was  impelled  to  restrict  this 
by  proclamation  to  6  in.  In  the  16th  century 
shoes  were  made  of  elegant  buff-colored  Span- 
ish leather,  with  tops  of  enormous  dimensions 
spreading  over  so  widely  as  to  obstruct  the 
movement  of  the  feet.  The  Puritans  wore 
such  boot  tops,  and  after  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  the  French  custom  was  introduced 
of  ornamenting  the  upper  edge  with  lace.  The 
present  simple  form  of-  shoe  was  adopted  in  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter portion  of  the  same  the  shoe  buckle  began 
to  be  used.  During  the  succeeding  century 
this  continued  to  be  very  conspicuous,  and  so 
many  were  dependent  upon  its  manufacture  in 
England  that,  when  it  began  to  be  unfashion- 
able in  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, the  prince  of  Walels  sought  to  keep  up 
the  custom  for  the  sake  of  the  buckle  makers. 
Shoes  worn  by  ladies  in  the  last  century  were 
sometimes  very  elaborate  and  costly,  made  of 
bright-colored  silk,  ornamented  with  gold  or 
silver  stars  and  binding  of  different  colored 
silks  from  tho  shoe  itself.  Of  all  the  diversi- 
ties of  shoes  worn  by  various  nations,  none  are 
so  strange  and  unnatural  as  tho  slippers  of  the 
Chinese  ladies  of  rank.  From  childhood  the 
growth  of  their  feet  is  checked  by  bandages  at 
the  cost  of  extreme  suffering.  They  are  thus 
enabled  to  wear  shoes  only  3  or  4  in.  long, 
which  are  most  unquestionable  evidences  of 
their  high  rank.  The  shoes  are  of  silk  beau- 
tifully embroidered  with  designs  in  gold  and 
silver  thread  and  colored  silks.  In  European 
countries  wooden  shoes  (Fr.  saboti)  are  in 
very  general  use  among  the  peasantry;  they 
are  cheap  and  durable,  and,  though  clumsy,  are 
said  to  be  comfortable.  In  this  country  an 
attempt  to  manufacture  wooden  shoes  was 
made  on  a  large  scale  in  1863,  but  the  market 
was  found  to  be  limited,  and  very  few  are 
now  made. — In  the  manufacture  of  shoes  the 
highest  perfection  has  been  attained  in  the 
United  States,  due  chiefly  to  the  ingenuity  and 
enterprise  of  tho  mechanics  of  Massachusetts. 
In  Lynn  the  making  of  women's  shoes  had 
been  a  prominent  industry  almost  from  its 
first  settlement.  The  business  was  conducted 
by  the  families  of  the  manufacturers,  and  with 
no  especial  skill  until  the  settlement  there  in 
1750  of  a  Welsh  shoemaker  named  John  Adam 


Dagyr.  By  his  superior  workmanship  he  ac- 
quired great  fame  in  the  trade,  and  materially 
improved  the  style  of  the  work  in  that  region. 
During  the  revolutionary  war  Massachusetts 
supplied  great  quantities  of  shoes  for  the  army ; 
but  soon  after  its  close  the  business  was  seri- 
ously checked  by  large  importations.  In  Lynn 
however  it  revived,  so  that  in  1788  its  exports 
of  women's  shoes  were  100,000  pairs.  In  1795 
200  master  workmen  were  employed  there, 
besides  600  journeymen  and  apprentices ;  and 
about  300,000  pairs  of  shoes  were  sent  away, 
chiefly  to  southern  markets.  From  the  cities 
some  were  exported  to  Europe,  and  also  direct 
from  Lynn.  The  business  continued  stead- 
ily to  increase,  until  it  amounted  in  1874  to 
a  production  estimated  at  about  11,000,000 
pairs,  of  the  total  value  of  $14,000,000,  and 
giving  employment  in  the  busy  seasons  to  more 
than  10,000  operatives.  The  work  is  not  con- 
tinuous, there  being  about  three  months  of 
the  year  when  most  of  the  operatives  are  idle 
or  engaged  in  other  pursuits.  The  shoes  pro- 
duced in  Lynn  are  nearly  all  for  women,  miss- 
es, and  children,  the  uppers  of  which  are  large- 
ly of  lasting  or  serge,  though  a  considerable 
quantity  are  of  morocco,  kid,  and  grain  leather. 
Men's  shoes  are  also  made  to  some  extent  of 
calf  and  serge.  Lynn  work  is  distinctively 
known  in  the  trade  as  embracing  all  the  light- 
er grades  to  be  found  in  the  ordinary  retail 
shoe  stores,  and  it  is  made  to  sell  at  tho  low- 
est prices  for  which  a  light  and  cheap  shoe 
can  be  produced.  It  is  all  "  sewed  "  work, 
and  for  the  greater  part  the  bottoms  are  put 
on  by  the  McKay  machine,  which  sews  through 
the  outsole,  insole,  and  upper.  All  those  not 
so  bottomed  are  known  as  "  turns,"  or  shoes 
in  the  making  of  which  the  sole  is  attached 
with  the  shoe  wrong  side  out,  after  which 
it  is  turned  and  lasted  in  finishing.  A  large 
portion  of  these  shoes  are  made  by  hand,  the 
work  being  done  out  of  the  shops  in  fami- 
lies in  Lynn  and  vicinity ;  but  there  are  two 
well  known  machines,  the  Goodyear  and  the 
McKay,  for  sewing  bottoms  on  "  turn"  shoes. 
Next  in  importance  to  Lynn,  among  the  shoe 
manufacturing  towns  of  Massachusetts,  is  Ha- 
verhill,  where  a  generally  better  quality  of 
shoes  is  made,  including  both  sewed  and  pegged 
work  of  every  kind.  Next  come  Marblehead, 
Worcester,  Marlboro,  Milford,  the  Abingtons, 
Spencer,  the  Bridgewaters,  Brockton,  the  Wey- 
mouths,  North  and  South  Braintree,  Brook- 
field,  Beverly,  Medway,  Randolph,  Stoughton, 
Danvers,  Quincy,  and  several  other  places.  In 
Maine  and  New  Hampshire  there  is  also  an 
important  shoe  manufacturing  industry,  which 
is  principally  carried  on  at  Portland,  Au- 
burn, and  Lewiston,  Me.,  and  at  Dover  and 
Farmington,  N.  II.  The  business  of  buying 
the  materials  which  enter  into  these  goods 
and  selling  the  productions  is  nearly  all  done 
in  Boston,  whose  merchants  are  the  principal 
owners  of  all  the  largest  factories.  There 
are  no  returns  by  which  the  exact  production 


SHOE 


875 


can  be  definitely  ascertained ;  but  about  three 
fourths  of  the  goods  made  in  the  shoe  towns 
of  eastern  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  some  from 
Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  are  shipped  from 
Boston,  and  these  shipments  have  been  as  fol- 
lows for  10  years :  1865,720,000  cases;  1866, 
820,000  ;    1867,    920,000  ;    1868,    1,010,000 ; 
1869,  1,340,000;  1870, 1,260,000;  1871,  1,310,- 
000;  1872,1,450,000;  1873,  1,340,000;  1874, 
1,375,000.      A  case  of  women's  or  children's 
shoes  regularly  contains  60  pairs,  and  of  men's 
boots  12  pairs  are  packed  to  a  case;  it  is  there- 
fore probably  below  rather  than  above  the 
actual  amount  to  estimate  the  total  shipments 
from  Boston  to  places  outside  of  New  Eng- 
land for  the  year  1874  at  55,000,000  pairs. 
There  is  a  very  wide  difference  in  the  prices, 
as  the  goods  comprise  everything  from  a  car- 
pet slipper  to  a  farmer's  brogan,  from  a  gentle- 
man's tine  calfskin  boot  to  a  miner's  iron-clad 
shoe.     But  on  an  average  they  sell  for  about 
$45   a  case,  making  a  total  for  the  reported 
shipments  for  1874  from  Boston  of  $61,875,- 
000.     By  a  careful  estimate,  the  value  of  the 
boots  and  shoes  made  in  Massachusetts  and  the 
shoe  towns  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  is 
placed   at  $100,000,000  per   annum.      While 
Boston  is  the  leading  wholesale  shoe  market 
of  the  United  States,  New  York  is  entitled  to 
the  next  place  in  importance  as  the  distribu- 
ting point  for  a  great  portion  of  the  country, 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  what  are  known  as 
fine  goods.     Its  work  is  the  very  best  made  in 
the  country,  and  surpasses  any  factory-made 
boots  and  shoes  in  the  world.     In  these  goods 
only  the  best  grades  of  French  and  German 
calf  and  kid  skins,  and  the  best  morocco  of 
domestic  manufacture,  with  oak-tanned   sole 
leather,  are  used.     The  work  for  ladies,  misses, 
and  children  is  nearly  all  machine-sewed,  but 
of  the  best  men's  work  a  large  proportion  is 
made  by  hand.     The  production  in  the  city  of 
New  York  in  1874  amounted  to  about  3,000,- 
000  pairs,  of  an  estimated  value  of  $10,000,- 
000.     Next  to  New  York  may  be  classed  Phila- 
delphia, after  which  come  Baltimore,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and  many  smaller  places 
throughout  the  Union.     The  imports  of  boots 
and  shoes  into  the  United  States  are  insignifi- 
cant,  those  entered  at  New  York  for  1874 
having  an  aggregate  value  of  only  $41,270. 
The  exports  for  the  same  year  from  New  York 
were  $202,593,   almost  entirely  to  the  West 
Indies  and  Central  America.     The  total  ex- 
ports from  the  United  States  for  1874  were 
302,218  pairs,  valued  at  $448,138;   for  1873, 
215,308   pairs,  valued  at  $351,318.— Except- 
ing possibly  England,  no  other  country  in  the 
world  is  so  generally  supplied  with  factory- 
made  shoes  as  the  United  States.    Throughout 
Europe  the  cobbler  and  the  journeyman  shoe- 
maker still  do  a  large  part  of  the  business.    In 
England  the  factory  system,  with  very  _  much 
the  same  machinery  and  a  similar  division  ol 
labor  as  in  the  United  States,  supplies  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  shoes  called  for  by  the 


British  home  trade,  and  its  vast  demand  for 
export  to  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  The  man- 
ufacture of  boots  and  shoes  in  England  is  prin- 
cipally carried  on  at  Leeds  and  in  its  vicinity, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  at 
Northampton,  as  well  as  in  the  city  of  London. 
— It  would  require  a  volume  to  give  a  full  list 
of  all  the  boot  and  shoe  machinery  made,  with 
even  brief  mention  of  the  uses  of  the  different 
kinds.  The  pegging  machine,  one  of  the  most 
important,  is  principally  due  to  Alphcus  0. 
Gallahue,  to  whom  were  granted  six  different 
patents,  the  first  in  1851.  Elmer  Townsend 
and  B.  F.  Sturtevant,  of  Boston,  largely  aided 
in  perfecting  the  invention  of  Gallahue;  but  it 
was  not  until  about  1858-'60  that  it  came  to  be 
generally  introduced.  There  were  1,700  peg- 
ging machines  in  operation  in  the  United  States 
in  1873.  A  machine  is  capable  of  pegging  two 
pairs  of  women's  shoes  in  a  minute,  and  will 
put  in  one,  two,  or  three  rows  of  pegs  at  once, 
as  may  be  required.  The  pegs  are  cut,  by  the 
working  of  the  machine,  from  ribbon-like  strips 
of  white  birch,  which  are  supplied  in  rolls  of 
from  75  to  150  ft.  in  length.  About  1,000  cords 
of  wood  are  required  yearly  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  pegs  in  this  country,  but  large  quanti- 
ties are  regularly  exported.  Of  equal  impor- 
tance with  the  pegging  machine  is  the  McKay 
sole-sewing  machine,  known  in  England  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  as  the  "Blake" 
machine.  It  was  invented  about  1858  by  Ly- 
man  E.  Blake,  but  was  perfected  and  intro- 
duced into  use  by  Gordon  McKay.  By  this 
machine  the  soles  can  be  sewed  on  nearly  1< 
pairs  of  women's  shoes  in  an  hour,  and  800 
pairs  in  a  day  of  ten  hours  is  fair  work  for  an 
experienced  operator.  A  royalty  payable  in 
stamps  is  required  on  all  goods  made  on  this 
machine,  as  follows:  on  slippers  and  misses' 
and  youths'  shoes,  1  ct,  a  pair;  women's  and 
boys'  shoes,  2  cts. ;  men's  boots,  3  cts. 
income  of  the  McKay  machine  association  from 
the  sale  of  stamps  has  been  as  follows:  1 
$38746  51;  1864,  $99,157  63;  1865,  $150,- 
776  15-  1866,  $181,404  97;  1867,  $210,225  36; 
1868,  $286,011  93;  1869,  $356,026  06;  1870, 
$400011  08;  1871,  $486,083  09;  1872,  $564,- 
501  22  ;  1873,  $529,973  81.  This  machine  is 
in  such  general  use  that  a  statement  of  the 
number  of  machines  employed  in  different  I 
calities  will  give  a  very  fair  general  idea  of 
the  distribution  of  the  manufacture.  In  1874 
there  were  1,200  of  them  in  use  in  the  Unit* 
States,  over  400  in  England,  and  about 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Of  those  in  the 
United  States,  180  were  employed  in  Lynn,  « 
in  Haverhill,  300  in  the  state  of  Massachnsetti 
outside  of  these  two  places,  180  in  the  other 
New  England  states,  100  in  ^ew  1  ork,  90  in 
Philadelphia,  150  in  the  western  states,  and 
in  the  southern.  There  are  two  other  k  ml 
of  sole-sewing  machines,  viz.:  the  Goodyear 
welt  machine,  which  makes  a  shoe  in  almost 
perfect  imitation  of  hand  work,  and  the  Good; 
year  and  McKay  machines  for  making 


876 


SHOE 


For  stitching  the  uppers  of  shoes  several  ma- 
chines are  in  use,  chief  among  which,  both  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe,  are  the  Elias  Howe 
and  the  Wheeler  and  Wilson.  Next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  pegging  and  sewing  machines 
should  be  ranked  cable-screw  wire  and  wire- 
tacking  machines,  which  have  come  into  ex- 
tensive use  within  a  few  years.  After  these 
come  machines  for  setting  and  burnishing  the 
edges  of  the  soles,  for  making  and  trimming 
heels,  for  forming  and  beating  out  the  sole, 
as  well  as  for  cutting  it  out,  for  rolling  and 
splitting  the  leather,  for  sandpapering,  eyelet 
making,  &c.  These  machines,  together  with 
scores  of  less  importance,  are  all  of  Amer- 
ican invention,  and  most  of  them  have  been 
adopted  in  the  shoe  factories  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  attempt  to  introduce  machine- 
ry on  a  large  scale  was  first  made  in  England, 
where  in  1809  a  patent  was  granted  to  David 
Mead  Randolph  for  a  method  of  riveting  soles 
and  heels  to  the  uppers  instead  of  sewing  them 
together.  He  used  a  last  sheathed  on  the  bot- 
tom with  an  iron  or  steel  plate.  On  this  plate 
he  laid  the  inner  sole,  and  brought  the  edges 
of  the  upper  leather  around,  and  temporarily 
fastened  them.  The  outer  sole  was  then  ap- 
plied and  secured  by  small  nails  driven  through 
the  three  thicknesses  and  clinched  against  the 
plate.  The  first  large  manufactory  with  ma- 
chines for  expediting  the  operation  was  estab- 
lished in  Battersea,  by  Brunei,  the  famous  en- 
gineer, and  it  was  carried  on  by  the  invalid 
soldiers  of  Chelsea  hospital  for  supplying  shoes 
to  the  British  army.  The  shoes  were  made 
with  a  welt  riveted  to  the  edge  of  the  outer 
sole  by  small  nails,  and  a  row  of  longer  nails 
outside  of  these  secured  the  whole  to  the  up- 
pers and  inner  sole.  The  bottoms  were  stud- 
ded with  short  nails  of  copper  or  iron  to  im- 
prove the  wear.  Several  ingenious  machines, 
worked  mostly  by  treadles,  or  otherwise  by  a 
winch  turned  by  hand,  were  devised  by  Bru- 
nei for  the  various  processes,  as  cutting  out  the 
leather,  hardening  it  by  rolling,  punching  the 
holes  for  the  nails,  forming  the  nails  from  slips 
of  metal  and  inserting  them  in  the  holes,  both 
by  one  machine,  and  for  the  others  connected 
with  the  securing  of  the  parts  together.  The 
machines  do  not  appear  to  have  continued  in 
use  after  1815,  when  on  the  establishment  of 
peace  the  demand  for  army  shoes  fell  off,  and 
manual  labor  being  more  abundant  the  ma- 
chines were  of  less  importance.  It  was  not  un- 
til English  manufacturers  had  generally  adopt- 
ed the  American  factory  system  and  American 
machinery,  that  any  large  portion  of  the  total 
production  was  supplied  by  the  use  of  machine- 
ry. The  wooden  peg,  now  used  for  fastening 
boots  and  shoes,  which  has  largely  contributed 
to  cheapening  these  articles,  was  invented  about 


1818  by  Joseph  Walker  of  Hopkinton,  Mass. — 
In  a  modern  shoe  factory  the  division  of  labor 
on  the  various  parts  of  a  shoe  is  carried  to  its 
greatest  extent.  The  uppers  and  linings  are 
cut  and  stitched  generally  in  one  department, 
where  the  buttonholes  are  worked  by  hand  or 
by  a  machine  especially  adapted  to  that  pur- 
pose, and  the  buttons  put  on  or  eyelets  punched, 
if  for  a  laced  shoe.  The  uppers  being  ready,  the 
first  process  in  bottoming  is  to  wet  the  soles, 
which,  after  being  partially  dried,  are  passed 
under  a  heavy  roller,  which  takes  the  place  of 
the  shoemaker's  lapstone.  They  are  then,  if 
for  machine  sewing,  after  being  properly  cut 
out  for  the  requisite  sizes,  run  through  a  chan- 
nelling machine,  which  takes  out  a  thread  of 
leather  from  the  outside  edge  in  the  bottom  of 
the  sole,  leaving  a  thin  narrow  flap  all  round, 
so  that  when  the  stitch  is  laid  in  the  place  of 
the  leather  thus  removed  the  bottom  may  be 
hammered  down  so  smoothly  as  hardly  to  indi- 
cate where  its  surface  was  raised  to  allow  of  the 
stitching.  The  upper  is  then  drawn  over  the 
last  and  tacked  on  the  insole,  and  the  outeole 
is  tacked  on.  The  last  is  now  withdrawn,  and 
the  shoe  passed  to  the  sewing  machine,  where 
the  stitch  is  made  through  the  outsole  and 
insole,  and  the  edge  of  the  upper  coming  be- 
tween them,  the  flap  raised  for  the  channel 
being  laid  and  cemented  over  the  seam.  The 
heel  is  now  put  on  in  the  rough,  and  the  edges 
of  both  heel  and  sole  are  trimmed  and  bur- 
nished. In  making  a  "  turn  "  shoe,  the  sole  is 
shaped  before  tacking  to  the  last,  on  which  it 
is  placed  with  the  grain  side  of  the  leather,  or 
that  which  is  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  shoe, 
next  the  last;  the  upper,  with  the  stiffening  in, 
is  then  pulled  over,  wrong  side  out,  then  lasted 
and  sewed,  the  last  being  taken  out  after  sew- 
ing, and  the  surplus  upper  cut  away.  The 
shoe  is  then  turned  right  side  out,  first  at  the 
seat,  then  the  ball  and  toe,  the  last  again  put 
in,  and  the  sole  and  stiffening  hammered  into 
proper  form.  A  "team"  of  shoemakers  con- 
sists of  from  four  to  nine  men,  comprising 
lasters,  heelers,  trimmers,  burnishers,  and  fin- 
ishers, who  complete  the  shoe,  after  the  uppers 
are  made  and  the  soles  cut  out.  But  the  num- 
ber of  men  in  a  team  and  the  way  in  which 
the  work  is  divided  up  are  altogether  depen- 
dent upon  the  kind  of  work.  What  is  called 
custom  work,  or  making  boots  and  shoes  to 
measure  for  individuals,  has  of  late  years  be- 
come comparatively  obsolete.  The  styles  of 
boots  and  shoes  have  not  varied  to  any  great 
extent  for  many  years,  the  extremes  of  fash- 
ion having  been  from  a  long,  narrow  sole  to  a 
short  and  very  broad  one,  with  at  times  what 
is  known  as  a  "box"  toe,  and  from  a  small, 
high  heel,  of  from  1|  to  2  in.,  to  one  of  about 
an  inch,  more  broad  and  comfortable. 


END   OF   VOLUME   FOURTEENTH. 


CONTENTS    OF  VOLUME  XIY. 


PAGE 

Prior,  Matthew 5 

Priscianus 5 

Priscillian 6 

Prism 6 

Prisons  and  Prison  Discipline 6 

Prisrend IT 

Privas 17 

Privateer 17 

Privet 18 

Privy  Council.    See  Council. 

Prize 19 

Prize  Money 22 

Probate 23 

Proboscidians 24 

Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius 24 

Process 24 

Proclus 25 

Proconsul 26 

Procopius 26 

Procopias,  Andrew,  the  Great 26 

Procopius  the  Small 26 

Procrustes 26 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller 26 

Procter,  A  delaide  Anne 27 

Proctor,  Richard  Anthony 27 

Profert    See  Oyer. 

Prohibition 27 

Projectiles.    See  Gunnery. 
Prokesch-Osten,  Anton  von,  Baron.  27 

Prome 28 

Prometheus 28 

Promissory  Note 28 

Prong  Horn.    See  Antelope. 

Propaganda 28 

Propagation  of  the  Faith,  Society  for 

the 28 

Propertius,  Sextus  Aurelius 29 

Prophecy 29 

Prophets,  Books  of  the 80 

Propontis.    See  Marmora,  Sea  of. 

Proserpine 80 

Prosper,  Saint 80 

Prostate  Gland 80 

Protagoras 80 

Protector 81 

Proteids.    See  Proteine. 

Proteine 81 

Protesilaus 81 

Protest 81 

Protestant 82 

Proteus,  a  reptile 82 

Proteus,  in  mythology 82 

Protogenes 33 

Protophytes.    See  Protozoa. 

Protoplasm 88 

Protozoa 86 

Protractor. 86 

Proudhon,  Jean  Baptiste  Victor 87 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph 87 

Prout,  Father.  See  Mahony,  Francis. 

Prout,  Samuel 83 

Prout,  William 88 

Provencal  Language  and  Literature 

Provence 

Proverbs 

Providence  co 

Providence 


PAGE 

Providence,  Sisters  of.    See  Sister- 
hoods. 

Provincetown 45 

Provoost,  Samuel 45 

Provost,  Jean  Baptiste  Francois 46 

Prudentius,  Aurelius  Clemens 46 

Prud'hon,  Pierre  Paul 46 

Prune.    See  Plum. 
Pi 


Prusa.    See  Brusa. 

Prussia 

Prussian  Blue.    See  Potassium. 

Prussia  Proper 

Prussic  Acid.  See  Hydrocyanic  Acid. 

Pruth 

Prynne,  William 

Przemysl 

Psalmanazar,  George 

Psalms,  Book  of 

Psaltery 

Psammenitus,  King 

Psammetichus.    See  Egypt,  vol.  vi., 

p.  463. 

Pskov. . . .  4 

Psyche 

Psychology.    See  Philosophy. 

Ptah 

Ptarmigan 

Pterichthys.    See  Ganoids. 

Pterodactyl 

Pteropods.    See  Mollusca. 
Ptolemais.    See  Acre. 

Ptolemy,  Kings 

Ptolemy  I 

Ptolemy  II 

Ptolemy  III 

Ptolemy,  Claudius 

Puberty 

Publicola,  Publius  Valerius 

Publius  Syrus 

Puccoon 

Puckler-Muskau.  Hermann  Ludwig 

Heinrich  von,  Prince 

Puddling.     See  Iron   Manufacture, 

vol.  ix.,  p.  400. 

Puebla 

Pueblo  co 

Pueblo  Indians 

Puerperal  Convulsions 

Puerperal  Fever 

Puerperal  Mania 

Puerto  Bello.    See  Porto  Bello. 
Puerto  Caballos.    See  Cortes. 

Puerto  Cabello 

Puerto  La  Mar.    See  Cobija. 

Puerto  Plata • 

Puerto  Principe,  Santa  Maria  de — 

Pufendorf,  Samuel 

Puff  Ball.    See  Lycoperdon. 

Puff  Bird 

Puffin.    See  Auk. 

Pugatcheff.  Yemelyan 

Puget,  Pierre 

Puget  Sound 

Pughe,  William  Owen 

Pugilism 

Pugin,  Augustus 


(1C, 


PAOB 

Pupin,  Augnstin  Welby  Northmore    77 
Pugin,  Edwin  Welby  .............    77 

PnM  Abel  de.    See  Abel  de  Pujol 
Pnlaski  co.,  Va  ................  ...    77 

Pulaski  co.,  Ga.  ...................    77 

Pulaski  co.,  Ark  ..................    78 

Pulaski  co.,  Ky  ...................  78 

Pulaski  co.,  Ind  .................    78 

Pulaski  co.,  Ill  ....................     78 

Pulaski  co.,  Mo  ...................  78 

Pulaski,  Casimir,  Count  ...........  78 

Pulci,  Luigl  ......................  79 

Pulkova.    See  Observatory. 
Pulley.    See  Mechanics,  vol.  xi.,  p. 

827. 

Puimonaria.    See  Lungwort. 

Pulque  ...........................  79 

Pulsatilla.    See  Anemone. 

Pulse  ............................  79 

Pulteney,  William  ................  81 

Pultock,  Robert  ..................  81 

Pultowa.    See  Poltava. 

Puma.    See  Couguar. 

Pumice.   See  Obsidian  and  Pumice. 

Pump  ............................  81 

Pumpelly,  Raphael  ................  87 

Pumpkin  .........................  87 

Punch  ...........................  88 

Punctuation  ......................  88 

Pnnjaub  ..........................  89 

Pun'ta  Arenas  ........  .............  98 

Pupa.   See  Butterfly,  and  Chrysalis. 

Purbach.  Georg  ...................  93 

Purcell,  Henry  ....................  98 

Purcell,  John  Baptist  .............  98 

Purchas,  Samuel  ..................  94 

Purgatory  ........................  94 

Purgstall,  Hammer.    See  llammer- 

Purgstall. 

Puritan  ..........................  94 

Purple  ............................  94 

Purple  of  Cassius.     See  C'asaius, 

Purple  of. 

Purpurates  .......................  95 

Pursh,  Frederick  ..................  95 

Purslane  ..........................  9 

Purus  ............................  9« 

Pusey.  Edward  Bouverie  .........  9 

Pushkin,  Alexander  Sergeyevitcb  .  .  9« 

Pustule,  Malignant  ................  97 

Pntlitz,  Gustav  Heinrich  Gans  zu..  9 

Putnam  co.,  N.  T  .................  99 

Putnam  co,  W.  Va  ...............  9 

Putnamco.,0a  ............  .......  9 

Putnam  co..  Fla  .................  9 

Putnam  co.,  Tenn  ................  9 

Putnam  co.,  Ohio  .................  9 

Putnam  co.,  Ind  ..................  H 

Putnam  co..  Ill  ...................  lfl 

Putnam  co..  Mo  ..................  I*1 

Putnam,  Israel  ...................  10 

Putnam.  Mary  Lowell  .............  I" 

Putnam,  Rufus  ..................  101 

Putrefaction.      See   Fermentation, 

vol.  vil.,  p.  144. 
Putty 
Puy.Le 


11 


CONTENTS 


PAG* 

Puy-de-DAme 102 

Pyat,  Felix 102 

Pydaa. 108 

Pygmalion 108 

Pygmy 108 

Pylos 108 

Pym,  John 104 

Pynaker,  Adam 104 

Pyramid 104 

Pyramus  and  Thisbe 107 

Pyrenees 107 

Pyrenees,  Basses.    See  Basses-Py- 
renees. 

Pyrenees,    Hautes.      See    Hautes- 
Pyrcnees. 

Pyrcnees-Orientales 108 

Pyrites 109 

Pyrmont . .  109 

Pyroligneous  Acid 109 

Pyrometer 109 

Pyrophono 116 

Pyrophorus 116 

Pyrotechny 117 

Pyroxene 118 

Pyroxyllc  Spirit 118 

Pyroxyline.     See  Explosives,  voL 

vii..  p.  85. 
Pvrrha.    flee  Deucalion. 

Pyrrho 118 

Pyrrbus.    See  Neoptolcmus. 

Pyrrhus,  King 118 

Pythagoras 119 

Pyrus.    See  Apple,  Ash,  Pear,  and 
Service  Tree. 

Pythea* 120 

Pythla.    See  Delphi. 

Phythian  Games 121 

Phythlas.    See  Damon  and  Pythias. 
Python 121 


Q 


Q 121 

Qua  Bird.    See  Nljrht  Heron. 

Quarkenbos,  George  Payn 121 

Quadl 121 

Quadrant 121 

Quadrature 122 

Quadrurnana 128 

QuH-ator 124 

IJuagg* 125 

juahaug.    See  Clam. 

Juall 125 

Juakers.    See  Friends. 

ntlne 127 

Juarlcs,  Francis 180 

Juarles,  John 181 

Juartz 181 

Quassia 182 

Quatr.  Bras.    See  Waterloo. 
Quatrefages  de  Breau,  Jean  Louis 

Armand  de 182 

Quatremere,  Etienne  Marc 188 

Quatremere    de   Qulncy,   Antolne 

Cbrysostome 188 

Quebec,  a  province 188 

Quebec  co  189 

Quebec. 189 

Quedlinburg 148 

Queen 144 

Queen  Anne  ro 144 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands 144 

Queen  Charlotte  Sound.    See  Van- 
couver Island. 

Queens  co.,  N.  Y 144 

Queen's  co.,  N.  B 144 

Queen's  co.,  N.  8 144 

Queen's  co.,  P.  E.  1 145 

Queen's  co.,  Ireland 145 

Queensland 145 

Quconstown 147 

Quekett,  John  Thomas 147 

Quelpaert  Island 147 

Querard,  Joseph  Marie 147 

Quercitron 147 

Queretaro ; 147 

Querini.  Girolamo 148 

Quesada.     See  Ximenes  de  Que- 

sada. 
Quesnay,  Francois 148 


PAOB 

Quesnel,  Pasquler 148 

Quetelet,  Lambert   Adolphe   Jac- 
ques   148 

Quetzalcoatl 149 

Quevedo    y    Villegas,    Francisco 

Gomez  de 149 

Quiches 149 

Quichuas 150 

Quicksilver.    See  Mercury. 
Quietism.    See  Molinos. 

Quilirnane 150 

Qulllwort 150 

Quiloa.    See  Kilwa. 

Quimper 151 

Quin,  James 151 

Quinary  System.    See  Entomology, 
and  Ornithology. 

Quinault,  Philippe 161 

Quince 161 

Quincy,  Mass 158 

Qulncy,  III ' 168 

Quincy,  Jostah,  Jr 158 

Quincy,  Josiah 154 

Qulncy,  Edmund 155 

Quincy,  Quatremere  de.    See  Qua- 
trctnere  de  Quincy. 

QuIiict,  Edgar 155 

Quinlc  Acid.    See  Kinic  Acid. 
Quinine.    Bee  Cinchona. 

Quinsy 155 

Quintnna.  Manuel  Jose 155 

Qulntillan.  Marcus  Kuhlus 156 

Quintus  Curtius  Rufus.    See  Cur- 

Uus. 
Quintus  Icllius.    See  Gulscbard. 

Quitclaim 156 

Quit  man  CO 156 

Quittnan,  John  Anthony 156 

Quito ..  167 


R 


R 157 

Raabco 158 

Raab 188 

Rabanus  Maurus 158 

Rabat 158 

Babbath  Ainmun.  M-e  Philadelphia 
(Palestine). 

Rabbi 158 

Rabbit 158 

Rabelais,  Francois 160 

Rabies.    See  Hydrophobia. 

Rabun  co 181 

Raccoon 161 

Rachel.    See  Jacob. 

Rachel  (Elisabeth  Rachel  Felix). . . .  1C2 

Racine  CO 162 

Racine 162 

Racine.  Jean 168 

Radcllffe,  Ann 168 

Radellffe.  John...    168 

Radetzkv,  Joseph  Wenzel,  Count..  168 

Radlata 164 

Radish 164 

Radnorshire 165 

Radom 165 

Radowiu.  Joseph  Maria  von 165 

Radriwill.  family  of 166 

Raeburn,  Sir  Henry 166 

Raff.  Joachim ". 166 

Raffaelle.    See  Raphael 

Raffles,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford 1C6 

Rafflesia 166 

Raflnesque,  Const/inline  Smaltz 167 

Rafn,  Carl  Christian 167 

Bagatz 167 

Raglan,  Fitzroy  James  Henry  Som- 
erset. Baron 167 

Ragotzky.    See  Rakoczy. 

Raguet,  "Condy 167 

Ragusa,  Dalmatia 168 

Rairusa,  Sicily 168 

Rahway 168 

Raikes,  Robert 168 

Rail 168 

Railroad 170 

Railroad.  Atmospheric.  See  Pneu- 
matic Despatch,  and  Pneumatic 
Railway. 


PAOB 

Ralmondl,  Marc'  Antonio 185 

Rain 185 

Rainbow 1-7 

Rain  Crow.    See  Cuckoo. 

Rain  Gauge 189 

Rains  co 189 

Rainy  Lake 189 

Raisin 189 

Kajahmundry 190 

Rajpootana 190 

Rakoczy,  family  of 191 

Rakoa.    See  IV.-th. 

Rate,  Sebastien 191 

Raleigh  co 191 

Raleigh 191 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter 198 

Rails  co 198 

Ralph,  James 198 

Ram,    Battering.     See    Battering 

Rain. 
Ram,  Water.    See  Hydraulic  Ram. 

Ramadan 194 

Ramayana.      See  India,  Religions 

and  Religious  Literature  of,  vol. 

lx_  p.  228. 

Ramboulllet 194 

Rambouillet,  Catherine  de  Vlvonne, 

Marchioness  de 194 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe 194 

Rameses,  Kings 194 

Ramie 194 

Ramlllies 195 

Ramlsseram 196 

Ram  Mohun  Roy,  Rajah 194 

Ramortno,  Girolamo 196 

Ramsay,  Allan  (two) 196 

Ramsay,  Andrew  Crumble 196 

Ramsay,  Andrew  Michael 197 

Ramsay,  David 197 

Ramsay,  F.dward  Itannerii.iiii 197 

Ratnsden,  Jesse l'J7 

Ramsey  co.,  Minn 187 

Ramsey  co.,  Dak 197 

Ramsgate 108 

Ramus,  Joseph  Marius 198 

Ramus.  Peter 198 

Ramuslo,  Glambattista 198 

Banco,  Amand  Jean  le  Bouthillier 

de 198 

Randolph  co.,  W.  Va 198 

Randolph  co..  N.  C 199 

Randolph  co.,  Ga. 189 

Randolph  co.,  Ala 199 

Randolph  co.,  Ark 1£9 

Randolph  co.,  Ind 199 

Randolph  co.,  HI 199 

Randolph  co..  Mo 199 

Randolph,  Edmund 199 

Randolph,  John 200 

Randolph,  Peyton 200 

Randolph  Macon  College 200 

Rangoon 201 

Ranke,  Leopold  von 201 

Ranklnco 201 

Rankine,  William  John  Macquorn..  201 

Ransom  co 202 

Rantoul,  Robert,  jr 202 

Ranunculus 202 

Rmnzani,  Camlllo 208 

Ranz  des  Vaches 20? 

Raoul-Rochette.    See  Rochette. 

Rape 208 

Rape,  a  plant 204 

Raphael 205 

Rapidan 207 

Rapides  parish 207 

Rapin,  Paul  de 207 

Rapoport.    i^eo  Rnppaport. 

Rapp.  Georg 208 

Rapp,  Jean 208 

Rappahannock 2C 

Rappahannock  co 2C 

Rappaport,  Solomon  Judah 208 

Raratonga.    See  Cook's  Islands. 

Rarltan 208 

Rascia 208 

Rashi.    See  Solomon  ben  Isaac. 

Rask.  Rasmus  Christian 209 

Raskolniks.    Sec  Russia. 

Raspail,  Francois  Viccent 20 

Raspberry 209 

Basse.    See  Civet. 


CONTENTS 


iii 


PAOB 

Rastadt 211 

Eat 211 

Ratazzi.    Sec  Eattazzi. 

Eatibor 218 

Eatisbon 218 

Eattan.    See  Palm,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  14. 

Eattazzi,  Urbano 214 

Eattazzi,  Marie  Studolmine 214 

Battlesnake 214 

Eauch,  Christian  Daniel 216 

Eauch,  Friedrich  August 216 

Raumer,  Friedrich  Ludwig  Georg 

von 217 

Eaumer,  Karl  Georg  von 217 

Eaumer,  Eudolph  von 217 

Rauscher,  Joseph  Othmar  von 217 

Eavaillac,  Franc  ois 217 

Eavee , . .  218 

Eaven 218 

Bavenna 219 

Bavignan,  Gustavo    Xavier   Dela- 
croix de 220 

Eawdon,    Lord.       See    Hastings, 
Francis. 

Eawle,  William 220 

Eawlins  co 220 

Eawlinson,  Sir  Henry  Creswicke. . .  220 

Bawlinson,  George 220 

Ray 221 

Bay  co 228 

Bay,  Isaac 228 

Bay,  John 228 

Bayer,  Pierre  Francois  Olive 224 

Eaymond;  Henry  Jarvis 224 

Baymond,  Bossfter  Worthington . .  224 
Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse.     See 

Albigenses. 
Baynal,  Guillaume  Thomas  Fran- 

.    cois 224 

Baynouard,  Francois  Juste  Marie.  225 

Eazor  Fish 225 

Eazor  Shell 225 

Eazzi,  Giovanni  Antonio 225 

Be v 226 

Beach,  Angus  Bethune 226 

Bead,  George 226 

Bead,  Nathan 226 

Bead,  Thomas  Buchanan 226 

Beade,  Charles 226 

Eeade,  William  Winwood 227 

Beading,  Pa 227 

Beading,  Eng 228 

Realty 228 

Eeaping  Machines.     See  Mowing 

and  Beaping  Machines. 
E6aumur,  Rene  Antoine  Ferchault 

de 229 

Bebekah.    See  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 
Eebolledo,  Bernardino,  Count  de. . .  229 
Ee'camier,  Jeanne  Francoise  Julie 

Adelaide 229 

Eecife 280 

Eecitative 230 

Beclus,  Jean  Jacques  Elisee 280 

Becognizance 230 

Becollects.    See  Franciscans. 

Becord 281 

Eecorde,  Eobert 238 

Becorder 283 

Recusant 283 

Bed.    See  Light,  vol.  x.,  p.  440,  and 

Pigments. 

Bed  Bird.    See  Cardinal  Bird. 
Eedbreast.    See  Bobin. 

Bedding,  Cyrus 234 

Eedemption,  Equity  of.    See  Mort- 
gage. 

Bedemptorists 284 

Eedfield,  Isaac  Fletcher 285 

Eedfleld,  William  C 285 

Eed  Fin.    See  Dace. 

Eedgrave,  Eichard 285 

Eedi,  Francesco 235 

Eed  Jacket 285 

Bedoute,  Pierre  Joseph 236 

Bedpoll.    Sec  Linnet. 

Eed  Eiver 236 

Eed  Eiver  parish,  La 287 

Eed  Eiver  co.,  Texas 237 

Eed  Eiver  of  the  North. . 237 

*       Bed  Sea 288 

Eedshid  Pash».    See  Eeshid  Pasha. 


T»     ..    x 

Kedstart 039 

Bed  Willow  co '.'.'.'..'.]          '.  240 

Eedwood.    See  Sandal  Wood,  and 
Sequoia. 

Eedwood  co 240 

Eeed 240 

Eeed,  Andrew ', '.'.'.'.'..  241 

Eeed,  Henry 241 

Eeed,  Joseph 241 

Eeed  Bird.    See  Bobolink. 

Eeed  Instruments 242 

Bees,  Abraham ',,",  ','  244 

Eeeve.   See  Buff. 

Beeves,  Sims 244 

Eeformation 244 

Beforinatories 251 

Eeformed  Church 252 

Eeformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  Amer- 
ica   254 

Eeformed   Church   in   the  United 

States 258 

Befrigeration.    See  Freezing,  Arti- 
ficial. 

Eefrigerator 260 

Eefugio  co 260 

Begatta.    See  Eowing. 
Eegelation.   See  Ice,  voL  ix.,  p.  146. 
Begensburg.    See  Eatisbon. 

Beggio 260 

Beggio  di  Calabria 261 

Eegillus,  Lake 261 

Begiment 261 

Eegiomontanus  (Johann  Miiller)...  261 

Eegis,  Jean  Baptiste  de 262 

Begnard,  Jean  Francois 262 

Eegnault,  Elias  Georges  Soulange 

Oliva 262 

Eegnault,  Henri  Victor 262 

Eegnault,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron 263 

Eegnier,  Mathurin 263 

Eegular  Clerks  of  St.  Paul.     See 
Barnabites. 

Begulus,  Marcus  Atilius 268 

Beichenbach,     Heinrich     Gottlieb 

Ludwig 263 

Eeichenbach,  Anton  Benedict 263 

Beichenbach,  Heinrich  Gustav 268 

Eeichenbach,  Karl,  Baron 268 

Eeichenberg 264 

Eeichstadt,  Duke  of.     See  Bona- 
parte, vol.  iii.,  p.  48. 

Eeid,  Mayne 264 

Eeid,  Thomas 264 

Eeid,  Sir  William : 264 

Eeigate •. 264 

Eeil,  Johann  Christian 264 

Eeimarus,  Hermann  Samuel 265 

.Reims.    See  Eheims. 

Eeindeer 265 

Eeinhold,  Karl  Leonhard 205 

Eeinkens,  Joseph  Hubert 265 

Eeiske,  Johann  Jakob 266 

Eeissiger,  Karl  Gottlieb 266 

Eeligious  Orders 266 

Bemainder 267 

Eembrandt   van  Eyn,  Paul    Har- 

mens 268 

Remonstrants.    See  Arminians. 
Eemora.    See  Sucking  Fish. 
Eemorino.    See  Eamorino. 

Remschied 268 

Remus.    See  Romulus. 
Bemusat,  Claire  Elisabeth  Jeanne 
Gravion  de  Vergennes,  Countess 

de 269 

Remusat,  Charles  Francois   Marie 

de,  Count 269 

E6musat,  Jean  Pierre  Abel 269 

Remy,  Saint 269 

Renaissance 2<: 

Renan,  Joseph  Ernest 2( 

Rondel,  James  Meadows 27 

Eendsburg 27 

Renel 270 

Renfrew  co •jJO 

Renfrewshire 270 

Eeni,  Guido.    See  Guide  Eeni. 

Beimel],  James 271 

Eennes * '  * 

Eennet.    See  Cheese,  vol.  iv.,  p. 

349. 
Eennie,  John 271 


Eennie,  Sir  John 271 

Eeno  co. 271 

Renouard,  Antoine  AuguBtin . .  'J71 

Rensselaer  co , 271 

Renville  co.,  Minn.. 271 

Benville  co.,  Dakota 278 

Eenwick,  James  (two) 278 

Eeple  vtn 272 

Eeptiles 278 

Eepton,  Humphry 276 

Eepublicco 276 

Eepublican   Eiver.      See   Kansas, 

vol.  ix.,  p.  747. 

ResacadclaPalma 276 

Eeshid  Pasha,  Mustapha  Mehemed.  276 

Eesht 276 

Eesina 276 

Eesins 277 

Eespiration 277 

Eestigouche  co 278 

Eestigouche 278 

Bethel,  Alfred 279 

Retina.    See  Eye. 

Eetinispora 299 

Retort.    See  Distillation,  and  Gas. 

Retriever 279 

Eetz,  Gillesde  Laval,  Seigneur  de..  280 
Retz,  Jean  Francois  Paul  de  Gondl, 

Cardinal  de 280 

Eetzsch,  Friedrich  August  Moritz. .  280 

Eeuchlin,  Johann UsO 

Reunion,  He  de  la 281 

Ecus 281 

Eouss,  a  river 281 

Beuss vt-1 

Eeuter,  Fritz 238 

Eeutlingen 282 

Bevel 282 

Revelation,    Book    of    the.      See 

Apocalypse. 

Ee vere,  Paul —  288 

Eevolver.    See  Pistol. 

Eeybaud,  Marie  Roch  Louis 298 

Reyer,  Louis  Etienne  Ernest 2S8 

Reykiavik 283 

Reynolds  co 288 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua 288 

Rhabanus.    See  Rabanus. 

Rhadamanthus 284 

Rhsetia 284 

Rhamadan.    See  Ramadan. 

Rhe.    See  R6. 

Rhea,  in  mythology.    See  Cybele. 

Rhea  co 285 

Rhea  Silvia.    See  Romulus. 
Rhegium.    See  Reggio  di  Calabria. 

Eheims 285 

Ehenish  Confederation 285 

Ehenish  Prussia.    See  Rhine,  Prov- 
ince of  the. 
Rhenish   Wines.      See    Germany, 

Wines  of. 

Rheumatism 285 

Rhin,  Bas.    See  Alsace-Lorraine. 
Ehin,  Haut.    See  Haut-Ehin. 

Ehine 28« 

Ehine,  Province  of  the 283 

Ehinoceros 888 

Rhinoceros  Hornbill.    See  Hornbill. 
Rhinoplasty.    See  Autoplasty. 
Rhizopods.    See  Foraminifera,  Glo- 

bigerina,  and  Protozoa. 

Rhode  Island 290 

Rhodes. . .'. 298 

Rhodes,  Inner  and  Outer.    See  Ap- 

penzelL 
Rhodez.    See  Bodez. 

Rhodium 28 

Rhododendron 800 

Rhodope.    See  Thrace. 

Rhodora 8" 

Rhone 801 

Rhone,  a  department 80 

Rhubarb 802 

Riad.    See  Riyad. 

Rianzares,  Duke  of.    See  Munoz. 

Riazan 805 

Rib.    See  Skeleton. 

Eibault,Jean 80 

Ribbon 805 

Ribbon  Fish 80 

Bibbon  Worms 801 


740 


VOL.  xiv. — 66 


IV 


PAGE 

Ribera,  Jose.    See  Spagnoletto. 

Ricajrdo,  David 807 

Ricarees.    See  Rickarees. 

Ricasoli,  Bettino,  Baron 807 

Rlcaut,  Sir  Paul 807 

Rleci,  Federigo 807 

Rlcclo,  Domenlco.    See  Brusasorci. 

Riccioll,  Giovanni  Battista 807 

Rice 807 

Rice  co.,  Minn 810 

Rice  co.,  Kansas 810 

Rice,  Indian 810 

Rice,  Luther 810 

Bice  Bird.    See  Finch,  vol.  vii.,  p. 

190. 
Rico  Bunting.    See  Bobolink. 

Rice  Paper  Tree 810 

Rich  co 811 

Rich,  Claudius  James 811 

Rich,  Edmund,  Saint 811 

Richard  1 812 

Richard  II 818 

Richard  III 814 

Richard  de  Bury.   See  Aungervyle. 

Richard  Plantagenet 815 

Richardson  co 815 

Richardson,  Benjamin  Ward 815 

Richardson,  Charles 816 

Richardson,  James 816 

Richardson,  Sir  John 816 

Richardson,  Samuel 816 

Richelieu  co 816 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  Duplessls, 

Cardinal  and  Duke  de 816 

Richelieu,  Alpbonse  Louis  Duples- 
sls   818 

Richelieu,  Louis  Francois  Armand 

Duplessis.  Marshal  de 816 

Richelieu,  Armand  Emmanuel  Du- 
plessis. Dukede 818 

Richer,  Edouard 818 

Rlcberaud,  Anthclme.,  Baron.. . . . . .  818 

Richlandco.,  S.  C 818 

Rlchland  parish,  L* 819 

Rlchland  co.,  Ohio 819 

Rlchland  co.,  Ill 819 

Richlandco.,  WIs 819 

Kichland  co.,  Dak 819 

Richmond  eo.,  N.  Y 819 

Richmond  co.,  Va 819 

Richmond  co.,  N.  0 819 

Richmond  co.,  Oa. 819 

Richmond  co.,  Quebec 8J9 

Richmond  co.,  Nova  Scotia 820 

Richmond,  V» 820 

Richmond,  Ind. 822 

Richmond,  Eng 822 

Richmond,  Countess  of.    See  Bean- 
fort,  Margaret. 

Richmond,  Legh 828 

Rlchter,  Jobann  Paul  Friedrich 828 

Rlclnus.    See  Castor  Oil. 

Rickarees 828 

Rickets 824 

Rleord,  Philippe 824 

Rlcord,  Alexandre 824 

Kiill.-y.  Nicholas 824 

Ridol'fl.  Roberto 824 

Riedfscl,  Friedrich  Adolf  von,  Baron  835 
Riedesel,  Friederike  Charlotte  Luise  825 
Blel,   Louis.     See   Manitoba,  vol. 
xi.,p.  114. 

Rienzi,  Nicola  Gabrinl 825 

Riesengebirge 827 

Rietachel,  Ernst  Friedrich  August.  827 

Rifle 827 

Riga 884 

Rigdon.  Sldnev.      See   Mormons, 
vol.  xL,  p.  8S8. 

Rigg.  James  H 885 

Righlnl,  Vlncenzo 885 

Rigi 885 

Riley  CO 885 

Biter,  Charles  Valentine 885 

Rimini 885 

Rimouski  co 886 

Rinderpest.    See  Murrain. 

Rinehart,  William  Henry 886 

Ring '. 886 

Ringgold  co 838 

Ringworm.     See    Epiphytes,   vol. 
vl.,  p.  6b9. 


PAGE 

Rio  Arriba  co 888 

Rio   Bravo   del   Norte.     See  Rio 

Grande  del  Norte. 

Rio  de  Janeiro 83S 

Rio  de  la  Plata.    See  Plata,  Rio  de 

la. 

Rio  Grande  co 841 

Rio  Grande 841 

Rio  Grande  del  Norte 841 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte 842 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul.    See  Sao  Pedro 

do  Sul. 

Rioja,  La 842 

Rioin 842 

Rion.    See  Pbasis. 

Rio  Negro  (two) 842 

Riot ..  848 

Rip»rian 844 

Kipley  co.,  Ind 846 

Ripley  co.,  Mo 846 

Kipley,  Henry  Jones 846 

Ripley,  Roswell  Sablne 846 

RiiHin.   George    Frederick    Samuel 

Robinson,  Marquis  of. 846 

Ripple  Grass.    See  Plantain. 

Ristort,  Adelaide 847 


Ritchie  co 847 

Ritchie,  Anna  Cora  Mowatt    See 
Mo  watt 

Ritchie,  Thomas 847 

BUM,  Congregation  of 847 

Ritson,  Joseph 847 

Rlttenhouse,  David 847 

Ritt.T,  CwL 848 

Hitter.  Helnrich 848 

Ritualism 848 

Rlvarol,  Antolne 850 

Rivas,   Angel  de  Saavedra,  Duke 

of. 850 

Rlve-do-Gier 850 

River  Hog.    See  Wart  Hog. 

Rives,  William  Cabell 850 

Rlvington,  James 850 

Rlvoll 851 

Rlyad 851 

Rlzzio,  D«Tld 851 

Roach 861 

Road 862 

Roane  co.,  W.  V*. 854 

Roane  co..  Ten  n 854 

Roanne. 854 

Roanokeco 854 

Roanoke  River.    See  North  Caro- 
lina, vol.  ziL,  p.  489. 

Robbery ? 854 

Robert  Gui scant.    See  Guiscard. 
Robert  I.    See  Bruce. 

Robert,  Louis  Leopold 856 

Robert,  Louis  Valentin  Ellas 856 

Robert-Fleurv,  Joseph  Nicolas 856 

Roberts,  David 856 

Robertson  co.,  Texas 856 

Robertson  co.,  Tenn 856 

Robertson  COM  Ky 856 

Robertson,  Frederick  William 857 

Robertson,  James  Crngie 857 

Robertson,  Thomas  William 857 

Robertson,  William 857 

Roberval,  Gilles  Personne  de 857 

Robeson  co 858 

Robespierre,  Maximllien  Marie  Isi- 
dore de 858 

Robin 853 

Robin  Hood.    See  Hood,  Robin. 
Robinia.    See  Locust. 

Robinson,  Edward 861 

Robinson,  Therese  AlbertJne  Louise 

von  Jakob 861 

Robinson,  Ezekiel  Gilman 861 

Robinson,  John 862 

Roblson,  John 862 

Hob  Roy 862 

Rochambean,  Jean  Baptlste  Dona- 
tion de  Vlmenr,  Count  do 862 

Rochambeau,  Donatlen  Marie  Jo- 
seph de  Vlmeur,  Viscount  de 869 

Rochdale 8f8 

Rochefort 868 

Roohefort-Lucay.     Victor     Henri, 

Count  de  (Henri  Rochefort) 868 

Rochefoucauld.    See  La  Rochefou- 
cauld. 


PAGE 

Rochejaquelein.  See  La  Roche- 
jaquelein. 

Rochelle,  La 864 

Rochelle  Salt 864 

Rochester,  N.  Y 864 

Rochester,  Eng 806 

Rochester,  John  Wilmot,  Earl  of...  866 

Rochester,  Nathaniel 866 

Rochet  Louis 866 

Rochette,  Desire  Raoul 866 

Rock  co.,  WIs 866 

Rock  co.,  Minn 867 

Rockbridge  co 867 

Rock  Castle  co 867 

Rockdale  co 86T 

Rocket 867 

Rock  Fish.    See  Bass,  vol.  iv.,  p. 

Ma 

Rockford 868 

Rockingham  co.,  N.  II 868 

Rockingham  co.,  Va 868 

Rockingham  co.,  N.  C 868 

Rockingham,  Charles  Watson  Wont- 
worth,  Marquis  of 869 

Rock  Island  co 869 

Rock  Island 869 

Rockland  co 8G9 

Rockland 86» 

Rocks 870 

Rockwall  co 871 

Rocky  Mountain  Locust 871 

Rocky  Mountains 874 

Rodentia 888 

Roderic 8!-8 

Rodei #8 

Rodgers,  John 888 

RMiger,  Euiil 888 

Rodney,  Ca-sar 888 

Rodney,  C:rsar  Augustus 884 

Rodney,  George  Brydges,  Baron...  884 

Rodriguez,  Alfonso 868 

Rodriguez,  Island  of.  See  Mauri- 
tius. 

Roe,  Azel  Stevens 885 

Rocbling,  John  Augustus 885 

Roebuck 885 

Roebuck,  John  Arthur 886 

Roermond 886 

Roeskilde.    See  ROskilde. 

Rogation  Days «*••> 

Roger  I.,  Count 8S6 

Roger  II.,  King 886 

Roger,  Gustave  Hippolyte 88<J 

Rogers,  Henry 887 

Rogers,  James  Blvthc 887 

Rogers,  William  Barton 887 

Rogers,  Henry  Darwin 887 

Rogers,  Robert  Emple 887 

Rogers,  John 8*7 

Rogers,  John 888 

Rogers,  Randolph 888 

Rogers,  Samuel. 8f 

Roget,  Peter  Mark. 88D 

Rohan,  Louis  Rend  Edouard,  Car- 
dinal   889 

Rohllcund 8*9 

Rohlfs.  Gerhard 889 

Rokltansky,  Karl 890 

Roland 890 

Roland  de  la  Flatten,  Jean  Marie 

and  Marie 890 

Rolettc  co 891 

Rolfe,  Robert  Monsey.  See  Cran- 
worth. 

Rollin,  Charles 891 

Rollln,  Ledru.    See  Ledrn-Rollin. 
Rollo.    See  Northmen. 

Romagnosi,  Gian  Domenico 891 

Romaic.  See  Greece,  Language  and 
Literature  of,  vol.  vlll.,  pp.  208 
and  210. 

Romana,  Pedro  Caroy  Sureda,  Mar- 
quis de  la 8P1 

Roman  Catholic  Church «! 

Romance  Languages 400 

Romania.    See  Ronmelia. 
Roman  Law.    See  Civil  Law. 
Romano,  Giulio.     See  Giulio  Ro- 
mano. 
Romanoff.    Pee  Russia. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the 400 

Romans,  King  of  the 401 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Eomansh 401 

Rome,  N.  Y 401 

Kome,  Ga 401 

Rome 402 

Roinilly,  Sir  Samuel 418 

Romilly,  John,  Baron 418 

Eomney,  George 418 

Romulus 418 

Romulus  Augustulus.    See  West- 
ern Empire. 

Roncesvalles 419 

Ronda 419 

Rondo 419 

Rondout.    See  Kingston,  N.  Y. 

Ronge,  Johannes 419 

Ronsard,  Pierre  de 419 

Roof 420 

Rook 422 

Rooke.Slr  George 422 

Rooks  co 422 

Root.    See  Plant,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  576. 

Root... 422 

Rope 428 

Roqueplan,    Joseph    fitienne    Ca- 
mille.   42T 

Roric  Figures 42T 

Rorqual 429 

Rosa,  Euphrosyne  Parepa 430 

Rosa,    Francisco   Martinez   de   la. 
See  Martinez  de  la  Rosa. 

Rosa,  Monte 431 

Rosa,  Saint 431 

Rosa,  Salvator 431 

Rosamond,  Queen.    See  Alboin. 

Rosamond,  Fair 431 

Rosario 481 

Rosary 432 

Rosas,  Juan  Manuel  de.    See  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  vol.  i.,  p  693. 

Roscher,  Wilhelm 432 

Roscius,  Quintus 432 

Roscoe,  William 482 

Roscoe,  Robert 432 

Roscoe,  Thomas 482 

Roscoe,  Henry 432 

Roscoe,  Henry  Enfleld 482 

Roscommon  co.,  Mich 433 

Roscommon  co.,  Ireland 433 

Roscommon,    Wentworth    Dillon, 

Earl  of 433 

Rose 483 

Rose,  Heinrich 48T 

Rose,  Gustav 487 

Rose,  Hugh  James 487 

Rose,  Henry  John 438 

Rose  Bay.    See  Rhododendron. 

Rose  Bug 438 

Rosecrans,  William  Starke 488 

Rosellini,  Ippolito 489 

Rosemary 489 

Rosen,  Friedrich  August 489 

Rosenkranz,  Johann  Karl  Friedrich.  439 

Rosenmuller,  Johann  Georg 440 

Rosenmuller,  Ernst  Friedrich  Karl .  440 

Rose  of  Jericho 440 

Rose  of  Sharon.    See  Hibiscus. 

Rosetta 440 

Rosewood 441 

Rosicrucians 441 

Rosin 441 

Rosini,  Giovanni 412 

Rosin  Weed.    See  Silphium. 

Roskilde 442 

Rosminl  Serbati,  Antonio 442 

Rosny,  Leon  de 442 

Ross  co 442 

Ross.    See  Ross  and  Cromarty. 

Ross,  Alexander  Milton 442 

Ross,  George 443 

Ross,  Sir  John 443 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark 448 

Ross,  John 443 

Ross,  Sir  William  Charles 443 

Ross  and  Cromarty  cos 448 

Rossano 444 

Rossbach 444 

Rosse,  William  Parsons,  Earl  of . . .  444 

Rossel,  Louis  Nathaniel 444 

Rossetti,  Gabriele 444 

Ros«etti,  Dante  Gabriel 444 

Rossetti.  Christina  Gabriella 443 

Rossi,  Giovanni  Battista  de' 445 


Rossi,  Pellegrino,  Count  ____  .  .....  445 

Rossini,  Gioacchino  .......  .-  .....  .'  '  445 

Rostan,  Louis  Leon  ..............  '.  446 

Rostock  ........................  "  44g 

Rostopchln,  Fedor,  Count.  .  .  446 

Roth,  Rudolf  .................  447 

Rothe,  Richard  ..........  .'!!!!!!!!  447 

Rothennel,  Peter  F  .............  .  .'  447 

Rothesay  ........................  447 

Rothschild,  Mayer  Anselm  .....  ...  447 

Rotifera.    See  Animalcules,  vol.  i.. 

p.  517. 
Rotteck,  Karl  von  ................  447 

Rotterdam  ..................  '...'.'.  448 

Rouarie,  Armand   Taffln,  Marquis 

de  la  ...........................  448 

Roubaix,  .........................  449 

Roubiliac,  Louis  Francois  ........  .  443 

Rouen  ...................  .......  443 

Rouge  ...........................  449 

Rouge,  Olivier  Charles  Camille  Em- 

manuel de,  Viscount  ............  449 

Rouget,  Georges  ..................  449 

Rouge  et  Noir  ...................  449 

Rouher,  Eugene  ...........  ,  ......  450 

Roulette  .........................  450 

Roum.    See  Seljuks. 

Roumania  ........................  450 

Roumelia  ........................  452 

Round  Worms.    See  Entozoa,  vol. 

vi.,  p.  668. 
Roused  Point  ....................  452 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste  ..........  452 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques  ..........  452 

Rousseau,  Philippe  ...............  454 

Rousseau,  Theodore  ...............  454 

Rousset,  Camille  Felix  Michel  .....  454 

Roussillon  ........................  454 

Roussy,  Girodet  do.    See  Girodet- 

Trioson. 
RouvlUe  co  ...........  t  ...........  454 

Rovigo  ..............  *  ...........  454 

Rovigo,  Duke  of.    See  Savary. 
Rowan  co.,  N.  C  ..................  454 

Rowan  co.,  Ky  ...................  455 

Rowe,  Elizabeth  ..................  455 

Rowe,  Nicholas  ...................  455 

Rowing  ..........................  455 

Rowley,  William  ..................  459 

Roxburghshire  ...................  459 

Roxbury  .........................  459 

Roxolani.    See  Sarmatia. 

Roy,  William  .....................  459 

Royal  Fern.    See  Osmunda. 
Royer-Collard,  Pierre  Paul  ........  459 

Ruben,  Christoph  .................  459 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul  ...............  460 

Rubens,  Albert  ...................  461 

Rubicon  ..........................  461 

Rubidium  ........  ................  461 

Rubini,  Giovanni  Battista  ..........  461 

Rubinstein,  Anton  .  .  .'.  ............  461 

Ruble  ............................  462 

Ruby.    See  Sapphire. 

Ruckert,  Friedrich  ................  462 

Rudder  Fish  .....................  462 

Rudolph  1  ........................  468 

Rudolph  II  .......................  463 

Rudolstadt.    See  Schwarzburg-Ru- 

dolstadt. 
Rue  ..............................  468 

Ruff.  .............................  464 

Ruffed  Grouse.    See  Grouse. 

Rufflni,  Giovanni  .................  465 

Ruflnus.    See  Stilicho. 

Rugby  ...........................  465 

Ruge,  Arnold  .....................  465 

RQgen  ...........................  465 

Rum  .............................  465 

Rumelia.    See  Roumelia. 
Rumford,    Benjamin     Thompson, 

Count  ........  ................  •  4*S 

Rumiantzeff,  Petr,  Count  ..........  467 

Ruminantia  ......................  467 

Rumsey,  James  ...................  46 

Runes  ...........................  f** 

Runjeet  Singh  ....................  *6 

Runnels  co  .......................  470 


Runners.    See  Orthoptera. 

Runnymede 

Rupert,  Prince  ........  .  .....  • 

Rupert's  Drops.    See  Annealing. 


*™ 


FAOB 

Rupert's  Land.      See   Northwest 

Territories. 

Ruphia.    See  Alpheus. 
RuppcU,  Wilhelm    Peter    Eduard 

Simon 470 

Rupture.    See  Hernia. 
Ruremonde.    See  Koermond. 
Rurlk.    See  Russia. 

Ruschenberger,  William  S.  W 471 

Rush 471 

Rush  co.,  Ind 473 

Rush  co.,  Kansas 472 

Rush,  Benjamin 472 

Rush,  Richard 478 

Rushworth,  John 473 

Rusk  co.,  Texas 478 

Rusk  co.,  Dakota 478 

Ruskin,  John 478 

Russ,  John  Denison 474 

Russell  co.,  Va. 474 

Russell  co.,  Ala 474 

Russell  co.,  Ky 474 

Russell  co.,  Kansas 474 

Russell  co.,  Canada 474 

Russell,  Benjamin 475 

Russell,  John,  Earl 475 

Russell,  John  Scott 475 

Russell,  William,  Lord 476 

Russell,  William 477 

Russell,  William  Howard 477 

Russia 477 

Russia,  Language   and  Literature 

of. 495 

Russian  America.    See  Alaska. 

Rustchuk 499 

Rustige,  Heinrich  von 499 

Rustow,  Wilhelm 500 

Rustow,  Alexander 600 

Rustow,  Cesar 600 

Ruta  Baga.    See  Turnip. 

Rutgers  College 600 

Ruth,  Book  of 600 

Ruthenians 501 

Ruthenium 601 

Rutherford  co.,  N.  C 501 

Rutherford  co.,  Tenn 601 

Rutland  co 601 

Rutland 602 

Rutlandshire 508 

Rutledge,  John 508 

Rutledge,  Edward 603 

Rutll.    See  Grutli. 

Rutuli 603 

Ruysdael,  Jacob 503 

Ruysselede 603 

Ruyter,  Michael  Adriaenzoon  de. ..  608 
Rycaut,  Sir  Paul.    See  Ricaut. 


Rye. 


503 


Rye  Grass.    See  Darnel. 

Ryerson,  Adolphus  Egerton 504 

Ryland,  John 604 

Rymer,  Thomas 505 

Ryswick 605 


Saadi,  Sheik  Moslih  ed-Din 

Saadiaben  Joseph 

Saarbruck 

Saardam 

Saavedra,  Angel.    See  Rivas. 
Baavedra  y  Faxardo,  Diego.     See 

Faxardo. 
Saba.    See  Arabia,  vol.  11.,  p.  620, 

and  Sheba. 
Sabseans.    See  Sheba. 

Sabaism 

Sabbath 

Sabellians.    See  Sabellius. 

Sabellius 

Sabine,  a  river 

Sabine  parish.  La 

Sabine  co.,  Texas 

Sabine,  Sir  Edward 

Sabine,  Lorenzo 

Sabines 

Sable 

Sable  Island 

Sac  co 


805 
505 
506 
DM 

506 


506 
608 

506 
507 
607 
507 
607 
DOT 

m 
m 

.'„* 

503 


CONTENTS 


TA.QX 

Sacapa.    8e«  Zacapa. 

Baocatoo.    See  Sackatoo. 

SaccMnl,  Antonio  Maria  Gasparo. . .  008 

Sacheverell,  Henry 609 

Sachs,  Hans 609 

Sackatoo 609 

Sackbut 609 

Sackett's  Harbor 609 

Sackvllle,  Thomas. 610 

Sackville,  Charles 610 

Sackville,  George 610 

Baco,  a  river 610 

Baco,  a  city 610 

Sacrament 610 

Sacramento,  a  river 611 

Sacramento  co 611 

Sacramento 611 

Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of  the 618 

Sacs 613 

Sacy,  Antoine  Isaac  Sylvestre  de, 

Baron 614 

Sacy,  Samuel  Ustazade  Sylvestre  de.  614 

Sad'ducees 614 

Badi.    See  Saadl. 

Sadler,  Sir  Ralph. 614 

Badlier,  Mary  Anne 614 

Bado 614 

Badolcto,  Jacopo 615 

Sadowa 616 

Safe 616 

Safety  Lamp.    Bee  Lamp. 

Saffl 618 

Bafflo wor 616 

Safford,  Truman  Henry 610 

Baffron 61 T 

Saga 617 

Bagadahocco MS 

Sagan 618 

Bagapenum 618 

Sage 613 

Sage,  Antoine  Ren6  le.     See   Le 

Sage. 
Sage  Bush.     See  Artemisia. 

Baghallcn 619 

Sag  Harbor. 619 

Saginaw,  a  river 620 

Baginaw  co 620 

Saginaw 620 

Baginaw,  East    See  Kast  Saginaw. 
Saginaw  Bay.    See  Huron,  Lake. 

Bago 620 

Sagosktn.    Bee  Zagoskin. 

Baguache  co 621 

Saguenay,  a  river 621 

Sagiienay  co 621 

Baguntum 621 

Bahaptins 6-.'l 

Sahara 522 

Saida 628 

Bald  Pasha.    See  Egypt,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
467. 

Saigon 628 

Ball.    Bee  Ship. 
Sailing.    See  Navigation. 
Saimiri.    See  Monkey. 

Sainfoin 628 

Saint    See  Canonization. 

Saint  Albans,  Vt 624 

Saint  Albans,  Eng 624 

Saint  Albans,  Harriet  Mellon,  Duch- 
ess of 524 

Saint  Andrews,  Scotland .VJ4 

Balnt  Andrews,  New  Brunswick . . .  624 
Saint  Anthony,  Minn.    Bee  Minne- 
apolis. 

Saint  Anthony's  Fire.    See  Erysip- 
elas. 

Saint- Arnaud.    See  Leroy  de  Saint- 
Arnaud. 

Saint  Augustine 626 

Saint  Bartholomew 626 

Saint   Bartholomew,  Massacre    of. 
See  Bartholomew.  Saint 

Saint  Bernard  parish 626 

Saint  Bernard,  Great 526 

Saint  Bernard,  Little 626 

Halnt-Brieuc 646 

Saint  Catharines 626 

Saint  Charles  parish,  La 626 

Saint  Charles  co.,  Mo 526 

Saint  Charles 626 

Balnt  Christopher 626 


FAOE 

Saint  Clalr,  a  lake 627 

Saint  Clair  co.,  Ala 627 

Saint  Clair  co.,  Mich 5-27 

Saint  Clair  co.,  Ill 627 

Saint  Clair  co.,  Mo 527 

Balnt  Clair,  Pa 527 

Saint  Clalr,  Mich 627 

Saint  Clair,  Arthur 528 

Saint  Cloud,  Minn 628 

Saint-Cloud,  Franc* 628 

Saint  Crolx,  a  river  (two) 628 

Saint  Croix  co 628 

Saint  Crolx.    Bee  Santa  Cruz. 

Salnt-Cyr 629 

Salnt-Cyr,  Laurent  Gouvion.     See 
Gouvion  Salnt-Cyr. 

Saint- Denis 629 

Saint  Domingo.     See   Hayti,  and 

Santo  Domingo. 

Salnte-Aldegonde.    See  Aldegonde. 
Sainte-Beuve,  Charles  Augustin  ...  529 
Salnte-Clalre  Deville.    See  Deville. 

Sainte  Genevieve  co 629 

Saint  Ellas,  Mount 629 

Saint-Elme,  Ida 680 

Balnte-Marguerite.     See  Lerins  Isl- 
ands. 

SainU-s 680 

Saint- Etienno 630 

Saint  Kustatius 680 

Saint-fivrcmond,  Charles  de  Mar- 
guetel  de  Saint- Denis,  Seigneur 

.1,. .....  580 

Saint  Francis  co 680 

Saint  Francis  Klvcr.    See  Arkansas, 
Tol.  i.,  p.  T 14. 

Saint  Francois  co 681 

Saint  Gall,  a  canton 681 

Saint  Gall,  a  city 631 

Saint-Germain 581 

Saint-Germain,  Count  de 681 

Balnt  Gothard.  *See  Alps,  vol.  i., 


pp.  852  and  854. 
9aln   " 


Saint  Helena  parish 681 

Saint  Helena, 681 

8olnt-H61ier 882 

Saint-  Hilalre,  August*-  de 682 

Saint-lillairc.  Geoffrey.    See  Geof- 

froy  Saint- Hilalre. 
Saint- 11  llaire,  Jules.     See  Barthe- 

lemy-Saint-Hllalre. 

Salnt-llllalre,  Marco  de 682 

Saint  Hyaclnthe  co 682 

Saint  Hyaclnthe 683 

Salntlne 688 

Saint  James  parish 688 

Saint  Jean  d  Acre.    Bee  Acre. 

Saint  John,  a  river 688 

Saint  John,  a  lake.     Bco  Quebec, 

vol.  ziv.,  p.  186. 

Saint  John  co 588 

Saint  John,  Canada. 688 

Balnt  John,  Henry.     Bee  Bollng- 

broke. 

Saint  John,  James  Augustus. 684 

Saint  John,  Percy  Bolingbroko. —  634 

Saint  John,  Bayle 584 

Saint  John,  Horace  Roscoe 685 

Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights 

Hospitallers  of  the  Order  of. 685 

Saint  John's  co.,  Fla 686 

Saint  John's  co.,  Canada 586 

Saint  John's,  Newfoundland 636 

Saint  Johns,  Canada 587 

Saint  John  the  Baptist  parish 587 

Saint  Johnsbury 688 

Saint  John's  Klver.    See  Florid*. 

Saint  Joseph  co.,  Ind 688 

Balnt  Joseph  co.,  Mich. 588 

Saint  Joseph,  a  river 588 

Saint  Joseph,  a  city 588 

Saint  Joseph's  River.     Bee   Balnt 

Joseph. 

Saint-Just,  Antoine  Louis  Leon  de.  539 
Saint-Lambert,  Jean  Francois  de.. .  539 

Saint  Landry  parish 589 

Saint  Lawrence 589 

Saint  Lawrence  co 640 

Saint  Leonards,    Edward   Burten- 

shaw  Sugden,  Ilaron 540 

8aint-Ld 540 

Saint  Louis  co.,  Minn. 641 


PAGE 

Saint  Louis  co.,  Mo 641 

Saint  Louis 541 

Saint  Lucia 646 

Salnt-Mak) 647 

Saint-Marc   Girardin.     See  Girar- 
din. 

Saint  Martin  parish 547 

Saint  Martin : 547 

Saint  Martin,   Aluxis.     Bee   Beau- 
mont William. 

Saint-Martin,  Louis   Claude,  Mar- 
quis de 547 

Saint  Mary  parish 647 

Saint  Mary's  co 647 

Saint  Mary's  Strait 647 

Saint  Maur,  Congregation  of 648 

Saint  Maurice,  a  river 648 

Saint  Maurice  co 648 

Saint  Michael 648 

Saint  Moritz 648 

Salnt-Nazalre 648 

Saint-Nicolas 648 

Salnt-Omer 648 

Saint  Paul 649 

Saint  Paul  de  Loanda 660 

Saint  Peter 6M) 

Saint  Petersburg,  a  government. . . .  660 

Saint  Petersburg,  a  city 650 

Saint  Pierre 668 

Saint  Pierre  and  Mlquelon 668 

Saint- Pierre,  Charles  Ircn6e  Castcl, 

Abbode 658 

Saint-Pierre,  Jacques    Henri  Ber- 

nardln  de 658 

Salnt-Quentin 658 

Saint  Sebastian 658 

Saint-Simon,  Claud*  Henri,  Count 

de 664 

Saint-Simon,   Louis    de    Rouvroi, 

Dukede 664 

Saint  Stephen 554 

Saint  Tammany  parish 55B 

Saint  Thomas,  an  island  (two) 506 

Balnt  Thomas,  Christians  of.     Bee 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas. 

Saint  Vincent 555 

Saint  Vincent,  Cape.    See  Cape  St 

Vincent. 

Balnt  Vincent,  Earl  of.    See  Ji-rvls, 
Sir  John. 

Saint  Vltus's  Dance 656 

Sakl.    See  Monkey. 

Sala,  George  Augustus  Henry 556 

Sakidln 666 

Balado  River.    See  Argentine  Re- 
public, vol.  i.,  p.  688. 

Salamanca 657 

Salamander 557 

Salamls 558 

Sal  Ammoniac.    See  Ammonia. 
Saldanha    Olivelra   e    Daun,    Jouo 

Carlos,  Duke  of 659 

Sale..... 669 

Sale,  a  town 561 

Sale,  George 561 

Salem  co 561 

Salem,  Mass 661 

Salom.N.  J 669 

Salem,  Va 568 

Salom,  Oregon 568 

Salem,  India 668 

Salep 668 

Salerno 664 

Bales,  Francis  do.    See  Francis  de 

Bales. 
Salfonl.    See  Manchester. 

Sallans 564 

Ballclne 564 

BallcLaw.    See  Sallans. 

Salicylic  Acid 564 

Salicrl,  Antonio 564 

Saline,  a  river 566 

Saline  co.,  Ark 566 

Saline  co.,  Ill W5 

Saline  co.,  Mo 566 

Saline  co.,  Kan 565 

Saline  co.,  Neb 566 

Salisbury 566 

Salisbury,  Robert   Cecil,  Earl   of. 

Salisbury,    Robert   Arthur    Talbot 
Uascoyne  Cecil,  Marquis  of 668 


CONTENTS 


vn 


PAOK 

Saliva.     Bee  Digestion,  and   Sali- 
vary Glands. 

Salivary  Glands 565 

ballo,  Jean  Baptiste  de  la.    See  La 
Salle. 

Ballot,  Friodrich  von 666 

Sallust 666 

Balmasius,  Claudius 667 

Salmon 667 

Salmon  Trout.    See  Trout. 
Salnave.  See  Hayti,  vol.  viii.,  p.  653. 

Salo,  Qasparo  da 670 

Salomon  Islands.    See  Solomon  Isl- 
ands. 
Salona.    See  Spalato. 

Salonica 670 

Salop.    See  Shropshire. 

Salsette 670 

Salsify.    See  Oyster  Plant 

Salt 571 

Salta 5SO 

Saltillo 681 

Salt  Lake 681 

Salt  Lake  City 681 

Saltpetre.    See  Nitrates. 

Salts 682 

Saltzbnrg.    See  Salzburg. 

Salutation 685 

Saluzzo 685 

Salvador,  Joseph 686 

Salvage 586 

Balvandy,    Narcisse    Achille     de, 

Count 687 

Salvator  Rosa.    See  Rosa. 

Salvi,  Giambattlsta.    See  Sassofer- 

rato. 
Sal  via.    See  Sage. 

Salvini,  Tommaso 687 

Salzacb.    See  Salzburg. 

Salzburg 683 

Samana.    See  Santo  Domingo. 
Samar.    See  Philippine  Islands. 

Samara 698 

Samarang 688 

Sarnorcand 688 

Samaria 589 

Samaritans  689 

Same.    See  Cephalonia. 

Satnniuni 690 

Bamoan  Islands 590 

Bamos 692 

Bamothrace 692 

Samoyeds 692 

Samphire 698 

Sampson  co 598 

Samson 698 

Samson,  George  Whitfield 694 

Samson,  Joseph  Isidore 694 

Samuel 694 

Samuel,  Books  of 694 

Sana 694 

San  Antonio 595 

San  Antonio  River 696 

San  Augustine  co 695 

San  Benito  Co 595 

San  Bernardino  co 695 

Sanchuniathon 696 

Ban  Cristobal 596 

Bancroft,  William 696 

Sanctuary.    See  Asylum. 
Band,  George.    See  Dudevant. 

Sand,  Karl 696 

Sandal  Wood 696 

Sand  Blast 697 

Sand  Crab.    See  Crab. 

Bnndeau,  Leonard  Bylvain  Jules...  597 

Sand  Eel.    See  Eel. 

Sandemanlans 597 

Sandorling 698 

Sand  Grouse.    See  Grouse. 

Sandhurst 698 

Snn  Diego  co 698 

Ban  Diego * 699 

Sand  Launce.    See  Eel. 

Band  Martin.    Bee  Swallow. 

San  Domingo.    See  Santo  Domingo. 

Sandoval,  Prudencio  de 599 

Sandpiper 699 

Snndrart,  Joachim  von 699 

Sands,  Robert  Charlei 600 

Sandstone 600 

Sandusky  co.,.,..,.,,,,,,,,. 600 


Sandusky  .  .  . 

PAOB 

SaptnWood  626 

Sandwich.  .  .                                       gyi 

Sapor.    See  Persia,  vol.  xlH.,  p.  822. 

Sandwich  Islands.     Bee  Hawaiian 
Islands. 
Sandys,  Sir  Edwin  601 

Saracens  6*7 

Saragossa  0'J7 

Sandys,  George  601 
Sanford  co  602 

Saragossa,  Maid  of.    Bee  Agustina. 
Saratoga  co  628 

San  Francisco  602 

Saratoga,  Battle  of  

San  Francisco  Bay  605 

Saratov  629 

Sanguinaria.    Sue  Bloodroot. 

Sarawak  629 
Barber  co  680 

Sanilac  co  606 

Sarcodo.  See  Animalcules,  and  Pro- 
toplasm. 

g"*  :  ««> 

San  Jacinto,  a  river  606 

Ban  Joaquin,  a  river.  606 

Sardanapalus  680 
Sardes  681 

San  Joaquin  co  606 

Sardine  .      .  .                                   681 

Ban  Jose,  Cal  606 

Sardinia  681 

San  Jos6,  Costa  Rica  607 

Sardinian  States                                682 

San  Juan  607 

Sardis.    See  Sardes. 
Sardou,  Victorlen                              688 

Ban  Juan  de  Nicaragua  607 

Ban  Juan  do  Puerto  Rico  608 

Sari  688 

San  Juan  River.    See  Nicaragua. 
San  Lucar  de  Barrameda  608 

Sargasso  Sea.    Bee  Atlantic  Ocean, 
vol.  ii.,  p  79. 
Sargent,  Epes.                                   688 

San  Luis,  a  province  608 

Ban  Luis,  a  city  608 

Bargon.    See  Assyria,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86 
Sarmatia        .                                   688 

San  Luis  Obispo  co  608 

San  Luis  Potosi  608 

Barmiento,  Domingo  Faust  Ino.  ...  6S4 
Sarnia.  684 

Ban  Marino  608 

Ban  Martin,  Jos6  de  609 

Sarno                                                634 

San  Mateo  co  609 

Saros  co  ....                                     684 

San  Miguel  co  609 

Sarpi,  Paolo  ..  684 

San  Miguel  609 

Sarpy  co  685 

San  Miguel,  EvarUte,  Duke  de  609 
Bannazaro,  Jacopo  609 

Sarracenia.    See  Pitcher  Plants.    . 
Sarsaparilla...      .     .                        685 

San  Patricio  co  609 

Sarthe  685 

San  Pete  co  609 

Sarti,  Giuseppe                                086 

SanRemo  610 

Sarto,  Andrea  Vanucchl  del              636 

San  Roque.  610 

Sarum,  Old  686 

San  Saba  co  610 

Saskatchewan  636 

San  Salvador,  a  republic  610 

Sassafras  687 

San  Salvador,  a  city  611 

Sassanid®  688 

San  Salvador,  an  island  611 

Sassarl  688 

San  Salvador.    See  Bahia. 
Ban  Sebastian.  See  Saint  Sebastian. 
Sanskrit  611 

Sassoferrato     (Giovanni      Battista 
Salvi)  683 

Satan.    See  Devil 
Satin  Bower  Bird.   See  Bower  Bird. 
Satin  Spar  688 

San  son,  Nicolas  616 

Santa  Ana  co                                   616 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  do  616 

Satin  Wood  638 

Satsuma             688 

Santa  Catharina  617 

Sattara  689 
Saturday  639 

Santa  Clara  College.    See  San  Jos6. 

Saturn,  a  planet  689 

Saturnalia  641 

Satyrs                642 

Saukco...           642 

Santa  F6  co                                   .  .  618 

Saul  642 

Santa  F6                                  618 

Saulcy,  Louis  Fellcien  Joseph  Cal- 

Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.    Bee  Bogota. 
Santa  Maria,  Spain    619 

Sault  Ste.  Marie.    See  Saint  Mary's 
Strait. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich  642 

Santa  Maria,  U.S.  of  Colombia.....  619 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Canada  642 

Saumaise.    See  Salmasius. 
Sanmur  64 

Santarem  620 

Santee  620 

Saunders,  Prince  648 

Santerre,  Antoine  Joseph  620 

Baunderson,  Nicholas  648 

Santiago,  Argentine  Republic  62 

Saurian's  «48 

Santiago  de  Cuba  62 
Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  621 

Sauropsida,  648 
Sanssure,  Horace  Benedict  de  648 
Saussurc  Nicolas  Theodore  644 

Santillana,  Marquis  de.    See  Men- 
doza. 

Saussure,  Albertlne  Adrienne  644 

Sauveur  Joseph  644 

Santo  Domingo,  a  city  624 

Savage,  Marmion  W  644 

Santorin.    See  Thera. 
Santorini,  Giovanni  Domenico  624 
Sao  Francisco,  a  river.    See  Brazil, 
vol.  ill.,  p.  220. 
Saone  6S 

Savage,  Richard  *J 

Savannah  River.    Be*  Georgia,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  716. 
Savary,  Anne  Jean  Marie  Reno  —  646 
gave  *  '                                      646 

8a6ne-et-Loire  625 
Saone,  Haute.    Bee  Haute-Saone. 

Savigny,  Friedrich  Karl  von  647 
SavUe,  George  *** 

Sao  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  .  .  625 
Sap.    See  Plant,  vol.  xili.,  p.  682. 
Sapaiou.     See  Monkey,  voL  ri.,  p. 
671. 

Savin.    See  Juniper. 

Savoie.    See  Savoy. 
Savoie,  Haute.    Bee  Haute-Savoi* 

Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PA6B 

Savona 694 

Savonarola,  Girolamo 649 

BavoyT 649 

Saw 651 

Saw  Fish 659 

Saw  Fly 658 

Sawyer,  Thomas  Jefferson 654 

Sawyer,  Caroline  M 654 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey 654 

Saxe,  Maurice,  Count 655 

Saxe-Altenburg.    See  Altenburg. 
Saxe-Coburg.    See  Coburg. 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 655 

Saxe-Lauenburg.    See  Lauenburg. 
Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen...  655 

Saxe-Weiinar-Eisenach 656 

Saxifrage 656 

Saxo  (Grammaticus) 657 

Saxons 657 

Saxony,  a  kingdom 657 

Saxony,  •  province 659 

Saxton,  Joseph 659 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste 659 

Say,  Horace  Emlle 660 

Say,  Thomas 660 

Scabbard  Fish 660 

Scevola,  Caius  Mucius 6(30 

ScjBvola,  Quintus  Mucius  (two)  —  660 

Scala,  family  of 660 

Scald.    See  Burns  and  Scalds. 

Scale 661 

Scale,  Musical.    See  Music. 
Scales  (of  fishes).   See  Comparative 

Anatomy. 
Scales.    See  Weighing  Machines. 

Scaliger,  Julius  Cesar 661 

Scaligcr.  Joseph  Justus 661 

Scallop :. 661 

Scaly  Ant-Eater.    See  Pangolin. 

Scamander (...  Ml 

Scammony <6J 

Scandcrbeg Ml 

Scandinavia 663 

Scan  so  it's 668 

Scapular 668 

Scarabeus 668 

Scarborough 664 

Scarlatina.    See  Fevers,  vol.  vll.,  p. 
170. 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro 664 

Scarlatti.  Domenlco 664 

Scarlet  Fever.   See  Fevers,  vol.  vli, 
p.  170. 

Scarpa,  Antonio 664 

Scarpanto 664 

Scarron,  Paul 664 

Soaurus,  Marcus  ^Emilias  (two) 664 

Scaurus,  Mamercus 665 

Schodow,  Johann  Gottfried 665 

Schadow,  Friedrlch  Wllbelm   von 

Schadow-Godenhaiu 665 

SchSfer.  Hclnrich 663 

Schaff,  Philip 665 

Schaffhausen 666 

Schauffler,  William  Gottlieb 666 

Bchaumburg-LIppe 666 

Scheele,  Karl  Wfthelm 666 

Scheffer,  Ary 666 

Scheffer,  Henri 666 

Scheldt 666 

Schelllng,  Friedrlch  WUhelm   Jo- 
seph von 667 

Schemnltz 669 

Schenck,  Robert  Camming 670 

Schenectady  co 670 

Schenectady 670 

Schenkel,  Daniel 670 

Scherr,  Johannes 670 

Scherzer,  Karl  von,  Chevalier 670 

Schevenlngen 671 

Schlck,  Gottlieb 6n 

Schiedam 671 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  Fried- 
rich  von 671 

Schilling,  Johannes 672 

Schlnkel,  Karl  Friedrlch 672 

Schlaglntwelt,    Hermann,  Adolph, 

and  Robert. 672 

Schlaglntweit,  Kduard 678 

Schlagintwett,  Emll 678 

Schlatter,  Michael 678 

Bchlegel,  August  Wilhelin  von 674 


PAG* 

Schlegel,  Friedrich  Karl    Wllhelm 

von 674 

Schleicher,  August 674 

Schleiden,  Matthias  Jakob 674 

Schleiermacber,    Friedrich    Daniel 

Krnst 675 

Schleiz.    See  Reuss. 
Schlestadt.    See  Schlettstadt 

Schleswlg 676 

Schleswig-Holstein 676 

Schlettstadt 677 

Schley  co 677 

Schliemann,  Heinrich 677 

Schlosser,  Friedrich  Christoph 67S 

Schlozer,  August  Ludwig  von 678 

Scbliizer,  Kurd  von 673 

Schmalkalden.    See  Smalcald. 

Schinld,  Leopold 678 

Schmidt,  Heinrich  Julian 679 

Schnaase,  Karl 679 

Schneider,  Eugene 679 

Schneider,  Hortense  Catharine 679 

Schneider,  Johann  Gottlob 679 

Schnetz,  Jean  Victor 679 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  Julius 679 

Schoelcher,  Victor 679 

Schoffer,  Peter 680 

Schofleld,  John  McAllister 630 

Schoharieco 680 

Scholasticism.  See  Philosophy,  voL 
xiil.,  p.  489. 

Scholten,  Johannes  Hendrik 680 

Schomberg,    Frederick    Hermann, 

Duke  of. &SO 

Schomberg,  Charies 681 

Schomberg,  Henri  de.  Count 681 

Schomburgk.  Sir  Robert  Hermann.  681 

Schf.nbeln,  Christian  Friedrich 681 

School  Brothers  and  School  Sisters.  681 

Sehoolcraft  co 6>8 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe 6S8 

School*.  See  College,  Common 
Schools.Educatlon.  Infant  Schools, 
Military  Schools,  Normal  Schools, 
Reformatories,  and  University. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur 6S8 

Schrader,  Julias 6S4 

Schrcvelius,  Cornelias 684 

Schreyer,  Adolph 6S4 

Schr,,ckh.  Johann  Matthias 6S4 

Schroder,  Antoinette  Sophie 634 

8chrf.der,  Wllhelmine  Schroder-De- 

Trient 634 

Schroder,  Friedrich  Ludwig 684 

Schrodter,  Adolph 685 

Schubart,  Christian  Friedrich  Daniel  685 

Schubert,  Franr. 685 

Schubert,  Gotthllf  Heinrich  von. . .  685 

Schulte,  Johann  Friedrich 685 

Schultz-Schultzensteln,  Karl  Hein- 
rich   «86 

Schultze,  Max 6S6 

Schulze.  Ernst  Konrad  Friedrich..  686 
Schumacher,  Heinrich  Christian...  686 
Schumacher.  Christian  Andreas... .  6S6 

Schumann,  Robert 6S6 

Schurz,  Carl 687 

Schuyler  co.,  N.  Y «S8 

Schuyler  co.,  Ill «88 

Schuyler  co..  Mo 688 

Schuyler,  Philip 688 

Schuylkill,  a  river 688 

Schuylkill  co 688 

Schwab,  Gustav 688 

Schwalbach 689 

Schwanthaler,  Ludwig  Michael 689 

Schwartz,  Marie  Sophie  689 

Schwartzenberg.  See  Schwarzen- 
berg. 

Schwarz,  Berthold 699 

Sch ware,  Christian  Friedrich 689 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 6S9 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 689 

Schwarzenberg,   Friedrich   Johann 

Joseph  Celestinus  von 661 

Schwarzenberg,  Karl  Phillpp,  Prince 

of   690 

Schwarzenberg,  Felix  Ludwig  Jo- 
hann Friedrich,  Prince  of. 690 

Schwarzwald.    See  Black  Forest. 

Schwegler,  Albert. 690 

SchweidniU WO 


PAO« 
Schwelgger,      Johann       Salomon 

Christoph 690 

Schweinfurth 6<a 

Schweinfurth,  Georg  August G'Jl 

Schweinitz,  Lewis  David  von 6'.'  1 

Schwenkfeld,  Kaspar  von 691 

Schwerin 691 

Schwerin,    Kurt    Christoph    von, 

Count 692 

Schwind,  Morltz  von 683 

Schwytz,  a  canton G93 

Sch  wy  tz,  a  town C92 

Sciacca 6113 

Sciatica.    See  Neuralgia. 

Sciglla 692 

SciUy  Islands 692 

Scinde.    See  Sinde. 
Sclndia.    See  Gwalior. 

Scio 698 

Scloto,  a  river 698 

Scloto  co 698 

Scipio,  Publius  Cornelius  Africanus 

Major 698 

Scipio,  Publius   Cornelius    A'.m\l\- 

anus  Africanus  Minor 694 

Scipio,  Quintus  Ctecilius  Metellus 

Pius 6C5 

Sclre  Facias 095 

SclopU  de  Salerano,  Paolo  Federi- 

go.  Count G95 

ScolithuB G'.i3 

Scopas 68« 

Scoresby,  WiUlam  (two) C'.tC 

Scorpion 696 

Scot,  Reginald 697 

Scoter.    See  Duck,  vol.  vi.,  p.  291. 

Scotland  co f97 

Scotland 61(7 

Scotland,  Church  of.    See  Presby- 

tcrianism. 

Scott  co.,  V» 706 

Scott  co.,  Miss 706 

Scott  co.,  Ark 706 

Scott  co.,  Tenn 706 

Scott  co.,  Ky 706 

Scottco.,  Ind 705 

Scott  co.,  Ill 706 

Scott  co..  Minn 7d6 

Scott  co.,  Iowa 706 

Scott  co.,  Mo 706 

Scottco.,  Kan 706 

Scott,  David 707 

Scott,  Michael 707 

Scott,  Thomas 707 

Scott,  Sir  Walter 7»7 

Scott,  Winfleld 710 

Scotus,  Duns.    See  Duns  Scotus. 
Scotus,  John.    See  Erigena. 

Scougal,  Henry 71 

Scranton 711 

Screamer 711 

Screw 712 

Screw  Propeller.    See  Steam  Navi- 
gation. 

Scribe,  Augustln  Eugftne 712 

Scribes 718 

Scriptures,  Holy.    See  Bible. 

Bcriven  co 718 

Scrivener,  Frederick  Henry 71 

Scriveners'  Palsy 718 

Scrofula 714 

Scruple 714 

Scudder,  John 71 

Scudery,  Georges  de 71 

Scudery,  Madeleine  de.  Mile 715 

Sculpiu".    See  Bullhead. 

Sculpture 715 

Scuppaug 72 

Scurvy 724 

Scurvy  Grass 72 

Scutari,  Asia 725 

Scutari,  Kurope 725 

Scutibranchlates 725 

Scylla.    See  Sclglio. 

Scythe  and  Sickle 725 

Scythia 72 

Scythopolis 726 

Sea.    See  Ocean. 

Sea  Anemone.    See  Actinia. 

Sea  Bear.    See  Seal. 

Heabury,  Samuel  (two) 726 

Se*  Cat 726 


PAGE 

Sea  Cow.    See  Manatee. 

Sea  Cucumber 727 

Sea  Devil.    See  Goose  Fish. 

Sea  Dove.    See  Auk. 

Sea  Egg.    See  Echinus. 

Sea  Elephant.    See  Seal. 

Sea  Fan 729 

Sea  Fox.    See  Shark. 

Sea  Hog.    See  Porpoise. 

Sea  Horse.    See  Walrus. 

Sea  Horse 729 

Sea  Kale 729 

Seal,  In  zoology 780 

Seal 734 

Seal  Engraving.   See  Gem,  vol.  vii., 
p.  663. 

Sea  Leopard.    See  Seal. 

Seal  Fishery.    See  SeaL 

Sea  Lion.    See  Seal. 

Sealsfleld,  Charles 736 

Seaman 786 

Sea  Mosses.    See  Polyzoa. 

Sea   Nettle.     See   Acalephae,    and 
Jelly  Fish. 

Sea  Pie.    See  Oyster  Catcher. 

Sea  Porcupine 788 

Sea  Eaven 789 

Search,  Eight  of. 789 

Searcy  co 740 

Sea  Eobin.    See  Gurnard. 

Sears,  Barnas 740 

Sears,  Edmund  Hamilton 740 

Sea  Serpent 740 

Sea  Sickness 741 

Sea  Snipe.    See  Bellows  Fish,  and 
Pipe  Fish. 

Seasons 741 

Sea  Spider.    Sea  Spider  Crab. 

Sea  Spider 742 

Boa  Squirt • 742 

Sea  Swallow.    See  Tern. 

Beaton,  William  Winston 742 

Sea  Unicorn.    See  Narwhal. 

Sea  Urchin.    See  Echinus. 

Sea  Weeds.    See  Algae. 

Sea  Wolf.    See  Wolf  Fish. 

Sebaste.    See  Samaria. 

Sebastian  co 742 

Sebastian,  Dom,  King 742 

Sebastian,  Saint 743 

Sebastian!,  Francois.     Horace  Bas- 

tien,  Count 743 

Sebastopol 743 

Secchi,  Pietro  Angelo 744 

Seckendorf,  Veit  Ludwig  von 744 

Seckendorf,     Friedrich     Heinrich, 

Count 744 

Seeker,  Thomas 744 

Second 744 

Second  Ad ventists 745 

Secretary  Bird 745 

Secretion.    See  Gland. 

Sector 746 

Secular  Games 746 

Secularism.    See  Holyoake,  George 

Jacob. 

Secundus,  Johannes.  See  Johannes 
Secundus. 

Sedaine,  Michel  Jean 746 

Sedalia 747 

Sedan 747 

Sedge 747 

Sedgwick  co 748 

Bedgwick,  Adam 748 

Bedgwick,  John 748 

Sedgwick,  Theodore  (three) 749 

Bedgwick,  Catharine  Maria 749 

Sedgwick,  Susan  Eidley 749 

Sedley,  Sir  Charles 749 

Seduction 749 

Sedum 751 

Seebach,  Marie 752 

Seeland 752 

Seeley,  John  Eobert  752 

Beemann,  Berthold 752 

Segneri,  Paolo 752 

Segovia,  a  province 752 

Segovia,  a  city 758 

Seguin,  fidouard 753 

Segnr,  Philippe  Henri.  Marquis  de.  753 

Segur,  Louis  Philippe,  Count 753 

Segur,  Philippe  Paul  de,  Count. ...  754 


CONTENTS 


Seidlitz  Powders.  See  Eochelle  Salt. 

Beidiitz  Water 754 

Seine,  a  river ...:......'.'. 

Seine,  a  department " 

Seine-et-Marne "  754 

8eine-e t-Oise 

Beine-Inferieure [      " 

Seisin.    See  Livery  of  Seisin. 

Seistan 755 

Sejanus,  Lucius  JSliusl '.'..'.'.        "  IX 

Sejour,  Victor ''  755 

Selachians j.  755 

Selborne,  Lord.    See  Palmer!  Eoun- 
dell. 

Selden,  John 795 

Selene.    See  Luna. 
Selenite.    See  Gypsum. 

Selenium 755 

Seleucia '  [  75^ 

Seleucia  on  the  Tigris .'.  75( 

Seleucia  Pieria 75( 

Seleucus  I.,  Nicator 75( 

Self-Dcfence 757 

Selinus .' .       . '  751] 

Seliuks !..  757 

Selkirk,  Alexander 767 

Selkirkshire 758 

Selma 758 

Seltzer  Water.  See  Mineral  Springs, 

vol.  xi.,  p.  594. 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus 758 

Semele 758 

Semendria 758 

Semlnoles 768 

Semipolatinsk 759 

Semiramis 760 

Semitic  Eace  and  Languages 700 

Semler,  Johann  Salomo 762 

Semlin 762 

Semmering 762 

Semmes,  Raphael 763 

Sempach 7(J8 

Semper,  Gottfried 768 

Semper,  Hans 768 

Semper,  Karl 768 

Semple,  Eobert  Baylor 763 

Senac,  Jean  Baptiste 763 

Senac,  Gabriel  de  Meilhan 764 

Senate 764 

Seneca  co.,  N.  T 765 

Seneca  co.,  Ohio 765 

Seneca,  Marcus  Annseus 765 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annseus 765 

Seneca  Falls 766 

Seneca  Lake 766 

Seneca  Oil.    See  Petroleum. 

Senecas 766 

Senefelder,  Aloys 767 

Senegal,  a  river 767 

Senegal,  a  colony 767 

Senegambia 767 

Senior,  Nassau  William 768 

Senlis 768 

Senna 768 

Sennaar 769 

Sennacherib.    See  Assyria,  vol.  ii., 

p.  35. 

Sens 7iO 

Sensitive  Plant.    See  Mimosa. 

Sepia 77 

Sepoys 770 

Seps ' '  J 

September T«l 

Septimius  Severus.    See  Severus. 
Septuagiat.     See  Bible,  vol.  ii.,  p. 

613. 

Sepulveda,  Juan  Ginez  de 771 

Sequana.    See  Seine. 

Sequatchie  co 771 

Sequin 771 

Sequoia. '71 

Sequoyah  co "« 

Seraglio.    See  Constantinople. 

Seraing J73 

Serampore <  1* 

Serapis ' T8 

Serayevo.    See  Bosna-Serai. 
Serbati.    See  Eosmini  Serbati. 

Serf. HI 

Sergeant,  John J <o 

Sergipe "b 

Serinagur 7<6 


IX 


Serlngapatam 775 

Serous  Membranes.  See  Membrane. 

Serpent,  a  musical  Instrument 777 

Serpent 777 

Serpentine.     See  Marble,  voL  xl_ 

p.  147. 

Serrano,  Francisco 773 

Sertorius,  Quintus 779 

Berval 779 

Servant.    See  Master  and  Servant 

Servetus,  Michael 779 

Servla 790 

Servian  Language  and  Literature..'  788 
Service  Berry.    See  June  Berry. 

Service  Tree 784 

Servites 785 

Servius  Tullius 765 

Sesostris.    See  Egypt,  voL  vi.,  p. 

462. 

Sesterce 7gfi 

Sestos 7»5 

Set.     See  Demonology,  vol.  v.,  p. 

Seti  L  and  II.    See  Egypt,  vol.  vL, 
pp.  461-'2. 

Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann 786 

Setter 788 

Settlement 786 

Setubal 787 

Sevastopol.    See  Sebaetopol. 
Seven  Pines,  Battle  of.   See  Chlcka- 

hominy,  vol.  iv.,  p.  411. 
Seventeen  Years1  Locust.   See  Har- 
vest Fly. 

Seventh  Day  Adventists.    See  Sec- 
ond Adventists. 

Seventh  Day  Baptists 787 

Seventh  Day  Baptists,  German.  See 
Dunkers. 

Seven  Years'  War 787 

Severn 783 

Severus,  Alexander.  See  Alexander 
Severus. 

Severus,  Lucius  Septimius 783 

Sevier  co.,  Ark 789 

Sevier  co.,  Tenn 789 

Sevier  co..  Utah 789 

Sevignd,  Marie  de  Babutin-Chantal, 

Marquise  de 789 

eville 790 

Sevres 791 

Sevres,  Deux 791 

Seward  co.,  Nebraska 791 

Seward  co.,  Kansas 791 

Seward,  Anne 793 

Seward,  William  Henry 792 

Sewell,  William 794 

Sewell,  Elizabeth  Missing 794 

Sewellel 794 

Sewerage. 794 

~  iwing  Machine 799 

Sextant 80 

Sextus  Empiricus 804 

Seychelles.    See  Mauritius,  voL  xi., 

p.  298. 
Seydlitz,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von. . .  804 

Seyffarth,  Gustav 604 

Seymour,  Edward 804 

Seymour,  Lady  Jane 80 

Seymour,  Horatio 806 

Sforza,  family  of 806 

Sforza,  Giacomuzzo  Attendolo 80 

Sforza,  Francesco 806 

Sforza,  Galeazzo  Maria  806 

Sforza,  Ludovico 806 

Sforza,  Massimilliano 80 

Sforza,  Francesco  II 807 

Sgravesande.    See  Gravesande. 

Shackleford  co 807 

Shad 807 

Shad  Bush.    See  June  Berry. 

Shaddock 80 

Shadwell,  Thomas 808 

Shaflesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Coo- 
per, Earl  of 60S 

Shafteabury,  Anthony  Ashley  Coo- 
per, Earl  of  (two) 809 

'hag.    See  Cormorant. 

Shagreen 80 

Shakers J*1 

Shakespeare,  William 81 

Shale 888 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 

Shamanism 838 

Shamokin &O) 

Shamrock.    Bee  Oxalis. 

Shamyl 824 

Shanghai 824 

Shannon  oo 826 

Shannon,  a  river 626 

Shanny 826 

Sharja. 826 

Shark 826 

Sharon 860 

Sharon  Springs 880 

Sharp,  Granvtlle 880 

Sharp,  James S81 

Sharp,  John 881 

Sharp,  Thomas 881 

Sharpe  co 881 

Shasuco 831 

Shasta,  Mount    Seo  Glacier,  Rocky 

Mountains,  and  Siskiyou. 
Shastra.    See  Veda. 
Shat-el-Arab.    See  Euphrates. 

Shaw,  Lemuel 882 

Shawano  co 882 

Shawl 882 

Shawneeco 882 

8hawne«s 882 

Shays,  Daniel 888 

Shea,  John  D.  OUmary 888 

Shearwater Ml 

Sheathbill 884 

Sheba 884 

Sheboypan  co 834 

Bheboygan 886 

Shechem 836 

Shedd,  William  Oreenough  Thayer.  886 

Shee,  Sir  Martin  Archer 686 

Sheeahs.    See  Shiahs. 

Sheep 885 

Sheep's  Head L...  889 


FAGK 

Sheerness : 840 

Sheffield 840 

Sheffield,  John.    See  Buckingham, 
or  Buckinghamshire,  Duke  of. 

Shefford  co 841 

Shell,  Richard  Lalor 841 

Shekel 841 

Shelburne  co 841 

Shelburne,  William  Petty,  Earl  of. 
See  Lansdowne. 

Shelby  co.,  Ala 841 

Shelby  co.,  Texas 841 

Shelby  co.,  Tenn 841 

Shelby  co.,  Ky 841 

Shelby  co.,  Ohio 842 

Shelby  co.,  Ind 842 

Shelby  co.,  Ill 842 

Shelby  co.,  Iowa  842 

Shelby  co..  Mo 842 

Shelby,  Isaac 842 

Shelbyville 842 

Sheldrake 849 

Shell  Lac.    See  Lac. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe 848 

Shelley,  Mary  Wollstonecraft  God- 
win.  * 846 

Shelton,  Frederick  William 846 

Shem 846 

Shenandoah 645 

Shcnandoah  co 845 

Shenstone,  William 846 

Shepard,  Charles  Upham 846 

Sherbrooke  CO 846 

Sherbrooke 846 

Sherburne  co 846 

Sheridan  co.,  Kansas 846 

Sheridan  co.,  Dakota 846 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry 846 

Sheridan,  Thomas  (two) 847 

Sheridan,  Frances. 647 


PAGE 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley 847 

Sheriff. 848 

Sherlock,  William 850 

Sherlock,  Thomas 860 

Sherman  co.,  Nebraska 850 

Sherman  co.,  Kansas 850 

Sherman 850 

Sherman,  Roger 850 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh 851 

Sherman,  John 852 

Sherry.    See  Spain,  Wines  of. 

Sherwood,  Mary  Martha 862 

Shetland  Islands 862 

Shew  Bread 862 

Shiahs 8?>8 

Shlawassee  co 868 

Shield 858 

Shields,  North  and  South 864 

Shlites.    See  Shiahs. 

Shtkarpoor 664 

Shilling 864 

Shlloh,  Palestine 864 

Shlloh,  Tenn .• 854 

Shimonosekl 655 

Shiner.    Sec  Dace. 

Shtoktng 655 

Shinto.    Seo  Japan,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  587 
and  662. 

Ship 856 

Shlpp,  Albert  M 869 

Shipping 868 

Ship  Worm 870 

Shlraz 871 

Shire.    See  County. 

Shire,  a  river 874 

Shirloy,  James 872 

Shirwa 878 

Bhoa 872 

Shoddy 679 

Sot.7.  678 


0 


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1879 

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