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Educaiion  commences  af  ihe  mothers  knee, 
and  every  word  spoken  wiihin  ihehear- 
ing  of  Utile  children  tends  towards  the 
formation  of  character.  — Ballou 


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tfie  properiy 

of 


Knowledge  is  of  ioiX>  kinds.  Ca)e  know  a 
subject  ourselves,  or  loe  know  where 
we  can   find  information  upon  if. 

Samuel  Johnson 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2010 


http://www.archive.org/details/americaneducator07fost 


EDUCWOR^ 


COMPLETELY  /^MODELLED  JJND  I^WR^TTEN  FRQM  OF(l&INAL 

TEXT  OF  THE  NEdi)  PRACTICAL  I^FEB^NCE  LIBP^f^,     WITH 

NEW  VIsJl-NS  ^ND  ADDITIONAL  MATEBl^L 


ELLSWOB^HRFOSTET^LLB., 

EDITOP^IN  CHIEF 
EDITOI^  THE  hJOKLD  BOOK^;  AUTHOB^CYCLOPEDM  OF  CW/L 

eOVEH^MENT 


J[/IMESLyiUQHLIN  HUGHES 

EBITO\FOI{JiJmADA 
AUTHOI^ANJ) FOI^El^HIEF INSPECTOB^OF  SCHOOLS,  TOFQNTO 


PEACE  EDITION 


IN  EIGHT  VOLUMES 


P^PHDUPffm^  COMPANY 
puBLmEi{§   cmcj^eo 


CopjTight.  1919 

HANSOX-BEULOWS  PUBLISHING   COMPANY 


VOLUME  SEVEN 


SCHWATKA,  shwofka,  Frederick 
(1849-1892),  an  American  Arctic  explorer, 
bom  at  Galena,  111.  He  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1871  and  was  occupied  with 
garrison  duty  on  the  frontier  until  1877. 
Meantime,  he  continued  his  studies  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Nebraska  and  re- 
ceived a  degree  in  medicine  in  1876.  Two 
years  later  he  started  for  the  north  polar 
region  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his 
party.  After  a  journey  fraught  with  great 
peril,  he  returned  with  evidence  of  the  final 
destruction  of  the  Franklin  expedition.  Later 
he  explored  the  Yukon  River  in  Alaska  and 
also  made  several  expeditions  through  un- 
known parts  of  Mexico.  He  has  narrated  his 
experience  in  three  books.  Along  Alaska's 
Great  River,  Nimrod  in  the  North  and  Chil- 
dren of  the  Cold. 

SCIATICA,  si  at'i  kah,  neuralgia  of  the 
nerve  trunk  which  passes  down  the  back  of 
the  thigh,  called  the  great  sciatic  nerve.  It 
is  caused  usually  by  exposure,  strain,  pres- 
sure of  constipation,  and  usually  attacks 
persons  subject  to  gout  or  rheumatism,  but 
is  sometimes  a  complication  of  spinal  dis- 
ease, diabetes  and  other  disorders.  Severe 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  hip  is  the  chief 
symptom.  If  not  properly  treated  sciatica 
tends  to  become  chronic.  Treatment  includes 
rest,  injection  of  medicine  into  the  nerve  and, 
in  severe  cases,  local  operation. 

SCIENCE  AND  THE  SCIENCES. 
Science  is  a  term  derived  from  the  Latin 
verb  scire,  meaning  to  know ;  therefore  in  the 
broadest  sense  of  the  teiTQ  science  means 
knowledge.  But  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is 
ordinarily  used,  it  means  knowledge  gained 
through  observation  and  study  and  organized 
by  experience  into  a  systematic  whole.  How- 
ever, when  we  consider  science  in  this  light, 
we  apply  it  to  some  branch  of  knowledge, 
which  we  call  a  science — such  as  the  science  of 
botany,  or  the  science  of  ethics.  In  our  study 
of  science,  then,  we  are  dealing  more  with 
the  sciences  than  with  science  in  the  abstract. 

The  ancient  Greek  philosophers,  to  whom 
we  look  for  the  first  classification  of  sciences, 
had  little  difficulty  in  making  their  classifica- 
tions.    Aristotle,    for  instance,   divided   all 

202  321 


sciences  into  three  classes — theoretical,  prac- 
tical and  poetical,  meaning  by  poetical, 
creative  or  technical  sciences.  But  as  knowl- 
edge was  extended,  a  more  complete  classi- 
fication of  its  various  branches  became  neces- 
sary, and  now  we  have  almost  as  many 
sciences  as  there  are  branches  of  knowledge. 
We  are  inclined,  however,  to  narrow  our 
conception  of  the  sciences  to  those  branches  of 
knowledge  that  pertain  to  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  or  to  what  we  are  pleased  to  call  the 
natural  sciences.  Such  a  conception  is  too 
narrow,  for  we  have  sciences  that  deal  with 
human  conduct,  as  well  as  with  phenomena  of 
nature.  Among  such  sciences  are  esthetics, 
ethics  and  cirics. 

The  ti'uly  scientific  investigator  never  jumps 
at  conclusions;  he  never  takes  anything  for 
granted.  Unless  the  supposition  under  con- 
sideration is  backed  by  sufficient  evidence  to 
warrant  its  acceptance,  he  lays  it  aside  for 
further  investigation.  He  works  from  his 
knowledge  of  the  general  law  of  cause  and 
effect,  knowing  that  under  the  same  circum- 
stances the  given  conditions  always  lead  to 
certain  results. 

Related  Articles.  The  following  are  the 
most  important  branches  of  science  treated 
in  these  volumes  : 


Mathematics 

Meteorology 

Mineralogy 

Numismatics 

Oceanography 

Paleontology 

Philology 

Philosophy 

Phonetics 

Physical   Geography 

Physics 

Physiology 

Psychology 

Sanitary  Science 

Sociology 

Zoology 


Algebra 

Anatomy 

Anthropology 

Archaeology 

Arithmetic 

Astronomy 

Biology 

Botany 

Calculus 

Chemistry 

Economics 

Ethnography 

Ethnology 

Eugenics 

Geography 

Geology 

Geometry 

SCILLY,  siVlij,  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
about  140  small  British  islands  situated  at 
the  entrance  of  the  English  Channel,  about 
thirty  miles  from  Land's  End.  Six  islands 
are  of  some  importance,  the  others  being 
mere  points  of  rock.  The  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  fishing  and  in  the  cultivation  of 
flowers  and  vegetables.  Population,  1911, 
2,500. 

SCIPIO,  sip'e  o,  PuBLius  CoR^-ELIUs  (237- 
about  185  B.  c),  sumamed  SciPio. 


SCIPIO 


3218 


SCORPION 


Africakus  the  Elder,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious of  Roman  warriors.  He  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Ticinus  and  Cannae,  in  the 
first  Pimic  War,  and  in  212  B.  c.  was  vmani- 
mously  elected  aedile.  The  following  year 
he  became  proconsul  in  Spain.  His  first  en- 
terprise of  importance  was  the  conquest  of 
New  Carthage,  the  stronghold  of  the  Car- 
thaginians in  Spain.  The  next  year  (209) 
he  totally  defeated  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal's 
brother,  and  in  207  won  a  decisive  victory 
over  Mago  and  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Gisco. 
The  result  was  to  drive  the  Carthaginians 
from  Spain,  and  Scipio  was  empowered  to 
lead  an  army  against  Carthage  itself.  The 
Carthaginians  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy, 
but  the  great  Battle  of  Zama  (202  B.  c.)  re- 
sulted in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians. On  his  return  to  Rome,  Scipio  was 
honored  with  a  triumph  and  received  the  sur- 
name of  Africanus.  After  the  successful 
close  of  a  war  with  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria, 
in  189  B.  C,  Scipio  retired  to  private  life. 
See  Carthage;  Roirs,  History  of. 

SCIPIO,  PuBLius  Cornelius  AEiiiLiANUS 
(about  185-129  b.  c),  sumamed  Scipio 
Africaxus  the  Younger,  a  distinguished 
Roman  general,  a  grandson  by  adoption  of 
Scipio  Africanus  the  Elder.  In  151  B.  c. 
he  accompanied  the  consul,  Lucius  Licinius 
Lucullus,  to  Spain  as  military-  tribune,  and 
two  years  later,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Third 
Punic  War,  he  commanded  in  Africa  under 
Manius  Manilius.  His  services  were  so  im- 
portant that  in  147,  although  not  of  the  legal 
age,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  consul  and 
leader  of  the  forces  against  the  Carthaginians. 
In  146  he  took,  and  by  command  of  the  sen- 
ate, burned,  Carthage,  for  which  he  was 
honored  with  a  triumph  at  Rome  and  with 
the  surname  of  Africanus.  In  the  last  years 
of  his  life  he  engendered  much  enmity  among 
the  people  by  opposing  the  measures  of  the 
popular  party,  especially  the  agrarian  law  of 
Tiberius  Gracchus. 

SCISSORBILL,  si/er  hill,  or  SKIM'MER, 
a  bird  of  the  gull  family,  named  because  of 
its  peculiar  elongated,  compressed  bill,  of 
which  the  lower  mandible  much  exceeds  the 
upper  in  length  and  shuts  into  the  latter 
somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  a  knife  blade 
into  its  handle.  This  beak  is  of  an  orange 
color  at  its  base  and  black  at  its  tip.  The 
bird  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
America  and  Africa.  It  is  often  seen  skim- 
ming along  the  water,  thrusting  the  lower  bill 


into  the  water  in  its  search  for  food.  The 
general  color  of  the  bird  is  dark  above  and 
white  below,  with  a  band  of  white  across  its 
wings. 

SCLEROSIS,  sJile  ro'sis,  in  physiology,  a 
hardening  of  the  tissues  in  some  part  of 
the  body.  Hardening  of  the  middle  coat  of 
an  artery  is  a  common  form  of  sclerosis,  and 
causes  many  deaths  among  city  dwellers.  It 
is  frequently  associated  with  heart  and  kid- 
ney diseases.  Hardening  of  the  normal  tis- 
sue of  the  liver  is  called  cirrhosis.  Various 
neiTous  diseases,  notably  locomotor  ataxia, 
result  from  degeneration  of  the  tissue  of  the 
brain  or  spinal  cord. 

SCORPIO,  sko/peo,  the  eighth  sign  of 
the  zodiac,  the  "accursed  constellation,"  con- 
sidered by  astrologers  to  exercise  a  baneful 
influence  upon  human  destinies.  '  In  ancient 
astrology  the  s^Tnbol  (TH)  'was  meant  to 
represent  the  arrow-shaped  sting  of  the 
scorpion.  This  constellation  is  attended  at 
its  setting  by  tempests  and  autumnal  dis- 
eases. 

Related    Articles.       Consult     the     following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Aries  Orion 

Astronomy  Zodiac 

SCOR'PION,  the  name  of  a  group  of  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  same  class  as  the 
spiders.  They 
live  in  tropical 
and  warm  tem- 
perate regions, 
and  are  not 
found  in  Amer- 
ica north  of  Ne- 
braska. In  the 
southern  part 
of  the  United 
States  there  are 
about  twenty 
species.  The 
body  consists  of 
two  parts,  one 
containing  the 
head  and  thorax 
and  called  the 
c  e  p  halothorax, 
and  the  other  a 
long,  jointed 
abdomen,  the 
last  five  seg- 
ments of  which  form  a  taU.  Four  pairs  of 
legs  and  two  pairs  of  mandibles  or  pincers 
are  attached  to  the  cephalothorax ;  the  second 
pair  of  pincers  resemble  a  lobster's  claws. 


SCORPION 


SCORPION  FISH 


3219 


SCOTLAND 


The  abdomen  contains  breathing  pores  and 
the  last  segment  of  the  tail  is  armed  with  a 
sharp  poisonous  sting,  the  poison  being  se- 
creted by  two  glands  at  its  base.  The  eyes 
vary  in  number  from  six  to  twelve,  ac- 
cording to  the  species.  Scorpions  are  usually 
black  or  yellowish  in  color.  The  young  are 
carried  on  the  body  of  the  mother  for  sev- 
eral days  after  birth.  They  cling  to  her  body 
by  the  pincers. 

Scorpions  remain  hidden  in  crevices  and 
under  rocks  by  day,  and  are  active  at  night. 
They  feed  upon  insects  and  spiders,  and  are 
dreaded  by  man  because  their  sting  causes  a 
serious  and  painful  wound,  though  it  is 
seldom  fatal.  The  poison  should  be  sucked 
from  the  wound  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the 
wound  bathed  with  ammonia,  which  should  be 
also  taken  internally. 

SCORPION  FISH,  a  genus  of  fishes  be- 
longing to  the  gurnard  family.  The  red  scor- 
pion fish  is  a  familiar  form.  The  spotted  scor- 
pion fish  is  a  second  species,  and,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, is  native  to  British  waters  as  well  as 
in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
tropical  seas.  Another  species  is  the  common 
market  fish  of  Southern  California,  measur- 
ing a  foot  in  length  and  colored  brown  and 
olive. 

SCORPION  FLY,  an  insect  related  to  the 
dragon  fly.  The  name  scorpion  fly  is  derived 
from  the  appendages  attached  to  the  abdomen 
of  some  species.  The  male  in  the  common 
species,  for  example,  has  the  sixth  and 
seventh  joints  of  the  abdomen  attenuated 
and  capable  of  extensive  motion,  while  the 
last  joint  forms  a  pair  of  forceps,  resembling 
those  of  the  earwigs.  When  at  rest  this  tail  is 
curled  over  the  back,  but  when  irritated  the 
forceps  are  used  as  weapons  of  offense  or 
defense. 

SCOTCH  TER'RIER,  a  small  dog  weigh- 
ing from  fourteen  to  twenty  pounds,  with  a 
long  head,  dark  eyes  and  upright  ears.  The 
hair  is  rough  and  coarse,  and  may  be  black, 
reddish,  brindled  or  sandy.  The  tail  is  car- 
ried erect.  The  dogs  are  intelligent,  gentle 
and  active  and  in  demand  as  pets. 

SCOTCH  VERDICT  In  American  courts 
a  person  who  is  tried  for  an  alleged  of- 
fense before  a  jury  meets  with  a  verdict 
of  "guilty"  or  "not  guilty."  In  Scotland, 
in  cases  where  the  evidence  is  not  conclusive 
in  either  of  the  above  directions,  the  jury 
may  return  the  verdict,  "not  proven."  The 
accused  must  then  be  freed. 


COT'LAND,  the  political 
division  of  the  United 
Kingdom  occupying  the 
northern  part  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britain, 
and  including  the  Heb- 
rides, Orkney,  Shetland 
and  other  islands.  It  is 
separated  from  England 
by  the  Cheviot  Hills  and 
Solway  Firth.  Scotland 
is  the  Caledonia  of  the 
Romans,  a  land  of  irreg- 
ular coasts  and  rugged 
surface ;  of  beautiful 
lakes  and  hardy  people; 
the  land  of  which  Scott 
sang : 

O  Caledonia!  stern  and  wild, 

Meet  nurse  for  a  poetic  child! 

Land  of  brown  heath  and  shag-gy  wood, 

Land  of  the  mountain  and  the  flood. 

Scotland's  wild  beauty,  wamng  factions 
and  devoted  heroes  have  been  celebrated  in 
legend,  poetry  and  song  until  the  country  is 
known  wherever  the  English  tongue  is  spoken. 

Location  and  Size.  With  the  exception 
of  the  boundary  separating  it  from  England 
Scotland  is  surrounded  by  the  sea.  The  coast 
line  is  very  irregular  and  has  an  extent  of 
2,300  miles.  The  most  northerly  point  of 
the  mainland  is  in  about  the  same  latitude 
as  Petrograd,  the  southern  point  of  Green- 
land and  the  southern  coast  of  Alaska.  The 
greatest  length  from  northeast  to  southwest 
is  287  miles,  and  the  breadth  varies  from 
less  than  thirty  to  140  miles.    The  area,  in- 


SCOTCH  TERRIER 

eluding  islands,  is  30,404  square  miles,  or  a 
little  less  than  that  of  South  Carolina.  On 
the  eastern  coast  the  most  prominent  inden- 


SCOTLAND 


3220 


SCOTLAND 


tations  are  Moray  Firth,  the  Firth  of  Tay 
and  the  Firth  of  Forth,  while  on  the  south 
and  west  are  Solway  Firth,  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  the  Firth  of  Lome,  the  Sound  of 
Sleat  and  Loch  Broom.  With  the  exception 
of  the  sound,  each  of  these  indentations  ter- 
minates in  an  estuary. 

The  People.  About  one-tenth  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  United  Kingdom  live  in 
Scotland.  The  native  inhabitants  are  known 
as  Scots  or  Scotch.  Those  occupying  the 
northern  portion  of  the  countrj-,  particularly 
the  highlands,  are  of  Gaelic  descent,  and 
among  them  the  Gaelic  language  is  still 
spoken,  though  most  of  the  younger  people 
have  learned  the  English  (see  Celts).  The 
southern  portion  of  the  country  contains  a 
large  number  of  people  of  English  descent. 
The  Scotch  are  a  hardy  race,  known  the 
world  over  for  their  int^grit}",  industry  and 
thrift.  The  Highlanders  are  the  tallest  peo- 
ple in  the  world,  averaging  from  five  feet 
eight  inches  to  six  feet  in  height.  They  still 
retain  their  ancient  style  of  dress,  with  the 
kilt  and  the  plaid  for  special  occasions,  and 
the  bagpipe  still  awakens  the  echoes  of  hill 
and  glen.  The  elan  or  tribe  which  has  played 
so  conspicuous  a  part  in  their  history  con- 
tinues to  be  important  in  social  life.  The 
highland  regions  are  sparsely  settled,  but 
in  the  lowlands  the  people  have  gathered  in 
large  cities  and  towns,  and  the  movement 
city-ward  is  increasing.  In  this  part  of 
the  countiy  fully  three-fourths  of  the  in- 
habitants dwell  in  cities,  of  which  Glasgow, 
with  784,500  inhabitants;  Edinburgh,  about 
half  as  large,  and  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  each 
ha\dng  a  population  of  about  160,000,  are 
the  most  important. 

In  religion  the  larger  part  of  the  popula- 
tion are  followers  of  the  Presb\i:erian  faith, 
though  other  Protestant  churches  have  con- 
siderable following,  and  in  the  larger  cities 
the  Church  of  England  is  maintained,  but 
neither  this  Church  nor  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  as  numerous  a  following,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  inhabitants,  as  in 
England  or  Ireland. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  of 
Scotland  is  divided  naturally  into  three  divi- 
sions— the  highlands,  occup\4ng  the  northern 
portion  of  the  country' ;  the  central  low- 
lands, immediately  southeast  of  the  high- 
lands, and  the  southern  uplands,  which  in- 
clude the  southern  counties.  The  highland 
region,  which  embraces  fully   one-third  of 


Scotland,  is  noted  for  its  numerous  moun- 
tains and  hills,  the  highest  of  which  are  the 
Grampian  Hills,  containing  steep  precipices 
and  narrow  valleys  through  which  flow  rapid 
streams  or  in  which  lie  deep  and  clear  moun- 
tain lakes.  The  highest  elevation  in  this 
region  and  in  Great  Britain  is  Ben  Nevis, 
which  attains  an  altitude  of  4,406  feet. 

The  central  lowlands  differ  from  lowlands 
in  most  other  countries  in  being  widely  diver- 
sified by  low  hills,  beautiful  valleys  and 
numerous  lakes  and  streams.  This  region 
and  the  highlands  have  for  centuries  been 
famous  for  their  beautiful  scenerj',  and  it  was 
this  iDortion  of  Scotland  that  Scott  immor- 
talized in  his  poems,  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Lay 
of  the  Last  Minstrel  and  Marmion,  and  in 
a  number  of  his  novels  (see  Scott,  Walter, 
Sir).  In  the  southern  uplands  are  found 
numerous  ranges  of  low  mountains,  one  of 
which,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  forms  a  portion 
of  the  boundary  between  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land. Another  range  extends  southward  into 
England.  These  are  low  mountains,  and  the 
highest  peaks  do  not  attain  an  altitude  of 
3,000  feet,  but  a  number  reach  a  height  of 
2,700  feet  or  over.  The  surface  in  this  part 
of  the  countrj^  is  less  broken  and  iiTegular 
than  in  the  highland  region. 

The  most  important  streams  flow  to  the  east 
and  enter  the  North  Sea.  The  largest  of 
these  is  the  Tweed,  and  others  worthy  of 
mention  are  the  Forth,  the  Tay,  the  Dee,  the 
Don,  the  Spey  and  the  Findhom.  Those 
enteiing  the  sea  on  the  west  are  the  Clyde, 
the  Axr,  the  Doon,  the  Dee,  the  Xith,  the 
Annan  and  the  Esk.  The  Tay  has  the  great- 
est volume  of  water,  but  the  Clyde  has  been 
canalized  and  thus  made  navigable  for  ocean 
ships  as  far  as  Glasgow,  This  renders  it 
bj'  far  the  most  important  commercial  water- 
way of  Scotland.  The  country'  is  noted  for 
its  large  number  of  beautiful  mountain  lakes. 
Among  the  most  noted  of  these  are  Lomond, 
Katrine,  Tay,  Earn,  Rannoch,  Awe,  Shiel, 
Ness  and  Maree,  in  the  western  and  north- 
ern highlands,  Leven  in  the  central  low- 
lands, and  Saint  Mary's  Ken,  Dee  and  Doon, 
in  the  southern  uplands. 

Climate.    See  Great  Britain. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  southern  por- 
tion of  Scotland  is  rich  in  minerals.  By  far 
the  most  important  of  these  is  coal,  which  is 
mined  in  large  quantities  in  the  County  of 
Lanark,  in  which  Glasgow  is  situated.  Iron 
ore  is  found  in  the  County  of  Ayr,  to  the 


SCOTLAND 


3221 


SCOTLAND 


^f^/^,      (^: 


''■•^■^Duncansby  Head 


MAP  OF  SCOTLAND 

west  of  the  coal  fields.  Shale  rock,  which  Fisheries.  Surrounded,  as  it  is,  by  cool 
yields  large  quantities  of  shale  oil,  is  ex-  waters  and  dotted  with  a  large  number  of 
tensively  quan-ied  in  Linlithgow  County.  cold,  clear  streams  and  lakes,  Scotland 
Granite,  limestone,  slate,  clay  and  lead  are  abounds  in  fish,  and  the  taking  of  them  con- 
also  produced  in  paying  quantities.  stitutes  an  important  industry  of  the  people. 


SCOTLAND 


3222 


SCOTLAND 


The  annual  catch  is  valued  at  about  $15,000,- 
000.  The  varieties  taken  in  largest  quan- 
tities are  herring,  haddock  and  cod.  Steam 
trawlers  are  replacing  the  sailing  vessels, 
and  this  change  is  forcing  most  of  the  private 
fishermen  out  of  business,  since  they  do  not 
have  the  capital  to  compete  with  the  large 
boats  owned  by  companies  which  now  con- 
trol the  salmon,  whale  and  seal  fisheries.  The 
value  of  the  fisheries  for  1917,  exclusive  of 
salmon,  was  $17,751,000. 

Agriculture.  Its  rugged  surface,  barren 
soil  and  cool  climate  render  a  large  part  of 
Scotland  unsuitable  for  agriculture.  In  the 
lowlands  all  available  land  is  tilled,  and  in 
the  highlands  and  upland  regions  much  of  the 
counti^'  is  devoted  to  stock  raising.  The 
highlands  are  well  adapted  to  sheep,  and 
the  wool  produced  is  of  considerable  value. 
Among  the  important  crops  are  oats,  barley, 
turnips,  potatoes  and  hay.  Forage  crops  are 
also  raised  for  fodder.  The  country  is  known 
for  its  excellent  breeds  of  cattle,  among  which 
are  found  the  Ayrshire,  the  Jersey,  the  polled 
Angus  and  the  Galloway  (see  Cattle).  Scot- 
land is  also  the  home  of  the  Clydesdale  horse. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  are  im- 
portant and  furnish  occupation  for  fully  one- 
fourth  of  the  inhabitants.  The  most  impor- 
tant manufacturing  industries  are  those  pro- 
ducing woolens,  cottons  and  linens.  These 
are  followed  by  the  iron  and  steel  industries, 
whose  center  is  at  Glasgow;  along  the  Clyde 
are  found  the  largest  shipyards  in  the  world. 
Here  were  built  the  great  shii:»s  of  the 
Cunard  line,  and  some  of  the  most  famous 
yachts  of  the  world.  The  Clyde  yards  were 
the  center  of  shipbuilding  for  the  British  Em- 
l^ire  during  the  World  "War.  Glasgow  is  also 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  chemicals,  and 
throughout  the  countiy  are  found  breweries 
and  distilleries,  some  of  which  have  become 
famous  for  their  products.  Edinburgh  is 
noted  as  one  of  the  great  publishing  centers 
of  the  English-speaking  world.  In  other 
localities  sugar  refining  and  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  glass,  gloves,  hosiery  and  various 
small  wares  give  emplojTnent  to  a  large  nmn- 
ber  of  people. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  See 
Great  Britain,  subhead  Transportation  and 
Commerce. 

Education.  The  public  education  system  of 
Scotland  was  reorganized  by  an  act  of  Par- 
liament passed  in  1918.  Central  administra- 
tion is  under  the  control  of  the  Scotch  Edu- 


cation Department,  which  is  empowered  to 
establish  an  advisory  council  consisting  of 
not  less  than  two-thirds  of  its  membership. 
The  duty  of  the  council  is  to  advise  and  make 
recommendations  to  the  department.  The 
counties  and  the  five  large  burghs  act  as  edu- 
cation authorities  administered  by  boards 
elected  by  local  government  units.  The  bill 
also  provided  for  the  establishment  of  nur- 
sery schools  for  children  between  the  ages 
of  two  and  five,  and  made  school  attendance 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fif- 
teen. No  exemptions  may  be  granted  to 
pupils  below  the  age  of  thirteen.  Restric- 
tions on  the  employment  of  children  are 
rigid. 

There  are  several  endowed  schools  and 
schools  under  private  management  which  ^ve 
high  school  instruction.  Universities  are 
maintained  at  Saint  Andrew's,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh.  These  are  aided 
by  government  grants  and  by  funds  contrib- 
uted by  Andrew  Carnegie.  Much  attention 
is  given  to  technical  instruction,  and  at  Glas- 
gow is  the  Royal  Technical  College,  the  larg- 
est school  of  its  kind  in  the  British  Empire. 

Govemment.  The  Local  Government 
Board  for  Scotland,  for  the  administration 
of  local  affairs,  was  created  in  1894.  It  con- 
sists of  the  Secretary  for  Scotland,  the  Gov- 
ernor-General, the  Undersecretary  and  three 
other  members  appointed  by  the  sovereign. 
The  counties  and  parishes  are  administered 
by  councils,  and  burghs  or  town  by  munic- 
ipal boards,  provosts  and  bailies. 

For  the  central  government,  see  Great 
Britain,  subhead  Government. 

Language  and  Literature.  Down  to  the 
fifteenth  century  the  term  Scottish  language 
meant  the  Gaelic,  or  Celtic,  tongue,  while 
the  language  of  lowland  Scotland  was  looked 
upon  as  English.  Such  it  really  was — North- 
ern English,  with  certain  peculiarities  of  its 
own.  The  term  Scottish  came  to  be  applied 
to  it  as  possessing  these  peculiarities  and  as 
having  a  somewhat  distinctive  literary  use. 
This  language  has  been  divided  into  three 
periods.  During  the  early  period,  extending 
to  tlie  end  of  the  fifteenth  century',  there 
was  little  difference  between  the  language 
of  Scotland  and  that  of  England  north  of 
the  Humber.  In  the  middle  period,  which 
extended  to  the  Union,  it  was  influenced  in  a 
slight  degree  by  the  Gaelic,  and  in  a  more 
pronounced  manner  by  French  and  Latin, 
consec^uent  on  the  French  alliance  and  the  re- 


SCOTLAND 


3223 


SCOTLAND 


vival  of  learning.  During  the  modern  pe- 
riod, it  has  been  to  a  considerable  extent 
affected  by  modem  literary  English,  though 
the  genuine  vernacular  may  still  be  heard 
in  many  districts. 

The  Sir  Tristram,  a  metrical  romance  dat- 
ing from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
doubtfully  attributed  to  Thomas  the  Rhymer, 
is  by  some  regarded  as  the  earliest  piece  of 
Scottish  literature,  but  the  first  undoubted 
specimen  of  Scottish  literature  is  the  Bruce 
of  Barbour  (about  1375).  Down  to  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  four  names 
stand  out  prominently,  namely,  Henryson, 
Dunbar,  Gavin  Douglas  and  Sir  David  Lind- 
say. Then,  with  the  exceptions  of  Alexander 
Scott,  Arbuthnot,  Rolland  of  Dalkeith,  Sir 
William  Alexander  and  Drummond  of 
Hawthornden,  about  a  century  and  a  half 
elapsed  before  any  eminent  poet  arose.  In 
the  third  period  of  the  language  the  first 
notable  name  is  that  of  Allan  Ramsay  (1686- 
1758),  author  of  The  Gentle  Shepherd  and 
of  numerous  shorter  pieces  and  songs.  To 
this  same  age  belongs  also  nearly  the  whole 
of  that  remarkable  body  of  song  known  as 
the  Jacobite  minstrelsy.  The  most  prom- 
inent Scotch  writers,  aside  from  those  men- 
tioned, are  Fergusson,  Robert  Burns,  Hector 
MacNeill,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  James  Hogg, 
Robert  Tannahill,  Joanna  Baillie,  George 
MacDonald,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  John 
Watson  and  J.  M.  Barrie.  Besides  these 
there  is  a  long  list  of  philosophers,  legal 
writers  and  physicians,  such  as  Adam  Smith, 
Barclay  and  Liddell. 

History.  The  part  of  the  island  of  Bri- 
tain which  lies  north  of  the  Firth  of  Forth 
and  the  Clyde  was  known  by  the  Romans 
from  the  first  century  A.  D.  as  Caledonia. 
The  name  Scotia  (Scotland),  limited  in  the 
early  periods  to  Ireland,  was  used  from  the 
tenth  century  on  for  a  part  of  Scotland,  and 
after  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  applied  to 
the  present  realm  of  Scotland.  The  oldest 
inhabitants  of  the  country  were  the  Picts. 
When  the  Romans,  during  the  time  of  the 
emperor  Claudius,  conquered  the  southern 
part  of  Britain,  the  northern  part,  Cale- 
donia, remained  independent.  When  Agric- 
ola  was  in  Great  Britain  he  made  several 
incursions  into  Caledonia  and  won  some  vic- 
tories, but  after  his  recall  these  advantages 
were  lost  by  the  Romans.  As  a  protection 
on  the  north  for  their  British  territory,  the 
Romans  during  the  time  of  Emperor  Hadrian 


built  a  wall  between  the  Firth  and  the  Tyne. 
Under  Antonius  Pius  a  second  wall  was  built 
farther  north.  In  spite  of  these  fortifica- 
tions, however,  Britain  was  constantly,  after 
the  third  century,  disturbed  by  invasions  of 
the  Picts.  About  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  Scots,  who  had  come  from 
Ireland  and  settled  in  the  northwestern  pai-t 
of  Caledonia,  began  to  take  part  in  these 
invasions. 

The  history  of  Scotland  during  the  time  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  of  Britain  is  en- 
veloped in  mystery.  In  the  seventh  century, 
when  we  again  have  historical  accounts  of 
the  country,  it  is  found  divided  into  four 
kingdoms,  those  of  the  Scots,  the  Picts,  the 
Britons  and  the  Saxons.  About  the  second 
half  of  the  sixth  century,  Christianity  had 
been  introduced  among  the  Picts,  and  the 
Scots  had  brought  Christianity  with  them 
from  Ireland.  In  843  the  king  of  the  Scots, 
Kenneth,  made  himself  ruler  also  of  the 
Picts,  and  the  kingdom  thus  formed  was 
known  for  a  time  as  Alban  and  later  as  Scot- 
land. Early  in  the  ninth  century,  Scotland 
began  to  be  disturbed  by  the  Danes  and  the 
Normans,  who  had  made  invasions  of  the 
country  and  had  formed  settlements  on  the 
islands  about  the  coast. 

The  last  king  who  was  descended  from  Ken- 
neth was  Malcolm  11.  He  was  followed  by 
Duncan,  who  was  killed  in  1040  by  Macbeth. 
Malcolm  III,  known  as  Malcolm  Canmore,  the 
son  of  Duncan,  defeated  Macbeth  and  slew 
him,  in  1057.  When  England  was  conquered 
by  the  Normans,  in  1066,  Malcolm  took  the 
part  of  Edgar  Atheling,  the  legitimate  ruler, 
and  gave  asylum  to  many  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
nobles.  He  was  for  this  reason  involved  in 
long  conflicts  with  William  the  Conqueror  and 
was  at  length  obliged  to  submit  and  do  hom- 
age for  his  kingdom.  The  most  noteworthy 
of  the  sons  of  Malcolm  was  the  youngest, 
David  I  (1124-1153),  who  introduced  into 
Scotland  feudalism  as  it  was  in  practice  in 
England.  David's  grandson  and  successor, 
Malcolm  IV,  was  unable  to  maintain  in  full 
the  power  which  David  had  gained. 

William  the  Lion  (1165-1214),  by  reason  of 
liis  claims  on  territory  in  the  northern  part  of 
England,  came  into  conflict  with  Henry  II  of 
England,  was  taken  captive  at  Alnwick  in 
1174  and  received  his  freedom  only  on  tak- 
ing the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  English  king. 
William  was  followed  by  his  son  Alexander, 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  disturbed  con- 


SCOTLAND 


3224 


SCOTLAND 


dition  of  England  under  John,  invaded  that 
country,  was  defeated  and  was  compelled  to 
do  homage  to  the  English  king.  Alexander 
III,  by  his  defeat  of  the  king  of  Norway, 
added  to  the  kingdom  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the 
Hebrides. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  and  that  of 
his  granddaughter,  Margaret,  called  the 
Maiden  of  Norway,  numerous  pretenders  to 
the  crown  arose,  among  whom  the  most  power- 
ful were  John  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce.  Ed- 
ward I,  chosen  as  arbiter  between  these  two 
claimants,  decided  in  favor  of  Baliol,  who  then 
in  turn  swore  allegiance  to  the  English  crown. 
When  Edward  made  his  overlordship  too  op- 
pressive, Baliol  attempted  with  the  help  of 
France  to  make  Scotland  independent;  but 
Edward  invaded  Scotland,  and  after  a  victory 
at  Edinburgh  he  took  Baliol  to  England  with 
him  as  a  prisoner.  Scotland  was  now  ruled 
by  an  English  regent.  Resistance  under  Wil- 
liam Wallace  was  for  a  time  effectual,  and  a 
great  vietoiy  was  gained  at  Stirling  in  1297. 
Bight  years  later,  however,  Wallace,  deserted 
by  the  Scotch  nobles,  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner.  Another  popular  leader  was  found 
in  Robert  Bruce,  who  declared  himself  king 
of  Scotland,  as  Robert  I,  and  in  1314  com- 
pletely defeated  an  English  anny  under  Ed- 
ward II  at  Bannoekburn.  For  fourteen  years 
from  this  date,  Scotland  was  practically  in- 
dependent. Robert's  son,  David  II,  who  suc- 
ceeded him,  was  a  minor,  and  new  disturb- 
ances at  once  began  in  Scotland.  War  broke 
out  with  England  in  1333,  and  after  the  Bat- 
tle of  Halidon  Hill  (1333)  and  that  of 
Neville's  Cross  (1346),  the  Scottish  kings 
were  obliged  to  do  homage  to  England. 

With  the  accession  of  Robert  II  in  1371 
began  the  Stuart  dynasty.  The  kings  of  this 
line  were  for  the  most  part  strong  and  able 
men,  but  the  fact  that  many  of  them  came  to 
the  throne  during  their  minority  allowed  the 
nobles  to  gain  undue  prominence.  James  I 
(1406-1437),  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English  before  his  father's  death,  was  not 
allowed  to  return  to  Scotland  until  1424.  He 
proved,  on  gaining  the  authority,  to  be  a  man 
of  much  strength  of  character,  and  he  intro- 
duced order  into  his  kingdom,  put  down  the 
nobility  and  greatly  encouraged  commerce 
and  industry.  James  IV  (1488-1513)  be- 
came involved  in  a  war  with  England  on  ac- 
count of  his  support  of  the  pretender,  Perkin 
Warbeck,  but  soon  concluded  a  truce,  and 
married,  in  1503,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VII 


of  England.  However,  after  the  accession  of 
Henry  VIII  to  the  English  throne,  James, 
who  had  fonned  an  alliance  with  France,  in- 
vaded Northumberland,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  the  Battle  of  Flodden  Field. 

The  king's  death  plunged  the  nation  into 
a  state  of  anarchy;  his  successor,  James  V, 
had  not  yet  reached  the  age  of  two  years. 
His  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  was  appoint- 
ed regent,  but  from  an  early  part  of  the  reign 
James  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  earl  of  Angus,  who  had  married  the  queen 
dowager  and  had  almost  complete  control  of 
affairs  till  1528,  when  James,  then  in  his 
seventeenth  year,  managed  to  escape  to 
Stirling,  take  the  government  into  his  own 
hands  and  drive  Angus  into  England.  His 
alliance  was  sought  by  England,  France  and 
Spain,  and  in  1537  James  married  the 
daughter  of  Francis  I.  The  young  queen  died 
a  few  weeks  after  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  and 
in  the  following  year  James  maiTied  Mary  of 
Lorraine,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
Henrj'  VIII  made  several  attempts  to  induce 
James  to  join  the  Reformation,  but  James 
remained  a  supporter  of  the  old  faith  as 
against  the  reform  doctrines. 

The  eventful  period  which  followed  the  ac- 
cession of  Mary  was  dominated  by  the  Ref- 
ormation, movement  and  by  the  questions 
affeetiBg  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England. 
A  scheme  to  many  the  young  queen  to  Ed- 
ward, son  of  Henry  VIII,  was  defeated,  and 
the  old  league  with  France  was  renewed. 

James  VI,  the  son  of  Mary,  was  but  a 
child,  and  a  succession  of  regents  governed 
the  kingdom.  On  the  death  of  Elizabeth  of 
England,  in  1603,  James  succeeded  to  the 
throne  as  the  nearest  heir,  through  his  descent 
from  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII  and 
wife  of  James  IV. 

There  were  seven  Scottish  Parliaments 
called  by  James  after  his  accession,  where- 
in he  was  represented  by  a  commissioner  sit- 
ting as  president.  His  chief  energies  were 
directed  to  an  attempt  to  draw  England  and 
Scotland  into  a  closer  union,  by  means  of 
harmonizing  the  laws  of  the  two  countries 
and  by  establishing  episcopacj'  in  Scotland. 
In  furtherance  of  the  latter  object  he  vis- 
ited Scotland  in  1617  for  the  only  time  after 
the  union  of  the  crowns.  There  were  many 
acts  passed  for  promoting  trade  and  com- 
merce, and  the  nation  about  this  time  seems 
to  have  been  seized  with  a  mania  for  coloni- 
zation, as  many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 


SCOTLAND 


3225 


SCOTLAND  YARD 


left  their  native  land  for  the  Irish  province 
of  Ulster  or  the  more  distant  shores  of  Nova 
Scotia.  James  died  in  1625  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Charles  I. 

Foreign  wars  and  domestic  troubles  pre- 
vented Charles  from  visiting  Scotland  till 
1633,  when  he  was  crowned  at  Edinburgh. 
The  church  was  now  entirely  governed  by 
the  bishops,  and  civil  affairs  were  managed 
by  the  privy  council.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  in  England,  Scotland  took  the 
part  of  the  Parliament  against  the  king,  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  being  entered 
into  between  the  Scottish  Presbyterians  and 
the  English  Parliament. 

After  the  execution  of  Charles,  in  1649,  the 
Scots  proclaimed  his  son  king,  under  the 
title  of  Charles  II.  The  young  king  was 
then  in  Holland,  and  commissioners  were  sent 
over  from  Scotland  to  inform  him  that  the 
governing  body  was  willing  to  join  his  cause 
if  he  would  take  the  covenant.  This  Charles 
agreed  to  do,  and  he  was  invited  over  to 
his  northern  kingdom.  He  an-ived  in  Scot- 
land, was  crowned  at  Scone  in  1651  and  im- 
mediately marched  into  England.  Cromwell, 
who  had  alreadj'  defeated  him  once  in  Scot- 
land, followed,  and  at  Worcester  utterly  scat- 
tered the  roj-alist  force  and  compelled 
Charles  to  become  a  fugitive  (September  3, 
1651).  Cromwell  returned  to  Scotland  for 
a  time,  and  on  his  departure  for  England 
he  left  Monk  to  complete  the  work.  Crom- 
well's death  was  followed  by  his  son's  fall. 
Monk's  march  to  London  at  the  head  of  the 
army  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  II 
(1660).  It  soon  became  apparent  that 
Charles  was  determined  to  carry  out  the 
favorite  scheme  of  his  father  and  grand- 
father, of  establishing  the  episcopacy  in  Scot- 
land. This  attempt  was  violently  opposed 
and  led  to  a  cruel  persecution,  which  lasted 
with  more  or  less  severity  during  the  whole 
of  the  reign  of  Charles.  Hundreds  were 
executed;  others  were  fined,  imprisoned  and 
tortured,  and  whole  tracts  of  the  country 
were  placed  under  a  military  despotism  of  the 
worst  description.  Under  James  II  the  chief 
events  of  Scotland  were  the  rising,  defeat 
and  execution  of  Argyll;  the  declarations 
of  indulgence  by  which  many  of  the  Presby- 
terian ministers  returned  to  their  charges,  and 
the  continued  persecution  of  the  strict  Cov- 
enanters. At  the  Revolution  of  1689,  Wil- 
liam, James's  son-in-law,  and  Mary  restored 
religious   freedom. 


The  death  of  William  III  in  1702  trans- 
ferred the  crowns  of  the  two  nations  to  Queen 
Anne,  sister  of  Mary.  In  1703  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Scotland  issued  a  declaration  which 
showed  an  intention,  in  case  of  the  death  of 
the  queen,  to  appoint  a  different  sovereign 
from  the  English  king,  and  the  ill  feeling 
between  the  two  countries  grew  so  strong  that 
English  statesmen  became  convinced  that  a 
union  was  essential  for  the  j^eace  of  the  two 
countries.  A  joint  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  draw  up  articles  of  union  in  1706. 
In  the  Scottish  Parliament  the  articles  en- 
countered a  strong  opposition,  but  a  major- 
ity finally  carried  the  measure  in  January, 
1707.  Thenceforth  the  history  of  Scotland 
is  identified  with  that  of  Great  Britain.  Scot- 
land furnished  its  full  quota  of  troops  in  the 
World  War,  and  bands  of  Highland  troops 
in  tlieir  kilts  performed  some  of  the  most 
daring  feats  of  the  war.  A  regiment  of 
Scotch  Canadians  so  impressed  themselves 
upon  the  foe  that  they  won  from  the  Ger- 
mans the  name  "Ladies  of  Hell."  See  Great 
Britain,  subhead  History. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

Aberdeen  Edinburgh 

Ayr  Glasg'ow 

Bannockburn  Gretna  Green 
Dundee 

HILLS 

Ben   Nevis  Grampian 

Cheviot 

HISTORY 

Baliol,  John  De  James  I  (England) 

Bannockburn  Knox,   John 

Bruce,    Robert  Macbeth 

Caledonia  Mary  Stuart 

Edward  I,  II  and  III  Picts 

(England)  Wallace,   William 

England    (history)  World  War 

ISLANDS 

Hebrides  Shetland 

Orkney 

LAKES 

Katrine  Lomond 

RIVERS 

Clvde  Solway  Firth 

Forth  Tay 

SCOT'LAND  YARD,  a  group  of  buildings 
in  London,  England,  long  famous  as  the 
headquarters  of  the  city  jDolice  force.  It  is 
situated  at  the  southeast  corner  of  Charing 
Cross  and  takes  its  names  from  a  palace 
formerly  reser\'ed  for  the  entertainment  of 
Scottish  kings  when  visitors  to  London. 
Since  1891  the  police  department  has  occu- 
pied buildings  on  the  Thames  Embankment, 
known  as  the  New  Scotland  Yard.  The  name 
occurs  prominently  in  English  detective 
stories. 


SCOTT 


3226 


SCOTT 


SCOTT,  Hugh  Lenox  (1853-  ),  a  re- 
tired chief  of  staff  of  the  United  States  army. 
He  was  born  at  Danville,  Ky.  For  several 
years  after  bis  graduation  from  West  Point 
be  led  expeditions  against  the  Indians.  He 
served  successively  as  adjutant-general  of 
Cuba;  governor  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago 
(Philippines),  from  which  islands  he  abol- 
ished slavery;  and  with  the  rank  of  colonel, 
superintendent  and  commandant  at  West 
Point.  In  1913,  as  brigadier-general,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
stationed  along  the  Mexican  border.  Scott 
showed  great  ability  in  settling  difficulties  by 
diplomatic  efforts,  as  was  evident  in  the 
skill  with  which  he  pacified  a  lawless  band 
of  Piute  Indians  in  Utah  and  in  dealing  with 
the  Villa  faction  in  Mexico.  In  1915  he  was 
advanced  to  the  grade  of  major-general,  and 
from  November,  1914,  to  September,  1917, 
was  chief  of  staff.  After  serving  on  the 
United  States  Commission  to  Russia,  headed 
by  Elihu  Root,  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  78th  Division  at  Camp  Dix,  N.  Y.,  re- 
ceiving command  in  March,  1918. 

SCOTT,  Robert  Falcon  (1868-1912),  a 
celebrated  English  naval  officer  and  Antarc- 
tic explorer,  who  shares  with  Amundsen  the 
honor  of  having  reached  the  South  Pole.  He 
was  born  at  Outlands,  Devonport,  and  was 
educated  at  Stubbington  House,  Fareham. 
In  1882  he  entered  the  na\'y  and  rose  in  eight 
years  to  the  rank  of  commander.  In  1901  he 
led  an  expedition  to  the  south  polar  regions, 
where  he  remained  until  1904.  On  his  retura 
to  England  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain  in  recognition  of  his  achievement. 
In  1909  he  was  appointed  to  command  the 
British  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition, whose  ob- 
ject was  to  make  ex- 
tensive investigations 
in  the  polar  regions 
and  also  to  locate  the 
South  Pole.  Scott 
and  four  companions 
reached  the  Pole  on 
January  18,  1912, 
but  on  his  return  trip 
lost  their  lives  from  Robert  f.  scott 
exposure  in  a  terrific  blizzard.  The  fate  of 
Captain  Scott  and  his  companions  as  re- 
corded in  their  diaries,  will  always  remain 
one  of  the  most  glorious  and  most  tragic  in 
the  history  of  exploration  and  discoveiy.  See 
South  Polar  Exploration. 


Grave,  at 
Dpyburoh  Abbey 


COTT,  Walter,  Sir 
(1771-1832),  a  Scotch 
poet  and  novelist  to  whom 
is  credited  the  creation  of 
the  historical  novel.  He 
was  born  in  Edinburgh, 
entered  the  high  school 
there  in  1779,  and  in  Oc- 
tober, 1783,  was  matric- 
ulated at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  However, 
neither  at  school  nor  at 
college  did  he  manifest 
special  ability.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  began 
in  his  father's  law  office  a  term  as  appren- 
tice, and  in  1792  became  a  member  of  the 
Scottish  bar.  In  1797  he  man-ied  Charlotte 
M.  Charpentier,  the  daughter  of  a  French 
refugee.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed 
sheriff  of  Selkirkshire,  and  in  1806  became  a 
princii^al  clerk  of  the  Court  of  Session. 

Scott,  the  Poet.  Scott's  first  ventures  in 
literature  were  a  translation  of  Biirger's 
Lenore,  and  The  Wild  Huntsman,  which  he 
published  in  1796.  Then  followed  the  bal- 
lads of  Glenfinlas,  The  Eve  of  Saint  John 
and  the  Grey  Brother;  a  translation  of 
Goethe's  Got 2  von  Berlichingen;  the  three 
volumes  of  the  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border,  and  an  edition  of  the  old  metrical 
romance  of  Sir  Tristram.  In  1805  he  became 
prominent  as  an  original  poet,  with  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  an 
extended  specimen  of  the  ballad  style,  which 
became  widely  popular.  In  1808  he  pub- 
lished Marmion,  another  poetic  romance, 
which  greatly  increased  his  reputation.  In 
1810  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  appeared,  in  which 
his  poetical  genius  seems  to  have  reached  its 
height.  His  subsequent  poetical  productions, 
The  Vision  of  Don  Boderich,  Eokehy,  The 
Bridal  of  Triermain  and  The  Lord  of  the 
Isles,  were  not  so  widel}'^  acclaimed. 

Scott,  the  Historical  Chronicler.  Upon 
the  decline  of  his  popularity  as  a  poet,  and 
realization  that  Bryon  was  surpassing  him  in 
his  own  field,  Scott  turned  his  attention  to 
the  prose  romance,  for  which  the  greater  part 
of  his  early  life  had  been  a  preparation.  The 
appearance  of  Waverley  in  1814,  forms  an 
epoch  in  modern  literature  as  well  as  in  the 
life  of  Scott.  This  romance  was  rapidly  fol- 
lowed by  the  series  known  as  The  Waverley 
Novels,  which  comprises  such  masterpieces 
of  historical  fiction  as  Ivanhoe,  Guy  Man- 


SCOTT 


3227 


SCRANTON 


nering,  The  Heart  of  Midlothian,  The  Bride 
of  Lammermoor,  The  Legend  of  Montrose, 
The  Monastery,  Kenilworth,  Quentin  Dur- 
ward  and  The  Talisman.  Among  these,  the 
novels  dealing  most  intimately  with  Scottish 
life  are  counted  among  his  best. 

Scott,  Man  of  Business.  The  desire  to 
become  an  extensive  landed  proprietor  and 
to  found  a  family  was  always  one  of  Scott's 
ambitions,  and  this 
he  began  to  gratify 
in  1811  when  he  pur- 
chased a  small  farm 
of  about  100  acres 
lying  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Tweed. 
Bj^  degi-ees,  as  his  re- 
som-ees  increased,  he 
added  farm  after 
faiTu  to  his  domain, 
until  he  had  com- 
pleted the  estate  to 
which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Abbotsford,  ^^^  Walter  scott 
the  "romance  in  stone"  (see  page  2). 

In  1820,  when  he  was  made  a  baronet  by 
George  IV,  he  reached  the  zenith  of  his  fame 
and  material  prosperity.  But  this  prosperity 
was  founded  on  no  solid  basis,  and  the  crash 
came  in  1826,  when  Constable  &  Co.,  Edin- 
burgh publishers,  were  obliged  to  suspend 
paA'ment,  hopelessly  involving  Ballantyne 
&  Co.,  with  whom  it  then  appeared  that  Scott 
was  a  partner.  The  liabilities  thus  incun-ed 
by  him  amounted  to  about  $600,000.  Al- 
though he  might  have  compromised  with  hjs 
creditors,  Scott  assumed  this  sum  as  a  per- 
sonal obligation.  He  worked  like  a  galley 
slave  to  clear  off  the  debt,  his  novels  and 
historical  writings  following  each  other  with 
incredible  rapidity.  Within  two  years  he 
was  able  to  pay  his  creditors  $200,000.  Wood- 
stock, The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Anne  of  Geier- 
stein,  A  Life  of  Napoleon  (nine  volumes), 
were  a  few  of  the  works  which  flowed  quickly 
from  his  pen  between  1826  and  1831. 

The  strain  was  too  great,  however,  and  in 
1830  Scott  had  an  attack  of  paralysis,  from 
which  he  never  fully  recovered.  A  trip  to 
Italy  did  him  little  good,  and  he  returned  to 
Abbotsford  to  die.  He  was  buried  in  his 
family  burial  aisle,  amidst  the  ruins  of  Dry- 
burgh  Abbey.  Some  years  after  his  death 
his  debt  was  entii'ely  liquidated  by  the  sale 
of  copyrights  and  the  constantly-increasing 
sale  of  his  works. 


WINFIELD   SCOTT 


The  biography  of  Scott  written  by  his 
son-in-law,  John  Gibson  Lockhart,  has  be- 
come a  classic. 

SCOTT,  WiNFiELD  (1786-1866),  an  Amer- 
ican soldier  who  distinguished  himself  in  the 
War  of  1812  and  the  Mexican  War  was 
born  near  Petersburg,  Va.  He  was  educated 
for  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
but  never  practiced.  Entering  the  army,  he 
sei-ved  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  War 
of  1812,  won  the 
Battle  of  Chippewa, 
and  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  Bat- 
tle of  Lund  y's 
Lane.  In  1832  and 
in  subsequent  years. 
General  Scott  was 
employed  in  opera- 
tions against  the  In- 
dians, and  in  1841 
was  appointed  com- 
mander in  chief  of 
the  United  States 
army.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  bril- 
liant conduct  of  the  Mexican  War,  where 
he  gained  victories  at  Cen-o  Gordo,  Con- 
treras,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey  and 
Chapultepee.  Although  he  was  known  as 
"Old  Fuss  and  Feathers,"  after  his  success- 
ful entry  into  the  City  of  Mexico  and  the 
conclusion  of  an  advantageous  peace,  he  was 
hailed  as  a  national  hero.  He  was  twice 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Presidency. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  Scott  re- 
mained true  to  the  Federal  government,  but 
his  infirmities  rendered  him  unable  to  take 
actual  command.  He  retired  from  active 
service  in  1861,  and  in  1864  published  his 
autobiograjihy. 

SCOTTI,  "skofe,  Antonio  (1866-  ), 
an  Italian  basso  in  the  front  rank  of  oper- 
atic stars,  was  born  in  Naples.  He  made 
his  operatic  debut  at  Malta  in  the  role  of 
Amonasro  in  Aula,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three.  In  1899  he  made  his  initial  appear- 
ance in  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New 
York,  and  since  has  been  a  member  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  Company,  essaying  lead- 
ing roles  in  Faust,  Othello,  La  Tosca  and  II 
Pagliacci,  but  achieving  greatest  triumph  in 
Mozart's  Don  Giovanni. 
SCOURING  RUSH.  See  Horsetail  Rush. 
SCRANTON,  Pa.,  in  size  the  foi-ty-first 
city  in  the  United  States,  the  third  city  of 


SCREW 


3228 


SCREW  PINE 


the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Lackawanna 
County,  is  on  the  Lackawanna  River,  162 
miles  north  of  Philadelphia  and  145  miles 
northwest  of  New  York,  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  &  Western,  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  the  Erie, 
the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  the  New  York, 
Ontario  &  Westeni  and  the  Delaware  &  Hud- 
son railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  a  fine  and 
extensive  system  of  electric  railways.  Scran- 
ton  has  three  parks  and  a  public  square,  in 
which  the  courthouse  is  situated.  The  chief 
public  buildings  are  a  postoflfice,  a  city  hall, 
a  courthouse,  an  Albright  Memorial  Library, 
a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building,  a  Masonic  Temple, 
a  Board  of  Trade,  a  museum  of  .natural  his- 
tory, a  technical  high  school  and  two  manual 
training  schools.  There  are  several  hos- 
pitals, a  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  hotels 
of  fine  appearance  and  a  local  life  insurance 
company.  The  city  is  the  home  of  the  In- 
ternational Correspondence  Schools,  the  larg- 
est institutions  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

Seranton  is  in  the  center  of  the  northern 
anthracite  coal  region  and  is  one  of  the  most 
important  coal-distributing  points  in  the 
country.  There  is  also  an  extensive  trade  in 
miners'  supplies.  The  industrial  plants  rep- 
resent a  capital  of  more  than  $30,000,000 
and  are  numerous  and  extensive,  including 
blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills,  foundries,  ma- 
chine shops,  glass  works,  silk  mills,  locomo- 
tive works  and  manufactories  of  knit  goods, 
lace,  carpets,  buttons,  pianos  and  numerous 
small  articles.  There  are  several  private 
and  denominational  schools. 

The  first  settlement  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  city  was  made  in  1788  and  was 
named  Sloeum  Hollow.  But  Seranton  was 
really  founded  in  1840  by  two  brothers, 
Joseph  and  George  Seranton ;  hence,  its  name. 
In  1850  it  was  incorporated  as  a  borough, 
and  it  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1866.  Popu- 
lation, 1910,  129,867;  in  19i7,  149,541  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

SCREW,  a  simple  machine,  consisting  of 
an  inclined  plane  wound  around  a  cylinder. 
The  projecting  spiral  plane  is  called  the 
thread,  while  the  cylinder  forms  the  hody 
of  the  screw.  To  show  that  the  thread  is 
formed  by  an  inclined  plane,  cut  a  paper 
triangle  with  one  square  corner  and  a  length 
of  at  least  three  times  its  height.  Draw  a 
heavy  pencil  line  along  the  edge  of  the  slant- 
ing side  of  the  triangle;  then,  beginning  at 
the  wide  end,  roll  the  paper  around  a  pencil, 


taking  care  to  keep  the  edge  of  the  triangle 
even  with  the  end  of  the  pencil.  The  dark 
line  along  the  slanting  side  forms  the  thi-ead 
of  the  screw.  The  distance  between  the 
threads  is  called  the  pitch,  or  interval.  In 
the  figure,  W  repre- 
sents the  weight;  P, 
the  point  at  which 
the  power  is  applied, 
and  p,  the  pitch. 

To    determine   the 
weight   that   can  be 
raised    by    a    screw 
with  the  application 
of    a    given    power, 
multiply    the   power 
by  the  circumference 
of  the  circle  which  it 
describes,  and  multi- 
ply this  product  by 
the  number  indicated 
by    the    denominator    of.   a   fraction    show- 
ing  the   pitch.     The   circumference  of   the 
circle  is  found  by  multiplying  its  diameter 
by  3.1416.    To  illustrate:  To  find  the  weight 
which  can  be  raised  by  a  power  of  25  pounds, 
acting  upon  a  lever  3  feet  long  and  attached 
to  a  screw  having  a  pitch  of  ^  of  an  inch, 
multiply  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  which  is 
6  feet,  by  3.1416,  and  multiply  this  product 
(18.8496)   by  12,  to  reduce  the  number  to 
inches.    The  product  equals  226.1952  inches. 
This  number,   multiplied  by  4,   the  denom- 
inator of  the  fraction  indicating  the  interval, 
or  pitch   equals  904.7808.     The  power,  25 
pounds,   multiijlied   by   this   number,   gives 
22,619.52   pounds,   the  weight  that  can   be 
lifted.     Because  of  the  great  power  gained 
by  the  screw,  it  is  used  in  raising  buildings, 
in  presses,  and  for  holding  together  parts  of 
machinery,  pieces  of  wood  and  other  articles. 
SCREW  PINE,  or  PANDA'NUS,  a  genus 
of  plants  growing  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
the   eastern    hemisphere,    which    take   their 
name  from  the  spiral  arrangement  of  their 
long,    pineapplelike   leaves.      In   some   spe- 
cies, peculiar  roots  are  sent  out  from  various 
parts  of  the  stem,  which  upon  entering  the 
ground  serve  as  props  for  the  trunk.     One 
Indian  species  produces  flowei's,  the  fragrant 
buds  of  which  are  used  for  flavoring  purposes 
and  as  a  basis  for  perfumes;  another  fur- 
nishes strong  fibers,  from  which  the  natives 
make  sugar  bags;  and  in  another  species, 
the  tips  of  the  shoots  as  well  as  the  seeds 
are  edible. 


SCRIBE 


3229 


SCULPTURE 


SCRIBE,  skreeh,  Augustin  Eugene 
(1791-1861),  a  French  dramatist  and  libret- 
tist, born  in  Paris.  His  first  distinct  success 
was  achieved  in  1816.  From  this  time  on 
he  worked  in  collaboration  with  others,  and 
the  dramatic  pieces  ascribed  to  him,  nmn- 
bering  about  400,  include  all  the  departments 
of  the  lighter  drama.  Because  of  their 
gaiety,  plot  interest,  and  the  felicitous  man- 
ner in  which  their  author  depicted  modem 
French  life,  they  achieved  great  popularity 
over  the  European  continent,  and  have  also 
been  introduced  on  the  American  and  Eng- 
lish stage  in  the  form  of  translations  or 
adaptations.  Two  of  the  best  known  among 
them  are  Valerie  and  Aclrienne  Lecouvreur; 
he  is,  however,  best  known  for  his  libretti, 
Fra  Diavolo,  Robert  le  Liable  and  The 
Huguenots. 

SCROF'ULA,  a  form  of  tuberculosis  in 
which  the  neck  glands  or  other  lymphatic 
,glands  swell,  and  the  tissues  become  devital- 
ized. Hygienic  treatment  is  the  most  ef- 
fective line  of  cure,  with  special  emphasis 
on  fresh  air,  nourishing  food,  tonics  and 
proper  clothing.  Local  treatment  of  the 
glands  to  reduce  swelling  is  also  practiced. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  believed  that 
scrofula  could  be  cured  by  the  touch  of 
the  sovereign,  and  the  disease  was  known 
as  king's  evil.  It  is  said  that  Samuel  John- 
son was  touched  by  Queen  Anne  for  scrofula 
when  he  was  a  young  ehUd. 

SCRUTLE,  a  measure  of  weight  in 
apothecary's  weight,  equivalent  to  20  grains, 
h  part  of  a  drachm,  -J^  part  of  an  ounce 
and  Yg-g"  P^^^  ^^  ^  pound.  It  is  used  by 
pharmacists  in  compounding  medicines. 

SCUDDER,  shud'er,  Vina  Button  (1861- 
),  a  notable  American  woman  who 
achieved  fame  as  an  English  scholar.  She 
was  born  in  India,  and  completed  her  edu- 
cation at  Oxford  University,  England,  and 
in  Paris,  after,  which  she  joined  the  faculty 
of  Wellesley  College,  Massachusetts,  as  pro- 
fessor of  English.  She  wrote  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  English  Literature,  once 
a  popular  text-book. 

SCULPIN,  skuVpin,  a  group  of  small  fish 
of  about  250  varying-colored  species,  found 
in  the  northern  seas  and  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  America.  The  shape  resembles  that  of 
the  bull-head  catfish,  and  the  body  is  cov- 
ered with  warty  projections.  Common  spe- 
cies are  known  locally  as  miller's  thumb, 
Irish  lord  and  sea  raven. 


(CULP'TURE,    the  art  of 

imitating  living  forms  in 
solid  substances.  The 
word  means,  strictly,  a 
cutting,  or  carving,  in 
some  hard  material,  as 
stone,  marble,  ivory  or 
wood;  but  it  is  also  used 
to  express  the  molding  of 
soft  substances,  as  clay 
or  wax,  and  the  casting 
of  metals  or  plaster. 
Three  forms  of  sculpture 
are  usually  recognized. 
When  the  object  stands 
free,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
the  round;  when  it  pro- 
11  jects  slightly  from  a  solid 

surface  it  is  said  to  be  in  relief ;  when  it  is 

cut  into  or  sunk  down  into  the  surface  it  is 

said  to  be  in  intaglio. 

A  sculptor  wields 

The  chisel,  and  the  stricken  marble  grows 

To  beauty, 

wrote  the  poet  Bryant  in  his  Flood  of  Years, 
and  in  one  of  Michelangelo's  sonnets  the 
artist  speaks  of  the  unhewn  stone  becoming 
"a  living  mould."  It  is  this  phase  of  sculp- 
ture that  sets  it  apart  from  the  other  arts 
of  design;  it  is  iDreeminently  the  art  best 
adapted  to  the  portrayal  of  the  human  form, 
the  one  that  gives  "life  to  the  cold  marble." 

How  a  Statue  Is  Made.  In  most  sculp- 
ture it  is  customaiy  for  the  artist  to  make 
for  himself  an  image  of  life  size,  fashioned 
in  wet  clay.  For  a  head  or  bust  a  flat  board, 
set  on  a  high  stand,  with  a  piece  of  wood 
standing  at  right  angles  to  it,  is  used.  Lead 
piping  is  sometimes  employed  to  raise  the 
height  of  this  piece  of  wood,  and  around 
this  structure  the  clay  is  roughly  built  up,  a 
cylindrical  mass  for  the  neck  and  an  egg- 
shaped  fomi  for  the  head.  For  a  full-length 
figure  an  "armature"  is  prepared,  consisting 
of  an  iron  rod  through  the  center,  attached 
to  which  are  other  irons,  in  the  case  of  statues, 
or  lead  piping,  for  statuettes.  These  are  bent 
to  the  required  positions,  the  whole,  when 
complete,  rei^resenting  in  line  the  pose  and 
character  of  the  intended  figure.  Upon  and 
around  this  framework  the  figure  is  first 
roughly  built  up  with  clay,  care  being  taken 
to  add  just  as  much  as  is  requisite  and  to 
follow  the  general  form  and  direction  of  the 
muscles.  The  essential  difference  between 
modeling  and  carving  is  that  in  the  former 


SCULPTURE 


3230 


SCULPTURE 


the  artist  works  from  within  outward,  by  the 
addition  of  material,  while  in  the  latter  he 
works  from  without  inward  by  the  taking 
away  of  material.  The  sculptor's  work 
proper  generally  ends  with  the  completion  of 
the  clay  model. 

The  next  process  is  that  of  casting.  Plas- 
ter of  Paris  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream 
is  poured  over  the  model,  to  the  depth  of 
from  two  to  three  inches,  the  inner  layer 
being  colored.  When  this  is  set,  the  clay  is 
carefully  removed,  and  what  is  termed  a 
"waste  mold"  is  formed.  This  is  carefully 
washed  and  when  dry  is  oiled.  Into  this  mold, 
plaster  of  Paris  is  poured,  and  when  this  has 
set  hard,  the  waste  mold  is  chipped  off.  The 
plaster  of  Paris  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
clay  and  formed  what  is  called  a  "east."  A 
head  is  usually  cast  in  halves,  and  a  similar 
treatment  is  adopted  in  the  case  of  com- 
plete figures.  This  is  teimed  "piece  mold- 
ing." Parts  which  project  very  much  are  re- 
m9ved  and  cast  separately,  being  afterward 
attached  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris.  The 
reproduction  of  this  plaster  cast  in  marble  or 
stone  is  a  mechanical  operation,  usually  in- 
trusted to  a  skilled  workman.  To  aid  him 
he  employs  a  "pointing  machine,"  with  which 
he  takes  exact  measurements.  Some  sculp- 
tors work  on  the  marble  after  a  rough  copy 
of  the  original  is  made,  and  some  never  touch 
it,  but  simply  supervise  the  work.  For  cast- 
ing in  metal,  a  plaster  mold  is  first  made  as 
already  described.  Within  this  is  fixed  a 
rudely-formed  solid,  but  removable,  mass, 
called  a  "core,"  the  space  between  it  and  the 
surface  of  the  mold  being  filled  with  the 
molten  metal.  Another  method  for  smaller 
work  is  used,  in  which  the  mold  is  lined  with 
v;ax  and  the  core  inserted  close  up  to  the  wax 
lining.  The  wax  is  then  melted  out  and  the 
molten  metal  poured  into  the  mold  to  take 
its'  place,  the  core  being  afterward  removed. 

History.  Egypt.  It  is  to  Egypt  that  we 
must  turn  for  the  first  signs  of  a  developed 
form  of  sculpture.  The  distinctive  charac- 
teristics of  Egyptian  sculpture  are  colossal 
size,  stability  and  symmetiy,  the  expression 
being  that  of  calm  repose  and  solemnity,  with 
a  suggestion  of  the  supernatural.  A  con- 
ventional unifoiTaity  without  life  or  action 
reigns  eveiy where.  Most  of  the  sculpture 
is  relief  and  is  defective  in  perspective  and 
proportion,  but  the  figures  have  a  remark- 
able dignity  and  are  true  to  life.  The  best 
period  of  Egyptian  sculpture  was  from  1450 


to  1000  B.  c.  In  the  British  Museum  is  to 
be  found  a  splendid  collection  of  Egyptian 
sculptures,  extending  from  2000  B.  c.  to  the 
Mohammedan  invasion  A.  d.  640. 

Assyrm.  The  best  period  of  Assyrian 
sculpture,  as  a  style,  is  inferior  to  that  of 
Egypt.  Its  characteristics  are  an  intense  and 
vigorous  spirit  of  representation,  without  the 
least  reference  to  ideal  beauty  of  any  kind. 
As  compared  with  Egyptian  woi'k  it  is  more 
realistic,  but  less  true.  It  is  powerful  and 
energetic,  but  lacks  grandeur;  overladen  with 
detail  and  ornamentation,  it  does  not  attain 
to  the  sublime  in  its  repose,  nor  to  beauty 
in  its  movement.  Persian  sculpture  (560-331 
B.  c.)  differs  but  little  from  Assyrian,  and 
is  usually  included  with  it. 

Greece.  Greek  sculpture,  in  its  infancy,  is 
strongly  stamped  with  Oriental  character,  as 
may  be  seen  by  a  careful  examination  of  the 
reliefs  from  the  temple  of  Assos,  now  in  the 
Louvi'e,  and  the  metopes  from  Selinus,  easts 
of  which  are  in  the  British  Museum.  But 
from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  the 
development  of  Greek  art  was  rapid  and 
continuous.  In  the  sculptures  for  the  Temple 
of  Aegina,  executed  about  475  B.  c,  and  now 
l^reserved  at  Munich,  the  figures  of  the  war- 
riors are  no  longer  of  the  stiff,  conventional 
type,  with  attitudes  coiTeet  but  lifeless ;  there 
is  energy  of  movement  in  their  action,  and 
they  have  a  living  truth  of  gesture,  only  to 
be  gained  by  artists  who  had  studied  the 
human  fonn  long  and  attentively.  Upheld 
on  the  one  hand  by  a  noble  mythology,  that 
magnified,  without  distorting,  human  at- 
tributes, and  supported  on  the  other  by  an 
increasing  knowledge  of  nature,  the  ultimate 
perfection  of  Greek  art  became  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time.  It  came  to  perfection  in 
Phidias,  whose  statues  of  Athene,  in  the  Par- 
thenon at  Athens  (438  b.  c),  and  of  Zeus, 
in  the  temple  at  Olympia,  mark  the  period  of 
the  highest  style  of  Greek  art. 

Other  sculptors  of  this  period  were  Myron, 
famed  for  his  Discobolus  {Discus  Thrower), 
and  Polycletus,  a  close  rival  of  Phidias.  The 
special  character  of  the  art  that  flourished 
at  Athens  under  the  rule  of  Pericles  (fourth 
century  B.  c.)  consists  in  a  perfect  balance 
and  combination  of  elements  sublime  and 
human.  Sculpture  had  reached  that  point 
when  a  faultless  imitation  of  nature  was 
within  its  reach,  but  it  had  not  yet  abandoned 
its  spiritual  connection  with  a  splendid  my- 
thology.   We  have,  therefore,  in  the  sculpture 


SCULPTURE 


3231 


SCULPTURE 


of  this  period,  the  highest  tyipe  of  human 
beauty,  joined  to  a  godlike  calm  and  reti- 
cence of  motion.  Examples  of  the  grand 
style  of  this  epoch  are  the  sculptures  of  the 


THE    "DISCUS"  THROWER" 

Parthenon  and  the  Xike  Apteros  Temple,  on 
the  Acropolis;  the  colossal  bronze  head  of 
Artemis,  in  the  British  Museum;  the  Venus 
of  Milo,  in  the  Louvre,  and  the  exquisite  re- 
lief representing  the  pai'ting  of  Orpheus  and 
Eurydice,  in  the  museum  at  Naples. 

Greek  art,  however,  rapidly  moved  toward 
a  still  closer  imitation  of  actual  human  life. 
The  people,  after  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
spoiled  by  the  luxury  and  pleasures  which 
the  prosperity  of  the  Age  of  Pericles  had 
opened  to  them,  were  not  satisfied  with  the 
severe  foims  of  the  older  masters.  The 
sculptors  now  cultivated  the  soft,  the  grace- 
ful and  the  flowing  and  aimed  at  an  expres- 
sion of  stronger  passion,  and  they  began  to 
be  fascinated  by  the  force  and  variety  of 
human  feeling,  as  well  as  by  the  beauty  of  the 
human  form.  Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva, 
favorite  subjects  of  the  Phidian  Era,  were  ex- 
changed for  Venus,  Bacchus  and  Amor.  The 
representatives  of  this  latter  style  were 
Scopas,  his  younger  contemporary,  Praxit- 
eles, and  Lj^sippus.  The  most  important 
works  of  Scopas  that  sur^dve  are  the  dec- 


orations of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicamassus, 
erected  by  Artemisia  over  the  remains  of 
her  husband  Mausolus,  Prince  of  Caria,  352 
B.  C.  These  sculptured  decorations,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  present  in  the  designs  for 
the  frieze,  depicting  a  battle  between  Greeks 
and  Amazons,  an  invention  of  gi-aceful  and 
energetic  movement  and  a  record  of  rapid 
and  violent  gesture  such  as  clearly  distin- 
guish the  work  from  that  which  it  succeeded. 
To  Scopas  is  attributed  the  original  of 
the  Venus  de  Milo,  the  splendid  copy  of 
which  now  graces  the  Louvre.  When  an  an- 
cient Greek  sculptor  really  believed  in  his 
gods  and  in  the  beautiful  myths  told  regard- 
ing them,  there  must  have  come  to  him.  when 
making  statues  of  theni  an  inspiration  which 
could  come  from  no  other  task.  Such  an  in- 
spiration must  have  come  to  the  unknown 
sculptor  who  car\-ed  the  statue  found  in 
1820  on  the  island  of  Melos,  in  the  Aegean 
Sea,  and  so  called  the  Venus  de  Milo.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  critics  there  is  nothing  in 


VENUS  DE  ]\nLO 
sculpture   which    surpasses    this    wonderful 
statue.    The  body  and  the  draperies  are  bat- 


SCULPTURE 


3232 


SCULPTURE 


tered,  and  both  arras  are  gone,  so  that  no 
one  can  be  absolutely  certain  as  to  just  what 
the  position  of  the  goddess  was;  but  the 
nobleness  of  the  ideal  portrayed,  the  lines  of 
the  figure  and  the  youthful  beaut>'  and  maj- 
esty of  the  face  make  this  Venus  the  chief 
glory  of  the  Loun-e,  where  so  many  price- 
less art  treasures  are  gathered.  The  most 
plausible  idea  as  to  the  position  of  the  god- 


APOLLO  BELVEDERE 

dess  is  the  one  which  suggests  that  her  left 
foot  rested  on  a  helmet  and  that  a  shield  was 
supported  on  her  left  thigh. 

The  works  of  Praxiteles  are  especially  valu- 
able as  expressing  a  tenderness  of  feeling 
which  this  new  and  closer  sjTupathy  with 
human  emotion  had  developed.  He  is  known 
to  us  chiefly  through  copies  of  his  works,  or 
of  the  works  of  his  school,  the  most  cel- 
ebrated of  which  are  preser\-ed  in  the  Vati- 
can; but  the  sweetness  and  delicate  grace 
of  his  style  are  admirably  displayed  in  the 
statue  of  Ceres  discovered  at  Cnidus,  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  Lysippus  represented 
the  human  form  and  athletic  power  in  the 
highest  perfection.  From  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  323  B.  c,  onward  to  the  con- 
quest of  the  Romans,  146  B.  c,  the  progress 


of  Greek  sculpture  is  only  a  further,  and 
often  a  weaker,  development  of  the  same 
ideal.  The  celebrated  group  of  the  Laocoon, 
the  head  of  the  Dying  Alexander,  the  Dying 
Gladiator  and  Apollo  Belvedere  are  some 
of  the  works  of  this  epoch  that  are  preserved 
to  us. 

The  Apollo  Belvedere  is  so  called  from  the 
Belvedere  court  of  the  Vatican,  in  which  it 
now  stands.  This  figure  of  the  youthful  god 
shows  him  as  marvelously  beautiful,  yet  the 
face  expresses  a  divine  wrath,  which  makes 
us  feel  certain  that,  with  his  bow  in  his  out- 
stretched hand,  he  is  about  to  right  some  wrong 
or  punish  some  evildoer.  The  statue  loses 
none  of  its  beauty  for  us  because  we  know  that 
what  was  long  thought  to  be  a  Greek  original 
is  only  a  skilful  Roman  copy,  or  because  the 
left  hand  and  right  forearm,  which  had  been 
broken  off,  were  restored  by  a  sculptor  in 
the  time  of  Michelangelo.  Notice  the  wonder- 
fully graceful  yet  strong  pose  of  the  figure, 
the  beautiful  fall  of  the  drapeiy,  and  the 
motion  expressed  in  the  whole  composition. 
Although  nothing  definite  can  be  determined 
as  to  the  time  of  its  production  and  the  art- 
ist, the  Laocoon  was  pi'obably  produced  in  the 
second  eenturj'  B.   c.    Vergil  tells  the  story 


LAOCOON 


which,  this  group  illustrates — how  Laocoon, 
priest  of  Apollo  in  Troy,  warned  the  Trojans 


SCULPTURE 


3233 


SCULPTURE 


against  receiving  into  the  city  the  wooden 
horse  left  by  the  Greeks,  and  how  Apollo, 
to  punish  him,  sent  two  huge  serpents  who 
attacked  the  priest  and  his  two  sons.  The 
artist  who  made  this  statue  has  chosen  to  por- 
tray the  moment  of  fiercest  struggle,  and 
thus  there  is  something  hoiTible  about  it. 
But  the  figures  are  so  accurate  anatomically, 
the  passion  and  the  pain  shown  on  the  faces 
and  in  the  straining  muscles  are  so  real,  that 
the  group  must  rank  with  the  great  works 
of  art  of  antiquity  which  have  come  down 
to  us.  No  less  a  critic  than  Goethe  held  that 
the  older  son,  the  one  to  the  left  of  the 
father,  is  not  in  pain,  but  is  simply  hor- 
rified at  Avhat  he  sees  liis  father  and  his 
brother  suffering,  and  that  he  is  about  to 
push  off  the  coils  of  the  serpent  and  stand 
free. 

Between  1863  and  1867  French  archae- 
ologists were  exploring  the  site  of  an  ancient 
town  on  the  island  of  Samothrace,  in  the 
Aegean.  They  found  various  objects  of  in- 
terest, but  the  greatest  find  of  all  was  the 
statue  which  is  called  the  Nike,  or  Winged 
Victory,  of  Samothrace,  which  is  now  in  the 
Louvi'e.  This  statue  is  in  a  sadly  mutilated 
condition;  the  head  is  gone,  the  arms  are 
gone,  the  drapery  is  chipped.  And  yet  it 
ranks  with  the  Venus  de  Milo,  and  other  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  famous  works  of 
art.  Study  the  sketch  of  the  statue  given 
here.  Even  in  this  form  there  is  enough  to 
make  clear  to  us  the  reason  for  its  ranking 
by  the  critics.  Notice  the  wonderful  poise; 
the  lift  of  the  wings,  the  sweep  of  the 
draperies.  It  gives  one  a  feeling  of  lightness, 
almost  of  the  ability  to  fly,  just  to  look  at 
it.  Nike,  or  Victoria,  as  the  Romans  called 
her,  was  the  goddess  of  victory,  and  this 
statue  was  set  up  by  the  Greek  ruler  Demet- 
rius iji  306  B.  c,  after  he  had  defeated  the 
the  king  of  Egypt  in  battle. 

After  the  time  of  the  great  sculptor 
Praxiteles  a  group  of  sculptors  grew  up,  who, 
from  the  type  of  subjects  in  which  they  de- 
lighted, were  known  as  the  Pathetic  School. 
The  Laocoon  was  a  product  of  this  school, 
as  was  also  another  famous  statue  which  is 
presei-ved  in  Florence,  and  which  is  probably 
the  work  of  a  pupil  of  Praxiteles.  This  is 
the  Niohe  and  Her  Children.  Niobe  was  the 
wife  of  the  king  of  Thebes  and  the  mother 
of  six  beautiful  daughters  and  six  handsome 
sons,  of  whom  she  was  very  proud.  In  her 
pride  she  boasted  that  she  was  superior  to 

203 


Leto,  the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  who 
had  but  the  two  children.  Moved  to  wrath, 
Apollo  and  Diana  let  fly  their  aiTOws  at  the 
children  of  Niobe  and  killed  them  one  after 


WINGED  VICTORY 

another.  Finally  only  the  youngest  daughter 
remained.  The  statue  shows  Niobe  in  an 
agony  of  gi*ief,  trying  to  shield  this  last  child 
from  death.  The  story  goes  that  she  was 
unsuccessful,  and  that  Jupiter,  in  j^ity  for 
her  grief,  changed  her  into  a  stone  which 
shed  tears. 

Italy.  The  history  of  sculpture  in  Italy 
is  only  a  continuance  of  its  story  in  Greece. 
It  was  Greek  art,  produced  by  Greek  work- 
men that  adorned  the  palaces  of  the  emper- 
ors; and  the  Roman  sculptors,  in  so  far  as 
they  had  any  independent  existence,  can  only 
claim  to  have  impoverished  the  ideal  they  re- 
ceived from  Greece.  Many  of  the  best-known 
statues  in  existence  were  produced  in  the 
Graeco-Roman  period;  such  are  the  Borghese 
Gladiator,  in  the  Louvre,  the  Venus  de  Medi- 
ci, at  Florence,  and  the  Farnese  Hercules,  at 
Naples.  From  the  time  of  Hadrian  (a.  d. 
138),  art  rapidly  declined,  and  this  debased 
Roman  was  the  only  style  employed  in  Italy 


SCULPTURE 


3234 


SCULPTURE 


until  the  revival  in  the  twelfth  eenturj'.  With 
the  general  awakening  which  began  in  Italy 
and  spread  over  Europe,  came  a  revival  of 
sculpture,  as  of  all  other  arts.  The  stiff, 
conventional  figures  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
invigorated  by  the  spirit  of  activity  which 
marked  the  new  movement.  This  re%-ival  of 
sculpture  began  with  Xieola  Pisano,  who  was 
bom  at  Pisa  about  1206  and  whose  woi'k  is 
preserved  in  the  pulpits  which  he  eai'ved  at 
Pisa  and  Siena. 

He  was  followed  by  his  son  Giovanni 
Pisano  (died  1320),  whose  great  work  is  the 
allegorical  group  in  the  Campo  Santo  of 
Pisa;  but  both  of  these  sculptors  worked 
on  classic  lines.  Jacopo  della  Querela  (1374- 
1438),  whose  beautiful  reliefs,  adorning  the 
fa^-ade  of  the  church  of  San  Petronio  at 
Bologna,  show  a  feeling  for  gi-ace  not  be- 
fore expressed,  was,  in  a  certain  sense,  the 
founder  of  the  modem  school.  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  (1381-1455)  developed  a  more  pic- 
torial style  with  extra ordinarj'  success;  but 
sculpture  awaited  the  advent  of  Donatello 
(1386-1468)  to  find  its  true  direction  and 
to  reach  its  full  triumph.  Luea  della  Rob- 
bia  (1400-1481)  and  Andi-ea  VeiTOCchio 
(1435-1488),  the  master  of  Leonardo  da 
Yinci,  may  also  be  named.  The  special  ten- 
dencies of  Italian  sculpture  may  be  said  to 
have  reached  their  full  expression  in  the 
work  of  Michelangelo  (1475-1564).  Here  all 
pre%'ious  efforts  to  interpret  passion  and 
feeling  were  summed  up  and  concluded.  It 
was  toward  a  complete  understanding  of  the 
resources  of  physical  expression  that  all 
Italian  art  had  been  tending,  and  it  is  only 
more  fully  exhibited  in  Michelangelo  because 
he  was  the  gi-eatest  master  that  Italy  pro- 
duced. The  chief  characteristic  of  his  style 
was  the  use  of  colossal,  highly  developed 
forms,  combined  with  intense  dramatic  ac- 
tion. His  works  are  the  statues  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Medici  at  Florence,  the  Captives,  in 
the  Louvre,  the  colossal  David,  at  Florence, 
the  Moses,  in  Rome,  and  the  Madonna,  in 
Bruges. 

For  a  long  period  after  Michelangelo 
Italian  sculptoi-s  were  content  to  imitate  and 
sometimes  to  exaggerate  bis  manner.  The 
only  immediate  successor  of  Michelangelo 
worthy  of  note  is  Cellini  (1500-1571),  of 
Florence.  Lorenzo  Bernini  (1598-1680), 
the  master  of  the  "baroceo"  style,  exempli- 
fies a  straining  after  grace  and  elegance  by 
means  of  affectation.    In  the  eisrhteenth  cen- 


tury Italy  became  the  headquarters  of  the 
classical  revival  which  spread  thence  through- 
out Europe.  The  leading  spirit  in  this  move- 
ment was  Canova  (1757-1822),  who,  al- 
though he  failed  to  restore  to  his  art  its  earlier 
masculine  strength,  at  least  sought  in  the 
study  of  the  antique  for  greater  simplicity 
and  elegance  in  representation.  Canova's 
most  finished  productions  are  notable  for 
an  affectionate  tendeme^  of  sentiment, 
rather  than  imagination,  and  his  figures  are 
never  formed  after  the  highest  ideal.  His 
most  characteristic  works  are  the  Graces, 
Hebe  and  the  Cupid  and  Psyche;  his  finest 
work  is  the  colossal  group  of  Theseus  Slaying 
a  Centaur,  at  Vienna.  Canova  formed  Thor- 
waldsen  (1770-1844),  the  great  Danish 
sculptor,  and  his  name  and  influence  dom- 
inated the  art  of  sculpture  throughout  Eu- 
rope for  many  yeai^s.  Modem  Italian  sculp- 
ture has  leaned  toward  realism,  the  leading 
representatives  being  Gallori,  Magni  and 
Ximenes,  and  of  those  who  avoided  this  ten- 
dency, the  best-known  are  Consani,  Albani 
and  Fedi.  Further  reference  te  Italian  art 
appears  in  the  article  Italy. 

France.  The  early  art  of  France  was  in- 
fluenced by  the  styles  prevailing  at  that  time. 
Thus  the  sculptures  of  French  cathedrals 
show  Byzantine,  Romanesque  and  Gothic  in- 
fluences, the  finest  examples  in  the  last  being 
at  Amiens.  Awakening  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.', it  produced,  as  forerunners  of  the 
Renaissance,  Bouteillier  and  Colombe  (1431- 
1514),  and  in  tlie  sixteenth  century,  Jean 
Goujon  (1530-1572),  whose  best  work  is  the 
Fountain  of  the  Innocents  in  Paris,  and 
whose  Diana  shows  all  the  faults  and  beau- 
ties of  the  style.  Cousin  (1501-1589),  Pilon 
(1515-1590),  Pierre  Puget  (1622-1694), 
Coysevox  (1640-1720)  and  Girardon  (1630- 
1715)  continued  the  style  which,  while  aim- 
ing at  elegance  and  grace,  lost  simplicity  and 
roundness.  The  Danish  school  which  pro- 
duced Thorwaldsen,  owes  its  rise  to  French 
influence.  Later  yet  came  Houdon  (1741- 
1828),  Bosio  (1769-1845),  Rude  (1785- 
1855),  Barye  (1795-1875),  a  sculptor  of  ani- 
mals, and  Carpeaux  (1827-1875),  whose  chief 
work.  La  Danse,  is  in  front  of  the  new 
opera  house  in  Paris.  Among  recent  artists 
are  Saint  Marceaux,  Fremiet,  Falguiere, 
Mercie,  Dalou,  Rodin,  Dubois,  Bartholdi, 
Barrais,  Bartholome  and  Riviere.  Among 
these,  Rodin  (1840-1917)  holds  the  fore- 
most place. 


SCULPTURE 


3235 


SCULPTURE 


Germany.  There  was  no  early  school  of 
German  sculpture,  apart  from  the  general 
Gothic  style  of  all  northern  European  coun- 
tries, but  with  the  Renaissance  of  the  fif- 
teenth centuiy  arose  Adam  Krafft  (1480- 
1507)  and  Peter  Vischer,  two  contemporary 
sculptors  of  Nuremberg,  and  Albert  Diirer 
(1471-1528),  painter  and  sculptor.  Then 
came  a  break  until  the  rise  of  the  modem 
school,  which  owes  its  existence  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Thoi-waldsen.  The  chief  names  are 
Dannecker  (1758-1841),  with  his  Ariadne, 
and  Schadow  (1764-1850),  with  Girl  Tying 
Her  Sandal.  Ranch  (1777-1857)  was  the 
real  founder  of  the  modern  German  school. 
His  monument  to  Frederick  the  Great,  in 
Berlin,  with  its  many  accessory  figures,  is 
his  finest  work,  and  from  his  school  came 
Rietschel  (1804^1861),  Schwanthaler  (1802- 
1848),  August  Kiss  (1802-1865),  Bandel 
(1800-1876)  and  Drake  (1805-1882). 
Among  sculptors  of  recent  fame  are  Begas, 
Eberlein,  Zumbusch,  Kundmann,  Weyr,  Tilg- 
ner,  Strasser,  Wolff,  Hildebrand  and 
Schilling.  - 

England.  Of  examples  of  sculpture  exe- 
cuted before  the  eighteenth  century  England 
possesses  very  few.  Several  tombs  exist,  and 
some  of  the  cathedrals,  notably  Wells,  Exe- 
ter and  Lincoln,  possess  figures  executed  pre- 
sumably by  Englishmen  at  an  earlier  date. 
It  is  not,  however,  until  the  reign  of  Charles 
I  that  names  of  artists  appear,  notably  among 
them  being  Nicholas  Stone  (1586-1647)  and 
Grinling  Gibbons  (1648-1721),  who  was  the 
first  real  artist  of  the  English  school.  Banks 
(1735-1805)  is  the  father  of  ideal  English 
sculpture,  but  he  died  unappreciated,  leaving 
John  Flaxman  (1755-1826)  to  achieve  the 
task  of  bringing  the  classical  spirit  into  Eng- 
lish art  and  of  founding  the  school  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  His  love  for  severe  sim- 
plicity and  true  fonn  was  imbibed  in  Rome, 
and  it  is  best  seen  in  his  Shield  of  Achilles, 
in  his  Michael  Overcoming  Satan  and  in  his 
Cephalus  and  Aurora.  His  most  famous 
pupil  was  Baily  (1788-1867),  whose  Eve  at 
the  Fountain  is  much  admired.  John  Gib- 
son (1791-1866),  a  jDupil  of  Canova,  more 
properly  belongs  to  the  Italian  than  to  the 
English  school,  his  whole  artistic  life  having 
been  passed  in  Rome.  His  finest  works  are 
Psyche  Borne  by  Zephyrs,  Narcissus,  Hylas 
Surprised,  now  in  the  National  Gallery,  and 
a  large  relievo  of  Christ  Blessing  Children. 
His  introduction  of  color  in  statuary  raised 


much  discussion.  Foley  (1818-1874),  whose 
chief  work  is  the  equestrian  statue  of  Gen- 
eral Outram,  now  at  Calcutta,  and  Patrick 
Macdowall  (1799-1870),  with  Love  Triumph- 
ant, are  the  last  of  the  classic  school. 

The  tendency  of  sculpture  in  England  at 
the  present  day  is  toward  a  more  original  and 
naturalistic  treatment.  Alfred  Stevens 
(1817-1875)  is  the  author  of  the  finest  dec- 
orative work  in  England,  the  monument  of 
tlie  Duke  of  Wellington  in  Saint  Paul's. 
Of  late  sculptors  who  have  contributed  to 
England's  reputation  are  Boehm,  Woolner, 
Watts,  Leighton,  Armstead,  Simonds,  Brock, 
Thorneyeroft,  Ford,  Gilbert,  Bates,  Franklin, 
Stark  and  Pomeroy. 

Other  Countries.  The  Renaissance  began 
eai'lier  in  the  Netherlands  than  in  the  other 
northern  countries  and  had  its  center  at 
Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  where  a  number  of  im- 
portant masters  were  active,  among  whom 
was  Claux  Sluter.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury the  school  of  AntwerjD  gained  prom- 
inence and  produced  such  sculptors  as  Fran- 
cois Duquesnoy  (1594-1644),  and  his  pupil 
Artus  Quellinus  (1609-1688),  who  showed 
Italian  influence.  The  eighteenth  century 
noted  a  decline  of  sculpture  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Scandinavia  followed  the  other  na- 
tions in  the  general  plan  of  development. 
The  influence  of  the  Netherlands  and  France 
was  felt  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  most 
important  names  are  Sergei  (1740-1814), 
Bystrom  (1783-1848)  and  Bissen  (1798- 
1868).  In  the  nineteenth  century,  Thonvald- 
sen  (1770-1884),  the  great  Danish  sculjitor, 
stands  as  the  chief  exponent  of  the  antique 
tendency  in  sculpture. 

United  States.  The  first  American  sculp- 
tors of  importance  are  Greenough  (1805- 
1852),  a  portrait  statue  artist  of  marked 
achievement;  Powers,  whose  Greek  Slave,  II 
Penseroso  and  Proserpine  are  well  known; 
Crawford,  who  joroduced  American  Revolu- 
tion and  Indian  Chief.  Of  later  artists  in 
the  same  group  are  Palmer  Story,  Randolph 
Rogers,  John  Rogers,  Rinehart  and  Hosmer. 
These,  with  the  intensely  patriotic  Henry 
Kirke  Browne  and  J.  Q.  A.  Ward,  form  a 
school  of  distinctive  American  art,  noticeable 
both  in  theme  and  execution.  Others  of  less 
fame  are  Clevenger,  Bartholomew,  Meade 
and  Launt  Thompson.  Since  about  1875, 
American  sculptur'e  has  been  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  French,  though  some  of  the 
more    important    artists     have     had     Ger- 


SCULPTURE 


3236 


SCULPTURE 


man  and  Italian  training.  Of  the  Ger- 
man-American group,  Keyser,  of  Balti- 
more, is  the  most  important.  Howard 
Roberts  and  Levi  Warner  were  among  the 
first  to  display  the  French  influence.  Of 
recent  fame  are  Augustus  Saint  Gaudens  and 
Daniel  C.  French,  both  masters  of  the  art, 
whose  works  have  placed  them  in  the  front 
rank  of  modern  sculptors.  Notable  among 
the  works  of  French  are  the  bronze  statue 
of  Washington,  executed  as  a  gift  of  Amer- 
ican citizens  to  France,  and  the  bronze  doors 
of  the  Boston  Public  Library.  Saint  Gau- 
dens' gi'eatest  works  are  the  Shaw  Memorial, 
on  the  Boston  Common,  and  the  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  Sherman,  at  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  of  Central  Park,  Xew  York. 
The  latter  is  count^ed  among  the  half-dozen 
greatest  equestrian  statues  of  the  world. 

Frederick  MacMonnies,  a  pupil  of  Saint 
Gaudens,  achieved  honor,  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  Herbert  Adams,  Partridge,  Paul 
Bartlett,  Bitter,  Nieha.us,  Rhind,  Proctor, 
Kemys,  Barnard.  Borghum,  Mulligan  and 
Lorado  Taft  are  among  those  who  have  re- 
flected credit  upon  American  sculpture  with- 
in recent  years.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be 
said  of  American  sculpture  that  it  has  started 
along  a  path  which  leads  to  works  of  pei"- 
manent  value,  namely,  independent  and  con- 
sistent labor.  It  does  not  disregard  the 
classic  foi-ms,  but  it  adds  to  them  an  indi- 
viduality and  flexibility  which  well  represents 
the  free  and  vigorous  characters  of  Amer- 
ican life.  Such  buildings  as  the  Library  of 
Congress  at  Washington  and  such  decorative 
achievements  as  the  sculpture  of  recent  ex- 
positions testify  both  to  the  demand  for  good 
art  and  the  ability  of  American  sculptors 
to  meet  that  demand. 

The  Study  of  Statuary  in  School.  It  is 
much  to  the  advantage  of  the  school  to  have 
one  or  more  groups  of  statuary  so  placed 
that  they  maj'  be  seen  daily  by  all  the  pupils. 
Excellent  casts  of  the  best  works  of  the 
great  masters,  both  ancient  and  modern,  can 
be  procured  at  such  small  cost  as  to  make 
it  possible  to  pi-ocure  these  works  of  art 
wherever  a  desire  for  them  is  awakened. 

In  giring  lessons  on  statuary  the  teacher 
will  be  aided  by  the  following  suggestions: 

1.  If  possible,  let  the  lessons  be  upon  the 
statue  instead  of  upon  a  photograph  of  it. 
However,  it  is  better  to  give  lessons  upon 
the  photographs  than  not  to  give  them  at  all. 

2.  Select  the  subject  with  care.  Some 
people  object  to  the  nude  in  art,  and  if  the 


lessons  are  to  be  successful  with  all  pupils 
these  objections  must  be  heeded.  Remember 
that  tlie  actions  of  children  appeal  to  the 
pupils,  and  so  far  as  possible  choose  subjects 
containing  children. 

3.  If  photos  must  be  used,  try  to  have 
enough  so  that  you  can  place  a  copy  in  the 
hands  of  each  member  of  the  class.  It  will 
be  well  to  distribute  these  pictures  a  day  or 
two  before  giving  the  first  lesson. 

4.  A  statue  requires  more  study  than  a 
picture  like  that  chosen  for  a  picture  study 
lesson.  Therefore  the  statue  needs  more  time 
upon  it. 

5.  At  first  select  only  the  most  striking 
features.  As  the  class  shows  the  ability  to 
grasp  details  they  can  be  introduced. 

6.  Make  the  lesson  short  and  usually  let 
several  days  intervene  between  succeeding 
lessons.  One  or  at  the  most  two  lessons  a 
week  are  enough  for  subjects  of  this  sort. 

7.  When  the  study  is  completed,  require 
the  pupils  in  the  older  classes  to  write  a  de- 
scription of  the  statue.  Pupils  in  the  primary 
grades  should  be  called  upon  to  give  oral 
descriptions. 

The  Sun  Vow.  The  Sim  Vow,  the  work 
of  Hermon  A.  McNeil,  is  the  embodiment  of 
a  legend  long  standing  among  the  American 
Indians.  According  to  this  legend,  before  a 
youth  could  be  recognized  as  a  man  and  be 
allowed  to  take  his  place  among  the  warriors 
of  his  tribe,  he  must  shoot  an  aiTow  at  the 
sun  as  a  test  of  his  strength  and  skill.  If 
truly  aimed  and  vigorously  sped,  the  arrow 
went  far  out  of  sight  in  the  sun's  rays  and 
the  youth  was  deemed  worthy.  Otherwise 
he  remained  longer  with  the  squaws.  The 
group  further  represents  age  about  to  pass 
from  earth  and  youth  about  to  enter  upon 
the  activities  of  life.  This  idea  is  vividly 
portrayed  in  the  contrast  of  the  figures  of 
the  old  chief  and  the  boy. 

All  children  are  hero  worshipers,  and  boys 
especially  like  the  heroic.  Therefore  the 
gi'oup  selected  for  our  study  will  be  of  special 
interest  to  them. 

1.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  group  and 
determine  what  you  wish  to  bring  out  in  the 
lessons  before  presenting  the  subject  in  class. 

2.  Introduce  the  lesson  by  telling  the  legend 
upon  which  the  work  is  based.  Ask  the  pupils 
about  such  customs  of  the  Indians  as  are 
especially  related  to  this  legend,  such  as  their 
weapons  of  warfare  and  manner  of  dress. 
Bring  out  the  fact  that  in  some  tribes  chil- 
dren and  youths  were  often  unclad. 

3.  Notice  the  perfect  muscular  development 
in  the  youth. 

Call  attention  to  the  position  of  the  arm 
and  bow.     Are   these   natural? 

4.  It  may  lend  interest  to  the  study  to  have 
some  boys  make  a  bow  and  arrow  and  let 
members  of  the  class  take  turns  in  shooting 


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SCULPTURE 


3238 


SCUTARI 


gf  Questions  on   Sculpture 

l-l       In  what  respect  does  sculpture  differ 
si  from  the  otlier  arts  of  design? 
M       Describe  the   process   of   making  a 
|"|  statue. 

hi       What  are  the  three  forms  of  sculp- 
|i  ture? 

II       What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of 
|j   Egyptian  sculpture  ?    Of  Assj-rian  ? 
lit       What    are    the    important    elements 
|"i   of  the  art  that  flourished  in  Athens 
il   during  the  rule  of  Pericles? 
|;1      -How  did  Grecian  art  change  after 
|i   the  Peloponnesian  War? 
|ii|       Why  is  the  Venus  de  Milo  a  master- 
|i   piece?     Where  and  when  was  it  dis- 
I' I  covered  ? 

1 1       What  great  works  of  art  are  in  the 
Ij   Louvre  ? 

hi       Upon    what    story    is    the   Laocoon 
gl  based? 

fe|       What  is  the  storj-  of  Xiobe,  and  how 
r|  has  it  been  portrayed  in  art  ? 
I"|       What  are  the  chief  qualities  in  the 
PI   work  of  Michelangelo? 
1^1       Who  was  the  leading  spirit  in  the 
r|  classic  revival  in  Italy? 
PI       What  great  sculptors  have  France 
y   and  Germany  produced? 
r|       What  did  John  Flaxman  do  for  Eng- 
!s|  lish  sculpture? 

H       For   what   is    the    Danish    sculptor 
If   Thorwaldsen  noted? 
iij       What    great    works    has    Augustus 
||   Saint  Gaudens  produced? 
if       What  suggestions  can  you  give  in  re- 
Pi  gard  to  the  study  of  statuary  in  schools  ? 


the  arrow  into  the  air.  Have  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class  compare  the  position  of  the 
one  shooting  with  that  of  the  one  in  the 
statue. 

5.  Contrast  the  angular  figure  of  the  old 
chief  with  the  beautiful  muscular  figure  of 
the  youth. 

6.  Again  contrast  the  expression  of  calm 
resignation  of  the  old  man  with  that  of  eager 
expectancy  on  the  countenance  of  the  youth. 

Does  the  old  man  want  the  boy  to  succeed? 

"What  does  failure  mean  to  the  boy? 

Bringing  out  these  contrasts  will  reveal  the 
remarkable  delicacy  and  skill  of  the  sculptor 
as  well  as  the  thorough  knowledge  of  his 
subject.  It  is  given  to  but  few  to  work  clay, 
marble  or  bronze  so  delicately  as  to  portray 
accurately  the  thoughts  and  feelings  indi- 
cated by  the  countenances  in  this  group. 


Alto-Rilievo 
Bas-Relief 
Bust 
Carving 


Call  the  attention  of  the  older  members  of 
the  class  to  the  composition.  Notice  how  per- 
fectly the  group  is  balanced.  Notice  how 
natural  is  the  position  of  each  figure,  and 
especially  the  lifelike  appearance  of  the 
group  as  a  whole.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that 
these  characteristics,  together  with  the  con- 
trasts to  which  attention  is  called  above, 
make  this  group  not  only  an  object  of  beauty, 
but  a  work  of  the  highest  art  as  well. 

Related    Article.s.       Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 

GENERAL 

Cast  Mezzo-Rilievo 

Colossus  Parthenon 

Elgin  Marbles  Sphinx 
Liberty,  Statue 
of 

SCULPTORS 

Barnard,    George   GreyPhidias 
Bartlett,    Paul    Way-    Powers,  Hiram 

land  Praxiteles 

Borglum,    Gutzon  Robbia,  Delia 

Canova,   Antonio  Rodin,   Auguste 

Cellini,    Benvenuto  Rogers,   John 

Crawford,  Thomas  Rogers,    Randolph 

Donatello  Rude,  Frangois 

French.  Daniel  ChesterSaint  Gaudens,  Augus- 
Ghiberti,   Lorenzo  tus 

Hosmer,   Harriet  Schilling,   Johann 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine  Stoss,    Veit 
Leighton,  Frederick       Taft,  Lorado 
Lysippus  Thorwaldsen.    Bertel 

MacMonnies.  Frederick  Ward,  John  Q.  A. 
Michelangelo,   Buonar-Watts,  George  Freder- 

roti  ick 

Partridge,    William 

Ordway 

SCUR'VY,  a  disease  formerly  very  preva- 
lent among  sailors,  because  of  their  being 
compelled  on  long  voyages  to  live  exclusively 
upon  salt  meat  and  hard  bread,  with  impure 
water.  In  recent  years  the  disease  on  ships 
is  little  known,  because  of  better  sanitary 
provisions  and  more  abundant  supplies  of 
food.  It  is  due  to  poor  nourishment  and 
is  rarely  seen,  except  among  the  poor  and 
careless.  Severe  cases  of  scurvy  are  accom- 
panied by  swellings  in  different  parts  of 
the  body  and  by  swollen  gums,  which  be- 
come ulcerated  and  bleed,  making  it  almost 
impossible  to  eat.  In  fact,  unless  suitably 
treated,  it  progi-esses  to  exhaustion  and  death. 

Treatment  consists  in  a  change  of  diet. 
Those  who  eat  plenty  of  vegetables  are  never 
troubled  with  scurvy.  Lemon  juice  is  a 
valuable  preventive  and  is  required  by  law 
to  be  a  part  of  the  diet  of  all  sailors  in  the 
British  navy. 

SCUTARI,  skoo'tah  re,  Albania,  a  forti- 
fied town  on  the  southeastern  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Scutari,  situated  near  the  junction 
of  the  Drin  and  Boyana  rivers.  Before  the 
Balkan  Wars  the  town  was  the  capital  of 
a  Turkish  vilayet  (prorince),  but  in  1913  it 
was  captured  by  the  Montenegrins,  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  was  made  a  part  of 
Albania.     In  the  World  War  Scutari  was 


SCYLLA 


3239 


SEA  KALE 


captured  by  the  forces  of  the  central  powers, 
and  occupied  by  them  until  nearly  the  close 
of  the  war.  The  town  lies  on  a  plain  situ- 
ated about  twelve  miles  from  the  Adriatic 
Sea  and  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  moun- 
tains. In  noi-mal  years  there  is  a  thriving 
export  trade  in  skins,  woolen  goods,  grain 
and  fish,  and  cotton  manufacture  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Population,  estimated, 
32,000. 

SCYLLA,  sil'ah,  and  CHARYBDIS,  ka 
rib'dis,  the  former,  according  to  a  Greek 
myth,  once  a  beautiful  girl  transformed  into 
a  six-headed  monster  because  of  the  jealousy 
of  Circe.  She  lived  under  a  roek  opposite 
Charybdis  and  was  wont  to  thrust  forth  her 
long  necks  and  in  each  of  her  mouths  seize 
one  of  the  crew  of  every  passing  vessel.  The 
whirlpool  Chaiybdis,  almost  opposite  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Messina,  in  Sicily, 
engulfed  every  passing  vessel  when  the  tide 
was  rushing  in.  The  term,  "between  Scylla 
and  Chaiybdis,"  indicating  the  difficulty  of 
steering  between  rock  and  whirlpool,  in  mod- 
em phraseology  has  come  to  mean  one  of 
two  dangers  or  evils  which  must  be  met. 

SEA.    See  Ocean. 

SEA  ANEMONE,  a  nemo  ne,  the  popular 
name  of  a  number  of  sea  animals  somewhat 
resembling  flowers,  from  which  they  derive 
their  name.  They  are  the  second  lowest 
among  the  divisions  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
and  with  the  jellyfish  and  corals  are  classed 
in  the  branch  Coelenterata  (which  see).  Sea 
anemones  differ  somewhat  in  size  and  form, 
but  in  general  all  appear  as  fleshy  cylinders, 
attached  by  their  bases  to  rocks  or  stones, 
and  presenting  at  their  free  extremities 
mouths  suiTounded  by  circlets  of  arms  or 
tentacles.  With  these  tentacles,  in  some 
cases  exceeding  two  hundred  in  number,  they 
seize  their  food,  consisting  of  a  small  variety 
of  sea  animals,  which  they  paralyze  by  means 
of  stinging  cells,  common  to  this  branch  of 
the  animal  kingdom.  The  appearance  of 
anemones  with  their  tentacles  extended  is 
very  beautiful,  as  they  are  of  all  varieties  in 
color  and  have  the  appearance  of  fully-ex- 
panded flowers,  which,  however,  close  sud- 
denly when  touched  in  any  way.  Although 
sea  anemones  are  attached  to  rocks,  they  are 
able  to  detach  themselves  and  move  about  at 
will. 

SEA  COW.     See  Manatee. 

SEA  CU'CUMBERS,  or  HOLOTHURIA, 
hahl  0  thu'ri  a,    the    name    of    a    group    of 


sea  animals,  belonging  to  the  same  branch 
a?  starfishes,  sea  urchins  and  sea  lilies. 
They  are  covered  with  a  tough,  leathery 
skin     which     is     perforated     with     holes, 

?^       •    t 


SEA  CUCUMBER 

through  which  the  foot- tentacles  protrude 
(see  EcHiNODERMS).  The  animals  are  ca- 
pable of  contracting  and  extending  themselves 
to  several  times  their  ordinaiy  length,  and 
they  will  reproduce  to  an  extraordinary  de- 
gi'ee  parts  of  the  body  which  are  cut  away 
or  destroyed.  The}*  abound  along  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Asia,  and  some  species  are 
edible.    See  Trepang. 

SEA  HORSE.    See  Hippocampus. 

SEA  ISLANDS,  the  small  islands  which 
gave  their  name  to  a  fine  variety  of  cotton 
called  sea-island  cotton  (referred  to  in  the 
article  Cotton).  They  are  located  off  the 
coast  of  South  Carolina,  between  Charleston 
and  Savannah,  are  near  the  shore  and  separat- 
ed from  it  by  narrow  lagoons.  Besides  cotton, 
the  islands  are  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation 
of  rice. 

SEA  KALE,  also  called  Chambe,  is  a 
perennial  plant  of  the  Cruciferae  family 
(which  see),  important  as  a  food  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  European  countries.  Its 
sprouts  are  blanched  and  are  eaten  like  as- 
paragus. It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  or 
offsets. 


SEAL 


3240 


SEAL 


EAL,  a  warm-blooded,  air- 
breathing,  animal  that 
lives  both  in  the  water 
and  on  the  land.  A  few 
seals  are  found  in  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  Lake 
Baikal,  but,  with  these  ex- 
ceptions, all  seals  are  in- 
habitants of  the  sea. 
They  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  called  true  seals, 
which  have  no  external 
ears,  and  eared  seals. 

General  Description. 
The  seal  has  a  body  which 
is  large  at  thef  front  and 
tapers  toward  the  tail, 
like  that  of  the  whales.  It 
has  foui'  legs,  wliieh  are  almost  covered  by 
the  skin  of  the  body,  while  in  place  of  the 
feet  are  fins  or  flippers.  The  hind  legs  are 
used  in  swimming,  and  the  fore  legs  support 
the  animal  in  an  erect  position  when  he  is 
on  the  land.  The  mouth  is  large  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  numerous  feelers,  resembling 
those  of  the  cat.  The  eyes  are  large,  with  an 
almost  human  expression,  and  the  ears  are 
small  or  entirely  lacking.  The  body  is  cov- 
ered by  thick,  woolly  fur  and  long,  shining 
hair,  and  all  is  so  oily  and  smooth  that  it 
enables  the  seal  to  move  easily  through  the 
"water.  Seals  are  air-breathing  animals,  but 
they  can  remain  under  water  for  a  consid- 
erable time.  They  are  expert  divers  and 
swimmers,  but  are  exceedingly  awkward  on 
land. 

Where  Seals  Live.  Seals  inhabit  the  cool 
waters  of  the  temperate  and  polar  regions 
and  usually  return  to  the  same  spot  year 
after  year  to  breed.  They  live  in  herds,  and 
before  they  were  hunted  many  of  these  herds 
"were  of  enormous  size.  They  frequent  rocks 
in  shallow  places  and  icebergs,  where  they 
come  at  breeding  time  and  remain  to  rear 
their  young.  Most  species  are  easily  tamed, 
and  they  often  fonn  great  attachment  for 
their  keepers  and  are  easily  taught  ingenious 
and  amusing  tricks. 

Sealing.  The  hair  seal,  which  is  the  com- 
mon seal  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  has  long,  silky 
hair,  and  is  valuable  for  its  skin  and  fat, 
called  blubber.  It  is  captured  in  large  num- 
bers off  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  Jan  Meyen 
Island  and  in  the  White  Sea.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Greenland  •  hunt  these  seals  for 
food   and   clothing,   but   they   take  only   a 


sufficient  number  to  supply  their  needs. 
In  many  places  these  seals  have  been 
nearly  extei-minated  by  hunters,  because 
the  skins  make  good  leatlier,  and  a  valu- 
able oil  is  extracted  from  the  blubber. 
The  hair-seal  industry  is  really  more  impor- 
tant than  the  fur-seal  industry,  although  it 
has  not  received  as  much  attention.  Finally 
the  danger  of  exterminating  these  animals 
became  so  imminent  that  by  international 
agreement  the  sealing  season  was  restricted, 
and  now  about  250,000  seals  are  taken  an- 
nually. Under  these  restrictions  the  herds 
seem  to  maintain  their  size. 

Fur  Seal.  The  fur  seal  or  sea  bear  is 
highly  valued  for  its  fur,  which  consists  of 
a  thick,  woolly  hair  next  the  skin,  very  fine 
and  compact,  usually  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
Over  this  grows  long,  coarse  hair,  which  is 
of  some  shade  of  gray.  The  fur  seals  are 
found  in  the  water  of  the  cool  temperate 
or  polar  regions  north  -and  south  of  the 
equator,  though  in  the  Antarctic  regions  they 
are  almost  extinct. 

One  herd  of  seals,  which  constitutes  a  dis- 
tinct species,  and  that  the  most  important  of 
all  the  seals,  makes  its  home  on  the  Pribilof 
Islands,  a  baiTen  little  group  in  Bering  Sea. 
The  study  of  these  animals  and  their  habits, 
as  exhibited  on  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George, 


FUR  SEAL, 


the  two  largest  islands,  has  been  as  fas- 
cinating to  men  of  science  as  their  capture 
has  been  profitable  to  traders.    Every  spring 


SEAL 


3241 


SEA  LION 


the  seals  return  by  thousands  to  this  chosen 
home,  and  many  of  them  have  specially  fav- 
ored places  which  they  seize  each  year,  and 
for  which  they  will  fight  to  the  death.  Each 
old  male,  or  bull,  gathers  about  him  a  large 
number  of  females,  sometimes  as  many  as 
one  hundred,  whom  he  defends  against  the 
other  bulls,  and  from  whom  he  exacts  the 
strictest  obedience.  Through  all  the  long 
period  from  spring  until  August  the  bulls 
fast,  but  the  mothers,  soon  after  the  young 
seals,  or  pups,  are  born,  swim  away  to  the 
south  to  find  food.  The  little  seals  are  thus 
left  sometimes  for  a  week,  but  when  the 
mothers  return  each  is  able  to  distinguish 
her  own  pup  from  all  the  others  of  the  great 
grouj^.  The  pup,  too,  can  tell  its  own 
mother's  voice,  though  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands of  others  may  be  calling  at  the  same 
time. 

When  winter  comes,  and  the  storms  begin, 
the  seals  depart  for  the  south,  often  going 
down  as  far  as  Lower  Calif oraia;  but  no- 
where do  they  land  and  establish  a  home 
until  with  the  spring  they  return  to  the 
Pribilof  Islands. 

The  full-grown  male  fur  seal  is  almost  as 
large  as  a  bear,  being  often  twice  as  long 
and  weighing  four  or  five  times  as  much 
as  the  female.  It  is  the  j^oung  males  which 
are  killed  for  their  fur,  for  they  are  the 
least  necessary  part  of  the  colon}'-,  as  the 
old  bulls  will  not  allow  them  to  set  up 
families  until  they  are  seven  or  eight  years 
old,  at  least.  The  killing  of  seals  on  the 
Pribilof  Islands  is  carefully  regulated  by 
the  United  States  government  and  only  a 
small  number  may  be  killed  each  year;  but 
in  spite  of  care  the  number  has  steadily 
lessened,  and  in  1910  killing  was  forbidden 
for  a  period  of  five  years.  There  are  other 
seal  breeding  grounds,  or  rookeries,  on  other 
groups  of  islands,  but  none  are  as  large  or 
as  important  as  the  one  on  the  Pribilof 
Islands. 

The  animals  are  killed  by  clubbing  them 
when  they  are  on  land,  where  they  are  com- 
paratively helpless.  The  skins  are  salted  and 
packed  in  the  holds  of  vessels  until  the  close 
of  the  season.  The  beautiful  fur  is  seldom 
seen  in  its  natui-al  state.  As  usually  pre- 
pared, the  long  gray  hair  is  removed  by 
scraping  the  pelt  on  the  under  side  until  the 
roots  of  this  hair,  which  penetrate  the  skin 
farther  than  those  of  the  fine  hair,  are  cut; 
then  by  whipping  the  pelt  the  long  hair  is 


easily  removed.  The  skins  are  then  dyed 
dark  brown  or  almost  black,  and  in  this 
foim  constitute  the  ordinary-  sealskin  of  com- 
merce.    See  Elephant  Seal;  Sea  Lion. 

SEAL,  a  sign  or  mark,  but  usually  an  en- 
graved stamp  bearing  a  device  or  inscrip- 
tion, impressed  on  paper,  metal  or  wax,  and 
attached  to  important  documents.  The  seal 
of  country  or  state  must  be  attached  to  leg- 
islative acts  before  they  can  go  into  effect 
Great  Seal  of  the  United  States.  This 
was  first  adopted  by  CongTess  in  1782,  and 
the  design  was  ordered  changed  by  the  same 
body  in  1885.  On  the  obverse  side  is  an 
eagle  typifj-ing  the  government.  In  one  claw 
the  eagle  clutches  an  olive  branch  and  in 
the  other  arrows,  typifying  power  in  both 
peace  and  war.  A  constellation  above  de- 
notes the  thirteen  original  states.  The  motto, 
"E  pluribus  unum,"  signifies  unity,  and  the 
escutcheon  borne  unsupported  on  the  breast 
of  the  eagle  signifies  virtue  and  honor.  The 
reverse  side  of  the  seal  shows  a  pj-ramid, 
signifying  strength.  Above  is  an  eye  and  the 
motto,  "Annuit  coeptis,"  signifying  provi- 
dential direction;  below  are  the  date  (1776) 
and  the  motto,  "Vovus  ordo  seclorum,"  sig- 
nifj'ing  the  beginning  of  the  America  Era. 

SEA  LILIES.    See.  Crinoidea. 

SEALING  WAX,  a  resinous  preparation 
used  for  securing  folded  papers  and  en- 
velopes and  for  receiving  impressions  of 
seals  set  to  instiniments.  Ordinary  red  seal- 
ing wax  is  made  from  shellac  melted  with 
ros.in,  to  which  are  added  Venice  turpentine 
and  vermilion.  Inferior  qualities  consist  of 
a  proportion  of  common  resin  and  red  lead 
and  black ;  other  colors  are  produced  by  sub- 
stituting appropriate  pigments.  The  inven- 
tion of  sealing  wax  is  credited  to  the  Chinese 
in  the  seventh  century. 

SEA  LION,  the  name  given  to  a  largegroup 
of  eared  seals,  which,  though  closely  related 
to  the  fur  seals,  are  not  of  value  as  fur 
producers.  All  have  long,  cylindrical  bodies, 
small,  round  heads,  pointed  noses,  thick 
skin,  with  an  under  layer  of  fat  for  pro- 
tection against  cold,  and  coarse  hair.  The 
individuals  of  some  species  have  manes. 
The  largest  animals,  belonging  to  the  Steller 
gi'oup,  attain  a  weight  of  a  thousand  pounds 
and  more,  and  a  length  of  fourteen  feet. 
Their  particular  habitat  is  the  Northera  Pa- 
cific. The  natives  of  the  Aleutian  Islands 
catch  thousands  of  these  seals.  They  use 
the  flesh  for  food,  the  hide  for  shoes  and 


SEARCH 


3242 


SEA  SQUIRTS 


boats  and  the  sinews  for  thread.  Another 
group,  called  California  sea  lions,  is  made 
up  of  smaller  animals.     Sea  lions  are  seen 


SEA  LION 

in  large  numbers  on  the  Pacific  coast  cliffs. 
They  are  peaceable  creatures,  but  if  attacked 
defend  themselves  fiereelj'.  They  are  pro- 
tected by  law,  but  a  few  are  allowed  to  be 
taken  for  menageries  and  zoological  gardens. 

SEARCH,  Right  of^  in  international  law, 
the  right  claimed  by  a  nation  at  war  to  au- 
thorize the  commanders  of  its  lawfully  com- 
missioned cruisers  to  enter  and  search  private 
merchant  vessels  of  neutral  nations  on  the 
high  seas  for  the  purpose  of  examining  their 
papers  and  cargo  and  to  search  for  enemy 
property  or  contraband  of  war.  It  is  also 
the  right  claimed  by  a  nation  to  search  ves- 
sels of  other  nations  in  order  to  seize  citizens 
of  the  former  in  the  sendee  of  the  latter. 
England's  insistence  on  the  right  of  search 
was  one  of  the  causes  leading  to  the  War  of 
1812. 

SEARCH  WARRANT.    See  Warrant. 

SEA  ROBIN.    See  Gurnard. 

SEA  SERPENT,  a  marine  monster,  often 
reported  as  haA-ing  been  seen,  although  there 
is  no  proof  that  such  a  creature  exists.  Vari- 
ous accounts  assert  that  it  is  sixty  feet  or 
more  in  length  and  that  it  swims  with  its 
head  and  part  of  its  body  above  water. 
However,  this  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
myth,  and  the  explanation  is  that  people  have 
been  deluded  by  the  sight  of  shoals  of  fish, 
or  logs  of  wood  or  seaweed. 

SEA'SICKNESS,  a  nerx^ous  attack,  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  the  sea.  The  s^-mp- 
toms  are  headache,  nausea,  vomiting,  gen- 
eral weakness  and  sometimes  extreme  depres- 
sion. Usually  an  attack  passes  off  quickly, 
as  the  person  becomes  accustomed  to  the 
sea,  and  will  not  recur,  at  least  during  the 


continuance  of  the  voyage.  Some  persons 
are  always  more  or  less  ill  when  on  the  water 
and  become  A^iolently  so  when  the  sea  is 
rough.  Children  and  aged  persons  are  more 
frequently  exempt  than  others.  Many 
remedies  have  been  suggested  for  seasickness, 
but  none  seems  to  be  effective  in  all  cases. 
One  should  not  overload  the  stomach  and 
should  take  active  exercise  in  the  open  air. 
If,  however,  the  attack  is  severe,  the  patient 
should  go  to  bed  for  a  day  or  two.  How- 
ever, long  confinement  in  a  stateroom  is  bad, 
and  it  very  often  happens  that  the  attacks 
will  disappear  entii^ely  if  the  patient  seeks 
the  open  air. 

SEASONS,  se'z'nz,  the  four  periods  into 
which  the  year  is  divided  by  the  ever- 
changing  position  of  the  earth  in  relation 
to  the  sun.  As  the  earth  revolves  about  the 
sun  in  a  nearly  circular  orbit,  its  axis  at  all 
times  points  toward  the  Pole  Star  and  is  in- 
clined to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  231/2  °-  There- 
fore different  parts  of  its  surface  are  at 
different  times  of  the  year  exposed  to  the 
vertical  rays  of  the  sun.  Astronomically 
speaking,  in  the  northern  hemisphere  spring 
extends  from  March  21,  the  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  to  the  summer  solstice,  June  21; 
summer  from  June  21  to  September  21,  the 
time  of  the  autumnal  equinox;  autumn  to 
December  21,  and  win- 
ter from  that  date  to  the 
beginning  of  spring. 
In  the  southern  hemis- 
phere the  seasons  are  re- 
versed, and  spring  be- 
gins September  21.  In 
the  torrid  zone  the 
changes  in  the  seasons 
are  not  marked  by  dif- 
ferences in  temperature, 
but  by  wet  and  dry 
periods.  See  Equixox; 
Solstice. 

SEA  SQUIRTS, 
skwurts,  or  ASCID- 
lANS,  as  sicl'i  am,  a 
name  commonly  given 
to  certain  low-grade 
mollusks,  so  called  be- 
cause of  their  habit  of 

squirting  jets  of  water^  ,^^^  SQUIRTS 

t  11  .     .  Colony  on  branch   of 

when    touched    or    irrir  seaweed. 

tated.  They  somewhat  resemble  double- 
necked  bottles,  and  are  of  leathery  or  gristly 
nature.     They  are  found  at  low  water  on  a 


SEATTLE 


3243 


SEATTLE 


sea  beach  or  are  dredged  from  deep  water  at- 
tached to  stones,  shells,  seaweed  and  fixed  ob- 
jects. There  are  numerous  species,  all  of 
which  pass  through  peculiar  phases  of  de- 
velopment. The  young  sea  squirt  resembles 
the  tadpole  of  the  frog,  and  is  free-swimming. 
p^EATTLE,  Wash.,  the 
"Queen  City,"  the  comity 
seat  of  King  County,  and 
the  largest  city  in  the 
state,  is  situated  on  the 
East  Coast  of  Puget 
Sound,  1,822  miles  west  of 
Saint  Paul,  864  miles  by 
water  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, thirty-five  miles 
north  of  Tacoma  and  185 
miles  by  rail  north  of 
Portland,  Ore.  The  city 
occupies  a  beautiful  site, 
between  Puget  Sound  on 
the  west  and  Lake  Wash- 
ington on  the  east.  It  is 
built  upon  a  series  of 
hills,  which  in  some  places 
rise  to  the  height  of  300 
feet  and  are  separated  by 
broad  valleys  or  terraces. 
The  main  streets  run 
north  and  south,  and  the 
cross  streets,  east  and  west.  An  excellent 
street  ear  system  connects  all  parts  of  the 
city  and  the  important  suburbs.  The  streets 
have  been  graded  at  great  expense  and  are 
well  paved.  The  city  has  forty-four  parks 
and  twenty-four  improved  playgrounds, 
the  combined  area  of  parks  and  play- 
grounds covering  1,818  acres.  The  most 
interesting  parks  are  Jefferson  Park, 
which  maintains  municipal  golf  links; 
Seward  Park,  on  Lake  Washington;  Wood- 
land Park  with  its  athletic  field  and  zoolog- 
ical garden;  Ravenna  Park,  noted  for  its 
large  trees  and  mineral  springs,  and  Volun- 
teer Park,  from  which  a  fine  view  of  the  city 
and  surrounding  country  may  be  obtained. 

Buildings.  Among  the  important  public 
buildings  are  a  new  Roman  Catholic  Cathe- 
dral, costing  $500,000 ;  the  First  Baptist  and 
First  Presbyterian  churches;  the  First 
Church  of  Christ  Scientist;  the  King  Street 
passenger  station;  the  O.-W.  and  Milwaukee 
station;  the  Washington  Hotel,  the  Provi- 
dence Hospital  and  a  Federal  building.  Most 
of  the  buildings  in  the  business  center  are 
constructed  of  steel  and  brick  or  stone.    The 


most  noted  of  these  is  the  L.  C.  Smith  Build- 
ing (forty-two  stories),  the  highest  building 
west  of  New  York.  Other  stinictures  worthy 
of  mention  are  the  Metropolitan  Building; 
the  Alaska,  Hoge  and  Cobb  buildings  and  the 
buildings  of  the  Arctic,  Sunset  and  Rainier 
clubs.  The  leading  theaters  include  the 
Metropolitan,  Pantages,  Orpheum  and 
Wilkes. 

Education.  The  University  of  Washing- 
ton is  the  most  important  educational  institu- 
tion of  the  city  and  of  the  state.  Other 
prominent  schools  include  the  Academy  of 
the  Holy  Name,  the  College  of  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes,  the  Washington  Preparatory  School 
for  Girls,  Adelphia  College  and  Seattle  Col- 
lege. The  public  schools  are  of  a  high  order 
and  include  six  high  schools  and  nearly  sev- 
enty grammar  schools. 

Industries.  Abundant  water  power  and 
electric  power  obtained  from  plants  near  the 
city  have  been  leading  factors  in  making 
Seattle  one  of  the  most  important  manufac- 
tuiing  centers  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
manufacture  of  lumber  is  the  leading  indus- 
tiy,  and  the  lumber  mills  at  Port  Blakeley 
are  the  largest  in  the  world.  Fish  packing 
and  canning  furnishes  emiolo3rment  to  a  large 
number  of  people.  More  than  100,000  tons 
of  fish  and  fish  products  are  handled  in  the 
city  every  year.  Other  important  industries 
are  meat  packing,  the  manufacture  of  flour 
and  machinery,  and  printing  and  publishing. 
The  United  States  navy  yard  at  Bremerton, 
across  the  Sound,  is  an  important  shipbuild- 
ing station. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  Seattle 
has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world,  and 
the  completion  of  a  canal  joining  Lake 
Washington  to  the  Sound  has  greatly  in- 
creased the  water  front.  The  city  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great 
Northern,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint 
Paul  and  the  Union  Pacific  railroads.  The 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  enters  the  city 
over  tracks  of  another  line,  and  the  Canadian 
Pacific  and  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  have 
steamship  connection.  The  Oregon  &  Wash- 
ington and  other  lines  connect  the  city  with 
other  Pacific  towns. 

On  the  water  front  are  found  the  extensive 
docks  and  railway  stations  devoted  to  the 
handling  of  freight  and  to  the  wholesale 
trade.  This  is  the  most  convenient  port  for 
all  traffic  going  to  Alaska  and  for  much  of 
that  between  the  United  States  and  China 


SEA  URCHIN 


3244 


SECESSION 


Japan,  Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  since  the  occupation  of  the  Philippines 
by  the  United  States  the  oriental  trade  of 
Seattle  has  rapidly  increased.  There  is  also 
an  extensive  local  trade  by  water  between 
the  city  and  numerous  other  towns  on  Puget 
Sound.  The  largest  ocean  steamships  can 
reach  Seattle  docks  in  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

History.  The  city  occupies  the  site  of 
a  foiTner  Indian  town.  The  first  settlement 
by  white  men  was  in  1852,  and  the  next  year 
the  town  was  laid  out  and  named  after  an 
Indian  chief.  It  had  a  population  of  300  in 
1855,  but  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  fii'st 
transcontinental  railway  in  1884  its  growth 
was  slow.  In  1889  a  fire  destroyed  the  main 
portion  of  the  city,  causing  a  loss  of  over 
$10,000,000.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  Alaska 
and  the  acquisition  of  the  Philippines  brought 
Seattle  into  prominence  as  a  commercial  cen- 
ter, and  it  has  continued  to  increase  in  popu- 
lation and  wealth  ever  since.  The  water 
work,  light  and  power  plants  and  a  part  of 
the  street  railway  lines  are  owned  by  the 
municipality.  The  Alaska- Yukon-Pacific  Ex- 
position was  held  here  in  1909.  In  1919  the 
Bolshevik  element  in  the  Northwest,  by  a 
general  strike,  endeavored  to  establish  soviet 
rule  in  Seattle,  but  the  effort  was  defeated 
by  the  courage  of  Mayor  Ole  Hanson.  Popu- 
lation, 1910,  237,194;  in  1917,  366,445  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

SEA  UR'CHIN,  or  ECHINUS,  eki'nus, 
a  genus  of  sea  animals,  belonging  to  the  same 
group  as  the  starfish,  sea  lily  and  sea  cucum- 
ber (see  EcHiNODERMs).  The  body  of  the 
sea  urchin  is  more  or  less  globular  and  cov- 


UNDER  SURFACE  OP  SEA  URCHIN 

ered  with  a  shell  which  is  often  studded  with 
movable  spines.  Sea  urchins,  of  which  there 
are  many  species,  are  found  in  shallow  water 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  those  of  the 
tropical  regions  being  largest. 


SEA'WEED,  the  common  name  for  any 
plant  which  grows  in  water.  See  Algae; 
Kelp. 

SEBASTIAN,  se  has'chan,  Saint  ( ?-288), 
a  Roman  soldier  and  Christian  martyr  who 
was  put  to  death  by  Emperor  Diocletian. 
His  position  as  captain  of  the  Praetorian 
Guard  gave  him  the  coveted  opportunity  of 
spreading  Christianity  and  protecting  its  ad- 
herents. Diocletian,  on  hearing  of  this,  or- 
dered Sebastian  to  be  tied  to  a  stake  and  shot 
with  arrows.  Irene,  a  Christian,  is  said  to 
have  taken  him  to  her  home  and  cared  for  him 
until  liis  wounds  were  healed.  When  Sebas- 
tian, after  his  recovery,  accused  Diocletian 
of  cruelty,  the  young  soldier  was  condemned 
to  be  beaten  to  death.  Paul  Veronese,  Hol- 
bein, Luini  and  others  have  immortalized 
Sebastian  in  their  art. 

SEBAS'TOPOL,  the  chief  naval  harbor  of 
Southern  Russia,  situated  on  the  southwest- 
ern extremity  of  the  Crimean  peninsula,  at 
the  head  of  a  four-mile  inlet  which  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  best  roadsteads  of  the  old 
Russian  Empire.  The  city  occupies  a  strip 
of  land  between  two  bays  at  the  head  of  the 
inlet,  on  elevated  ground.  It  is  strongly  for- 
tified, and  there  are  forts  north  and  south 
of  the  city  and  at  the  entrance  to  the  road- 
stead. There  are  extensive  docks,  and  ship- 
building is  the  principal  industry.  Wine 
making  is  a  source  of  revenue,  but  there  is 
very  little  commerce.  Near  by  is  the  Greek 
colony  of  Chersonesus.  Sebastopol  was 
founded  by  Catharine  II  in  1784,  and  in  1804 
it  was  made  a  naval  base.  The  place  was  the 
scene  of  a  teiTible  siege  in  the  Crimean  war 
and  of  a  Turkish  bombardment  in  1914. 

SECESSION,  sesesh'un,  in  United  States 
history,  a  term  applied  to  the  withdrawal  of 
a  state  from  the  Union.  The  idea  of  seces- 
sion appeared  at  many  times  during  the  early 
years  of  the  republic,  and  the  right  of  seces- 
sion was  conceded  by  many.  Every  impor- 
tant change  in  policy  gave  opportunity  for 
the  minority  party  to  suggest  secession  as  a 
means  of  compelling  the  party  in  power  to 
change  its  course.  It  was  suggested  at  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  at  the  War  of  1812,  at 
the  passage  of  the  tariff  of  1828  and  at  vari- 
ous times  during  the  slavery  controvei-sy.  In 
1860,  after  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
as  President,  secession  was  actually  carried 
out,  eleven  Southern  states  seceding  and  form- 
ing the  Confederate  States  of  America.  This 
brought  on  the  War  of  Secession,  or  Civil 


SECORD 


3245 


SEDALIA 


THE  LAURA  SECORD 

MONUMENT,  AT 

LUNDY'S  LANE 

CEMETERY 


War,  since  which  the  union  has  been  con- 
sidered inviolable.  See  Civil  War  in  Amer- 
ica; Confederate  States  of  America; 
United  States,  subhead  History. 

SECORD,  Laura,  a  Canadian  heroine. 
During  the  War  of  1812  a  force  of  Amer- 
icans sought  to  surprise  a  small  British  force 
at  Beaver  Dam.  News  of  this  plan  reached 
James  Secord,  a  wounded  militia  officer  then 
living  in  Queenstown. 
As  he  himself  was 
unable  to  warn  the 
British  commander, 
his  wife  undertook 
the  dangerous  mis- 
sion. Driving  a  cow 
before  her  until  she 
reached  the  woods,  in 
order  that  the  enemy 
might  not  suspect  her 
purpose,  she  then  set 
out  on  her  solitary 
tramp  of  twenty 
miles  through  the 
dense  forest.  After 
an  exhausting  day, 
during  which  she  was 
in  constant  danger  from  hostile  Indians  and 
Americans,  she  brought  the  news  to  the  de- 
fendei-s  of  Beaver  Dam.  The  British  forces 
were  now  prepared  for  attack  and  when  the 
Americans  approached,  the  English  imme- 
diately took  the  offensive  and  forced  the 
Americans  to  smrender.  While  the  battle  in 
itself  was  not  of  great  significance,  it  will 
live  in  histoiy  for  the  heroism  of  Laura 
Secord. 

SECRETARY  BIRD,  a  South  African 
bird  of  prey,  deriving  its  popular  name  from 
the  peculiar  plumes  which  project  from  the 
back  and  sides  of  its  head,  giving  to  it  the 
appearance  of  having  bundles  of  old-fash- 
ioned quill  pens  stuck  behind  each  ear.  The 
bird  has  veiy  long  legs,  and  its  stands  nearly 
four  feet  in  height.  Though  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  heron  in  general  appearance,  it  is 
more  closely  related  to  the  \'ulture,  and  as  it 
kills  rats,  mice,  troublesome  insects  and  even 
snakes,  it  is  protected  by  law. 

SECRETARY  OF  STATE.  See  State, 
Department  of. 

SECRE'TION,  in  animal  physiology,  the 
separation  of  certain  substances  from  the 
blood  and  the  forming  of  them  into  special 
fluids,  such  as  bile,  saliva,  mucus.  Secretion 
is  the  work  of  organs  of  various  foiTQ  and 


structure,  but  all  may  be  classified  as  mem- 
branes or  glands.  Secretions  are  of  two 
kinds,  those  that  have  a  special  work  to  do, 
known  as  true  secretions,  as  the  saliva  and 
bile;  and  those  that  are  discharged  from  the 
body  as  worthless  or  harmful,  known  as  ex- 
cretions. The  latter  require  no  special  cells, 
as  they  exist  in  the  blood  and  must  be  sepa- 
rated from  it.  If  an  excretory  organ  becomes 
useless,  some  other  organ  will  do  its  work, 
but  if  an  organ  of  secretion  be  removed,  its 
product  is  no  longer  found  in  the  S3'stem. 
See  Glands  ;  Membranes. 

SE'CRET  SERVICE,  that  branch  of  the 
government  whose  duty  it  is  to  detect  crim- 
inal and  fraudulent  practices  against  the  gov- 
ernment. In  most  foreign  governments  this 
service  is  in  the  hands  of  a  separate  depart- 
ment, but  in  the  United  States  each  of  the 
several  executive  departments  has  its  own 
secret  service.  The  most  important  di\'isions 
are  those  connected  with  the  Treasurj'  and 
the  Department  of  Justice.  The  Treasury 
division  is  engaged  chiefly  in  the  detecting 
and  arresting  of  coin  and  note  counterfeiters 
and  in  preventing  the  violation  of  revenue 
laws. 

The  duties  of  the  division  connected  with 
the  Department  of  Justice  consist  in  detec- 
ing  plots  against  the  government,  and  in  dis- 
covering and  arresting  those  who  persist  in 
\T.olating  the  laws  of  the  United  States  in 
other  ways  than  by  defrauding  the  govern- 
ment finaneialh^  During  the  World  War 
the  labors  of  this  division  were  very  strenu- 
ous, and  the  skill  displayed  by  its  members 
in  detecting  Geiman  propaganda,  and  in  dis- 
covering and  arresting  German  agents 
proved  the  high  degree  of  efficiency  which 
the  Secret  Service  in  the  United  States  has 
attained. 

SECRET  SOCIETIES.  See  Fraternal 
Societies. 

SECULAR  GAMES,  a  festival  anciently 
celebrated  at  Rome  at  irregular  periods  and 
not,  as  their  name  would  seem  to  indicate,  at 
the  commencement  of  a  new  saeculum,  or 
generation.  Nothing  of  their  origin  is  known 
except  that  they  were  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Pluto  and  Proserpina,  to  avert  from  the  state 
some  imminent  catastrophe.  Down  the  ages 
long  inter\-als  elapsed  between  the  various 
celebrations. 

SEDA'LIA,  Mo.,  the  county  seat  of  Pettis 
County,  100  miles  east  of  Kansas  City,  on 
the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas  and  the  Mis- 


SEDAN 


3246 


SEED  DISPERSAL 


sonri  Pacific  railroads.  The  city  is  situated 
on  a  plain  almost  a  thousand  feet  above  sea 
level,  in  an  agricultural  region  containing, 
also,  deposits  of  zinc,  iron,  lead,  fire  clay, 
emery  and  limestone.  Repair  shops  of  the 
Missouri  Pacific  are  located  here;  these  em- 
ploy nearly  2,000  men.  There  are  also  foun- 
dries, machine  shops,  implement  works, 
woolen  mills,  a  meat-packing  plant,  flour 
mills,  grain  elevators,  broom  factories,  a 
clothing  factory'  and  manufactories  of  agri- 
cultural implements.  The  principal  struc- 
tures are  a  Federal  building,  courthouse,  high 
school,  municipal  buildings,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
a  Carnegie  Library,  a  railroad  hospital  and 
two  that  are  private.  The  city  lias  a  tele- 
graph school,  George  R.  Smith  College  for 
colored  students,  a  convent  and  other  insti- 
tutions. The  city  was  laid  out  by  General 
George  R.  Smith  in  1861,  and  was  a  militaiy 
post  during  the  Civil  War.  It  was  incor- 
porated in  1864,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1889.  Population,  1910,  17,822;  in  1917, 
19,711  (Federal  estimate). 

SEDAN,  se  dalin'  Battle  of^  the  decisive 
battle  of  the  Franco-German  War,  fought 
September  1, 1870,  at  Sedan,  a  fortified  town 
164  miles  northeast  of  Paris.  Marshal  Mac- 
Mahon,  on  his  way  to  relieve  Bazaine  at 
Metz,  was  forced  by  the  Germans  to  take 
refuge  in  the  fortress  of  Sedan,  which  was 
then  surrounded  by  the  enemy.  The  French 
issued  from  their  position  and  began  battle; 
driven  back  to  the  town  of  Sedan,  after  gal- 
lant fighting  they  were  finally  forced  to  sur- 
render. Emperor  Napoleon  III  and  over 
85,000  men  were  made  prisoners.  It  was  the 
capture  of  Sedan  which  led  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  Second  Empire  in  France.  See 
France,  subhead  History;  Franco-German 
War. 

SEDATIVE,  sed'a  tiv,  a  drug  which  has  a 
quieting  influence  upon  a  part  or  the  whole 
of  the  nervous  system  or  any  of  the  organs 
of  the  body.  General  sedatives  include 
chloroform,  ether  and  the  hypnotics;  local 
sedatives  are  cold,  heat,  cocaine,  opium, 
aconite,  etc.  Sedatives  vary  in  their  effects. 
In  many  instances  drugs  that  act  as  sedatives 
upon  one  organ  are  irritants  upon  another; 
and  often  when  small  doses  are  sedatives, 
large  doses  excite  or  inntate.  See  Narcotic  ; 
Anesthetic,  and  various  articles  on  the 
drugs. 

SEDGES,  sej'es,  a  term  promiscuously  ap- 
plied to  many  marshy  plants  which  look  like 


grasses  but  differ  from  them  in  having  tri- 
ang^ular  stems,  and  in  their  flowers,  which 
resemble  minute  lilies  in  form  and  structure. 
Most  of  the  hay  cut  in  swampy  places  is 
made  up  of  sedges,  which  are  not  as  succulent 
nor  as  nutritious  as  the  gi'asses.     There  are 
numerous  species  of  the  sedge,  distributed 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  world,  so  nearly 
alike  that  only  botanists  can  distinguish  them. 
The  Egyptian  papyrus  belongs  to  this  family. 
SEED   DISPERSAL.     If  no   seeds  ever 
grew  except  those  that  are  gathered  and  care- 
fully planted,  only  a  very  small  i^art  of  the 
earth  would  have  green  things  growing  upon 
it.    But  fortunately  for  the  plants,  most  of 
them  do  not  have  to  depend  on  people  to  cairy 
their  seeds  about.    They  are  provided  with  all 
kinds  of  ingenious  apparatus  to  do  the  work 
for  them.     If  the  tiny  dandelion  seed  had  to 
depend  upon  itself  it  would  never  get  far; 
it  would  probably  stay  on  the  head  of  the 
stalk  until  that  withered,  and  then  it  would 
fall  to  the  ground.    But  the  dandelion  seed 
has  white,  feathery  wings.     A  puff  of  wind 
takes  up  a  number  of  the  seeds  with  their 
feather  tops  and  ean-ies  them  away,  some- 
times perhaps,  bearing  them  for  miles  before 
it  drops  them.    The  thistle  and  the  milkweed 
seed  have  the  same  kind  of  little  white  hairs, 
which  help  them  to  find  their  way  about.    The 
elm  and  the  ash  and  the  maple  have  winged 
finiits,  but  these  wings  are  different.     They 
are  made  of  a  sort  of  membrane  which  looks 
more  or  less  like  the  inside  wing  of  a  grass- 
hopper.    However,  they  do   just  the  same 
duty  as  the  fluffy  wings  of  the  milkweed — 
they  help  the  wind  to  caiTy  the  seed  and 
scatter  it  everywhere.    Those  who  live  in  the 
countiy  where  there  are  open  stretches  may 
see  dried-up  plants,  rolled  up  almost  into  a 
ball,  blowing  about  the  prairies  and  piling 
themselves  up  by  fences.    These  plants,  which 
have  broken  off  near  the  ground,  are  known 
as   tumbleweeds,   and   they   are   doing   just 
what  the  pansy  does  when  its  seed-pods  shoot 
open — scattering  their  seed.     The  seeds  are 
held  rather  firmly  by  the  plant,  so  that  they 
do  not  all  fall  out  at  once,  but  are  strewn 
over  long  distances.      This  is  the  way  the 
Russian   thistle   and   the   pigweed   and   the 
ticklegrass  spread  themselves  over  so  much 
ground,  for  those  three  troublesome  plants 
are  all  tumbleweeds.    The  seeds  of  the  cockle- 
bur  are  in  the  burs,  and  when  those  trouble- 
some things  stick  to  people  or  to  animals  the 
seeds  are  scattered.     All  the  other  kinds  of 


SEEDER 


3247 


SEEDS 


bur  plants,  the  sand  bur,  the  sticktight,  the 
burdock,  have  their  seeds  carried  about  for 
them  in  the  same  manner. 

In  these  ways  and  in  other  ways  seeds  are 
scattered,  and  if  all  jDlants  that  spring  from 


Seed  Construction.  Each  seed  consists  of 
an  embryo  and  a  supply  of  food,  protected 
by  a  more  or  less  hardened  coat.  The  embrj^o 
is  a  minute  plant,  one  part  of  which  has  the 
jDower  to  gi'ow  upwai'd  to  the  light  and  air, 


1.  Tumbleweed. 


SEED-SCATTERING   DEVICES 
2.  Milkweed.      3.  Cocklebur.     4.  Winged  seeds  of  maple. 


seeds  matured  the  earth  would  be  choked 
with  vegetation.  For  example,  a  morning-* 
glory  has  just  about  an  average  number  of 
seeds — three  thousand  to  a  single  healthy 
plant.  If  all  of  these  seeds  were  planted,  and 
grew,  there  would  be  nine  million  plants  the 
next  year.  The  following  year  there  would 
be  twenty-seven  billion  plants,  and  the  year 
after  that  eighty-one  trillion.  At  this  rate 
it  would  not  take  the  descendants  of  a  single 
moming-gloiy  very  long  to  cover  much  of  the 
earth.  Indeed,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
if  there  were  no  check  to  the  growing  of 
plants,  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  would 
soon  be  covered  with  vegetation  denser  than 
that  in  the  thickest  tropical  jungle — so  dense 
that  men  and  animals  could  not  get  through. 
In  the  struggle  for  existence,  however,  the 
weaker  plants  are  crowded  out,  and  a  proper 
balance  is  maintained.    See  Botany. 

SEEDER.    See  Sowing  Machine. 

SEEDS,  the  name  in  botany  given  to  the 
ripened  ovules  of  plants.  Sometimes  they 
are  called  "plant  babies,"  as  each  contains 
the  nucleus  of  a  tiny  plant. 


where  it  develops  leaves  and  flowers;  the 
other  part  has  the  power  to  develop  roots, 
which  grow  downward  into  the  darkness  of 
the  soil  in  search  of  food  and  moisture.    In 


SEEDS 
1,  squirting-  cucumber;  2,  bidens;  a,  the  full 
head  b,  fruit  enlarged;  3,  maple;  4.  geranium; 
5,  clematis;   6,  cocklebur;  7,  dandelion. 

the  seed  the  food  supplies  are  in  some  cases 
placed  around  the  embrj'o,  while  in  others 
they  are  stored  in  the  embryo  itself.     The 


SEEGER 


3248 


SEIGNIORAGE 


coverings  of  the  seeds  are  so  marked  that  a 
person  knowing  tliem  can  easily  recognize 
the  species  from  ■vvbicli  they  came. 

Some  seeds  are  hard  and  dry,  or  stony; 
others  develoi">  appendages,  such  as  wings,  or 
silky  hair,  evidently  intended  to  aid  in  their 
distribution.  In  a  few  species  there  is  an 
extra  covering,  called  an  aril,  which  is  either 
fleshy  or  sacklike,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
mace  of  a  nutmeg. 

Seed  Testing.  To  secure  the  best  pros- 
pects for  a  good  crop,  successful  farmers 
test  their  seeds  before  planting.  Professor 
Nobbe  established  the  first  laboratory  for 
testing  seeds  at  Tharand,  Saxony,  in  1869. 
Since  that  time  laboratories  have  been  estab- 
lished in  most  European  countries,  where  in 
numerous  instances  the  quality  of  the  seed 
is  under  governmental  control.  Seed  test- 
ing laboratories  are  found  in  the  United 
States  in  comiection  with  the  national  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  many  indi- 
vidual state  experiment  stations. 

A  simple  device  for  seed  testing  consists  of 
two  plates  of  the  same  size.  A  piece  of  blot- 
ting paper  marked  off  into  squares  two  inches 
in  diameter  is  placed  in  one  plate.  Enough 
water  is  poured  into  the  plate  to  moisten  the 
pajDer,  and  ten  seeds  to  be  tested  are  dropped 
in  each  square.  Over  these  another  piece  of 
blotting  paper,  on  a  damp  cloth,  is  placed, 
and  this  is  covered  by  turning  the  second 
plate  over  the  first.  The  blotter  must  be  kept 
moist,  and  the  plates  set  where  the  tem- 
perature will  be  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  planting.  In  eight 
or  ten  days  the  seed  should  have  germinated 
(sprouted).  The  number  of  seeds  that  have 
germinated  in  each  square  should  be  counted, 
and  thus  the  percentage  of  good  seed  in  the 
lot  from  which  the  seeds  were  taken  is  esti- 
mated.   See  Seed  Dispersal. 

SEEGER,  Alan  (1888-1916),  an  Ameri- 
ican  poet  who  made  one  of  the  most  notable 
contributions  to  the  poetiy  of  the  World 
"War  in  his  splendid  lyric,  I  Have  a  Rendez- 
vous with  Death.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  but  spent  part  of  his  boyhood  in  the 
City  of  Mexico.  In  1910  he  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University,  and  two  years  later 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  continued  to  write 
poetry,  which  had  been  begun  in  his 
college  days.  In  August,  1914,  shortly  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War,  he  enlisted 
in  the  Foreign  Legion  of  France.  The  young 
poet  spent  many  weary  months  in  drilling 


and  becoming  inured  to  the  monotony  of 
trench  life,  but  in  the  spring  of  1915  he  took 
part  in  the  Battle  of  Champagne.  After  this 
engagement  his  regiment  passed  to  the  rear 
and  was  not  sent  to  the  front  until  May,  1916. 
On  July  4  the  Legion  was  ordered  to  clear  the 
enemy  out  of  the  village  of  Belloy-en-San- 
terre,  and  in  the  first  advance  Seeger  fell 
wounded.  The  next  morning  his  dead  body 
was  found  on  the  battlefield. 

Alan  Seeger's  poems  were  published  in 
America  in  December,  1916.  They  include 
his  early  verse,  entitled  Juvenilia,  a  number 
of  sonnets  and  translations  of  Italian  classics, 
and  his  war  poems.  His  most  famous  lyric 
appeal's  below.  Another  notable  poem,  Ode 
in  Memory  of  the  American  Volunteers 
Fallen  for  France,  was  written  in  two  days 
in  the  midst  of  trench  hardships. 

The  poem  that  immortalized  Seejer  is 
given  in  full  below : 

I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 

At  some  disputed  barricade, 

When  Spring  comes  back  with  rustling  shade 

And  apple  blossoms  fill  the  air — 

I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 

When  Spring  brings  back  blue  days  and  fair. 

It  may  be  he  shall  take  my  hand 

And  lead  me  into  his  dark  land 

And  close  my  eyes  and  quench  my  breath — 

It  may  be  I  shall  pass  him  still. 

I  have  a  rendezvous  w^ith  Death 

On  some  scarred  slope  of  battered  hill, 

.When  Spring  comes  round  again  this  year 

And  the  first  meadow-flowers  appear. 

God  knows  'twere  better  to  be  deep 
Pillowed  in  silk  and  scented  down. 
Where  Love  throbs  out  in  blissful  sleep. 
Pulse  nigh  to  pulse,  and  breath  to  breath. 
Where  hushed  awakenings  are  dear.      *     *      * 
But  I've  a  rendezvous  with  Death 
At  midnight  in  some  flaming  town. 
When  Spring  trips  north  again  this  year, 
And  I  to  my  pledged  word  am  true, 
I  shall  not  fail  that  rendezvous. 

SEIDLITZ,  sed'lits,  POWDERS,  a  medi- 
cine, named  after  the  Seidlitz  spa  in  Bohemia. 
These  powders  are  usually  put  up  in  blue  and 
white  papers,  the  blue  containing  tartrate  of 
soda  and  potash  (Rochelle  salt),  with  bicar- 
bonate of  soda;  and  the  white,  tartaric  acid. 
The  contents  of  the  blue  paper  are  dissolved 
in  half  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  the  acid 
powder  is  then  added.  The  draught  is  taken 
during  the  effervescence,  which  begins  at  once. 
The  medicine  is  mildly  laxative. 

SEIGNIORAGE,  seen'yer  ayj,  a  royalty  or 
prerogative  of  the  sovereign  whereby  an 
allowance  of  gold  or  silver,  brouglit  to  a  mint 


SEINE 


3249 


SELKIEE 


in  the  mass  to  be  exchanged  for  coin,  is 
claimed.  In  modern  times  the  meaning  has 
not  changed.  Any  person  owning  gold  in  any 
form  may  take  it  to  a  government  mint  and 
exchange  it  for  gold  coin,  ounce  for  ounce, 
except  that  enough  is  deducted  to  pay  for 
coining  the  bullion.  This  deduction  is  seign- 
iorage. 

SEINE,  sayn,  the  most  picturesque  river 
of  France  and  its  most  important  trade  route. 
The  city  of  Paris  lies  on  its  banks.  It  rises 
in  the  department  of  Cote-d'Or,  flows  north- 
northwest  and  enters  the  English  channel 
between  Havre  and  Honfleur.  Because  of  its 
circuitous  course,  it  is  475  miles  long,  and  it 
is  navigable  for  350  miles.  Its  mouth  is  an 
estuary  six  miles  wide,  where  is  situated  the 
city  of  Havre.  To  enhance  its  commercial 
value  numerous  locks  and  canals  have  been 
constructed  to  connect  it  with  the  Scheldt, 
the  Meuse,  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone  and  the 
Loire.  Within  recent  years  the  Seine  has 
at  times  overflowed  its  banks,  and  Paris  has 
suffered  severely  from  floods. 

SEISMOGRAPH,  size  mo  graf,  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  the  force  and  direction  of 
earthquakes  and  other  earth  movements.  The 
essential  part  of  a  seismograph  is  a  pendulum 
so  delicately  suspended  that  it  is  unaffected 
by  earth  movements.  The  record  is  made  by 
the  movement  of  the  surface  beneath  it.  Some 
types  of  the  apparatus  are  so  constructed  that 
the  record  is  produced  photographically  upon 
a  moving  piece  of  sensitized  paper  or  film; 
others  are  so  made  that  a  stylus  traces  the 
record  on  smoked  paper  attached  to  a  mova- 
ble cj'linder.  So  sensitive  is  this  delicate  lit- 
tle instrument  that  it  can  record  at  Rio 
Janiero  earth  disturbances  in  Japan,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  globe. 

SELENE,  se  le  ne,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  the  moon,  daughter  of  Hyioerion 
and  Thea  and  sister  of  Helios  (the  sun)  and 
Eos  (the  dawn).  She  was  also  called  Phoebe, 
and  in  later  times  was  identified  with  Artemis. 
In  art  she  was  often  represented  as  a  beau- 
tiful woman  with  large  wings  and  a  flowing 
robe,  and  wearing  a  coronet. 

SELE'NIUM,  a  rare  chemical  element,  dis- 
covered by  Berzelius  in  1817  in  the  refuse 
of  a  sulphuric  acid  manufactoiy  near  Fah- 
lun,  in  Sweden.  It  occurs  in  several  miner- 
als, chiefly  in  combination  with  sulphur,  cop- 
per, lead,  mercury  and  silver,  and  is  closely 
related  in  its  general  chemical  properties  to 
sulphur  and  tellurium.     Selenium  takes  fire 

204 


when  heated  to  a  tolerably  high  temperature 
in  air  or  in  oxj-gen,  burning  with  a  blue  flame 
and  a  disagreeable  odor.  With  hydrogen 
selenium  foi-ms  the  very  disagreeably  smell- 
ing gas,  seleniureted  hydrogen ,  the  analogue 
of  sulph  u  retted  hydrogen.  In  metallic  form  it 
is  a  conductor  of  electricity,  the  power  of 
which  is  increased  bv  sunlight. 

SELF-DENY'ING  ORDINANCE,  aw/dl- 
nans,  an  enactment  passed  by  the  British  Par- 
liament in  1645,  decreeing  the  resignation  of 
all  members  of  that  body  who  had  held  any 
civil  or  military  oSice  during  the  Civil  War 
between  Charles  I  and  Parliament.  Its  ob- 
ject was  to  remove  inetficient  commanders  for 
the  remodeled  army  and  to  give  control  of  the 
army  to  radical  Independents  rather  than  to 
Presbyterians.  Cromwell,  who  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  and  an  oflSeer  in  the  army, 
was  excepted  and  reappointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  cavalry  as  lieutenant-general. 

SELJUKS,  seljooks',  a  Turkish  dynasty 
verv'  powerful  in  Asia  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  so  named  after  Seljuk,  a 
chieftain  of  the  Ghuz  Turks.  Persia  was  con- 
quered by  the  Ghuz  Turks  in  1030,  and  this 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  empire,  which  later 
extended  over  Armenia,  Turkestan,  S>-ria  and 
Asia  Minor.  In  the  First  and  Second  Cru- 
sades, the  Christians  came  into  conflict  with 
the  Seljuks  because  of  their  cruelty  toward 
pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  (see  Crusades). 
The  Seljuk  dynasties  held  sway  until  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Ottoman  Empire 
in  Asia  being  founded  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Seljuk  Empire.  Omar  Khayyam  (which  see) 
flourished  during  the  period  of  Seljuk 
supremacy. 

SELKIRK,  Alexander  (1676-1723),  a 
Scotch  adventurer,  whose  experiences  on  an 
uninhabited  island  inspired  the  story  of  Roh- 
inson  Crusoe.  He  took  part  in  buccaneering 
expeditions  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  and  in 
consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  his  captain  he 
was  put  ashore,  at  his  own  request,  on  the 
island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  off  the  coast  of 
Chile.  There  he  lived  alone  for  four  years 
and  four  months,  until  he  was  rescued  by  the 
captain  of  a  privateer.  He  returned  home  in 
1712,  and  his  adventures  became  known  to 
the  public.  He  afterward  rose  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant  in  the  navy.  Defoe's  Rohinson 
Crusoe  appeared  in  1719,  but  Crusoe's  expe- 
riences have  but  little  in  common  with  those 
of  Selkirk.  See  Robixsox  Crusoe;  Juan 
Fernandez,  for  illustration. 


SELKIRK  MOUNTAINS 


3250 


SEMELE 


SELKIRK  MOUNTAINS,  a  range  about 
200  miles  long  and  eighty  miles  wide,  situated 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  British  Columbia 
and  noted  for  its  great  glaciers  and  the 
rugged  magnificence  of  its  scenery.  The 
range  is  west  of  the  Rockies  and  extends  from 
the  United  States  boundary  to  the  great  loop 
of  the  Columbia  River.  Its  highest  peaks  are 
Mount  Sir  Sandford,  11,634  feet,  and  Mount 
Sir  Donald,  10,645  feet.  Gold,  silver,  copper, 
zinc,  mercurj",  coal  and  marble  have  been 
found  here.  The  range  has  been  named  in 
honor  of  Thomas  Douglas,  Earl  of  Selkirk 
(which  see). 

SEL'MA,  Ala.^  the  county  seat,  of  Dallas 
County,  fifty  miles  west  of  Montgomery,  on 
the  Alabama  river  at  the  head  of  navigation, 
having  two  steamers  weekly  to  Mobile.  It  is 
on  the  Louisville  &  Nashville,  the  Southern, 
and  the  Western  of  Alabama  railroads.  The 
city  is  in  a  cotton-growing  region  and  contains 
cotton,  cottonseed-oil,  flour  and  planing 
mills,  railroad  shoj^s,  machine  shops  and  other 
factories.  The  Alabama  Baptist  Colored 
University  is  located  here,  and  the  city  has 
Dallas  Academy,  a  Carnegie  Library,  a  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  and  a  county  courthouse.  There  is  a 
fine  bridge  across  the  river.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1823.  Population,  1910, 
13.649;  in  1917, 15,945  (Federal  estimate.) 

SELVAS,  sel'vas,  a  stretch  of  dense  wood- 
land plains  of  the  Amazon  Valley,  in  South 
America,  extending  from  Xorthern  Brazil  to 
the  southern  part  of  Venezuela.  Brazil-nut, 
cacao,  wax-palm,  and  other  varieties  of  trees 
gi'ow  in  abundance  amid  dense  tangles  of 
cacti,  orchids  and  creeping  tropic  vines,  while 
from  this  great  forest  Brazil  exports  in  addi- 
tion to  many  kinds  of  valuable  wood,  immense 
Ciuantities  of  rubber  and  bamboo. 

SEMAPHORE,  semafor,  a  device  used 
for  signaling  in  navies,  in  the  aimy  and  on 
railroads.  Before  the  invention  of  the  tele- 
graph, many  kinds  of  semaphores  were  in 
use,  but  electric  communication  now  has 
rendered  them  unnecessary  in  many  instances. 

The  simplest  form  of  semaphore  is  that 
employed  on  railways.  It  consists  of  an  up- 
right standard,  from  three  to  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet  in  height,  as  conditions  necessi- 
tate, to  the  top  of  which  one  or  more  boards, 
called  arms,  are  attached.  These  anns  are 
fastened  to  the  standard  so  they  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  from  the  office  of  the  telegraph 
operator.  The  long  arm  is  usually  painted 
red  or  white,  and  the  short  arm  contains  an 


iron  frame,  in  which  are  placed  red  and  green 
glasses,  one  above  the  other.  When  the  arm 
of  the  semaphore  is  dropped,  it  indicates  a 
clear  track;  if  raised  to  an  angle  of  45°,  it 


SEMAPHORE 

a,  stop;  b,  caution,  go  slowly;  c,  way  clear,  go 

ahead. 

indicates  caution;  if  raised  to  "a  horizontal 
position,  it  indicates  that  the  train  should 
stop.  At  night  the  colored  glasses  in  the 
short  aim  give  the  necessary-  signals.  When 
the  arm  is  dropped,  a  white  light  is  shown; 
at  an  angle  of  45°,  a  green  Ught;  and  when 
in  horizontal  position,  a  red  light.  See 
Railroad. 

SEMBRICH,  zem'brik,  :Marcella  (1858- 
),  an  operatic  soprano  whose  real  name 
is  Marcellixe  Kochaxska,  was  bom  at 
Lemberg,  in  Galieia.  At  first  she  studied  violin 
and  piano,  but  upon  the  discovery  of  her 
remarkable  voice,  she  began  to  study  at  Milan. 
After  a  successful  operatic  debut  at  Athens 
in  1877,  she  became  the  leading  soprano  in 
the  Dresden  court  theater,  where  she  re- 
mained until  1880.  During  the  next  five  years 
she  received  great  ovations  in  her  frequent 
concert  tours  to  England  and  America.  Since 
1889  she  has  resided  in  Dresden,  continuing 
her  public  work,  largely  in  recitals  in  Europe 
and  America,  although  appearing  as  the 
leading  soprano  for  several  seasons  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Xew  York.  Critics 
have  accorded  Sembrich  unanimous  praise 
for  the  purity  and  fiexibility  of  her  voice. 

SEMELE,  sem'e  le,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus,  beloved  by  Jupiter. 
Jealous  of  her  husband,  Juno  persuaded 
Semele  to  entreat  her  lover  to  attend  her 
with  the  majesty  in  which  he  appeared  on 
Ohmpus.  As  he  had  sworn  to  gratify  her 
ever>-  wish,  Jupiter,  though  horrified  at  this 
request,  came  to  her  accompanied  by  light- 
nings and  thunderbolts,  which  were  too 
powerful  for  a  mortal,  and  Semele  was  in- 
stantly consumed  by  fire.  Bacchus,  the  god 
of  wine,  was  her  son  by  Jupiter. 


SEMINOLE 


3251 


SENATE 


SEMINOLE,  sem'inohl,  a  Muskhogean 
tribe  of  Indians  who  originally  lived  in 
Florida.  They  consisted  chiefly  of  immigrants 
from  the  Lower  Creek  towns  on  the  Chatta- 
hoochee River,  and  took  their  present  name . 
about  1775.  The  Seminoles  first  came  into 
conflict  with  the  United  States  in  1817,  when 
General  Andrew  Jackson  invaded  their  teirri- 
tory.  After  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the 
United  States  in  1819,  a  treaty  was  made 
with  them  providing  for  their  removal  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  but  a  large  number, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  celebrated  Osceola 
(which  see),  refused  to  be  bound  by  the 
treaty.  Their  heroic  efforts  to  hold  their 
territory  and  to  prevent  themselves  from 
being  removed  west  of  the  Mississippi  were 
so  successful  that  it  was  only  after  a  war  of 
seven  years  (1835-1842),  which  cost  the 
United  States  $10,000,000  and  2,000  lives, 
that  the  Seminoles  were  transported  to  what 
is  now  Oklahoma  and  finally  settled  there, 
where  their  descendants  are  American  citi- 
zens. A  few  still  remain  in  Florida,  where 
they  are  to  be  placed  on  a  small  reserv^ation, 
because  of  the  draining  of  the  swamps. 

SEMIRAMIS,  se  mi/ a  mis,  a  queen  of 
AssjTia,  whose  history  is  a  mingling  of  fact 
and  fable.  Tradition  credits  her  as  the 
founder  of  Babylon  and  the  conqueror  of 
Persia  and  Egypt.  According  to  the  story, 
she  was  a  daughter  of  the  fish  goddess  Derceto 
by  a  Syrian  youth.  When  deserted  by  her 
mother,  she  was  fed  by  doves  until  discovered 
by  the  chief  of  the  royal  shepherds,  who 
adopted  her.  Her  beautv^  attracted  King 
Ninus  of  Assyria,  who  made  her  his  wife. 
Upon  the  death  of  her  husband  she  reigned 
gloriously  for  forty-two  years,  when  she  was 
deposed  by  her  son,  when  she  disappeared. 
The  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon  are  attrib- 
uted to  her.  Catharine  II  of  Russia  was 
called  the  Semiramis  of  the  North. 

SEMITES,  sem'ites,  who  together  with  the 
Hamites  and  the  Aryans  constitute  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  white  race,  are  a  west- 
Asiatic  group  of  people,  including  the 
Hebrews,  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  Carthagin- 
ians, Arabians,  Babylonians,  Phoenicians  and 
various  other  peoples,  closely  akin  in  physi- 
cal and  mental  characteristics,  religion  and 
language.  The  name  is  derived  from  that 
of  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah,  but  is  not  rightly 
applied  to  all  of  the  peoples  who  are  given 
in  Genesis  X  as  the  descendants  of  Shem. 
Judaism,  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism 


had  their  origin  with  the  Semitic  races;  our 
alphabet  comes  from  the  Phoenicians. 

SEMITIC  LANGUAGES  form  an  impor- 
tant lingiiistic  family,  usually  divided  into  a 
northern  and  a  southern  section.  The  north- 
ern group  includes  the  ancient  dialects  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia  (recovered  bj-  means 
of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions),  the  Hebrew, 
the  Phoenician  and  the  Aramaic.  Of  these, 
the  Hebrew  alone  is  extant  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage. The  most  important  of  the  south 
Semitic  tongues,  and  the  only  one  now  in  ex- 
tensive use  is  the  Arabic.  To  this  southern 
branch  belongs  also  the  Ethiopic,  or  ancient 
ecclesiastical  language  of  Abj-ssinia.  The 
greatest  literary  attiiinments  of  the  Semites 
are  the  Bible  and  the  Mohammedan  Koran. 

Related    Artiole.s.      Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Alphabet  Hebrew  Language 

Christianity  and  Literature 

Cuneiform  Jews 

Inscriptions  Mohammedanism 

SEMMES,  semz,  Raphael  (1809-1877),  an 
American  naval  officer  who  commanded  the 
Alabama,  the  famous  Confederate  vessel  of 
the  Civil  "War,  was  born  in  Charles  County, 
Md.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1832,  having 
previously  studied  law,  took  part  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  joined  the  Confederate  service.  As 
commander  of  the  Sumter,  and  later  of  the 
Alabama,  he  captured  many  prizes  (see  Ala- 
bama, The).  Semmes  was  later  placed  in 
charge  of  the  James  River  squadron.  He 
was  imprisoned  after  the  war,  but  gained  his 
liberty  at  the  amnesty.  He  then  devoted  him- 
self to  his  law  practice  and  to  the  writing  of 
several  books,  notably  Service  Afloat  and 
Ashore,  Cruise  of  the  Alabama  and  Sumter 
and  Campaign  of  General  Scott  in  the  Val- 
ley of  Mexico. 

SEN'ATE,  originally  the  supreme  legisla- 
tive body  of  ancient  Rome,  first  instituted, 
according  to  tradition,  by  Romulus.  Under 
the  Republic  the  consuls,  the  consular  tribunes 
and  the  censors  had  the  power  of  choosing 
the  senators ;  but  they  were  restricted  to  those 
who  had  previously  held  magistracies,  and  as 
the  magistrates  were  chosen  by  popular  elec- 
tion, the  senate  was  ultimately  a  representa- 
tive body.  In  the  administration  of  affairs 
the  senate  was  supreme,  and  during  national 
crises  it  could  invest  the  consuls  with  absolute 
and  dictatorial  authority.  Its  numbers  varied 
from  100  to  .1,000,  being  often  increased  or 
diminished  to  suit  the  wishes  of  various  em- 
perors and  dictators. 


SENATE 


3252 


SENEGAL 


In  modern  times  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
upper,  or  less  numerous,  branch  of  the  legis- 
lature in  various  countries,  as  in  the  United 
States,  Canada,  France,  in  most  of  the  sepa- 
rate states  of  the  Union  and  in  some  of  the 
Swiss  cantons.  It  is  also  used  to  designate 
the  governing  body  of  certain  universities. 
See  below. 

SENATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
the  ui)per  and  smaller  branch  of  the  national 
Congress,  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  in  Article  I  and  in  Amendment  XVII, 
states  the  fundamental  law  under  which  the 
body  is  organized. 

There  are  two  Senators  from  each  of  the 
forty-eight  states  of  the  Union.  It  was  in- 
tended that  they  should  represent  the  states 
in  Congress;  therefore  the  Constitution 
placed  upon  the  state  legislatures  the  duty  of 
electing  them.  The  Seventeenth  Amendment, 
adopted  in  1912,  took  this  privilege  from  the 
legislatures  and  vested  their  election  directly 
with  the  voters.  They  yet  represent  the 
sovereign  states,  but  are  probably  more 
responsive  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  by  the 
present  manner  of  election.  The  term  of  a 
Senator  is  six  years ;  one-third  of  the  Senators 
retire  every  two  years,  on  the  4th  of  March, 
so  the  Senate,  unlike  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives, is  a  continuous  body. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  Senators  are  co- 
ordinate with  those  of  Representatives,  in 
most  respects.  The  Senate  cannot  originate 
revenue  bills,  the  initiative  resting  with  the 
House.  It  has  the  sole  power  to  sit  as  a 
court  to  try  impeachment  cases  after  the 
House  has  voted  impeachment  of  an  officer  of 
the  government.  The  Senate  is  one  arm  of 
the  treaty-making  power  of  the  government, 
for  it  must  approve  all  treaties  made  by  the 
executive  department  before  they  can  become 
effective.  In  other  respects  the  powers  of  the 
two  houses  are  equal. 

The  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate  is  the 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  Not 
being  a  member  of  the  body,  he  can  vote  only 
in  case  of  a  tie.  The  Senators  choose  one  of 
their  own  members,  known  as  president  2^fo- 
tempore,  to  preside  when  the  Vice-President 
is  absent.  The  salary  of  the  president  pro 
tempore  is  $12,000,  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Vice-President;  all  other  Senators  receive 
$7,500. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Congress 

Constitution  of  the 
United  States 


Representatives, 

House  of 
Vice-President 


SENECA,  sen'e  ka,  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  who  when  first  known  inhabited  the 
western  part  of  New  York  state  betw^een 
Seneca  Lake  and  the  Genesee  River.  They 
were  the  largest  and  most  powerful  tribe  in 
the  Iroquois  federation  known  as  the  Five 
Nations  (which  see).  They  conquered  the 
Erie  and  the  Neutral  Nation  and  absorbed 
the  remnants  of  those  tribes,  about  1650,  then 
extended  their  settlements  into  the  country 
west  of  Lake  Erie  and  southward  along  the 
Allegheny  River.  In  the  Revolutionary  War 
they  supported  the  British.  About  2,500 
now  live  on  their  reservation  in  New  York, 
and  a  few  are  found  in  Oklahoma  and  Onta- 
rio. They  have  adopted  the  dress  and  cus- 
toms of  civilization. 

SENECA,  Lucius  Annaeus  (about  4  b.  c. 
-A.  D.  65),  a  Roman  i:)hilosopher  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  the  Stoics,  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  men  of  letters  of  his  time.  He  was 
bom  at  Corduba  (Cordova).  When  quite 
young  he  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  made 
rapid  advance  under  the  tuition  of  his  father. 
On  his  recall  from  Corsica,  where  he  had  been 
banished  for  eight  years,  he  was  made  praetor, 
and  was  appointed  one  of  the  tutors  of  Em- 
peror Nero.  For  a  few  years  Seneca  ex- 
erted a  strong  influence  over  his  wayward 
pupil,  but  eventually  only  jealousy  and 
hatred  were  engendered.  After  Nero  had 
drawn  Seneca  into  a  conspiracy,  he  was 
forced  by  Nero  to  eomnait  suicide.  Seneca's 
extant  works  comprise  moral  treatises  on 
Anger;  on  Providence;  on  Tranquillity  of 
Mind,;  on  the  Steadfastness  of  the  Wise  Man; 
on  Clemency,  addressed  to  Nero;  seven  books 
on  Benefits;  seven  on  investigations  of  nature, 
and  twenty  books  of  moral  letters.  The 
tragedies  which  bear  Seneca's  name  are  in- 
ferior to  his  prose  writings.  See  Stoicism. 
SENECA  LAKE,  the  largest  of  the  group 
known  as  the  Finger  Lakes,  in  the  western 
part  of  New  York,  and  a  favored  summer 
resort  because  of  its  scenic  attractions,  nota- 
bly Watkins  Glen  and  Cayuga  Lake  Park. 
The  lake  is  thirty-seven  miles  long,  from  two 
to  four  miles  wide,  and  630  feet  deep.  Seneca 
Lake  flows  into  Lake  Ontario,  through  Seneca 
and  Oswego  rivers,  and  is  joined  by  a  canal  to 
the  Erie  canal.  See  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal. 

SENEGAL,  sen  e  gawV,  a  river  of  Africa, 
on  the  southwestern  border  of  the  Sahara 
Desert.  It  rises  near  the  sources  of  the 
Niger,  from  which  its  sources  are  separated 


SENEGAL 


3253 


SENSATION 


by  the  highlands  of  the  Mandingo  country. 
Its  course  is  northwest  and  west  through  the 
Senegambia  and  Niger  territories,  and  it  en- 
ters a  lagoon  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  near  the 
town  of  Saint-Louis.  The  river  has  two 
picturesque  cataracts,  Guine  and  Felu.  The 
basin  drained  by  the  Senegal  is  hot  and  un- 
healthful.  About  700  of  its  1,000  miles  are 
navigable,  but  much  of  its  course  is  danger- 
ous to  shipping. 

SENEGAL,  a  French  colony  in  West 
Africa,  extending  from  the  Gambia  River  on 
the  south  to  the  Senegal  on  the  north,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  eastward  somewhat 
indefinitely.  It  has  an  area  of  about  74,000 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  1,250,- 
000,  of  which  4,600  are  whites.  The  region 
is  mostly  low,  and  in  some  sections  the  soil 
is  unfertile,  but  in  some  portions  of  the 
Senegal  Valley  there  are  luxuriant  forests. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthful.  The  prod- 
ucts consist  of  cocoanuts,  rubber,  raisins, 
millet  and  maize.  The  capital  is  Saint-Louis 
which  is  connected  by  railway  with  Dakar  and 
Rufisque.  There  are  no  manufactures,  and 
the  commerce  is  comparatively  unimportant. 
See  French  West  Africa. 

SENEGAM'BIA,  a  tenitory  in  West 
Africa,  now  known  as  Senegal  (which  see). 
SENNACHERIB,  sehnak'erih,  an  Assy- 
rian king,  son  of  Sargon,  who  reigned  from 
705  to  681  B.  c.  He  suppressed  the  revolt 
of  the  Babylonians,  reduced  part  of  Media, 
exacted  tribute  from  Tyre  and  other  Phoe- 
nician cities,  advanced  upon  Philistia  and 
Egypt  and  finally  proceeded  against  Heze- 
kiah,  king  of  Judah,  who  had  revolted.  Yield- 
ing to  panic,  Hezekiah  paid  the  tribute  ex- 
acted, but  when  Sennacherib  again  invaded 
Judah,  a  miraculous  visitation  caused  the 
death  of  thousands  of  his  troops.  Sen- 
nacherib built  the  embankment  of  the  Tigris 
and  made  canals  and  water  courses,  but  his 
architectural  triumph  was  the  palace  of 
Ko>T.injik,  which  covered  eight  acres. 

SENSA'TION,  a  mental  impression  re- 
ceived through  the  excitation  of  a  sensory 
nerve.  The  conditions  necessary  to  a  sensa- 
tion are  (1)  a  stimulus  acting  upon  the  ends 
of  a  sensory  ner\'e;  (2)  the  transmission  of 
this  stimulus  to  the  nerve  center  with  which 
the  excited  nerve  is  connected ;  (3)  reaction  of 
the  brain  upon  the  stimulus.  Sensations  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  general  and  special. 
General  sensations  are  those  which  are  re- 
lated to  the  welfare  of  the  body  and  serve 


as  warnings  or  stimuli  to  action.  Hunger, 
thirst  and  fatigue  are  good  illustrations.  Spe- 
cial sensations  are  those  received  through  the 
organs  of  special  sense  and  are  more  directly 
connected  with  mental  states  than  are  general 
sensations. 

Intensity.  The  intensity  of  a  sensation  de- 
pends upon  two  classes  of  conditions — those 
which  are  external  and  those  which  are  inter- 
nal. The  external  conditions  are  (1)  the  in- 
tensity of  the  stimulus;  for  instance,  the  sen- 
sation from  the  light  of  a  candle  is  not  as 
intense  as  that  from  an  electric  light;  (2) 
the  mass  or  amount  of  the  stimulus;  a  boy 
derives  more  pleasure  from  a  spoonful  of 
sugar  than  from  a  few  grains;  (3)  newness 
of  surroundings;  because  everything  is  new 
to  him  the  child  has  stronger  sensations  from 
a  certain  stimulus  than  does  the  adult;  (4) 
prolongation  of  the  stimulus;  the  intensity  is 
weakened  by  the  prolongation  of  the  stimu- 
lus beyond  a  given  time.  An  odor  which  is  at 
first  keen  is  scarcely  perceived  after  a  few 
moments.  Looking  continually  at  a  bright 
object  fatigues  the  eye,  and  the  color  appears 
more  dim,  and  listening  continually  to  a  mo- 
notonous sound  lessens  its  intensity. 

The  internal  conditions  are  (1)  attention; 
sensation  becomes  more  vivid  if.  we  give  it 
our  attention;  (2)  condition  of  mind  and 
body;  sensations  are  weakened  by  weariness 
and  by  some  diseases,  while  they  are  some- 
times intensified  by  such  diseases  as  irritate 
the  nerves;  (3)  contrast;  sudden  changes 
from  one  extreme  to  another  increase  the  in- 
tensity, as  in  passing  from  a  dark  room  to 
one  brilliantly  lighted,  or  in  the  hearing  of  a 
loud  sound  when  one  is  in  quietude. 

Development.  At  birth  the  organs  of  spe- 
cial sense  are  dormant,  and  they  develop  slow- 
ly. The  best  authorities  consider  touch  as 
the  fundamental  sense,  and  it  is  the  one 
earliest  developed.  Taste  and  sight  follow 
closely,  and  the  development  of  touch  aids 
in  their  perfection  and  makes  them  more 
acute.  While  taste  and  smell  are  inseparable 
in  the  act  of  tasting,  the  sense  of  smell  is  of 
later  development  than  the  sense  of  taste. 
Hearing  is  developed  later  than  the  other 
senses,  but  next  to  sight  it  is  the  sense  which 
gives  us  the  widest  range  of  knowledge. 

Since  each  sense  produces  its  own  peculiar 
sensations,  it  follows  that  all  senses  should 
be  trained.  The  training  of  the  eye  and  ear 
to  the  neglect  of  touch,  taste  and  smell  is  a 
serious  error  and  deprives  children  of  the 


SENSES 


3254 


SEPOY 


chance  to  acquire  at  first  hand  much  valuable 
knowledge.  Because  sight  and  hearing  are  so 
easily  trained,  parents  and  teachers  are  prone 
to  neglect  the  development  of  the  other  senses. 
See  Perception. 

SENSES,  Special.  The  sensory  nerves  con- 
vey to  the  brain  two  classes  of  impulses, 
those  arising  from  conditions  within  the  sys- 
tem, such  as  fatigue,  exhilaration,  hunger, 
thirst  and  the  various  feelings  caused  by  dis- 
ease, and  those  arising  from  contact  with 
external  objects,  which  give  us  a  knowledge  of 
the  outside  world.  The  foi-mer  are  classed  as 
general,  and  the  latter  as  speeM  sensations. 

The  special  senses  comprise  those  organs, 
sensory  nerves  and  brain  centers  which  re- 
spond only  to  special  stimuli.  In  the  order 
of  their  complexity  they  are  (1)  touch  and 
the  temperature  sense;  (2)  the  muscular  sense 
(3)  taste;  (4)  smell;  (5)  hearing,  and  (6) 
sight.  The  organs  of  special  sense  bring  to 
their  respective  brain  centei-s  impulses  which 
these  centei-s  alone  can  translate,  and  this 
translation  gives  us  the  knowledge  of  sight, 
sound,  touch,  etc.  It  is  supposed  by  some 
physiologists  that  the  impulses  are  all  alike 
and  that  the  different  interpretations  are  due 
solely  to  the  brain  centers ;  but  there  is  no  defi- 
nite knowledge  as  to  the  method  by  which  the 
impulses  conveyed  to  the  brain  from  the  dif- 
ferent organs  are  translated  into  mental  im- 
pressions. That  these  impressions  are  wholly 
due  to  the  brain  centers  is  certain.  A  blow 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  or  the  stimulation  of 
the  optic  nerve  by  electricity  will  cause  a  sen- 
sation of  light  in  the  darkest  room. 

There  is  no  sharp  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  general  and  special  senses.  By  the 
increase  of  the  stimulus,  what  is  a  special  sen- 
sation, as  touch,  may  be  changed  to  pain. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  increase  of 
pressure  at  one  point  on  the  hand.  A  light 
pressure  gives  rise  to  the  sense  of  touch, 
but  when  increased  beyond  this  limit,  it  be- 
comes painful,  and  we  experience  the  pain 
only.  The  special  sensations  are  also  evolved 
from  the  general,  as  their  development 
from  the  lower  orders  of  animals  illustrates. 
All  impressions  arising  through  the  nerves  of 
special  sense  have  a  physiological  and  a  psy- 
chological phase.  These  phases  are  explained 
in  the  article  Sensation. 

Related  Articles.  Consvilt  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Ear 

Smell 

Eye 

Taste 

Nervous  System 

Touch 

SENSITIVE  PLANT,  sen'sitiv,  a  plant 
native  to  south  America,  so  called  because  at 
the  approach  of  night  or  when  shaken  or 
roughly  handled  its  leaflets  fold  over  each 
other  in  pairs  and  each  of  the  leafstalks 
bends  toward  the  stem  as  if  shrinking  from 
its  intruder.  At  sunrise,  or  when  undisturbed, 
the  leaves  gradually  unfold  and  recover  their 
normal  state.  Many  species  of  different 
families  show  similar  sensitiveness  in  lesser 
degree. 

SEOUL,  or  SEUL,  saooV,  the  capital  of 
the  Japanese  province  of  Chosen,  or  Korea, 
situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Seoul  River, 
about  three  miles  north  of  the  Han  River  and 
about  nineteen  miles  northeast  of  Chemulpo, 
its  port  on  the  Yellow  Sea.  The  two  cities 
are  connected  by  rail,  and  there  is  also  rail 
communication  between  Seoul  and  the  cities 
of  Fusan  and  Wiju.  Seoul  has  been  the 
capital  of  Chosen  over  600  years.  It  has 
the  narrow  streets  and  mean  houses  so  com- 
mon in  Oriental  countries,  but  is  slowly 
being  modernized,  and  now  possesses  electric 
lighting,  telegraph  and  telephone  service  and 
electric  street  transportation.  There  are  few 
buildings  of  interest  besides  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  the  ancient  royal  palace 
and  a  temple  to  Confucius.  Population, 
1911,  223,381.    See  Chosen. 

SEP'ARATOR,  Cream.  See  Cream  Sep- 
arator. 

SE'PIA,  the  name  of  a  cuttlefish,  also  of 
a  pigment  used  by  painters  to  produce  a 
beautiful  brown  color  ijrepared  from  the 
secretion  of  an  organ  in  the  cuttlefish,  called 
the  ink  bag.  The  original  black  color  is 
changed  to  brown  by  dissolving  in  caustic 
potash.  This  solution,  after  boiling  and  fil- 
tering, forms  the  sepia  of  commerce.  The 
black  coloring  matter  obtained  from  the  ink 
bags  is  marketed,  after  undergoing  several 
processes,  as  India  ink.  See  Cuttlefish; 
India  Ink. 

SE'POY,  a  native  British  Indian  soldier. 
The  Sepoj's  who  are  of  practically  every 
race  and  tribe  in  India,  have  been  a  part  of 
the  British  forces  since  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  centuiy,  and  except  at  the  time 
of  the  rebellion  (1857)  have  alwaj's  been 
loyal  to  England.  There  are  now  about 
140,000  Sepoys  in  the  British  service,  offi- 
cered by  both  natives  and  Europeans.  They 
are  courageous,  temperate  and  hard  fighters 
and  are  an  important  part  of  the  British 
army  in  India.    See  Sepoy  Rebellion. 


SEPOY  REBELLION 


3255 


SEPTIMIUS  SEVERUS 


SEPOY  REBELLION,  rebel'yun,  a  mu- 
tiny of  native  trooiJs  in  India  which  began 
in  May,  1857.  It  was  the  result  of  resent- 
ment over  the  introduction  of  Western  ideas, 
particularly  the  English  disregard  for  native 
customs  and  religious  beliefs.  The  Hindus 
will  not  taste  anything  derived  from  a  pig  or 
a  cow,  and  consequently  when  the  Sei^oys,  as 
the  native  troops  are  called,  were  ordered 
to  use  greased  cartridges,  they  objected  to 
biting  the  cartridge  casings  and  rose  in  revolt. 
The  rebellion  started  at  Meerut,  near  Delhi, 
and  spread  to  Delhi,  Cawnpore  and  Lueknow, 
and  many  Europeans,  including  women  and 
children  were  massacred.  The  revolt  was 
crushed  in  June,  1858.  The  effect  of  the 
rebellion  was  far-reaching,  one  result  being 
the  transfer  of  the  government  of  India  from 
the  East  India  Company  to  the  crown. 

SEPTEMBER,  the  ninth  month,  the  month 
combining 

"Summer's  best  of  weather 
And  autumn's  best  of  cheer." 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
for  seven,  for  in  the  old  Roman  calendar 
September  was  the  seventh  month.  When 
Julius  Caesar  made  his  calendar  revisions 
September  became  the  ninth  month,  but  re- 
tained its  name.  Then,  as  now,  it  had  thirty 
days.  About  the  twenty-second  of  the  month 
the  sun  crosses  the  equator  on  its  journey 
toward  the  Troj^ic  of  Cancer,  and  days  and 
nights  are  equal  all  over  the  world.  In  Sep- 
tember we  look  back  to  fading  summer  and 
forward  to  the  falling  of  the  leaves  and  other 
tokens  of  autumn.  In  northern  climes  there 
are  occasional  hot,  diy  September  days  much 
like  those  of  August,  but  they  pass  quickly 
by,  and  are  soon  replaced  by  October's 
"golden  weather."  Among  the  wild  flowers 
blooming  in  September  are  the  fringed 
gentian  and  the  wild  aster.  The  goldenrod 
is  September's  flower  emblem,  and  the 
sapi^hire  its  special  gem. 

Special  Days  for  Observance.  The  first 
Monday  of  September  is  celebrated  as  Labor 
Day  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  This  is  the  only  general  September 
holiday,  but  American  negroes  celebrate  Sep- 
tember 22,  as  Emancipation  Day. 

Anniversaries  for  Celebration.  The  fol- 
lowing birthdays  of  notable  people  fall  in 
September : 

Peter  Cartwright,  September  1,  1785. 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  September  1,  1795. 
Henry  George,  September  2,  1839. 
Eugene  Field,  September  2,  1850. 


Sarah  Orhe  Jewett,  September  3,  1849. 
Pindar,  September  4,  522  B.  C. 
Phoebe  Gary,  September  4,  1824. 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  September  5,  1585. 
Lafayette,  September  6,   1757. 
Sir  Georges  E.  Cartier,  September  6,  1814. 
Jane  Addams,   September  6,  1861. 
Queen  Elizabeth,  September  7,  1533. 
Richard  I,  September  8,  1157. 
Charles  Dudley  Warner,  September  12,  1829. 
John  J.  Pershing,  September  13,  1860. 
Charles  W.  Gordon,  September  14,  1860. 
Charles  Dana  Gibson,  September  14,  1867. 
James  Fenimore  Cooper,  September  15,  1789. 
Francis  Parkman,  September  16,  1823. 
Samuel  Johnson,  September  18,  1709. 
Alexander  the  Great,  September  20,  356  B.  C. 
Louis  Joliet,  September  21,  1645. 
Clark  Howell,  September  21,  1863. 
Caesar  Augustus,  September  23,  63  B.  C. 
John  Marshall,  September  24,  1755. 
Felicia  D.  Hemans,  September  25,  1793. 
Samuel  Adams,  September  26,  1722. 
Robert  Clive,  September  29,  1725. 
Admiral  Nelson,  September  29,  1758. 
Pompey,  September  30,  106  B.  C. 

The  following  notable  events  occurred  in 
September : 

Rule  of  India  relinquished  by  the  East  India 
Company  to  the  Crown,  September  1,  1858. 

Battle  of  Actium,  September  2,  31  B.  C. 

Organization  of  United  States  Treasury  De- 
partment, September  2,  1789. 

New  style  calendar  adopted  in  Great  Britain 
and  its  colonies,  September  3,  1752. 

Treaty  of  Paris  signed,  September  3,  1783. 

Third  Republic  declared  in  France,  Sep- 
tember 3,  1870. 

First  Continental  Congress  met  in  Carpen- 
ter's Hall,  Philadelphia,  September  5,   1774. 

Mayflower  sailed  from  Plymouth,  September 
6,  1620. 

President  McKinley  shot,  September  6,  1901. 

Peary  announced  his  discovery  of  the  North 
Pole,  September  6,  1909. 

First  Battle  of  the  Marne  begun,  September 
6,   1914. 

Galveston  tornado,  September  8,  1900. 

California  admitted  to  the  Union,  September 
9,   1850. 

Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  September  10,  1813. 

Battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  September 
13,  1759. 

American  victory  at  Saint  Mihiel,  September 
13-14,   1918. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States  signed  by 
the  Convention,  September  17,  1787. 

Quebec  surrendered  to  the  English,  Sep- 
tember 18,  1759. 

President  Garfield  died,  September  19,  1881. 

Death  of  Nathan  Hale,  September  22,  1776. 

Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific,  September  25, 
1513. 

Holy  Alliance  formed,  September  26,  1815. 

SEPTIM'IUS  SEVE'RUS,  Arch  of,  a 
triumphal  arch  in  Rome,  located  at  the  end 
of  the  Sacred  Way,  on  the  Forum.  It  was 
erected  in  a.  d.  203  by  the  Senate  and  dedi- 


SEPTUAGINT 


3256 


SERAGLIO 


cated  to  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  and 
his  two  sons,  Caracalla  and  Geta,  in  commem- 
oration of  the  victory  over  the  Parthians  and 
Arabians.  The  arch  is  seventy-five  feet  high 
and  bears  inscriptions  and  reliefs  descriptive 
of  the  campaigns  of  Severus, 

SEPTUAGINT,  sep'tuajint,  the  oldest 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  believed 
to  have  been  begun  in  the  third  century  b.  c, 
in  Alexandria,  Egypt,  and  completed  before 
the  Christian  Era.  Its  name  refers  to  an 
early  belief  that  it  was  written  in  seventy- 
two  days  by  seventy-two  scholars  brought  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  from  Jerusalem.  The 
oldest  existing  copies  are  still  used  by 
scholars  for  criticism  and  comparison  of  the 
text  with  other  versions  of  the  'Old  Testa- 
ment. 

SEQUOIA,  se  kwoi'a,  large  trees  belonging 
to  the  cj-press  family,  found  on  the  Coast 
Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in 
California  and  Oregon.  There  are  but  two 
species,  one  popularly  known  as  the  hig 
tree,  the  other  as  the  redwood. 

The  Big  Trees.  This  name  is  given  to  a 
number  of  trees  found  only  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Siei-ra  Xevadas  in  California. 
These  trees  grow  in  groups,  popularly  called 
groves,  and  stand  amidst  smaller  trees,  of  dif- 
ferent kinds.  The  Mariposa  grove,  sixteen 
miles  south  of  Yosemite  Yallej',  is  now  a 
part  of  Yosemite  National  Park.  Another  na- 
tional park,  the  Sequoia,  contains  over  1,- 
000,000  of  the  big  trees ;  an  area  of  2,560  acres 
about  General  Grant  Tree  is  also  a  national 
park  (see  Parks,  Xatioxal). 

The  average  height  of  the  big  trees  is  275 
feet;  a  number,  however,  attain  300  to  325 
feet.  The  average  diameter  is  twenty  feet, 
though  the  largest  trees  measure  twenty-five 
and  thirty  feet.  The  trunk  is  straight  and 
slightly  tapering,  bearing  on  the  upper  half  or 
third  a  crown  of  branches.  Branches  are  sel- 
dom found  below  125  or  150  feet.  The  bark 
of  the  old  trees  is  cinnamon-red,  and  is  red- 
dish-purple on  the  young.  It  has  an  aver- 
age thickness  of  eleven  or  twelve  inches,  but 
on  some  of  the  largest  trees  it  is  two  feet  in 
thickness  and  is  deeply  grooved  and  very 
rough.  As  the  bark  does  not  bum  readily,  it 
serves  to  protect  the  trees  from  forest  fires. 
The  branches  are  short  and  thick,  and  divide 
into  tufts  of  fine  spray  which  bear  short,  flat 
leaves,  closely  crowded  together.  The  fniit 
is  a  cone  about  two  inches  long  and  one  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter,  each  of  which 


produces  many  tiny  seeds.    The  wood  is  soft 
and  of  a  slightly  reddish  hue. 

Examples  of  Size.  In  1854  one  of  the  big 
trees  was  cut  down.  The  task  was  accom- 
plished by  boring  off  the  trunk  with  augers, 
and  it  took  five  men  twenty-two  and  one- 
half  days  to  accomplish  the  work.  A  pa- 
vilion was  built  on  the  stump,  which  is  now 
used  as  a  dance  hall,  affording  ample  room 
for  twenty  couples  on  the  floor  and  for  the 
musicians  and  a  fair  number  of  spectators. 
Another  fallen  tree  in  this  grove  was  over 
400  feet  in  height  and  measured  30  feet 
in  diameter  at  its  base.  The  heart  has  been 
burned  out,  and  a  man  can  ride  through  the 
hole  in  the  trunk  on  horseback  for  a  dis- 
tance of  ninety  feet  and  emerge  through  an 
opening  caused  by  the  breaking  off  of  a  limb. 
In  the  Mariposa  grove  a  roadway  has  been 
cut  through  one  of  the  standing  trees,  the 
tunnel  being  wide  enough  to  aft'ord  ample 
room  for  the  largest  coach ;  yet  this  does  not 
seem  to  have  affected  the  strength  or  life 
of  the  tree. 

Age  and  Tradition.  The  age  of  the  big 
trees  is  not  definitely  known.  They  are 
probably  the  oldest  living  objects  upon  the 
earth,  the  largest  being  estimated  to  be 
from  2,500  to  3,000  j'ears  old — over  six  hun- 
dred years  of  age  at  the  birth  of  Christ.  Ac- 
cording to  Indian  belief,  the  big  trees  alone 
were  especially  created  by  the  Great  Spirit; 
all  other  trees  of  the  forest  grew  just  like 
other  plants.  The  genus  was  named  in 
honor  of  Sequoyah,  a  half-caste  Cherokee  In- 
dian who  invented  an  alphabet  for  his  tribe. 
Redwood.  Like  the  giant  sequoias,  the 
redwoods  attain  heights  of  250  to  300  feet, 
with  diameters  often  of  fifteen  feet.  These 
trees  are  found  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the 
Coast  Range  in  California  and  Southern 
Oregon,  and  are  the  most  valuable  timber 
trees  west  of  the  Rockies.  The  redwoods  are 
being  felled  faster  than  the  big  trees,  as  they 
are  more  accessible.  Redwoods  send  up 
suckei-s  from  the  stumps  and  seed  themselves, 
which  obviates  the  danger  of  forest  depletion ; 
this  is  not  characteristic  of  the  big  trees. 

SERAGLIO,  seraTyo  (properly.  Serai), 
the  palace  and  its  surroimding  buildings 
foimerly  sen'ing  as  the  royal  palace  of  the 
Turkish  sultan  at  Constantinople.  As  it  has 
not  been  used  by  the  sultan  since  1839,  it  is 
falling  into  niin.  Situated  on  a  point  of  land 
projecting  into  the  sea,  its  walls  embrace  a 
circuit  of  about  nine  miles,  including  several 


SERAJEVO 


3257 


SERBIA 


mosques,  the  museum  of  Constantinople,  the 
harem,  and  buildings  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 20,000  men.  Amoiig  the  Turks  the 
name  is  often  used  to  designate  any  residence 
of  the  sultan. 

SERAJEVO.  See  Sarajevo. 
SERAPIS,  se  ra'pis,  an  Egyptian  deity, 
compounded  of  the  names  Osiris  and  Apis, 
introduced  into  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
I.  A  magnificent  statue  of  Serapis,  doubtless 
originally  a  statue  of  Jupiter,  was  built  at 
Alexandria  in  a  temple  called  the  Seraj^eum, 
the  last  hold  of  the  pagans  in  that  city  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  Egyp- 
tians never  acknowledged  Serapis  in  their 
pantheon ;  he  was  the  principal  deity  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  towns  of  Egypt.  Forty- 
two  temples  are  said  to  have  been  erected  to 
him  in  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  and  Ro- 
mans. His  worship  extended  also  to  Asia 
Minor  and  was  introduced  into  Rome  by 
Antoninus  Pius.  The  image  of  Serapis  per- 
ished with  his  temple  at  Alexandria,  destroyed 
in  389  by  the  order  of  Theodosius. 

SER'APIS,  The.    See  Bon  Homme  Rich- 
ard. 

^~^ERBIA,  sur'hi  a,  one  of  the 
states  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  proclaimed  an 
independent  kingdom  in 
1882.  In  1914  this  small 
Slavic  nation  was  attacked 
by  Austria-Hungary,  and 
in  the  great  international 
conflict  which  followed  it 
suffered  more  than  any  of 
the  other  belligerents  ex- 
cept Belgium.  Overrun 
by  Austrians,  Gennans 
and  Bulgarians,  its  peo- 
ple subjected  to  all  the 
hoiTors  of  famine,  depor- 
tation and  the  other  ca- 
lamities of  invasion,  Serbia  was  a  physical 
and  economic  ruin  by  the  end  of  the  World 
War,  in  1919.  Its  reeonstraetion  as  a  di- 
vision of  the  Jugo- Slavic  nation  is  one  of  the 
many  problems  awaiting  solution  in  troubled 
Europe.  The  Serbs  are  Slavs,  and  belong  to 
the  group  known  as  Southern  Slavs,  who  are 
striving  to  erect  a  new  nation  representing  a 
union  of  Serbs,  Montenegrins,  Slovenes  and 
Croatians.  Such  a  union  was  made  possible 
by  the  dissolution  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  and  the  defeat  of  the  Germanic 
alliance. 


Area  and  Population.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War,  in  1914,  Serbia  had  an  area 
of  33,891  square  miles,  about  850  square  miles 
greater  than  the  area  of  Maine.  According 
to  the  boundaries  then  existing,  it  lay  between 
Austria-Hungary  on  the  north  and  Greece 
on  the  south,  with  the  Danube  and  the  Save 
rivers  separating  it  from  the  dual  monarchy. 
Bulgaria  and  Rumania  adjoined  the  country 
on  the  east,  and  on  the  west  lay  Bosnia,  Mon- 
tenegTo  and  Albania. 

Its  population  in  1914  was  nearly  5,000,000 
but  this  number  was  reduced  to  3,500,000  by 
1919,  according  to  careful  estimates.  Of  the 
number  who  remain,  about  three-fourths  are 
devitalized  from  hunger,  disease  and  the 
strain  of  war.  Large  numbers  of  Serbs  are 
found  in  the  regions  adjoining  old  Serbia, 
and  their  union  with  their  kinsmen  and  the 
Croats  and  Slovenes  will,  it  is  expected,  bring 
about  a  building  up  of  the  oppressed  people 
of  the  invaded  kingdom.  The  Serbs  are  in- 
tense lovers  of  freedom,  and  have  long  re- 
sented the  use  of  the  forms  Servs  and  Servia 
for  Serbs  and  Serbia.  The  former  terms 
are  not  only  incorrect,  but  are  distasteful 
because  they  are  derivatives  of  the  Latin 
servus,  or  slave. 

Physical  Features.  The  surface  is  high 
and  mountainous,  the  country  being  traversed 
by  spurs  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains  in  the 
northeast,  the  Balkan  in  the  southeast  and 
the  Dinarie  Alps  in  the  west.  None  of  these 
is  high,  and  the  loftiest  summit,  Liubotrn, 
has  an  altitude  of  8,600  feet.  The  whole 
country  is  drained  into  the  Danube,  either 
directly  through  the  Morava,  which  flows 
through  the  center,  or  indirectly  by  the  rivers 
that  form  a  part  of  the  boundary.  Along 
the  western  border  are  the  Drina  and  the 
Drin.  The  climate  in  the  elevated  regions  is 
rigorous,  but  in  the  valleys  and  lowlands  it 
is  mild  and  equable.  There  is  plenty  of 
rainfall,  and  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
forests. 

Resources  and  Industry.  Serbia  is  pre- 
eminently an  agricultural  country,  and  is  a 
land  of  small  farms  owned  and  cultivated 
by  peasants.  There  are  few  fanns  over 
thirty  acres  in  extent.  Wheat,  barley,  oats, 
coi-n,  rye  and  sugar  beets  are  profitable  crops, 
and  various  fruits,  notably  plums,  are  grown. 
Large  quantities  of  these  are  dried  and  ex- 
ported as  prunes,  made  into  marmalade  or 
used  in  making  wine.  Silkworms  are  raised 
in  large  numbers,  and  in  the  hilly  regions  ex- 


SERBIA 


3258 


SERBIA 


tensive  pastures  make  the  raising  of  live 
stock  an  important  industry.  There  are  ex- 
tensive forests  of  beech,  oak  and  fir,  about 
1,375,000  acres  being  under  state  control. 

Flour  milling  is  one  of  the  most  important 
manufacturing  industries;  before  the  war 
there  were  seventeen  large  mills  in  the  coun- 
tiy.  Brewing  and  distilling,  sugar  refining, 
the  manufacture  of  celluloid,  cai-pet  weaving, 
tanning,  bootmaking,  iron  working  and  the 
making  of  pottery  are  other  industries  car- 
ried on  in  normal  times.  The  weaving  of 
carpets,  a  very  old  industry,  is  centered  in  the 
southeast,  in  Pirot.  The  carpets  are  made 
of  pure  wool,  colored  by  local  dyers  with  nat- 
ural dyes  and  by  a  secret  process. 

Serbia  has  valuable  deposits  of  coal  and 
lignite  and  mines  of  lead,  zinc,  copper  and 
iron.  The  mining  industry  has  never  been 
developed  to  full  capacity  because  of  lack 
of  capital  and  transportation  facilities.  There 
was  considerable  exploitation  of  the  coal  de- 
posits by  the  Germans  during  the  period  of 
occupation. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  There 
are  about  975  miles  of  railroad.  A  railway 
between  Belgrade  and  Nish  connects  with  the 
trunk  line  which  joins  Berlin  and  Vienna  with 
Sofia  (Bulgaria)  and  Constantinople,  a  fac- 
tor in  Germany's  plan  for  a  "Mittel  Eu- 
ropa."  A  railway  to"  Saloniki,  Greece,  gives 
Serbia  an  outlet  to  the  Aegean  Sea.  The 
Danube,  Drina  and  Save  rivers  are  navigable. 

Government,  Religion,  Education,  Under 
the  constitution  of  1903  the  executive  power 
is  vested  in  the  king,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
council  of  eight  Ministers.  The  people  are 
represented  in  a  legislative  assembly  called 
the  Skupshtina,  the  members  of  which  are 
chosen  at  a  general  election.  There  is  also 
a  council  of  state,  one-half  of  whose  members 
are  api^ointed  by  the  Skupshtina  and  the 
others  by  the  king.  The  capital  is  Belgrade, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  the 
Greek  Church  is  the  State  Church.  Elemen- 
tary education  is  compulsory,  and  in  all  the 
primary  schools  under  the  Ministry  of  Educa- 
tion it  is  free,  but  the  rate  of  illiteracy  is  high. 
At  Belgrade  there  is  a  university  founded  in 
1838,  which  had  over  900  students  before  the 
war. 

History.  In  ancient  times  Serbia  formed  a 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Moesia.  After 
this  it  was  occupied  in  succession  by  Huns, 
Ostrogoths,  Lombards  and  other  tribes.  In 
the  seventh  century  the  country  was  entered 


by  the  Serbians,  but  in  the  century  following 
it  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors.  Later  Serbia  became  inde- 
pendent, and  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  it  included  all  of  Macedonia,  Albania 
and  Thessaly,  the  northern  part  of  Greece  and 
Bulgaria.  After  this  its  power  declined  and 
it  became  tributary  to  Turkey,  remaining  in 
this  condition  for  about  200  years.  In  1718 
the  greater  part  of  the  territory  was  ceded  to 
Austria,  but  a  few  years  later  was  again  trans- 
ferred to  Turkey.  The  oppression  of  the 
Turkish  government  led  to  several  wars,  and 
from  1812  to  1878  the  country  was  ruled  by  a 
number  of  monarchs  who  were  vassals  of  the 
sultan.  In  1877,  during  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  Serbia  rebelled,  and  by  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin  in  the  following  year  its  independence 
was  recognized  by  the  European  powers.  In 
1912  and  1913  Serbia  was  at  war  with  Turkey 
and  later  with  Bulgaria,  and  by  the  Treaty 
of  Bucharest  (1913)  it  received  over  15,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  comprising  four  de- 
partments. Over  1,700,000  people  were  add- 
ed to  its  population. 

In  June,  1914,  the  assassination  of  the  heir 
to  the  Austro-Hungarian  throne,  at  Sarajevo, 
Bosnia,  was  made  the  pretext  of  a  declaration 
of  war  against  Serbia  by  Austria-Hungary. 
The  latter  country  claimed  that  Serbia  was 
the  hot  bed  of  Slavic  agitation  against  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  dual  monarchy.  Out  of  this 
complication  was  evolved  the  greater  conflict, 
in  which  Serbia  became  a  martyred  nation. 
Belgrade  was  occupied  by  Austro-German 
troops  on  October  9,  1915,  and  by  the  close 
of  the  year  the  whole  country  was  under  the 
heel  of  the  oppressor.  The  sufferings  of  the 
people  through  disease,  exhaustion,  exile,  and 
persecution  from  Austrians,  Germans  and 
Bulgarians  awakened  outside  sympathy 
akin  to  that  inspired  by  the  sufferings  of  the 
Belgians  and  Armenians.  The  aged  King 
Peter  and  his  court  removed  to  Greece  for 
the  duration  of  the  war.  Late  in  1918,  Bel- 
grade, then  a  city  stripped  of  all  its  valuables, 
was  liberated,  but  the  king  remained  in  re- 
tirement, leaving  the  duties  of  administration 
to  his  son.  Prince  Alexander,  and  the  Cabi- 
net. Alexander  was  proclaimed  regent  of 
the  Jugo-Slavic  state  in  November,  1918. 

Related    Articles.       Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Balkan  Wars  Jugro-Slavia 

Belgrade  Monastir 

Berlin,   Congress  of       Nish 
Carpathian  Mountains  Peter  I 
Danube  World  War 


SERFS 


3259 


SERUM  THERAPY 


SERFS,  a  term  applied  to  a  class  of 
laborers  existing  under  the  feudal  system, 
whose  condition,  though  not  exactly  that  of 
slavery,  was  little  removed  from  it.  Under 
feudalism,  from  the  vassals  of  the  king  down- 
ward, the  whole  community  was  subject  to 
certain  degrees  of  servitude,  and  it  was  only 
on  condition  of  specific  services  to  be  rendered 
to  his  superior  that  any  individual  held  his 
land.  In  the  ease  of  the  lower  classes  this 
servitude  amounted  almost  to  complete  sur- 
render of  personal  liberty.  There  were  two 
classes  of  laborers,  the  villeins  and  the  serfs 
l^roper,  the  former  occupying  a  middle  posi- 
tion between  the  serfs  and  the  freemen.  A 
serf  could  not  be  sold,  but  could  be  trans- 
ferred along  with  the  property  to  which  he 
was  attached.  A  serf  could  obtain  his  free- 
dom by  purchase,  by  residing  for  a  year  and 
a  day  in  a  borough  or  by  military  sei'vice. 
By  these  various  means  the  serf  population 
gradually  decreased,  and  in  most  parts  of 
the  Continent  had  disappeared  by  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Serfdom  in  England  and 
Scotland  was  extinguished  very  gradually, 
existing  almost  in  its  original  form  as  late 
as  1574;  and  even  in  the  eighteenth  century 
a  species  of  serfdom  existed  among  Scottish 
miners.  Serfdom  in  Russia  did  not  originate 
in  feudalism,  but  in  royal  enactment;  it  was 
abolished  by  a  manifesto  of  Alexander  II, 
on  March  17,  1861. 

SERGEANT,  sali/jent,  in  a  military  com- 
pany or  in  a  marine  corps,  the  highest  non- 
commissioned officer,  ranking  above  a  cor- 
poral. He  is  below  a  second-lieutenant,  who 
is  the  lowest  commissioned  officer.  The  top 
sergeant,  or  sergeant-major,  ranks  in  author- 
ity over  all  other  sergeants  in  a  company. 

SERGEANT-AT-ARMS,  an  officer  of  a 
legislative  body  or  of  any  deliberative  assem- 
bly. His  duty  is  to  execute  the  orders  of 
its  officers  and  to  preserve  order.  In  legis- 
lative bodies  the  mace  (whicli  see)  is  the 
emblem  of  his  authority. 

SERINAGUR,  sere'nagur,  or  SRINA- 
GAR,  India,  capital  of  Kashmir,  situated  in 
the  Kashmir  valley,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Jhelam  River,  170  miles  northeast  of  Lahore. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  picturesque  town  when 
seen  from  a  distance,  but  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  dirty  and  contain  but  little  of 
interest.  In  the  environs  are  beautiful  gar- 
dens, and  also  the  lake  made  famous  by 
Moore  in  his  Lalla  Rookh.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  shawls  and 


rugs,  the  production  of  attar  of  roses  and 
the  making  of  silver  articles.  Population, 
1911,  126,344. 

SE'ROUS  MEMBRANES,  certain  double 
membranes  in  the  human  body,  as  the  pleura, 
the  pericardium  and  the  peritoneum,  which 
form  a  sort  of  closed  sac  sun-ounding  certain 
organs,  the  interior  sm-faees  of  the  sac 
secreting  a  small  quantity  of  serous  fluid. 
Serous  membranes  line  cavities  not  exposed 
to  the  air.  Their  chief  function  is  to  allow 
free  action  to  the  organs  and  prevent  the 
injurious  effects  of  friction.  The  synovial 
membranes  of  the  joints  belong  to  this  class. 
These  membranes  are  subject  to  various  dis- 
eases.   See  Pleurisy. 

SERPENT.     See  Snake. 

SERPENT  CHARMING,  a  so-called  art 
of  great  antiquity,  confined  in  practice  to 
Egypt  and  the  East.  Although  it  is  a  com- 
mon practice  of  the  charmer  to  extract  the 
fangs  before  exhibiting  the  snakes,  this  is 
not  always  done.  The  instrument  usually 
employed  in  serpent  chaiming  is  a  kind  of 
pipe,  which  is  varied  by  whistling  and  the 
use  of  the  voice.  The  effect  of  this  medley 
of  sounds  is  to  entice  the  serpents  from 
tlieir  holes  so  they  may  be  pinned  to  the 
ground  with  a  forked  stick.  In  India  and 
other  Eastern  comitries  the  art  of  serpent 
charming  is  an  hereditary  profession.  In 
addition  to  the  evident  power  music  has  upon 
the  serpents,  they  appear  to  be  influenced 
in  a  marked  degree  by  the  eye  of  the  charmer, 
who  controls  them  merely  by  fixing  his  gaze 
upon  them. 

SERPENTINE,  sur'pentin,  a  rock  com- 
posed of  magnesia,  silica  and  water,  I'anging 
in  color  through  varying  shades  of  green  to 
red,  yellow  or  brown.  It  takes  its  name  from 
its  mottled-gi'een  appearance,  which  was 
formerly  supposed  to  resemble  the  skin  of 
some  serpents.  Much  of  serpentine  is  veined 
or  spotted  wath  streaks  of  white;  these  va- 
rieties are  known  in  the  United  States  as 
verde  antique  marble.  Serpentine  takes  a 
high  polish  and  is  quite  extensively  used  in 
finishing  for  the  interiors  of  public  build- 
ings. It  is  not  a  good  stone  for  exteriors, 
because  it  contains  more  or  less  iron,  which, 
on  weathering,  discolors  the  stone.  It  is 
found  in  Switzerland,  Italy  and  a  num- 
ber of  localities  in  the  United  States. 

SE'RUM  THER'APY,  the  treatment  of 
disease  by  means  of  blood  serum,  containing 
germs  which  by  creating  antitoxins  in  the 


SERVAL 


32G0 


SETI  I 


blood  of  the  patient  render  him  immune  or 
enable  him  to  resist  a  disease  already  acquired. 
Cultures  of  the  specific  germ  are  made,  and 
some  animal,  usually  a  healthy  horse,  is  inoc- 
ulated. The  serum  from  this  animal  is  tested 
on  a  rabbit,  for  instance,  and  if  found  to 
protect  the  little  animal  from  inoculation 
with  active  disease  germs,  the  serum  is  felt 
to  be  safe  for  human  beings.  Vaccination 
for  smallpox  is  an  example  of  vaccine  ther- 
apy. Serum  therapy  has  been  used  with 
varying  success  in  pneumonia,  cholera, 
typhoid,  diphtheria  and  several  other  bacterial 
diseases  and  promises  gi'eat  results  in  the 
fight  against  disease.  See  Germ  Theory  of 
Disease. 

SERVAL,  su/val,  a  large  South  American 
wild  cat,  about  three  feet  in  length.  Its  gen- 
eral body-color  is  a  bright  golden,  tinged  with 


SERVAL 

gray  and  marked  with  black  spots.  Its  tail 
is  sixteen  inches  long.  The  serval,  or  tiger 
cat,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  easily  tamed, 
if  captured  when  young.  Its  fur  commands 
high  prices. 

SERVETUS,  serve' tiis,  Michael,  or 
Miguel  Ser\-ete  (about  1511-1553),  a 
Spanish  physician,  scholar  and  theologian, 
who  was  burned  at  the  stake  as  a  heretic.  He 
was  born  at  Tudela,  in  Navarre.  At  the  age 
of  seventeen  he  was  sent  to  Toulouse  to  studj'^ 
civil  law,  but  soon  devoted  his  interests  to 
theology.  He  incurred  the  enmity  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  Protestants  during  the 
Reformation.  After  the  publication  of  his 
Christianismi  Restitutio  (Restoration  of 
Christianity)  in  Vienna,  he  was  arrested  for 
heresy  and  imprisoned,  but  escaped  to  Naples. 
He  was  ai*rested  at  Geneva,  however,  on  a 
charge  of  blasphemy  and  heresy,  and  his 
various  writings  were  sifted  in  order  to  in- 
sure his  condemnation.  The  divines  of  all 
the  Protestant  Swiss  cantons  unanimously 
declared  for  his  punishment,  and  Calvin  was 


especially  urgent  and  emphatic  as  to  the 
necessity  of  putting  him  to  death.  Servetus 
is  numbered  among  the  anatomists  who  made 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctiine  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  before  the  time  of 
Ilarvev. 

SERVIA.    See  Serbia. 

SER'VICE,  Robert  William  (1876-  ), 
a  Canadian  poet  and  novelist,  whose  vigorous 
ballads  of  the  Northwest  have  gained  for 
him  a  secure  place  in  Canadian  literature. 
He  was  bom  at  Preston,  England,  and  edu- 
cated at  Glasgow,  Scotland.  In  1897  he 
emigrated  to  Canada  and  traveled  extensively 
through  the  West,  encountering  experiences 
which  later  supplied  rich  literary  material. 
In  1905  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Canadian 
Bank  of  Commerce  and  later  worked  in  the 
bank's  branches  at  White  Hor^e,  Yukon 
Territory,  and  at  Dawson  City.  His  close 
contact  with  the  vigorous  elemental  life  and 
wild  scenes  in  the  sub-arctic  regions  enabled 
him  to  write  about  them  with  accuracy  and 
feeling.  The  men  and  conditions  he  pictures 
and  his  literary  workmanship  give  him  a 
place  in  Canadian  literature  somewhat  like 
that  of  Bret  Harte's  in  American  literature. 
His  books  of  verse  include  The  Spell  of  the 
Yukon,  So-ngs  of  a  Sourdough,  Ballads  of  a 
Cheech-ako  and  Ehytnes  of  a  Rolling  Stone. 
He  has  written  two  novels.  The  Trail  of  '98 
and  The  Pretender.  His  Rhymes  of  a  Red 
Cross  Man  were  widely  read  by  the  allied 
soldiers  in  the  World  War. 

SERVIUS  TULLIUS,  se/vi  us  tul'i  us,  the 
sixth  of  the  seven  legendary  kings  of  early 
Rome.  According  to  tradition  he  was  the  son 
of  a  slave  who  was  given  by  the  elder  Tar- 
quin  to  his  wife.  He  married  Tarquin's 
daughter,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father-in- 
law  (578  B.  c.)  ascended  the  throne.  He  es- 
tablished many  civil  rights  and  institutions, 
greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the  com- 
mon people,  thereby  antagonizing  the  patri- 
cians,  and   extended   and   beautified   Rome. 

SESAME,  ses'ame,  GRASS.  See  Gama 
Grass. 

SETI  I,  sa'te,  an  Egyj^tian  king,  the  second 
Pharaoh  of  the  nineteenth  d\masty  (1462  to 
1288  B.  c.)  and  father  of  Rameses  II  (see 
R AMESES  II ).  On  the  walls  of  the  Hall  of 
Columns  at  Kamak,  which  he  built,  are  de- 
scribed his  campaigns  whereby  he  established 
the  power  of  Egypt  over  a  large  portion  of 
Western  Asia.  He  built  the  Temple  of  Osiris 
at  Abydos. 


SETON 


3261 


SEVEN  WEEKS'   WAR 


SE'TON,  Ernest  Thompson  (1860-  ), 
a  popular  author,  artist  and  lecturer,  born 
in  Shields,  England.  Much  of  his  early  life 
was  spent  in  the  Canadian  backwoods  and  on 
.the  Western  plains.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Toronto  Collegiate  Institute  and  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  London,  England,  and  studied 
six  years  in  Paris.  In  1901  he  organized  the 
Woodcraft  Indians,  for  boys,  a  society  which 
later  became  a  nucleus  for  the  Boy  Scouts 
(which  see).  In  1891  Seton  became  official 
naturalist  to  the  government  of  Manitoba. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  illustrators  of  the 
Century  Dictionary  and  has  illustrated  many 
books  on  birds  and  animals. 

He  is  best  known  as  the  author  and  illus- 
trator of  stories  about  animals.  These  in- 
clude Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known;  The 
Biography  of  a  Grizzli/;  Lobo,  Rag  and 
Vixen;  Lives  of  the  Hunted;  Two  Little  Sav- 
ages; Monarch,  the  Big  Bear,  and  Animal 
Heroes,  all  dealing  with  animal  life  in  a  way 
which  was  original  with  the  author.  The 
truth  of  Seton's  accounts  of  animals  has  been 
questioned  by  many  naturalists,  but  the 
stories  have  certainly  aroused  a  new  interest 
in  animals  and  led  to  increased  study  of 
their  habits.  Seton  has  contributed  nu- 
merous articles  and  illustrations  to  magazines 
and  scientific  publications  and  delivered  many 
lectures.  He  claims  to  have  organized  the 
Boy  Scouts,  but  this  distinction  is  disputed 
by  Daniel  Carter  Beard. 

SET'TER,  a  handsome  hunting  dog  weigh- 
ing from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  and  having 
soft,  silky  hair,  sometimes  wavy,  and  droop- 


SETTER 


ing  ears.  Three  breeds  are  recognized.  These 
are  the  English,  which  is  white,  with  black 
markings;  the  Gordon,  rich  glossy  black, 
with  reddish-brown  markings;  the  Irish,  a 
uniform  chestnut  color.  The  dogs  are  taught 
to  raise  a  forefoot  to  indicate  game.  They 
are  intelligent  and  easily  managed. 


SEVEN  PINES.    See  Fair  Oaks,  Battle 

OF. 

SEVEN  SLEEPERS,  according  to  a  sixth- 
century  story,  were  seven  Christian  youths 
of  Ephesus,  who,  by  a  command  of  the 
Emperor  Decius,  were  imprisoned  in  a  cave 
in  Mount  Celion,  in  which  they  had  taken 
refuge.  Here  they  fell  into  a  deep  slumber, 
from  which  they  were  awakened  by  a  shep- 
herd after  a  laj^se  of  about  two  hundred 
years.  On  emerging  from  the  cave,  during 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  II,  they  were  sur- 
prised at  changed  conditions  everywhere,  as 
was  the  populace  over  their  strange  visitors. 
The  youths  related  their  story  to  the  multi- 
tude, gave  it  their  blessing,  and  died.  The 
Mohammedans  have  a  similar  legend. 

SEVENTEEN  -  YEAR  LOCUST.  See 
Cicada. 

SEVENTH  DAY  AD'VENTISTS,  the 
largest  sect  of  the  Adventists,  numbering 
about  83,000  members  in  America  and  sup- 
porting more  than  2,000  churches.  According 
to  their  doctrine,  the  seventh  day  of  the  week, 
the  Christian  Saturday,  is  the  Sabbath.  They 
believe  that  the  dead  sleep  till  the  day  of 
judgment;  that  the  unsaved  are  destroyed; 
that  the  care  of  bodily  health,  total  abstinence 
and  the  eating  of  vegetable  food  are  religious 
duties.  They  have  established  sanitariums  in 
various  states,  and  their  missionary  work  ex- 
tends into  almost  every  country  in  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  their  headquarters  are 
at  Takoma  Park,  a  suburb  of  Washington, 
D,  C. ;  previous  to  1903  the  headquarters 
were  at  Battle  Creek,  Mich.  Their  publica- 
tions are  numerous  and  embrace  discussions 
of  the  Bible  and  of  their  own  peculiar  doc- 
trines, histories  of  their  sect,  and  treatises 
on  health  and  disease. 

SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAR,  a  struggle,  in 
1866,  between  Prussia  and  Italy  on  one  side 
and  Austria  and  its  allies  on  the  other,  which 
determined  that  Prussian  influence  was  to 
be  predominant  in  Germany.  The  issue  was 
forced  by  Bismarck,  who  used  the  Sehleswig- 
Holstein  controversy  as  a  pretext.  The  Prus- 
sians under  Von  Moltke  were  from  the  first 
victorious,  and  after  the .  Battle  of  Konig- 
gratz,  or  Sadowa,  Austria  was  obliged  to  sue 
for  peace,  which  was  concluded  in  the  Treaty 
of  Prague. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Austria-Hungary 
Bismarck -Schon- 
hausen 


Moltke,  Count  von 
Sadowa,  Battle  of 
Schleswig-Holstein 


SEVEN  WISE  MEN  OF  GREECE   3262 


SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR 


SEVEN  WISE  MEN  OF  GREECE,  men 

•who  are  largely  shrouded  in  obscm-ity  who 
lived  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  before 
Christ,  The  generally-accepted  list  of  these 
sag-es  and  philosophers  includes  Periander, 
Pittacus,  Thales,  Solon,  Bias,  Chilon  and 
Cleobulus.  Maxims  of  prudence  and  ele- 
mentary morality  are  regarded  as  embody- 
ing a  summary  of  their  wisdom.  Among  these 
maxims  are  "Know  thyself,"  "Nothing  in 
excess,"  "Consider  the  end,"  "Forethought 
in  all  things." 

SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  ANCIENT 
WORLD,  a  group  of  seven  most  notable 
works  of  art  of  antiquity,  celebrated  for 
their  beauty  and  colossal  size.  .The  earliest 
list  of  these  was  compiled  from  numerous 
guide  books  of  the  Greeks,  and  varies  but 
little  from  the  later  and  more  authentic  list 
found  in  the  work  of  Philo  of  Byzantium. 
This  latter  includes  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt; 
the  Hanging  Gardens  of  Semiramis,  at 
Babylon;  the  statue  of  Zeus,  or  Jupiter,  by 
Phidias,  at  Olympia ;  the  Temple  of  Artemis, 
or  Diana,  at  Ephesus;  the  Mausoleum  at 
Halicarnassus ;  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes;  and 
the  Pharos,  or  Lighthouse,  at  Alexandria. 

Seven  Modern  Wonders.  Science  takes 
precedence  over  art  in  the  list  of  seven 
wonders  of  the  modern  world,  which  is  de- 
voted to  its  great  inventions  and  discoveries. 
Leading  scientists  include  the  following  seven 
as  the  most  mai-velous  scientific  discoveries  of 
modem  times:  the  wireless  telegi-aph,  in- 
vented by  Marconi;  the  telephone,  invented 
by  Reis  of  Germany  and  Gray  and  Bell  of 
the  United  States;  the  aeroplane,  invented 
by  the  Wright  brothers,  of  Ohio;  the  dis- 
covery of  antiseptics,  by  Sir  Joseph  Lister; 
radium,  discovered  by  Pierre  and  Marie 
Curie;  the  X-ray  discovered  by  Roentgen; 
and  spectrum  analysis,  discovered  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton. 

Related    Articles.      The    following    articles 
give    specific    information    about    the    ancient 
and  modern  wonders: 
Antiseptic  Pyramids 

Colossus  Radium 

Flying  Machine  Roentgen  Rays 

Hanging  Gardens  Spectrum  Analysis 

of  Babylon  Telegraph,  Wireless 

Mausoleum  '  Telephone 

Pharos 

SEVEN  YEARS'   WAR,  a  famous  war 

between  Prussia  and  other  European  powers, 

which  lasted  from  1756   to  1763.     As  the 

result  of  a  war  with  Prussia,  Maria  Theresa 

of  Austria  had  been  forced  to  cede  Silesia  to 

Frederick  the  Great.     To  recover  her  lost 


territory  she  concluded  an  alliance  with 
Russia,  secured  the  support  of  Poland  and 
Saxony  and  attempted  to  form  a  closer  union 
with  France.  In  the  meantime  war  broke 
out  between  France  and  England  (1755),  and 
George  II,  in  order  to  protect  his  Geiman 
states,  concluded  an  alliance  with  Prussia,  a 
move  which  decided  France  to  aid  Austria. 
Being  infoi-med  of  these  negotiations,  Fred- 
erick resolved  to  anticipate  his  enemies.  In 
August,  1756,  he  invaded  Saxony,  occupied 
the  chief  towns  and  compelled  the  Saxon 
army  to  surrender.  This  step  created  a  stir 
in  the  European  courts,  and  in  1757  Austria, 
Russia,  France,  Sweden  and  the  German 
Empire  were  in  arms  against  Frederick,  while 
he  had  no  allies  but  England  and  a  few  Ger- 
man states.  In  1757  Frederick  marched  into 
Bohemia  and  gained  a  bloody  battle  at 
Prague.  Soon  after  this,  however,  the  Aus- 
trians,  under  Daun,  defeated  Frederick  at 
Kolin,  relieved  Prague  and  forced  the  Prus- 
sians to  retreat  to  Saxony.  The  French 
army,  after  defeating  Frederick's  allies  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  united  with  the 
imperial  forces.  Frederick  met  them  at 
Rossbach  and  routed  both  armies,  then 
hurried  back  to  Silesia,  which  was  occupied 
by  the  Austrians,  and  vanquished  a  superior 
army  under  Daun  at  Leuthen,  thus  recovering 
Silesia.  While  Frederick  was  thus  occupied 
in  the  south  and  west,  his  general,  Lehwald, 
had  successfully  repelled  the  Swedes  and 
Russians  on  the  north  and  east. 

The  next  campaign  was  opened  in  Febru- 
ary, 1758,  by  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
who,  at  the  head  of  Frederick's  allies, 
opposed  the  French  in  Lower  Saxony  and 
Westphalia.  He  defeated  the  French  at 
Crefeld  in  June  and  ultimately  drove  the 
enemy  beyond  the  Rhine.  Frederick  defeated 
the  Russians  at  Zorndorf  and  was  defeated  in 
turn  by  Daun  at  Hochkirch,  but  before  the 
end  of  the  year  he  drove  the  Austrians  from 
Silesia  and  Saxony. 

In  1759  Frederick  suffered  at  Kunersdorf 
a  defeat  such  as  he  had  never  sustained  be- 
fore, and  his  position  became  extremely  pre- 
carious. The  British  victories  over  the 
French  helped  matters  somewhat,  and  the 
campaign  of  1760  opened  w^ell  for  him. 
George  II  of  England  died  in  this  year, 
however;  Pitt  was  removed  from  power  and 
Prussia  thus  lost  its  only  ally.  It  seemed  as 
if  nothing  could  save  it,  but  in  1762,  when 
Frederick's   fortunes   were   at   their   worst, 


SEVERN 


3263 


SEVRES  PORCELAIN 


Elizabeth  of  Russia  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  Peter  III,  who  was  an  enthusiatie  admirer 
of  Frederick.  Russia  made  a  treaty  with 
Prussia,  but  Peter  was  deposed  before  Russia 
could  lend  Frederick  any  substantial  aid. 
However,  Russia  did  not  again  join  Austria, 
and  as  both  sides  were  practically  exhausted, 
peace  was  concluded  at  Hubertsburg  in  1763. 
Matters  were  adjusted  as  they  had  been  be- 
fore the  war,  and  Frederick  was  allowed  to 
retain  Silesia.  The  struggle  between  France 
and  England  in  Europe  was  accompanied  in 
America  by  the  conflict  known  as  the  last 
French  and  Indian  War  (See  French  and 
Indian  Wars). 

SEVERN,  sev'ern,  the  second  largest  river 
in  England.  It  rises  in  Wales,  and  after  a 
circuitous  easterly  and  southerly  course  of 
about  210  miles,  through  England,  it  empties 
into  the  British  Channel  through  an  estuary 
under  which  runs  a  tunnel  about  four  miles 
long.  It  is  navigable  a  distance  of  180  miles. 
Below  Gloucester  the  banks  are  so  low  that 
destructive  inundations  have  frequently  oc- 
curred. Worcester  and  Shrewsbury  are  two 
other  important  cities  on  the  Severn. 

SEVERUS,  se  ve'rus,  Lucius  Septimius 
(146-211),  a  Roman  emperor.  After  the 
murder  of  Pertinax  in  193  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  his  troops,  and  is  therefore  in- 
cluded among  the  "Barracks  Emperors." 
Severus  marched  to  Rome  to  subdue  the 
partisans  of  Julianus,  who  had  obtained  the 
throne  from  the  praetorians  by  bribery.  On 
his  approach,  Julianus  was  assassinated  by 
his  own  soldiers.  Severus  banished  the  prae- 
torians and  ridded  himself  of  the  rivalry 
of  Albinus,  commander  of  the  Roman  forces 
in  Britain.  He  then  marched  to  the  East 
against  Pescennius  Niger,  who  had  also  been 
elected  emperor  by  a  powerful  aimy.  After 
many  obstinate  battles,  Niger  was  routed  on 
the  plains  of  Issus.  Having  sacked  Byzan- 
tium and  conquered  several  Eastern  peoples, 
Severus  returned  to  Rome.  After  a  success- 
ful campaign  against  the  Parthians,  he  next 
subdued  an  insurrection  in  Britain.  To  pro- 
tect the  people  of  the  south  from  incursions 
of  the  Highlanders,  he  built  a  stone  wall  from 
the  Tyne  to  the  Solway  Firth.  See  Roman 
Walls. 

SEVILLE,  se  viV,  Spain,  is  situated  on  the 
Guadalquivir  River,  sixty-two  miles  north 
northeast  of  Cadiz.  It  is  built  in  Moorish 
style,  has  narrow  streets,  lined  with  old  Moor- 
ish houses,  which  are  usually  built  around 


interior  courtyards  with  fountains  in  the 
center.  Many  of  the  dwellings  are  of  two 
stories,  and  nearly  all  of  them  are  white. 
The  city  is  notable  for  its  abundant  and 
beautiful  vegetation.  It  was  formerly  en- 
closed by  a  wall,  but  only  a  few  remains  of 
this  are  now  visible.  The  principal  parks  or 
squares  are  the  Plaza  de  San  Fernando  and 
the  Plaza  de  Triomfo,  upon  which  is  the 
cathedral.  The  city  also  has  a  number  of 
boulevards,  noted  for  their  beauty.  Among 
the  buildings  of  note  are  the  Cathedral  of 
Seville,  which  ranks  next  to  Saint  Peter's  at 
Rome  in  size ;  the  Giralda,  the  Campanile,  in 
the  form  of  a  square  tower  over  300  feet  in 
height  and  dating  from  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury; the  palace  of  the  Moorish  kings,  or  the 
Alcazar,  and  the  chapel  of  the  Catholic  kings. 

The  chief  educational  institutions  include 
the  University  of  Seville,  the  provincial  school 
of  art,  the  provincial  museum  and  the  pro- 
vincial library,  which  has  over  80,000  volumes, 
and  the  Columbian  Library,  founded  by  the 
son  of  Columbus.  The  civil  hospital  is  noted 
as  one  of  the  largest  institutions  of  the  kind 
in  the  world.  The  leading  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  silk,  ironware, 
soap  and  chocolate.  The  city  has  an  im- 
portant trade  with  the  surrounding  country. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Spain  and  was 
a  i^laee  of  considerable  importance  under  the 
Romans.  Next  to  Madrid  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant center  of  literature,  art  and  educa- 
tion in  Spain.  During  the  eleventh  century 
it  was  the  capital  of  a  Moorish  state.  Later 
it  was  captured  by  Saint  Ferdinand  of 
Castile,  and  was  for  a  long  time  the  capital 
of  the  Castilian  dominion.  At  the  time  of 
the  discovery  of  America,  it  was  the  leading 
commercial  port  of  Spain.  Population,  1918, 
164,322. 

SEVRES,  sa'vr",  PORCELAIN,  an  artistic 
pottery  having  the  general  effect  of  a  cameo, 
though  possessing  greater  delicacy  and  rich- 
ness of  color.  In  its  consti-uction  the  pate- 
sur-pate  (or  layers)  method  is  used,  original 
with  this  ware.  Sevres  porcelain  has  been 
highly  prized  since  the  first  days  of  its  manu- 
facture at  Vincennes,  in  1745.  In  1756  the 
manufactory  was  purchased  by  Louis  XV, 
removed  to  Sevres,  and  placed  under  state 
supervision;  from  the  fact  of  its  location 
here  the  name  was  derived.  Many  noted 
artists  were  employed  to  decorate  the 
plaques,  vases  and  ornaments  which  are  still 
th6  pride  of  collectors.    In  recent  years,  how- 


SEWAGE  AND  SEWERAGE 


3264 


SEWARD 


ever,  very  clever  imitations  have  been  made 
in  Germany  and  England,  and  these  have 
flooded  the  markets. 

SEWAGE  AND  SEWERAGE.    Sewerage 
is  the  system  of  pipes  and  conduits  for  con- 
veying away  from  houses  and  factories  the 
waste  matter  known  as  sewage,  and  depositing 
it  at  safe  distances  from  cities  and  towns. 
Sewage  is  made  up  of  solid  and  liquid  mat- 
ter from  houses,  the  fluid  waste  from  domestic 
and    manufacturing    operations,     generally 
much  of  the  surface  drainage  and  sufficient 
water  to  carry  away  the  waste.    In  small  vil- 
lages   and    in    farming    communities,    each 
house  disposes  of  its  own  sewage,  usually  in 
the  soil,   and   this  under  ordinary   circum- 
stances is  a  safe  method ;  but  wherever  people 
are  crowded  together  it  is  necessary  to  dis- 
pose  of    all    refuse    matter   promptly    and 
completely   (see  Garbage).     The  customary 
way,  especially  in  the  smaller  cities,  is  to 
float   the   sewage   off  in   airtight   tubes,   to 
such  a  distance  that  it  will  be  harmless.    Ex- 
cept in  very   level   countries,  the  force  of 
gravity  is  sufficient  to  carry  away  the  sewage, 
but  in   some  places  pumping   stations   are 
necessary   to  distribute  it  properly.     It  is 
evident  that  plenty  of  water  is  necessary  to 
carry  away  the  refuse  successfully,  and  in 
many  places  drains  are  so  arranged  that  sur- 
face water  is  eondaeted  to  the  sewers,  where 
it  assists  in  carrying  off  the  solid  matter. 
Such  a  plan,  however,  is  open  to  objections, 
since  at  times  the  sewer  pipes  are  partially 
empty  and  poisonous  gases  collect  and  escape 
through   the  drainage  openings.     A  better 
plan  is  to  keep  the  drainage  system  separate 
from  the  sewers. 

Small  sewers  are  usually  made  of  terra 
cotta  or  vitrified  clay,  but  when  they  are 
more  than  two  feet  in  diameter,  iron  pipes 
are  used  or  brick  sewers  are  constructed.  In 
large  cities  the  more  expensive  stone  masonry 
and  concrete  are  substituted  for  brick.  The 
sewers  should  be  properly  ventilated,  so  that 
noxious  gases  may  not  rise  through  the  pipes 
to  the  houses  and  cause  sickness.  To  prevent 
the  escape  of  sewer  gas  into  dwellings  and 
factories  all  drain  pipes  have  a  u-shaped 
bend  called  a  trap,  in  which  water  constantly 
stands.  Yet  the  danger  from  gas  is  not  so 
great  as  the  danger  from  polluting  the  soil 
or  water  supply  of  the  town  with  the  sewage. 
If  the  waste  matter  can  be  carried  far  out 
into  some  large  body  of  water,  it  may  be 
deposited  with  safety,  because  the  water'  in 


time  disinfects  the  refuse;  but  where  the 
sewage  is  thrown  into  small  streams  or  small 
bodies  of  water,  the  possibilities  for  convey- 
ing disease  to  other  places,  if  not  to  the  one 
whence  the  sewage  originated,  can  scarcely 
be  overestimated. 

The  sewerage  systems  of  great  cities  such 
as  London,  Paris,  New  York  and  Chicago 
involve  some  of  the  most  difficult  engineering 
problems  found  in  any  class  of  construction. 
Some  of  the  mains  in  these  systems  are  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  In  order 
to  dispose  of  the  sewage  Chicago  excavated 
a  drainage  canal  at  an  expense  of  $50,000,000, 
Sewerage  on  Farms.  On  many  farms 
waste  can  be  disposed  of  in  the  soil  without 
danger,  but  on  others  there  is  gi-eat  danger 
of  water  pollution.  Most  farm  houses  can  be 
supplied  with  running  water  at  a  moderate 
expense;  wherever  this  convenience  is  at  hand, 
sewage  can  be  conveyed  to  a  safe  distance, 
where  it  may  be  absorbed  by  the  soil;  but 
when  this  is  not  practicable,  a  settling  tank 
in  which  the  sewage  is  cleansed  of  impurities 
may  be  installed. 

SEWARD,  sw'arcZ,  William  Henry  (1801- 
1872),  an  American  statesman,  Secretary  of 
State  in  Lincoln's  Cabinet  and  purchaser  of 
Alaska  for  the  United  States.  He  was  bom 
in  Florida,  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
educated    at    Union  ^     _ 

College.  After  prac- 
ticing law  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  he 
drifted  into  politics. 
In  1830  he  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the 
New  York  senate,  in 
1838  became  gov- 
ernor of  his  state,' 
and  in  1849  entered 
the  United  States 
Senate.  There  he  be- 
came the  friend  and 
adviser  of  President 
Taylor  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  finn  resistance  to  the 
extension  of  slavery,  opposing  in  eloquent 
speeches  the  Compromise  of  1850  and  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. 

In  1860  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dential nomination,  but  having  been  defeated 
in  the  convention  by  Abraham  Lincoln,  he 
exerted  himself  to  secure  Lincoln's  election 
and  was  later  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 
In  this  post  he  discharged  his  duties  with 


WILLIAM  HENRY 

SEWARD 


SEWING  MACHINE 


3265 


SHACKLETON 


great  ability.  He  adjusted  the  Trent  affair 
(see  Trent  Affair)  and  the  Alabama  Claims 
(see  Alabama,  The),  secured  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  from  Mexico,  and  purchased 
Alaska  from  Russia.  He  was  dangerously 
wounded  in  April,  1865,  when  Lincoln  was 
assissinated,  by  an  accomplice  of  Booth.  He 
sei'ved  as  Secretary  of  State  under  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  and  continued  in  public  life 
until  the  inauguration  of  President  Grant. 

SEWING  MACHINE,  a  device  which  has 
done  away  with  much  household  drudging 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  and  made 
the  modern  clothing  industry  possible,  was 
patented  by  Elias  Howe  of  Boston,  in  1846. 

Howe's  machine  consisted  of  a  needle,  with 
an  eye  near  the  point,  and  below  the  cloth, 
a  shuttle,  which  carried  another  thread  on  a 
small  spool,  called  the  bobbin.  The  needle 
was  attached  to  an  aim  vibrating  on  a  pivot 
so  as  to  force  the  needle  through  the  cloth. 
The  shuttle  carried  the  lower  thread  through 
the  loop  made  by  the  upper  thread  and  locked 
it  as  the  needle  tightened  the  loop  with  its 
upward  movement.  While  numerous  pat- 
terns of  machines  have  been  invented  since, 
all  double-threaded  machines  are  constructed 
on  the  principle  invented  by  Howe.  The 
Singer  machine,  which  soon  followed  the 
Howe,  had  an  improved  plan  for  operating 
the  needle  and  for  moving  the  cloth  along  as 
it  was  sewed.  This  machine  also  used  the 
treadle  as  motive  power.  Previous  to  the 
invention  of  the  Singer,  all  sewing  machines 
were  operated  by  turning  a  crank  by  hand. 

Single-threaded  machines  make  what  is 
called  a  chain  stitch.  Of  these  the  Wilcox  and 
Gibbs  is  the  most  successful  pattern.  While 
these  machines  are  easily  operated,  they  have 
the  defect  that  if  one  stitch  becomes  broken 
the  entire  seam  is  likely  to  be  raveled.  There 
are  now  sewing  machines  constructed  for 
,  nearly  every  line  of  work  done  by  the  needle, 
such  as  sewing  on  buttons,  making  button- 
holes and  sewing  boots  and  shoes,  harness  and 
carpets. 

We  consider  Howe  the  inventor  of  the  sew- 
ing machine,  because  he  was  the  first  to  get  a 
practical  machine  on  the  market,  but  others 
had  made  the  attempt  at  an  earlier  date. 
The  first  known  attempt  was  that  of  Thomas 
Saint,  an  Englishman,  in  1790,  but  his  ma- 
chine was  not  practical.  In  1830  a  machine 
was  made  in  France  which  was  successfully 
used  in  making  clothes  for  the  army,  but  it 
was  destmjed  by  a  mob,  because  the  tailors 


thought  that  its  use  would  take  away  their 
employment.  Two  years  later  Walter  Hunt 
of  New  York  made  a  number  of  machines 
on  a  plan  similar  to  that  found  in  the  success- 
ful machines  of  the  present  day,  but  he  failed 
to  take  out  a  patent. 

SEXTANT,  an  instrument  used  for  meas- 
uring angles  between  any  two  points,  such 
as  the  sun  and  the  horizon,  employed  most 
commonly  by  sailors  in  determining  the  posi- 


SEXTANT 

tion  of  a  ship  at  sea  or  in  marine  surveying. 
It  consists  of  a  frame  of  metal  and  ebony, 
stiffened  by  cross-braces  and  having  an  arc 
embracing  60°  of  a  circle.  It  has  two  mir- 
rors, one  of  which  is  fixed  to  a  movable  index, 
and  various  other  appendages. 

The  principle  of  the  sextant,  and  of  re- 
flecting instruments  in  general,  depends  upon 
an  elementary  theorem  in  optics ;  namely,  if 
an  object  be  seen  by  repeated  reflection  from 
two  mirrors  which  are  perpendicular  to  the 
same  plane,  the  angular  distance  of  the  ob- 
ject from  its  image  is  double  the  inclination 
of  the  mirrors.  . 

In  reading  the  graduated  arc,  half-degrees 
are  taken  as  degrees,  because  that  which  is 
measured  on  the  index  is  the  angle  between 
the  mirrors,  and  this  is  half  the  distance 
between  the  objects.  If  one  is  familiar  with 
the  position  of  the  star  in  the  celestial  sphere, 
the  latitude  of  the  ship  can  be  found  by  com- 
paring its  altitude,  as  shown  in  the  sextant, 
with  this  position. 

SHACKLETON,  slmk'  'l  ton,  Ernest 
Henry,  Sir  (1874-  ),  an  English  explorer 
of  the  Antarctic  regions,  bom  at  Kilkee,  Ire- 
land, and  educated  at  Dulwieh  College,  Lon- 
don. He  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  British 
navy  and  was  second  in  command  to  Captain 
Scott  in  the  British  Antarctic  expedition  of 


SHAD 


3266 


SHAGREEN 


1901.  In  1906  he  was  defeated  in  an  at- 
tempt to  enter  Parliament  as  a  representative 
of  Dundee.  The  following  years  he  spent 
in  command  of  an  expedition  in  the  Antarctic 
regions.  In  1909  he  reached  latitude  80°  23', 
a  point  111  miles  from  the  pole.  Lack  of 
supplies  compelled  him  to  turn  back.  This 
expedition,  however,  was  of  considerable  im- 
portance, as  it  resulted  in  a  gain  of  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  south  polar  region.  On  his 
return  to  England  Shackleton  was  knighted. 
His  published  accounjt  of  his  expedition  is 
entitled  The  Heart  of  the  Antarctic. 

In  1914  Shackleton  sailed  on  another  ex- 
pedition which  was  destined  to  be  the  most 
thrilling  in  the  annals  of  polar  exploration. 
His  ship,  the  Endurance,  was  crushed  in  an 
ice  pack;  the  party  was  forced  to  abandon 
it,  and  after  unspeakable  hardships  on  float- 
ing islands  of  ice  and  on  the  seas  in  open 
boats,  the  men  finally  were  rescued  and 
reached  England  in  1917.  Shackleton  has 
lectured  in  Great  Britain,  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  has  received  many  medals 
and  other  honors.     See   South  Polar  Es- 

PLORATIOX. 

SHAD,  a  food  fish  of  the  family  of  her- 
rings, including  two  species — the  common, 
or  allice,  shad,  and  the  ichite  shad.  The  com- 
mon shad  inhabits  the  sea  near  mouths  of 


SHAD 

large  rivers,  and  in  the  spring  ascends  them 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  spawn.  The 
form  of  the  shad  is  the  same  as  that  of  other 
herrings,  but  it  is  of  larger  size,  and  in  some 
places  receives  the  name  of  herring  king. 
Its  color  is  a  dark  blue  above,  with  brown 
and  greenish  lusters,  the  under  parts  being 
white.  An  American  species,  varj'ing  in 
weight  from  four  to  twelve  pounds,  is  highly 
esteemed  for  food  and  is  consumed  in  great 
quantities  in  the  fresh  state.  Shad  are  found 
along  the  coast  from  New  England  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  have  been  successfully 
introduced  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  recent 
years  the  annual  catch  in  the  United  States 
has  equaled  about  25,000,000  pounds. 


SHAD  FLY.  See  Mat  Fly. 

SHADOW.    See  Light. 

SHAF'TER,  William  Rufus  (1835- 
1906),  an  American  soldier  who  distinguished 
himself  as  commander  of  land  operations  in 
Cuba  during  the  Spanish-American  war  in 
1898.  He  was  born  at  Galesburg,  Mich.,  and 
was  reared  on  a  farm.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  L^niou  army,  and 
before  its  close  was  brevetted  brigadier-gen- 
eral for  gallantry  in  action.  After  that  war 
he  entered  the  regular  army  serving  in  va- 
rious posts  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  In  that  brief  conflict  he 
commanded  operations  which  resulted  in  the 
surrender  of  the  Spanish  army  at  Santiago. 
Later  he  commanded  various  departments, 
and  retired,  in  1901,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general. 

SHAFTESBURY,  shafts'  bur  ri,  Axthoxt 
Ashley  Cooper.  First  Earl  of  (1621-1683), 
an  English  statesman  and  philanthropist. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  parliaments  of  1640, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  joined  the 
Parliamentary  cause,  after  having  shown 
slight  royalist  leanings.  He  had  a  prominent 
position  under  Cromwell  during  the  Protec- 
torate, but  after  Cromwell's  death  he  saw  that 
a  restoration  of  the  legitimate  monarchy  was 
what  the  country'  reallj^  wished  and  used  his 
influence  to  that  end.  Charles  II  created 
him  first  Baron  Ashley,  and  later  made  him 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury.  He  sensed  as  Chancel- 
lor of  the  Exchequer  and  as  a  member  of  the 
hated  Cabal.  In  1679  he  became  president 
of  the  council,  and  in  the  same  year  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 
Shaftesbury  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
revision  of  the  lunacy  laws  and  administra- 
tion, and  did  much  to  improve  the  condition 
of  factory  workers.  Because  of  his  connec- 
tion with  treasonable  plots,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  Holland,  where  he  died.  He 
is  the  Aehitophel  of  Dryden's  Absalom  and 
Achitophel. 

SHAGREEN',  a  kind  of  untanned  leather, 
with  a  rough  surface,  prepared  from  skins 
of  horses,  oxen,  asses  and  camels.  The  hides 
are  soaked  and  laid  on  a  fiat  surface,  and 
small,  hard  seeds  are  sprinkled  over  them. 
A  board  is  then  pressed  on  them  to  force  the 
seeds  into  the  skins.  After  the  skins  are 
dry  the  seeds  are  shaken  out  and  the  rough 
surface  is  trimmed  and  pared.  The  skin  is  • 
soaked  a  second  time,  and  the  depressed  parts 
rise,  producing  the  surface  roughness.     The 


WILLIAM  SHAKESPEARE 
From  the  portrait,  Stratford  upon  Avon,  England 


SHAH  JEHAN 


3267 


SHAKESPEARE 


leather  is  then  dyed.  The  skins  of  shark, 
sea  otter,  seal  and  other  animals  have  also 
been  used  for  making  this  leather.  Shagreen 
was  formerly  employed  for  covering  sword 
scabbards;  it  is  now  used  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent as  a  covering  for  camera  boxes,  instru- 
ment eases  and  various  like  articles. 

SHAH  JEHAN,  shah  jehahn'  (about 
1592-1665) ,  the  fifth  Mogul  emperor  of  Delhi, 
India,  who  reigned  from  1627  to  1658,  when 
he  was  deposed  by  his  son  Aurungzebe.  Dur- 
ing his  reign  the  Mogul  Empire  attained  gTeat 
magnificence.  He  founded  Delhi,  where  he 
erected  a  group  of  splendid  buildings  which 
constituted  the  imperial  palace,  one  of  which 
housed  the  celebrated  peacock  throne.  He 
built  the  Pearl  Mosque  and  the  Taj  Mahal,  at 
Agra,  as  a  mausoleima  to  his  favorite  wife. 
See  Taj  Mahal. 

SHA'KERS  or  SHAKING  QUAKERS,  a 
sect  which  arose  at  Manchester,  England, 
about  1747,  and  which  has  since  been  trans- 
ferred to  America.  The  foimal  designation 
which  they  give  themselves  is  the  United  So- 
ciety of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Appear- 
ing, that  of  Shakers  was  given  to  them  in 
ridicule  because  they  shook  their  bodies  dur- 
ing their  religious  services. 

The  founder  of  the  sect  as  it  at  present 
exists  was  Ann  Lee,  an  expelled  Quaker,  born 
in  Manchester  in  1756.  She  came  to  America 
in  1774  with  seven  followers  and  formed  the 
first  settlement  at  Watervliet,  near  Albany, 
N.  Y.  In  1787  the  societj'^  was  made  com- 
munistic, the  first  organization  on  that  basis 
in  the  United  States.  There  are  now  (1919) 
seventeen  communities  in  America,  mainly  in 
the  New  England  states. 

Shakers  beliefs  are  similar  in  many  re- 
spects to  those  of  the  Quakers.  They  be- 
lieve in  the  immediate  revelations  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (gifts) ;  maintain  that  the  old  law  is 
abolished,  the  new  dispensation  begun;  that 
intercourse  between  heaven  and  earth  is 
restored;  that  God  is  king  and  governor; 
that  the  sin  of  Adam  is  atoned  and  that  man 
is  made  free  from  all  errors  except  his  own ; 
that  every  human  being  will  be  saved;  that 
the  earth  is  heaven,  now  soiled  and  stained, 
but  ready  to  be  brightened  by  love  and  labor 
into  its  original  state. 

At  first  the  religious  ceremonies  were  of 
the  most  violent,  wild  and  irregular  nature — 
leaping,  shouting  and  clapping  of  the  hands ; 
now  the  Shakers  move  in  a  regular,  uniform 
dance,  to  the  singing  of  a  hymn,  and  march 


around  the  hall  of  worship,  clapping  their 
hands  in  regular  time.  The  societies  are  di- 
vided into  smaller  communities,  called  fam- 
ilies, each  of  which  has  its  own  male  and 
female  head.  Celibacy  is  enjoined  upon  all, 
and  married  persons  on  entering  the  com- 
munity must  live  together  as  brother  and 
sister.  All  property  is  held  in  common,  and 
all  bind  themselves  to  take  part  in  the  family 
business — the  men  either  as  farmers,  builders, 
gardeners,  smiths,  painters,  or  as  followers 
of  some  other  handicraft ;  the  women  engage 
in  some  household  occupation  or  in  the  work 
of  education,  and  never  interest  themselves  in 
political  affairs. 

HAKESPEARE,  sliayk' 
speer,  William  (1564- 
1616),  an  English  poet 
and  dramatist,  the  gi'eat- 
est  of  English  poets,  one 
of  the  gi-eatest  of  the 
world's  poets. 

Ancestry  and  Boyhood. 
He  was  born  at  Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon, a  town 
in  Warwickshire.  His 
father  was  Jolm  Shake- 
speare, a  burgess  of 
Stratford,  who  combined 
his  business  as  a  butcher, 
a  wool-stapler  and  a 
glover,  with  dealings  in  timber  and  corn. 
His  mother  was  Mary  Arden,  daughter  of 
Robert  Arden  of  Wilmecote,  a  prosperous 
yeoman  farmer.  They  had  eight  children 
(four  sons  and  four  daughters),  of  whom 
William  was  the  third.  When  the  third  child 
was  born,  and  for  some  time  afterward,  the 
family  was  prosperous,  for  in  1568  John 
Shakespeare  was  high  bailiff  of  Stratford. 
From  this  fact  it  may  safely  be  inferred  that 
his  son  received  the  best  education  which  the 
gTammar  school  of  Stratford  could  give. 
After  the  school  period  the  fii'st  absolutely 
authentic  event  in  Shakespeare's  life  is  his 
marriage  with  Anne  Hathaway,  daughter  of  a 
yeoman  in  the  hamlet  of  Shottery,  near  Strat- 
ford. The  marriage  bond  is  dated  November 
28,  1582,  at  which  date  Shakespeare  was  in 
his  nineteenth  year,  while,  from  the  date  on 
her  tombstone,  it  is  known  that  his  wife  was 
eight  years  older.  On  May  26  following, 
their  first  child,  named  Susanna,  was  bap- 
tized, and  in  Februarv'  of  1585,  a  son  and 
daughter  were  bom,  who  receivA*!  the  names 
of  Hamnet  and  Judith. 


Memonial  Theatre 
at  Stratford 


SHAKESPEARE 


3268 


SHAKESPEARE 


Begins  His  Literary  Career.  From  this 
date  until  Shakespeare  was  established  in 
London  as  a  player  and  dramatist,  there  is  a 
gap  of  seven  years,  during  which  we  are 
again  left  to  tradition  and  conjecture.  To 
account  for  his  leaving  Stratford  it  has  been 
suggested  that  his  marriage  with  Anne 
Hathaway  bad  proved  unsuitable  and  un- 
happy, but  there  is  no  positive  evidence  in 
support  of  this  belief.  Then,  again,  there 
is  the  famous  legend  of  the  deer  stealing, 
for  which  it  is  said  he  was  prosecuted  by  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy,  of  Charlecote.  In  retaliation 
he  wrote,  according  to  Rowe,  a  satirical 
ballad,  which  so  enraged  the  baronet  that 
Shakespeare  thought  it  prud,ent  to  leave 
Stratford.  The  more  probable  reason  is  that 
his  increasing  domestic  responsibilities,  to- 
gether w'ith  the  acquaintance  he  presumably 
had  with  the  players  from  London  who 
visited  Stratford,  induced  him  to  push  his 
fortune  in  the  citj'.  He  soon  became  a  well- 
known  player  and  a  dramatist  of  such  dis- 
tinction as  to  call  forth  an  envious  reference 
in  1592  from  a  fellow  dramatist.  This  is 
found  in  A  Groatsworth  of  Wit,  written  by 
Robert  Greene,  and  published  a  few  weeks 
after  his  death  by  Chettle. 

Growing  Fame  and  Prosperity.  The  first 
certain  date  in  Shakespeare's  life  after  his 
arrival  in  London  is  1593.  In  that  year  he 
published  his  Vemi^  and  Adonis,  with  a 
dedication  of  this,  "the  first  heir  of  my  in- 
vention," to  Henry  Wriothesly,  Earl  of 
Southampton;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
dedicated  to  the  same  patron  his  other  poem 
of  The  Rape  of  Lucrece.  As  suggesting  that 
this  patronage  was  substantial  in  its  nature, 
there  is  a  story  to  the  effect  that  the  earl  at  one 
time  gave  to  Shakespeare  £1,000  ($5,000)  to 
complete  some  purchase  he  had  on  hand. 
Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  the  story,  it 
is  certain  that  about  this  time  Shakespeare 
began  to  grow  in  fortune  and  in  fame.  In 
connection  with  this  increase  of  fortune  it  is 
noteworthy  that  the  affairs  of  his  father, 
John  Shakespeare,  seem  also  to  have  im- 
proved, for  in  1596  he  applied  at  the  herald 
office  for  a  grant  of  arms,  which  application 
was  conceded  in  the  following  year.  In  1596 
Shakespeare's  only  son  Hamnet  died  and 
was  buried  at  Stratford,  where  the  family 
continued  to  reside.  The  tradition  is  that 
Shakespeare  visited  his  native  town  once  a 
year  during  the  time  that  he  lived  in  Lon- 
don.   However  this  may  be,  it  is  clear  that 


his  interest  in  Stratford  was  not  founded  en- 
tirely in  sentiment  or  family  affection,  for 
in  1597  he  bought  there  a  substantial  house, 
called  New  Place,  and  in  a  return  of  grain 
and  malt  he  is  described  as  the  holder  of 
ten  quarters.  There  is  also  documentary 
evidence  to  prove  that  he  was  possessed  of 
property  in  the  parish  of  Saint  Helen's, 
Bishopgate. 

While  these  things  indicate  the  growth  of 
his  material  prosperity,  there  is  proof  that 
his  fame  as  a  lyrical  poet  and  dramatist  was 
also  being  securely  established,  for  in  1598 
there  was  published  the  Palladis  Tamia,  by 
Francis  Meres,  in  which  twelve  of  his  plays 
are  enumerated,  and  in  which  mention  is 
made  of  his  "sugared  sonnets  among  his 
private  friends."  Yet,  notwithstanding  this 
literary  activity,  he  was  still  a  player,  for 
when  Jonson's  comedy  of  Every  Man  in  His 
Humor  was  produced  in  1598,  Shakespeare 
took  part  in  the  performance.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  a  shareholder  in  the  Globe 
Theater,  and  his  practical  turn  is  still  further 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  he  bought  (1602) 
107  acres  of  arable  land  in  the  parish  of  Old 
Stratford  for  £320  and  acquired  (1605)  for 
£440  the  unexpired  term  of  a  lease  of  the 
tithes  of  Stratford,  Old  Stratford,  Bishopton 
and  Welcombe.  Along  with  these  material 
possessions  he  received  the  style  and  title  of 
William  Shakespeare,  Gentleman,  of  Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon ;.  but  in  London  he  was  still 
a  player  in  1603,  since  when  Ben  Jonson's 
play  of  Sejanus  was  produced  in  that  year, 
Shakespeare  occupied  a  place  in  the  list  of 
actors.  His  father  had  died  in  1601;  his 
eldest  daughter  Susanna  had  married,  in 
1607,  a  practicing  physician  named  John 
Hall ;  in  the  same  year  his  brother  Edmund, 
who  was  also  a  player,  died  in  London  and 
was  buried  in  Southwark,  and  in  1608  his 
mother,  Mary  Shakespeare,  followed  her  hus- 
band to  the  grave.  In  February,  1616,  his 
youngest  daughter,  Judith,  man-ied. 

Death  and  Burial.  On  the  twenty-fifth  of 
March,  1616,  Shakespeare  executed  his  will; 
and  in  another  month  he  was  dead.  The  cause 
of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  in  Stratford 
there  was  a  tradition  "that  Shakespeare, 
Drayton  and  Ben  Jonson  had  a  merry  meet- 
ing and,  it  seems,  drank  too  hard,  for  Shake- 
speare died  of  a  fever  there  contracted."  By 
his  will  he  left  the  bulk  of  his  property  to 
Susanna  Hall  and  her  husband,  his  daughter 
Judith,  his  sister  Joan  and  his  godson,  while 


SHAKESPEARE  3269  SHAKESPEARE 

||i:ii!!!!:;iii;;i:i;;:!!:;;i::;i::i;i;:ii;;;i;:;:r;ii^ 

;;i  Outline  on  Shakespeare  |l 

Birth.  li 

1.    Bom  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  1564.  j;;! 

Parents.  HI 

1.  Of  humble  origin;  respectable  tradespeople;  financially  well-to-do.  |;l| 

2.  His  mother  was  Mary  Arden.  |;;i 

|;;|  Education.  || 

1.  Best  education  grammar  school  offered.  llij 

2.  Studied  humanity  and  nature.  Ilil 

I  Marriage.  jli 

|!i!  1.     Nineteen  years  of  age.  jjil 

f|j  Early  Career.  |i|I 

ll'j  1,     In  1592  established  in  London,  engaged  in  literary  work,  and  also  took  some  M 

l\  of  the  leading  parts  in  plays.  M 

n   Character.  IJ 

i:j  1.    Ben  Jonson  said :     "I  loved  the  man  and  do  honor  to  his  memory,  on  this  side  |j;| 

{ill    •  idolatry,  as  much  as  any.    He  was  indeed  honest  and  of  an  open  nature;  had  I::! 

li!!  an  excellent  phantasy,  brave  notions  and  gentle  expressions."  |lli 

H  Writings.  jjl 

[\  1st  Period.  fllj 

|i|  a.  Experimenting    in    characterization;    looseness    in    construction.     Feeling  ||| 

111  after  his  powers  and  testing  them.  |!!1 

It  b.  Writings — Love's  Labor  Lost,  The  Comedy  of  Errors,  A  Midsummer  Night's  ||i| 

11  Dream,  Richard  III.  HI 

i"|  2d  Period.  | 

li|i   '  a.  With  increased  assurance  follow  his  brilliant  portrayal  of  English  history  jil 

Ipl  and  comedy  of  life  in  general,  and  one  great  romantic  tragedy,  King  ||i 

ji-  Richard  II.  jiij 

\'\  b.  Writings — Parts  I  and  II  of  Henry  IV,  King  John,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  The  ||i| 

ji  Merchant  of  Venice,  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  As  You  Like  It,  etc,  etc.  |;|| 

j:;|  3d  Period.  || 

||i|  a.  Master  of  all  the  resources  of  his  art.  Ill 

!!'[  b.  Personal  experiences  portrayed  in  writings.    Comedy  becomes  bitter;  trage-  M 

ri  dies  black  with  human  experiences.  ,  l;:| 

H  c.  Writings — Measure  for  Measure,  Julius  Cassar,  Hamlet,  King  Lear,  etc.,  etc.  M 

H  4tli  Period.  ji'j 

[\  a.  Attained  serenity  of  mind,  enabling  him  to  write  his  last  romantic  plays.  i;'| 

1 1  b.  Writings — Cymbeline,  The  Winter's  Tale,  The  Tempest,  King  Henry  VIII.  jil 

H  Death.  i|| 

j;;l  1.    Died  in  1616.  ||| 

|1  2.     Buried  in   Stratford  church ;  a  monument  with  bust  and  epitaph  was  soon  rl 

I'l  afterward  set  up.  jiil 

H    NONDRAMATIC  WRITINGS.  |||l 

11  1.     Venus  and  Andonis,  The  Rape  of  Lucrece,  Sonnets,  A  Lover's  Complaint.  |j;| 


SHAKESPEARE 


3270 


SHALER 


a  few  friends  and  fellow  plaj^ers  were  also 
remembered.  To  his  wife  he  bequeathed 
specifically  the  "second  best  bed  with  the 
furniture,"  for  there  would  probably  be 
ami^le  provision  made  for  her,  as  a  widow 
had  right  of  dower  in  her  husband's  freehold 
property.  He  was  buried  in  the  chancel  of 
Stratford  church,  on  the  north  wall  of  which 
a  monument,  with  bust  and  epitaph,  was  soon 
afterward  set  up.  Over  his  grave  was  placed 
a  slab  with  the  inscription: 

Good  frend,  for  Jesus  sake  forbeare 
To  digg  the  dust  encloased  heare; 
Bleste  be  the  man  that  spares  thes  stones 
And  curst  be  he  that  moves  my  bones. 

Tradition  says  that  these  words  were  written 
by  Shakespeare  himself  shortly  before  his 
death,  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof.  As  for 
Shakespeare's  character,  as  estimated  by  his 
contemporaries,  it  found  fit  expression  in  the 
words  of  Ben  Jonson.  "I  loved  the  man," 
he  said,  "and  do  honor  to  his  memory,  on  this 
side  idolatry,  as  much  as  any.  He  was  in- 
deed honest,  and  of  an  open  and  free  nature, 
had  an  excellent  phantasy,  brave  notions  and 
gentle  expressions." 

The  Plays.  In  classif^-ing  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare  by  the  aid  of  such  chronology  as 
is  possible,  modern  critics  have  found  it  in- 
structive to  divide  his  career  as  a  dramatist 
into  four  marked  stages.  The  first  period 
(1588-1593)  marks  the  inexperience  of  the 
dramatist  and  gives  evidence  of  experiment 
in  characterization,  looseness  in  the  construc- 
tion of  plot,  with  a  certain  symmetrical  arti- 
ficiality in  the  dialogue.  To  this  stage  belong 
Titus  Andronicus  and  Part  I  of  Henry  VI, 
both  of  which,  it  is  thought,  Shakespeare 
merely  retouched;  Love's  Labour  Lost;  The 
Comedy  of  Errors;  The  Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona;  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  parts 
II  and  III  of  Henry  VI  in  which  it  is  thought 
probable  that  Marlowe  had  a  hand,  and  King 
Richard  III.  The  second  period  (1594- 
1601)  is  that  in  which,  with  increased  security 
in  his  art,  the  dramatist  sets  forth  his  bril- 
liant pageant  of  English  history,  his  bright- 
est conception  of  the  comedy  of  life  and  more 
than  proves  his  capacity  for  deeper  things 
by  one  great  romantic  tragedy.  To  this  stage 
belong  Kinig  Bich<ird  II,  parts  I  and  II  of 
Henry  IV,  King  Henry  V,  King  John, 
Borneo  and  Juliet,  The  Merchant  of  Venice, 
The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  As  You 
Like  It  and  Twelfth  Night. 


The  third  period  (1602-1608)  shows  that 
the  dramatist,  ha\'ing  mastered  all  the  re- 
sources of  his  art  and  tasted  life  to  the  full, 
is  strangely  fascinated  by  mortal  mischance, 
so  that  even  his  comedy  becomes  bitter,  while 
his  tragedy  is  black  with  the  darkest  tempests 
of  passionate  human  experience.  To  this 
stage  in  his  development  belong  All's  Well 
That  Ends  Well,  Measure  for  Measure, 
Trcnlus  and  Cressid<t,  Julius  Caesar,  Hamlet, 
Othello,  King  Lear,  Macbeth,  Anthony  and 
Cleopatra,  Coriolanus  and  Timon  of  Athens. 
The  fourth  period  (1609-1613)  is  that  in 
which  Shakespeare,  after  having  passed 
through  a  season  which  was  probably  dark- 
ened by  his  own  personal  experiences,  at- 
tained the  glad  serenity  of  mind  which  en- 
abled him  to  write  his  last  romantic  plays. 
To  this  period  belong  Pericles,  which  is  only 
partly  from  Shakespeare's  hand,  Cymbeline, 
The  Winter's  Tale,  The  Tempest  and  King 
Henry  VIII. 

Other  Writings.  Of  non-dramatic  pieces 
Shakespeare  was  the  author  of  Venus  and 
Adonis,  The  Eape  of  Lucrece,  the  Sonnets 
and  A  Lover's  Complaint.  It  is  agreed  that 
only  a  few  of  the  poems  in  the  collection 
published  under  the  name  of  The  Passi&nate 
Pilgrim  were  wi'itten  by  him.  There  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  how  many  of  the 
plays  usually  credited  to  Shakespeare  were 
really  written  by  him,  and  systematic  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  prove  that  Bacon, 
not  Shakespeare,  was  the  author  of  the 
greater  part  of  them.  Such  a  theory  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  without  foundation.  See 
halftone,  STEATFORD-rPON-Avox. 

SHALE,  the  solidified  mud  of  past  geolog- 
ical ages.  It  has  a  slaty  structure  and  usu- 
ally contains  a  large  proportion  of  clay. 
Shale  is  frequently  found  deposited  between 
seams  of  coal  and  commonly  bears  fossil  im- 
pressions. The  variety  known  as  bitvmiinous 
shale  bums  with  flame  and  yields  an  oil, 
which,  mixed  with  paraffin,  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance.  Alum  is  manufactured 
from  alum  shales. 

SHA'LER,  Nathaniel  Southgate  (1841- 
1906),  an  American  geologist,  educator  and 
author,  bom  in  Newport,  Ky.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of 
Harvard  University,  served  for  a  time  in  the 
Federal  army  during  the  Ci\nl  War,  and 
later  became  dean  of  the  Lawi-ence  Scientific 
School.  For  seven  years  he  had  charge  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Kentucky,  and  in  1884 


^■^^a-            .      ■.■-, 

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON  AND  SHAKESPEARE'S  BIRTHPLACE 


SHAMANISM 


3271 


SHANTUNG 


joined  the  staff  of  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  Division. 
He  was  the  author  of  man}'  books,  notably 
The  United  States  of  America;  A  Study  of 
the  American  Commonwealth ;  Aspects  of  the 
Earth,  Sea,  and  Land;  First  Book  in  Zool- 
ogy; Man  and  the  Earth,  and  Outlines  of  the 
Earth's  History. 

SHAMANISM,  shah'man  iz'm,  a  general 
name  applied  to  the  idolatrous  religions  of 
a  number  of  barbarous  nations  in  Northern 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  sh-am<in  is  a  priest 
who  performs  sacrifices  and  works  magical 
spells  to  keep  the  populace  on  good  terms  with 
the  gods.  In  addition  to  belief  in  a  supreme 
being,  the  worshipers  add  the  belief  that  the 
government  of  the  world  is  in  the  hands  of 
a  number  of  secondary  gods,,  whom  it  is 
necessary  to  propitiate  by  magic  rites  and 
spells.  The  "medicine  man"  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indian,  with  his  uncanny  rites,  exerted 
a  similar  influence. 

SHAMO'KIN,  Pa.,  in  Northumberland 
County,  forty  miles  nearly  north  of  Harris- 
burg,  on  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  and  the 
Penns3'lvania  railroads.  It  is  in  the  anthra- 
cite coal  fields  and  also  contains  foundries, 
machine  shops,  silk  and  knitting,  flour  and 
planing  mills,  skirt  and  hose  factories  and 
wagon  shops.  There  is  a  Carnegie  Library. 
The  town  was  laid  out  in  1835,  and  the 
borough  was  incorporated  in  1864.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  19,588;  in  1917,  21,274  (Federal 
estimate). 

SHAM'ROCK,  the  national  emblem  of  Ire- 
land, said  to  have  been  used  by  Saint  Patrick 
to  exemplify  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  its 
three  divisions  illustrating  his  idea  that  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  can  be 
three  and  yet  be  one  God. 

The  shamrock  has  a  leaf  which  has  three 
leaflets.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the 
plant  called  white  clover,  but  others  think  it 
to  be  the  wood  sorrel.  The  plant  commonly 
called  the  shamrock  in  Ireland  is  one  of  the 
hop  clovers,  a  slender,  trailing  species,  with 
small,  yellow  heads. 

SHANGHAI,  shahnghi',  China,  the  most 
important  commercial  center  of  the  countiy, 
situated  160  miles  east-southeast  of  Nanking, 
on  the  left  bank  of  Hwang-pu,  by  which  it  is 
joined  to  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  The  Chinese 
part  of  the  city  is  enclosed  within  a  wall 
about  twenty-four  feet  high=  In  this  part  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  dirty  and  the  buildings 
are  low  and  crowded  together ;  but  north  and 


northeast  of  the  Chinese  quarter  is  a  large 
foreign  settlement,  occupied  by  British, 
French,  Germans  and  Americans.  Along  the 
water  front  this  part  of  the  city  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  modern  European  or  Ameri- 
can town.  It  has  theaters,  newspaper  oflices, 
club  houses,  street  railways  and  electric  light 
plants.  A  fine  esplanade  skirts  the  river  and 
a  park  lies  on  the  opposite  side.  This  portion 
of  the  city  also  contains  a  fine  cathedral, 
municipal  oflBces  and  hospitals.  The  govern- 
ing authorities  of  the  foreign  settlement  are 
chosen  from  Americans,  English  and  French 
who  reside  there,  and  the  residents  are  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  consuls  of  their 
respective  governments. 

Shanghai  is  the  eastern  teiininal  of  the 
Hangchow  and  the  Nanking  railroads,  and 
one  of  the  most  important  commercial  cen- 
ters of  Asia ;  its  annual  exjDorts  and  imports 
amounted  to  over  $270,000,000  before  the 
World  War.  The  imports  are  from  Great 
Britain,  India  and  other  British  colonies  and 
consist  of  cotton  goods,  woolen  goods,  metals, 
petroleum,  electrical  apparatus  and  other 
machinery  and  numerous  small  wares.  The 
exports  are  chiefly  raw  silk,  manufactured 
silk,  tea,  rice,  sugar,  cotton,  wool,  paper  and 
•  hides.  The  population  in  1916  was  estimated 
at  1,000,000,  about  one-half  of  whom  live  in 
the  foreign  quarters. 

SHAN'NON,  the  largest  river  of  Ireland, 
250  miles  in  length,  which  flows  into  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  through  a  series  of  beautiful 
lakes,  or  loughs,  along  the  southwestern 
coast.  In  the  last  sixty  miles  of  its  course, 
the  Shannon  becomes  a  tidal  estuary,  which 
at  Limerick  is  thirteen  miles  wide.  The 
river  is  navigable  from  Lough  Allen  to  Limer- 
ick ;  two  canals  which  connect  it  with  Dublin 
have  greatly  increased  its  importance. 

SHANTUNG,  shahng  toofig^,  a  province 
on  the  east  coast  of  China,  the  eastern  part 
of  which  is  a  mountainous  peninsula  project- 
ing into  the  Yellow  Sea.  On  the  Shantung 
promontory  is  the  district  of  Kiao-chau, 
which  China,  under  compulsion,  leased  to  Ger- 
many in  1898.  In  1914  Japan,  as  an  ally  of 
Great  Britain,  seized  the  district,  including 
the  port  of  Tsing-tau,  and  in  1915  the  Japan- 
ese government  obtained  from  China  all  min- 
ing and  railway  privileges  in  Shantung  which 
Gennany  had  pre\aousIy  enjoyed.  These 
rights  were  retained  by  Japan  at  the  close 
of  the  World  War,  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  (see  Versailles,  Treaty  of)  . 


SHARK 


3272 


SHAW 


Shantung  province  has  an  area  of  55,970 
square  miles,  about  that  of  the  state  of  Wis- 
consin, and  a  population  of  38,247,000.  It 
is  of  economic  value  chiefly  because  of  its 
mineral  resources,  which  include  four  great 
coal  fields  and  profitable  iron  mines.  During 
the  period  of  German  concession  a  railway 
was  built  from  Tsing-tau  to  Weihien,  and 
westward  to  Tsinan-fu.  All  Geraian  leases 
are  now  held  by  Japan,  which,  however,  does 
not  hold  political  sovereignty  over  the  prov- 
ince. Shantung  is  of  historic  interest  as  con- 
taining the  birthplace  and  the  gi*ave  of  Con- 
fucius.    See  KiAO-CHAu;  World  War. 

SHARK,  a  group  of  flesh-eating  fishes, 
the  largest,  most  formidable  and'voracious  of 
deep-sea  monsters.  They  are  common  in  al- 
most all  oceans,  although  most  abundant  in 
wann  waters.  The  body  is  rounded  and 
tapering,  and  is  sometimes  forty  feet  or  more 
in  length.  The  mouth  is  large,  and  is  armed 
with  several  rows  of  compressed,  sharp-edged 
teeth.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  rough 
skin,  and  instead  of  scales,  it  has  many  tiny 
denticles.  This  skin  is  called  shagreen,  and 
it  has  a  commercial  value  as  a  polisher  of 
wood  of  fine  grain,  and  as  a  covering  for 
boxes  (see  Shagreen). 

Sharks  swiftly  pursue  other  marine  ani- 
mals, and  seem  not  to  care  whether  their 
prey  be  living  or  dead.  They  often  follow 
vessels  and  shoals  of  fishes  in  their  periodical 
migrations. 

Species  of  Sharks.  The  largest  species  is 
the  wJiale  sharks  often  more  than  fifty  feet 
long.  The  basking  shark,  found  chiefly  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean;  sometimes  attains  the 
length  of  forty  feet,  but  it  is  not  as  ferocious 
as  others  of  this  group.  The  ivhite  shark  is 
one  of  the  most  formidable  and  voracious; 
it  is  common  in  many  of  the  warmer  seas, 
reaching  a  length  of  over  thirty  feet.  The 
hammer-headed  sharks,  which  are  chiefly 
found  in  tropical  seas,  are  very  voracious  and 
often  attack  man.  They  are  noteworthy  for 
the  remarkable  shape  of  the  head,  which  re- 
sembles somewhat  a  double-headed  hammer, 
the  eyes  being  at  the  extremities.  Other  forms 
are  the  porbeagle,  the  blue  shark,  the  fox 
shurk,  the  sea  fox,  the  sea  ape,  or  thresher, 
and  the  Greenland,  or  northern,  shark.  In 
China  and  Japan  the  smaller  sharks  serve  as 
food,  and  in  China  and  India  the  fins  form  an 
impoi-tant  article  of  commerce,  as  they  con- 
tain a  gelatin  used  in  making  soup.  Oil  is 
made  from  the  livers  of  some  species. 


Shark  Fishing.  Shark  fishing  constitutes 
an  important  industry  on  the  coasts  of  Lap- 
land and  Norway,  as  well  as  China,  India  and  . 
Africa.  In  Norway  sharks  are  caught  about 
150  miles  from  the  coast.  Near  the  fishing 
boat  a  barrel  pierced  with  holes  and  filled  with 
oil  is  sunk.  The  oil  attracts  the  shark,  which 
is  then  caught  by  chains  and  hooks  baited  with 
salted  seal  meat.  A  great  struggle  ensues 
between  man  and  the  powerful  monster  be- 
fore it  is  stunned  by  repeated  heavv^  blows 
upon  the  head. 

SHARON,  shai/on,  Pa.^  in  ■Mercer  County, 
sevent3''-five  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburgh, 
near  the  Ohio  boundary  line,  on  the  Shenan- 
go  River  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  New 
York  Central,  the  Pittsburgh  &  Lake  Erie 
and  the  Erie  railroads.  Coal  is  extensively 
mined  in  the  vicinity,  and  there  are  rolling 
mills,  furnaces,  foundries,  boiler  works,  ma- 
chine shops  and  other  factories.  Stone  quar- 
rj'ing  is  also  an  im^oortant  industry.  It  was 
a  munitions  center  during  the  World  War. 
It  was  settled  in  1795,  and  incoi-porated  in 
1841.  Population,  1910,  15,270;  in  1917, 
19,156  (Federal  estimate). 

SHAS'TA,  Mount,  a  lofty,  snow-covered 
conical  mountain,  rising  10,000  feet  above 
the  plains  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  is  a 
peak  of  the  Sien-a  Nevada  range  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  summit  of  which  is  perpetually 
covered  with  snow.  It  is  a  typical  volcanic 
mountain,  attains  the  height  of  14,350  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  is  foiTaed  of  two  peaks. 
About  1,400  feet  below  the  summit  is  a  crater 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  diameter  and  2,500 
feet  deep.  On  the  northern  slope  glaciers  of 
considerable  size  are  found.  Other  glaciers 
have  left  traces  of  their  former  existence  in 
many  glacial  lakes  and  ponds. 

SHAW,  Albert  (1857-  ),  an  Amer- 
ican publicist  and  editor,  born  at  Shandon, 
Ohio,  and  educated  at  Iowa  (now  Grinnell) 
College  and  at  Johns  Hopkins  Univei-sity. 
After  several  years  of  editorial  writing  and 
studj^  abroad,  in  1890  he  established  the 
American  Eeview  of  Reviews,  and  as  editor 
of  the  publication  became  known  as  one  of 
the  foremost  editors  of  cuiTcnt-events  period- 
icals. As  a  wi-iter  on  political  science  he 
became  equally  well  known.  Among  his  books 
on  municipal  government  and  economics  are 
Cooperation  in  th-e  Northwest,  Municipal 
Government  in  Great  Britain,  Municipal 
Government  in  Continental  Europe  and  Local 
Government  in  Illinois. 


SHAW 


3273 


SHEBOYGAN 


SHAW,  Anna  Howard  (1847-1919),  an 
American  physician,  lecturer  and  writer. 
Although  an  Englishwoman  by  birth,  she  was 
an  American  by  education  and  long  resi- 
dence, having  lived  in  the  United  States 
from  early  childhood.  She  was  educated  at 
Albion  (Mich.)  College  and  at  Boston  Uni- 
versity, and  received  a  medical  and  a  theo- 
logical degree.  She  was  ordained  in  the 
Protestant  Methodist  Church  in  1880,  and  she 
spent  many  years  in  the  pulpit.  Dr.  Shaw 
gained  her  greatest  prominence  as  an  advo- 
cate of  and  lecturer  on  woman  suffrage,  chief- 
ly from  1904  to  1915.  In  the  latter  year  she 
published  her  autobiography.  The  Story  of  a 
Pioneer.  During  the  World  War  she  served 
as  chairman  of  the  Woman's  Advisoiy  Com- 
mittee of  the  Council  of  National  Defense. 
She  died  in  the  midst  of  active  labors. 

SHAW,  George  Bernard,  (1856-  ),  a 
prominent  Irish  critic,  essayist  and  dramatist. 
He  was  born  in  Dublin  and  in  1876  settled  in 
London,  where  his  critical  writings  soon 
brought  him  recognition.  He  took  an  active 
interest  in  politics  as  an  advocate  of  Social- 
ism, was  an  early  member  of  the  Fabian 
Society  and  gained  notoriety  as  a  pamphlet- 
eer and  street  orator.  He  wrote  four  novels 
— T  h  e  Irrational 
Knot,  Love  among 
the  Artists,  Cashel 
Byron's  Profession 
and  An  Unsocial  So- 
cialist— all  of  indif-  !"^SSKW^^B[  ^^^^ 
ferent  merit.  It  is  as 
a  critic  and  play-/f| 
Wright  that  he  has 
been  most  successful. 
Of  his  critical  writ- 
ings. The  Quintes- 
sence of  Ibsenism  and  GEORGE  BERNARD 
The  Perfect  Wagner-  SHAW 

its  are  noteworthj^  His  first  play,  Widowers' 
Houses,  produced  in  1892,  was  followed  by 
about  twenty  works  for  the  stage,  hardly  any 
of  which  can  properly  be  called  plays,  inas- 
much as  they  ignore  many  principles  of 
dramatic  construction.  His  characters  rarely 
feel  or  act;  they  merely  argue  usually  on 
some  social  problem — and  there  is  no  emo- 
tional dramatic  action.  The  plays  which  have 
aroused  most  interest  are  The  Philanderer, 
Candida,  Major  Barbara,  Man  and  Super- 
man, The  Doctor's  Dilemma,  Getting  Married, 
The  Shewing-Up  of  Blanco  Posnet  and 
Fatmy's  First  Play. 


SHAWNEE,  an  Indian  tribe  of  Algon- 
quian  stock,  who  lived  originally  in  South 
Carolina  along  the  Savannah  River.  The 
Shawnees  were  vigorous  and  warlike,  and 
numbered  among  their  chiefs  the  famous 
Tecumseh  (which  see).  They  made  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  resist  white  settlement. 
There  are  now  about  1,400  in  Oklahoma. 

SHAWNEE,  Okla.,  in  Pottawatomie 
County,  nearly  forty  miles  southeast  of  Okla- 
homa City,  on  the  North  Canadian  River  and 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  the  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island  &  Pacific  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  &  Texas  railroads.  The  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  &  Pacific  shops  are  located  here 
and  furnish  work  for  hundreds  of  workmen. 
There  are  cotton  gins  and  compresses  and  oil 
mills.  The  city  has  the  Baptist  University, 
the  Catholic  University  and  a  Carnegie  Li- 
brary. Population,  1910,  12,474;  in  1917, 
19,051  (Federal  estimate). 

SHAYS'  REBELLION,  an  insurrection  in 
Western  Massachusetts  in  1786-1787,  precip- 
itated by  the  financial  distress  which  fol- 
lowed the  Revolutionary  War.  The  special 
grievances  of  the  insurgents  were  the  high 
salaries  paid  to  officials,  excessive  taxes  and 
exorbitant  fees  of  lawyers  and  officers.  In 
September,  1786,  a  mob  of  about  six  hun- 
dred men  gathered  at  Springfield  under  Dan- 
iel Shays,  forced  the  supreme  court  to  ad- 
journ and  attempted  to  capture  the  arsenal. 
The  state  militia  under  General  Benjamin 
Lincoln  soon  overwhelmed  them,  and  by  Feb- 
ruary the  revolt  was  quelled.  Ten  of  the 
leaders  were  condemned  to  death,  but  were 
later  pardoned  by  Governor  John  Hancock. 

SHEBOY'GAN,  Wis.,  the  county  seat  of 
Sheboygan  County,  fifty-two  miles  north  of 
Milwaukee,  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Sheboygan  River,  and  on  the  Chicago 
&  North  Western  railroad.  It  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  the  surrounding  farming 
and  dairjang  section.  There  are  large  cheese 
warehouses,  coal  docks,  fisheries,  chair  and 
furniture  factories,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
carriage  works,  a  piano  factory,  brickyards 
and  various  other  establishments.  The  city 
has  a  state  fish  hatchery,  a  public  library,  a 
good  Federal  building,  a  county  asylum  for 
the  insane,  a  home  for  the  friendless  and  the 
Saint  Nicholas  hospital.  There  are  two 
parks.  The  place  was  settled  in  1836,  the 
village  was  incorporated  in  1846,  and  the 
city  was  chartered  in  1853.  Population,  1910, 
26,398;  in  1917,  28,907  (Federal  estimate). 


SHEEP 


3274 


SHEEP  LAUREL 


SHEEP,  a  cud-chewing  animal,  closely  re- 
lated to  the  goat,  and  one  of  the  most  useful 
of  domesticated  animals.  Its  wool  is  made 
into  clothing,  it*  skin  is  manufactured  into 
leather  and  its  flesh  and  milk  are  used  for 
food.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties,  but 
all  are  included  under  the  classes  known  as 
coarse-wooled,  medium-wooled  and  fine- 
wooled. 

Breeds.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of 
domestic  sheep,  but  all  can  be  classified  imder 
the  following  gi-oups. 

Coarse-Wooled.  These  breeds  are  char- 
acterized bj'  their  long,  coarse  wool,  white 
faces  and  le^  and  straight  backs.  Their 
long  wool  makes  them  appear  Jarger  than 
they  really  are.  The  Cotswold  is  the  long- 
wooled  variety  best  known  in  America.  Other 
varieties,  common  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
are  the  Leicester  and  the  Lincoln. 

Medium-Wooled.  The  medium-w  o  o  1  e  d 
breeds  are  usually  large  in  size  and  have 
compact  fleeces,  the  wool  being  about  one- 
half  the  length  of  that  of  the  coarse-wooled 
breeds.  One  of  the  best  known  of  these  is 
the  Southdown,  which  is  easily  distinguished 
by  its  large,  compact  body  and  its  brown  face 
and  legs.  Other  valuable  medium-wool  breeds 
are  the  Hampshire  and  the  Shropshire,  both 


states,  particularly  in  Montana,  Wyoming 
and  Arizona.  The  Rambouillet,  imported 
from  France,  is  larger  and  stronger  than  the 
Merino,  and  is  fast  becoming  a  favorite  with 
American  growers. 

Other  Breeds.  There  are  numerous  other 
breeds  of  sheep,  but  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions they  are  of  no  economic  importance. 
One  of  these  is  the  sheep  from  which  the  so- 
called  fur  known  as  astrakhan  and  Persian 
lamb  is  obtained.  The  wool  of  this  sheep  is 
very  fine  and  curly,  which  gives  these  furs  a 
peculiar  appearance.  It  is  not  known  from 
what  wild  species  the  domestic  varieties  were 
bred.  Wild  sheep,  such  as  the  Bighorn,  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  still  found  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
America.  It  is  probable  that  all  wild  sheep 
had  horns,  but  they  have  now  disappeared 
from  the  ewes  of  all  domestic  breeds  ex- 
cept the  Dorset  and  from  the  rams  of  most 
breeds. 

Where  Sheep  are  Raised.  Domestic  sheep 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world, 
but  they  are  most  extensively  raised  in  the 
temperate  regions,  where  they  are  kept  chiefly 
for  the  wool  and  flesh.  The  flrst  sheep  were 
brought  to  America  by  Columbus  in  1493. 
The  Spaniards  introduced  them  into  Mexico 


somewhat  larger  than  the  Southdown.  The 
Hampshirfe  has  become  a  favorite  breed  in 
America.  The  medium-wooled  breeds  are 
valuable  for  both  wool  and  mutton,  and  are 
very  generally  raised. 

Fine-Wooled.  The  Merino  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  fine-wooled  breeds.  This 
sheep  was  introduced  into  America  from 
Spain,  where  it  has  been  bred  for  many  cen- 
turies. It  is  small  in  size  and  has  short  legs, 
and  the  skin  is  wiinkled  about  the  neck  and 
shoulders.  The  wool  is  short,  very  fine  and 
quite  oily.  It  is  the  most  valuable  wool  taken 
from  sheep,  and  a  fine  cloth  is  manufactured 
from  it.  The  Merino  is  delicate  and  wiU  thrive 
only  in  a  dry  climate.  These  sheep  are  raised 
in  large  numbers  in  Australia,  in  New  Zea- 
land and  in  some  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 


and  Florida,  and  from  these  early  flocks  large 
herds  descended.  Other  breeds  were  also 
brought  by  the  English  into  the  northern 
colonies,  so  that  early  in  the  history  of  the 
country-  the  fanns  were  stocked  with  sheep. 
Australia,  Xew  Zealand,  Argentina,  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  Uruguay,  Russia,  the  United 
Kingdom,  France,  Spain,  India  and  the 
United  States  are  the  chief  wool-producing 
countries  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States, 
Montana.  Wyoming,  Xew  Mexico  and  Ohio 
are  the  leading  states.  There  are  about  50,- 
000.000  sheep  in  the  United  States,  and  about 
9,000.000  are  slaughtered  annually.  The 
yearly  production  of  wool  is  about  200,000,- 
000  pounds.  Canada  has  over  2,000.000 
sheep.  See  Meat  Packixg;  Mutton;  Wool. 
SHEEP  LAUREL.    See  Kalmia. 


SHEEPSHEAD 


3275 


SHELL 


SHEEPSHEAD,  sheeps'hed,  the  name  of 
a  fish  abundant  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States,  highly  esteemed  as  a  food.  It 
receives  its  name  from  the  resemblance  of  its 
head  to  that  of  a  sheep.  It  is  stout  and  deep- 
bodied,  of  a  grayish  color,  with  eight  vertical 
bands  and  dark  fins.  It  is  rarely  more  than 
thirty  inches  in  length. 

SHEFTIELD,  England,  in  Yorkshire,  160 
miles  northwest  of  London,  for  more  than  two 
centuries  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  high- 
grade  cutlery.  The  city  is  beautifully  situat- 
ed on  hilly  ground,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Sheaf  and  the  Don  rivers.  It  has  many  fine 
buildings,  among  which  are  the  ancient  parish 
Church  of  Saint  Peter's,  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  recently  restored ;  Saint  Mary's  Catholic 
Church;  Albert  Hall,  and  the  Cutler's  Hall. 
Of  educational  and  literary  institutions  there 
are  the  Free  Grammar  School ;  the  Church  of 
England  Educational  Institute;  University 
College,  formerly  the  Firth  College;  the  Wes- 
ley College ;  the  School  of  Art,  and  the  Saint 
George's  Museum,  founded  by  Mr.  Ruskin. 
The  trade  of  Sheffield  is  chiefly  connected 
with  cutlery,  for  which  it  has  long  been 
famous,  and  the  manufacture  of  all  forms  of 
steel,  iron  and  brass  work.  The  steel  manu- 
facture includes  armor-plating,  rails,  engine 
castings  and  rifles.  There  are  also  manufac- 
tures of  engines,  machinery,  plated  goods, 
Britannia  metal  goods,  stoves  and  grates. 
Sheffield  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
a  Roman  station.  Edward  I  granted  it  a 
charter  as  a  market  town  in  1296.  It  is  only 
since  1800  that  it  has  developed  such  impor- 
tance as  a  manufacturing  center.  Population, 
1914,  472,234. 

SHEIK,  sheek,  or  shayk,  an  Arabic  word 
meaning  aged  man  or  elder.  Originally  it 
was  a  title  of  dignity  belonging  to  the  chiefs 
of  the  Arabic  tribes,  but  now  is  used  among 
Moslems  as  a  title  of  respect.  The  superiors 
of  Mohammedan  monastic  orders  and  the 
heads  of  villages  are  sometimes  called  sheiks. 
The  grand  mufti,  the  head  of  the  Moham- 
medan Church  in  Turkey,  is  known  as  the 
Sheikh  ul  Islam. 

SHEKEL,  shek''l,  as  originally  used  in  the 
Bible,  is  a  term  referring  to  a  unit  of  weight. 
Later  it  was  applied  to  the  coin  also.  The 
Hebrew  coin,  to  which  reference  is  most  fre- 
quently made,  was  218  grains  in  weight.  It 
is  said  the  Jews  first  issued  coins  of  their  own 
at  the  time  of  Simon  Maecabaeus,  between  141 
and  134  b.  0.     The  gold  shekel  was  worth 


about  $5.69,  the  copper  about  three  cents, 
and  the  silver  about  fifty-four  cents ;  the  lat- 
ter seems  to  have  been  given  most  wide  cir- 
culation. In  present  day  vernacular  the 
word  has  come  to  refer  to  money  in  general. 

SHEL'BYVILLE,  Ind.,  the  county  seat  of 
Shelby  County,  twenty-five  miles  southeast  of 
Indianapolis,  on  the  Blue  River  and  on  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  Saint  Louis 
and  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  & 
Saint  Louis  railroads.  The  city  is  in  an 
agricultural,  stock-raising  and  dairying  re- 
gion, and  it  contains  flour  mills,  carriage 
works,  creameries,  nearly  a  score  of  furniture 
factories,  as  well  as  lumber  and  planing  mills, 
ice  factories  and  various  other  works.  It  has 
a  city  and  a  county  building,  a  hospital,  a 
sanitarium  and  a  Carnegie  Library.  The 
Forest  Hill  Cemetery  is  also  of  interest.  Pop- 
ulation, 1910,  9,500;  in  1917,  11,201  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

SHEL'DON,  Charles  Monroe  (1857-  ),. 
an  American  clergyman  and  writer,  born  at 
Wellsville,  N.  Y.  and  educated  at  Bi-own  Uni- 
versity and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary. 
In  1886  he  was  ordained  in  the  Congrega- 
tional ministry,  subsequently  filled  pastorates 
at  Waterbury,  Vt.,  and  Topeka,  Kan.,  and 
ultimately  became  minister  at  large  for  his 
denomination.  His  experiment  of  editing  the 
Topeka  Daily  Capital  for  one  week  on  what 
he  believed  to  be  a  Christian  policy  gained 
wide  publicity.  His  books  are  all  written 
with  a  purpose,  and  each  illustrates  some 
great  moral  principle.  Some  of  them  are  His 
Brother's  Keeper,  In  His  Steps,  The  Miracle 
at  Markham,  Who  Killed  Joe's  Baby?  and 
The  Narrow  Gate. 

SHELL,  the  hard  outer  coverings  which 
form  the  chief  protection  of  many  of  the 
lower  animals.  The  Mollusks,  the  Echinoder- 
mata,  the  Crustacea  and  even  certain  insects, 
as  the  beetles,  and  certain  mammals,  as  the 
armadillos,  have  such  coverings.  Perhaps 
the  most  interesting  and  typical  shells  are 
those  of  the  mollusks,  which  are  divided  into 
two  classes — the  univalves  (single  valves)  and 
the  bivalves  (two  valves).  The  most  common 
examples  of  the  univalves  are  the  shells  of 
common  snails,  which  assume  a  variety  of 
graceful  shapes  and  beautiful  colors.  Some 
are  long  spirals,  tapering  to  a  point;  some 
are  tightly  wound  wheels,  like  a  watch  spring, 
and  some  are  short,  round  spirals,  with  wide 
openings.  Some  of  these  shells  are  delicate, 
with  a  pearly  luster,  while  others  are  heavy. 


SHELL 


3276 


SHELLEY 


Of  the  bivalves — shell  formed  of  two  parts, 
joined  by  a  hinge — the  best  examples  are  the 
clam  and  oyster  shells.  The  most  easily 
noted  characteristics  of  these  very  common 
shells  are  the  different  layers  of  which  they 
are  composed — the  outer  horny  layer,  or 
epidermis,  and  the  beautiful  inner  pearly 
layer.  There  are  endless  varieties  of  both 
univalve  and  bivalve  shells,  some  so  small  as 
to  be  indistinguishable  as  shells,  some  very 
large ;  and  all  of  these  have  been  put  to  many 
uses.  They  have  been  used  as  ornaments  by 
civilized  and  uncivilized  peoples,  as  material 
for  the  making  of  buttons  and  other  objects, 
and  as  money.  The  study  of  shells  and  of 
shelled  animals  is  called  cotichology. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Abalone  Cowrie  Mussel 

Cameo  Mollusca  Nautilus 

Clam  Mother-of-  Oyster 

Conch  Pearl  Snail 

SHELL,  originally  a  hollow  projectile, 
filled  with  a  bursting  charge  of  gunpowder  or 
other  explosive  composition  and  fitted  with 
a  fuse  by  which  to  fire  it  at  the  desired  time. 
Shells  are  usually  made  of  cast  iron  or  steel, 
and  are  elongated. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  and  sizes, 
and  the  meaning  of  the  term  has  been  ex- 
panded to  include  all  projectiles  fired  from 
cannons.  Shells  used  in  field  artillerj^  are 
constructed  differently  from  those  used  in  the 
navj'.  Projectiles  used  in  the  navy  are 
designed  to  penetrate  the  steel  armor  of  war- 
ships, and  are  very  heavy.  They  have  a  sharp 
point  and  are  tempered  to  the  highest  degree 
of  hardness.  A  12-inch  gun  fires  a  projectile 
weighing  981  pounds,  and  a  14-inch  gun,  one 
weighing  1,400  pounds,  for  an  average  dis- 
tance of  twelve  miles,  although  in  the  World 
War  the  Germans  built  a  gun  which  projected 
a  shell  over  seventj'-five  miles,  into  Paris. 
Such  a  projectile  has  a  striking  force  that 
will  penetrate  any  armor. 

SHEL'LEY,  Percy  Btsshe  (1792-1822), 
an  English  poet  born  at  Field  Place, 
Horsham,  Sussex,  the  son  of  Sir  Timothy 
Shelley,  a  landed  proprietor  of  ancient  fami- 
ly. He  was  educated  at  Sion  House  Academy, 
Brantford,  at  Eton  and  at  University  College, 
Oxford.  At  Sion  House  and  at  Eton  on  ac- 
count of  his  temperament  he  was  persecuted 
by  his  fellows,  and  thus  he  early  began  to 
show  that  fierce  hatred  of  oppression  which 
characterized  him  throughout  his  life.  While 
at  Oxford  he  showed  himself  possessed  of 


PERCY  BYSSHB 
SHELLEY 


uncommon  literary  ability;  but  he  fell  into 
disfavor  with  the  authorities  on  the  publica- 
tion of  a  pamphlet  called  The  Necessity  of 
Atheism  and  was  ex- 
pelled. In  1811,  short- 
ly after  his  expulsion 
from  college,  he 
eloped  to  Edinburgh 
with  Harriet  West- 
brook,  the  daughter 
of  a  retired  innkeep-  \ 
er,  but  sixteen  years 
of  age.  The  mar- 
riage turned  out  un- 
happily, and  after 
nearly  three  years  of 
a  wandering  unset- 
tled life  they  sepa- 
rated. In  November, 
1816,  Harriet  committed  suicide  by  di'owning. 
Shelley  was  deeply  affected  by  this  event,  but 
soon  after  he  married  Mary  Godwin,  with 
whom  he  had  visited  the  Continent  in  1814. 

Partly  because  his  lungs  were  affected  and 
partly  because  he  feared  that  he  should  be 
deprived  of  the  children  of  his  second  mar- 
riage, on  account  of  his  atheism,  as  he  had 
been  deprived  of  those  of  his  former  mar- 
riage, Shelley  left  England  finally  in  March, 
1818,  and  the  whole  short  remainder  of  his 
life  was  passed  in  Italy.  On  July  8,  1822, 
while  he  was  sailing  in  the  Bay  of  Spezia,  a 
storm  arose  and  he  was  drowned.  According 
to  the  quarantine  laws  of  Tuscany  the  body 
was  burned,  and  the  ashes  were  deposited  by 
his  friends  in  the  Protestant  burying  ground 
of  Rome. 

From  his  youth  Shelley's  life  was  a  con- 
stant battle  in  defense  of  the  radical  revolu- 
tionarj'^  principles  he  had  adopted.  He  be- 
lieved in  the  possibility  of  establishing  an 
ideal  societj',  in  which  such  institutions  as 
marriage  and  property  should  be  subordinate 
to  the  development  of  individuals.  In  some 
of  his  poems.  Queen  Mab,  his  earliest  im- 
portant work,  written  when  he  was  eighteen. 
The  Revolt  of  Islam  and  Prometheus  Un- 
bound, he  embodied  his  beliefs  on  the  recon- 
struction of  society.  The  poems  of  Shelley, 
however,  which  have  remained  most  popular, 
are  characterized,  rather,  by  a  delicate  fanci- 
ful beauty,  than  by  any  openly  expressed 
spirit  of  revolt.  Shelley  was  one  of  the  great 
lyric  poets  of  England,  and  his  gift  of  won- 
derful melody,  grace  and  lightness  shows  best 
in  such  poems  as  Ode  to  the  West  Wind,  The 


SHENANDOAH 


3277 


SHERIDAN 


Cloud,  Ode  to  Liberty,  Ode  to  a  Skylark,  To 
Night  and  Lines  to  an  Indian  Air. 

SHENANDO'AH,  Pa.,  in  Schuylkill 
County,  105  miles  northwest  of  Philadelphia, 
on 'the  Pennsylvania,  the  Lehigh  Valley  and 
the  Philadelphia  &  Reading-  railroads.  There 
are  also  electric  railways  to  neighboring 
towns.  It  is  in  a  rich  anthracite  coal  field, 
and  mining  is  the  principal  industry.  The 
Greek  Catholic  church  here  was  one  of  the 
first  of  that  denomination,  to  be  established 
in  the  United  States.  The  borough  has  a  pub- 
lic library,  national  banks,  a  savings  bank 
and  building  and  loan  associations.  It  was 
settled  in  1850  and  was  incorporated  in  1866. 
Population,  1910,  25,774;  in  1917,  29,753. 
(Federal  estimate). 

SHENANDOAH  RIVER,  a  river  of 
Northwestern  Virginia,  300  miles  in  length, 
flowing  northeastward  into  the  Potomac, 
which  it  enters  at  Harper's  Ferry.  Its  valley, 
formed  by  the  Blue  Ridge  and  central  Ap- 
palachian Mountains  and  noted  for  its  fer- 
tility and  beauty,  was  the  scene  of  numerous 
military  operations  during  the  Civil  War. 
See  Sheridan^  Philip  Henry. 

SHEPARD,  Helen  Gould  (1868-  ), 
an  American  philanthropist,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Jay  Gould.  Among  the  first  of 
her  famous  benevolencies  was  a  gift  of  $100,- 
000  to  the  United  States  government  at  the 
opening  of  the  Spanish-American  War,  for 
improvement  in  the  equipment  of  the  hos- 
pital and  commissary  service,  and  a  dona- 
tion of  $50,000  for  military  hospital  sup- 
plies. A  library  building  and  an  engineer- 
ing school  to  New  York  University,  the  naval 
branch  building  and  equipment  of  the 
Brooklyn  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  a  fund  for  im- 
provements at  Rutgers  College,  the  total 
amount  approximating  a  quarter  of  a  mil- 
lion dollars,  are  among  her  other  donations. 
Many  smaller  gifts  have  been  made  to  vari- 
ous causes.  Miss  Gould  was  married  to 
Finley  J.  Shepard,  a  railway  official  in  1913. 

SHEPHERD  DOG,  the  general  name  of 
a  group  of  dogs,  of  which  the  finest  breed  is 
the  Scotch  collie,  employed  originally  by 
shepherds  to  assist  in  tending  flocks.  The 
small  Spitz,  or  Pomeranian,  also  belongs  to 
this  family.  The  shepherd  dog  generally  is 
large,  of  powerful,  lithe  build,  and  is  re- 
markable for  its  intelligence  and  usefulness. 
The  tail  is  rather  long  and  possesses  a  bushy 
fringe,  the  muzzle  is  notably  sharp,  and  the 
eyes  are  large  and  bright.    See  Collie. 


SHERATON,  she/ a  ton,  Thomas  (1751- 
1806) ,  an  English  designer  of  furniture  which 
bears  his  name,  was  born  at  Stockton-on- 
Tees.  He  went  to  London  in  1790  and  soon 
after  published  his  books,  Cabinet-Maker 
and  Upholsterers'  Director,  Cabinet  Dic- 
tionary, and  The  Cabinet-Maker,  Upholsterer 
and  General  Artists'  Encyclopedia,  each  pro- 
fusely illustrated  with  engravings  and 
colored  plates  of  the  designs  with  which  his 
name  has  become  identified.  He  was  always 
extremely  poor,  and  never  seems  to  have  had 
a  shop  of  his  own,  although  his  books  had 
a  wide  circulation  and  much  furniture  was 
made  from  his  original  designs.  Sheraton's 
name  will  always  be  connected  with  furniture 
decorated  with  painted  designs.  He  was  also 
noted  for  his  use  of  inlay.    See  Furniture. 

SHERBROOKE,  shu/brook.  Que.,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Saint  Francis  and  Magog 
rivers,  101  miles  east  of  Montreal,  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  and  the  Boston  «fe  Maine  rail- 
roads. The  rivers  furnish  good  water  power, 
and  the  city  is  quite  an  important  industrial 
center.  Among  the  leading  manufactures  are 
woolen  cloths,  flour,  foundi-y  products,  tools, 
lumber,  wood  pulp,  paper  and  malt  liquors. 
Population,  1911,  16,405. 

SHER'IDAN,  Wyo.,  the  county  seat  of 
Sheridan  County,  on  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton &  Quincy  Railroad.  Coal  is  mined  in 
the  vicinity,  the  city  is  a  stock-shipping 
point,  and  there  are  manufactures  of  agri- 
cultural implements.  A  Carnegie  Library 
and  a  state  hospital  are  here.  The  town  was 
settled  in  1882,  and  was  incorporated  in  the 
next  year.  Population,  1910,  8,408 ;  in  1917, 
13,407  (Federal  estimate). 

SHERIDAN,  Philip  Henry  (1831-1888), 
an  American  soldier,  probably  the  gi'eatest 
cavalry  leader  of  the  Civil  War,  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.  He  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  Military  Academy  in  1853,  and  from 
1855  to  1861  served  on  the  frontiers  of 
Texas  and  Oregon.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was  a  captain  in  the  Thirteenth 
Infantry,  but  in  the  following  year  he  was 
made  colonel  of  the  Second  Michigan  Cavalry. 
Later  in  the  year  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  the  battles 
of  Penyville,  Murfreesboro,  Chickamauga 
and  Chattanooga,  he  showed  the  greatest 
ability  and  bravery.  In  April,  1864,  Grant 
appointed  him  chief  of  cavalry  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  and  he  made  several  daring 
cavalry  raids  into  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 


SHERIDAN 


3278 


SHEHMAN 


PHILIP  SHERIDAN 


His  ride  from  Winchester  to  Cedar  Creek,  a 
distance  of  twenty  miles,  which  turned  a 
Federal  defeat  into  a  brillant  victory,  is  his 
most  famous  exploit.  During  the  final  ad- 
vance upon  Rich- 
mond he  was  Grant's 
right-hand  man.  He 
fought  the  Battle  of 
Five  Forks,  which 
necessitated  L  e  e's 
evacuation  of 
Richmond  and 
Petersburg ;  and  as 
Lee  fled  he  constant- 
ly harassed  and  at- 
tacked him,  until  he 
compelled  his  sur- 
render at  Appomat- 
tox Court  House, 
April  9,  1865.  After  the  war  he  held  various 
military  commands.  In  March,  1869,  he  be- 
came lieutenant-general,  and  in  February, 
1884,  on  the  retirement  of  Sherman,  com- 
manding general  of  the  army. 

SHERIDAN,  Richard  Bbinsley  Butler 
(1751-1816),  a  British  dramatist  and  states- 
man, born  in  Dublin.  His  first  famous 
comedy,  The  Rivals,  was  produced  in  1775, 
and  this  was  followed  by  The  Duenna,  a 
comic  opera;  The  School  for  Scandal,  the 
greatest  English  comedy  which  had  been  pro- 
duced since  Shakespeare;  Saint  Pntrick's 
Day,  a  farce,  and  The  Critic,  a  comedy.  After 
the  destruction  by  fire  of  his  Drury  Lane 
Theater,  London,  the  closing  years  of  Sheri- 
dan's life  were  handicapped  by  continued 
financial  difficulties.  His  charm  of  person- 
ality and  wit  made  him  a  conspicuous  figure 
in  London  literary  life  and  society.  He  also 
won  fame  as  an  orator  during  his  twelve- 
year  Parliamentary  career,  especially  for  his 
speeches  on  the  impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings.    Burial  was  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

SHERIFF,  sher'if,  the  chief  executive  of- 
ficer of  a  county.  In  England  since  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  office  of 
sheriff  has  been  appointive.  In  the  United 
States,  there  are  a  few  states  in  which  the 
sheriffs  are  appointed,  but  the  office  is  gen- 
erally elective,  and  cannot  be  held  for  more 
than  two  successive  terms.  In  the  two  coun- 
tries the  duties  of  sheriff  are  practically  the 
same.  He  is  charged  with  the  safe-keeping 
of  prisoners,  with  the  proper  conduct  of 
juries,  and  is  expected  to  keep  the  peace. 
His  duties  include  the  seizure  of  property 


when  a  warrant  of  attachment  has  been  is- 
sued, and  the  sale  of  property  to  satisfy  a 
judgment.  In  populous  counties  a  sheriff 
has  several  assistants,  called  deputies,  and 
there  are  many  perquisites  to  his  office  in  the 
form  of  fees,  often  making  it  highly  lucrative. 

SHERMAN,  s7m/wa»,  John  (1823-1900), 
one  of  the  most  influential  statesmen  of  his 
day,  and  author  of  the  famous  silver  and  anti- 
trust laws  which  bear  his  name.  Sherman 
was  born  in  Lancas- 
ter, Ohio.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1844,  and  began 
practice  at  Mansfield, 
from  which  city  he 
was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1855.  As  a 
speaker  he  was  an  ac- 
knowledged power 
from  his  early  years. 
In  1861  Sherman  be- 
came United  States 
Senator,  and  as 
chairman  of  the  JOHN  Sherman 
Ways  and  Means  committee  did  much  to 
strengthen  the  public  credit  during  the  Civil 
War  and  after.  He  was  appointed  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  under  President  Hayes  in 
1877,  and  succeeded  in  accumulating  a  suffi- 
cient gold  reserve  for  the  resumption  of 
specie  payment.  He  served  continuously  as 
United  States  Senator  from  1881  until  1897. 
During  this  period  he  secured  the  enactment 
of  the  Antitrust  Law  (see  Trusts)  and  the 
Sherman  Silver  Act.  He  became  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  of  President  McKinley's  Cabi- 
net in  1897,  but  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Spain,  on  account  of  advanced  age  and 
failing  powers,  he  resigned  this  post  and  re- 
tired to  private  life.  William  Tecumseh 
Sherman,  his  brother,  was  a  distinguished 
Federal  general  in  the  Civil  War. 

SHERMAN,  Roger  (1721-1793),  an 
American  patriot,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Newton,  Mass.  As  a  boy  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  shoemaker,  but  in  1743  he  engaged  in 
business  with  his  brother  at  New  Milford, 
Conn.,  and  was  later  admitted  to  the  bar. 
Before  the  Revolutionary  War  he  had  served 
in  the  Connecticut  legislature,  as  a  judge  of 
the  sui^erior  court  of  Connecticut,  and  as  a 
member  of  the  Connecticut  senate.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  committees  that  framed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Articles 


SHERMAN 


3279 


SHETLAND  ISLANDS 


of  Confederation.  In  1784  he  was  elected 
mayor  of  New  Haven.  Wbile  holding  this 
office  Sherman  was  an  influential  member  of 
the  Constitutional  Convention  at  Philadel- 
phia (1787).  He  was  one  of  the  first  Repre- 
sentatives in  the  Federal  Congress  from 
Connecticut,  and  in  1791  was  elected  to  the 
Senate,  where  he  served  until  his  death. 

SHERMAN,  Tex.,  the  county  seat  of 
Grayson  County,  about  sixty  miles  north  of 
Dallas,  on  the  Frisco,  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe,  the  Texas  &  Pacific,  the  Houston 
&  Texas  Central,  the  Missouri,  Oklahoma  & 
Gulf  and  the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern  rail- 
roads. The  city  has  an  elevation  of  about 
1,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  in  the  fertile 
Red  River  Valley,  where  much  cotton  is 
raised,  and  is  not  far  from  the  Ardmore  coal 
fields  of  Oklahoma.  It  ships  large  quantities 
of  cotton  and  grain  and  contains  a  large  cot- 
ton gin,  several  cottonseed  oil  mills,  flour  and 
lumber  mills,  machine  shops,  brick  works  and 
other  factories.  The  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  North  Texas  Female  Col- 
lege, the  Carr-Carleton  Christian  College  for 
women,  Austin  College  for  boys  and  North 
Texas  Female  College  (Methodist).  The 
municipality  has  a  Carnegie  Library,  a  Y.  M- 
C.  A.  and  a  Federal  building,  and  owns  and 
operates  the  waterworks.  Sherman  was  set- 
tled in  1848,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1895.  In  1915  the  commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  adopted.  Population,  1910,  12,- 
412;  in  1917,  13,848  (Federal  estimate). 

SHERMAN,  William  Tecumseh  (1820- 
1891),  an  American  general,  born  at  Lancas- 
ter, Ohio,  and  educated  at  West  Point  Mili- 
tary Academy.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
Florida  and  Mexico, 
and  in  1853  retired  to 
private  life.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  offered  his 
services  to  the  United 
States  government 
and  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  Thir- 
teenth Infantry.  He  . 
was  present  at  theij 
Battle  of  Bull  Run, 
greatly  distinguished  ;^ 
himself  at  Shiloh  and 
subsequently  took  a  WILLIAM  TECUMSEH 
prominent  part  in  the  SHERMAN 

operations   under    Grant    around   Vieksburg 
and  Memphis.    Transferred  to  Tennessee,  he 


rendered  Grant  great  service  in  the  operations 
around  Chattanooga,  and  early  in  1864  he 
led  his  forces  in  a  raid  across  Mississippi, 
devastating  the  country  from  Jackson  to 
Meridian.  In  March,  1864,  he  succeeded 
Grant  as  commander  of  the  military  division 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
May,  simultaneously  with  Grant's  advance 
in  the  East,  he  began  his  invasion  of  Georgia. 
On  September  1,  after  a  number  of  battles, 
he  took  Atlanta,  and  on  December  21  entered 
Savannah.  Then,  turning  northward  into  the 
Carolinas  and  fighting  more  battles,  he  re- 
ceived the  surrender  of  General  Joseph  E. 
Johnston  at  Durham's  Station,  April  26, 
1865,  a  surrender  which  brought  the  war  to 
a  close.  Sherman  was  made  a  major-general 
in  1864,  lieutenant-general  in  1866  and  gen- 
eral in  1869.  When  Grant  became  President 
in  1869,  Sherman  was  made  commanding  gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  army.  He  was  re- 
tired in  1884.  In  1875  he  published  his  Mem- 
oirs, in  two  volumes. 

SHERRY,  sheri,  a  Spanish  wine,  made  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Jerez,  in  the  province  of 
Andalusia,  near  Cadiz,  the  location  of  the 
choicest  vineyards  of  Spain.  Dry  sherry  is 
the  most  highly  prized.  It  is  a  strong  wine, 
esteemed  for  its  delicate  flavor.  Sherry  is 
more  largely  imitated  and  adulterated  than 
any  other  wine.  A  light  white  beverage,  in 
imitation  of  Spanish  sherry,  is  made  in 
California.    See  Wine. 

SHETLAND  ISLANDS,  a  gi-oup  of  is- 
lands, the  most  northerly  possession  of  Great 
Britain  in  Europe,  Mng  at  about  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  North  Sea, 
northeast  of  Scotland.  They  number  about 
100,  of  which  twenty-three  are  inhabited,  and 
cover  an  area  of  about  556  square  miles.  The 
largest  of  the  Shetlands  is  Mainland, 

The  surface  is  rugged,  and  the  coasts  have 
many  indentations,  lined  with  abrupt  cliffs 
of  gneiss,  sandstone  and  granite.  The  cli- 
mate is  variable,  but  moderate  both  as  to 
heat  and  cold.  Fishing  forms  the  chief  in- 
dustry, the  cod,  the  ling  and  the  herring  being 
leading  articles  of  commerce.  The  raising  of 
cattle,  sheep  and  ponies  is  also  an  important 
industrv'-,  the  Shetland  ponies  being  especially 
famous.  The  chief  agi-icultural  products  are 
oats  and  barley;  in  manufactures,  hosiery  and 
shawls  take  the  lead.  Interesting  relics  of 
the  Stone  Age  (which  see)  are  found  on  the 
Shetlands.  These  have  been  much  studied 
by  the  world's  scientists. 


SHIELD 


3280 


SHILOH 


ROMAN  SHIELDS 

lighter    and    smaller. 
their  shields  over  the 


SHIELD,  sheeld,  a  piece  of  armor  carried 
on  the  left  arm  or  in  the  left  hand  as  a  means 
of  defense  to  ward  off  missiles  and  sword 
blows.  Varied  in  form  and  size,  it  was  the 
prime  means  of  protection  in  battle  from 
earliest  times  to  the  introduction  of  firearms. 

In  the  early  Middle  Ages,  foot  soldiers  as 
well  as  horses  were  protected  by  shields. 
Then  the  heraldic  devices  on  the  shields  were 
the  only  means  of  identification  of  friend  or 
foe,  as  in  battle  the 
men  were  completely 
incased  in  suits  of 
armor  (see  Herald- 
ry). If  held  at 
arm's  length,  the 
shield  was  called  a 
buckler;  if  swung 
over  the  arm  with 
the  arm  across  the 
body,  it  was  known 
as  a  target.  The 
shield  of  the  ancient 
Greek  infantry  al- 
most covered  the  en- 
tire body ;  that  of  the 
Romans    was    much 

The  Vikings  hung 
sides  of  ships  when  embarking  upon  an  ad- 
venture. In  the  eleventh  century  it  was 
customary  to  carry  dead  knights  from  the 
battlefield  on  their  shields.  The  Spartan 
mother,  upon  the  departure  of  her  warrior 
sons  for  battle,  bade  them  to  return  with  or 
on  their  shields.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
the  custom  of  hanging  shields  in  churches  was 
introduced. 

Shields  of  savage  races  are  most  generally 
made  of  oxhide,  which  is  hardened  to  resist 
penetration  of  spears  and  darts.  In  modem 
warfare  the  shield  has  an  unimportant  place 
as  a  protection  to  machine  guns,  and  this 
use  now,  too,  is  on  the  decline.  A  metal 
shield  protects  those  firing  larger  guns,  such 
as  six-inch  field  pieces. 

SHIITES,  she'ites,  the  lesser  of  the  two 
great  sects  of  Mohammedans.  They  do  not 
acknowledge  the  Sunna  as  a  law,  and  be- 
lieve that  Ali,  the  fourth  caliph  aft^r  Moham- 
med, was  his  first  lawful  successor.  Persia  is 
now  the  only  Shiite  nation  of  importance. 

SHILLABER,  shil'a  her,  Bexjamix  Pen- 
hallow  (1814—1890),  an  American  humorist, 
whose  amusing  sketches  gained  wide  popu- 
larity, written  under  the  pen  name  of  Mrs. 
Partingtox.     He  was  born  at  Portsmouth, 


N.  H.,  became  a  printer  and  was  engaged  in 
this  occupation  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  and  at  Bos- 
ton until  1847,  when  he  joined  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Boston  Post,  and  later  the  Satur- 
d<iy  Evening  Gazette.  Among  his  well- 
known  books  are  Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs. 
Partington,  Paringtonian  Patchwork,  Rhymes 
with  Reason  and  Without  and  Ike  and  His 
Friends. 

SHILLING-,  shil'ing,  an  English  silver 
coin,  equivalent  in  value  to  twelve  bronze 
pence,  or  one-twentieth  of  a  pound  sterling, 
and  approximately  equal  to  24.3  cents,  to 
1.25  French  francs,  and  to  1.11  German 
marks.  The  convenient  size  and  value  of  the 
English  shillings  made  them  popular  in  the 
American  colonies,  but,  like  the  pound  unit, 
in  the  colonies  they  varied  greatly  in  value. 
A  few  coins  of  this  denomination  were  issued 
by  the  colonies,  notably  the  famous  pine  tree 
shilling  of  Massachusetts  (which  see).  The 
shilling  is  still  used  as  a  money  of  account  in 
parts  of  the  United  States,  its  most  common 
value  being  about  12i  cents,  or  \  of  one 
dollar. 

SHILOH,  shi'lo,  in  Biblical  literature  a 
city  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It  was  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  sacred  of  the  Hebrew 
sanctuaries.  After  they  had  subjugated 
Canaan,  the  Children  of  Israel  erected  the 
tabernacle  there  and  set  up  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  at  which  the  family  of  Eli  offi- 
ciated. According  to  Biblical  account  the  un- 
godly conduct  of  the  sons  of  Eli  brought 
about  the  loss  of  the  Ark,  which  had  been 
carried  into  battle  against  the  Philistines. 
From  that  time  Shiloh  steadily  declined.  The 
only  remains  of  the  ancient  village  are  rock 
tombs  and  a  pool  formed  by  a  hollow  cut  in 
rock.    The  place  is  to-day  called  Seilun. 

SHITjOH,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most 
memorable  battles  of  the  Civil  War,  fought 
on  April  6  and  7,  1862  about  two  miles  west 
of  Pittsburg  Landing,  on  the  Tennessee  River, 
in  Tennessee,  around  a  log  chapel  known  as 
"Shiloh  Church."  Grant  and  Sherman  com- 
manded the  Federals,  and  A.  S.  Johnston  and 
Beauregard  led  the  Confederates.  On  April 
6,  the  Confederates  took  the  Federals  by 
surprise  and  drove  them  from  their  lines, 
with  heavy  loss  in  men  and  guns;  but  the 
second  day  the  Federals,  having  received 
reenforcements  under  generals  Lew  Wallace, 
and  D.  C.  Buell  and  largely  outnumbering  the 
Confederates,  regained  their  first  position  and 
forced  the  Confederates  to  retreat  to  Corinth. 


SHINGLES 


3281 


SHIP 


By  their  defeat  at  Shiloh  the  Confederates 
lost  10,700  men,  including  Gen.  A.  S.  John- 
ston, and  their  hold  on  Tennessee  west  of 
the  mountains.  The  Federal  forces  lost  13,- 
000  men. 

SHINGLES,  thin  pieces  of  wood  used 
chiefly  for  covering  the  roofs  of  buildings. 
They  are  of  the  uniform  length  of  eighteen 
inches,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  at  one 
end  and  tapering  uniformly  to  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  at  the  other  end,  and  vary  in  width 
from  three  to  eight  inches.  Shingles  are 
packed  200  in  a  bunch.  Roofing  is  measured 
by  the  square,  that  is,  by  areas  of  10  feet 
square,  or  100  square  feet.  Usually  shingles 
are  laid  4^  inches  to  the  weather.  As  4X4a 
equals  18,  each  shingle  will  cover  18  square 
inches  of  roof.  It  requires  eight  shingles  to 
cover  a  square  foot,  or  800  to  cover  a  square. 
But  this  does  not  allow  for  waste,  and  car- 
penters usually  reckon  900  shingles  to  the 
square. 

To  find  the  number  of  shingles  required  to 
cover  a  roof,  divide  the  area  of  the  roof  in 
square  feet  by  100  and  multiply  the  quotient 
by  900;  divide  this  product  by  200,  and  the 
result  will  be  the  number  of  bunches  required. 

SHINNEY.    See  Hockey. 

SHINTOISM,  sUn'tohis'm,  the  ancient 
religion  and  mythology  of  the  Japanese,  the 
least  developed  of  all  the  great  religions,  hav- 
ing no  supreme  deity  or  moral  code.  In  its 
origin  it  was  a  form  of  sun  worship,  but  the 
essence  of  the  religion  is  now  ancestor  wor- 
ship and  sacrifice  to  departed  heroes.  After 
the  introduction  of  Buddhism  the  priests  of 
Shintoism  became  magicians  and  fortune 
tellers.  With  the  overthrow  of  the  shogun, 
Shintoism  again  took  the  place  of  Buddhism. 
However,  it  has  not  been  able  to  maintain 
itself  as  a  religion,  and  has  become  rather  a 
code  of  ceremonies. 

SHIP.  The  first  man  to  ride  on  the  water 
rode  astride  a  log.  He  may  then  have  joined 
two  logs  together,  to  accommodate  more  men. 
Later  he  hollowed  out  the  trunk  of  a  tree  to 
make  a  canoe,  which  was  the  first  form  of  a 
boat.  From  these  humble  beginnings  thou- 
sands of  years  ago,  the  shipbuilding  industry 
has  developed  to  its  present  gigantic  propor- 
tions. There  is  not  a  body  of  water  in  the 
habitable  parts  of  the  earth  that  is  not 
navigated  by  some  form  of  water  craft.  To- 
day ships  bind  together  the  nations  of  the 
earth  and  bring  to  the  ports  of  each  the 
products  and  people  of  all  others. 

206 


There's  not  a  ship  that  sails  the  ocean, 
But  every  climate,  every  soil. 
Must  bring  its  tribute,  great  or  small, 
And  help  to  build  the  wooden  wall. 

The  term  ship  as  now  used  applies  to  all 
large  vessels  upon  either  salt  or  fresh  water, 
excepting  those  which  ply  upon  rivers  only. 
There  are  many  patterns  of  ships,  but  all 
belong  to  one  of  two  general  classes — sailing 
vessels  and  steamships. 

Sailing  Vessels.  Without  doubt  the  first 
sail  was  the  top  of  a  small  tree  or  a  branch 
laden  with  foliage.  From  this  it  was  not  a 
difiieult  step  to  the  use  of  skins  of  animals, 
which  were  stretched  on  poles  that  took  the 
place  of  the  mast  in  ships  of  later  construc- 
tion. However,  this  may  be,  ships  with  sails 
were  in  use  long  before  we  have  any  recorded 
history  of  civilization.  The  oldest  sailboat 
or  ship  of  which  we  have  any  record  is  that  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  shown  in  full-page 
illustration.  It  dates  from  a  period  at  least 
6000  B.  C.  A  study  of  this  picture  will  show 
that  in  this  primitive  craft  are  the  lines  and 
curves  that,  with  slight  modifications,  are 
found  in  the  hulls  of  modem  ships.  The 
Egyptians  were  not  a  sea-faring  people,  and 
their  development  of  ships  did  not  extend 
to  sea-going  craft. 


A  SAILING  VESSEL 

1.  Flying  jib 

2.  Jib 

3.  Fore  staysail 

4.  Foresail 

5.  Fore  gaff  topsail 

6.  Main  topmast  staysail 

7.  Mainsail 

8.  Main  gaff  topsail 

The  Phoenicians,  the  greatest  commercial 
people  of  antiquity,  made  considerable  prog- 
ress in  the  art  of  shipbuilding ;  the  Romans 
also  had  a  well-developed  art.  But  with  the 
tide  of  barbarism  which  swept  over  Europe 
at  the  downfall  of  the  last  great  ancient  em- 
pire, the  science  of  shipbuilding  was  almost 
lost,  and  the  Western  peoples,  to  whom  the 


SHIP 


3282 


SHIP 


world's  progress  was  henceforth  entrusted, 
were  compelled  to  begin  anew  and  build  up, 
from  their  own  resources,  new  models.  For 
more  than  a  thousand  years  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Chi-istian  Era  navigation  was 
practically  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  first  people  to  brave  the  dangers  of  the 
open  ocean  at  that  time  were  the  Norsemen, 
who  reached  America  in  their  Viking  ships, 
nearly  five  hundred  years  before  Columbus. 
These  ships  were  long,  low  and  narrow,  and 
were  propelled  by  both  oars  and  sails.  The 
chief  events  which  gave  impetus  to  the  de- 
velopment of  shipbuilding  were  the  invention 
of  the  compass,  the  discovery  of  America 
and  the  finding  of  a  passage  to  India.  Spain, 
the  great  maritime  nation  of  the  early  modern 
era,  followed  by  France  and  Holland,  and 
later  still  by  England,  made  the  first  im- 
portant advances.  The  last  of  these  nations 
has  the  credit  for  building  the  first  three- 
decker  (1637),  known  as  the  Sovereign  of 
the  Seas.  This  was  the  most  famous  warship 
of  its  day.  It  was  168  feet  long,  forty-eight 
feet  in  the  beam,  mounted  100  guns,  and  cost 
$1,500,000. 

Between  the  fifteenth  century  and  the  ad- 
vent of  the  steamship  many  types  of  sailing 
vessels  were  developed,  but  they  can  all  be 
brought  under  two  general  classes — the 
square  rigged  and  the  fore-and-aft  rigged. 
The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas  affords  a  good  il- 
lustration of  the  first,  and  any  schooner  is 
a  good  example  of  the  second  class.  The 
square-rigged  ship  was  the  first  style  of 
merchant  ship  to  sail  on  long  voyages,  and 
for  more  than  a  century  it  was  the  common 
carrier  between  maritime  nations. 

In  The  United  States.  The  colonists  in 
New  England  began  to  build  ships  and  engage 
in  foreign  trade  soon  after  they  had  founded 
their  settlements,  and  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  they  had  a  good 
number  of  ships  to  their  credit.  Many  of 
these,  however,  they  lost  during  that  struggle. 
After  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
was  achieved  it  rapidly  forged  to  the  front 
and  soon  took  the  lead  in  the  art  of  ship- 
building. In  1832,  Scott  Russell  demon- 
strated the  theoretical  principles  upon  which 
the  speed  of  ships  is  based,  and  these  were 
immediately  applied  with  success  by  both 
American  and  foreign  builders.  The  Balti- 
more clipper  schooners  were  the  first  results 
of  the  application  of  true  principles  of  con- 
struction.    They  had  sharp  bows  and  deep 


stern,  were  very  long  and  lay  low  in  the 
water,  had  long,  slender  masts  and  large,  skil- 
fully cut  sails.  The  construction  of  vessels 
on  these  principles  gave  faster,  safer  ships 
than  had  been  known  before,  and  these  played 
a  large  part  in  the  development  of  the  oriental 
trade  of  both  England  and  America. 

For  many  years  the  schooner  was  in  com- 
mon use  for  coastwise  traffic  and  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  A  schooner  is  a  fore-and-aft  rigged 
vessel  usually  having  two  masts  and  a  bow- 
sprit, though  the  number  of  masts  may  be 
increased  with  the  size  of  the  vessel.  A  good 
schooner  is  a  fast  sailer,  and  can  be  managed 
by  a  small  crew.  The  largest  ship  of  this 
type  ever  constructed  was  a  steel  seven-mast 
schooner,  305  feet  long,  50  feet  beam,  having 
a  displacement  of  10,000  tons  and  carrying 
40,617  square  feet  of  canvas. 

Steamships.  The  first  successful  steamboat 
was  the  Clermont,  invented  by  Robert  Ful- 
ton in  1807  (see  Fulton,  Robert).  Previous 
to  Fulton's  venture  several  attempts  had 
been  made  to  propel  boats  by  steam,  and  one 
inventor,  John  Fitch,  was  successful,  but  his 
boat  was  small,  and  not  commercially  practi- 
cal. John  Stevens  of  New  Jersey  completed 
a  steamboat  soon  after  the  Clermont  made 
its  first  voyage.  He  took  his  boat  to  the 
Delaware  River  by  sea,  and  was  the  first  to 
navigate  the  ocean  in  a  vessel  propelled  by 
steam.  For  thirty  years  after  Fulton's  in- 
vention, paddle  wheels  were  used  exclusively 
for  propelling  steamships.  Between  1840  and 
1845  John  Ericsson  perfected  the  screw  pro- 
peller, which  rapidly  replaced  the  paddle 
wheel  and  is  now  almost  universally  employed 
on  steamships. 

The  first  steamship  to  cross  the  ocean  was 
the  Savannah,  which  made  a  voyage  to  Eng- 
land and  Russia  in  1819.  It  used  both  sails 
and  steam.  Within  the  next  twenty  years 
steamships  multiplied  so  rapidly  that  they 
were  found  on  the  waters  of  all  civilized  parts 
of  the  globe.  Until  the  perfection  of  Erics- 
son's propeller  the  plan  of  using  both  sails 
and  steam  was  followed  on  ocean  steamships, 
but  with  the  introduction  of  the  propeller  the 
plan  of  construction  was  radically  changed, 
and  the  first  steps  leading  to  the  modern 
ocean-going  ships  were  taken.  Previous  to 
this  change  all  ships  were  constructed  of 
wood,  but  gradually  iron,  then  steel,  began  to 
replace  wood,  until  the  wooden  ship  was  al- 
most driven  from  the  seas  and  the  Great 
Lakes.     The  emergency  caused  by  the  World 


SHIP 


3283 


SHIP 


War  revived  for  a  short  time  the  interest  in 
wooden  ships,  and  in  1917  and  1918  a  number 
were  built  in  America  under  the  supervision 
of  the  government,  but  when  the  emergency 
had  passed  this  form  of  construction  was 
abandoned.  Since  1917  concrete  has  been  used 
in  the  construction  of  a  number  of  ships. 

Modern  SteamsTiips.  The  modern  ocean 
liner  of  the  highest  typo  is  one  of  the  marvels 
of  the  age.  It  is  as  luxurious  as  a  modern 
hotel,  and  carries,  besides  its  crew,  a  pas- 
senger list  equal  to  the  population  of  a  small- 
sized  city.  It  is  evident  that  the  science  of 
ship  designing  is  at  once  important  and  in- 
tricate.   The  chief  points  to  be  considered  are 


level  with  the  surface  of  the  water.  Ameri- 
can and  Canadian  ships  have  the  draught  in 
feet  marked  in  large  figures  (usually  Roman 
numerals)  on  the  bow,  so  that  anyone  can  tell 
the  draught  by  looking  at  these  figures. 
Careful  observation  of  the  draught  and  the 
load  line  by  the  navigator  is  essential  to 
safety.  Many  ships  have  been  wrecked  be- 
cause they  were  overloaded. 

The  completion  of  the  Lmsitania,  destroyed 
by  a  German  submarine  in  1915  (see 
Lusitania),  and  its  sister  ship  the  Maure- 
tania,  was  considered  to  mark  a  new  era  in 
ocean  transportation.  Steam  turbines  took 
the    place   of    the    old-styled    reciprocating 


TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  GREAT  STEAMSHIP 
The  Imperator,  sister  ship  of  former  Vaterland,  now  Leviathan.    Length,  909  feet;  beam, 
98  feet;  displacement,  58,000  tons;  horse  power    62,000;    speed,    23    knots    per    hour    (over    26 
miles). 


stability,  capacity,  strength  and  speed.  The 
ship  must  have  graceful  lines,  and  in  addition 
to  its  capacity  for  cargo  must  be  able  to  carry 
a  certain  number  of  passengers.  Its  engines 
must  be  capable  of  propelling  it  at  a  certain 
speed,  and  the  shape  must  be  conducive  to 
allowing  such  speed  with  economy  of  fuel; 
the  ship  must  be  able  to  stow  enough  coal  to 
last  during  the  trip  at  a  rate  of  about  1,000 
tons  a  day,  for  fast  boats  like  the  Mauretania, 
and  about  260  tons  for  the  larger,  slower 
boats.  The  liner  must  be  safe,  but  light,  must 
withstand  shocks  firmly  and  must  be  built  so 
that  it  will  return  to  erect  position  when 
turned  slightly  to  the  side. 

The  displacement  of  the  ship  means  the 
weight  of  the  water  it  displaces,  which  weight 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  ship  with  cargo  and 
passengers.  The  draught  of  the  ship  is  the 
depth  to  which  the  lowest  part  of  the  keel 
sinks  below  the  surface  of  the  water  when  the 
boat  is  loaded.  When  the  navigator  says  that 
his  ship  draws  twenty  feet  of  water  he  means 
that  the  lowest  point  of  the  keel  will  be 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface  when  the  ship 
is  loaded  to  fullest  capacity.  The  load  line  is 
the  plane  passing  through  the  ship  on  the 


engine;  each  ship  was  driven  by  four  pro- 
pellers and  made  an  average  speed  of  about 
twenty-five  knots,  or  nearly  thirty  miles,  an 
hour.  The  Mauretania  has  a  width  of  88 
feet,  is  60  feet  deep,  has  gross  tonnage  of 
33,000  tons  and  a  displacement  of  46,640 
tons.  It  will  accommodate  550  first-class  pas- 
sengers, 375  second-class  and  1300  third-class 
passengers,  and  requires  a  crew  of  800.  The 
electric  lighting  plant  required  over  200  miles 
of  cable  and  a  dynamo  larger  than  that  neces- 
sary for  a  good-sized  town.  Its  consumption 
of  coal  averages  over  1,000  tons  a  day,  and 
350  men  are  required  to  attend  to  the  fires. 
This  ship  is  fitted  with  every  convenience  and 
luxury  that  can  be  found  in  the  most  select 
hotels  of  Europe  or  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  with  the  latest  devices  to  insure  safety. 
It  makes  the  voyage  between  New  York  and 
Liverpool  in  less  than  five  days. 

Since  the  completion  of  the  Mauretania  the 
White  Star  line  has  constructed  the  Olympic, 
having  a  length  of  850  feet,  but  that  has  been 
exceeded  by  the  Imperator  (909  feet)  and  the 
Vaterland  (950  feet)  built  by  the  Hamburg- 
American  line.  At  the  time  of  its  completion 
in  1914,  the  Vaterland  was  the  largest  ship 


SHIPS  IN  ALL  AGES 


A  Galleon 
of  the  Time  of  Elizabeth 


American  Four-masted 
Schooner 


The  "Newcastle," 
an  East  Indiaman 


Baltimore  Clipper 


The  First  Seven-masted  Steel  Schooner 


3284 


SHIPS  IN  ALL  AGES 


Fulton's  Clermont 
Speed,    Five  Miles  per  Hour 


The    Savannah 
The  First  Steam  Vessel  to  Cross  the 
Atlantic,1819 


Mississippi  River  Steamer 


Battleship,    30,000  tons 


Ore  Boat  on  Great  Lakes,  1919.    Capacity,  14,000  tons. 


The  Leviathan,  Formerly  Vateriand 
World's  Greatest  Steamship,  1919 
Belongs  Now  to  the  United  States 


3285 


SHIP 


3286 


SHITTIM  WOOD 


afloat.  Although  these  ships  are  larger  than 
the  Mauretania,  they  are  not  so  swift. 

The  Vaterland  was  interned  at  New  York 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War.  It  was 
damaged  by  the  crew  to  prevent  its  becoming 
of  use  to  any  other  nation,  but  when  the 
United  States  entered  the  war,  the  great  ship 
was  taken  over  by  the  government,  repaired, 
reehristened  the  Leviathan,  and  placed  in 
service  under  the  American  flag.  It  was 
invaluable  in  transporting  troops  to  and 
from  Europe. 

Freight  ships  differ  from  passenger  ships 
chiefly  in  being  lower,  and  in  having  less 
powerful  engines.  A  peculiar  type  of  freight 
ship  used  on  the  Great  Lakes  for  carrying 
ore,  coal  and  grain  is  very  low  in  the  water 
and  has  a  large  carrying  capacity.  The  hull 
is  so  constructed  that  the  ship  can  be  un- 
loaded in  a  few  hours  by  the  use  of  mechanic- 
al devices. 

Other  Power  Boats.  Small  boats  propelled 
by  gasoline  engines  are  common  as  pleasure 
crafts  on  all  srdall  bodies  of  water.  The 
success  of  these  boats  has  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  small  ships  propelled  by  simi- 
lar engines,  and  they  are  found  to  be  economi- 
cal for  short  voyages  in  transporting  both 
freight  and  passengers. 

Ships  and  the  World  War.  Excepting  the 
Lusitanw,  the  names  of  ships  destroyed  by 
submarines  or  mines  do  not  appear  in  the 
following  list.  According  to  the  official  re- 
port issued  in  London  after  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  the  total  loss  of  merchant  ships  for 
the  world  on  account  of  the  war  amounted 
to  15,053,378  tons;  2,475  British  and  145 
American  ships  were  destroyed  by  submarines 
or  mines.  Among  the  neutral  nations,  Nor- 
way suffered  most,  losing  831  ships;  Den- 
mark lost  249;  Sweden,  178. 

In  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
new  ships  were  built  so  rai-)idly  that  fully 
two-thirds  of  their  losses  were  replaced  by 
new  ships,  but  the  neutral  countries  were 
unable  to  replace  the  ships  destroyed.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  the  merchant  marine  of 
Great  Britain  held  first  place,  and  the  United 
States  had  risen  from  an  insignificant  posi- 
tion to  that  of  second  place  in  both  its  navy 
and  its  merchant  marine. 

Notable  Marine  Disasters.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  seas  from  the  earliest  times  has 
resulted  in  frequent  disasters,  involving 
serious  losses  of  life.  Many  of  these  were 
due  to  acts  of  God,  to  storms  or  other  cir- 


cumstances beyond  the  control  of  men.  A 
few  were  due  to  attacks  by  enemies,  and 
others  were  caused  by  carelessness  or  negli- 
gence. Of  the  thousands  of  disasters  which 
mark  the  history  of  navigation,  only  a  few 
of  the  most  noteworthy  are  listed  below : 

NAME  OF  SHIP  PLACE  DATE  CAUSE       DEAD 

Association Scilly  Islands  Oct.  22,  1707    Wrecic 800 

Prince  George Gibraltar  Apr.  13,  1758    Fire 400 

Royal  George Spithead  Aug.  29,  1782    Wreck 600 

Queen  Charlotte Leghorn  Mar.  17,  1800    Fire    673 

St.  George Jutland  Coast  Dec.  24,  1811    Wreck 630 

Defense Jutland  Coast  Dec.  24,  1811    Wreck 600 

Royal  Adelaide Margate  Mar.  30,  1850    Wreck 400 

Birkenhead African  Coast  Feb.  26,  1852  Wreck. ...  454 

City  of  Glasgow At  Sea  Mar.        1854  Unknown..  450 

Central  America.  • At  Sea  Sept.  12,  1857    Wreck 400 

Austria Mid-Atlantic  Sept.  13,  1858    Fire 471 

Lady  Elgin Lake  Michigan  Sept.    8,1860  Collision. .  287 

Captain Off  Finisterre  Sept.    7,  1870    Wreck 472 

Atlantic Off  Nova  Scotia  Apr.     1 ,  1873    Wreck 547 

Cospatrick Mid-Atlantic  Dec.    6,  1874    Fire 470 

Princess  Alice Thames  River  Sept.   3,1878  Collision...  700 

Ertogrul Japan  Coast  Sept.  19,  1890    Wreck 540 

Utopia Gibraltar  Mar.  17,  1891  Collision. ..  674 

Naronic Atlantic  Feb.         1893  Unknown.. 

Elbe - North  Sea  Jan.  30,  1895  Collision. . .  335 

Reina  Regenta Gibraltar  Mar.  11,  1895    Wreck 400 

Burgoyne Off  Sable  Island  July    4,1898  Collision..    871 

Maine Havana  Harbor  Feb.  15,  1898  Explosion..  260 

General  Slocum New  York  June  15,  1904    Fire 1000 

Norge Scotch  Coast  June  28,  1904    Wreck 646 

Mikasa At  Sea  Sept.  13,  1905  Explosion..  599 

Mutsu  Maru Japanese  Coast  Mar.  23,  1908  Collision.. .  300 

Ying  King Near  Hong  Kong  July  28,  1908  Wreck.  ...  300 

Waratah Atlantic  Aug.        1909  Unknown..  300 

Titanic Atlantic  Apr.  14,  1912  Iceberg. .   1595 

Empress  of  Ireland 

St.  Lawrence  River  May  29,  1914  Collision. ..  1027 

Bulwark Thames  River  Nov.  26,  1914  Explosion..  800 

Lusitania Irish  Coast  May    7,  1915  Torpedo. .  .1446 

Eastland Chicago  River  July  24,  1915  Capsized. .  900 

SHIRAZ,  sheraliz',  Persia,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Farsistan,  situated  on  a  plateau 
about  4,750  feet  above  the  sea  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  country,  112  miles  from 
the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
region  noted  for  its  rose  gardens,  vineyards, 
cypress  groves  and  orchards.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  an  old  wall,  and  one  hundred 
years  ago  it  was  the  residence  of  the  ruler  and 
was  the  chief  center  of  science  and  art  for 
Persia.  It  was  then  celebrated  for  its  mag- 
nificent buildings  and  its  elegant  manufac- 
tures. It  has  now  lost  much  of  its  importance 
and  has  been  seriously  damaged  by  earth- 
quakes. The  manufactures  include  textiles, 
rose  water,  glass,  silverware  and  inlaid  work. 
Population,  estimated,  50,000. 

SHITTIM,  shit'tim,  WOOD,  the  wood  of 
which  the  ark  of  the  Covenant  in  the  wilder- 
ness was  principally  constructed.  It  is  the 
wood  of  the  shittah  tree  of  the  Bible,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Acacia  seyal  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
twenty  feet  and  has  stiff,  thorny  branches. 
Its  wood  is  of  a  hard,  orange-brown  color, 
and  is  well  adapted  to  furniture  making.  It 
is  not  an  imposing  tree. 


SHODDY 


3287 


SHORTHAND 


SHOD'DY,  a  fiber  made  of  shredded  wool- 
en, worsted  or  mixed  rags.  The  rags  are 
thoroughly  cleansed,  then  shredded  and 
carded,  by  processes  similar  to  those  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  wool  (See  Woolen 
Manufacture).  When  it  leaves  the  cards 
the  fiber  is  in  the  form  of  long,  fluffy  rolls. 
These  are  packed  into  bales  under  hydraulic 
pressure,  and  in  this  form  they  are  shipped 
to  manufacturers. 

This  used  material  is  not  so  strong  as  new 
fiber,  and  in  the  reweaving  a  certain  amount 
of  new  material  is  used  with  it;  sometimes 
this  is  wool,  sometimes  cotton.  In  the  form 
of  wool  powder  shoddy  is  also  used  to  add 
weight  and  substance  to  certain  inferior  wool- 
en cloths.  The  shoddy  industry  is  important 
in  the  United  States,  England  and  Canada. 
Where  no  attempt  is  made  to  deceive  the  buy- 
ing public,  the  production  of  shoddy  is  a 
service  to  those  of  limited  means,  for  it  can  be 
made  into  attractive  and  serviceable  gar- 
ments. 

SHOES.    See  Boots  and  Shoes. 

SHOGUN,  shotgun,  meaning  great  general, 
was  the  name  given  to  the  military  commander 
of  each  of  the  four  districts  into  which  the 
Japanese  Empire  in  early  times  was  divided. 
These  commanders  eventually  became  abso- 
lute rulers  of  their  districts  and  superseded 
the  mikado  in  power.  After  having  been  held 
successively  by  four  military  clans  for  al- 
most 700  years,  the  office  of  shogun  was  abol- 
ished by  the  revolution  of  1868  and  the  cen- 
tral power  was  reestablished. 

SHOOTING  STAR.    See  Meteor. 

SHORT  BALLOT.  In  large  cities  at  a 
general  election  the  ballot  usually  contains 
so  many  names  that  many  voters  become 
confused  in  marking  them,  and  not  infre- 
quently they  vote  for  a  candidate  for  whom 
they  did  not  intend  to  vote.  Moreover,  the 
large  number  of  officials  to  be  elected  makes 
it  practically  impossible  for  the  voter  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  qualifications  of  all 
the  candidates,  and  irresponsible  men  are  fre- 
quently elected  to  office. 

The  short  ballot  is  designed  to  do  away 
with  these  evils  by  placing  on  the  ballot  only 
the  names  of  those  officials  who  are  to  deter- 
mine public  policy,  leaving  to  appointment 
all  those  whose  duties  are  merely  adminis- 
trative. It  is  further  urged  that  very  few 
offices  be  filled  at  one  election.  Questions  of 
public  policy  are  also  presented  to  the  voter 
for  his  approval.    Public  interest  in  this  pro- 


posed reform  is  shown  by  the  rapid  extension 
of  the  commission  form  of  government  among 
cities,  for  this  plan  necessarily  includes  the 
underlying  principles  of  the  short  ballot.  See 
Municipal  Government. 

"T'^  Q>\HORT'HAND,  the  method 
^^  of  writing  by  which  the 
process  is  so  abbreviated 
as  to  keep  pace  with 
speech.  It  is  also  known, 
according  to  the  principle 
underlying  the  particular 
system,  as  stenography 
(compressed  writing)  and 
phonography  (sound 
writing).  It  was  prac- 
ticed by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  brevity,  but  for  pur- 
poses of  secrecy;  but  all  knowledge  of  the  art 
was  lost  fi'om  the  tenth  century  until  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth,  when  modern  shorthand  had 
its  birth  in  the  publication  by  Dr.  Timothy 
Bright  of  his  Characterie  and  by  Peter  Bales 
of  his  Arte  of  Brachygrapliie.  In  these  early 
systems  arbitrary  signs  were  used  in  most 
cases  to  denote  each  word.  The  earliest  sys- 
tem of  shorthand  of  any  practical  importance 
was  that  of  John  Willis,  whose  Arte  of  Steno- 
graphie  (1602)  became  very  popular.  It  was 
based  on  the  common  alphabet,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  arbitrary  signs;  and  this,  indeed, 
was  the  character  of  the  numerous  systems 
which  obtained  until  the  time  of  Pitman. 
Willis  had  many  imitators,  some  of  whom 
made  slight  improvements  in  his  system,  but 
William  Mason,  whose  system  was  published 
in  1672,  was  the  only  one  who  made  any  real 
advance. 

In  1751  Thomas  Gurney  published  his 
BrachygrapJiy,  founded  on  Mason's  system, 
and  the  use  of  Gurney's  system  has  been  per- 
petuated by  his  descendants,  who  have  been 
the  official  shorthand  writers  of  the  Houses 
of  Parliament  since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  1767  appeared  the  Uni- 
versal English  Shorthand  of  John  Bjrrom,  an 
a,  b,  c  system,  charactei'ized  by  "simple  strokes 
and  no  arbitrary  characters;"  and  in  1786  the 
Stenography  of  Samuel  Taylor  was  pub- 
lished. This,  which  is  the  best  of  all  the  a,  b, 
c  systems,  contributed  largely  to  make  stenog- 
raphy popular,  and  it  was  the  system  which 
was  almost  universally  used  until  Isaac  Pit- 
man gave  his  Phonography  to  the  world  in 
1837.     Taylor's  system  possessed  more  easy 


SHORTHAND 


3288 


SHOT 


and  natural  outlines  and  was  therefore  capa- 
ble of  being  written  with  a  greater  degree  of 
speed  than  any  previous  system,  and  it  con- 
tained no  arbitrary  characters.  Harding,  who 
re-edited  the  system  in  1823,  introduced  a  few. 

Pitman  had  a  number  of  predecessors, 
whose  systems,  like  his  own,  were  strictly 
phonetic.  These  systems,  however,  never  ob- 
tained any  footing,  while  Pitman's  almost 
immediately  became  popular;  the  Benn  Pit- 
man system,  a  variation  of  the  original  Pit- 
manic,  is  now  used  by  more  reporters  and 
shorthand  writers  than  any  other.  Like  all 
other  phonetic  sj'stems.  Pitman's  rejects  the 
ordinary  orthography  and  writes  words  ac- 
cording to  the  sounds;  thus  though  becomes 
tho^  plough  becomes  plow,  and  enough  be- 
comes enuf.  Discarding  the  common  alpha- 
bet, which  fonned  the  basis  of  the  stenograph- 
ic systems,  it  has  adopted  an  alphabet  of 
its  own,  consisting  of  a  series  of  straight  lines, 
curves  and  dots,  each  representing  a  distinct 
sound.  This  alphabet  is  the  basis  of  a  highly 
ingenious  and  complex  system,  which  aims  at 
securing  the  greatest  degree  of  brevity  con- 
sistent with  legibility.  In  rapid  writing  in 
Pitman's  system  the  vowels  are  generally 
omitted. 

In  recent  years  several  new  systems  have 
been  introduced  and  have  met  with  more  or 
less  success.  Many  of  these  are  modifications 
of  the  original  Pitmanic  system,  such  as 
Graham's  (1858)  and  Munson's  (1867). 
There  are  also  many  constructed  upon  a  new 
and  so-called  ''rational"  basis.  Of  these  now 
widely  used  in  the  United  States,  the  best- 
known  are  the  Cross,  or  Eclectic,  the  Pemin, 
the  Gregg  and  the  McKee.  All  differ  from 
each  other  as  greatly  as  from  the  Pitmanic 
systems.  The  Cross,  or  Eclectic,  is  formed 
largely  upon  the  basis  of  position  of  strokes, 
though  several  new  strokes  are  also  used.  The 
Pernin  is  evolved  from  geometrical  figures 
and  does  not  use  the  Pitmanic  shading.  The 
Gregg  system,  which  has  been  gaimng  ad- 
herents rapidly  in  the  "West,  has  five  striking 
features — (1)  no  shading;  (2)  slope  same 
as  in  long-hand;  (3)  no  position  writing;  (4) 
vowels  and  consonants  conjoined;  (5)  curves 
are  used  and  few  angles.  The  McKee,  com- 
monly known  as  the  New  Standard  sj'stem, 
retains  the  Pitmanic  shading,  and  its  vowels 
are  composed  of  circles  and  ellipses  in  dif- 
ferent sizes.    It  does  not  use  positions. 

Shorthand  has  now  been  developed  to  the 
point  where  it  easily  keeps  pace  with  speech. 


a  fair  average  for  an  accomplished  reporter 
being  from  150  to  175  words  a  minute.  Speed 
records  have  been  made  and  authenticated  of 
from  200  to  275  words  a  minute,  for  a  period 
of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in  succession,  and 
higher  rates  have  been  reached  for  shorter 
periods. 

SHOSHO'NEAN  INDIANS,  the  great 
group  of  tribes  who  lived  west  of  Kansas, 
north  and  west  as  far  as  Oregon  and  south 
and  west  to  California.  Those  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  were  hunting  tribes,  of 
fierce  and  warlike  disposition,  while  those 
living  west  of  the  mountains  lived  on  small 
animals,  fish,  roots  and  seeds.  The  savagery 
of  the  Shoshoni,  also  called  Diggers,  or  Snake, 
Indians,  was  thoroughly  disgusting,  but  some 
of  the  southern  members  of  the  group,  the 
Hopi  in  particular,  living  in  Northwestern 
Arizona,  were  Pueblo  Indians  and  were  suc- 
cessful agriculturists  and  skilled  makers  of 
pottery  and  basketry.  Bannock,  Comanche, 
Ute  and  Shoshoni  are  among  the  principal 
tribes.  The  tribes  belonging  to  this  great 
family  are  bound  together  by  kindred  lan- 
guages, more  than  by  any  physical  resem- 
blances or  common  customs  of  life. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Comanche  Indians,  American 

Hopi  Ute 

SHOSHONE  FALLS,  shosho'ne,  a 
waterfall  of  the  Snake  River,  in  Southern 
Idaho,  exceeded  in  grandeur  and  majesty,  in 
the  United  States,  only  by  Niagara  Falls  and 
the  falls  of  the  Yosemit€  Valley.  The  river 
flows  for  some  distance  through  a  canyon  800 
feet  deep,  where  it  has  a  number  of  small 
falls  and  cataracts.  These  terminate  in  the 
main  fall,  which  plunges  190  feet  into  a 
lake  at  the  bottom  of  a  gorge  over  1,000  feet 
deep. 

SHOSHONE  RIVER.    See  Snake  River. 

SHOT,  the  name  applied  to  small  projec- 
tiles used  in  sporting  weapons  called  shot- 
guns. It  is  made  by  pouring  melted  lead 
through  holes  in  a  eollander  placed  at  some 
distance  above  water.  The  drops  of  lead  as- 
sume a  globular  form  in  their  descent  and 
harden  when  they  strike  the  water.  There  are 
different  sizes  of  shot,  each  adapted  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  A  small 
shot  is  used  in  hunting  birds,  but  a  large  size 
is  required  for  small  animals.  The  sizes  are 
designated  by  number. 

Formerly  the  term  shot  was  applied  to  all 
solid  projectiles  fired  from  cannon,  but  it  is 


SHOT 


3289 


SHRAPNEL 


not  considered  in  that  sense  since  the  inven- 
tion of  the  modern  shell.    See  Shell, 

SHOT,  Putting  the,  an  athletic  test  of 
strength  and  skill.  The  shot  putter  throws  a 
weight  the  greatest  distance  possible  without 
stepping  outside  of  a  seven-foot  circle.  The 
shot  is  spherical  in  shape.  For  the  use  of 
boys  it  weighs  twelve  pounds ;  for  adults,  six- 
teen pounds.  In  the  first  position  the  putter 
stands  with  his  right  heel  just  within  the  circle 
and  his  left  foot  forward.  The  put  is  held 
loosely  in  his  right  hand,  which  rests,  palm 
upward,  on  his  right  shoulder,  and  the  right 
elbow  is  held  close  to  the  body.  The  first  move- 
ment is  a  leap  forward  by  a  quick  turn  to  the 
right,  which  brings  the  weight  of  the  body 
upon  the  right  foot.  The  putter  then  swings 
his  body  forward,  using  his  left  foot  as  a 
pivot,  throwing  his  right  foot  forward  as 
far  as  he  may,  at  the  same  time  thrusting  out 
his  right  arm  and  releasing  the  shot  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  Shot  putting  is 
not  arm  throwing,  but,  rather,  delivering  a 
weight  by  swinging  the  entire  force  of  the 
body  into  the  movement. 

SHOT'GUN,  a  smooth-bore  gun  which  fires 
a  charge  of  small  shot,  and  which  is  used  for 
shooting  small  game.  Formerly  shotguns 
were  made  with  one,  two  or  even  three  barrels, 
and  the  double-barrel  gun  is  still  in  favor 
with  many  sportsmen.  The  typical  modern 
shotgun  has  but  one  barrel,  and  a  magazine 
in  which  the  shells  are  stored.  The  bore  of 
a  shotgun  is  named  from  the  weight  of  the 
bullet,  required  to  fit  it.  If  it  takes  a  bullet 
weighing  one-twelfth  of  a  pound,  it  is  a  12- 
bore.  This  and  10-bore  are  the  sizes  most 
commonly  used.  All  modern  shotguns  are 
breechloaders,  the  cartridges  or  shells  being 
inserted  in  the  breech.  The  cartridge — a 
charge  of  explosive,  a  load  of  shot  and  a 
percussion  cap,  to  explode  the  charge — is 
usually  packed  in  a  cylindrical  paper  casing. 
From  six  to  twelve  cartridges  can  be  placed 
in  a  magazine.  The  effective  range  of  a  12- 
bore  shotgun  is  from  sixty  to  seventy-five 
yards;  for  rabbits  and  partridges,  forty  to 
fifty  yards. 

The  first  breech-loading  gun  was  invented 
in  1836,  and  since  that  time  by  numerous  im- 
provements shotguns  have  been  brought  to  as 
high  degree  of  perfection  as  any  other  small 
arm.  Hammerless  guns,  which  discharge  the 
shell  by  a  mechanism  hidden  in  the  breech, 
are  the  most  popular.  The  prices  of  shotguns 
vary  from  $10  for  the  cheapest  to  $200. 


SHOVELBOARD.     See  Shupfleboard. 

SHOVELER,  shuv'el  er,  or  SPOON'BILL, 
a  river  duck,  so  named  because  the  end  of  its 
bill  is  widened,  like  a  shovel  or  spoon,  its 
upper  mandible  overlapping  the  lower.     It 


SHOVELER 

feeds  in  the  mud  of  shallow  waters,  using  its 
bill  to  stir  up  the  mud  and  capture  small  ani- 
mals. The  male  bird  is  rather  gay  in  color, 
but  the  female  is  much  more  modest  in  ap- 
pearance. One  species  is  found  in  the  United 
States  during  summer,  although  the  shoveler 
is  more  prevalent  in  South  America,  South 
Africa  and  the  Australian  region. 

SHRAP'NEL,  a  projectile  used  extensively 
by  field  artillery  and  to  some  extent  in  navies. 
It  consists  of  an  elongated  pointed  steel  shell 
filled  with  bullets  and  an  explosive  charge  set 
to  a  time  piece.  The  base  of  the  shell  is 
enclosed  in  a  metal  case  which  contains  the 
explosive  that  fires  the  shell  from  the  gun. 
There  are  a  number  of  sizes  of  shrapnel,  each 
determined  by  the  caliber  of  the  gun  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used.  The  3-inch  gun  is  in  general 
use  in  light  field  artillery,  and  this  carries  a 
shell  weighing  about  eighteen  pounds.  The 
length  of  the  shell  is  three  times  its  diameter 


SHRAPNEL 

a.  Smokeless  powder  (Nitrocellulose) 

b.  Black  powder 

c.  Shot 

and  it  carries  from  238  to  350  lead  balls.  The 
exploding  charge  may  be  placed  in  the  front 
or  the  rear.  A  shell  for  5-inch  gun  weighs 
forty-five  pounds,  and  contains  22A  pounds  of 
lead  balls.  These  shells  are  effective  at  11,000 
yards,  or  about  six  miles.  Those  of  the 
3-ineh  gun  are  effective  from  three  to  four 
miles. 


SHREVEPORT 


3290 


SHRIKE 


Shrapnel  is  designed  for  use  in  the  field  and 
to  dislodge  the  enemy  from  covered  places, 
and  is  very  destructive,  A  single  shell  when 
it  bursts  throws  its  balls  over  an  area  of 
several  hundred  square  feet.  A  battery  of  a 
few  guns  will  soon  render  a  large  field  unten- 
able. In  the  navy  shrapnel  is  used  against 
torpedo  boats  and  other  small  craft.  It  was 
named  for  its  inventor,  Colonel  Henry 
Shrapnel  of  the  British  army. 

SHREVEPORT,  shreev'port,  La.,  the  sec- 
ond city  in  size  in  the  state  and  the  parish 
seat  of  Caddo  Parish,  325  miles  northwest  of 
New  Orleans  and  fifteen  miles  from  the  Texas 
state  line.  The  city  is  on  the  Red  River  and 
on  the  Texas  &  Pacific,  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
&  Texas,  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacif- 
ic, the  Houston  East  &  West  Texas,  the  Kan- 
sas City  Southern,  the  Louisiana  Railway  & 
Navigation  Company,  the  Louisiana  &  Arkan- 
sas, the  Saint  Louis  &  Southwestern  (Cotton 
Belt)  and  the  Texarkana,  Natchitoches  & 
Shreveport  railroads.  It  is  in  the  center  of 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  Cotton  is 
the  principal  product  of  the  rich  agricultural 
region,  and  the  city  contains  cotton  compress- 
es, cottonseed  oil  mills,  machine  shops,  ferti- 
lizer works,  ice  factories,  lumber  and  stock- 
yards and  manufactories  of  safes  and  vaults, 
silos  and  bottles.  It  also  exports  consider- 
able live  stock,  hides  and  wool.  Some  of  the 
prominent  features  are  three  hospitals,  a  Fed- 
eral building,  a  courthouse,  a  fine  city  hall, 
a  large  hotel  and  a  new  bank  building. 
Shreveport  was  settled  in  1833  and  was  in- 
corporated in  1839.  During  the  Civil  War  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  state,  after  the  capture 
of  Baton  Rouge.  The  commission  form  of 
government  was  adopted  in  1910.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  28,015;  in  1917,  37,064  (Federal 
estimate). 

SHREW,  a  genus  of  small  insect-eating 
mammals,  found  in  almost  every  region  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  The  common  shrew 
may  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  prolonged 
muzzle,  by  its  teeth,  colored  brown  at  the  tips, 
and  by  its  reddish-brown  fur.  It  feeds 
chiefly  by  night  upon  insects  and  their  larvae, 
and  inhabits  dry  places  making  a  nest  of 
leaves  and  grasses.  Shrews  are  voracious  in 
their  habits  and  frequently  kill  and  devour 
one  another.  They  secrete  a  fluid  of  disagree- 
able odor,  which  prevents  larger  animals 
from  eating  their  flesh.  In  foi-mer  days  the 
bite  of  the  shrew  was  accounted  venomous, 
while  its  body,  variously  treated,  was  regarded 


as  a  cure  for  many  complaints.  One  Ameri- 
can species,  the  mole  shrew,  resembling  a 
mole  in  some  of  its  habits,  feeds  upon  flesh 
of  all  kinds.  Another  American  species  is 
the  shrew  mouse,  smaller  and  lighter  in  color, 
which  dwells  around  marshes  and  wet  regions. 


COMMON  SHREW 

The  water  shrew,  the  largest  American  shrew, 
attains  a  total  length  of  about  five  inches. 
The  snout  is  not  so  pointed  as  that  of  the 
common  shrew.  Its  color  is  black  on  the 
upper  parts  and  white  underneath.  A 
prominent  swimming  fringe  of  stiff,  white 
hairs  is  found  on  the  tail  and  the  toes,  which 
forms  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  species.  Its 
food  resembles  that  of  the  common  shrew.  It 
makes  its  burrows  in  the  overhanging  banks 
of  rivers  and  lakes  and  dives  and  swims  with 
great  facility. 

SHREW  MOLE,  a  genus  of  mammals  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  shrew  mice,  but  also 
by  some  zoologists  placed  in  the  mole  family. 
It  is  found  in  North  America,  usually  near 
rivers  and  streams,  and  burrows  after  the 
fashion  of  the  common  mole,  which  it  resem- 
bles in  its  fine  and  closely-set  fur.  The  aver- 
age length  of  the  shrew  mole  is  about  seven 
inches. 

SHRIKE,  a  name  applied  rather  loosely 
to  various  birds  with  strong,  hooked  bills. 
In  the  United   States  but  two   species  are 


\,isi.'  > 


SHRIKE 


found — the  northern  shrike,  or  butcher  bird, 
and  the  loggerhead  shrike.  These  birds 
strongly  resemble  each  other  in  appearance 


SHRIMP 


3291 


SIAM 


and  differ  but  little  in  size.  Their  general 
color  is  gray  on  the  upper  and  white  on  the 
under  parts,  the  quills  of  the  tail  are  black, 
and  a  black  band  crosses  the  forehead 
and  surrounds  the  eyes.  Shrikes  are  about 
nine  or  ten  inches  in  length.  They  prey  on 
large  insects  and  small  mammals,  impaling 
them  upon  thorns,  fence  barbs,  or  forked 
twigs, 

SHRIMP,  a  genus  of  small  crustaceans, 
closely  allied  to  the  crawfish.  The  common 
shrimp,  found  in  the  North  Atlantic  on  both 


/^^ 


SHRIMP 

the  European  and  American  coasts,  and  in  the 
Pacific,  is  a"bout  two  inches  long,  greenish- 
gray  in  color,  with  brown  dots;  on  the  Paci- 
fic coast  it  is  pink.  Shrimps  are  caught  in 
nets  and  are  marketed  in  canned  form. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY,  in  Roman  Catholic 
ritual,  the  day  before  the  first  day  of  Lent, 
or  Ash  Wednesday,  so  called  because  con- 
fession is  specially  made  and  "shrift"  is  re- 
ceived. It  was  at  first  a  day  of  considerable 
festivity,  and  from  the  common  practice  in 
England  of  eating  pancakes  then,  the  day 
came  to  be  called  Pancake  Tuesday.  It  is  the 
Carnival  of  the  Italians.  Since  1857  Shrove 
Tuesday  has  been  celebrated  in  New  Orleans 
by  a  street  pageant,  known  as  the  Mardi 
Gras  representing,  in  elaborate  tableaux, 
noted  scenes  in  history  and  literature,  by  a 
masquerade  ball  and  by  other  gay  entertain- 
ments. 

SHUFTLEBOARD  or  SHOVELBOARD, 
a  game  played  by  two  or  four  persons,  on  a 
sand-sprinkled  board,  thirty  feet  long,  with 
raised  edges.  Across  the  board,  five  inches 
from  each  end,  a  line  is  drawn.  Eight  circu- 
lar pieces  of  iron,  about  two  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter  and  weighing  a  pound,  are  used 
by  the  players,  who  slide  them  the  length  of 
the  board.  Each  side  has  four  pieces,  and  the 
players  slide  them  in  rotation.  If  a  piece  is 
left  projecting  over  the  edge  of  the  board,  it 
scores  three  points.  If  it  rests  between  the 
finishing  line  and  the  edge  or  on  the  line  it 
scores  two  points.  If  no  piece  is  inside  the 
line,  then  the  one  nearest  to  it  scores  one. 
The  game  is  twenty-one  points. 


6 

1 

8 

7 

5 

3 

2 

9 

4 

Another  form  of  shuffleboard  is  popular  on 
ocean  steamers.  A  place  on  the  deck  is 
marked  out,  as  in  the 
accompanying  d  i  a- 
gram.  The  players 
stand  nine  or  ten  paces 
away,  and  each  in  turn 
pushes  one  of  his 
pieces  along  the  deck 
with  a  crutch-shaped 
cue,  in  an  endeavor  to 
leave  the  pieces  on  the  \_  iq  7 

numbered  squares.    If  — -^ 

a  piece  rests  on  one  of  SHUFFLEboard 
the  semi-circular  places,  ten  is  taken  off  the 
player's  score;  on  the  squares  the  count  is  as 
indicated  by  the  numbers.  The  game  is  ex- 
actly 50  points.  If  more  than  fifty  are  made, 
the  additional  ones  are  deducted  from  the 
score. 

tJAM,  the  "Kingdom  of  the 
Free"  and  the  "Land  of 
the  White  Elephant,"  is 
the  only  independent 
country  in  Indo- China 
Peninsula.  A  projection 
extends  into  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  reaching  south 
to  the  4th  degree  of  north 
latitude,  and  is  known  as 
Lower  Siam.  Siam  prop- 
er is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  Anam,  or 
French  Indo-China,  on 
the  south  by  the  Gulf  of 
Siam  and  on  the  west  by 
Burma.  Lower  Siam 
separates  the  Indian 
Ocean  on  the  west  from 
the  China  Sea  on  the  east.  The  northern 
boundary  is  somewhat  indefinite,  but  the  area, 
of  the  country  is  about  195,000  square  miles, 
or  about  the  area  of  California  and  Indiana 
combined.  About  45,000  square  miles  are  in 
the  Malay  Peninsula. 

The  People.  In  1916  there  were  8,819,686 
people  in  the  country.  Of  this  number 
1,500,000  were  Siamese,  who  are  indolent, 
carefree,  submissive  and  hospitable.  They  are 
of  Mongolian  stock,  of  medium  height,  and 
have  an  olive  complexion,  somewhat  fairer 
than  that  of  the  Malay.  Many  Laotians  dwell 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom,  and 
Shan,  Karen  and  Kamoo  tribes  are  found  in 
the  uplands.  The  country  contains  a  large 
number  of  Chinese,  who  control  all  the  im- 


SIAM 


3292 


SIAM 


portant  business  enterprises.  It  is  estimated 
that  one-third  of  the  population  of  Bangkok  is 
Chinese. 

Buddhism  is  the  principal  religion,  and  the 
white  elephant,  which  is  native  in  the  penin- 
sula, is  an  object  of  veneration  and  even 
worship,  because  it  is  believed  that  the  soul 
of  some  great  king  or  of  Buddha  himself  is 
embodied  in  the  animal.  Buddhism  is  found 
in  Siam  in  its  purest  form,  and  the  king  is 
recognized  as  the  protector  of  the  faith. 
Class  distinctions,  such  as  are  found  in  India, 
do  not  exist. 

All  public  schools  are  under  control  of  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Ecclesias- 
tical Affairs.  There  is  a  commissioner  of 
education  in  each  province.  Besides  govern- 
ment schools  there  are  local  and  private 
schools,  and  in  addition  to  the  activities  of 
the  government  in  behalf  of  education,  the 
institutions  established  by  American,  Eng- 
lish and  French  missionaries  provide  educa- 
tional facilities  for  a  large  number  of  chil- 
dren. A  number  of  secondary  schools  have 
been  established,  and  a  university  with  de- 
partments of  medicine,  law,  engineering, 
agriculture,  commerce  and  pedagogy  has  been 
organized.  The  Siamese  language  is  the  offi- 
cial language  of  the  kingdom. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  In  general,  Siam 
proper  is  a  low  plain,  sloping  gently  toward 
the  south  and  consisting  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Menam  River  and  its  tributaries,  together 
with  the  Mekong,  which  forms  the  western 
boundary,  and  the  valleys  of  its  tributaries. 
The  watersheds  between  these  are  low  and  in 
some  places  scarcely  noticeable.  In  the  main, 
the  land  along  the  streams  and  near  the  coast 
is  low  and  swampy.  On  the  southeastern  bor- 
der is  Tonle  Sap  Lake,  a  large  part  of  which 
is  in  Cambodia.  On  the  western  boundary  is  a 
rocky  ridge,  constituting  a  low  mountain 
chain,  the  extension  of  which  forms  the  back- 
bone of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  Mekong, 
forming  a  part  of  the  eastern  boundary ;  the 
Menam  with  its  tributary,  the  Meping,  and 
the  Nam  Mun  are  the  principal  rivers. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  tropical,  but  owing 
to  the  position  of  the  country  in  reference  to 
the  sea,  it  is  not  as  hot  as  one  might  expect 
from  the  latitude.  The  humidity  is  great,  and 
in  general  the  climate  is  trying,  if  not  un- 
healthful,  to  Europeans.  There  are  two 
seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry,  the  former  last- 
ing from  May  to  October,  and  the  latter  oc- 
cupying the  remainder  of  the  year.    The  rain- 


fall is  heavy,  in  some  sections  amounting  to 
240  inches  a  year,  but  during  the  dry  season, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  no  rain 
falls  for  several  months.  Here  the  atmos- 
phere is  drier,  and  the  nights  are  cool. 

Production  and  Industry.  The  northern 
part  of  the  country  is  covered  with  dense 
forests,  containing  teak  and  other  tropical 
woods,  and  large  quantities  of  teak  are  ex- 
ported, but  the  great  wealth  of  the  country  lies 
in  its  agricultural  regions,  which  are  confined 
to  the  lowlands  of  the  southern  half.  By  means 
of  the  numerous  rivers  and  canals,  these  can 
be  amply  watered  and  even  flooded  when  nec- 
essary. The  chief  crop  is  rice,  and  Siam  is 
one  of  the  largest  producers  of  this  grain  in 
the  world.  Cotton,  tobacco,  sugar  cane,  coffee 
and  pepper  are  also  raised.  The  mineral  re- 
sources are  not  developed,  yet  mining  is  car- 
ried on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  mining 
operations  include  tin,  gold  and  tungsten. 
Coal,  iron,  zinc,  manganese. and  antimony  oc- 
cur in  large  quantities. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  The  rivers 
constitute  the  chief  avenues  of  commerce. 
There  are  over  1,200  miles  of  railway  in  oper- 
ation. The  telegraph  and  the  telephone  have 
also  been  introduced.  The  chief  export  is  rice, 
and  the  annual  shipments  vary  in  value  from 
$15,000,000  to  $20,000,000.  Other  important 
articles  of  export  are  teak  and  precious  stones. 
The  timber  cutting  is  under  the  care  of  Eng- 
lish experts,  who  have  supervision  of  the 
forests. 

Government.  The  government  is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy.  The  king  is  assisted  by  a 
ministry,  consisting  of  members  appointed  by 
himself,  who  have  charge  of  the  various  de- 
partments of  government.  In  addition  to 
these  there  is  a  legislative  council  which  in- 
cludes the  ministry,  ex-ministers  and  others 
who  are  nominated  by  the  king.  Within  re- 
cent years  the  government  has  made  marked 
advance  along  lines  similar  to  those  followed 
by  the  best  European  nations.  This  is  largely 
due  to  the  advice  of  foreigners,  especially 
Englishmen,  whom  the  king  has  called  to  his 
assistance.  For  the  purpose  of  local  govern- 
ment the  country  is  divided  into  prov- 
inces, over  each  of  which  is  a  governor.  Much 
of  the  territory  subject  to  the  king  is  nomi- 
nall^v  under  the  control  of  France  or  Great 
Britain,  and  other  portions  are  naled  by  the 
chiefs  of  native  tribes,  though  these  are  sub- 
ject to  the  central  government  at  Bangkok. 
The  Malay  provinces  are  ruled  by  rajahs,  who 


SIBERIA 


3293 


SIBERIA 


^-'\; 


V\  I  lager  in  winter  costumft 


are  subject  to  a  local  agent,  who  represents 
the  king.  Bangkok  is  the  capital  and  the 
only  city  of  importance.  Consult  Knox's 
Siam  and  Java  and  Annie  H.  Leonowen's 
Siam  and  the  Siamese. 

C^IBBRIA,  »ibe'ria,  for- 
merly a  division  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  consti- 
tuting the  most  extensive 
portion  of  the  Russian  do- 
main in  Asia.  In  1917, 
when  the  czar  was  over- 
thrown, a  provisional  gov- 
ernment was  set  up  in  Si- 
beria independent  of  the 
one  in  Petrograd,  and 
later,  on  the  seizure  of 
power  by  the  Bolsheviki, 
an  anti-Bolshevik  govern- 
ment was  established  at 
Omsk,  in  Western  Siberia. 
(For  details,  see  subhead 
History,  below.) 
Physical  Features.  Siberia  extends  across 
the  continent  of  Asia,  from  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains on  the  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the 
east,  and  from  China  on  the  south  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north.  The  southern 
boundary  is  distinctlj'  marked  along  the  west- 
ern portion  by  the  Thian-Shan  Mountains; 
by  the  Altai,  in  the  center,  and  by  the  Yab- 
lonoi,  farther  east,  while  the  extreme  eastern 
portion  of  this  boundary  is  formed  by  the 
Amur  River.  The  area  is  about  4,800,000 
square  miles,  or  one  and  one-half  times  that 
of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska  and 
island  possessions. 

The  entire  region  is  a  vast  plain,  sloping 
gradually  to  the  north,  but  it  is  naturally  di- 
vided into  western  and  eastern  portions,  the 
western  part  containing  scarcely  any  eleva- 
tions, the  watershed  between  the  Obi  and  the 
Yenesei  being  so  slight  that  it  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible. The  Stanovoi  Mountains  extend 
along  the  eastern  coast  and  rise  abruptly 
from  the  sea.  A  spur  of  this  range,  extending 
into  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  has  some 
peaks  that  are  estimated  to  have  an  elevation 
of  nearly  15,000  feet.  Between  the  Stanovoi 
Mountains  and  the  Lena  River  are  a  number 
of  broad  elevations,  more  resembling  pla- 
teaus than  mountain  ranges,  so  that  this  por- 
tion of  Siberia  has  a  somewhat  mountainous 
character.  The  highest  peaks  are  found  along 
the  southern  border,  where  the  White  Moun- 
tain, in  the  great  Altai,  near  the  southeastern 


boundary,  reaches  an  elevation  of  14,800  feet, 
and  other  elevations  along  the  ridges  forming 
this  boundary,  range  from  9,000  to  12,000 
feet. 

Siberia  has  a  number  of  long  rivers.  In 
their  order,  from  the  west  eastward,  these  are 
the  Obi,  the  Yenesei  and  the  Lena,  flowing 
into  the  Arctic,  and  the  Amur,  flowing  into 
the  Pacific.  It  is  estimated  that  no  other 
country,  except  Brazil,  has  so  many  long 
rivers  as  Siberia.  The  Amur  is  navigable  for 
about  2,400  miles;  but  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Arctic  are  of  little  value  commer- 
cially, because  they  are  closed  by  ice  during 
the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  However, 
steamers  ascend  these  and  their  tributaries 
during  the  summer  months  and  afford  the  in- 
habitant-s  of  their  valleys  opportunity  to  com- 
municate with  the  outside  world. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Siberia  is  charac- 
terized by  short,  wai-m  summers  and  long  and 
intensely  severe  winters.  Central  Siberia  is 
considered  to  have  a  colder  climate  than  any 
other  habitable  portion  of  the  globe,  the  ther- 
mometer in  winter  sometimes  registering  60° 
and  even  75°  below  zero.  In  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  country,  the  soil  remains  frozen 
throughout  the  year,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  inches  near  the  surface,  that  thaw  during 
the  summer.  It  is  supposed  to  be  frozen 
for  several  hundred  feet  below  the  surface. 
In  excavations  that  have  been  made,  layers  of 
ice  intervening  between  layers  of  soil  have 
been  found  to  considerable  depths,  and  ge- 
ologists are  of  the  opinion  that  these  ice  sheets 
are  remains  of  the  glacial  age.  In  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  country  there  is  very  little  rain 
or  snow,  and  over  a  good  part  of  the  region,  it 
is  impossible  to  use  sledges ;  but  in  the  west- 
ern portion  there  is  rainfall  suflBcient  for  suc- 
cessful agriculture. 

Resources  and  Industry.  According  to  its 
vegetable  life,  Siberia  can  be  divided  into 
three  regions.  The  great  tundra,  occupying 
the  northern  portion  of  the  country,  has  its 
surface  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens,  ex- 
cept during  the  short  summer,  when  numer- 
ous flowering  plants  spring  up  and  come  to 
rapid  maturity.  South  of  this,  occupying  the 
central  portion,  is  the  wooded  belt,  which  ex- 
tends the  entire  length  of  the  country  and  con- 
tains trees  of  stunted  growth.  This  gradually 
merges  into  the  woodland  and  forest  belt, 
which  extends  across  the  entire  southern  part. 
This  region  is  believed  to  contain  the  most  ex- 
tensive forests  known,  aside  from  those  of 


SIBERIA 


3294 


SIBERIA 


the  Amazon  basin.  Here  are  found  large 
areas  of  pine,  spruce,  maple,  oak,  beech,  birch 
and  poplar.  The  summers  in  this  part  of 
Siberia  are  sufficiently  long  to  admit  of  the 
growing  of  nearly  all  crops  raised  in  cool  tem- 
perate regions.  Siberia  abounds  in  fur-bear- 
ing animals,  and  the  taking  and  curing  of 
furs  is  a  valuable  industry  for  the  inhabitants 
of  some  of  the  colder  regions. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  largely  undeveloped. 
Mining  operations  are  carried  on  in  the 
Ural  Mountains,  where  gold,  silver  and  plati- 
num are  found.  Gold  mines  are  also  worked 
to  some  extent  in  the  eastern  and  northeast- 
em  parts  of  Siberia,  and  coal  mining  has  re- 
ceived some  attention.  There  are  extensive 
deposits  of  salt,  sulphur,  lead  and  copper 
awaiting  development. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  this  is  most  extensive  in 
western  Siberia,  where  large  crops  of  wheat, 
hay,  oats,  barley  and  potatoes  are  raised.  The 
raising  of  live  stock  is  also  important.  The 
most  important  manufacturing  center  is 
Tomsk,  which  contains  a  number  of  mills  and 
factories  and  supplies  a  large  region  with 
porcelain,  flour,  carpets,  iron  ware  and  re- 
fined sugar. 

Transportation.  The  Trans-Siberian  Rail- 
road, extending  the  entire  length  of  Siberia 
and  connecting  Vladivostok,  on  the  Pacific, 
with  Moscow  and  Petrograd,  has  been  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  development  of  the 
country.  By  means  of  this  line  of  transpor- 
tation, goods  from  other  lands  can  be  im- 
ported, and  the  products  of  the  inhabitants 
can  reach  foreign  markets  at  rates  of  trans- 
portation that  enable  them  to  be  sold  with  a 
margin  of  profit.  Because  of  unsettled  con- 
ditions this  railroad  declined  considerably  in 
efficiency  after  the  Russian  revolution,  but 
steps  were  taken  in  the  spring  of  1919  to  re- 
habilitate it.  In  March  allied  control  of  the 
road  was  effected  by  the  formal  organiza- 
tion of  technical  and  military  committees. 
The  head  of  the  technical  committee  was  John 
F.  Stevens,  an  American  railway  expert. 

People.  Western  Siberia  is  much  more 
densely  populated  than  the  other  portions  of 
the  country.  Over  sixty  per  cent  of  the  pop- 
ulation are  Russians.  The  other  inhabitants 
include,  chiefly,  Germans  and  Aryan  gypsies, 
while  in  the  eastern  portion  are  a  number  of 
tribes  closely  allied  to  the  Samoyeds  and 
Finns.  In  Eastern  Siberia  are  Tartars,  Chi- 
nese, Manchus  and  Koreans.     In  1915  the 


population    was    estimated    at    10,377,900. 

Cities.  Under  the  old  regime,  Omsk  (pop- 
ulation 135,800)  was  the  seat  of  government 
of  the  Steppes  provinces,  but  it  is  geographic- 
ally in  Siberia.  Irkutsk  (129,700)  was  the 
capital  of  Eastern  Siberia;  Tomsk  (116,664), 
the  capital  of  Western  Siberia.  The  largest 
Pacific  port,  Vladivostok  (91,464),  was  the 
chief  Russian  naval  station  in  Asia. 

History.  Western  Siberia  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  in  1582,  and  from  that  time  the 
purpose  of  the  Russian  government  was  to 
extend  its  dominions  eastward.  It  was  a 
long  time  before  the  Pacific  coast  was  reached, 
and  the  last  acquisition  of  territory,  which 
was  obtained  from  China,  was  not  made  until 
1861.  Following  the  Chino-Japanese  War, 
in  1896,  Russia  secured  a  lease  of  Port  Ar- 
thur and  other  portions  of  Manchuria,  but 
its  failure  to  keep  the  treaty  agreement  to 
vacate  certain  ports  after  1900  led  to  the 
war  with  Japan  in  1904,  as  a  result  of  which 
Russian  aggressions  in  theEast  were  checked, 
and  Port  Arthur,  a  part  of  the  island  of 
Sakhalin  and  some  other  territory  were  re- 
linquished. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  czars  thousands  of 
political  offenders  were  sent  to  Siberia,  and 
the  name  became  synonymous  with  cruelty 
and  despotism.  There  is  no  doubt  that  great 
injustice  characterized  the  system,  and  many 
of  the  exiles  who  returned  to  Russia  in 
1917  on  the  downfall  of  the  imperial  govern- 
ment, had  strongest  personal  reasons  for 
throwing  themselves  into  the  revolutionary 
movement.  The  people  of  Siberia  attempted 
to  establish  an  independent  republic  at  that 
time,  and  the  Siberian  district  congress  at 
Tomsk  elected  a  provisional  government  with 
a  coalition  Cabinet. 

The  overthrow  of  the  Kerensky  regime  by 
the  Lenine  group  in  November,  1917,  gave 
impetus  to  Bolshevik  sentiment  in  Siberia, 
and  from  that  time  on  there  was  great  politi- 
cal confusion.  The  situation  was  affected 
by  several  factors,  including  the  march  of  the 
Czecho-Slovaks  through  Siberia  and  the  land- 
ing of  allied  troops  to  keep  the  country  from 
falling  into  anarchy.  The  Czecho-Slovaks, 
men  of  Bohemia  and  Slovakia,  were  deserters 
from  the  Austrian  army.  Several  thousand 
had  joined  the  Russians,  and  when  Russia 
withdrew  from  the  war  they  were  given  per- 
mission by  Lenine  to  go  to  France  by  way 
of  Siberia.  While  on  the  march  they  were 
attacked  by  Bolsheviks,  and,  according  to  re- 


SIBERIA 


3295 


SICILIAN  VESPERS 


ports,  by  liberated  German  and  Austrian  pris- 
oners. In  self-defense  they  struck  back, 
seized  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  and  were 
persuaded  by  the  allies  to  remain  in  Siberia 
to  help  preserve  order. 

Omsk  became  the  headquarters  of  the  anti- 
Bolshevik  government,  and  in  the  fall  of 
1918  there  was  established  in  that  city  a  di- 
rectorate of  the  AU-Russian  Government,  rep- 
resenting a  coalition  of  numerous  political 
and  social  parties.  In  November  Admiral 
Kolchak,  head  of  the  anti-Bolshevik  troops  in 
Siberia,  was  made  leader  of  the  government. 
In  the  meantime  the  allies  had  intervened  by 
sending  troops  into  the  country,  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  they  were  to  work  under  the 
leadership  of  Japan,  and  that  each  country 
was  to  land  not  more  thaa  7,000  men.  The 
object  of  intervention  was  to  preserve  order 
and  aid  in  the  economic  development  of  the 
country.  The  American  contingent  was  com- 
manded by  Major-General  S.  Graves,  and  the 
first  disembarkation,  at  Vladivostok,  occurred 
ou  August  15,  1918.  Much  criticism  was  di- 
rected against  the  United  States  government 
because  of  its  supposed  "do  nothing"  policy. 
President  Wilson  publicly  declared  that 
America  would  not  intervene  in  the  domestic 
affairs  of  the  Russians,  and  the  American  of- 
ficials scrupulously  followed  this  policy,  so 
far  as  it  was  possible. 

America  did  take  steps,  however,  to  prevent 
the  exploitation  of  Siberia  by  Japan.  Because 
of  representations  made  by  the  State  Depart- 
ment Japan  withdrew  over  half  its  troops 
from  the  country,  as  the  Japanese  government 
had  sent  about  ten  times  as  many  soldiers  as 
had  been  agreed  upon.  America  also  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  about  an  inter-allied  agree- 
ment for  the  reorganization  and  operation  of 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  a  move  which 
had  long  been  hindered  by  the  Japanese  war 
faction.  By  March,  1919,  American  troops 
had  begun  to  take  control  of  strategic  points 
on  the  railway  between  Vladivostok  and 
Tchita,  and  the  system  was  being  reorganized. 

The  political  and  military  situation  was 
somewhat  uncertain  in  the  summer  of  1919. 
For  a  time  Admiral  Kolchak  had  considerable 
success  against  the  Russian  Bolsheviks  in  the 
region  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  he  ex- 
pected to  combine  his  forces  with  the  Cos- 
sacks and  the  troops  at  Archangel,  even- 
tually bringing  all  Russia  under  his  control. 
In  June  he  was  reported  to  be  retreating  and 
to  have  suffered  serious  reverses.     Negotia- 


tions with  the  allies  were  at  that  time  begun 
for  official  recognition  of  the  Omsk  govern- 
ment. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


CITIES 

Irkutsk 
Omsk 

Tobolsk 
Vladivostok 

LAKES 

Aral 

Baikal 

MOUNTAINS 

Altai 
Stanovoi 

Ural 
Yablonoi 

RIVERS 

Amur 
Lena 

Obi 
Yenesei 

UNCLASSIFIED 

Russia 

Trans-Siberian 
way 

World  War 
Rail- 

SIBYL,  sib'il,  according  to  Greek  and 
Roman  mythology,  a  group  of  women  said  to 
have  been  endowed  by  Apollo  with  prophetic 
spirit.  Their  number  is  generally  given  as 
ten,  of  whom  the  most  celebrated  was  the 
Cumaean  sibyl  (from  Cumae,  in  Campania). 
She  was  said  to  have  written  the  collection 
of  prophecies  known  as  Sibylline  Books, 
which  she  offered  to  Tarquin  the  Proud  for 
sale.  When  he  refused  to  buy  them,  on  account 
of  their  excessive  price,  she  threw  three  of 
the  nine  books  into  the  fire.  On  a  second  re- 
fusal, she  destroyed  three  more,  after  which 
Tarquin,  in  alarm,  paid  for  the  three  remain- 
ing volumes  the  price  originally  asked  for  the  ' 
nine.  These  books  were  preserved  in  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  were 
consulted  on  occasions  of  national  danger. 
When,  in  83  B.  c,  they  were  burned  in  a  fire 
which  destroyed  the  temple,  the  Senate  sent 
delegates  to  Italian  and  Greek  cities  to  col- 
lect all  Sibylline  verses  they  could  find.  About 
1,000  were  retained  and  preserved  in  the 
new  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  These 
were  burned  by  Stilicho  shortly  after  A.  d.  400. 
The  so-called  Sibylline  oracles  which  have 
come  down  to  modern  times  are  of  Jewish  or 
Christian  origin,  dating  from  about  170  b.  c. 
to  A.  D.  700. 

SICILIAN,  sissiVean,  VES'PERS,  the 
name  given  to  the  massacre  of  the  French  in 
Sicily  on  Easter  Monday,  1282,  while  the 
bells  were  ringing  for  the  vesper  service. 
Charles  of  Anjou  had  established  himself, 
through  the  favor  of  the  Pope,  in  possession 
of  Naples  and  Sicily.  He  ruled  with  great 
severity,  and  the  oppressed  people  applied  in 
vain  to  the  Pope  for  relief.  Enraged  by  the 
insult  offered  a  young  bride  by  a  French 
soldier,  the  inhabitants  of  Palermo  flew  to 


SICILIES 


3296 


SICILY 


arms  and  massacred  the  French.  Messina  and 
other  towns  followed  the  example  of  Palermo, 
and  the  Sicilian  Vespers  ended  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  domination  of  Charles  of  Anjou. 

SICILIES,  sis'il  liz,  Kingdom  op  the  Two, 
a  former  kingdom  of  Italy,  consisting  of  Na- 
ples, or  southern  Italy,  and  Sicily  (see  Sic- 
ily) .  About  1037,  while  Greeks  and  Saracens 
were  struggling  for  the  possession  of  Lower 
Italy  and  Sicily,  the  sons  of  Tancred  de 
Hauteville,  a  count  in  Lower  Normandy,  en- 
tered Lower  Italy  with  their  followers.  Rob- 
ert Guiscard,  one  of  these  brothers,  subdued 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  taking  the  title  of  duke, 
and  his  youngest  brother,  Count  Roger,  con- 
quered Sicily.  Roger's  son  an^  successor, 
Roger  II,  completed  the  conquest  of  all  Lower 
Italy  by  subduing  Capua,  Amalfi  and  Naples, 
and  in  1130  he  took  the  title  of  king,  calling 
his  kingdom  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

In  1189  the  race  of  Tancred  became  ex- 
tinct, and  the  German  emperor,  Henry  VI,  of 
the  House  of  Hohenstauf  en,  claimed  the  king- 
dom in  the  right  of  his  wife,  the  daughter  of 
Roger  II.  The  kingdom  remained  with  the 
family  of  Hohenstaufen  until  1266,  when 
Pope  Urban  IV,  feudal  overlord,  bestowed 
it  upon  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis 
IX  of  France. 

In  1282,  Sicily  freed  herself  from  the  op- 
pressions of  the  French  (see  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers) by  the  aid  of  King  Pedro  of  Aragon, 
and  Naples  was  separated  from  it,  Sicily  be- 
ing subject  to  the  kings  of  Aragon.  Naples 
remained  under  the  rule  of  the  House  of 
Anjou.  Alfonso  V  of  Aragon  gained  posses- 
sion of  Naples  in  1442,  which  he  bestowed  on 
his  natural  son,  Ferdinand. 

In  1504  Sicily  was  united  to  Naples  under 
the  Spanish  crown,  but  in  1713  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  again  divided  the  Two  Sicilies,  Na- 
ples falling  to  Austria,  Sicily  to  Savoy. 
Philip  V  of  Spain  reconquered  Sicily,  but  was 
forced  to  cede  it  to  Austria  in  1720,  Savoy 
receiving  Sardinia  in  exchange,  by  which 
means  the  Two  Sicilies  became  a  part  of  the 
Austrian  dominions. 

In  1734  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  V,  in- 
vaded Naples,  conquered  both  the  continental 
and  the  insular  part  of  the  kingdom  and  was 
crowned  at  Palermo  in  1735  as  Charles  IV. 
This  change  was  sanctioned  by  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna  (1738),  and  till  1860  this  line  of  the 
Bourbon  family  maintained  possession  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  except  for  a  few  years  during 
the  Napoleonic  period,  when  Joseph  Bona- 


parte and  Joachim  Murat  reigned  on  the 
mainland  as  kings  of  Naples. 

Francis  I,  Ferdinand  II,  and  Francis  II 
were  despotic  tyrants,  who  forced  the  people 
into  periodic  revolts,  which  were  put  down 
with  much  severity.  In  1860,  however,  an 
insurrection  broke  out  in  Sicily,  and  an  ex- 
pedition of  volunteers  from  Piedmont  and 
other  Italian  provinces,  under  Garibaldi, 
sailed  from  Genoa  to  the  assistance  of  the 
insurgents.  The  result  was  that  the  Neapol- 
itan troops  were  driven  from  the  island. 
Garibaldi,  following  up  his  success,  crossed 
over  to  the  mainland,  where  he  met  little  or 
no  opposition.  Francis  II  fled  from  Naples ; 
the  strong  places  in  his  hands  were  reduced, 
and  by  a  popular  vote  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  ceased  to  exist  as  such,  and  be- 
came a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  See 
Italy,  subhead  History. 

SICILY,  sis'il  i,  a  mountainous  island,  the 
largest  in  the  Mediterranean,  belonging  to 
Italy,  from  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  narrow  Strait  of 
Messina.  It  has  an  area  of  about  9,935  square 
miles.  The  north  and  east  coasts  are  steep 
and  cliffy  and  are  provided  with  good  har- 
bors, the  finest  being  that  of  Palermo.  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  consists  of  a 
plateau  of  varying  elevation,  and  the  highest 
point  is  the  active  volcano  of  Etna,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island. 

Climate.  The  climate,  as  in  the  other  re- 
gions of  the  Mediterranean,  is  mild,  and 
agreeable,  except  when  the  island  is  visited 
by  the  sirocco.    The  soil  is  very  fertile. 

Industries  and  Manufactures.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  cultivated  surface  is  given  over 
to  cereals,  chiefly  wheat,  although  oats  and 
barley  are  also  grown.  Cotton,  sugar  and 
tobacco  are  also  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
Fruits  of  every  variety  grow  in  abundance. 
The  vine  flourishes  almost  everywhere,  and 
much  wine  is  produced.  The  chief  exports  are 
fruits,  wine,  sulphur,  olive  oil  and  sumach. 
Tunny  and  sardine  fisheries  are  carried  on 
along  the  coast.  Manufactures  are  but  little 
developed.  The  chief  seats  of  foreign  com- 
merce are  the  three  principal  towns,  Palermo, 
Messina  and  Catania.  The  system  of  roads 
and  railways  is  defective.  Education  is  ex- 
tremely backward.  Life  and  property  are  by 
no  means  secure,  and  brigandage  still  exists. 

History.  At  the  dawn  of  history,  the  older 
races  inhabiting  Sicily,  the  Sicani  and  the 
Siculi,  were  hemmed  in  by  Phoenician  and 


SICKLE 


3297 


SIDON 


Greek  colonies.  The  Greeks,  who  entered  the 
island  in  the  eighth  century  b.  c,  founded 
the  great  cities  of  Syracuse,  Agrigentum  and 
Messina.  They  drove  the  Phoenicians  to  the 
northwest  coast  and  spread  their  influence  and 
culture  over  the  whole  island.  Greek  art  and 
literature  flourished,  and  many  Greek  names 
of  distinction  are  connected  witii  Sicily.  The 
Carthaginians  later  took  the  place  of  their 
kinsmen,  the  Phoenicians,  and  between  them 
and  the  Greeks  a  struggle  ensued,  which  ended 
in  favor  of  the  latter  (480  b.  c). 

War  with  the  Carthaginians  brought  the 
Romans  to  Sicily,  and  the  island  became  a  Ro- 
man province  in  212  b.  c.  On  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  the  island  was  overrun 
by  the  Goths,  who  retained  possession  till  the 
sixth  century  a.  d.,  when  Sicily  became  part 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century,  the  Saracens  gained  con- 
trol and  continued  tlieir  supremacy  until  their 
expulsion  in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  Nor- 
mans, who  remained  long  enough  in  posses- 
sion to  establish  the  feudal  system  in  all  its 
rigor.  (For  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
Sicily,  see  Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the  Two) 
Population,  1911,  3,672,258. 

SICK'LE,  a  reaping  hook,  consisting  of  a 
curved  blade  of  steel  with  a  handle,  the  edge 
of  the  blade  being  in  the  hollow  of  the  curs'e. 
In  using  the  sickle,  the  workman  holds  the 
handle  in  the  right  hand  and  grasps  with  the 
left  hand  as  much  grain  as  can  be  cut  at  one 
stroke.  The  sickle  is  then  placed  around  this 
bunch  of  gi-ass,  just  below  where  it  is  held, 
and  is  drawn  backward  towards  the  handle. 
The  sickle  has  been  largely  superseded  by  the 
cradle,  and  the  cradle  in  turn  has  given  place 
to  reaping  machines.    See  Scythe. 

SIDDONS,  sidfunz,  Sarah  Kemble  (1755- 
1831),  the  most  celebrated  English  actress  of 
her  time,  the  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble. 
She  was  born  at  Brecon,  Wales.  After  her 
first  success  at  Cheltenham,  in  Venice  Pre- 
served, in  1774,  she  secured  an  engagement  at 
Drury  Lane  Theater,  London,  which  was  al- 
most a  failure,  and  again  went  on  a  circuit 
in  the  provinces.  On  her  second  appearance 
at  Drury  Lane,  in  1782,  as  Isabella  in  The 
Fatal  Marrmge,  she  was  acknowledged  to  be 
the  foremost  tragic  actress  of  the  English 
stage,  and  this  distinction  she  retained  until 
her  retirement  in  1818.  She  captivated  audi- 
ences as  Queen  Catherine  in  Henry  VIII, 
Lady  Macbeth,  Volumnia  in  CorioJanus,  and 
many   other   parts.      Sir   Joshua   Reynolds 

207 


painted  a  celebrated  picture  of  her  as  the 
"Tragic  Muse." 

SIDEREAL,  si  d^re  al,  TIME,  time  meas- 
ured by  the  apparent  motion  of  the  stars. 
A  sidereal  day  is  the  time  from  the  passage 
of  a  star  across  the  meridian  till  its  next  pas- 
sage ;  it  is  exactly  the  period  of  the  revolution 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  It  is  the  most  con- 
stant unit  of  time.  Its  length  is  23  hours,  56 
minutes,  4.098  seconds.  A  sidereal  year  is  the 
period  in  which  the  fixed  stars  apparently 
complete  a  revolution  and  come  to  the  same 
point  in  the  heavens ;  it  is  the  exact  period  of 
the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun. 
There  are  366.2563612  sidereal  days  in  a 
sidereal  year. 

SIDNEY,  Philip,  Sir  (1554-1586),  an 
English  soldier,  courtier  and  poet,  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  figures  at  the  court  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  After  graduating  at  Ox- 
ford, he  traveled  through  Europe,  and  on  his 
return  he  was  most  cordially  received  by 
Queen  Elizabeth.  During  an  absence  from 
court,  forced  upon  him  by  his  outspoken  op- 
position to  a  projected  marriage  of  the  queen, 
he  wrote  his  famous  romance  of  Arcadia. 
It  is  said  that  at  one  time,  when,  with  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  he  planned  to  set  out  on  an 
expedition  to  the  West  Indies,  Elizabeth 
commanded  him  to  remain  in  England,  say- 
ing that  she  could  not  lose  the  "jewel  of  her 
kingdom."  Sidney  had  a  part  in  England's 
attempt  to  defend  the  Dutch  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  at  the  Battle  of  Zutphen  he 
was  mortally  wounded.  While  he  was  being 
carried  from  the  battlefield,  he  called  for 
water,  but  when  it  was  brought  to  him,  he 
motioned  it  away  and  said  to  a  wounded 
soldier  whom  he  saw  regarding  him  wistfully, 
"Thy  need  is  greater  than  mine.  "  Sidney's 
death  was  deeply  mourned  throughout  Eng- 
land. Though  his  writings  have  much  merit, 
it  is  chiefly  as  a  perfect  type  of  the  English 
gentleman  that  he  is  remembered. 

SIDON,  si' dun,  one  of  the  leading  cities 
of  ancient  Phoenicia,  situated  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, twenty-five  miles  south  of  Beirut. 
At  various  times  it  alternated  with  TjTe  in 
supremacy  in  the  Phoenician  confederacy. 

Sidon  was  famed  for  its  purple  dyes.  Its 
people  were  skilled  traders  and  artisans. 
Pliny  credits  them  with  the  discovery  and 
manufacture  of  a  glass  from  the  fine  sand  of 
the  Belus  River.  A  number  of  magnificent 
sarcophagi  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Sidon.     The  modern  town  of  Saida,  with  a 


SIEGE 


3298 


SIERRA  MADRE 


population  of  about  12,000,  occupies  a  por- 
tion of  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  See  Phoe- 
kicia;  Tyre. 

SIEGE,  seej,  in  war,  the  stationing  of  an 
army  before  a  fortified  place  for  the  purpose 
of  forcing  its  surrender.  In  conducting  a 
siege  the  enemy  is  first  surrounded  and  cut 
off  from  supplies,  reinforcements  and  retreat. 
The  attacking  party  intrenches  itself  com- 
pletely around  and  outside  the  land  works 
of  the  defender  and  patrols  the  water  front, 
if  the  fortification  is  situated  on  the  water. 
A  prolonged  siege  may  star\'e  the  defender 
into  submission,  but  the  possibility  of  a  re- 
lieving force  causes  the  siege  in  many  cases 
to  end  in  an  assault.  Tunneling  under  walls 
and  blowing  them  up  with  mines,  bombard- 
ment by  artiller\^  fire,  evers^  engineering  de- 
vice known,  may  be  applied  in  the  conduct  of 
a  siege.  In  the  latest  warfare,  bombardment 
along  an  extended  line  is  a  more  common 
form  of  siege  than  the  surrounding  of  a  fort. 

There  have  been  many  famous  sieges  in 
history,  marked  by  heroic  resistance  of  gar- 
risons and  inspiring  bravery  of  assailants. 
Such  are  the  fourteen  months'  siege  of  La  Ro- 
chelle  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1628;  the  four 
years'  siege  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  by  the 
French  and  Spanish  during  the  years  1779- 
1783,  and  the  siege  of  Port  Arthur  by  the 
Japanese  in  1904.  In  the  World  War  there 
were  sieges  at  Namur,  Maubeuge,  Novo 
Georgievsk  and  Przemysl,  while  the  cam- 
paigns on  the  various  fronts,  in  which  the 
armies  of  both  sides  intrenched  themselves  for 
months  at  a  time,  took  on  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  gigantic,  prolonged  sieges. 
See  Bombardmext;  Fortification. 

SIENKIEWICZ,  shenkya'vich,  Hexrtk 
(1846-1916),  a  Polish  author  of  a  number  of 
historical  novels  of  tense  dramatic  interest, 
notably  Quo  Vadis/ -which  has  been  given 
repeated  stage  as  well  as  film  rendition.  He 
was  born  in  the  province  of  Siedlee,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Universitj^  of  Warsaw.  His 
first  publication  was  a  humorous  storj',  No- 
body is  a  Prophet  in  His  Own  Country.  He 
wrote  descriptions  of  a  visit  to  California,  a 
drama,  and  a  number  of  short  stories  before 
the  publication,  in  1880,  of  a  novel.  The 
Tatar  Bondage.  The  powerful  historical 
trilogj',  JVitJi  Fire  and  Sioord,  The  Deluge 
and  Pan  Michael,  paved  the  way  for  his  gi'eat- 
er  success.  Quo  Vadis,  published  in  1895. 
Notable  among  his  other  novels  are  Witlwut 
Dogma,  The  Children  of  th^  Soil,  Knights  of 


the  Cross  and  In  Desert  and  Woodland.  In 
1905  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for 
literature.  The  translation  of  his  works  have 
given  him  an  extended,  appreciative  audience 
in  all  countries.  Sienkiewicz  died  in  Switzer- 
land while  on  a  relief  mission  in  behalf  of  his 
countr}'^,  rendered  prostrate  in  the  World 
War.  ' 

SIER'RA  LEONE,  lu  ohn',  a  British  colony 
and  protectorate  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
The  colony  embraces  a  narrow  coastal  strip 
varying  in  width  from  eight  to  twenty  miles 
and  extending  from  French  Guinea,  on  the 
north,  to  the  Mano  River  on  the  south.  It  was 
founded  in  1791  by  a  group  of  English  phi- 
lanthropists as  a  refuge  for  negro  slaves.  It 
has  a  population  of  about  75,000.  The  Sierra 
Leone  Protectorate,  embracing  an  area  of 
about  30,000  square  miles,  lies  to  the  east  of 
the  colony.  It  has  a  population  of  1,403,000, 
consisting  chiefly  of  negro  tribes. 

Near  the  coast  the  surface  is  flat  and  rocky; 
in  the  interior  it  is  hilly,  some  elevations  at- 
taining a  height  of  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet. 
The  country  is  watered  by  a  number  of 
streams,  flowing  to  the  Atlantic.  The  climate 
is  exceedingly  hot  and  unhealthful,  especially 
along  the  coast.  The  soil  is  fertile,  the  rain- 
fall heavj^,  and  abundant  crops  of  rice,  com, 
plantains,  yams,  cassava  and  pumpkins  are 
raised.  Sugar  cane,  coffee,  ginger,  indigo  and 
cotton  can  also  be  grown  with  profit.  Tropi- 
cal fruits  are  native,  and  bananas,  pineapples, 
oranges  and  pomegranates  are  found  in 
abundance.  Some  parts  of  the  colony  are 
covered  with  dense  forests  containing  teak, 
ebony  and  rosewood.  The  chief  exports  in- 
clude pepper,  oil  seed,  palm  oil,  kolanuts, 
rubber,  cocoa,  ginger,  hides,  ivory,  rice  and 
beeswax. 

The  ten'itory  is  administered  by  a  governor. 
The  capital,  Freetown,  has  a  population  of 
37,700,  of  whom  only  500  are  Europeans. 

SIER'RA  MADRE,  mah'dray,  the  name  of 
two  mount-ain  ranges  of  Mexico,  which  run 
almost  parallel  with  the  coast  on  either  side, 
enclosing  the  central  plateau  of  Anahuac. 
Following  the  curves  of  the  coast,  the  ranges 
come  closer  together  as  they  extend  farther 
southward,  and  a  little  south  of  Mexico  City 
they  are  practically  connected  by  a  range  of 
volcanoes.  The  western  range,  Sierra  Madre 
Occidental,  averages  over  8,000  feet  in  height, 
and  has  peaks  more  than  10,000  feet  high; 
the  eastern  range.  Sierra  Madre  Oriental,  is 
considerably    lower.      Orchards    of    olives, 


SIERRA  NEVADA 


3299 


SIGNAL  CORPS 


chestnuts  and  oranges  grow  at  the  bases  of 
the  mountains. 

SIERRA  NEVADA,  ne  vali'da,  a  mountain 
range  of  Spain,  extending  for  about  sixty- 
miles  in  a  noi'theast-southwest  direction,  near 
the  southeastern  border  of  the  country.  The 
range  is  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean  coast  and  rises  very  abruptly. 
The  Sierra  Nevadas  are  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  the  high- 
est peak  is  the  Mulhacen,  11,420  feet.  The 
summits  of  the  range  are  covered  with  snow 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  it  is 
from  this  fact  that  they  obtain  their  name, 
which  means  snotvy  range.  The  lower  eleva- 
tions and  the  valleys  between  the  mountains 
are  fertile  and  are  covered  with  orchards  of 
olives,  chestnuts  and  oranges. 

SIERRA  NEVADAS,  a  mountain  range  in 
California,  extending  north  and  south  along 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state,  from 
Tehaehapi  Pass,  on  the  south,  to  the  south- 
ern part  of  Oregon.  By  some  geographers 
the  Sierra  Nevadas  are  considered  to  belong 
to  the  same  range  as  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
which  extend  northward  through  Oregon  and 
Washington. 

The  Sierra  Nevadas  form  an  almost  un- 
broken range,  with  an  average  width  of 
seventy  miles;  and  they  contain  numerous 
lofty  peaks,  reaching  altitudes  of  from  10,000 
to  nearly  15,000  feet.  The  most  prominent 
of  these  peaks  are  Mount  Whitney,  14,980 
feet,  the  loftiest  summit  in  the  United  States, 
outside  of  Alaska;  Fisherman  Peak,  14,448 
feet;  Mount  Corcoran,  14,093  feet,  and 
Kaweah  Peak,  14,000  feet.  There  are  sev- 
eral other  peaks  that  exceed  13,000  feet.  The 
Sierra  Nevadas  contain  many  deep,  narrow 
valleys,  with  nearly  vertical  walls,  in  some 
instances  thousands  of  feet  in  height.  Of 
these,  Yosemite  Valley  is  a  good  example. 
These  valleys,  combined  with  the  lofty  peaks, 
make  the  scenery  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas 
noted  for  grandeur.  There  are  several  passes, 
traversing  the  range.  The  best  known  of 
these  are  the  Traekee  Pass,  through  which 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  reaches  the 
Sacramento  Valley;  the  San  Joaquin  Pass, 
in  the  center  of  the  range,  and  the  Tehaehapi 
Pass,  in  the  south. 

SIGEL,  se'gel,  Franz  (1824-1902),  an 
American  general,  bom  in  Baden,  Germany. 
He  was  a  veteran  soldier  of  the  German  revo- 
lution of  1848;  went  to  England  in  1851,  and 
emigrated   to   America  the  following  year. 


From  1853  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
Wai',  he  was  a  teacher  and  journalist.  In 
1861  he  entered  the  Federal  army  and  or- 
ganized a  regiment  of  infantry  and  a  battery 
of  artillery.  He  fought  with  distinguished 
valor  at  Pea  Ridge,  Bull  Run,  in  the  Shen- 
andoah Valley  and  at  Maryland  Heights. 
After  his  victory  at  Pea  Ridge  he  was  made 
a  major-general.  From  1865,  when  he 
resigned  from  the  army,  until  his  death,'  he 
filled  various  public  offices  in  New  York  City 
and  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  writing. 

SIGISMUND,  sifismund,  (about  1368- 
1437)  Holy  Roman  Emperor  from  1411  to 
1437,  and  king  of  Bohemia  in  1419,  On  the 
death  of  his  father-in-law,  the  king  of  Poland 
and  Hungary,  he  was  crowned  king  of  Hun- 
gary (1387).  Subsequently  he  became  in- 
volved in  war  with  Turkey,  and  after  a  defeat 
by  Bajazet  I,  at  Nicopolis,  in  1396,  he  fled  to 
Greece.  On  his  return  to  Hungary  in  1401, 
he  was  made  prisoner,  and  the  throne  was 
given  to  a  rival.  Sigismund  escaped,  raised 
a  powerful  force  and  reduced  Hungary  to 
subjection.  As  Holy  Roman  Emperor  he 
convened  the  Council  of  Constance,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  Hussite  controversy;  for  his 
desertion  of  John  Huss,  whom  he  had  prom- 
ised to  protect,  he  was  bitterly  censured. 
Sigismund  was  not  recognized  as  king  of 
Bohemia  until  1436. 

SIG'NAL  CORPS.  In  the  World  War 
troops  on  battle  fronts  more  than  250  miles 
in  extent  were  moved  as  a  unit,  and  those  not 
acquainted  with  modern  methods  of  direct- 
ing military  operations  wondered  how  this 
could  be  done.  These  extensive  operations 
were  made  possible  because  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  signal  corps,  which  has  been  called  the 
"eyes  and  nerves"  of  the  service.  The  signal 
corps  is  that  branch  of  the  army  whose  duty 
it  is  to  gather  and  transmit  information.  The 
United  States  is  the  only  nation  that  main- 
tains a  signal  corps  as  a  separate  branch  of 
the  army.  In  other  countries  the  duties  of 
the  signal  coips  are  combined  with  those  of 
some  other  branch  of  the  service,  usually  the 
engineer  corps. 

The  members  of  the  signal  coTps  are  trained 
until  they  become  experts  in  every  known 
means  of  communication  by  day  or  night, 
from  the  light  of  a  match  that  can  be  seen 
only  for  a  few  yards  to  the  flashes  of  the 
heliograph,  hundreds  of  miles  away.  The 
implements  used  are  the  telegraph,  telephone, 
wireless,   flags,    lights,   the   heliograph,   the 


SIGNAL  CORPS 


3300 


SIGNALING 


aeroplane  and  captive  balloons,  and  the  cori:)S 
must  be  prepared  to  set  up  and  operate  any 
one  of  these  devices  and  even  to  lay  cables  at 
an  instant's  notice. 

The  World  War.  During  the  World  War 
the  signal  corps  of  the  various  armies  were 
the  means  of  enal)ling  the  commanding  of- 
ficers to  direct  the  movements  of  their  forces 
successfully ;  most  of  the  communications  they 
received  were  sent  from  aeroplanes  flying 
over  the  enemy's  lines  to  ascertain  his  posi- 
tion and  intentions.  The  information  thus 
gained  enabled  the  commanders  so  to  direct 
artillery  fire  as  to  make  it  most  effective;  it 
also  enabled  them  to  move  troops  to  jiositions 
Avhere  they  were  most  needed  during  an  en- 
gagement. 

History,  in  the  United  States.  The  signal 
corps  was  organized   in  1860   when  Major 


SIGNALING,  the  art  of  transmitting  mes- 
sages by  means  of  visual  or  auditory  signs. 
The  various  methods  of  signaling  are  em- 
ployed by  telegraph  companies,  by  armies,  by 
ships  at  sea  and  by  railroads.  The  most 
efficient  signaling  is  done  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity, and  the  dot-and-dash  system  in  con- 
nection with  which  it  is  employed  has  been 
applied  to  the  handling  of  nearly  every  sort 
of  signaling  device.  The  International  Morse 
code  (the  telegraph  code)  is  employed  in  all 
communications  between  the  United  States 
army  and  navy. 

The  most  common  method  of  making  visual 
signals  is  by  means  of  flags,  heliographs, 
lanterns  and  torches.  The  first  two  are  used 
only  in  daylight  (the  heliograph  only  in  sun- 
light) and  the  latter  two  at  night.  The  flag 
indicates  the  sign  by  its  position;  the  helio- 


t 


S 

Red 


T 

□  White 


lllil 

■ 

II 

lllll 

III 

lllil 

III 

ill 

N 

llllllllllll 

1 

'lllll'li 

w 

I  Black 


X  Y 

^  Ye  1 1  o  w 


Answering 
Pennant 


INTERNATIONAL 
Albert  J.  Myer  was  appointed  chief  signal 
officer.  During  the  Civil  War  the  corps 
rendered  efficient  service  in  all  battles  and  in 
the  navy.  In  1870  the  Secretary  of  War  was 
authorized  by  Congress  to  provide  for  taking 
meteorological  observations  throughout  the 
country  and  forecasting  the  weather  by  the 
signal  corps.  In  1891  this  part  of  the  service 
was  organized  as  the  Weather  Bureau  (which 
see)  and  placed  under  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  .  The  signal  corps  was  then 
organized  as  a  separate  branch  of  the  army 
and  placed  under  the  command  of  General 
William  B.  Hazen. 

Related     Articles.       Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Army  Navy 

Flag  Signaling 

Plying  Machine  Telegraph,   Wireless 

Heliograph  Weather  Bureau 


CODE  OF  SIGNALS 
graph  by  length  of  the  flash,  which  is  regu- 
lated by  a  shutter.  The  flag  employed  for  the 
dot-and-dash  code  usually  has  a  solid  ground 
with  the  square  of  another  color  in  the  center. 
In  the  United  States  army  it  is  orange  with 
a  red  center  or  red  with  an  orange  center ;  in 
the  navy  nearly  always  it  is  blue  with  a 
white  center — sometimes  a  red  and  yellow 
diagonal. 

The  sender  of  the  flag  message  stands  erect, 
facing  the  person  who  receives  it,  the  flag 
pole  held  vertically  before  him,  the  flag  above 
his  head.  The  position  indicating  the  dot 
brings  the  flag  downward  to  his  left  in  an 
are  of  ninety  degrees ;  the  position  indicating 
the  dash  necessitates  a  similar  movement  to 
the  left.  A  pause  after  a  word  or  sentence 
is  signified  by  swinging  the  flag  round  to  the 


SIGNALING 


3301 


SIGN  LANGUAGE 


signaler's  feet  in  a  position  known  as  "front." 
The  lantern  and  torch  are  similarly  employed, 
the  only  difference  being  that  two  lights  are 
necessary — one  of  them  stationary  at  the 
signaler's  feet,  to  secure  a  point  of  reference. 
Flashlight  communications  are  delivered  with 
the  aid  of  a  shutter,  which  regulates  the  length 
of  the  beam,  the  long  signifying  the  dash,  the 
short  the  dot,  as  in  the  case  of  the  heliograph. 
The  system  of  signaling  known  to  survey- 
ors and  boy  scouts  is  adapted  from  the  two- 
arm  semaphore,  which  is  a  stationary  pole 
with  two  movable  arms  at  the  top.    The  corn- 


inaudible  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  repeat  the  sound  every  half 
minute.  The  dismal  booming  at  regular 
intervals  of  a  gun  at  sea  as  a  signal  of  dis- 
tress  is    another   common   maritime   signal. 

For  obvious  reasons  the  practicability  of 
military  sound  signals  is  limited,  such  signals 
having  place  in  the  every-day  routine  of  an 
army  rather  than  serving  as  a  means  of 
communication  in  presence  of  an  enemy, 

SIGN  LANGUAGE,  a  system  of  com- 
munication by  gestures  and  movements  of 
the  hands  and  fingers  and  without  speaking. 


ftff IT » . 

PQ  -KSTUVWX 


Y       Z     Attention    Interval     Numerals 


BOY  SCOUTS'  SIGNAL  CODE 


binations  of  positions  indicate  the  alphabet 
and  numerals.  Two  identical  flags,  usually 
square  and  divided  in  half  diagonally  by  two 
colors,  are  employed  in  the  semaphore  code. 

Although  wireless  telegraphy  has  largely 
superseded  all  other  means  of  communication 
at  sea,  there  is  an  international  code  employ- 
ing twenty-six  flags  of  different  design — one 
for  each  letter  of  the  alphabet — still  widely 
employed  for  marine  signaling.  Other  im- 
portant series  of  signals,  each  of  which 
has  a  distinct  signification,  are  those  em- 
ployed by  national  weather  bureaus  to  indi- 
cate forecasts.  The  heliograph,  as  its  name 
indicates,  is  a  device  which  reflects  the  sun- 
light. It  can  be  used  with  the  Morse  code. 
(See  Heliograph).  Lanterns  and  torches 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way  in  military 
signaling,  though  this  class  of  signals  is  most 
widely  used  for  lighthouses. 

Sound  signals,  though  of  considerable  im- 
portance, are  far  more  limited  in  use  than  the 
visual.  The  fog  horn,  the  bugle,  the  whistle, 
the  drum,  each  has  its  arbitrary  signal.  The 
fog  horn  is  operated  either  by  steam  or  by 
air  pressure  supplied  from  shore.  These  are 
powerful  sirens,  which  may  be  heard  seven 
or  eight  miles,  though,  owing  to  the  effect  of 
fog  on  sound  transmission,  the/  are  sometimes 


The  simplest  sj-stem  is  that  used  by  the 
American  Indians  of  different  tribes.  Their 
gestures  and  symbols  were  so  natural  and 
sprang  so  directly  from  their  feelings,  that 
tribes  often  hundreds  of  miles  apart,  who 
rarely  came  in  contact  with  each  other,  were 
able  to  connnunicate  with  little  difficulty. 
The  following  are  typical  Indian  signs. 
Strength  and  its  allied  ideas,  in  all  their 
applications,  were  represented  by  the  mo- 
tion of  breaking  a  strong  stick.  Wolf  was 
represented  by  two  fingers  extended  at  the 
side  of  the  head,  indicating  the  two  erect 
ears.  White  man  was  represented  by  draw- 
ing a  finger  across  the  forehead,  to  indicate' 
the  presence  of  a  hat  or  cap. 

Since  the  sixteenth  century  a  sign  lan- 
guage has  been  employed  in  educating  the 
deaf  and  dumb.  At  first  the  signs  were  of 
much  the  same  sort  as  the  Indian  signs ;  later 
an  arbitrary  system  employing  the  alphabet 
was  adoi^ted,  and  by  means  of  it  the  deaf 
mute  can  convey  any  idea  with  his  hands 
(see  Deaf  axd  Dumb  ;  Alphabet)  .  For  long 
distance  communication  beyond  the  range  of 
the  voice,  flags  are  used,  the  letter  being  indi- 
cated by  the  design  of  the  flag  itself  or  by  the 
position  in  which  it  is  held  by  the  person 
communicating.    See  Signaling. 


SIGSBEE 


3302 


SILESIA 


SIGS'BEE,  Charles  Dwight  (1845-  ),  a 
rear-aclmiral  of  the  United  States  navy,  born 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Annapolis. 
He  took  part,  under  Farragut,  in  the  Battle 
of  Mobile  Bay  in  1864.  As  director  of  an  ex- 
pedition for  exploring  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  he  introduced  many  original 
methods  and  received  high  honors  from  his 
government  and  from  foreign  countries. 
Sigsbee  became  a  captain  in  the  nav^-  in  1897, 
and  was  in  command  of  the  battleship  Maine 
at  the  time  of  its  destruction  in  Havana, 
February  15, 1898.  In  the  Spanish- American 
War  he  commanded  the  auxiliary  cruiser 
Saint  Paid  and  afterward  the  ^battleship 
Texas.  In  1900  he  was  appointed  chief  of- 
ficer of  naval  intelligence,  became  rear-ad- 
miral in  1904,  and  later  was  made  a  member 
of  the  naval  general  board.  He  retired  from 
active  sei-vice  in  1907. 

SIGURD,  se'gurcl,  in  northern  mythology, 
the  hero  of  the  Volsung  Edda,  identical  with 
the  Siegfried  of  the  Germans.  When  he  had 
grown  to  young  manhood,  he  was  given  the 
sword  of  his  father  Sigmund,  which  Odin, 
from  whom  he  was  descended,  had  bestowed, 
and  he  set  forth  to  slay  the  dragon  Fafnir 
and  to  gain  possession  of  the  fabulous  wealth 
which  Fafnir  guarded.  After  killing  this 
monster,  Sigurd  ate  its  heart  and  was  thus 
enabled  to  understand  the  language  of  the 
birds,  who  told  about  Brunhilde,  a  Valk^T, 
who  had  been  condemned  by  Odin  to  a  deep 
sleep  in  a  palace  surrounded  by  flames,  until 
she  should  be  awakened  by  some  hero.  Sigiu-d 
rescued  the  sleeping  maiden,  who  proved  to 
be  so  beautiful  that  he  at  once  fell  in  love 
with  her.  Promising  to  retuni  shortly  to 
claim  her,  he  again  set  forth  on  his  adven- 
tures, now  journeying  to  the  land  of  the 
Xiblungs. 

The  wife  of  the  king  of  the  Xiblungs,  a 
sorceress,  brewed  for  Sigurd  a  potion  which 
caused  him  to  forget  Brunhilde  and  to  fall  in 
love  with  her  daughter,  Gudrun,  whom  he 
married.  Gudran's  brother,  Gunther,  was  de- 
sirous of  marr^-ing  Brunhilde,  but  she  could 
not  be  won  without  a  struggle.  Sigurd,  as- 
suming the  form  of  Gunther,  won  Brunhilde, 
but  when  she  came  to  the  court  to  be  maiTied 
to  the  prince  of  the  Xiblungs,  Sigurd,  in  spite 
of  his  love  potion,  recognized  her  and  was 
filled  with  remorse.  Brunhilde,  unable  to 
forgive  him  for  his  apparent  faithlessness, 
had  him  put  to  death,  and  then  killed  herself 
on  his  funeral  p\Te. 


SIKHS,  seeks  (from  a  Sanskrit  word 
meaning  disciple),  a  religious  sect  in  North- 
western India,  of  which  the  Punjab  is  the 
principal  seat.  They  are  worshipers  of  one 
invisible  God.  Their  founder  was  Nanak 
Shah,  born  in  1469,  who  sought  to  combine 
Mohammedans  and  Hindus  into  one  brother- 
hood. The  political  state  of  the  Sikhs  was  es- 
tablished by  Govind  Sinh,  or  Singh,  the  ninth 
ruler  from  Xanak,  who  abolished  the  system 
of  castes  and  gave  all  men  ec^ual  rights.  Up- 
on his  death  in  1708,  the  Sikhs  gradually 
yielded  to  the  superior  power  of  the  Moham- 
medans. A  small  number,  however,  escaped 
to  inaccessible  mountains  and  preserved  the 
doctrines  of  their  fathers  and  an  inextin- 
guishable hatred  toward  the  Mohammedans. 
Later  they  left  the  mountains,  subdued  all 
Lahore  and  formed  a  number  of  independent 
communities,  each  governed  by  a  sirdar. 

In  1792  Ranjit  Singh  established  himself 
as  their  despotic  ruler,  with  the  title  of 
Maharajah.  After  Ranjit  Singh's  death,  in 
1839,  a  period  of  anarchy  followed.  In  1845 
(First  Sikh  War)  the  Sikhs  attacked  the 
British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  at  Mudki, 
resulting  in  the  defeat  of  the  Sikhs  at  Feroze- 
shah  and  the  signing  of  a  treaty  by  which 
Great  Britain  held  the  city  of  Lahore  and"  a 
British  resident  took  supervision  of  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1849,  during  the  Second  Sikh 
War,  the  power  of  the  Sikhs  was  completely 
broken,  and  the  Punjab  was  annexed  to  the 
British  Empire  in  Lidia.  The  Sikhs  are  an 
agricultural  people  noted  for  their  great 
powers  of  endurance  and  courage.  In  1911 
their  number  was  3,014,466,  more  than  half 
of  whom  are  in  the  Punjab. 

SI  KIANG,  $e  kyaling' ,  or  HONG  KIANG. 
a  river  of  China,  which  rises  in  the  province 
of  Yunnan,  flows  east  and  southeast  and  dis- 
charges into  the  China  Sea  through  numerous 
mouths,  on  one  of  which  the  city  of,  Canton 
is  situated.  The  Si  Kiang  is  about  1,500  miles 
long  and  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  about 
seventv-five  miles. 

SILESIA,  si  le'slii  a,  before  the  World  War 
the  largest  province  of  Prussia,  with  an  area 
of  15.568  square  miles,  in  the  southeastern 
section  of  the  Prussian  kingdom.  Silesia  was 
originally  a  part  of  the  old  Polish  kingdom, 
but  was  acquired  by  Austria,  and  in  1763,  at 
the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  it  was 
ceded  to  Frederick  the  Great  of  Pnissia  (see 
Se\-ex  Years'  War).  In  1871  it  was  incor- 
porated in  the  German  Empire  as  a  Prussian 


::^6 


12 


13 


SILKWORM 

1.  Branch  of  Mulberry  Tree.     6,  7,  8,  9.  10,  Cocoons  of  various    13.  Cocoon  after  the  fine  16,  Cocoon  showing  opening 

2,  Moth  laying  eggs.                         tints  on  branches  of  trees.               silk  has  been  removed.  made  by  moth  in  coming  out 
3  and  4,  Worms  in  different        11,  Ordinary  cocoon  of)ened.          14,  Male  Moth.  17.  Moth  coming  out  of  cocoon' 

stages  of  development.            12,  Cocoon  with  coarse  silk           15,  Female  Moth.  18,  .-V  double  cocoon  opened 
■"i.  Full  grown  Worm.                       removed. 


SILICA 


3303 


SILK 


province.  During  the  World  War  the  nation- 
al aspirations  of  the  Poles  were  encouraged 
by  the  allies,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war,  when 
the  defeat  of  Germany  made  a  reconstructed 
Poland  possible,  the  question  of  ceding  Sile- 
sia back  to  the  Polish  people  was  brought 
before  the  peace  conference.  According  to 
the  original  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
Germany  was  required  to  cede  to  Poland  the 
greater  part  of  Upper  Silesia,  including  the 
district  of  Oppeln  (see  Versailles,  Treaty 
of).  This  provision  met  with  serious  objec- 
tion among  the  German  inhabitants  of  the  des- 
ignated territory',  and  the  terms  were  modi- 
fied to  pennit  a  vote  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
disputed  territory. 

Economically  Silesia  is  one  of  the  foremost 
German  provinces,  having  the  richest  coal 
deposits  of  the  entire  country,  zinc  deposits 
which  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  the 
world,  and  rich  agricultural  lands.  In  shape 
the  country  is  an  iiTegular  oblong,  lying 
northwest  to  southeast,  and  it  is  traversed 
about  midway  almost  from  one  end  to  the 
other  by  the  River  Oder,  flowing  northward  to 
the  Baltic.  Along  its  southern  boundary  lie 
the  Sudetic  Mountains,  the  Riesengebirge  and 
other  ranges,  with  peaks  from  4,000  to  5,000 
feet.  Coal  is  mined  in  the  highlands  east  and 
west  of  the  Oder,  and  in  normal  times  about 
90,000  laborers  are  employed  in  the  mines. 
The  most  productive  agricultural  district  lies 
between  the  Oder  and  the  southern  mountains. 
The  chief  products  of  the  soil  are  oats,  rye, 
barley,  wheat,  potatoes,  beets  and  forage 
plants.  Cattle  raising  is  an  important  in- 
dustry. The  weaving  and  flax-spinning  in- 
dustries are  the  foremost  in  Prussia,  and  there 
are  cotton  and  woolen  mills  and  earthenware 
manufactories.  The  province  was  formerly 
divided  into  three  administrative  districts, 
Breslau,  Liegnitz  and  Oppeln.  Population, 
1910,  5,225,962. 

SILICA,  siVi  kali,  a  chemical  compound  of 
oxj'gen  and  silicon,  one  of  the  most  widely- 
distributed  substances  in  the  earth.  Silica 
forms  a  principal  ingredient  in  nearly  all  the 
earthly  minerals.  Sand,  gravel,  sandstone, 
flint  and  quartz  are  composed  almost  entirely 
of  this  material,  and  feldspar,  granite,  clay, 
mica,  slate  and  other  rocks  contain  it.  It 
occurs  either  in  crystals  or  in  amorphous 
masses.  Amethyst,  jasper  and  cat's  eye,  are 
crystalized  silica;  chalcedony,  onyx,  opal  and 
agate  are  amorphous  silica  variously  colored. 
Pure  amorphous  silica  is  a  white  powder  solu- 


ble only  in  hydrofluoric  acid.  Silica  forms  a 
number  of  hydrates  which  have  acid  proper- 
ties and  from  which  a  great  number  of  salts, 
known  as  silicates,  are  obtained. 

SILICON,  sil'i  kahn,  a  non-metallic  element 
more  widely-distributed  in  nature  than  any 
other  substance  except  oxygen.  It  does  not 
occur  in  a  free  state,  but  is  combined  with 
other  minerals.  It  forms  the  chief  constituent 
of  sand,  flint,  quartz,  many  other  rocks  and 
in  some  precious  stones,  occurring  frequently 
in  crystalline  form.  In  one  form  silicon  is  a 
brown  powder,  but  it  may  also  exist  in  a 
modified  form,  consisting  of  shining  metallic 
scales. 

^ILK.  Long  before  men  in- 
vented the  spinning 
wheel,  or  had  even  begun 
to  clothe  himself  with 
the  skins  of  animals, 
nature  had  provided  the 
world  with  some  of  the 
most  skilful  spinners 
ever  known.  One  of 
these  is  a  little  worm 
about  three  inches  long, 
that  spins  an  unbroken 
thread  from  1,500  to 
3,000  feet  in  length. 
This  is  the  silkworm, 
and  its  thread  is  the  fine 
glossy  fiber  we  know  as 
silk.  The  silkworm  is 
the  caterpillar  of  the  silk  moth,  which  is  char- 
acterized by  a  short  body,  stout  legs  and  white 
wings,  marked  by  black  lines  running  parallel 
with  the  wing  borders.  When  extended,  the 
wings  measure  about  two  inches  across. 

Formation  of  the  Fiber.  In  the  wild  state 
the  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  summer  on 
the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree,  but  in  silk 
culture  the  moths  are  placed  on  pieces  of 
paper  or  of  muslin,  on  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs,  which  are  of  a  bluish  color  and 
about  the  size  of  a  pin  head..  Each  female 
will  deposit  from  200  to  500  eggs.  Forty 
thousand  eggs  weigh  about  an  ounce.  For 
hatching  artificially  the  eggs  are  placed  in  a 
room  heated  gradually  up  to  a  temperature 
of  about  75°  F.  The  room  must  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean  and  well  ventilated.  In 
eight  or  ten  days  the  young  appear.  The 
caterpillars  are  then  covered  with  sheets  of 
paper  or  loose  muslin,  over  which  finely 
chopped  young  mulben-y  leaves  are  scattered. 
The  caterpillars  soon  find  their  way  through 


SILK 


3304 


SILK 


the  meshes  of  the  cloth  or  openings  in  the 
paper  to  the  leaves,  upon  which  they  begin 
to  feed. 

When  first  hatched,  the  worms  are  black 
and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  The 
caterpillar  stage  lasts  from  six  to  eight  weeks, 
and  during  this  period  the  worm  generally 
casts  its  skin  four  times.  After  casting  its 
skin  the  last  time  the  caterpillar  is  about 
two  inches  long,  and  in  ten  days  it  attains  its 
full  growth  of  three  inches.  The  body  con- 
sists of  twelve  segments,  with  six  fore  legs 
and  ten  legs  on  the  hinder  segments  of  the 
body,  provided  with  hooks.  The  mouth  is 
large,  with  powerful  jaws,  and  the  color  is 
greenish-gray. 

At  this  stage  the  caterpillar  becomes 
languid,  refuses  food  and  prepares  to  spin  its 
cocoon.  If  left  to  itself  it  will  sew  two  leaves 
together  and  spin  the  cocoon  between  them, 
but  in  silk  culture  the  worms  are  usually 
placed  in  racks  containing  small  cells,  to  the 
sides  of  which  the  cocoon  is  attached.  The 
silk  thread  is  formed  from  a  sticky  fluid 
contained  in  two  tubular  glands,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  connected  with  a  prominent 
opening  in  the  lower  lip,  called  the  spinneret. 
This  opening  has  two  apertures,  and  as  the 
fluid  issues  from  these  in  minute  streams  and 
comes  in  contact  with  the  air,  it  hardens  into 
a  strong,  glossy  thread.  When,  examined 
under  the  microscope,  one  of  these  threads  is 
seen  to  be  composed  of  two  strands,  lying 
side  by  side.  This  appearance  is  caused  by 
the  two  minute  strands  that  issue  from  the 
spinnerets,  uniting  as  they  come  in  contact 
and  forming  one  thread.  The  time  required 
for  spinning  the  cocoon  is  from  three  to  five 
days.  While  doing  the  work  the  caterpillar 
attaches  itself  to  the  support  by  its  hind  legs 
and  places  the  thread  by  moving  its  head 
from  point  to  point.  The  average  length  of 
thread  in  a  perfect  cocoon  is  about  1,000 
yards,  though  it  may  vary  from  800  to  1,000 
yards. 

If  left  to  themselves  in  a  warm  place,  the 
cocoons  will  hatch  in  about  three  weeks,  but 
those  from  which  silk  is  to  be  obtained  are 
not  allowed  to  hatch.  This  is  prevented  by 
placing  them  in  a  warm  oven  or  in  hot  water, 
which  kills  the  pupa.  It  requires  twelve 
pounds  of  cocoons  to  yield  one  pound  of  raw 
silk,  and  one  ounce  of  silkworms'  eggs  will 
produce  100  pounds  of  cocoons.  The  female 
moth  produces  from  300  to  500  eggs.  For 
the  successful  cultivation  of  the  silkworm, 


vigorous  and  healthy  mulberry  trees  are 
necessary,  the  white  mulberry  being  the 
favorite  species.  China,  Japan,  India,  Italy, 
France  and  Spain  are  important  silk-produc- 
ing countries,  though  silk  culture  is  found  in 
several  others. 

Manufacture.  In  the  manufacture  of  silk, 
the  first  operation  is  the  unwinding  of  the 
cocoons  and  the  reeling  of  the  silk.  For  this 
purpose  they  are  placed  in  shallow  vessels 
containing  hot  water,  which  softens  the 
gummy  matter  of  the  cocoons.  The  ends  of 
the  filaments  are  then  conducted  by  guides 
to  large  reels  moved  by  machinery.  Four 
or  five  threads,  from  as  many  different  co- 
coons, are  thus  brought  together,  and,  uniting 
by  means  of  the  gum,  form  one  thread.  The 
outside  fiber  is  coarser  than  that  which  it 
encloses  and  is  usually  taken  off  separately. 
The  silk  thus  produced  is  called  raii}  silk.  Be- 
fore it  can  be  woven  into,  cloth  the  raw  silk 
must  be  throion.  Throwing  is  often  a  special 
trade,  but  it  is  usually  conducted  by  ma- 
chinery in  large  mills.  It  consists  in  spinning, 
twisting  and  reeling.  Previous  to  throwing, 
the  silk  is  carefully  washed,  wound  on  bob- 
bins and  assorted  as  to  its  quality.  In  the 
throwing  machine  it  is  again  unwound  from 
the  bobbins,  twisted  by  the  revolutions  of  a 
flyer  and  then  wound  on  a  reel.  The  twist 
of  the  silk  is  regulated  as  required  by  varj'- 
ing  the  relative  velocities  of  the  flyer  and 
reel.  The  silk  thus  prepared  is  called  singles 
and  is  used  for  weaving  common  or  plain 
silks  and  ribbons.  The  next  operation,  called 
doubling,  is  the  twisting  of  two  or  more  of 
these  threads  on  one  bobbin.  This  is  done 
in  a  throwing  machine,  and  the  silk  thus  spun 
is  called  tram  silk,  commonly  used  for  the 
weft  of  richer  silks  and  velvets.  Two  or  more 
of  these  threads  of  tram  silk  twisted  in  the 
throwing  mill  together  constitute  organzine, 
a  species  of  silk  thread  used  for  warps  of  fine 
fabrics.  But  in  tram  silk  the  threads  are  all 
twisted  in  one  direction,  forming  individual 
strands  like  twine,  whereas  in  organzine  the 
collected  threads  are  twisted  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  the  twist  of  the  strands,  like 
cable  or  rope.  The  silk  in  this  condition  is 
called  hard,  in  consequence  of  the  gum,  which 
is,  however,  separated  by  careful  boiling. 

Silk  is  woven  on  looms  similar  to  those 
used  in  weaving  cotton  and  wool  (see  Weav- 
ing). In  the  United  States  power  looms  are 
employed  wholly,  but  ui  Europe  many  hand 
looms  are  still  found,  while  in  China  they 


lb»4^ 


DRAWN   EXPHESSIV  FOR  THE   NEW  PHACTICAL   REFERENCE   LIBRARY  BY  THE  CHICAGO  SCHOOL  OF    APPLIED  AND  NORMAL    ART.        M.  J.    MC  MASTER. 


1,  Feeding  mulberry  leaves  to  silk  worms. 

2,  Picking  cocoons  from  branches. 

3,  Weighing  and  sorting  cocoons. 


SILK 

4,  Reeling  silk  from  cocoons.  7,  Weaving  silk. 

5,  Rewinding  silk  into  skeins.  8,  Silk  products. 

6,  Sorting  skeins.  9,  Silk  factory. 


SILK 


3305 


SILK 


Outline 

on 

Silk 

I.  Silk  Moth 

(6) 

Organzine 

(1) 

Description 

(a)  Body 

(b)  Legs 

(a)  Threads  twisted  in  opposite 

directions 

(b)  Hard  silk 

(e)  Wings 

(7) 

Weaving 

(d)  Number  of  eggs 

(a)  Modes 

11.  Silk  Worms  (Wild) 

(b)   Peculiarities 

III.  Silk  Worms  (Culture) 

(e)   Intricacies 

(1) 

Eggs 

(a)  Number 

(b)  Deposited  -when? 

(e)   Temperature    for    hatching 

(8) 

Waste  Silk 

(a)  Consists  of  what? 

(b)  Processes 

(c)  Use 

(d)   Time  of  incubation 

V. 

Countries 

(2) 

Caterpillars 

(a)  Early  appearance 

(1) 

Raw  Silk 

(a)   China,  Japan,  Italy,  France 

(b)   Care 

(2) 

Manufactured  Silk 

(c)  Food 

(a)   France,  Germanj',  Switzer- 

(d) Development 

land,  United  States 

(e)   Casting  size 

VI. 

Art 

iFiciAL  Silk 

(f)  Body 

(1) 

Composition 

(3) 

Cocoon  Development 

(2) 

How  produced 

(a)  Racks 

(3) 

Value 

(b)   Tubular  glands 

(4) 

How  extensively  used? 

(c)  Spinneret 

(d)  Time 

(e)  Length  of  thread 

(f)  Hatching, 

Time  required 
Prevention  of 

(g)  Proportionate  weight  in  silk 
(4)   Origin  of  Industry 

IV.  Manufacture 

(1)  Unwinding  cocoons 

(2)  Reeling  silk 

(a)   Description  of  process 

(3)  Raw  Silk 

(a)  Why  and  when  washed? 

(b)  How  wound? 

(c)  How   assorted? 

(4)  Throwing — n ecessary  before 

weaving 

(a)  Spinning,  twisting,  reeling 

(b)  Usually  done  by  machinery 

(c)  Regulation  of  twist 

(d)  Single 

(e)  Sewing  silk 

(5)  Doubling 

(a)  Tram  silk 

(b)  Threads  twisted  in  one  di- 

rection 


Questions  on  Silk 

Give  three  reasons  why  silk  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  cotton. 

Name  five  articles  in  your  home  that 
are  made  from  silk. 

What  is  the  length  of  a  thread  furnished 
by  a  cocoon? 

Why  are  not  cocoons  intended  for  silk 
permitted  to  hatch?  How  is  this  pre- 
vented? 

How  many  pounds  of  cocoons  are  re- 
quired to  yield  one  pound  of  raw  silk? 

How  many  pounds  of  cocoons  will  an 
ounce  of  silkwonns'  eggs  produce? 

During  the  caterpillar  stage  how  many 
times  does  the  worm  cast  its  skin? 

Describe  the  formation  of  the  fiber. 

How  long  a  continuous  thread  can  the 
silkwonn  spin? 

What  city  in  the  United  States  produces 
the  most  silk  cloth? 

Why  is  tin  sometimes  refen-ed  to  in  silk 
manufacture  ? 

Is  artificial  silk  an  acceptable  substitute 
for  real  silk? 


SILK 


3306 


SILO  AND  SILAGE 


are  used  entirely,  The  fineness  and  softness 
of  silk  fiber  make  it  possible  to  manufacture 
from  it  a  greater  variety  of  fabrics  than  from 
any  other  fiber,  and  these  products  range  in 
fineness  from  the  gossamer  web  to  the  heavy 
plush  used  for  winter  garments.  Ingenious 
looms  have  been  invented  by  American  and 
French  operators,  as  well  as  special  attach- 
ments for  weaving  intricate  patterns,  which 
are  now  produced  at  moderate  cost. 

The  manufacture  of  sewang  silk  is  really 
a  continuation  of  the  process  of  throwing. 
It  is  made  by  continuing  to  double  and  twist 
the  threads  together,  until  a  thread  of  the 
desired  size  and  strength  is  obtained.  This 
branch  of  the  silk  industry  is  confined  to 
the  United  States,  and  it  has  become  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

The  manufacture  of  waste  silk  is  also  an 
important  industry.  Only  about  seven-tenths 
of  the  silk  on  a  cocoon  can  be  wound  onto 
the  reel.  The  remainder,  together  with  the 
coarse  fiber  taken  from  the  outside  of  the 
cocoon  and  the  silk  obtained  from  defective 
cocoons  and  those  from  which  the  moths  have 
been  allowed  to  escaj^e,  constitute  the  waste. 
This  is  subjected  to  a  number  of  processes, 
such  as  washing,  combing  and  spinning,  until 
it  forms  the  spun  silk  of  commerce,  which  is 
used  for  silk  yarn  and  for  woof  in  some  silk 
fabrics. 

Production.  The  silk  industry  seems  to 
have  originated  in  China,  and  the  Chinese 
were  the  first  to  make  known  the  value  and 
usefulness  of  the  fiber  produced  by  the  silk- 
worm. The  leading  countries  in  the  produc- 
tion of  raw  silk  are  China,  Japan,  Italy  and 
France,  while  the  leading  countries  in  its 
manufacture,  in  the  order  of  their  impor- 
tance, are  the  United  States  and  France.  The 
annual  output  of  silk  manufactories  in  the 
United  States  averages  over  $196,000,000. 
The  leading  states  are  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Connecticut  and  Massa- 
chusetts. Paterson,  N.  J.,  is  the  chief  center 
of  the  industry.  The  color  plate  shows  the 
various  stages  of  evolution  of  the  silkworm 
and  silkworm  moth. 

SILK,  Artificial,  any  fine  fiber  having 
the  appearance  of  silk  and  prepared  to  be 
similarly  used.  Both  cotton  and  wood  pulp 
are  chemically  treated  to  produce  a  "silky" 
fiber,  which  is  much  cheaper  than  silk  and  for 
certain  purposes  is  a  suitable  substitute  for 
it.  After  the  cotton  is  carded  it  is  steeped 
in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid. 


and  is  then  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  ether 
and  alcohol.  The  product  is  then  passed  be- 
tween steel  rollers,  which  squeeze  it  through 
tiny  tubes.  From  these  it  passes  into  a  bath 
of  nitric  acid  and  water.  The  resulting 
fibers  are  wound  on  reels,  then  are  dried, 
washed,  spun  and  dyed.  Wood  fiber  is  simi- 
larly treated. 

SILKWORM.  See  Silk. 
•  SILKWORM  GUT,  a  material  obtained 
from  silkwomis  and  used  for  the  hook  end  of 
fishlines.  When  the  silkworm  grubs  are 
ready  to  spin  they  are  soaked  in  strong  vine- 
gar and  the  silky  substance  is  then  drawn 
from  the  dead  worms  and  submitted  to  a 
special  process.  About  25,000  pounds  of 
threads  are  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gut.  The  gut  is  valued  for  its  tenacity  and 
invisibility  in  the  water. 

SILO'AM,  a  pool  situated  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  eastern  hill  of  Jerusalem,  the 
water  of  which  is  supplied  by  the  Virgin's 
Spring  and  is  brought  to  the  pool  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Tyropoeon  valley  by  a  tun- 
nel over  1,700  feet  in  length.  At  the  Siloam 
end  of  this  tunnel  an  important  inscription 
was  found  in  the  wall  in  1880,  which  is  gen- 
erally assigned  to  Hezekiah.  He  is  said  to 
have  "made  the  pool  and  the  conduit,  and 
brought  water  into  the  city"  (II  Kings  XX, 
20).  However,  other  authorities  date  the 
inscription  back  to  200  b.  c. 

SILO  AND  SILAGE.  A  silo  is  a  structure 
in  which  green  crops  are  stored  and  preserved 
in  succulent  condition  for  winter  feed  for 
stock;  silage,  or  ensilage,  is  the  name  of  the 
fodder  stored  in  the  silo.  The  silo  was  in- 
troduced into  America  from  Europe  in  1875 
and  has  rapidly  gained  favor.  While  a  silo 
may  be  square  or  rectangular,  the  ej^lindrieal 
form  is  found  to  be  the  most  economical  and 
best  adajDted  to  the  preservation  of  the  silage. 
The  entire  structure  must  be  as  nearly  air 
tight  as  possible,  since  the  presence  of  air 
causes  decomposition ;  the  inside  walls  must 
be  perpendicular  and  smooth  to  peiTuit  uni- 
form settling  of  the  inclosed  mass  of  silage; 
and  tliis  must  be  of  considerable  depth  so  that 
there  will  be  sufficient  pressure  to  keep  the 
mass  compact.  Consequently  the  height 
should  be  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  feet, 
while  the  diameter  may  vary  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  farmer  constiiicting  it.  Wood 
has  been  the  material  generally  used  in 
building  silos  but  concrete  is  rapidly  win- 
ning favor,  as  it  is  cheap,  and  furnishes  an 


SILO  AND  SILAGE 


3307 


SILURIAN  PERIOD 


air-tight,  Avater-iDroof  and  vermin-proof 
structure. 

A  cylindrical  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and 
20  feet  high  will  contain  105  tons  of  silage 
and  one  of  the  same 
diameter  25  feet  high, 
will  contain  143  tons ; 
while  a  silo  25  feet 
high  and  25  feet  in 
diameter  will  contain 
224  tons.  These  fig- 
ures enable  a  farmer 
to  judge  quite  ac- 
curately as  to  the  size 
of  a  silo  which  he 
wishes  to  build,  and 
the  work  should  be 
done  by  one  expe- 
rienced in  construct- 
ing buildings  of  this 
sort.  All  things  be- 
ing equal,  the  cylin- 
drical silo  is  the  best. 
It  contains  no  angles, 
it  is  more  easily  kept 
tight  and  is  easily 
cleaned  when  emp- 
tied. Moreover,  the  a  practical  STAVE 
cylindrical  silo  is  the  SiLO 

strongest  form  for  a  structure  of  this  sort, 
and  it  is  not  easily  pressed  out  of  shape  by 
the  pressure  from  within. 

In  locating  the  silo  on  dairy  farms  the 
farmer  should  carefully  consider  two  things : 
first,  convenience  in  handling  the  silage, 
which  must  be  done  at  least  twice  a  day ;  and 
secondly,  the  position  of  the  silo  with  ref- 
erence to  the  stable,  so  that  odors  arising 
from  it  will  not  penetrate  the  stable,  at  least 
during  milking  time,  since  milk  readily  ab- 
sorbs odors  of  this  sort.  The  silo  should  be 
as  near  the  stable  as  possible  without  danger 
of  contaminating  the  milk.  If  the  cows  are 
fed  after  milking  time  and  the  stable  is 
thoroughly  aired  before  milking  time,  there 
is  but  little  danger  from  these  odors. 

The  bottom  of  the  silo  should  be  cement  or 
plank,  but  cement  is  preferable,  since  a  plank 
bottom  causes  a  loss  of  five  or  six  inches  of 
the  silage  next  to  it.  The  sides  should  be 
airtight,  but  the  roof  should  provide  ample 
ventilation.  With  these  points  in  view,  the 
farmer  desiring  to  construct  a  silo  knows 
about  what  to  require  of  the  builders.  The 
illustration  hei'e  given  is  of  a  very  satisfac- 
tory type  silo. 


The  silo  combines  the  advantages  of  storing 
a  large  amount  of  feed  in  a  small  space  and 
of  keeping  it  in  its  natural  state  until  used. 
Moreover,  by  this  means  of  storage,  the  farm- 
er can  raise  upon  a  few  acres  fodder,  which, 
if  raised  under  ordinary  conditions,  would 
require  many  times  the  acreage,  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  the  silage  is  much  better 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  feeding  milk  cows 
than  any  other  sort  of  dairy  food. 

Silage,  or  Ensilage.  Various  crops  are 
suitable  for  silage,  but  experiment  has  shown 
that  corn  is  the  most  desirable.  Alfalfa  and 
clover  are  also  used  to  good  advantage.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that  the  best  results 
are  obtained  from  com  silage  when  the  crop 
is  cut  just  as  the  ears  are  beginning  to 
glaze.  As  the  corn  is  cut  'in  the  field,  it  is 
hauled  to  the  ensilage  cutter,  which  cuts  it 
into  pieces  about  an  inch  in  length,  using 
the  stalks  and  ears  without  separation.  As 
the  cut  silage  leaves  the  machine,  it  is  carried 
by  an  endless  belt  containing  buckets,  or  by 
a  blower,  to  the  silo.  If  the  plant  is  dry  it 
should  be  thoroughly  wet  after  leaving  the 
cutter,  before  it  is  packed.  Otherwise  it  soon 
becomes  mildewed.  In  case  of  dry  crops  it 
is  the  practice  to  run  a  stream  of  water  over 
the  silage  as  it  leaves  the  cutter.  The  water 
tends  to  make  the  mass  in  the  silo  air  tight, 
and  thus  prevent  fermentation  and  decay. 

When  the  silo  is  filled,  the  ensilage  should 
be  covered  by  some  preparation  which  will 
exclude  the  air.  Local  conditions  determine 
what  can  be  used  to  the  best  advantage.  The 
doors  in  the  side  of  the  silo  should,  of  course, 
be  kept  closed  until  the  contents  have  been 
lowered  to  each  succeeding  door.  Silage 
protected  from  the  air  will  be  kept  fresh  and 
succulent  through  the  winter,  and  it  is  prac- 
tically as  nourishing  and  healthful  as  the 
grass  obtained  in  the  average  pasture. 

SILU'RIAN  PERIOD,  a  division  of  geo- 
logic time,  the  third  of  the  Paleozoic  Era, 
following  the  Ordovician  Period,  and  preced- 
ing the  Devonian.  It  is  named  for  the 
Silures,  an  ancient  people  of  Britain,  where 
the  rocks  were  first  studied.  The  formations 
are  of  wide  extent  and  are  found  in  all  the 
continents.  The  rooks  are  largely  limestones 
and  sandstones  and  have  been  divided  into 
a  number  of  series  and  stages  with  local 
names.  In  the  United  States  the  most  noted 
of  these  are  the  Niagara,  the  Onondaga  and 
the  Lower  Helderberg.  The  formations  of 
this  system  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the 


SILVER 


3308 


SILVER 


Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  sides  of  the 
celebrated  Delaware  Water  Gap,  and  extend 
southward  as  far  as  Tennessee.  The  gypsum 
and  salt  beds  of  New  York  and  the  iron  ore 
along  the  Appalachian  Mountains  belong  to 
these  formations.  See  Devonian  Period; 
Paleozoic  Era;  Geology. 

SILVER,  a  precious  metal, 
below  gold  and  platinum 
in  value.  Silver  appears 
to  have  been  known  al- 
most, if  not  quite,  as  early 
y  as  gold.  It  was  used  as 
money  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  2000  B.  C.  The 
foundations  of  the 
Hebrew  Tabernacle 
were  of  silver,  and  the 
metal  is  mentioned  among 
the  offerings  presented 
at  the  completion  of  that 
sacred  edifice. 

Properties.  Pure  sil- 
ver is  of  a  fine  white 
color.  It  is  softer  than  copper  but  harder 
than  gold,  and  is  about  l^n  and  one-half 
times  as  hea\'y  as  water.  Its  chemical  symbol 
is  Ag,  which  stands  for  argentum,  the  Latin 
name  for  silver.  It  is  next  in  malleability  to 
gold,  having  been  beaten  into  leaves  only 
^_^_^__  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  may  be 
drawn  out  into  a  wire  much  finer  than  a 
human  hair.  It  excels  all  other  metals  as  a 
conductor  of  electricity,  and  is  second  only 
to  gold  as  a  conductor  of  heat.  Silver  melts 
when  heated  red  hot,  or  at  1761°  P.,  and  it 
may  be  boiled  and  volatilized  by  very  strong 
and  long-continued  heat.  When  in  a  molten 
state  it  absorbs  twenty-two  times  its  volume 
of  oxygen,  which  it  gives  off  on  cooling.  If 
it  cools  so  cpickly  that  a  crust  forms  on  the 
surface  before  the  gas  escapes,  bubbles  of  gas 
explode  and  break  through  the  crust.  This 
is  called  spitting. 

Compounds.  Silver  forms  a  number  of 
compounds,  several  of  which  are  extensively 
used  in  the  arts.  Oxide  of  silver  is  produced 
by  dissolving  silver  in  a  solution  of  nitric 
acid  and  precipitating  with  an  alkali.  The 
compound  called  Jiorn  silver  or  chloride  of 
silver  is  obtained  by  dissohnng  silver  in 
nitric  acid  and  mixing  the  solution  wnth  a 
solution  of  common  salt.  When  exposed  to 
the  light  it  turns  to  a  blackish  color,  hence 
its  great  use  in  photography.  Bromide  of 
silver  is   the  most  sensitive  to  light  of  all 


known  solids.  It  is  used  for  coating  the  "dry 
I)lates"  employed  in  photography.  When 
silver  is  long  exposed  to  the  air,  it  acquires 
a  covering  of  a  violet  color,  which  deprives 
it  of  its  luster;  this  coating  is  sulphide  of 
silver. 

Of  the  combinations  of  acid  and  silver,  the 
most  important  is  nitrate  of  silver,  obtained 
by  dissolving  silver  in  nitric  acid.  If  the 
silver  and  acid  are  pure,  the  solution  of  silver 
nitrate  is  colorless,  very  heavy  and  caustic; 
it  stains  the  skin  and  all  animal  substances 
an  indelible  black;  after  evaporation  it  de- 
posits, on  cooling,  transparent  crystals  of 
nitrate  of  silver. 

Alloys.  Silver  readily  forms  alloys  with 
iron,  tin,  lead,  copper  and  mercury.  Pure 
silver  is  too  soft  for  most  uses  and  is  alloyed 
with  copper.  In  the  United  States  900  paris 
silver  to  100  parts  copper  form  the  standard 
alloy  for  the  silver  coin.  In  Great  Britain 
and  its  colonies  the  proportions  for  sterling 
silver  are  925  parts  silver  to  seventy-five  parts 
copper.  In  countries  of  the  Latin  Union  the 
ratio  is  835  parts  silver  to  165  parts  copper. 
The  value  of  silver  varies  slightly,  according 
to  condition  of  supply  and  demand;  hence 
gold  is  taken  as  the  standard  in  measuring 
the  value  of  precious  metals. 

Uses.  The  most  extensive  uses  of  silver 
are  for  coinage,  and  the  manufacture  of 
table  ware  and  decorative  articles.  It  is 
also  used  for  silvering  mirrors,  and  its  com- 
pounds are  employed  in  photography,  in 
medicine  and  for  other  minor  purposes. 

Ores.  There  are  five  important  silver  ores, 
namely,  native  silver,  vitreous  silver,  or  sil- 
ver glance,  black  silver,  red  silver  and  horn 
silver.  Native  silver  occurs  principally  in 
veins,  traversing  gneiss,  clay  slate  and  other 
paleozoic  rocks,  but  not  usually  in  great 
quantity.  It  often  forms  a  natural  alloy  with 
gold.  Vitreous  silver  presents  itself  in 
various  shapes  and  is  of  a  blackish  lead-gray 
color,  with  a  metallic  luster.  It  is  malleable, 
about  as  hard  as  gjqjsum,  and  is  subject  to 
tarnish. 

Black  silver  generally  occurs  in  granular 
masses,  of  an  iron-black  color.  It  is  about 
as  hard  as  g^'psum  and  presents  a  smooth 
surface  when  cut  with  a  knife.  This  mineral 
is  a  composition  of  silver  with  antimony  and 
sulphur  and  traces  of  iron,  copper  and 
arsenic.  It  is  found  in  veins,  along  with 
other  ores  of  silver,  and  is  a  valuable  ore  for 
the  extraction  of  silver. 


SILVER 


3309 


SIMONIDES 


Red  silver  is  found  in  crj'stals  and  often 
in  masses,  in  grains  and  even  as  a  fine  pow- 
der. It  is  a  double  sulphide  of  silver  and 
antimon}',  containing,  on  an  avearge,  sixty 
per  cent  of  silver.  It  occurs  in  veins  with 
other  silver  ores,  and  with  galena  and  blende. 
Horn  silver,  or  silver  chloride,  occurs  in 
crystals  and  also  in  crusts  and  granular 
masses.  It  contains  about  seventy-six  per 
cent  of  silver.  It  is  found  in  the  upper  parts 
of  veins  in  clay  slate  and  also  in  beds  with 
other  silver  ores  or  with  iron  ocher.  The 
above  are  the  ores  of  silver  from  which  silver 
is  chiefly  extracted;  but  large  quantities  are 
obtained  from  ores  of  lead  and  copper,  which 
are  worked  primarily  for  these  metals. 

Reduction  of  Ore.  Silver  is  obtained  from 
its  various  ores  by  smelting,  amalgamation 
and  chemical  processes  which,  are  long  and 
complex.  It  is  most  easily  separated  from 
lead  ore,  since  the  lead  melts  at  a  much  lower 
temperature  and  can  be  drawn  off,  leaving 
the  silver  free.  Before  the  ore  is  treated 
by  any  of  the  other  processes  it  is  ground  to 
a  powder  in  stamp  mills,  and  the  pulverized 
ore  is  thoroughly  washed  in  running  water, 
while  passing  over  vibrating  tables.  The 
particles  containing  metal  are  heavier  than 
the  others  and  sink  into  grooves,  while  the 
light  particles  are  carried  away  by  the  water. 
This  process  forms  what  is  called  concentrate, 
from  which  the  metals  are  extracted.  See 
Metallurgy. 

Production.  The  silver  mines  of  North 
and  South  America  are  incomparably  more 
important  than  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  Mexican  mines  were  worked  be- 
fore the  Spanish  conquest  and  then  produced 
large  quantities  of  silver.  Their  total  jneld 
has  been  estimated  at  over  $3,000,000,000. 
Great  deposits  of  silver  have  been  discovered 
in   Nevada,   Arizona,   California,    Colorado, 


Mexico 
United  States 
Canada 
Australasia 


77 
70 


34 


17 


Nevada  ^^^  15  Montana ^  13  Utah ^*.  12 

Fiqures    Represent   Millions  of  Ounces 
LEADERS  IN  PRODUCTION 

Idaho,  Montana,  New  Mexico  and  Utah.  Sil- 
ver ore,  chiefly  silver-bearing  galena,  has  also 
been  found  in  great  cjuantities  in  the  Barrier 


Ranges  of  New  South  "Wales.  Some  of  the 
mining  concerns  here  are  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Considerable  quantities  of  silver  are 
also  produced  in  Europe.  The  world's  pro- 
duction of  silver  in  1916  amounted  to  $107,- 
519,408.  Of  this  amount  the  United  States 
produced  $51,083,529;  Canada,  $17,477,348; 
Mexico,  $15,677,866;  Peru,  $6,466,513; 
Japan,  $3,514,927;  Spain,  $3,134,007,  and 
New  South  Wales,  $1,923,151.  Owing  to 
the  World  War,  the  production  of  European 
countries  was  below  their  former  average. 

SIMCOE,  John  Gra\-es  (1752-1806),  an 
English  general  and  the  first  governor  of 
Upper  Canada,  born  in  Northamptonshire, 
England,  and  educated  at  Merton  College, 
Oxford.  He  came 
to  New  England 
during  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  com- 
manding  the 
Queen's  Rangers. 
He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  war  and 
surrendered  with 
Cornwallis  at  York- 
town  in  1781.  He 
served  as  governor  john  graves 
of    Upper    Canada  simcoe 

in  1791-1794;  then  became  govemer  of  Santo 
Domingo  in  1796-1797,  and  in  1806  was  ap- 
pointed commander  in  chief  of  India.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Operations  of  a 
Partisan  Corps  Called  the  Queen's  Bangers. 
London,  Ont.,  was  founded  by  him,  and  Lake 
Simcoe  and  the  town  of  Simcoe  were  named 
in  his  honor. 

SIMILE,  sim'i  lee,  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  some  fonn  of  resemblance  between  two 
objects  essentially  different  is  designated  by 
means  of  some  definite  word,  either  as,  like 
or  so.  It  is  this  specific  statement  of  com- 
parison which  distinguishes  simile  from 
metaphor,  wherein  the  likeness  is  implied 
(see  Figures  op  Speech ) .  The  following  are 
examples  of  simile : 

Life,  LIKE  A  DOME  of  many  coloured  glass, 
Stains  the  white  radiance  of  Eternity. 

As  idle  AS  A  PAINTED  SHIP  upon  a  painted  ocean. 

It     cracked     and     growled     and     roared     and 

howled 
Like  icicles  in  the  sun. 

My  life  is  like  a  stroll  upon  the  beach. 

SIMONIDES,  siman'ideez  (556-468 
B.  c),  a  Greek  lyric  poet  and  one  of  the  most 


SIMON  PETER 


3310 


SINCLAIR 


versatile  men  cf  antiquity.  He  visited  Athens, 
and  after  the  death  of  Hipparchus,  who  had 
treated  him  very  generously,  he  proceeded  to 
Thessaly,  where  he  obtained  the  patronage  of 
powerful  families.  He  later  returned  to 
Athens,  where  in  competition  with  Aeschylus 
he  was  awarded  the  prize  for  his  elegy  on  the 
warriors  who  fell  at  Mai-athon.  When  eighty 
years  of  age  Simonides  was  victorious  in 
another  celebrated  poetical  contest,  his  fifty- 
sixth  victory  of  this  nature.  Shortly  after 
this  he  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Hiero,  at 
Syracuse,  where  he  remained  till  his  death. 
Simonides  excelled  in  his  triumphal  odes  and 
elegies,  which  were  polished  and  rhetorical, 
and  gave  him  rank  with  Pindar,'  his  con- 
temporai-v  and  rival.    See  Pixdar. 

SIMON  PETER.    See  Peter. 

SIMOOM',  or  SIMOON',  a  hot,  dry  wind 
that  blows  over  the  Sahara  and  Arabian 
deserts,  carrying  great  clouds  of  dust.  It 
is  caused  by  the  intense  heat  of  the  sandy 
plains.  The  air,  heated  by  contact  with  the 
noondaj-  burning  sand,  ascends,  and  the  in- 
flow of  colder  air  from  all  sides  forms  a 
whirlwind,  or  miniature  cyclone.  Its  intense, 
dry,  parching  heat,  combined  with  the  cloud 
of  dust  and  sand  which  it  carries  with  it, 
makes  this  wind  veiy  destructive  to  both 
vegetable  and  animal  Hfe.  Caravans  cannot 
proceed  through  it.  When  suddenly  over- 
taken by  one  of  these  sandstorms  travelers,  to 
escape  suffocation,  lie  down  and  cover  their 
heads  with  blankets,  and  camels  bury  their 
noses  in  the  sand.  The  simoon  may  last  a 
few  minutes  or  it  may  continue  for  days. 

SIM'PLON,  a  mountain  pass  of  Switzer- 
land near  the  frontier  of  Piedmont,  Italy, 
over  which  the  famous  Simplon  road,  one  of 
the  gi'eatest  engineering  feats  of  modem 
times,  was  constnicted  by  Xapoleon  in  1800- 
1806.  This  pass,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
important  routes  across  the  Alps,  is  about 
thirty  feet  broad  and  forty-two  miles  long, 
and  is  carried  over  611  bridges  and  through 
numerous  great  tunnels. 

The  Simplon  Tunnel,  a  railway  tunnel 
through  the  Alps  at  this  point,  was  com- 
menced in  1898  and  completed  in  1906.  It 
is  the  longest  railway  tunnel  in  the  world, 
consisting  of  two  tubes,  each  having  a  single 
track.     The  length  is  over  twelve  miles. 

SIMP'SON,  Sir  James  Youxg  (1811- 
1870),  a  Scotch  physician,  the  most  eminent 
medical  practitioner  of  his  day  and  the  dis- 
coverer   of    the    anesthetic    properties    of 


chloroform.  He  was  bom  at  Bathgate,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
For  his  discovery  of  chlorofonn  anesthesia 
and  its  introduction  at  childbirth  and  his  in- 
vention of  a  means  of  arresting  the  loss  of 
blood  in  hemorrhage,  he  received  honors  from 
numerous  scientific  societies  in  America  and 
Europe.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1867. 
See  Anesthetic;  Chloroform. 

SIMS,  William  Sowden  (1858-  ),  an 
American  naval  commander,  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  1917,  after 
America  entered  the  World  War.  He  was 
born  at  Port  Hope,  Ontario,  and  was  edu- 
cated for  the  sea  at  the  United  States  Xaval 
Academy  at  Annapolis,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  in  1880.  Between  1897  and  1900 
Sims  served  as  naval  attache  to  the  American 
embassies  at  the  capitals  of  France  and  Eus- 
sia,  and  during  Roosevelt's  administrations 
was  inspector  of  target  practice  at  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation.  Following"  this  he  was  com- 
mander of  the  2Linnesota,  a  member  of  the 
Xaval  War  College,  commander  of  the  At- 
lantic torpedo  flotilla,  president  of  the  Xaval 
War  College,  and  commandant  of  the  Second 
Xaval  District.  In  August,  1916,  he  was 
jDromoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  After 
America  entered  the  World  War  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  American  squadron 
operating  in  European  waters,  and  while  he 
was  abroad  he  was  made  vice-admiral,  thus 
attaining  the  rank  of  the  chief  British  and 
French  officers  with  whom  he  was  associated. 

SINAI,  si'ni,  or  si'na  i,  a  mountain  in 
Arabia,  at  the  base  of  which  Israel  encamped 
and  from  the  summit  of  which  Moses  is  sup- 
posed to  have  received  the  Ten  Command- 
ments. It  is  one  of  three  peaks  of  the  moun- 
tain range  on  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  which 
projects  into  the  Red  Sea,  between  the  gulfs 
of  Suez  and  Akabah.  In  literature  the  word 
Sinai  is  used  figuratively  to  s^Tabolize  the 
legal  side  of  God's  treatment  of  men. 

SINCLAIR,  Uptox  [Beall]  (1878-  ), 
an  American  author  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Intercollegiate  Socialist  Society,  was 
born  at  Baltimore,  Md.  He  was  educated  at 
the  College  of  the  City  of  Xew  York  and  at 
Columbia  University.  Because  of  his  ex- 
posure of  conditions  at  the  Chicago  stock- 
yards in  his  novel.  The  Jungle,  a  government 
investigation  was  undertaken.  To  carry  out 
his  ideas  on  cooperative  housekeeping,  the 
Helicon  Home  Colony  was  founded  in  1906 
near  Englewood,  N.  J.,  but  fire  destroyed  its 


SINDIA 


3311 


SINGLE  TAX 


buildings  before  the  experiment  was  fully 
worked  out.  In  1917  Sinclair  withdrew  from 
the  Socialist  party  because  of  the  opposition 
of  this  body  to  American  participation  in 
the  World  War.  His  writings  include 
Springtime  and  Harvest,  The  Industrial 
Bepublic,  King  Midas,  The  Money-Changers, 
The  Cry  for  Justice,  King  Coal  and  The 
Profits  of  Religion. 

SIN'DIA,  the  hereditary  title  of  the  head 
of  the  Mahratta  dynasty  which  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  history  of  India  in  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  The 
Sindia  arose  in  Gwalior,  which  was  founded 
in  1738  by  Ranoji  Sindia.  In  1781  Madaji 
Sindia,  the  most  powerful  member  of  the 
Mahratta  confederacy,  negotiated  a  peace  be- 
tween the  British  and  the  Mahrattas,  and 
having  introduced  European  discipline  and 
tactics  into  his  army,  possessed  himself  of 
Delhi,  Agra  and  the  person  of  the  Mogul 
emperor,  in  whose  name  he  subsequently 
acted.  Several  of  his  successors  engaged  in 
open  conflict  with  the  British. 

SINDING,  sin' ding,  Christian  (1856-  ), 
a  Norwegian  musical  composer  and  teacher, 
educated  in  Germany,  and  Austria.  His 
compositions  suggest  the  spirit  of  the  North- 
lands and  are  characterized  by  charm  of 
melody  and  excellence  of  construction.  His 
principal  works  include  a  pianoforte  quartet 
and  quintet,  three  violin  sonatas,  two  sym- 
phonies and  the  Hondo  Infinito  for  the 
orchestra;  his  opera  Der  heilige  Berg  was 
produced  in  Berlin  in  1910. 

SINGAPORE',  a  British  colony,  forming 
one  of  the  Straits  Settlements  and  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  island  and  city  of  Singapore, 
with  a  few  smaller  islands.  The  principal 
island  is  about  twenty-seven  miles  long  and 
fourteen  miles  wide  and  has  an  area  of  217 
square  miles.  Its  location  gives  it  a  hot 
climate  throughout  the  year,  though  it  is  not 
unhealthful.  The  chief  interest  centers  in 
the  city  of  Singapore.  The  chief  public 
buildings  consist  of  the  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Andrew's,  the  townhall,  the  courthouse  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral.  It  has  one  of 
the  finest  botanical  gardens  in  the  world. 
Singapore  is  the  meeting  point  of  numerous 
important  ocean  routes.  It  is  a  free  port 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade.  Popula- 
tion, 1916,  estimated,  369,000,  of  whom  over 
sixty  per  cent  were  Chinese. 

SING'ING,  the  art  of  making  music  with 
the  human  voice;  also  the  music  thus  pro- 


duced.    The  mechanism  by  which  this  music 
is  made  consists  of  the  lungs,  which  supply 
the  air;   the  muscles  of  the  diaphragm,  or 
chest,  which  force  the  air  through  the  throat, 
and  the  vocal  chords  of  the  throat,  whose 
vibrations  produce  the  sound.    Difference  in 
pitch  of  voice  is  due  to  the  length  of  the  vocal 
chords;  difference  in  quality  is  due  to  the 
differences  in  the  shape  of  the  cavities  of  the 
mouth  and  nose  and  to  the  different  use  of 
the   muscles   of  the  larynx.      The  compass 
of  the  human  voice  is  from  about  C  below 
the  bass  clef  to  F  above  the  treble,  though 
no  single  voice  has  this  compass,  the  average 
being  about  twelve  to  fifteen  tones,  and  the 
greatest,   slightly  over  three  octaves.     The 
total  range  of  the  voice  is  divided  into  four 
parts,    the    soprano,    including   the   highest 
tones,  beginning  at  about  E   on  the  treble 
clef;   the  alto,  or  contralto,  including  those 
from  about  G  on  the  bass  clef  to  C  on  the 
treble  clef;   the  tenor,  including  the  range 
of    the   contralto,   but   extending   somewhat 
lower,  and  the  bass,  including  all  the  lower 
notes,  beginning  at  about  C  above  the  bass 
clef  and  extending  downward.     See  Music. 
SINGLE  TAX,  the  name  given  by  com- 
mon consent  to  the  economic  reform  which 
proposes  the  abolition  of  all  taxes  on  per- 
sonal  property   and   the   raising   of   public 
revenues,  local,  state  and  national,  by  a  single 
tax  on  land  values,  irrespective  of  improve- 
ments, this  tax  eventually  to  become  equal 
to  the  annual  rental  value  of  the  land.    The 
theory    of    the    single    tax    is    based    upon 
Ricardo's  "law  of  rent,"  which,  briefly,  is  this : 
"The  economic  rent  of  a  given  piece  of  land 
depends   upon    (or  is   determined  by)    the 
excess  of  its  product  over  that  which  can  be 
obtained  with  an  equivalent  effort  from  the 
least  productive  land  in  cultivation."     By 
taking  this  economic  rent  (that  is,  the  excess 
of  product  of  a  particular  piece  of  land, 
over  that  which  can  be  obtained  from  the 
least  productive  land  in  use — or  at  the  so- 
called   "margin  of  cultivation")    for  public 
purposes  (taxes),  those  who  are  now  holding 
the  lands  without  using  them,  in  order  to  se- 
cure in  the  future  a  higher  value,  would  no 
longer  be  able  to  do  so  with  profit,  since  the 
benefit  which  they  have  been  receiving  would 
now  be  confiscated  to  the  State.    Thus,  vast 
areas  of  land  would  be  thrown  open  to  prac- 
tically free  employment;  the  opportunities 
for  labor  would  be  nearly  equal,  and  the  re- 
ward to  labor  would  be  approximately  the 


SINGLE  TAX 


3312 


SIOUAN  INDIANS 


•whole  product,  except  -n-hat  would  be  taken 
for  interest  on  the  capital  invested. 

In  proof  of  their  assertions,  single  taxers 
point  to  statistics.  For  instance,  the  unim- 
proved land  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of 
Chicago  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  total 
area  and  would  furnish  empIo>Tnent  for 
thousands  of  persons.  They  justify  the  con- 
fiscation of  land  values  (for  the  taking  of  the 
whole  rental  value  would  amount  to  the  con- 
fiscation of  the  land),  partly  on  the  basis  that 
this  value  is  created  by  the  community  and 
cannot  be  rightfully  monopolized  by  individ- 
uals. Furthermore,  they  contend  that  pri- 
vate ownership  of  land  must  eventually  reduce 
the  majority  of  mankind  virtually  to  a  con- 
dition of  slavery;  for  wealth  can  be  pro- 
duced only  by  the  application  of  labor  to  land 
(that  is,  to  all  natural  agencies,  including 
earth,  air,  water) ;  therefore,  either  the  owner 
of  the  labor  (man)  or  the  owner  of  the  op- 
portunity to  labor  (land)  can  control  the 
laborer  and  can  make  such  terms  with  him 
as  he  pleases.  This  condition  is  brought  con- 
stantly nearer  by  the  withholding  from  use  of 
large  tracts  of  land,  while  the  growth  of  pop- 
ulation and  other  conditions  constantlj'  in- 
crease the  competition  of  laborers  for  em- 
ployment, that  is,  for  the  right  to  use  the 
land.  Believing  as  they  do  that  the  original 
act  of  reducing  land  to  private  ownership 
was  wrong  and  worked  an  injustice,  not  only 
upon  those  from  whom  the  land  was  taken, 
but  upon  all  who  came  after,  they  believe 
the  State  has  a  perfect  right  to  reverse  this 
step  and  retake  for  the  community,  by  taxa- 
tion, the  value  of  land,  without  compensating 
the  present  owners. 

The  single-tax  theory  has  gained  many 
adherents,  especially-  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  chiefly  through  the  propaganda  of 
Henry  George,  an  American  economist  who 
first  thoroughly  elucidated  the  principles  of 
the  theory,  though  the  idea  had  been  before 
developed  in  a  crude  way  by  French  econom- 
ists. George's  first  great  work  on  the  sub- 
ject was  Progress  and  Poverty.  It  immedi- 
ately became  popular  and  has  been  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  the  civilized  world 
(see  George,  Hexry).  But  the  theory  has 
never  been  given  a  practical  test,  though  it 
has  been  partially  applied  in  New  Zealand 
and  in  small  divisions  of  other  countries.  At 
Fairhope,  Ala.,  is  a  small  colony  of  single 
taxers  who  are  attempting  to  work  out  their 


l^rinciples  in  practical  life.  Their  efforts 
have  been  attended  with  some  success.  Some 
of  the  important  demands  of  the  single  tax- 
ers are  being  accepted  and  incorporated  in 
the  laws  of  several  of  the  states,  especially 
the  abolition  of  the  tax  on  personal  property, 
the  reform  being  urged  in  many  instances 
on  the  ground  that  this  form  of  property  is 
so  easily  concealed  that  persons  of  small 
means  pay  vastly  more,  in  proportion  to 
their  ability,  than  those  of  wealth,  and, 
further,  that  the  methods  of  assessment  place 
a  premium  upon  perjury  and  corruption. 

The  main  objections  that  are  urged  to  the 
single  tax  are  the  following:  (1)  That  it 
would  relieve  a  large  class  of  persons  from 
support  of  the  government;  (2)  that  the  tax 
would  be  inelastic;  (3)  even  though  the 
justice  of  the  principle  of  the  single  tax  be 
gi-anted,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  the  fact 
that  private  ownership  of  land  has  been 
recognized  for  centuries  and  has  led  to  the 
development  of  many  interwoven  interests, 
would  make  it  mexpedient  for  the  community 
to  recover  possession  of  the  land  by  the  means 
proposed.     See  Tax;  Rent. 

SING  SING,  X.  Y.    See  Ossining. 

SINN  FEIN,  sin  fayn,  a  society  of  Irish* 
nationalists  whose  sole  aim  is  to  overthrow 
British  i-ule  and  make  Ireland  an  independ- 
ent state.  In  the  ancient  Gaelic  tongue  of 
Ireland,  Sinn  Fein  meant  ourselves  alone. 
Its  first  use  politically  was  as  the  name  of  a 
patriotic  newspaper,  the  readers  of  which 
furnished  the  nucleus  of  the  society.  With 
the  growth  of  the  society,  which  is  composed 
largely  of  leading  Irish  thinkers,  the  Sinn 
Fein  has  become  in  recent  years  a  "move- 
ment." In  April,  1916,  an  armed  rebellion 
of  Sinn  Feiners  broke  out  in  Dublin,  but 
was  put  down  by  the  British,  and  Sir  Roger 
Casement  and  other  leaders  were  executed. 
The  movement  did  not  perish,  however.  On 
the  contrary,  the  party  gained  such  strength 
that  it  won  about  seventy  seat-s  in  the  Parlia- 
mentary election  in  December,  1918.  The 
elected  delegates  refused  to  take  their  places 
in  the  Parliament  at  London,  but  gave  all 
their  energies  to  setting  up  an  independent 
republic  with  a  Parliament  at  Dublin.  See 
Irelaxd,  subhead  History. 

SIOUAN,  soo'an,  INDIANS,  those  related 
Indian  tribes  who  occupied  the  land  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  and  Missouri  valleys,  far 
into  Canada,  and  included  detached  tribes 
east    of    the    Mississippi.     Among    Siouan 


SIOUX 


3313 


SIPHON 


tribes  are  the  Dakota,  or  Sioux,  the  Omaha, 
the  Winnebago,  the  Assiniboin,  the  Osage 
and  the  Quapaw.  Some  of  the  tribes  were 
bitterly  hostile  to  the  whites,  and  the  fierce 
and  warlike  temperament  of  such  tribes  as 
Dakotas  was  the  soui'ce  of  considerable 
trouble  to  the  United  States  government 
for  many  years. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Assiniboin  Quapaw  Sitting  Bull 

Osage  Sioux  Winnebago 

SIOUX,  soo,  or  DAKO'TA,  the  largest 
tribe  of  Indians  dwelling  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  most  troublesome  of  all  the 
tribes  belonging  to  the  Siouan  group.  Orig- 
inally they  occupied  the  country  between  the 
Arkansas  River  and  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Winnipeg  and  west  almost  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Because  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment failed  to  carry  out  certain  agree- 
ments made  with  them,  they  went  on  the  war- 
path in  1862  and  killed  nearly  1,000  settlers. 
Another  uprising  in  1876  caused  the  death 
of  General  Custer  and  all  his  men,  in  the 
battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn.  Eventually 
the  Sioux  were  subdued  and  retired  to  their 
reservations  in  the  Northwest.  They  now 
number  about  22,000,  and  are  brave,  in- 
telligent and  progressive.    See  Sitting  Bull. 

SIOUX  CITY,  Iowa,  the  second  city  in 
size  in  the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Wood- 
bury County,  is  located  on  the  Missouri  River, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Sioux  River,  156 
miles  northwest  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  on  the 
Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago  &  North  West- 
ern, the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  & 
Omaha,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  Saint  Paul  and  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington &  Quiney  railroads.  The  city  is  the 
sixth  largest  live  stock  market  in  the  United 
States,  having  large  meat  packing  plants  and 
stockyards  that  do  a  large  business.  It  has 
thirty-four  wholesale  and  jobbing  houses  and 
150  factories,  including  railroad  repair  shops, 
brick  and  tile  works,  planing  mills,  and  other 
industrial  establishments.  Two  bridges  cross 
the  Missouri  River,  one,  a  combination  bridge 
affording  facilities  for  railroads,  street  cars, 
vehicles  and  foot  passengers.  Sioux  City  is 
the  seat  of  Morningside  College  and  Trinity 
College,  has  six  hospitals,  a  Federal  building, 
a  city  hall,  and  a  Carnegie  Library.  Its  larg- 
est park  is  Stone  Park,  containing  800  acres. 
It  has  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  an  audi- 
torium seating  3,000.  A  $750,000  courthouse 
has  recently  been  erected.     Sioux  city  was 

208 


first  incorporated  in  1857,  became  a  city  of 
the  first  class  in  1886,  and  adopted  the  com- 
mission plan  of  government  in  1910.  Pop- 
ulation, 1910,  47,828;  in  1917,  58,568  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

SIOUX  FALLS,  S.  D.,  the  county  seat  of 
Minnehaha  County,  about  ninety  miles  north 
of  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  and  eight  miles  from  the 
Iowa  State  line,  on  the  Big  Sioux  River  and 
on  the  Great  Northern,  the  Illinois  Central, 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  &  Omaha 
railroads.  The  river  has  a  series  of  falls, 
descending  about  100  feet  in  half  a  mile  and 
furnishing  extensive  water  power.  The  city 
contains  a  large  packing  plant,  a  biscuit  fac- 
tory, brickyards  and  extensive  granite  qviar- 
ries,  from  which  are  taken  a  beautiful  pink 
jasper  building  stone.  It  has  large  wholesale 
houses,  and  is  the  center  of  a  valuable  trade. 
The  educational  institutions  include  the  Sioux 
Falls  College,  a  Lutheran  normal  school,  All 
Saints'  School  (Episcopal)  and  the  state 
school  for  the  deaf.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  an 
orphans'  home  and  of  the  state  penitentiary. 
It  has  a  Federal  building,  and  a  Carnegie 
Library.  Sioux  Falls  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1883.  It  adopted  the  commission 
form  of  government  in  1909.  Population, 
1910,  14,094;  in  1917,  16,887  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 

SIPHON,  si'fahn,  a  tube  with  one  curved 
end,  shaped  like  an  inverted  U,  used  to  con- 
vey a  liquid  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level. 
The  illustration  shows  the  principle  upon 
which  the  siphon  works. 
If  all  the  air  is  exhausted 
from  the  tube  and  the  two 
ends  are  placed  in  liquid, 
the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
pheric air  on  the  surface 
at  D  will  force  the  liquid 
up  into  the  tube  to  the  level 
CB  and  cause  it  to  flow 
into  the  arm  BA.  A  liquid 
would  not  flow  through  a 
siphon  if  the  highest  point 
in  the  tube  were  thirty- 
three  feet  above  the  level 
D,  because  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  not  sufficient  to  balance 
its  weight  at  higher  levels.  The  principle  of 
the  siphon  is  employed  in  devices  for  convey- 
ing water  over  slight  elevations,  and  in  empty- 
ing casks  and  other  vessels. 


SIR 


3314 


SISTINE  CHAPEL 


SIR,  a  title  formerly  meaning  master,  lord 
or  sovereign.  It  is  a  contraction  of  sire  form- 
erly applied  to  sovereigns,  but  is  now  most 
frequently  applied  to  those  upon  whom  the 
British  government  wishes  to  confer  distinc- 
tion because  of  their  position  in  the  nobility, 
or  because  they  have  rendered  some  distin- 
guished service  to  mankind  or  to  the  British 
government.  Thus,  Henry  Bessemer,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  process  of  making  Bessemer 
steel,  was  given  the  title  of  Sir.  Since  Sir 
was  the  distinguishing  title  of  knighthood  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  one  upon  whom  the  title  is 
conferred  is  said  to  be  knighted.  See 
Chivalry. 

SI'REN,  an  instrument  for  the  production 
of  continuous  sounds,  used  extensively  in 
England  and  France  during  the  World  War 
as  a  warning  for  the  approach  of  air  raids. 
Very  large  sirens  are  used  for  fog  signals  at 
lighthouse  stations,  steam  being  employed 
instead  of  air,  with  a  trumpet-shaped  horn 
to  direct  the  sound.  The  siren  is  also  used 
for  measuring  the  number  of  sound  waves, 
or  vibrations,  per  second,  which  produce  a 
note  of  given  pitC-h.  In  its  original  form  it 
consists  of  a  disk,  with  a  circular  row  of 
oblicjue  holes,  revolving  close  to  the  top  plate 
of  a  wind  chest,  perforated  with  correspond- 
ing holes,  sloping  in  the  opposite  direction, 
so  that  the  jets  of  air  from  the  latter,  passing 
through  the  former,  keep  the  disk  in  motion. 
These  jets  of  air  also  produce  a  note,  cor- 
responding to  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
plate  is  revolved  or  the  frequency  with  which 
the  holes  in  the  plate  coincide  with  those 
in  the  chest.  The  number  of  coincidences  or 
vibrations  in  a  given  time  is  shown  by  in- 
dices connected  with  the  axis  of  the  disk. 

SI'RENS,  in.  Greek  mythology,  the  name 
of  several  sea  njTophs,  who  by  their  singing 
enticed  sailors  to  their  island,  near  the  Sicil- 
ian coast,  and  then  killed  them  by  starvation. 
Warned  of  the  danger,  when  Ulysses  ap- 
proached their  island,  he  stopped  the  ears 
of  his  companions  with  wax,  bound  himself 
to  the  mast,  and  thus  escaped.  The  sirens 
then  threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  where 
they  became  formidable  rocks.  Another  ver- 
sion is  that  they  hurled  themselves  into  the 
sea  when  vanquished  in  music  by  Orpheus. 

SIRIUS,  see/ius,  the  dog  star,  the  bright- 
est star  in  the  heavens,  situated  in  the  con- 
stellation Canis  Major,-  or  the  Great  Dog. 
It  is  estimated  to  have  more  than  thirteen 
times  the  sun's  magnitude.     A  companion 


star  to  Sirius  was  discovered  in  1862  which 
gives  out  one  ten-thousandth  part  of  the 
light  of  Sirius. 

SIROCCO,  sirok'o,  the  Italian  name  for 
a  hot  wind,  but  properly  applied  to  any 
warm  wind  of  sufficient  duration  to  produce 
a  general  climatic  change.  Siroccos  are  com- 
mon over  the  southern  portion  of  the  United 
States  and  the  countries  bordering  the  Medi- 
terranean in  the  north,  being  especially  the 
scourge  of  Sicih',  although  the  term  particu- 
larly refers  to  the  warm  wind  of  the  Sahara.  ■ 
The  sirocco  here  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  simoom  which  is  much  more  violent, 
though  both  winds  produce  dust  storms. 

SISAL,  sissaliV,  or  sis'al,  or  si' sail,  a  tall 
tropical  plant,  the  swordlike  leaves  of  which 
yield  a  valuable  fiber  used  for  the  making  of 
binding  twine,  coarse  cloth,  hammocks,  bags, 
etc.  Sisal  is  native  to  Yucatan,  Mexico,  and 
is  also  cultivated  in  limited  quantity  in 
Florida,  the  Bahamas,  the  West  Indies,  and 
parts  of  Central  America.  Progreso,  the 
chief  port  of  Yucatan,  exports  to  the  United 
States  annually  200,000,000  pounds  of  this 
fiber. 

Sisal  is  grown  upon  stony  ground,  and  its 
leaves  are  from  two  and  three  feet  long.  The 
pulp  is  cleaned  from  each  side  of  the  leaf  and 
the  remaining  fiber  is  then  washed  and  sun- 
dried. 

SISTERS  OF  CHARITY.  See  Charity, 
Sisters  of. 

SISTERS  OF  MERCY.  See  Mercy,  Sis- 
ters OF. 

SISTINE,  sis'tin,  or  sis  teen,  CHAPEL, 
the  private  chapel  of  the  Pope  in  the  Vati- 
can, built  for  Sixtus  IV,  in  1473,  by  Giovanni 
de  Dolci,  a  Florentine  architect.  The  screen 
separating  the  congregation  from  the  section 
reserved  for  the  Pope  and  cardinals  is  one  of 
the  foremost  pieces  of  marble  decoration  of 
the  early  Renaissance  period.  The  floor 
mosaics  and  frescoes  on  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ing are  equally  famous.  The  walls  are  a 
museum  of  works  of  leading  Tuscan  and 
Umbrian  painters  of  the  later  fifteenth  cen- 
turv%  with  masterpieces  of  Botticelli,  Ghir- 
landaio,  Perugino  and  many  others.  Among 
the  ceiling  frescoes  are  Michelangelo's  Crea- 
tion, History  of  Noah,  and  the  celebrated 
Prophets  and  Sibyls.  The  entire  altar  wall 
is  covered  by  his  Last  Judgment,  the  largest 
fresco  in  the  world  (see  Michelaxgelo). 

Most  of  the  functions  at  which  the  Pope 
personally   participates   take   place   in   the 


SISTINE  MADONNA 


3315 


SKAGERRAE 


Sistine  Chapel.  The  Papal  elections  are  also 
held  there. 

SISTINE  MADONNA.  See  Raphael; 
Madonna;  Painting. 

SISYPHUS,  sisifus,  a  mythical  king  of 
Corinth,  who  promoted  navigation  and  com- 
merce, and  who  was  so  crafty  that  he  even 
deceived  the  gods.  For  his  wickedness  he  was 
punished  in  the  lower  world  by  being  obliged 
to  roll  a  heavy  stone  to  the  top  of  a  hill 
which  always  rolled  down  again,  thus  render- 
ing his  task  eternal. 

SIT'KA,  Alaska,  its  former  capital,  is 
situated  on  the  west  coast  of  Baranof  Island, 
1,130  miles  north  of  Seattle  and  160  miles 
southwest  of  Juneau.  The  town  has  a  pic- 
turesque site,  near  a  number  of  mountain 
peaks  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  The 
climate  is  mild,  considering  the  latitude.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  Greek  church,  begun 
in  1816 ;  a  church  connected  with  the  Presby- 
terian mission,  and  the  school  buildings  of  the 
Russian-Greek  church,  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment and  the  Presbyterian  industrial 
training  school.  Other  institutions  of  im- 
portance are  the  ban-acks,  an  agricultural 
experiment  station,  the  governor's  residence, 
the  United  States  land  office  and  a  marine 
hospital.  The  chief  industries  are  mining, 
lumbering  and  salmon  canning.  Sitka  was 
the  old  Russian  capital  of  Alaska  and  until 
1906  was  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
ten-itory  under  the  United  States;  in  that 
year  the  capital  was  transferred  to  Juneau. 
Population,  1910,  900  natives  and  160  whites. 

SITTING  BULL  (1837-1890),  a  famous 
chief  of  the  Sioux  tribe  of  North  American 
Indians,  born  at  Willow  Creek;  Dakota. 
From  the  very  first  he  showed  bitter  hostility 
to  the  white  settlers  in  the  Northwest,  and  was 
conspicuous  in  many  attacks  upon  them.  At 
the  Battle  of  Mussel  Shell,  in  the  Yellowstone 
region,  in  1868,  his  forces  were  defeated,  and 
from  this  time  until  1876  he  fought  friendly 
Indians  and  raided  Montana  settlements.  In 
1876  a  campaign  was  undertaken  against 
him,  during  which  General  Custer  and  hia 
force  were  massacred.  Later  he  escaped  to 
Canada,  but  on  promise  of  pardon  he  sur- 
rendered to  General  Miles,  in  1881.  He 
again  instigated  rebellion  among  the  Indians 
and  was  killed  while  resisting  a  government 
order  for  his  arrest. 

SIUT,  or  SIOUT,  se  oof  (also  written 
Assiut),  the  chief  town  of  Upper  Egypt  and 
the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Siut,  situated 


on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  248  miles  south 
of  Cairo,  and  on  the  Nile  Valley  Railroad. 
It  is  the  official  seat  of  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  Upper  Egypt.  It  is  a  well-built 
town  and  trade  center.  It  has  manufactur- 
ing industries  of  considerable  value  and  is 
noted  for  its  red  and  black  pottery  and  pipe 
bowls.  A  large  dam  has  been  constructed 
across  the  Nile  at  this  point,  to  regulate  the 
flow  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes.  Near 
the  city  are  a  number  of  ancient  tombs,  cut 
in  the  rocks.    Population,  about  42,750. 

SIVA,  se'va,  the  name  of  the  third  of  the 
three  great  Hindu  deities  (Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva),  variously  designated  as  the  de- 
stroyer and  the  creator,  or  regenerator.  He 
is  frequently  represented  with  five  faces  and 
from  two  to  ten  hands ;  a  third  eye  is  in  the 
middle  of  his  forehead.  He  wears  a  neck- 
lace of  human  skulls  and  carries  a  trident 
supported  by  a  skull.  He  has  been  known 
by  almost  a  thousand  names.  See  Brahma; 
Vishnu. 

SIX  NATIONS,  The.    See  Fi\-e  Nations. 

SIX'TUS,  the  name  of  five  Popes,  of  whom 
Sixtus  IV  and  Sixtus  V  were  the  most  noted. 

Sixtus  IV,  who  was  Pope  frona  1471  to  1484, 
was  a  patron  of  art  and  learning-.  Among  the 
works  commemorating  his  reign  are  the  Ponte 
Sisto  and  the  famous  Sistine  Chapel  of  the 
Vatican. 

Sixtus  V  was  Pope  from  1585  to  1590.  As 
Pope  he  actively  pursued  criminals  and 
purged  Italy  of  bandits  and  mendicants.  An 
able  financier,  he  replenished  the  Papal  treas- 
ury, which  at  his  accession  he  had  found  ex- 
hausted, and  left  at  his  death  three  million 
dollars  available  to  his  successor.  He  also 
greatly  enriched  the  Vatican  library,  collect- 
ing' from  the  monasteries  countless  valuable 
manuscripts  and  placing  them  in  the  hands  of 
competent  translators.  He  built  new  addi- 
tions to  the  library  and  had  the  arrangement 
of  books  so  perfected  that  it  has  been  since 
that  time  the  admiration  of  all  students  who 
visit  Rome.  He  founded  the  Vatican  Press  and 
had  printed  the  works  of  Gregory  the  Great, 
Saint  Bonaventure  and  other  learned  divines; 
also,  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate,  pub- 
lished in  1590.  The  Scala  Santa,  by  which, 
according  to  tradition,  Christ  ascended  to  the 
hall  of  Pilate  at  Jerusalem,  was  raised  by 
Sixtus's  direction.  In  his  brief  reign,  this 
pope  accomplished  more  for  Rome  and  the 
Catholic  Church  than  any  of  his  predecessors 
in  a  like  period. 

SKAGERRAK,  skah'ger  rak,  a  broad  arm 
of  the  North  Sea,  which  washes  Norway  on 
the  north,  Jutland  on  the  south  and  Sweden 
on  the  east,  where  it  communicates  with  the 
Cattegat   (which  see).     Its  length  is  about 


SKAGWAY 


3316 


SKEAT 


150  miles;  its  breadth,  eighty  miles.  Its 
depth  varies  from  thirty  to  more  than  200 
fathoms.  There  are  several  good  harbors  on 
the  Norwegian  and  Swedish  coasts.  In  the 
Skagerrak,  in  1916,  was  fought  a  great  bat- 
tle between  the  British  and  German  fleets 
(see  World  War). 

SKAG-WAY,  s'kag'way,  Alaska,  a  sub- 
port  of  entry  in  the  southern  district  of 
Alaska,  situated  on  Lynn  Canal.  It  is  an 
important  terminus  for  railroad  and  steam- 
ship lines  and  is  a  distributing  point  of  sup- 
plies to  the  interior;  through  it  also  pass 
supplies  to  and  from  the  Canadian  Klondike. 
It  has  a  public  library,  three  hospitals  and  a 
United  States  government  building.  Popu- 
lation, 1914,  800. 

SKALDS,  or  SCALDS,  sJcahldz,  or 
skaulds,  poets  and  historians  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian races  who  flourished  from  the  ninth 
to  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
They  lived  at  the  courts  of  princes  and  sang 
the  praises  of  their  gods  and  celebrated  the 
exploits  of  their  national  heroes.  A  list  of 
over  two  hundred  of  the  most  distinguished 
skalds  is  preserved  in  the  Icelandic  language. 

SKAT,  skaht,  a  game  of  cards,  played 
with  a  euchre  deck  by  three,  four  or  five 
persons,  for  sixty-one  points.  The  cards  in 
the  tricks  taken  count  as  follows :  ace,  eleven ; 
ten  spot,  ten;  king,  four;  queen,!  three; 
knave,  two.  The  four  knaves,  which  are 
called  matadors,  are  the  highest  trumps  and 
rank  in  order  of  suits,  clubs,  spades,  hearts 
and  diamonds.  Only  three  take  part  in  ac- 
tive play  at  each  deal.  Five  cards  are  dealt 
to  each  of  the  players.  The  next  two  cards 
are  laid  face  down  on  the  table,  then  five 
more  are  dealt  to  each  of  the  same  plaj'ers. 
The  two  which  are  laid  face  down  on  the 
table  are  called  the  skat.  Suit  must  be  fol- 
lowed if  possible;  if  not,  any  card  may  be 
played.  By  means  of  bidding  and  passing 
the  bid,  in  which  the  rank  of  the  suits  is  con- 
sidered, the  one  who  is  to  lead  is  selected. 
The  counting  is  complicated,  and  the  method 
should  be  studied  from  a  manual.  The  game 
was  invented  in  1817  in  Altenburg  and  is 
very  popular  among  Germans.  It  is  played 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  United  States, 
but  its  difficulty  has  prevented  it  from  be- 
coming more  generally  popular. 

SKATE,  a  broad,  flat-bodied  fish  belonging 
to  the  ray  family,  usually  found  on  sandy  bot- 
toms near  the  shore.  The  chief  portion  of 
the  body  is  made  up  of  the  expanded  pec- 


toral fins,  which  are  concealed  under  the  skin. 
The  tail  is  long  and  slender;  the  snout  is 
pointed,  with  a 
prominent  ridge, 
or  keel.  The  com- 
mon skate  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America  is 
a  foot  or  two  in 
length;  the  barn- 
door skate  is  four 
feet  long;  and  the 
California  skate, 
the  largest  of  tho 
American  species, 
is  six  feet  long. 
Most  species  are 
edible.  skate 

SKATES  AND  SKATING.  A  skate  con- 
sists of  a  steel  blade  aflixed  to  a  wooden  or 
metal  base  and  fastened  to  the  shoe  by  means 
of  straps,  clamps  or  screws. 

The  club  skate,  with  its  rocker-shaped 
blade,  is  entirely  of  metal,  and  is  clamped 
on  the  foot;  the  Hudson  River,  or  Donoghue 
skate  is  straight-bladed,  with  wooden  top  and 
straps;  the  Noricegian  skate,  ranking  as  the 
best,  has  a  blade  similar  to  the  Hudson  River 
skate,  but  is  very  light  in  weight  and  is 
screwed  to  the  sole  of  a  special  skating  shoe. 

Skating.  Skating  seems  to  have  been  a 
sport  of  great  antiquity,  mention  being  made 
of  it  in  the  Edda.  In  Holland,  from  time  im- 
memorial, skates  have  been  used  by  all 
classes  of  people  upon  the  canals  and  rivers, 
because  of  their  facility  of  locomotion.  In 
the  United  States  few  outdoor  sports  draw 
such  largfe  crowds  as  skating  and  most  of 
the  northern  cities  make  provision  at  public 
expense  for  skating  on  the  lagoons  in  tbe 
public  parks.  Local  and  municipal  contests 
are  held  for  championships.  Frequently 
contests  have  been  held  between  European 
and  American  champions.  Of  late  at  places 
of  public  amusement  there  is  great  vogue  for 
indoor  ice  skating. 

SKEAT,  skeet,  Walter  William  (1835- 
1912),  an  English  student  of  languages  who 
wrote  nearly  fifty  books  relating  to  his 
specialty',  nearly  all  of  which  have  become 
standard  authority  on  the  subjects  covered 
by  their  titles.  Among  these  are  Etijmolog- 
ical  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language, 
Primer  of  Classical  and  English  Philology 
and  The  Scietvce  of  Etymology.  He  was  bom 
in  London,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 


SKELETON 


3317 


SKELETON 


IKEL'ETON,  the  hard 
framework  that  supports 
\k^  and  protects  the  soft  tis- 
sues of  animals.  It  may 
lie  within  these  tissues,  as 
with  man  and  the  higher 
animals,  or  without  them, 
as  with  turtles,  mollusks, 
etc.  The  human  skeleton 
is  made  up  of  about  200 
bones,  of  which  seventy- 
four  belong  to  the  axial 
skeleton — head,  neck  and 
trunk — and  about  126  to 
the  appendicular  skele- 
ton— the  extremeties.  The 
number  of  bones  varies  a 
little  from  infancy  to  the 
adult  period. 
Axial  Skeleton.  The  upper  part  of  the 
human  spine,  or  vertebral  column,  is  made 
up  of  twenty-four  separate  bones  called 
vertebrae,  seven  in  the  neck  (cervical), 
twelve  in  the  chest  region  (dorsal),  and  five 
in  the  loins  (lumbar).  To  the  dorsal  verte- 
brae are  attached  the  ribs,  twelve  on  each 
side.  The  ribs  are  tipped  in  front  with  car- 
tilages, which  in  the  seven  upper,  or  true, 
ribs,  join  them  to  the  sternum.  Of  the  re- 
maining five,  or  false,  ribs,  the  upper  three 
are  fixed  to  the  cartilages  above,  but  not 
to  the  sternum,  and  the  lower  two  are  free, 
or  floating. 

They  form  an  easily  expanded  cavity  for 
the  heart  and  lungs,  and  as  thej'-  are  easily 
compressed  because  of  the  cartilages,  should 
not  be  pressed  out  of  position  by  tight 
clothing. 

The  sternum,  or  breast  bone,  occupies  the 
front  of  the  chest,  articulates  at  its  upper 
extremity  with  the  two  clavicles,  or  collar 
bones,  and  gives  direct  articulation  to  the 
seven  upper  ribs  on  each  side.  Below  the 
vertebrae  is  the  sacrum,  composed  of  five 
separate  bones  in  childhood,  but  growing 
into  a  solid  structure  in  the  adult.  The  sac- 
rum forms  the  keystone  of  the  pelvic  girdle, 
distributing  to  the  pelvis  and  lower  limbs 
a  large  part  of  the  bodily  weight.  At  the 
tip  of  the  spinal  column  is  the  coccyx,  made 
up  in  infancy  of  four  bones  which  become 
united  in  adulthood. 

Strength,  combined  with  great  elasticity 
and  flexibility,  is  provided  for  the  spinal 
column  by  anterior,  posterior  and  lateral  lig- 
aments, by  pads  of  cartilage  placed  between 


the  vertebrae  and  by  an  alternation  of  an- 
terior  and  posterior  curves  in  the  four  prin- 
cipal regions.  Hollows  through  each  of  the 
vertebrae  form  a  passage  for  the  spinal 
cord,  and  from  this  central  axis  branch  nerves 
to  all  the  vital  centers.  If  maladjustment  of 
the  vertebrae  and  spinal  cui-vature  occur, 
there  are  likely  to  be  serious  nerve  disturb- 
ances and  interference  wdth  the  bodily 
functions. 

Upon  the  two  upper  vertebrae,  the  atlas 
and  the  axis,  rests  the  skull.  Hollows  in  the 
atlas  fit  projections  on  the  skull,  and  the  head 
is  thus  allowed  to  move  forward  and  back- 
ward. The  axis  has  a  peg  that  projects  up- 
ward through  the  atlas,  allowing  movemeilt 
of  the  head  from  side  to  side. 

The  skull  is  composed  of  twenty-eight 
bones,  divided  into  those  of  the  cranium  and 
the  face.  The  cranial  bones  encase  the  brain 
and  are  eight  in  number,  namely,  occipital, 
two  temporal,  two  parietal,  frontal,  ethmoid 
and  spenoid.  They  are  united  by  sutures, 
which  somewhat  resemble  dovetailing  in  car- 
pentry, thus  allowing  a  symmetrical  develop- 
ment or  growth  at  the  edges.  The  bones 
themselves  are  made  up  of  two  layers,  with  a 
porous  substance  known  as  the  arachnoid 
membrane  lying  between.  This  arrangement 
gives  the  cranium  power  to  resist  blows  and 
to  prevent  a  jar  from  being  easily  communi- 
cated to  the  brain. 

The  bones  of  the  face,  fourteen  in  number, 
are  the  nasal,  two  superior  maxillary,  two 
lachrymal,  two  malar,  two  palate,  two  in- 
ferior turbinated,  vomer  and  inferior  max- 
illary bones.  The  remaining  six  bones  of 
the  skull  are  the  tiny  bones  of  the  inner  ears. 

At  the  base  of  the  tongue  and  attached  to 
it  is  a  bone  knowTi  as  the  hyoid.  No  fewer 
than  ten  muscles  arise  from  or  are  inserted 
into  it.  It  articulates  with  no  bones,  but 
is  suspended  from  the  skull  and  supports 
the  larjaix  by  a  ligament. 

Appendicular  Skeleton.  This  skeleton 
comprises  the  shoulder  girdle,  with  the  upper 
extremities  (sixty-four  bones),  and  the  pelvic 
girdle,  with  the  lower  extremities  (sixty-two 
bones).  The  shoulder  girdle  includes  the  clav- 
icle, or  collar  bone,  and  the  scapula,  or 
shoulder  blade.  The  clavi<^le  is  a  slender 
bone,  shaped  like  the  italic  /,  extending  from 
the  sternum  to  the  scapula,  and  attached  to 
each  by  cartilage.  It  prevents  the  shoulder 
from  falling  toward  the  chest  and  gives  free- 
dom to  the  shoulder  movement.    The  scapula 


SKELETON 


3318 


SKELETON 


is  a  flat,  irregular,  triangular  bone,  lying  out- 
side the  ribs,  at  the  back  of  the  chest,  but  sep- 
arated and  suspended  from  it  by  muscles. 

The  upper  extremities  include  the  following 
bones  on  each  side ;  the  humerus,  the  forearm, 


THE  SKELETON 
1.  Cranium.  2.  Vertebrae.  3.  Ribs.  4. 
Scapula  or  shoulder  blade.  5.  Clavicle  or 
collar  bone.  6.  Hip  bone.  7.  Coccyx.  8. 
Pubes.  9.  Sacrum.  10.  Femur  or  thigh  bone. 
11.  Patella  or  kneecap.  12.  Tibia.  13.  Fibula. 
14.  Metatarsal  bones.  15.  Phalanges.  16. 
Sternum.  17.  Humerus.  18.  Ulna.  19.  Ra- 
dius.    20.  Phalanges.     21.  Metacarpal  bones. 

the  carpus  and  the  metacarpus.  (1)  At 
the  upper  extremity  of  the  humerus,  or  arm 
bone,  are  found  a  head,  a  neck  and  two  pro- 
jections, while  at  its  lower  extremity  it  ar- 
ticulates with  the  ulna  and  radius.  (2) 
The  forearm  is  made  up  of  the  radius  and  the 
ulna,   the   former  on   the   outside   and   the 


latter  on  the  inside,  each  uniting  with  the 
humerus  by  a  hinge  joint.  At  their  lower  ex- 
tremities the  bones  of  the  forearm  join  the 
carpus,  the  radius  directly  and  the  ulna  in- 
directly, through  the  intervention  of  a  small 
fibro-cartilage.  The  ulna  is  heaviest  at  the 
end  which  joins  the  humerus,  and  the  radius 
is  heaviest  at  the  end  which  joins  the  carpus. 
(3)  The  carpus,  or  wrist,  consists  of  eight 
small  irregular  bones,  arranged  in  two  rows, 
united  by  ligaments,  and  lying  between  the 
forearm  and  the  palm.  (4)  The  metacarpus, 
or  palm,  includes  the  five  metacarpal  bones, 
numbered  from  the  thumb  to  the  little  finger. 
The  fingers,'or  digits,  are  provided  with  three 
bones  each,  except  the  thumb,  which  has  only 
two.  These  bones  are  known  as  the  phalan- 
ges. The  thumb  has  the  advantage  of  moving 
freely  on  the  carpus,  by  means  of  a  saddle 
joint.  The  other  carpal  and  metacaipal  bones 
move  upon  one  another  by  means  of  gliding 
joints. 

The  pelvic  girdle  comprises  the  innominate, 
or  hip  bones,  immovably  united  to  the  sac- 
rum. Each  innominate  is  composed  of  three 
bones  (ilium,  ischium  and  os  pubis),  which 
unite  in  adult  life  along  a  Y-shaped  line,  lo- 
cated in  the  cup  of  the  hip  joint.  The  ilium 
spreads  out  a  broad  concave  surface,  in  which 
the  intestines  are  supported;  the  ischium, 
or  haunch  bone,  forms  the  projection  of  the 
buttock  and  supports  the  body  while  sitting ; 
the  pelvis,  or  basin,  furnishes  the  bony  sup- 
port upon  which  rest  the  organs  of  the  lower 
abdominal  cavity. 

The  lower  extremities  join  the  innominate 
bones  in  the  hip  joints.  They  include,  on 
each  side,  the  femur,  the  patella,  the  leg  and 
the  foot.  (1)  The  femur,  or  thigh  bone,  is 
the  longest  bone  in  the  body;  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a  head,  a  neck,  an  angle 
and  a  large  and  a  small  projection;  at  the 
lower  end  are  two  knobs  (external  and  in- 
ternal), articulating  with  the  tibia  and  the 
fibula  in  the  knee  joint.  (2)  the  patella,  or 
kneepan,  is  a  chestnut-shaped  bone,  placed 
in  the  tendon  of  the  muscle,  at  the  point 
where  the  tendon  glides  over  the  external 
surface  of  the  femur.  (3)  The  leg  contains 
two  bones,  the  tihia,  or  shin  bone,  and  the 
fibula.  The  tibia  is  the  larger  bone  and 
articulates  with  the  femur.  At  the  lower 
extremity  is  a  horizontal,  smooth  surface,  for 
articulation  with  the  ankle.  The  fibula  is  a 
slender  bone,  located  on  the  outside  of  the 
leg,  covered  entirely  by  muscles,  except  at 


SKEPTICISM 


3319 


SKINK 


its  upper  and  lower  extremities.  It  articu- 
lates above  and  below  with  the  tibia.  (4) 
The  foot  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  bones, 
arranged  in  three  groups — the  tarsus,  or 
ankle,  made  up  of  seven  bones ;  the  metatar- 
sus, made  up  of  five  metatarsal  bones,  and  five 
digits,  in  each  of  which  are  found  three  bones, 
except  in  the  great  toe,  which  contains  only 
two. 

The  articulation  of  the  bony  parts  into 
a  symmetrical,  graceful  whole,  capable  of 
united  movement,  is  one  of  the  marvels  of 
nature.  Every  mechanical  device  known  to 
man  has  its  prototji^e  in  the  bodily  struc- 
ture.   See  Joints. 

SKEPTICISM,  skep'tesiz'm,  a  term  in 
philosophy'  applied  to  a  trend  of  reasoning 
in  which  the  predominant  attitude  is  doubt. 
Notable  among  the  skeptics  of  the  ancient 
world  were  Gorgias,  Protagoras,  Pyrrho  and 
Timon.  With  the  Renaissance  the  influence 
of  this  philosophy  is  apparent  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Montaigne,  Sanchez  and  Charron. 
Kant  and  Silencer  were  skeptics  with  regard 
to  ultimate  reality.  In  David  Hume,  modem 
skepticism  had  its  foremost  adherent. 

SKI,  ske,  or  SKEE,  the  Scandinavian 
snowshoe,  consisting  of  a  runner,  or  slat, 
of  wood,  six  to  ten  feet  long,  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  thick  and  a  little  broader 
than  a  man's  foot.  It  is  slightly  curved  up- 
ward at  the  tip,  and  sometimes  has  a  nar- 
now  groove  along  the  middle  of  the  lower 
surface,  to  keep  it  from  slipping  sideways. 
Skiing  is  gi-eat  sport,  and  in  Norway,  Can- 
ada and  the  United  States  clubs  compete 
evei-y  winter.  In  walking  uphill  a  zigzag 
course  is  followed;  the  downhill  motion  is 
a  swift  slide,  steered  by  means  of  a  shaft. 
A  jump  is  made  on  a  hillside  and  is  really 
a  long  flight  through  the  air,  from  which  the 
jumper  is  expected  to  alight  on  his  feet 
and  continue  his  course  without  falling.  The 
infantry  of  Sweden  and  Norway  is  equipped 
with  skis  for  long  marches. 

SKIMMER.     See  Scissorsbill. 

SKIN,  The,  the  outer  covering  of  the  body, 
It  has  a  total  area  of  from  twelve  to  twenty 
square  feet  and  varies  in  thickness  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-hundredth  of  an  inch,  according 
to  location. 

Structure.  The  skin  is  composed  of  two 
layers.  The  outer,  the  epidermis,  or  cuticle,  is 
itself  made  up  of  several  layers  of  cells  of 
various  shapes  and  sizes.  The  surface  layer 
is  composed  of  horny  scales   and  is  thick- 


ened on  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  on  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  The  inmost  layer  of  the 
cuticle  seldom  varies  in  thickness,  and  it 
fits  closely  to  the  true  skin.  It  contains  the 
coloring  matter  which  gives  the  characteris- 
tic tint  to  individuals  and  races.  There  is  at 
all  times  a  contmual  building  of  new  cells 
and  a  throwing  off  of  old  ones  from  the 
surface.  The  hair  and  nails  are  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  cuticle. 

The  true  skin,  the  dermis,  or  cutis,  in  its 
outer  layer  contains  many  minute  projec- 
tions, called  papillae,  upon  which  the  inmost 
layer  of  the  cuticle  is  molded.  They  are  most 
abundant  where  the  sense  of  touch  is  most 
acute,  as  they  contain  nerve  fibers. 

Glands.  The  skin  also  contains  the  sudorif- 
erous, or  sweat,  glands,  and  the  sebaceous 
glands.  The  former,  consisting  of  small, 
round  masses,  surrounded  by  blood  vessels  in 
the  fat  tissue  under  the  skin,  send  up  a  duct 
through  the  cutis  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
where  it  pours  its  secretion  through  a  slant- 
ing, valvelike  opening.  These  glands  are 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body,  but  are  most  abundant  and  largest  in 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  on  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
and  on  the  brow.  Sebaceous  glands,  abun- 
dant in  those  parts  of  the  body  supplied  with 
hair  and  about  the  entrances  to  the  body, 
as  the  nose,  the  lips  and  the  external  ear, 
are  wholly  wanting  in  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Their  se- 
cretion keeps  the  skin  soft  and  pliable. 

The  skin  serves  as  an  organ  of  touch;  a 
regulator  of  temperature,  by  the  evaporation 
of  the  sweat  that  is  always  being  poured  to 
the  surface  of  the  body;  a  protection  for  the 
deeper  tissues,  and  an  organ  of  excretion, 
secretion  and  absorption. 

Related    Articles.       Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Baths  Nails 

Glands  Nervous  System 

Hair  Perspiration 

Hygiene 

SKIN   GRAFTING,   or  AUTOPLASTY, 

aw'toh  plas  ti,  a  surgical  operation  sometimes 
used  in  the  treatment  of  sores  or  ulcers  that 
are  slow  in  heaHng.  Small  pieces  of  healthy 
skin,  cut  from  other  parts  of  the  patient's 
body,  or  from  the  body  of  another  person, 
are  placed  upon  the  raw  sore.  The  skin 
particles  gradually  grow  over  the  unhealed 
surface,  in  time  effecting  a  cure. 

SKINK,  a  small  lizard  native  to  the  sandy 
deserts  of  North  Africa  and  Southwestern 
Asia.     Skinks  are  from  six  to  eight  inches 


SKINNER 


3320 


SLANDER 


long,  are  reddish  in  color,  banded  with  darker 
shades,  and  their  bodies  are  entirely  cov- 
ered with  rounded  scales.  One  species,  the 
adda,  is  celebrated  throughout  the  East  as 
being  useful  in  the  cure  of  various  diseases 
to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  Arabia 
and  other  Eastern  countries  are  subject. 

SKINNER,  skin'er,  Otis  (1858-  ),  an 
American  actor  famed  as  an  interpreter  of 
character  and  romantic  roles  wherein  buoy- 
ancy and  flashes  of  humor  are  blended.  He 
was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  His  early 
training  was  gained  under  the  tutelage  of 
Edwin  Booth  and  Lawrence  Barrett.  From 
1884  to  1889  he  was  a  member  of  the  Augus- 
tin  Daly  company  and  later  for  several  sea- 
sons appeared  as  leading  man  for  Modjeska. 
His  last  successes  before  his  retirement  in- 
cluded. The  Harvester,  Kismet,  CocTc  o'  the 
Walk  and  Mr.  Antonio. 

SKUA,  skua,  a  powerful  bird  of  prej''  of 
the  gull  family,  li\-ing  on  northern  seacoasts, 
and  having  brown  and  white  plumage  and 
a  strong,  hooked  beak.  The  Arctic  and  Ant- 
arctic species  attack  terns  and  small  gulls, 
taking  from  them  the  fish  they  have  caught; 
they  also  devour  smaller  birds. 

SKULL.    See  Skeleton. 

SKUNK,  a  fur-bearing  animal  of  the 
weasel  family,  found  from  Xorthern  Canada 
to  Patagonia  in  the  American  continents.  The 


U^^'" 


SKUNK 
animal  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  eat,  has 
feet  and  claws  like  a  badger's  and  a  tail  like 
a  squirrel's.  The  fur  is  brown,  streaked 
longitudinally  with  black  and  white.  Skunks 
are  notorious  for  a  malodorous  fluid  which 
they  eject  as  a  means  of  defense,  dri\^ng 
away  their  most  aggressive  enemies.  They 
are  sluggish  ground  animals,  living  in  bur- 
rows and  prowling  usually  at  night,  but  oc- 
casionally in  the  daji;ime.  They  sometimes 
raid  poultry'  yards,  but  so  great  is  their  serv- 
ice to  the  farmer  as  destroyers  of  mice,  snakes 
and  harmful  insects  and  grubs  that  more  than 
a  dozen  states  have  passed  laws  to  protect 


them.  They  are  also  valuable  as  producers 
of  fur,  which  is  often  sold  under  the  name 
"Alaska  sable." 

SKYE,  ski.  Isle  of,  an  island  of  the  Hebri- 
des group,  off  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
forming  part  of  the  County  of  Inverness. 
It  is  the  second  in  size  of  the  Scottish  islands, 
having  an  area  of  535  square  miles.  Al- 
though it  has  some  tillable  land,  Skye  is 
largely  mountain  and  moorj  a  land  of  rugged 
scenery  and  weird  legend.  Some  of  its  lochs 
and  glens  are  famous  for  picturescjueness — 
Loch  Coiruisg,  immortalized  by  Sir  "Walter 
Scott  in  his  Lord  of  the  Isles,  and  Glen 
Sligachan,  at  the  head  of  the  loch  of  the  same 
name.  The  highest  mountains  are  the  Coolin 
Hills,  in  the  south.  The  coasts  of  the  is- 
land are  deeply  indented  and  the  waters 
abound  in  cod,  herring,  ling  and  saithe.  A 
fringe  of  fishing  villages  lines  the  coasts. 
Sheep  raising  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
farmers,  and  much  wool  and  sheep  as  well 
as  fish  goes  through  Portree,  the  principal 
port,  which  has  a  population  of  about  3,000, 
about  one-fifth  of  the  entire  population  of  the 
island.  To  many  persons  the  name  skye  is 
chiefly  identified  with  a  popular  breed  of  pet 
dogs  which  ai'e  native  to  the  island. 

SKYE  TERRIER,  skiterier,  a  small  ter- 
rier native  to  Scotland,  taking  its  name  from 
the  Isle  of  Skye.  It  is  from  eight  to  ten 
inches  high,  and  has  a  long  body  and  short 
legs.  The  hair,  which  may  be  sand-colored, 
gray  or  black,  reaches  to  the  ground,  and  on 
the  forehead  completely  covers  the  eyes. 
The  skyes,  like  most  other  terriers,  are  good 
rat  dogs. 

SKYLARK.  See  Lark. 

SLAG-,  a  compound  formed  in  the  processes 
of  extracting  metals  from  their  ores.  It  is 
mainly  a  compound  of  silica  with  alumina 
or  lime,  or  both,  together  with  various  other 
substances  in  small  quantity.  It  always 
contains  more  or  less  of  the  metal  from  the 
extraction  of  which  it  results.  The  presence 
of  silica  gives  a  glassy  appearance  to  the 
mass.  Slag  is  sometimes  cast  into  blocks  and 
used  for  road  making  and  building,  and  when 
reduced  to  powder  it  is  used  in  making  mor- 
tar. In  some  parts  of  Europe  slag  is  em- 
ployed to  impart  a  glaze  to  bricks.  Some 
kinds  of  iron  slag  are  made  into  an  imperfect 
glass,  which  is  used  for  vases  and  other  small 
articles. 

SLAN'DER,  false  and  malicious  oral  def- 
amation of  a  person,  which  has  a  tendency 


SLANG 


3321 


SLAVERY 


to  injure  his  reputation.  It  is  distinguished 
from  libel,  which  is  written  or  printed  def- 
amation of  character.  Aspersions  spoken  to 
a  person  are  not  deemed  slander,  because 
they  are  not  injurious  to  reputation;  but 
when  spoken  in  the  hearing  of  a  third  per- 
son, the  law  holds  them  actionable.  If  the 
words  spoken  are  true  and  justifiable,  no 
action  can  be  successful.  A  statement  which 
is  not  in  itself  actionable  may  by  the  court 
be  held  to  be  so  if  it  was  used  and  understood 
in  a  particular  derogatory  sense.  An  ac- 
cusation of  perjury  is  always  actionable. 
Certain  kinds  of  communication  are  regard- 
ed as  conditionally  privileged,  as  in  the  case 
of  an  employer  who  communicates  to  one 
who  has  a  right  to  know  particulars  regard- 
ing one  of  his  former  employes.  However, 
exemption  from  liability  in  such  a  case  does 
not  imply  a  right  to  express  malicious  slan- 
derous opinions. 

SLANG,  inelegant  and  unauthorized  lan- 
guage, including  sporting  and  trade  jargon, 
standard  expressions  used  with  some  other 
than  their  correct  meaning,  and  words  of 
dubious  origin.  While  certain  slang  expres- 
sions may  be  traced  to  the  speech  of  illiter- 
ate or  even  outlaw  classes,  others  are  used  by 
educated  persons  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
force  and  piquancy  to  their  language.  Slang 
is  not  ordinarily  used  in  dignified  writing, 
but  it  is  common  in  a  certain  type  of  hu- 
morous literature.  The  everyday  speech  of 
the  average  person  is  more  or  less  tinged  with 
slang.  The  university  student  "crams"  for 
his  final  examinations;  the  football  enthu- 
siast speaks  of  "booting  the  pigskin;"  the 
actor  about  to  receive  his  pay  check  is  waiting 
for  the  "ghost  to  walk;"  the  artist  com- 
plains that  the  committee  "skied"  his  picture, 
and  so  on.  In  many  cases  slang  is  based  on 
comparison,  that  is,  on  metaphor.  Such  ex- 
pressions as  "to  cash  in,"  "to  go  fifty-fifty," 
"to  bring  home  the  bacon,"  are  really  vulgar- 
ized figures  of  speech. 

Like  many  other  irregularities  in  language, 
slang  expressions  have  their  good  and  their 
bad  points.  They  are  an  inevitable  part  of 
the  growth  of  a  language,  and  it  often  hap- 
pens that  a  word  introduced  as  slang  becomes 
in  time  standardized.  Such,  for  example,  is 
true  of  skyscraper,  tandem,  hlizzard  and 
gerrymander.  As  has  been  suggested,  slang 
sometimes  gives  variety  and  force  to  lan- 
guage, in  the  same  way  that  figurative  ex- 
pressions   are    useful.      Slang    expressions, 


however,  must  always  be  used  with  discre- 
tion. Vulgarities  of  speech  should  be  avoid- 
ed, and  one  should  be  careful  about  overload- 
ing the  speech  with  slang  phrases,  no  matter 
how  expressive.  The  habitual  and  indis- 
criminate use  of  these  expressions  tends  to 
cheapen  the  conversation,  limit  the  vocabulary 
and  deaden  one's  taste  for  the  language  of 
culture. 

SLATE,  a  well-known  hard  variety  of  rock, 
which  splits  into  thin  plates,  used  for  mak- 
ing school  blackboards  and  slates  and  for 
roofing.  While  the  prevailing  color  is  gray 
of  various  shades,  slate  may  be  green,  pur- 
ple, red  or  black.  It  yields  to  the  knife,  but 
the  different  varieties  vary  in  hardness.  Slate 
occurs  in  all  countries  where  there  are  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  It  is  commonly  divided  into 
elevated  beds  of  various  degrees  of  thick- 
ness; and  from  the  natural  divisions  of  the 
rock  these  beds  often  form  peaked  and  ser- 
rated mountains.  The  finest  variety,  which  is 
used  for  the  covering  of  roofs,  is  generally 
embedded  in  other  slate  rocks,  of  a  coarser 
kind.  Quarries  of  slate  of  this  description 
are  worked  extensively  in  Vermont  and  Penn- 
sylvania, and  on  a  smaller  scale  in  Maine 
and  Virginia.  The  finest  gi'ades  are  used  for 
writing  slates  and  blackboards.  In  the  mak- 
ing of  marbleized  slate,  the  background  is 
painted  on  the  stone,  which  is  allowed  to  dry 
and  is  then  dipped  into  water,  upon  which 
coloring  matter  has  been  spread.  The  color- 
ing matter  adheres  to  the  slate  and  thus 
produces  the  pattern,  which  is  fixed  by  bak- 
ing the  slabs  in  a  kiln. 

SLA'VERY,  the  system  by  which  persons 
are  held  as  the  property  of  others.  Slavery 
existed  among  the  Hebrews,  but  in  a  very 
restricted  form.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  it  was  a  rooted  institution,  its  char- 
acter of  mildness  or  severity  varying  in  dif- 
ferent times  and  places.  The  slaves  of  the 
ancient  Romans  were  either  captives  or  debt- 
ors unable  to  pay.  Originally  they  had  no 
rights  at  all,  and  could  be  put  to  death  for 
the  smallest  misdemeanor.  Slaves  were  ex- 
ceedingly numerous,  and  in  later  times  almost 
monopolized  the  handicrafts  and  occupations, 
those  of  clerk,  doctor  and  literary  man  in- 
cluded. Hosts  of  slaves  were  emploj^ed  in 
the  gladiatorial  exhibitions.  In  Rome  slaves 
were  often  set  at  liberty,  and  they  sometimes 
won  renown,  as  in  the  cases  of  Terence  and 
Epietetus,  but  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the 
Empire  that  any  imjiortant  change  took  place 


SLAVERY 


3322 


SLAVS 


in  the  institution  itself.  Emperor  Augustus 
granted  the  slave  a  legal  status,  and  Anton- 
inus took  from  the  masters  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  their  slaves. 

The  rise  of  Christianity  modified  the  rigid 
chattel  conception  of  the  slave,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  law  soon  gave  him  personality 
and  protection.  Finally,  Justinian,  in  the 
sixth  century  A.  c,  enlarged  the  coloni,  men 
personally  free,  but  tied  to  the  soil  like  serfs. 
Thereafter  slavery,  though  practiced  by 
Rome's  Teuton  conquerors,  was  gradually  re- 
placed in  medieval  Europe  by  feudal  vassal- 
age, or  serfdom.  This  persisted  to  modern 
times,  surviving  in  Russia  until  1861. 

Modern  Revival  of  the  Slave  Traffic.  After 
the  institution  had  become  all  but  extinct  in 
Europe,  it  had  a  new  birth  in  the  American 
colonies  of  European  origin.  The  first  ship- 
ment of  negroes  to  the  New  World  took  place 
in  1503,  when  the  Portuguese  carried  some 
to  Santo  Domingo.  From  that  time  a  traflSe 
in  negroes  across  the  Atlantic  was  carried 
on  by  all  the  colonial  powers,  the  English 
being  particularly  active. 

Slavery  soon  affected  the  social,  economic, 
and  political  character  of  the  colonies,  espe- 
cially in  the  South,  where  it  was  found  profit- 
able, to  such  an  extent  that  in  spite  of  the 
theory  of  equality  then  in  vogue,  abolition 
was  deemed  unwise  and  unnecessary  by  the 
majority  of  the  people. 

Denmark  was  the  first  nation  to  decree  the 
end  of  the  slave  trade,  in  1792,  although  the 
movement  was  started  by  the  American  Quak- 
ers in  1696  and  their  English  brethren  in 
1729.  Through  the  efforts  of  Thomas  Clark- 
son  and  William  Wilberforce,  the  House  of 
Commons  passed  a  bill  against  the  traffic  in 
1792,  but  the  House  of  Lords  did  not  ap- 
prove the  measure  until  1808,  in  the  same 
month  that  the  United  States  legislated 
against  the  further  importation  of  Africans. 
On  February  4,  1794,  the  French  National 
Convention  declared  all  the  slaves  in  the 
French  colonies  free.  The  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade  by  most  of  the  other  European 
powers  was  gradually  provided  for  by  treaty. 
These  treaties  were  mainly  enforced  by  a 
British  squadron  maintained  off  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  In  1831  the  British  govern- 
ment emancipated  all  the  slaves  of  the  Crown, 
and  in  1833  a  bill  was  passed  for  the  eman- 
cipation of  all  the  slaves  in  British  colonies. 
By  this  bill  the  slaves  were  to  receive  their 
freedom  on  August  1,  1834,  and  the  sum  of 


$100,000,000  was  to  be  distributed  as  a  gift 
among  the  slaveholders,  to  compensate  for 
any  loss  they  might  sustain  by  the  arrange- 
ment. 

The  United  States  Constitution  provided 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  1808, 
but  a  struggle  was  waged  against  slavery 
itself  for  a  half-century  thereafter.  It  cul- 
minated in  the  Civil  War,  as  a  result  of 
which  abolition  was  declared  by  proclamation 
in  1863  and  by  Constitutional  amendment  in 
1865.  In  1873  the  Spanish  government 
abolished  slavery  in  Porto  Rico;  and  in 
1886  abolition  in  Cuba  took  place.  Slavery 
existed  in  Brazil  until  1888.  The  efforts  made 
to  suppress  the  slave  trade  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  have  not  proved  quite  successful 
and  a  trade  is  still  being  carried  on  in  Africa, 
although  not  on  an  extensive  scale. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additio'nal  information: 

Abolitionists  Kansas-Nebraska 

Brown,   John  .Bill 

Calhoun,  John  C.  Lincoln,  Abraham 

Civil  War  Mason  and  Dixon's 

Clay,  Henry  Line 

Compromise  of  1850  Missouri  Compromise 

Crittenden  Compro-  Phillips,  Wendell 

mise  Political  Parties  in 

Dred  Scott  Decision  the  United   States 

Emancipation  Reconstruction 

Proclamation  Squatter  Sovereignty 

Feudal  System  Serfs 

Fugitive   Slave  Laws  Underground    Railroad 

Garrison,  William  Wilberforce,    William 

Lloyd  Wilmot    Proviso 

SLAVONIA.    See  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

SLAVS,  slalivz,  a  branch  of  the  Aryan,  or 
Indo-Germanic,  family,  constituting  the 
greater  portion  of  the  population  of  Russia, 
Central  Europe  east  of  Germany,  and  Siberia. 
They  include  Russians,  Poles,  Czechs,  or 
Bohemians,  Slovaks,  Slovenians,  Serbs, 
Croats,  Montenegrins  and  Bulgarians,  and 
number  about  180,000,000.  In  stature  the 
Slavs  are  a  little  below  the  average  Aryan, 
and  they  have  broad  heads.  Their  skin  is 
swarthy,  light  brown  or  pale  white;  their 
eyes,  brown,  gray  or  black.  Representing  a 
civilization  not  advanced  to  full  maturity,  the 
Slavs  were  stirred  to  great  revolutionary  up- 
heavals during  the  World  War.  In  Russia 
the  imperial  government  was  overthrown,  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  commun- 
istic republic.  In  the  Slavic  portions  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  two  independ- 
ent states  were  erected,  the  Czecho- Slovak 
(Bohemian,  Moravian,  Slovak),  and  the 
Jugo-Slavie,  or  Southern  Slavic. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the     following 

titles  for  additional  information: 


Austria-Hungary 
Balkan  Wars 


Bohemia 
Bosnia 


SLEEP 


3323 


SLING 


Bulgaria  Poland 
Croatia  and  Slavonia     Russia 

Czech  Serbia 

Czecho-Slovak  Slovaks 

Republic  Slovenians 

Jugo-SIavia  World   War 
Montenegro 

SLEEP,  the  state  of  repose  or  quiescence 
during  wliieh  the  body  restores  its  worn-out 
cells  and  the  mind  is  rested  and  renewed. 
Unconsciousness  is  complete  or  partial;  the 
body  is  relaxed  and  the  vital  functions  are 
at  a  low  ebb.  Sleep  is  periodical,  a  certain 
number  of  hours  out  of  each  twenty-four  be- 
ing necessary  to  phj^sical  and  mental  well-be- 
ing. Night  hours  are  best  adapted  to  sleep, 
and  daytime  sleep  is  never  as  refreshing  as 
that  taken  in  the  natural  darkness.  Sleep  is 
also  rhythmical,  being  deepest  the  second 
hour  and  becoming  lighter  as  the  end  of  the 
sleep  period  approaches. 

Much  study  has  been  put  upon  the  physio- 
logical causes  of  sleep,  different  theories  at- 
tributing it  (1)  to  the  pressure  of  conges- 
tion on  the  brain  and  nerve  centers,  or  quite 
to  the  contrary;  (2)  to  a  lack  of  blood  in 
these  centers;  (3)  to  the  presence  in  the  sys- 
tem of  the  by-products  of  combustion  and 
(4)  to  the  dissociation,  under  conditions  of 
fatigue,  of  the  neurones,  or  nerve  cells. 
None  of  these  theories  entirely  accounts  for 
sleep,  and  it  is  probably  true  that  it  has  a 
combination  of  physiological  causes. 

The  regularity  and  conditions  of  sleep 
have  a  marked  effect  on  the  health,  especially 
on  that  of  growing  children.  Babies  sleep 
most  of  the  time;  children  below  twelve 
should  have  twelve  hours  of  sleep;  few 
adults  are  at  their  best  on  fewer  than  eight 
hours.  Sleeping  rooms  should  be  sanitary, 
open  to  the  sunlight  during  the  day  and  well 
ventilated  at  night.  Open-air  sleeping  is 
growing  in  favor,  and  the  sheltered,  sereened- 
in  sleeping  porch  forms  a  part  of  many 
modern  houses  and  living  apartments.  The 
best  bed  for  sleep  is  one  -with  wire  springs, 
a  mattress  of  hair  or  felt,  and  warm,  light- 
weight wool  or  cotton  coverings. 

SLEEPING  SICKNESS,  an  incurable  dis- 
ease not  uncommon  in  equatorial  Africa. 
It  is  caused  by  a  parasite  communicated  to 
man  by  the  bite  of  the  tsetse  fly  (which  see). 
It  is  always  fatal.  In  recent  years  whole  sec- 
tions in  Africa  have  been  depopulated  by  its 
ravages.  The  sleeping  sickness  stage  begins 
when  the  disease  reaches  the  nervous  system. 
The  patient  becomes  apathetic,  the  apathy 
deepens  into  stupor,  and  he  literally  sleeps 
himself  to  death. 


SLEEPWALKING.    See  Somnambulism. 

SLIDELL,  slider,  John  (1793-1871),  an 
American  politician,  bom  in  New  York  City 
and  educated  at  Columbia  College.  He  re- 
moved to  New  Orleans  in  1819,  and  eventual- 
ly became  United  States  district  attorney  for 
Louisiana.  In  1853  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  but  resigned  upon  the 
secession  of  Louisiana.  Later  he  was  ap- 
pointed special  commissioner  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  to  France  and  ran  the  blockade  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.  He  was  captured  with 
James  M.  Mason,  however,  while  aboard  the 
British  steamer  Trent,  and  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  Fort  Warren,  Boston.  Upon  his 
release  he  sailed  for  England,  where  he  took 
up  his  interrupted  negotiations  with  foreign 
governments,  but  without  success.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  died.    See  Trent  Affair. 

SLIME  MOLDS,  a  group  of  minute  plants 
of  exceedingly  simple  structure,  which  live 
upon  rotting  bark  and  decaying  wood,  in 
moist,  shady  places.  They  are  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  animals;  in  fact,  they  have 
been  thus  described.  In  no  other  plant  is 
protoplasm  found  in  such  large  quantity. 
During  one  period  of  its  life  the  slime  mold 
develojos  spores  which,  when  dry,  retain  life 
for  an  indefinite  period;  but  as  soon  as 
moistened,  they  swell  quickly,  burst  and  dis- 
charge their  protoplasm.  This  protoplasm 
lengthens  and  develojis  a  delicate  hair  at  one 
end,  by  means  of  which  it  swims  about  freely. 
The  form  modifies  until  it  resembles  an 
amoeba  (which  see).  Then  many  of  the 
plants  unite  and  make  the  slimy  plasmodium, 
which  slides  about  over  decaying  vegetable 
matter  until  ready  again  to  produce  spores 
and  repeat  the  circle  of  its  life.  The  largest 
Plasmodia  may  be  several  inches  square,  al- 
though   most   of    them    are    much    smaller. 

SLING,  a  simple  little  device  of  very  an- 
cient origin,  used  for  throwing  stones  or 
bullets.  One  kind  consists  of  a  strap,  with 
two  strings  attached  to  it.  The  stone  or 
bullet  is  lodged  in  the  strap,  and  the  sling  is 
whirled  rapidly  round  in  a  circle,  the  ends 
of  the  strings  being  held  in  the  hand.  The 
missile  is  thrown  when  .one  of  the  strings  is 
allowed  to  fly  loose.  The  velocity  with  which 
the  projectile  is  discharged  is  the  same  as  that 
with  which  it  is  whirled  round  in  a  crcle  whose 
radius  is  the  length  of  the  string.  The  sling 
was  a  very  general  instrument  of  war  among 
the  ancients. 


SLIPPERWORT 


3324 


SLOVAKS 


Another  kind  consii^ts  of  a  Y-shaped  stick, 
to  each  fork  of  which  is  attached  an  end  of  a 
thick  rubber  band.  The  stick  is  held  in  one 
hand,  and  with  the  other  a  stone  is  held 
against  the  elastic,  which  when  stretched 
backward  and  then  released  throws  the  stone 
with  much  force.  The  catapult,  or  slingshot, 
may  be  a  dangerous  weapon,  and  in  most 
cities  boys  are  forbidden  to  use  it.  A  sling 
used  by  the  Paraguay  Indians,  the  Patagon- 
ians  and  the  Gauchos  of  Argentina,  called  a 
balas,  consists  of  a  rope  which  has,  at  each 
end,  a  hea%'y  stone,  or  bullet,  of  metal  or 
hardened  clay.  It  is  thrown  so  as  to  en- 
tangle the  legs  of  the  animal  at'  which  it  is 
aimed. 

SLIPPERWORT.  See  Calceolaria. 

SLOE,  slo,  a  spiny,  many-branched  shrub 
or  small  tree  of  the  plum  family,  possessing 
a  very  hard,  tough  wood,  found  in  Europe 
and  Asia, 
on  the 
mounta  ins 
in  the  south- 
e  r  n  and 
eastern 
parts  of  the 
United 
States  and 
in  South- 
eastern 
Canada.  Its 
black,  round 
fruit,  about 
the  size  of  a 
pea,  is  used 
for  p  r  e- 
serves  and 
liquors.  The 
juice  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
spurious  port  wine. 

SLOTH,  a  mammal  inhabiting  South  and 
Central  America.  The  claws  of  the  sloth  are 
long  and  curved,  the  feet  are  turned  inward. 
This  adaptation  is  of  great  sendee  to  the  ani- 
mal in  its  life  ia  the  trees,  but  it  makes  walk- 
ing on  the  ground  almost  impossible.  The 
sloths  live  on  the  leaves,  buds,  and  barks  of 
trees.  The  best  known  species  is  the  ai,  which 
has  three  toes  and  is  of  a  brownish-gi'ay  color, 
with  darker  tints  on  the  face  and  limbs.  The 
fur  is  very  coarse.  The  unau,  or  two-toed 
sloth,  has  an  average  length  of  about  two 
feet,  and  its  color  is  a  lighter  gray  than  that 
of  the  ai.  The  tail  in  both  species  is  usually 
lacking,   or  is  of  a  rudimentary  character. 


SLOE  BRANCH  AND  FRUIT 


SLOT  MACHINE,  the  name  given  to  two 
kinds  of  automatic  devices,  one  of  which  is 
used  for  legitimate  purposes  of  trade,  the 
other  for  gambling.  They  are  alike  only  in 
that  the  mechanism  in  each  is  set  in  motion 
by  a  coin  dropped  in  a  slot.  The  first  is  a 
sort  of  "automatic  salesman."  It  may  con- 
tain an  assortment  of  chewing  gum,  candy, 
peanuts  or  cigars,  the  name  of  the  brands  or 
flavors  being  indicated  above  a  series  of 
levers ;  and  the  purchaser  after  dropping  his 
coin  presses  the  lever  according  to  his  choice. 
Another  slot  machine  is  used  to  release  gas 
for  household  use ;  still  another  supplies  tele- 
phone service.  In  1916  automatic  restaurants 
were  opened;  these  serve  food  enclosed  in 
little  wall  compartments  behind  small  doors 
operating  on  the  slot  machine  principle. 

The  slot  machine  used  in  gambling  con- 
sists of  a  wheel  divided  radially  into  sections. 
The  bettor  stakes  on  a  particular  section  and 
drops  in  his  coin,  which  starts  the  wheel  re- 
volving. If  the  wheel  stops  with  pointer 
indicating  the  section  on  which  he  has  staked, 
he  wins.  The  chances  against  winning  are  at 
least  60  to  40,  and  very  frequently  less. 

SLO'VAKS,  a  Sla\-ic  people  found  chiefly 
in  Moravia  and  Slovakia,  former  territories 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy.  The 
Slovaks,  who  number  more  than  2,500,000, 
are  closely  related  to  the  Czechs  (see  Czech) 
of  Bohemia,  the  two  groups 
speaking  practically  the  same 
language.  They  are  a  peasant 
people  who  long  resented  be- 
ing dominated  by 
the  Magyars  of 
^    Hungaiy,   and   in 


SLOTH 


1918  they  joined  their  kinsmen  in  Bohemia 
in  setting   up   the   Czeeho-Slovak   Republic. 


SLOVENIANS 


3325 


SMELLING  SALTS 


SLOVENIANS,  slove'nianz,  a  South 
Slavic  people  inhabiting  portions  of  the  old 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy.  They  are 
found  in  Carniola,  Southern  Carinthia, 
Styria  and  various  districts  north  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  They  number  over  1,500,000. 
The  Slovenians  constitute  one  group  of  the 
Jugo-Slavic  peoples,  uho  united  in  1918  to 
form  a  new  state.  See  Jugo-Slavia;  World 
War. 

SLOYD,  sloid,  a  system  of  manual  train- 
ing, originating  in  Sweden  and  quite  gen- 
erally adopted  in  other  countries.  The 
Swedish  word  slog,  in  its  English  form  sloyd. 
means  skill  of  hand.  The  original  plan 
limited  the  work  to  the  manufacture,  by 
whittling,  of  small  household  utensils,  such 
as  wooden  spoons,  knives  and  forks.  In 
1876,  Otto  Solomon,  director  of  the  normal 
school  at  Naas,  extended  the  system  by  the 
introduction  of  mechanical  drawing,  ex- 
tended the  use  of  tools,  and  adapted  more 
difficult  exercises. 

The  system  in  vogue  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  is  patterned  after  Solomon's 
idea  and  constitutes  the  foundation  of  most 
of  the  manual  training  work  for  boys  in 
elementary  schools.  The  material  used  is 
wood,  cardboard  or  iron.  A  special  line  of 
instruction  is  prepared  for  each  class  of  ma- 
terial.   See  Manual  Traixing. 

SLUG,  the  name  applied  to  several  genera 
of  mollusks,  resembling  the  snails  but  lack- 
ing an  external  shell,  although  many  of  them 
possess  a  rudimentary  organ  of  this  nature 
concealed  more  or  less  completely  by  the 
mantle.  The  slugs  have  four  tentacles,  and 
the  eyes  are  borne  on  the  tips  of  the  larger 
pair.  The  great  gray  slug,  introduced  from 
Europe  into  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
usually  frequents  hollow  trees  and  undis- 
turbed heaps  of  vegetation.  The  giant  yel- 
low slug  of  California  and  the  black  slug  are 
other  species.    See  Snail. 

SMALLPOX,  or  VARIO'LA,  an  acute,  in- 
fectious disease,  characterized  by  an  erup- 
tion with  papular,  vesicular  and  pustular 
stages,  followed  by  crusting.  It  has  been 
known  and  described  since  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  and  at  times  has  been  one  of  the  most 
terrible  of  scourges.  No  infant  is  too  young 
to  take  the  disease,  and  no  adult  is  too  aged. 
The  contagion  lies  in  the  sores,  or  pustules, 
and  it  is  also  probably  given  off  through  the 
breath  and  the  pores  of  the  skin.  The  dis- 
ease manifests  itself  about  twelve  days  after 


exposure  and  varies  in  duration  according 
to  the  severity  of  the  attack.  In  minor  eases 
the  recovery  is  rapid  and  complete,  but  in 
severe  cases  death  may  intervene  quickly. 
Unless  great  care  is  exercised  during  the  dis- 
ease and  after,  the  patient  may  be  left  with 
bad  scars  or  with  serious  affection  of  some  of 
the  organs,  particularly  of  the  eyes. 

In  1780  the  English  surgeon,  Jenner,  dis- 
covered the  method  of  preventing  smallpox 
by  vaccination  and  since  that  time  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  the  disease  may  be 
practically  stamped  out  by  the  vaccination 
of  the  whole  population.  Exposure  to  the 
disease  should  be  followed  by  immediate  vac- 
cination, unless  this  has  been  recently  done. 
See  Vaccination. 

SMELL.  The  sense  of  smell  originates  in 
the  olfactory  lobes  of  the  brain,  and  the  ol- 
factory nerves  coming  from  these  centers  are 
distributed  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  nasal  cavities.  In  order 
that  odors  may  be  detected,  air  must  pass 
through  the  nostrils;  hence  a  person  sniffs 
when  he  desires  to  scent  an  odor  more 
keenlj^  The  sense  of  smell  in  man  is  not 
nearly  so  keen  as  in  many  of  the  lower 
animals,  though  he  can  probably  detect  more 
odors  than  any  of  these  animals. 

Odors  are  numerous  and  difficult  to  clas- 
sify, and  they  are  named  from  the  substance 
from  which  they  arise,  as  the  odor  of  musk 
and  the  perfume  of  violets.  The  nerves  of 
smell  are  stimulated  by  an  odor  when  it  first 
acts  upon  them,  but  if  long  continued,  this 
is  lost,  and  the  person  fails  to  recognize  it 
at  all. 

The  nature  of  odor  is  not  well  understood. 
That  it  arises  from  gaseous  or  volatile  mat- 
ter all  agree,  and  some  authorities  consider 
that  it  can  arise  from  matter  in  a  gaseous 
state  alone;  others  disagree,  and  in  support 
of  their  theory  point  to  the  fact  that  sub- 
stances like  musk  can  fill  a  large  space  with 
odor  for  weeks  and  not  diminish  perceptibly 
in  weight.  The  sense  of  smell  is  closely 
allied  to  the  sense  of  taste,  which  it  undoubt- 
edly aids. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
'titles  for  additional  information: 


Nose 
Perfumes 


Special  Senses 
Taste 


SMELLING  SALTS,  a  preparation  of  am- 
monium carbonate,  usually  scented  with  lav- 
ender, sometimes  with  bergamot,  used  as 
a  stimulant  and  restorative  in  cases  of  faint- 
ness.     It  is  put  up  in  small,  fancy  bottles 


SMELT 


3326 


SMITH 


•which  may  easily  be  carried  in  a  pocket  or 
handbag,  and  proves  most  useful  in  emer- 
gencies. 

SMELT  a  family  of  fishes  allied  to  the 
salmon.  They  are  slender  and  delicate  and 
usually  measure  about  eight  inches  in  length. 
They  receive  their  name  because  of  their  odor, 
"which  is  like  that  of  a  cucumber.  Smelts  live 
otf  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Xorth  America. 
In  the  United  States  they  abound  along  the 
Kew  England  and  the  California  coasts.  In 
Scotland  they  are  called  sparling.  Their  use 
as  food  is  steadily  growing. 

SMETANA,  sme  tah'nah,  Friedrich  (1824- 
ISS-i)  a  Bohemian  composer  and,  pianist,  the 
founder  of  the  Bohemian  school  of  composi- 
tion. He  founded  a  musical  academy  at 
Prague,  after  studying  under  Liszt,  but  went 
to  Sweden  in  1S56  and  became  conductor 
of  the  Gothenburg  Philharmonic  concerts. 
There  he  remained  until  1866,  when  he  be- 
came kapellmeister  at  the  Xational  Bohe- 
mian Theatre.  In  his  later  years,  his  mind 
gave  way,  and  he  died  in  the  Prague  lunatic 
asylum.  Smetana's  works  have  a  true  Bohe- 
mian atmosphere;  they  are  thoroughly  orig- 
inal and  contain  not  a  few  passages  of  strik- 
ing power  and  beauty.  He  composed  several 
operas.  The  Bartered  Bride,  Two  Widows, 
Dalibor  and  others,  besides  many  composi- 
tions for  the  piano  and  orchestra. 

SMI'LAX,  a  gTOup  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  lily  family.  Most  of  them  are  climbing 
or  trailing,  and  numerous  species  are  found 
in  Asia  and  America.  Sarsaparilla  is  ob- 
tained from  the  roots  of  several  species,  and 
the  roots  of  others  are  edible.  The  species 
known  as  green  brier  and  the  carrion  flower 
are  found  in  the  United  States.  The  culti- 
vated plant  known  to  gardeners  as  smilax  is 
reallv  an  asparagus. 

SMILES,  Samuel  (1812-1904),  an  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  at  Haddington,  Scotland, 
and  educated  for  the  medical  profession.  He 
practiced  for  some  time  as  a  surgeon  at  Had- 
dington and  at  Leeds,  and  then  became  edi- 
tor of  the  Leeds  Times.  He  is  the  author  of 
many  works  on  industrial  enterprises,  the 
chief  of  which  are  Life  of  George  Stephen- 
son, Workmen's  Earnings,  Strikes  and  Wages 
and  Lives  of  the  Engineers.  His  inspira- 
tional books,  Self-Help,  Ch<tracter,  Duty  and 
Thrift,  have  had  a  wide  popularity,  the  first 
especially,  having  been  translated  into  seven- 
teen languages.  These  works  are  character- 
ized by  their  clear  and  simple  style. 


SMITH,  Adam  (1723-1790),  a  British  econ- 
omist, founder  of  the  science  of  political 
economy,  was  born  at  Kirkcaldy,  Scotland. 
He  attended  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and 
Oxford,  afterwards  lectured  on  literature  and 
philosophy,  and  for  twelve  years  occupied 
the  chair  of  logic  and  ethics  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow.  His  great  work,  The  Wealth  of 
Nations,  the  first  systematic  treatise  on  eco- 
nomics, appeared  in  1776.  This  admirable 
book,  based  on  statistics  and  original  re- 
search rather  than  on  speculation,  set  a  new 
standard  for  publications  in  this  field;  and 
in  encouraging  investigation  along  similar 
lines  it  was  an  inspiration  to  all  later  students 
of  economic  subjects. 

SMITH,  Edmund  Kirbt  (1824-1893),  an 
American  soldier,  born  at  Saint  Augustine, 
Fla.,  and  educated  at  West  Point.  He  served 
in  the  Mexican  War  with  distinction  and 
later  became  an  instructor  at  West  Point. 
At  the  opening  of  the  Ci\-il  War  he  resigned 
from  the  United  States  army  and  became 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service, 
serving  with  Johnston  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  in  1861  and  under  Bragg  in  the  west 
in  the  following  year.  In  October,  1862,  he 
was  made  lieutenant-general  and  was  given 
charge  of  all  the  Confederate  forces  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  February,  1864,  he  was 
made  general  and  opposed  General  Banks  in 
the  disastrous  expedition  up  the  Red  River. 
He  finally  surrendered  to  General  Canby,  in 
May,  1865.  After  the  war  he  became  inter- 
ested in  commercial  enterprises,  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  I'niversity  of  Xashville  from 
1870  to  1875  and  later  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity  of   the    South   at    Sewanee,   Tenn. 

SMITH,  Francis  HoPKixsox  (1838-1915), 
an  American  engineer,  artist  and  author,  bom 
at  Baltimore,  Md.  In  his  work  as  engineer 
he  became  also  a  successful  contractor  and 
constructed  several  important  government 
works  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  among  them 
the  Race  Rock  lighthouse.  As  an  artist  he 
became  known  through  illustrations  he  made 
for  his  magazine  articles  and  his  water 
colors  and  charcoal  sketches.  His  pictures 
have  been  given  place  in  numerous  large 
public  collections.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
novels,  probably  the  best  of  which  is  Colonel 
Carter  of  Cartersville.  Among  his  other 
books  are  Caleb  West,  A  White  TJmhrella 
in  Mexico,  the  Fortunes  of  Oliver  Horn,  The 
Under  Dog,  Tides  of  Barnegat,  Peter,  Forty 
Minutes  L<ite  and  Kennedy  Sqtiare, 


SMITH 


3327 


SMITH 


GOLDWIN  SMITH 


SMITH,  GoLD^YIX  (1823-1910),  an  emi- 
nent  publicist,  historian  and  educator,  born 
at  Reading,  Berkshire,  England.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton 
and  at  Oxford 
(was  called  to  the 
bar,  though  he 
never  practiced), 
and  became  pro- 
fessor of  modern 
history  at  the  lat- 
ter university.  He 
lectured  in  the 
United  States  in 
1864,  and  two 
years  afterwards 
was  offered  a  pro- 
fessorship in  Eng- 
lish and  constitutional  history  at  Cornell 
University.  He  remained  there  three  years, 
then  became  a  resident  of  Toronto,  Ont., 
where  he  founded  The  Canadian  Monthlij, 
The  Nation  and  The  Week.  Smith  was  widely 
read  because  of  his  sound  knowledge  and 
lucid  style.  Of  his  historical  writings,  rep- 
resentative volumes  are  A  Short  History  of 
England  Down  to  the  Reformation  and  Irish 
History  and  the  Irish  Question.  His  other 
writings,  which  were  numerous  and  covered 
a  wide  field,  include  Labor  and  Capital, 
Guesses  at  the  Riddle  of  Existence,  My  Mem- 
ory of  Gladstone  and  In  Quest  of  Light. 

SMITH,  John  (1580-1631),  commonly 
known  as  Captain  John  Smith,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  English  colony  in  Virginia, 
born  at  Willoughby,  in  Lincolnshire.  After 
many  adventures  as  a  soldier  of  fortune  in 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  he  went  out  with 
the  first  expedition  of  the  London  Company 
to  America  in  1606.  Dissensions  broke  out 
before  the  destination  was  reached,  and  Smith 
was  condemned  to  be  hanged ;  but  he  escaped 
this  fate  and  became  the  most  influential  mem- 
ber of  the  colony.  He  made  important  geo- 
graphical discoveries,  obtained  supplies  from 
the  natives  and  finally  was  entrusted  with  the 
guidance  of  the  colony.  In  this  task  he  dis- 
played notable  executive  ability.  In  1609, 
according  to  his  account,  he  was  captured 
by  Powhatan,  and  was  saved  by  Pocahontas 
from  being  killed.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
injured  by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder,  and 
shortly  afterwards  he  returned  to  England. 
Five  years  later  he  reached  America  again 
and  explored  the  coast  of  New  England.  He 
wrote   A    True   Relation    of    Virginia,    The 


JOSEPH  SMITH 


Summer  Isles  and  Description  of  New  Eng- 
land— books  of  real  historical  and  geograph- 
ical value. 

SMITH,  Joseph  (1805-1844),  the  founder 
of  the  Church  of  the  Latter  Day  Saints,  or 
the  Mormons,  was  born  in  Sharon,  Vt.  He 
moved  with  his  par- 
ents to  Palmyra,  N. 
Y.,  when  he  was  ten 
years  old.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-two  he  an- 
nounced that  in  a 
vision  an  angel  had 
revealed  to  him  the 
spot  where  the  Bible 
of  the  western  con- 
tinent was  buried. 
Following  the  direc- 
tions thus  obtained, 
Smith  claimed  that 
there  was  delivered 
to  him  the  volume 
containing  the  doctrine  on  which  Monnon- 
ism  is  founded.  The  new  sect  met  with  per- 
secution and  the  Mormons  were  gradually 
driven  westward.  In  1844  Smith  was  ar- 
rested for  alleged  violations  of  the  law,'  and 
lodged  in  jail  at  Carthage,  III.,  where  he  was 
shot  by  a  mob.    See  Mormons. 

SMITH,  Samuel  Francis  (1809-1895),  an 
American  preacher  and  hj^mn  writer,  best 
known  as  the  author  of  the  national  anthem 
beginning,  "My  Country,  'Tis  of  Thee."  He 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and  was  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  College  in  1829  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1832. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church,  Water- 
ville.  Mo.,  and  subsequently  became  profes- 
sor of  modern  languages  in  Waterville  Col- 
lege. Later  he  was  pastor  at  Newton,  Mass. ; 
editor  of  the  Christian  Review,  Boston,  and 
editor  of  the  publications  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Union  (1854-1869).  He  wrote, 
in  addition  to  poems,  Life  of  Rev.  Joseph 
Grafton,  Missionary  Sketches,  A  History  of 
Newton  (Mass.)  and  Rambles  on  Mission 
Fields.    See  America. 

SMITH,  Sydney  (1771-1845),  an  Eng- 
lish humorist,  born  at  Woodford,  Essex. 
He  was  graduated  at  New  College,  Oxford, 
and  was  ordained  in  the  established  church. 
Moving  to  Edinburgh  in  1798,  he  helped  to 
found  the  Edinburgh  Revieto,  to  which  he 
made  frequent  contributions  in  later  years. 
In  1803  he  moved  to  London,  wliere  he 
gained  note  as  a  j^reacher,  writer  and  lectur- 


SMITH  COLLEaE 


3328 


SMOKE 


er.  He  was  gradually  promoted  in  the 
church,  until  in  1831  he  was  appointed  a 
canon  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  His  prin- 
cipal writings  are  his  Letters  on  the  Subject 
of  the  Catholics,  to  My  Brother  Abraham, 
who  Lives  in  the  Cauntrt/,  by  Peter  Phjmley, 
a  satirical  essay  in  the  interests  of  Catholic 
emancipation.  These  and  other  less  famous 
writings  abound  in  logic  and  good  humor. 

SMITH  COLLEGE,  an  institution  for  the 
higher  education  of  women,  founded  by  Miss 
Sophia  Smith  at  Xorthampton,  Mass.  It  was 
chartered  in  1871  and  class  sessions  began  in 
1875.  All  undergraduate  courses  of  study 
lead  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The 
degree  of  Master  of  Arts  is  conferred  for 
postgraduate  work.  Among  the  college  build- 
ings are  the  library,  containing  over  60,000 
books,  an  observatory,  a  conservatory,  an  art 
gallery  and  a  sj^acious  auditorium.  The 
faculty  numbers  about  185,  and  there  are 
over  1,950  students.  The  college  is  a  con- 
tributor to  the  American  Schools  of  Classical 
Study  at  Rome  and  Athens,  to  the  marine 
biological  laboratory  at  .Woods  Hole,  Mass., 
and  to  the  zoological  station  at  Naples. 

SMITH-HUGHES  ACT.  See  High 
School,  subhead  SmithSughes  Act. 

SMITH'S  FALLS,  Ont.,  in  Lanark 
County,  on  the  Rideau  Canal  and  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  and  Canadian  Xorthem  rail- 
roads, forty-five  miles  south  of  Ottawa.  A 
large  agricultural  implement  factory  is 
located  here;  there  are  also  stove  factories, 
woolen,  flour  and  planing  mills.  The  town 
has  a  collegiate  institute,  two  hospitals,  a 
town  hall,  a  library  and  a  market.  Popula- 
tion, 1916,  about  7,000. 

SMITHSO'NIAN  INSTITU'TION,  an  in- 
stitution created  hy  an  act  of  Congress  in 
1846,  to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of 
the  will  of  James  Smithson,  an  Englishman, 
who,  in  1826,  bequeathed  $515,000  to  the 
United  States  to  found  at  Washington  an 
establishment  for  the  "increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men."  The  institution  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  regents,  consisting  of 
the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  three 
members  of  the  Senate,  three  members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  six  citizens  of 
the  United  States  appointed  by  joint  resolu- 
tion of  Congress.  Its  executive  officer  is  the 
secretary,  chosen  by  the  regents. 

The  first  secretary,  Professor  Joseph 
Henry,  outlined  the  scope  and  administrative 


policy  of  the  Institution,  and  to  his  wisdom 
and  foresight  the  efficiency  of  the  institu- 
tion is  largely  due.  The  aim  is  to  encourage 
original  research  in  science  and  literature  and 
to  diffuse  knowledge  by  publishing  reports  of 
investigations,  thereby  helping  to  bring  about 
a  free  interchange  of  ideas  among  scholars 
throughout  the  world.  To  the  original  be- 
quest of  Smithson  have  been  added  other  do- 
nations and  bec[uests ;  the  total  income  is  now 
approximately  $1,000,000. 

The  three  series  of  publications  systemati- 
calh^  issued  are  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
Miscellaneous  Collections  and  Anyiual  Re- 
ports. These  are  distributed  free  of  charge 
to  public  libraries,  educational  institutions 
and  individuals  engaged  in  literary'  or  scien- 
tific research.  In  connection  with  this  dis- 
tribution the  Institution  has  established  a 
system  of  international  exchanges,  so  that  it 
obtains  similar  publications  from  nearly  all 
countries  of  the  world.- 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  the  Institution 
proper,  the  secretajy  has  charge  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  which  is  maintained  by  the 
government ;  also  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, which  is  a  department  in  the  Institution, 
of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory^  and  of  the 
National  Zoological  Park.  The  Institution 
occupies  beautiful  buildings  on  the  Mall,  ex- 
tending from  the  Capitol  to  the  Washington 
Monument.  Here  are  found  the  original 
buildings  of  the  Institution  and  the  National 
Museum,  while  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  oc- 
cupies rented  quarters  in  another  part  of  the 
city,  and  the  Zoological  Park  is  about  two 
miles  north.  See  National.  MusEUii  of  the 
United  States. 

James  Smithson  (1765-1829),  founder  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  was  the  son  of 
Hugh  Smithson,  first  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land. He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  and  Ox- 
ford and  was  a  fellow  in  the  Royal  Society. 
By  his  will  he  left  to  his  nephew  about  $515,- 
000,  stipulating  that  if  the  legatee  died  with- 
out issue,  the  whole  amount  should  pass  to  the 
United  States,  to  found  at  Washington  an 
institution  to  be  called  the  "Smithsonian  In- 
stitution," and  to  be  conducted  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  learning.  Strangely,  this  bene- 
factor of  the  United  States  never  crossed  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  he  favored  a  land  he  knew 
only  by  reputation. 

SMOKE,  the  %nsible  vapor  which  rises 
from  burning  substances.  In  its  more  ex- 
tended sense  the  word  is  applied  to  all  the 


SMOKELESS  POWDER 


3329 


SMUTS 


volatile  products  of  combustion,  including 
soot;  but  the  term  is  frequently  applied  to 
merely  the  carbonaceous  matter  which  is  held 
in  suspension  by  the  gases.  Smoke  from  the 
many  furnaces  of  a  large  city  often  becomes 
a  public  nuisance,  and  in  many  places  laws 
have  been  passed  requiring  the  adoption  of 
some  device  for  burning  the  soot,  but  no  one 
method  has  been  found  successful  in  all  cases. 
There  are  many  practical  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  consuming  smoke,  but  experience  has 
shown  that  none  of  them  are  impossible  to 
overcome.  If  sufficient  air  is  supplied  to 
furnish  oxygen,  the  combustible  parts  of 
smoke  can  be  made  to  bum  and  leave  only 
invisible  vapors  and  gases. 

In  recent  years  the  shortage  of  anthracite 
coal  and  the  necessity  of  using  soft  coal  for 
domestic  purposes  has  resulted  in  a  general 
smoke  evil  in  the  United  States.  The  result- 
ing damage  is  inestimable. 

SMOKELESS  POWDER,  a  powerful  ex- 
plosive, is  made  by  combining  some  form  of 
cellulose  (wood  fiber)  with  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuric and  nitric  acids  and  then  adding 
acetic  acid  or  acetone.  The  smokeless  powder 
most  extensively  used  is  made  by  kneading 
guncotton  (which  see)  into  a  paste  with 
acetic  acid.  When  dry  this  paste  forms  a 
cake  which  is  then  made  into  flakes,  cords  or 
grains,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  intended.  This  powder  has  about  twice 
the  strength  of  gunpowder.  It  is  smokeless 
because  the  products  of  the  explosion  are  all 
gaseous.  The  products  of  the  explosion  of 
gunpowder  are  nearly  one-half  solid  matter, 
and  it  is  this  matter  that  makes  the  smoke. 

Smokeless  powder  has  replaced  gunpowder 
in  all  artillery  and  in  the  navies  of  all  leading 
nations.  It  is  also  used  for  blasting  in  cer- 
tain cases.  Each  nation  has  its  own  variety 
of  powder,  to  which  it  gives  a  special  name. 
Cordite  is  used  by  the  British;  indurite,  by 
the  United  States,  and  B.  N.,  by  the  French. 

SMOL'LETT,  Tobias  George  (1721-1771), 
a  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  near 
Dumbarton,  Scotland.  He  studied  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow  and  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  surgeon.  His  interest,  how- 
ever, was  rather  in  literature  than  in  surg- 
ery; and  in  1739  he  went  to  England  with  a 
tragedy.  The  Regicide,  but  failing  to  get  for 
it  a  stage  production,  he  joined  the  navy  as 
surgeon's  mate.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
again  took  up  literature.  The  first  of  his 
novels,  Roderick  Random,  appeared  in  1748, 

209 


and  its  success  was  immediate.  Among  his 
later  works  the  most  noteworthy  are  Pere- 
grine Pickle  and  Humphrey  Clinker.  His 
novels  are  carelessly  constructed,  often  coarse 
and  usually  marked  by  a  humor  which  de- 
scends frequently  into  burlesque. 

SMOOT,  Reed  (1862-  ) ,  a  United  States 
Senator,  born  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Brigham  Young  Acad- 
emy, Provo,  Utah,  in  1900  was  made  an 
apostle  of  the  Mormon  Church,  and  in  1903 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  His 
prominence  in  the  Mormon  Church,  an  insti- 
tution long  favoring  polygamy,  caused  strong 
opposition  to  his  serving,  and  in  1906  he  was 
unseated.  In  the  following  year,  however,  he 
was  reinstated  by  Senatorial  vote,  and  has 
since  been  reelected.  Throughout  his  terms  he 
has  been  an  able  representative  of  the  Repub- 
licans and  an  expert  on  tariff  questions. 

SMUGGLING,  smug'ling,  the  fraudulent 
practice  of  taking  dutiable  merchandise  into 
a  country  without  paying  the  tariff  imposed 
by  law.  To  attempt  to  introduce  goods 
through  channels  other  than  ports  of  entry; 
to  attempt  concealment  of  dutiable  articles 
of  high  value;  to  understate  the  value  of  a 
taxable  article — all  are  violations  of  law  and 
are  punishable  with  fine,  imprisonment  or 
forfeiture  of  goods.  Introducing  into  a 
country  articles  prohibited  by  law  is  also 
regarded  as  smuggling  and  is  punishable  as 
such. 

SMUTS,  small  fungi  which  live  in  certain 
plants  as  parasites.  Wheat,  oats  and  barley 
smuts  attack  the  seeds,  and  can  be  destroyed 
by  treating  the  seeds  before  planting.  Wheat 
seeds  soaked  for  five  minutes  in  a  solution  of 
one  pound  of  copper  sulphate  to  a  gallon  of 
water  are  rendered  immune ;  and  oat  seeds  are 
treated  by  spreading  them  on  the  floor  and 
sprinkling  them  with  a  solution  consisting  of 
one  pound  of  formalin  to  fifty  gallons  of 
water.  Another  remedy  consists  in  soaking 
the  seeds  in  water  above  135  °  F. 

As  com  smuts  do  not  attack  the  seeds,  they 
require  a  different  treatment.  The  spores  re- 
side in  manures  and  soils,  and  from  the 
ground  make  their  way  into  the  young  plants. 
The  fungi  appear  at  the  tip  of  the  ear  as  a 
bluish-black  dust,  which  the  wind  scatters. 
They  may  also  appear  on  the  leaves  or  silk. 
Rotation  of  crops  is  the  safest  cure  for  com 
smut,  as  the  spores  cannot  live  in  the  soil 
more  than  one  season.  Infected  ears  should 
never  be  used  for  planting. 


SMYRNA 


3330 


SNAKE 


SMYRNA,  smi/na,  the  chief  seaport  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna,  200  miles  southwest  of  Constanti- 
nople. It  occupies  a  site  consisting  partly 
of  level  ground  and  partly  of  the  slopes  of 
Mount  Pagus,  and  when  seen  from  the  sea 
presents  an  attractive  appearance.  The  city 
is  divided  into  five  quarters — the  European, 
quarter,  with  a  fine  quay,  modern  shops  and 
hotels ;  the  Greek,  the  Armenian,  the  Turkish 
and  the  Jewish  quarters.  The  Turkish  sec- 
tion occupies  most  of  the  high,  ground. 
Smyrna  has  a  fine  wharf  and  carries  on  an 
important  foreign  trade,  exporting  raisins, 
sponges,  carpets  and  rugs,  opium,  tobacco, 
licorice  and  numerous  other  aj'ticles.  The 
rugs  for  which  it  is  esjoecially  famed  come 
from  small  places  around  the  city.  Most  of 
its  trade  is  with  Great  Britain.  The  city  is 
connected  with  Constantinople  by  rail  and 
with  a  number  of  other  important  towns  in 
Asia  Minor.  Population,  estimated  at  250,- 
000,  about  one-third  of  whom  are  Greeks  and 
one-third  Turks.  During  the  World  War 
Smyrna  was  bombarded  by  an  allied  fleet,  but 
was  not  occupied  until  after  the  signing  of 
the  armistice. 

SNAIL,  a  small  mollusk,  which  inhabits  a 
univalve,  or  one-piece,  shell.  Two  general 
divisions  are  recognized — land  snails  and 
water  snails.  The  shells  of  land  snails  are 
arranged  in  whorls,  which  may  rise  to  a  point 


SNAIL 

or  may  be  comparatively  flat.  Some  of  them 
are  very  beautiful.  To  protect  itself  the 
snail  can  withdraw  into  its  shell  and  seal  the 
opening  with  a  membrane.  In  moving  about 
it  carries  its  shell,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a 
muscular  process,  on  its  back.  The  part  of  the 
snail  that  protrudes  from  the  shell  is  called 
the  foot.  The  head  is  on  the  forward  end  of 
the  foot  and  contains  two  sets  of  tentacles, 
or  feelers,  the  larger  of  which  are  tipped  by 
the  eyes.  The  snail  moves  slowly,  by  con- 
tracting one  portion  of  the  foot  after  another, 
and  it  is  aided  in  its  movements  by  a  slimy 
fluid  which  it  secretes.     Land  snails  live  in 


damp,  shady  places  usually  amongst  moss  and 
decaying  wood.  In  France  and  Italy  a 
species  of  small  snail  is  cultivated  as  a  food. 

SNAKE,  a  reptile,  distinguished  by  its 
long,  slender  bod}",  which  tapers  gradually 
to  a  tail  and  which  is  covered  with  homy 
scales,  but  never  with  bony  plates.  Snakes 
have  no  limbs,  though  in  some  species  rudi- 
mentary hind  limbs  may  be  detected.  The 
ribs  are  very  numerous,  some  snakes  having 
more  than  300  pairs.  These  give  form  to  the 
body,  aid  in  breathing,  and  are  also,  in  con- 
nection with  the  scales,  organs  of  locomotion. 
Snakes  crawl  upon  the  ground,  by  swinging 
their  bodies  in  loops  from  side  to  side,  and 
most  of  them  are  able  to  raise  their  heads  and 
a  large  portion  of  their  bodies  into  the  air. 
They  have  hooked,  conical  teeth,  which  serve 
to  hold  their  prey,  but  are  useless  for 
chewing. 

Some  species  of  snakes  are  fatally  venom- 
ous, but  most  of  them  are  harmless.  In  the 
venomous  serpents  two  long  poison  fangs  are 
firmly  fixed  in  a  movable  bone,  above  which 
is  a  gland  for  the  secretion  of  poison.  The 
teeth  are  perforated  by  tubes  through  which 
the  poison  is  forced.  The  tongue  of  a  snake 
is  forked,  and  can  be  pushed  far  out  of  the 
mouth.  It  is  probably  an  organ  of  touch 
rather  than  of  taste. 

Snakes  have  no  eyelids  and  no  external 
ears.  Their  nostrils  are  on  the  snout.  The 
lower  jaw  is  loosely  articulated  to  the  upper, 
and  the  tissues  about  the  mouth  are  so  elastic 
that  a  snake  can  swallow  an  animal  really 
much  greater  in  diameter  than  itself.  Some 
snakes  lay  eggs,  others  produce  the  young 
alive.  In  most  species  the  mother  takes  great 
care  of  her  young,  and  it  is  said  that  in  one 
species,  the  mother,  when  alarmed,  will  open 
her  mouth  and  allow  the  young  to  run  to 
cover  within  her  body. 

Each  locality  of  the  temperate  and  torrid 
zones  has  its  own  peculiar  species  of  snakes. 
Some  live  only  in  waiTU,  arid  regions;  some 
live  in  moist,  shady  places,  while  still  others 
inhabit  the  water.  All  the  species  are  vastly 
more  numerous  and  much  larger  in  the  tropics 
than  in  the  temperate  regions.  Over  1,500 
genera  are  known,  and  about  twenty  poison- 
ous species  are  found  in  the  United  States. 
Of  these  the  majority  inhabit  the  south- 
western portions  of  the  country;  two  rattle- 
snakes and  the  copperhead  are  the  only 
poisonous  species  that  are  natives  of  the 
Xorthem  states. 


SNAKE  BIRD 


3331 


SNORRI STURLUSON 


Related    Articles.       Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Adder 
Anaconda 
Black  Snake 
Boa 
Cobra 

SNAKE  BIRD. 


Copperhead 
Moccasin  Snake 
Python 
Rattlesnake 
Viper 

See  Darter. 


SNAKE  CHARMING.  See  Serpent 
Charming. 

SNAKE  DANCE.    See  Hopi. 

SNAKE  INDIANS.  See  Shoshonean 
Indians. 

SNAKE  RIVER,  a  large  river  of  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  United  States.  It 
rises  in  Yellowstone  Park,  pursues  a  winding 
course  through  Southern  and  Western  Idaho, 
enters  Washington  at  Lewiston,  the  head  of 
navigation,  and  discharges  into  the  Columbia 
River,  near  Pasco,  Wash.  It  forms  the  boun- 
dary between  Idaho  and  Northeastern  Oregon 
for  170  miles,  and  between  Idaho  and  South- 
eastern Washington  for  thirty  miles.  Its 
upper  course  is  broken  by  numerous  falls  and 
rapids,  the  most  spectacular  of  which  are 
Shoshone  Falls.  The  total  length  of  the  river 
is  about  1,100  miles. 

SNAPDRAGON,  a  group  of  annual  and 
perennial  herbs,  most  of  them  native  to  the 
temperate  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
They  bear  spikes  of  showy,  variously-colored 
flowers  having  two  lipped  corollas,  so  shaped 
that  if  opened  forcibly  they  afterward  shut 
with  a  snap.  Thus  the  name  is  accounted  for. 
The  lower,  three-lobed  lip  is  so  swollen  as 
to  resemble  a  mouth,  and  to  suggest  such  de- 
scriptive names  as  dog's,  rabbit's  and  toad's 
mouth.  The  plants  grow  to  a  height  of  from 
one  to  three  feet.  They  are  associated  with 
old-fashioned  gardens,  but  are  much  culti- 
vated in  conservatories.  In  folklore  these 
plants  are  credited  with  power  to  undo 
charms. 

SNAPPING  TURTLE,  a  species  of  fresh- 
water tortoise,  common  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.    It  sometimes  reaches  a  length 


sippi  Valley,  is  called  the  alligator-snapper 
and  is  noted  for  the  strength  of  its  large  jaws. 
It  feeds  on  small  animals  and  receives  its 
name  from  its  habit  of  snapping  at  every- 
thing within  its  reach. 

SNIPE,  a  wading  bird  usually  seen  along 
the  shores  of  rivers  and  lakes.  Snipes  are 
slender  and  active,  both  on  land  and  on  the 


SNAPPING  TURTLE 

of  three  feet  and  is  notable  for  its  fierceness. 
One  species,  found  around  the  lower  Missis- 


SNIPE 

wing.  All  have  narrow  bills,  longer  than 
the  heads,  and  their  eyes  are  set  far  back. 
Usually  the  plumage  is  brownish  or  grayish, 
and  is  spotted  or  streaked  with  white  or 
black,  the  whole  blending  closely  with  the 
colors  of  the  ground.  The  nests  are  made 
on  the  ground  among  tall  marsh  grasses,  and 
the  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  olive-brown  or 
drab  splotched  with  brown.  When  the  bird 
is  aroused  near  its  nest,  it  flies  up  and  down 
in  a  zigzag  course,  making  with  its  wings  a 
curious  drumming  sound.  Common  species 
are  Wilson's  snipe,  a  native  American  bird, 
and  a  similar  species,  the  European  snipe; 
others  are  the  small  jacksnipe  of  Northern 
Europe  and  the  giant  snipe  of  Brazil. 

SNORING,  snoh/ing,  a  breathing  with 
harsh,  rough  noise  through  the  nose  and 
mouth  while  sleeping,  especially  with  rattling 
vibrations  of  the  soft  palate.  While  there 
are  some  persons  who  sleep  with  open  mouth, 
owing  to  relaxation  of  facial  muscles,  there 
are  others  who  because  of  some  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  nasal  passage  cannot  breath 
through  the  nose.  Children  who  snore  do  so 
almost  invariably  because  of  some  throat  or 
nasal  trouble,  which  should  be  corrected. 
Adenoids  which  hinder  nose  breathing  are  a 
frequent  cause  of  snoring  in  children.  See 
Adenoids. 

SNORRI  STURLUSON,  sno/re  stoo/loo 
son,  (1179-1241),  an  Icelandic  poet  and  his- 
torian. His  most  famous  work,  the  Prose 
Edda,  one  of  the  earliest  masterpieces  of 
Scandinavian   literature,   was  completed   in 


SNOW 


3332 


SNOWPLOW 


1222,  but  was  not  published  until  the  seven- 
teenth eentuiy.  His  Heimskringla  and  rec- 
ord of  the  kings  of  Norway  from  the  earliest 
time  to  Magnus  Erlingsson  (1177)  also  was 
printed  then.  Snorri  was  also  a  lawyer  and 
a  statesman,  and  in  1215  was  president  of  the 
legislative  assembly  and  higher  coui't  of  Ice- 
land. He  negotiated  a  peace  treaty  between 
Iceland  and  King  Haakon  of  Norway,  and 
that  ruler,  later  becoming  suspicious  of  him, 
had  him  put  to  death. 

SNOW,  frozen  vapor  falling  to  the  earth 
in  flakes,  and  covering  Mother  Earth  with  a 
white  blanket  to  protect  and  prepare  vegeta- 
tion for  its  awakening  in  spring.  Snow  is 
also  of  incalculable  value  as  it  piles  in  masses 
on  lofty  mountains,  where  the  gradual  thaw 
of  spring  and  summer  feeds  the  springs  and 
streams. 

Whenever  precipitation  occurs  at  a  tem- 
perature below  32°  F.,  snow  is  formed.  It 
is  not  frozen  rain,  but  consists  of  minute 
crj'stals  formed  by  the  freezing  vapor.  These 
take  various  shapes,  but  are  patterns  of  a 
six-pointed  star,  which  in  large  flakes  are  very 
beautiful.  By  collecting  such  flakes  on  a 
coal-black  surface,  these  crystals  may  be 
studied  with  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass. 
Each  flake  contains  a  number  of  crystals,  so 
arranged  as  to  form  beautiful  designs,  the 
size  depending  upon  the  temperature  and  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere. 
Flakes  are  largest  when  the  atmosphere  is 
heavily  charged  with  moisture  and  the  tem- 
perature is  just  below  the  freezing  point. 
The  amount  of  water  in  snow  is  about  one- 
tenth  that  in  rain ;  that  is,  a  snowfall  of  ten 
inches  would  be  equivalent  in  water  to  a 
rainfall  of  one  inch. 

Snow  is  found  in  cool  temperate  regions  in 
the  winter,  and  it  falls  on  the  summits  of 
high  mountains  and  in  the  polar  regions 
throughout  the  year.  The  heaviest  snowfall 
is  in  mountains  of  the  cool  temperate  regions, 
where  it  is  several  feet  each  winter,  as  in  the 
Alps  and  in  some  portions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  particularly  in  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington and  in  British  Columbia.  When 
frozen  in  great  masses,  this  snow  forms 
glaciers.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow  is 
known  as  the  snow  line,  and  its  location  de- 
pends upon  altitude  and  latitude. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information : 


Avalanche 

Ice 

Crystallization 

Rain 

Freezing 

Snow  Line 

Glacier 

Snowshoe 

SNOWBALL,  or  GUELDER-ROSE,  gel' 

der,  a  flowering  shrub.  It  is  a  cultivated 
form  of  high-bush  cranberry  and  grows  from 
seven  to  twelve  feet  in  height.  Because  of 
its  large,  white  ball-like  blossoms,  it  is  known 
as  the  snmoball.  The  name  Guelder-rose  is 
derived  from  the  Dutch  province  of  Guelder- 
land,  where  the  shrub  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated. The  flowers  of  the  cultivated  plant 
do  not  produce  fruit;  the  wild  guelder-rose, 
however,  bears  small,  juicy,  red  berries. 

SNOWBERRY,  the  popular  name  of  a 
tropical  American  shrub  which  bears  snow- 
white  berries.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
a  native  North  American  shrub  of  the  wood- 
bine family,  which  also  has  white  berries. 

SNOWBIRD,  a  name  given  to  several 
finches  that  early  in  the  spring  go  far  north 
to  nest,  returning  late  in  the  fall.  They 
gather  in  large  flocks  and  feed  in  the  snow 
on  the  seeds  of  grass  and  large  plants.  The 
snoivhunting,  often  called  the  snowbird,  is 
common  in  the  northern  United  States.  It 
has  a  gray  back,  white  breast  and  black  and 
white  tail  and  wings,  and  is  a  very  pretty 
bird. 

SNOWDROP,  a  well-known  garden  plant, 
belonging  to  the  amaryllis  family.  It  bears  a 
few  short,  straight,  narrow,  crisp  leaves,  and 
leafless  flower  stalks,  on  which  are  borne 
drooping,  white,  bell-shaped  flowers,  which 
appear  early  in  spring.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  the  Alps,  but  is  common  in  gardens 
in  the  Northern  United  States  and  Canada. 

SNOW  LINE,  the  height  or  level  at  which 
there  is  perpetual  snow.  In  the  tropics  it  is 
about  three  miles  above  the  sea  level,  and 
mountains  that  rise  to  that  height  are  al- 
ways capped  with  snow;  in  latitude  40°  it  is 
about  two  miles  above  sea  level;  and  at  55°, 
it  is  one  mile  above  the  sea.  Above  the  Arc- 
tic Circle  and  below  the  Antarctic  it  descends 
to  sea  level. 

SNOWPLOW,  a  machine  for  clearing  the 
snow  from  roads,  sidewalks  and  railwaj's. 
Such  devices  are  usually  triangular,  and  are 
hauled  by  horses.  They  push  the  snow  to 
either  side  of  the  path  and  are  useful  when 
the  snow  does  not  reach  a  great  depth,  after 
which  the  accumulation  of  snow  on  the  sides 
of  the  path  renders  their  use  somewhat  diffi- 
cult. 

Snowplows  used  on  railways  are  of  two 
kinds — the  triangular  plow,  which  is  attached 
to  the  front  end  of  the  locomotive  or  a  special 
car  and  removes  the  snow  by  being  forced 


SNOWSHOE 


3333 


SOAP 


tErough  it,  and  the  rotary  plow.  The  triangu- 
lar plow  differs  from  that  used  on  ordinary- 
roads  in  that  the  sides  form  an  oblique  edge, 
which  points  downward  to  the  middle  of  the 
track.  As  the  plow  is  forced  through  the 
snow  it  lifts  it  up  and  then  throws  it  out  on 
either  side  of  the  track. 

The  rotary  plow  consists  of  a  large  wheel, 
with  buckets  attached  to  an  axis,  that  rotates 
at  right  angles  to  the  rails.  As  the  wheel 
revolves,  the  buckets  scoop  up  the  snow  and 
empty  it  into  a  hopper,  from  which  it  is 
thrown  to  a  great  distance  by  a  powerful  fan. 
The  rotary  plow  is  operated  by  a  special 
engine  and  is  pushed  along  by  a  locomotive. 
Its  effectiveness  does  not  depend  upon  the 
speed  with  which  it  is  moved  forward,  and  it 
is  successful  in  clearing  the  deepest  of  drifts. 
The  danger  of  delaying  traffic  for  hours  or 
days  because  of  snow  depths  has  practically 
been  overcome  by  the  effectiveness  of  the 
modem  snowplow. 

SNOWSHOE,  sno'shoo,  a  device  attached 
to  the  sole  of  the  shoe  to  prevent  the  wear- 
er from  sinking  into 
deep  snows.  It  consists 
of  a  light  frame  of  wood 
from  three  to  four  feet 
long  and  about  a  foot 
wide,  reinforced  with 
cross  bars  and  strung  with 
thongs  of  deerskin.  Snow- 
shoes  are  used  by  hunt- 
ers, trappers,  loggers  and 
farmers  in  regions  where  : 
snowfall  is  heavy.  In 
these  shoes  the  half-breed 
Indian  trappers  of  Cana- 
da, who  are  the  most  ex- 
pert users  of  them,  can 
run  over  the  snow  at  the 
rate  of  thirty -five  or  forty 
miles  a  day.  In  all  sec- 
tions of  country  where 
snows  are  heavy,  many 
people  use  snowshoes  as  a 
pleasant  diversion;  in  many  localities  snow- 
shoe  clubs  exist  as  a  feature  of  outdoor  sports. 

SNUFF,  a  powder  made  from  the  tobacco 
plant.  The  dry  leaves  and  stems  of  the 
plant  are  ground  in  mortars  and  then 
scented.  Snuff  is  inhaled  through  the  nos- 
trils, or  is  rubbed  on  the  gums  as  an  indul- 
gence, like  tobacco  chewing.  The  practice 
of  using  it,  once  fashionable  in  Europe  and 
America,  is  fast  dying  out.     See  Tobacco. 


SNOWSHOE 


[OAP,  sope,  a  chemical 
compound  of  fat  or  oil, 
with  some  alkali,  usually 
potash  or  soda.  There 
are  many  varieties,  but 
the  soaps  of  commerce 
may  be  roughly  classified 
as  household  soaps,  toilet 
soaps,  manufacturing 
soaps  and  marine  soaps. 
Manufacture.  The  fat 
used  in  common  laundry, 
or  household,  soaps  is 
tallow,  which  may  be 
mixed  with  grease  or  oil, 
and  is  generally  known  as 
stock.  In  the  course  of  the  manufacturing 
process  rosin  is  added.  This  gives  the  soap 
a  yellow  color  and  also  aids  in  hardening  it. 
The  fat  is  poured  in  a  melted  state  into 
large  sheet-iron  kettles,  heated  by  steam 
coils.  During  the  heating  process  lye  is  add- 
ed from  time  to  time,  until  the  right  propor- 
tions of  fat  and  alkali  are  obtained.  When 
the  mixture  has  the  appearance  of  thick  gum, 
strong  brine  is  added  until  the  soap  floats  on 
the  surface.  As  the  mixture  cools,  the  brine 
settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  and  is 
drawn  off  and  worked  for  glycerine  and  salt. 
Fresh,  strong  lye  and  rosin  are  added  to  the 
soap,  and  the  mixture  is  reheated  and  treated 
as  before.  Three  operations  of  this  sort  are 
necessary  before  a  soap  of  the  desired  grade 
is  produced. 

After  the  third  heating  cold  water  is  added 
and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly  to 
150  °  F.  Then  the  soap  is  run  into  a  horizon- 
tal cylinder  known  as  the  crutcTier,  where  it  is 
thoroughly  mixed  by  revolving  paddles.  Dur- 
ing the  mixing  several  ingredients  are  added, 
the  most  important  being  carbonate  of  soda. 
When  thoroughly  mixed  the  soap  is  run  into 
large  pans  and  allowed  to  harden.  It  is  then 
cut  into  cakes  by  being  passed  between  steel 
wires,  and  the  cakes  are  stamped  and 
wrapped  ready  for  the  market. 

The  manufacture  of  toilet  soaps  is  similar 
to  that  already  described,  except  that  the 
cruteher  is  omitted.  For  the  best  grades  of 
toilet  soaps,  olive  oil,  palm  oil  and  cocoanut 
oil  are  used,  and  the  process  of  refining  is 
carried  further  than  in  the  manufacture  of 
laundi-y  soaps.  Coloring  matter  and  per- 
fume are  added  to  some  of  the  best  soaps, 
but  they  are  omitted  from  other  grades  equal- 
ly   good.      Cheap,   highly    perfumed   soaps 


SOAPSTONE 


3334 


SOCIALISM 


should  be  avoided,  because  the  perfume  is 
usually  added  to  disguise  the  odor  of  offen- 
sive fats.  A  soap  made  of  pure  oil  and  good 
soda  is  the  best  for  a  healthy  skin. 

Castile  soap  is  made  from  olive  oil  and 
soda.  Marine  soap  is  made  from  coeoanut 
oil,  potash,  soda  lye  and  salt;  it  will  dissolve 
in  salt  water.  The  so-called,  naphtha  soaps 
contain  kerosene  and  a  very  strong  alkali. 
Manufacturers'  soaps  are  known  as  neutral, 
because  they  contain  no  excess  of  alkali  or 
fats.  This  is  necessary  since  these  soaps  are 
used  in  cleansing  raw  material  for  delicate 
fabrics,  such  as  silks  and  fine  woolens. 

SOAPSTONE,  or  STE'ATITE,  a  soft  rock 
with  a  soapy  feel,  composed  chiefl}^  of  talc 
and  ranging  in  color  from  light  to  dark  gray. 
It  is  easily  sawed  into  any  desired  shape. 
Blocks  of  the  stone  are  used  as  foot-warmers, 
because  they  hold  the  heat  a  long  time.  Pow- 
dered soapstoue  is  sometimes  used  to  prevent 
friction  in  machinery,  and  a  soft,  white  va- 
rietv  is  used  as  tailors'  chalk. 

SOCIAL  DEMOCRATS,  the  name  of  a  po- 
litical party  established  in  Germany  iji  18G3 
under  the  influence  of  Ferdinand  Lassalle. 
It  began  with  a  small  membership  and  a  sim- 
ple i^rogram  based  on  universal  and  equal 
suff'rage.  In  1875  the  followers  of  Lassalle 
joined  with  those  of  Karl  Marx  and  Friedrich 
Engels  to  form  the  party  which  became  the 
nucleus  of  the  leading  political  organization 
in  the  Germany  of  to-day.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War  the  Social  Demo- 
crats commanded  4,500,000  votes,  and  were 
I'epresented  in  the  Reichstag,  where  they  held 
the  balance  of  power  by  over  a  hundred 
members. 

The  war  caused  a  division  in  the  ranks, 
and  the  party  split  into  two  factions — ma- 
jority Socialists  and  mhaority  Socialists.  The 
former,  led  by  such  men  as  Philipp  Scheide- 
mann  and  Friedrich  Ebert,  supported  the 
government  and  voted  war  credits;  the  mi- 
nority Socialists,  who  organized  under  the 
name  of  Independent  Social  Democrats,  de- 
manded immediate  peace,  and  preached  in- 
ternational Socialism  and  class  conflict. 
When  the  German  emperor  abdicated,  in  No- 
vember, 1918,  the  majority  Socialists  organ- 
ized the  provisional  government,  and  in  the 
ensuing  elections,  in  Febraary,  1919,  they 
secured  control  of  the  National  Assembly. 
Friedrich  Ebert  was  elected  President  of 
Germany,  and  Scheidemann  became  head  of 
the  Cabinet. 


The  following  are  the  most  important 
planks  in  the  platform  of  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic party,  as  formerly  organized: 

1.  Universal,  equal  and  direct  suffrage  by- 
ballot  in  all  elections. 

2.  Establishing-  the  intiative  and  veto  as 
means  of  direct  legislation  by  the  people. 

3.  Removal  of  all  restrictions  to  the  free 
expression  of  opinion  and  the  right  of  meeting 
or  association. 

4.  Abolition  of  all  la-ws  which  place  woman 
at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  -w-ith  man. 

5.  Universal  education  at  the  expense  of  the 
state. 

6.  Election  of  judges  by  the  people. 

7.  A  graduated  income  and  property  tax  to 
meet  all  public  expenses  which  are  to  be  met 
by  taxation.     See  Germany;  Socialism. 

SOCIALISM,  the  name  of  an  economic 
system  by  which  all  wealth  produced  is  de- 
manded as  the  property  of  individual  work- 
ers, with  the  means  of  production  the  prop- 
erty of  the  community  or  the  state.  In  other 
words,  socialism  seeks  a  change  of  attitude 
towards  property.  At  present  the  world's 
work  is  carried  on  under  the  domination  of 
private  property.  Socialism  would  reverse 
this  process,  so  that  the  world's  work  would 
ultimately  be  dominated  by  public  property. 
Socialists  attribute  all  value  to  labor,  and  in 
the  beginning  they  so  emphasized  manual 
labor  that  intellectual  services  were  given 
little  or  no  consideration.  However,  with  the 
rise  of  a  better  class  of  thinkers  this  view 
was  changed,  and  socialists  of  moderate  views 
now  understand  that  intellectual  service  is  as 
necessary  as  manual  labor. 

Socialists  argue  that,  since  production  is 
becoming  more  and  more  a  social  process,  the 
control  of  production  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  community  or  the  state.  They  demand 
collective  management  of  each  industry  and 
that  all  industries  be  associated  together  in 
order  to  secure  a  perfect  system,  with  har- 
mony and  unity  of  effort.  They  claim  that 
each  individual  producer  acts  for  himself, 
that  the  present  industrial  system  is  plan- 
less and  that  it  causes  industrial  crises  and 
business  stagnation.  Furthermore,  if  or- 
ganized society  owns  the  insti-uments  of  pro- 
duction and  controls  production,  it  would 
necessarily  follow  that  the  distribution  of  in- 
come would  have  to  be  by  some  common  au- 
thority and  that  under  this  plan  each  worker 
would  be  assured  of  a  living  wage. 

What  Socialism  is  Not.  The  term  socialism 
has  been  very  loosely  applied  to  a  number  of 
economic  and  political  doctrines  of  a  revolu- 
tionary character. 


SOCIALISM 


3335 


SOCIAL  SETTLEMENTS 


Socialism  is  not  Communism.  Communism 
advocates  the  abolishment  of  all  private 
property,  while  socialism  advocates  the  re- 
tention of  private  property  in  income  or 
earnings,  and  the  abolishment  of  private  cap- 
ital. The  Bolshevik  movement  in  Russia  was 
an  attempt  to  apply  communistic  principles 
on  a  large  scale  (see  Russia;  Bolsheviki). 

Socialism  is  not  Anarchism.  Both  seek  the 
same  end,  the  largest  freedom  of  the  individ- 
ual and  general  equality  among  men,  but 
they  seek  this  end  by  opposite  means. 
Anarchism  (which  see)  would  abolish  all  gov- 
ernment, while  socialism  would  extend  the 
powers  of  the  state  and  make  government 
paternal.  Anarchism  would  gain  its  ends 
by  violence  wherever  such  means  seemed  to 
be  advantageous,  but  sane  socialism  seeks  to 
gain  its  ends  by  political  evolution.  Persua- 
sion and  the  ballot  are  its  two  gi'eatest  agen- 
cies. "The  socialist  to-day  is  the  strongest 
oiDponent  of  anarchism." 

Political  Socialism.  Socialism  is  a  world 
movement.  Politically  it  is  "socialism  i^lus 
democracy."  While  there  is  a  Socialist  party 
in  nearly  everj'  country,  socialism  has  gained 
its  greatest  strength  in  Germany,  where  it 
first  acquired  political  significance.  There 
are  strong  Socialist  parties  in  France,  Hol- 
land, Italy  and  the  Scandinavian  countries. 
International  socialistic  congresses  were  held 
annually  from  1889  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  and  in  1900  the  International 
Bureau  of  Socialism  was  established  at  Brus- 
sels, Belgium.  It  consisted  of  forty-one  del- 
egates from  twenty-seven  nations.  After  the 
war  another  international  conference  was 
held  in  Switzerland. 

In  the  TJ  nit  eel  States.  The  evolution  of  so- 
cialism in  America  as  a  party  movement  has 
been  rapid,  as  is  shown  by  the  Socialist  vote 
at  Presidential  elections  since  the  party  en- 
tered the  field.  In  1888  it  was  2.068 ;  in  1904, 
442,402;  in  1912,  about  1,000,000;  but  in 
1916  it  fell  to  594,095.  The  national  head- 
quarters are  in  Chicag6.  Membership  in  the 
party  is  not  confined  to  the  cities ;  there  is  a 
large  following  in  the  agi'icultural  states.  See 
Political,  Parties  in"  the  United  States^ 
subhead  Socialist  Party. 

Socialism  and  the  World  War.  The  So- 
cialist party  is  international  in  scope;  its  ad- 
herents are  opposed  to  war,  and  it  was 
thought  at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
that  the  Socialists,  regardless  of  nationality, 
would  unite  in  opposition  to  the  war,  and 


put  forth  a  strong  plea  for  peace.  On  the 
contrary,  the  majority  of  the  Socialists  of 
all  the  belligerent  countries  adhered  to  their 
respective  governments,  and  the  chief  effect 
of  the  war  upon  the  party  was  to  cause  a 
division  in  its  ranks  and  temporarily  to  break 
up  the  international  organization.  Adher- 
ents of  the  more  radical  wing  maintained  a 
strenuous  opposition  to  the  war,  especially  in 
Germany,  where  they  boldly  opposed  the  gov- 
ernment, and  declared  that  the  war  was  not  a 
war  for  defense.  This  caused  a  division  in 
the  party  (see  Social  Democrats;  Ger- 
many). In  the  United  States  the  anti-war 
Socialists  gained  control  of  the  organization 
when  the  country  entered  the  World  War, 
and  many  who  supported  the  war  left  the 
party. 

History.  The  beginning  of  the  socialistic 
movement  is  considered  to  .date  from  the  or- 
ganization in  England  of  the  Association  of 
All  Classes  of  All  Nations  in  1833.  The  term 
socialism  was  used  in  connection  with  the  or- 
ganization in  a  magazine  called  the  Poor 
Man's  Guardian,  and  it  soon  came  into  gen- 
eral use.  The  founders  of  modern  socialism 
were  Karl  Marx  and  Friedrieh  Engels,  who 
in  1845  organized  in  Brussels  the  German 
Workingmen's  Association.  Here  they  wrote 
the  Communists'  Manifesto,  which  summa- 
rized the  philosophy  of  socialism  and  has  since 
formed  the  basis  of  many  socialist  platforms. 
At  first,  socialism,  like  other  new  movements, 
was  misunderstood  and  misjudged,  but  since 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  there 
is  a  clearer  view.  In  1916  it  was  estimated 
that  the  socialists  had  11,000,000  voters 
throughout  the  world.  Socialist  parties 
existed  then  in  twenty-seven  nations,  includ- 
ing Australia,  Jajoan  and  most  of  the  South 
American  countries. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Anarchism 
Child  Labor 
Communism 
Convict  Labor 
Income  Tax 
Inheritance  Tax 
Initiative 


GENERAL 

Mothers'  Pensions 

Old  Age  Pensions 

Recall 

Referendum 

Sabotage 

Suffrage 

Syndicalism 


Labor.  Department  of     Vocational  Training 
Minimum  Wage 

EMINENT  SOCIALISTS 

Bebel,  Ferdinand  Marx.  Karl 

August  Proudhon,  Pierre 

Lassalle,  Ferdinand  Joseph 

SOCIAL     SET'TLEMENTS,     the    name 

given  to  those  houses,  or  centers,  in  the  poor- 
est districts  of  great  cities,  where  cultured 
men  and  women  live,  in  order  to  come  in  con- 


SOCIETY  ISLANDS 


3336 


SOCIOLOGY 


tact  with,  and  improve  the  condition  of,  the 
poorer  classes.  The  activities  of  these  so- 
cieties include  efforts  at  the  development  of 
the  physical,  mental,  moral,  spiritual  and  so- 
cial interests  of  the  poor.  The  oldest  and 
most  famous  of  the  social  settlements  is 
Toynbee  Hall  in  London,  founded  in  1884 
and  named  in  honor  of  Arnold  Toynbee,  who 
had  taken  the  first  steps  toward  its  organi- 
zation. 

The  earliest  attempts  at  founding  a  settle- 
ment in  the  United  States  were  made  in  1887 
by  Dr.  Stanton  Coit,  who  established  the 
Neighborhood  Guild  in  New  York.  This  de- 
veloped into  the  University  Settlement,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  efficient  organizations  of  its 
kind  in  America.  Two  years  aft'er  this  set- 
tlement was  established,  Jane  Addams  and 
Ellen  Gates  Starr  opened  Hull  House  in  Chi- 
cago, perhaps  the  most  famous  social  settle- 
ment in  the  world.  To-day  there  are  social 
settlements  in  every  large  city  in  the  United 
states,  and  their  influence  is  potent  in  the 
development  of  civic  affairs. 

The  scope  of  the  work  is  almost  unlimited. 
Nearly  all  maintain  kindergartens,  day  nur- 
series, baths,  libraries,  schools  of  citizenship, 
clubs  and  savings  banks,  and  give  instruction 
at  night  in  public-school  subjects  to  day  la- 
borers whose  education  has  been  neglected. 
Social,  political  and  religious  meetings  may 
be  held  in  the  settlement  halls,  and  proper 
guidance,  supervision  and  restraint  are  exer- 
cised by  the  resident  workers.  The  social  set- 
tlement is  one  of  the  most  powerful  influences 
at  work  to-day  for  the  betterment  of  man- 
kind. A  detailed  account  of  the  workings  of 
a  large  settlement  is  given  in  Miss  Jane  Ad- 
dams' Twenty  Tears  at  Hull  House.  See 
Addams,  Jane. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  or  TAHITI,  tah' 
hete,  ARCHIPELAGO,  a  French  colonial 
possession  in  the  Southern  Pacific  Ocean,  con- 
sisting of  two  groups  of  islands,  eleven  in 
number,  and  embracing  a  total  area  of  637 
square  miles.  The  first  group,  the  Leeward 
Islands,  include  Huahaine,  Raiston,  Tahao 
and  Bora  Bora.  Of  the  Windward  group 
Tahiti  and  Morea  are  the  important  islands. 
The  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  are  moun- 
tainous and  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.  They 
are  densely  wooded,  and  cocoanuts,  bananas, 
sugar  cane,  oranges  and  other  tropical  fruits 
are  cultivated.  The  climate  is  mild  and  moist, 
but  healthful.  The  population  is  about  18,- 
000,  chiefly  Malay. 


SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PREVENTION  OF 
CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  the  name  given 
to  various  organizations  whose  chief  purpose 
is  to  secure  humane  treatment  for  animals. 
The  first  society  was  organized  in  England  in 
1824.  Interest  in  the  movement  spread,  and 
in  1866  the  first  American  society  was  organ- 
ized, in  New  York.  There  are  to-day  such 
societies  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Through 
their  influence  important  legislation  has  been 
enacted  for  the  protection  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. Some  of  the  laws  are  excellent.  In 
many  countries  railroads  are  required  to  un- 
load every  twenty-four  hours,  to  feed,  rest 
and  water,  all  stock  which  is  being  shipped 
great  distances;  and  in  nearly  all  countries 
cruelty  to  an  animal  is  punishable  with  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both. 

SOCIETY  OF  JESUS,  a  Roman  Catholic 
Order.    See  Jesuits. 

SOCIOLOGY,  so  she  oVo  ji,  a  science  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  society,  including  the 
fundamental  facts  upon '  which  it  is  based, 
the  history  of  modern  societies,  and  the  de- 
scription and  classification  of  present  social 
phenomena.  It  thus  covers  in  its  broadest 
seiise  the  study  of  the  general  progress  of 
civilization,  including  history,  economies, 
jurisprudence  and  politics.  Sociology  is 
based,  of  necessity,  largely  upon  statistics, 
and  its  conclusions  are  arrived  at  through  an 
historical  and  psychological  study  of  the 
individuals  who  compose  society  and  of  the 
movements  which  in  the  past  have  affected  its 
form  and  nature. 

To  Auguste  Comte  we  are  indebted  for  his 
conception  of  a  comprehensive  social  science; 
he  also  gave  to  the  study  the  name  sociology. 
Its  formal  study  is  generally  divided  into 
four  classes,  each  with  corresponding  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions :  descriptive  sociology, 
social  psychology,  social  ethics,  and  social 
technology. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Capital  Punishment  ,Juvenile  Court 
Census  Labor   Organizations 
Charity  Marriage 
Child  Labor  Monopoly- 
Communism  Mothers'  Pensions 
Convict  Labor  Old  Age  Pensions 
Cooperation  Pauperism 
Crime  and  Criminology  Population 
Economics  Prison 
Environment  Prohibition 
Eugenics  Social    Settlements   . 
Factory  and  Factory     Socialism 

Legislation  Statistics 

George  Junior  Re-  Suicide 

public  Tenement 

Heredity  Trusts 

Illiteracy  Woman  Suffrage 
Immigration  and 

Emigration 


SOCRATES 


3337 


SODIUM 


SOCRATES,  sok'rateez  (469-399  b.  c), 
one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  Greece. 
He  was  bom  at  Athens,  and,  while  his  edu- 
cation was  meager,  so  great  was  the  inquisi- 
tiveness  of  his  mind  that  he  picked  up  the 
best  thought  current  in  the  highly  cultivated 
Athenian  society  of  his  day.  From  his 
father  he  learned  the  sculptor's  art,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  and  began  to  go  about  the 
streets  of  Athens  questioning  those  he  met 
on  the  eternal  problems  of  human  life. 

For  several  years  he  fought  as  a  common 
soldier.  After  that  he  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  philosophy  and  the  education  of  the 
youth  of  his  native  city,  hoping  thei'eby  to 
make  more  useful  citizens  and  a  more  firmly 
established  and  morally  sound  state.  By 
means  of  conversation,  which  was  simple,  yet 
brilliant,  he  so  illuminated  commonplace  facts 
that  the  great  truths  underlying  them  became 
apparent. 

Because  of  his  pure  morality,  honesty  and 
interest  in  all  mankind,  Socrates  was  highly 
esteemed  by  the  greatest  thinkers  of  his  day, 
and  among  his  illustrious  friends  were  Plato, 
Crito,  Alcibiades,  Xenophon,  Aristippus, 
Euclid  of  Megara  and  Phaedon.  Yet  he  was 
hated  by  those  who  opposed  his  just  ideas  of 
government  and  was  accused  of  corrupting 
the  youth  of  the  state  with  heretical  religious 
views.  He  was  tried  before  a  court  of  citizen 
jurors  and  in  399  b.  c.  was  sentenced  to 
death.  His  death  potion  was  a  cup  of  hem- 
lock, drunk  at  twilight  in  the  prison  yard  in 
the  presence  of  his  friends  Plato  and  Crito. 
Of  him  Plato  said,  "Thus  died  the  man  who 
of  all  with  whom  we  are  acquainted  was  in 
death  the  noblest,  in  life  the  wisest  and  most 
just." 

Socrates  made  no  attempt  to  formulate  a 
system  of  philosophy,  nor  to  commit  his  ideas 
to  writing.  What  we  know  of  his  doctrines 
is  learned  from  Xenophon's  Memorabilia 
and  Plato's  Dialogues.  The  great  influence 
which  he  wielded  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  his  ideas  were  made  practical  in  his  life. 
He  was  governed  always  by  his  high  sense 
of  virtue  and  obeyed  conscientiously  the 
promptings  of  an  inner  voice,  which  he  de- 
clared to  be  a  never-failing  counselor.  He 
attained  to  an  intellectual  strength  and  a 
spiritual  peace  that  give  him  a  place  almost 
alone  among  the  world's  greatest  thinkers. 

SODA,  in  general,  the  name  of  several 
compounds  of  sodium  found  in  nature;  in 
particular,  several  manufactured  products  of 


sodium  chloride,  or  common  salt.  These  in- 
clude sodium  carbonate  (which  may  be  pro- 
duced in  crystallized  lumjos  or  a  coarse  pow- 
der called  soda  ash),  used  in  making  glass 
and  soap,  for  disinfecting  and  cleaning;  and 
sodium  bicarbonate,  which  is  cooking  soda. 
This  latter  is  a  constituent  of  baking  pow- 
der and  also  of  Seidlitz  powders.  Sodium 
hydroxide,  commonly  called  caustic  soda,  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  dyestuffs 
and  paper,  and  in  bleaching  and  kerosene-oil 
refining. 

SODA  WATER,  a  popular  summer  bever- 
age, especially  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
made  of  water  charged  with  carbon  dioxide 
and  fruit  flavoring.  It  contains  no  soda ;  it  is 
called  soda  water  because  bicarbonate  of  soda 
was  formerly  used  in  making  it.  The  liquid 
carbon  dioxide  is  stored  in  a  steel  container 
under  heavy  pressure;  when  released  by 
means  of  a  faucet  it  permeates  the  water  as 
carbonic  acid  gas,  causing  it  to  effervesce 
and  imparting  to  it  a  pungent  taste. 

Pop,  ginger  ale  and  other  similar  drinks 
consist  of  water  flavored  with  various  ex- 
tracts and  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  is  kept  under  pressure  in  the  bottle. 
When  the  cork  is  removed  the  gas  escapes 
rapidly  and  causes  the  effervescence. 

SODI'UM,  a  metallic  element  discovered  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1807.  ■  It  is  silver- 
white,  has  a  very  high  luster  and  is  as  soft  as 
wax.  It  is  lighter  than  water,  and  if  thrown 
on  warm  water  its  affinity  for  oxj'gen  gen- 
erates enough  additional  heat  to  cause  igni- 
tion of  the  hydrogen.  In  contact  with  cold 
water  the  warmth  generated  is  sufficient  to 
melt  the  sodium.  Owing  to  its  affinity  for 
oxygen  it  has  to  be  kept  in  liquids  that  con- 
tain no  oxygen,  such  as  kerosene.  When 
heated  in  air  or  oxygen  it  burns  with  a  vei'y 
pure  and  intense  yellow  flame.  It  is  per- 
haps more  abundant  than  any  other  metal, 
for  it  constitutes  two-fifths  of  all  the  salt 
existing  in  sea  water  and  is  present  in  the 
water  of  springs,  rivers  and  lakes,  in  almost 
all  soils  and  in  the  deposits  of  rock  salt. 
Sodium  is  also  contained  in  sea  plants  and  in 
land  plants  growing  near  the  sea.  It  occurs, 
also,  in  most  animal  fluids. 

Sodium  is  used  as  an  agent  in  the  manu- 
facture of  aluminum  and  magnesium,  and 
as  a  reagent  in  chemical  operations.  Com- 
mon salt  is  a  compound  of  sodium  and 
chlorine  (see  Salt).  Sodium  also  occurs  as 
oxide  of  sodium  in  a  good  many  minerals; 


SODOM 


3338 


SOIL 


but  it  is  most  common  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonate, nitrate  and  borate  of  soda.  Of  the 
numerous  salts  of  sodium,  many  are  impor- 
tant medicinal  agents.  Sodium  arsenate  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  arsenic  and  is  an 
important  element  in  fly  poisons;  sodium 
bromide  and  sodium  iodide  are  prescribed  for 
quieting  the  ner\"es;  sodium  bicarbonate  is 
one  of  the  important  ingredients  of  baking 
powder.     See  Saltpeter;  "Water  Glass. 

SOD'OM,  one  of  "the  five  cities  situated  in 
the  plain  of  the  Jordan  River,  and  referred 
to  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  chapters 
of  Genesis.  It  was  in  Sodom  that  Lot  settled 
when  he  separated  from  Abraham.  The  city 
was  plundered  by  Chedorlaomer,  and  was 
afterwards  rescued  by  Abraham.  According 
to  Biblical  accounts,  this  and  three  other 
cities — one  of  them  Gomorrah — in  the  \'icin- 
ity  were  destroyed  in  a  miraculous  way  be- 
cause of  their  wickedness.  It  was  at  this 
destniction  that  Lot  and  his  two  daughters 
were  spared,  while  his  wife,  not  obej^ing  the 
divine  command,  was  turned  into  a  pillar  of 
salt  {Gen.  XIX,  23-30).  The  exact  location 
of  Sodom  is  unknown,  and  authorities  differ 
in  regard  to  it,  some  believing  it  to  have 
been  at  the  north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
others  at  the  south  end. 

SODOM,  Apple  of^  a  fruit  mentioned  by 
early  writers  as  growing  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  was  beautiful  to  the  eye,  but 
when  eaten  it  filled  the  mouth  with  ashes. 
Although  no  satisfactory  explanation  has 
ever  been  given,  it  is  supposed  by  some  that 
this  "apple"  was  a  gall  produced  on  dwarf 
oaks  by  an  insect. 

SOFIA,  or  SOPHIA,  saw'feya,  Bulgaria. 
its  capital  and  largest  city,  situated  in  a  plain 
on  an  elevation  of  1,800  feet  above  sea  level, 
near  the  Balkan  Mountains,  325  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Constantinople.  It  is  on  the 
line  of  railway  that  after  Bulgaria's  entrance 
into  the  World  War  was  opened  from  Ber- 
lin to  Constantinople.  Sofia  is  built  on  mod- 
ern plans  and  has  broad,  straight  streets. 
The  important  buildings  are  the  old  mosque 
of  Sofia,  ruins  of  which  still  remain;  the 
Mosque  of  Bu^'uk-Jami,  used  as  a  museum; 
the  palace  of  the  prince,  and  the  government 
buildings.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  univer- 
sity founded  in  1888.  The  chief  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  other 
textiles,  and  of  pottery.  Sofia  occupies  the 
site  of  ancient  Sardica,  and  in  1878,  since 
which  time  the  modem  part  of  the  city  has 


been  rebuilt,  it  became  the  capital  of  Bul- 
garia. The  city  was  bombarded  by  allied  air- 
ships during  the  World  War.  Population, 
1910,  481.598. 

SOIL,  that  part  of  the  earth  upon  which 
we  depend  for  everything  we  eat  and  wear, 
and  upon  which  all  animals  and  plants  de- 
pend for  their  sustenance.  But  this  is  not 
what  the  geologist  or  the  argiculturist  calls 
the  soil.  To  the  former  the  soil  is  the  loose 
layer  on  the  surface  of  the  earth's  crust;  to 
the  latter  it  is  that  portion  of  this  layer  in 
which  plants  grow  and  which  is  suitable  for 
tillage. 

Formation  of  Soil.  The  process  of  form- 
ing soil  has  been  in  operation  since  the  first 
solid  masses  of  the  earth's  surface  appeared, 
and  the  same  agencies  which  began  its  forma- 
tion at  that  time  are  still  at  work  and  are 
producing  the  same  results.  These  agencies 
are  the  atmosphere,  water,  plants  and  ani- 
mals, and  are  explained  below. 

The  atmosphere  aids  in  the  formation  of 
soil  by  mechanical  and  chemical  action — ^by 
mechanical  action,  when  strong  currents  of 
wind  wear  away  rock  in  certain  localities  and 
deposit  the  particles  in  others;  by  chemical 
action,  when  under  conditions  of  moisture  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  takes  certain  substances  of 
which  the  rock  is  composed  and  destroys  them, 
thus  causing  the  rock  to  crumble. 

Water  is  the  most  powerful  agent  in  the 
formation  of  soil,  since  it  does  more  than  all 
other  agencies  in  decomposing  rocks.  It  de- 
composes rocks  by  wearing  them  away,  as  in 
the  case  of  water  in  streams,  and  by  break- 
ing up  rocks  into  particles  as  a  result  of 
freezing.  At  the  foot  of  all  cliffs  masses  of 
rock  fragments  are  found.  These  are  fonned 
by  the  water's  entering  cre\'ices  in  the  rock 
and  freezing  and  breaking  the  pai'ticles  off. 
These  particles  are  in  turn  broken  up  by 
weathering  and  by  similar  action  of  the  water. 
Water  also  acts  chemically,  since  oxygen 
readily  attacks  substances  which  the  water 
dissolves  from  the  rock.  The  combined  ac- 
tion of  water  and  atmosphere  is  known  as 
weathering,  and  this  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant process  in  the  formation  of  soil. 

Plants  contribute  to  the  formation  of  soil 
by  the  decay  of  roots,  leaves  and  stubble,  and 
frecjuently  by  the  decay  of  the  entire  plant. 
The  roots  also  assist  in  breaking  up  rocks  by 
growing  in  crevices;  and  the  absorption  of 
nutriment  by  the  plant  also  decomposes  rocks 
to  a  limited  extent. 


SOIL 


3339 


SOIL 


Animals  contribute  to  the  formation  and 
enrichment  of  soil  by  their  excrement,  by  the 
decay  of  their  carcasses  and  by  burrowing. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the 
earthworm,  which  bores  its  bole  by  passing 
the  soil  through  its  body.  During  this  proc- 
ess the  soil  is  pulverized  and  enriched.  The 
holes  thus  made  allow  the  air  to  enter  the  soil, 
and  in  this  way  a  fresh  supply  for  soil  breath- 
ing is  furnished  (see  Earthworm).  Thou- 
sands of  insects  make  the  soil  their  home,  and 
in  numerous  ways  they  contribute  to  its  fine- 
ness and  fertility. 

Kinds  of  Soils.  The  composition  of  soil 
depends  upon  that  of  the  rock  from  which  it 
was  formed.  When  the  soil  overlies  the  de- 
composing rock,  it  is  usually  of  the  same 
nature,  but  along  river  beds  and  in  localities 
which  are  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes,  the  soil 
may  be  of  entirely  different  composition 
from  that  of  the  sui-rounding  rock,  since  it 
was  transported  a  long  distance  by  water. 
A  sandy  soil  is  one  whose  composition  is 
nearly-  three-fourths  sand.  A  clayey  soil  is 
about  half  clay,  w^hile  a  lime  soil  is  about 
one-fifth  lime.  A  2^eaty  or  vegetable  soil  is 
made  up  of  peat  or  vegetable  matter.  Loams 
are  soils  containing  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand, 
lime  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  known  as 
humus. 

Soil  Water.  All  soil  contains  water,  the 
amount  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the 
country  in  regard  to  rainfall,  and  the  nature 
of  the  soil  itself.  In  soils  most  suitable  for 
tillage  the  water  exists  in  the  form  of  a  thin 
film  around  each  minute  particle  of  soil,  simi- 
lar to  the  film  formed  around  a  marble  when 
it  is  dipped  in  water.  Soils  containing  clay  re- 
tain the  water  much  longer  than  those  com- 
posed principally  of  sand  or  gravel.  When 
too  much  water  is  present  it  gathers  in  ex- 
cavations made  in  the  soil  and  is  known  as 
free  water.  The  presence  of  free  water  is 
injurious  to  growing  crops,  since  it  drowns 
the  roots  and  prevents  their  obtaining  the 
necessaiy  amount  of  nourishment. 

Value.  The  soil  is  the  great  storehouse  of 
wealth,  not  only  for  the  farmer,  but  for  all 
others  as  well.  A  fertile  soil  is  the  first 
requisite  to  successful  agriculture.  Soil  is 
considered  fertile  when  it  contains  an  abun- 
dance of  plant  food  in  such  state  that  the 
plants  can  appropriate  it  as  needed.  The 
chief  ingredients  of  this  food  are  nitrogen, 
potash  and  phosphorus,  which  occurs  in  the 
form  of  phosphates.     The  nitrogen   is  ob- 


tained from  the  decomposition  of  organic 
matter  which  constitutes  that  portion  of  the 
soil  known  as  humus.  Potash  and  phos- 
phorus exist  in  the  mineral  portions  of  the 
soil,  which  must  be  chemically  decomposed 
before  these  substances  can  be  used  by  the 
plant.  Many  soils,  rich  in  potash  and  phos- 
phorus, or  both,  are  unavailable  because  these 
substances  are  not  in  a  state  to  make  them 
available  for  plant  food.  On  such  soils  the 
sort  of  fertilizer  needed  is  some  ingredient 
that  will  decompose  the  rock  particles  which 
hold  the  potash  and  phosphorus  in  insoluble 
form. 

Soil  Analysis.  Before  the  farmer  can  ob- 
tain the  best  results  from  his  labors,  he  must 
understand  thoroughly  the  condition  of  his 
soil;  that  is,  he  should  know  the  plant  foods 
it  contains  and  the  relative  proportion  of 
each.  Also,  he  should  know  whether  or  not 
each  of  these  foods  is  in  such  a  state  that  it 
is  available  for  the  plants.  So  important  is 
this  knowledge  that  the  agricultural  colleges 
are  making  soil  surveys  throughout  their 
respective  states,  and  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  is  doing  a  similar 
work  for  the  tillable  portions  of  the  public 
lands. 

Any  farmer  wishing  to  know  the  chemical 
constituents  of  his  soil  should  write  to  the 
agricultural  college  of  his  state.  If  the  soil 
in  the  vicinity  of  his  farm  has  been  surveyed, 
he  will  obtain  the  desired  information.  If  it 
has  not  been  surveyed,  he  will  be  told  what 
steps  to  take  to  secure  the  analysis.  In  gen- 
eral, the  funds  of  these  colleges  do  not  enable 
them  to  analyze  soil  for  individual  farmers. 
The  college  will,  however,  refer  the  farmer 
to  some  chemist  who  will  make  the  analysis 
for  him.  The  fee  is  usually  ten  dollars,  but 
if  the  knowledge  gained  enables  the  farmer 
to  produce  more  bountiful  crops,  or  to  render 
fertile  what  the  farmer  supposed  to  be  worth- 
less soil,  the  money  is  veiy  wisely  invested. 
Analysis  of  the  soil  of  many  so-called  worn- 
out  farms  shows  that  right  methods  of  treat- 
ment will  in  a  few  years  make  them  as  pro- 
ductive as  ever.  The  best  authorities  state  that 
the  first  16  inches  of  soil  contain  an  average 
of  7,122  pounds  of  nitrogen,  6,035  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  23,160  pounds  of  potash 
to  the  acre.  Fertilizing  the  soil  means  setting 
these  ingredients  free  as  frequently  as  it 
means  supplying  them. 

How  to  Study  Soil.  First  determine 
whether  or  not  the   soil  has   been   formed 


SOIL 


3340 


SOLAR  ENGINE 


chiefly  from  the  underlying  rock.  If  it  has, 
it  is  of  the  same  composition  as  the  rock,  with 
the  addition  of  humus.  If  the  soil  is  allu- 
vium, that  is,  soil  has  been  deposited  by  water 
which  overflowed  the  land,  its  composition 
will  be  very  different  from  that  of  the  soil 
upon  higher  levels  in  the  same  locality. 
Moreover,  alluvium  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  humus. 

To  determine  the  texture  of  soil,  dry  a 
quantity,  then  break  it  into  fine  particles.  If 
it  is  lumpy  and  pulverizes  with  difficulty,  it 
contains  a  good  proportion  of  clay.  If  more 
than  one-half  of  it  is  clay,  it  is  known  as 
clayey  soil.  If  about  three-fourths  of  it  is 
sand,  it  is  a  sandy  soil.  If  one-fifth  of  it  is 
lime,  it  is  a  limy  soil.  A  soil  containing  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay  is  loamy. 

A  perfect  soil  contains  these  various  ingre- 
dients in  suitable  proportion.  It  must  have 
sufficient  sand  to  enable  it  to  absorb  the  req- 
uisite quantity  of  air  and  moisture,  and  to 
render  it  warm  and  friable.  It  must  have 
sufficient  clay  to  prevent  too  rapid  leaching 
or  evaporation  of  water,  sufficient  lime  to  aid 
in  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  and  enough 
humus  to  enable  it  to  retain  the  best  amount 
of  moisture  and  to  furnish  the  necessary  ma- 
terial for  the  chemical  changes  necessary  to 
healthy  plant  growth. 

Xext  determine  whether  or  not  the  soil  is 
"sour."  Soils  that  have  not  been  worked  for 
a  long  time  are  liable  to  contain  an  excess 
of  acid.  Crops  do  not  thrive  in  such  soils, 
and  before  planting,  it  is  always  wise  to  test 
them  for  acidity.  For  this  test,  procure  a 
small  quantity  of  litmus  paper  from  a  drug 
store.  Take  a  quantity  of  the  soil  and  moisten 
it.  Lay  a  strip  of  litmus  paper  upon  it.  If 
the  soil  is  sour  the  paper  will  soon  turn  red. 
Soils  containing  excess  of  acid  can  be  re- 
stored to  their  normal  condition  by  treating 
them  with  slaked  lime  or  hot  ashes. 

To  determine  the  relative  proportion  of 
humus,  thoroughly  dry  a  quantity  of  soil  and 
weigh  it.  Then  place  it  on  an  old  shovel 
blade  or  some  other  flat  metallic  surface  and 
heat  it  to  redness.  The  humus  will  be  burned 
out.    After  cooling,  weigh  again. 

What  was  the  loss  in  weight? 

What  proportion  does  this  loss  sustain  to 
the  first  weight? 

Local  conditions  may  suggest  further  in- 
vestigation, and  if  the  farmer  is  in  doubt  as 
to  the  best  method  of  procedure  he  should 
write  to  his  agricultural  college,  from  which 


he  may  always  feel  sure  that  he  will  receive 
reliable  information. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 

Alluvium  Humus 

Agriculture  Loam 

Clay  Loess 

Drainage  Manures 

Dry  Farming  Marl 

Erosion  Phosphates 

Fertilizer  Rotation  of  Crops 

Irrigation  Sand 

SOISSONS,  swa  son',  France,  the  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of 
the  Aisne,  sixty^-five  miles  northeast  of  Paris. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  France  and 
was  the  scene,  in  486,  of  the  victory  bj'^  Clovis 
over  the  Roman  general,  Syagrius,  which  put 
an  end  to  Roman  dominion  in  Gaul.  The 
cathedral  of  Xotre  Dame  and  the  town  hall, 
with  a  library  and  museum,  are  the  principal 
buildings.  Soissons  was  in  the  battle  zone  of 
the  World  War,  and  suffered  severely  from 
bombardments  during  the  Battle  of  the  Aisne 
and  the  Battle  of  Soissons.  In  May,  1918,  it 
was  captured  by  the  Germans  in  their  great 
spring  offensive. 

SOKOTO,  so  ko'toh,  one  of  the  largest 
states  of  the  British  colony  and  protectorate 
of  Nigeria,  in  Northern  Africa.  It  has  an 
area  of  100,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  10,000,000.  The  land  along  its  north- 
ern border,  which  meets  the  Sahara  Desert, 
is  arid  and  unproductive.  In  the  south,  where 
there  are  fertile  farming  and  pasture  lands, 
agriculture  and  cattle  raising  are  the  princi- 
pal industries,  and  barley,  millet,  wheat  and 
hides  the  chief  products.  Ostrich  farming 
and  coffee  raising  are  growing  industries. 
The  most  important  towns  are  Sokoto  and 
Kano. 

SOLA'NUM,  a  genus  of  the  nightshade 
family,  containing  a  wide  variety  of  both  use- 
ful and  nonuseful  plants.  Among  the  former 
are  the  potato,  the  tomato  and  the  eggplant. 
The  horse  nettle  and  buffalo  bur,  spiny  weeds 
that  give  considerable  trouble  to  farmers,  be- 
long to  the  nonuseful  group.  The  bitter- 
sweet, another  species,  is  the  source  of  a  fluid 
of  medicinal  value,  and  the  common  night- 
shade, or  belladonna,  is  also  medicinal.  The 
genus  contains  several  hundred  species,  in- 
cluding herbs  and  shrubs,  and  is  the  most  im- 
portant branch  of  the  nightshade  family. 
See  Nightshade. 

SO'LAR  ENGINE,  or  SUN  MOTOR,  an 
apparatus  for  utilizing  the  heat  of  the  sun  as 
a  motive  power,  by  causing  it  to  convert  the 
water  in  a  small  boiler  into  steam.    The  most 


SOLAR  MICROSCOPE 


3341 


SOLDIERS'  HOMES 


successful  motor  yet  constructed  was  invented 
in  1901  and  placed  upon  a  farm  near  Pasa- 
dena, Calif.  It  consisted  of  a  large  mirror, 
in  the  form  of  an  umbrella,  with  a  part  of 
the  top  cut  off.  The  disk  contained  1,788 
small  mirrors  arranged  at  an  angle  so  to 
catch  all  the  sun's  rays  striking  upon  it  and 
to  reflect  them  upon  a  long  boiler  containing 
100  gallons  of  water  and  space  for  eight 
cubic  feet  of  steam,  set  in  the  center,  like  the 
handle  of  the  umbrella.  The  boiler  was  con- 
nected with  machinery  that  pumped  water  at 
the  rate  of  1,400  gallons  each  minute.  By 
an  automatic  airrangement,  as  soon  as  suffi- 
cient steam  was  generated  in  the  boilei',  the 
mirror  was  connected  with  a  system  of  clock- 
work which  caused  it  to  turn  with  the  course 
of  the  sun. 

With  the  reduction  in  the  expense  of  their 
manufacture,  solar  motors  of  this  pattern 
will  make  very  desirable  machines  for  pump- 
ing water  for  irrigation,  as  the  heat  devel- 
oped by  them  is  very  great. 

SOLAR  MI'CROSCOPE,  an  instrument  by 
means  of  which  a  magnified  image  of  a  small 
object  is  projected  on  a  screen,  by  sunlight 
or  strong  artificial  light.  It  is  much  like 
a  stereopticon.  The  object  to  be  magnified 
is  placed  on  a  stand  at  one  end  of  a  brass 
tube.  By  means  of  a  mirror,  rays  of  light  are 
reflected  into  the  opposite  end  of  the  tube;  a 
double-convex  lens  brings  the  light  rays  to 
focus  on  the  object,  while  another  lens  pro- 
jects a  magnified  image  of  the  object  on  the 
screen.  Sunlight  is  less  frequently  used  with 
these  microscopes  than  the  electric  are  or 
oxyhydrogen  limelight. 

SOLAR  SPECTRUM.  See  Light,  sub- 
head Spectrum;  Spectrum  Analysis. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM,  in  astronomy,  the  name 
given  to  the  group  of  celestial  bodies,  includ- 
ing the  sun  and  its  attendants,  which  revolve 
about  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  To  this  system 
belong  the  eight  great  planets  and  their  satel- 
lites, the  asteroids  lying  beyond  Mars,  comets 
and  meteorites. 

The  size  of  the  great  solar  system  is  ut- 
terly beyond  comprehension.  Herschel's  il- 
lustration was  that  if  the  earth  were  rep- 
resented by  a  pea,  the  sun  would  be  a  ball 
two  feet  in  diameter,  327  feet  away  on  one 
side,  and  Neptune  a  plum  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  away  on  the  other.  (See  elsewhere 
in  this  work  articles  on  each  of  the  planets 
and  on  each  group  of  bodies  that  belong  to 
the  solar  system. ) 


Related    Articles:     Consult     the     following' 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Astronomy  Gravitation         Planetoid 

Asteroids  Meteor  Satellite 

Comet  Planet  (with      Sun 

list) 

SOLDERS,  sod'urz,  alloys  used  in  joining 
the  surfaces  or  edges  of  metals  by  fusion  at 
the  point  of  contact.  The  solder  should  al- 
ways fuse  more  easily  than  the  metal  in- 
tended to  be  soldered  by  it.  Solders  are  of 
two  kinds,  hard  and  soft. 

The  hard  solders  are  ductile,  will  bear 
hammering  and  are  commonly  prepared  of 
the  same  metal  as  that  which  is  to  be  soldered, 
with  the  addition  of  some  other,  by  which  a 
greater  degree  of  fusibility  is  obtained.  Un- 
der this  head  comes  the  hard  solder  for  gold, 
which  is  prepared  from  gold  and  silver,  or 
from  gold  and  copper,  or  from  gold,  silver 
and  copper.  The  hard  solder  for  silver  is 
prepared  from  equal  parts  of  silver  and 
brass,  but  it  is  made  to  fuse  more  easily  by 
the  mixture  of  one-sixteenth  of  zinc.  The 
hard  solder  for  brass  is  obtained  from  brass 
mixed  with  a  sixth  or  an  eighth,  or  even  a 
half,  of  zinc,  and  this  may  also  be  used  for 
the  hard  solder  of  copper. 

Soft  solders  melt  easily,  but  as  they  are 
partly  brittle,  they  cannot  be  hammered.  Of 
this  kind  are  the  following  mixtures :  Tin 
and  lead  in  equal  parts.;  bismuth,  tin  and 
lead  in  equal  parts;  bismuth,  two  parts,  tin 
and  lead,  each  one  part. 

In  soldering,  the  surfaces  to  be  united  must 
be  made  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  oxide. 

SOLDIERS'  HOMES,  homes  for  disabled 
or  aged  soldiers  of  the  United  States  armies, 
divided  into  two  general  classes :  those  ad- 
ministered and  maintained  by  the  Federal 
government  and  those  administered  and  part- 
ly maintained  by  state  governments  in  cer- 
tain states. 

Home  for  Regular  Army  Soldiers.  The 
United  States  maintains  a  home  for  disabled 
and  discharged  soldiers  of  the  regular  army 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  known  as  the  United 
States  Soldiers'  Home.  All  soldiers  who  have 
served  twenty  years  in  the  army  and  those 
who  have  incurred  such  disability  as  to  dis- 
qualify them  for  further  service  are  admitted. 
The  home  is  in  charge  of  commissioners. 

Home  for  Volunteer  Soldiers.  Another 
federal  institution  is  the  National  Home  for 
Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers,  which  is  sub- 
divided into  ten  branches  in  various  cities  of 
the  United  States.  These  are  located  in  the 
following  cities: 


SOLE 


3342 


SOLOMON 


Dayton,  Ohio 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Tog-US,    Me. 
Danville,  111. 
Hampton,  Va. 


Leavenworth,  Kan. 
Santa  Monica,  Cal, 
Marion,  Ind. 
Jackson  City,  Tenn. 
Hot  Springs,  S.  D. 


Confederate  veterans  of  the  Civil  War  have 
a  home  at  Beauvoir,  near  Biloxi,  Miss.,  the 
former  estate  of  Jefferson  Davis. 

State  Soldiers'  Homes.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  state  homes  for  disabled  soldiers  who 
for  various  reasons  are  unable  to  secure  ad- 
mission to  the  national  institution.  The  Fed- 
deral  government  contributes  toward  the  sup- 
port of  the  state  homes  $100  for  each  soldier, 
based  upon  the  average  attendance  for  the 
year.  The  remainder  of  the  expense  is  paid 
by  the  individual  state.  Some  of  these  homes 
are  conducted  on  the  cottage  plan.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  state  homes: 

California — ^Tountville.Xebraska — Gd.  Island. 
Colorado — Monte  New  Hampshire — 

Vista.  Tilton. 

Connecticut — Moroton    New  Jersey — Kearny 


Heights. 

Idaho — Boise. 

Illinois — Quincy. 

Indiana — Lafayette. 

Iowa — Marshall  town. 

Kansas — Fort  Dodge. 

Massachusetts — Chel- 
sea. 

Michigan — Grand 
Rapids. 

Minnesota — Minne- 
haha. 

Missouri — Saint  James 

Montana — Columbus 
Falls. 


and  Vineland. 
New  York — Bath  and 

Oxford. 
North  Dakota — Lisbon. 
Ohio — Sandusky. 
Oregon — Roseburg. 
Pennsylvania — Erie. 
Rhode   Island — Bristol. 
So.   Dakota — Hot 

Springs. 
Vermont — Bennington. 
Washington — Or  ting 

and  Port  Orchard. 
Wisconsin — Waupaca. 
Wyoming — Cheyenne. 


SOLE,  a  broad,  flat  fish  with  a  dorsal  fin 
extending  from  head  to  tail.  The  common 
European  sole,  a  brown  fish  with  very  white, 
firm  flesh,  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table. 
The  average  length  is  about  twelve  inches, 
and  the  weight  is  eighteen  ounces.  These 
fishes  live  most  of  the  time  in  shallow  waters 
of  sandy  coasts ;  sometimes  they  ascend  rivers 
in  the  spawning  season,  and  they  retire  to  the 
depths  of  the  ocean  in  cold  weather.  They 
are  sometimes  caught  with  lines,  but  usually 
with  trawl-nets.  The  American  sole,  or 
hogchoker,  common  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is 
a  smaller  fish,  only  about  six  inches  long,  and 
is  not  much  used  for  food.  The  transparent 
sole  of  the  Pacific  coast  differs  from  most 
other  species  in  having  no  fins  on  the  under 
side. 

SOLEMN  LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT. 
See  Covenant. 

SOLICITOR,  so  lis'it  or,  a  person  author- 
ized b}^  law  to  represent  another  in  coui-t  of 


justice.  In  the  United  States  the  distinction 
between  solicitors  and  other  lawyers  is  not 
recognized.  Under  the  laws  of  Great  Britain 
solicitors  constitute  a  class  of  attorneys  who 
are  officers  of  the  court,  the  go-betweens  of 
the  barristers;  the  latter  act  as  advocates  in 
the  argument  and  conduct  of  cases.  A  solici- 
tor may  appear  before  a  magistrate  in  the 
lower  courts,  but  cannot  appear  as  an  advo- 
cate in  a  sujoerior  court. 

SOL'ID.  In  geometry  this  term  signifies  a 
magnitude  which  has  the  three  dimensions  of 
length,  breadth  and  thickness.  In  physics  a 
solid  is  a  body  having  a  definite  shape  and 
tlius  differing  from  liquid  and  gaseous 
bodies,  which  conform  to  the  shape  of  the 
space  containing  them. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Arithmetic  Cylinder  Prism 

Cone  Geometry  Pyramid 

Cube  Mensuration       Sphere 

Cubic   Measure 

SOLITAIRE,   sol  e  tai/,   any   card   game 

played  by  one  person.  The  player  shuffles 
the  pack,  from  which  certain  cards  may  have 
been  eliminated,  then  plays  the  cards,  one 
at  a  time,  holding  the  pack  face  downward. 
The  object  is  to  arrange  the  cards  in  suits, 
building  up  or  down  according  to  certain 
rules.  Most  games  of  solitaire  depend  for 
their  working  out  solely  on  the  run  of  the 
cards  not  on  any  skill  of  the  player. 

SOL'OMON  (the  Prince  of  Peace),  the 
third  king  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  David  and 
Bathsheba.  He  was  bom  in  Jerusalem  and 
was  chosen  by  David  to  succeed  to  the  throne, 
instead  of  his  elder  brothers.  He  was  about 
twenty  years  old  when  he  came  to  the  throne 
and  ruled  nearly  sixty  years,  until  931  b.  o. 

By  his  remarkable  judicial  decisions  and 
his  completion  of  the  political  institutions  of 
David,  Solomon  gained  the  respect  and  ad- 
miration of  his  people ;  while  by  the  building 
of  the  Temple,  which  gave  to  the  Hebrew 
worship  a  magnificence  it  had  not  possessed, 
he  bound  the  nation  still  more  strongly  to  his 
throne.  The  wealth  of  Solomon,  accumulated 
by  a  prudent  use  of  the  treasures  inherited 
from  his  father,  by  successful  commerce,  by 
a  careful  administration  of  the  royal  reve- 
nues and  by  an  increase  of  taxes,  enabled  him 
to  meet  the  expense  of  building  palaces,  cities 
and  fortifications,  and  of  supporting  a  luxu- 
rious court.  Fortune  long  seemed  to  favor 
this  great  king;  and  Israel,  in  the  fullness  of 
its  prosperity,  scarcely  perceived  that  he  was 


SOLOMON  ISLANDS 


3343 


SOLUTION 


eontimially  becoming  more  despotic.  Con- 
trary to  the  laws  of  Moses,  he  admitted  for- 
eign women  into  his  harem;  and  in  his  old 
age  permitted  the  free  practice  of  their 
idolatrous  worship  and  even  took  part  in  it 
himself.  Toward  the  close  of  his  reign 
troubles  arose  in  consequence  of  these  delin- 
quencies, and  the  growing  discontent,  coming 
to  a  head  after  his  death,  resulted  in  a  divi- 
sion of  the  kingdom. 

The  wisdom  of  Solomon  is  proverbial.  He 
knew  human  nature  and  possessed  a  store  of 
facts  not  known  by  any  other  man  of  his 
time.  According  to  the  Bible,  he  spoke  "three 
thousand  proverbs  and  his  songs  were  a 
thousand  and  five."  Of  these  only  the  poem 
known  as  The  Song  of  Solomon  and  the  prov- 
erbs contained  in  the  Biblical  book  of  Prov- 
erbs are  known  to-day,  and  the  authorship 
of  these  is  a  matter  of  controversy.  See 
Solomon's  Song. 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Western  Pacific  Ocean,  lying  southeast 
of  Bismarck  Archipelago,  east  of  New  Guinea 
and  between  New  Britain  and  New  Hebrides. 
The  larger  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
most  of  the  smaller  ones  are  of  coral.  Their 
total  area  is  about  16,950  square  miles.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  unhealthful,  earthquakes 
are  frequent,  and  there  are  several  active  vol- 
canoes. The  population  is  estimated  to  be 
180,000,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  Malays  and 
Papuan  negroes.  Most  of  the  islands  are 
controlled  by  Great  Britain. 

SOLOMON'S  SONG  (called  also  the  Song 
of  Songs,  or  Canticles),  one  of  the  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  From  the  ear- 
liest period  this  book  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  controversy.  It  seems  to  have  been  a 
recognized  part  of  the  Jewish  canon  in  the 
time  of  Jesus.  Till  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  the  author  of  the  book  was 
almost  universally  believed  to  be  Solomon, 
but  modem  crities  attribute  it  to  an  author 
of  Northern  Israel,  who  wrote  it  about  the 
middle  of  the  tenth  century  b.  c,  shortly  after 
the  death  of  Solomon,  in  a  spirit  of  jirotest 
against  the  corrupt  splendor  of  the  court  of 
Zion.  By  the  Jews  it  has  been  regarded  as  a 
spiritual  allegory,  embodying  the  union  of 
God  and  Israel;  by  Christian  theologians  it 
has  been  regarded  as  symbolizing  the  rela- 
tionship of  Chi-ist  and  the  Church. 

SOLON  (638?-558?  b.  c),  one  of  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  and  the  first  great 
legislator  of  Athens.     At  the  risk  of  his  life 


he  urged  the  Athenians  to  recover  Salamis. 
He  was  made  chief  arehon  in  594  b.  c,  and 
was  invested  with  unlimited  powers.  He  es- 
tablished a  new  constitution,  divided  the 
citizens  according  to  their  wealth  and  added 
to  the  powers  of  the  popular  assembly.  He 
made  many  laws  relating  to  trade  and  com- 
merce, and  he  either  entirely  abrogated  all 
debts  or  so  reduced  them  that  they  were  not 
burdensome  to  the  debtors,  abolishing  the 
law  which  gave  a  creditor  power  to  reduce 
his  debtor  to  slavery.  When  he  had  com- 
pleted his  laws  he  bound  the  Athenians  by 
oath  not  to  make  any  changes  in  his  code  for 
ten  years.  He  then  left  the  country,  to  avoid 
being  obliged  to  make  any  alteration  in  them, 
and  visited  Egypt,  Cyprus  and  other  places. 
Returning  after  an  absence  of  ten  years,  he 
found  the  state  torn  by  the  old  party  hate; 
but  all  parties  agreed  to  submit  their  de- 
mands to  his  decision.  It  soon  became  evi- 
dent, however,  that  Pisistratus  would  succeed 
in  gaining  the  chief  power,  and  Solon  left 
Athens.  Though  Athens  now  fell  under  the 
despotic  rule  of  Pisistratus,  much  of  Solon's 
legislation  remained  effective.  See  Greece, 
subhead  History;  Athens,  subhead  History. 

SOLSTICE,  sol'stis,  in  astronomy,  the 
point  in  the  ecliptic  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  equator,  at  wliich  the  sun  appears 
to  stop  or  cease  to  recede  from  the  equator, 
either  north  in  summer  or  south  in  winter. 
There  are  two  solstices — the  summer  solstice, 
the  first  degree  of  Cancer,  which  the  sun 
reaches  about  the  21st  of  June,  and  the  win- 
ter solstice,  the  first  degree  of  Capricorn, 
•where  the  sun  is  about  the  22d  of  December. 
The  time  at  which  the  sun  is  at  either  of  these 
points  also  receives  the  same  name. 

SOLU'TION,  the  transformation  of  matter 
from  either  the  solid  or  the  gaseous  state  to 
the  liquid  state,  by  means  of  a  liquid  called 
the  solvent,  or  menstruum.  When  a  liquid 
adheres  to  a  solid  with  sufficient  force  to  over- 
come its  cohesion,  the  solid  is  said  to  undergo 
solution,  or  to  become  dissolved.  Thus,  sugar 
or  salt  may  be  brought  into  solution  by  water ; 
camphor  or  resin,  by  spirit  of  wine;  silver  or 
lead,  by  mercury.  Solution  is  facilitated  by 
increasing  the  extent  of  the  surface  exposed 
to  the  solvent,  which  may  be  most  easily  done 
by  reducing  it  to  powder.  Heat,  by  dimin- 
ishing cohesion,  usually  favors  solution ;  but 
ther^  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  water 
just  above  the  freezing  point  will  dissolve 
nearly  twice  as  much  lime  as  it  dissolves  at 


SOLWAY  FIRTH 


3344 


SOMERVILLE 


the  boiling  point.  If  a  solid  body  be  intro- 
duced in  successive  small  portions  into  a  def- 
inite quantity  of  a  liquid  capable  of  dis- 
solving it,  the  first  portions  disappear  most 
rapidly,  and  each  succeeding  portion  dis- 
solves less  rapidly  than  its  predecessor,  until 
solution  altogether  ceases.  In  such  cases  the 
forces  of  adhesion  and  cohesion  balance  each 
other,  and  the  liquid  is  said  to  be  saturated. 

SOLWAY  riRTH,  fiirth,  an  arm  of  the 
Irish  Sea,  between  Scotland  and  Cumber- 
land County,  England.  Throughout  its 
length  of  thirty-five  miles  it  is  shallow,  ebb 
tide  leaving  much  of  its  coastal  bed  dry.  The 
spring  tide  enters  the  firth  in  a  bore  six  feet 
high  and  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour. 
Salmon  and  other  fish  are  abundant,  and  fish- 
ing is  an  important  industry.  The  principal 
ports  on  its  shores  are  Whitehaven,  Harring- 
ton and  Kirkcudbright.  The  rivers  flowing 
into  it  are  the  Esk,  the  Derwent,  the  Dee,  the 
Nith  and  the  Annan. 

SOLYMAN  II,  or  SULEIMAN  II,  soolatj 
malm,  surnamed  tJie  Magnificent  (about 
1495-1566),  sultan  of  the  Turkish  Empire, 
the  son  of  Selim  I,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1520.  Having  put  down  a  revolt  which  oc- 
curred in  Syria  and  Egypt  and  having  con- 
cluded an  armistice  with  Persia,  he  besieged 
and  took  Belgrade  in  1521.  The  next  year  he 
captured  the  island  of  Rhodes,  which  had 
been  in  the  possession  of  the  Knights  of 
Saint  John  for  over  two  hundred  years. 
Turning  his  arms  against  Hungary,  he  won 
the  Battle  of  Mohacs  and  captured  Buda  and 
Pesth.  In  1529  he  advanced  on  Vienna,  but 
was  forced  to  raise  the  siege,  with  gi-eat  loss. 
His  armies  next  gained  considerable  terri- 
tories from  Persia.  In  1541  ha  overran  a 
great  part  of  Hungary,  but  an  armistice  was 
concluded  in  1547,  Late  in  his  reign  he  at- 
tempted the  capture  of  Malta  and  began  an- 
other war  against  Hungary,  but  died  in  the 
midst  of  his  plans.  He  was  an  enlightened 
ruler,  considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived, 
and  under  him  Turkey  reached  the  height  of 
its  power. 

S  0  M  A  L I L  A  N  D,  so  mah'  le  land,  or 
SOMALI,  a  region  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Africa,  forming  the  peninsula  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Politically  it  is  divided  into  four  dependen- 
cies, subject  to  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy 
and  Abyssinia,  respectively.  The  boundaries 
of  Abyssinian  Somaliland  are  indefinite,  run- 
ning into  desert  conditions. 


French  Somaliland,  or  Somali  Coast,  as  it 

is  ofiicially  known,  is  the  most  northerly  of 
the  Somaliland  dependencies,  lying  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Its  area  is  5,790 
square  miles,  and  its  population  is  about 
213,000.  The  coasts  are  hilly ;  the  interior  is 
an  elevated  plateau.  It  carries  on  an  export 
trade  in  gold,  ivory,  skins,  hides  and  coffee. 
Jibuti,  the  principal  port,  which  is  also  the 
seat  of  government,  has  a  population  of  16,- 
500. 

British  Somaliland,  officially  known  as 
Somaliland  Protectorate,  borders  on  the  Gulf 
of  Aden  and  adjoins  Somali  Coast  and  the 
Italian  and  Abyssinian  dependencies.  Al- 
most its  entire  area  of  68,000  square  miles  is 
a  sandy  plain,  broken  by  occasional  moun- 
tains of  basalt  and  granite.  The  population, 
about  36,000,  is  made  up  chiefly  of  wandering 
herdsmen.  Ivory,  cattle,  sheep  and  skins  are 
exported.  The  largest  town  and  seat  of  gov- 
ernment is  Berbera,  which  has  a  population  of 
about  30,000. 

Italian  Somaliland,  called  officially  The 
Colony  and  Protectorate'  of  Italian  Somali- 
land, extends  from  British  Somaliland  to  the 
Juba  River.  Almost  its  entire  area  of  139, 
430  square  miles  is  arid.  The  coast  is  flat; 
the  inland  is  hilly.  The  chief  exports  are 
skins  and  hides;  small  quantities  of  cotton, 
gums  and  live  stock  are  also  exported.  The 
population  is  about  365,000.  The  chief  ports 
are  Obbia  and  Mogadiscio,  The  country  is 
administered  by  a  governor. 

SOMERVILLE,  sum'urvil,  Mass.,  a  city 
in  Middlesex  County,  adjoining  Boston, 
Chelsea  and  Cambridge,  on  the  Mystic  River 
and  on  the  Boston  &  Albany  and  the  Boston 
&  Maine  railroads.  The  city  is  built  on  seven 
hills  and  covers  an  area  of  about  four  and 
one-fourth  square  miles.  It  is  primarily  a 
residence  place  and  contains  many  fine  homes. 
There  are  fine  public  parks  and  a  number  of 
places  of  considerable  historical  interest.  In 
Powder  House  Park  is  an  old  building,  con- 
structed about  1703  and  used  for  a  long  time 
as  a  powder  house.  Central  Hill  was  oc- 
cupied by  a  redoubt  during  the  siege  of  Bos- 
ton, and  on  Prospect  Hill  Washington  is 
supposed  to  have  first  unfurled  the  American 
flag.  The  city  has  a  large  public  library,  an 
industrial  school  for  boys  and  business 
schools.  The  Somerville  Hospital  is  partly 
supported  by  the  city,  and  there  are  homes 
for  the  aged,  a  day  nursery  and  an  almshouse. 
Other  prominent  buildings  are  a  city  hall,  a 


SOMME 


3345 


SONNET 


Carnegie     Library     and     a     state     armor}-. 

There  are  various  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, of  which  the  packing  houses  and  the 
boiler  tube  works  are  the  most  important. 
Other  products  are  desks,  picture  frames  and 
jewelry.  The  place  was  settled  about  1630, 
was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1842  and  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  18.72.  Population,  1910, 
77,236;  in  19i7,  88,618   (Federal  estimate). 

SOMME,  solim,  a  small  river  in  Northern 
France,  near  which  was  fought  in  1916  one 
of  the  severest  battles  in  history.  The  river 
rises  in  the  department  of  Aisne  and  flows 
southwest,  entering  the  English  Channel 
about  fifteen  miles  beyond  Abbeville.  Its 
length  is  140  miles.  It  is  connected  by  canal 
with  the  Oise  and  the  Scheldt. 

Battle  of  the  Somme,  the  Anglo-French 
offensive  drive  against  the  Germans  in  the 
summer  of  1916,  directed  by  Sir  Douglas 
Haig,  commander  in  chief  of  the  British,  and 
Marshal  Joffre,  commanding  the  French; 
American  divisions  assisted.  In  two  weeks 
the  British  advanced  three  miles  on  a  ten- 
mile  front  and  captured  10,000  men;  the 
French  advanced  six  miles  on  an  eleven-mile 
front  and  captured  12,235  prisoners.  After 
a  lull  in  August,  the  offensive  was  resumed 
early  in  September  and  was  continued  into 
November.  The  allies  lost  675,000  men,  the 
Germans  700,000.  The  allies,  besides  gaining 
120  square  miles  of  territory,  inflicted  hea%-j' 
losses  on  the  Germans,  drew  large  forces 
from  the  eastern  front  and  compelled  the 
enemy  to  concentrate  attention  at  the  Somme 
instead  of  the  vicinity  of  Verdun.  See 
World  War. 

SOMNAMBULISM,  somnamf  hu  liz'm,  or 
SLEEPWALKING,  a  peculiar  activity  of 
the  mental  functions  during  sleep,  wherein 
the  subject  moves  and  acts  as  if  awake,  al- 
though without  consciousness. 

Walking  in  sleep  is  the  most  noticeable, 
but  not  the  most  marvelous,  characteristic  of 
somnambulism.  The  somnambulist  may  per- 
form many  voluntaiy  actions,  which  show 
that  to  all  appearances  he  is  conscious  of  the 
things  surrounding  him.  He  may  get  out  of 
bed,  dress  himself,  go  out  of  doors,  and  walk, 
frequently  over  very''  dangerous  places,  in 
perfect  safety;  in  fact,  he  may  expose  him- 
self without  fear  to  perils  which  in  his  wak- 
ing moments  would  seem  insurmountable.  On 
waking  in  the  morning,  the  subject  is  either 
utterly  unconscious  of  having  stirred  in  the 
night  or  remembei-s  it  only  as  a  mere  dream. 

210 


The  sleepwalker  should  never  be  awakened 
nor  startled  suddenly*. 

In  some  eases  somnambulists  have  held  in- 
telligent conversations.  Sensitive  and  ex- 
citable people  are  subject  to  the  complaint, 
which  often  accompanies  other  nervous  af- 
fections. It  appears  to  be  hereditary.  Tests 
have  proved  that  a  somnambulist  cannot  hear 
ordinary  sounds ;  that  he  cannot  see,  whether 
his  eyes  be  closed  or  wide  open ;  and  that  he 
can  neither  taste  nor  smell.  He  is,  however, 
endowed  with  surprising  muscular  control. 
Lady  Macbeth's  exhibition  of  somnambulism 
is  famous  in  literature.  The  condition  incited 
by  h^-pnotism  is  an  artificial  somnambulism. 
See  Hypnotism. 

SOM'NUS,  (from  the  Latin,  meaning 
sleep),  in  ancient  mj-thology  was  the  god  of 
sleep,  son  of  Nox  (night)  and  twin  brother 
of  Mors  (death).  He  was  supposed  to  bring 
sleep  both  to  gods  and  men. 

SONATA,  so  nah'tah,  an  instmmental 
composition  of  three  or  four  distinct  parts 
or  movements,  each  a  complete  composition 
in  itself,  and  all  held  together  by  certain 
bonds  of  union  and  foi-ming  a  perfect  whole. 
The  several  movements  may  be  likened  to  the 
ehai:)ters  of  a  book,  each  of  which  has  a  dis- 
tinct unity  of  its  own  and  all  related  and  com- 
bining to  produce  a  single  work.  The  sonata 
commonly  begins  with  an  allegTO.  a  quick, 
vivacious  composition;  or  it  may  begin  with 
a  slow  introduction.  This  is  followed  by  a 
slower  movement — andante,  adagio  or  largo. 
Then  comes  a  minuet,  trio  or  scherzo,  and 
finally  a  rondo  in  quick  time.  The  concerto, 
the  sjTnphony  and  the  suite  are  all  written  in 
the  sonata  form.  Haydn  and  Mozart  ex- 
celled in  this  form,  and  Beethoven  was  the 
greatest  master  of  it. 

SONNET,  a  poem  of  fourteen  lines, 
rhjining  according  to  a  prescribed  scheme. 
The  form  is  of  Italian  origin.  The  sonnet  is 
usually  written  in  ten-sj-llable  or  five-foot 
measure ;  but  it  may  be  written  in  eight-syl- 
lable lines.  It  consists  of  two  groups  of  lines 
or  verses.  The  first  is  a  gi'oup  of  eight  lines 
(two  quatrains) ;  the  second  is  a  group  of  six 
lines  (two  tercets  or  triplets).  The  rhj-ming 
scheme  of  the  first  group  is :  a,  h,  h,  a;  a,  b,  h, 
a;  that  is,  the  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth 
lines  rhyme  and  the  second,  third,  sixth  and 
seV^enth.  The  tercets  may  have  two  rhjTnes  or 
three  thus :  c,  d,  c,  d,  c,  d,  or  c,  d,  e,  c,  d,  e. 
There  are  many  deviations  from  the  sonnet  as 
described.     The  Shakespearean  sonnet  con- 


SONS  OF  LIBERTY 


3346 


SOPHOCLES 


sists  of  three  quatrains  of  alternating  rhymes 
and  a  couplet  at  the  end.  In  modern  French 
sonnets  the  tercet  opens  with  a  couplet  and 
ends  in  a  quatrain  of  alternating  rhymes. 

The  sonnet  usually  consists  of  one  principal 
idea  elaborated.  The  lightness  and  richness 
of  the  Italian,  Spanish  and  Portuguese  lan- 
guages enable  their  poets  to  express  every 
feeling  or  fancy  in  the  sonnet ;  but  in  English 
it  has  been  found  most  suitable  to  grave, 
dignified  and  contemplative  subjects.  Among 
the  most  successful  writers  of  English  sonnets 
are  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Wordsworth,  Mrs. 
Browning  and  Rossetti.  Mrs.  Browning's 
Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese  are  the  most  cel- 
ebrated group  of  poems  of  this  kind  in  our 
literature,  and  as  examples  of  the  most  fa- 
mous single  sonnets  from  other  authors 
may  be  mentioned  Milton's  On  His  Own 
Blindness;  Wordsworth's  On  Milton',  Shake- 
peare's  "Let  me  not  to  the  marriage  of  true 
minds;"  Keats's  On  Looking  into  CJmpman's 
Homer;  Shelby's  Ozymandias.  Milton's  On 
His  Own  Blindness  is  here  given  complete: 

When  I  consider  how  my  life  is  spent 

Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and 

wide, 
And  that  one  talent  which  is  death  to  hide 
Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more 

bent 
To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 
My  true  account,  lest  he   returning,  chide; 
"Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied?" 
I  fondly  ask.     But  Patience,  to  prevent 
That  murmur,  soon  replies,  "God  doth  not  need 
Either  man's  work,  or  his  own  gifts.     Who 

best 
Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best.  His 
state 
Is  kingly;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed. 
And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest; 
They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 

SONS  OF  LIBERTY,  in  American  colonial 
history  a  society,  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  opposing  certain  British  policies  unfa- 
vorable to  the  colonies.  It  came  into  exist- 
ence in  1764,  at  the  time  of  the  Stamp  Act 
agitation.  In  the  beginning  it  was  not  a  single 
organization,  but  a  group  of  public-spirited 
associations  with  members  in  all  the  thirteen 
colonies,  those  in  New  York  and  Connecticut 
being  the  most  active.  The  work  was  in  time 
coordinated,  and  the  society  was  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  in 
1766.  The  members  favored  independence, 
and  had  much  to  do  with  the  calling  of  the 
Continental  Congress. 

SONS  OF  VETERANS,  an  American  pa- 
triotic society  organized  at  Philadelphia,  Pa., 


on  September  29, 1879.  Only  lineal  male  de- 
scendants of  honorably  discharged  soldiers, 
sailors  and  marines  who  served  in  the  Civil 
War  are  admitted  to  membership,  which  at 
present  is  about  56,000.  The  insignia  of  the 
society  is  a  bronze  bar  (on  which  is  inscribed 
Filii  Veteranorum,  the  Latinized  name  of  the 
society),  with  a  medallion  bearing  a  mono- 
gram of  the  letters  "S  V"  in  a  wreath  above 
crossed  cannons.  The  Daughters  of  Veter- 
ans is  a  similar  organization. 

SOOT,  a  black  substance  which  results 
from  the  imperfect  combustion  of  certain  sub- 
stances. Wood,  coal  and  some  fuel  oils  are 
the  principal  soot  producers.  Smoke  and  its 
accompaniment  soot  are  among  the  chief  nui- 
sances of  large  cities.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  in  London  the  damage  from  soot  is  $25,- 
000,000  a  year;  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  it  was  once 
nearly  as  great.  Soot  has  a  certain  economic 
value.  The  large  amount  of  nitrogen  it  eon- 
tains  makes  it  valuable  as  fertilizer.  The  pig- 
ment called  bistre  is  madefrom  chimney  soot, 
and  lampblack  is  the  product  of  oil  or  resin 
soot.     See  Smoke. 

SOPHIA,  so'fe  all,  Church  of  Saint.  See 
Saint  Sophia. 

SOPHISTS,  sofists,  a  class  of  Greek  phi- 
losophers who  appeared  in  the  fifth  century 
B.  C.  They  did  not  originate  positive  doctrines, 
but  exerted  a  negative  influence,  maintaining 
a  critical  attitude  toward  existing  ideas  and 
attempting  to  overthrow  established  institu- 
tions and  systems  of  thought.  By  false  rea- 
soning they  were  able  to  make  what  was  the 
worst  appear  the  better.  Therefore  they  ar- 
gued, since  through  reason,  the  highest  of  hu- 
man faculties,  man  is  led  astraj^,  human 
knowledge  is  worthless.  Protagoras,  the  lead- 
ing Sophist,  held  that  since  knowledge  of  the 
external  world  is  dependent  on  sensation,  and 
since  sense  impressions  are  variable,  knowl- 
edge cannot  be  accurate.  Therefore,  there  is 
no  ultimate  criterion,  and  each  man  is  the 
measure  of  his  world,  and  all  knowledge  and 
belief  are  relative.  The  Sophists  failed  to  de- 
tect the  identity  beneath  differences  of  ap- 
pearance or  to  apprehend  the  unity  of  life. 
The  logical  outcome  of  such  teaching  and  be- 
lief was  the  doctrine  that  each  man  was  a 
law  unto  himself.  The  Sophists  were  de- 
spised  bv    Socrates    and    by    his    followers. 

SOPHOCLES,  sofo  kleez  (about  496-406 
B.  c),  one  of  the  greatest  of  Greek  drama- 
tists, was  bom  at  Colonus,  a  suburb  of  Athens. 
His  first  play  Triptolemus,  submitted  in  com- 


SOPRANO 


3347 


SORREL  TREE 


petition  with  Aeschylus,  won  a  first  prize; 
and  for  thirty-two  years  he  produced  plays, 
receiving  first  prize  twenty-four  times.  He 
served  the  state  on  several  occasions.  In 
440  B.  c.  he  was  chosen  one  of  ten  generals 
in  the  war  against  the  aristocrats  of  Samos; 
later  he  was  a  general  in  the  Peloponnesian 
War. 

Of  the  130  plays  ascribed  to  Sophocles, 
seven  are  extant  and  of  undisi^uted  author- 
ship. They  are,  in  chronological  order,  Anti- 
gone^ Electro,  Tracliiniae,  Oedipus  Tyrannus, 
Ajax,  Philoctetes  and  Oedipus  at  Colonus. 
Sophocles  brought  the  Greek  drama  to  the 
highest  point  of  which  that  form  of  art  is  sus- 
ceptible. He  introduced  several  dramatic 
innovations — a  third  actor,  an  increase  in  the 
size  of  the  chorus,  and  scenery.  Whereas  the 
characters  of  Aeschylus  are  heroic,  those  of 
Sophocles  are  human,  revealing  in  the  author 
a  masterly  knowledge  of  human  nature.  The 
tendency  of  the  plays  is  ethical,  and  means  are 
subordinated  to  ends.  No  tragic  poet  of  an- 
cient or  modern  times  has  written  with  more 
elevation  and  purity  of  style  than  Sophocles, 
and  his  versification  stands  alone  in  dignity 
and  elegance. 

SOPRANO.     See  Singing. 

SORBONNE,  sor  &o7in',  a  famous  univer- 
sity in  Paris,  a  great  center  of  French  learn- 
ing, and  the  outgi'owth  of  a  medieval  theolog- 
ical seminaiy  founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbon. 
In  its  early  history  it  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant theological  schools  in  Europe.  Its 
faculty  was  constantly  called  upon  to  pro- 
nounce opinions  on  impoi'tant  cjuestions,  and 
it  exercised  a  decided  influence  on  French 
historv'.  After  the  French  Revolution  the 
theological  school  disappeared,  and  the  insti- 
tution was  devoted  solely  to  the  advancement 
of  all  other  higher  learning.  In  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Sorbonne  be- 
came the  property  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  in 
1889  a  splendid  building  called  The  New  Sor- 
bonne— perhaps  the  finest  university  building 
in  the  world — was  erected.  The  faculties  of 
science  and  letters  of  the  University  of  Paris 
are  installed  here.  In  normal  times  the  regis- 
tration of  students  is  about  5,000. 

SOREL,  so  reV,  Que.,  the  county  town  of 
Richelieu  County,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Richelieu  River  at  its  junction  with  the  Saint 
Lawrence,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  and 
the  Quebec  Southern  railways.  It  is  forty- 
two  miles  northeast  of  ^Montreal,  with  which 
it  has  daily  boat  connection  in  summer.    The 


shipbuilding  establishments  and  foundries 
are  important.  There  are  also  manufactories 
of  agricultural  implements,  sash  and  doors, 
clothing,  plumbers'  supplies,  aerated  waters 
and  saws.     Population,  1911,  8,420. 

SORGHUM,  saiv/  gum,  a  genus  of  grasses, 
one  species  of  which  is  cultivated  for  its 
sweet  sap,  from  which  a  molasses,  popularly 
known  as  sorghum,  is  made.  About  15,000,- 
000  gallons  of  sorghum  syrup  are  produced 
amiually  in  the  United  States.  Sorghums  are 
tall  plants,  without  ears  but  with  seed  heads 
at  the  top.  Closely  related  species  are  kafir 
corn  and  broom  corn,  which  are  not  sjnnip 
producers.  They  are  used  as  forage  plants 
and  as  packing  for  silos. 

SOROR'ITY,  an  association  of  women  and 
girl  students  corresponding  to  the  men's  fra- 
ternities in  colleges  and  universities  in  the 
United  States.  Sororities  followed  logically 
the  introduction  of  coeducation  in  colleges  and 
came  to  be  a  regi;lar  part  of  woman's  partici- 
pation in  the  social  activities  of  college  life. 
Like  the  men's  fraternities,  they  are  secret  to 
the  extent  of  protecting  their  mottoes,  con- 
stitutions and  grips  from  the  knowledge  of 
outsiders.  Each  sorority  has  branches, 
called  "chapters,"  in  the  various  colleges,  only 
one,  however,  in  each  institution.  Most  of 
them  publish  catalogues,  containing  interest- 
ing information  about  the  sorority,  and  some 
issue  periodicals.  The  oldest  of  the  coeduca- 
tional sororities  is  the  Kappa  Alpha  Theta, 
founded  at  De  Pauw  University  in  1870. 

SOR'REL,  a  perennial  herb  of  the  buck- 
wheat family.  The  plant  grows  to  be  two 
feet  high  and  has  sour,  juicy,  arrowshaped 
leaves.  In  Europe  it  is  cultivated  and  used 
as  a  potherb  and  for  salads.  The  common 
American  sorrel  is  a  smaller  plant,  and  has 
small  white,  yellow  or  pink  flowers.  Sheep 
sorrel  has  wide-spreading  roots,  which  make 
it  troublesome  to  fanners.  Indian  sorrel, 
gi'own  in  the  tropics,  is  used  to  flavor  jellies 
and  to  make  cooling  drinks.  Of  the  other  va- 
rieties, the  most  common  are  mountain,  switch 
and  icater  sorrel. 

SORREL  TREE,  a  tree  belonging  to  the 
heath  family,  found  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  United  States  as  far  north  as  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  leaves  are  long  and  toothed  and 
strongly  acid,  and  from  them  a  cooling  drink 
may  be  prepared.  Clusters  of  small,  white, 
ball-shaped  flowers  are  produced  in  summer, 
and  after  these,  tiny  egg-shaped  berries 
covered  with  down.     The  sorrel  tree  some- 


SOTHEKN 


3348 


souiro 


times  grows  to  be  sixty  feet  high.  The  wood 
is  hard  and  fine-graiiied,  and  is  used  for 
making  such  articles  as  tool  handles. 

SOTHERN,  suth'urn,  Edward  H.  (1859- 
),  an  American  actor,  bom  at  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  the  son  of  a  famous  actor.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  he  began  his  theatrical 
carreer  in  New  York  and  after  five  years' 
struggle  became  leading  man  in  Sardou's 
Scrap  of  Paper,  in  Howard's  One  of  Our 
Girls  and  in  The  Highest  Bidder.  In  1888 
he  was  engaged  by  Daniel  Frohman,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  was  a  leading  man  in  the 
Frohman  Stock  Company,  winning  conspic- 
uous successes  in  C'hitmhy,  The  Prisoner  of 
Zenda  and  If  I  Were  King.  In  1-800  he  be- 
gan to  devote  his  attention  to  Shakespearean 
roles,  and,  in  association  with  Julia  Marlowe, 
produced  Shakespearean  repertory  for  sev- 
eral years.  He  maiTied  Miss  Marlowe  in  1911. 
His  autobiography,  Tlie  Melancholy  Tale  of 
Me,  was  published  in  1916.  Mr.  Sothem  en- 
deared himself  to  thousands  of  soldiers  in 
France  as  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  entertainer  during 
the  "World  "War, 

SOUL,  sole,  the  spiritual  personality,  the 
immaterial  part  of  man  as  opposed  to  his 
body.  Soul  is  sometimes  conceived  of  as 
synonymous  with  mind,  but  generally  it  is 
used  in  a  wider  sense,  as  being  a  whole  to 
which  belong  the  faculties  that  make  the 
mind.  Soul  and  spirit  are  more  nearly  sy- 
nonymous, but  each  is  used  in  connections  in 
which  it  would  be  improper  to  use  the  other. 
Nearly  all  philosophies  agree  in  regarding  the 
soul  as  that  part  of  man  which  enables  him  to 
think  and  reason,  and  which  renders  him  a 
subject  of  moral  government,  but  they  differ 
when  it  comes  to  a  question  of  origin  and 
detail.  Those  matters  have  been  forever 
providentially  hidden  from  man. 

OUND.  Sound  is  pro- 
duced by  air  vibrations 
from  a  solid  body.  Touch 
lightly  the  edge  of  a  small 
bell  or  the  tongue  of  a 
jewsharp  when  it  is 
sounding,  and  you  will 
feel  the  vibrations,  but 
your  touch  will  probably 
^^  stop  the  vibrations  and 
sound  will  cease.  The 
reeds  of  an  organ,  the  strings  of  a  violin,  the 
wires  of  a  piano,  the  head  of  a  drum  and  all 
other  sound-producing  bodies  vibrate  in  pro- 
ducing sound. 


How  Sound  Travels.  The  vibrations  of 
the  sounding  body  start  similar  vibrations 
in  the  body  through  which  the  sound  travels. 
"When  a  bell  is  rung,  the  vibrations  of  the  bell 
start  vibrations  in  the  atmosphere,  which 
move  in  every  direction  from  the  bell  and 
carry  the  sound.  Sound  wiU  travel  through 
any  elastic  substance,  but  it  will  not  travel 
through  a  vacuum. 

Sound  travels  through  air  at  a  temperature 
of  32°  F.,  at  the  rate  of  1,090  feet  per  sec- 
ond, and  this  velocity-  increases  1.1  feet  for 
every  additional  degree  in  temperature;  at 
60°  the  velocity  is  1.120  feet.  Sound  travels 
through  hydrogen  about  four  times  as  fast 
as  through  the  air,  and  it  moves  through 
water  at  about  4,700  feet  per  second ;  through 
copper,  its  velocity  is  a  little  over  eleven 
times  as  great  as  through  the  air,  and  through 
steel  it  is  about  fifteen  times  as  great.  By 
noticing  a  flash  of  lightning  and  counting  the 
number  of  seconds  between  it  and  the  report 
of  the  thunder,  the  distance  of  the  cloud 
can  be  determined.  The  sound  requires  five 
seconds  to  traverse  a  mile,  so  the  distance 
in  miles  is  one-fifth  the  number  of  seconds. 

Loudness  of  Sound.  The  loudness  of  sound 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  vibrations ;  the 
greater  the  vibration,  the  louder  the  sound. 
Large  bodies  in  vibration  produce  louder 
sounds  than  small  ones.  The  intensity  de- 
creases in  proportion  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  from  the  sounding  body  increases. 
"When  the  distance  from  a  sounding  body  is 
doubled,  the  sound  is  reduced  to  one-fourth. 
Speaking  tubes  confine  the  sound  within  nar- 
row limits,  so  that  the  sound  waves  are  con- 
veyed much  farther  than  they  would  be  in  the 
open  air. 

Difference  in  Sound.  One  man  sings  bass, 
another  tenor;  one  lady  has  a  soprano  voice, 
another  sings  contralto.  Some  people  speak 
in  low,  heavy  tones,  and  others  in  high  tones. 
The  different  keys  on  the  piano  give  forth 
different  tones.  "What  is  the  cause  of  these 
different  sounds?  If  we  examine  the  piano 
we  find  that  the  keys  that  strike  the  long 
heavy  cords  are  those  that  produce  the  low, 
heavy  tones,  and  that  the  keys  that  produce 
the  high  tones  are  those  that  strike  the  short, 
fine  cords.  "We  can  apply  this  illustration  to 
any  other  sound-producing  body  and  find 
that  it  holds  true.  The  difference  in  sounds 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  difference  in  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  of  the  sounding  body  in  a 
given   time.     The  low  tones  are  produced 


SOUNDING 


3349 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  WAR 


by  those  bodies  that  have  a  low  number  of 
vibrations  per  second,  and  the  high  tones  by 
those  that  produce  a  high  number  of  vi- 
brations. This  is  illustrated  in  the  musical 
scale;  middle  C  tone  is  produced  by  256  vi- 
brations per  second.  The  other  tones  are 
as  follows : 

CDEFGA        BC 
256     288     320     341     384     427     480     512 
Do      Re     Mi      Fa      Sol     La      Ti     Do 

The  difference  in  pitch  produced  by  doub- 
ling the  number  of  vibrations  is  called  an  oc- 
tave. 

Reflection  of  Sound.  When  sound  waves 
strike  a  hard  surface,  they  are  thrown  back, 
or  reflected,  in  the  same  way  as  are  rays  of 
light  from  a  mirror.  Curved  walls,  like  the 
domes  of  buildings  and  the  rounded  ceilings 
and  ends  of  audience  rooms,  reflect  sound 
waves  to  a  common  point,  and  a  person 
standing  at  this  point  can  often  hear  a  whis- 
per that  is  uttered  in  some  other  part  of  the 
room.  For  this  reason  the  name  whisjoering 
galleries  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  such 
places.  Ear  trumpets  are  simply  instru- 
ments for  gathering  waves  of  sound  and  re- 
flecting them  to  a  common  point,  and  they 
are  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  ear.  By  their  means  sounds  can  be  heard 
that  could  not  otherwise  be  perceived. 

An  echo  is  produced  when  the  reflecting 
surface  is  so  far  away  that  the  sound  which 
it  throws  back  is  distinct  from  the  original 
sound.  Remarkable  echoes  occur  among 
mountains,  where  the  ranges  upon  both  sides 
of  the  valley  are  in  such  position  that  the 
sound  is  reflected  back  and  forth  several 
times.  Audience  rooms  that  are  too  large 
or  are  not  well  proportioned  are  often  diffi- 
cult to  speak  in,  because  of  the  echoes. 

Quality  of  Sound.  The  difference  between 
noise  and  music  is,  theoretically,  the  differ- 
ence between  regular  and  iiregular  vibra- 
tions. The  quality  of  a  tone  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  sounding  body.  To  il- 
lustrate, a  piano,  a  flute  and  a  violin  may  all 
produce  a  tone  of  the  same  pitch,  but  the 
tone  of  each  can  be  distinctly  recognized  be- 
cause of  the  differences  between  the  instru- 
ments producing  it. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Ear  Lig-ht 

Echo  Lig-htning- 

Harmonics  Music 

SOUNDING,  the  operation  of  finding  the 
depth  of  water  and  the  quality  of  the  bot- 


tom, especially  by  means  of  a  plummet  sunk 
from  a  ship.  In  navigation  tv^o  plummets 
are  used,  one  called  the  hand  lead,  weighing 
about  eight  or  nine  pounds,  and  the  other, 
the  deep-sea  lead,  weighing  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  pounds.  The  former  is  used  in 
shallow  waters,  and  the  latter  at  long  distances 
from  shore.  Sometimes  the  nature  of  the 
bottom  has  been  ascertained  by  attaching  tal- 
low to  the  base  of  the  deep-sea  lead.  The 
scientific  mvestigation  of  the  ocean  and  its 
bottom  has  rendered  more  efficient  sounding 
apparatus  necessary,  and  has  led  to  the 
invention  of  more  complicated  contrivances. 

SOUSA,  soo'za,  Johk  Philip  (1854-  ), 
an  American  composer  and  band  leader,  born 
at  Washington,  D.  C.  He  conducted  the  Ma- 
rine Band  at  Washington  at  two  different 
times  and  in  1892  he  formed  the  organization 
known  the  world  over  as  Sousa's  Band. 
Sousa  has  written  extensively  for  band  and 
orchestra;  and  his  military  marches,  among 
them  The  Washington  Post,  Under  the  Dou- 
ble Eagle,  El  Capitan,  King  Cotton,  Liberty 
Bell  and  The  Stars  and  Stripes  Forever,  are 
very  popular.  A  number  of  descriptive 
suites  and  light  operas  also  stand  to  his 
credit,  and  several  novels.  In  1917  Sousa  was 
chosen  to  organize  bands  at  the  Great 
Lakes  Naval  Training  Station  and  was 
made  a  lieutenant  in  the  United  States  navy. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  Union  of.  See  Union 
OP  South  Africa. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  WAR  (1899-1902),  a 
war  for  supremacy  in  South  Africa,  fought 
between  Great  Britain  and  two  Boer  repub- 
lics— the  South  African  (now  the  Trans- 
vaal) and  the  Orange  Free  State. 

Causes  of  the  War.  In  1884  gold  was  dis- 
covered in  the  Witwatersrand,  which  drew  an 
increasing  number  of  foreigners  to  the 
Transvaal  each  year.  By  1899  the  Uitland- 
ers,  as  the  Boers  called  the  foreigners,  out- 
numbered the  original  settlers  by  seven  to 
three.  Most  of  these  foreigners  were  British 
subjects,  and  the  Boers  suspected  them  of 
hating  the  Dutch.  Under  the  leadership  of 
their  president,  Paul  Kruger,  the  Boers 
planned  from  the  beginning  of  this  migration 
to  keep  the  Uitlanders  from  gaining  control 
of  the  government.  The  naturalization  laws, 
which  before  1885  had  been  liberal,  were  re- 
stricted, until  in  1887  the  term  of  residence 
for  naturalization  was  fixed  at  fifteen  years. 

The  foreigners,  of  course,  claimed  that 
they  were  entitled  to  a  voice  in  the  govern- 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  WAR 


3350 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


ment  and  that  the  restrictions  imposed  upon 
them  were  unjust.  Jameson's  Raid,  in  189G, 
brought  matters  to  a  crisis,  and  although  the 
British  government  had  Jameson  punished, 
the  Boers  used  the  incident  as  an  excuse  for 
further  restrictions  on  the  Uitlanders.  The 
latter  petitioned  Great  Britain,  but  the  ne- 
gotiations which  the  British  government  at- 
tempted to  make  with  the  Boers  failed  in  the 
end,  and  it  became  apparent  that  the  ques- 
tion could  not  be  settled  peacefully.  War 
was  declared  in  October,  1899,  the  Orange 
Free  State  joining  cause  with  the  South 
African  Republic. 

Campaigns  of  the  War.  When  hostilities 
began,  the  British  had  about  twelve  thousand 
men  in  Xatal,  and  small  forces  at  Kimberley 
and  other  points.  At  the  outset  the  Boers 
seemed  to  have  a  decided  advantage.  Brit- 
ish forces  were  shut  up  in  Ladysmith,  ]\Iafe- 
king  and  Kimberley,  but  the  other  troops 
were  unable  by  their  successes  in  the  field  to 
offset  these  reverses.  A  large  addition  was 
at  once  voted  to  the  English  army  in  South 
Africa,  and  Sir  Redvers  Buller,  on  his  arrival 
in  Africa  with  reenf  orcements,  at  once  moved 
to  the  relief  of  Ladysmith. 

In  December  further  reenforcements  ar- 
rived under  Lord  Roberts,  Lord  Kitchener 
acting  as  his  chief -of-staff.  The  British  caval- 
ry' force  also  was  increased,  and  thus  one  of 
the  early  drawbacks  of  the  British  was  reme- 
died. By  the  last  of  February,  1900.  the 
sieges  of  Kimberley  and  Ladysmith  had  been 
raised,  the  relief  of  the  latter  place  giving  rise 
to  much  of  the  hardest  fighting  of  the  war. 
From  this  time  on  the  tide  of  fortune  was  on 
the  side  of  the  British.  In  March,  Bloem- 
fontein  was  taken,  and  while  there  Roberts 
proclaimed  the  Orange  Free  State  British 
territory,  tinder  the  name  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony. 

The  British  force  then  moved  toward  Pre- 
toria, taking,  en  route,  Kroonstadt  and 
Johannesburg;  in  June  Pretoria  was  occu- 
pied. President  Kruger  fled  at  the  occupa- 
tion of  Pretoria.  The  three  months  which 
followed  the  capture  of  Pretoria  were  de- 
voted by  the  British  to  an  attempt  to  capture 
all  the  Boer  forces  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
by  the  first  of  August  it  seemed  as  if  all 
organized  warfare,  had  ceased.  Roberts, 
therefore,  issued  a  proclamation  in  Septem- 
ber, 1900,  declaring  the  South  African  Re- 
public British  territon,'  under  the  name  of 
the  Transvaal  Colonv. 


In  spite  of  their  reverses  in  fortune,  the 
Boers  refused  to  make  peace  and  a  constant 
guerrilla  warfare  was  carried  on  under  De 
Wet  and  Botha.  Kitchener,  who  had  been  left 
in  command  on  Roberts'  return  to  England, 
gained  for  himself  much  unpopularity  by 
gathering  into  large  camps,  called  concentra- 
tion camps,  the  Boer  women  and  children,  and 
compelling  them  to  live  under  conditions 
which  caused  much  sickness  and  death.  By 
May,  1902,  the  Boers  had  been  forced  to  the 
point  of  exhaustion,  and  they  accepted  the 
peace  on  which  England  insisted. 

The  Terms  of  Peace.  Peace  terms  pro- 
vided that  all  Boers  lay  down  their  arms  and 
acknowledge  themselves  subjects  of  Edward 
YII.  In  return,  all  prisoners  outside  of  the 
colonies  were  to  be  sent  back  to  their  homes, 
and  no  action  was  to  be  taken  against  burgers 
for  acts  in  connection  with  the  war.  Pro\T:- 
sion  was  also  made  for  the  teaching  of  the 
Dutch  language  in  the  public  schools  in  all 
cases  where  it  was  desired  by  the  parents, 
and  its  use  pennitted  in  court.  It  was  also 
provided  that  the  military'  administration  of 
the  two  colonies  was  to  be  supei-seded  by  a 
ci-^-il  government  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Boer 

Jameson,  Leander 

Starr 
Kimberley 
Kitchener,    Horatio 

Herbert,    Earl 
Kruger,    Stephanus 

J.  P. 


Ladysmith 

Oranere  Free  State 

Rhodes,   Cecil  John 

Transvaal 

Union    of  South   Africa 


^  OUTH     AMERICA,     the 


5 


fourth  largest  grand  di- 
vision of  the  earth.  It  is 
the  southern  continent  of 
America,  or  the  New 
World,  and  is  separated 
from  North  America  in 
part  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico and  is  connected  with 
it  by  the  naiTOw  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  Although 
the  two  continents  have 
developed  economically 
along  decidedly  individual  lines,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  together  they  represent  the 
world's  gi-eat  centers  of  democracy ;  no  inde- 
pendent country  in  this  vast  expanse  has  a 
monarchical  form  of  government. 

Size  and  Location.    South  America  is  but 
little  more  than  two-thirds  as  large  as  North 


.S<>v.- 


RELIEF    MAP    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA 


3351 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


3352 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


America ;  it  has  much  more  nearly  the  regu- 
lar shape  of  a  triangle  than  has  its  north- 
ern neighbor.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  about  4,800  miles,  and  from  east 
to  west  it  is  about  3,300  miles.  The  area 
is  7,700,000  square  miles,  and  it  therefore  oc- 
cupies about  one-seventh  of  the  total  land 
area  of  the  globe. 

Coast  Line  and  Islands.  Few  gulfs  or 
bays  break  the  continent's  remarkably  regu- 
lar coast  line.  The  large  indentations  are 
on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of  Darien;  on  the 
northeast,  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  on 
the  southeast.  All  Saints  Bay,  the  Bay  of 
Eio  de  Janeiro,  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  Bahia  Blanca,  Gulf  of  San  Mantias 
and  Gulf  of  Saint  George.  There  are  few 
islands  belonging  to  the  continent.  Those 
worthy  of  mention  are  Trinidad,  off  the 
northern  coast,  the  Falkland  Islands,  east  of 
the  southern  extremit}'  of  the  continent,  and 
the  Galapagos,  on  the  equator,  west  of  Ecua- 
dor. 

Mountains  and  Plains.  There  are  three 
systems  of  mountains  in  South  Africa,  the 
greatest  of  which  is  the  Andean  Cordillera, 
or  the  Andes,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  stretching 
in  a  continuous  chain  for  over  4,000  miles, 
from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Next  to  the  Himalayas,  in  Asia,  this  is  the 
highest  mountain  range  in  the  world.  Its 
loftiest  peak  is  Aconcagua,  reaching  a  height 
of  23,080  feet.  Many  of  the  Andean  peaks 
are  active  volcanoes,  and  severe  earthquakes 
are  likely  to  occur  throughout  the  chain.  The 
second  system  is  that  of  the  highlands  of 
Guiana,  which  lie  north  of  the  Amazon  val- 
lej'.  Here  are  several  irregular  groups  of 
mountains,  about  2,000  feet  high,  which  sep- 
arate the  plains  of  the  Orinoco  from  those  of 
the  Rio  Negi'o  and  the  Amazon.  The  Bra- 
zilian _  highland,  the  third  system,  is  very 
broad  and  is  crossed  by  low  ranges  of  moun- 
tains. Its  average  height  is  less  than  half 
that  of  the  Andes. 

From  the  configuration  of  its  surface,  the 
continent  may  be  divided  into  five  physical 
regions:  (1)  The  low  country  skirting  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  fifty  to 
150  miles  in  breadth,  and  4,000  miles  in 
length;  the  two  extremities  of  this  territory 
are  fertile,  the  middle  is  a  sandy  desert.  (2) 
The  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  a  country  consist- 
ing of  extensive  plains,  or  steppes,  called 
llanos.  This  region  is  treeless,  except  for 
palms  and  mimosas  which  grow  along  the 


streams  and  crown  the  low  hills.  In  the 
rainy  season  this  division  is  covered  with 
grasses  which  afford  fine  pasturage,  while  in 
the  dry  season  the  heat  is  so  intense  that  the 
region  is  hardly  more  than  a  desert.  (3) 
The  basin  of  the  Amazon,  a  vast  plain,  em- 
bracing a  surface  of  more  than  2,000,000 
square  miles,  possessing  a  rich  soil  and  humid 
climate  is  covered  almost  everAT\"here 
with  dense  forests,  which  harbor  innumerable 
tribes  of  wild  animals  and  are  thinly  inhab- 
ited by  savages,  who  live  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. (4)  The  great  southern  plain,  watered 
by  the  Plata  and  the  numerous  streams  de- 
scending from  the  eastern  summits  of  the 
Andes;  open  steppes,  which  are  here  called 
pampas,  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  this 
region,  which  is  dry,  and  in  some  parts  bar- 
ren, but  in  general  is  covered  with  a  strong 
growth  of  weeds  and  tall  grass,  which  feed 
large  herds  of  horses  and  cattle  and  afford 
shelter  to  a  few  wild  animals.  (5)  The  coun- 
try of  Brazil,  eastward  of  the  Parana  and  the 
Uruguay,  presenting  alternate  ridges  and 
valleys,  thickly  covered  with  wood  on  the  side 
next  the  Atlantic,  and  opening  into  steppes, 
or  pastures,  in  the  interior. 

Rivers.  The  three  important  river  sj'stems 
of  South  America  are  the  Amazon,  the  Ori- 
noco and  the  Plata.  All  of  these  rivers  flow 
into  the  Atlantic.  The  Amazon,  the  largest 
river  system  in  the  world,  drains  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  continent.  It  rises  in  the  Andes, 
is  4,000  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for 
about  2,300  miles.  It  has  many  large,  navi- 
gable tributaries.  The  Orinoco  rises  in  the 
Parima  Mountains,  and  is  1,400  miles  long. 
It  is  navigable  throughout  most  of  its  course 
in  the  lowlands.  The  Orinoco  and  the  Ama- 
zon systems  are  connected  by  a  small  river 
called  the  Cassiquiare.  The  Plata  is  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uru- 
guay rivers  and  is  185  miles  long;  at  its 
mouth  it  is  about  125  miles  wide.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  more  than  1,000  miles.  The  princi- 
pal smaller  rivers  are  the  Sao  Francisco,  the 
Rio  Negro,  the  Magdalena  and  the  Colorado. 

Lakes.  South  America  contains  compara- 
tively few  large  lakes.  The  largest,  Titicaca, 
in  the  Andes,  covers  an  area  of  about  500 
square  miles  and  is  over  12,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  There  are  several  small 
lakes  in  the  mountain  regions,  but  none  is  of 
special  importance. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
South  America  includes  gold,  silver  and  cop- 


India  Rubber 


PLANTS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


3353 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


3354 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


l>er,  mined  chiefly  in  the  Andes;  nitrate  of 
soda,  used  as  a  fertilizer  and  in  the  making 
of  gunpowder;  mercury,  diamonds  and 
coal,  as  well  as  other  valuable  minerals.  Chile 
is  rich  in  copper  and  silver,  and  the  coal 
mines  give  promise  of  great  wealth.  There 
are  celebrated  silver  mines  in  Bolivia  and 
considerable  supplies  of  gold  in.  Venezuela 
and  Guiana.  Some  rich  gold  mines  have 
been  discovered  in  the  southern  part  of  Ar- 
gentina. Brazil  has  extensive  deposits  of 
coal  and  iron.  Previous  to  the  discoveiy  of 
the  diamond  field  in  South  Africa,  it  was  the 
chief  source  from  which  diamonds  were  ob- 
tained. Emeralds  are  also  found  in  Vene- 
zuela. 

Climate.  Considering  its  extent  in  lati- 
tude, South  America  has  a  remarkably  equa- 
ble climate.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
which  characterize  Xorth  America  are  not 
found  here.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
continent,  although  lying  within  the  tropical 
regions,  has  the  intense  heat  greatly  modified 
by  its  elevations,  and  some  of  the  highest 
peaks  in  the  Andes,  even  under  the  equator, 
contain  snow  throughout  the  year.  The  low- 
lands along  the  Orinoco,  the  Amazon  and  the 
coast  of  Brazil  have  a  hot  climate.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  continent  is  free  from 
sudden  changes  or  extremes,  because  of  the 
nearness  of  the  oceans  and  the  influence  of 
the  mountains  along  the  western  coast. 

The  rainfall  is  heaviest  in  the  Amazon 
basin  and  diminishes  toward  the  south,  untU 
the  arid  region,  constituting  a  large  part 
of  Argentina  and  Patagonia,  is  reached.  The 
southern  portion  has  a  damp  climate,  char- 
acteristic of  the  cool  temperate  regions.  The 
seasons  are  just  the  opposite  of  what  they 
are  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  summer 
occurring  in  December,  January  and  Febru- 
ary, and  the  winter  in  June,  July  and 
August. 

Vegetation.  The  vegetable  kingdom  in 
South  America  has  a  magnificent  develop- 
ment, particular^  in  the  vast  tropical  teiTi- 
tory  east  of  the  Andes,  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon,  the  Orinoco  and  their  ti'ibutaries, 
where  the  genera  and  species  are  very  abun- 
dant, the  forests  large  and  the  forms  gigan- 
tic. Besides  palms,  there  are  dye-woods  of 
all  sorts,  cedar,  mahogany  and  ebony; 
farther  south  are  the  araucarias  of  Chile  and 
the  beech  forests  of  Argentina.  There  are 
numerous  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  the  fruits  of 
which  are  usually  very  large  and  covered  with 


extremely  thick  shells.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  cannon-ball  tree  and  the 
Brazil  nut  tree.  Ferns  and  water  lilies  are 
also  numerously  and  splendidly  represented. 
The  jungle,  or  undergrowth,  in  the  forests  is 
impenetrable  in  many  places.  Cinchona  is 
found  on  the  higher  ground  within  the 
tropics.  A  holly  is  grown,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  soaked  in  water  and  produce  a 
beverage  called  Paraguay  tea.  During  the 
rainy  seasons  the  pampas  and  llanos  are  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  growth  of  grass  and  other 
vegetation. 

Industries  and  Products.  The  leading 
industries  of  South  America  are  herding, 
agi'iculture  and  mining.  The  pampas  in  the 
South  and  the  llanos  in  the  north  furnish  a 
wealth  of  pasture  lands,  while  the  valleys  of 
the  Plata  River  system,  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  Brazilian  plateau  and  the  river  val- 
leys along  the  northern  coast  of  the  grand 
division  constitute  the  great  agricultural 
regions. 

The  selvas  of  the  Amazon  valley  yield  much 
of  the  world's  supply  of  India  iiibber,  as 
well  as  great  C[uantitie3  of  Peruvian  bark. 
Coffee,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  cacao,  cassava  and 
tobacco  are  the  products  of  the  torrid  zone ; 
while  the  temperate  regions  yield  abundant 
crops  of  wheat,  corn,  barley  and  flaxseed. 

The  foreign  trade  of  South  America  is 
mainly  with  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
During  the  World  TVar,  when  so  many  Euro- 
pean countries  were  closed  to  commerce,  the 
trade  between  South  America  and  the  United 
States  was  greatly  stimulated.  A  better  un- 
derstanding between  these  two  countries  was 
developed,  and  with  it  came  the  opening  of 
new  markets  which  promise  gi'eat  commercial 
opportunities  and  advantages  for  the  future. 

South  America's  most  valuable  commercial 
commodities  are  coffee,  nibber,  wool,  hides 
and  nitrate  of  soda.  The  continent's  most 
extensive  railway  system  is  in  the  southern 
section.  A  tunnel  through  the  Andes  affords 
railroad  connection  between  the  Plata  and  the 
Pacific,  while  the  only  commercial  route  in 
the  central  region  is  supplied  by  the  Amazon 
and  its  tributaries.  Many  short  railways  in- 
terlink the  Andes  with  the  west  and  east 
coasts. 

Animal  Life.  The  zoology'  of  South  Amer- 
ica is  extensive  and  peculiar,  embracing  a 
fourth  of  all  the  known  mammals,  among 
which,  however,  are  almost  none  of  the  wild 
animals   so   abundant   in   Africa   and   Asia. 


ANIMALS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


3355 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


3356 


SOUTHAMPTON 


The  most  powerful  of  the  carnivora  is  the 
jaguar,  which  is  the  only  formidable  beast 
of  prey  in  the  whole  continent.  In  the 
selvas  are  found  most  of  the  animals  living 
in  trees,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  tapir, 
jaguar,  ant-eating  bear  and  boa  constrictor, 
they  are  small.  Among  these  are  monkeys, 
sloths,  peccaries,  many  richly-colored  but 
songless  birds,  and  countless  insects  and  rep- 
tiles. In  the  rivers  are  found  alligators  and 
the  whalelike  manatee.  The  armadillo  is 
said  to  be  the  only  wild  animal  that  increases 
with  the  increase  of  population.  Many  of 
the  species  are  peculiar  to  South'  America 
and  are  not  found  elsewhere.  The  llama, 
alpaca,  vicuna  and  little  chinchilla'  are  found 
in  the  Andes;  the  llama  is  also  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.  In  the  mountains  the  deer, 
bear,  panther  and  the  great  condor  are  found. 

Inhabitants.  South  America  is  more 
sparselj^  populated  than  North  America.  The 
densest  population  is  found  near  the  coast; 
the  interior  is  thinly  peopled,  and  chiefly  by 
Indians.  The  aborigines  of  South  America 
are  undoubtedly  of  the  same  race  as  those 
of  North  America,  as  there  exists  a  very 
striking  general  physical  resemblance  be- 
tween the  native  races  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  American  continent,  from  Cape  Horn 
to  Bering's  Strait.  In  South  America  these 
red  men  are  far  more  numerous  than  in  North 
America,  and  though  many  are  half-civilized, 
a  greater  number  are  in  a  state  of  barbarism. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  population  also 
consists  of  people  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
blood,  and  in  addition  there  are  a  far  greater 
number  of  mixed  Indian  and  European 
blood,  civilized  and  forming  an  important 
element  in  the  various  states  of  the  continent. 
To  these  are  now  being  added  considerable 
numbers  of  Spanish  and  Italian  immigrants. 

Political  Divisions.  The  political  divi- 
sions, in  their  order  from  north  to  south,  are 
Panama,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  British  Gui- 
ana, Dutch  Guiana,  French  Guiana,  Brazil, 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Argen- 
tina, or  Argentine  Republic,  Bolivia  and 
Chile. 

History.  Columbus  first  touched  the  con- 
tinent at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  in  1498. 
The  next  navigator  to  explore  this  continent 
was  Hojeda,  a  Spaniard,  who  followed  the 
coast  from  near  the  equator  to  Venezuela.  He 
was  accompanied  by  Americus  Vespucius, 
who  published  the  first  account  of  the  New 
World  (see  AiLERicus  Vespucius).     Spain 


and  Portugal  had  almost  entire  control  of  the 
continent  until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth centun,'.  The  Spanish  colonies  de- 
clared their  independence  in  1810,  and  after 
a  ten  years'  war  a  number  of  republics  were 
established.  In  1823  Brazil  became  independ- 
ent of  Portugal  and  retained  a  monarchical 
form  of  government  which  lasted  until  1889, 
when  the  form  of  government  was  changed 
to  a  republic  The  only  foreign  possessions 
on  the  continent  are  those  of  British,  French 
and  Dutch  Guiana. 

South  America  was  affected  by  the  World 
War  in  much  the  same  way  as  North  America, 
as  many  of  the  republics  on  the  southern 
continent  suffered  severely  from  the  German 
submarine  campaign.  Brazil  declared  war  on 
Germany  on  October  26, 1917,  and  Argentina, 
enraged  by  the  insolence  of  a  German  diplo- 
matic official,  Count  Luxburg,  was  all  but 
swept  into  the  conflict.  Germany's  disavowal 
of  the  attitude  of  the  count  prevented  an 
actual  rupture,  but  the  allies  had  the  SATn- 
pathy  of  the  majority  of  the  Ai'gentine  peo- 
ple, Bolivia,  Peru,  Uruguay  and  Ecuador, 
manifesting  their  friendship  for  the  United 
States,  severed  diplomatic  relations  with  Ger- 
many before  the  close  of  1917.  While  these 
nations  could  not  take  any  decisive  military 
part  in  the  struggle,  their  attitude  had  a 
beneficial  moral  effect,  and  helped  to  stem  the 
tide  of  German  propaganda. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles   for   additional  information: 

POLITICAL  DIVISIONS 

Each  Country  is  Treated  in  a  Separate  Article. 

ISLANDS 

Falkland  Tierra  del  Fuego  Trinidad 

MOUNTAINS 

Aconcagua  Cordillera 

Andes  Cotopaxi 

Chimborazo 

EIVERS 

Amazon  Paraguay 

Madeira  Parana 

Magdalena  Rio  de  la  Plata 

Orinoco  Uruguay 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Inca  Patagonia 

Indians,  American  Titicaca,  Lake 

Llanos 

SOUTHAMPTON,  suth  liamp'ton,  ExG- 
LAXD,  a  seaport  town,  situated  on  a  peninsula 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Itchen  River,  on  South- 
ampton Water,  an  inlet  of  the  English  Chan- 
nel. It  is  eighteen  miles  northwest  of  Port- 
land and  seventy-nine  miles  southwest  of 
London,  and  is  a  favorite  summer  resort. 
Southampton  "was  formerly  a  walled  town, 
and  some  of  the  wall  and  several  gat^s  still 
remain.    Among  the  important  buildings  are 


Typical  Open-Air  MarRef1-^ce~~ 


TYPES  OP  SOUTH  AMERICAN  NATIVE  CIVILIZATION 


3357 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


3358 


SOUTH  BETHLEHEM 


God's  House,  a  hospital,  and  the  churches  of 
Saint  Michael  and  Holywood.  The  town 
is  the  most  important  English  seaport  on  the 
channel,  and  is  a  port  of  call  and  a  coaling 
station.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  university  college 
estahlished  in  1850.  From  Southampton,  in 
1620,  the  Mayflower  set  sail  for  the  New 
World,  and  in  commemoration  of  this  event  a 
memorial  tower  was  erected  in  1914.  Pop- 
ulation, 1911, 119,012. 

SOUTH  AUSTRA'LIA,  a  state  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia,  occupying  the 
south-central  portion  of  the  continent  and 
extending  from  the  Great  Australian  Bight, 
on  the  south,  to  the  Northern  Territory  and 
Queensland,  on  the  nortb.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  Victoria,  New  South  Wales  and 
Queensland,  and  on  the  west  by  Western 
Australia.  The  Northern  Territory  was  orig- 
inally a  part  of  South  Australia,  but  was 
transferred  to  the  Commonwealth  in  1911. 
The  area  is  380,070  square  miles,  a  little 
greater  than  that  of  the  province  of  Ontario. 

South  Australia  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
great  Australian  plain,  and  with  thff  exception 
of  some  low  mountains  distributed  over  the 
state,  the  country  is  lowland  and  nearly 
level,  rising  by  a  gentle  slope  to  a  plateau  of 
600  to  1,000  feet  in  the  interior.  There  are 
a  number  of  shallow  lakes,  including  Eyre, 
Torrens,  Gardiner  and  Everard.  These  are 
partially  salt.  The  Murray  River  flows 
through  the  southeastern  part  and  is  the  only 
stream  of  importance  in  the  state. 

The  climate  is  hot,  but  usually  healthful. 
Along  the  coast  there  is  considerable  rainfall, 
but  in  the  interior  the  rainfall  is  often  not 
more  than  ten,  and  sometimes  only  five 
inches.  For  these  reasons  agriculture  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  southeastern  section. 

Agriculture  forms  the  chief  industry  of  the 
inhabitants.  Wheat  is  the  most  important 
crop,  followed  by  barley  and  oats.  Large 
quantities  of  oranges,  grapes  and  other 
fruits  are  grown,  and  the  manufacture  of 
wine  has  become  an  industry  of  considerable 
importance. 

Copper,  silver  and  gold  are  found  in  the 
mountains.  The  first  gold  mine  in  Australia 
was  opened  in  South  Australia,  but  copper 
is  now  mined  in  larger  quantities  than  any 
other  metal.  Silver  and  lead  are  mined  in 
small  quantities,  and  iron,  stone,  phosphate 
rock,  salt,  kaolin,  gypsum  and  other  minerals 
occur.  There  are  about  2,700  miles  of  rail- 
ways in  the  state. 


The  executive  department  consists  of  a 
governor,  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a 
council  consisting  of  six  ministers  and  the 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  The  legis- 
lature comprises  two  bodies — the  legislative 
council,  consisting  of  twenty  members,  and 
the  house  of  assembly,  of  forty-six  members, 
all  elected  by  pojoular  suffrage  for  three 
years,  the  right  to  vote  being  extended  to 
women.  Elementary  education  is  free  and 
compulsory  upon  children  up  to  the  age  of 
thirteen.  Adelaide  is  the  capital.  Popula- 
tion, 1917,  (estimated), '429,950. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following' 

titles    for  additional  information: 

Adelaide  Australia  Murray   River 

SOUTH  BEND,  Ind.,  the  county  seat  of 
Saint  Joseph  County,  eighty-six  miles  south- 
east of  Chicago,  on  the  Saint  Joseph  River 
and  on  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral, the  New  Jersey,  Indiana  &  Illinois,  the 
Lake  Erie  &  Western,  the  Michigan  Central 
and  the  Vandalia  railroads.  The  University 
of  Notre  Dame  and  Saint  Mary's  Academy 
are  located  two  n>iles  north  of  the  city.  Some 
of  the  important  institutions  of  South  Bend 
are  the  Saint  Joseph's  Academy,  the  Nor- 
thern Indiana  Medical  and  Surgical  Institute, 
two  hospitals  and  ten  banks.  Other  impor- 
tant structures  are  the  Federal  and  county 
buildings,  a  city  hall,  a  public  library,  and  a 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  rich  farming  region  and  is  the  chief  in- 
dustrial center  of  Northern  Indiana.  It  has 
the  largest  wagon  factories  in  the  country. 
Other  manufactures  are  plows,  clover  hullers, 
sewing  machines,  flour,  woolen  goods, 
watches,  cutlery,  electrical  appliances,  and 
concrete  blocks.  The  value  of  the  annual  out- 
put of  all  factories  approximates  $60,000,- 
000.  The  first  white  settlement  was  made  by 
Alexis  Coquillard  in  1824.  The  town  was 
incorporated  in  1835,  and  the  city  was  char- 
tered in  1865.  Population,  1910,  53,684; 
in  1917,  70,967  (Federal  estimate). 

SOUTH  BETH'LEHEM,  Pa.,  a  borough  in 
Northampton  County,  forty  miles  north  of 
Philadelphia,  on  the  Lehigh  River,  opposite 
Bethlehem,  and  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the 
Philadelphia  &  Reading,  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey  and  several  electric  railways.  It  has 
good  transportation  facilities,  is  near  deposits 
of  coal  and  iron  ore,  and  contains  extensive 
iron  and  steel  works,  machine  shops,  foun- 
dries, zinc  and  brass  works,  wood-working 
establishments  and  other  factories.     Lehigh 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


3359 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


University  is  located  here,  and  the  borough 
also  contains  the  Bishop  Thorp  Seminary  for 
girls,  the  Saint  Luke's  Hospital,  and  public 
and  school  libraries.  Population,  1910,  19,- 
973;  in  1917,  24,886  (Federal  estimate). 


[a 

kJ  OUTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  South 
Atlantic  group  of  American  states,  lying  be- 
tween North  Carolina  and  Georgia  and  bor- 
dered for  190  miles  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  the  city  of  Charleston  it  possesses  one  of 
the  country's  great  ocean  ports.  The  form  of 
the  state  is  roughly  triangular,  and  it  has  an 
area  of  30,989  square  miles,  which  ranks  it 
as  the  thirty -ninth  state  in  size.  In  1910  the 
population  was  1,515,400,  the  state  being 
twenty-sixth  in  population.  Of  this  number 
835,843  were  negroes.  In  1918  a  Federal 
estimate  increased  the  population  to  1,660,- 
934.  The  jjopular  name  of  South  Carolina 
is  the  Palmetto  State. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  South  Carolina  has 
three  natural  divisions  of  surface,  known  re- 
spectively as  the  "low  country,"  the  "mid- 
dle country"  and  the  "up  countiy."  The  first 
division  consists  of  low  lands  along  the 
coast,  extending  in  some  places  a  hundred 
miles  inland.  Most  of  this  region  is  but  a  few 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  low  islands  and  salt 
marshes  border  the  coast.  The  "middle  coun- 
try" consists  of  rolling  land,  broken  occa- 
sionally by  sandhills.  Along  the  western 
border  of  this  region  is  a  belt  of  sandhills 
partially  covered  with  pine  forests,  and 
known  as  the  "Pine  Barrens."  Beyond  this 
the  country  rises  abruptly  to  the  Piedmont 
i:)lain.  The  "up  country"  includes  the  north- 
ern and  western  parts  of  the  state,  and  is 
rich  in  minerals.  In  the  northwest  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains  rise  abruptly  to  a  height 
of  over  2,000  feet  above  the  plateau ;  Mount 
Rich,  in  the  northwestern  part,  with  an  al- 
titude of  3,569  feet,  is  the  highest  point. 


The  drainage  is  to  the  southeast.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Savannali,  the  Pedee,  the 
Congaree  and  the  Santee.  Below  the  Fall 
Line  these  streams  are  deep  and  sluggish. 
At  the  Fall  Line  and  above  they  furnish 
abundant  water  power,  and  cities  with  thriv- 
ing manufacturing  industries  are  found  on 
them. 

Climate.  South  Carolina  has  a  delightful 
climate.  The  winters  are  short,  seldom  last- 
ing longer  than  six  weeks.  The  summers, 
while  long,  are  not  usually  hot  or  enervating, 
and  the  nights  are  always  cool.  Snow  falls 
only  in  the  mountains.  The  average  annual 
temperature  is  63°;  the  average  rainfall, 
52.31  inches. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  mineral  resources 
of  South  Carolina  are  extensive  and  varied. 
The  mineral  yielding  the  greatest  income  in 
years  past  has  been  phosphate  rock,  but  its 
quantity  has  greatly  decreased.  Clay  prod- 
ucts are  worth  close  to  a  million  dollars  a 
year.  Considerable  building  stone  is  quar- 
ried, and  gold  is  mined  in  a  few  localities; 
with  an  annual  output  of  about  $7,500,000. 
There  are  also  some  silver  and  a  little  lead. 
Kaolin  is  found,  and  there  are  deposits  of 
iron  ore,  marble,  gi-anite,  asbestos,  soap- 
stone  and  mica.  The  mineral  fuels  include  a 
little  gas,  petroleum  and  coal.  There  is 
granite  in  the  Piedmont  sandhills. 

Agriculture.  South  Carolina  is  an  agri- 
cultural state.  The  chief  products  are  cotton, 
rice,  tobacco,  corn  and  oats.  The  state  is 
fifth  in  the  production  of  rice;  it  is  fourth 
in  the  production  of  cotton,  the  yield  being 
nearly  1,400,000  bales  annually.  The  sea-is- 
land cotton  is  the  best  in  the  world,  and  it  is 
produced  in  large  quantities  in  the  strip  of 
islands  near  the  coast.  Com  is  raised  to  the 
extent  of  40,000,000  to  45,000,000  bushels  a 
year;  oats,  about  10,000,000  bushels;  wheat, 
about  2,000,000  bushels;  tobacco,  over  50,- 
000,000  pounds.  Truck  gardening  and  fruit 
growing  are  rapidly  developing  industries. 
Watermelons  are  grown  in  abundance, 
peaches  are  cultivated  in  the  Piedmont  sec- 
tion, and  olives  and  oranges  grow  along  the 
coast.  Among  native  fruits  are  apples,  pears, 
quinces,  plums,  apricots,  almonds  and  cher- 
ries. The  hillsides  of  the  Piedmont  section 
are  covered  with  fine  vineyards.  There  are 
extensive  pine  and  cypress  forests  in  the 
mountain  section  and  in  the  low  country. 

Manufactures.  Nearly  one-half  the  annual 
products  of  South  Carolina  now  consist  of 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


3360 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


manufactured  goods,  and  these  are  made  in 
about  2,000  factories.  Cotton  manufacturing 
is  by  far  the  most  important  industry,  the 
state  being  second  among  the  Southern  states 
in  the  value  of  cotton  products.  The  manu- 
facture of  lumber  and  timber  products  ranks 
second.     Other  industries  are  the  manufac- 


Government.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate,  containing  forty-four  members, 
elected  for  four  years,  one-half  retiring 
every  two  years,  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives of  124  members,  elected  for  two  years. 
The  executive  department  consists  of  a  gov- 
ernor, a  lieutenant-governor,  a  secretary  of 


tare  of  fertilizers,  of  cottonseed  oil  and  of 
naval  stores.  There  are  extensive  fisheries 
at  Charleston,  Georgetown,  Beaufort  and 
Port  Royal. 

Transportation.  The  Savannah,  the  Pedee, 
the  Congaree  and  the  Santee  are  navigable 
to  the  Fall  Line.  The  mouths  of  these  rivers 
form  good  harbors,  and  there  is  an  excellent 
harbor  at  Charleston.  The  state  is  well  sup- 
plied with  railroads,  which  traverse  it  from 
the  northeast  to  the  southwest  and  from  the 
northwest  to  the  southeast.  The  entire  mile- 
age exceeds  4,500  miles,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  counties  along  the  coast  the  state 
is  well  provided  with  railroad  facilities.  The 
lines  are  practically  under  the  control  of 
three  systems,  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line  and  the  Southern. 
Charleston  has  an  important  foreign  trade. 


state,  a  comptroller-general,  an  attorney- 
general,  a  treasurer,  an  adjutant-general  and 
a  superintendent  of  education,  each  elected 
for  two  years.  Numerous  commissions  and 
boards  are  named  by  the  legislature  or  by  the 
governor.  The  courts  comprise  a  supreme 
court  of  one  chief  justice  and  four  associates, 
elected  by  the  general  assembly  for  ten  years, 
and  a  circuit  court  for  each  judicial  circuit 
into  which  the  state  is  divided.  The  judges 
for  the  circuit  courts  are  elected  by  the 
legislature  for  four  years. 

Education.  Marked  improvement  has 
been  made  in  the  school  system  within  the 
past  few  years.  Separate  schools  are  main- 
tained for  the  white  and  colored  races.  The 
South  Carolina  Historical  Society,  founded 
at  Charleston  in  1855,  has  a  valuable  library 
and  some  important  manuscripts.    The  state 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


3361 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Items  of  Interest  on  South  Carolina 

South  Carolina  is  the  only  state  in 
which  divorce  is  not  allowed  under  any 
circumstances ;  this  is  a  provision  of  the 
state  constitution. 

The  tree  and  plant  life  is  semi-trop- 
ical in  character  on  the  coast  islands, 
where  the  palmetto,  live  oak,  and  mag- 
nolia are  common ;  in  the  Coastal  Plain 
the  long-leaf  pine  predominates  in  the 
sandy  regions  while  the  cypress  is  com- 
monest in  the  swamps ;  in  the  uplands, 
pines,  oaks  and  hickories,  as  well  as 
elms,  maples,  and  chestnuts,  are  found 
everywhere. 

Medicinal  and  flowering  plants  are 
abundant;  a  few  of  the  former  are 
ginseng,  snakeroot,  bloodroot,  hore- 
hound  and  wild  flax;  of  the  latter  the 
most  prominent  are  jessamines,  azaleas, 
lilies,  roses,  violets,  honeysuckle  and 
goldenrod. 

Any  offieer,  state,  county,  or  munic- 
ipal, "who,  through  negligence  or  con- 
nivance, permits  a  prisoner  to  be  seized 
and  lynched,"  forfeits  his  office  and 
becomes  ineligible  to  hold  any  public 
office  or  trust  in  the  state  unless  par- 
doned by  the  governor;  the  county  in 
which  the  crime  occurs  is,  without  re- 
gard to  the  conduct  of  the  officer,  liable 
for  damages  of  not  less  than  $2,000  to 
the  heir  or  representative  of  the  per- 
son lynched,  and  the  county  is  author- 
ized to  collect  the  amount  from  the 
persons  engaged  in  the  lynching. 

Questions  on  South  Carolina 

What  is  the  area  of  South  Carolina  ? 

Describe  its  surface. 

What  is  the  highest  point  in  the 
state? 

What  are  the  principal  rivers  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  tree  and 
plant  life? 

What  percentage  of  the  total  area  is 
covered  by  forests  ? 

Name  some  of  the  common  flowers, 
song  birds  and  other  animals. 

How  many  farms  are  there  in  South 
Carolina? 

What  are  the  principal  crops? 

What  is  the  most  important  product 
of  the  fisheries? 

211 


university  is  at  Columbia.  Among  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning  for  white  students  are 
the  following : 

Chicora  College,  Greenville. 
Clemson  Agricultural  College,  Clemson  Col- 
lege. 

Coker  College,  Hartsville. 

College    of   Charleston,    Charleston. 

Columbia  College,   Columbia. 

Converse  College  for  Women,  Spartanburg. 

Erskine  College,  Due  West. 

Furman  University,  Greenville. 

Greenville  Female  College,  Greenville. 

Lander  College,  Greenwood. 

Newberry  College,  Newberry. 

Presbyterian  College,   Clinton. 

Winthrop  Normal  College,  Rock  Hill. 

Wofford  College,  Spartanburg. 

Women's  College,  Due  West. 

There  are  schools  for  the  education  of  col- 
ored students  at  Denmark,  Ermo,  Rock  Hill, 
Orangeburg,  Abbeville  and  Columbia. 

State  Institutions.  In  1915  a  state  board 
of  corrections  and  charities  was  provided. 
It  has  supervision  of  a  penitentiary  and  a 
reformatory  for  young  negro  boys  at  Colum- 
bia, an  industrial  school  at  Florence,  a  state 
farm  at  Boykin,  a  state  hospital  for  the  in- 
sane and  an  infirmary  for  Confederate  sol- 
diers, the  latter  two  at   Columbia. 

Cities.  There  are  six  cities  in  the  state 
with  populations  exceeding  8,000.  These  are 
Charleston,  Columbia,  Spartanburg,  Green- 
ville, Anderson  and  Sumter.  Columbia  is  the 
capital. 

History.  In  1562  French  Huguenots  set- 
tled at  Port  Royal,  S.  C,  but  the  colony  was 
dispersed  by  the  Spaniards,  and  settlement 
was  not  again  attempted  in  the  temtory  for 
nearly  a  hundred  years.  In  1663  it  was 
granted  by  the  king  of  England  to  eight  pro- 
prietors, and  the  first  permanent  settlement 
was  made  on  the  Ashley  River,  but  it  was 
later  removed  to  Charleston.  In  1729  the 
proprietors  of  the  Carolinas,  which  had  been 
governed  together,  sold  their  interest  to  the 
Crown,  and  the  region  was  divided  into  two 
separate  royal  provinces. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  South  Car- 
olina maintained  a  semi-independence  of  the 
Crown  and  was  aggressively  patriotic  dur- 
ing the  pre-Revolutionary  struggle,  being  the 
first  state  to  form  an  independent  constitu- 
tion (May,  1776).  Many  of  the  most  im- 
portant battles  of  the  war  occurred  within 
its  borders,  and  it  also  furnished  famous  com- 
manders, among  whom  were  Thomas  Sumter 
and  Francis  Marion.    The  Federal  Constitu- 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


3362 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


tion  was  ratified  after  somewhat  bitter  discus- 
sion, in  May,  1788. 

South  Carolina  was  always  strongly  Anti- 
Federalist  in  sentiment,  and  it  came  into 
serious  collision  with  the  national  govern- 
ment on  the  passage  of  the  Clay  tariff  act  in 
1832,  secession  being  averted  only  by  com- 
promise. It  was  the  first  state  to  secede 
preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  "War 
(December  20,  1860),  and  the  first  battle 
of  the  war  was  fought  at  Fort  Sumter  in  the 
following  April.  Though  the  voting  popu- 
lation of  the  state  was  but  47,000,  it  furnished 
60,000  men  to  the  Confederate  army,  of 
whom  one-fifth  were  killed.  It  refused  to 
ratify  the  Fourteenth  Ameridment,  but 
adopted  a  constitution  allowing  negro  suf- 
frage, and  was  readmitted  to  the  Union,  on 
June  25,  1868.  It  suffered  especially  under 
the  carpetbag  regime,  the  state  debt  being  in- 
creased from  five  to  twenty  million  dollars 
in  five  years. 

Among  recent  incidents  in  its  history  have 
been  the  Charleston  earthquake,  August  31, 
1886;  a  famous  storm  and  tidal  wave  in 
1893,  and  the  South  Carolina  and  West  In- 
dian Exposition  of  1901  and  1902.  It  has 
been  consistently  Democratic  in  both  state 
and  national  politics.  In  1916  provision  was 
made  to  organize  the  militia  in  conformity 
with  national  recjuirements.  It  was  made  a 
ci-ime  to  sell  a  formula  for  intoxicating  bev- 
erages or  to  dispose  of  distilling  apparatus. 
Children  may  not  work  in  factories  until 
fourteen  years  of  age. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles    for    additional   information: 

CITIES 

Anderson  Columbia  Spartanburg 

Charleston  Greenville  Sumter 

HISTORY 

Calhoun.  John  C.  Ku-Klux  Klan 

Carpetbaggers  Nullification 

Fort  Moultrie  Reconstruction 

Fort  Sumter  States'    Rights 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

Blue  Ridge  Piedmont  Region 

Fall  Line  Savannah  River 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  Uxn-ERSiTT  of,  a 
co-educational  state  institution  located  at 
Columbia.  It  was  founded  as  the  South 
Carolina  College  in  1801,  and  was  opened 
in  1805.  Before  the  Civil  War  it  was  one 
of  the  most  advanced  colleges  in  the  Union. 
During  the  war  the  college  was  closed  and 
the  buildings  were  used  as  a  hospital,  first 
by  the  Confederates  and  later  by  the  Fed- 
erals. Reopened  as  a  university  in  1866, 
it  was'  closed  again  after  a  few  years  in 


consequence  of  unsettled  political  condi- 
tions, until  1880,  when  it  was  organized  as 
a  college.  Since  its  last  reorganization  in 
1906  as  the  University  of  South  Carolina  it 
has  experienced  rapid  development,  and 
now  includes  schools  of  art,  science,  engi- 
neering and  law,  a  school  for  teachers  and  a 
graduate  school,  with  also  extended  elective 
courses  of  study.  The  faculty  numbers 
about  forty,  and  there  are  over  600  stu- 
dents. The  library  includes  about  50,000 
volumes. 


OUTH  DAKOTA,  popularly  called 
The  Suxshixe  State^  because  of  its  many 
bright,  sunny  days,  is  a  great  agricultural 
state  of  the  American  Union,  belonging  to 
the  north-central  group.  Origmally  it  was 
a  part  of  Dakota  Territory,  the  land  of  the 
Dakota  tribe  of  Siouan  Indians.  The  name 
Dakota  is  the  Indian  for  Allies,  and  refers  to 
the  membership  of  the  Dakotas  in  the  Sioux 
Confederation. 

Location  and  Area.  South  Dakota  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  south  by  North 
Dakota  and  Nebraska,  respectively.  The 
Missouri  River,  which  flows  entirely  across  it 
in  a  general  southeasterly  direction,  forms 
a  portion  of  its  boundar^'^  on  the  south.  On 
the  west  South  Dakota  adjoins  Montana  and 
Wyoming,  and  on  the  east  it  borders  on  Min- 
nesota and  Iowa.  In  general  it  is  rectangular 
in  shape. 

With  an  area  of  77,615  square  miles,  of 
which  747  square  miles  are  water,  South  Da- 
kota is  the  fourteenth  state  in  the  Union  in 
size.  North  Dakota  is  smaller  by  nearly  7,000 
square  miles,  and  Nebraska  by  ninety-five. 

Population  and  Cities.  In  1910,  when  it 
had  583,888  inhabitants.  South  Dakota  was 
the  thirty-sixth  state  in  the  Union  in  popula- 
tion. Germans,  Scandinavians,  Russians  and 
Irish  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  foreign- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


3363 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


born  groups,  who  constitute  about  sixteen  per 
cent  of  the  population.  In  1918,  according  to 
Federal  estimates,  the  jjopulation  was  735,- 
434.  There  are  six  Indian  reservations,  with 
a  total  area  of  670  square  miles.  In  1916 
they  were  peopled  by  21,237  Indians. 

The  chief  cities,  in  order  of  size,  are  Sioux 
Palls  (population,  16,887  in  1917),  Aberdeen 
(15,926),  Lead  (9,984),  Watertown,  Mitchell, 
Huron  and  Yankton.    Pien-e  is  the  capital. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  for 
the  most  part  is  a  gently-undulating  prairie, 
rising  from  a  plain  east  of  the  Missouri  River 
to  a  plateau  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
state  and  to  the  Black  Hills  in  the  southwest. 
Two  long  and  narrow  tablelands,  from  1,500 
to  2,000  feet  above  sea  level,  covered  in  places 
with  boulder-strewn  hills,  extend  nearly  north 
and  south;  one,  the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  is 
near  the  eastern  border,  and  the  other,  the 
Coteau  du  Missouri,  lies  just  east  of  the  Mis- 
souri River.  Between  these  plateaus  is  the 
basin  of  the  James  River.  West  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  the  surface  is  more  uneven,  and 
hills  and  buttes  are  numerous.  All  of  this 
region  is  drained  by  branches  of  the  Missouri, 
The  Black  Hills  region  comprises  an  area  of 
about  5,000  square  miles,  extending  into  Wy- 
oming. The  highest  point  is  Harney  Peak, 
7,216  feet  in  altitude.  The  central  zone 
is  of  granite,  and  around  it  are  rows  of  hills 
made  in  the  upturned  edges  of  sedimentary 
rock  layers. 

To  the  southeast  of  the  Black  Hills  are  the 
famous  Bad  Lands,  though  the  name  is  mis- 
leading, for  it  is  simply  the  abbreviation  for 
"bad-for-traveling  lands,"  as  the  early 
French  explorers  called  them.  This  region 
is  made  up  of  soft  clays,  marls,  shales  and 
sands,  in  which  the  forces  of  erosion  have 
produced  deep,  steep-walled  gulches  and 
ravines,  and  numerous  hills  and  buttes.  In 
the  broader  valleys,  where  the  slope  is  not  so 
steep,  nutritious  grasses  grow.  The  North 
Dakota  bad  lands  extend  into  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  the  state.  These  clays  are  more 
highly  colored  and  the  scenery  is  more^-beauti- 
ful  than  in  the  southwest. 

The  state  is  drained  by  the  Missouri  River 
system.  The  MissouiT  itself  flows  through 
the  state  in  a  soutiieasterly  direction.  Par- 
allel to  the  Missouri  and  100  miles  east  is  its 
tributary,  the  James  River.  The  remaining 
principal  tributaries  of  the  Missouri  all  enter 
from  the  west ;  in  order,  from  north  to  south, 
they  are  the  Little  Missouri,  the  Cannon  Ball, 


the  Grand,  the  Owl,  or  Moreau,  the  Big 
Cheyenne  and  the  White.  All  the  rivers  flow 
toward  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  state, 
and  a  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  is  formed 
by  the  Big  Sioux,  on  which  Sioux  Falls  is 
located. 

Climate.  The  climate,  being  continental, 
is  characterized  by  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
but  as  the  air  is  clear  and  dry,  the  heat  of 
summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  are  not  so 
uncomfortable  as  in  states  to  the  east  where 
the  air  is  damp.  The  average  annual  tem- 
perature of  the  east  half  of  the  state  is  44.5° 
of  the  west  half,  45.6°.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  for  the  eastern  half  of  the  state  is 
22.3  inches,  and  for  the  western  half,  17.3 
inches.  The  unusual  amount  of  sunshine  and 
the  invigorating  qualities  of  the  air  make  the 
climate  very  healthful. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  Black  Hills  are 
said  to  comprise  the  richest  100  square  miles 
on  earth,  yielding  about  one-twelfth  of  the 
gold  produced  by  the  United  States  each  year, 
and  giving  South  Dakota  fourth  place  in  the 
list  of  gold-producing  states.  The  annual 
output  now  averages  more  than  $7,400,000. 
Silver,  mica,  lead,  tungsten,  tin,  copper,  iron, 
manganese,  graphite,  and  other  rare  and 
valuable  minerals  are  also  found  in  this 
region.  Here,  too,  are  found  valuable  lime- 
stone, granite,  sandstone,  marble  and  gypsum. 
Excellent  building  and  paving  stone,  called 
red  quartzite,  known  also  as  Sioux  Falls  jas- 
per, is  quan-ied  at  Sioux  Falls  and  Dell 
Rapids  along  the  Big  Sioux  River.  Cement 
is  manufactured  from  the  beds  of  chalk- 
stone  near  Yankton,  and  great  quantities  of 
excellent  brick  and  fire  clays  are  found. 

Agriculture.  The  rich  plains  of  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  state  have  been  famous  for 
years  for  wheat,  corn  and  other  farm  prod- 
ucts, and  the  grazing  plains  of  the  western 
portion  for  live  stock.  With  the  advent  of 
railroads  into  the  western  plains  and  the  ap- 
plication of  improved  "dry  farming"  methods, 
the  entire  state  is  fast  becoming  agricultural. 
Irrigation  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Black  Hills,  especially  in  the 
valley  of  the  Belle  Fourche  River.  Wlieat 
and  corn  are  the  most  profitable  crops,  and 
the  acreage  devoted  to  each  is  over  three  and 
one-half  million.  Oats,  barley,  potatoes,  hay, 
flaxseed,  apples  and  small  fruits  are  also 
valuable  products.  In  the  production  of 
spring  wheat.  South  Dakota  is  one  of  the 
three  leading  states,  the  others  being  Min- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


3364 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


nesota  and  North  Dakota;  it  is  the  fourth 
in  the  production  of  flaxseed,  following  North 
Dakota,  Minnesota  and  Montana, 

Manufacture.  The  chief  manufacturing 
industries  are  connected  with  the  agricultural 
activities,  and  include  the  making  of  butter, 
cheese  and  condensed  milk,  and  flour  and 
grist  milling.  Printing  and  publishing,  the 
manufacture  of  lumber  and  lumber  products 


representatives  of  not  fewer  than  seventy- 
five  nor  more  than  135  members.  The  ses- 
sions are  biennial  and  are  limited  to  sessions 
of  sixty  daj's,  except  in  cases  of  impeach- 
ment. The  executive  department  consists  of 
a  governor,  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  secretary 
of  state,  a  treasurer,  a  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  a  commissioner  of  schools  and 
public  lands,  a  commissioner  of  insurance,  an 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 

THE  SUNSHINE  STATE 


I  Roman  Cathol ic 


Lutheran 


BOH  Methodist 

■  Congregational 

■  Episcopal 

■  Presbyterian 
I  Baptist 
^All  Others 

Re 
State 
eal 


Aberdeen' 


•Lead 


Pierre 

MitcheilJ'-^^^ 


m  Between  15,000  and  ZO.OOO"'^'--'-"^^ 
•   Between  5.000  and  10,000 
▲  Less  than  5,000 

Populations  of  Most  Important  Ibwns 


and  the  production  of  various  commodities 
for  home  needs  are  other  lines  of  manufac- 
ture. Sioux  Falls  is  an  important  meat- 
packing center.  Between  1910  and  1915  the 
value'  of  manufactured  products  increased 
over  thirty-five  per  cent. 

Transportation.  Eailroads  react  all  parts 
of  the  state,  and  new  lines  are  being  built  in 
the  newer  sections.  The  total  mileage  is  about 
4.300.  The  important  roads  are  the  Chicago. 
Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul;  the  Chicago  & 
Xorth  Western;  the  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
Quincy ;  the  Illinois  Central ;  the  Great  North- 
em  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  senate  of  not  fewer  than  twenty-five  nor 
more  than  forty-five  members,  and  a  house  of 


adjutant-general  and  an  attorney-general,  all 
elected  for  two  years.  The  courts  consist  of 
the  supreme  court,  consisting  of  five  judges 
elected  for  six  years,  and  state  district  courts, 
one  in  each  district,  presided  over  by  judges 
elected  for  four  years.  County  judges  are 
elected,  one  in  each  county,  for  two  years. 
Capital  punishment  was  abolished  in  1915, 
and  since  then  other  progressive  laws  have 
been  passed,  including  legislation  prohibit- 
ing the  liquor  traffic,  granting  women  the 
right  to  vote  and  pro\ading  for  workmen's 
compensation. 

Education.  The  state  educational  institu- 
tions are  controlled  by  a  board  of  regents 
consisting  of  five  members  appointed  by  the 
governor  for  a  term  of  six  years.    These  com- 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


3365 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


i\  Items  of  Interest  on  South  Dakota 

|"|  The    Indian    reservations    are    the 

i\  Standing  Rock,  Cheyenne  River,  Lower 

!  I  Brule,   Crow   Creek,   Pine  Ridge  and 

M  Rosebud. 

!!,!  The  state  is  governed  under  its  orig- 

iJ  inal  constitution  of  1889,  but  this  has 

ii  been  amended  several  times. 

\'\  South  Dakota  was  the  first  state  in 

|i  the  Union  to  adopt  the  initiative  and 

|i  referendum:    under  the  constitutional 

i.j  amendment  of  1898,  on  petition  of  five 

ij  per  cent  of  the  legal  voters  the  legisla- 

;'|  tui"e  must  siabmit  to  popular  vote  at 

IJ  the    next    general    election    measures 

ill  which   they  wish  enacted   as  such,  or 

;';!  measures  already  passed  by  the  legis- 

"I  lature  which  have  not  already  become 

lij  effective. 

ilj  The  governor's  veto  does  not  apply  to 

•||  laws  passed  by  popular  vote. 

"I  Elementary  agriculture  was  added  to 

i  the  studies  in  all  rural  schools  in  1909. 

■i  When  the  state  was  admitted  into 

iij  the  Union  two  sections  of  land,   640 

;!!!  acres  each,  were  set  aside  to  be  sold  for 

|i  school  purposes. 

■  I  The  first  national  bank  in  the  state 
;!!!  was  organized  at  Yankton  in  1872. 

H  The  first   authentic   reports  of  ex- 

•1  plorations  in  the  Dakotas  were  made 

J  by  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  in 

J  1804  and  1806;  other  explorers  were 

:[  John  C.  Fremont  in  1838,  and  John  J. 

iil  Audubon  in  1843. 

i  The  only  extensive  forest  region  is  in 

"I  the  Black  Hills,  where  there  is  a  na- 

4  tional  forest  reserve  of  1,129,208  acres. 

;;|  Questions  on  South  Dakota 

i  What  is  the  area  of  South  Dakota? 

"I  How  does  it  rank  in  size  among  the 

;:;j  states? 

::l  What  was  the  percentage  increase  in 

"I  population  between  1910  and  1918? 

[1  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  "Bad 

I  Lands"? 

■  j  Describe  the  drainage  system  of  the 
ill  state. 

;i  What  is  the  chief  mineral,  and  what 

i-l  is  the  state's  rank  in  its  production  ? 

\'\  How  does  South  Dakota  rank  in  the 

i;;|  production   of  spring  wheat?     Flax- 

H  seed? 


prise  the  state  university,  located  at  Ver- 
milion; the  state  college  of  agriculture  and 
mechanic  arts,  located  at  Brookings;  the 
state  school  of  mines,  located  at  Rapid  City ; 
the  northern  normal  and  industrial  school, 
located  at  Aberdeen ;  and  three  state  normal 
schools,  located  at  Madison,  Spearfish  and 
Springfield.  There  are  also  denominational 
schools  of  higher  education.  The  common 
schools  of  the  state  are  supported  from  the 
interest  on  the  investment  of  funds  derived 
from  the  sale  of  school  lands,  from  a  local 
tax,  a  general  tax  and  from  other  sources. 
Attendance  is  compulsoiy  for  those  between 
the  ages  of  eight  and  sixteen. 

Institutions.  The  leading  institutions  are 
the  insane  asyliun  at  Yankton,  a  school  for 
the  feeble-minded  at  Redfield,  schools  for 
deaf  mutes  and  blind  at  Sioux  Falls,  an  in- 
stitution for  the  blind  at  Garj',  a  soldiers' 
home  at  Hot  Springs,  a  tuberculosis  sanita- 
rium at  Custer,  a  reform  school  at  Plankinton 
and  a  penitentiary  at  Sioux  Falls. 

History.  For  the  early  history  of  South 
Dakota,  see  North  Dakota,  subhead  History. 
The  state  of  South  Dakota  was  formed  by  the 
division  of  Dakota  Territory  in  November, 
1889,  after  a  great  immigration  to  the  region 
had  caused  it  to  become  important  as  a  wheat- 
producing  territoiy.  Since  its  admission  into 
the  Union,  the  state  has  progressed  rapidly 
along  all  lines  of  development. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  followingr 
titles  for  additional   information: 


Aberdeen 
Lead 


Bad  Lands 
Black  Hills 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

Mitchell  Sioux  Falls 

Pierre  Yankton 

HILLS  AND  RIVERS 

Minnesota  River 
Missouri   River 

HISTORY 

Custer,  George  A.  Miles,    Nelson    A. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Sitting  Bull 

Expedition 

SOUTH  DAKOTA,  University  of,  a 
coeducational  state  institution  for  higher 
learning,  founded  at  Vermilion  in  1882  under 
the  name  of  the  University  of  Dakota.  When 
the  ten-itory  was  divided  into  North  and 
South  Dakota  and  these  states  were  admitted 
to  the  Union,  the  name  was  changed  to  that 
which  the  institution  now  bears.  The  present 
organization  includes  a  collegiate  department, 
also  colleges  of  law,  medicine,  music  and  com- 
merce, and  a  preparatory  department.  The 
collegiate  department  has  courses  in  classics, 
literature,  civil  and  mechanical  engineering 
and  sciences,  and  it  has  control  of  the  state 
geological  survey.    The  faculty  numbers  over 


SOUTHERN  CROSS 


3300   SOUTH  POLAR  EXPLORATION 


sixty,  and  there  is  an  enrollment  of  nearly  700 
students.  Its  library  contains  over  31,000 
volumes. 

SOUTHERN  CROSS,  a  constellation  of 
the  Southern  hemisjohere,  consisting  of  four 
stars  in  the  same  relation  to  one  another  as 
the  ends  of  a  somewhat  irregular  cross.  The 
lowest  star  of  the  group  is  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude, the  northern  and  eastern  are  of  the 
second  magnitude,  and  the  western  of  the 
third.  The  imaginary  upright  bar  of  the 
cross  points  to  the  South  Pole. 

SOUTH'EY,  Robert  (1774-1843),  an 
English  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  the 
son  of  a  linen  draper  of  Bristol.  He  was 
sent  to  Westminster  School  in  178S  and  soon 
gave  proof  of  distinguished  talents;  but  he 
was  dismissed  in  1792  for  a  satirical  paper 
on  flogging,  published  in  a  school  journal. 
Shortly  afterward  he  entered  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  remained  but  two  years. 
He  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Coleridge, 
and  they  were  married  on  the  same,  day  to 
two  sisters ;  but  the  scheme  for  the  founding 
of  an  ideal  community  on  the  banks  of  the 
Susquehanna,  in  the  canying  out  of  which 
their  marriage  was  the  first  step,  failed  for 
lack  of  funds.  In  1804  Southey  fixed  his 
peimanent  residence  at  Greta,  near  Keswick, 
in  the  heart  of  the  English  lake  district, 
where  he  had  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  for 
neighbors.  From  this  period  his  intellectual 
activity  was  untiring,  and  he  continued  for  a 
period  of  almost  forty  years  to  issue  annually 
at  least  one,  and  often  several,  works,  besides 
contributing  largely  to  different  periodicals. 
A  government  pension  of  £160  ($800)  was 
allowed  him  in  1807,  and  this  was  increased 
in  1835  to  £460  ($2,300).  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  poet  laureate.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  he  married,  in  1839,  Caroline  Anne 
Bowles,  herself  a  writer  of  some  eminence. 
Soon  afterward  he  sank  into  a  state  of  im- 
becility, from  which  he  did  not  recover. 
Among  his  poetical  productions  may  be  men- 
tioned Joan  of  Arc,  Thalaba,  Modoc,  The 
Curse  of  Kehama,  Roderick,  the  Last  of  the 
Goths  and  a  Vision  of  Judgment.  His  prose 
writings,  including  his  letters,  are  models  of 
literary  expression.  Life  of  Nelson,  Life  of 
Wesley,  History  of  Brazil  and  The  Doctor  are 
among  those  still  read  for  their  lucid  and 
beautiful  style. 

SOUTH  MOUNTAIN,  Battle  of,  a  battle 
fought  September  14, 1862,  near  Sharpsburg, 
Md.,  between  a  Confederate  force  of  18,000 


from  Lee's  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  and 
a  Federal  force  of  28,000  from  McClellan's 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  The  Confederates 
were  compelled  to  retreat,  after  offering  a 
stubborn  resistance,  and  took  up  a  position 
along  Antietam  Creek,  where  another  severe 
battle  was  fought  September  16.  The  losses 
at  South  Mountain  were,  of  the  Federals, 
1,800,  of  the  Confederates,  2,600. 

OUTH  POLAR  EX- 
PLORATION. Previous 
to  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  com- 
paratively little  attention 
was  given  to  exploration 
in  the  Antarctic  regions. 
The  first  navigator  known 
to  have  crossed  the 
Antarctic  Circle  was  Cap- 
tain James  Cook,  who  in 
1773-'74  explored  a  por- 
tion of  the  land  mass  sur- 
rounding the  South  Pole.  Later  explora- 
.  tions  confirmed  Cook's  discovery,  and  exist- 
ence of  the  continent  of  Antarctica  is  now 
undisputed.  While  the  shoreline  of  this 
great  land  mass  has  not  been  fully  surveyed, 
it  is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of  over  5,000,- 
000  square  miles,  making  it  about  twice  the 
size  of  Australia.  It  has  an  average  elevation 
of  2,000  feet  and  mountains  exceeding  15,000 
feet  in  altitude.  Different  sections  of  this 
continent  have  been  discovered  by  various 
explorers,  each  believing  that  he  had  found  a 
separate  land  mass,  and  giving  it  a  distinct 
name,  so  we  find  on  the  south  polar  maps 
Wilkes  Land,  South  Victoria  Land,  King 
Edward  VII  Land,  etc.,  all  probably  belong- 
ing to  one  great  land  mass. 

Discovery  of  the  South  Pole.  Captain 
Roald  Amundsen,  a  Norwegian  navigator, 
discovered  the  South  Pole  on  December  16, 
1911.  Amundsen  set  sail  from  Norway  in 
the  Fram  in  1910,  with  the  intention  of  pass- 
ing around  Cape  Horn,  and  entering  the 
Arctic  Ocean  through  Bering  Strait,  where 
he  intended  to  spend  several  years  in  scientif- 
ic investigation.  But  he  changed  his  mind, 
and  when  he  reached  Cape  Horn  he  turned 
southward.  Reaching  land  in  January,  1911, 
he  established  headquarters  on  the  ice  cap 
and  lived  there  during  the  winter.  Several 
supply  stations  were  located  on  the  route 
which  the  explorers  were  to  follow.  On  Octo- 
ber 21,  Amundsen,  with  four  companions, 
fifty-two  dogs  and  four  sledges,  started  for 


SOUTH  POLAR  EXPLORATION   3367   SOUTH  POLAR  EXPLORATION 


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the  Pole,  which  was  reached  without  mishap 
on  December  16.  Their  journey  was  over  a 
plateau  from  3,000  to  11,000  feet  high. 
Amundsen  erected  a  tent  at  the  Pole,  and 
raised  the  Norwegian  flag.  He  named  the 
land  King  Haakon  VII  Plateau.  The  expedi- 
tion reached  headquarters  January  12,  after 
an  absence  of  ninety-nine  days. 

Scott's  Expedition.  Captain  Robert  F. 
Scott  of  England,  who  in  1900  had  made 
valuable  explorations  in  the  Antarctic  re- 
gions, started  on  his  second  expedition  at 
about  the  same  time  as  Amundsen.     Both 


parties  were  striving  at  the  same  time  to 
reach  the  Pole,  though  by  different  routes 
and  unknown  to  each  other.  Scott  reached 
the  Pole  January  18,  1912,  where  he  found 
Amundsen's  tent  and  flag.  On  their  return 
to  headquarters  the  entire  party  of  five  died 
from  privation  and  exposure.  The  scien- 
tific results  of  this  expedition  were  of  high 
value. 

Shackleton's  Expedition.  In  1909  Lieu- 
tenant (now  Sir  Ernest)  Shackleton  com- 
manded an  expedition  which  made  valuable 
explorations     in     the     Antarctic     regions. 


SOUTH  POLAR  EXPLORATION 


3368 


SOVEREIGNTY 


Shaekleton  ascended  Mount  Erebus,  an  ac- 
tive volcano,  which  he  found  to  have  an  al- 
titude of  13,379  feet  and  a  crater  900  feet 
deep.  On  another  journey  Shaekleton  went 
within  111  miles  of  the  Pole,  when  the  com- 
pany was  compelled  to  turn  back  because  of 
lack  of  supplies.  Although  Shaekleton  did 
not  reach  the  Pole,  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  his  expedition  solved  the  South  Polar 
problem.  Several  side  expeditions  by  Shack- 
leton's  party  collected  valuable  scientific  data. 
On  his  return  he  lectured  to  large  audiences 
in  the  leading  cities  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  A  second  expedition,  from  which 
he  returned  in  1917,  had  for  its  purpose  the 
crossing  of  the  Antarctic  continent  from 
Weddell  Sea  to  Ross  Sea.  The  expedition 
left  Buenos  Aires  October  27,  1914,  in  the 
Endurance,  Their  ship  was  caught  in  the 
ice  pack  and  was  finally  crushed  and  sunk. 
After  enduring  almost  incredible  hardships 
the  party  was  saved  by  a*  reserve  ship  which 
Shaekleton  secured  by  making  a  voyage  of 
750  miles  to  New  Zealand  in  a  small  boat. 

Other  Recent  Expeditions.  During  the 
period  covered  by  the  expeditions  described 
above,  a  number  of  other  expeditions  were 
made  to  the  South  Polar  regions.  While  none 
made  any  new  discoveries  of  striking  impor- 
tance, each  contributed  something  of  value  to 
the  knowledge  of  this  vast  unknown  region, 
and  the  combined  information  obtained  by 
them  was  of  great  value  to  geographic  science. 

Early  Expeditions.  Captain  Cook  is  the 
first  who  is  known  to  have  sailed  within  the 
Antarctic  Circle.  He  reached  the  southern- 
most point  attained  by  him,  on  Jan.  30,  1774, 
71°  10'  south  and  107°  west.  In  1821  Bell- 
inghausen,  the  Russian,  discovered  Peter  the 
Great  and  Alexander  islands.  Enderby 
Land  and  Kemp  Land  were  discovered  by 
Biscoe  in  1831-1833.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
easternmost  point  of  a  supposed  continuous 
coast  and  lies  in  about  latitude  67°  30'. 
Sabrina  Land  and  Balleny  Islands  were  dis- 
covered in  nearly  the  same  latitude  by 
Balleny  in  1839.  In  1840  two  important  ex- 
ploring expeditions,  one  American,  the  other 
French,  reached  the  Southern  seas.  The 
American  expedition,  under  Wilkes,  passed 
very  near  the  southern  magnetic  pole,  the 
position  of  which,  at  the  time,  he  calculated 
to  be  70°  south  latitude  and  140°  east  long- 
itude; it  also  traced  land  from  longitude  154° 
27'  to  97°  30'  east,  which  Wilkes  concluded 
to  be  continuous.     The  French  expedition, 


under  Dumont  d'Urville,  found  traces  of 
what  they  believed  to  be  a  continuous  coast 
from  136°  to  142°  east,  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  Adelie  Land.  An  English  ex- 
pedition under  James  Clark  Ross  in  1839 
passed  the  Antarctic  Circle  in  about  longi- 
tude 178°  east,  and  in  172°  36'  east  longi- 
tude and  70°  41'  south  latitude  he  found  a 
continuous  coast,  trending  south,  with  moun- 
tain peaks  9,000  to  12,000  feet  in  height.  He 
gave  the  country  the  name  of  South  Victoria 
Land.  In  77°  32'  south  latitude,  167°  east 
longitude,  he  discovered  an  active  volcano, 
Mount  Erebus. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information : 
Antarctic  Ocean  Scott,  Robert  Fulton 

Amundsen,  Roald  Shaekleton,   Ernest  H. 

SOUTH  SEA  COMPANY,  a  company 
organized  in  England  in  1711  by  the  lord 
treasurer  Harley,  with  the  exclusive  right  to 
trade  in  what  was  then  known  as  the  South 
Sea.  In  less  than  ten  years  after  its  estab- 
lishment, the  South  Sea  Company  had  taken 
over  the  entire  national  debt,  which  had  by 
that  time  become  £30,000,000.  A  number  of 
the  directors  of  the  company  began  to  dis- 
pose of  their  shares  in  1720,  and  the  weak- 
ened confidence  which  resulted  from  this,  to- 
gether with  the  failure  of  Law's  Mississippi 
Scheme  in  France,  brought  about  the  collapse 
of  the  entire  scheme.  Thousands  of  share- 
holders were  ruined.  On  investigation,  the 
company  was  found  to  be  fraudulent;  the 
property  of  the  directors  was  seized,  and  ap- 
proximately a  third  of  the  original  invest- 
ment was  returned  to  the  stockholders. 

SOVEREIGN,  suv'urin,  a  gold  coin  in 
current  use  in  England,  the  value  of  which  is 
£1,  and  the  weight  123.274  grains  troy.  It 
is  .916  pure  metal.  Half-sovereigns,  2- 
pound  pieces  and  5-pound  pieces  are  also 
coined  in  the  same  proportion  of  weight  and 
purity.  The  crown  is  equal  to  a  quarter- 
sovereign.  The  sovereign  of  to-day  bears 
the  likeness  of  the  ruler. 

The  sovereign  is  equivalent  to  about  $4.87 
in  United  States  and  Canadian  money. 

Related     Articles.      Consult     the     following' 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Crown  Guinea  Pound 

Farthing  Penny  Shilling 

SOVEREIGNTY,  sov'erinti.  The  word 
sovereignty  is  used  in  two  different  senses — 
to  denote  what  is  technically  called  internal 
sovereignty,  that  is,  supremacy  over  the  citi- 
zens of  a  state  and  to  denote  external  sover- 
eignty, that  is,  complete  independence  of  any 


SOVIET 


3369 


SOY  BEAN 


other  state.  When  used  with  reference  to  the 
internal  affairs  of  a  state,  sovereignty  may 
be  either  legal  or  political.  The  latter  refers 
to  the  power  which  has  ultimate  control  over 
all  the  state  activities;  thus,  in  the  United 
States  the  people  would  be  the  political  sov- 
ereign. Legal  sovereignty  refers  to  the  organ 
of  government  which  expresses  the  will  of 
the  political  sovereign. 

Characteristics  of  Sovereignty.  Internal 
sovereignty  has  certain  attributes:  (1)  It 
is  absolute,  that  is,  there  can  be  no  limitation 
upon  its  powers  or  activities.  Practically, 
no  government  has  absolute  internal  sover- 
eignty, since  every  modem  government  is 
limited,  either  by  a  constitution  or  by  some 
act  or  decree  which  granted  rights  which  by 
prescription  or  for  some  other  cause  are  now 
inviolable.  (2)  Sovereignty  is  said  to  be 
indivisible,  that  is,  there  cannot  be  two  sover- 
eigns with  authority  over  the  same  territory. 
In  a  federal  government  either  the  whole 
people  are  the  sovereign,  and  the  state  and 
central  governments  are  the  instruments  of 
its  sovereignty,  or  each  state  is  a  sovereign 
and  the  central  government  acts  only  in  cer- 
tain matters  for  the  general  good.  An  ex- 
ternally sovereign  state  theoretically  is  one 
which  is  absolutely  independent  of  all  other 
states.  However,  in  practice  this  is  impos- 
sible, and  states  which  have  practically  sur- 
rendered every  power  in  their  relation  to 
other  states  are  still  considered  sovereign. 
See  State;  Go\^rnment. 

SO'VIET,  a  Russian  term  meaning  com- 
mittee, or  local  council,  which  came  into  gen- 
eral use  at  the  time  of  the  revolution  which 
overthrew  the  imperial  government.  When 
the  czar  was  forced  to  abdicate,  Soviets  by 
hundreds  came  into  existence  over  the  coun- 
try, in  villages,  fa<?tories,  among  the  soldiers, 
etc.  These  Soviets  assumed  authority  as  ad- 
ministrative bodies,  and  in  course  of  time 
they  became  the  real  source  of  power,  forcing 
Kerensky  out  of  the  government  and  giving 
the  leadership  to  Lenine.  The  Russian  soviet 
government  is  the  executive  committee  of  a 
vast  number  of  village,  town  and  city  Soviets. 
For  details  of  this  movement,  see  Russia, 
subhead  Tlie  Soviets. 

SOWING,  so'ing,  MACHINE,  SEEDER, 
or  DRILL,  a  machine  for  planting  grain. 
Among  the  simplest  and  earliest  forms  of 
this  machine  is  a  cylindrical  vessel,  with 
small  holes  at  regular  intervals  around  its 
circumference.     This  was  used  for  sowing 


round  seeds,  such  as  turnip  seed.  The  ma- 
chine was  placed  on  wheels  and  was  drawn 
over  the  land  at  a  regulated  speed;  by  its 
mere  rotation  the  seed  was  delivered  with  con- 
siderable uniformity.  A  later  pattern  of  ma- 
chine had  a  fixed  seed  box,  from  which  the 
delivery  of  the  seeds  was  regulated  by  a  re- 
volving brush. 

The  pattern  of  seeder  in  most  common  use 
for  wheat,  oats  and  other  small  grains  is  the 
drill.  This  consists  of  a  narrow  box,  eight 
or  ten  feet  long,  with  circular  openings  in 
the  bottom,  from  three*  to  four  inches  apart. 
Connected  with  each  of  these  openings  is  a 
hollow  iron  tube,  extending  down  to  the 
ground.  In  front  of  each  tube  is  a  device 
for  making  a  small  furrow,  called  the  lister, 
consisting  of  two  thin,  flat  pieces  of  steel, 
which  meet  in  front  and  turn  upward  with  a 
curve.  Back  of  each  lister  is  a  wheel  or 
other  device  for  covering  the  grain.  The  box 
contains  a  revolving  brush,  for  the  purpose 
of  distributing  the  grain  evenly  through  the 
holes  in  the  bottom.  This  can  be  gauged  so 
as  to  allow  any  quantity  to  pass  through  and 
is  thus  adaptable  for  the  sowing  of  different 
grains.  As  the  machine  is  moved  forward 
the  brush  revolves,  and  the  grain  falls 
through  the  drills  into  the  furrows.  A  team 
of  two  horses  can  operate  one  of  these  drills, 
and  on  good  ground  it  will  seed  from  eight 
to  ten  acres  in  a  day. 

SOW  THISTLE,  southis'l,  a  European 
weed  belonging  to  the  composite  family,  sev- 
eral species  of  which  have  been  introduced 
into  America.  In  parts  of  Europe  it  is  used 
by  the  peasantry  as  a  vegetable.  The  most 
common  species  grows  to  a  height  of  two  or 
three  feet  and  has  a  branching  stem  and  small 
yellow  flowers,  about  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  It  spreads  very  rapidly,  by 
means  of  its  creeping  roots  and  light  seeds, 
blown  about  by  the  wind,  and  is  a  nuisance 
in  pastures  and  grain  fields.  It  can  be 
eradicated  only  by  careful  cultivation  and  by 
planting  other  crops  to  smother  its  growth. 

SOY  BEAN,  a  bushy  plant  from  two  to 
four  feet  high.  In  Asia,  where  it  is  native, 
and  especially  in  China  and  Japan,  it  con- 
stitutes an  important  article  of  diet,  being 
used  in  the  preparation  of  a  number  of  fer- 
mented products,  such  as  tofu  cheese,  which 
there  takes  the  place  of  meats  and  other  ex- 
pensive nitrogenous  foods.  In  America  and 
in  parts  of  Europe  the  soy  bean  is  cultivated 
chiefly  as  a  forage  plant.     As  fodder  the 


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plant,  when  cut  at  the  proper  time  and  cured, 
has  a  high  food  value.  If  the  soy  bean  is 
planted  for  fodder  the  seed  is  sown  broad- 
east  and  the  plant  is  cut  while  in  bloom;  if 
it  is  planted  for  beans,  the  seed  is  sown  in 
drills  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plant 
is  cut  just  before  time  for  the  pods  to  burst 
and  scatter  the  seeds.  From  eight  to  ten 
bushels  an  acre  is  an  average  yield  for  green 
forage,  while  fifty  bushels  and  more  of  seeds 
can  be  produced  from  an  acre. 

PAIN,  a  kingdom  of 
Southwestern  Europe. 
Both  geographically  and 
historically  it  forms  a 
connecting  \ipk  between 
Europe  and  Africa.  To 
the  latter  continent  it  was 
once  attached,  and  now 
nearlj'  touches  it.  Of  all 
the  countries  of  Europe, 
Spain  has  most  persist- 
ently preserved  its  local 
differences  of  race  and 
language;  of  all  Euro- 
pean countries  it  presents 
the  most  striking  con- 
trasts and  the  greatest 
diversity  of  land  and  peo- 
ple. Parched,  treeless  plains  are  broken  by 
bleak,  rockj^  uplands  and  ragged  sierras. 
There  are  luxuriant  fields  and  gardens  crossed 
by  winding  streams,  and,  again,  barren  re- 
gions of  perpetual  snow.  Fiery  summer  heat 
alternates  with  biting  winter  cold. 

The  people  of  the  several  sections  are  as 
unlike  as  the  land.  Spain,  once  the  most 
powerful  nation  of  Europe,  abounds  in  relics 
of  its  glorious  past — a  past  made  resplendent 
by  mighty  conquests,  vast  wealth  and  bril- 
liant achievement.  It  has  not  kept  pace  with 
material  progress,  but  is  to-day  one  of  the 
most  fascinating  countries  of  the  continent — 
a  land  of  beauty  and  romance,  of  quaint 
tradition,  of  picturesque  customs  and  man- 
ners. 

Location  and  General  Features.  Spain 
occupies  about  six-sevenths  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  and  has  an  area  of  190.050  square 
miles.  With  the  Canary  and  Balearic  is- 
lands and  the  possessions  on  the  north  and 
west  coast  of  Africa,  it  has  an  area  of  194,- 
783  square  miles.  Its  southern  and  eastern 
shores  are  washed  by  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea, 
its  northern  coasts  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  In 
the  northwest  and  southwest  it  meets  the  At- 


lantic, but  along  most  of  its  western  boundary 
Portugal  intervenes  to  separate  it  from  the 
sea.  France  forms  less  than  half  of  its 
northern  boundary. 

The  Land  and  Waterways.  The  pre- 
dominating feature  of  Spain  is  a  great  in- 
terior plateau,  which  occupies  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  peninsula.  This  plateau  has 
an  elevation  var^-ing  from  1,000  to  3.000  feet, 
and  is  for  the  most  part  treeless.  It  is  crossed 
by  numerous  mountain  ridges,  called  sierras, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Sierra 
de  Guadarrama  and  the  Sierra  de  Gredos. 
At  its  northern  limits  rise  the  Cantabrian 
Mountains,  and  at  its  southern  boundary  are 
the  Sierra  Morena,  The  loftiest  mountains 
wholly  within  the  country  are  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, in  the  south,  the  loftiest  peak  of  which 
is  Mulhacen  (11,664  feet),  the  highest  point 
in  Europe  outside  of  the  Alps  and  Caucasus. 
In  the  PjTenees,  which  form  a  mighty  bar- 
rier in  the  north,  the  highest  summit  in 
Spanish  territory  is  Pico  de  Aneto  (11,160 
feet).  The  elevated  land  reaches  to  the  sea  in 
many  places  along  the  southeastern  and  east- 
ern shore,  terminating  in  cliffs.  Alternating 
with  these  are  gi-eat  curving  beaches.  The 
northwestern  shores  are  deeply  indented, 
while  in  the  southwest  the  coast  is  mostly 
marshes  and  sand  dunes. 

The  rivers  of  Spain  are  of  comparatively 
little  economic  value.  Few  are  navigable, 
and  all  are  too  far  below  the  general  eleva- 
tion to  be  useful  for  irrigation.  All  the  long 
rivers  except  one  discharge  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  Douro  and  Tagus  flow  west  across 
Portugal.  The  Guadiana,  which  forms  part 
of  the  Portuguese  boundary,  and  the  Guadal- 
qui\nr,  the  deepest  stream  in  Spain,  which 
crosses  the  great  Andalusian  plain,  both 
enter  the  sea  on  the  southwest.  The  Ebro, 
which  crosses  the  great  plain  of  Aragon, 
draining  the  northeastern  section,  flows  into 
the  Mediterranean.  There  are  no  lakes  of 
importance;  the  largest  is  Albufera,  near 
Valencia. 

Climate.  The  widest  range  of  temperate 
climate  prevails.  There  is  not  only  great 
variation  between  seasons,  particularly  in  the 
tablelands,  but  also  extreme  changes  between 
the  temperature  of  the  days  and  nights.  In 
the  central  parts  the  rivers  freeze  in  win- 
ter, while  in  summer  the  temperature  often 
rises  to  107  degrees.  In  the  hot  season  the 
rivers,  owing  to  insufficient  rainfall,  run  low 
or  become  dry,  and  the  ground  becomes  so 


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parched  that  whole  communities  sometimes 
have  to  move.  Southern  Spain  is  delightful 
in  winter,  when  rainfall  and  temperature 
combine  to  produce  a  subtropical  vegetation. 
In  summer  this  region  is  visited  by  the  solano, 
a  hot  south  wind  which  often  blows  for  two 
weeks  without  ceasing.  The  northwestern 
provinces,  on  the  Atlantic,  have  a  moist  and 
equable  climate. 

People.  The  Spanish  are  a  bright  and  viva- 
cious people,  most  of  them  dark-skinned  and 
short  of  stature.  They  have  been  called  idle, 
impractical  dreamers,  accused  of  vanity  and 
love  of  show;  but,  though  they  shun  the 
slavery  of  constant  labor,  they  are  never- 
theless energetic  and  ambitious.  Dreamers 
they  may  be,  with  vivid  imaginations  for 
magnificent  projects  they  cannot  execute. 
They  esteem  themselves  highly,  but  are  quick 
to  see  merit  in  others  and  defects  in  them- 
selves. The  love  of  pomp  and  splendor  is 
but  a  natural  heritage  of  a  people  with  so 
splendid  a  past.  The  dominant  character- 
istics of  the  typical  Spaniard  are  independ- 
ence and  personal  dignity.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  he  is  courteous,  affable  and 
witty,  with  a  freshness  of  speech  delightful  to 
foreigners.  He  is  neai'ly  always  violent  in  his 
loves  and  in  his  hatred. 

The  Spanish  people  are  of  a  strongly  in- 
dividual character.  They  have  preserved 
through  the  centuries  the  strain  of  the 
Iberians,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
peninsula,  only  slightly  modified  by  Roman, 
Teutonic  and  Berber  invasions.  The  popula- 
tion is  smaller  than  that  of  any  other  coun- 
try of  equal  opportunity  for  growth.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  census  (1916)  it  is  20,- 
355,983.  A  large  percentage  lives  under 
rural  conditions.  Madrid,  the  capital,  and 
Barcelona  are  the  largest  towns,  each  with  a 
population  of  half  a  million.  Valencia,  Se- 
ville, Malaga,  Murcia,  Saragossa,  Cartagena 
and  Bilbao  are  important  centers,  each  with 
a  population  of  more  than  100,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  in 
Spain  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  general 
trend  of  educational  advancement.  How- 
ever, since  1901,  when  it  was  found  that  sixty- 
six  per  cent  of  the  people  were  illiterate,  far- 
reaching  reforms  have  been  in  progress.  The 
law  of  compulsory  attendance  has  been  en- 
forced, more  primary  schools  have  been 
opened,  more  teachers  engaged  and  at  better 
salaries.  The  secondary  schools,  of  which 
there  are  about  sixty,  prepare  for  the  univer- 


sities ;  the  largest  is  in  Madrid.  The  govern- 
ment also  maintains  commercial  and  technical 
schools  and  inspects  regularly  schools  under 
private  ownership. 

The  national  church  is  the  Roman  Catholic. 
All  the  clergy,  religious  buildings  and  insti- 
tutions are  supported  by  the  government. 
The  numerous  religious  Orders,  through  their 
schools  and  charitable  institutions,  exercise  a 
powerful  influence  on  the  life  of  the  people. 
Among  the  small  percentage  of  the  people 
who  do  not  adhere  to  the  Catholic  faith,  there 
are  30,000  Protestants,  7,000  Jews,  and  4,000 
Rationalists. 

Language  and  Literature.  Spanish  is  one 
of  the  Romance  languages,  being  derived  di- 
rectly from  ancient  Latin.  Three  dialects  are 
spoken — the  Galician,  in  the  northern  prov- 
inces, the  Catalan  in  the  south  and  southeast, 
and  the  Castilian  in  the  central  part  of  the 
country.  The  last  is  the  language  of  the  court 
and  of  the  Spanish-American  republics. 

Spanish  literature  began,  like  the  litera- 
ture of  most  other  countries,  in  songs  descrip- 
tive of  the  great  deeds  of  heroes.  The  earliest 
of  these  songs  which  is  extant  is  one  on  the 
Cid  (see  CiD,  The),  the  manuscript  of  which 
dates  from  the  fourteenth  century.  Fiction 
writing  began  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
from  that  century  or  the  next  dates  the 
Amadis  of  Gaul,  the  most  famous  of  medieval 
romances.  The  Golden  Age  of  literature  in 
Spain  began  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
lasted  until  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth. 
Of  the  scores  of  famous  men  who  wrote  dur- 
ing this  period,  the  greatest  were  the  poets 
Calderon  de  la  Barca  and  Lope  de  Vega,  and 
the  novelist  Cervantes  (see  Cervantes 
Saavedra_,  Miguel  De).  Literature  declined 
in  Spain  during  the  late  seventeenth  cen- 
ruty,  and  the  eighteenth  century  produced 
few  writers  of  note.  The  imitation  of  French 
literature,  which  grew  up  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  had  in  some  ways 
beneficial  effects,  as  in  the  drama  particularly 
there  were  productions  of  worth.  The  ro- 
mantic movement  which  swept  over  Europe 
in  the  early  nineteenth  century  affected  Spain 
with  the  other  countries,  and  poets,  as  well  as 
prose  writers,  showed  its  influence.  Of  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  most 
notable  literary  form  in  Spain  was  the  novel. 
A  novelist  of  present-day  fame  is  Vicente 
Blaso  Ibanez,  whose  Four  Horseman  of  the 
Apocalypse,  a  story  of  the  World  War,  was 
a  "best-seller"  in  America  in  1919. 


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Art.     See  Painting. 

Mineral  Resources.  Spain  is  one  of  the 
richest  countries  of  Europe  in  mineral  re- 
sources. It  produces  more  lead,  copper  and 
quicksilver  than  any  other  countr\'  on  the 
continent.  Other  minerals  that  are  abundant 
are  iron,  salt,  silver  and  coal,  and  there  are 
valuable  deposits  of  zinc,  manganese, 
sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Platinvun  was  dis- 
covered there  in  1915.  Before  the  discovery 
of  mercury  in  California,  Spain  had  the  most 
productive  mercury  mines  in  the  world. 
These  and  salt  mines  are  the  only  mines 
owned  and  operated  by  the  government.  Most 
of  the  others  are  worked  by  foreign  com- 
panies, but  many  are  as  yet  undeveloped. 
The  yearly  output  amounts  approximately  to 
$75,000,000. 

Agriculture.  About  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
land  is  productive,  but  quite  half  of  it  is  un- 
cultivated, and  in  most  sections  farming 
methods  and  implements  are  most  primitive. 
This  condition  is  due  largely  to  the  system 
of  land  tenure,  and  partly  to  the  inadequate 
means  of  communication.  For  centuries  the 
land  has  been  held  in  large  estates  owned  by 
the  nobility  and  rented  to  tenants  at  high 
rates.  Within  recent  years  the  government 
has  attempted,  through  an  agi'icultural  com- 
mission, through  schools  of  farming  and 
through  irrigation,  to  promote  the  industry. 
Some  of  the  large  estates  have  been  divided 
and  sold  to  farmers  on  reasonable  teiTas. 

There  are  several  distinct  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, which,  owing  to  surface  and  climatic 
differences,  have  widely  diversified  interests. 
In  the  southern  provinces,  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  known  as  the  gardens,  every 
part  of  available  ground  is  brought  under 
tillage.  The  land  is  terraced,  fertilized  and 
irrigated  by  canals  supplied  from  reservoirs. 
Large  crops  of  oranges,  lemons,  grapes  and 
other  fruits  are  produced.  In  the  extreme 
south  almonds,  figs,  date  palms,  bananas  and 
sugar  cane  are  cultivated.  In  the  interior 
the  intense  heat  and  drjmess  interfere  with 
the  successful  pursuit  of  agriculture,  and 
there  are  large  areas  of  waste  land.  The 
northwestern  provinces  have  diversified  farm- 
ing interests,  and  stock-raising  is  profitable. 
Here  the  fruits  common  to  Central  Europe 
are  cultivated  in  abundance,  and  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  rye  and  other  cereals  are  grrown.  One 
of  the  chief  crops  of  Spain  is  the  vine,  grown 
in  every  province.  Not  only  are  large  quan- 
tities of  grapes  and  raisins  exported,  but 


millions  of  gallons  of  wine.  Hundreds  of 
acres  are  planted  in  olives.  Spain  is  the 
home  of  the  Merino  sheep,  large  numbers  of 
which  are  raised. 

Although  the  fisheries  are  important,  they 
fail  to  supply  the  home  demand,  and  the 
importation  of  fish  is  large.  The  catch  con- 
sists chiefly  of  sardines,  tunny  and  cod. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  are 
limited  and  are  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
home  demand.  Catalonia,  in  the  northeast- 
ern part  of  Spain,  is  the  leading  manufactur- 
ing province.  Following  this,  in  the  order 
of  importance,  are  the  districts  of  Galicia, 
Asturias  and  Vizcaya,  which  have  an  abun- 
dance of  water  power.  A  few  of  the  large 
towns  in  the  interior,  including  Madrid,  Se- 
ville and  Toledo,  also  have  some  manufac- 
tures. Barcelona  is  the  chief  manufacturing 
city  of  the  country',  and  the  leading  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  metal, 
paper  and  leather,  and  lace  making.  The 
provinces  Valencia,  Murcia  and  Andalusia 
manufacture  some  silk  and  woolen  goods. 
The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  of  importance 
in  Madrid,  Seville,  Valencia  and  other  towns. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of  gold  and 
silverware,  jewelry,  sugar,  olive  oil,  cork, 
glass  and  pocelain. 

Government.  By  the  constitution  of  1876 
Spain  is  declared  a  constitutional  monarchy. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king  and 
the  legislative  power  in  the  national  legisla- 
ture (known  as  the  Cortes)  and  the  king. 
The  Cortes  consists  of  a  Senate  and  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  Of  the  360  Senators,  eighty  sit 
by  right  of  royal  or  noble  birth  or  ofiBcial 
position,  100  are  appointed  by  the  crown 
and  ISO  are  elected  by  a  limited  suffrage  for 
a  term  of  five  years.  The  terms  of  one-half 
of  the  elective  class  expire  even,'  five  years ; 
but  on  dissolution  of  the  Cortes  by  the  king 
the  terms  of  all  expire.  The  king  may  dis- 
solve the  Cortes  at  any  time,  but  must  as- 
semble another  within  three  months.  The 
Deputies,  of  whom  there  are  406, — one  for 
every  50,000  people, — are  also  elected  for 
five  years.  Senators  and  Deputies  have  equal 
authority.  Since  1907  voting  has  been  com- 
pulsory. 

Each  of  the  forty-nine  provinces  has  its 
own  parliament,  and  each  commune  its 
elective  assembly;  neither  the  king  nor  the 
Cortes  has  the  right  to  interfere  in  local  gov- 
ernment in  the  provinces  except  where  the 
general  interest  is  concerned. 


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Army  and  Navy.  ^Militory  sei'vice  is  com- 
pulsory. The  total  liability  for  service  is 
eighteen  years.  In  time  of  peace  the  field 
army  numbers  about  130,000,  officers  and 
men;  in  time  of  war  it  may  be  increased  to 
300,000.  From  the  army  are  recruited  the 
Civil  Guards  and  the  Carabineros,  the  fonuer 
a  constabulary,  the  latter  a  military  police 
who  act  as  customs  guard  on  the  frontier. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  an 
army  aeronautic  depai-tment  was  created. 

The  navy  is  not  strong  as  compared  with 
other  European  navies.  Since  the  SiJanish- 
American  War  it  has  been  in  process  of  re- 
building. The  program  appi'oved  in  Febiii- 
ary,  1015,  provided  for  cruisers,  gunboats, 
destroyers,  submarines,  mines  and  new  re- 
pair docks.  In  1917  the  number  of  sailors 
was  10,051 ;  marines,  4,000. 

Colonies.  All  of  Spain's  colonial  posses- 
sions are  in  Africa  or  adjacent  to  its  shores. 
They  include  Rio  de  Oro  and  Adrar,  on  the 
Sahara  Coast;  the  Muni  River  settlements, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Muni  and  Camp  rivers 
and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  also  called  Spanish 
Guinea ;  and  the  islands  of  Fernando  Po,  An- 
nobon,  Corisco  and  the  Elobey  Islands  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea.  These  possessions  are  a 
liability  rather  than  an  asset,  costing  Spain 
$400,000  a  year.  Politically  the  Canary  and 
Balearic  Islands  are  regarded  as  an  integral 
part  of  Spain.  Rio  de  Oro  and  Adrar  are 
administered  by  the  governor  of  the  Canary 
Islands;  the  other  posessions  are  governed 
from  Santa  Isabel,  capital  of  Fernando  Po. 

History.  When  the  Phoenicians  landed  in 
Spain  and  began  colonization,  probably  at  the 
end  of  the  tv\-elfth  century  B.  c.;,  they  found 
the  country  inhabited  by  a  race  of  mingled 
Celtic  and  Iberian  stock,  to  whom  the  name 
Celtiberians  has  been  given.  After  the 
Phoenicians  came  the  Greeks,  but  the  history 
of  Spain  did  not  really  begin  until  the  third 
century  B.  c,  when  the  Carthaginians  con- 
quered almost  the  entire  peninsula.  Hamil- 
car  Barca,  Hasdrubal  and  Hannibal  were  the 
three  great  generals  who  established  the  em- 
pire of  Carthage  in  Spain.  As  a  result  of 
the  Punic  wars,  the  Carthaginians  were 
driven  from  Spain  and  the  Romans  came 
into  possession  of  the  territory.  Not  until 
19  B.  c,  however,  was  the  entire  peninsula 
brought  into  subjection  to  Rome.  Three 
provinces  were  formed  from  the  conquei'ed 
territory,  and  these  were  prosperous  and 
powerful  under  the  Roman  rule. 


In  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century,  A.  D., 
the  Visigoths  entered  Si3ain  and  there  estab- 
lished a  kingdom.  For  three  centuries  the 
Gothic  rule  continued,  but  in  711  the  Arabs 
overthrew  the  Visigothic  king  and  made  the 
greater  part  of  Spain  a  dependency  of  the 
caliph.  Gradually,  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  the  Pyrenees,  independent  Christian 
kingdoms  were  established,  and  these  small 
states  were  constantly  at  war  among  them- 
selves for  supremacy.  In  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, Aragon  and  Castile  emerged  as  the  most 
powerful,  and  little  by  little  they  absorbed  the 
other  states.  Fortunately  for  these  two  new 
powers,  the  Ommiad  dynasty  of  the  Moors, 
which  had  been  in  power  for  almost  three 
centuries,  became  extinct  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, and  the  subsequent  division  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan territory  into  small  independent 
states  favored  the  expansion  of  the  Christian 
states.  By  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth 
centuiy  the  Moorish  dominion  in  Spain  had 
been  almost  entirely  overthrown  by  the  united 
efforts  of  Castile,  Navarre  and  Aragon,  and 
even  the  Kingdom  of  Granada,  the  only 
Moorish  kingdom  which  remained,  was  forced 
to  admit  the  supremacy  of  Castile  in  all 
matters  affecting  the  two  provinces. 

By  the  marriage  of  Isabella  of  Castile  to 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  these  two  countries 
were  united  (1479),  and  they  were  thus  en- 
abled to  undertake  the  conquest  of  what  re- 
mained of  Moorish  power  in  Spain.  After 
a  ten  years'  war,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in 
1492  entered  Granada,  the  Moorish  capital, 
and  thus  became  the  sovereigns  of  all  Spain, 
with  the  exception  of  Navarre.  Twenty  years 
later  Navan-e,  except  the  part  north  of  the 
Pyrenees,  was  also  taken  by  Ferdinand,  and 
all  Spain  became  united  under  one  ruler. 

The  next  hundred  years  was  the  period  of 
Spain's  greatest  glory.  The  discovery  of 
America  opened  up  new  opportunities  for 
the  growth  of  the  kingdom.  The  grandson 
of  Ferdinand,  Charles  V,  gained  to  the  coun- 
try the  Netherlands  and  Milan.  In  time 
Mexico,  Peru,  Central  America,  Venezuela, 
Cuba,  Chile,  Jamaica  and  Santo  Domingo 
were  conquered,  and  these  poured  into  the 
royal  treasury  a  stream  of  wealth.  Parts 
of  Africa  were  also  conquered,  and  the  Spice 
Islands,  Malacca  and  the  Philippines  were 
acquired.  The  European  territory  added  in- 
cluded Portugal,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
the  Canary  and  Balearic  islands.  Spain  was 
then  the  most  powerful  nation  of  Europe. 


SPAIN 


3374 


SPANIEL 


3  tyranny  and  bigotry  of  Philip  II,  son 
of  Charles  V,  and  of  his  successors,  Philip 
III  and  Philip  IV,  were  among  the  immediate 
causes  of  the  decline  of  Spain.  Religious 
persecution,  civil  wars  and  insurrections  se- 
riously weakened  the  kingdom.  The  loss  of 
The  Netherlands  was  a  great  blow  to  the 
country,  and  the  wars  with  England  worked 
great  damage  to  the  Spanish  naw.  With 
Charles  II  (1665-1700),  the  Hapsburg 
dynasty  became  extinct  in  its  male  line,  and 
only  by  the  disastrous  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  were  the  claims  to  the  throne 
settled.  At  the  close  of  the  struggle  Philip 
of  Anjou  was  recognized  as  king  and  ruled 
as  Philip  V,  the  first  of  the  Bourbon  line  in 
Spain.  The  war  had  hastened  the  decline  of 
Spain,  by  depriving  it  of  many  colonial  pos- 
sessions, including  Parma,  Naples,  Sardinia, 
Milan,  Sicily,  Gibraltar  and  Minorca. 

Ferdinand  VI  (1746-1759)  and  Charles 
III  (1759-1788)  both  introduced  reforms 
into  the  government  and  strengthened  the 
state  somewhat,  but  Charles  IV  (1788-1808) 
was  "not  as  strong  a  ruler  as  his  two  predeces- 
sors, and  all  that  had  been  gained  under  them 
was  lost.  War  with  France  brought  heavy 
losses  and  conflict  later  with  England  as  an 
ally  of  France  ended  in  defeat  at  Trafalgar 
(1805).  In  1808  affairs  had  come  to  such  a 
state  that  Charles  felt  that  safety  for  him- 
self and  for  Spain  lay  only  in  his  abdication, 
and  he  therefore  gave  up  the  throne  to  his 
son  Ferdinand.  Napoleon  compelled  Charles 
and  Ferdinand  to  renounce  all  claims  to  the 
Spanish  crown,  which  he  conferred  on  his 
brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  The  Spanish 
people  refused  to  recognize  the  Bonapartes 
as  their  rulers  and  declared  for  Ferdinand, 
and  the  active  resistance  which  followed  on 
their  declaration  was  the  first  step  toward 
Napoleon's  overthrow.  In  1814  Ferdinand 
again  entered  Madrid  as  king,  and  a  reac- 
tionary policy  was  immediately  adopted  by 
him.  From  this  time  until  1868  the  Bour- 
bon dynasty  reigned  uninterruptedly,  and 
liberals  and  absolutists  in  turn  held  the  chief 
power  in  the  State.  In  1868  a  revolt  arose, 
headed  by  Prim,  and  the  queen,  Isabella,  was 
driven  from  the  country. 

The  attempt  of  the  Spanish  to  find  for 
themselves  a  ruler,  led  indirectly  to  the 
Franco-German  War.  From  December, 
1870,  to  early  in  1873,  Amadeus,  son  of  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  of  Italy,  reigned  as  king  at 
Madrid,  and  after  his  abdication  a  republic 


was  organized.  The  republic  proved  unpop- 
ular, and  in  1875  the  monarchy  was  reestab- 
lished, with  Alfonso  XII,  son  of  Isabella,  as 
king.  Alfonso  reigned  for  ten  years,  and  his 
posthumous  son,  Alfonso  XIII,  succeeded 
him,  with  Christina,  his  mother,  as  regent. 
A  rebellion  in  Cuba  was  met  with  the  great- 
est severity,  and  complications  ensued  which 
led,  in  1898,  to  war  with  the  United  States, 
the  result  of  which  was  the  loss  to  Spain  of 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Since  that  conflict  efforts  have  been  made 
to  rehabilitate  the  country.  During  the 
World  War  Spain  succeeded  in  remaining 
neutral,  but  was  torn  by  internal  troubles, 
and  during  the  mining  and  railroad  strikes 
of  1916  the  country  was  under  martial  law. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Barcelona  Cordoba  Murcia 

Bilbao  Granada  Saragossa 

Cadiz  Madrid  Seville 

Cartagena  Malaga  Valencia 

HISTORY 

Alfonso  XTII  Isabella  of  Castile 

Alhambra  Maria  Christina 

Alva,   Duke  of  Moors 

Aragon  Napoleon 

Armada  Navarre 

Castile  Peninsular   War 

Charles  V  (Holy  Philip  II  and  V 

Roman  Kmperor)  Spanish-American  War 

Ferdinand    V  Succession    Wars 
Gonsalvo   de  Cordova     Torquemada,    Thomas 
Granada  de 

Hamilcar  Barca  United  States,  subhead 
Hannibal  History 

Iberia 

ISLANDS 

Canary  Balearic 

MOUNTAINS 

Pyrenees  Sierra  Nevada 

RIVERS 

Douro  Guadiana 

Guadalquivir 

SPANIEL,    span'yel,   the  name  given   to 

several  breeds  of  dogs  which  include  field  and 
water  hunting  dogs,  and  several  smaller 
breeds  of  the  fancy,  or  "toy,"  variety.  They 
are  characterized  by  a  rather  broad  muzzle, 
remarkably  long,  full  ears,  plentiful  and 
beautifully-waved  hair.  The  prevailing  col- 
ors of  most  breeds  are  liver  and  white,  al- 
though some  are  red  and  white,  black  and 
white,  or  deep  brown  or  black  on  the  face 
and  breast,  with  a  tan  spot  over  each  eye. 

Kinds  of  Spaniels.  The  Irish  breeds  con- 
stitute the  best  known  water  spaniels.  Among 
the  most  popular  field  hunting  spaniels  are 
the  Clumber,  Sussex,  Norfolk  and  Cocker. 
The  King  Cliarles,  a  small  variety,  common 
as  a  lapdog,  is  usually  black  and  tan  or 
brown  and  has  a  large  head  and  a  small,  well- 
coated    body.     In    addition    to    the    King 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR 


3375 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR 


Charles,  the  Blenheim  and  the  Japanese  are 
well-known  lap  spaniels.  The  Maltese  is  also 
a  small  species  of  sjianiel.  The  water  span- 
iels, large  and  small,  differ  from  the  com- 
mon spaniel  only  in  the  roughness  of  their 
coats.  They  are  fond  of  the  water  and  make 
excellent  retrievers.  Their  intelligence,  af- 
fection and  obedience,  combined  with  their 
beauty,  make  spaniels  highly  prized  as  house 
dogs.    See  DoG. 

SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR,  the  war 
between  Spain  and  the  United  States  in  1898, 
was  of  short  duration,  but  important  in  its  ef- 
fect upon  the  history  of  the  world. 

Cause  of  the  War.  The  war's  fundamental 
cause  was  the  inability  or  unwillingness  of 
Spain  to  govern  Cuba  according  to  principles 
of  freedom  and  justice.  It  was  a  result  of 
nearly  a  half-century  of  disagreement  and 
negotiation,  during  which  the  United  States 
often  had  proposed  to  purchase  the  island, 
in  order  to  remove  the  menace  to  American 
industries  and  peace,  while  the  island  itself 
had  been  in  almost  constant  turmoil  from 
rebellion  and  accompanying  oppression.  The 
last  insurrection  began  in  1895,  and  despite 
the  most  determined  efforts  of  Spain,  through 
severe  measures  undertaken  by  its  governors- 
general,  Campos,  Weyler  and  Blanco,  the 
Cubans  had  succeeded  in  establishing  a  sem- 
blance of  an  independent  government  and 
had  maintained  more  or  less  successful  war- 
fare against  the  Spanish  army. 

Declaration  of  War.  The  interest  of  the 
United  States  government  became  more  and 
more  centered  upon  Cuban  affairs,  and  fi- 
nally the  United  States  battleship  Maine  was 
sent  to  Havana  to  protect  American  interests. 
On  the  night  of  February  15,  1898,  the  ves- 
sel was  destroyed  by  an  explosion.  Though 
responsibility  could  not  be  placed  upon 
Spanish  officials,  the  American  people  were 
convinced  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  deliber- 
ate plot,  and  public  sentiment  forced  Con- 
gress soon  to  declare  war  (April  25).  Mean- 
while, it  had  declared  that  "the  people  of 
Cuba  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and 
independent,"  demanded  that  Spain  relin- 
quish her  authority  in  the  island,  and  author- 
ized President  McKinley  to  use  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States  to  accomplish  that 
fend. 

Naval  Engagements;  Campaigns.  The 
first  gun  of  the  war  was  fired  April  23  by 
the  Nashville,  in  the  capture  of  a  Spanish 
merchantman.    Commodore    Sampson,    with 


the  North  Atlantic  naval  squadron,  began  a 
blockade  of  Havana  and  the  north  coast, 
while  volunteer  troops  to  the  number  of  200,- 
000  were  soon  recruited,  drilled  and  equipped 
at  several  camps. 

The  first  important  engagement  was  at 
Manila  Bay,  where  Commodore  George 
Dewey,  in  command  of  the  Asiatic  squadron, 
completely  annihilated  the  Spanish  fleet. 
Troops  were  immediately  sent  to  the  Philip- 
pines under  General  Merritt,  and  an  attack 
by  the  land  and  naval  forces  led  to  the  fall 
of  Manila  on  August  13.  Meantime,  a  Span- 
ish fleet  under  Admiral  Cervera  reached 
Cuban  waters  and  took  a  position  in  the 
harbor  of  Santiago,  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Cuba,  where  it  was  blockaded  by  an  Ameri- 
can fleet  under  Sampson  and  Schley.  It  was 
during  this  blockade  that  Lieutenant  Hobson 
and  a  crew  of  volunteers  attempted  to  bottle 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor  by  sinking  the 
collier  Merrimac. 

Land  Campaigns.  In  June,  General  Shaf- 
ter,  with  a  force  of  17,000  men,  landed  at  a 
point  a  little  east  of  Santiago  and  invested 
the  town.  The  enemy  gradually  retired  with- 
in its  fortifications  in  Santiago,  offering  the 
only  important  resistance  at  the  hills  of  San 
Juan  and  El  Caney,  which  were  finally: 
gained  by  the  Americans  under  Major-Gen- 
eral Shafter  on  July  2.  On  the  following 
day  Cervera,  under  orders  from  his  govern- 
ment, attempted  to  break  the  blockade;  but 
after  a  long  running  fight  his  whole  squad- 
ron was  beached  or  destroyed,  and  he,  to- 
gether with  1,700  men,  was  captured.  The 
siege  of  the  city  was  continued  until  July 
15,  when  General  Toral  surrendered  the  whole 
District  of  Santiago. 

Terms  of  Peace.  On  July  25  General 
Miles  raised  the  United  States  flag  over  Porto 
Eico,  and  on  the  following  day  Spain  made 
overtures  for  peace.  August  12  a  protocol 
was  signed,  and  in  December  a  final  treaty 
of  peace  was  accepted,  by  which  Spain  re- 
linquished all  claims  to  Cuba  and  surrendered 
Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines  and  Guam  to  the 
United  States,  for  a  consideration  of  $20,- 
000,000   and  special   commercial  privileges. 

This  war  f  ocussed  attention  upon  several  of 
its  leaders.  Conunodores  Schley  and  Samp- 
son were  each  promoted  to  the  rear-ad- 
miralty. Theodore  Eoosevelt,  in  command  of 
the  "Rough  Riders,"  distinguished  himself  at 
San  Juan,  and  on  his  return  home  was 
elected  governor  of  New  York. 


SPANISH  INFLUENZA 


3376 


SPARTA 


The  total  expense  of  the  war  to  the  United 
States  was  $165,000,000;  "2,910  American 
soldiers  lost  their  lives,  of  whora  all  but  306 
died  of  disease.  Because  of  this  fearful 
death  rate  from  causes  other  than  battle,  an 
investigation  of  the  War  Department  was  in- 
stigated, which,  however,  resulted  in  a  gen- 
eral acquittal  of  the  responsible  officials. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Cuba  Roosevelt,   Theodore 

Dewey,   George  Rough  Riders 

El  Caney,  Battle  of        Sampson,   William   T. 
Hobson,  Richmond  P.    Schley,  ^Vinfield  S. 
McKinley,    William         United   States 
Manila  Bay,  Battle  of        subhead  History 
Philippine    Islands  Weyler.  Xickolau  V. 

Porto   Rico  Wood,  Leonard 

SPANISH    INFLUENZA.     See    Influ- 

EXZA. 

SPANISH  SUCCESSION,  suk  sesh'un, 
"War  of  the.    See  Succession  Wars. 

SPARROW,  the  name  of  a  large  group  of 
finches,  which  have,  in  general,  a  brown  and 
gray  plumage.  The  birds  feed  and  nest  on 
or  near  the  ground,  and  are  among  the  least 


ENGLISH  SPARROW 
timid  of  wild  birds.  They  chirp  noisily,  but 
comparatively^  few  are  songsters.  The  com- 
mon English  house  sparroio,  which  is  about 
six  inches  long,  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  and  Canada  about  the  year  1869  and 
has  increased  astonishingly  in  numbers,  until 
now  it  is  probably  more  numerous  than  any 
other  wild  bird.  One  pair  will  raise  several 
families  of  four  or  five  each  year.  These 
sparrows  live  chiefly  in  and  about  cities  and 
towns. 

It  was  once  thought  that  sparrows  were 
aids  to  the  farmer,  but  it  is  now  known  that 
they  eat  few  insects,  but  live  chiefly  upon 
grains  and  the  refuse  they  gather  near  houses. 
They  are  notorious  fighters  among  themselves, 


and  usually  drive  away  the  more  desirable 
birds.  Of  the  American  species  the  most 
common  is  the  chipping  sparrow,  a  small 
grajdsh  bird  marked  with  a  chestnut  crown. 
The  field  sparroio,  an  eastern  resident,  and 
the  tree  sparrow,  a  winter  visitor  only,  are 
similar  species.  The  sea-side  and  the  sharp- 
tailed  sparrows  inhabit  the  coast  marshes. 

There  are  in  America  several  distinct 
sjoecies  of  musical  sparrows.  The  song  spar- 
row, a  six-inch  bird  streaked  on  the  breast 
with  black  or  brown,  has  a  remarkably  clear, 
sweet  refrain.  The  vesper  sparrow,  similarly 
marked,  has  a  habit  of  singing  in  the  late 
afternoon.  One  of  the  well-known  sparrow 
songsters  of  the  West  is  the  black-throated 
dickcissel,  while  the  large  fox  sparrows  and 
Harris  sparroios  of  the  same  regions  are 
known  to  gather  in  flocks  and  sing  in  chorus. 
A  beautiful  little  bird  is  the  white-throated 
sparroio  most  familiar  along  the  Canadian 
boundary,  whose  clear,  cheery  note  is  heard 
in  the  spring  and  about  the  summer  nesting 
places. 

SPARROW  HAWK,  a  very  small  hawk, 
about  ten  inches  long,  which  ranges  from 
Northern  Canada  to  Mexico.  It  is  reddish- 
brown  and  black  on  the  shoulders,  and  back 
and  has  gra^dsh-blue  wings.  The  nests  are 
made  in  ioles  in  trees.  The  eggs,  numbering 
from  five  to  seven,  are  cream-white  marked 
with  brown.  The  birds  feed  on  insects,  small 
rodents,  reptiles  and  other  enemies  to  the 
farmer,  and  thus  render  a  distinct  service 
to  agriculture. 

SPARTA,  spah/ta,  or  LACEDAEMON, 
las  e  de'mon,  a  celebrated  city  of  ancient 
Greece,  the  capital  of  Laconia  and  the  chief 
city  of  the  Peloponnesus.  It  was  a  scattered 
city  consisting  of  five  separate  sections.  Un- 
like Athens,  it  was  plainly  built  and  had  few 
notable  buildings ;  consequently  it  left  no  im- 
posing ruins. 

The  Spartans  were  a  sterH  and  rugged 
warrior  race,  despising  danger  and  esteem- 
ing military  glory  the  highest  of  honors. 
They  were  temperate  in  eating  and  drinking, 
and  their  food  was  of  the  plainest  sort.  By 
law  they  were  debarred  from  trade  and  agri- 
culture, and  their  chief  occupation  was  mili- 
tary drill  and  physical  exercise.  The  form 
of  government  was  aristocratic,  and  the  exe<*- 
utive  power  was  vested  in  two  kings  and 
five  ephors.  The  Spartan  child  was  trained 
to  endure  any  hardships,  to  be  self-con- 
trolled and  obedient  to  authority.    From  the 


SPARTA 


3377 


SPARTACUS 


age  of  seven  to  twenty  he  lived  in  a  public 
institution  and  took  bis  meals  at  the  public 
table.  From  twenty  to  thirty  he  lived  under 
arms  in  barracks,  and  although  at  thirty  he 
was  required  by  the  law  to  marry,  he  still 
ate  at  the  public  table. 

According  to  tradition,  the  Spartan  state 
was  founded  by  Lacedaemon,  son  of  Zeus. 
The  most  celebrated  of  its  legendaiy  kings 
was  Menelaus.  It  is  believed  the  Spartans 
were  the  descendants  of  the  Dorians,  who  in- 
vaded the  Peloponnesus  not  later  than  1000 
B.  c.  Such  of  the  former  inhabitants  of  the 
state  as  did  not  emigrate  were  allowed  to 
keep  the  poorest  lands  about  the  city  and  to 
work  as  tradesmen  or  mechanics,  but  they 
were  given  no  part  in  the  government.  About 
900  B.  c,  Lycurgus  gave  the  country  a  code 
of  laws  under  which  it  prospered. 

About  this  time  the  Spartans  entered  on  a 
period  of  conquest.  They  extended  their 
sway  over  all  the  territory  of  Laconia,  a  part 
of  the  inhabitants  of  which  they  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  slaves.  They  also  waged 
war  with  the  Mycenaeans,  the  Arcadians 
and  the  Argives,  against  w'hom  they  were  so 
successful  that  before  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  B.  c.  they  were  recognized  as  the 
leading  people  in  Greece.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing century  the  Persian  wars  began,  dur- 
ing which  a  rivalry  grew  up  between  Athens 
and  Sparta.  This  rivalry  led  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,  in  which  Athens  was  humil- 
iated, and  the  old  ascendency  of  Sparta  was 
reestablished.  Soon  after  this  the  Spartans 
became  involved  in  a  war  with  Persia  by 
joining  Cjtus  the  Younger  in  his  rebellion 
against  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  and  Athens, 
Thebes,  Corinth  and  some  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  states  seized  the  opportunity  to 
declare  war  against  Sparta.  The  final  out- 
come of  this  struggle  was  the  defeat  of 
Sparta  at  Leuctra  in  371  B.  C. 

During  the  following  century  Sparta  stead- 
ily declined.  Although  determined  attempts 
were  made  to  restore  its  former  greatness, 
these  failed  because  there  were  less  than  a 
thousand  inhabitants  of  true  Spartan  descent, 
and  the  majority  of  these  were  in  a  state  of 
beggary.  "When  Philip  of  Macedon  entered 
Greece,  Sparta  struggled  vigorously  against 
him,  but  Macedonia  was  victorious  in  the  end. 
With  the  rest  of  Greece,  Sparta  passed  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Romans  in  146  b.  c.  The 
old  constitution  of  Lycurgus  was  reestab- 
lished under  Roman  rule,  and  the  city  pros- 


pered until  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was 
sacked  by  the  Goths. 

Related     Articles.'    Consult     the     following: 
titles   for  additional  information: 
Athens  Helots  Peloponnesus 

Dorians  Lycurgus  Philip  II 

Greece  Menelaus  Thermopylae 

SPAR'TACANS,  the  name  applied  to  a 
group  of  German  radicals,  who  under  the 
leadership  of  Dr.  Karl  Liebknecht  and  Rosa 
Luxemburg  opposed  the  Social  Democrats 
on  the  reorganization  of  the  German  govern- 
ment after  the  abdication  of  the  Kaiser,  Wil- 
helm  II,  in  November,  1918.  The  Spartacans 
are  extreme  Socialists,  and  have  for  their 
purpose  the  development  of  a  dictatorship  of 
the  common  people.  Dr.  Liebknecht  had  is- 
sued a  number  of  pamphlets  opposing  the 
war,  under  the  pen  name  of  Spartacus,  and 
from  this  incident  the  party  took  its  name. 

The  Spartacans  adopted  the  methods  of  the 
Bolsheviki  in  Russia  and  attempted  to  in- 
augurate a  reign  of  terror  by  starting  a 
counter-revolution.  They  were,  however, 
soon  suppressed.  Rosa  Luxemburg  was 
killed  by  a  mob  and  Liebknecht  was  shot 
while  attempting  to  escape  from  a  guard  that 
held  him  under  arrest.  While  the  loss  of  the 
leaders,  together  with  the  active  measures 
taken  by  the  government  to  suppress  the 
Spartacans,  stopped  the  counter-revolution, 
the  party  continued  its  proiDaganda.  See 
Germany;  Liebknecht,  Karl. 

SPAR'TACUS,  a  Thracian  gladiator,  the 
instigator  and  leader  of  a  revolt  of  the 
slaves  in  Italy,  between  73  and  71  b.  C.  He 
had  been  compelled,  like  other  barbarians,  to 
serve  in  the  Roman  army,  but  he  had  de- 
serted and  become  the  head  of  a  band  of 
robbers.  At  length  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  placed  in  a  gladiatorial  school  at  Capua, 
with  two  hundred  other  slaves.  They  formed 
a  conspiracy,  effected  their  escape  and  were 
joined  by  the  disaffected  slaves  and  peasan- 
try of  the  neighborhood,  so  that  in  a  few 
months  Spartacus  found  himself  at  the  head 
of  over  sixty  thousand  men.  Two  consuls 
were  sent  with  armies  against  him,  but 
Spartacus  defeated  them  in  succession  and 
led  his  forces  toward  Rome.  In  this  crisis 
Crassus  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army 
and  managed  to  hem  in  the  revolted  slaves 
near  Rhegium.  Spartacus  broke  through  the 
enemy  by  night  and  retreated,  but  later  he 
had  to  encounter  the  army  of  Crassus.  His 
soldiers  were  overcome,  and  Spartacus  him- 
self fell  fighting. 


SPARTANBURG 


3378 


SPEARMINT 


SPAR'TANBURG,  S.  C,  the  county  seat 
of  Spartanburg  County,  ninety-three  miles 
northwest  of  Columbia,  on  the  Charleston  & 
Western  Carolina,  the  Carolina,  Clinchfield 
&  Ohio  of  South  Carolina,  the  Southern,  and 
the  Piedmont  &  Northern  railroads.  The 
city  is  on  an  elevation  of  over  800  feet.  It 
is  in  a  rich  cotton-growing  region,  contain- 
ing, also,  deposits  of  limestone,  granite,  gold 
and  iron.  There  are  thirty-eight  cotton  mills 
with  more  than  800,000  spindles,  ironworks, 
lumber  mills,  broom  factories  and  soap  works. 
Converse  College  and  Wofford  College  are 
located  here,  also  a  state  institution  for  the 
deaf,  dumb  and  blind.  The  city  has  the 
commission  form  of  government.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  17,517;  in  1917,  21,985  (Federal 
estimate). 

SPASM,  spaz'm,  an  ailment  of  which  the 
chief  feature  is  jerking  of  the  muscles. 
Spasm  is  a  symptom  of  disease,  not  a  specific 
disease.  It  occurs  in  epilepsy,  in  the  final 
stages  of  Bright's  disease,  frequently  in 
poisoning  cases,  and  occasionally  in  attacks 
of  indigestion.  Children  suffering  from  in- 
testinal trouble  sometimes  have  convulsions 
more  terrifying  than  dangerous.  The 
remedy  for  attacks  of  spasm  depends  upon 
the  cause,  and  must  be  determined  by  a 
physician. 

SPAVIN,  a  disease  of  horses,  which  af- 
fects the  hock  joint,  the  joint  in  the  hind  leg 
between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock.  Spavin 
may  occur  in  two  forms.  The  first,  which  is 
called  hog,  or  hlood,  spavin,  arises  from  an 
injury  and  is  accompanied  by  swelling  and 
inflammation.  In  the  other  form,  known  as 
hone  spavin,  there  is  an  injury  which  causes 
a  bony  substance  to  be  deposited  about  the 
joint,  in  some  cases  causing  permanent  stiff- 
ness. A  bone  sjoavin  grows  very  slowly,  and 
it  may  not  be  noticed  until  the  horse  becomes 
lame.  No  cure  has  been  found  for  it.  The 
treatment  for  bog  spavin  consists  in  hot  ap- 
plications and  blistering.  When  these  fail, 
burning  with  a  hot  iron  may  be  resorted  to, 
but  this  should  be  done  by  a  skilful  veteri- 
narian. 

SPAWN,  the  eggs  of  fishes,  frogs  and 
reptiles.  The  number  of  eggs  produced  by 
fishes  varies  greatly  in  different  species;  for 
instance,  in  the  spawn  of  a  single  codfish,  as 
many  as  3,500,000  eggs  have  been  found. 
Fish  eggs  are  an  important  article  of  food 
for  sea  animals,  and  hence  millions  are 
necessary  to  save  a  species  from  extinction. 


As  a  measure  of  safety  sea  fish  often  ascend 
rivers  in  the  spawning  season;  and  some 
fresh-water  fishes  spawn  in  the  ocean. 

SPEAKER,  speek'er,  the  title  given  to  the 
presiding  officer  of  a  legislative  body.  It 
applies  to  that  official  in  the  English  House 
of  Commons,  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  the  United  States  and  in  the  like  body  in 
each  state  legislature. 

Until  1910  the  Speaker  of  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives  was  as- 
sumed to  be  the  second  most  powerful  man  in 
the  government  of  the  nation,  next  to  the 
President.  This  was  due  to  his  power  to  ap- 
point committees  of  the  House;  it  was  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  this  authority  practically 
to  control  legislation.  In  the  year  named, 
however,  the  Speaker  was  deprived  of  this 
arbitrary  power. 

The  Speaker  of  the  House  is  chosen  from 
among  the  membership  of  that  body,  for  a 
term  of  two  j'ears,  and  he  has  a  vote  on  all 
questions.  By  calling  another  member  to  his 
post  he  may  descend  to  the  floor  and  address 
the  House  on  any  subject.  He  receives  an 
annual  salaiy  of  $12,000,  equal  to  that  of  the 
Vice-President,  who  is  presiding  officer  of  the 
Senate, 

In  the  state  legislature  the  Speaker  has 
powers  and  duties  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  Speaker  of  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives. 

In  the  English  House  of  Commons  this  of- 
ficial is  strictly  non-partisan,  and  the  office 
may  be  held  permanently  by  the  same  person 
through  several  opposing  administrations. 
He  cannot  take  part  in  debate,  neither  can  he 
vote  on  any  question  except  in  case  of  a  tie. 
See  Congress  op  the  United  States; 
Representattvt^s,  House  of. 

SPEARMINT,  speer'm'mt,  a  species  of 
mint  native  to  temjierate  regions  of  most 
parts  of  the  world.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the 
peppermint  of  the  United  States  is  produced 
in  Saint  Joseph  County,  Mich.,  the  world's 
most  important  center  of  spearmint  distilla- 
tion. In  this  vicinity  almost  every  evening 
the  wind  wafts  breezes  heavily  laden  with 
mint  odors. 

Spearmint  yields  an  oil  utilized  in  the 
preparation  of  perfumes  and  medicine  and  as 
flavoring  in  chewing  gum,  julep,  candies, 
soups,  sauces,  etc.  The  smooth,  erect  stems 
of  the  plant  grow  to  two  feet  in  height  and 
bear  at  the  top  whorls  of  pale  purple  or 
white  flowers.    See  Mint. 


SPECIE  PAYMENTS 


3379 


SPECTROSCOPE 


SPECIE,  spe'she,  PAY'MENTS,  Resump- 
tion OP,  in  American  history,  specifically,  the 
steps  taken  by  the  United  States  between 
1875  and  1879  for  gradual  redemption  of 
United  States  notes,  of  which  there  were  at 
that  time  $382,000,000  out-standing,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  issues  of  paper  money  during  the 
Civil  War.  It  had  been  found  necessary  in 
1861  to  suspend  the  redemption  of  these  notes 
in  metallic  money,  by  reason  of  tlie  extraor- 
dinary demand  for  gold  caused  by  the  war. 

As  the  volume  of  paper  money  increased, 
its  value  naturally  decreased,  causing  not 
only  a  rise  of  prices,  but  a  general  uncer- 
tainty in  financial  and  commercial  circles. 
In  order  to  improve  the  situation,  an  act  was 
passed  in  1866  providing  for  the  gradual  re- 
tirement of  greenbacks  and  the  pajrment  of 
them  in  specie,  but  this  was  not  satisfactory. 
Another  act  was  passed  in  1875,  providing 
for  complete  resumption  of  all  notes  pre- 
sented on  January  1,  1879,  and  for  the  grad- 
ual accumulation  of  gold  in  the  treasury  by 
means  of  the  sale  of  bonds,  for  the  purpose 
of  redeeming  these  notes.  As  the  supply  of 
gold  increased,  the  value  of  greenbacks  or 
government  notes  proportionately  rose,  and 
when  the  government  oifered  to  redeem  its 
notes  in  gold,  few  were  presented. 

SPECIES,  spe'shez,  a  distinct  kind  of 
animals  or  plants.  Any  group  of  individuals 
having  common  characteristics  and  desig- 
nated by  a  common  name,  although  they  may 
differ  among  themselves  in  minor  details  of 
form  or  color,  is  called  a  species.  Such  in- 
dividuals reproduce  their  kind  by  indefinite 
interbreeding.  A  group  of  species  with 
points  in  common  is  called  a  genus.  See 
Classification. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.  See  Gravity, 
Specific. 

SPECTACLES,  an  optical  device  designed 
to  aid  the  eyesight,  the  invention  of  Roger 
Bacon,  an  English  scientist  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  first  spectacles  were  very 
crude,  and  it  was  not  until  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury that  they  began  to  be  made  according  to 
the  principles  of  refraction  of  light.  Spec- 
tacles consist  of  a  pair  of  lenses  made  of  clear 
rock  crystal,  ground  according  to  a  formula 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  person  for  whom 
they  are  intended.  Long-sighted  persons  re- 
quire convex  lenses;  those  who  are  short- 
sighted need  lenses  which  are  concave.  When 
the  eyes  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  ob- 
jects both  near  and  far,  divided   (bi-foeal) 


spectacles  are  worn.  In  these  each  lens  con- 
sists of  two  semi-circles  of  glass,  differently 
ground,  fitted  neatly  together  one  above  the 
other  in  the  frame,  or  of  a  single  piece  of 
glass  with  the  upper  and  the  lower  half 
ground  to  focus  differently.  The  latter  is 
very  much  more  expensive.  In  cases  of  as- 
tigmatism, a  structural  defect  of  the  eye,  the 
lens  used  is  the  segment  of  a  cylinder. 

Spectacles  can  be  made  with  such  skill  and 
in  such  variety  that  almost  any  defect  in 
vision  arising  from  irregularity  in  the  shape 
of  the  eye  can  be  corrected  by  them.  One 
should  never  select  spectacles  without  con- 
sulting a  skilled  oculist,  since  the  eyes  are 
seldom  alike,  and  a  lens  that  is  suited  to  one 
eye  is  not  suited  to  the  other.  Unless  specta- 
cles are  adjusted  to  the  eyes,  they  are  liable 
to  be  injurious  rather  than  beneficial. 

The  frame  of  spectacles  is  made  of  tor- 
toise shell  or  of  metal,  usually  gold  or  steel. 
It  consists  usually  of  a  rim  enclosing  the 
glass,  joined  by  a  bridge  which  rests  upon 
the  nose,  and  side  bars  and  bows,  which  fit 
over  the  ears.  Glasses  which  are  held  by 
clips  to  the  nose  are  rapidly  supplanting 
those  held  by  bows. 

SPECTROSCOPE,  speh'troskope,  an  in- 
strument for  studying  the  spectra  of  bodies 
(see  Light,  subhead  Spectrum).  The  ordi- 
nary spectroscope  has  a  central  prism  en- 
closed in  a  frame,  shaped  like  an  alarm-clock 
case  and  laid  face  upward  on  a  standard. 
From  the  sides  of  this  frame  extend,  horizon- 
tally, three  large  tubes,  equidistant  from  one 
another.  One  of  these  tubes,  called  the  col- 
limator, has,  at  the  end  near  the  prism,  a 
double-convex  lens,  and  at  the  other  end,  at 
the  focus  of  the  lens,  a  small  slit,  formed  by 
two  pieces  of  adjustable  metal  which  regu- 
late the  width  of  the  slit  and  the  amount  of 
light  admitted.  The  light  entering  the  slit 
strikes  the  prism  in  parallel  rays.  One  of 
the  tubes  contains  a  graduated  scale,  by 
means  of  which  the  spectrum  is  thrown  on  a 
screen,  and  the  other  is  a  telescope,  by  means 
of  which  the  phenomena  are  observed. 

The  spectroscope  is  used  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  composition  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  such  as  the  sun  and  stars, 
and  the  composition  of  substances  when  adul- 
teration is  suspected.  It  is  much  used  in  as- 
tronomy. By  means  of  it  astronomers  may 
determine  distances  in  space  and  the  direc- 
tions and  velocities  of  remote  bodies.  It  has 
made  possible  some  of  the  greatest  of  as- 


SPECTRUM 


3380 


SPELLING 


tronomical  discoveries.  See  Spectrum  Anal- 
ysis. 

SPECTRUM.    See  Light. 

SPECTRUM,  spek'trum,  ANALYSIS.  By 

passing  a  beam  of  sunlight  through  a  glass 
prism  in  a  dark  room  an  image  containing  all 
the  colors  of  the  rainbow  is  obtained.  This 
image  is  called  the  solar  spectrum,  and  is 
formed  because  the  prism  separates  the  beam 
of  white  light  into  the  colors  which  unite  to 
form  it.  Experiments  with  other  substances 
show  that  they  also  produce  spectra  when 
burned  in  the  spectroscope  (which  see),  and 
spectrum  analysis  is  the  process  by  which 
the  composition  of  substances  is  ascertained 
by  the  spectroscope.  Burning  bodies  pro- 
duce three  kinds  of  spectra,  known  as  the 
continuous  spectrum,  the  bright-lined  spec- 
trum and  the  dark-lined,  or  absorption  spec- 
trum. For  instance  a  continuous  spectrum  is 
formed  by  a  glowing  or  burning  body  near 
the  instrument  or  by  the  sun  when  its  rays  are 
analyzed  by  a  single  prism.  If  a  candle  or  gas 
light  is  burned  near  a  prism,  it  forms  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum.  A  bright-Jined  spectrum 
is  formed  when  gases  which  are  not  under 
great  pressure  are  burned.  The  lines  thus 
formed  have  a  definite  position  in  the  spec- 
trum and  never  change  in  the  same  substance. 
The  dark-lined  spectrum  is  formed  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  light  as  it  passes  through  the  va- 
por of  some  substance  between  the  burning 
body  and  the  spectroscope.  Experiment  has 
shown  that  the  vapor  of  any  substance  absorbs 
the  rays  of  light  which  that  substance  pro- 
duces in  the  specti-um  when  it  is  burned. 
These  dark  lines  are  known  as  Fraunhofer 
lines,  from  the  name  of  their  discoverer,  and  a 
number  of  them  appear  in  the  spectrum  of 
the  sun.  Since  these  occupy  a  definite  posi- 
tion on  the  screen,  they  are  designated  by  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  as  a,  h,  c. 

The  process  of  spectrum  analysis  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  dark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum 
are  produced  by  its  light  passing  through  the 
vapor  of  certain  substances.  Since,  in  the 
spectrum  of  iron,  bright  lines  cover  certain 
dark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum,  therefore 
■we  infer  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  con- 
tains the  vapor  of  iron.  The  presence  of 
other  substances  in  the  sun  has  been  discov- 
ered in  a  similar  manner.  In  testing  the 
composition  of  any  substance  by  means  of 
the  spectroscope,  a  small  quantity  of  the  sub- 
stance is  burned  and  its  spectrum  is  noted. 
In  case  the  substance  contains  impurities,  the 


lines  which  these  impurities  f  urm  will  also  ap- 
pear on  the  screen,  and  their  presence  is  thus 
noted.  The  great  value  of  the  spectroscope 
for  ascertaining  the  purity  of  substances  is  in 
its  ability  to  detect  minute  quantities.  It  is 
estimated  that  as  small  a  quantity  as-g^^^-g-g-jj- 
of  a  grain  of  lithium  can  thus  be  detected. 

SPEECH,  in  the  broadest  sense,  is  the  art 
of  using  language  to  convey  thought.  In  a 
more  restricted  sense  speech  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  act  of  expressing  ideas  by  means 
of  vocal  sound.  According  to  the  latter  defini- 
tion, 'Tolly  wants  a  cracker,"  which  is 
merely  a  repetition  of  a  succession  of  orderly 
sounds  without  understanding  of  their  mean- 
ing, could  not  be  called  speech;  neither  could 
the  utterances  of  delirious  persons  and  mani- 
acs, and  j^et  these  latter  are  more  than  voice, 
which  is  merely  the  act  of  producing  any 
sound  by  means  of  the  vocal  organs.  Speech 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  language,  which  is 
merely  a  system  or  code  used  in  common  by  a 
group  of  individuals  for  intercommunication. 

SPEEDOM'ETER,  a  device  for  recording 
the  speed  at  which  a  vehicle  is  moving  and 
also  the  distance  traveled.  It  is  also  known  as 
a  cyclometer.  The  speedometer  is  in  general 
use  on  automobiles,  and  is  frequently  at- 
tached to  bicycles.  The  speedometer  for  auto- 
mobiles consists  of  a  system  of  clockwork 
connected  with  the  fore  wheel  of  the  automo- 
bile, so  adjusted  that  one  dial  records  the  dis- 
tance traveled,  and  the  other  indicates  the 
speed  in  miles  per  hour.  The  de\'ice  used  on 
bicycles  records  the  dist-ance  traveled.  It  is 
of  simpler  construction  and  is  set  in  motion 
by  a  cam  on  the  spoke  of  the  fore  wheel. 

SPELLING,  speVing.  Quite  as  important 
as  correct  articulation  of  the  sounds  that  form 
a  word  and  the  proper  placing  of  the  accent, 
is  accurate  spelling  of  the  word.  The  ability 
to  spell  correctly  is  cultivated  largely  by 
means  of  careful  observation  in  one's  reading 
and  by  persistent  efl:"orts  to  be  exact  in  spell- 
ing words  both  orally  and  in  writing.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  those  who  use  Eng- 
lish, since  our  language  is  usually  lacking  in 
uniformity  in  the  matter  of  spelling.  How- 
ever, there  are  several  rules  for  spelling  that 
are  so  generally  appreciable  as  to  be  of  much 
value  t-o  those  who  do  not  readily  retain  in 
memory  the  exact  form  of  words.  Among 
these  rules  the  following  are  most  important : 

Rules  of  Spelling.  Words  ending  in  ie  usu- 
ally drop  the  e  and  change  t  to  2/  in  adding 
the  suffix  ing;  as,  lie,  lying. 


SPELLING 


3381 


SPENCER 


Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  conson- 
ant, change  y  to  i  when  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  consonant  is  added ;  as,  bounty,  boun- 
tiful. 

Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
retain  the  y  in  adding  a  suffix ;  as,  joy,  joyous. 

Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant, 
preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final 
consonant  befoi-e  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
vowel;  as,  hit,  hitting;  begin,  beginning. 

Words  ending  in  silent  e  drop  this  final  e 
when  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel  is  added ; 
as,  residue,  residuum. 

Words  ending  in  e  usually  retain  this  final 
letter  when  adding  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
consonant;  as,  resolute,  resoluteness. 

When  a  syllable  is  added  to  a  word  ending 
in  a  double  consonant,  this  consonant  is  usu- 
ally retained;  as,  still,  stillness. 

Nouns  regularly  form  their  plurals  by  add- 
ing s;  as,  table,  tables. 

However,  when  the  singular  noun  ends 
with  a  sound  that  does  not  unite  with  s,  es 
is  added ;  as,  church,  churches. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  s;  as,  monkey, 
monkeys. 

When  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  y 
is  changed  to  i  and  es  is  added  in  forming  the 
plural ;  as,  city,  cities. 

Some  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  change  the  / 
or  fe  to  V  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural ;  as, 
shelf,  shelves. 

Nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, sometimes  form  the  plural  by  adding 
s  but  more  frequently  by  adding  es;  as,  solo, 
solos;  motto,  mottoes;  potato,  potatoes. 

Root  Words  and  Derivatives.  Interesting 
recitations  in  the  formation  of  derivatives 
from  root  words  may  prove  of  much  assist- 
ance in  teaching  children  to  analyze  the  build- 
ing up  of  words  when  they  find  difficulty  in 
spelling  them.  A  root  word  may  be  chosen 
and  as  many  derivatives  as  possible  formed 
from  it  by  adding  prefixes  and  suffixes.  The 
same  lesson  may  prove  doubly  profitable  by 
defining  the  root  word  and  showing  the 
changes  in  significance  after  the  addition 
of  the  prefixes  or  suffixes.  The  following  is 
offered  as  a  suggestive  exercise. 

Tract— Draw^ 

Tract-or or=that  which. 

Tract-ion     ion=act  of. 

Tract-ile     ile:=may  be. 

Tract-able    able=able  to  be. 


Abs-tract    absrraway   from. 

At-tract     at=near  to. 

Con-tract    con=together. 

De-tract    de=away  from. 

Ex-tract    ex=out  of. 

Pro-tract     pro=out. 

Re-tract     re=back. 

Sub-tract    sub=f rom  under. 

Attract-ive     iver=tending-  to. 

In-tract-able    in=not.  .able= 

able   to   be. 

Explanation.  A  tractor  is  an  instrument 
which    draws. 

Traction  is  the  state  of  being-  drawn  or  the 
act  of  drawing,  as  the  traction  of  a  muscle. 

Gold  is  a  tractile  metal,  as  it  may  be  drawn 
out  in  thin  strips. 

A  tractable  person  is  one  easily  drawn  to  a 
proper  course  of  conduct. 

An  abstract  manner  results  when  the  mind 
is  drawn  away  from  surrounding  objects. 

To  attract  people  we  must  have  power  to 
draw  them  to  us. 

To  detract  from  value  is  to  lessen  or  draw 
away   from   it. 

An  extract  from  a  book  is  a  part  which  is 
drawn   out   of  it. 

A  protracted  meeting  is  one  which  is  drawn 
out  or  extended  beyond  the  usual  time. 

"When  a  statement  is  retracted  it  is  with- 
drawn— "taken  back." 

When  a  number  is  drawn  from  under  or 
taken  away  from  another  we  subtract  it. 

That  which  tends  to  draw  one  to  it  is 
attractive. 

An  intractable  student  is  one  who  is  not 
easily  drawn  to  discipline. 

Spelling  Reform.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  English  spelling  is  complicated  and  il- 
logical. Considerable  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  direction  of  simplification, 
though  the  radical  changes  proposed  by 
some  advocates  of  spelling  reform  have  not 
been  adopted  generally.  The  radicals,  for 
example,  would  write  dout  for  doubt,  Tied 
for  head,  nat  for  gnat,  and  fantom  for 
phantom.  In  the  United  States  many  edu- 
cators have  adopted  the  recommendations 
of  the  National  Education  Association,  which 
uses  the  following  forms : 

altho  demagog      program       thorofare 

catalog  pedagog        tho  thru 

decalog         prolog  thoro  thruout 

The  general  tendency  is  toward  dropping 
superfiuous  letters,  but  it  will  require  a 
Long  time  to  eliminate  such  letters  completely. 

SPENCER,  Herbert  (1820-1903),  distin- 
guished English  philosopher.  Because  of 
delicate  health  during  childhood  and  youth, 
he  was  educated  at  home  and  lived  most  of 
the  time  out  of  doors.     In  this  way  he  ac- 


SPENCER 


3382 


SPENSER 


quired  a  dislike  for  schools,  and 
pleted  his  education  under  tutors, 
this  time  he  was 
much  interested  in 
making  collections  of 
insects  and  in  rear- 
ing moths  and  but- 
t  e  r  f  1  i  e  s  and  in 
stud3nng  the  botany 
of  the  locality. 

At  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen, Spencer  be- 
came an  engineer  on 
the  London  &  Bir- 
mingham Railway  HERBERT  SPENCER 
and  remained  at  that  occupation  ten^  years. 
After  this  he  was  for  four  years  sub-editor 
of  the  Economist;  and  it  was  in  the  course 
of  this  latter  period  that  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  George  Eliot,  John  Stuart 
Mill  and  other  celebrated  scholars  and 
thinkers  and  published  his  Social  Statics. 
Spencer  conceived  the  idea  of  publishing  a 
philosophy  whose  scope  should  include  all 
existing  knowledge,  and  upon  this  he  faith- 
fully labored  throughout  his  life  and  was 
finally  able  to  see  it  completed  and  pub- 
lished. 

Spencer  was  remarkably  well  fitted  by 
.nature  for  the  task  which  he  had  set  him- 
self. He  was  a  patient  observer  and  had 
acquired  a  vast  store  of  facts  in  all  sciences 
and  possessed  the  power  of  seeing  relations 
between  facts  to  a  remarkable  degree — to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  Darwin  or  other 
specialists.  Whatever  opposition  may  in 
the  future  be  given  his  "principles,"  intelli- 
gent men  will  always  look  with  the  greatest 
respect  upon  his  effort  to  systematize  knowl- 
edge and  will  give  to  him  the  credit  accorded 
to  no  other  man  who  has  engaged  in  a  similar 
labor. 

like  Darwin,  Spencer  was  a  thorough 
believer  in  evolution  and  did  much  through 
his  lectures  and  writings  to  establish  and  ex- 
tend the  theory  (see  Evolution).  He  be- 
lieved in  the  tmity  of  all  things,  and  he  set 
forth  this  belief  in  so  convincing  a  manner 
that  his  popularity  grew  in  spite  of  the  vio- 
lent opposition  which  some  of  his  statements 
caused.  His  works  have  been  particularly 
well  received  in  the  United  States.  Among 
those  best  known  are  First  Principles,  Prin- 
ciples of  Biology,  Principles  of  Psychology, 
Principles  of  Sociology,  Principles  of  Ethics 
and    Education,     Besides    these,    he    wrote 


numerous  books  on  various  subjects  and 
three  volumes  of  Essays,  Scientific,  Political 
and  Speculative. 

SPENCER  GULF,  an  inlet  of  the  South- 
ern Pacilic  Ocean,  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Australia,  extending  inward  two  "hundred 
miles.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  about  ninety 
miles.  At  the.  upper  end  it  narrows  to  a 
width  of  three  miles,  and  at  its  head  is  Fort 
Augusta.  At  tlie  lower  end  it  again  narrows 
between  Eyre  Peninsula,  on  the  west,  and 
York  Peninsula,  on  the  east. 

SPEN'SER,  Edmund  (1552-1599),  one  of 
the  foremost  English  poets  of  the  Elizabethan 
Age,  was  bora  at  East  Smithfield,  London. 
In  1576  he  received 
from  the  University 
of  Cambridge  the  de- 
gree of  M.  A.,  and 
shortly  afterwards 
became  a  member  of 


the  household  of  the 
Earl  of  Leicester.  He 
was  introduced  at 
court  by  Sir  Philip 
Sidney,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  Shep- 
heardes  Calendar,  EDMUND  SPENSER 
published  in  1579.  In  1580  he  went  to  Ire- 
land, as  secretary  to  Lord  Grej'',  deputy  of  the 
island,  and  had  a  part  in  restoring  peace 
after  Desmond's  rebellion.  A  lai-ge  part  of 
Desmond's  forfeited  estate  was  given  him  by 
the  government,  and  on  it  he  lived  after  1586. 
Here  he  worked  on  the  Faerie  Queene,  the 
first  three  books  of  which  were  published  in 
1590,  with  a  dedication  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
He  theri  passed  two  or  three  years  in  Ireland, 
where,  in  1594,  he  married.  His  courtship 
is  celebrated  in  eighty-eight  sonnets,  and  his 
marriage  in  Epithalamium,  the  finest  wedding 
song  in  the  English  language.  After  another 
visit  to  London,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
published  three  more  books  of  the  Faerie 
Queene  and  his  Fours  Hymnes,  Spenser  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  and  in  September,  1598,  he 
was  appointed  sheriff  of  the  County  of  Cork. 
The  rebellion  of  TjTone,  however,  took  place 
in  October ;  Spenser's  bouse  was  fired  by  the 
populace,  and,  according  to  some  accounts, 
his  child  perished  in  the  flames.  The  poet  ar- 
rived in  England  Avith  body  and  spirit  broken 
by  these  misfortunes,  and  he  died  in  the  fol- 
lowing January.  He  was  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  near  Chaucer.  As  a  poet, 
although  his  minor  works  contain  many  beau- 


SPERMACETI 


3383 


SPHYGMOGRAPH 


ties,  Spenser  will  be  judged  chiefly  by  the 
poetical  allegory,  the  Faerie  Queene.  It  was 
the  poet's  intention  that  this  work  should 
embrace  twelve  books,  each  setting  forth  a 
cardinal  virtue  embodied  in  a  knight.  Only 
six  wpre  written,  besides  two  cantos  of  Muta- 
bilitie.  It  is  supposed  that  part  of  the  un- 
finished poem  may  have  perished  when  the 
poet's  house  was  sacked  and  burned.  Be- 
cause of  his  great  influence  on  his  successors 
Spenser  has  been  called  "the  poet's  poet." 

SPERMACETI,  spur  ma  s/te,  a  substance 
resembling  wax,  found  in  the  cavities  of  the 
head  and  in  the  blubber  of  the  sperm  whale. 
It  is  used  in  making  candles,  ointments  and 
face  creams.  In  the  living  animal  this  ma- 
terial occurs  in  combination  with  a  thick  oil; 
on  exposure  to  air  the  spermaceti  separates 
from  the  oil  in  white  flakes.  When  purified, 
this  substance  becomes  a  semi-transparent 
solid,  in  appearance  resembling  tallow.  Some 
of  the  larger  whales  have  yielded  twenty-four 
barrels  of  spermaceti.    See  Sperm  Whalh. 

SPERMATOPHYTES,  spurm'a  toh  files. 
See  Phanerogamous  Plants. 

SPERM  OIL,  the  oil  of  the  sperm  whale, 
which  is  separated  from  the  spermaceti  and 
the  blubber.  Tliis  kind  of  oil  is  much  purer 
than  train  oil  and  bums  away  without  leaving 
any  charcoal  on  the  wicks  of  lamps.  In  com- 
position it  differs  but  slightly  from  common 
whale  oil. 

SPERM  WHALE,  or  CACHALOT,  kasli 
a  lot,  a  species  of  whale  belonging  to  the  sec- 
tion of  the  whale  order  denominated 
toothed  whales.  The  sperm  whale  is  generally 
met  with  in  the  Pacific,  but  occasionally  it  is 
also  found  on  the  coast  of  Greenland.  The 
large  blunt  bead  in  an  old  male  is  sometimes 
thirty  feet  long,  about  a  third  of  the  total 
length  of  the  body.  Blow  holes,  or  S-shaped 
nostrils,  are  situated  in  the  front  part  of  the 
head.  The  weight  of  an  adult  animal  is  es- 
timated to  be  about  200  tons.  This  whale  is 
valuable  for  its  oil  and  for  a  substance  from 
the  head,  known  as  spermaceti.  See  Sper- 
maceti; Whale. 

SPHERE,  sfeer,  a  geometric  solid  bounded 
by  a  surface  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  a  point  called  the  center.  It 
may  be  conceived  to  be  generated  by  the  rev- 
olution of  a  semicircle  about  its  diameter, 
which  remains  fixed  and  which  is  called  the 
axis  of  the  sphere.  A  section  of  a  sphere 
made  by  a  plane  passing  through  its  center 
is  called  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere;  and 


when  the  cutting  plane  does  not  pass  through 
the  center  the  section  is  called  a  small  circle 
of  the  sphere.  The  surface  of  a  sphere  is 
equal  four  times  the  area  of  its  great  circle. 

SPHE'ROID,  a  body  or  figure  resembling 
a  sphere,  but  not  perfectly  spherical.  In  geom- 
etry it  is  a  solid  generated  by  the  revolution 
of  an  ellipse  about  one  of  its  axes.  When  the 
generating  ellipse  revolves  about  its  longer 
or  major  axis,  the  spheroid  is  oblong,  or  pro- 
late, that  is,  it  has  protruding  poles;  when 
it  revolves  about  its  minor  axis,  the  spheroid 
is  oblate,  that  is,  has  flattened  poles.  The 
earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid  with  polar  diame- 
ter shorter  than  the  equatorial. 

SPHINX,  sfinx,  a  fabulous  monster 
which  figures  in  Greek  and  in  Egyptian 
mythology.  The  Greek  sphinx  had  a  lion's 
body  and  paws,  the  head  of  a  woman,  the 
tail  of  a  serpent  and  wings  of  a  bird.  The 
monster  was  said  to  live  on  a  cliff  overlook- 
ing the  road  to  Thebes.  To  every  one  who 
passed  she  put  a  riddle,  and  devoured  all  who 
could  not  answer.  Oedipus,  when  asked  the 
riddle,  "What  animal  is  it  that  walks  on 
four  legs  in  the  morning,  two  at  noon  and 
three  in  the  evening,"  replied':  "Man,  for 
he  walks  on  his  hands  and  feet  when  young, 
erect  on  two  feet  in  middle  life  and  with 
the  help  of  a  stick  in  old  age."  Infuriated 
that  her  riddle  was  correctly  answered,  the 
sphinx  hurled  herself  from  the  cliff  and  was 
killed. 

The  Egyptian  sphinx  had  a  lion's  body, 
feet,  legs  and  tail  and  the  head  of  a  man. 
It  was  always  represented  in  a  recumbent 
posture,  with  forepaws  stretched  forward. 
The  sphinxes  often  stood  in  pairs  guai'ding 
the  entrances  to  temples.  The  largest  sphinx, 
that  near  the  group  of  pyramids  at  Gizeh,  is 
about  150  feet  long  and  sixty-three  feet  high ; 
the  body  is  hewn  out  of  stone,  but  the  paws, 
which  are  thrown  out  fifty  feet  in  front, 
are  constructed  of  masonry.  The  face,  four- 
teen feet  wide,  has  been  badly  mutilated,  but 
notwithstanding  this  the  figure  is  one  of  the 
most  impressive  monuments  of  Egypt.  See 
Pyramid. 

SPHINX  MOTH,  a  species  of  hawk  moth, 
deriving  its  popular  name  from  a  supposed 
resemblance  which  its  caterpillars  present 
to  the  Egyptian  sphinx,  when  they  raise  the 
fore  part  of  their  bodies.     See  Hawk  Moth. 

SPHYGMOGRAPH,  sfig'mograf,  an  in- 
strument for  measuring  the  force  and  fre- 


SPICE 


3384 


SPIDER  WEB 


queney  of  the  pulse.  A  strip  of  paper 
moved  by  clockwork  passes  imder  a  pencil 
which  moves  from  side  to  side  describing  an 
irregular  wav^-  line  on  the  sheet.  The  exact 
effect  of  certain  external  stimuli  and  of  medi- 
cines is  indicated  by  this  delicate  little  in- 
strument. 

SPICE,  the  name  given  to  a  gi-oup  of 
vegetable  seasonings,  including  pepper,  mace, 
nutmeg,  cloves,  ginger,  allspice,  cinnamon, 
capsicum  and  mustard.  Some  are  produced 
from  seeds,  as  mustard;  some  from  bark,  as 
cinnamon;  some  from  root,  as  ginger;  and 
some  from  finiit,  as  nutmeg.  Spices  cont-ain  a 
verj'  small  percentage  of  nourishment;  they 
are  valuable  for  food  only  because  of  their 
stimulating  effect  on  the  digestive  organs. 
Employed  in  moderation  they  are  wholesome, 
but  are  injurious  if  used  in  excess. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles   for  additional   information: 
Allspice  Cassia  Mustard 

Anise  Cinnamon  Nutmeg 

Caper  Cloves  Paprika 

Caraway  Ging-er  Pepper 

SPICE  ISLANDS.     See  Moluccas. 

SPI'DERS,  the  common  name  of  animals 
often  classed  with  the  insects,  but  really  con- 
stituting a  class  by  themselves,  the  Arachnida. 

Characteristics.  The  spiders  head  and 
chest  are  united  to  form  one  segment;  no 


SPIDERS 

1.  Triangle       spider       3.     Jumping  spider. 

and  web.  4.     Large  o.  b.  weav- 

2.  Crab   spider.  ing   spider. 

5.     Tarantula. 

wings  are  developed,  and  the  abdomen  is  fur- 
nished with  from  four  to  six  cylindrical  or 
conical  glands  or  spinnerets,  from  the  mi- 
nute openings  in  which  extremely  fine,  silky 


filaments  are  drawn.  With  these  filmy  threads 
the  spider  makes  its  web,  which  is  intended  to 
entangle  prey  or  to  ser\'e  as  a  house  for 
the  industrious  little  animal.  Spiders  have 
four  pairs  of  legs  and  no  antennae.  Most  of 
them  have  eight  ej'es,  borne  on  the  front  of 
the  head.  Their  mandibles  are  terminated  by 
a  little  hook,  near  which  is  a  gland  secre- 
ting a  poisonous  fluid  by  which  the  spider 
kills  its  prey.  The  female  spider  is  much 
the  larger,  and  the  males  rarely  approach  for 
fear  of  being  devoured.  The  eggs  are  nu- 
merous and  are  usually  hidden  in  cocoons, 
which  are  carried  by  some  mothers  until  the 
eggs  hatch.  Often  the  countless  young  live 
upon  the  mother's  back  in  such  masses  that 
they  make  her  appear  very  much  larger  than 
she  is. 

Habits.  Spiders  are  exceedingly  interesting 
animals,  and  many  species  have  developed 
remarkably  intelligent  ways  of  living.  The 
tropical  species  are  very  large  and  power- 
ful, some  being  able  to  capture  small  birds. 
The  common  garden  spiders  spin  perfect  geo- 
metric webs.  When  a  fly  is  entangled  in  one 
of  these,  the  spider  darts  out,  throws  another 
web  about  the  intruder,  kills  it,  sucks  its 
blood,  throws  away  the  body  and  repairs  the 
web  in  a  very  short  time.  Some  species  run 
with  great  speed;  others  leap  many  times 
their  own  length,  to  seize  their  prey.  They 
are  quarrelsome  and  often  fight  to  the  death. 
If  their  limbs  are  torn  off;  others  may  grow 
again.  The  water  spiders  inhabit  fresh-water 
pools,  where  they  live  in  skilfully  constructed 
nests,  looking  like  small  diving  bells,  sus- 
pended mouth  downward  into  the  water. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Antennae  Tarantula 

Arachnida  Trapdoor   Spider 

Spider  Web 

SPIDER  WEB.  To  spin  its  web,  the  spider 

raises  its  spinnerets  in  the  air,  and  the  gen- 
tle pressing  of  them  against  an  object  causes 
the  exudation  of  what  may  be  described  as 
liquid  silk.  Upon  contact  with  the  air,  the 
threads  harden  and  unite  into  one  strand. 
This  thread  becomes  a  sort  of  suspension 
bridge  which  the  spider  tightens  with  its 
claws  and  cements  firmly  to  a  beam,  leaf  or 
wall.  On  several  of  these  strands  a  gossamer 
net  is  spun. 

The  web  of  the  common  house  spider  con- 
sists of  numerous  criss-cross  strands  inter- 
woven around  the  supporting  spokes  and 
forming  an  irregular  wall  around  a  central 


SPIKENARD 


3385 


SPINNING 


space.  The  spider  repairs  with  great  alacrity 
any  broken  portion  of  its  web.  However, 
after  it  has  spun  several  webs,  it  exhausts 
for  a  time  its  supply  of  silkj'  fluid  and  often 
adopts  predatory  methods  in  taking  posses- 
sion of  some  other  spider. 

The  orb  web  of  the  large  black  and  yellow 
garden  spider  is  the  most  delicate  and  skil- 
fully constructed.  It  is  geometric  and  con- 
sists of  fine  spiral  strands  fastened  to  spokes, 
similar  to  those  of  a  wheel,  and  affixed  to  a 
branch  or  leaf  with  threads.  That  insects 
hitting  against  it  may  be  trapped,  the  net  is 
hung  vertically.  As  the  spider  is  enabled 
to  run  on  the  radiating  strands  of  its  web,  it 
is  never  enmeshed ;  and  the  insect  is  held  cap- 
tive by  minute,  pearl-like  drops  of  the  gluti- 
nous substance. 

Young  spiders  spin  the  single  shining 
threads  often  seen  suspended  between  grass 
stalks.  Threads  of  silk  cast  off  into  the  air  by 
these  spiders  often  float  away  with  the  breeze, 
and,  spinning  more  threads  as  they  go,  they 
are  blown  to  new  areas.  Thus  the  fli/ing,  or 
ballooning  spiders^  sail  through  the  air  and 
distribute  themselves  over  the  globe.  The 
spider  does  most  of  its  spinning  at  night  or 
in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning. 

SPIKENARD,  or  NARD,  a  perfume  ob- 
tained from  a  plant  of  the  valerian  order,  na- 
tive to  the  East  Indies.  The  plant  has  a  fi- 
brous root  stock  or  spike,  from  which  grow 
several  thick  stems  about  two  inches  long. 
These  highly 
aromatic  stems 
are  the  source  of 
the  perfume. 
This  is  the  true 
spikenard  of  the 
ancients,  used  by 
the  Komans  in 
their  baths  and 
by  Eastern  peo- 
ples. It  is  still 
higUy  prized  in 
the  Orient, 
where  it  has  been  used  for  centuries  to  per- 
fume ointments.  The  spikenard  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  was  probably  an  unguent  per- 
fumed with  this  odor.  It  was  worth  approxi- 
mately fifty  dollars  a  pound. 

In  the  southern  parl^  of  Canada  and  the 
northern  sections  of  the  United  States  there 
is  a  similar  plant  with  large  aromatic  roots 
which  are  used  in  making  a  tonic.  This  plant 
is  called  American  spikenard,  or  Indian  roof. 


SPIKENARD 


SPINACH,  sp-in'ayj,  or  spinach  (the  first 
preferred)  is  a  garden  vegetable,  culti- 
vated for  its  leaves,  which  are  used 
for  greens  and  in  making  soup.  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  prickly  spinach  and 
the  smooth  spinach.  The  latter  is  the  va- 
riety more  generally  used.  It  has  round, 
blunt  leaves  and  a  smooth  finiit.  For  early 
spring  use,  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  fall, 
usually  in  drills  about  a  foot  apart.  In  the 
spring  the  plants  grow  rapidlj'  and  are  ready 
for  market  in  a  few  weeks.  Spinach  needs  a 
fertile  soil,  for  if  it  grows  slowly  the  leaves 
are  tough  and  bitter.  The  food  value  is  slight, 
but  it  has  a  slightly  tonic  effect,  and  its 
delightful  flavor  makes  it  a  desirable  article 
of  food.  The  plant  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Asia,  and  it  was  first  cultivated  in 
Arabia. 

SPINAL  CORD,  the  nervous  cord  which 
extends  from  the  brain  along  the  back  side 
of  the  spinal  colunin,  and  from  which  all 
the  important  nerves  and  systems  of  nerves 
branch.  At  the  center  of  the  cord  is  a  tiny 
canal,  which  is  connected  directly  with  the 
cavities  of  the  brain.  Xext  to  it  is  the  gray 
matter,  and  around  this  is  the  so-called  white 
matter,  which  is  composed  only  of  nerve 
fibers.    See  Brain;  Nervous  System. 

SPIN'NING,  the  making  of  thread  or  yarn 
by  twisting  the  fiber  of  wool,  flax,  cotton,  silk 
or  other  material,  has  developed  into  a  great 
modern  industry  from  a  humble  household 
occupation. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Spinning  Wheel.  In 
earliest  times  spinning  was  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  the  distaff  and  the  hand  spindle. 
The  fiber,  when  spun,  was  wound  upon  the 
distaff,  and  the  spindle,  consisting  of  a  round 
stick  tapering  at  each  end,  with  a  notch  for 
fixing  yam  or  thread  at  the  upper  end,  was 
held  in  the  hand  anS  rotated  by  a  movement 
against  the  right  leg,  while  the  left  hand  of 
the  spinner  gathered  and  supplied  the  fiber. 
The  first  improvement  upon  this  device 
was  the  fixing  of  the  spindle  horizon- 
tally in  a  frame,  causing  it  to  rotate 
rapidly  by  means  of  a  band  that  passed 
around  a  large  wheel.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  spinning  wheel,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  invented  sometime  in  the  sixteenth 
century  (see  Spinstixg  Wheel).  The  treadle 
was  added  later,  thus  giving  the  spinner  both 
hands  with  which  to  manipulate  the  thread. 

The  first  spinning  wheels  contained  only 
one  spindle,  but  those  with  two  spindles  were 


SPINNING  JENNY 


3386 


SPIRAEA 


afterwards  invented.  The  next  great  inven- 
tion in  spinning  consisted  of  the  spinning 
jenny,  invented  by  Hargreaves  (see  Spin- 
ning Jenny).  This  made  possible  the  spin- 
ning of  a  large  number  of  threads  at  once. 
Later  Hargi-eaves's  invention  was  improved 
upon  by  the  invention  of  the  water  frame, 
which  made  an  evener  and  finer  yam.  The 
mule-jenny,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  spinning 
machines  now  in  use,  consists  of  a  combina- 
tion of  the  spinning  jenny  and  the  water 
frame.  By  means  of  these  inventions  the 
art  of  spinning  was  very  materially  advanced, 
and  one  operator  could  produce  as  much  yarn 
in  a  day  as  fifty  or  more  working  by  the  old 
method. 

Modern  Methods.  The  size  of  the  yam  and 
the  forms  of  the  twist  are  determined  by  the 
speed  with  which  the  machine  operates  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  thread  is  drawn 
out,  rapid  motions  producing  a  fine,  hard- 
twisted  yarn,  while  slow  motions  produce  a 
coarse  and  more  loosely  twisted  product. 
While  it  is  possible  to  regulate  spinning  ma- 
chines, so  as  to  have  them  yield  yarn  of 
different  grades,  in  large  manufactories  it  is 
found  more  economical  to  construct  each  ma- 
chine for  the  manufacture  of  a  particular 
grade  and  to  devote  it  entirely  to  that  pur- 
pose. This  makes  feasible  the  construction 
of  simpler  machines,  and  the  work  can  be 
accomplished  more  rapidly.  See  Cloth; 
Weaving. 

SPINNING  JENNY,  the  name  given  to  the 
first  spinning  machine  by  means  of  which  a 
number  of  threads  could  be  spun  at  once. 
It  was  invented  about  1767  by  James  Har- 
greaves, a  Lancashire  weaver,  and  consisted 
of  a  number  of  spindles  turned  by  a  com- 
mon wheel  or  cylinder  worked  by  hand.  Later 
it  was  replaced  by  the  mule-jenny.  See 
Spinning. 

SPINNING  WHEEL.  A  machine  for  spin- 
ning wool,  cotton  or  flax  into  threads  by 
hand.  It  consists  of  a  wheel,  a  band  and 
spindle.  The  wheel  for  spinning  flax  has  a 
distaff  attached  and  is  driven  by  the  foot ;  but 
the  wheel  for  spinning  wool  is  driven  by 
hand.  The  spinner  turns  the  wheel  with  the 
right  hand,  and  holds  the  wool,  which  is  in  the 
form  of  rolls  about  three  feet  long  and  a 
half -inch  in  diameter,  in  the  left  hand.  The 
degree  of  fineness  of  the  yarn  is  determined 
by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  thread  is 
drawn  out  by  a  backward  movement  of  the 
spinner. 


SPINOZA,  spe  no'  zah,  Baruch  Benedict 
(1632-1677),  a  Dutch-Jewish  philosopher, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  whither  his  parents  had 
fled  from  Catholic  persecution  in  Portugal. 
He  was  carefully  trained  in  Jewish  theology, 
but  after  reading  Descartes  and  Bruno  he 
turned  from  the  Jewish  faith.  Expelled  from 
the  Israelitish  community,  he  fled  from  Ams- 
terdam to  the  suburbs  to  escape  the  enmity 
of  the  fanatical  Jews,  and  after  five  yeare' 
seclusion  he  removed  to  Rhynsburg.  Finally 
he  settled  in  The  Hague,  where  he  died.  By 
his  skill  as  a  grinder  of  optical  lenses,  he 
managed  to  earn  a  living.  He  refused  a 
pension  from  the  French  king  and  a  pro- 
fessorship in  Heidelberg,  because  their  ac- 
ceptance might  interfere  with  his  freedom 
of  thought  and  conduct,  but  he  accepted  a 
legacy  from  his  friend  De  Vries.  This  an- 
nuity enabled  him  to  devote  a  large  part  of 
his  time  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 

In  1670  he  published  anonymously  Tracta- 
tus  theologico-politicus ,  a  practical  political 
treatise,  designed  to  demonstrate  the  necessi- 
ty, in  a  free  commonwealth,  of  freedom  of 
thought  and  speech.  This  work  called  forth 
such  a  storm  of  adverse  criticism  that  Spino- 
za published  nothing  further.  After  his 
death  all  his  unpublished  writings  were  pub- 
lished. Ethics  Demonstrated  in  the  Geomet- 
rical Order,  which  he  had  completed  in  1674, 
is  his  most  famous  work  and  the  one  contain- 
ing his  metaphys- 
ical system.  The 
essence  of  this 
system  is  that  God 
is  identical  with 
the  universe. 

SPIRAEA,  spi 
re'ah,  a  class  of 
herbs  and  shrubs 
of  the  rose  fam- 
ily, found  in  the 
north  temperate 
zone.  There  are 
about  sixty  spe- 
cies, adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  soil 
and  eonditiorfs. 
Well-known  vari- 
eties are  drop- 
wort,  meadow-  sjpinking  wheel  in 
sweet,     hardhacTc,  the  home  of 

saxifrageiindi     GOVERNOR  CARVER 
shadhush.     The  flowers  grow  in  clusters  of 
various  forms  and   may  be  white  or  pink. 


SPIRE 


3387 


SPITZ  DOG 


Several  species  are  among  the  showiest  of 
American  shrubs.  The  steeplebush,  with  its 
spirelike  clusters  of  tiny  white  flowers;  the 
Douglas  spirea,  with  whitened  leaves;  the 
bridal  wreath,  with  its  dainty,  graceful, 
downward  curving  stems  covered  with  little 
leaves  and  bearing  profusely  drooping  clus- 
ters of  tiny  feathery  white  flowers — these  are 
favorites.  They  are  much  used  in  landscape 
gardening,  especially  in  city  parks. 

SPIRE,  the  tapering  part  of  a  steeple, 
which  rises  above  the  tower.  It  had  its  be- 
ginnings in  the  pjTamidal  or  conical  roofs 
on  eleventh-century  buildings  in  the  Roman- 
esque style,  specimens  of  which  still  exist. 
These  roofs,  becoming  gradually  elongated 
and  more  and  more  acute,  resulted  at  length 
in  the  elegant,  tapering  spire.  The  spires  of 
medieval  architecture,  to  which  alone  the 
term  is  appropriate,  are  generally  square, 
octagonal  or  circular  in  plan ;  they  are  some- 
times solid,  more  frequently  hollow,  and  are 
variously  ornamented  with  bands,  with  pan- 
els, more  or  less  enriched,  and  with  spire 
lights. 

SPIRITUALISM,  the  belief  that  commun- 
ication can  be  held  with  disembodied  spirits. 
It  is  of  ancient  origin,  but  in  its  limited 
and  modem  form,  it  dates  from  the  year  1848. 
In  that  year  a  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fox,  who  lived 
with  their  two  daughters  at  Hydeville,  N.  Y., 
were  disturbed  by  repeated  and  inexplicable 
rappings  throughout  the  house.  At  length, 
according  to  the  history  of  this  belief,  one 
of  the  daughters  reported  that  the  raps  were 
intelligible;  that  the  unseen  ''rapper"  was 
the  spirit  of  a  murdered  peddler.  When  this 
phenomenon  was  made  known,  a  belief  that 
intercourse  could  be  obtained  with  the  spirit 
world  became  general,  and  numerous  "spirit 
circles"  were  formed  in  various  parts  of 
America.  The  manifestations  thus  said  to  be 
obtained  from  the  spirits  were  rappings,  table 
turnings,  musical  sounds,  writings  and  the 
unseen  raising  of  heavy  bodies. 

The  peculiarity  of  these  phenomena  was 
that  they  were  always  more  or  less  associated 
with  a  medium,  that  is,  one  who  was  supposed 
to  have  an  organization  sensitively  fitted  to 
communicate  with  the  spirit  world.  Daniel 
D.  Home  possessed  unusual  powers  and  was 
said  to  be  able  to  float  up  to  the  ceiling  or 
out  of  the  window  into  the  next  room.  Such 
claims  not  only  attracted  the  curious  and 
converted  the  unthinking,  but  also  received 
the  attention   of  legal   and   scientific  men. 


Judge  Edmonds  and  Professor  Hare  under- 
took to  expose  fraud  in  connection  with  the 
manifestations,  but  both  had  to  admit  the 
genuineness  of  a  slight  part  of  the  evidence; 
while  in  England,  such  scientists  as  A.  R. 
Wallace,  Sir  William  Crookes  and  Professor 
DeMorgan  professed  belief  in  the  genuineness 
of  the  phenomena.  The  believers  in  spirit- 
ualism are  most  numerous  in  England,  where 
investigations  are  made  by  the  Society  for 
Psychical  Research  and  the  results  annually 
published  in  a  volume  of  Proceedings.  In 
the  United  States,  the  Spiritualists  number 
about  250,000.  Spiritualism  has  been  greatly 
discredited  owing  to  the  fact  that  many  im- 
postors purporting  to  have  mediumistie 
powers  have  carried  on  "confidence  games" 
at  the  expense  of  the  public. 

The  best  recent  books  on  spiritualism  are 
Human  Personality  and  Its  Survival  of  Bod- 
ily Death,  by  F,  W.  H.  Myers;  The  New 
Revelation,  by  Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle; 
Spiritualism;  Its  History,  Phenomena  and 
Do<:trine,  by  J.  Arthur  Hill;  Raymond,  by 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge;  and  Psychical  Phenomena 
and  the  War,  by  Hereward  Carrington, 

SPIROM'ETER,  a  contrivance  for  deter- 
mining the  capacity  of  the  human  lungs ;  that 
is,  for  measuring  the  amount  of  air  which 
can  be  expelled  after  a  deep  breath  is  taken. 
The  instrument  most  commonly  employed 
consists  of  two  cylinders,  one  inverted  and 
of  a  size  that  will  allow  it  to  move  freely  up 
and  down  with  the  other.  The  lower  cyl- 
inder is  filled  with  water,  and  to  the  top 
of  the  upper  a  tube  and  an  air  cock  are  at- 
tached. When  air  from  the  lungs  is  blown 
into  the  tube,  this  cylinder  rises.  A  grad- 
uated scale  marks  the  number  of  inches  which 
the  cylinder  rises,  and  the  diameter  being 
known,  the  number  of  cubic  inches  of  air 
expelled  from  the  lungs  is  easily  determined. 

SPITHEAD,  spifhed,  a  roadstead  off  the 
southern  coast  of  England,  between  Ports- 
mouth and  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It  is  four- 
teen miles  long  and  four  miles  wide,  and  is  a 
favorite  anchorage  of  the  British  navj',  being 
well  sheltered  from  winds  and  protected  by 
fortifications.  The  "spit,"  from  which  it 
takes  its  name,  is  a  sandbank  three  miles  long 
jutting  southward  from  the  Hampshire  shore. 

SPITZ,  or  POMERA'NIAN  DOG,  a  small 
dog  about  the  size  of  a  spaniel,  with  erect 
ears,  a  foxlike  face,  sharp,  pointed  muzzle 
and  a  bushy  tail,  usually  carried  over  the 
back.    Its  coat  is  soft  and  silky  and  may  be 


SPITZBERGEN 


3388 


SPOKANE 


black,  gray,  red-brown  or  pure  white.  In  its 
native  province  of  Pomerania  in  Prussia,  the 
Spitz  is  trained  to  tend  sheep.  In  America 
the  white  variety  with  black-tipped  nose  is 
valued  as  a  pet. 

SPITZBERGEN,  spits  burden,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  situated  about 
400  miles  north  of  Norway,  between  Franz 
Josef  Land  and  Greenland.  The  largest  is- 
lands are  West  Spitzbergen,  Northeast  Land, 
Edge  Island,  King  Charles  Land,  King 
Charles  Foreland  and  Hope  Island.  The 
highest  elevations  reach  an  altitude  of  5,000 
feet.  The  islands  are  icebound  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  and  are  remarkable 
for  the  extensive  glaciers  found  upon  them. 
Recently  they  have  become  somewhat  im- 
portant as  affording  a  starting  point  for  nu- 
merous polar  expeditions  (see  North  Polar 
Exploration).  The  sovereignty  of  the  archi- 
pelago has  never  been  decided,  but  valuable 
coal  deposits  have  of  late  been  exploited  by 
English,  American  and  Scandinavian  com- 
panies. 

SPLEEN,  the  largest  of  the  ductless 
glands,  in  size  about  five  inches  in  length 
and  three  or  four  in  width,  located  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  abdomen  at  the  left  of  the 
stomach  and  between  it  and  the  diaphragm. 
It  is  oval  in  shape,  of  a  bluish  red  color,  is 
soft  and  spongy  in  composition,  and  easily 
crumbled.  The  functions  of  the  spleen  are 
obscure.  It  probably  stimulates  digestion 
through  its  secretions,  stores  up  nutriment 
and  aids  in  the  production  of  blood  cor- 
puscles, especially  those  that  combat  certain 
diseases,  as  typhoid. 

SPLICING-,  splise'ing,  the  process  of  join- 
ing two  ropes  without  the  use  of  a  knot.  The 
three  chief  varieties  of  splice  are  the  short 
splice,  the  long  splice  and  the  eye  splice.  In 
making  the  short  splice  (Fig.  2)  the  ends  of 
two  ropes  are 
unlaid  for  a 
short  distance 
and  are  then  fit- 
ted closely  to- 
gether ;  by  the 
help  of  a  mar- 
Hnspike,  the 
ends  of  each  are 
laced  over  and 
under  the 
strands  of  the 
other.  The  long  splice 
same    manner,    but    the 


for  a  greater  distance;  hence  the 
splice  is  stronger.  The  eye  splice  (Fig.  3) 
is  made  by  bending  over  the  end  of  the 
rope  and  lacing  the  strands  into  the  rope 
where  it  is  unlaid.  The  eye  may  be  oval 
or  circular.  The  hecket  hitch  (Fig.  1)  is 
the  easiest  method  of  attaching  a  small  line 
to  a  rope.  The  single  wall  (Fig.  4)  is  the 
simplest  method  of  preventing  the  end  of 
a  rope  from  fraying. 

SPOFTORD,  Ainsworth  Rand  (1825- 
1908),  an  American  librarian,  bom  in 
Gilmanton,  N.  H.  He  received  a  classical 
education  and  became  associate  editor  of 
the  Cincinnati  Daily  Commercial.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  first  assistant  librarian 
in  the  Library  of  Congress;  in  1864  he 
became  librarian  in  chief,  and  held  the  posi- 
tion until  1899.  As  a  librarian  Spofford 
became  widely  known  for  his  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  books  and  their  contents.  He 
wrote  largely  for  the  periodical  press  and 
edited,  with  others.  Library  of  Choice  Lit- 
erature, Library  of  Wit  and  Humor,  A 
Practical  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Rules 
and  American  Almanack  and  Treasury  of 
Facts,  Statistical,  Financial  and  Political. 
During  his  administration  the  national 
library  increased  from  70,000  to  more  than 
600,000  volumes. 

SPOKANE,  spo  han',  Washington,  the 
county  seat  of  Spokane  County  and  the 
second  largest  city  of  the  state,  is  situated 
on  the  Spokane  River,  314  miles  east  of 
Seattle  and  309  miles  northwest  of  Butte, 
Mont.  It  is  served  by  the  Northern  Pacific, 
the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  Saint  Paul,  the  Oregon-Washington  Rail- 
road and  Navigation  Company  and  several 
lesser  roads. 

The  city  covers  a  tract  of  a  little  over 
twenty  square  miles  and  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which  here 
flows  through  a  gorge  and  forms  a  series 
of  cascades,  which  are  capable  of  develop- 
ing large  water  power,  as  well  as  affording 
beautiful  scenery.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  regular  and  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles.  In  the  business  section  of  the  city 
they  are  paved.  The  city  has  an  excellent 
system  of  street  railways,  which  connect 
all  parts  with  the  business  center. 

Buildings  and  Parks.  Among  the  im- 
portant buildings  are  a  Federal  building,  a 
city  hall,  courthouse,  an  auditorium,  the 
old   National  Bank,  the   Paulsen   building, 


SPOKANE 


3389 


SPONGE 


the  Davenport  Hotel,  a  Masonic  Temple, 
the  Spokane  and  Athletic  clubs  buildings,  the 
high  schools  and  the  churches,  among  which 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  Episco- 
pal cathedrals  are  especially  worthy  of 
mention.  The  city  has  forty-three  parks 
and  eight  playgrounds,  whose  combined 
area  equals  1,985  acres.  These  parks 
contribute  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  city. 
Fort  Worth,  a  military  post  within  the 
city  limits,  occupies  a  site  of  over  1,000 
acres. 

Education.  The  city  maintains  an  ex- 
cellent system  of  public  schools,  and  in  ad- 
dition to  these  the  following  educational 
institutions  are  of  importance:  Gonzaga 
College  and  the  Academy  of  the  Holy  Name, 
both  Roman  Catholic,  Bumot  Hall,  Saint 
Stephen's  and  the  Lyons  School  for  boys. 
Of  all  these  institutions  Gonzaga  College  is 
the  most  important.  There  are  also  a  num- 
ber of  business  colleges,  and  the  city  has  a 
Carnegie  Librarj'  of  over  65,000  volumes, 
besides  the  libraries  connected  with  the 
various  schools. 

Industries.  Spokane  is  an  important 
distributing  center  for  a  wide  range  of  coun- 
try, including  eastern  Washington,  northern 
Idaho  and  northeastern  Oregon.  Within  this 
territory  are  many  important  mines,  as  well 
as  large  areas  of  rich  agi-ieultural  lands. 
These  conditions  give  the  city  a  large  trade. 
The  falls  are  capable  of  developing  about 
60,000  horse  power,  and  about  one-half  of 
this  is  now  utilized  in  generating  electric 
power,  some  of  which  is  used  in  the  city 
and  some  carried  to  the  Coeur  d'Alene  mines, 
100  miles  distant.  The  leading  manufac- 
tures include  paper  and  wood  pulps;  bakery 
products ;  brick,  lime  and  sewer  pipe ;  lumber 
and  lumber  products,  and  flour  and  grist 
mill  products.  There  are  also  many  smaller 
manufactures. 

History.  The  first  settlement  was  made 
in  1873,  and  was  named  Spokane  Falls. 
The  town  grew  slowly  u:itil  the  opening  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  in  1881;  it 
was  then  incorporated  as  a  city.  In  1889 
a  fire  nearly  destroyed  the  business  center, 
but  it  was  soon  rebuilt  on  a  more  permanent 
plan.  Like  many  other  western  towns,  the 
city  also  suffered  from  overdevelopment, 
but  when  these  crises  were  past,  Spokane 
entered  upon  an  era  of  steady  and  continu- 
ous prosperity.  The  commission  form  of 
government  was  adopted  in  1910.    Popula- 


tion,  1910,    104,000;    in   1917    (estimated), 
199,160. 

SPONGE,  simnj,  a  jellylike  sea  animal, 
belonging  to  the  order  Coelenterata.  There 
are  numerous  species  (see  Coelexterata), 
but  what  is  known  as  the  sponge  of  com- 
merce is  the  skeleton  of  the  animal. 

Construction.  When  examined,  a  common 
sponge  is  found  to  contain  numerous  tubes 
extending  into  it  in  all  directions.  The  smal- 
ler tubes  unite  to  form  larger  ones;  and  if 
the  sponge  is  cut  open,  it  is  found  that  these 
all     join  _-tr--~^-_^ 

t  o  gether 
into  one 
or  more 
1  a  r  ge  ^ 
tubes  that  ^ 
r  a  d  i  ate  '^ 
thro  ugh 
the  body 
from  side 
to      side. 


V' 


SPONGE 

In  the  living  sponge  these  tubes  are  lined  with 
the  flesh  of  the  animal.  The  cavities  in  the 
small  tubes  contain  many  digestive  tracts,  or 
stomachs,  where  the  food  is  assimilated. 

In  the  network  of  the  fibers  forming  the 
sponge  proper  are  found  many  spicules  of 
silica  and  lime.  In  some  these  spicules  of 
silica  are  so  numerous  as  to  give  to  the 
sponges  a  glasslike  appearance,  and  when 
arranged  in  rows,  like  stars,  they  are  very 
beautiful;  such  are  the  gl<iss-rope  sponge  and 
Venus's  floicer  basket.  Sponges  reproduce 
by  means  of  eggs,  formed  by  the  layer  of  tis- 
sue which  secretes  the  skeleton. 

The  Sponge  of  Commerce.  The  best 
sponges  are  obtained  from  the  Mediten-anean 
and  Red  seas,  where  they  live  in  deep,  clear 
water,  from  150  to  200  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  methods  of  securing  them  vary  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  The  old  method  of  diving 
is  to  have  two  men  go  out  in  a  boat,  one  of 
whom  attaches  a  weight  to  his  feet  and  de- 
scends to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  by 
rapid  movements  he  gathers  a  few  sponges 
and  places  them  in  a  basket.  He  then  gives 
a  signal  to  the  man  in  the  boat,  who  hauls 
him  up.  By  more  recent  methods,  a  diving 
dress  is  used,  which  enables  the  collector  to 
remain  under  water  a  long  time.  Where  the 
water  is  not  too  deep,  the  sponges  are  se- 
cured by  spears  or  prongs,  attached  to  long 
handles.  The  fisher  uses  a  bucket  with  a 
glass   bottom,   which,   when   placed   on   the 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION        3390     SPOTTSYLVANIA  COURT  HOUSE 


surface  of  the  water,  enables  him  to  see  to 
a  depth  of  sixty  or  more  feet.  When  a 
sponge  is  discovered,  he  breaks,  it  off  with  his 
prong  and  brings  it  to  the  boat.  The  sponges 
are  either  buried  in  warm  sand  or  allowed  to 
lie  in  the  sun,  until  the  flesh  has  thoroughly 
decomposed.  They  are  then  cleaned  and 
beaten  to  expel  all  extraneous  matter  and  are 
then  dried  and  marketed. 

riorida  Sponge  Industry.  Nearly  all  of  the 
sponges  used  in  the  United  States  come  from 
Florida  and  the  Bahama  islands.  The  Flor- 
ida fisheries  have  an  annual  output  of  about 
623,000  pounds,  approximating  about  $545,- 
000  in  value.  The  best  gi'ades  of  Florida 
sponges,  known  as  sheep's  wool','  are  worth 
from  two  to  five  dollars  a  pound ;  the  yellow 
sponge,  from  fifty  to  sixty  cents,  and  the 
coarse  grass  sponge,  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  cents  per  pound.  As  many  of  the  rich- 
est sponge  beds  are  nearly  exhausted,  the 
United  States  government  has  passed  laws 
to  protect  the  Florida  sponge  fisheries 
against  abusive  fishing  methods.  Scientists 
are  experimenting  with  artificial  production 
because  of  the  imminent  shortage. 

The  World  War  greatly  stimulated  the 
Florida  sponge  industry  on  the  Gulf  coast, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the 
Mediterranean  output.  Tai-pon  Springs  be- 
came a  great  center  of  activity',  and  the  work 
was  carried  on  mainly  by  Greeks,  who 
adopted  the  newer  method  of  the  diving  ap- 
paratus. Many  of  the  more  intrepid  divers 
plunged  into  water  over  one  hundred  feet 
deep  and  brought  up  choicest  specimens. 

SPONTA'NEOUS  COMBUS'TION.  Jute, 
heaps  of  rags  and  similar  substances,  when 
saturated  with  oil,  turpentine  or  varnish, 
and  bituminous  coal,  when  moistened  with 
water,  often  begin  to  burn  without  having 
been  ignited  by  some  outside  agency.  Igni- 
tion of  this  sort  is  called  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. The  cause  of  the  fire  is  the  mixing  of 
the  carbon  and  the  hj^drogen  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  so  rapidly  as  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  the  ignition  point. 

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION,  jenur 
a'shun,  or  ABIOGENESIS,  ah  e  o  jene  sis. 
At  various  times  it  has  been  thought  that  life 
could  be  created  or  produced  from  matter 
not  itself  alive.  As  recently  as  the  seventeenth 
century  it  was  thought  that  maggots  on  de- 
caying meat  were  an  example  of  spontaneous 
generation.  With  the  rise  of  the  science  of 
bacteriology  scientists  have  come  to  the  con- 


^%o 


elusion  that  a  living  organism,  no  matter  how 
minute,  cannot  come  into  existence  without 
ancestry.     See  Mold;  Protoplasm. 

SPOONBILL,  a  wading  bird  of  the  heron 
family.  It  takes  its  name  from  its  spoon- 
shaped  bill,  which  it  dips  about  in  the  water, 
picking  up  marine  insects  and  small  shellfish. 
Spoonbills 
are  shy 
birds,  liv- 
i  ng  in 
flocks  i  n 
wooded 
mar  shes, 
usually 
not  far 
from  the 
mouths  of 
rivers,  and 
on  the  sea-  SPOONBILL 

shore.  A  beautiful  species  is  the  roseate 
spoonbill,  found  in  the  •  warmer  regions  of 
the  North  American  continent.  The  plumage 
of  the  bird's  body  is  rosy  pink;  that  of  the 
wings,  carmine.  The  glistening  whiteness 
of  the  neck  extends  a  short  distance  on  the 
back.  The  birds  build  their  nests,  which 
are  rough,  flat  stnictures  of  sticks,  in  low 
branches.  They  return  year  after  year  to  the 
same  breeding  places,  and  owing  to  this  habit 
they  have  been  easily  located  and  nearly  ex- 
terminated by  plume  hunters.  In  the  United 
States  the  name  spoonbill  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  shoveler  duck. 

SPORE,  spohr,  in  botany,  a  minute  cell 
body  by  means  of  which  reproduction  of 
seedless  plants  is  carried  on.  A  tj^oical 
spore  is  a  mass  of  protoplasm  with  a  nucleus 
and  cell  wall.  Plants  that  reproduce  by 
spores  are  called  crj'ptogams  (see  Botany, 
page  516),  and  are  represented  by  the  algae, 
ferns,  mosses  and  lichens.  There  are  two 
main  classes  of  cryptogamous  plants — those 
containing  green  coloring  matter,  or  chlo- 
rophyll, essential  in  the  production  of  plant 
food;  and  those  that  are  parasites  and  de- 
rive their  nourishment  from  the  plants  on 
which  they  grow.  Among  the  parasites  are 
com  smut  and  wheat  rust.  In  the  higher 
crj^ptogams  reproduction  proceeds  in  much 
the  same  way  as  it  does  among  lower  orders 
of  seed-bearing  plants.  Among  the  lower 
cryptogams  reproduction  is  frequently  a 
matter  of  cell  division. 

SPOTTSYLVANIA  COURT  HOUSE, 
spot  sil  xa'  ni  a,  Battle  of,  a  battle  of  the 


SPRAIN 


3391 


SPRING 


Civil  War,  fought  in  May,  1864,  near 
Spottsylvania  Court  House,  Va.,  about  fifty 
miles  from  Richmond,  between  a  Federal 
force  under  Meade  and  the  Confederate 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia  under  Lee.  Af- 
ter the  battle  in  the  Wilderness,  Grant  had 
ordered  a  movement  around  Lee's  right  wing 
to  Richmond.  Lee,  however,  was  prepared 
for  this  maneuver  and  was  in  fonnation  at 
Spottsylvania    before    Grant    reached    that 


-^€, 


SPOTTSYLVANIA  COURT   HOUSE 

point.  The  contest  was  opened  by  the  Fed- 
eral General  Hancock,  on  May  7,  and  the 
fighting  was  continued  interaiittently  until 
May  12.  The  Federal  losses  at  Spottsyl- 
vania were  nearly  7,000;  the  Confederates 
lost  more,  but  held  their  position.  It  was  in 
the  course  of  this  battle  that  General  Grant 
sent  his  famous  dispatch  to  General  Halleck 
at  Washington:  "I  propose  to  fight  it  out 
on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer."  See 
Civil  War  in  America. 

SPRAIN,  sprane,  an  injury  to  a  joint  in 
the  body  by  which  the  ligaments  holding  the 
bones  in  place  are  strained  or  torn.  The 
ankle  because  of  the  great  weight  it  sustains 
is  the  joint  most  frequently  injured  by  a 
sprain.  Sprains  in  some  joints  are  much 
more  difficult  to  heal  than  in  others.  In- 
flammation, swelling  and  pain  follow  a  sprain 
and  sometimes  are  exceedingly  severe.  The 
application  of  hot  or  cold  water  will  often 
take  out  the  soreness,  and  complete  rest  will 
bring  a  cure,  unless  the  ligaments  have  been 
so  badly  torn  that  splints  are  necessary,  as 
in  a  case  of  fracture.  In  such  cases  the  use 
of  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  put  on  before 
swelling  becomes  serious  will  often  do  away 
with  the  necessity  for  splints  or  a  plaster 
cast. 

SPRAT,  a  small  fish  of  the  hen-ing  family, 
rarely  more  than  six  inches  long.  At  one  time 
the  sprat  was  thought  to  be  the  young  of  the 
herring,  the  pilchard  or  the  shad,  but  it  can 
be  easily  distinguished  from  the  young  of 


any  of  these  fishes  hy  means  of  the  sharply- 
notched  edge  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  found 
in  the  North  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean 
and  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  considered  a  delicious,  well- 
flavored  and  wholesome  fish. 

SPRING,  the  season  of  the  year  between 
winter  and  summer,  beginning  with  the  ver- 
nal equinox,  about  March  21,  and  ending 
with  the  summer  solstice,  about  June  21. 

SPRING,  a  stream  of  water  flowing  from 
the  earth.  Si^rings  have  their  origin  in  the 
water  that  falls  upon  the  earth  in  the  form  of 
rain  or  snow,  which  sinks  through  porous 
soils  till  it  arrives  at  a  layer  of  rock  through 
which  it  cannot  pass,  where  it  forms  subter- 
ranean resex'voirs  at  various  depths.  When 
the  pressure  of  the  water  which  fills  the  chan- 
nels through  which  it  has  descended  is  suffi- 
cient to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  over- 
lying mass  of  the  earth,  the  water  breaks 
through  the  upper  strata  and  gushes  forth  in 
a  spring.  It  may  find  some  natural  channel 
or  crevice  through  which  to  issue. 

In  descending  and  rising  through  various 
mineral  masses,  the  water  of  springs  often 
becomes  charged  with  gaseous,  saline,  earthy 
or  metallic  substances,  as  carbonic  acid  gas, 
sulphureted  hydrogen  gas,  nitrogen,  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  silica  and  carbonate  of  iron. 
When  these  substances  are  present  in  con- 
siderable quantity,  the  springs  become  what 
are  known  as  mmeral  springs,  of  which 
Saratoga  Springs,  New  York,  and  the  springs 
of  Carlsbad,  Bohemia,  are  good  examples 
(see  Mineral  Waters).  Warm  and  hot 
springs  are  common,  especially  in  volcanic 
countries  (see  Thermal  Springs), 

Some  springs  run  for  a  time  and  then  stop 
altogether,  after  a  time  run  again  and  again 
stop;  these  are  called  intermittent  springs. 
Others  do  not  cease  to  flow,  but  discharge  a 
small  quantity  of  water  for  a  certain  time 
and  then  give  out  a  greater  quantity;  these 
are  called  variable  springs.  Springs  are 
most  numerous  in  mountainous  and  hilly 
regions,  where  the  underground  water  finds 
ready  outlets.    See  Artesian  Well. 

SPRING,  an  elastic  body  used  for  relieving 
concussion,  for  furnishing  motive  power,  or 
for  controlling  the  motion  of  machines. 
Springs  are  made  of  various  materials,  such 
as  steel  wire,  coiled  spirally;  steel  rods  or 
plates  or  strips  of  steel,  suitably  joined,  as  in 
the  springs  for  carriages  and  railway  cars; 
masses  of  India  rubber,  which,  because  of  its 


SPRINGBOK 


3392 


SPRINGFIELD 


elasticity,  will  resume  its  former  position  as 
pressure  is  removed. 

There  are  many  patterns  of  springs,  rang- 
ing from'the  delicate  hairspring  in  the  watch 
to  the  heavy  springs  found  in  locomotives. 
In  the  ordinary  gunlock,  the  spring  imparts 
motion  to  the  hammer  by  being  suddenly  re- 
leased from  a  strong  tension.  In  the  spring 
balance,  the  spring  indicates  the  weight  of  the 
object  placed  on  the  scale  pan.  In  the  safety 
valve,  it  indicates  the  pressure  of  steam  in 
a  boiler  and  causes  the  valve  to  open  at  the 
proper  time.  Numerous  other  uses  of  the 
spring  are  also  common. 

SPRING'BOK,  a  species  of  antelope, 
closely  allied  to  the  gazelle,  formerly  found 
in  vast  herds  in  South  Africa.  Both  the  flesh 
and  the  hide  are  valuable,  and  it  is  therefore 
much  hunted.  It  is  a  beautiful  animal,  of 
graceful  form  and  fine  colors — dull  brown 
on  the  upper  parts  and  pure  white  beneath, 


SPRINGBOK 

with  a  broad  band  of  deep  red  where  the 
colors  meet  on  the  flanks,  and  a  white  band 
extending  down  the  back.  It  is  larger  than 
the  roebuck,  and  its  neck  and  limbs  are  much 
longer  and  more  delicate.  The  boras  are 
slightly  curving  and  are  small  in  the  female. 
SPRINGTIELD,  III.,  the  capital  of  the 
state,  the  fourth  city  in  size,  ranking  after 
Chicago,  East  Saint  Louis  and  Peoria,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Sangamon  County.  It  is 
185  miles  southwest  of  Chicago,  on  the  Bal- 
timore &  Ohio  Southwestern,  the  Chicago  & 
Alton,  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago, 
Peoria  &  Saint  Louis,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamil- 
ton &  Da5i;on  and  the  Wabash  railroads.  The 
city  is  compactly  built  and  regularly  laid  out, 


with  wide,  beautiful,  shaded  streets.  The 
most  prominent  structure  is  the  state  capitol, 
with  a  massive  dome,  364  feet  high.  The  mag- 
nificent Lincoln  monument  and  mausoleum, 
which  contairfs  the  remains  of  the  martyred 
President,  his  wife,  two  children  and  one 
grandson,  is  located  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  capitol,  in  Oak  Ridge  Cemetery. 
The  old  capitol,  now  serving  as  the  county 
courthouse,  and  the  Lincoln  residence,  which 
is  owned  by  the  state,  are  interesting  features. 

The  educational  institutions  include  the 
Bettie  Stuart  Institute,  Concordia  Seminary, 
Saint  Agatha's  School,  the  Sacred  Heart 
Academy  and  two  business  colleges.  Other 
important  buildings  are  the  governor's  man- 
sion, a  city  hall,  a  postoffice,  an  Odd  Fellows' 
Temple,  an  orphanage,  two  hospitals  and  a 
sanitarium.  There  are  city,  state  and  su- 
preme court  libraries  and  those  of  the  State 
Historical  Society,  the  Lincoln  Library,  and 
the  Illinois  State  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
A  state  fair  is  held  here  annually.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  a  rich  farming  and  coal- 
mining region;  the  well-known  Springfield 
watches  are  made  here,  and  there  are  engine 
and  boiler  works,  ear  shops,  lumber  mills, 
foundries,  machine  shops  and  other  factories. 
Springfield  was  settled  in  1819,  was  chosen  as 
the  county  seat  in  1823,  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1832,  was  made  the  state  capital 
in  1837  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1840. 
The  commission  form  of  government  was 
adopted  in  1911.  Population,  1910,  51,678; 
in  1917,  62,623  (Federal  estimate). 

SPRINGFIELD,  Mass.,  seventh  city  in 
size  in  the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Hamp- 
den County,  is  about  100  miles  nearly  west 
of  Boston  and  136  miles  northeast  of 
New  York  City,  on  the  Connecticut  River 
and  on  the  Boston  &  Albany,  the  Boston  & 
Maine,  the  Central  New  England  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroads. 
It  is  a  beautiful  city  and  an  attractive  resi- 
dence place,  with  wide  and  well-shaded 
streets,  and  park  areas  totaling  over  600 
acres.  Forest  Park  covers  an  area  of  about 
463  acres,  and  there  are  numerous  small  parks 
and  public  squares,  containing  a  soldiers' 
and  sailors'  monument,  statues  of  Miles  Mor- 
gan and  President  McKinley  and  Saint-Gau- 
dens's  remarkable  statue  of  The  Puritan. 
Springfield  has  often  been  called  "the  City 
of  Homes,"  for  a  smaller  percentage  of  the 
population  live  in  rented  houses  than  in  al- 
most any  other  New  England  city. 


SPRINGFIELD 


3393 


SPRUCE 


Especially  noteworthy  among  buildings  is 
a  muaicipal  group,  consisting  of  an  audi- 
torium, an  administration  building  and  a  cam- 
panile. The  tower  contains  a  chime  of  bells, 
and  is  300  feet  high ;  the  administration  build- 
ing seats  4,000  people  and  has  one  of  the 
largest  organs  in  the  countrj^  The  group 
cost  $2,000,000.  Among  other  structures  of 
note  are  a  Carnegie  Library,  an  art  museum, 
a  science  museum,  a  county  courthouse. 
Church  of  the  Unity,  a  Federal  bi;ilding,  a 
union  railroad  station,  a  county  law  library, 
and  a  hall  of  records.  Unique  features  of  the 
educational  system  of  Springfield  consist  in 
the  evening  trades'  school,  supported  at  pub- 
lic expense,  a  vocational  school  for  boys,  a 
technical  high  school,  and  three  schools  spe- 
cially adapted  to  the  needs  of  feeble-minded 
or  backward  pupils.  The  higher  institutions 
of  learning  include  the  International  Y.  M.  C. 
A.  Training  School,  the  American  Interna- 
tional College,  two  boarding  schools  for  girls 
and  three  business  colleges.  The  city  is  an  in- 
surance center,  the  home  of  the  Springfield 
Fire  and  Marine  Insurance  Company  and 
Massachusetts  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany. 

A  United"  States  arsenal  was  established 
here  in  1795,  and  it  employs  in  peace  times 
from  1,400  to  3,000  men.  ^The  large  Smith 
&  Wesson  revolver  works  are  located  here. 
The  manufactures  include  railroad  cars  and 
supplies,  paper,  envelopes,  buttons,  art 
goods,  electrical  supplies,  automobiles,  cotton 
goods  and  many  small  wares.  Within  a  ra- 
dius of  twenty-five  miles  are  the  cities  of 
Holyoke,  Northampton,  Chicopee  and  Hart- 
ford, as  well  as  many  large  towns  and  vil- 
lages. Its  location  in  reference  to  these 
towns  makes  Springfield  an  important  com- 
mercial center.  The  place  was  settled  in 
1636  by  people  from  Roxbury,  under  the 
leadership  of  William  PjTichon.  During 
King  Philip's  War  it  was  attacked  and 
burned,  October  4,  1675.  It  was  the  scene  of 
a  riot  in  Januaiy,  1787,  between  the  state 
troops  and  Shays's  insurgents.  The  city  was 
chartered  in  1852.  Population,  1910,  88,926 ; 
in  1917,  108,668  (Federal  estimate). 

SPRINGFIELD,  Mo.,  the  county  seat  of 
Greene  County,  204  miles  southeast  of  Kan- 
sas City,  on  the  Saint  Louis  &  San  Francisco, 
the  Kansas  City,  Clinton  &  Springfield,  the 
Saint  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  and 
the  Missouri  Pacific  railroads.  It  is  located 
on  a  broad  plateau  in  the  heart  of  the  Ozarks, 

213 


at  an  altitude  of  1,140  feet,  and  is  in  the 
mineral  belt  of  Southwestern  Missouri.  It  is 
also  the  center  of  an  extensive  poultry  indus- 
try, with  annual  shipments  amounting  to  $8,- 
624,000.  The  leading  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments are  lumber  and  flour  mills,  furni- 
ture and  wagon  factories  and  railroad  and 
i-eclamation  shops.  Drury  College,  Loretto 
Academy  and  a  state  normal  are  located  here. 
A  ten-story  office  building,  the  Frisco  build- 
ing, a  court  house,  a  Pythian  home,  a  Federal 
building,  a  Carnegie  Library,  three  hospitals, 
zoological  gardens  and  a  large  national  ceme- 
tery are  interesting  features.  The  place  was 
settled  about  1819  as  an  Indian  trading  post, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1833.  The  commis- 
sion form  of  government  was  adopted  in 
1916.  Population,  1910,  35,201;  in  1917,  41,- 
169  (Federal  estimate). 

SPRINGFIELD,  Ohio,  the  county  seat  of 
Clark  County,  forty-five  miles  west  of  Colum- 
bus, on  Lagonda  Creek  and  Mad  River,  and 
on  the  Erie,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chi- 
cago &  Saint  Louis,  the  Detroit,  Toledo  & 
Ironton,  and  a  number  of  electric  railroads. 
The  citj^  is  in  a  fertile  farming  district,  has 
good  water  power  and  has  been  known  for 
many  years  as  a  center  for  the  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements.  Other  industries 
include  electric  motor  and  motor  truck  fac- 
tories, foundries,  machine  shops,  flour  and 
paper  mills  and  publishing  houses.  Witten- 
berg College  is  located  here,  and  the  city  has 
a  ladies'  seminary,  several  Catholic  parish 
schools  and  two  business  colleges.  Note- 
worthy structures  are  a  city  hall,  a  Federal 
building,  a  courthouse,  the  Bushnell  Library 
and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  Near  the  city  are 
state  homes  of  the  Masons,  Odd  Fellows  and 
Knights  of  Pythias,  and  Memorial  Home  for 
Aged  Women.  The  town  was  laid  out  in 
1801,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1850.  It 
has  the  commission  form  of  government. 
Population,  1910,  46,921;  in  1917,  52,296 
(Federal  estimate). 

SPRUCE,  the  name  of  a  group  of  trees 
of  the  conebearing  family,  characterized  by 
evergreen  leaves,  tall,  tapering  trunks  and 
slender,  horizontal  branches.  The  leaves  are 
stiff  and  pointed,  and  are  arranged  around 
the  branch  in  a  spiral.  The  bark  is  a  dark 
or  reddish  brown,  and  is  scaly.  There  are 
several  spruces,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  valuable: 

The  Norway  spruce  jaelds  the  valuable 
timber  known  under  the  name  of  white,  or 


SPURGE  FAMILY 


3394 


SQUADRON 


Christiania,  deal.  It  is  a  native  of  a  large 
part  of  northern  Europe,  and  is  a  noble  tree, 
of  conical  habit  of  growth,  reaching  some- 
times the  height  of  150  feet.  The  white 
spruce  and  the  hlack  spruce  are  both  natives 
of  North  America.  The  latter  attains  the 
height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  with  a  diam- 
eter of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  Its 
timber  is  of  great  value,  on  account  of  its 
strength,  lightness  and  elasticity,  and  it  is 
often  emjDloj^ed  for  the  yards  of  ships,  the 
sides  of  ladders  and  very  extensively  in 
making  paper  pulp.  The  Douglas  spruce, 
known  among  lumbeiTuen  as  Oregon  fir,  is 
found  in  the  northwestern  part  of  North 
America,  extending  from  Oregon  into  Alas- 
ka. It  reaches  a  height  of  100  to  150  feet, 
and  next  to  the  giant  sequoia  is  the  largest 
tree  in  America.  Its  lumber  is  valuable  for 
many  purposes.    See  Hemlock. 

SPURGE  FAMILY,  or  EUPHORBIA- 
CEAE,  u  for  he  a'se  ah,  a  group  of- herbs, 
shrubs  and  trees,  widely  distributed  over 
the  globe  and  comprising  about  4,000  species. 


EUPHORBIA 


Most  of  them  have  a  biting,  milky  juice, 
which  is  of  high  commercial  value,  being 
the  source  of  castor  oil,  croton  oil,  cassava 
and  rubber.  The  plants  have  small,  incon- 
spicuous flowers,  but  some  of  them,  notably 
the  poinsettia,  have  brightly  colored  bracts. 
Some  of  the  plants  resemble  cacti.  The  fruit, 
which  is  three-lobed,  is  dry  and  rather  fleshy. 
Most  of  the  tropical  species  are  known  as 
Euphorliias. 

SPURGEON,  spur'jun,  Charles  Haddon 
(1834-1892),  a  celebrated  English  preacher. 


CHARLES  HADDON 
SPURGEON 


born  at  Kelvedon  and  educated  at  Colches- 
ter. When  he  was  but  a  boy  he  began  to 
preach,  after  having  joined  the  Baptist 
Church ;  and  in  1854 
he  became  pastor  of 
a  chapel  in  New 
Park  Street,  Lon- 
don. Soon  great 
crowds  were  going 
to  hear  him,  and  in 
1861  the  great  Me- 
tropolitan Taberna- 
cle, with  6,000 
seats,  was  built  to 
accommodate  h  i  s 
large  audiences. 
Here  he  preached 
for  the  remainder 
of  his  life. 

Besides  his  ordinary  ministrations  and  the 
publication,  after  1855,  of  a  weekly  sermon, 
he  founded  many  benevolent  societies,  in- 
cluding the  Stockwell  Orphanage  and  the 
Pastors'  College.  In  1887  he  severed  his  con- 
nection with  the  Baptist  Union,  on  account 
of  what  he  called  the  "down  grade"  tendency 
of  the  Church.  He  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous volumes,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
The  Saint  and  his  Savior,  John  Ploughman's 
Talk,  Feathers  for  Arrows,  The  Treasury  of 
David,  Types  and  Emblems,  The  Metropoli- 
tan Tabernacle  Farm  Sermons,  The  Present 
Truth,  Storm  Signals,  Salt  Cellars,  Speeches 
at  Home  and  Abroad. 

SPY,  in  military  usage,  any  person  who 
by  deception  obtains  or  attempts  to  obtain 
information  concerning  a  belligerent  for  the 
benefit  of  the  enemy.  A  person  is  considered 
a  spy  only  when  he  acts  under  false  pre- 
tenses. A  soldier  who,  for  the  time  being, 
discards  his  own  uniform  and  puts  on  the 
uniform  of  the  enemy  or  some  other  dis- 
guise in  order  to  penetrate  the  enemy's  line 
is,  according  to  international  rules  of  war- 
fare, a  spy.  If  caught  in  the  act  he  may  be 
put  to  death  after  having  received  a  fair 
trial  and  been  proved  guilty.  No  soldier  or 
civilian  is  considered  a  spy  who  openly  car- 
ries out  a  mission  such  as  delivering  a  mes- 
sage across  an  enemy's  territory,  or  reeon- 
noitering  over  it  in  aeroplane  or  balloon. 
That  which  constitutes  an  enemy  a  spy  is  an 
act  of  deceit. 

SQUAD'RON,  a  regulated  arranged  mili- 
tary body,  specifically  one  of  the  dixasions 
of  a  cavalry  regiment,  usually  composed  of 


SQUARE 


3395 


SQUILL 


four  troops.  It  is  commanded  by  a  major 
and  includes  from  120  to  200  men.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  two  or  more  war 
vessels  detailed  under  a  single  command. 
See  Army, 

SQUARE,  in  geometry,  a  figure  with  four 
equal  sides  and  equal  angles.  This  figure  is 
considered  the  unit  for  the  measurement  of 
areas,  though  actually  the  unit  of  area  meas- 
urement is  no  longer  considered  to  be  per- 
fectly square,  but  merely  to  contain  the  same 
amount  of  surface  space  as  would  a  square 
figure  whose  sides  were  of  the  length  of  the 
corresponding  linear  unit. 

To  square  a  figure,  a  polygon,  for  example, 
is  to  reduce  the  surface  to  a  square  of  equiv- 
alent area  by  mathematical  means.  This 
can  be  done  by  finding  the  area  of  the  polygon 
and  extracting  the  square  root,  the  result  be- 
ing one  side  of  the  required  square.  To  square 
a  circle  is  impossible,  but  the  attempt  to  do  so 
was  one  of  the  first  problems  to  engage  the 
attention  of  the  mathematicians  of  antiquity. 
In  arithmetic  and  algebra  the  square  of  a 
number  is  the  product  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing a  number  by  itself.  Thus,  64  is  the  square 
of  8,  for  8X8  =  64. 

SQUARE  MEASURE,  the  system  of  meas- 
urement used  in  measuring  surfaces.  It  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  square  unit,  upon 
which  the  system  depends.  All  measurements 
are  based  upon  the  square,  and  the  area 
of  any  figure  is  found  by  resolving  it  into 
an  equivalent  square  or  rectangle.  The  two 
underlying  principles  of  square  measure  are : 

1.  The  area  of  a  rectangular  surface  is 
equal  to  the  product  of  its  length  by  its 
breadth,  expressed  in  square  units. 

2.  "When  the  area  and  one  dimension  of  a 
rectangular  surface  are  given  the  other  di- 
mension is  equal  to  the  quotient  derived  by 
dividing  the  area  by  the  given  dimension. 
See     mensuration;     weights     and     measures; 

METRIC    SYSTEM. 

SQUARE  ROOT,  See  Arithmetic,  ma- 
terial for  eighth  year, 

SQUASH,  skwosJi,  a  garden  vegetable  be- 
longing to  the  gourd  family.  The  plants, 
which  are  tough  and  robust,  with  large  leaves 
and  small  yellow  flowers,  occur  in  two  va- 
rieties, one  a  trailing  vine,  the  other  a  bush. 
The  summer  squash,  a  bushy  plant,  produces 
a  thin-skinned  fruit,  gourd-shaped  or  shaped 
like  an  acorn  in  its  cup  and  sometimes 
twenty  inches  in  diameter.  Winter  squash, 
usually  of  the  vine  variety,  has  a  larger  fruit, 
thick-skinned,  which  matures  in  the  fall  and, 


when  properly  stored  in  a  dry  cellar,  keeps 
through  the  winter. 

Squash  Bug,  a  name  given  to  two  species 
of  insects,  best  known  as  destroyers  of  squash, 
pumpkin  and  other  similar  plants.  The 
species  which  is  particularly  destructive  in 
the  United  States  is  a  cylindrical  ill-smelling 
beetle,  about  half  an  inch  long,  with  wing 
cases  striped  with  black  and  yellow.  The 
adults,  dormant  in  winter,  produce  young  in 
the  spring,  and  these  feed  on  the  sap  of  the 
young  plants.  Killing  the  old  bugs  before 
the  eggs  are  laid  is  a  preventive  outweighing 
any  other  remedy, 

SQUATTER,  skwotftur,  SOVEREIGNTY, 
or  POPULAR  SOVEREIGNTY,  terms  used 
in  American  history  to  denote  the  right  of  the 
inhabitants  of  any  territory  to  govern  them- 
selves without  Federal  interference.  The  first 
term  specifically  relates  to  that  right  as  ap- 
plied to  an  unorganized  territory,  inhabited 
by  so-called  ''squatters,"  that  is  persons  who 
had  taken  up  land  without  jDurchasing  titles. 

The  doctrine  of  "squatter  sovereignty"  as- 
sumed importance  during  the  slavery  con- 
troversy, when  it  was  championed  especially 
by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  who  incorporated 
it  into  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  In  this  bill 
it  was  declared  that  the  people  of  the  terri- 
tories should  have  the  right  to  decide  whether 
slavery  should  be  admitted  or  excluded. 
Though  the  theory  was  first  proposed  in  or- 
der to  protect  the  rights  of  slaveholders  and 
to  allow  the  extension  of  slavery,  it  was  ulti- 
mately repudiated  by  the  South,  which  was 
upheld  by  the  dictum  of  Chief  Justice  Taney 
in  the  Dred  Seott  case.  It  finally  led  to  a  di- 
vision between  the  Northern  and  Southern 
Democrats. 

SQUID,  shwid,  a  popular  name  for  many 
species  of  ten-armed  animals,  especially  the 
cuttlefish.  The  animal  has  a  tapering  body 
and  a  fin  on  each  side  of  the  tail.  Some  are 
of  a  bluish  color,  speckled  with  purple.  The 
American  squids  range  from  Newfoundland 
to  the  Virginia  coast  and  are  much  used  as 
bait  by  codfishers.  Excepting  the  cuttle- 
fish, they  are  of  no  economic  value, 

SQUILL,  a  plant  native  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores  and  popularly  called  sea  onion. 
It  has  large  bulbs  of  medicinal  value.  Squill, 
formerly  used  in  cases  of  croup  and  other 
bronchial  affections,  has  been  largely  su- 
perseded by  other  remedies  which  are  less 
stimulating  to  the  heart  and  less  irritating  to 
the  stomach  and  intestines. 


SQUINTING 


3396 


STADIUM 


SQUILL 


The  plant  belongs  to  the  lily  family,  has 
a  spreading  perianth,  an  ovary  of  three 
parts;  in  a  three-cornered  capsule  are  cells 
containing  the  seeds. 

SQUINTING,  or 
STRABISMUS,  stra 
hiz'mtis,  a  defect  of 
sight  in  which  the 
axis  of  vision  in  one 
eye  is  turned  from 
its  proper  position  in 
relation  to  the  other. 
Individuals  so  af- 
flicted are  said  to  be 
c  r  0  s  s-eyed.  The 
normal  position  of 
the  eye  and  its  direc- 
tion towards  objects 
are  controlled  by  four 
straight  muscles;  one 
is  attached  above  the 
eyeball,  one  beneath, 
and  one  on  either 
side.  If  one  of  these 
muscles  becomes 
paralyzed,  that  on 
the  opposite  side 
turns    the    eye    out 

of  its  proper  position  and  causes  squinting. 
If  one  eye  is  defective  or  deformed,  squinting 
is  apt  to  arise  from  overstraining.  The  trou- 
ble is  overcome  by  an  operation,  or  by  proper 
fitting  of  glasses;  sometimes  both  methods 
of  treatment  are  required. 

SQUIR'REL,  the  name  given  to  a  large 
family  of  small  attractive  rodents,  or  gnaw- 
ing animals.  Squin-els  are  usually  of  a  rich, 
ruddy  brown  or  a  dark  gray  on  the  upper 
parts,  merging  into  reddish  or  grayish- 
white  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body;  the 
color,  however,  varies  with  the  season  and 
climate.  The  head  is  large,  and  the  eyes  are 
projecting  and  bright.  These  animals  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  except  Aus- 
tralia, although  much  more  numerous  in 
America  than  in  Europe. 

Kinds  of  Squirrels,  Tree  squirrels  are 
light  and  agile  little  creatures,  with  strong 
jaws,  sharp  teeth  and  long  bushy  tails. 
Ground  squirrels  do  not  ascend  trees  but 
burrow  in  the  g^round;  the  chipmunk  is  the 
best-known  ground  squirrel.  The  common 
squirrel  inhabits  Europe  and  the  north  of 
Asia;  while  the  cat  squirrel,  the  gray  squirrel, 
the  black  squirrel,  the  red  squirrel  and 
the     great-tailed     squirrel     are     American 


species.  The  red  squirrel,  or  chickaree,  is  the 
most  widely  distributed  of  American  squir- 
rels; it  is  characterized  by  a  shrill,  noisy  clat- 
tering. One  oriental  species  is  remarkable 
because  it  is  the  only  animal  which  assumes 
a  purely  ornamental  coat  in  the  breeding 
season.  It  is  gray  in  the  summer  and  takes 
on  a  brilliant  orange  coat  in  early  winter, 
changing  to  gray  again  in  early  spring. 

Squirrel  Habits.  Squirrels  subsist  on 
nuts,  acorns  and  seeds,  of  which  they  lay  up 
a  store  for  winter  in  hollow  trees  or  in  the 
earth.  When  engaged  in  eating,  they  sit  on 
their  haunches,  with  their  tails  thrown  up- 
ward on  the  back,  in  which  position  they 
grasp  the  food  with  their  fore  paws  and 
gnaw  it  with  their  powerful  teeth.  Their 
nests,  which  consist  of  woody  fiber,  leaves 
and  moss,  are  usually  located  in  the  forks  of 
trees.  The  young,  of  which  there  are  three 
or  four  to  a  litter  in  a  season,  are  born  in 
June.     The  fur  of  some  of  the  American 


^.■r 


RED  SQUIRREL 

species,  especially  those  of  the  north,  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  See  Fur  and 
Fur  Trade. 

STABAT  MATER,  Latin  phrase  meaning 
the  Mother  Stood,  is  a  celebrated  thirteenth- 
century  hymn  describing  the  sufferings  of  the 
mother  of  Christ  as  she  stood  by  the  Cross. 
The  words,  in  Latin,  are  attributed  to  Ja- 
copone  da  Todi,  a  follower  of  Saint  Francis. 
The  poem  has  been  set  to  music  by  a  number 
of  composers,  including  Palestrina,  Pergolesi, 
Haydn,  Rossini  and  Dvorak. 

STA'DIUM,  the  name  originally  given  to 
the  race  course  of  Olympia,  Greece,  where 
athletic  contests   were  held,   and  later  ap- 


STADTHOLDER 


3397 


STAG 


plied  to  all  places  throughout  Greece 
where  such  games  were  celebrated.  The 
track  was  elliptical  in  shape,  and  about  600 
feet  long.  At  one  end  was  a  building  with 
accommodations  for  the  athletes ;  the  remain- 
der of  the  surrounding  space  was  arranged 
in  teiTaces  or  tiers  of  seats  for  the  spectators. 
The  word  stadium  was  also  used  by  the 
Greeks  to  denote  a  measure  of  distance,  cor- 
responding to  the  distance  between  the  two 
terminal  pillars  of  the  race  course.  It  was 
equivalent  to  a  Roman  mile. 

The  Athenian  stadium  was  restored  in 
1906  for  use  in  the  revival  of  the  Olympian 
games.  Several  other  modern  structures  on 
the  same  plan  have  been  erected,  notably 
that  at  Harvard  University,  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  40,000. 

STADTHOLDER,  staf  hoi  der,  a  title  for- 
merly given  in  the  Netherlands  to  the  chief 
executive.  In  1580,  when  Holland  and  Zea- 
land revolted  against  Spain  and  united  to  ac- 
cept William,  prince  of  Orange,  as  their 
ruler,  they  called  him  stadtholder  (literally, 
one  who  holds  a  citij).  Upon  the  assassina- 
tion of  Prince  William,  the  title  was  con- 
ferred on  his  son,  Prince  Maurice,  and  it  re- 
mained as  the  title  of  the  ruler  until  Hol- 
land was  annexed  by  France,  in  1802.  It 
was  finally  dropped  in  1814,  when  the  Prince 
of  Orange  was  declared  king  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 

STAEL-HOLSTEIN,  stah'el  hole'stine, 
Anne  Louise  Germaine,  Baroness  de,  known 
in  history  as  Madame  de  Stael  (1766-1817), 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  figures  of  eighteenth- 
century  France.  The  daughter  of  Jacques 
Necker,  Minister  of  Finance  to  Louis  XVI, 
she  was  carefully  educated  and  brought  up 
in  the  most  intellectual  atmosphere  of  her 
time.  In  1786  she  married  Baron  de  Stael- 
Holstein,  Swedish  ambassador  at  the  French 
court.  The  man-iage  was  not  happy,  and 
resulted  in  a  friendly  separation. 

In  1788  Madame  de  Stael  printed  her 
Letters  on  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  she  exercised  con- 
siderable political  power,  by  reason  of  her 
father's  high  position  at  court  and  because 
of  her  own  wit  and  womanly  charm.  To  es- 
cape the  Reign  of  TeiTor  she  fled  to  her 
father's  estate  in  Switzerland,  after  vainly 
endeavoring  to  save  her  friends  and  the  royal 
family.  Afterwards  she  returned  to  Paris, 
where  she  again  became  an  influence  in  poli- 
ties.     Subsequently    she   was   banished   by 


Napoleon,  on  account  of  her  bold  advocacy 
of  liberal  views.  Her  husband  died  in  1802, 
and  in  1811  she  secretly  married  a  young 
officer,  De  Rocca.  This  second  marriage  be- 
came known  only  after  her  death.  Among 
her  writings  are  the  novels  Delphine  and  Cor^ 
inne,  On  Germany,  Thoughts  on  the  French 
Revolution  and  Ten  Years  of  Exile. 

STAFF,  in  military  and  naval  usage,  a 
body  of  officers  not  having  command  but  at- 
tached in  an  advisoi*y  or  executive  capacity  to 
a  commanding  officer.  In  the  United  States 
in  time  of  war  each  military  unit  larger  than 
a  comi^any — that  is  an  army,  a  corps,  a  divi- 
sion or  a  brigade — has  it  headquarters  and 
staff;  each  garrison,  or  body  of  troops  sta- 
tioned at  a  fort,  also  has  its  staff.  A  head- 
quarters staff  of  an  army  in  the  field 
comprises  a  personnel  staff  of  two  or  more 
aides-de-camp;  ten  oflScers,  one  of  whom  is 
chief  of  staf)\  and  an  adjutant-general,  with 
his  assistants.  The  composition  of  a  garrison 
staff  depends  on  the  size  of  the  garrison. 

General  Staff.  This  is  a  central  adminis- 
trative body  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in 
1903.  It  is  made  up  of  four  general  officers, 
one  of  whom  is  chief  of  staff,  four  colonels, 
six  lieutenant-colonels,  twelve  majors  and 
twelve  captains.  It  has  supervision  over  all 
the  bureaus  of  the  War  Department  and  con- 
siders all  questions  affecting  the  efficiency  of 
the  army.  The  chief  of  staff  is  the  military 
adviser  of  the  Secretaiy  of  War. 

STAFF,  a  plaster  resembling  stucco,  used 
as  an  outside  covering  for  buildings  and  re- 
lief ornament.  It  is  a  mixture  of  plaster  of 
Paris  and  hydraulic  cement,  and  contains 
some  dextrin  and  glycerine.  Staff  was  used 
for  covering  the  buildings  of  the  Paris  Ex- 
position in  1889,  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893,  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  Exposition  at  Saint  Louis  in 
1904  and  those  of  the  two  California  Pana- 
ma Pacific  expositions.  It  is  comparatively 
cheap  and  light  and  can  be  molded  into  any 
desired  form,  but  it  is  not  suitable  for  the 
exterior  of  permanent  buildings,  as  it  lasts 
only  a  short  time.    See  Cements. 

STAG,  the  name  applied  to  the  male  of 
several  species  of  deer,  but  commonly  re- 
stricted in  its  application  to  the  male  of  the 
red  deer,  after  the  animal  has  reached  the 
age  of  five  years,  the  age  being  indicated  by 
the  horns,  which  branch  when  it  is  fully  ma- 
ture. The  female  is  called  a  hind,  the  young 
a  calf.     The  full-grown  stag  is  about  four 


STAG  BEETLE 


3398 


STAMFORD 


feet  high  at  the  shoulders.  His  antlers,  about 
three  and  a  half  feet  long,  constitute  a  dan- 
gerous weapon.  They  are  shed  annually,  af- 
ter the  breeding  season.  In  summer  the 
back  and  flanks  of  the  animal  are  yellowish- 
brown;  in  winter  thej-  are  reddish-bro^vn. 
These  deer  feed  on  grass,  buds  and  young 
shoots  of  trees.  The  stags  and  hinds  congi-e- 
gate  in  herds;  old  stags,  called  harts,  roam 
alone.  The  North  American  wapiti  is  a  re- 
lated deer.    See  Deer. 

STAG  BEETLE,  one  of  a  large  gi-oup  of 
beetles,  many  species  of  which  are  found  in 
North  America.  The  male  has  enormous 
homy  and  toothed  mandibles,  which  bear  a 
certain   resemblance   to    stag   antlers.      The 


GIANT  STAG  BEETLE 

giant  stag  beetle  of  the  Southern  states  has 
mandibles  an  inch  long,  one  third  the  length 
of  the  body.  These  beetles  feed  on  the  ten- 
der leaves  and  other  succulent  parts  of  plants. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  trees,  in  the 
crevices  of  the  bark,  and  when  they  hatch  the 
small  white  worms  burrow  under  the  bark 
and  feed  on  the  soft  substance  beneath  it, 
often  causing  the  bark  to  peel  off. 

STAG'HOUND,  a  large,  powerful  white 
hound,  marked  with  black  and  tan,  and  prob- 
ably bred  from  the  bloodhound.  As  the  name 
indicates,  these  dogs  were  fonnerly  used  for 
hunting  deer.  They  have  been  largely  re- 
placed by  foxhounds. 

STAINED  GLASS,  glass  colored  in  the 
making  by  some  special  chemical  process  or 
by  the  application  of  pigment  to  the  surface 
of  the  finished  article.  Formerly  all  colored 
glass  used  in  decorative  windows  was  colored 
in  the  molten  state.  The  molded  glass  was 
cut  in  shapes  required  by  the  design  and  the 
pieces  were  put  together  by  means  of  lead 
strips.  Such  was  the  method  in  medieval 
times.  To-day  better  results  are  achieved  by 
painting,  by  graduating  the  thickness  of 
glass,  thus  producing  the  effect  of  shading, 
and  by  fusing  together  colored  slabs  on  a 
larger  plate  of  colorless  glass.  All  these 
devices   obxdate   the   necessity   of   breaking 


the  design  up  with  numerous  joining  leads, 
and  make  possible  larger  panes  of  glass.  The 
United  States  produces  the  best  stained  glass 
in  the  world.  This  is  largely  owing  to  the 
experiments  of  two  men — John  La  Farge 
and  L.  C.  Tiffany. 

The  effects  obtained  in  the  best  stained 
glass  of  the  present  time  surpass  anything 
formerly  achieved  in  this  branch  of  art.  It 
is  chiefly  in  designs  containing  human  figures 
that  progress  has  been  most  marked.  The 
soldered  leads  which  formerly  cut  the  figure 
into  bits  can  now  be  made  to  coincide  with 
the  structural  lines,  and  the  effect  is  one  of 
greater  unity  and  coherence.  Moreover, 
greater  advance  has  been  made  in  the  per- 
fection of  color  and  in  adapting  it  to  opaque 
and  translucent  uses.  Whereas  in  other 
periods  stained  glass  was  employed  almost 
exclusively  in  connection  with  ecclesiastical 
architecture,  it  is  to-day  found  in  every  type 
of  public  building  and  in  some  of  the  finest 
residences.  The  stained  glass  industry  in  the 
United  States  represents  an  investment  of 
about  $3,000,000. 

STALACTITE,  stalak'tite,  a  beautiful 
formation  on  the  roofs  of  caves  caused  by 
the  action  of  water  containing  lime,  silica  and 
iron.  The  water  percolates  through  the  rock, 
and  as  it  evaporates,  these  substances  solidify. 
Stalactites  usually  take  the  form  of  icicles, 
but  occasionally  they  form  columns  extending 
from  the  roof  to  the  floor  of  the  cavern. 
Similar  masses  of  small  size  are  frequently  to 
be  seen,  also,  hanging  from  stone  bridges. 
Simultaneously  with  the  formation  of  the 
stalactite,  a  similar  but  upward  growth, 
called  a  stalagmite,  takes  place  at  the  spot 
where  the  successive  drops  of  water  fall  and 
evaporate.    See  Cave. 

STALAGMITE,  stalag'  mite.  See  Sta- 
lactite. 

STAMTORD,  Coxx.,  a  city  in  Fairfield 
County,  thirty-three  miles  northeast  of  New 
York  City,  on  Long  Island  Sound  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroad. 
The  location  is  attractive,  and  many  New 
York  business  men  have  their  homes  here. 
There  is  regular  steamship  connection  with 
New  York  City.  The  place  is  well  known 
for  its  manufacture  of  locks  and  keys,  and 
it  also  produces  drugs,  dyestuffs,  pianos, 
typewriters,  insulated  wire,  paints,  wood- 
working machinery,  and  foundry  and  ma- 
chine shop  products.  It  contains  the  Fer- 
guson Library,  a  city  hospital.  Saint  John's 


STAMMERING 


3399 


STANDARD  OIL  COMPANY 


Hospital  and  Home  and  several  private  san- 
itariums. Stamford  was  settled  in  1641  by  a 
company  from  Wetliersfield,  on  the  site  of 
an  old  Indian  village  called  Rippowam,  It 
was  made  a  borough  in  1830  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1894.  Population,  1910, 
25,138;  in  1917,  31,810  (Federal  estimate). 

STAM'MERING,  a  defect  of  speech  due 
to  lack  of  proper  control  of  the  muscles  used 
in  vocal  articulation.  It  occurs  in  a  number 
of  forms,  one  that  is  most  common  being 
stuttering,  which  is  rapid  repetition  of  mon- 
osyllables or  initial  syllables  of  words  be- 
ginning with  p,  b,  t  or  d.  Less  frequent  are 
the  cases  in  which  syllables  are  dropped,  or 
those  in  which  the  afflicted  person  is  momen- 
tarily stricken  dumb.  It  is  believed  by  some 
that  the  tendency  to  stammering  is  inherited, 
but  the  probabilities  are  that  cases  of  stam- 
mering develop  in  children  as  the  result  of 
association  rather  than  of  heredity. 

As  in  all  other  cases  of  nervous  troubles, 
stammering  can  often  be  overcome.  Some- 
times it  is  found  to  be  the  resulting  accom- 
paniment of  faulty  eyesight,  adenoids  or 
other  physical  defect  or  ailment.  A  stam- 
mering child  should  have  medical  examina- 
tion, and  if  the  cause  is  physical  and  can 
be  removed  it  should  have  attention,  since 
to  neglect  treatment  may  be  to  allow  a  habit 
to  become  fixed,  whereas  timely  aid  may  re- 
sult in  a  cure.  Stammerers  always  receive 
help  by  practicing  breath  control,  and  fre- 
quently by  singing  lessons.  They  need  all  the 
cooperation  they  can  get  from  their  fellows, 
for  there  is  nothing  quite  so  bad  for  one  who 
stammers  as  the  self -consciousness  resulting 
from  ridicule  and  impatience  on  the  part  of 
those  around  them.   , 

STAMP,  a  small  bit  of  paper  bearing  an 
imprint  authorized  by  law  and  intended  to  be 
attached  by  a  coating  of  gum  to  a  dutiable 
or  taxable  article.  Under  the  excise  laws  in- 
ternal revenue  stamps  are  required  on  snuff, 
tobacco  and  cigars ;  and  in  times  of  war  many 
articles  of  commerce  require  revenue  stamps. 
Sometimes  legal  documents  also  require  gov- 
ernment stamps  and  are  void  without  ,them. 
At  all  times  letters,  papers  or  packages  to  be 
transmitted  by  mail  must  be  stamped.  See 
Internal  Re\'enue;  Postage. 

Stamp  Act,  an  act  regulating  the  imposi- 
tion of  stamp  duties;  specifically,  an  act 
passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in  1765,  re- 
quiring all  legal  documents,  commercial 
papers   and   newspapers  to   be  written  or 


printed  on  paper  stamped  by  the  British 
government. 

After  the  close  of  the  French  wars  there 
grew  up  in  England  a  feeling  that  taxes 
ought  to  be  raised  in  America  as  a  contri- 
bution to  the  war  debt,  and  for  the  militaiy 
defense  of  the  colonies.  The  colonies  ex- 
pressed their  willingness  to  be  taxed  b\'  their 
own  representatives  in  colonial  assemblies, 
but  declared  they  would  not  be  taxed  by  Par- 
liament— a  body  in  which  they  were  not 
represented;  that  taxation  without  repre- 
sentation was  unjust. 

The  Stamp  Act  was  proposed  in  March, 
1764,  and  was  passed  in  March,  1765.  When 
the  news  was  received  in  America,  riots  in 
opposition  broke  out.  In  October  the  colo- 
nies held  a  convention  and  sent  an  address 
to  the  king,  acknowledging  his  sovereignty, 
but  denying  the  right  of  Parliament  to  tax 
them.  In  March,  1766,  the  Act  was  repealed, 
but  the  taxing  power  of  Parliament  was 
reiterated.  This  episode  was  one  of  the  im- 
mediate causes  of  the  war  of  the  American 
Revolution. 

STANDARD  OIL  COMPANY,  a  com- 
bination of  American  companies  foiTned  for 
the  purpose  of  controlling  the  petroleum  in- 
dustry. Before  its  dissolution  in  1911  by 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  it  was  con- 
sidered the  most  powerful  industrial  organi- 
zation in  the  world.  In  1909  suit  was  brought 
in  the  United  States  Circuit  Court  at  Saiut 
Louis  for  the  dissolution  of  the  company, 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  combination  in 
restraint  of  trade,  and  that  its  existence  was 
in  \'iolation  of  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust  law 
(see  Trusts).  The  court  ordered  the  com- 
pany dissolved  within  thirty  days,  but  the 
case  was  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  a  final  decision  was  not  reached  until 
1911,  when  the  Supreme  Court  afiirmed  the 
decision  of  the  lower  court,  but  gave  the  com- 
pany six  months  to  adjust  its  affairs. 

At  the  time  of  this  decision  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey,  as  it  was  legally 
known,  controlled  about  seventy  oil  com- 
panies. The  dissolution  did  not  discontinue 
the  Standard  Oil  Company;  it  compelled 
this  company  to  release  its  control  over  the 
other  companies,  and  this  was  accomplished 
by  relinquishing  its  ownership  of  the  stocks 
of  these  companies  to  the  former  stockhold- 
ers. However,  since  the  holders  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  stock  in  these  companies  were 
the  men  who  controlled  the   Standard  Oil 


STANDARDS 


3400 


STANDARDS 


eO;^ 


STANDARD  TIME  CHART  FOR  CANADA 
Showing  boundaries  and  differences  in  time. 


Company,  the  dissolution  had  but  little  effect 
upon  the  methods  employed  in  cariying  on 
the  various  branches  of  the  petroleum  in- 
dustry. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  was  the  out- 
growth of  organizations  and  methods  orig- 
inated and  perfected  by  John  D.  Rockefeller 
and  his  associates  in  the  petroleum  industry. 
The  first  steps  leading  to  it  were  taken  in 
1867,  soon  after  the  industry  began  to  assume 
large  proportions. 

STANDARDS,  United  States  National 
Bureau  of,  a  bureau  of  the  Department  of 
Commerce  of  the  United  States  government, 
which  has  custody  of  the  national  standards 
of  weights  and  measures.  The  Bureau  of 
Standards  was  organized  in  1901,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  Office  of  Standard  Weights 
and  Measures.  It  is  in  charge  of  a  director, 
who  employs  such  assistants  as  the  work  of 
the  Bureau  may  require.  The  law  establish- 
ing the  Bureau  requires  the  director  to  com- 
pare the  national  standards  of  weights  and 
measures  with  those  used  in  commerce,  en- 
gineering, scientific  investigations  and  edu- 
cational institutions,  and  in  the  construction 
or  reproduction  of  these  standards,  or  their 
multiples  and  subdivisions-  and  to  determine 
the  material  best  suited  for  such  standards. 
The  material  selected  should  be  such  that  will 


not  change  its  dimensions  with  a  change  of 
temperature,  will  not  absorb  moisture,  and 
will  not  rust,  since  changes  produced  by  any 
of  these  agencies  impair  the  value  of  the 
standard. 

The  national  standards  of  length  and  mass 
are  kept  in  a  firejDroof  vault  in  the  building 
of  the  Bureau  at  "Washington.  They  consist 
of  two  platinura-iridium  meter  bars  and  two 
standard  kilograms  of  the  same  material, 
and  were  made  in  France. 

The  Bui'eau  is  organized  into  the  divisions 
of  Weights  and  Measures,  Heat  and  Ther- 
mometry, Electricity,  Optics,  Structural 
Engineering  and  Miscellaneous  Materials, 
Engineering  Research  and  Metallurgy'.  The 
staff  includes  about  150  members,  and  their 
services  are  in  constant  demand,  since  the 
Bureau  must  test  the  measuring  de^^ces  for 
the  various  departments  of  the  government 
and  their  bureaus  and  make  investigations 
where  ordinary  commercial  testing  facilities 
are  lacking.  It  is  required  to  prepare  of- 
ficial specifications  for  much  of  the  material 
purchased  by  the  government  and  to  test  the 
material  when  purchased.  It  issues  a  num- 
ber of  publications  of  high  scientific  value, 
issues  bulletins,  and  maintains  a  special 
laboratory  at  Pittsburgh  for  testing  struc- 
tural materials. 


STANDARD  TIME 


3401 


STANDARD  TIME 


STANDARD    TIME   CHART   FOR   THE   UNITED  STATES 
Showing  boundaries  and  differences  in  time. 


STANDARD  TIME,  the  system  of  time- 
reckoning  adopted  by  law  or  by  general 
usage  over  a  certain  region.  The  turning  of 
the  earth  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east  causes 
a  constant  difference  in  sun  time  between 
places  at  different  meridians ;  when  it  is  noon 
at  one  place,  it  is  afternoon  at  places  to  the 
east  of  that  point,  and  forenoon  at  places  far- 
ther west.  This  fact  gives  rise  to  many  com- 
plications, especially  in  the  operation  of 
railroads,  so  for  convenience  an  arbitrary 
system  of  time-reckoning  is  necessary. 

In  the  United  States.  Previous  to  1883 
travelers  were  greatly  inconvenienced  by  rea- 
son of  the  fact  that  every  great  railroad  was 
run  on  a  time  system  which  might  differ  from 
that  employed  by  any  other  railroad.  For 
instance,  a  line  of  road  from  New  York  to 
Chicago  would  have  to  have  all  the  watches 
of  its  employes  set  exactly  alike.  This  made 
it  impossible  that  over  the  entire  thousand 
miles  of  line  each  employe  could  keep  his 
watch  regulated  by  local  time.  The  road 
might  declare  that  it  would  run  its  trains  by 
New  York  time,  which  is  about  forty  minutes 
faster  than  Chicago  time.  All  employes' 
watches,  then,  along  the  entire  line  of  road 
had  to  constantly  register  New  York  time. 


regardless  of  the  location  of  the  employe. 
Another  railroad  running  from  Chicago  to 
Denver  might  adopt  Chicago  time  as  its 
standard,  or  might  choose  to  run  on  Denver 
time;  or,  if  so  determining,  could  select 
Omaha  time,  as  that  city  is  nearly  midway 
between  the  two  terminals. 

Such  conditions  on  all  railroads  could  re- 
sult in  nothing  short  of  confusion.  A  travel- 
er might  reach  Denver  from  the  east  at  6 
p.  31.,  according  to  the  schedule  of  the  rail- 
road on  which  he  was  riding.  He  might  de- 
sire to  go  farther  west  than  Denver,  and 
would  find  that  the  train  he  wished  to  take 
left  that  city  at  5 : 30  p.  ii.  In  the  absence  of 
a  common  standard  of  time  adopted  by  these 
two  railroads,  this  traveler  would  not  know 
whether  the  departing  5 :30  train  left  Den- 
ver at  5 :30  by  the  time  of  the  first  railroad, 
or  whether  5:30  meant  a  half -hour  or  an 
hour  earlier  or  later  than  the  time  on  which 
the  first  road  was  run. 

This  condition  of  things  led  to  a  conference 
in  1882  and  resulted  in  the  adoption  through 
the  United  States  and  Canada  of  what  is 
known  as  standard  time.  The  first  and  most 
easterly  division  is  termed  Atlantic  standard 
time,  and  embraces  that  territory  which  lies 


STANDARD  TIME 


3402 


STANDISH 


7^°  each  side  of  the  COth  degree  of  longitude. 
The  standard  time  for  the  entire  territory- 
embraced  within  its  limits  is  the  local,  or  sun, 
time  of  Halifax. 

The  next  division  toward  the  West  is  em- 
braced within  the  section  called  Eastern 
standard  time,  the  75th  meridian  being  al- 
most in  its  center;  the  time  throughout  the 
Eastern  section  is  that  of  the  75th  meridian, 
which  is  practically  the  local  time  of  the  city 
of  Washington. 

The  next  division  toward  the  West  em- 
braces the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
here  is  the  division  of  Central  standard  time; 
the  meridian  running  nearly  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  Central  territory  is  the  90th.  The 
official  time  in  the  Central  divisiod  is  there- 
fore practically  the  local  time  of  the  city  of 
St.  Louis,  and  is  one  hour  earlier  than  the 
time  in  the  Eastern  division. 

The  next  group  of  states  to  the  West  are 
joined  in  what  is  known  as  Mountain  stand- 
ard time,  and  the  central  portion  is  on  the 
meridian  of  105°,  which  is  the  location  of  the 
city  of  Denver.  Therefore  Denver  local  time 
is  the  standard  time  for  the  Mountain  divi- 
sion ;  it  is  one  hour  earlier  than  Central  time, 
and  two  hours  earlier  than  Eastern. 

Beyond  the  Mountain  division  is  the  final 
group  of  states,  wherein  Pacific  standard  time 
prevails;  the  meridian  of  longitude  which 
establishes  time  for  the  Pacific  division  is  the 
120th.  This  is  very  close  to  Carson  City, 
Nevada.  Throughout  this  division  the  time 
is  one  hour  earlier  than  in  the  Mountain 
division. 

Railroads  having  adopted  for  all  their  pur- 
poses the  standard  time  of  the  sections 
through  which  they  run,  citizens,  in  their 
business  enterprises,  have  very  largely  fallen 
into  line,  and  local  or  sun  time  is  scarcely 
taken  into  consideration.  For  years  after 
the  adoption  of  standard  time  rural  communi- 
ties refused  to  change  their  watches  and 
clocks,  and  therefore  a  double  system  of  time 
prevailed.  It  took  many  people  a  long  time 
to  realize  how  easy  it  would  be  to  turn  their 
watches  and  clocks  forward  or  backward  the 
required  number  of  minutes  to  harmonize 
them  with  the  standard  time  of  their  section 
and  then  forget  that  such  action  was  taken. 
Wherever  this  has  been  done,  absolutely  no 
change  whatever  has  been  necessary  in  ijian- 
ner  of  living  or  conduct  of  any  enterprise. 

In  Canada.  Canada  is  divided  into  zones 
of  15  degrees,  extending  ly^  degrees  on  each 


side  of  the  central  meridians,  and  the  central 
local  mean  time  is  used  for  all  places  within 
that  zone.  Thus  the  first  and  most  easterly 
Canadian  division,  known  as  Atlantic  time, 
includes  the  territory  which  lies  7^2  degrees 
each  side  of  the  sixtieth  degree  of  longitude. 
The  standard  time  for  the  entire  zone  is  the 
local  or  sun  time  of  Halifax  (four  hours  be- 
hind Greenwich  time).  Largely  through  the 
elforts  of  Sir  Sandf ord  Fleming,  between  the 
3'ears  of  1876  and  1881  the  adoption  of  this 
plan  was  kept  before  the  public  and  the 
government,  with  the  result  that  since  1883, 
when  a  General  Time  Convention  was  held 
in  Chicago,  standard  time  has  been  in  use 
on  all  railroads  in  North  America.  Besides 
the  Atlantic  zone,  there  are  four  other  divi- 
sions of  time  in  Canada  which  correspond 
with  those  of  the  United  States. 

The  time  throughout  the  Eastern  section 
is  practically  the  sun  time  of  Ottawa.  The 
official  time  in  the  Central  division  is  prac- 
tically the  local  time  of  the  city  of  Port 
Arthur  and  is  one  hour  earlier  than  the  time 
in  the  Eastern  division.  Regina  local  time 
is  standard  time  for  the  Mountain  division; 
it  is  one  hour  earlier  than  Central,  two  hours 
earlier  than  Eastern  and  three  hours  earlier 
than  Atlantic  time. 

Beyond  the  Mountain  division  is  the  last 
section,  in  which  Pacific  or  Coast  time  pre- 
vails ;  the  meridian  of  longitude  which  estab- 
lishes time  for  this  division  is  the  120th.  The 
northern  part  of  the  boundary  between  Al- 
berta and  British  Columbia  runs  on  this 
meridian,  but  as  there  is  no  large  city  ex- 
actly on  the  line,  Vancouver,  123°  5'  W.,  is 
made  the  division  point  on  the  railroad. 
Throughout  this  division  the  time  is  one  hour 
earlier  than  Mountain  time  and  eight  hours 
earlier  than  Greenwich  time. 

The  system  of  counting  time  by  twenty- 
four  hours  instead  of  twelve  is  in  use  on  all 
the  Canadian  railways  west  of  Lake  Superior 
and  also  on  the  Intercolonial  Railway  be- 
tween Halifax  and  Montreal.  Thus,  twenty 
o'clock  is  eight  o'clock  at  night,  midnight 
being  the  beginning  and  end  of -each  twenty- 
four  hour  period.  The  twenty-four  hour  no- 
tation is  part  of  the  scheme  of  time  reckoning 
worked  out  by  Sir  Sanford  Fleming. 

STAN'DISH,  Miles  (1584-1656),  an 
American  colonist  and  soldier,  born  in 
Lancashire,  England.  He  served  in  the  Eng- 
lish army  in  the  Netherlands,  and,  though 
not  a  member  of  the  Leyden  congregation. 


STANFORD 


3403 


STANOVOI  MOUNTAINS 


sailed  with  the  Mayflower  colony  to  Massa- 
chusetts in  1620.  He  became  the  strongest 
leader  of  the  Pilgrims  in  their  struggle 
against  the  Indians.  During  the  first  winter 
his  wife  died,  and  the  traditional  account  of 
his  effort  to  secure  a  second  wife  has  been 
made  familiar  by  Longfellow  in  The  Court- 
ship of  Miles  Standish  (which  see).  In  1625 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  England,  but  re- 
turned in  the  following  year  and  settled  at 
Duxbury,  Mass.,  where  he  died.  Standish 
was  the  military  head  of  the  colony,  and  for 
a  long  time  was  its  treasurer.  A  monument 
sunnounted  by  a  statue  has  been  erected  to 
his  memory  at  Duxbury. 

STANTORD,  Leland  (1824-1893),  an 
American  capitalist  and  philanthropist,  bom 
in  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  He  studied  law,  moved 
to  Port  Washington,  Wis.,  and  practiced  his 
profession  there  for  three  years.  In  1852 
he  went  to  California  as  a  mining  prospector, 
and  after  four  years  established  the  mercan- 
tile business  which  was  the  foundation  of  his 
subsequent  fortune  of  $50,000,000.  He  was 
one  of  the  promoters  of  the  Central  Pacific 
Railway.  In  1861  he  was  elected  governor  of 
California,  and  from  1885  to  1891  served  as 
United  States  Senator  from  California,  He 
will  be  remembered  chiefly  as  the  founder  of 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  a  me- 
morial to  his  son  who  died  in  Rome  at  the 
age  of  sixteen.  See  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University. 

STANLEY,  Henry  Morton,  Sir  (1841- 
1904),  an  African  explorer,  bom  at  Den- 
bigh, Wales.  His  father,  John  Rowlands, 
died  when  the  boy 
was  but  two  years 
old.  In  1857  he 
shii^ped  as  cabin  boy 
to  New  Orleans  and 
was  there  adopted  by 
a  merchant,  whose 
name  he  assumed. 
Stanley  enlisted  in 
the  Confederate 
army,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  Battle 
of  Shiloh.  He  es- 
caped, and  after  a 
visit  to  his  home  in 
Wales  he  volunteered 
into  the  United  States  navy  and  became  an 
ensign  on  the  ironclad  Ticonderoga.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  went  West  as  a  newspaper 
correspondent,    and    as    correspondent    for 


HENRY  MORTON 
STANLEY 


the  New  York  Herald  he  joined  the  Abys- 
sinian expedition  of  1868.  He  afterward 
traveled  in  Spain,  and  it  was  while  there  in 
1869  that  he  was  commissioned  by  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  New  York  Herald  "to  go  and 
find  Livingstone."  After  visiting  the  Crimea, 
Palestine,  Persia  and  India,  he  reached  Zanzi- 
bai-  in  the  early  part  of  1871,  and  thence 
he  proceeded  across  Africa,  in  search  of  Liv- 
ingstone (see  Livingstone,  David).  He  met 
and  relieved  Livingstone  at  Lake  Tanganyika 
in  November  of  the  same  year  and  returned 
to  England.  He  then  acted  as  the  Herald's 
correspondent  during  the  Ashanti  War, 

As  correspondent  of  the  London  Daily 
Telegraph  and  the  New  York  Herald,  in  1874 
he  undertook  an  expedition  into  Africa,  where 
he  explored  the  equatorial  lake  region,  and 
traced  the  Kongo  River  from  the  interior  to 
its  mouth.  For  the  purpose  of  developing 
this  vast  region  he  returned  in  1879  under  the 
auspices  of  the  International  African  Asso- 
ciation, founded  by  the  king  of  the  Bel- 
gians. In  this  territoiy  stations  were 
planted,  steam  navigation  was  established  and 
in  1885  the  territory  received  the  name  of  the 
Congo  Free  State.  In  1887  Stanley  organ- 
ized an  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Emin 
Pasha.  This  time  he  entered  Africa  on  the 
west  by  way  of  the  Kongo ;  and  after  a  series 
of  extraordinary  marches  through  the  forest 
region,  he  met  Emin  Pasha  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Albert  Nyanza,  and  brought  the 
pasha  and  his  followers  to  the  coast.  Upon 
his  return  to  England,  in  1895,  he  became 
very  popular.  Having  three  years  previous- 
ly become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  Great 
Britain,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  and 
worked  earnestly  for  the  development  of 
British  interests  in  Africa,  He  wrote  Hoiv 
I  Found  Livingstone,  Through  the  Dark 
Continent,  In  Darkest  Africa  and  3Iy  Dark 
Companions.  Next  to  Livingstone,  Stanley 
was  the  greatest  of  African  explorers. 

STANOVOI,  Stalin  ovoi',  MOUNTAINS, 
a  range  of  low  mountains  in  Northeastern 
Asia,  extending  from  the  Mongolian  frontier 
to  East  Cape,  on  Bering  Strait.  A  spur 
traverses  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka.  The 
length  of  the  chain  is  3,000  miles.  Although 
the  highest  point.  Mount  Tehokhondo,  is 
8,000  feet,  the  average  elevation  is  not  great, 
the  configuration  being  more  in  the  nature 
of  an  elevated  plateau.  North  of  parallel 
60°  the  lower  slopes  are  densely  wooded; 
south  of  this  the  summits  are  bare.     The 


STANTON 


3404 


STARCH 


range  is  rich  in  minerals,  which  as  yet  are 
little  developed. 

STAN'TON,  Edwin  McMasters  (1814- 
1869),  the  great  American  Secretary  of  War 
during  Lincoln's  administration.  He  was 
born  at  Steubenville,  Ohio,  attended  Kenyon 
College,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1836.  In 
1856  he  opened  a 
law  office  at  Wash- 
i  n  gt  0  n,  D.  C, 
where  he  acquired 
a  large  practice  be- 
fore the  Supreme 
Court.  He  became  if 
attorney-general  in 
1860.  ^Shortly 
after  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  be- 
tween the  North 
and    South,    Presi-  ^  "^ 

dent  Lincoln  ap-  EDWIN  M.  STANTON 
pointed  him  head  of  the  War  Department, 
and  his  acceptance  of  the  office  marked  the 
beginning  of  a  vigorous  military  policy. 
After  Lincoln's  death  he  remained  in  the 
Cabinet,  but  soon  came  into  conflict  with 
President  Johnson  over  the  latter's  recon- 
stniction  policy.  Johnson's  effort  to  re- 
move the  Secretary  brought  about  his  im- 
peachment. When  the  President  was  ac- 
quitted Stanton  resigned.  He  was  appointed 
an  Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
by  President  Grant,  but  died  a  few  days 
after  the  appointment  was  announced, 

STANTON,  Eliz.\beth  Cadt  (1815-1902), 
a  woman  suffragist  and  reform  advocate, 
bom  in  Johnstown,  N.  Y.  She  was  educated 
in  the  local  academy  and  by  private  teachers. 
Her  father  was  an 
eminent  lawyer  and 
a  member  of  Con- 
gress. The  daughter 
inherited  a  legal 
mind  and  strong  rea- 
soning powers.  She 
married  Henry  B. 
Stanton,  a  prominent 
Abolitionist  and  a 
man  in  full  sympathy 
with  her  ideas.  She 
met  Lucretia  Mott 
while  attending  the 
World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention  in  London, 
and  thereafter  the  two  labored  together  in 
the  cause  of  woman's  rights. 


ELIZABETH  CADT 
STANTON 


In  1848  Mrs.  Stanton  called  the  first  wo- 
man's rights  convention  ever  held  in  America, 
to  assemble  at  her  home  in  Seneca  Falls, 
N.  Y.  Tkree  yeai-s  later  she  became  asso- 
ciated with  Susan  B.  Anthony,  and  they 
worked  jointly  in  the  cause  of  woman's 
rights  for  the  remainder  of  Mrs.  Stanton's 
life. 

Mrs.  Stanton  had  a  charming  personal  ap- 
pearance, and  was  a  good  writer  and  a  fluent 
speaker.  She  attained  a  national  reputation 
as  an  author  and  lecturer  and  exerted  a  strong 
influence  in  behalf  of  the  cause  which  she 
advocated.  She  held  many  prominent  posi- 
tions in  women's  organizations  and  was  active 
in  securing  higher  education  for  women. 
Some  of  her  best-known  writings  are  The 
Solitude  of  Self,  Self-Government  the  Best 
Means  of  Self -Development,  Eighty  Years 
and  More,  an  autobiography,  and  A  History 
of  Woman  Suffrage. 

STANTON,  Frank  Lebby  (1857-  ),  an 
American  poet  and  journalist,  bom  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.  He  had  a  common  school 
education,  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  and 
early  entered  the  field  of  journalism.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  poet  humorists  to  edit  a 
column  of  witty  comment  and  satiric  criticism 
of  current  events.  His  column  "Xews  from 
Billville,"  in  the  Atlanta  Constitution, 
brought  him  wide  notice  and  popularity,  and 
his  negro  dialect  verse  added  to  his  fame. 
His  poetry  appeals  by  reason  of  its  simplic- 
ity and  optimistic  tone.  His  books  are 
Songs  of  the  Soil,  Songs  from  Dixie,  Up 
from  Georgia  and  Little  Folks  down  South. 

STARCH,  a  white,  odorless,  tasteless  com- 
pound found  in  all  plants  except  fungi. 
Chemically  it  is  known  as  a  carbohydrate,  or 
compound  of  carbon,  oxj^gen  and  hydrogen. 
It  constitutes  one  of  man's  chief  foods,  and  is 
an  important  heat  and  energy  producer.  The 
processes  by  which  starch  is  produced  in  a 
plant  are  not  known  to  the  botanist  or  the 
chemist.  It  is  sometimes  stored  in  the  leaves, 
but  is  more  plentiful  in  thick  roots,  tubers 
and  seeds.  It  abounds  in  arrowroot,  potatoes 
and  wheat. 

Starch  is  a  soft,  white  powder.  Micro- 
scopic examination  shows  that  it  consists  of 
tiny  grains,  varjdng  in  size  and  formation 
according  to  the  plant,  the  grains  of  potato 
starch  being  among  the  largest,  those  of 
wheat  and  rice  among  the  smallest.  It  will 
not  dissolve  in  cold  water,  alcohol  or  ether; 
but  if  boiled  in   water  it   forms   a   paste. 


STAR  CHAMBER 


3405 


STARK 


Starch  when  subjected  to  dry  heat  changes  to 
dextrin^  and  from  this  is  derived,  through 
fermentation,  the  substance  known  as  dex- 
trose, or  grape  sugar. 

Starch  is  used  for  food  and  for  various 
industrial  purposes.  Its  chief  use  in  industry 
is  as  a  stiffening  for  clothes  in  the  laundry. 
That  used  for  industrial  purposes  is  obtained 
from  rice,  potatoes,  wheat  and  sago.  Rice 
starch,  which  is  preferred  for  laundry  pur- 
poses, is  prepared  by  steeping  the  grains  in 
an  alkaline  solution.  Potato  starch  is  ob- 
tained by  merely  steeping  the  potatoes,  mash- 
ing them  to  a  pulp,  and  after  they  have 
remained  for  a  time  in  a  settling  tank,  drying 
with  gentle  heat.  To  separate  the  starch 
from  wheat  the  grains  are  feiTuented,  the 
gluten  dissolves,  and  in  the  washing  process 
which  follows  the  gluten  and  starch  are 
separated.  In  addition  to  its  use  in  laundries, 
starch  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
dextrin;  it  is  also  used  as  a  thickener  in 
calico  printing  and  for  numerous  miscel- 
laneous purposes. 

The  value  of  the  starch  annually  manufac- 
tured in  the  United  States  is  more  than 
$9,000,000.  Most  of  it  is  made  from  Indian 
corn,  which  of  all  known  plants  contains  the 
highest  percentage  of  starch  (77%).  Rice 
contains  76%  starch,  wheat  54.75^,  and 
potatoes  18.5%. 

STAR  CHAMBER,  formerly  an  English 
court  of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  at 
Westminster,  said  to  have  taken  its  name 
from  the  star-decorated  room  in  which  it  was 
held.  Originally  a  committee  of  the  Privy 
Council,  it  was  remodeled  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII  to  include  four  high  officers  of 
state,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number  a 
bishop,  a  temporary  lord  of  the  council  and 
two  justices  of  the  courts  of  Westminster. 
It  had  jurisdiction  over  forgery,  perjury, 
riots,  maintenance,  fraud,  libel  and  conspir- 
acy cases,  and  it  could  inflict  any  punishment 
short  of  death.  Its  trials  were  without  jury, 
and  the  abuses  which  this  made  possible  led 
to  the  abolition  of  the  court  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  To-day  any  secret  meeting  to 
deliberate  on  public  matters  is  caUed  a  star- 
chamber  session. 

STARTISH,  an  interesting  sea  animal 
shaped  much  like  a  five-pointed  star,  belong- 
ing to  the  group  of  marine  animals  known 
as  ecMnoderms,  meaning  spiny -shinned. 
The  fish  consists  of  a  central  disk  from 
which  radiate  five  arms,  and  the  entire  body 


is  encased  in  a  tough  skin  covered  with  tiny 
spines.  In  the  center  of  the  under  surface 
of  the  disk  is  a  mouth,  and  from  this  pass 


%;. 


%. 


■if ,  -  ■  -■•••«"< 


M 

t 


..^ 


Wi^ 


% 


%:■••■ -B 


STARFISH 

five  grooves,  each  leading  to  the  tip  of  one 
of  the  points.  There  is  a  small  eye  at  the 
tip  of  each  arm.  Double  rows  of  tiny  suction 
cups  along  these  grooves  serve  for  purposes 
of  locomotion  and  for  organs  of  smell.  They 
also  serve  the  animal  in  capturing  its  prey — 
oysters,  mussels,  snails  and  other  moUusks. 
By  these  means  the  starfish  can  pull  upon 
an  oyster  shell  with  such  force  that  the  valves 
break  open.  Its  raids  upon  some  of  the 
oyster  beds  of  the  Atlantic  coast  cause  an 
annual  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars. 

STARK,  John  (1728-1822),  an  American 
soldier,  bom  at  Londonderry,  N.  H.  While 
still  a  young  boy,  he  was  captured  by  the 
Saint  Francis  Indians  and  adopted  into  the 
tribe.  He  fought  in  the  last  French  and  In- 
dian war,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
tion he  raised  a  regiment,  which  he  led  to 
Cambridge,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He  was  present 
with  Washington  at  the  battles  of  Trenton 
and  Princeton,  but  resigned  his  commission 
in  April,  1777.  At  the  approach  of  Bur- 
goyne,  however,  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year, 
he  raised  a  regiment  of  New  Hampshire 
troops  and  completely  routed  a  force  of 
Tories  and  Hessians  at  Bennington,  August 
16.  He  was  also  present  at  the  Battles  of 
Saratoga  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
in  1777.  Stark  was  a  member  of  the  Andre 
court-martial  and  served  at  the  head  of  im- 
portant departments  until  the  close  of  the 
war.     He  was  one  of  those  who,  in  1776, 


STABLING 


3406 


STARS 


pledged  their  private  fortunes  to  pay  the 
soldiers,  in  order  to  induce  them  to  enlist 
for  a  second  term. 

STAR'LING,  a  European  bird  related  to 
the  blackbird.  It  has  a  short  tail,  long  and 
pointed  wings  and  a  sharp  bill.  The  plu- 
mage the  first  year  is  brown;  afterwards  it 
is  blackish,  with  a  greenish  luster,  occasion- 
ally purplish.  The  shoulders  are  brown,  and 
the  wing  coverts  have  light  edges.  The  fe- 
males are  more  soberly  colored.  Starling 
nests  are  placed  in  ruined  walls  or  in  tlie 
branches,  and  five  pale  blue  eggs  are  laid. 
The  birds  feed  upon  insects,  and  are  often 
found  near  domestic  animals  catching  the 
insects  that  the  latter  attract. 

Starlings  have  a  variety  of  notes,  and 
some  sjoecies  have  clear  whistles  or  rich  songs. 
They  thrive  in  captivity  and  improve  in  their 
songs.  The  common  starling  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1S90,  and  the  birds 
are  now  numerous  in  the  Eastern  states. 

STAR-NOSED  MOLE,  a  North  American 
genus  of  moles,  distinguished  by  bearing  at 
the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  a  remarkable 
structure  of  fleshy  and  somewhat  cartilag- 
inous rays,  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  star. 

STAR  OF  BETHLEHEM,  a  common 
spring  garden  plant  of  the  lily  family,  with 
white,  waxy  and  starlike  flowers.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  but  it  is  naturalized  in  the 
United  States. 

STAR  ROUTE,  a  route  in  the  United 
States  over  which  mail  is  transported  in  bulk 
by  private  contract  after  it  leaves  a  railway 
train  or  a  steamboat.  Such  routes  are  dalled 
star  routes  because  they  are  marked  in  postal 
guides  by  asterisks.  The  mail  may  be  car- 
ried in  a  wagon,  on  horseback,  or  by  a  mes- 
senger on  foot.  Mail  routes  by  railroads, 
or  steamboats  and  rural  free  delivery  routes 
are  not  star  routes. 

Star  Route  Frauds,  frauds  disclosed  in 
connection  with  the  postal  service  dui'ing  the 
administration  of  President  Hayes.  Through 
the  activity  of  a  certain  clique  of  government 
ofiBcers,  including  several  Senators  and  Rep- 
resentatives, the  compensation  for  carrs'ing 
the  mails  over  these  routes  was  increased 
more  than  fourfold,  the  profits  being  divided 
between  the  contractors  who  carried  the  mail 
and  the  members  of  the  ring.  The  leaders 
were  prosecuted  during  the  early  part  of  Gar- 
field's administration,  but  only  one  was  ever 
punished.  However,  the  operations  of  the 
conspirators  were  ended. 


TARS.  "One  sun  by  day, 
by  night  ten  thousand 
shine,"  wrote  the  poet 
Young,  in  Night 
Thoughts,  in  reference  to 
the  stars.  These  heavenly 
bodies  are  suns  like  the 
one  which  warms  and 
lights  the  earth,  but  they 
are  so  far  away  that  they 
appear  in  the  sky  merely 
as  twinkling  spots  of 
light.  Because  they  seem 
to  remain  immovable  they  are  often  called 
fixed  stars,  but  the  name  is  not  appropriate, 
for  it  is  now  known  that  all  are  in  motion. 
The  movements  of  some  have  been  ascertained 
by  astronomers,  but  they  are  at  such  infinite 
distances  from  the  earth  that  to  the  naked 
eye  they  do  not  appear  to  change  their  rela- 
tive positions.  In  order  to  distinguish  the 
stars  from  one  another  the.  ancients  divided 
the  heavens  into  spaces  containing  groups  of 
stars  called  constellations,  but  modem  as- 
tronomers have  divided  the  heavens  by  imag- 
inary circles  which  correspond  to  the  circles 
measuring  longitude  and  latitude  on  the  earth. 
Magnitudes  of  Stars.  The  stars  are  classi- 
fied according  to  theu*  brightness  as  of  dif- 
.ferent  magnitudes,  those  of  the  first  magni- 
tude being  the  brightest.  All  the  stai*s  be- 
yond the  sixth  or  seven  magnitude  are  called 
telescopic  stars,  as  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the 
naked  ej^e.  Astronomers  recognize  stars  as 
small  as  those  of  the  sixteenth  magnitude. 
As  to  the  absolute  size  of  the  stars,  little  is 
known ;  but  the  light  given  out  by  Sirius,  the 
brightest  star  in  the  heavens,  is  estimated  at 
63i  times  that  of  the  sun.  Stars  are  very 
irregularly  distributed  over  the  heavens;  in 
some  regions  scarcely  one  is  to  be  seen,  while 
in  others  they  seem  densely  crowded  together, 
especially  in  the  portion  known  as  the  galaxy, 
or  Milky  TTay.  Of  the  stars  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  at  one  time,  the  number  probably 
does  not  exceed  a  few  thousands,  but  seen 
through  the  telescope,  their  number  is  so  great 
as  to  defy  calculation. 

Distances  of  the  Stars.  The  distances  of 
the  stars  from  the  earth  are  very  great.  The 
shortest  distance  yet  found,  that  of  a  Cen- 
tauri,  a  double  star  in  the  Southern  Hemis- 
phere, has  been  calculated  at  20,000,000,000 
miles,  so  -that  light  takes  3^  years  to  travel 
from  it  to  our  earth  and  a  flash  of  light  will 
encircle  the  earth  in  less  time  than  one  can 


STAR-SPANGLED  BANNER 


3407 


STARVATION 


wink.  When  we  look  at  the  stars,  they  ap- 
pear to  be  placed  on  the  inside  of  a  hollow 
sphere  that  revolves  around  us,  and  the  pivot 
on  which  the  sphere  turns  is  near  the  North, 
or  Polar,  Star.  This  apparent  rising  and 
setting  of  the  stars  is  due  to  the  rotation  of 
the  earth. 

Variable  Stars.  Many  stars  have  been  ob- 
served whose  light  appears  to  undergo  a 
regular  periodic  increase  and  diminution  of 
brightness,  amounting,  in  some  instances,  to 
a  complete  extinction  and  revival.  These  are 
called  variable  and  periodic  stars.  It  is 
found  that  some  stars,  fonnerly  distinguished 
by  their  splendor,  have  entirely  disappeared. 
Such  stars  are  called  temporary.  Many  of 
the  stars  that  usually  appear  single  are  found, 
when  obsei-ved  with  telescopes  of  high  magni- 
fying power,  to  be  really  composed  of  two, 
and  some  of  them  have  three  or  more  stars 
close  together.  The  colors  of  the  stars  vary 
considerably,  red,  yellow,  blue  and  green  be- 
ing noticeable,  and  it  is  supposed  that  they 
differ  considerably  in  composition,  though 
they  are  probably  made  up  of  the  same  mat- 
ter that  composes  the  earth. 

Related  Articles.     For   names   of  the   stars 
treated  in  these  volumes,  see  the  list  accom- 
panying the   article   Astronomy.      For  further 
information,  consult  the  following  titles: 
Constellations   Milky  Way         Solar  System 
Double  Stars     Planet  Sun 

STAR-SPANGLED  BANNER,  the  most 
popular  patriotic  hjTnn  of  the  American  peo- 
ple, and  by  common  acceptance  the  one  hon- 
ored as  their  national  anthem.  The  words 
were  written  by  Francis  Scott  Key  in  1814, 
during  the  "War  of  1812,  under  the  following 
circumstances:  After  the  burning  of  the 
national  capital  by  the  British,  an  American 
official  was  taken  captive  on  board  the  British 
frigate  Surprise,  stationed  in  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Francis  Scott  Key  and  a  friend 
boarded  the  ship  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
release  of  the  prisoner,  and  found  the  frig- 
ate being  prepared  to  bombard  Fort  Mc- 
Henry,  a  fortress  near  Baltimore,  Md. 
Forced  to  remain  on  board  until  after  the 
battle,  the  Americans  watched  the  bombard- 
ment throughout  the  day  (September  13)  and 
the  ensuing  night,  and  when  in  the  morning 
they  saw,  through  a  rift  in  the  haze  and 
smoke,  the  Stars  and  Stripes  still  waving 
over  the  fort,  Scott  was  inspired  to  write  the 
words  of  his  immortal  song.  The  music  is 
that  of  an  old  English  tune  called  Anacreon 
in  Heaven. 


Below  are  the  first,  second  and  fourth 
stanzas  of  the  anthem  (the  third  being 
omitted) : 

Oh!  say,  can  you  see,  by  the  dawn's  early  light. 
What  so  proudly  we  hailed  at  the   twilight's 

last  gleaming? 
Whose   broad   stripes   and   bright   stars,    thro' 

the  perilous  fight. 
O'er  the  ramparts  we  watched  were  so   gal- 
lantly streaming? 
And  the  rockets'  red  glare,  the  bombs  bursting 

in  air. 
Gave  proof  thro'  the  night  that  our  flag  was 

still   there. 
Oh!   say,   does   the   star-spangled   banner  still 

wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the 

brave? 

On   the   shore,    dimly   seen   thro'   the   mist   of 

the  deep, 
Where   the   foe's      haughty     host      in      dread 

silence  reposes. 
What   is   that   which    the      breeze,      o'er     the 

towering  steep. 
As  it  fitfully  blows,    half  conceals,   half  dis- 
closes? 
Now  it  catches   the    gleam   of   the   morning's 

first  beam. 
In    full    glory    reflected,    now    shines    on    the 

stream; 
'Tis  the  star-spangled  banner.     Oh!  long  may 

it  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the 

brave! 

Oh!  thus  be  it  ever  when  freemen  shall  stand 

Between  their  loved  homes  and  the  war's 
desolation; 

Blest  with  vict'ry  and  peace,  may  the 
heav'n-rescued   land 

Praise  the  Pow'r  that  hath  made  and  pre- 
served us  as  a  nation. 

Then,  conquer  we  must,  when  our  cause  it  is 
just. 

And  this  be  our  motto,  "In  God  is  our  trust." 

And  the  star-spangled  banner  in  triumph 
shall  wave 

O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the 
brave. 

STARVATION,  stahr  va'shun.  When  food 
is  not  taken  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply 
the  waste  that  is  continually  taking  place  in 
the  various  organs  of  the  body,  the  tissues 
themselves  are  used  to  supply  energy,  and 
starvation  follows.  The  accompanying  condi- 
tions are  emaciation,  lowered  vitality  and 
temperature  and  a  general  weakness.  Death 
in  animals,  according  to  Chossat,  occurs  when 
the  body  has  lost  two-fifths  of  its  weight. 
]\Ian  seldom  lives  longer  than  a  week  or  ten 
days  when  deprived  of  food,  but  he  may  live 
much  longer  if  he  lies  quietly  in  bed  and 
keeps  warm.    An  Italian  named  Sucei,  and 


STATE 


3408 


STATE 


an  American,  Dr.  Tanner,  each  tried  the 
experiment  of  fasting  forty  days  without 
food  but  with  a  little  water,  and  lived  through 
the  ordeal.  Others  have  tried  like  experi- 
ments in  the  interests  of  medical  science  and 
have  died  from  their  effects. 

STATE,  an  organization  pf  people  for 
political  ends,  permanently  occupying  a  fixed 
territory',  and  possessing  an  organized  gov- 
ernment capable  of  making  and  enforcing 
law  within  the  community.  To  be  a  sovereign 
state,  such  an  organization  cannot  be  subject 
to  any  external  control.  In  the  United  States 
the  term  state  is  also  applied  to  the  political 
divisions  which  are  united  under  the  Federal 
government.  As  to  its  form  of  government 
a  state  may  be  an  aristocracy,  a  monarchy  or 
a  democracy.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  democracy  has  gained  at 
the  expense  of  other  forms  of  government. 
This  statement  is  entitled  to  still  greater 
emphasis  since  the  close  of  the  World  War, 
in  1918. 

A  study  of  the  state  is  a  study  of  the 
philosophy  of  politics  from  the  time  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  to  the  present  day,  and  even 
an  outline  of  such  a  study  would  be  impos- 
sible in  a  brief  article.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded, however,  that  the  functions  or  pur- 
poses of  the  state  are  to  develop  the  moral 
nature  of  its  subjects;  to  preser\-e  order;  to 
f urtlier  the  general  welfare,  and  to  defend  its 
people  from  external  attacks. 

Two  theories  of  the  state  are  strongly  set 
forth  by  their  respective  followers  The  first 
is  that  of  the  patenmlistic  or  socialistic  state, 
in  which  the  government  confines  itself  to 
the  fundamental  fimctions  of  presenting 
peace  and  punishing  crime.  There  is  a  happy 
middle  ground  in  which  the  state  exercises 
those  functions  which  have  for  their  pur- 
pose the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  num- 
ber, and  leaves  to  the  indi\4dual  citizen  the 
freedom  necessary  to  the  enjoA-ment  of  life 
and   the  pursuit   of   happiness.      See   Gov- 

ERXilEXT. 

A  State  in  the  United  States.  When  the 
pupil  begins  the  study  of  the  state  as  a  unit 
in  political  geography  he  should  have  set  be- 
fore him  the  reasons  for  the  division  of  the 
whole  country  into  relatively  small  areas, 
each  subdivided  portion  a  state. 

The  thousands  upon  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  the  national  domain  could  not  be 
governed  properly  from  one  point,  no  matter 
if  it  were  centrally  located.     The  national 


capital  was  placed  at  the  extreme  eastern  part 
of  the  country;  except  for  inconvenience  in 
traveling  to  it  there  can  be  no  objection  to 
its  present  location,  in  view  of  the  divisions 
that  have  been  made  for  purposes  of  local 
government.  Were  one  capital  city  the 
source  of  all  authority  and  were  the  Amer- 
ican people  governed  exclusively  from  it,  one 
might  justly  believe  that  sections  near  at 
hand  would  be  well  governed,  and  that  within 
such  area  the  interests  of  every  person  would 
be  protected,  while  regions  far  distant  would 
suffer  for  lack  of  properh'^  exercised  control. 
When  the  pupil  begins  the  study  of  civil 
government  he  will  learn  that  for  most  pur- 
poses of  government — for  all  purposes  purely 
local — the  state  does  not  recognize  the  na- 
tional government  as  a  higher  authority.  In 
such  matters  as  only  concern  the  people  in 
their  relation  to  the  state  the  authority  of 
the  state  is  supreme.  The  national  govern- 
ment controls  affairs  within  the  state  only  so 
far  as  the  welfare  of  all  of  the  people  of  aU 
of  the  states  is  concerned.  The  chart  below 
shows  the  locations  of  many  capital  cities. 


CAPITAL  CITIES 

Each  star  locates  the  seat  of  a  nearly 

independent  government. 

each  the  absolute  center  of  authority  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  ever>'-day  needs  of 
the  people  within  that  state.  The  controlling 
power  is  thus  always  near  to  all  the  people; 
that  this  necessary  condition  might  prevail 
the  state  boundaries  were  located  and  state 
governments  were  organized. 

It  is  well  to  study  the  geography  of  a 
state  systematically  and  to  cover  every  es- 
sential feature.  Such  a  determination  will 
lead  older  students  to  add  to  the  merely  geo- 
graphical outlines  something  of  government 
and  history.  In  following  the  accom- 
panjnng  outline,  such  parts  may  be  omitted 
for  younger  children  as  may  seem  justifiable : 


STATE 


3409 


STATE 


■iiMtiiiBrinaiiifiiinwiiwiii*  I 


Outline  for  Study  of  a  State 


I.  Location 

(a)  Latitude 

(b)  Longitude 
(e)  Boundaries 

II.  Extent 

(a)  Length 

(b)  Breadth 

(c)  Area 

(d)  Compare   in   size   with  other 

states  and  countries 

III.  Outline 

(a)  General  form 

(b)  Boundaries 

(c)  If  there  is  coast  line 

(1)  Length 

(2)  Indentations 

(3)  Projections 

IV.  Surface 

(a)  General  facts 

(1)  Mountains  or  great  hills 

(2)  Plains 

(3)  Valleys 

(4)  Watersheds 

(b)  Effects  on  climate 
V.  Drainage 

(a)  River  systems 

(b)  Lakes  and  springs 
VI.  Climate 

(a)  Natural    condition    expected, 

due  to  latitude 

(b)  Changes  wrought  by  physical 

features 

(c)  Effect  on  health 

(d)  Average  annual  rainfall 
VII.  Products 

(a)  Agricultural 

(1)  Grains 

(2)  Stock  raising 

(3)  Dairj'ing 

(4)  Fruits,  etc. 

(5)  Rank  among  states  in  pro- 

duction 

(b)  Mineral 

(1)  Precious  metals 

(2)  Iron,    coal,    copper,    etc. 

(3)  Oil  and  gas 

(4)  Sections  where  found 

(5)  Rank  among  states 
VIII.  Commerce  and  Industry 

(a)  Railways  and  canals 


(b)  Navigable  rivers 

(c)  Commercial  centers 

(1)  Ten  largest  cities  in  order 

(2)  Population  of  each 

(3)  Distances  from  other  great 

cities 

(d)  Principal  manufactures 
IX.  Population  • 

(a)  Rate  of  increase 

(b)  Per  cent  of  native  Americans 

(c)  Countries  furnishing  foreign- 

born  peoples 

(d)  Where  densest,  and  why 

X.    GOMDRNMENT 

(a)  State  departments 

(1)  Executive 

(2)  Legislative 

(3)  Judicial 

(4)  How  ofiScers  are  chosen 

(5)  Length  of  teims 

(b)  Number  of  counties 

(c)  Number  of  members  in  Congress 

(d)  State  institutions 

(1)  Penal 

(2)  Charitable 

(3)  Education  of  defectives 

(4)  How  each  is  conducted 
XI.  Education 

(a)  Public  school  system 

(1)  Common  schools 

(2)  High  schools 

(3)  Normal  schools 

(4)  Industrial  education 

(a)  School  of  Mines 

(b)  Agricultural    College 

(5)  State  University 

(b)  Colleges 

(c)  Large  private  schools 
XII.  History 

(a)  Exploration  and  settlement 

(b)  Date  made  a  territory 

(c)  When  admitted  to  Union 

(d)  Events  that  are  historical 

(e)  Famous  men  and  women 
XIII.  Statistical 

(a)  Rank  among  states  in  mineral 

products 

(b)  Rank  in  fai-m  products 

(c)  Rank  in  area 

(d)  Rank  in  population 


211 


STATE  BANKS 


3410 


STATISTICS 


.  STATE  BANKS.  See  Banks,  subhead 
State  Banks. 

STATE,  Department  of,  one  of  the  ten 
executive  departments  of  the  United  States 
government,  in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of 
State,  appointed  by  the  President  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate.  This  department  was 
the  first  one  organized  under  the  Federal 
government.  The  Secretary  is  first  in  impor- 
tance and  prestige  in  the  President's  Cabinet 
and  is  first  in  line  of  succession  to  the  Presi- 
dency. The  department  has  charge  of  all 
foreign  affairs,  both  of  state  and  of  the  con- 
sular service,  and  its  business  is  transacted 
through  various  bureaus  and  divisions.  The 
duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State  follow : 

The  Secretary  of  State  is  charged,  under 
the  direction  of  the  President,  with  the 
duties  appertaining  to  correspondence  with 
the  public  ministers  and  the  consuls  of  the 
United  States,  and  with  the  representatives 
of  foreign  powers  accredited  to  the  United 
States ;  and  to  negotiations  of  whatever  char- 
acter relating  to  the  foreign  affairs  of  the 
United  States.  He  is  also  the  medium  of 
correspondence  between  the  President  and  the 
governors  of  the  several  states  of  the  United 
States;  he  has  the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal 
of  the  United  States,  and  countersigns  and 
affixes  such  seal  to  all  executive  proclama- 
tions, to  various  commissions  and  to  warrants 
for  the  extradition  of  fugitives  from  justice. 
He  is  also  the  custodian  of  treaties  made  with 
foreign  states,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States.  He  grants  and  issues  passports,  and 
exequaturs  to  foreign  consuls  in  the  United 
States  are  issued  through  his  ofiice.  He 
publishes  the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Con- 
gress, amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and 
proclamations  declaring  the  admission  of  new 
states  into  the  Union. 

STAT'EN  ISLAND,  an  island  forming  a 
portion  of  the  southeastern  part  of  New 
York  State  and  the  southern  part  of  Greater 
New  York,  of  which  it  constitutes  the  borough 
of  Richmond.  It  is  situated  at  the  entrance 
of  New  York  harbor,  five  miles  southwest  of 
Manhattan  Island,  and  is  separated  from 
Long  Island  by  the  Narrows  and  from  New 
Jersey  by  Staten  Island  Sound.  It  contains 
many  fine  residences.  The  island  is  thirteen 
miles  long  and  has  a.  hilly  surface,  the  highest 
elevation  being  about  300  feet.  The  prin- 
cipal villages  are  New  Brighton,  New  West 
Brighton,  Port  Richmond,  Stapleton  and 
Tompkinsville. 


STATES-GENERAL,  a  French  legisla- 
tive body  which  existed  from  1302  until  the 
time  of  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  made 
up  of  members  of  the  clergy,  the  nobility  and 
representatives  of  the  common  people,  or 
Third  Estate.  These  last  were  in  the  be- 
ginning elected  by  the  king,  but  after  1484 
all  members  were  chosen  by  vote.  The 
States-General  met  only  when  called  by  the 
king  in  times  of  emergency.  From  1614  the 
body  was  not  assembled  until  the  famous 
meeting  of  1789  (see  French  Revolution). 

The  name  States-General  is  also  applied  to 
the  legislative  assembly  of  Holland. 

STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.  See  Papal 
States. 

STATES'  RIGHTS,  a  term  employed  in 
political  science  to  denote  the  governmental 
rights  of  the  individual  states  belonging  to 
a  Federal  Union,  it  being  understood  that 
there  are  certain  matters  in  which  the  states 
may  act  without  interference  from  the  cen- 
tral government.  History  proves  that  in  a 
federation  of  independent  states  freedom  of 
action  is  tolerated  only  so  long  as  it  does  not 
interfere  with  the  interests  of  the  Union.  The 
evolution  of  states'  rights  in  the  United 
States  is  a  typical  example.  In  the  time  of 
Hamilton  it  was  a  debatable  issue;  and  Jef- 
ferson's contention  that  the  right  of  each 
state  to  control  its  affairs  was  paramount  to 
the  central  authority  led  logically  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  right  of  secession.  The  Civil  War 
removed  all  claims  of  state  sovereignty. 

STATICS,  that  branch  of  dynamics  which 
treats  of  the  properties  and  relations  of 
forces  in  equilibrium,  equilibrium  meaning 
that  the  forces  are  in  perfect  balance,  so  that 
the  body  upon  which  they  act  is  in  a  state  of 
rest.  The  word  dynamics  is  employed  as  ex- 
pressing the  science  which  treats  of  the  laws 
of  force  or  power,  thus  corresponding  closely 
to  the  old  use  of  the  term  mechanics ;  and  this 
science  is  divided  into  statics  and  kinetics,  the 
first  being  the  science  which  treats  of  forces 
considered  as  producing  rest  and  the  second 
as  treating  of  forces  considered  as  producing 
motion.    See  Dynamics. 

STATIS'TICS,  a  collection  of  facts;  espe- 
cially those  facts  which  illustrate  physical, 
social,  moral,  intellectual,  political,  industrial 
and  economic  conditions  or  changes  of  condi- 
tion, and  which  admit  of  numerical  statement 
and  of  arrangement  in  tables.  The  collection 
of  statistics  may  have  the  object  merely  of 
ascertaining  numbers   or  of  learning  what 


STATUARY  HALL 


3411 


STEAD 


happens  in  an  average  of  a  great  number  of 
cases,  as  is  the  case  of  insurance  statistics ;  or 
of  detecting  the  causes  of  phenomena  that  ap- 
pear in  the  consideration  of  a  great  number 
of  individual  cases — such  phenomena,  for 
example,  as  the  decline  of  a  certain  trade  or 
the  prevalence  of  a  certain  disease.  In  all 
civilized  countries  the  collection  of  statistics 
forms  an  important  part  of  government. 

STATUARY  HALL,  a  large  room  on  the 
main  floor  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington, 
which  since  1864  has  been  used  as  a  memorial 
hall.  Each  state  may  place  in  it  two  statues 
of  the  men  or  women  it  wishes  thus  to  honor. 
The  hall,  which  is  circular  in  shape  and  direct- 
ly beneath  the  dome,  was,  until  1857,  the 
chamber  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
many  are  the  important  events  in  United 
States  history  that  have  taken  place  within 
its  walls.  Here  Madison  was  inaugurated 
President  in  1809  and  1813,  and  Monroe  in 
1821;  here  John  Quiney  Adams  was  elected 
President  in  1825,  and  here  Fillmore  took  the 
oath  of  office.  Within  these  walls  took  place 
many  important  debates;  the  voices  of  Cal- 
houn and  Webster,  of  Lincoln  and  Douglas, 
were  among  those  that  directed  events. 

According  to  the  Congressional  act  by 
which  the  room  was  created  a  memorial  hall, 
the  statue  may  be  in  bronze  or  marble  and 
must  be  a  portrait  of  a  deceased  person  who 
was  a  citizen  of  the  state  and  distinguished 
for  civic  or  military  service.  Of  the  forty- 
one  illustrious  citizens  who  have  been  honored 
by  representation  in  the  hall  only  one  is  a 
woman — Frances  Willard.  The  following  is 
a  complete  list  (1919),  showing  the  repre- 
eentation  of  each  state: 


STAT'UTE,  the  written  enactment  of  the 
legislative  branch  of  a  government  or  of 
some  duly  authorized  body  acting  in  con- 
formity with  its  will.  The  supreme  legislative 
bodies  are  called  respectively  Congress,  Par- 
liament or  some  synonymous  name.  Smaller 
bodies,  such  as  councils,  and  boards  of  alder- 
men, acting  under  the  authority  of  the  higher 
body,  may  pass  ordinances  dealing  specifi- 
cally with  local  administration — ordinances 
duly  sanctioned  by  constitutional  rule. 

STAUN'TON,  Va.,  the  county  seat  of 
Augusta  County,  135  miles  northwest  of 
Richmond,  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  railroads.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  an  agricultural  region,  and 
is  the  center  of  the  apple  production  of  the 
state.  Its  factories  turn  out  organs,  overalls, 
pennants,  brick,  flour,  chemicals,  wagons, 
agricultural  implements  and  general  machine 
shop  products.  The  leading  public  buildings 
are  the  city  hall,  the  courthouse,  the  Masonic 
Temple  and  the  Columbian  Hall.  The  state 
institutions  for  the  insane,  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  the  blind  are  located  here,  and  the  city 
has  several  seminaries  for  girls,  a  military 
academy  and  parish  and  other  private 
schools.  The  place  was  settled  in  1745  by 
people  from  northern  Ireland  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1871.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  an  important  sti-ategie  point. 
Woodrow  Wilson  was  bom  in  Staunton  in 
1856.  The  City  Manager  form  of  adminis- 
tration was  adopted  in  1909.  Population, 
1910,  10,604;  in  1917,  11,823  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 

STEAD,  sted,  William  Thomas  (1849- 
1912),  an  English  editor,  born  at  Embleton. 


DATE 


Alabama 
Connecticut 


Idaho    . 
Illinois 


Indiana 


Iowa  .  . .  . 
Kansas  .  . 
Maine  .  .  . 
Maryland 


Massachusetts    .  . 

Michigan    

Missouri 

New  Hampshire  . 


J.  L..  M.  Curry )1906 

Rog-er  Sherman ,.  1872 

Jonathan   Trumbull    .  1872 
Georg-e  L.  Shoup    ....  1909 

James  Shields    .....  ..  1893 

Frances  E.  Willard  .  1905 
Oliver    P.    Morton    . .  1899 

Lew    Wallace     1909 

James  Harlan    1909 

John  J.  Ingalls    1904 

William    King    1877 

Charles  Carroll 1901 

John   Hanson    1901 

Samuel    Adams    1873 

John  Winthrop    1872 

Lewis   Cass    1889 

Zachariah  Chandler.  .  1913 
Francis  P.  Blair  ....  1899 
Thomas  H.  Benton   ..11899 

John  Stark    |1894 

Daniel  Webster |1894 


New  Jersey  .  . 

New    York    

Ohio     

Pennsylvania  . . , 
Rhode  Island   . . 


South  Carolina 
Texas    


Vermont 

Virginia ■ 

West  Virginia   . 
Wisconsin    


Richard   Stockton 

Philip  Kearny    

Robert  R.  Livingston  . 

George    Clinton    

James  A.  Garfield 

William  Allen 

J.  P.  G.  Muhlenberg. . . 

Robert  Fulton    

Nathanael  Greene   .  . . . 

Roger   Williams    

.lohn  C.  Calhoun 

Stephen  F.   Austin.... 

Samuel  Houston    

Ethan   Allen    

Jacob  Collamer   

George  Washington   . . 

R.  B.  Lee 

John   E.   Kenna 

Francis   H.   Pierpont.. 
James    Marquette    


188H 
1875 
1874 
1873 
1885 
1887 
1881 
1881 
186;.' 
1870 
1909 
1904 
1904 
1875 
1879 
1908 
1908 
1901 
1903 
1895 


STEAM 


3412 


STEAM  ENGINE 


After  nine  years' "experience  as  editor  of  the 
Darlington  Northern  Echo,  he  became  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  under 
John  Morley,  and  when  the  latter  retired 
Stead  became  editor.  He  introduced  the  in- 
terview and  many  American  methods  into 
English  journalism,  and  made  a  reputation 
for  his  originality.  In  1890  he  founded  the 
monthly  Review  of  Reviews,  with  branches  in 
Australia  and  the  United  States,  and  was  edi- 
tor of  it  until  his  death.  He  vigorously  op- 
posed war,  and  his  weekly  paper,  War 
Against  War,  did  much  to  create  a  sentiment 
for  universal  peace.  His  opposition  to  the 
Boer  War  cost  him  the  friendship  of  Cecil 
Rhodes.  He  wrote  numerous  books  and  mag- 
azine articles,  including  some  on  spiritualism, 
to  which  he  became  a  convert.  Whatever  he 
undertook,  his  unbounded  enthusiasm  and  en- 
terprise gave  him  the  strength  of  a  crusader ; 
he  always  fought  for  what  he  believed.  He 
made  several  visits  to  America,  and  lost  his 
life  when  the  Titanic  sank  off  the  Grand 
Banks  of  Newfoundland.  His  books  include 
The  Truth  About  Russia,  A  Study  of  De- 
spairing Democracy  and  If  Christ  Came  to 
Chicago. 

STEAM.  We  usually  think  of  steam  as 
the  vapor  of  water  formed  when  it  is  at  boil- 
ing point,  that  is,  100°  C.  or  212°  F.  How- 
ever, steam  forms  at  all  temperatures,  even 
below  freezing  point,  for  steam  is  the  vapor 
of  water,  and  is  formed  whenever  evaporation 
(which  see)  takes  place. 

Steam  is  lighter  than  water,  and  at  boiling 
point  it  occupies  about  seventeen  hundred 
times  as  much  space.  Pure  steam  is  invisible 
and  should  be  distinguished  from  the  clouds 
f oiTued  by  the  issuing  of  steam  from  the  spout 
of  a  teakettle  or  the  escape  pipe  of  an  en- 
gine, for  these  clouds  are  caused  by  the  con- 
densation of  the  steam  into  minute  particles 
of  water.  The  expansive  force  of  steam  in- 
creases with  the  increase  of  temperature. 
This  is  taken  into  consideration  in  the  operat- 
ing of  engines.  Dry  steam  is  secured  by 
heating  steam  to  a  temperature  above  that 
of  boiling  water.  The  dome  of  the  boiler 
is  a  chamber  for  collecting  the  dry  steam. 
Wet  steam,  or  saturated  steam,  is  of  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  and  contains 
particles  of  water  suspended  in  the  vapor. 
Waste,  or  exhaust  steam,  is  that  which  has 
been  used ;  live  steam  is  that  ready  for  use. 

The  great  expansive  force  of  steam,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  condensed,  make  it 


the  most  valuable  gas  for  the  motive  power  of 
engines.  Steam  is  also  used  for  warming 
buildings,  for  cooking,  in  meat  packing  and 
for  extracting  substances  such  as  glue  from 
animal  tissues. 

Related  Articles.  For    further    information 
on  this  subject  consult  the  following  tit\es: 
Boiling-  Point  Steam  Engine 

Evaporation  Turbine 


Watt's 
Steam 
EInqine 


1  Mi 

[III  m  El  'JhlS^      I 


^-^^TEAM  ENGINE.  Every 
boy  and  girl  has  prob- 
ably read  the  story  of 
James  Watt,  who  sat  by 
the  fire  and  watched 
the  steam  as  it  lifted  the 
lid  of  his  mother's  tea- 
kettle, and  how  from 
these  observations  he 
worked  out  a  device  to 
utilize  the  power  of 
steam  in  operating  ma- 
chinery'. We  think  of 
Watt  as  the  inventor  of 
the  steam  engine,  because 
he  was  the  first  to  make  it  a  practical  ma- 
chine, but  several  others  before  Watt's  day 
had  attempted  to  invent  a  steam  engine,  and 
in  1705  Thomas  Newcomen  of  England  was 
granted  a  patent  for  an  engine  that  was  used 
for  some  time  for  pumping  water  from  coal 
mines. 

Neweomen's  original  engine  was  a  clumsy 
device,  consisting  of  a  boiler,  from  which 
the  steam  was  conveyed  by  a  pipe  to  the 
interior  of  a  cylinder,  the  upper  end  of 
which  was  open  to  the  air,  and  in  which  the 
piston  worked.  The  piston  was  attached  to 
a  walking  beam,  to  the  opposite  end  of 
which  the  pump  rod  was  attached.  Clumsy 
as  this  machine  was,  it  worked  fairly  well 
for  pumping  water.  The  piston  was  raised 
by  the  pressure  of  steam  and  was  forced 
down  by  the  pressure  of  the  air,  after  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder  had  been  condensed 
by  the  use  of  cold  water.  The  valves  were 
worked  by  hand  until  a  boy  who  was  tending 
the  valves  became  tired  of  his  task  and  by  a 
system  of  sticks  and  cords  so  connected 
them  with  the  walking  beam  that  the  engine 
became  self-acting.  Later  his  device  was 
attached  to  all  engines. 

Watt's  work  consisted  in  improving  New- 
eomen's engine.  This  he  accomplished  by 
constructing  a  cylinder  that  would  admit 
steam  at  each  end,  and  by  attaching  a  valve 
to  this  cylinder  so  that  the  steam  would  enter 
one  end  of  the  cylinder  as  it  escaped  from 


STEAM  ENGINE 


3413 


STEAM  ENGINE 


the  other,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  In 
Watt's  engine  the  steam  pushed  the  piston 
back,  and  the  use  of  cold  water  for  condens- 
ing the  steam  in  the  cylinder  was  unneces- 
sary. Watt's  improvement  resulted  in  such  a 
saving  of  fuel  and  increase  of  speed  in  the 
engine  as  to  make  it  practical.  He  took  out 
his  first  patent  in  17G9,  and,  because  all 
steam  engines  constructed  since  have  been 
upon  Watt's  plan,  that  is  the  year  in  which 
the  steam  engine  is  considered  to  have  been 
invented. 

Parts.  The  essential  parts  of  a  steam  en- 
gine are  the  boiler;  the  working  parts,  con- 
sisting of  cj'linder,  piston,  valves  and  gear; 
the  necessary  appliances  for  connecting  the 
piston  with  the  machinery  to  be  operated. 


opens  and  closes  the  steam  ports  and  the  ex- 
haust port.  The  diagram  shows  steam  enter- 
ing the  cylinder  through  the  left  port  and 
escaping  to  the  exhaust  port  at  the  right.  The 
piston  is  moving  towards  the  right.  When  it 
reaches  its  farthest  point  in  that  direction, 
the  valves  are  reversed,  thus  forcing  the  pis- 
ton back  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder. 
The  outer  end  of  the  piston  rod  is  connected 
with  a  cross  head,  to  which  the  crank  rod  (a) 
is  also  attached.  The  cross  head  slides  be- 
tween guides  and  holds  the  piston  rod  firmly 
in  position.  The  connecting  rod  joins  the 
cross  head  to  the  crank  and  thus  changes  the 
reciprocating  motion  of  the  piston  into  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  shaft.  The  shaft  con- 
tains the  necessary  attachments  for  operating 


PARTS  OP  A  STEAM  ENGINE 
Explanation  appears   in  the   text. 


These  usually  consist  of  a  connecting  rod,  a 
crank  and  a  shaft,  or  fly  wheel. 

The  cylinder  is  an  iron  box,  whose  inner 
surface  has  been  carefully  turned.  Upon  one 
side,  a  box  called  the  steam  chest,  (s),  is  fas- 
tened, and  from  this  openings,  called  steam 
ports,  lead  to  each  end  of  the  cylinder  (c). 
Steam  is  admitted  through  the  pipe  (h).  Be- 
tween the  steam  ports  is  the  exhaust  port 
(e).  The  valve  (v)  is  connected  by  the  ec- 
centric rod  (r)  with  the  eccentric,  which  gives 
it  its  sliding  motion.  The  cylinder  contains 
the  piston  (d),  to  which  is  fastened  the  pis- 
ton rod  (/),  As  this  leaves  the  cylinder  it 
passes  through  the  stuffing  box  (j),  which  is 
packed  with  cotton  waste  or  other  material, 
to  make  it  steam-tight.    The  valve  alternately 


the  valves  and  governor,  so  that  the  engine  is 
automatic.  All  that  is  necessary  to  start  the 
engine  is  to  open  tlie  throttle  valve,  which 
admits  the  steam  to  the  steam  chest  through 
the  pipe  (h).  The  movement  is  regulated 
by  the  governor. 

Classification.  Engines  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  position  of  the  cylinder  axis, 
according  to  their  method  of  using  steam  and 
according  to  the  work  for  which  the  engine  is 
designed.  A  vertical  engine  has  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder  in  a  vertical  position,  and  the  pis- 
ton has  an  up  and  down  motion.  A  horizontal 
engine  has  the  piston  axis  in  a  honzontal 
position.  This  is  the  most  common  pattern 
of  stationary  and  locomotive  engines.  The 
use  of  electricity  has  led  to  the  construction 


STEAM  ENGINE 


3414 


STEAM  ENGINE 


of  a  pattern  of  large  engine  which  combines 
the  vei'tical  and  horizontal  tjiies,  one  cylinder 
being  vertical  and  the  other  horizontal.  Some 
of  these  engines  have  a  capacity  of  5,000  or 
6,000  horse  power. 

According  to  their  method  of  using  steam, 
engines  are  condensing,  or  low  pressure,  and 
non-condensing ,  or  high  pressure.  A  condens- 
ing engine  is  one  in  which  the  exhaust  steam 
is  conducted  to  a  condensing  chamber,  where 


TOY  STEAM  ENGINE      (Fig.  1) 


it  is  condensed,  the  water  being  returned  to 
the  boiler.  This  is  celled  the  low-pressure 
engine,  because  the  air  pump  connected  with 
the  condensing  chamber  enables  the  exhaust 


iiteam  to  escape  into  a  vacuum.  In  the  high 
pressure  engine  the  exhaust  steam  escapes 
into  the  air,  consequently  it  must  overcome 
the  pressure  of  air,  which,  at  sea  level,  is 
equal  to  about  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square 
inch. 

The  compound  engine  uses  the  steam  suc- 
cessively in  two  or  more  cylinders  before  it 
is  allowed  to  escape,  wliile  a  simple  engine 
uses  the  steam  but  once.  Compound  engines, 
known  as  triple  expansion  engines,  are  the 
most  common  form  of  marine  engines.  They 
are  usually  vertical  and  use  the  steam  three 
times. 

How  to  Make  a  Steam  Engine.  A  toy  or 
model  engine  can  easily  be  made  from  ma- 
terial found  in  nearly  eveiy  home.  The 
cylinder  A  (Fig.  1)  is  an  old  bicycle  pump, 
cut  in  half.  The  steam  chest  B  is  part  of  the 
piston  tube  of  the  same  pump,  the  other 
parts  of  the  tube  being  used  for  the  bearing 
C  and  the  bearing  D.  The  fly-wheel  E  may 
be  any  small-sized  iron  wheel,  such  as  an 
old  sewing-machine  wheel  or  pulley  wheel. 
If  the  bore  in  the  wheel  is  too  large  for  the 
shaft,  it  may  be  bushed  with  a  piece  of  hard 
wood:  to  bush  the  bore  cut  out  a  circular 
piece  of  wood  to  fit  tightly  into  the  opening ; 
in  this  piece  of  wood  then  cut  a  circular 
hole  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  shaft. 
The  shaft  may  be  made  of  heavy  steel  wire, 
the  size  of  the  hole  in  the  bearing  D. 

The  base  should  be  of  wood  on  which  are 
fastened  two  blocks  F  and  G,  ^g-inch  thick,  to 
support  the  bearing  D  and  the  valve  crank  H, 
which  is  made  of  tin.  The  hose  K  leads  to 
the  boiler.  The  clips  M  are  soldered  to  the 
cylinder  and  nailed  to  the  base,  and  the  bear- 
ing D  is  fastened  by  staples. 

The  piston  is  harder  to  make,  because  it 
must  fit  closely  into  the  cylinder  and  yet 
move  freely.  It  may  be  made  of  a  stove 
bolt  A  (Fig.  2),  with  two  washers  FF  which 
just  fit  the  cylinder.  Around  the  bolt  wind 
soft  string  to  the  width  of  the  washers.  Be- 
fore winding  it  would  be  well  to  saturate  the 
string  with  thick  oil.  A  slot  must  be  cut  in 
the  end  of  the  bolt  A  to  receive  the  con- 
necting rod  C.  Solder  or  a  pin  as  shown 
in  the  diagram  may  be  used  to  hold  the  rod 
C  in  place.  The  valve  D  is  made  of  an  old 
bicj'cle  spoke  E,  with  the  nut  cut  in  half  and 
the  space  between  filled  with  string  and  oiled, 
just  as  was  done  with  the  stove  bolt.  Bore  a 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  and  an- 
other of  equal  size  in  the  side  of  the  piston 


STEAM  ENGINE 


3415 


STEAM  HAMMER 


tube  in  which  the  valve  D  works.  Then 
solder  these  pieces  together  so  that  the  holes 
leave  a  free  opening.  The  valve  crank  H 
(Fig.  1),  already  mentioned,  may  be  cut 
from  a  sheet  of  heavy  tin  or  galvanized  iron, 
and  is  moved  back  and  forth  by  a  crank  on 
the  shaft.  This  crank  must  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  main  shaft. 

The  boiler  maj-  be  an  old  oil,  powder,  or 
syrup  can  with  a  tube  soldered  to  it.  This 
tube  should  be  connected  to  the  engine  by 
the  rubber  E  of  Fig  1.  A  good  Bunsen 
burner  or  small  gas  stove  will  furnish  enough 
steam  to  run  the  engine  at  high  speed. 

Now  that  we  have  set  up  the  engine  we 
may  study  the  manner  in  which  it  works. 
The  water  in  the  boiler  becomes  steam  when 
the    heat    underneath    is    sufficiently    great. 


will  continue.  The  operator  should  be  care- 
ful that  no  steam  escapes  at  the  joints  or 
connections.  When  the  machine  is  in  good 
running  order  it  is  possible  to  run  a  belt  over 
the  fly-wheel  and  let  it  perfoim  a  great 
variety  of  work  for  us. 

Related    Articles.  Consult       the      following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Boiler  Locomotive 

Eccentric  Traction  Engine 

Governor  Watt,  James 

STEAM  HAMMER,  a  hammer  operated 
by  the  action  of  steam,  without  the  aid  of 
any  other  machinery.  This  contrivance  was 
invented  by  an  Englishman,  James  Xasmyth, 
in  1S39,  and  it  immediately  revolutionized 
the  industries  invohnng  heaw  forging. 

The  important  parts  of  a  steam  hammer 
are  frame,  cylinder,  piston,  piston  rod,  ham- 


i"-\        f/,'i        L..I       v 


STEAM  SHOVEL, 


Through  the  tube  K  this  steam  is  let  into  the 
cylinder  when  the  valve  D  (Fig.  2)  is  at 
the  left  of  the  opening.  The  pressure  of  the 
steam  forces  the  piston  upwards,  thus  turn- 
ing the  crank  C  and  the  fly-wheel  E.  The 
turn  of  the  fly-wheel  works  the  valve  crank 
H  which  in  turn  forces  the  valve  D  to  the 
right.  When  the  valve  is  to  the  right  of 
the  steam  inlet  the  steam  will  rush  out  as 
shown  by  the  arrow  in  Fig.  3,  Now  that  the 
cylinder  A  is  empty,  the  piston  will  retuni 
to  the  bottom,  thus  turning  the  fly-wheel 
again,  changing  the  position  of  the  small 
valve  B  (Fig.  2)  so  that  more  steam  will 
enter  the  cylinder  at  A.  As  long  as  there 
is  enough  steam  in  the  boiler  this  process 


mer  proper  and  the  anvil.  In  the  early 
l^attern,  known  as  the  Nasmyth  hammer,  the 
hammer  was  oiDerated  by  admitting  the  steam 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder  and  raising 
the  piston.  The  steam  was  then  cut  off  and 
the  hammer  fell  by  its  own  weight.  Later 
improvements  admit  the  steam  alternately  at 
the  two  ends  of  the  cylinder,  the  same  as  in 
the  steam  engine,  and  operate  much  more  rap- 
idly and  effectively.  The  hammer  is  so  per- 
fectly adjusted  that  it  can  be  made  to  strike 
a  blow  of  any  required  force.  Steam  ham- 
mers are  used  in  large  forgings,  such  as  gun 
forgings,  shafts  for  vessels  and  other  like 
purposes.  Electrically-operated  hammers 
are  now  coming  into  more  general  use,  and 


STEAMSHIP 


3416 


STEEL 


can  be  made  as  powerful  as  any  of  the  largest 
steam  hammers. 

STEAMSHIP.     See  Ship. 

STEAM  SHOVEL,  sliuv'el,  an  excavating 
machine  for  use  on  land.  The  huge  types 
used  in  the  excavation  of  the  Panama  Canal 
handled  from  4,000  to  5,000  cubic  yards  of 
rock  or  ore  daily.  These  monster  machines 
are  also  used  extensively  in  digging  and  load- 
ing ore  in  iron  mines  of  the  Great  Lakes 
region  and  for  excavating  canals  and  cuts 
on  railways. 

Method  of  Operation.  The  steam  shovel 
including  the  engine,  is  mounted  on  a  ear, 
so  that  it  can  be  moved  as  required.  It  con- 
sists of  a  hoisting  engine  and  movable  crane, 
with  a  scoop,  or  shovel,  so  attached  to  the 
crane  that  it  can  be  moved  in  an;^'  direction. 
The  bottom  of  the  shovel  is  attached  by  a 
hinge  and  held  in  place  by  a  spring.  In 
■use  the  shovel  is  lowered  to  the  earth,  then 
pulled  forward  and  slightly  downward  by  a 
chain  that  winds  over  a  cylinder.  This 
movement  fills  it.  When  filled,  it  is  raised 
by  the  crane  and  swung  over  the  point  where 
it  is  to  be  emptied.  By  pulling  a  cord  the 
spring  holding  the  bottom  in  place  is  re- 
leased, and  the  shovel  empties  itself.  The 
capacity  of  steam  shovels  varies  from  one  to 
five  cubic  yards,  but  from  one  and  a  half  to 
two  and  a  half  cubic  yards  are  the  sizes 
generallv  used. 

STEAM  TURBINE.  See  Turbine, 
subhead  Steam  Turbine. 

STEARIC,  ste  a/ik,  ACID,  a  fatty  com- 
pound contained  in  the  more  solid  fats  of 
animals  such  as  mutton  suet,  and  in  the  fat 
of  cow's  milk.  It  is  odorless  and  tasteless, 
it  crystallizes  in  pearly  scales,  and  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  With  parafl&n  it  is 
used  for  making  candles. 

STE'ARIN,  the  chief  ingredient  of  suet  and 
tallow,  or  the  harder  ingredient  of  animal 
fats,  olein  being  the  softer  one.  It  is  pre- 
pared for  practical  use  from  beef  suet  and 
cottonseed  oil,  and  it  yields  an  oil  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  butterine.  Stearin  has  a 
pearly  luster  and  is  soft  to  the  touch,  but 
not  greasy.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  hot  alcohol  and  ether.  When 
treated  with  superheated  steam,  it  is  sepa- 
rated into  stearic  acid  and  glycerine,  and 
when  boiled  with  alkalies  the  stearic  acid 
combines  with  the  alkali  and  forms  soap  and 
glycerine.  When  melted,  stearin  resembles 
wax. 


STE'ATITE.     See  Soapstone. 

STED'MAN,  Edmund  Clarence  (1833- 
1908),  a  prominent  American  poet  and  critic, 
born  at  Hartford,  Conn.  He  studied  at  Yale, 
took  up  journalism  and  was  war  correspond- 
ent of  the  Xew  York  World  during  the  Civil 
War.  Later  he  became  a  stockbroker  in  New 
York  and  was  a  member  of  the  Stock  Ex- 
change. He  contributed  to  the  more  impor- 
tant magazines  and  published  his  first  volume 
of  verse  in  1860.  His  critical  work,  Victor- 
ian Poets,  appeared  in  1875  and  has  gone 
through  many  editions ;  the  Poets  of  America 
appeared  in  1886.  Among  his  volumes  of 
verse  are  Poems,  Lyrical  and  Idyllic;  Haw- 
thorne and  Other  Poems;  Alice  of  Mon- 
mouth, and  A  Diamond  Wedding. 

STEEL,  the  refined  metal  that  gives 
strength  and  stability  to  the  industries  of 
the  world,  as  gold  determines  the  standard  of 
value.  It  is  a  variety  of  iron  containing  less 
carbon  than  east  iron  and  more  than  wrought 
iron.  Steel  is  stronger  than  iron,  can  be 
tempered  to  any  degree  of  hardness,  bent 
into  anj'  desirable  shape,  and  cast  in  molds. 
It  is  the  world's  most  valuable  metal  and 
enters  into  the  manufacture  of  so  many 
things  upon  which  we  depend  for  our  com- 
merce and  comfort  that  were  its  supply  sud- 
denly to  cease,  the  industries  of  the  world 
would  have  to  be  reorganized. 

In  the  article  Iron  the  various  iron  ores 
are  named  and  the  methods  of  their  produc- 
tion and  transportation  are  described.  This 
article  treats  of  the  reduction  of  these  ores, 
their  transformation  into  steel  and  the  uses 
made  of  this  valuable  commodity. 

Smelting  the  Ore.  The  iron  and  steel  of 
commerce  contain  small  quantities  of  carbon, 
manganese,  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  and  the 
ores  contain  these  substances  in  a  much  larger 
proportion,  together  w4th  sand  and  other 
minerals,  all  of  which  must  be  separated  from 
the  metal.  This  is  done  through  the  process 
of  smelting,  which  is  carried  on  in  a  blast 
furnace. 

The  Blast  Furnace.  The  blast  furnace  is 
so  named  because  a  blast  of  hot  air  is  em- 
ployed in  producing  the  high  temperature 
(600°  to  900°  F.)  required  in  reducing  the 
ore.  A  blast  furnace  is  usually  a  tall  cy- 
lindrical structure,  and  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts:  The  stack,  A;  the  boshes,  B, 
which  are  the  conical  part  below  the  stack; 
the  hearth,  H,  the  charging  hopper,  C,  and 
the  tuyeres,  I. 


^  O 

I  > 

05 

?  H 

o       PI 

r 


STEEL 


341  i 


STEEL 


The  exterior  consists  of  massive  masonry 
of  stone,  brick  or  cement,  the  body  part  being 
lined  with  two  shells  of  fire  bricks,  separated 
by  a  thin  space 
to  allow  for  ex- 
pansion. This 
sjDace  is  gener- 
ally filled  with 
sand,  ground 
fire-clay  or  the 
like,  to  hinder 
the  radiation  of 
heat  to  the  out- 
side. When  the 
body  rises  in 
the  form  of  a 
p  e  rpendicular 
cylinder,  it  is 
called  the  bar- 
rel. The  cone 
or  barrel  is 
sometimes 
clasped  round 
on  the  outside 
b  y  numerous 
strong  iron 
hoops,  or  is 
cased  with  iron 
plates  fastened  blast  furnace 

to  the  masonry  by  iron  bolts.  The  boshes  are 
lined  with  firebrick  or  firestone,  and  the 
hearth  is  built  with  large  blocks  of  stone 
which  will  resist  the  heat.  A  gallery  is  built 
around  the  top,  and  to  this,  material  for 
charging  the  furnace  is  hoisted  by  an  eleva- 
tor. The  top  is  closed  by  a  bell-and-cone  ar- 
rangement which  is  opened  and  shut  at 
pleasure  by  hydraulic  or  other  machinery. 
The  height  of  furnaces  varies  from  fifty  to 
eighty  feet,  and  in  some  cases  to  upward  of 
one  hundred  feet,  and  the  gi'eatest  width  is 
in  most  instances  not  more  than  one-third 
of  the  height. 

Near  the  furnace  are  tall  cylindrical  struc- 
tures, usually  four  in  number,  called  stoves. 
Their  interior  is  filled  with  a  checkerwork  of 
brick,  which  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
by  burning  the  gas  generated  in  smelting  the 
ore.  When  this  checkerwork  in  one  stove  is 
heated  to  its  highest  temperature,  the  heat 
is  turned  to  another  and  the  blast  of  air  is 
forced  through  the  hot  stove  before  it  is 
driven  into  the  furnace.  By  this  means  the 
temperature  required  to  smelt  the  ore  is 
maintained  with  the  smallest  possible  eon- 
sumption  of  fuel. 


The  Charge.  A  charge  for  the  furnace  con- 
sists of  crushed  ore,  crushed  coke  and  crushed 
limestone,  mixed  in  such  proportions  as  to 
secure  the  largest  amount  of  metal  from  the 
ore  at  the  lowest  temperature  that  will  gain 
this  result.  The  limestone  acts  as  a  flux, 
combining  with  the  sand  and  other  minerals 
and  setting  the  iron  free.  The  charging  of 
the  furnace  continues  at  frecjuent  intervals 
day  and  night,  for  when  a  blast  furnace  is 
started  it  continues  in  operation  until  rejDairs 
are  necessary.  The  charges  are  constantly 
passing  downward  and  undergoing  a  change 
as  they  come  nearer  the  hotter  parts  of  the 
furnace.  Toward  the  lower  part  the  earthy 
matter  of  the  ore  unites  with  the  limestone 
and  forms  a  slag,  which  finally  escapes  at  an 
opening  below  the  tuyeres,  and  the  molten 
metal  drops  down  and  fills  the  lower  part,  to 
be  drawn  off  at  stated  periods.  This  is  done 
usually  twice  in  twenty-four  hours,  by  means 
of  a  round  hole  called  a  tap.  The  furnace  is 
constantly  kept  filled  to  within  about  two 
feet  of  the  top.  (See  illustration  5  in  the 
color  plate.)  The  molten  metal  may  be 
run  into  channels  in  sand  and  east  into  bars, 
forming  jjig  iron  or  j^ig;  or  it  may  be  jioured 
into  a  ladle  and  taken  to  another  furnace,  for 
changing  the  iron  to  steel  before  it  cools. 
Wrought  iron  is  made  by  remelting  and  pur- 
ifying pig  iron.  It  is  soft,  tough  and  flexible. 
Pig  iron  contains  too  much  carbon,  and 
wrought  iron  contains  too  little,  to  form 
steel. 

Varieties  of  Steel.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties  of  steel,  each  named  from  the  method 
emjDloyed  in  its  manufacture. 

Crucible  Steel.  This  variety  is  made  by 
the  oldest  process  by  which  steel  is  manu- 
factured from  iron.  Wrought  iron  bars  are 
laid  between  layers  of  charcoal  in  iron  retorts 
that  are  lined  with  fire  brick.  The  air  is  ex- 
eluded,  and  the  retorts  are  placed  in  a  furnace 
and  heated  to  a  yellow  heat,  the  temperature 
being  maintained  six  or  eight  daj^s,  according 
to  the  grade  of  steel  desired.  The  process  is 
known  as  cenientation,  and  fi'om  the  appear- 
ance of  the  bars,  which,  when  taken  from  the 
I'etorts,  are  covered  with  blisters,  this  is 
sometimes  called  blister  steel.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  carbon  is  added  to  the  wrought  iron 
during  the  process,  thus  converting  it  into 
steel.  With  the  best  quality  of  wrought  iron, 
this  process  produces  the  highest  gi-ade  of 
steel.  Since  the  outside  of  the  bai-s  absorb 
more  carbon  than  the  interior,  the  bars  are 


STEEL 


3418 


STEEL 


usually  melted  iu  a  crucible  and  east  in  molds 
or  ingots  which  are  of  uniform  quality.  These 
ingots  form  the  cast  steel  of  commerce,  from 
which  steel  tools  and  implements  of  the  high- 
est grade  are  made. 

The  electric  furnace,  in  which  the  heat  is 
produced  by  electricity,  is  now  rapidly  sup- 
planting the  crucible  process  in  making  high- 
grade  steel. 

Bessemer  Steel.  This  variety  of  steel 
takes  its  name  from  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  of 
England,  the  inventor  of  the  process  of  its 
manufacture.  In  principle  it  is  directly  the 
reverse  of  the  cementation  process,  which 
produces  steel  bj'  burning  the  carbon  into 


BESSEMER   CONVERTER 

wrought  iron.  Bessemer  conceived  the  idea 
of  making  steel  by  burning  carbon  out  of 
east  iron,  which  contains  too  large  a  propor- 
tion. The  furnace  in  which  this  is  done  is 
known  as  the  converter.  It  is  an  egg-shaped 
iron  vessel,  about  fifteen  feet  high  and  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  naiTOwing  at  the  top  to  an 
opening  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 
The  furnace  is  lined  with  fire  brick  and 
mounted  on  trunnions,  so  it  can  be  tilted  to 
a  horizontal  position  by  a  hydraulic  piston. 
In  most  patterns  the  top  is  cur\-ed,  so  as  to 
bring  the  opening  to  one  side.  The  bottom 
contains  a  number  of  tuyeres,  each  perfo- 
rated with  holes  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  tuyeres  are  connected  with  an  air  cham- 
ber, which  is  supplied  with  air  through  one 
of  the  trunnions,  connected  by  pipes  with  a 
powerful  blowing  m.achine.  The  converter 
is  charged  directly  from  the  blast  furnace 
or  from  iron  that  is  melted  in  a  separate 
furnace,  called  the  cupola.    In  being  charged. 


the  converter  is  tipped  upon  its  side.  As  it 
resumes  an  upright  position,  the  blast  is  auto- 
matically turned  on,  and  air  is  forced 
through  the  molten  metal  with  a  pressm-e 
varying  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  pounds 
to  the  square  inch.  This  burns  out  the  silicon 
and  carbon  and  produces  such  violent  boiling 
of  the  metal  as  to  cause  the  converter  and  its 
foundations  to  vibrate  perceptibly.  When 
the  silicon  and  carbon  have  been  consumed, 
the  blast  is  shut  off,  the  converter  is  again 
tilted  upon  its  side  and  a  small  quantity  of 
spiegeleisen,  an  alloy  of  highly  carbonized 
iron  and  manganese,  is  added.  After  this 
has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  metal, 
the  charge  is  poured  into  ladles,  from  which 
it  is  run  into  casting  molds.  The  process  of 
converting  the  charge  into  steel  requires 
from  eight  to  twenty  minutes,  and  the  time 
is  detemiined  by  the  furnace  man,  who  is 
able  to  teU  by  the  color  of  the  flame  at  the 
mouth  of  the  converter  when  the  process 
is  completed.  As  soon  as  the  ingots  have 
cooled  enough  to  retain  their  form,  the  mold 
is  taken  off  and  the  ingot  is  moved  to  the 
soalcing-pot,  which  is  another  furnace  heat- 
ed by  gas.  Here  the  ingots  remain  until  they 
acquire  a  uniform  temperature  and  solidity, 
when  they  are  ready  for  the  rolling-mill. 
(See  illustrations  6  and  7  in  the  color  plate.) 

Open-Hearth  Steel.  Open-hearth  steel  is 
that  made  in  a  furnace  consti-ucted  on  the 
same  plan  as  that  used  in  making  wrought 
iron.  The  open-hearth  furnace  is  charged 
with  molten  pig  iron,  scrap  steel,  iron  ore 
and  a  small  quantity  of  limestone  or  fluor- 
spar. The  heat  is  produced  by  gas  which 
burns  over  the  charge.  The  process  re- 
quires from  six  to  twelve  houi^s.  The  steel 
is  poured  into  molds,  then  treated  the  same  as 
that  produced  by  the  Bessemer  process.  The 
chief  advantages  of  the  open-hearth  process 
are  the  opportunity  of  using  scraps  and  the 
large  quantity  of  metal  that  can  be  treated 
at  one  time,  from  seventy  to  a  hundred  tons 
of  steel  being  made  at  a  heat  in  the  largest 
furnaces.  About  three-fourths  of  the  steel 
produced  in  the  United  States  is  made  by 
the  open-hearth  process. 

Alloys  of  Steel.  A  number  of  other 
metals  when  united  with  steel  in  small  pro- 
portions greatly  improve  its  quality  for  spe- 
cific purposes.  A  small  quantity  of  nickel 
hardens  the  metal,  and  nickel  steel  is  used  in 
making  armor  plate  for  warships,  and  for 
steel  used  in  large  bridges.     Vanadium  steel 


STEELYARD 


3419 


STEFFENS 


is  extensively  used  in  making  automobiles, 
because  of  its  power  to  resist  shocks; 
tungsten  steel  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
tools.  The  addition  of  from  seven  to  fifteen 
per  cent  of  manganese  makes  the  metal  very 
tough  and  hard,  and  manganese  steel  is  used 
for  rock  crushers  and  other  machines  where 
great  strength  is  required.  Most  of  the 
railroad  rails  are  of  manganese  steel. 

Uses  of  Steel.  The  uses  of  steel  are  so 
numerous  that  only  a  few  can  be  given  in 
this  article.  Steel  has  replaced  iron  in  al- 
most everything  in  the  line  of  construction. 
The  frame  of  the  city  skyscraper  is  steel. 
We  have  steel  ships,  steel  locomotives  and 
cars  that  move  on  steel  rails.  Nails  are  made 
of  steel  wire,  and  our  linen  is  sewed  with  the 
finest  steel  needles.  The  place  of  steel  in  the 
World  War  is  aptly  summarized  in  the  fol- 
lowing words : 

In  the  great  World  War  nations  opposed 
each  other  in  terms  of  steel.  The  tiny  needle 
of  steel  carried  on  the  endless  work  of  small 
sewing;  the  instrument  of  steel  served  the 
surgeon;  vessels  of  steel  transported  troops 
and  provisions  and  policed  the  sea;  the  steel 
helmet  protected  the  man  in  the  trenches;  and 
the  shrieking  steel  shell  carried  destruction 
to  the  enemy.  It  has  been  a  War  of  Steel. 
And,  in  the  work  of  reconstructing  the  affairs 
of  man,  steel  will  play  a  ruling  part.  Where 
steel  has  destroyed,  steel  will  renew.  Steel 
will  extend  our  roads  of  transportation  and 
form  vast  bridges.  Steel  will  plow  the  shell- 
torn  fields  and  reopen  the  soil  for  seed.  Steel 
will  support  the  construction  of  new  build- 
ings and  will  supply  machines  and  instru- 
ments for  renewed  manufacturing  activities. 
Steel  wrill  deliver  and  protect  the  necessary 
supplies    of    man. 

Production.  The  United  States  is  the  lead- 
ing country  of  the  world  in  the  production  of 
iron  and  steel  (see  Iron).  Before  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War  the  other  countries 
in  order  of  their  imi^ortance  were  Germany, 
the  United  Kingdom,  France  and  Russia. 
The  output  of  crude  steel  in  the  United  States 
in  1919  had  reached  a  potential  total  of  49,- 
000,000  tons  a  year. 

STEEL'YARD,  in  mechanics,  a  balance,  or 
weighing  machine,  consisting  of  a  lever  of 
unequal  aiTQS.  The  most  common  kind, 
often  called  the  Roman  balance,  is  a  lever 
of  the  first  class  (see  Lever).  One  may  find 
the  weight  of  an  object  by  suspending  it  from 
the  end  of  the  shorter  arm,  or  placing  it  in 
a  scale-dish  suspended  from  that  arm,  and 
sliding  a  balance  weight,  whose  weight  is 
known,  along  the  longer  arm,  until  the  in- 


strument remains  in  equilibrium  in  a  horizon- 
tal position;  the  weight  of  the  substance 
attached  to  the  short  arm  of  the  lever  is  ascer- 
tained by  observing  the  position  of  the  mov- 
able balance-weight,  with  respect  to  a  grad- 
uated scale  marked  upon  the  long  arm  of 
the  steelyard.  A  ring  or  hook  is  attached  to 
the  fulcrum,  so  that  the  instrument  may  be 
conveniently  hung  upon  a  fixed  support. 

STEEN,  stayn,  Jan  (1626-1679),  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden.  Few 
facts  of  his  life  are  known.  One  of  these 
is  that  he  worked  at  Haarlem  from  1061  to 
1669,  the  most  productive  period  of  his  ca- 
reer. His  works,  which  number  about  500, 
are  remarkable  for  draughtsmanship,  clear, 
transparent  color  and  keen  humor.  Steen  de- 
lighted especially  in  scenes  of  Dutch  life,  and 
he  ranks  with  Hogarth  as  a  master  of  picto- 
rial satire.  No  other  Dutch  painter  save  Rem- 
brandt surpasses  him  in  variety  of  subject, 
accuracy  of  ti'eatment  and  in  dramatic  gifts. 
Fine  examples  of  his  work  are  Eve  of  Saint 
Nicholas,  The  Rustic  Wedding  (both  at  Am- 
sterdam), The  Menagerie  (The  Hague)  and 
The  Music  Master  (London  National  Gal- 
lery) .  Representative  canvases  are  owned  by 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 

STEF'ANSSON,  sta'fahns  sohn,  Vilh- 
JALMUR  (1879-  ),  a  Scandinavian  explor- 
er, who,  as  head  of  an  expedition,  discovered 
in  1915  a  hitherto  unknown  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  The  expedition  was  under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  and  the  National  Geographic  Society 
(U.  S.),  and  was  financed  by  the  Canadian 
government.  Stefansson  sailed  from  Vic- 
toria, B.  C.,  in  June,  1913;  and  the  follow- 
ing spring,  although  the  largest  of  his  ships 
had  been  lost,  he  proceeded  northeastward 
from  Alaska.  A  feature  of  his  trip  was  a 
three  months'  journey  by  sledge  across  float- 
ing ice.  In  February,  1915,  he  left  Cape  Kel- 
leth.  Banks  Land,  and  proceeding  north  dis- 
covered, on  June  18,  near  the  78th  parallel, 
a  mountainous  island  about  a  hundred  miles 
long.  He  made  subsequent  surveys  of  im- 
portance in  Arctic  regions.  See  North  Polar 
Exploration. 

STEFFENS,  Lincoln  (1866-  ),  an 
American  writer  and  lecturer.  He  was  born 
in  San  Francisco,  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  California  and  later  studied  at 
Berlin,  Heidelberg,  Leipzig  and  Paris.  He 
served  as  reporter  and  editor  on  New  York 
papers  and  afterwards  became  editor  succes- 


STEINBOCK 


3420 


STEPHENS 


sively  of  McClure's  Magazine,  The  American 
Magazine  and  Everybody's  Magazine.  He 
has  contributed  to  magazines  numerous  stories 
and  articles  dealing  with  serious  subjects  of 
current  interest.  Among  his  books  are  The 
Shame  of  the  Cities,  The  Struggle  for  Self- 
Government,  Upbuilders  and  The  Least  of 
These. 

STEINBOCK,  stine'bok,  or  STEEN'BOK, 
a  small  antelope,  found  in  South  Africa, 
where  its  rocky  habitat  suggested  the  Dutch 
name,  meaning  stonehuck.  It  is  ashen-gray 
on  the  sides,  white  underneath  and  stands 
about  two  feet  in  height ;  the  male  has  short 
horns.  The  name  is  also  applied  in  Europe 
to  the  ibex. 

STEMS,  the  parts  of  plants  which  sup- 
port leaves.  Though  stems  in, some  plants 
are  all  underground,  in  most  cases  they  serve 
to  keep  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  plants  in 
the  sunlight;  they  always  form  channels  by 
which  the  liquids  in  circulation  can  reach  the 
leaves  from  the  roots.  The  stems  of  some 
plants  live  but  one  year;  others  live  two 
years,  and  still  others  may  live  on  indefinitely 
from  year  to  year.  The  methods  of  growth 
vaiy  with  the  species,  sometimes  being  di- 
rectly upward  from  a  teiTuinal  bud,  making 
a  cylindrical,  upright  tube;  sometimes 
branching  regularly,  but  still  standing  up- 
right. Other  stems  are  weak  and  rise  by 
climbing  only,  either  by  their  rootlets,  or 
tendrils,  or  by  twining  round  and  round 
some  slender  support.  The  tuber  of  the  po- 
tato or  the  root-stock  of  Solomon's  seal  are 
examples  of  underground  stems.  Other  con- 
densed forms  are  found  above  ground,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  peculiar  tips  that  the  cactus 
family  exhibits.  The  living  parts  of  the 
dicotyledonous  plant  are  confined  to  the 
narrow  zone  just  under  the  outer  bark  and 
outside  the  main  core  of  the  tree.  In  mono- 
cotyledonous  plants,  however,  the  stem  grows 
in  restricted  areas  throughout  the  whole  di- 
ameter. Cross  sections  of  stems  show  very 
clearly  the  structure  of  the  two  forms;  the 
dicotj^ledons  show  concentric  rings  of  woody 
matter,  while  monocotyledonous  plants  are  of 
rather  unifoiTU  pithy  structure,  with  fibrous 
bundles.      See  Botany;  Leaves. 

STENCIL,  sten'sil,  a  thin  sheet  of  metal, 
cardboard,  or  other  material  with  letters  or 
designs  cut  in  it.  Stencils  are  much  used  in 
marking  shipping  boxes,  in  cases  where  the 
same  marking  is  repeatedly  used.  The 
stencil  is  laid  flat  on  the  box  and  is  painted 


over  with  a  brush  saturated  with  ink.  The 
ink  touches  the  box  only  through  the  stencil 
openings.  Stencils  are  sometimes  used  in 
transferring  designs  to  walls. 

STENOG'RAPHY.    See  Shorthand. 

STEPHEN,  Steven,  (about  1097-1154), 
king  of  England,  son  of  Stephen,  count  of 
Blois,  and  Adela,  a  daughter  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  His  uncle,  Henry  I,  gave  him  the 
earldom  of  Montaigne,  in  Nonnandy,  and 
large  estates  in  England,  in  return  for  which 
he  took  the  oath  to  secure  the  succession  to 
Henrj-'s  daughter,  Matilda.  But  when  his 
uncle  died,  in  1135,  he  hastened  from  France 
to  England,  laid  claim  to  the  crown  for  him- 
self and  was  browned  in  London.  In  1139 
Matilda  landed  in  England  with  her  half- 
brother,  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  and  a  civil 
war  ensued,  in  which  Stephen  was  taken 
prisoner  and  Matilda  was  acknowledged 
queen.  The  conduct  of  the  new  sovereign, 
however,  excited  an  insurrection  against  her 
government,  and  she  was  shut  up  in  Winches- 
ter Castle,  while  the  earl  of  Gloucester  was 
taken  prisoner.  Stephen  was  exchanged  for 
the  earl,  and  the  war  was  renewed.  When 
Matilda  retired  to  Normandy,  the  contest  was 
taken  up  by  her  son  Henry.  Finally  the 
struggle  was  brought  to  an  end  in  1153  by 
the  Treaty  of  Wallingford,  in  which  it  was 
agreed  that  Stephen  should  reign  until  his 
death,  and  that  he  should  be  succeeded  by 
Henr}'. 

STEPHENS,  Alexander  Hamilton 
(1812-1883),  an  American  statesman,  born 
near  Crawfordsville,  Ga.  He  spent  his  child- 
hood amid  the  greatest  poverty,  received  his 
education  at  Franklin  College,  through  the 
assistance  of  a  charitable  organization,  and 
in  1834  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  later 
repaid  his  helpers  with  interest. 

Stephens  was  elected  to  the  Georgia  legis- 
lature in  1836  and  to  Congress  in  1843, 
where  he  at  once  assumed  prominence  as  a 
fearless  advocate  of  the  rights  of  the  South, 
though  at  the  same  time  a  lover  of  the  Union. 
In  1860  he  opposed  secession,  not  because  he 
believed  it  wrong  in  principle,  but  because 
he  deemed  it  inexpedient  at  the  time.  At 
the  Georgia  session  convention  he  delivered 
a  great  speech  for  the  Union,  but  when  Geor- 
gia seceded  he  remained  loyal  to  the  state 
and  became  Vice-President  of  the  Confed- 
eracy. He  headed  the  Confederate  peace 
commission  at  Hampton  Roads,  in  February, 
1865.     At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  im- 


STEPHENSON 


3421 


STEREOTYPING 


prisoned  five  months  at  Fort  Wairen,  in 
Boston  Harbor.  In  1866  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  but  was  not  allowed 
to  take  his  seat.  He  entered  Congress,  how- 
ever, in  1873,  and  remained  there  until  1882, 
when  he  was  chosen  governor  of  his  state. 
In  every  position  in  which  he  was  placed 
Stephens  acted  with  the  highest  of  motives 
and  with  deep  conviction.  His  career  con- 
stantly exemplified  rare  moral  courage  and 
devotion  to  principle. 

STEPHENSON,  ste'venson,  George 
(1781-1848),  an  English  engineer  and  inven- 
tor, who  built  the  first  railway  locomotive. 
While  an  engine-Avi-ight  at  Killingworth,  he 
constructed  a  locomotive  for  the  tramways 
and  succeeded  in  in- 
ducing the  projectors 
of  the  Stockton  & 
Darlington  railway  to 
adopt  it.  The  result 
was  that  in  1825  the 
first  railway  was 
built,  over  which, 
passengers  and 
freight  were  borne 
by  locomotives.  Step- 
henson was  then  em- 
ployed to  construct 
the  Liverpool  &  Man- 
chester railway,  the 
directors  of  which  accepted  his  locomotive, 
called  the  Rocket,  which  at  the  trial  trip  in 
1830  ran  twenty-nine  miles  in  an  hour,  a  high 
rate  of  speed  in  that  day.  Stephenson  was 
afterward  identified  with  numerous  railway 
undertakings  throughout  England,  and  he 
invented  a  miner's  safety  lamp.  See  Loco- 
moti\t:. 

STEPHENSON,  Robert  (1803-1859),  an 
English  engineer,  born  at  Wallington  Quay, 
England,  the  son  of  George  Stephenson.  He 
received  an  excellent  technical  education  and 
began  his  active  career  as  his  father's  assist- 
ant in  railroad  surveying.  He  then  took 
charge  of  his  father's  factory  at  Newcastle 
and  greatly  aided  him  in  improving  the  loco- 
motive. His  services  as  a  railway  civil  en- 
gineer were  in  great  demand,  and  in  time  he 
became  celebrated  as  the  builder  of  great 
bridges.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  tubular 
bridge;  the  most  celebrated  of  these  bridges 
are  the  Britannia  Bridge  over  the  Menai 
Straits,  the  Conway  Bridge  and  the  first  Vic- 
toria Bridge  across  the  Saint  Lawrence  at 
Montreal.    This  last  was  replaced  by  a  steel 


GEORGE 
STEPHENSON 


truss  bridge  in  1898.     See  Bridge,  subhead 
Tubular  Bridges. 

STEPPES,  steps,  the  vast  treeless  plains 
extending  from  the  River  Dnieper  eastward 
across  Southern  Russia  and  embracing 
Southwestern  Siberia.  During  most  of  the 
year  they  are  dry  and  barren,  but  after 
the  spring  rains  they  are  for  a  short  time 
covered  with  verdure  and  furnish  pasturage 
for  the  fiocks  and  herds  of  wandering  Tartar 
tribes.    See  Plains. 

STEREOP'TICON.    See  Magic  Lantern. 

STER'EOSCOPE,  an  optical  apparatus 
which  enables  one  to  look  at  the  same  time 
upon  two  photographic  pictures,  nearly  the 
same,  but  taken  under  a  slight  difference  of 
angular  view,  so  that  each  eye  looks  upon  one 
picture  only.  The  effect  is  similar  to  that 
produced  by  natural  vision.  The  two  lenses 
are  mounted  in  a  frame  having  a  handle  and 
a  bar  extending  outward.  To  this  bar  is 
attached  a  rack  for  holding  the  card  on 
which  the  duplicate  photographs  are  printed. 
A  reflecting  form  of  stereoscope  was  invented 
by  Wheatstone  in  1838.  Subsequently  Brew- 
ster invented  the  refracting  stereoscope, 
based  on  the  refractive  properties  of  the 
halves  of  double-convex  lenses.  This  is  the 
one  which  was  so  popular  a  few  years  ago. 

STEREOTYPING,  ster'e  o  typeing,  the 
process  of  impressing  pages  of  type  or  of 
engraving  in  type  metal  and  of  making  ster- 
eotype plate. 

The  type  is  set  and  locked  in  the  form, 
then  sent  to  the  foundry,  where  the  face  is 
brushed  clean  with  a  soft  bi-ush  dipped  in 
oil.  A  thick,  soft  paper,  especially  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  is  then  pressed  down  upon 
the  type  with  a  heavy  iron  roller.  The  face 
of  the  type  is  forced  into  the  paper,  so  as  to 
make  a  perfect  mold  of  the  page;  this  mold 
is  called  a  matrix.  After  drying,  the  matrix 
is  taken  from  the  type  and  placed  in  a  cast- 
ing box.  Melted  type  metal  is  then  poured 
over  it,  making  a  plate  which  is  a  perfect  copy 
of  the  type.  The  stereotype  plates  made  for 
ordinaiy  printing  presses  are  flat.  Those 
made  for  the  presses  used  in  large  news- 
paper establishments  are  in  the  form  of  half- 
cylinders. 

Several  casts  can  be  made  from  the  same 
matrix.  In  all  large  cities  there  are  firms 
which  specialize  in  supplying  country  papers 
with  plates  for  printing  a  portion  of  their 
paper.  The  time  consumed  in  making  a  ster- 
eotype plate  is  about  ten  minutes.    Since  such 


STERNE 


3422 


STEVENS 


plates  are  inexpensive  and  are  quickly  made, 
the}'  are  especially  valuable  for  printing  daily 
papers  and  cheap  editions  of  books.  For 
higher  grade  of  work  the  electrotype  has  dis- 
placed the  stereotype. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Electrotyping  Printing- 

Newspaper  Printing  Press 

STERNE,  stum,  Laurexce  (1713-176S), 
an  English  author  who  made  distinct  contri- 
butions to  the  development  of  the  English 
novel.  After  his  graduation  from  Cambridge 
in  1736  he  was  ordained  and  went  at  once  to  a 
pastorate  in  Yorkshire.  There  he  remained 
twenty  years,  devoting  himself  to  reading  and 
writing  in  his  leisure  moments.  In  1759  ap- 
peared the  first  two  volumes  of  his  longest 
work,  Tristram  Shandy,  which,  by  their 
humor,  whimsicality  and  happy  audacity  of 
tone  and  treatment,  gained  instant  popular- 
ity. The  publication  of  this  work  was  contin- 
ued, the  ninth  and  last  volume  appearing  in 
1767,  and  Sterne  found  himself  exceedingly 
popular  in  London,  whither  he  had  moved. 
His  other  writings  are  A  Sentimental  Jour- 
ney Through  France  and  Italy  (1768)  and  a 
number  of  sermons,  besides  letters  published 
after  his  death.  Though  disfigured  in  places 
by  the  sort  of  vulgarity  which  was  character- 
istic of  the  age,  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy 
and  Sentimental  Journey,  especially  the 
former,  contain  some  of  the  finest  humor  in 
English  literature. 

STETH'OSCOPE,  an  instrument  by 
means  of  which  the  sounds  of  the  heart  and 
lungs  are  distinctly  heard  and  the  condition 
of  these  organs  is  ascertained.  The  most 
improved  apparatus  consists  of  a  tube,  one 
end  of  which  flares  like  a  bell;  the  other  is 
attached  to  a  forked  tube  with  two  earpieces. 
The  bell  is  held  against  the  chest  or  over  the 
heart  of  the  patient,  while  the  physician 
listens  with  the  aid  of  the  earpieces. 

STETTIN,  stet  teen',  the  capital  of  the 
Prussian  pro\'ince  of  Pomerania,  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  Oder  and  about  eighty 
miles  northeast  of  Berlin.  It  is  one  of  the 
principal  ports  of  Germany  and  its  ship- 
building yards  are  among  the  largest  in 
the  world.  It  is  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing center  in  the  province.  The  chief 
mill  products  are  chemicals,  machinery, 
clothing  and  sugar.  The  trade  is  principally 
in  fish,  petroletmi,  com,  wood  and  wine. 
Among  the  objects  of  interest  are  the  Munic- 
ipal   Museum,    the   town   hall,   the   former 


Ducal  Palace  and  the  churches  of  Saint  Peter 
and  Saint  James.  Population,  1910, 
236.113. 

STEUBEN,  stuben  or  stoi'hen,  Friedrich 
WiLHELii  August^  Baron  von  (1730-1794),  a 
Prussian  general,  who  fought  in  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution.  He  was  bom  in  the  fortress 
at  Magdeburg  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
entered  the  Prussian  army.  In  1758  he  was 
made  adjutant-general,  and  he  fought  with 
distinction  during  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
becoming  at  its  close  grand  marshal  of  the 
prince  of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen.  In  1777, 
at  the  solicitation  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  he 
went  to  America  and  offered  his  services  to 
Congress.  He  immediately  was  dispatched 
to  Valley  Forge,  where,  during  the  winter, 
he  drilled  the  army  in  military  tactics,  in 
which  he  had  received  special  instruction 
from  Frederick  the  Great.  He  was  made 
inspector-general  and  instituted  many  im- 
portant refoiTus.  He  fought  at  the  Battle 
of  ^lonmouth,  was  a  member  of  the  Andre 
court  martial,  put  an  end  to  the  marauding 
invasions  of  Benedict  Arnold  in  Virginia  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  siege  of  York- 
town.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  granted 
large  tracts  of  land  by  several  states  and  a 
pension  of  $2,400  by  Congress ;  and  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  America. 

STEUBENVILLE,  stvfhen  vil,  Ohio,  the 
county  seat  of  Jeft'erson  County,  forty-three 
miles  southwest  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  on  the 
Ohio  Eiver  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  Saint 
Louis  and  the  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads. The  city  is  in  a  section  having 
deposits  of  coal,  gas  and  petroleum,  and  it 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  steel, 
paper,  electric  light  bulbs,  glass  and  pottery. 
Some  important  features  are  a  city  hall,  a 
courthouse,  a  Carnegie  Libraiy,  Gill  Hospi- 
tal, a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  Stanton  and 
Altamont  parks.  The  town  was  laid  out  in 
1798,  on  the  site  of  a  fort  named  in  honor 
of  Baron  Steuben.  It  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1851.  Population,  1910,  22,391;  in 
19i7,  28,259  (Federal  estimate). 

STE'VENS,  Thaddeus  (1792-1868),  an 
American  statesman,  born  at  Danville,  Vt. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  taught 
school  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  prac- 
ticing at  Gettysburg  and  Lancaster,  Pa.  He 
was  elected  to  the  legislature  as  a  Whig  in 
1833,  where  he  served  wnth  rare  energy'  and 
ability,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1849. 


STEVENSON 


3423 


STEVENS  POINT 


There  he  was  a  leader  of  the  anti-slavery 
forces  for  two  terms  and  again  in  1859.  As 
one  of  the  Republican  leaders  in  Congress 
he  was  the  chief  advocate  of  emancipation 
and  negro  suffrage  and  of  the  radical  re- 
construction measures,  and  he  led  the  im- 
peachment of  President  Johnson.  Though 
bitter  and  sarcastic  in  debate,  he  was  fa- 
mous for  his  undiscriminating  charities. 

STE'VENSON,  Adlai  Ewing  (1835- 
1914),  an  American  statesman,  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  from  1893  to 
1897.  He  was  born  in  Christian  County, 
Ky.,  and  was  educated  in  the  common 
schools  there  and  at  Center  College,  Dan- 
ville, Ky.  In  1852  his  parents  moved  to 
Illinois,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
five  years  later.  In  1874  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Illinois  by  the 
Democratic  party,  and  in  1885  was  appointed 
first  assistant  Postmaster-General.  At  the 
conclusion  of  his  term  as  Vice-President  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  commission 
to  tiy  to  secure  international  bimetallism.  He 
was  nominated  for  Vice-President  in  1900, 
on  the  ticket  with  Brvan,  but  was  defeated. 
STEVENSON,  Robert  (1772-1850),  a 
Scotch  engineer,  born  at  Glasgow.  His  first 
work  of  importance  was  the  erection  of  a 
lighthouse  on  Little  Cumbrae.  He  was  for 
forty-seven  years  inspector  of  lighthouses, 
and  during  that  time  he  built  twenty-three 
lighthouses  on  the  Scottish  coast,  the  most 
colossal  of  these  undertakings  being  the  con- 
struction of  the  lighthouse  on  the  submarine 
Bell  Rock.  Stevenson  introduced  many  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  bridges, 
canals,  harbors  and  railway's  and  invented  the 
sj-stem  of  intermittent  and  flashing  lights. 
See  Lighthouse. 

STEVENSON,  Robert  Louis  Balfour 
(1850-1894),  a  Scottish  poet,  essayist  and 
writer  of  fiction,  bom  in  Edinburgh.  He 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish 
bar,  but  found  his  true  calling  in  literature. 
A  leisurely  journey  through  France  and  Bel- 
gium by  canoe  supplied  material  for  Ati 
Inland  Voyage  (1878),  and  a  walking  tour 
in  southern  France  was  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  in  Travels  with  a  Donkey.  At 
this  time  were  published,  too,  in  various 
periodicals,  the  stories  and  essays,  some  of 
them  among  his  best,  which  were  afterward 
collected  as  the  New  Arabian  Nights,  Virgini- 
bus  Puerisque  and  Familiar  Studies  of  Men 
and  Books. 


ROBERT  LOUIS 
STEVENSON 


Learning  in  1879  of  the  severe  illness  of 
Mrs.  Osbourne,  whom  he  had  met  some  years 
previously,  he  decided  to  go  to  California, 
her  home.  He  made  the  voyage  in  the  steer- 
age of  an  emigrant  ship,  and  finished  the 
journey  across  the 
continent  in  an  im- 
migrant train.  These 
experiences  he  de- 
scribed in  The  Ama- 
teur Emigrant  and 
Across  the  Plains. 
In  1880  he  married  -#^ 
Mrs.  Osbourne.^ 
During  the  next  ten 
years  his  quest  for 
health  took  him  to 
various  places,  and 
in  1890  he  settled 
permanently  in 
Samoa,  where  he  soon  became  a  commanding 
figaxre  among  the  natives.  Meanwhile  he  had 
published  Treasure  Island,  a  story  of  stirring 
adventures  which  met  with  immediate  suc- 
cess; Prince  Otto,  a  romance;  Doctor  Jekyll 
and  Mr.  Hyde,  an  account  in  story  form  of 
the  dual  personality  which  exists  in  every 
man;  Kidnapped;  The  Master  of  Ballantrae; 
A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses  and  Underwoods, 
a  second  volume  of  verse,  and  the  Merry  Men 
and  Other  Tales.  During  his  years  in  Samoa 
he  wrote  David  Balfour,  which  is  a  sequel  to 
Kidnapped,  and  Saint  Ives,  and  he  began 
Weir  of  Hermiston,  which,  although  unfin- 
ished at  his  death,  is  by  many  critics  re- 
garded as  his  greatest  work. 

Stevenson's  uncomplaining  spirit,  his 
cheerfulness  and  diligence  in  the  face  of  dis- 
advantages so  great  that  to  a  less  courageous 
man  they  might  have  seemed  overwhelming, 
make  him  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  liter- 
ary personalities.  As  a  stoiy-teller  he  rivals 
Scott,  while  his  exquisite  style  places  him  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  writers  of  his  time. 

STEVENS  POINT,  Wis.,  the  countv^  seat 
of  Portage  County,  100  miles  north  of  Madi- 
son, on  the  Wisconsin  River  and  on  the  Min- 
neapolis, Saint  Paul  &  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and 
the  Green  Bay  &  Western  railroads.  The 
city  is  an  import-ant  trade  center  for  an  ex- 
tensive region  and  lies  just  north  of  the  great 
potato-producing  district.  There  is  good 
water  power,  and  more  than  one  hundred 
industrial  establishments,  which  include  saw 
mills,  foundries,  knitting  works  and  manu- 
factories of  furniture,  paper,  fishing  flies  and 


STIBNITE 


3424 


STOCK 


other  articles,  are  located  here.  The  city  has 
a  Carnegie  Library  and  is  the  seat  of  one  of 
the  state  normal  schools.  The  place  was 
settled  in  1836.  Population,  1910,  8,692;  in 
1917,  practically  unehancrefl. 

STIB'NITE.'or  ANTIMONY  GLANCE, 
an  ore  consisting  of  antimony  and  sulphur. 
The  color  is  lead-gray  or  blackish,  and  the 
mineral  is  very  brittle.  This  ore  is  the  source 
of  mo?t  of  the  antimony  of  commerce. 

STICK'LEBACK,  the  popular  name  for 
certain  small  fishes,  so  called  because  of  their 
dorsal  spines.  These  fishes  are  found  in  both 
salt  and  fresh  waters,  are  very  active  and 
voracious  and  live  upon  aciuatie  insects  and 
worms.  The  sticklebacks  are  among  the  very 
few  fishes  which  build  nests  for  their  young. 
The  nest  is  composed  of  straw,  stacks  and  sim- 
ilar materials,  and  is  shaped  like  a  muff.  In 
it  the  eggs,  yellow  in  color  and  about  the 
size  of  poppy  seeds,  are  deposited.  The  male 
guards  the  nest  until  several  days  after  the 
eggs  are  hatched.  The  largest  sticklebacks 
attain  a  length  of  seven  inches. 

STIKINE,  stikeen',  RIVER,  a  small 
river  in  Western  Canada  which  furnishes 
water  communication  between  Xorthem 
British  Columbia  and  the  Pacific.  From  the 
Cassiar  Mountains,  in  Northern  British  Col- 
umbia, where  it  rises,  it  flows  northward, 
then  westward  and  southward,  and  after 
crossing  the  naiTOw  southern  strip  of  Alaska, 
enters  the  Pacific,  traversing  a  distance  of 
335  miles  and  draining  an  area  of  20,000 
square  miles.     It  is  navigable  for  170  miles. 

STILLIVATER,  Mixx.,  the  county  seat 
of  Washington  County,  eighteen  miles  north- 
east of  Saint  Paul,  on  the  Saint  Croix  River 
and  on  the  Xorthern  Pacific,  the  Chicago  & 
Korth  Western  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  Saint  Paul  railroads.  It  has  a  beautiful 
location  near  the  Dalles,  which  extend  about 
thirty  miles  to  the  north  along  the  river. 
The  Minnesota  state  prison  is  located  here, 
and  the  municipality  contains  a  Carnegie 
library',  a  fine  city  hall,  two  convents  and  a 
city  hospital.  It  is  the  industrial  center  of  a 
large  lumber  region.  The  industrial  establish- 
ments include  lumber  mills,  grain  elevators, 
flour  and  feed  mills,  foundries  and  machine 
shops  and  manufactories  of  wagons,  boats, 
farm  implements,  shoes  and  other  articles. 
Stillwater  was  settled  in  1843,  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  village  in  1848  and  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1854.  Population.  1910,  10,198;  in 
1917,  practically  unchanged. 


STILT 


STILT,  a  plover,  with  exceedingly  long, 
slender  legs,  which  fact  gives  it  its  common 
name.  It  lives  in  fresh  and  salt  marshes  and 
feeds  on  insects.  Few 
birds  have  greater 
power  of  flight,  either 
in  distance  or  rapidity. 
The  stilt  is  alwaj's  a 
peculiar-looking  bird, 
whether  walking  as  if 
on  stilts  or  flying,  with 
its  long  legs  awk- 
wardly stretched  out 
behind  it.  There  is 
only  one  North  Amer- 
ican species,  the  black- 
necked  stilt,  of  the 
temperate  regions.  It 
is  about  fifteen  inches 
long,  is  white  beneath  and  black  above, 
with  bright-red  legs.  The  nest  is  a  depres- 
sion in  the  ground,  lined  with  grasses. 

STILTS,  long  sticks,  to  which  are  fastened 
foot  rests,  by  means  of  which  it  is  possible 
to  walk  with  the  feet  some  distance  above  the 
ground.  The  stilts  used  by  children  for  play- 
things usually  have  long  handles,  which  pass 
under  the  arms  and  are  held  by  the  hand.  In 
countries  where  stilts  are  used  for  practical 
purposes,  they  are  bound  to  the  side  of  the 
leg,  and  the  wearer  cai-ries  a  long  pole  to 
assist  him  in  keeping  his  balance.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  lowlands  in  southern  France 
find  stilts  a  necessity  a  good  part  of  the  year, 
as  much  of  the  land  is  under  water, 

STING  RAY,  a  group  of  fishes  character- 
ized by  a  long,  whiplike  tail  equipped  with 
one  or  more  sharp  spines  near  its  base.  This 
spine,  or  *'sting,"  is  not  poisonous,  but  it  in- 
flicts a  painful  wound.  There  are  about  fifty 
species  of  these  rays.  All  have  flat  disk- 
shaped  bodies  and  some  are  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet  in  diameter.  They  inhabit  warm 
waters  and  have  been  found  in  tropical  South 
American  rivers. 

STOAT.    SeeERiiixE. 

STOCK.  Stock  is  that  which  represents 
the  capital  of  a  corporation.  It  should  be 
understood  in  this  article  that,  in  speaking  of 
stock,  only  the  stock  of  corporations  is  meant. 
For  instance,  the  capital  stock  of  a  certain 
corporation  is  $30,000,000;  in  other  words, 
that  sum  of  money  is  invested,  or  is  supposed 
to  be  invested,  in  that  company.  The  peo- 
ple whose  money  makes  up  this  total  own 
shares,  of  a  par  value  of  $100  each,  or  other 


STOCK 


3425 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 


smaller  sum.  To  show  that  an  investor  owns 
shares  he  receives  a  certificate,  which  indi- 
cates the  number  of  shares  issued  to  him  and 
usually  the  par  or  face  value  of  each  share. 
Each  certificate  is  numbered,  and  the  com- 
plete record  of  the  certificate  is  kept  on  the 
company's  books.  The  company,  out  of  its 
profits,  pays  cUvideTids  to  its  stockholders, 
but  before  dividends  are  paid  the  directors 
must  declare  or  vote  the  dividends.  Thus  it 
is  customary  to  say  that  the  "directors  de- 
clared the  regular  semi-annual  dividend  of 
three  per  cent,"  or  whatever  it  may  be.  Div- 
idends are  usually  declared  twice  a  year,  but 
monthly,  quarterly  or  annual  payments  are 
also  common. 

Common  and  Preferred  Stock.  There  are 
two  principal  kinds  of  stock,  common  and 
preferred.  The  preferred  stock  receives  divi- 
dends at  a  fixed  rate,  and  this  rate  must  be 
paid  before  the  common  stock  receives  any 
dividends.  Owners  of  preferred  stock,  how- 
ever, usually  are  not  allowed  to  vote  at  the 
meetings  of  the  corporation.  In  other  words, 
the  preferred  stock  is  like  a  loan.  If  the 
preferred  stock  is  cumulative  it  shares  in  the 
profits  of  the  business  over  and  above  the 
amount  needed  to  pay  equal  dividends  to 
both  common  and  preferred  stockholders. 
Participating  preferred  stock  entitles  the 
owner  to  vote  at  all  meetings  and  gives  him 
the  same  rights  as  a  holder  of  common  stock. 
A  proxy  is  a  fonn  of  power  of  attorney  by 
which  one  stockholder  authorizes  another  to 
act  for  him.  Ownei-ship  of  a  majority  of  the 
common  stock  is  necessary  to  control  the  af- 
fairs of  the  company.  A  stockholder  is  en- 
titled to  as  many  votes  as  he  has  shares. 

Market  Prices.  Stock  is  usually  issued 
at  a  nominal,  or  par,  value.  The  usual  par 
value  of  a  share  is  $100,  but  shares  of  a  par 
value  of  $1,  $5,  $10,  $25  and  $50  are  not  rare. 
Par  value  is  like  the  words  on  a  coin  which 
say  it  is  worth  a  certain  amount  of  money. 
Market  value  or  price  is  deteiTnined  by  the 
earning  power  of  a  company.  For  example, 
the  common  stock  of  a  certain  company  pays 
5  per  cent  dividends  a  year.  This  is  a  fair 
return  on  the  investment,  the  normal  rate  of 
interest  on  money  loans  being  about  six  per 
cent.  In  consequence,  the  common  stock 
fluctuates  in  market  price  from  a  little  below 
par  to  a  little  above.  If,  however,  the  com- 
pany's business  warranted  dividends  of  10 
per  cent  a  year,  the  market  price  would  jump 
to  about  $175  or  $200  a  share.    The  propor- 


tionate return  on  such  an  investment  would 
be  the  same  as  in  the  first  ease;  the  people 
to  profit  by  the  rise  in  price  would  be  those 
who  had  paid  the  low  price  and  were  now 
receiving  the  high  rate  of  interest.  In  some 
states  in  recent  years  stocks  are  issued  with- 
out a  par  value,  the  market  value  alone  in- 
dicating the  standing  of  the  issue. 

Purchasers  of  stock  must  bear  in  mind  the 
difference  between  investment  and  specula- 
tion. A  man  may  be  willing  to  accept  a  low 
return  on  his  money  if  he  knows  that  the 
principal  is  safe,  but  if  there  is  any  danger 
that  he  will  lose  his  principal,  he  demands 
a  high  interest.  This  fact  explains  why  the 
stock  of  mining  companies,  for  example,  of- 
ten pays  as  higli  as  twenty  or  thirty  per  cent 
(or  even  more)  interest  on  the  amount  in- 
vested. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  business 
is  of  a  consei"vative  nature,  large  profits  will 
result  in  a  rise  in  the  market  price  of  the 
stock. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles    for   additional  information: 
Broker  Corporation         Stock  Exchange 

STOCK  EXCHANGE,  an  organization  of 
business  men  engaged  chiefly  in  buying  and 
selling  stocks  and  bonds.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  the  building  where  these  financial 
operations  are  carried  on.  The  first  stock 
exchange  was  organized  at  London  in  1801. 
In  the  earlj'  yeai*s  of  the  stock  exchange  a 
member  might  trade  there  any  sort  of  se- 
curity he  wanted  to  handle.  The  good 
stock  and  the  bad  had  equal  chances  of  get- 
ting the  purchaser's  attention.  Ultimately 
this  defect  was  recognized ;  a  sort  of  censor- 
ship was  instituted,  and  a  list  was  made  of 
all  securities  which  might  be  exchanged. 
To-day  a  company  which  wishes  to  market  its 
stock  on  the  exchange  must  prepare  for  the 
board  of  control  a  financial  statement  and 
submit  it  to  the  exchange.  If  the  board  is 
satisfied  as  to  its  value,  the  stock  is  placed 
on  its  list  of  recognized  securities.  If  it  is 
rejected  it  must  be  sold  on  the  "curb,"'  that 
is,  the  street,  if  sold  at  all.  Under  normal 
conditions  the  exchange  as  a  body  does  not 
attempt  to  control  prices  and  is  not  responsi- 
ble for  fluctuations.  The  number  of  those 
who  are  constantly  tn'ing  to  boost  prices 
and  of  those  who  are  trying  to  lower  them  is 
about  equally  divided,  and  equilibrium  is 
thereby  maintained. 

Membership  in  stock  exchanges  is  limited 
to  the  number  of  those  who  can  conduct  the 


STOCKHOLM 


3426 


STODDARD 


business  to  be  done.  The  cost  of  a  seat 
fluctuates  according  to  financial  conditions. 
In  1896  a  seat  on  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change was  worth  $20,000 ;  in  1905  to  1906, 
$95,000,  In  normal  times  the  price  of  mem- 
bership on  the  stock  exchange  of  Saint  Louis, 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia  and  Chicago  ranges 
from  $1,500  to  $5,000.  The  payment  of  the 
membership  fee  is  only  a  step  in  the  initia- 
tion. One  must  be  formally  recommended 
and  then  elected  by  vote. 

STOCK'HOLM,  S^veden,  the  capitol  and 
chief  city  of  the  country',  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  the  east  end  of  Lake  Malar  and  a 
number  of  islands  and  peninsulas  which  are 
separated  by  fiords  and  suiTOunded  by  forests. 
Because  of  this  feature  Stockholm  has  been 
called  the  "Venice  of  the  North."  ,  The  older 
portions  of  the  city  have  narrow  streets,  but 
the  newer  parts  are  laid  out  on  modem  plans 
and  contain  numerous  squares,  which  are 
ornamented  with  monuments  and  statuary. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  beautiful  parks 
about  the  city.  The  most  important  struc- 
ture is  the  royal  palace.  Other  buildings  of 
importance  are  the  customhouse,  the  ex- 
change bank,  the  townhall,  the  parliament 
house  and  the  national  librarj%  national 
museum  and  academy  of  arts  and  sciences. 
Among  the  churches  worthy  of  mention  are 
the  Stor  Kji'ka;  the  Riddarholms  Kyrka, 
which  is  the  burial  place  of  the  Swedish 
kings,  and  the  Katarina  Kyrka.  The  city 
also  contains  a  monument  to  Gusta\'us  III 
and  statues  of  Gusta\nis  Adolphus  and 
Charies  XIL 

There  are  a  number  of  important  educa- 
tional institutions,  including  a  polytechnic 
school,  a  school  of  forestry  and  a  medical 
institute.  The  royal  library  has  over  300,- 
000  volumes  and  a  large  collection  of 
pamphlets.  Among  the  learned  societies  are 
the  Royal  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences  and 
the  Swedish  Academy.  Stockholm  is  an  im- 
portant industrial  center  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  furniture,  tobacco,  soap,  sugar,  malt 
liquors,  and  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products.  Shipbuilding  is  also  an  important 
industry.  The  city  has  a  large  trade,  and 
its  imports  outrank  those  of  any  other  city 
of  Sweden.    Population,  1917,  408,972. 

STOCK'TON,  Cal.,  the  county  seat  of  San 
Joaquin  County,  seventy-eight  miles  north- 
east of  San  Francisco,  on  an  arm  of  the  San 
Joaquin  River,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  and 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the 


Western  Pacific  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
railroads  and  several  interurban  lines.  The 
city  is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  and 
dairying  region,  which  is  noted  for  its  nat- 
ural beauty  and  equable  climate.  It  was  the 
outfitting  point  for  the  miners  who  went  to 
California  in  the  "rush  of  '49,"  and  is  the 
gateway  to  the  Yosemite  "National  Park. 

It  is  the  trade  center  of  the  San  Joaquin 
valley  and  handles  large  amounts  of  lumber, 
grain,  live  stock,  fruits  and  vegetables.  There 
are  oil  and  natural  gas  wells  in  the  valley, 
and  the  manufactures  include  agricultural 
and  mining  implements,  flour,  foundry  prod- 
ucts, window  glass,  leather,  woolens,  canned 
goods,  soap  and  fuel  briquettes.  The  "West- 
ern Normal,  the  state  hospital  for  the  insane, 
Saint  Mary's  College  and  Saint  Agnes 
Academy  are  located  here.  The  city  has  a 
public  libraiy  and  a  county  law  library. 
Notable  structures  are  a  courthouse,  a  post- 
office,  the  Masonic  Temple,  the  Commercial 
and  Savings  Bank  building  and  Farmers  and 
Merchants  Bank  building.  The  place  was 
founded  by  Charles  M.  TVeber  in  1849  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Robert  Field  Stockton 
of  the  United  States  Na\y.  It  adopted  the 
commission  form  of  government  in  1911. 
Population,  1910,  23,253;  in  1917,  36,209 
(Federal  estimate). 

STOCKTON,  Francis  Richaed  (1837- 
1902),  an  American  writer  of  humorous 
stories,  born  at  Philadelphia.  After  gradu- 
ation from  the  Philadelphia  high  school  he 
applied  himself  to  wood-engl'a^'ing  and  con- 
tributed numerous  illustrations  to  books  and 
magazines.  But  he  soon  abandoned  this 
pursuit  for  journalism.  He  was  employed 
successively  on  the  Philadelphia  Post,  the 
New  York  Hearth  and  Home,  Seribner's 
Monthly  (aftei-ward  the  Century  Magazine) 
and  Saint  Nicholas.  His  reputation  rests, 
however,  upon  his  short  stories  and  humor- 
ous sketches.  He  told  the  most  impossible 
tales  with  a  realistic  effect  irresistibly  hu- 
morous. He  wrote  several  novels  and  a 
number  of  children's  stories.  His  first  work 
which  attracted  general  notice  was  Rudder 
Grange.  His  best-known  stories  are  The 
Lady  or  The  Tiger?,  his  most  popular  story; 
Tlie  Late  Mrs.  Null,  The  Casting  Aivay  of 
Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs.  Aleshine,  The  Merry 
Chanter,  Captain  Horn  and  The  Girl  at  Cob- 
hurst. 

STODDARD,  Richard  Hekry  (1825- 
1903),  an  American  poet,  critic  and  essayist. 


STOICISM 


3427 


STONE  CHAT 


born  at  Hingham,  Mass.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  an  iron  molder  and  worked  at  it  for  sev- 
eral years.  Ultimately  lie  began  to  write  for 
periodicals,  and  in  time  devoted  much  atten- 
tion to  literature.  From  1853  to  1870  he 
worked  in  the  New  York  custom-house; 
from  1886  until  his  death  he  was  editor  of 
the  New  York  Mail  and  Express.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  are  Footprints,  Songs  of 
Summer,  The  King's  Bell,  The  Book  of  the 
East  and  Memoir  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

STOICISM,  sto'i  siz'm,  a  system  of  philos- 
ophy developed  by  Zeno  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century  B.  c.  The  name  comes 
from  stoa,  meaning  porch,  the  place  at  Athens 
where  he  taught.  Zeno  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  Athenians,  and  he  lived  to  an 
advanced  age ;  after  his  death  his  system  was 
continued  and  perfected  by  his  followers. 
Stoicism  became  firmly  established  in  Rome, 
and  numbered  Cicero,  Seneca,  Marcus  Au- 
relius  and  other  eminent  Romans  among  its 
adherents. 

Fundamentally,  stoicism  is  the  doctrine 
"that  no  external  thing  alone  can  affect  us 
for  good  or  evil  until  we  have  woven  it  with 
the  texture  of  our  mental  life."  In  other 
words,  it  does  not  influence  us  unless  we  per- 
mit, it  to  determine  our  thoughts  or  acts. 
Necessarily  the  doctrine  presupposes  belief 
in  freedom  of  the  will. 

Since  the  founding  of  stoicism  its  doctrines 
have  exerted  wide  influence  in  all  ages,  and 
in  a  modified  form  they  are  still  found  in 
the  ethical  codes  of  many  social  and  political 
organizations.  Its  chief  ethical  value  is  its 
insistence  upon  the  unimportance  of  external 
circumstance  as  compared  with  our  reaction 
to  it.  Courage,  self-control,  temperance  and 
justice  are  among  the  virtues  it  inculcates. 

In  the  popular  sense  a  stoic  is  one  who  is 
not  easily  excited,  who  represses  his  emotions 
and  is  apparently  or  professedly  indifferent 
to  pain  and  not  dependent  for  happiness  up- 
on worldly  pleasure. 

STOMACH,  stum'ah,  an  organ  of  diges- 
tion, formed  by  the  expansion  of  a  portion  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  The  human  stomach  is 
situated  on  the  left  side,  just  below  the  dia- 
phragm. It  is  cone-shaped  and  turns  up  at 
both  ends.  It  has  four  coats — the  serous,  or 
outer;  the  muscular,  which  serves  to  force 
the  food,  after  it  is  made  into  chyme,  toward 
and  through  the  pylorus,  to  keep  the  orifice 
closed  till  the  food  is  digested  and  to  mix 
the  food  thoroughly  with  the  gastric  juice; 


the  cellular  coat,  and  the  inner,  or  mucous, 
coat,  which  is  soft,  smooth  and  velvety  and 
contains  the  glands  which  secrete  the  gastric 
juice.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are 
5,000,000  openings  of  these  glands  in  this 
membrane.  The  stomach  has  two  openings, 
the  cardiac  through  which  the  food  enters 
from  the  oesophagus,  and  the  pyloric,  through 
which  the  food  enters  the  intestines.  See 
Digestion. 

STONE.    See  Rock. 

STONE  AGE,  that  period  in  the  history  of 
any  people  during  which  their  tools  and  weap- 
ons were  made  of  stone.  From  the  relics 
that  are  found  in  various  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  America,  it  seems  evident  that 
stone  was  the  first  material  used  by  any 
people  for  tools  and  weapons. 

The  implements  which  have  been  found 
naturally  divide  the  Stone  Age  into  two 
epochs.  During  the  first  of  these,  the  im- 
plements were  rude  and  simple.  Later  relics 
are  of  many  varieties  of  stone,  and  some 
are  highly  polished ;  a  greater  variety,  too,  is 
seen — axes,  hammers,  knives,  daggers,  spear 
and  arrow  heads,  saws,  chisels,  borers  and 
scrapers,  all  have  been  found.  We  know  that 
the  people  of  the  Stone  Age  had  some  do- 
mestic animals  and  that  they  built  rude  houses 
and,  in  some  cases,  put  together  large  mounds 
of  stone  as  burial  places  for  their  dead.  Peo- 
ple in  isolated  regions,  like  the  islanders  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Eskimos  of  the 
extreme  north,  are  still  in  the  stone  age  pe- 
riod of  their  development.  See  Bronze  Age; 
Iron  Age;  Lake  Dwellings. 

STONE  CHAT,  a  common  European  bird, 
which  lives  upon  moors  and  in  other  open 
places.     It  belongs  to  the  warbler  family. 


STONE  CHAT 


The  peculiarity  of  its  note,  which  sounds 
somewhat  like  two  small  stones  struck  to- 
gether, gives  it  the  name.  The  bird  runs  very 
rapidly  and  feeds  on  worms,  beetles,  insect 


STONEHENGE 


3428 


STORMS 


larvae  and  grains.  The  eggs,  from  four  to 
five  in  number,  are  greenish-blue  and  spotted. 
The  blue  Irish  titmouse  is  a  stone  chat. 

STONEHENGE,  stone'henj ,  a  celebrated 
ruin  of  what  is  believed  to  have  been  a  pre- 
historic place  of  worship,  situated  in  Wilt- 
shire, Southern  England.  It  consists  of  a 
group  of  huge,  rough-hewn  stones,  from  the 
positions  of  which  it  is  believed  the  original 
plan  embraced  a  horseshoe  of  stone  blocks 
enclosed  within  two  circles  of  stones.  The 
outer  circle,  which  is  about  three  hundred  feet 
in  circumference,  consisted,  when  entire,  of 
thirty  upright  stones,  each  about  sixteen  feet 
high,  placed  at  intervals  of  three  and  one- 
half  feet,  with  thirty  squared  stones  resting 
upon  them.  The  inner  circle,  which  is  eight 
feet  from  the  outer,  consisted  of  about  thirty 
stones,  six  feet  in  height,  without  imposts. 
The  horseshoe  consists  of  five  groups  of  three 
stones,  two  uprights  with  an  impost.  Before 
each  group  stood  three  smaller  upright  stones. 
Inside  this  is  a  large  slab,  supposed  to  have 
been  an  altar.  The  whole  is  surrounded  by 
a  double  mound  and  ditch,  and  there  is  also 
an  avenue  leading  from  the  northeast,  bound- 
ed by  a  mound  and  ditch.  These  circles  were 
probably  formed  in  connection  with  the 
Druidical  or  some  other  old  religion.  Origi- 
nally private  property,  Stonehenge  was  pre- 
sented to  the  British  government  as  a  na- 
tional memorial  in  1918. 

STONE  MOUNTAIN,  an  enormous,  gray 
granite  rock,  a  few  miles  northeast  of  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  which  is  to  be  made  into  a  Confederate 
memorial.  The  rock  mass  is  800  feet  high 
and  1,500  feet  long.  It  is  planned  to  cover 
part  of  the  surface  with  relief  sculpture  rep- 
resenting Confederate  soldiers  mounted  and 
on  foot.  The  figures  wdll  be  fifty  feet  high 
and  seen  from  a  distance  the  whole  will  show 
a  great  army  marching  forward,  part  of  it 
mounted,  part  on  foot.  Many  of  the  figures 
will  be  portraits  of  Civil  War  leaders — Lee, 
Stonewall  Jackson  and  others.  The  under- 
taking is  in  the  hands  of  the  Stone  Mountain 
Confederate  Memorial  Association.  The  work 
will  be  under  the  direction  of  Gutzon  Borglum 
(which  see). 

STONE  RIVER.  See  Murfreesboro, 
Battle  op. 

STONES,  Precious.  See  Precious  Stones. 

STO'NY  POINT,  N.  Y.,  a  town  in  Rock- 
land County,  at  the  head  of  Haverstraw  Bay, 
on  the  Hudson  River,  forty-two  miles  north 
of  New  York  City,  on  the  West  Shore  and 


other  railroads.  It  is  on  a  rocky  promontory, 
which  was  fortified  by  the  Americans  early 
in  the  Revolution.  The  fort  was  captured, 
strengthened  and  garrisoned  by  the  British 
under  Clinton  in  May,  1779.  Washington 
then  ordered  General  "Mad  Anthony"  Wayne 
to  regain  this  position.  On  July  16,  with 
1,200  men,  he  surprised  the  fort  at  midnight, 
entered  it  with  a  rush  and  forced  the  gar- 
rison to  surrender  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
The  Americans  did  not  fire  a  gun;  they  lost 
fifteen  men  killed  and  eighty-three  wounded ; 
the  British  lost  sixty-three  killed  and  553 
captured.  Soon  after  the  capture  the  forti- 
fications were  destroyed  and  the  place  was 
abandoned.  The  ruins  of  the  fort  are  in- 
cluded in  a  small  national  park  created  in 
1902.    Population,  1910,  3,651. 

STORAGE  BATTERY.  See  Electric 
Battery. 

STORK,  a  large,  long-legged  bird  related 
to  the  heron.  It  frequents  swamps  and 
marshes,  but  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
haunts  of  man,  and  occasionally  builds  its 
nest  on  the  roofs  of 
inhabited  houses.  The 
birds  eat  frogs,  eels 
and  reptiles,  and 
have  an  economic 
usefulness.  In  parts 
of  Europe  they  are 
venerated  and  are 
birds  of  good  omen. 
They  have  no  voice; 
the  only  sound  they 
utter  is  a  peculiar 
clattering  of  the  bill. 
The  common  stork  is  found  in  summer 
throughout  Europe  and  Central  Asia.  In 
winter  it  migrates  southward.  This  bird  has 
black  wing  coverts,  but  othei'wise  the  plu- 
mage is  white.  The  bill,  legs  and  toes  are 
reddish.  A  pair  returns  year  after  year  to 
the  same  nest.  The  eggs  are  white  and  from 
four  to  five  in  number.  The  South  American 
storks  are  the  maquari  and  the  jahiru.  The 
Asiatic  species  are  the  Japanese  stork,  the 
white-necked  stork,  the  black  stork  and  the 
adjutant. 

STORMS,  violent  disturbances  of  the  at- 
mosphere, usually  accompanied  by  rain,  snow 
and  hail,  sometimes  by  thunder  and  lightning. 
Storms  are  general  or  local,  and  are  oc- 
casioned by  the  unequal  heating  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  causes  unequal  pressure 
over  adjoining  areas. 


STORK 


STORMS 


3429 


STORY  TELLING 


Fair  and  foul  weather  follow  each  other 
in  continuous  succession  over  most  of  the 
world.  The  frequency  and  violence  of  the 
changes  may  vary  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  but  in  general  these  are  due  to  local 
conditions. 

A  study  of  the  weather  maps  issued  by  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  shows  that 
there  are  always  in  the  country  one  or  more 
areas  of  low  pressure,  suiTounded  by  areas 
of  high  pressure.  The  areas  of  low  pressure 
are  those  of  low  barometer  and  high  tempera- 
ture. They  may  have  a  diameter  of  from  500 
to  1,000  miles,  and  the  winds  blow  toward 
them  from  all  directions.  In  the  center  of 
the  low  pressure  areas,  condensation  takes 
place,  followed  by  rain  or  snow. 

Storm  Centers.  In  the  temperate  lati- 
tudes of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  storm 
center  moves  eastward,  its  course  usually  be- 
ing from  southwest  to  northeast.  In  the  trop- 
ics its  direction  is  westward.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere,  these  directions  are  reversed. 
The  storm  centers  which  move  across  the 
United  States  are  usually  lost  in  the  Atlan- 
tic, only  a  few  reaching  Europe.  When  they 
do  extend  thus  far,  they  usually  strike  the 
continent  north  of  the  British  Isles;  so  in  a 
few  instances  they  have  been  known  to  strike 
the  British  Isles  and  even  extend  as  far  south 
as  France  and  Spain.  The  rain-bearing  wind 
usually  comes  from  the  southwest  or  south, 
and  the  area  of  low  pressure  is  succeeded  by 
one  of  high  pressure,  from  which  the  wind 
blows  outward.  A  north  or  northwest  wind 
produces  a  clear  sky,  a  high  barometer  and  a 
low  temperature.  In  the  northern  Mississippi 
valley  such  a  wind  often  causes  a  drop  of 
15°  or  20°  in  the  theimometer  in  less  than  an 
hour. 

Storms  of  this  character  are  cyclonic  in 
their  nature;  that  is,  they  are  caused  by  cur- 
rents of  air  moving  from  all  directions  into 
the  area  of  low  pressure,  and  have  a  rotaiy 
motion  on  a  large  scale.  They  are  most  fre- 
quent in  the  spring  and  autumn  months. 
Over  the  sea,  in  the  tropical  latitudes,  they 
often  attain  such  violence  as  to  be  destructive 
to  shipping.  These  storms  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  so-called  cyclones  of  the 
United  States,  which  are  tornadoes  and  cover 
only  a  very  small  area. 

Storm  Predictions.  General  storms  can 
usually  be  predicted  from  one  to  two  days  in 
advance.  They  are  preceded  by  a  falling 
barometer,  a  rise  in  temperature  and  cloud- 


iness in  the  west,  which  usually  begins  with 
the  formation  of  long  streaks  of  cirrus  clouds. 
Stonns  may  last  from  one  to  ten  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  area  which  they  cover  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  area  of  low  pressure 
moves  forward,  but  their  duration  seldom  ex- 
ceeds three  days. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the     following 
titles  for  additional  information  : 
Snow 
Tornado 
Typhoon 
Weather  Bureau 
Whirlwind 
Wind 

TORY  TELLING.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  combina- 
tion of  words  which  the 
average  child  uses  of  tener 
or  speaks  more  eagerly 
than  "Tell  me  a  story." 
From  the  time  the  child 
is  able  to  talk  until  long 
after  he  is  well  able  to 
read  stories  for  himself, 
mother,  father,  big  sister 
hear  the  words  over  and 
over — "Tell  me  a  story." 
There  is  a  popular  fallacy 
that  anybody  can  tell  a 
storj^ ;  almost  anybody 
will  attempt  to.  But  the 
results  are  often  so  con- 
fused, tedious  and  pointless  that  we  can  imag- 
ine that  only  because  the  need  for  a  story 
is  to  the  child  a  very  pressing  one  would  he 
accept  such  results. 

We  sometimes  hear  the  words  "the  art  of 
story  telling,"  and  the  expression  is  none  too 
strong.  Story  telling  is  an  art,  but  that  need 
not  frighten  anyone,  for  it  is  an  art  which 
anyone  may  master  suflSeiently  well  to  make 
the  telling  of  a  story  a  pleasure  to  the  one  who 
does  it  as  well  as  to  the  children  who  listen. 
There  are  no  absolute  rules  to  follow,  but 
certain  points  must  be  kept  in  mind  if  the  re- 
sults are  to  be  as  satisfying  as  possible. 

The  Main  Purpose  of  Story  Telling.  The 
first  important  point  that  needs  consideration 
is  the  purpose  of  story  telling ;  for  only  as  the 
purpose  is  understood  and  accomplished  can 
the  success  or  failure  of  story  telling  be 
judged.  .  If  we  ask  a  child  why  he  demands 
stories  so  constantly,  we  shall  without  doubt 
receive  some  such  reply  as,  "Because  I  like  to 
hear  them."  And  that  is,  after  all,  the  real 
purpose — to  give  pleasure.  If  the  story  fails 
in  this  it  fails  in  all.    The  art  of  story  telling 


STORY  TELLING 


3430 


STORY  TELLING 


is  first,  last  and  all  the  time  an  art  of  enter- 
tainment, and  if  it  does  not  entertain  it  is  no 
art. 

Other  Purposes.  There  are,  to  be  sure, 
other  values  to  story  telling;  it  accomplishes 
certain  things  which,  with  the  child,  can  be 
brought  about  in  no  other  way.  But  these 
are  secondary  results,  and  are  by  no  means  to 
be  attained  without  the  primary  one — the 
giving  of  pleasure. 

One  of  the  very  practical  results  of  story 
telling  is  that  it  encourages  concentration.  It 
will  almost  always  be  found  that  a  child  who 
is  used  to  listenuig  to  poems  or  to  stories 
hears  better  and  more  easily  than  a  child  who 
has  not  been  so  trained.  Then,  too,  a  child 
who  has  heard  all  his  life  good  stories  well 
told  uses  without  effort  words  which  are  en- 
tirely foreign  to  the  vocabulary  'of  another 
chHd. 

Some  people  object  to  having  fairy  stories 
told  to  childi-en  because  they  fear  that  the 
imagination  may  be  overdeveloped.  There 
is,  however,  little  fear  of  this.  There  is  far 
more  danger  that  the  imagination  will  be  un- 
derdeveloped, and  it  is  just  this  danger  which 
the  telling  of  wholesome  stories  helps  to  guard 
against. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  bene- 
fits which  a  child  may  derive  from  listening 
to  good  stories  is  the  broadening  of  his  sym- 
pathies and  comprehension.  Most  of  us  live 
but  one  kind  of  a  life,  and  have  little  oppor- 
tunity to  come  in  touch  with  lives  spent  in 
totally  different  surroundings  and  under  to- 
tally diff'erent  circumstances.  This  has  an 
inevitable  narrowing  tendency,  and  there  is 
nothing  which  can  so  eft'ectually  offset  this 
tendency  as  good  stories  which  arouse  interest 
in  other  lives,  other  conditions,  other  crea- 
tures, other  lands. 

Telling  Stories  Better  than  Reading.  A 
person  who  feels  no  ability  to  tell  stories  is 
likely  to  think  that  reading  aloud  can  supply 
the  need;  but  anyone  who  has  tried  both 
knows  that  there  is  a  great  difference.  The 
personal  element  is  almost  entirely  lacking 
in  reading  aloud.  The  eyes  of  the  reader 
cannot  meet  and  hold  the  listener's  eyes,  and 
the  child  is  far  more  likely  to  become  restless 
and  lose  interest. 

The  Essentials  of  a  Good  Story.  Even  the 
most  skilful  of  stor\'  tellers  cannot  make  all 
stories  interesting  to  children;  widely  as  the 
different  kinds  of  tales  which  are  capable  of 
interesting  children  differ,  they  all  have  some- 


thing in  common — there  are  certain  qualities 
which  a  stoiy  must  possess  before  it  can  ever 
be  a  favorite  or  even  be  tolerated. 

First,  it  must  have  a  definite  begrinning  and 
a  definite  ending.  No  long  introductory  ex- 
planations are  possible  in  a  child's  story;  the 
action  must  begin  at  once.  And  the  action 
must  have  worked  itself  out  to  its  logical  end 
before  the  story  closes.  The  desire  to  make 
a  story  a  "piece  out  of  life"  has  led  many 
writers  of  short  stories  for  grown  people  to 
end  their  tales  in  the  vaguest,  most  indefinite 
way;  we  do  not  know  what  really  happened 
to  the  hero  or  heroine — we  can  only  conjec- 
ture. But  the  child  must  know  absolutely 
what  happened,  and  if  he  can  know  that  his 
story  people  were  not  only  happy  when  the 
story  closed  but  "lived  happy  ever  after," 
so  much  the  better. 

Another  requisite  is  that  the  story  have 
action  from  first  to  last.  Asides,  moralizing, 
description,  unless  they  are  very  brief,  wiU 
not  do.  The  characters  must  be  moving,  ac- 
complishing something  all  the  time. 

The  child's  invariable  desire  for  a  happy 
ending  to  a  story  is  simply  an  outgrowth  of 
his  feeling  of  justice.  If  the  bad  person  is 
not  punished  and  the  good  person  rewarded, 
the  child  feels,  the  world  is  all  wrong.  As 
people  grow  older  and  see  the  many  apparent 
failures  of  this  principle  of  justice  to  work 
out,  they  accustom  themselves  to  the  same 
thing  in  literature ;  but  the  desire  for  a  happy 
ending  is  innate  in  everyone,  and  it  is  sel- 
dom if  ever  that  a  child  should  be  harrowed 
with  a  tale  in  which  the  hero  or  heroine  comes 
to  grief. 

There  is  one  point  which  everyone  who  has 
told  stories  to  children  must  have  noticed,  and 
that  is  their  fondness  for  certain  little  details 
which  to  an  adult  seem  absolutely  unessential. 
If  there  is  a  bit  of  color  somewhere  in  a  story, 
and  it  is  left  out  in  the  fifth  or  the  eighth  or 
the  tenth  telling,  the  child  misses  it  and  feels 
disappointed.  One  woman  declares  that  when 
she  was  a  little  girl  the  story  of  the  Ugly 
Duckling  never  seemed  quite  the  same  to  her 
if  the  old  Spanish  duck  with  the  red  rag 
around  her  leg  was  left  out. 

One  device  which  is  not  really  necessary  ia 
children's  stories  but  which  adds  greatly  to 
their  attractiveness  to  the  child  mind  is  the 
repetition  of  certain  words  or  phrases.  This 
may  take  the  form  of  a  simple  repetition  of 
descriptive  adjectives  applied  to  a  character, 
as  the  "little  small  wee  bear"  in  the  story  of 


STORY  TELLING 


3431 


STORY  TELLING 


the  Three  Bears,  or  it  may  be  more  elaborate 
— the  repeating  of  several  lines  of  a  speech. 
Just  why  this  makes  so  strong  an  appeal  to 
children  is  not  quite  plain,  but  it  is  certain 
that  it  does  so.  One  worker,  who  had  had 
much  experience  telling  stories  to  children, 
made  systematic  inquiries  as  to  what  stories 
children  really  like  best,  and  discovered  that 
the  prime  favorites  were  The  Three  Bears, 
The  Three  Little  Pigs  and  The  Little  Pig  That 
Wouldn't  Go  Over  the  Stile.  Each  of  these 
stories  has  much  repetition,  and  doubtless 
this  fact  has  something  to  do  with  their  popu- 
larity, though  the  stories  have  all  of  the 
characteristics  of  good  children's  stories. 

How  to  Tell  a  Story.  Now  a  story  con- 
sists of  the  gathering  up  of  one  set  of  emo- 
tional events  from  a  possible  million.  What 
makes  a  tale  tedious  ?  Trying  to  mention  as 
many  of  the  million  as  possible,  instead  of 
keeping  to  the  one  set.  What  makes  it  con- 
fused? Trying  to  give  the  events  without 
keeping  in  mind  that  they  are  in  one  set — 
that  is,  related  definitely  to  each  other.  What 
makes  a  story  pointless?  Forgetting  that,, 
as  the  set  of  events  is  emotional,  it  must  lead 
to  some  climax,  some  happening  or  point. 

Once  we  get  the  idea  of  what  a  story  really 
is,  and  hold  to  it,  we  are  pretty  likely  to  find 
that  we,  too,  can  tell  a  story  well,  after  a  little 
practice.  Your  "natural"  storyteller — the 
one  who  seems  to  have  a  veritable  "gift"  for 
telling  stories  to  children — is  keenly  alive  and 
constantly  awake  to  what  a  story  is,  and  be- 
cause she  is  so,  follows  some  such  rules  as 
these : 

Know  Your  Story.  Know  it  so  well  that 
you  feel  free  while  you  are  telling  it — cer- 
tain just  where  each  point' is  to  come  in,  and 
sure  of  your  climax.  A  few  stories  well 
learned  is  a  better  plan  than  many  imper- 
fectly known  and  thus  poorly  told.  Do  not 
feel  that  a  story  must  always  be  told  in  the 
same  words.  Probably  it  will  not  be  told 
twice  alike,  for  the  circumstances  of  its  tell- 
ing are  never  twice  the  same.  If,  however, 
there  are  conversations  or  familiar  passages 
or  some  of  the  repetitions  of  which  children 
are  so  fond,  they  should  not  be  changed. 

Be  Happy  In  It.  Your  enjoyment  and  ap- 
preciation will  convey  themselves  to  the  chil- 
dren. "Teacher  makes  us  all  laugh  when  she 
tells  The  Hare  and  the  Tortoise.  We  wish 
she'd  tell  it  every  day."  No  one  can  tell 
really  well  a  story  which  seems  to  him  point- 
less or  foolish  or  uninteresting. 


See  As-  You  Tell.  Live  over  again  the 
events  of  the  narrative  as  you  talk.  Try  to 
see  the  things  happen,  rather  than  to  think 
overmuch  about  your  words,  and  the  story 
will  unconsciously  become  vivid,  dramatic 
and  interesting. 

Keep  the  Point  in  Mind.  Let  the  stoiy 
shape  itself  gradually,  always  with  this  one 
group  of  emotional  events  in  mind.  Don't 
drag  in  anything,  however  interestmg,  that 
is  not  closely  connected  with  the  business  of 
the  story.  Let  all  you  say  illuminate  your 
text  in  some  way. 

Telling  ' ' The  Three  Goats."  The  follow- 
ing story  was  told  just  as  it  is  given  here,  by 
a  teacher  familiar  with  the  principles  of  good 
story  telling.  Notice  (1)  her  familiarity 
with  it,  (2)  her  own  evident  enjoyment  of  it, 
(3)  its  vividness  and  action,  and  (4)  how  all 
that  is  told  helps  on  the  movement  of  the  tale. 
There  is  no  attempt  at  moralizing,  and  yet 
how  plainly  the  results  of  the  various  ac- 
tions come  out ! 

The  Three  Goats 

Once  upon  a  time  there  were  three  gcats 
who  were  going  to  the  green  pasture  across 
the  river  to  eat,  and  eat,  and  eat,  so  that  they 
would  become  very  fat.  They  all  three  hap- 
pened to  be  named  "Gruff." 

Now  a  great  ugly  troll  lived  under  the 
bridge  they  had  to  cross  to  reach  the  green 
pasture.  Ah,  but  he  was  a  monster;  his  eyes 
were  as  big  as  plates  and  his  wiggly  nose  as 
long  as  a  hoe-handle! 

The  youngest  goat  Gruff  stepped  upon  the 
bridge  first. 

"Trip  trap!  Trip  trap!"  whispered  the 
bridge. 

"Who  is  tripping  over  my  bridge?"  called 
the  dreadful,  troll. 

"Oh!  it  is  only  I,  the  very  smallest  of  the 
goats  Gruff." 

"I'm  coming  to  eat  you  up!"  roared  the  troll. 

"Please,  please  don't!  I  wouldn't  make  a 
mouthful  for  you.  Wait  till  the  second  goat 
Gruff  comes.     He  is  much  larger  than  I  am." 

"Trip  on,  then.  I  want  a  bigger  mouthful," 
growled  the  troll. 

Soon  the  second  goat  Gruff  came  along. 

"Trip  trap!     Trip  trap!"  said  the  bridge. 

"Who  is  tripping  over  my  bridge?"  called 
the  dreadful  troll. 

"It  is  I,  the  second  goat  Gruff,"  said  the  goat 
in  a  voice  like  yours  or  mine. 

"I'm  coming  to  eat  you  up!"  roared  the  troll. 

"Please  don't!  I'm  not  very  big.  Wait  till 
the  third  goat  Gruff  comes.  He  is  much  larger 
than  I.    He'd  be  well  worth  eating." 

"Trip  on,  then.  I  want  a  very  large  meal," 
replied  the  ugly  troll. 

Very  soon  the  big  goat  Gruff  came. 

"Trip  trap!!  Trip  trap!!"  called  the  bridge.  It 
was  ready  to  break  with  the  weight. 


STORY  TELLING 


3432 


STORY  TELLING 


"Who  is  stamping  over  my  bridge?"  called 
the  dreadful  troll. 

•'IT  IS  I,  THE  GREAT  GOAT  GRUFF!" 
called  the  largest  goat  in  a  voice  as  loud  as 
the  troll's. 

"I'm  coming  to  eat  you  up!"  roared  the  troll. 

"HO!  COME  OX,  THEN,  COME!"  roared 
the  great  goat  Gruff. 

And  the  troll  came.  The  great  goat  Gruff 
butted  him  with  his  great  horns  and  threw 
him  into  the  river  in  a  hundred  pieces.  He 
never  ate  up  anyone  again  who  tried  to  cross 
the  bridge. 

Then  the  three  goats  Gruff  ate,  and  ate,  and 
ate,  in  the  green  pasture.  Unless  they  have 
stopped,  they  are  eating  there  still. 

Kinds  of  Stories.  Almost  any  kind  of  a 
ston'  provided  it  has  action  and  a  definite 
beginning  and  climax  may  be  told  so  as  to 
interest  children,  but  there  are  certain  kinds 
which  seem  of  right  to  belong  to  the  child. 
First  of  these,  perhaps,  is  the  fable.  Even 
very  young  children  like  and  can  appreciate 
fables,  and  the  endowing  of  animals  with 
human  characteristics  is  no  strain  on  their 
imagination.  (This  subject  is  treated  under 
Language  and  GRAiiMAR,  and  a  number  of 
fables  are  there  given.) 

It  is  likely  that  if  any  group  of  children 
were  asked  what  kind  of  stories  they  liked 
best  the  majority  of  them  would  say,  with- 
out hesitation  "fairy  stories."  By  this  they 
mean  not  only  stories  in  which  real  fairies 
take  a  part,  but  any  stories  in  which  super- 
natural events  occur.  The  introduction  of 
the  supernatural  troubles  them  not  at  all.  It 
is  to  them  the  one  great  essential  that  virtue 
should  be  rewarded  and  wickedness  punished, 
and  if  the  reward  and  punishment  are  dealt 
out  by  fairy  godmothers,  enchanted  princess- 
es, kings'  sons  who  are  disguised  as  animals, 
so  much  the  better.  And  the  most  of  the  old 
fairy  tales  present  to  the  child  moral  tniths 
and  give  him  lessons  in  kindliness  and  indus- 
trv'^  which  he  could  receive  so  acceptably  in 
no  other  way. 

The  ancient  myths,  many  of  them,  have 
that  in  them  which  appeals  powerfully  to 
children.  These  should,  of  course,  to  the 
young  child  be  told  simply  as  stories,  with 
no  intimation  that  he  is  being  instructed  in 
the  religion  and  science  of  the  world  in  its 
childhood  days. 

Humor  is  an  element  which  is  all  too  often 
absent  from  children's  literature;  and  that 
children  do  enjoy  it  is  shown  by  their  appre- 
ciation of  nonsense  tales — tales  which  have  in 
them  little  of  storj^  but  plenty  of  just  that 
quality  which  appeals  to  children  as  "funny." 


The  nature  story  may  be  made  very  valu- 
able, but  the  danger  is  always  that  it  will  be 
overdrawn;  that  the  children  will  be  given 
ideas  of  things  in  the  world  about  them  which 
are  untrue.  This  does  not  mean  that  no 
tales  should  be  told  in  which  animals  talk  or 
show  human  characteristics;  it  does  mean 
that  care  should  be  taken  not  to  humanize 
too  much  the  dog,  the  butterfly,  the  violet 
waking  in  the  spring. 

Historical  tales  and  Bible  tales,  well  told, 
never  fail  to  interest  children,  and  the  lessons 
which  they  carry  find  their  way  into  the 
minds  of  the  little  listeners  without  the  neces- 
sity for  emphasis  on  the  moral. 

A  number  of  stories  illustrating  these  dif- 
ferent classes  are  given  here,  some  of  them, 
the  real  classics,  being  given  just  as  they 
were  written;  others  have  been  specially 
adapted  for  telling,  for  it  is  one  of  the  essen- 
tial points  about  story-telling  that  a  story 
which  is  adapted  for  reading  is  very  often 
not  adapted  for  telling.  Other  stories  are 
found  in  the  Kixdergarten  department  of 
.this  work,  and  in  the  article  Bible,  while  nu- 
merous fables  and  some  story  poems  are  in- 
eluded  in  the  department  of  La^tguage  and 
Grammar.  Under  Mythology  is  to  be  found 
a  representative  collection  of  myths. 

The  Frog  and  the  Ox 

A  FABLE 

As  an  ox  was  grazing  in  a  marshy  meadow, 
he  happened  to  set  his  foot  on  a  family  of 
young  frogs,  and  trod  almost  the  whole  of 
them  to  death.  One,  however,  escaped,  and 
telling  his  mother  of  the  sad  fate  of  the  rest 
of  her  family,  he  said,  "And  mother,  it  was 
such  a  big  beast!  I  never  saw  such  a  large  one 
in  my  life." 

"Was  it  as  large  as  this?"  said  the  old  frog 
blowing  her  self  as  much  as  possible.  "Oh!" 
said  the  little  one,  "a  great  deal  bigger,  moth- 
er." "Well,  was  it  as  big  as  this?"  and  she 
puffed  out  her  speckled  skin  still  more.  "O 
mother,  it  is  no  use  your  trying  to  make  your- 
self as  big  as  it,  for  were  you  even  to  burst 
yourself  you  would  not  be  near  its  size."  The 
mother  frog  was  much  annoyed  at  this  re- 
mark: so  she  once  more  tried  to  increase  her 
size,  and  she  burst  herself  indeed. 

MORAL — Do  not  covet  that  which  is  beyond 
your  reach. 

The  Donkey  in  the  Lion's  Skin 
a  fable 

A  donkey,  having  found  the  skin  of  a  lion, 
put  it  on,  and,  going  into  the  fields,  amused 
himself  by  frightening  all  the  animals  he  met. 
Seeing  a  fox,  he  tried  to  alarm  him  also.  But 
Reynard,  perceiving  his  long  ears  sticking 
out,  and  hearing  his  voice,  at  once  knew  who 
it  was.  "Ah I"  said  he,  "I  should  have  been 
frightened  too,  if  I  had  not  heard  you  bray." 


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MORAL — It  is  not  wise  to  judge  a  man  by  the 
coat  he  wears. 

Frau  Holle 

A    FAIRY    TALE 

There  was  once  a  widow  who  had  two 
daughters;  one  was  as  pretty  as  could  be,  and 
worked  hard  for  her  living;  the  other  was 
ugly  and  idle. 

Now,  it  chanced  that  the  widow  loved  the 
ugly  daughter  better  than  the  pretty  one,  be- 
cause she  was  her  very  own,  whilst  the  pretty 
maiden  was  only  her  step-daughter.  So,  be- 
sides doing  all  the  work  of  the  house,  the  poor 
girl  was  sent  every  day  to  sit  beside  the  vil- 
lage well  and  spin  a  bundle  of  flax  into  yarn. 
Sometimes  she  had  to  work  so  hard  that  her 
poor  little  fingers  were  covered  with  blood; 


sciousness,  and  when  she  came  to  herself 
again  she  found  that  she  had  fallen  into  a 
beautiful  meadow,  decked  with  every  sweet 
and  lovely  flower,  where  the  sun  was  shining 
brightly. 

As  she  strolled  along  the  meadow  path,  she 
came  to  an  oven  full  of  bread.  "Take  us  out! 
take  us  out!  or  we  shall  burn,"  cried  the 
loaves;  "we  are  just  baked  enough." 

So  the  girl  opened  the  oven  door  and  took 
out  the  bread  and  then  went  on  her  way  again. 
Presently  she  came  to  an  apple-tree  weighed 
down  with  fruit,  and  it  called  to  her  as  she 
passed:  "Shake  me!  shake  me!  My  apples  are 
all  ripe."  So  she  shook  the  apple-tree  till  the 
apples  fell  like  rain  around  her.  When  there 
were  no  more  left  upon  the  tree,  she  stacked 
them  in  heaps,  and  went  her  way. 


THE  FEATHERS  FLEW  LIKE 
SNOWFLAKES 


and  one  day,  when  this  happened,  and  a  few 
drops  of  blood  had  fallen  upon  the  spindle,  she 
bent  over  the  well  to  wash  it  clean  again,  and 
dropped  it  in. 

She  ran  weeping  to  her  step-mother,  to  tell 
her  what  had  happened,  and  the  angry  woman 
scolded  her  without  mercy.  "As  you  have  let 
the  spindle  fall  in,"  said  she,  "you  must  just 
go  and  fetch  it  out  again." 

So  the  poor  little  maid  went  back  to  the 
well,  and  in  her  sorrow  and  despair,  she 
jumped  straight  into  it,  to  see  if  she  could 
find   her   spindle.     At   once   she   lost  all   con- 


At  length  she  reached  a  little  house,  where 
an  old  woman  was  looking  out  of  the  window. 
The  girl  was  afraid  of  her  great  big  teeth,  and 
would  have  run  away,  but  she  called  to  her: 
"Do  not  be  afraid  of  me,  dear  child;  I  am 
Frau  Holle.  Stay  with  me,  and  help  me  with 
the  housework.  If  you  are  a  good  girl,  all 
shall  go  well  with  you.  But  you  must  take 
great  pains  to  shake  up  my  bed  and  make  the 
feathers  fly,  or  else  there  will  be  no  snow  to 
cover  up  the  earth." 

The  old  woman  spoke  so  kindly  that  the  girl 
took  courage  and  agreed  to  stay  with  her. 


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She  worked  as  hard  as  she  was  able,  and 
pleased  the  old  woman  in  everything  she  did. 
She  shook  the  bed  with  such  a  will  that  the 
feathers  flew  like  snow-flakes.  So  she  led  a 
happj-  life,  with  never  an  unkind  word  to 
grieve  her,  and  had  boiled  and  baked  meats  to 
eat  every  day.  Time  passed  on,  and  the  little 
maid  grew  pale  and  sad,  though  she  herself 
could  not  tell  at  first  what  ailed  her.  At 
length  she  thought  it  must  be  homesickness, 
for.  although  she  was  treated  a  thousand 
times  better  than  ever  she  had  been  at  home, 
she  had  a  great  longing  to  go  back  again.  So 
she  went  to  the  old  woman  and  told  her  how 
she  felt. 

"I  have  been  very  happy  here,"  she  said; 
"but  I  have  such  a  longing  to  see  my  own 
people  once  again  that  I  can  stay  here  no 
longer." 

"It  is  right  you  should  wish  to  go  home,  my 
child,"  answered  Frau  Holle.  "Tou  have 
served  me  faithfully  all  this  long  time,  so  I 
will  see  that  you  have  a  safe  journey.back." 

She  took  the  girl  by  the  hand  and  led  her  to 
a  great  gate,  which  stood  wide  open.  As  soon 
as  she  passed  through,  a  shower  of  golden  rain 
fell  and  covered  her  with  glittering  gold  from 
head  to  foot,  so  that  she  looked  as  though  she 
was  clad  in  a  golden  mantle.  "That  is  my  gift 
to  you,  because  you  have  been  a  good,  hard- 
working girl,"  said  Frau  Holle.  and  then  gave 
her  as  well,  the  spindle  which  she  had  let  fall 
into  the  well  so  long  ago. 

Immediately  afterward  the  gate  shut  with  a 
clang,  and  the  girl  found  herself  back  in  the 
world  once  more,  and  quite  near  to  her 
mother's  house.  As  she  entered  the  courtyard, 
the  cock  began  to  crow: 

"Cock-a-doodle-doo-doo-doo! 

The  golden  girl's  come  back  to  you!" 

Then  the  little  maid  went  in  to  her  mother 
and  sister,  who  made  a  great  fuss  over  her, 
now  that  she  had  come  home  covered  with 
gold. 

She  told  them  all  that  had  happened,  and 
when  the  mother  heard  how  her  pretty 
daughter  had  come  by  her  fortune,  she  was 
anxious  that  her  ugly  daughter  should  have 
the  same  good  luck.  So  she  sent  her  to  sit  by 
the  side  of  the  well,  and  put  a  spindle  into  her 
hand.  The  lazy  girl  had  never  pricked  her 
fingers  with  spinning,  but  she  thrust  her  hand 
into  a  thorn-bush,  so  that  it  might  look  as 
though  she  had. 

Then  she  threw  the  spindle  into  the  well, 
and  jumped  in  after  it. 

She  fell  just  as  her  sister  had  done,  into  a 
beautiful  flowery  meadow,  and  followed  the 
same  path. 

When  she  came  to  the  oven,  the  bread  cried 
out  as  before:  "Take  us  out,  or  we  shall  burn. 
"We  are  just  baked  enough." 

The  lazy  girl  answered:  "I  arn  not  going  to 
soil  my  hands  for  you." 

Soon  she  came  to  the  apple-tree.  "Shake 
me!  shake  me;  My  apples  are  all  ripe,"  it 
cried. 

But  the  girl  tossed  her  head  and  went  on 
her  way.    "If  I  were  to  shake  you,"  she  said 


scornfully,  I  might  get  a  bump  on  my  head 
from  one  of  you  for  my  pains." 

When  she  reached  Frau  HoUe's  house  she 
saw  her  looking  out  of  the  window,  but  was 
not  in  the  least  afraid  of  her,  because  she  had 
heard  beforehand  of  her  large  teeth.  She  en- 
gaged herself  to  the  old  woman,  and  at  first 
things  went  very  ■well.  She  remembered  the 
gold  she  would  receive  at  the  end  of  her  serv- 
ice and  did  her  work  as  well  as  she  was  able. 

But  very  soon  she  grew  lazy,  and  would  not 
get  up  in  the  mornings.  Then  too,  she  neg- 
lected Frau  Holle's  bed  shamefully,  and 
scarcely  shook  it  at  all,  so  that  there  was  not 
a  feather  to  be  seen.  So  her  mistress  soon 
tired  of  her,  and  told,  her  to  go  home. 

Miss  Lazybones  was  delighted,  for  she 
thought  the  time  had  now  come  for  the  shower 
of  gold  but  when  Frau  Holle  led  her  beneath 
the  great  gateway,  instead  of  gold  there  fell 
a  shower  of  pitch.  "This  is  the  reward  for 
your  services,"  said  the  old  woman,  and 
banged  the  door  behind  the  idle  girl. 

And  so,  when  she  reached  home,  covered 
with  pitch,  and  as  black  as  a  sweep,  the  cock. 
perched  on  the  wall  beside  the  well,  began  to 
crow: 

"Cock-a-doodle-doo-doo-doo! 

Tour  dirty  girl's  come  back  to  you!" 

And  dirty  the  girl  remained  all  the  days  of 
her  life,  for,  try  as  much  as  she  would,  she 
could  never  wash  the  pitch  off  again. 

This  is  one  of  the  tales  that  has  a  ver>- 
plain  moral — so  plain  that  it  need  not  be 
pointed  out  to  the  youngest  child.  Even  chil- 
dren sometimes  object  to  the  "goody-goody," 
"Sunday  School"  stories  with  .their  obvious 
lessons ;  but  the  wonder  element  in  this  storj', 
the  striking  character  of  the  reward  and  the 
punishment  make  the  story  very  attractive 
to  children. 

The  Little  Pig  that  ■wouldn't  go  over  the  Stile 

A  NONSENSE  TALE 

One  day,  as  a  little  old  woman  was  sweeping 
her  little  house,  she  found  a  crooked  sixpence, 
and  she  said,  "  I  will  go  to  the  market  and  buy 
a  little  pig  with  this  crooked  sixpence." 

So  she  did,  and  as  she  was  coming  home  she 
came  to  a  stile. 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,  go  over  the  stile," 
said  the  little  old  woman;  but  the  little  pig 
■would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther  and  met  a  dog,  and 
she  said:  "Dog,  dog,  bite  pig;  pig  won't  go 
over  the  stile,  and  I  shall  not  get  home  to- 
night."  But  the  dog  would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther  and  met  a  stick 
and  she  said:  "Stick,  stick,  beat  dog;  dog  won't 
bite  pig;  pig  won't  go  over  the  stile,  and  I 
shall  not  get  home  tonight."  But  the  stick 
would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  a  fire. 
So  she  said: 

'•Fire,  fire,  burn  stick;  stick  won't  beat  dog; 
dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't  get  over  the  stile; 
and  T  shall  not  get  home  tonight."  But  the 
fire  would  not. 


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STORY  TELLING 


She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  some 
water.  So  she  said:  "Water,  water,  quench 
fire;  fire  won't  burn  stick;  stick  won't  beat 
dog-;  dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't  get  over  the 
stile;  and  I  shall  not  get  home  tonight."  But 
the  water  would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  an  ox. 
So  she  said:  "Ox,  ox,  drink  water;  water 
won't  quench  fire;  fire  won't  burn  stick;  stick 
won't  beat  dog;  dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't 
get  over  the  stile;  and  I  shall  not  get  home 
tonight."   But  the  ox  would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther  and  she  met  a 
butcher.  So  she  said:  "Butcher,  butcher,  kill 
ox;  ox  won't  drink  water;  water  won't  quench 
fire;  fire  won't  burn  stick;  stick  won't  beat 
dog;  dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't  get  over  the 
stile;  and  I  shall  not  get  home  tonight."  But 
the  butcher  would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  a  rope. 
So  she  said:  "Rope,  rope,  hang-  butcher; 
butcher  won't  kill  ox;  ox  won't  drink  water; 
water  won't  quench  fire;  fire  won't  burn  stick; 
stick  won't  beat  dog;  dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig 
won't  get  over  the  stile;  and  I  shall  not  get 
home  tonight."   But  the  rope  would  not. 


milk,  I  will  kill  the  rat."  So  away  went  the 
old  woman  to  the  cow. 

But  the  cow  said  to  her,  "If  you  will  go  to 
yonder  hay-stack,  and  fetch  me  a  handful  of 
hay,  I'll  give  you  the  milk."  So  away  went  the 
old  woman  to  the  hay-stack;  and  she  brought 
the  hay  to  the  cow. 

As  soon  as  the  cow  had  eaten  the  hay,  she 
g-ave  the  old  woman  the  milk;  and  away  she 
went  with  it  in  the  saucer  to  the  cat. 

As  soon  as  the  cat  had  lapped  up  the  milk, 
the  cat  began  to  kill  the  rat;  the  rat  began  to 
gnaw  the  rope;  the  rope  began  to  hang  the 
butcher;  the  butcher  began  to  kill  the  ox;  the 
ox  began  to  drink  the  water;  the  water  began 
to  quench  the  fire;  the  fire  began  to  burn  the 
stick;  the  stick  began  to  beat  the  dog;  the  dog 
began  to  bite  the  pig;  the  little  pig  jumped 
over  the  stile;  and  so  the  old  woman  got  home 
that  night. 

The  IJgly  Duckling 

A    NATURE    STORT 

It  was  glorious  in  the  country;  it  was  sum- 
mer; the  cornfields  were  yellow,  the  oats  were 
green,  the  hay  had  been  put  up  in  stacks  in  the 


"LITTLE  PIG,  LITTLE  PIG,  GO  OVER  THE  STILE." 


She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  a  rat. 
So  she  said:  "Rat,  rat,  gnaw  rope;  rope  won't 
hang-  butcher;  butcher  won't  kill  ox;  ox  won't 
drink  water;  water  won't  quench  fire;  fire 
won't  burn  stick;  stick  won't  beat  dog;  dog 
won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't  get  over  the  stile; 
and  I  shall  not  get  home  tonight."  But  the 
rat  would  not. 

She  went  a  little  farther,  and  she  met  a  cat. 
So  she  said:  "Cat,  cat,  kill  rat;  rat  won't  gnaw 
rope;  rope  won't  hang  butcher;  butcher  won't 
kill  ox;  ox  won't  drink  water;  water  won't 
quench  fire;  fire  won't  burn  stick;  stick  won't 
beat  dog;  dog  won't  bite  pig;  pig  won't  get 
over  the  stile;  and  I  shall  not  get  home  to- 
night." But  the  cat  said  to  her,  "If  you  will 
go  to  yonder  cow,  and  fetch  me  a  saucer  of 


green  meadows;  and  the  stork  went  about  on 
his  long  red  legs,  and  chattered  Egyptian,  for 
this  was  the  language  he  had  learned  from  his 
mother.  All  around  the  fields  and  meadows 
were  great  woods,  and  in  the  midst  of  these 
woods  deep  lakes.  Yes,  it  was  right  glorious 
in  the  country. 

In  the  midst  of  the  sunshine  there  lay  an  old 
farm,  with  deep  canals  about  it;  and  from  the 
wall  down  to  the  water  grew  great  burdocks, 
so  high  that  little  children  could  stand  upright 
under  the  tallest  of  them.  It  was  just  as  wild 
there  as  in  the  deepest  wood,  and  here  sat  a 
Duck  upon  her  nest;  she  had  to  hatch  her 
ducklings;  but  she  was  almost  tired  out  before 
the  little  ones  came;  and  she  seldom  had  visit- 
ors.    The  other  ducks  liked  better  to  swim 


STORY  TELLING 


3436 


STORY  TELLING 


about  in  the  canals  than  to  run  up  to  sit  under 
a  burdock,  and  gabble  with  her. 

At  last  one  eg-g-shell  after  another  burst 
open.  "Pip!  pip!"  each  cried,  and  in  all  the 
eggs  there  were  little  things  that  stuck  out 
their  heads. 

"Quack!  Quack!"  said  the  Duck,  and  they 
all  came  quacking  out  as  fast  as  they  could, 
looking  all  around  them  under  the  green 
leaves;  and  the  mother  let  them  look  as  much 
as  they  liked,  for  green  is  good  for  the  eye. 

"How  wide  the  world  is!"  said  all  the  young 
ones;  for  they  certainly  had  much  more  room 
now  than  when  they  were  inside  the  eggs. 

"D'ye  think  this  is  all  the  world?"  said  the 
mother.  "That  stretches  far  across  the  other 
side  of  the  garden,  quite  into  the  parson's 
field;  but  I  have  never  been  there  yet.  I  hope 
you  are  all  together,"  and  she  stood  up.  "No, 
I  have  not  all.  The  largest  ess  still  lies  there. 
How  long  is  that  to  last?  I  am  really  tired  of 
it."    And  so  she  sat  down  again. 

"Well,  how  goes  it?"  asked  an  old  Duck  who 
had  come  to  pay  her  a  visit. 

"It  takes  a  long  time  for  this  one  &SS,"  said 
the  Duck  who  sat  there.  "It  will  not  open. 
Now,  only  look  at  the  others!  They  are  the 
prettiest  little  ducks  I  ever  saw.  They  are  all 
like  their  father:  the  rogue,  he  never  comes  to 
see  me." 

"Let  me  see  the  egg  which  will  not  burst," 
said  the  old  Duck.  "You  may  be  sure  it  is  a 
turkey's  egg.  I  was  once  cheated  in  that  way, 
and  had  much  care  and  trouble  with  the  young 
ones,  for  they  are  afraid  of  the  water.  Must  I 
say  it  to  you?  I  could  not  make  them  go  in. 
I  quacked,  and  I  clacked,  but  it  was  no  use. 
Let  me  see  the  egg.  Tes,  that's  a  turkey's  egg. 
Let  it  lie  there,  and  do  you  teach  the  other 
children  to  swim." 

"I  think  I  will  sit  on  It  a  little  longer,"  said 
the  Duck.  "I've  sat  so  long  now  that  I  can  sit 
a  few  days  more." 

"Just  as  you  please,"  said  the  old  Duck;  and 
she  went  away. 

At  last  the  great  egg  burst.  "Pip!  pip!"  said 
the  little  one,  and  crept  forth.  He  was  so  big 
and  ugly.     The  Duck  looked  at  him. 

"It's  a  very  large  Duckling,"  said  she.  "None 
of  the  others  looks  like  that;  it  really  must  be 
a  turkey  chick!  Well,  we  shall  soon  find  out. 
Into  the  water  shall  we  go,  even  if  I  have  to 
push  him  in." 

The  next  day  it  was  bright,  beautiful 
weather;  the  sun  shone  on  all  the  green  bur- 
docks. The  Mother-Duck  with  all  her  family 
went  down  to  the  canal.  Splash!  she  jumped 
into  the  water.  "Quack!  quack!"  she  said, 
and  one  duckling  after  another  plumped  In. 
The  water  closed  over  their  heads,  but  they 
came  up  in  an  instant,  and  swam  off  finely; 
their  legs  went  of  themselves,  and  they  were 
all  in  the  water;  even  the  ugly  gray  Duckling 
swam  with  them. 

"No,  it's  not  a  turkey,"  said  she;  "look  how 
well  he  uses  his  legs,  how  straight  he  holds 
himself.  It  is  my  own  child!  On  the  whole  he's 
quite  pretty,  when  one  looks  at  him  rightly. 
Quack!  quack!  come  now  with  me,  and  I'll 
lead  you  out  into  the  world,  and  present  you  in 


the  duck-yard;  but  keep  close  to  me  all  the 
time,  so  that  no  one  may  tread  on  you,  and 
look  out  for  the  cats." 

And  so  they  came  into  the  duck-yard.  There 
was  a  terrible  row  going  on  in  there,  for  two 
families  were  fighting  about  an  eel's  head, 
and  so  the  cat  got  it. 

"See  that's  the  way  it  goes  in  the  world!" 
said  the  Mother-Duck;  and  she  whetted  her 
beak,  for  she  too  wanted  the  eel's  head.  "Only 
use  your  legs,"  she  said.  "See  that  you  can 
bustle  about,  and  bend  your  necks  before  the 
old  Duck  yonder.  She's  the  grandest  of  all 
here,  she's  of  Spanish  blood — that's  why  she's 
so  fat;  and  do  you  see?  she  has  a  red  rag 
around  her  leg;  that's  something  very,  very 
fine,  and  the  greatest  mark  of  honor  a  duck 
can  have:  it  means  that  one  does  not  want  to 
lose  her,  and  that  she's  known  by  the  animals 
and  by  men  too.  Hurry!  hurry! — don't  turn  in 
your  toes;  a  well-brought-up  duck  turns  its 
toes  quite  out,  just  like  father  and  mother — so! 
Now  bend  your  necks  and  say  'Quack!'  " 

And  they  did  so:  but  the  other  ducks  round 
about  looked  at  them,  and  said  quite  boldly: 

"Look  there!  now  we're  to  have  this  crowd 
too!  as  if  there  were  not  enough  of  us  already! 
And — fie! — how  that  Duckling  yonder  looks; 
we  won't  stand  that!"  And  at  once  one  duck 
flew  at  him,  and  bit  him  in  the  neck. 

"Let  him  alone,"  said  the  mother;  "he  is  not 
doing  anything  to  anyone." 

"Yes,  but  he's  too  large  and  odd,"  said  the 
Duck  who  had  bitten  him,  "and  so  he  must  be 
put  down." 

"Those  are  pretty  children  the  mother  has," 
said  the  old  Duck  with  the  rag  round  her  leg. 
"They're  all  pretty  but  that  one;  that  is  rather 
unlucky.  I  wish  she  could  have  that  one  over 
again." 

"That  cannot  be  done,  my  lady,"  said  the 
Mother-Duck.  "He  is  not  pretty,  but  he  has 
a  really  good  temper,  and  swims  as  well  as 
any  of  the  others;  yes,  I  may  even  say  it,  a 
little  better.  I  think  he  will  grow  up  pretty; 
perhaps  in  time  he  will  grow  a  little  smaller; 
he  lay  too  long  in  the  egg,  and  therefore  he 
has  not  quite  the  right  shape.  And  she 
pinched  him  in  the  neck,  and  smoothed  his 
feathers.  "Besides,  he  is  a  drake,"  she  said, 
"and  so  it  does  not  matter  much.  I  think  he 
will  be  very  strong:  he  makes  his  way 
already." 

"The  other  ducklings  are  graceful  enough," 
said  the  old  Duck.  "Make  yourself  at  home; 
and  if  you  find  an  eel's  head,  you  may  bring 
it  to  me." 

And  now  they  were  at  home.  But  the  poor 
Duckling  who  had  crept  last  out  of  the  egg, 
and  looked  so  ugly,  was  bitten  and  pushed  and 
made  fun  of,  both  by  the  ducks  and  chickens. 

"He  is  too  big!"  they  all  said.  And  the 
turkey-cock,  who  had  been  born  with  spurs, 
and  so  thought  he  was  an  emperor,  blew  him- 
self up,  like  a  ship  in  full  sail,  and  bore 
straight  down  upon  him;  then  he  gobbled  and 
grew  quite  red  in  the  face.  The  poor  Duckling 
did  not  know  where  he  dared  stand  or  walk; 
he  was  quite  unhappy  because  he  looked  ugly, 
and  was  the  sport  of  the  whole  duck-yard. 


STORY  TELLING 


3437 


STORY  TELLING 


So  it  went  on  the  first  day;  and  then  it  grew 
h^orse  and  worse.  The  poor  Duckling'  was 
hunted  about  by  everyone;  even  his  brothers 
Und  sisters  were  quite  angry  with  him,  and 
Baid,  "If  the  cat  would  only  catch  you,  you 
ugly  creature!"  And  the  ducks  bit  him  and  the 
chickens  beat  him,  and  the  girl  who  had  to 
feed  the  poultry  kicked  at  him  with  her  foot. 

Then  he  ran  and  flew  over  the  fence,  and 
the  little  birds  in  the  bushes  flew  up  in  fear. 

"That  is  because  I  am  so  ugly!"  thought  the 
Duckling;  and  he  shut  his  eyes,  but  flew  on 
farther;  and  so  he  came  out  into  the  great 
moor,  where  the  wild  ducks  lived.  Here  he  lay 
the  whole  night  long,  he  was  so  tired  and  sad. 
Toward  morning  the  wild  ducks  flew  up, 
and  looked  at  their  new  mate. 

"What  sort  of  a  one  are  you?"  they  asked; 
and  the  Duckling  turned  about  to  each,  and 
bowed  as  well  as  he  could.  "You  are  really 
very  ugly!"  said  the  Wild  Ducks.  "But  that 
is  all  the  same  to  us,  so  long  as  you  do  not 
marry  into  our  family." 

Poor  thing!  he  certainly  did  not  think  of 
marrying,  and  only  dared  ask  leave  to  lie 
among  the  reeds  and  drink  some  of  the  swamp 
water. 

There  he  lay  two  whole  days;  then  came 
thither  two  wild  geese,  or  more  truly,  two 
wild  ganders.  It  was  not  long  since  each  had 
crept  out  of  an  egg,  and  that's  why  they  were 
so  saucy. 

"Listen,  comrade,"  said  one  of  them.  "You're 
so  ugly  that  I  like  you.  Will  you  go  with  us, 
and  become  a  bird  of  passage?  Near  here  is 
another  moor,  where  are  a  few  sweet  lovely 
wild  geese,  all  unmarried,  and  all  able  to  say 
'Quack!'  You've  a  chance  of  making  your  for- 
tune, ugly  as  you  are." 

"Piff!  paff!"  sounded  through  the  air;  and 
both  the  ganders  fell  down  dead  in  the  reeds, 
and  the  water  became  blood  red.  "Piff!  paff!" 
it  sounded  again,  and  the  whole  flock  of  wild 
geese  flew  up  from  the  reeds.  And  then  there 
was  another  report.  A  great  hunt  was  going 
on.  The  gunners  lay  around  in  the  moor,  and 
some  were  even  sitting  up  in  the  branches  of 
the  trees,  which  spread  far  over  the  reeds.  The 
blue  smoke  rose  like  clouds  in  among  the 
dark  trees,  and  hung  over  the  water;  and  the 
hunting  dogs  came — splash,  splash! — into  the 
mud,  and  the  rushes  and  reeds  bent  down  on 
every  side.  That  was  a  fright  for  the  poor 
Duckling!  He  turned  his  head  to  put  it  under 
his  wing;  and  at  that  very  moment  a  frightful 
great  dog  stood  close  by  the  Duckling.  His 
tongue  hung  far  out  of  his  mouth,  and  his 
eyes  glared  horribly.  He  put  his  nose  close  to 
the  Duckling,  showed  his  sharp  teeth,  and — 
splash,  splash! — on  he  went  without  seizing  it. 
"Oh,  Heaven  be  thanked!"  sighed  the  Duck- 
ling. "I  am  so  ugly  that  even  the  dog  does 
not  like  to  bite  me!" 

And  so  he  lay  quite  quiet,  while  the  shots 
rattled  through  the  reeds  and  gun  after  gun 
was  fired.  At  last,  late  in  the  day,  all  was 
still;  but  the  poor  little  thing  did  not  dare  to 
rise  up;  he  waited  several  hours  still  before 
he  looked  around,  and  then  hurried  away  out 
of  the  moor  as  fast  as  he  could.    He  ran  on 


over  field  and  meadow;  there  was  a  storm,  so 
that  he  had  hard  work  to  get  away. 

Towards  evening  the  Duckling  came  to  a 
peasant's  poor  little  hut;  it  was  so  tumbled 
down  that  it  did  not  itself  know  on  which  side 
it  should  fall;  and  that's  why  it  stood  up.  The 
storm  whistled  around  the  Duckling  in  such  a 
way  that  he  had  to  sit  down  to  keep  from 
blowing  away;  and  the  wind  blew  worse  and 
worse.  Then  he  noticed  that  one  of  the  hinges 
of  the  door  had  given  way,  and  the  door  hung 
so  slanting  that  he  could  slip  through  the 
crack  into  the  room;  and  that  is  what  he  did. 
Here  lived  an  old  woman,  with  her  Cat  and 
her  Hen.  And  the  Cat,  whom  she  called  Son- 
nie,  could  arch  his  back  and  purr;  he  could 
even  give  out  sparks:  but  for  that,  one  had  to 
stroke  his  fur  the  wrong  way.  The  Hen  had 
quite  small,  short  legs,  and  therefore  she  was 
called  Chickabiddy  Shortshanks;  she  laid  good 
eggs,  and  the  woman  loved  her. 

In  the  morning  they  noticed  at  once  the 
strange  Duckling,  and  the  Cat  began  to  purr 
and  the  Hen  to  cluck. 

"What's  this?"  said  the  woman,  and  looked 
all  around;  but  she  could  not  see  well,  there- 
fore she  thought  the  Duckling  was  a  fat  duck 
that  had  strayed.  "This  is  a  rare  prize!"  she 
said.  "Now  I  shall  have  duck's  eggs.  I  hope 
it  is  not  a  drake.    We  must  try  that." 

And  so  the  Duckling  was  taken  on  trial  for 
three  weeks,  but  no  eggs  came.  And  the  Cat 
was  master  of  the  house,  and  the  Hen  was  the 
lady,  and  always  said  "We  and  the  world!"  for 
they  thought  they  were  half  the  world,  and  by 
far  the  better  half.  It  seemed  to  the  Duckling 
that  one  might  have  another  mind,  but  the 
Hen  would  not  allow  it. 
"Can  you  lay  eggs?" 
"No." 

"Then  will  you  hold  your  tongue!" 
And  the  Cat  said,  "Can  you  curve  your  back, 
and  purr,  and  give  out  sparks?" 
"No." 

"Then  you  will  please  have  no  opinion  of 
your  own  when  sensible  folks  are  speaking!" 
And  the  Duckling  sat  in  a  corner  and  was  in 
low  spirits;  then  he  began  to  think  of  the  fresh 
air  and  the  sunshine;  and  he  was  seized  with 
such  a  strange  longing  to  swim  on  the  water, 
that  he  could  not  help  telling  the  Hen  of  it. 

"What  are  you  thinking  of?"  cried  the  Hen. 
"You  have  nothing  to  do,  that's  why  you  have 
these  fancies.  Lay  eggs,  or  purr,  and  they 
will  pass  over." 

"But  it  is  so  charming  to  swim  in  the 
water,"  said  the  Duckling,  "so  nice  to  feel  it 
go  over  one's  head,  and  to  dive  down  to  the 
bottom!" 

"Yes,  that's  a  fine  thing,  truly,"  said  the 
Hen.  "You  are  clean  gone  crazy.  Ask  the  Cat 
about  it — he's  the  cleverest  thing  I  know — 
ask  him  if  he  likes  to  swim  in  the  water,  or  to 
dive  down:  I  won't  speak  about  myself.  Ask 
our  mistress  herself,  the  old  woman;  no  one  in 
the  world  knows  more  than  she.  Do  you 
think  she  wants  to  swim,  and  to  let  the  water 
close  above  her  head?" 

"You  don't  understand  me,"  said  the  Duck- 
ling. 


STORY  TELLING 


3438 


STORY  TELLING 


"We  don't  understand  you!  Then  pray  who 
is  to  understand  you?  You  surely  don't  pre- 
tend to  be  cleverer  than  the  Cat  and  the 
woman — I  won't  say  anything  of  myself.  Don't 
make  a  fool  of  yourself,  child,  and  thank  your 
Maker  for  all  the  good  you  have.  Are  you  not 
come  into  a  warm  room,  and  have  you  not 
folks  about  you  from  whom  you  can  learn 
something?  But  you  are  a  goose,  and  it  is 
not  pleasant  to  have  you  about.  You  may 
believe  me,  I  speak  for  your  good.  I  tell  you 
things  you  won't  like,  and  by  that  one  may 
always  know  one's  true  friends!  Only  take 
care  that  you  learn  to  lay  eggs,  or  to  purr,  and 
to  give  out  sparks." 

"I  think  I  will  go  out  into  the  wide  world," 
said  the  Duckling. 

"Yes,  do  go,"  replied  the  Hen. 

And  so  the  Duckling  went  away.  He  swam 
on  the  water,  and  dived,  but  he  was  shunned 
by  every  creature  because  he  was  so  ugly. 

Now  came  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  leaves 
in  the  wood  turned  yellow  and  brown;  the 
wind  caught  them  so  that  they  danced  about, 
and  up  in  the  air  it  was  very  cold.  The  clouds 
hung  low,  heavy  with  hail  and  snow-flakes, 
and  on  the  fence  stood  the  raven,  crying, 
"Croak!  croak!"  for  mere  cold;  yes,  one  could 
freeze  fast  if  one  thought  about  it.  The  poor 
little  Duckling  certainly  had  not  a  good  time. 
One  evening — the  sun  was  just  going  down  in 
fine  style — there  came  a  whole  flock  of  great 
handsome  birds  out  of  the  bushes;  they  were 
shining  white,  with  long,  supple  necks;  they 
were  swans.  They  uttered  a  very  strange  cry, 
spread  forth  their  glorious  great  wings,  and 
flew  away  from  that  cold  region  to  warmer 
lands,  to  fair  open  lakes.  They  mounted  so 
high,  so  high!  and  the  ugly  Duckling  had 
such  a  strange  feeling  as  he  saw  them!  He 
turned  round  and  round  in  the  water  like  a 
wheel,  stretched  out  his  neck  towards  them, 
and  uttered  a  cry,  so  high,  so  strange,  that  he 
feared  as  he  heard  it.  Oh!  he  could  not  forget 
those  beautiful,  happy  birds;  and  as  soon  as 
he  could  see  them  no  longer,  he  dived  down  to 
the  very  bottom,  and  when  he  came  up  again, 
he  was  quite  beside  himself.  He  did  not  know 
what  the  birds  were,  nor  where  they  were 
flying  to;  but  he  loved  them  more  than  he  had 
ever  loved  anyone.  He  did  not  envy  them  at 
all.  How  could  he  think  of  wishing  to  have 
such  loveliness  as  they  had?  He  would  have 
been  glad  if  only  the  ducks  would  have  let  him 
be  among  them — the  poor,  ugly  creature! 

And  the  winter  grew  so  cold,  so  cold!  The 
Duckling  had  to  swim  about  in  the  water,  to 
keep  it  from  freezing  over,  but  every  night  the 
hole  in  which  he  swam  about  became  smaller 
and  smaller.  It  froze  so  hard  that  the  icy 
cover  sounded;  and  the  Duckling  had  to  use 
his  legs  all  the  time  to  keep  the  hole  from 
freezing  tight.  At  last  he  became  worn  out, 
and  lay  quite  still  and  thus  froze  fast  in  the 
ice. 

Early  in  the  morning  a  peasant  came  by, 
and  found  him  there;  he  took  his  wooden  shoe, 
broke  the  ice  to  pieces,  and  carried  the  Duck- 
ling home  to  his  wife.  Then  the  Duckling 
came  to  himself  again.    The  children  wanted 


to  play  with  him;  but  he  thought  they  wanted 
to  hurt  him,  and  in  his  terror  he  flew  up  into 
the  milk-pan,  so  that  the  milk  spilled  over 
into  the  room.  The  woman  screamed  and 
shook  her  hand  in  the  air,  at  which  the  Duck- 
ling flew  down  into  the  tub  where  they  kept 
the  butter,  and  then  into  the  meal-barrel  and 
out  again.  How  he  looked  then!  The  woman 
screamed,  and  struck  at  him  with  the  fire 
tongs;  the  children  tumbled  over  one  another 
as  they  tried  to  catch  the  Duckling;  and  they 
laughed  and  they  screamed! — well  was  it  that 
the  door  stood  open,  and  the  poor  creature 
was  able  to  slip  out  between  the  bushes  into 
the  newly-fallen  snow.  There  he  lay  quite 
worn  out. 

But  it  would  be  too  sad  if  I  were  to  tell  all 
the  misery  and  care  which  the  Duckling  had 
to  bear  in  the  hard  vsrinter.  He  lay  out  on  the 
moor  among  the  reeds,  when  the  sun  began  to 
shine  again  and  the  larks  to  sing;  it  was  a 
beautiful  spring. 

Then  all  at  once  the  Duckling  could  flap  his 
wings:  they  beat  the  air  more  strongly  than 
before,  and  bore  him  stoutly  away;  and  before 
he  well  knew  it,  he  found  himself  in  a  great 
garden,  where  the  elder-trees  stood  in  flower 
and  bent  their  long  green  branches  down  to 
the  winding  canal,  and  the  lilacs  smelt  sweet. 
Oh,  here  it  was  beautiful,  fresh,  and  spring- 
like! and  from  the  thicket  came  three  glorious 
white  swans;  they  rustled  their  wings,  and  sat 
lightly  on  the  water.  The  Duckling  knew  the 
splendid  creatures,  and  felt  a  very  strange 
sadness. 

"I  will  fly  away  to  them,  to  the  royal  birds! 
and  they  will  beat  me,  because  I,  that  am  so 
ugly,  dare  to  come  near  them.  But  it  is  all  the 
same.  Better  to  be  killed  by  them  than  to  be 
chased  by  ducks,  and  beaten  by  fowls,  and 
pushed  about  by  the  girl  who  takes  care  of  the 
poultry-yard,  and  to  suffer  hunger  in  winter!" 
And  he  flew  out  into  the  water,  and  swam  to- 
ward the  beautiful  swans:  these  looked  at 
him,  and  came  sailing  down  upon  him  with 
outspread  wings.  "Kill  me!"  said  the  poor 
creature,  and  bent  his  head  down  upon  the 
water,  and  waited  for  death.  But  what  saw 
he  in  the  clear  water?  He  saw  below  him  his 
own  image;  and,  lo!  it  was  no  longer  a  clumsy 
dark-gray  bird,  ugly  and  hateful  to  look  at, 
but — a  swan! 

It  matters  nothing  if  one  is  born  in  a  duck- 
yard,  if  one  has  only  lain  in  a  swan's  egg. 

He  felt  quite  glad  at  all  the  need  and  hard 
times  he  had  borne;  now  he  could  joy  in  his 
good  luck  in  all  the  brightness  that  was  round 
him.  And  the  great  swans  swam  round  him 
and  stroked  him  with  their  beaks. 

Into  the  garden  came  little  children,  who 
threw  bread  and  corn  into  the  water;  and  the 
youngest  cried,  "There  is  a  new  one!"  and  the 
other  children  shouted,  "Yes,  a  new  one  has 
come!"  And  they  clapped  their  hands  and 
danced  about,  and  ran  to  their  father  and 
mother;  and  bread  and  cake  were  thrown  into 
the  water;  and  they  all  said,  "The  new  one  is 
the  most  beautiful  of  all!  so  young  and  so 
handsome!"  and  the  old  swans  bowed  their 
heads  before  him. 


FOR    THE    SE>A    PRACTICAL    REFERENCE    LIBRARY    SY   THE   ART   INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO 

HE  WAS  NO  LONGER  A  CLUMSY,  DARK-CxRAY  BIRD,  BUT— A  SWAN! 


STORY  TELLING 


3439 


STORY  TELLING 


Then  he  felt  quite  ashamed  and  hid  his 
head  under  his  wings,  for  he  did  not  know 
what  to  do;  he  was  so  happy,  and  yet  not  at 
all  proud,  for  a  good  heart  is  never  proud.  He 
thought  how  he  had  been  driven  about  and 
mocked  and  despised;  and  now  he  heard  them 
all  saying  that  he  was  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
beautiful  birds.  And  the  lilacs  bent  their 
branches  straight  down  into  the  water  before 
him,  and  the  sun  shone  warm  and  mild.  Then 
his  wings  rustled,  he  lifted  his  slender  neck, 
and  cried  from  the  depths  of  his  heart : 

"I  never  dreamed  of  so  much  happiness 
when  I  was  the  Ugly  Duckling." 

We  are  not  accustomed  to  thinking  of  this 
as  a  nature  study,  but  it  has  all  the  elements 
of  the  nature  tales  which  modern  writers  of 
stories  for  children  produce  in  such  abun- 
dance. The  emphasis,  to  be  sure,  is  on  the 
human  side  of  the  animal  characters ;  but  the 
other  side  is  not  neglected.  As  we  read  the 
ugly  duckling  seems  to  us  like  a  person,  but 
he  also  seems  like  a  duckling.  The  attitude 
of  the  other  ducks  toward  the  ugly  duckling, 
who  is  near  enough  like  them  not  to  seem 
a  stranger,  and  yet  not  exactly  one  of  them- 
selves ;  the  instinct  which  makes  the  duckling, 
all  unconscious  that  he  is  himself  a  swan,  cry 
out  when  he  sees  the  other  swans ;  the  instinct 
which  keeps  the  hunter's  dog,  trained  to  pick 
up  dead  geese,  from  touching  the  live  swan — 
all  these  are  true  to  nature. 

The  lesson  of  the  story,  which  is  very  plain, 
is  a  most  beautiful  one,  and  one  which  parents 
and  teachers  cannot  afford  to  miss.  There  is 
many  a  child,  awkward,  conscious,  large  for 
his  age,  who  is  mistreated,  laughed  at,  some- 
times even  abused,  just  because  he  is  not  like 
other  children.  And  then,  perhaps,  later  it 
is  found  to  be  just  a  repetition  of  the  story 
of  the  ugly  duckling ;  the  child  did  not  seem 
like  other  children  because  he  was  not  like 
other  children.  He  was  something  bigger, 
stronger,  more  beautiful  than  they,  and  for 
that  reason  it  took  him  longer  to  develop. 

We  might  read  over  and  over  some  such 
statement  as  this :  "Just  because  a  child  is 
different  from  others,  just  because  he  is  not 
attractive  as  a  child,  we  cannot  judge  what 
he  will  be  as  a  man.  Perhaps  he  will  amount 
to  more  in  the  end  than  all  of  his  normal  as- 
sociates." But  would  such  a  statement  make 
much  impression  on  us  ?  When  we  read  The 
TJgly  Duckling,  however,  we  find  it  impos- 
sible to  forget  the  lesson  it  teaches,  and  we 
find  ourselves  more  ready  to  say,  when  we  see 
a  misjudged  child,  "Look  out.  He  may  turn 
out  to  be  a  real  ugly  duckling." 


The  Gifts  the  Dwarfs  Made 

A    NORSE    MYTH    RETOLD    FOR    CHILDREN 

This  is  a  story  about  dwarfs,  little  dark  men 
who  lived  far  down  under  ground  and  made 
wonderful  things. 

Sif,  Thor's  wife,  was  most  beautiful,  with 
her  blue  eyes,  fair  skin,  and  golden  hair.  Her 
hair!  It  was  the  most  glorious  hair  that  had 
ever  grown  on  anyone's  head — bright  and  soft 
and  fine,  and  so  long  and  heavy  that  when  she 
let  it  down  it  covered  her  from  head  to  foot 
like  a  golden  veil.  Of  course  she  was  very 
proud  of  it,  and  of  course  Thor  was  proud  of 
it  too  and  loved  to  watch  her  shake  it  out  so 
that  it  shone  and  rippled  like  a  golden  water- 
fall in  the  sun. 

One  morning  when  she  woke,  Sif  found  that 
her  hair  had  been  cut  off  close  to  her  head. 
A  look  into  her  polished  silver  mirror  showed 
her  that  the  most  of  her  beauty  had  gone  with 
her  hair,  and  she  scarcely  dared  face  her  hus- 
band; but  when  she  told  Thor  his  anger  was 
terrible  to  behold. 

"It  is  Liokl,  the  wicked  Loki,  who  has  done 
this,"  he  cried,  "and  he  shall  suffer  for  it." 

For  Loki  was  a  crafty  schemer,  always  try- 
ing to  annoy  someone,  and  particularly  fond 
of  troubling  Thor. 

It  was  no  easy  task  for  Thor  to  catch  the 
thief,  for  Loki  had  the  power  of  changing  his 
shape  to  that  of  anything  he  chose,  and  he 
made  good  use  of  his  power  now.  Finally, 
however,  Thor  found  him  and  grabbed  him  by 
the  throat. 

"Confess,"  he  cried,  "that  you  stole  Sif s 
hair." 

But  his  grip  was  so  strong  that  Loki  could 
only  gasp  and  wriggle. 

"Unless  you  give  it  back,"  Thor  continued, 
"I  shall  kill  you  here  and  now,"  and  he 
loosened  his  grasp  that  Loki  might  answer. 

"I  did  it,"  confessed  Loki  sullenly,  "but  I 
cannot  give  it  back,  for  I  opened  my  hands 
and  scattered  it  all  over  the  earth." 

"Then  you  shall  die!"  thundered  Thor,  and 
would  have  kept  his  word  had  not  Loki  prom- 
ised to  get  for  Sif  a  new  head  of  hair  as 
beautiful  as  the  first. 

"Go  then,"  commanded  Thor,  "and  make 
haste." 

Loki  slunk  away  and  crept  into  the  earth 
where  lived  his  friends  the  dwarfs.  They 
were  ugly  and  not  always  very  pleasant,  but 
Loki  knew  their  skill  and  knew  that  they 
were  proud  to  be  called  on  to  show  it.  So  he 
implored  them  to  make  for  him  not  only  the 
golden  hair,  but  gifts  for  Odin  and  Frey, 
Thor's  powerful  friends  of  whose  anger  Loki 
was  afraid. 

To  anyone  else  it  might  have  seemed  like  a 
very  difRcult  matter  to  have  to  make  a  head  of 
golden  hair,  but  the  dwarfs  thought  nothing 
of  it.  They  brought  their  gold,  and  when  they 
had  softened  it  they  spun  it  out  into  countless 
fine  hairs.  These  they  braided  into  a  huge 
coil  and  gave  to  Loki. 

"It  may  seem  dead  now,"  said  the  master- 
smith,  "but  when  it  touches  Sif's  head  it  will 
at  once  become  alive  and  begin  to  grow,  yet  it 
will  always  be  real  gold." 


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Wonderful  as  this  was  it  was  not  the  most 
wonderful  of  the  dwarfs'  gifts.  For  how 
could  anything  be  as  wonderful  as  the  spear 
which  they  made  for  Odin,  the  spear  which 
however  it  was  thrown  never  missed  its  aim; 
or  as  the  ship  which  they  made  for  Frey?  For 
this  ship,  while  it  could  be  folded  up  and 
thrust  into  the  pocket,  could  be  made  so  large 
that  hundreds  of  people  might  ride  in  it  in 
comfort,  and  it  sailed  as  well  in  the  air  as  on 
the  water  and  always  in  just  the  right  direc- 
tion, no  matter  which  way  the  wind  blew. 

No  wonder  Loki  was  pleased,  and  no  wonder 
he  cried  aloud  to  the  master-smith: 

"You  are  surely  the  most  clever  smith  in  all 
the  world.  No  one  else,  I  am  sure,  could  make 
such  things." 

But  someone  was  passing  and  heard  these 
words  and  was  not  pleased  to  hear  them;  this 
was  the  dwarf  Brock,  who  belonged  to  a  dif- 


Without  a  word  Brock  turned  and  hurried 
to  his  brother's  smithy,  where  he  told  hi£ 
story;  and  Sindri,  proud  of  his  brother's  faith 
in  him,  at  once  set  to  work.  But  first  he  said 
to  Brock: 

"You  must  blow  the  bellows  while  the  gifts 
are  being  made,  for  I  must  go  outside  and 
work  my  magic  spells  or  I  shall  not  be  able  to 
accomplish  anything  wonderful  ;and  whatever 
happens  never  leave  off  blowing  the  bellows." 
And  with  these  words  he  tossed  into  the  fire  a 
pig's  skin,  and  thrusting  the  bellows  into 
Brock's  hands  left  the  smithy. 

Now  Loki,  for  all  his  boastful  words,  was  a 
little  bit  worried,  and  to  be  on  the  safe  side  he 
came  to  Sindri's  smithy  to  see  what  was  going 
on  there.  But  Brock  did  not  see  him — Loki 
was  not  so  foolish  as  to  let  himself  be  seen. 
He  turned  himself  into  a  gadfly,  and  settling 
on  Brock's  hand,  stung  him  until  the  pain  was 


IN  THE  DWARFS'   SMITHY 


ferent  family  of  dwarfs.  When  he  heard  the 
flattering  words  of  Loki,  whom  he  hated,  he 
stopped  and  said : 

"I  do  not  know  what  your  gifts  are,  but  I 
know^  that  whatever  they  are  my  brother 
Sindri  can  make  something  more  wonderful." 

"Let  us  make  it  a  wager,"  cried  Loki.  "I 
will  meet  you  tomorrow  in  Odin's  great  hall, 
and  you  may  bring  with  you  there  three 
things  made  by  your  brother  to  present  to 
Thor  and  Odin  and  Frey,  and  then  we  shall  see 
what  we  shall  see.  And  whichever  one  of  us 
brings  the  most  wonderful  gifts  shall  have  the 
other's  head." 


almost  unendurable.  But  Brock  blew  the 
bellows  and  blew  the  bellows  and  never  left 
off  for  a  minute.  When  Sindri  came  back  he 
said:  "Good  brother;"  and  he  drew  out  of  the 
fire  a  boar  with  shining  bristles  of  gold. 

Next  he  threw  into  the  fire  some  gold,  and 
warning  Brock  once  more  to  be  careful  never 
to  cease  blowing  the  bellows,  he  again  left  the 
smithy.  This  time  Loki  settled  on  Brock's 
cheek  and  stung  even  more  sharply  than  be- 
fore, so  that  the  poor  little  dwarf  had  to  set 
his  teeth  hard  to  endure  the  pain.  But  still 
he  never  left  off  blowing  the  bellows,  and 
when  Sindri  came  back,   there  was  found  in 


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the  fire,  instead  of  the  lump  of  gold  that  had 
gone  in,  a  heavy  ring  of  gold,  carved  most 
beautifully. 

"Once  more,"  said  Sindri,  as  he  threw  a 
lump  of  iron  into  the  fire;  "and  this  time  be 
extra  careful  about  the  bellows."  Brock  turned 
to  work  bravely,  but  the  gadfly  Loki  settled 
just  over  his  eye,  and  stung  him  so  fiercely 
that  the  blood  ran  down  into  his  eyes  so  that 
he  could  not  see  what  he  was  doing.  The  pain 
would  never  have  made  him  stop,  but  he  just 
had  to  put  up  his  hand  and  wipe  the  blood 
from  his  eye,  and  at  that  moment  Sindri  en- 
tered the  room. 

"You  have  spoiled  it!"  he  cried,  as  he  sprang 
toward  the  fire;  but  when  he  drew  out  the 
heavy  hammer  to  which  the  lump  of  iron  had 
been  changed,  he  comforted  Brock  by  telling 
him  that  it  was  not  entirely  spoiled — "only  the 
handle  is  too  short,"  he  added. 

"Loki  declared,"  said  Brock,  "that  his  gifts 
were  not  only  beautiful  and  useful,  but  that 
they  were  magic  gifts  and  could  do  wonderful 
things." 

Sindri  smiled,  then  whispered  something  in 
Brock's  ear  which  made  the  little  dwarf's  eyes 
shine. 

The  next  day  he  was  at  Odin's  hall  promptly 
at  the  appointed  time,  and  he  stood  patiently 
by  while  Loki  gave  his  gifts. 

"It  is  even  more  beautiful  than  the  old  hair," 
declared  Thor,  as  Sif  shook  out  above  herself 
the  new  golden  threads. 

"And  such  a  spear!"  cried  Odin.  "No  enemy 
will  ever  be  able  to  stand  against  me  now." 

"But  mine  is  best,"  said  Frey,  "for  we  can 
all  use  it.  Come,"  he  went  on,  turning  to  the 
crowd  which  had  assembled,  "let's  go  for  a 
ride  in  this  wonderful  new  ship." 

"Wait,"  cried  Brock,  "I  have  something, 
too,  to  offer." 

"What,  more  gifts?"  exclaimed  Odin.  "Of 
course  we  will  wait." 

But  he  looked  a  little  disappointed  when 
Brock  put  into  his  hand  the  heavy  gold  ring, 
for  he  had  rings  a-plenty,  some  of  them  as 
beautiful  as  this  one. 

"It  is  a  magic  ring,"  said  Brock;  "every 
ninth  night,  eight  rings  as  large  and  heavy  as 
.  this  one  will  drop  from  it.  That  one  ring 
alone  would  make  a  person  rich." 

Then  he  pulled  from  his  huge  sack  the 
golden  boar,  glittering  in  the  sunlight. 

"It  is  named  Gullinbursti,"  said  Brock  to 
Frey,  "and  it  is  a  magic  boar.  On  his  back  you 
can  ride  through  the  air  as  fast  as  a  thought 
can  fiy,  and  even  in  the  darkest  night  it  need 
never  be  dark  to  you,  for  the  bristles  of  Gul- 
linbursti will  give  out  light  as  he  flits  across 
the  sky." 

"I  like  him  even  better  than  the  ship,"  said 
Frey;  and  Odin,  who  had  been  looking  at  his 
two  gifts  in  silence,  now  said: 

"And  I  like  the  ring  better  than  the  magic 
spear." 

Brock  grew  more  and  more  cheerful,  and 
Loki's  frown  grew  blacker  and  blacker,  but 
he  smiled  again  when  Brock  drew  out  and 
handed  to  Thor,  the  ugly,  short-handled  ham- 
mer. Thor  himself  looked  none  too  well 
216 


pleased.  Was  the  dwarf  making  fun  of  him? 
Hammers  of  this  sort  were  to  be  had  any  day 
for  the  asking. 

"But  it  is  a  magic  hammer,"  exclaimed 
Brock.  "It  hits  anything  at  which  it  is  thrown 
and  it  never  hits  in  vain.  The  strongest 
mountain  will  split,  the  strongest  giant  will 
die  at  a  stroke  of  this  hammer,  and  no  matter 
how  far  it  is  thrown  it  will  always  fly  back  to 
your  hand." 

At  the  word  "giant,"  Thor's  look  of  dis- 
pleasure changed.  For  were  not  the  giants, 
the  huge,  ugly  frost-giants,  his  worst  enem- 
ies? And  had  he  not  always,  up  to  this  time, 
tried  in  vain  to  overcome  them? 

"Sif's  hair  is  beautiful,"  he  said,  looking  at 
his  wife  with  pride  in  his  eyes,  "and  the  ham- 
mer is  not  beautiful,  but  I  like  the  hammer 
better." 

"Brock  has  won!  Brock  has  won!"  cried  the 
crowd,  who  had  heard  of  the  wager  and  were 
none  too  fond  of  Loki,  "and  he  may  have 
Loki's  head." 

Brock  turned  for  vengeance  on  Loki,  but 
Loki  had  disappeared. 

"I  gave  you  the  hammer;  you  will  help  me 
to  find  him,"  said  the  dwarf  to  Thor,  and  be- 
cause he  hated  Loki  and  was  grateful  to 
Brock,  Thor  soon  brought  Loki  back. 

"You  may  take  my  head,"  said  Loki;  "it  is 
yours  by  the  terms  of  our  wager.  But  if  you 
touch  my  neck,  or  spill  one  drop  of  my  blood, 
you  will  be  taking  more  than  belongs  to  you, 
and  you  must  die." 

"I'm  afraid  that  is  right,"  said  Thor,  and 
Brock  was  in  despair. 

But  at  last  he  decided  that  if  he  could  not 
have  Loki's  head  he  would  at  least  sew  up  his 
lying,  boastful  mouth;  so  he  borrowed  an  awl 
from  his  brother  Sindri,  made  holes  through 
Loki's  lips,  and  fastened  them  together  with  a 
leather  thong. 

And  so  for  a  while  there  was  peace,  because 
Loki  could  not  make  trouble  with  his  tongue. 
But  it  was  not  for  long.  Loki  managed  to  cut 
the  cord  and  was  soon  going  about  making 
trouble  just  as  he  had  always  done. 

The  Story  of  Arnold  W'inkelried 

There  have  been  brave  men  in  every  age  and 
in  every  country,  but  there  have  been  few 
braver  than  Arnold  TV^inkelried,  who  was  not 
a  king,  not  a  general  at  the  head  of  his  troops, 
but  just  a  poor  Swiss  peasant. 

Over  five  hundred  years  ago,  the  little  can- 
tons of  Switzerland  had  banded  together  and 
were  making  a  desperate  struggle  for  liberty; 
for  the  rulers  of  Austria,  who  ruled  Switzer- 
land too,  oppressed  the  Swiss  people  terribly 
and  gave  them  no  rights  of  any  sort. 

At  last  in  the  summer  of  1386,  a  great  battle 
took  place.  The  Austrian  army,  led  by  Duke 
Leopold,  had  four  thousand  horsemen  and 
fourteen  hundred  foot  soldiers,  while  the 
Swiss  army  had  only  thirteen  hundred  men 
altogether. 

The  Swiss  are  a  brave  people  and  the  differ- 
ence in  the  strength  of  the  forces  did  not  daunt 
them;  but  when  they  came  to  the  actual  con- 
flict it  seemed  as  if  there  were  no  way  to  be- 


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3442 


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gin  the  attack.  The  Austrian  army  looked  like 
a  wall,  but  a  wall  which  bristled  with  spear- 
points.  Nowhere  could  the  Swiss  find  or  make 
an  opening-,  and  until  they  could,  they  knew 
that  they  should  hurl  themselves  in  vain  on 
their  enemies. 

In  the  front  rank  of  the  Swiss  there  was  one 
man,  Arnold  Winkelried,  who  was  even  braver 
than  his  comrades.  His  quick  eye  saw  the 
diflticulty,  his  brain  told  him  the  one  way  that 
it  might  be  overcome,  and  he  was  brave 
enough  to  take  that  way;  but  the  thought  of 
his  family  held  him  for  a  time.  Could  he  sac- 
rifice them? 

Still  the  two  armies  stood  facing  each  other; 
still  the  Austrians  in  their  pride  looked  scorn- 
fully at  the  little  Swiss  company.  There 
should  be  a  break  in  that  solid  phalanx! 
"With  a  cry  of  "R^ake  way  for  liberty!" 
Winkelried  sprang  forward,  spread  his 
arms,  and  gathering  several  of  the  enemies' 
spears,   pressed    them  into    his   breast. 

His  deed  was  an  inspiration  to  the  Swiss, 
and  they  pressed  forward  into  the  little  gap 
which  he  had  made,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
day  the  Austrian  army  had  fled  from  the  field, 
leaving  fourteen  hundred  dead,  and  the  Swiss 
had  won  a  complete  victory.  Five  hundred 
years  later,  in  1886,  a  monument  was  erected 
on  this  battlefield  in  honor  of  the  heroic  self- 
sacrifice  of  a  common  Swiss  soldier. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  all  histor- 
ical stories  told  to  children  are  to  be  stories 
of  bravery  on  the  battlefield.  It  is,  in  fact, 
true  that  while  such  tales  stir  the  blood  of 
young  people,  they  cannot  have  the  same 
effect  that  stories  of  the  heroes  of  peace  may 
have,  for  very  few  will  ever  be  called  upon 
to  show  bravery  on  a  battlefield.  However, 
young  children  are  much  more  interested  in 
stories  which  have  vigorous  action,  and  it  is 
only  as  they  grow  older  that  they  are  really 
interested  in  the  struggle  and  accomplish- 
ments of  even  the  greatest  statesmen. 

Joseph  and  His  Brothers 

Jacob,  the  patriach,  had  many  sons;  but  of 
them  all,  Joseph,  the  youngest,  was  his  favor- 
ite. Nor  did  he  attempt  to  conceal  this  from 
the  other  ten  sons.  Naturally  they  were  jeal- 
ous of  Joseph,  and  this  jealousy  was  increased 
when  their  father  gave  to  the  boy  a  most 
wonderful  coat — a  coat  of  many  colors. 

Joseph,  though  a  good  boy,  was  somewhat 
spoiled  by  his  father  and  was  not  always  wise 
in  the  way  he  talked  to  his  older  brothers.  For 
instance  one  day  he  went  to  them  in  great  glee 
and  said: 

"Hear  this  dream  which  I  have  dreamed; 
Behold,  we  were  binding  sheaves  in  the  field, 
and  my  sheaf  arose  and  stood  upright,  and 
your  sheaves  bowed  down  and  worshiped  it." 

This  made  the  brothers  very  angry,  and  they 
cried: 

"And  do  you  really  believe  that  you  shall 
reign  over  us?" 


But  their  anger  was  no  warning  to  Joseph, 
and  a  few  days  later  when  he  dreamed  that  the 
sun  and  moon  and  eleven  stars  bowed  down 
before  him,  he  foolishly  told  this  dream  to  his 
father  and  to  his  brothers.  And  his  father, 
seeing  the  effect  it  had  on  his  older  sons,  re- 
buked Joseph. 

"Shall  I  and  thy  mother,"  he  said,  "and  thy 
brothers  indeed  come  to  bow  down  ourselves 
to  thee  to  the  earth?" 

Now  Jacob  had  many  sheep,  and  the  ten 
older  sons  had  gone  with  them  to  a  fine  feed- 
ing-ground in  Shechem.  One  day  Jacob  called 
Joseph  to  him  and  said: 

"Go  and  see  whether  it  is  well  with  your 
brothers  and  with  the  flocks  and  bring  me 
word." 

But  when  Joseph  reached  Shechem  he 
found  no  trace  of  his  brothers.  At  last, 
after  wandering  about,  he  met  a  man  who 
told  him  that  the  brothers  with  all  of  their 
flocks  had  gone  to  Dothan,  and  there 
Joseph    found    them. 

As  the  boy  advanced  toward  them  across  the 
field,  one  of  them  said  scornfully  to  the  others, 
"Behold  the  dreamer  cometh,"  and  they  began 
to  plot  in  their  envy  and  their  hatred  how  they 
might  put  the  boy  out  of  the  way. 

One  brother  suggested  that  they  kill  him 
and  drop  his  body  into  a  pit  and  then  return  to 
their  father,  declaring  that  some  wild  beast 
had  eaten  him.  "Then  we  shall  see,"  he  said, 
"what  shall  become  of  some  of  his  dreams." 
But  Reuben,  the  oldest  son,  had  pity  on  the 
boy  and  advised  them  not  kill  him  but  put  him 
into  a  deep  pit  which  was  near  at  hand;  for 
Reuben  meant  when  the  other  brothers  were 
out  of  the  way  to  save  Joseph  and  send  him 
back  to  his  father. 

After  they  had  put  the  poor  boy  into  the  pit, 
they  sat  at  their  meal  discussing  what  they 
might  do  with  him;  and  as  they  talked  they 
saw  coming  toward  them  a  company  of 
merchants  with  camels,  who  were  going 
down  into  Egypt.  One  brother,  perhaps  be- 
cause he  was  avaricious,  perhaps  because 
he  did  not  want  Joseph  killed,  suggested 
that  they  sell  the  boy  to  the  merchants  to 
be  sold  again  as  a  slave  in  Egypt. 

This  they  did,  and  then,  because  they  feared 
to  tell  their  father  of  what  they  had  done, 
they  took  Joseph's  coat  of  many  colors  and 
dipped  it  in  the  blood  of  a  kid  and  took  it  to 
their  father.  Even  now  they  did  not  lie  to  him 
outright  and  say,  "Your  son  has  been  killed;" 
they  showed  him  the  coat  stained  with  blood 
and  said,  "Can  you  tell  whether  this  is  our 
brother  Joseph's  coat?" 

And  Jacob  knew  it  instantly  and  said,  "It  is 
my  son's  coat.  An  evil  beast  has  devoured 
him." 

Meanwhile,  Joseph  had  been  carried  by  the 
merchants  to  Egypt  and  there  sold  to  Poti- 
phar,  an  officer  of  Pharaoh  the  king.  And  from 
the  very  first  the  young  man  prospered;  for 
Potiphar  found  that  he  could  be  trusted.  His 
master's  wife,  however,  became  angry  with 
him  most  unjustly  and  told  false  tales  of  him 
to  Potiphar,  who  in  his  wrath  had  him  put  into 
prison.     But  even  here  Joseph  was  fortunate, 


STORY  TELLING 


3443 


STORY  TELLING 


for  the  keeper  of  the  prison  soon  discovered 
that  he  was  wise  and  trustworthy,  and  gave 
him  control  over  all  the  other  prisoners. 

Now,  in  the  prison  at  this  time  there  were 
two  servants  of  Pharaoh  the  king  of  Egypt — 
his  chief  butler  and  his  chief  baker. 

One  night  each  of  these  men  dreamed  a 
dream,  and  when  Joseph  visited  them  in  the 
morning  he  said,  "You  look  sad.  Has  anything 
troubled  you?" 

And  in  reply  they  told  him  of  their  dreams 
and  begged  him  to  interpret  them  for  them; 
for  in  those  days  people  believed  that  things 
which  were  to  happen  in  the  future  were  fore- 
told by  dreams.  First  the  butler  told  his 
dream: 

"In  my  dream,  behold,  a  vine  was  before  me; 
and  in  the  vine  were  three  branches,  and  it 
was  as  though  it  budded,  and  her  blossoms 
shot  forth;   and   the  clusters   thereof  brought 


And  it  all  happened  as  Joseph  had  predicted, 
for  in  three  days  the  chief  butler  was  restored 
to  his  place,  while  the  chief  baker  was  hanged. 
But  the  butler  promptly  forgot  the  promise  he 
had  made  to  Joseph  to  remember  him  when  he 
was  restored  to  his  place,  nor  did  his  promise 
occur  to  him  for  two  full  years.  Perhaps  he 
would  not  have  thought  of  it  even  then,  had 
not  circumstances  called  it  to  his  mind. 

One  night  Pharaoh  the  king  dreamed  two 
dreams  which  troubled  him  strangely.  All  the 
magicians  of  his  kingdom  were  sent  for  and 
questioned,  but  not  one  of  them  could  give  him 
an  explanation  of  the  strange  dreams.  Now  it 
was  that  the  butler  remembered  the  young 
man  ■who  had  so  ■wonderfully  interpreted  his 
dream  in  the  prison,  and  he  told  Pharaoh  of 
Joseph.  Joseph  ■was  summoned  to  appear  be- 
fore the  king,  and  when  he  stood  in  the  royal 
presence  Pharaoh  said: 


JOSEPH    CARRIED    INTO    EGYPT 
forth  ripe  grapes.     And  Pharaoh's  cup  was  in 
my  hand;  and  I   took  the  grapes  and  pressed 
them  into  Pharaoh's  cup,  and  I  gave  the  cup 
into  Pharaoh's  hand." 

And  Joseph  interpreted  thus: 

"The  three  branches  are  three  days.  Tet 
within  three  days  shall  Pharaoh  lift  up  thine 
head,  and  restore  thee  unto  thy  place;  and 
thou  shalt  deliver  Pharaoh's  cup  into  his  hand, 
after  the  former  manner  ■when  thou  ■wast  his 
butler.  But  think  on  me  when  it  shall  be  well 
with  thee,  and  shew  kindness,  I  pray  thee,  un- 
to me  and  make  mention  of  me  unto  Pharaoh, 
and  bring  me  out  of  this  house.  For  indeed  I 
was  stolen  away  out  of  the  land  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  here  also  have  I  done  nothing 
that  they  should  put  me  into  the  dungeon." 

The  baker,  pleased. that  the  butler's  dream 
had  been  so  happily  interpreted,  then  told  his: 

"I  also  was  in  my  dream,  and,  behold,  I  had 
three  white  baskets  on  my  head;  and  in  the 
uppermost  basket  there  was  of  all  manner  of 
bakemeats  for  Pharaoh,  and  the  birds  did  eat 
them  out  of  the  basket  upon  my  head." 

But  Joseph's  interpretation  of  this  was  by 
no  means  so  happy.    He  said  : 

"The  three  baskets  are  three  days.  Yet 
within  three  days  shall  Pharaoh  lift  up  thy 
head  from  off  thee,  and  shall  hang  thee  on  a 
tree,  and  the  birds  shall  eat  thy  flesh  from  off 
thee." 


"In  my  dream  I  stood  upon  the  bank  of  a 
river  and  there  came  up  out  of  the  river  seven 
kine,  fat  and  well-favored,  and  they  fed  in  a 
meadow.  And  soon  there  came  up  out  of  the 
river  seven  other  kine,  lean  and  ill-favored, 
worse  than  any  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  land  of 
Egypt;  and  the  lean  kine  ate  up  the  fat  kine, 
nor  were  they,  after  they  had  eaten,  any  less 
poor  and  ill-favored.  The  second  dream  ■was 
very  like  the  first.  Seven  good,  full  ears  of 
corn  came  up  on  one  stalk,  and  seven  with- 
ered, thin  ears,  blasted  with  the  east  wind, 
sprung  up  after  them  and  devoured  them.  Both 
of  these  dreams  I  have  told  to  my  magicians, 
but  they  \vere  unable  to  interpret  them. 

"Without  hesitation  Joseph  replied: 

"The  seven  good  kine  and  the  seven  good 
ears  are  seven  years;  the  seven  thin  kine  and 
the  seven  blasted  ears  are  another  seven 
years.  This  means  that  there  shall  be  another 
seven  years  of  great  plenty  throughout  all 
the  land  of  Egypt,  and  then  seven  years  of 
famine  so  severe  that  all  the  plenty  shall 
be  forgotten  in  the  land  of  'Egypt. 

"Now  the  ■wise  thing  for  the  king  to  do  is  to 
choose  a  discreet  man  and  put  him  in  power 
over  all  the  land,  and  let  this  man  see  that 
during  the  seven  good  years  much  food  is 
stored  up  against  the  seven  years  of  famine." 

Pharaoh  was  much  impressed  by  the  advice 
of  Joseph,  and  w^hen  he  came  to  choose  such  a 


STORY  TELLING 


3444 


STORY  TELLING 


man  to  set  over  all  his  kingdom,  he  decided 
that  there  was  no  one  among  his  own  people 
whom  he  could  trust  as  he  could  this  young 
man.  Thus,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  Joseph  be- 
came practically  ruler  over  Egypt,  second  in 
rank  only  to  the  king. 

Everything  happened  as  the  dreams  had 
foretold,  and  during  the  seven  years  of  plenty 
Joseph  and  his  ofRcers  were  very  busy  getting 
food  into  the  storehouses.  Thus  when  the 
years  of  famine  did  come  there  was  food  for 
all  who  came  to  Joseph  to  buy. 

Now  it  was  not  only  in  Egypt  that  the  fam- 
ine was  severe;  all  the  neighboring  countries 
were  suffering,  and  men  from  all  countries 
came  into  Egypt  to  Joseph  to  buy  corn.    And 


they  told  him  the  truth  about  themselves — 
that  they  were  all  sons  of  one  father  and  that 
they  had  one  young  brother  at  home  in  Canaan, 
and  had  had  another.  We  can  imagine 
Joseph's  feelings  when  they  said,  "One  brother 
is  not." 

Finally  Joseph  declared  that  he  would  sell 
them  corn  and  allow  them  to  go  back  to  their 
own  country  only  if  one  of  them  remained  as 
a  pledge  that  the  other  nine  would  return  and 
bring  with  them  their  brother  Benjamin. 
Simeon  was  the  one  chosen  to  remain,  and  the 
others  departed  without  him,  with  their  beasts 
of  burden  carrying  sacks  full  of  grain. 

Now  Joseph  had  commanded  his  servants  to 
place  in  the  sacks  of  grain  the  money  which 


JOSEPH  MEETS  HIS  FATHER 


among  those  who  came  were  the  ten  brothers 
of  Joseph.  The  youngest  brother,  the  child 
Benjamin,  they  left  with  their  father  in 
Canaan,  because  the  old  man  was  so  devoted 
to  the  child  that  he  could  scarce  live  away 
from  him. 

When  the  ten  brothers  of  Joseph  appeared 
before  him,  he  knew  them  instantly  in  spite  of 
the  years  that  had  passed.  But  they  did  not 
recognize,  in  the  splendidly  garbed  favorite  of 
the  king,  the  brother  whom  they  had  sold, 
and  who  they  imagined  had  died  long  since. 
To  test  them  Joseph  spoke  to  them  roughly 
and  even   accused   them   of   being  spies;   but 


the  brothers  had  brought. with  them  to  pay  for 
the  grain.  Thus  when  they  reached  home  they 
found  that  they  had  not  only  food,  but  all  of 
their  money. 

Jacob  their  father,  was  much  distressed 
when  he  heard  that  they  had  promised  to  take 
Benjamin  down  to  Egypt  with  them,  and  cried 
out  to  them: 

"You  have,  bereaved  me  of  my  children. 
Joseph  is  not  and  Simeon  is  not  and  you  will 
take  Benjamin  away."  And  for  a  long  time  he 
refused  to  let  them  return  to  Egypt. 

At  length,  however,  the  famine  became  so 
severe  that  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that 


STORY  TELLING 


3445 


STOVE 


they  should  in  some  way  obtain  more  grain, 
and  finally  Jacob  consented  to  allow  Benjamin 
to  go  with  them,  Judah,  one  of  the  older 
brothers,  pledging  his  own  life  that  the  boy 
should  return  unharmed. 

"When  the  brothers  with  the  young  Benjamin 
appeared  before  Joseph  he  was  strangely 
moved,  and  he  commanded  that  a  feast  be  pre- 
pared for  them  in  his  own  house.  Joseph  ate 
by  himself,  the  Egyptians  by  themselves  and 
the  brothers  by  themselves,  as  the  law  of  the 
Egyptians  forbade  them  to  eat  with  the  He- 
brews. 

When  the  meal  was  over,  Joseph  commanded 
his  servants  to  fill  the  brothers'  sacks  with 
grain  and  again  to  place  each  one's  money  in 
the  mouth  of  his  sack.  In  addition  to  this  he 
ordered  that  his  own  silver  cup  be  placed  in 
Benjamin's  sack. 

The  next  morning  when  the  Hebrews  had 
gone  but  a  little  distance  from  the  city  Joseph's 
steward  ran  after  them  and  overtook  them  and 
cried: 

"Why  have  you  repaid  my  master  with  evil 
when  he  did  you  nothing  but  good?  One  of 
you  has  stolen  his  silver  cup." 

The  brothers  protested  that  they  knew  noth- 
ing of  the  cup  and  declared  that  if  it  should  be 
found  upon  any  one  of  them  that  one  should 
die  and  the  rest  should  return  as  servants  to 
Joseph.  But  when  the  search  was  made,  the 
cup  was  found  in  Benjamin's  sack. 

Sadly  the  little  procession  which  had  started 
out  so  joyously  turned  and  went  back  to  the 
palace  of  Joseph.  They  could  not  understand 
what  had  happened;  they  felt  certain  that 
Benjamin  had  not  taken  the  cup,  but  how 
could  they  prove  this?  And  they  were  respon- 
sible to  the  boy's  father  for  his  safety. 

Joseph,  when  he  met  them,  pretended  to  be 
very  severe,  but  when  Judah  declared  that 
they  were  all  ready  to  be  servants  of  Joseph, 
Joseph  refused  saying: 

"You  may  all  go  in  peace,  except  the  one  in 
whose  sack  the  cup  was  found.  He  shall  be 
my  servant."  Then  Judah  stepped  out  before 
the  rest  of  the  brothers  and  told  Joseph  how 
he  had  become  surety  to  his  father  for  the  boy, 
and  begged  Joseph  to  allow  him  to  remain  as 
bondman  but  to  let  the  boy  go  back  to  his 
father. 

"For  how,"  he  concluded,  "shall  I  go  up  to 
my  father  and  the  lad  be  not  with  me?" 

At  this  Joseph  could  restrain  himself  no 
longer.  Sending  all  his  servants  and  officers 
from  the  room,  he  cried: 

"I  am  Joseph.     Does  my  father  yet  live?" 

Of  course  the  brothers  were  afraid  of  his 
vengeance,  but  he  comforted  them  and  forgave 
them,  assuring  them  that  they  had  done  him 
no  harm,  but  only  good,  by  selling  him  into 
Egypt. 

"For  God,"  he  declared,  "did  send  me  be- 
fore  you   to  preserve   life." 

The  joy  and  relief  of  the  brothers  of  Joseph 
•  were  beyond  bounds  and  Joseph  himself  was 
no  less  happy.  Even  Pharaoh,  the  king,  when 
he  heard  that  Joseph's  brothers  had  come,  was 
pleased,  and  sent  word  that  they  were  to  re- 
turn   to    Canaan    for    their   father    and    their 


households,  and  that  they  were  then  all  to 
come  down  into  Egypt,  where  he  would  allot 
to  them  for  their  homes  the  best  land  in  the 
kingdom. 

Joyfully  the  brothers  returned  home  and 
told  their  father  the  wonderful  story,  which 
the  old  man  could  not  at  first  believe.  When 
he  was  at  last  convinced,  he  exclaimed: 

"It  is  enough!  Joseph  my  son  is  yet  alive. 
I  will  go  and  see  him  before  I  die." 

With  their  families  and  their  servants,  their 
flocks  and  their  herds  and  their  beasts  of  bur- 
den, the  father  and  brothers  of  Joseph  jour- 
neyed down  into  Egypt.  They  found  that 
Pharaoh  was  as  good  as  his  word.  He  gave 
them  land  in  plenty  and  they  settled  down  in 
the  strange  land  which  yet  did  not  seem 
strange  to  them  because  Joseph  was  ruler 
over  all  of  it. 

STOSS,  Veit  (n440-1533),  a  German 
sculptor,  considered  the  greatest  wood  carver 
of  Germany.  He  was  born  at  Nuremberg, 
and  spent  his  life  there  and  at  Cracow.  Ow- 
ing to  his  eccentric  character  he  had  many 
quarrels  with  the  city  authorities  of  Nurem- 
berg, and  he  was  several  times  imprisoned. 
He  died  at  an  old  age,  totally  blind.  Most  of 
his  works  are  religious  and  show  deep 
spiritual  feeling,  a  quality  which  was  lacking 
in  other  artists  of  his  time.  His  most  famous 
wood  carvings  include  the  high  altar  in  the 
Church  of  Saint  Mary's,  Cracow,  and  The 
Angel's  Salutation  in  the  Church  of  Saint 
Lawrence,  Nuremberg.  A  relief  representing 
the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  is  in  the  Ger- 
manic Museum  of  Nuremberg.  His  best 
sculpture  is  The  Last  Supper. 

STOVE,  a  piece  of  domestic  furniture  con- 
sisting of  a  box  made  of  iron,  brick  or  tile  in 
which  fuel  is  burned  to  heat  rooms  or  houses 
or  for  cooking.  The  first  stoves,  made  of 
brick,  stone  or  earthenware,  were  very  large. 
Iron  stoves  were  first  made  in  France  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  From  there  they 
were  introduced  into  England  about  1716, 
and  were  adapted  to  the  use  of  coal.  In  1745 
Benjamin  invented  a  stove  with  a  downward 
draft  that  caused  an  even  distribution  of  heat 
over  the  sides.  This  was  a  great  improve- 
ment over  any  stove  that  had  preceded  it,  and 
from  it  developed  the  modem  stove  heater. 
Stoves  did  not  come  into  general  use  in  the 
United  States  until  1825.  Prior  to  that  time, 
dwelling  houses  were  heated  chiefly  with  open 
fireplaces.  Country  churches  were  not 
heated,  but  women  carried  foot  stoves  to 
church.  These  were  small  tin  or  sheet  iron 
boxes,  with  perforated  sides,  enclosed  in  wood- 
en cases.  Just  before  the  start  to  church 
the  stove  was  filled  with  burning  coals. 


STOWE 


3446 


STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS 


The  advantage  of  the  modern  stove  over 
the  fireplace  is  its  greater  heating  capacity. 
Whereas  the  best  fireplaces  utilize  only  about 
fifteen  per  cent  of  the  heating  power  of  the 
fuel,  stoves  make  available  from  forty  to 
sixty  per  cent. 

There  are  now  many  designs  of  stoves  upon 
the  market,  intended  for  burning  wood,  coal, 
coke,  kerosene,  gasoline,  gas  or  electricity. 
Gas  stoves  are  in  general  use  in  cities  for 
cooking,  while  gasoline  and  kerosene  stoves 
have  for  years  been  popular  in  isolated  com- 
munities. 

STOWE,  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher 
(1811-1896),  an  American  novelist,  best 
known  as  the  author  of  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 
This  book,  published  in  1852,  had  perhaps  a 
greater  influence  than  any  other  piece  of  fic- 
tion ever  written,  was  translated  into  more 
than  twenty  languages  and  had  an  unpreced- 
ented sale.  Though  loose  in  construction  and 
marred  by  signs  of  hasty  composition.  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  is  nevertheless  a  strong  book, 
because  it  tells  vividly  a  story  of  slavery.  It 
was  dramatized  shortly  after  its  publication 
and  has  had  wonderful  popularity  as  a  play. 

Mrs.  Stowe,  sister  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  where  her  early 
life  was  spent.  Her  family  moved  in  1832 
to  Cincinnati,  and  four  years  later  she  was 
married  to  Rev,  Calvin  E.  Stowe  of  that  city. 
Her  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  slaves 
was  gained  by  visits  to  slave  states  and  pos- 
sibly by  encounters  with  escaping  slaves. 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  was  by  no  means  her  only 
work,  but  the  others  are  practically  un- 
noticed, because  of  the  success  of  the  one. 
Among  the  others  may  be  mentioned  The 
Minister's  Wooing,  Olcltown  Folks,  Bred  and 
My  Wife  and  I. 

STRABISMUS,  stra  biz'mus.  See  Squint- 
ing. 

STRA'BO  (about  64  b,  c.-about  a.  d.  19), 
a  Greek  geographer  and  historian,  a  native 
of  Pontus  and  a  resident  of  Rome  after  his 
thirty-fifth  year.  His  earliest  writing  was 
his  History,  of  which  but  a  few  fragments  re- 
main. His  great  work,  however,  a  geography, 
in  seventeen  books,  has  been  preserved  entire, 
with  the  exception  of  the  seventh  book,  of 
which  there  is  only  an  epitome.  The  first  two 
books  are  introductory,  the  next  eight  treat 
of  Europe,  the  six  following  treat  of  Asia  and 
the  last  discusses  Africa,  This  is  the  most 
important  geographical  work  that  has  come 
down  from  antiquity. 


STRADIVARIUS,  strah  de  vah're  us,  An- 
tonio (1649-1737),  a  celebrated  violin  maker, 
born  in  Cremona,  Italy.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nicolo  Amati,  in  whose  employment  he  re- 
mained until  1700,  when  he  began  making 
violins  on  his  own  account.  It  was  he  who 
settled  the  typical  pattern  of  the  Cremona 
violin,  and  his  instinaments,  for  tone  and 
finish,  have  never  been  excelled, 

STRAFTORD,  Thomas  Wentworth, 
Earl  of  (1593-1641),  an  English  statesman. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  for  Yorkshire  for  a 
number  of  years  and  in  the  first  Parliament 
of  Charles  I  strongly  opposed  the  royal  ag- 
gressions. In  1628,  he  supported  the  Petition 
of  Riglit.  As  he  felt,  however,  that  Parlia- 
ment was  going  too  far  in  its  opposition  to 
the  king,  he  went  over  to  the  king's  side,  was 
made  baron,  then  viscount  and  president  of 
the  Council  of  the  North  and  privy  councilor. 
In  1633  he  went  to  Ireland  as  lord  deputy 
and  attempted  to  impress  his  system  of 
"thorough,"'  by  which  he  meant  thorough  de- 
votion to  the  interests  of  the  king.  Although 
Ireland  was  commercially  .and  industrially 
the  better  for  his  rule,  the  despotism  em- 
ployed in  putting  his  sj'stem  into  practice 
made  him  exceedingly  unpopular. 

After  his  retuni  to  England  in  1639  Went- 
worth was  made  Earl  of  Strafford  and  be- 
came even  more  powerful  in  the  king's  coun- 
cil. When  the  Scots  rebelled  against  the 
king,  Strafford  went  to  Ireland  to  raise  an 
army,  to  help  put  down  the  insurrection, 
and  this  act  was  later  used  against  him  in 
his  impeachment.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
the  Long  Parliament  was  the  impeachment  of 
Strafford.  It  became  plain  that  the  House  of 
Lords  was  not  likely  to  render  judgment 
against  him,  and  the  Commons  were  there- 
fore obliged  to  change  their  proceedings  to 
a  bill  of  attainder.  This  was  passed  by  both 
houses,  and  Charles  I,  despite  the  fact  that 
he  had  promised  that  Strafford  should  come 
to  no  harm,  was  forced  to  sign  it.  Strafford 
was  beheaded  in  Mav,  1641. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS,  a  British 
colonial  settlement  comprising  the  southern 
part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  some  of  the 
adjacent  islands.  It  includes  the  settlements 
of  Singapore  Island,  Penang  and  Malacca, 
on  the  peninsula.  The  total  area  is  about 
1,600  square  miles.  The  population  is  ap- 
proximately 760,000;  of  these,  8,000  are 
whites,  and  the  remainder  are  Chinese,  Ma- 
lays and  natives  of  India.    The  chief  ports 


STRAMONIUM 


3447 


STRATFORD 


are  Singapore,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
and  Georgetown,  on  the  island  of  Penang. 
Through  them  pass  quantities  of  coffee,  rub- 
ber, gum,  spices,  tin  and  rattan.  Singapore 
(which  see)  is  the  capital. 

STRAMO'NIUM,  also  called  Jimson  Weed 
and  Stink  Weed,  a  poisonous  herb  of  the 
nightshade  family,  which  grows  to  the  height 
of  from  three  to  five  feet.  It  has  an  erect 
stem,  numerous  branches,  large,  triangular 
leaves,  and  long,  fringed,  trumpet-shaped 
white  flowers.  Green  burs  enclose  small, 
dark,  wrinkled  seeds.  Both  leaves  and  seeds 
are  used  in  making  the  drug  stramonium, 
which  is  similar  to  belladonna  and  is  used 
to  relieve  asthma.    See  Nightshade. 

STRASSBURG,  strahs'boorK,  France, 
the  capital  of  Alsace-Lon-aine,  is  situated  on 
the  111  River,  300  miles  east  by  south  of  Paris 
and  about  370  miles  southwest  of  Berlin.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified  towns 
in  the  world,  and  is  practically  encircled  by 
forts  and  ramparts.  For  centuries  the  city 
has  been  noted  for  its  cathedral,  the  oldest 
part  of  which  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century,  and  which  was  com- 
pleted in  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  tower 
is  the  famous  Strassburg  clock  (which  see). 
Other  buildings  of  note  are  the  Church  of 
Saint  Thomas ;  the  municipal  museum  of  art, 
which  was  formerly  an  ei^iscopal  palace,  and 
the  imperial  palace.  The  leading  educational 
institution  is  the  University  of  Strassburg. 
Its  library  contains  over  1,000,000  volumes, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a  municipal  library 
of  over  115,000  volumes.  The  city  is  con- 
nected with  the  Rhine  by  canals,  and  it  also 
has  communication  with  a  number  of  the 
waterways  of  France.  The  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  tobacco  and  cigar  factories, 
organ  works,  machine  shops,  printing  houses, 
tanneries  and  foundries. 

Strassburg  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Romans,  who  named  it  Ar- 
gentoratum.  In  the  sixth  century  its  name 
was  changed  to  Strassburg,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  tenth  century  it  came  under 
the  control  of  the  German  emperors.  It  was 
united  with  France  in  1861,  but  at  the  close 
of  the  Franco-German  War,  along  with 
Alsace-Lorraine  it  became  a  part  of  the 
German  Empire.  In  1918  it  again  reverted 
to  France  (see  World  War).  Population, 
1910,  178,891. 

STRASSBURG  CLOCK,  the  famous  clock 
in  the  tower  of  the  Strassburg  Cathedral. 


The  present  one  is  the  third  to  acquire  fame. 
The  first  was  built  in  1352;  the  second  in 
1570.  The  last,  made  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  is  thirty  feet  high,  and  fifteen  feet 
wide  at  the  base.  At  the  bottom  is  a  large 
globe  of  the  heavens,  which  shows  the  course 
of  the  stars  and  the  passing  of  each  important 
one  across  the  meridian  of  Strassburg.  Be- 
hind this  globe  is  a  calendar,  which  shows  the 
day  of  the  month  and  the  occurrence  of  all 
the  religious  festivals.  Next  above  the  dial 
is  a  planetarium,  and  above  this  is  a  globe 
which  shows  the  phases  of  the  moon.  On  the 
next  floor  are  several  figures,  which  strike 
the  quarter  hours.  These  represent  the  dif- 
ferent periods  of  life — infancy,  youth,  old 
age  and  death.  Above  all  is  a  figure  of 
Christ.  At  noon  on  each  day,  the  twelve 
apostles  pass  before  him  in  procession,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  cock  appears  and  crows 
three  times.    See  Strassburg. 

STRATEGY,  strafe  ji,  the  art  of  plan- 
ning a  military  movement  in  a  way  to  give 
an  army  every  possible  advantage  over  the 
enemy.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  tac- 
tics, which  have  to  do  with  the  actual  busi- 
ness of  fighting.  When  in  the  svmimer  of 
1914  the  Geimans  lured  the  Russian  anny 
into  the  marshy  region  of  the  Masurian 
Lakes  in  Northern  Poland,  they  executed  a 
strategic  campaign  which  resulted  in  one 
of  their  notable  victories.  This  was  one  of 
the  few  conspicuous  strategic  feats  of  the 
World  War.  In  fact,  in  modern  warfare  the 
opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  strategy  are 
rare.  Formerly,  when  wars  consisted  of  cam- 
paigns and  when  aimies  played  hide  and 
seek  chasing  each  other  over  extensive  areas 
of  territory  and  engaging  in  occasional 
battles,  success  depended  as  much  on  strategy 
as  upon  man  power  and  equipment.  To-day 
it  is  becoming  a  less  important  factor.  When 
opposing  armies  meet  along  a  front  hundreds 
of  miles  in  extent  they  come  to  a  standstill. 
The  points  of  advantage  are  seen  from  both 
sides,  and  the  efforts  to  gain  them  are  tactical 
rather  than  strategic. 

STRATTORD,  Ont.,  the  county  seat  of 
Perth  County,  situated  on  the  Avon  River 
and  on  six  lines  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Rail- 
way, eighty-eight  miles  west  of  Toronto.  It 
is  quite  an  important  industrial  center,  hav- 
ing about  sixty  manufacturing  enterprises, 
among  them  being  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  railroad  shops,  wire  fence  works, 
chemical  works,  woolen  factories,  hosiery  fac- 


STRATFORD-UPON-AVON 


3448 


STRAW 


tories,  and  a  boot  and  shoe  factory.  Popula- 
tion, 1911,  32,946;  in  1918,  about  17,000. 

STRATFORD-UPON-A'VON,  England, 
a  municipal  borough,  famous  as  the  birth- 
place of  Shakespeare,  situated  eight  miles 
southwest  of  Warwick.  The  town  is  char- 
acterized by  broad  streets  and  old  wooden 
bouses.  It  contains  the  parish  church,  in 
which  Shakespeare  lies  buried,  and  the 
house  in  which  he  was  born,  and  in  which 
are  preserved  portraits,  early  editions  and 
other  objects  of  interest  related  to  the  poet. 
The  Shakespeare  Memoi-ial  Building,  includ- 
ing a  theater,  the  old  Guild  Hall  and  the 
Shakespeare  Monument,  are  other  objects  of 
interest.  Anne  Hathaway's  cottage  is  about 
one  mile  west  of  the  town.  Population,  1911, 
8,500. 

STRATHCONA  AND  MOUNT  ROYAL, 
Donald  Alexander  Smith,  Baron  (1820- 
1914),  a  Canadian  statesman  and  financier, 
was  bom  at  Forres,  Scotland.  In  1838  he 
was  appointed  a  junior  clerk  in  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  C  o  m- 
pany.  For  thirteen 
years  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Hamilton 
Inlet,  Labrador; 
here,  besides  mas- 
tering the  fur  trade, 
he  spent  much  of 
his  time  in  intro- 
d  u  c  i  n  g  improve- 
ments into  the  con- 
ditions of  life,  be- 
ing the  first  to  LORD  strathcona 
prove  that  potatoes  could  be  grown  there 
with  success.  Then  for  ten  years  he  was  on 
Hudson  Bay,  where  he  rose  to  be  a  chief 
trader  and  later  chief  factor ;  and  in  1868  he 
became  resident  governor  at  Montreal.  Dur- 
ing the  disorders  in  1870  in  the  Red  River 
settlements  he  used  his  influence  in  settling 
the  disputes  without  bloodshed.  He  was 
elected  to  the  first  legislative  assembly  of  the 
new  province  of  Manitoba  and  then  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  Parliament  he  was 
prominent  for  his  independence  and  his  ad- 
vocacy of  railroad  expansion.  Together  with 
his  cousin.  Lord  Mount  Stephen,  he  was 
one  of  the  organizers  of  the  present  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  and  it  is  largely  due 
to  his  energy  and  ability  that  the  project  was 
completed.  Except  from  1882  to  1887  he 
continued  to  sit  in  Parliament  until  1896, 
when  he  succeeded  Sir  Charles  Tupper  as 


high  commissioner  in  London.  Smith  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1897.  He  received 
numerous  honorary  degrees  from  colleges 
and  universities  and  for  many  years  was 
chancellor  of  Aberdeen  and  McGill  univer- 
sities. 

STRATIFIED  ROCKS,  rocks  which  are 
composed  of  several  layers,  or  strata,  formed 
by  the  slow  hardening  of  mud.  When  the 
earth  was  young  these  strata  lay  horizontally, 
but  with  the  wrinkling  of  the  crust  the  strata 
became  folded,  and  in  some  places  they  have 
cropped  out  and  become  visible.  Strata  that 
do  not  lie  horizontally  are  said  to  dip,  and 
the  angle  of  inclination  is  called  the  angle  of 
the  dip. 

STRAUSS,  JoHANN  (1825-1899),  an  Aus- 
trian composer  known  as  the  "Waltz  King," 
He  was  born  at  Vienna,  the  son  of  Johann 
Strauss,  also  a  well-known  composer  of  waltz 
music.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  began  con- 
ducting a  small  restaurant  orchestra,  and 
afterwards,  with  a  larger  orchestra,  he  toured 
Europe,  everywhere  winning  applause  for 
his  artistic  dance  music.  In  1855  he  con- 
ducted summer  concerts  at  the  Russian  capi- 
tal, and  in  1863  became  conductor  of  the  Rus- 
sian court  balls.  He  wrote  more  than  four 
hundred  waltzes,  many  of  them  world-fa- 
mous, especially  The  Beautiful  Blue  Danube, 
Artist's  Life  and  Wine,  Woman  and  Song. 

STRAUSS,  Richard  (1864-  ),  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  conductor,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished representative  of  the  school  of 
music  founded  by  Richard  Wagner.  He  was 
born  at  Munich,  and  with  extraordinary  pre- 
cocity, at  the  age  of  six  wi'ote  music  good 
enough  to  publish.  While  still  in  his  teens 
he  wrote  Symphony  in  D  Minor  as  well  as 
numerous  songs  and  instrumental  pieces, 
gaining  a  wide  popularity.  He  is  especially 
noted  for  his  descriptive  pieces,  or  "tone 
poems,"  including  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Don 
Quixote  and  Domestic  Symphony,  in  which 
melody  is  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  realistic 
effect.  His  operas  Elektra  and  Salome  have 
provoked  much  criticism  because  of  their 
stark  realism.  Of  all  the  songs  written  in 
the  last  few  decades  none  are  more  popular 
than  those  of  Strauss.  They  are  rich  in 
melody,  sentiment  and  color. 

STRAW,  the  dried  stems  of  certain  plants. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mats,  coarse 
cloths,  paper  and  various  other  articles,  and 
it  is  also  employed  for  fodder  and  bedding 
for  animals.     It  is  principally  used  in  the 


STRAWBERRY 


3449 


STREET  RAILWAY 


manufacture  of  hats,  an  industry  extensively 
carried  on  in  France,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Austria,  Germany,  Bohemia  and  China.  In 
America  the  center  of  the  hat  industry  is 
Massachusetts.  The  straw  most  used  for  hats 
is  wheat.  The  stalks  are  pulled  up,  cut  in 
pieces,  bleached  and  then  woven  into  the  de- 
sired shapes. 

STRAWBERRY,  straw'her  i,  a  small  plant 
of  the  rose  family  which  produces  a  delicious 
red  fruit  also  called  strawbeny.  In  the 
technical  sense,  the  strawberry  cannot  be 
classified  as  a  berry,  for,  unlike  the  currant 
and  the  gooseberry,  it  has  no  outer  skin  en- 
closing pulp  and  seed,  the  tiny  yellow  seeds 
lying  in  little  pits  on  the  surface.  It  is  heart- 
shaped  and  juicy,  with  a  delicate  perfume 
and  rich  flavor.  It  is  a  favorite  fruit  in  many 
countries  and  is  widely  cultivated.  The  plant 
is  hardy,  and  in  America  can  be  made  to 
grow  and  produce  from  Florida  to  Alaska, 
though  it  thrives  best  in  the  middle  latitudes, 
at  about  the  fortieth  parallel.  Marjdand  is 
the  foremost  strawbeny-producing  state. 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  California,  Missouri 
and  Michigan  following  in  the  order  named. 
Ontario,  producing  eleven  million  quarts  an- 
nually, compares  not  unfavorably  with 
Michigan,  which  has  an  output  of  fourteen 
millions. 

The  cultivation  of  the  strawberry  is  not 
difficult,  if  a  few  essentials  are  regarded. 
The  plants,  which  are  small,  seldom 
more  than  five  inches  high,  send  out 
runners  or  vines,  w^ich  creep  along  the 
gi'ound  and  at  intervals  take  root.  The 
young  plants  obtained  from  the  rooted  run- 
ners are  the  most  productive.  They  are  trans- 
planted in  late  autumn  or  spring  in  rows  or 
hills  three  or  four  feet  apart,  with  fifteen 
inches  separating  the  plants.  As  they  grow 
they  send  out  runners,  which  may  be  cut  off 
or  allowed  to  mat,  the  fonner  treatment  re- 
sulting in  less  numerous  berries  but  larger 
ones.  The  richer  the  soil  the  better,  and  it 
should  have  been  under  cultivation  at  least 
two  seasons.  Success  with  strawberries 
means  crop  rotation,  and  when  the  bearing 
season  is  over  the  beds  should  be  plowed  un- 
der and  planted  to  something  else  for  two  or 
three  years  before  strawberries  are  again 
planted. 

When  the  plants  are  set  out  in  the  fall  they 
should  be  mulched  with  straw.  This  should 
be  raked  between  the  rows  but  left  around 
the  plants,  as  it  keeps  the  berries  off  the 


ground.  To  prepare  soil  for  spring  planting, 
drain  thoroughly  and  cover  with  manure.  In 
the  spring  rake  off  all  trash  and  work  the 
soil  until  it  is  light  to  a  depth  of  six  inches. 
A  good  fertilizer,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  ap- 
plied just  before  the  blossoming,  increases 
the  crop.  The  plants  require  a  great  deal  of 
moisture,  and  sometimes  require  irrigation. 

The  strawberry  plant  is  attacked  by  sev- 
eral insects  and  is  subject  to  blight  or  rust, 
which  appears  on  the  leaves  as  purple  spots. 
As  this  disease  may  be  carried  over  the  win- 
ter all  foliage  should  be  burned  and  the  young 
plants  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Strawberries  should  never  be  planted  after 
grass,  for  the  field  is  certain  in  such  case  to 
contain  grubs.  The  strawberry  weevil,  which 
attacks  buds  and  blossoms,  can  be  checked 
by  spraying  with  white  hellebore  and  kero- 
sene emulsion;  and  the  latter  preparation 
will  also  destroy  the  yellow  caterpillars  that 
sometimes  infest  the  plants. 

STREATOR,  street'or,  III.,  a  city  in  La 
Salle  County,  ninety  miles  southwest  of  Chi- 
cago, on  the  Vermilion  River  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago  & 
Alton,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  the 
Wabash,  the  New  York  Central  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Ottawa  &  Peoria  railroads.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  an  agricultural  section  and  is  also 
near  deposits  of  coal,  fire  clay  and  building 
stone.  The  leading  industrial  establishments 
are  glass  works,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
ear  shops,  automobile  factories  and  brick 
and  tile  works.  Streator  is  built  on  a  bluff 
along  the  river.  There  are  a  Federal  building 
and  a  Carnegie  Library.  The  place  was  set- 
tled in  1860  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1882.  Population,  1910,  14,253;  in  1917, 
14,313  (Federal  estimate). 

STREET  RAILWAY.  The  street  railway 
is  an  American  idea,  although  it  was  devel- 
oped from  the  English  tramway.  Through- 
out Europe  street  railways  are  called  tram- 
ways. The  first  street  railway  was  laid  in 
New  York  City,  from  the  Bowery  to  Har- 
lem, in  1831  and  1832.  The  car  used  was  an 
old-fashioned  stagecoach,  and  it  was  hauled 
by  horses.  Afterwards  steam  power  was 
tried,  but  it  was  not  successful,  and  the  horses 
were  reinstated.  The  success  of  this  line  led 
to  the  construction  of  others  in  New  York 
and  other  cities,  and  before  1860  street  rail- 
ways were  conmion  in  all  large  cities  of  the 
United  States.  Since  that  time  they  have 
been  extended  throughout  Europe. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIAL 


3450 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIAL 


For  a  long  time  horses  were  the  only  motive 
power  used  in  operating  the  cars.  Sev- 
eral attempts  to  use  steam  were  made,  but 
none  was  successful.  In  1873  the  cable  as 
a  motive  power  was  introduced  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. An  endless  cable  was  wound  around 
a  drum  by  a  stationary  engine;  the  cable 
passed  under  the  middle  of  the  car  track, 
and  the  motor  car,  called  the  grip  car,  was 
attached  to  it  by  a  grappling  device  operated 
by  levers.  Cable  cars  were  introduced  in 
several  large  cities,  and  were  successful,  but 
the  invention  of  an  electric  motor  that  could 
be  successfully  used  on  street  cars  soon  caused 
all  cable  systems  to  be  replaced  by  electric 
cars,  and  now  electricity  is  practically  the 
only  power  used  in  operating  street  railways. 
See  Electric  Railway. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIAL,  the  term 
used  to  express  the  resistance  offered  by  any 
building  material  to  a  force  that  tends  to 
change  its  shape.  Materials  are  subject  to 
several  kinds  of  stress,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  stress  of  direct  pull,  or  ten- 
sile stress ;  the  stress  of  pushing  together,  or 
compressive  stress;  the  stress  of  tending  to 
slide  on  parallel  surfaces,  or  shearing  stress ; 
and  the  twisting,  or  torsion  stress,  illustrated 
by  a  shaft  to  which  a  crank  is  attached.  All 
other  forms  of  strain  are  combinations  of 
these. 

Materials  vary  greatly  in  their  strength, 
and  different  samples  of  the  same  material, 
as  white  pine,  may  show  a  marked  variation 
in  strength.     For  this  reason  engineers  re- 


countries  is  the  square  inch  (in  countries 
where  the  metric  system  is  in  use,  the  square 
centimeter)  is  employed  in  making  the  test, 
For  instance,  a  rod  of  oak  one  inch  square 
has  a  tensile  stress  of  12,000  pounds,  and 
one  of  white  pine  a  stress  of  8,000  pounds. 
The  stress  on  this  area  is  called  the  unit  of 
stress.  The  ultimate  strength  of  the  material 
is  the  unit  of  stress  reached  just  before 
rupture  takes  place.  The  ultimate  strength 
is  from  two  to  four  times  as  g^eat  as  the  stress 
of  the  unit  before  it  begins  to  change  fonn. 

To  find  the  tensile  strength  of  any  material 
a  specimen  one  inch  square  and  eight  inches 
long  is  pulled  apart.  The  load  is  applied 
gradually  and  each  addition  to  the  load  pro- 
duces a  proportionate  increase  in  length  in 
the  specimen  until  a  point  is  reached  where 
the  elongation  increases  more  rapidly  than 
the  load.  The  stress  at  this  point  is  called 
the  elastic  limit  of  the  material. 

Wrought  iron  and  steel  offer  the  greatest 
resistance  to  tensile  strains;  the  strength  of 
wood  in  this  direction  varies  according  to  its 
seasoning  and  specific  gravity.  The  heavier 
the  wood  is,  in  general,  the  stronger  it  is.  The 
ti'ansverse  strength  of  beams  is  determined 
largely  by  their  elasticity.  The  property 
varies  greatly  in  different  materials.  Wood 
has  a  greater  elastic  range  of  action  than  iron 
or  steel  bars  and  it  consequently  sinks  or 
deflects  to  a  greater  degree  under  a  given 
weight.  Any  strain  beyond  the  elastic  limit 
entails  fracture.  Increased  stiffness  or 
transverse  resistance  of  beams  is  rapidly  ob- 


TENSILE  STRENGTH 

CRUSHING  STRENGTH 

SHEARING  STRENGTH 

ULTIMATE 

ELASTIC 

ULTIMATE 

ELASTIC 

ULTIMATE 

ELASTIC 

Cast  iron... |f^om 

"Wrought       Jfrom 

iron  bars.  .Ho 
Steel  plates  H^<^"^ 

Steel  boiler  plates 
Rivet  steel. 
Copper,  rolled 

30,500 

10,800 
67,000 
33,500 
65.000 
110,000 
66,000 
65,000 

31,000 

45,000 

17,500 

29,000 

7,500 

Indefinite 
Indefinite 

30,000 
(average) 
42,000 
67,000 
36,000 
46,000 
5,600 

3,200 

130,000 

50,000 

50,000 

(average) 

Indefinite 
Indefinite 

30,000 

(average) 

38,000 

71,000 

'4,'0"00 

12,000 

8,700 
49,000 
22,400 
50,000 
83,000 
56,000 
55,600 

Indefinite 
Indefinite 

22,000 
(average) 

'3. boo 

Copper,  annealed 
■wire    

Brass {f^°- 

Cast  zinc 

quire  that  the  material  they  are  to  use  in 
any  large  structure  be  carefully  tested  before 
it  is  accepted.  Most  ingenious  machines  for 
testing  the  strength  of  materials  have  been 
constructed,  and  the  strain  applied  is  that 
to  which  the  material  will  be  most  subjected. 
A    given   unit,    which    in    English-speaking 


tained  with  an  increase  of  depth  of  the  beam. 
With  the  exception  of  wood,  materials  offer 
a  greater  resistance  to  a  crushing  force  than 
to  a  tensile  strain.  Cast  iron  is  superior  to 
wrought  iron  in  this  respect  and  is  conse- 
quently much  employed  in  the  construction 
of  foundations.     Torsional  stress  tries  the 


STRIKE 


3451 


STUART 


solidity  and  tenacity  of  metals  more  than 
any  other  kind  of  stress.  But  the  torsional 
strength  of  shafts  increases  very  rapidly  as 
the  diameter  is  enlarged.  The  distribution 
of  material  in  hollow  foi-ms  conduces  to  the 
greatest  strength  and  stiffness,  in  combina- 
tion with  the  minimum  consumption  of  ma- 
terial. A  familiar  instance  of  the  hollow  con- 
struction is  the  stem  of  grasses,  and  especial- 
ly the  bamboo,  while  another  example  is  that 
of  the  hollow  bones  of  animals. 

The  table  from  Unwin,  on  page  3450,  is 
valuable  for  reference. 

STRIKE,  an  action  taken  by  workmen  in 
any  branch  of  industry  when  they  cease  from 
work,  with  the  object  of  compelling  their 
employers  to  accede  to  certain  demands  made 
by  them.  The  strike  is  distinguished  from  a 
lockout,  which  is  the  retaliatory'  measure 
adopted  by  employers  to  resist  such  demands 
by  stopping  the  operation  of  their  plants  and 
throwing  their  workmen  out  of  employment. 

During  the  World  "War  labor  supported 
the  governments  of  leading  countries,  cooper- 
ating in  almost  every  instance  to  meet  press- 
ing wartime  emergencies.  After  the  cessation 
of  hostilities,  due  to  general  unrest  all  over 
the  world  and  prevailing  economic,  rather 
than  political  conditions,  labor  again  took  re- 
course to  its  weapons  of  strikes  on  a  stupen- 
dous scale.  Although  there  are  many  agita- 
tors in  the  ranks,  a  major  portion  of  labor  is 
loyal  to  democratic  principles  and  does  not 
countenance  bickerings  or  strikes;  is  more 
than  ready  to  cooperate  with  capital  for  the 
general  good  of  all.  See  Labor  Organiza- 
tions. 

STRIND'BERG,  August  (1849-1912),  one 
of  the  foremost  Swedish  writers  of  his  time, 
the  author  of  dramas,  novels,  lectures  and 
numerous  other  literary  forms  in  which  he 
showed  himself  in  turn  romanticist,  natur- 
alist, mystic  and  skeptic.  Strindberg  was 
bom  at  Stockholm,  the  son  of  an  obscure 
tradesman  and  a  barmaid.  He  attended  the 
University  of  Upsala,  and  after  tr\-ing  his 
hand  at  school  teaching,  tutoring  and  journal- 
ism, he  procured  a  post  in  the  Royal  Library, 
Stockholm.  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of 
the  theoiy  that  woman  is  inferior  to  man, 
mentally  and  morally  as  well  as  physically. 
He  was  three  times  manned  and  three  times 
divorced.  His  first  important  play,  Master 
Olof,  was  produced  in  1878.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  The  Red  Boom,  The  Bondswoman's 
Son,  The  Author,  A  Fool's  Confession  (auto- 


biographic). Inferno  and  Legends.  The  Na- 
tives of  Eemso  is  a  brilliant  novel  of  Swedish 
peasant  life.  Utopias  Realized  is  a  defense 
of  socialism.  Notable  among  his  plays  are 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  The  Father  and  Lucky 
Pehr. 

STRONTIUM,  stron'sheum,  a  yellowish 
metallic  element,  first  observed  in  the  lead 
mines  of  Strontium,  Argyllshire,  Scotland, 
and  separated  from  its  compounds  by  Daxx 
in  1808.  Though  less  abundant  than  barium, 
it  occurs  in  nature  in  similar  forms  of  com- 
bination. It  is  malleable  and  ductile,  and 
bums  with  a  crimson  flame  when  heated  in 
air.  Strontium  is  used  in  extracting  beet 
sugar.  The  nitrate  made  from  it  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fireworks. 

STRYCHNINE,  strik'nin,  a  poisonous 
drug  obtained  fi'om  the  seeds  of  nux  vomica 
and  certain  other  plants.  It  is  prepared  in 
the  form  of  crj'stals,  which  are  odorless  but 
intensely  bitter.  One-eighth  of  a  grain  of 
strychnine  will  kill  a  large  dog ;  three-eighths 
of  a  grain  will  produce  spasms  in  man.  A 
half  gi-ain  is  sometimes  fatal  to  man,  a  whole 
grain  almost  always  so.  The  sjTnptoms  of 
strj'chnine  poisoning  are  diflSculty  in  breath- 
ing, followed  by  twitching  of  the  limbs  and 
convulsions,  in  which  the  body  becomes  rigid 
and  is  often  bent  strongly  backward.  In 
very  small  doses — fi'om  one-fifteenth  to 
one-fiftieth  of  a  grain — stiychnine  is  valuable 
as  a  tonic. 

STRYCHNOS,  strik'nos,  the  botanical 
name  of  a  genus  of  shrubs  or  trees,  which  are 
found  principally  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
Asia  and  America.  The  plants  have  leathery 
leaves  and  dense  clusters  of  white,  valve- 
shaped  flowers.  Some  of  the  most  powerful 
drugs  are  produced  from  plants  of  the  genus, 
among  them  strj'chnine  and  nux  vomica 
(which  see). 

STU'ART,  or  STEWART,  a  royal  family 
of  England  and  Scotland.  The  founder  of 
the  house  seems  to  have  been  a  Norman  baron 
named  Fitzflaald,  a  follower  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  whose  second  son,  Walter,  en- 
tered the  service  of  Da\'id  I  of  Scotland  and 
became  steward  of  the  royal  household.  The 
name  of  the  office  was  adopted  by  the  family 
as  a  surname.  Walter  obtained  large  grants 
of  land  from  David.  James,  the  fifth  steward, 
was  chosen  as  one  of  the  regents,  on  the 
death  of  Alexander  III,  and  died  in  the  serv- 
ice of  Bruce  in  1309.  His  son,  Walter,  the 
sixth  steward,  married  Marjory,  daughter  of 


STUART 


3452 


STUART 


King  Robert  I,  a  union  which  secured  to  his 
family  the  crown  of  Scotland  in  the  event 
of  the  extinction  of  the  royal  line.  Walter 
died  in  1326  and  was  succeeded  by  bis  son 
Robert,  who,  on  the  death  of  David  II  with- 
out issue  succeeded  to  the  crown  as  Robert  II. 
With  James  VI  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  the  Stuart  family  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  England.  (For  its  history 
subsequent  to  this  time  see  James  I ;  Charles 
I;  Charles  II;  James  II;  Mary  II;  Anne.) 
James  II  was  driven  from  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, and  for  years  there  was  a  struggle  to 
replace  the  Stuarts  on  the  throne.  Mary  of 
Modena,  second  wife  of  James  II  of  England, 
gave  birth  to  James  Edward,  commonly 
called  the  Old  Pretender  (see  Stuart,  James 
Edward).  In  1715  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Jacobites,  or  Sttiart  party, 
to  set  this  prince  on  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
tors by  force  of  arms.  He  married  a  grand- 
daughter of  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Charles  Edward, 
the  Young  Pretender,  and  Henry  Benedict 
Maria  Clement,  who  became  a  cardinal  in 
1747. 

STUART,  Charles  Edward^,  called  The 
Young  Pretender  (1720-1788),  eldest  son  of 
James  Edward  Stuart,  the  Old  Pretender. 
He  was  promised  aid  by  France  in  an  inva- 
sion of  Great  Britain,  and  accordingly  in 
1745  he  landed  in  Scotland.  With  the  help  of 
the  Scotch  Highlanders,  who  joined  him 
promptly,  he  won  a  victory  over  the  royal 
forces,  but  when  he  entered  England  he 
found  little  support  and  was  finally  obliged  to 
retreat  without  attempting  to  enter  London. 
At  Culloden  in  1746,  he  was  completely  de- 
feated by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  for 
five  months  he  remained  hidden  in  various 
places  in  the  Scotch  Highlands  and  in  the 
Hebrides,  protected  by  the  loyalty  of  the 
Scotch,  He  finally  escaped  to  the  Continent, 
where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

STUART,  Gilbert  (1755-1828),  an  Amer- 
ican painter,  noted  for  his  portraits  of 
famous  Americans.  He  was  bom  in  Narra- 
gansett,  R.  I.  In  1775  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  had  bis  first  instruction  under  good 
masters.  There  he  remained  until  1792,  and 
during  the  last  part  of  his  stay  his  genius 
was  fully  recognized.  In  1795  he  painted  the 
first  of  about  forty  portraits  of  Washington 
on  wliich,  more  than  on  any  of  his  other 
work,  his  fame  rests.  These  portraits  are 
too  much  idealized  to  be  faithful  likenesses 


of  the  first  President,  but  they  represent  him 
as  the  world  likes  to  think  of  him  and  so  are 
the  most  popular  of  all  Washington  por- 
traits. Among  Stuart's  other  sitters  were 
John  Adams,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe, 
John  Jay,  John  Jacob  Astor,  William  Ellery 
Channing  and  Josiah  Quincy.  See  Wash- 
ington, George,  portrait. 

STUART,  James  Edward,  called  Chevalier 
Saint  George,  or  The  Old  Pretender  (1688- 
1766),  son  of  James  II  of  England  and  Mary 
of  Modena,  his  second  wife.  He  was  bom 
a  short  time  before  his  father  was  deposed; 
in  fact,  his  birth  and  the  fear  that  on  his 
accession  England  would  become  permanently 
a  Catholic  country,  had  much  to  do  with  the 
overthrow  of  James.  In  1715  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  by  the  Jacobites 
to  secure  the  throne  for  him.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  mostly  in  Rome.  His 
wife  was  a  granddaughter  of  John  Sobieski 
of  Poland. 

STUART,  James  Ewell  Brown  (1833- 
1864),  an  American  general,  bom  in  Patrick 
County,  Va.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1854  and  was 
promoted  raj^idly  in  the  army.  When  Vir- 
ginia seceded,  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel 
of  Virginia  troops,  and  commanded  the  Con- 
federate cavalry  in  the  first  Battle  of  Bull 
Run.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  became  a 
brigadier-general.  In  June,  1862,  he  eon- 
ducted  a  daring  reconnoissance  of  McClellan's 
army  on  the  Chiekahominy,  fought  at  the 
second  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  led  the  advance 
of  Jackson's  Maryland  invasion  and  fought 
at  South  Mountain,  Antietam  and  Fred- 
ericksburg. After  the  fall  of  Stonewall 
Jackson,  Stuart  succeeded  to  the  temporary 
command  of  Jackson's  corjos  at  Chancellors- 
ville.  In  the  campaign  of  1864  he  was  mor- 
tally wounded  at  Yellow  Tavern,  near  Rich- 
mond, where  he  attempted  to  check  Sheri- 
dan's advance. 

STUART,  Ruth  McEnert  (1856-1917), 
an  American  story  writer,  born  in  Avoyelles 
parish,  La.,  and  educated  at  Tulane  Univer- 
sity. She  married  Alfred  0.  Stuart,  a  cot- 
ton planter,  in  1879,  and  after  1885  made  her 
home  in  New  York.  The  original  humor  of 
her  negro  sketches  give  them  a  foremost  place 
among  stories  of  their  kind.  Her  writings 
include  George  Washington  Jones,  The  Story 
of  Babette,  The  Women's  Exchange,  Sonny, 
The  River's  Children,  Amity's  Silver  Wed- 
ding and  Sonny's  Father. 


STUCCO 


3453 


STUYVESANT 


STUCCO,  a  fine  plaster,  used  as  a  coating 
for  walls,  to  give  them  a  finished  surface. 
The  stucco  used  for  interior  decorations  is 
made  of  pulverized  white  marble,  mixed  with 
water,  or  of  calcined  gypsum  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  mixed  with  glue.  That  used  for  ex- 
ternal purposes  is  of  a  coarser  kind  prepared 
with  cement.  A  cheap  plaster  used  for  the 
outside  of  temporary  buildings  is  called  staff. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  used  stucco  to  a 
great  extent,  both  for  internal  and  external 
decoration  in  their  buildings,  often  moulding 
it  into  relief  designs  for  friezes  and  such 
details. 

STURGEON,  stu/jun,  a  group  of  fishes 
comprising  numerous  species,  found  in  both 
fresh  and  salt  waters  of  the  north  temperate 
zone.     Some  of  them  are  very  large,  being 


STURGEON 

ten  feet  long  and  weighing  approximately 
500  pounds.  The  body  is  long  and  slender,  ter- 
minating in  a  forked  tail,  and  covered  with 
rows  of  bony  plates.  The  mouth  is  com- 
paratively small,  funnel-shaped  and  toothless, 
and  the  food,  consisting  of  small  marine 
animals  and  vegetable  growths,  is  sucked  in 
whole  through  the  thick  lips  under  the  long, 
pointed  snout. 

The  sturgeon  is  important  in  the  fishing 
industry.  The  flesh,  which  is  well  flavored, 
is  usually  smoked  for  the  market;  the  eggs 
are  used  in  the  preparation  of  caviar,  and  the 
bladder  of  the  Russian  sturgeon  is  used  in 
making  isinglass.  Of  the  numerous  species, 
one  of  the  most  familiar  is  the  common 
sturgeon,  found  in  European  waters  and 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America 
from  Maine  to  South  Carolina.  These  fish 
ascend  streams  in  the  spawning  season  and 
are  easily  caught,  consequently  they  are  not 
so  numerous  as  formerly.  Other  species  are 
the  lake  sturgeon,  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Mid- 
dle West  streams;  the  white  sturgeon  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  America,  the  Bussian  sterlet 
and  the  Bussian  beluga,  the  last  an  enormous 
fish  sometimes  weighing  3,000  pounds. 

STURM,  stoorm,  Johannes  (1507-1589), 
a  celebrated  educator,  born  at  Schleiden, 
Prussia.  He  began  teaching  at  Louvain, 
afterwards  went  to  Paris,  and  was  then  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Strass- 
burg,  which  position  he  occupied  for  forty 


years.  It  was  in  connection  with  this  school 
that  Sturm  gained  his  wide  reputation  as  an 
educator  and  reformer.  He  organized  the 
gymnasium  into  twelve  classes,  or  grades,  ex- 
tending from  the  lowest  primary  to  the  col- 
lege, and  each  of  these  classes  had  the  work 
so  planned  that  it  prepared  for  the  one  next 
higher.  His  methods  of  teaching  were  clear, 
practical  and  forceful,  and  his  course  of 
study  was  so  well  planned  that  the  pupils  in 
his  school  made  remarkable  progress.  The 
work  attracted  the  attention  of  educators  in 
every  country  of  Europe,  and  from  Germany 
the  system  was  transferred  to  England  and 
was  the  basis  of  organization  of  such  schools 
as  Eton  and  Rugby.  From  England  Sturm's 
influence  extended  to  America.  He  is  justly 
considered  the  originator  of  what  has  de- 
veloped into  the  graded  school  system. 

STUTTGART,  stoot'gahrt,  Germany,  the 
capital  of  the  former  kingdom  of  Wiirttem- 
berg,  is  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neckar,  115  miles  northwest  of  Munich  and 
thirty-eight  miles  southeast  of  Carlsruhe. 
The  surrounding  country  is  exceptionally 
beautiful,  and  the  city  is  noted  for  its  broad 
streets,  spacious  squares  and  fine  buildings. 
The  most  noted  structures  are  the  former 
palace  of  the  king;  the  old  palace,  dating 
from  the  sixteenth  century ;  the  royal  library, 
which  has  over  400,000  volumes;  the  Stifts- 
kirche,  which  dates  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and*  a  Jewish  synagogue.  The  city 
buildings  consist  of  the  industrial  museum, 
the  townhall,  the  hall  for  the  choral  society, 
the  art  museum,  the  palace  of  justice  and 
the  polytechnic  institute.  The  educational  in- 
stitutions include  a  conservatory  of  music, 
an  academy  of  fine 
arts,  a  veterinary 
college  and  a  cab- 
inet of  natural  his- 
tory. Among  the 
leading  industries 
are  the  manufac- 
tures of  textiles, 
chemicals,  furni- 
ture, paper,  pianos 
and  chocolate.  The 
city  is,  next  to 
Leipzig,  the  great- 
est center  of  the 
German  book  trade.  PETER  STUYVESANT 
Population,  1918,  349,564. 

STUYVESANT,  sti'vesant,  Peter  (1592- 
1672),  a  Dutch  governor  of  New  Netherlands 


STYPTIC 


3454 


SUBMARINE 


(New  York),  was  born  in  Holland,  In  1647 
he  was  made  director-general  of  the  colony 
of  the  New  Netherlands,  a  position  he  held 
until  1664,  displaying  noteworthy  ability  and 
enerf^  in  organization  and  administration. 
In  1664  the  colony  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  and  became  known  as  New  York. 
Stuy\'esant  went  to  Holland  the  next  year, 
but  soon  returned  and  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life  on  his  farm,  called  Bouwerij,  from 
which  the  present  Bowery  in  the  city  of 
New  York  is  named. 

STYPTIC,  stip'tih,  any  substance  used  in 
surgery  to  cheek  the  flow  of  blood  from  a  sur- 
face or  an  orifice.  The  principal  styptics  are 
tannic  acid,  alum,  copper,  salts  of  iron  and 
zinc. 

STYX,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythologj^, 

the  name  of  a  river  of  the  lower  '<vorld,  over 

.  which  the  dead  were  f en-ied  by  Charon.  Styx 

was  also  a  rivulet  in  Arcadia,  the  water  of 

which  was  considered  poisonous. 

SUBMARINE,  the  boat  that  Sir  Percy 
Scott  of  the  British  navy  said  would  elim- 
inate the  battleship,  is  a  boat  that  travels 
under  water.  Before  the  World  War  the 
submarine  had  received  but  little  considera- 
tion, although  a  few  of  these  boats  formed 
a  part  of  the  navies  of  the  principal  nations. 
But  within  two  years  from  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  the  submarine  was  regarded  as  the 
greatest  terror  of  the  seas  and  one  of  the 
decisive  factors  in  the  conflict.     • 

General  Description.  A  submarine  is  a 
steel  shell  resembling  in  shape  a  huge  cigar. 
When  floating  at  the  surface  it  shows  an  oval 
back  that  rises  about  two  and  a  half  feet 
above  the  water.  Modern  submarines  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  called  coastal  and 
fleet  submarines.  The  general  plan  of  con- 
struction is  the  same  for  each  class,  but  the 
fleet  submarines  are  much  larger.  Coastal 
submarines  are  designed  for  coast  defense 
and  are  from  150  to  200  feet  long,  and  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  beam.  When  sub- 
merged they  displace  a  quantity  of  water 
weighing  from  250  to  600  tons.  Fleet  sub- 
marines are  designed  for  longer  voyages. 
They  varv'  in  length  from  225  to  400  feet,  and 
have  a  displacement  when  submerged  of  800 
to  1,200  tons. 

The  shell  is  made  of  steel  plates  riveted  to 
a  strong  steel  frame.  In  the  bottom  of  the 
boat  are  a  number  of  compartments  which 
are  filled  with  water  when  the  boat  is  to  sub- 
merge.   A  conning  tower  rises  from  the  center 


1, 


of  the  boat  to  a  height  of  four  or  more  feet. 
Such  a  tower  is  provided  with  windows  of 
thick  glass,  and  serves  as  the  bridge  for 
operating  the  boat.  A  steering  rudder  is  at- 
tached to  the  stern, 
and  dividing  rudders 
called  hydroplanes 
are  attached  to  each 
side  near  the  bow  and 
stern.  These  rud- 
ders can  be  inclinedoxLY  the  periscope 
upward    or    down-^     ..     showing 

^  In   time   of  war  the  flag 

ward,  and  they  direct  is  absent, 

the  boat  in  diving  and  rising  to  the  surface. 
In  front  of  the  conning  tower  is  the  peri- 
scope, which  is  the  "eye  of  the  ship."  The 
speed  of  a  submarine  at  the  surface  is  from 
seventeen  to  twentj^-two  miles  an  hour,  and 
when  submerged,  from  nine  to  eighteen  miles. 

Equipment.  The  naval  submarine  is  de- 
signed for  sinking  ships  by  the  means  of 
torpedoes,  and  the  equipment  is  all  planned 
to  this  end.  The  interior  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  compartments — one  is  for  officers' 
quarters  and  another  for  the  men.  A  number 
of  seamless  steel  tanks  contain  air  under 
great  pressure,  sometimes  as  high  as  2,500 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  This  air  is  used 
for  forcing  water  out  of  the  tanks  when  the 
boat  is  to  rise  to  the  surface,  and  for  supply- 
ing air  to  the  crew.  The  motors  are  in  the 
stern,  and  there  is  one  for  each  propeller. 

When  afloat  the  boat  is  propelled  by  an 
engine  which  uses  crude  oil  for  fuel,  and 


%yi 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^gj^-Wj!^E-=^g^^^^ 

SUBMARINE,   UP   FOR   AIR 

when  submerged  it  is  driven  through  the 
water  by  an  electric  motor  that  receives  its 
current  from  storage  batteries.  The  steer- 
ing gear  is  similar  to  that  on  other  ships.  On 
small  boats  it  is  operated  by  hand,  but  on 
large  ones  electric  power  is  used. 

The  Periscope.  The  periscope  is  in  front 
of  the  conning  tower  and  consists  of  a  tube 
that  can  be  extended  upward  about  twenty 
feet,  and  lowered  as  the  boat  nears  the  sur- 
face. A  lens  fixed  in  the  tube  near  the  top 
throws  a  picture  of  the  sea  within  its  field 


SUBMARINE 


3455 


SUBMARINE 


upon  a  prism  which  reflects  it  down  to  an- 
other prism  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  where 
the  commanding  oflBcer  can  see  it  through  a 
glass  that  closely  resembles  a  field  glass.  The 
combination  of  prisms  and  lenses  is  such  that 
the  view  obtained  enables  the  observer  to 
judge  accurately  of  the  location  and  distance 
of  objects.  The  entire  apparatus  can  be 
rotated,  so  that  a  view  in  any  direction  may 
be  readily  obtained.  Each  modern  submarine 
is  provided  with  two  periscopes,  one  for  the 
commander  and  one  for  the  helmsman.  The 
gyro-compass  shows  the  direction  the  boat  is 
taking.  This  compass  consists  of  a  small 
gyroscope  (which  see),  so  mounted  that  it 
moves  freely  on  a  vertical  pivot.  The  gyro- 
scope when  undisturbed  will  rotate  in  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis;  consequently  it 
points  directly  north  and  south.  The  mag- 
netic compass  cannot  be  used  because  the  steel 
of  the  ship  and  the  electric  currents  deflect 
the  needle  from  its  course. 

Torpedo  Tubes.  The  torpedo  tubes  might 
be  called  the  guns  from  which  the  torpedoes 
are  fired.  They  are  usually  placed  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  bow,  but  they  may  be  placed 
in  the  stem  or  amidships.  The  outer  end  of 
the  tube  is  closed  with  a  water-tight  cap  which 
can  be  opened  and  closed  by  a  mechanism 
within  the  boat.  The  torpedo  is  fired  by  com- 
pressed air.  The  number  of  tubes  a  boat  can 
carry  depends  upon  its  size.  The  smallest 
boats  can  carry  only  two.  One  or  more  guns 
for  repelling  attacks  or  for  attacking  also 
form  a  part  of  the  equipment. 

Safety  Devices.  Each  member  of  the  crew 
is  supplied  with  a  safety  helmet  similar  to 
that  used  by  divers,  by  means  of  which  he 
can  breathe  under  water  for  several  hours. 
Air  locks  enable  men  trapped  in  a  damaged 
compartment  to  escape  to  one  that  is  not  dam- 


LAUNCHING  OF  THE  CUTTLE  FISH,  U.  S.  N. 

aged,  and  each  compartment  is  provided  with 
an  escape  hatch.  All  pumping  systems  for 
air  and  water  are  duplicated,  so  that  if  one 
is  injured  another  can  take  its  place.     A 


safety  keel  consisting  of  a  keel  twelve  inches 
deep,  twenty-four  inches  wide  and  having  a 
length  determined  by  the  weight  desired  is 
attached  to  the  boat  amid  ships.  The  keel  is 
made  of  steel  plates  and  is  filled  with  lead. 
It  weighs  from  five  to  twenty  tons,  and  is 
attached  to  the  boat  by  a  device  by  which  it 
can  be  instantly  released  in  case  of  accident. 
Its  release  enables  the  boat  to  ascend  to  the 
surface  instantly.  In  short,  all  possible  pre- 
cautions are  taken  for  the  safety  of  officers 
and  men,  but  at  best  the  navigation  of  a 
submarine  is  exceedingly  dangerous. 

Operation.  When  a  subniarine  is  ready  to 
submerge  the  tanks  are  filled,  and  the  boat 
settles  in  the  water  until  only  the  conning 
tower  remains  above  the  surface.  The  diving 
rudders  are  tilted  at  a  slight  angle  and  the 
motor  is  started.  As  the  boat  moves  for- 
ward it  moves  downward.  When  the  desired 
depth  is  reached,  the  diving  rudders  are 
changed  to  a  horizontal  position  and  the 
boat  moves  through  the  water  at  that  level. 
When  searching  for  hostile  ships  the  peri- 
scope is  kept  four  or  five  feet  above  the  water, 
and  if  other  ships  are  near,  the  submarine 
must  move  very  slowly  or  the  wave  caused 
by  the  periscope  will  reveal  its  location  to 
the  enemy.  As  the  ship  to  be  destroyed  is 
approached,  a  torpedo  is  placed  in  the  tube, 
and  when  the  commander  has  brought  his 
boat  into  the  right  position  he  presses  a  but- 
ton and  the  torpedo  is  launched. 

When  a  submarine  discovers  an  airplane 
or  a  destroyer  approaching,  it  immediately 
dives  to  a  depth  which  will  assure  its  safety. 
The  destroyer,  which  is  a  swift  boat  of  light 
draught,  armed  with  rapid-fire  guns,  whose 
shells  can  penetrate  its  armor,  is  the  enemy 
most  feared  by  the  submarine,  for  a  single 
shot  that  pierces  the  armor  is  likely  to  send 
the  boat  to  the  bottom.  The  small  submarines 
have  a  steaming  radius  of  about  700  miles; 
larger  boats  can  travel  5,000  miles  from  their 
base. 

The  Submarine  in  the  World  War.  De- 
tails of  the  work  of  the  submarine  in  the 
World  War  will  be  found  in  the  article 
World  War.  It  was  this  war  that  revealed 
the  power  of  the  submarine  as  an  instru- 
ment of  destruction,  but  the  war  also  showed 
that  the  submarine  was  not  invincible.  That 
these  boats  were  the  only  branch  of  the  Ger- 
man navy  that  was  effective  during  the  war, 
and  that  they  inflicted  great  loss  on  the  ship- 
ping of  the  allies  and  on  that  of  neutral  na- 


SUBMARINE 


3456 


SUBMARINE  MINE 


tions  is  true.  But,  with  all  their  power  for 
destruction,  they  were  unable  to  prevent 
the  British  navy  from  keeping  the  German 
fleet  shut  up  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  thus  render- 
ing it  wholly  ineffective  during  the  entire 
period  of  the  conflict.  For  a  few  months, 
following  Germany's  order  to  sink  without 
warning  all  ships  bound  to  or  from  the  ports 
of  the  allies,  large  numbers  of  ships  were 
destroyed,  but  as  soon  as  England  and  Amer- 
ica were  able  to  put  on  the  seas  great  fleets 
of  destroyers,  the  activity  of  the  submarines 
was  checked,  and  during  the  last  months  of 
the  war  they  accomplished  little. 

Great    Britain,    France    and    the    United 
States  all  had  fleets  of  submarines,  but  since 


of  different  navies  differ  in  minor  points, 
they  all  embody  the  main  features  of  Hol- 
land's design.  During  the  ^Yorld  War  the 
Germans  constructed  two  large  submarines 
for  commercial  purposes,  one  of  which,  the 
DeutscMand,  made  two  successful  voyages  to 
the  United  States. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Submarine  Mine  Torpedo  Boat 

Torpedo  World  War 

SUBMARINE  MINE,  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  and  destructive  weapons  employed 
in  naval  warfare,  consists  of  a  steel  shell 
charged  with  a  powerful  explosive  and  con- 
taining a  device  for  exploding  the  charge. 
Submarine  mines  are  so  placed  in  water  as  to 


(a)  Ballast    tanks 

(b)  Conning-  tower 

(c)  Rudder 

(d)  Diving-  rudder 

(hydroplane) 

the  shipping  of  the  Central  Powers  was 
driven  from  the  seas,  there  were  no  ships 
for  these  boats  to  attack,  and  because  of  this 
they  were  not  brought  prominently  before 
the  public.  They  were  invaluable,  how- 
ever, for  hunting  and  attacking  submarines  of 
the  enemy  in  all  seas  surrounding  Europe. 

History.  Duiing  the  eighteenth  and  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there 
were  several  attempts  to  construct  a  sub- 
marine boat.  In  1800  Robert  Fulton,  then  in 
France,  built  a  number  of  submarine  boats, 
but  they  were  not  practical.  During  the  Civil 
War  the  Confederates  used  a  number  of  sub- 
marines propelled  by  steam  engines,  as  well 
as  some  by  hand.  These  boats,  called  Davids, 
from  their  smallness  as  compared  to  the  ships 
they  attacked,  were  made  of  old  boiler  plates, 
and  when  advancing  to  the  attack,  the  top 
was  just  under  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  submarine  in  its  present  form  is  the 
invention  of  John  P.  Holland  of  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  whose  first  boat  was  built  in  1877. 
A  Swedish  inventor,  Nordenfelt,  constructed 
a  boat  somewhat  similar  to  Holland's  in  1866. 
Both  patterns  were  submitted  to  the  United 
States  government  for  approval  and  Hol- 
land's was  adopted.    Although  the  submarines 


SUBMARINE 

(e) 

Periscope 

(j)     I^scape  hatches 

(f) 

Crew  quarters 

(k)    Propeller 

(g) 

Officer's  quarters 

(1)     Oil  tank  for  fuel 

(h) 

Torpedo   tubes 

(m)    Storage   battery 

(i) 

Engines 

destroy  or  injure  an}'  ship  which  comes  in 
contact  with  them.  Guncotton,  which  is  not 
injured  by  water,  is  the  explosive  used. 

Mines  are  of  three  kinds — observation, 
electro-contact  and  automatic.  Observation 
mines  are  placed  in  harbors  or  near  the 
shore,  and  the  operator,  by  switching  on  an 
electric  current,  can  explode  the  mine  or 
group  of  mines  nearest  the  attacking  vessel. 
Electro-contact  mines  are  constmcted  in  such 
a  waj'  that  when  they  are  suddenly  tipped  to 
an  angle  of  over  70  °  a  small  quantity  of  mer- 
cury' is  released  to  complete  the  circuit  be- 
tween two  wires,  and  the  mine  explodes.  In 
observation  mines  no  electric  current  flows 
until  the  operator  turns  the  switch;  in  the 
electro-contact  mines  the  current  is  always 
flowing,  but  the  circuit  is  not  completed  until 
the  mine  is  suddenly  hit  and  tipped  over. 
Both  observation  mines  and  electro-contact 
mines  must  be  anchored  so  that  they  are 
from  5  to  20  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  third  class  of  mines  is  the  auto- 
matic, which  are  just  like  the  electro-contact 
variety  except  that  the  electric  current  is 
furnished  by  dry  cells  inside  the  mine.  Auto- 
matic mines  are  the  only  ones  which  can  be 
used  at  any  distance  from  shore.    They  may 


SUBMARINE  MINE 


3457 


SUBPOENA 


be  anchored  or  allowed  to  drift.  In  the  latter 
case,  they  are  called  floating  mines. 

Mine-Laying.  Mines  have  to  be  placed 
with  great  care,  if  they  are  to  be  effective. 
Each  mine  must  be  located  where  ships  will 
be  most  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  it, 
and  its  depth  must  be  accurately  calculated. 
Laying  the  cables  to  mines  that  are  exploded 
by  batteries  on  shore  is  also  a  delicate  opera- 
tion. The  wires  connecting  the  mine  with  the 
battery  must  be  strong  enough  to  anchor  the 
mine  and  of  sufficient  length  to  keep  the  mine 
at  such  a  depth  that  it  will  not  be  hit  by  ves- 
sels entering  or  leaving  the  harbor. 

Mine  Sweeping.  Various  devices  have  been 
invented  for  locating  and  removing  mines. 
"Whatever  the  method  employed,  ships  en- 
gaged in  this  work  incur  great  danger.  Figure 
1  shows  the  method  in  general  use  previous 
to  1917.  Two  vessels  are  connected  by  a 
heavily-weighted  cable,  which  they  drag  be- 
tween them.    The  mines  caught  by  the  cable 


FIG.  1.— "SWEEPING"  FOR  MIXES 

Showing  the  method  by  which  mines  may  be 

removed. 

are  destroyed.  Another  method  of  render- 
ing mined  waters  safe  is  countermining, 
that  is,  by  exploding  mines  in  the  suspected 
area.  The  explosion  causes  all  previously 
laid  mines  to   explode,  and  it  may  detach 


mines  connected  with  electric  cables  and  ren- 
der them  harmless. 

The  latest  and  most  effective  device  for 
protecting  ships  from  mines  is  the  paravane, 
invented  by  Commander  Burney  of  the 
British  navy  during  the  first  two  years  of  the 
World  War.  The  device  consists  of  a  pair 
of  steel  structures  called  otters,  shaped  very 
much  like  a  torpedo,  except  that  they  are 
shorter.  A  series  of  serrated  steel  knives, 
for  cutting  the  cables  holding  the  mines  in 
position  are  attached  to  the  front  end  of 
each  otter.  The  others  are  attached  to  the 
ship  by  a  tough  steel  towing-rope  about  150 


otten 


'\7btoz'na  Wire  to 
^Deflect  the 
Mine  from 
the  VejaeZ 


■Hino 
'Kooring 


Towing  SUeoe      ' 


Otter^ 
YIG.    2. — THE   PARAVANE 

feet  in  length.  A  large  steel  plane  attached 
to  the  other  acts  in  such  a  way  when  the 
ship  is  in  motion  as  to  draw  it  away  from 
the  ship,  so  that  the  pair  of  otters  with  their 
towing  lines  form  a  huge  triangle.  When 
the  moorings  of  a  mine  are  caught  by  the 
towing  line  they  are  forced  along  to  the  ot- 
ter, where  they  are  cut  by  the  serrated 
knives;  then  the  mine  rises  to  the  surface, 
and  it  is  easily  destroyed.  Over  4,000 
British  and  a  large  number  of  American 
ships  were  equipped  with  paravanes  dur- 
ing the  war,  and  not  a  ship  so  equipped  was 
destroyed  by  a  mine. 

SUBPOENA,  sub  pe'na,  a  wi-itten  notice 
issued  by  a  court,  or  an  official  having  judi- 
cial powers,  commanding  a  person  or  persons 
to  appear  at  a  certain  time  and  place  and 
give  testimony  in  a  case  in  court.  Failure 
to  comply  with  the  summons  constitutes  con- 
tempt of  court.  See  Contempt.  The  Latin 
word  subpoena  means  under  penalty.  A 
subpoena  duces  tecum  (bring  with  you  under 
penalty)  is  a  command  to  appear  as  a  wit- 


SUBSIDY 


3458 


SUCCESSION  WAKS 


ness  with  specified  books,  papers  or  other 
exhibits. 

SUB'SIDY,  in  public  law,  monetai-y  aid 
granted  by  a  government  to  an  individual 
or  commercial  enterprise  for  the  furtherance 
of  a  project  believed  to  redound  to  the  public 
good.  Thus,  when  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
was  constructed,  the  United  States  govern- 
ment granted  the  railway  corporation  tracts 
of  public  land  along  its  route  as  a  partial 
reimbursement  for  the  great  sums  of  money 
expended  in  the  railroad  construction.  Aid 
of  this  nature  extended  by  a  national,  state 
or  city  government  to  a  private  enterprise 
to  assist  it  in  attaining  a  firm  financial  basis 
is  known  as  a  subsidy;  the  corjDoration  re- 
ceiving this  financial  assistance  is  said  to  be 
subsidized. 

In  international  law,  subsidy  is^money  fur- 
nished by  one  nation  to  another  to  aid  it  in 
carrying  on  a  war  against  a  third  nation, 
when  such  nation  does  not  itself  join  directly 
in  the  conflict. 

SUBTRACTION.     See  ARiTHiiETic. 

SUBWAY,  or  UNDERGROUND  RAIL- 
WAY, a  tunnel  or  system  of  tunnels 
constructed  in  a  large  city  for  the  purpose 
of  placing  a  railroad  beneath  the  level  of 
fhe  street  to  relieve  the  congestion  of  travel 
or  freight  in  the  streets.  A  street  is  closed 
partly  or  wholly  and  an  excavation  made 
to  the  required  depth  and  width.  Floor, 
walls  and  roof  are  then  laid  and  earth  is 
filled  in  to  the  street  level.  After  paving, 
the  street  is  reopened  to  traffic. 

Modern  Subways.  Many  of  the  world's 
most  progessive  cities  are  adopting  the  sub- 
way system  to  replace  noisy  elevated  struc- 
tures which  so  detract  from  a  city's  beauty. 
London  was  the  first  city  to  construct  a  sub- 
way, and  its  original  model  was  operated  by 
steam.  More  modem  subways  are  run  by 
electricity.  In  Europe,  London,  Paris  and 
Berlin  have  developed  systems  of  under- 
ground railways  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency. 

In  the  United  States,  Xew  York,  Boston 
and  Philadelphia  have  overcome  surface- 
car  and  freight  obstructions  by  means  of 
satisfactory  subway  systems.  Chicago's  sub- 
ways are  confined  to  freight  alone,  the  Lines 
extending  for  about  seventy  miles  through 
the  hub  of  the  business  district.  However, 
in  the  not  far  distant  future  that  city.  too. 
will  solve  its  surface-car  congestion  problems 
by  the  construction  of  a  comprehensive  s^'S- 
tem  of  rapid-transit  tubes. 


Xew  York's  subway  is  the  most  exten- 
sive of  the  world's  systems.  A  large  part  of 
it  is  arranged  with  four  tracks  to  accommc^- 
date  express  and  local  trains,  which  have 
from  six  to  ten  coaches  each.  The  subway 
is  owned  by  the  municipality,  and  it  is  leased 
for  operation  to  a  private  company.  The 
cost  of  construction  per  mile  of  the  Xew 
York  system  averaged  $2,000,000;  at  times 
to  overcome  obstructions  it  required  an  out- 
lay totaling  $5,000,000  per  mile,  exclusive 
of  equipment.  It  is  estimated  that  on  an 
average  3.000.000  passengers  daily  take  ad- 
vantage of  this  means  of  rapid-transit  in 
that  city.  The  subway  is  another  of  the 
many  engineering  feats  of  modem  life  which 
prove  man's  supremacy  over  the  forces  of 
nature  in  his  endeavors  to  conquer  time. 

SUCCESSION,  suksesh'u7i,  WARS,  wars 
which  have  arisen  from  conflicting  claims 
for  the  possession  of  a  crown.  In  modem 
European  history  the  most  important  of 
these  struggles  were  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (1701-1714),  the  War  of  the 
Polish  Succession  (1733-1735),  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  (1740-1748)  and  the 
War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  (1778- 
1779). 

The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
Shortly  before  the  death  of  Charles  II  of 
Spain,  who  had  no  direct  heirs,  several  com- 
petitors laid  claim  to  the  throne,  chief  of 
whom  were  Louis  XIV  of  France,  son  of 
the  eldest  sister  of  Philip  IV,  and  Emperor 
Leopold  of  Austria,  son  of  a  younger  sister 
of  Philip  IV.  The  other  powers  were  great- 
ly interested  in  this  question,  since  the  union 
of  either  France  or  Austria  with  Spain 
would  have  endangered  the  balance  of  power 
in  Europe.  After  much  negotiation  Philip 
of  Anjou  was  put  forward  by  Louis  XIV  to 
represent  the  French  claim,  and  Leopold 
nominated  his  second  son  Charles  as  his  sub- 
stitute, both  declaring  that  Spain  should 
never  be  incorporated  with  their  respective 
dominions.  The  king  of  Spain  eventually 
recognized  Philip  as  his  heir,  and  on  the 
king's  death,  in  Xovember.  1700,  Philip  was 
proclaimed  king  at  Madrid.  He  was  recog- 
nized by  most  of  the  European  powers 
except  Austria,  which  in  the  following  year 
declared  war  against  France. 

However,  the  arrogant  and  aggressive  be- 
havior of  Louis,  his  recognition  of  the  son  of 
James  II  as  king  of  England  and  his  decla- 
ration that  the  accession  of  Philip  to  the 


SUCCESSION 


3459 


SUCCESSION 


Spanish  throne  did  not  prevent  his  succes- 
sion in  France,  caused  England,  Holland  and 
Austria  to  combine  against  him  and  Philip 
in  1702.  Prince  Eugene  of  Austria  had  al- 
ready opened  the  contest  and  had  won  some 
victories  over  the  French.  In  1702-1703, 
Marlborough,  at  the  head  of  an  allied  army, 
reduced  the  French  strongholds  along  the 
Meuse  and  in  the  Low  Countries;  in  1704 
he  joined  his  forces  with  Eugene,  and  to- 
gether they  defeated  the  Franco-Bavarian 
array  at  Blenheim.  Barcelona  was  eaptui-ed 
by  an  English  force  in  1705,  and  the  earl  of 
Peterborough  gained  some  brilliant  successes 
in  this  quarter.  In  1706  the  French  were 
defeated  by  Marlborough  at  Ramillies,  and 
by  the  Austrians  at  Turin.  By  1707  the 
French  and  Spanish  had  driven  the  allies 
out  of  Spain,  but  in  the  following  year  Marl- 
borough and  Eugene  reunited  their  forces 
and  severely  defeated  the  French  at 
Oudenarde. 

The  resources  of  France  were  now  crip- 
pled, and  Louis  made  overtures  of  peace, 
which  were  rejected.  The  struggle  was  re- 
newed with  great  vigor;  Villars  proceeded 
against  Marlborough  and  Eugene,  but  he  was 
defeated  by  the  allies  at  Malplaquet  in 
September,  and  matters  continued  to  look 
very  unfavorable  for  Louis,  The  war 
dragged  on  until  the  accession  of  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  to  the  Austrian  throne  changed 
the  whole  aspect  of  affairs,  and  the  struggle, 
so  far  as  Great  Britain,  France  and  Holland 
were  concerned,  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  Peace  between 
Great  Britain  and  Spain  soon  followed,  the 
former  gaining  Gibraltar  and  Minorca;  and 
in  1714  the  emperor,  Charles,  forsaken  by 
his  allies,  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  sign 
a  treaty  at  Baden,  recognizing  Philip  V  as 
the  king  of  Spain. 

The  War  of  the  Polish  Succession.  When 
the  Polish  nobles  elected  as  king  of  Poland 
Stanislas  Leszczynski,  father-in-law  of  Louis 
XV  of  France,  they  clashed  with  the  interests 
of  Russia  and  Saxony,  who  were  determined 
that  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony  should  be 
king.  France  was  unable  to  keep  Stanislas 
on  the  throne,  and  Augustus  III  was  recog- 
nized king  of  Poland. 

The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 
This  arose  on  the  extinction  of  the  male  line 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  by  the  death  of 
Emperor  Charles  VI  in  1740.  By  diplomatic 
negotiations  before  his  death  and  by  means 


of  the  settlement  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion, Charles  had  endeavored  to  secure  the 
Austrian  succession  for  his  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa.  But  there  were  several  other 
claimants  for  the  Austrian  possessions,  which 
included  Bohemia,  Hungary,  northern  Italy, 
part  of  the  Netherlands  and  Austria  proper. 
Besides  Maria  Theresa,  the  other  claimants 
of  importance  were  Charles  Albert,  elector  of 
Bavaria,  and  Philip  V  of  Spain;  while  the 
chief  European  powers  which  took  an  inter- 
est in  the  succession  were  France,  Prussia 
and  England.  The  first  movement  was  made 
by  Frederick  II  of  Prussia,  who,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1740,  marched  his  army  into  Silesia  and 
secured  that  province  as  his  share  of  the 
spoil.  In  the  following  year  an  agreement 
was  entered  into  between  France,  Spain, 
Bavaria,  Prussia,  Saxony,  Sardinia  and 
Naples,  by  the  terms  of  which  a  French- 
Bavarian  army  entered  Upper  Austria,  an- 
other French  army  invaded  the  Austrian 
possessions  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
forces  of  Spain  and  Naples  occupied  the 
Austrian  territory  in  northern  Italy.  This 
having  been  done,  the  coalition  arranged  that 
Charles  Albert  should  be  crowned  as  emperor 
of  Germany,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VI, 
and  this  was  accomplished  at  Frankfort. 

Meanwhile,  Maria  Theresa  appealed  for 
help  to  the  Hungarian  Diet,  with  such  effect 
that  a  Hungarian  force  promptly  invaded 
Bavaria  and  captured  the  city  of  Munich. 
She  also  formed  an  alliance  with  England, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  English  gov- 
ernment furnished  her  with  money,  sent  a 
fleet  to  Naples  to  demand  the  withdrawal  of 
Neapolitan  troops  from  Austrian  ten'itory, 
and  supplied  a  portion  of  the  army  which 
defeated  the  French  forces  at  Dettingen 
(1743).  After  this  event  negotiations  for 
peace  were  begun,  but  with  so  little  success 
that  another  league  was  formed,  including 
England,  Holland,  Austria,  Saxony  and  Sar- 
dinia, and  a  general  European  war  broke 
out.  Among  the  more  important  events  of 
this  general  conflict  were  the  Second  Silesian 
War,  begun  by  Frederick  II;  an  attempted 
invasion  of  England  by  France,  in  favor  of 
the  Pretender,  and  the  brilliant  campaign 
in  the  Netherlands  conducted  by  Marshal 
Saxe,  terminating  (May,  1745),  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Fontenoy,  where  the  English  and 
allies  were  defeated.  In  1745,  however,  Em- 
peror Charles  VII  died,  and  his  son,  Maxi- 
milian  Joseph,   gave   up    all   claim   to   the 


SUCKER 


3460 


SUDAN 


Austrian  throne  and  concluded  peace  with 
that  country;  in  the  same  j-ear  the  husband 
of  Maria  Theresa  was  elected  emperor,  under 
the  name  of  Francis  I.  War  was  still  con- 
tinued against  Austria  by  the  French  forces 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  but  ultimately  a  defin- 
ite treaty  of  peace  between  all  the  powers 
was  signed  in  1748  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

The  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession. 
The  Elector  Maximilan  Joseph  of  Bavaria 
died  without  legitimate  issue  in  1777,  and 
Charles  Theodore,  the  Elector  Palatine,  suc- 
ceeded him.  Charles  also  was  without 
legitimate  heirs,  and  in  1778  he  made  an 
agreement  with.  Austria  whereby  Lower  Ba- 
varia was  to  be  transferred  to  Austria  and 
the  natural  children  of  Charles  were  to 
have  the  status  of  princes  of  the  empire. 
The  next  heir,  Charles,  Duke  of  Zwe'ibriicken, 
protested,  and  was  supported  by  the  king 
of  Prussia.  This  brought  on  the  war  of  the 
Bavarian  Succession,  which  was  settled  by 
compromise  before  any  serious  fighting  took 
place. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles    for  additional   information : 


Aix-la-Chapelle, 

Treaties  of 
Blenheim 
Charles  VI 
French  and  Indian 

Wars 


Frederick  II 

(the  Great) 
Louis  XIV  (France) 
Maria  Theresa 
Marlborough, 

Duke  of 
Pragmatic  Sanction 


SUCK'ER,  a  name  applied  popularly  to 
several  fish  because  of  the  manner  in  which 
they  use  their  mouths  in  eating.  The  best 
known  is  the  common  siicher  of  the  streams 
and  lakes  of  North  America.  There  are  sev- 
eral species,  none  of  which  is  very  large.  All 
have  roundish  mouths  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  head,  and  thick,  puckered  lips,  with 
which  they  suck  up  food  from  the  mud  of 
the  bottom.  In  some  places  they  are  veiy 
abundant,  but,  because  they  have  numerous 
small  bones,  they  are  not  much  eaten. 

SUCRE,  soo'kra,  the  official  capital  of 
the  republic  of  Bolivia,  known  locally  as 
Chuquisaca.  Though  it  is  the  official  seat 
of  government,  the  sessions  of  Congress  are 
held  at  La  Paz,  a  city  300  miles  northwest. 
However,  at  Sucre  is  the  Supreme  Tribunal 
of  Justice. 

The  city  is  situated  on  a  plateau,  about 
9,000  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  small  branch 
of  the  Pilcomayo  River.  The  principal  in- 
dustries of  the  vicinity  are  mining  and  agri- 
culture, the  latter  the  more  important.  Places 
of  interest  are  Saint  Xavier  University,  the 
oldest  university  in  South  America,  a  fine 


cathedral  and  the  President's  palace.  The 
city  was  settled  in  1536  by  the  Spaniards, 
who  called  it  La  Plata.  It  was  the  scene  of 
the  declaration  of  Bolivian  independence  in 
1825,  and  later  was  named  Sucre  in  honor  of 
the  republic's  first  President.  Population, 
1915.  estimated,  29.686. 

SUDAN,  or  SOUDAN,  soodahn',  an  ex- 
tensive region  in  the  central  part  of  Africa, 
south  of  the  Sahara.  Its  boundaries  are 
indefinite,  but  it  extends  from  the  Sahara 
Desert  in  the  north  to  the  Congo  Free  State 
on  the  south,  and  from  the  French  Sene- 
gambia  on  the  west  to  Egv'pt. 

European  Protectorates,  The  region  is  in- 
habited by  negro  and  Arab  tribes,  but  since 
1902  it  has  been  placed  under  the  protection 
of  European  powers.  The  eastern  part,  or 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  is  a  protectorate  of 
Great  Britain.  This  section  is  divided  into 
fifteen  provinces,  and  their  governors  are 
either  British  officers  of  the  Egv^ptian  army 
employed  under  the  Sudan  government,  or  are 
British  civil  officials.  Darfur,  a  district 
within  the  limits  of  the  English  Sudan,  is 
still  ruled  by  its  hereditary  sultan.  Anglo- 
Egj-ptian  Sudan  covers  an  area  of  about  1,- 
014,400  square  miles ;  its  population  in  1917 
was  estimated  at  3.400,000.  Its  chief  towns 
are  Khartum,  Omdurman  and  Port  Sudan. 

The  western  section  is  under  French  influ- 
ence, and  comprises  six  colonies,  notably  Sen- 
egal, French  Guinea  and  Dahomey.  These 
colonies  are  each  under  a  lieutenant-general 
of  all  the  colonies.  French  "West  Africa 
covers  an  area  of  1.478,000  square  miles,  with 
a  population  estimated  in  1915  to  be  12,438,- 
567.  English  and  French  influences  have 
been  very  effective  in  the  development  of 
the  Sudan  and  the  enlightenment  of  its  peo- 
ple. 

Topography.  Sudan  contains  lofty  moun- 
tains and  broad  plains,  which  are  in  some 
places  nearly  void  of  vegetation  and  in  others 
interspersed  with  patches  of  forest  and  open 
country.  Other  localities  are  characterized 
by  high  plateaus.  The  loftiest  mountain 
range  is  the  Adamawa,  whose  highest  sum- 
mit is  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Much  of  the 
Sudan  is  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
vegetation.  The  climate  is  hot,  and  in  the 
lowlands  along  the  coast  and  streams  it  is 
extremely  unhealthful  for  Europeans. 

Production  and  Commerce.  The  Sudan  is 
the  chief  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  gum 
arable  and  ivory.     Cotton,  sugar,  rice,  ba- 


SUDAN  GRASS 


3461 


SUEZ  CANAL 


nanas,  dates  and  other  tropical  fruits  are 
raised  and  exported.  From  the  dense  jungles 
of  Lake  Chad,  inhabited  by  wild  elephants, 
come  most  of  the  world's  supply  of  ivoiy. 
In  the  eastern  section,  where  there  is  less 
vegetation,  cattle,  camels,  sheep  and  ostriches 
are  raised;  the  ostrich  feathers  from  this  re- 
gion are  famed.  Gold  is  the  only  mineral 
which  at  present  is  being  mined  with  any  de- 
gree of  success,  although  iron  and  silver  are 
present  in  abundance. 

SUDAN  GRASS,  a  hay  grass  introduced  by 
the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture  into 
the  United  States  in  1909  from  Khartum, 
Sudan.  The  excellent  results  of  the  initial 
test  in  Texas  were  so  encouraging  that  thou- 
sands of  acres  were  subsequently  planted  in 
the  South  and  Southwest,  in  humid  as  well 
as  in  irrigated  areas. 

Sudan  grass  has  no  perennial  rootstock, 
which  eliminates  the  danger  of  its  becoming  a 
pest.  It  is  cultivated  annually  from  seed  as 
a  forage  plant  as  well  as  for  its  seed,  is  one 
of  the  best  drought-resisting  plants  known 
to  the  American  farmer,  and  thrives  in  almost 
any  soil.  The  first  crop  matures  in  from 
sixty  to  eighty  days;  and  from  two  or  three 
cuttings  of  hay  are  obtainable  each  year,  de- 
pending on  the  region  where  it  is  planted.  In 
Hawaii  it  is  considered  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful grass  introductions  ever  made. 

SUDERMANN,  Hermann  (1857-  ),  a 
German  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  at  Matz- 
sicken.  East  Prussia.  After  studying  at  the 
universities  of  Konigsberg  and  Berlin,  he 
became  a  tutor,  later  a  journalist,  and  in  1887 
published  his  first  collection  of  stories.  In 
the  following  year  he  wrote  the  novels  Dame 
Care  and  Begina  and  the  drama  Honor,  the 
last  of  which  brought  him  fame.  Magd<i,  his 
greatest  drama ;  The  Joy  of  Living,  a  power- 
ful play  dealing  with  the  struggle  between 
natural  selection  and  marital  obligation ;  and 
Es  War,  a  psychological  novel,  are  represent- 
ative. They  are  among  the  most  significant 
productions  in  present-day  German  literature, 
and  are  remarkable  alike  for  the  ideas  they 
embody,  for  style  and  for  the  virile  picture 
of  humanity  they  present.  Important  works 
not  already  mentioned  are  John  the  Baptist, 
The  Song  of  Songs,  The  Undying  Past  and 
two  collections  of  one-act  plays  entitled  re- 
spectively Bases  and  Morituri. 

SUE,  su,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene  (1804- 
1857),  a  French  novelist.  He  inherited  a  large 
fortune  from  his  father,  a  surgeon  in  Napo- 


leon's armj^,  and  after  studying  medicine  and 
practicing  for  a  time,  he  settled  at  Paris  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.    His  first  work 
was  a  sea  novel,  Kernock,  the  Pirate.     This 
was  quickly  followed  by  PUck  and  Plock, 
Atar-Gull,  The  Salamander  and  the  Lookout 
of  Koatven.     Sue  wrote  some  historical  fic- 
tion, but  his  most  famous  works  are  The  Mys- 
teries  of  Paris   and   The    Wandering   Jew, 
books  dealing  with  the  mysterious  and  super- 
natural.   His  later  novels  are  The  Foundling, 
The  Seven  Capital  Sins  and  The  Mysteries 
of  the  People.    In  1850  Sue  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  as  an  advanced  radical. 
SUEZ,  soo  ez',  a  seaport  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  seventy-six  miles 
east  of  Cairo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
rail;  it  is  also  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Suez    Canal.      Despite    the    improvements 
which  the  opening  of  the  canal  brought  in 
its  train,  as  well  as  its  increased  population 
and  apparent  commercial  importance,  Suez 
has  remained  dirty  and  unattractive.     It  has 
never  regained  its  former  position  as  a  pros- 
perous trade  center  for  the  Orient,  as  it  is 
but  little  affected  by  the  vast  commerce  of 
the  canal.     Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of 
sun-dried  brick.     The  city  contains  a  num- 
ber of  mosques  and,  in  the  European  quarter, 
several   substantial   hotels,    warehouses   and 
modern  structures.   Population,  1917,  31,000. 
SUEZ  CANAL,  a  ship  canal  across  the 
Isthmus   of   Suez,   connecting  the  Mediter- 


ASIA    MINOR 


THE  SUEZ  CANAL 

ranean  with  the  Red  Sea.  It  extends  from 
Port  Said,  on  the  Mediterranean,  to  Suez, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  a  distance  of  one  hun- 


SUFFRAGE 


3462 


SUGAR 


dred  miles,  and  is  the  longest  ship  canal  in 
the  world.  About  sixty  miles  of  the  channel 
is  through  shallow  lakes.  It  is  a  sea-level 
canal  and  has  no  locks.  Work  on  it  was  be- 
gun in  1859,  and  the  structure  was  completed 
in  ten  years.  The  original  expense  was  about 
$95,000,000. 

The  Suez  Canal  was  undertaken  and 
carried  to  completion  under  the  direction  of 
Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  a  French  en- 
gineer. Its  construction  shortened  the  sail- 
ing distance  between  England  and  India 
more  than  5,000  miles,  and  it  has  materially 
increased  the  traflBe  between  European  and 
Asiatic  countries.  The  carml  is  lighted  by 
electric  lights,  so  that  ships  can  navigate  it 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  About  4,000  ves- 
sels pass  through  it  each  year,  and  the  annual 
tolls  amount  fo  about  $25,000,000^  It  is 
under  the  management  of  an  international 
commission  and  in  times  of  peace  is  open  to 
ships  of  all  nations  on  equal  tenns.  During 
the  World  War  Germany  made  several  at- 
tempts to  destroy  the  canal  and  thus  cripple 
Great  Britain,  but  the  efforts  failed.  See 
Caxal. 

SUFFRAGE,  suffraje,  in  a  representative 
government,  is  the  act  or  right  of  a  qualified 
voter  to  participate  in  the  election  of  officers 
or  in  the  making  or  approval  of  laws  by  the 
initiative  and  referendum.  The  general  idea 
of  suffrage  is  traced  to  the  origin  of  the  jury 
system.  The  principal  Cjualifications  now  re- 
quired for  suffrage  are  intellectual  ability, 
property  possession,  moral  character  and 
residence.  Xot  all  states  lay  such  restrictions, 
and  no  state  requires  all  of  them. 

Suffrage  in  the  United  States.  At  vari- 
ous times  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States 
all  the  above  restrictions  were  in  force,  with 
the  addition  of  religious  affiliation.  In 
colonial  days  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  men 
were  given  the  voting  power,  because  of 
religion  and  property  qualifications  and  re- 
ligious distinctions.  These  bars  were  grad- 
ually lifted.  The  Federal  Constitution  has 
always  recognized  the  right  of  each  individual 
state  to  decide  upon  whom  the  right  to  vote 
shall  be  conferred,  but  specifically  specifies 
that  "race,  color,  or  prerious  condition  of 
sei-vitude"  shall  not  disqualify  any  citizen  of 
his  right  of  franchise. 

The  attainment  of  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years  is  a  qualification  for  voting  in  every 
state.  Except  in  a  few  states  where,  for 
local  reasons,  special  educational  and  proper- 


Short  Ballot 

;  Woman  Suffrage 


ty  tests  are  exacted,  universal  manhood 
suffrage  exists  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 
An  amendment  to  the  Constitution  granting 
suffrage  to  women  passed  both  houses  of  Con- 
gress in  1919  and  awaited  ratification  by  the 
requisite  number  of  state  legislatures. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Australian  Ballot 
Ballot 

Election 

J-pn  r^UGAR,  one  of  the  most 
•:f\  J  ^^  essential  articles  of  food, 
'.'iW,.^  is  found  in  the  juices  of 
many  plants,  but  in 
only  a  few  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  make  its 
extraction  commercially 
profitable.  These  are 
sugar  cane,  sorghum,  the 
sugar  beet  and  the  sugar 
maple.  Small  quantities 
are  sometimes  obtained 
from  the  coeoanut  and 
other  palms.  The  sugar 
of  commerce  is  practi- 
cally all  obtained  from 
sugar  cane  and  beets. 
Cane  Sugar.  This  is 
prepared  from  the  sugar  cane.  The 
leading  countries  in  the  production  of  this 
plant  are  Cuba,  Java,  Porto  Rico,  Brazil, 
Argentina  and  certain  sections  of  the 
United  States,  particularly  Louisiana  and 
Hawaii.  The  cane  found  in  the  tropical 
regions  is  the  richest  in  sugar.  That  of 
the  West  Indies  furnishes  about  225  pounds 
of  sugar  to  a  ton  of  cane,  while  that  from 
Louisiana  jdelds  only  about  160  pounds. 
In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  the  cane  is 
first  crushed  between  heavy  rollers,  which 
press  out  the  juice.  The  rollers  are  in 
two  or  three  sets,  called  mills,  each  mill  so 
adjusted  that  it  presses  the  cane  harder 
than  the  one  before  it.  As  the  crushed 
stalks  pass  from  one  mill  to  another,  they 
are  moistened  with  water  of  varv'ing  tem- 
perature, in  order  that  the  remaining  juices 
may  be  liberated;  the  crushed  stalks,  or 
hagasse,  are  used  for  fuel  under  the  boilers. 
By  this  process  about  nine-tenths  of  all  the 
cane  sugar  is  manufactured.  The  juice  is 
immediately  treated  with  sulphurous  acid 
gas,  and  it  is  then  mixed  with  lime;  the 
gas  bleaches  it  and  permits  excessive  lim- 
ing, which  materially  aids  in  the  clarifica- 
tion    of     the     juice     and     prevents     the 


SUGAR 


3463 


SUGAR 


separation  into  grape  sugar  and  cane 
sugar.  The  juice  is  then  filtered,  after 
which  it  is  ready  for  reduction  by  evapora- 
tion. 

For  the  first  sugars,  the  juice,  after  being 
reduced  to  a  synip  in  evaporators,  is  boiled 
at  a  low  temperature  in  vacuum  j^ans  until  the 
water  is  all  driven  off  and  eiystallization  takes 
place,  forming  a  masscuite,  which  is  pure 
sugar  mixed  with  a  small  per  cent  of  syrup. 
This  masscuite  is  dropped  into  a  mixer,  where 
it  is  stirred  and  kept  from  caking  by  revolving 
paddles.  From  the  mixer  it  is  fed  to  revolv- 
ing cylinders  called  centrifugals^  on  the  sides 


sections  in  the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  re- 
gions. Beets,  on  the  other  hand,  thrive  in 
temperate  regions  and  over  a  much  wider 
area.  The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  was  one 
of  the  important  industries  in  France  and 
Germany  before  the  "World  War,  and  it  was 
suspended  only  during  the  period  of  that 
conflict.  Sugar  beets  are  successfully  grown 
in  a  number  of  the  states  of  the  United  States 
and  the  quantity  of  beet  sugar  manufactured 
in  that  country  is  increasing  from  year  to 
year.  Michigan,  Colorado,  Nebraska,  Califor- 
nia and  Arizona  are  among  the  leading  states 
engaged  in  the  industry.    In  the  manufacture 


SUGAR  PRODUCING  REGIONS 


of  which  is  a  basket  of  wire  netting.  As  the 
cylinder  revolves  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  the 
masscuite  is  washed,  the  amount  of  washing 
varying  with  the  quality  of  the  sugar  manu- 
factured. The  liquid  portion'  is  forced  out 
through  the  meshes  of  the  basket,  and  this, 
after  several  reboilings,  constitutes  the  mo- 
lasses of  commerce.  The  solid  crystals  of 
sugar  are  left  within  the  centrifugal.  The 
sugar  is  then  dropped  on  to  conveyors  and 
taken  to  the  granulator  to  be  thoroughly 
dried,  the  granulator  being  a  revolving  cylin- 
der heated  by  steam,  through  which  the  sugar 
is  fed  by  gravity.  Sugar  thus  made  is  placed 
on  the  market  as  granulated  sugar.  Loaf 
sugar  is  made  by  packing  the  fresh  sugar  in 
molds,  where  it  is  allowed  to  form  blocks, 
which  are  sawed  to  the  desired  shape.  Cheaper 
grades  of  sugar,  known  as  seconds  and  thirds, 
are  made  from  the  syrups  taken  from  the 
first  sugars.  The  first  is  placed  on  the  mar- 
ket as  coffee  sugar,  and  the  latter  is  known 
as  hroion  sugar;  both  are  sold  principally  to 
the  large  refineries. 

Beet  Sugar.     Climate  and  soil  limit  the 
area  in  which  sugar  cane  can  grow  to  certain 


of  beet  sugar  the  diffusion  process  is  used. 
The  beets  are  first  sliced  by  machinery,  then 
placed  in  iron  cells,  where  a  constant  circu- 
lation of  water  is  kept  up,  the  juice  being 
drawn  from  the  cell  holding  the  fresh  chips, 
and  the  fresh  water  being  introduced  into  the 
last  of  a  series  of  cells,  just  before  dropping 
the  chips.  The  liquid  thus  obtained  is  first 
treated  with  carbonic  acid  gas;  it  is  then 
mixed  with  lime,  after  which  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  forced  through  it  a  second  time.  The  gas 
combines  with  the  lime  and  other  impurities 
and  causes  them  to  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank.  The  liquid  is  then  passed  through  bag 
filters,  when  it  is  ready  for  evaporation.  The 
remaining  processes  are  the  same  as  those  used 
in  making  cane  sugar.  A  ton  of  beets  will 
make  from  320  to  400  pounds  of  sugar.  The 
waste  chips  are  fed  to  cattle. 

Maple  Sugar.  Maple  sugar  is  obtained  from 
the  sap  of  the  sugar,  or  rock,  maple  and  it  is 
highly  prized  on  account  of  its  delicate  flavor. 
The  sugar  season  begins  in  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  sap  commences  to  circulate  in 
the  trees.  The  sap  is  obtained  by  boring  a 
small  hole  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  from  an 


SUGAR 


3464 


SUGAR 


Outline  and  Questions  on  Sugar 

(d)   Annual    importation   of 
sugar 
(e)   Annual  consumption  of  in- 
dividual. 
III.  By-Product3 

(1)  Molasses  and  Syrups 
(a)   Sorghum 


I.  Sources 

(1)   Sugar  Cane 

(a)  Where  grown 

(1)  United  States 

(2)  Other  countries 

(b)  Description 

(1)  Height 

(2)  Leaves 

(3)  Resembles  what  plant? 

(c)  Sugar  mills 

(1)  Processes 

(2)  Crushing  stalks 

(3)  Reduction  of  sap 
(4) Refining,  etc. 

(d)  Products 

(1)  Granulated  sugar 

(2)  Loaf  sugar 

(3)  Brown  or  raw  sugar 

(2)  Beets 

(a)  Where  grown 

(1)  United  States 

(2)  Other  countries 

(b)  Sugar  factories 

(1)  Processes 

(2)  Slicing  beets 

(3)  Drawing  juice 

(4)  Refining,  etc. 

(3)  Maple  Sap 

(a)  Where  produced? 

(b)  Season 

(c)  Securing  sap 

(d)  Sugar-making    (see  sugar 

cane) 

(e)  Flavor,  value,  etc. 

(4)  Sorghum 

(a)  Resembles  what  plant? 

(b)  Process   (see  sugar  cane) 

(c)  Product 

(1)  SjTup 

(2)  Sugar — ^not  of  commercial 
importance 

II.  Sugar  Refineries 

(1)  Location  of 

(2)  Work  of  refining 

(3)    Annual    output   of    cane    sugar, 

beet  sugar 
(4)  United  States 

(a)  Annual  output  of  cane  sugar 

(b)  Annual  output  of  beet  sugar 

(c)  Annual    consumption    of 
si;s:ar 


(b)  New  Orleans  molasses 

(c)  Foundation  for  all  syrups 

(2)  Bagasse 

(3)  Beet  chips 

Questions  on  Sugar 

How  many  jiounds  of  sugar  are  made 
from  a  ton  of  beets?  From  a  ton  of  West 
India  cane?     Louisiana  cane? 

What  is  the  sugar  you  use  daily  made 
from — beets,  sugar  cane  or  maple  sap? 

How  is  loaf  sugar  made? 

In  what  cities  are  some  of  the  sugar  re- 
fineries located  in  the  United  States? 

What  are  the  chief  uses  of  maple  sugar? 

What  is  sorghum?  Why  is  not  the 
cane  suitable  for  sugar? 

Wliat  do  we  mean  by  raw  sugar? 
Brown  sugar? 

What  countries  lead  in  the  raising  of 
sugar  cane? 

Plow  does  the  cane  in  the  tropics  com- 
pare with  that  of  cooler  climates?  , 

What  becomes  of  the  crushed  stalks? 

Upon  what  does  the  growth  of  the  sugar 
cane  depend  largely? 

For  how  long  a  period  does  one  plant- 
ing last?     Is  this  an  important  factor? 

What  is  done  with  the  beets  after  ex- 
traction of  the  sugar?  With  the  cane 
stalks? 

What  color  is  the  raw  sugar?  What  is 
used  to  whiten  it? 

Is  a  maple  tree  injured  by  tapping  for 
its  sap? 

Why  can  cane  sugar  not  be  grown  in 
cool  climates? 

Is  there  extensive  production  of  sugar 
beets  in  any  cbuntiy  except  the  L^nited 
States? 

Is  any  sugar  cane  grown  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Epurope? 

Will  cane  for  sorghum  grow  farther 
north  than  sugar  cane? 


1,  Sugar  Beets. 

2,  Blossom,  Sugar  Cane,  enlarged. 


SUGAR 

3,  Leaf  of  Sugar  Cane. 

4,  Leaf  and  Fruit,  Sugar  Maple. 

5,  Blossom,  Sugar  Maple. 


6,  Maple-Sugar  Orchard. 

7,  Sugar  Cane. 


SUGAR 


3465 


SUGAR  CANE 


inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  placing  in  this 
an  iron  spile,  containing  a  hook,  to  which  a 
bucket  is  attached.  The  sap  drips  through  the 
spile  into  the  bucket.  The  sap  is  collected 
and  evaporated  in  the  sugar  houses,  con- 
structed specially  for  the  purpose.  The  evap- 
orating apparatus  is  constructed  on  such  a 
plan  that  the  sap  flows  in  at  one  end  and 
the  syrup  flows  out  at  the  other.    Four  gallons 

Cane   Sugar 

Cubs  ()f,>^.y.,n:^M,,\i.',^-J^-^^^  2875 

British   India    ^,MU^'if4«iAuisik.iii)mi        2704 

Java        0-~.^..,-i^.wL^  1578 

Hawaii  (Oa  579      Porto  Rico  cei 38 1 

Beet  Sugar     rX^ 

Germanyi^  '^^  2911    RussiaV4i.l52l 

Austri^^l340     FrancTX^BlQ 

Maple  Sugar 

Quebec  ^^  7     Vermont  ^^  4 
Ontario  ^  2^     New  York  ^  2 

Figures  represent  thousands  of  short  tons. 

SUGAR    PRODUCTION 

The  source   of  the    greater  proportion 
of  three  kinds  of  sugar. 

of  sap  make  a  pound  of  sugar.  Maple  sugar 
is  placed  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  syrup 
and  sugar.  It  is  now  used  only  as  a  delicacy 
and  commands  a  very  high  price.  The  leading 
states  in  its  production  are  Vermont,  New 
York  and  Ohio.  The  province  of  Quebec  now 
holds  the  first  place  in  the  production  of  this 
delicacy. 

Sorghum.  This  is  a  variety  of  cane  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  syrup.  It  will  grow  in 
much  cooler  climates  than  sugar  cane,  but  the 
amount  of  sugar  obtained  from  it  is  not  suflS- 
cient  to  be  worthy  of  consideration,  when 
compared  with  the  sugar  made  from  cane 
and  beets.  The  sap  is  suitable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  syrup  only,  and  the  process  used 
is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cane  sugar. 

Refining.  Much  of  the  sugar  imported  into 
the  United  States  is  received  in  the  crude 
form,  known  as  raw  sugar.  This  is  dissolved 
in  water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  lime  has 
been  added.  This  solution  is  then  heated  by 
steam  and  passed  through  filters  which  consist 
of  deep  vats  with  perforated  bottoms  contain- 


ing a  thick  layer  of  animal  ?harcoal.  The  fil- 
ter removes  the  coloring  matter.  The  s\Tup 
is  collected  underneath  the  tanks  and  boiled  in 
vacuiun  pans,  until  the  water  has  been  driven 
off  and  ciystallization  takes  place.  The  mass- 
cuite  is  then  treated  the  same  as  that  from 
cane  and  beet  sugar  in  the  preparation  of 
granulated  sugar.  The  largest  sugar  refiner- 
ies in  the  United  States  are  located  in  New 
York,  New  Orleans,  Philadelphia  and  San 
Francisco. 

SUGAR  CANE,  a  plant  of  the  grass  family 
from  which  about  one-half  of  the  sugar  of 
commerce  is  obtained.  Sugar  cane  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  native  of  the  tropical  regions  in 
Asia,  but  it  is  not  at  present  found  in  the 
wild  state.  In  general  appearance  sugar  cane 
resembles  maize  or  Indian  corn.  It  gi-ows  to 
heights  varying  from  five  to  eighteen  feet,  ac- 
cording to  soil,  climate  and  cultivation.  The 
stalks  vary  from  one  to  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  are  jointed  like  com  stalks.  At 
each  joint  there  is  a  bud  or  eye,  which,  when 
the  cane  is  planted,  sprouts  and  produces  a 
new  plant.  The  leaves  grow  to  about  three 
feet  in  length  and  are  about  two  inches  wide 
at  the  base,  tapering  gracefully  to  a  point; 
they  resemble  leaves  of  corn. 

When  young  the  plant  presents  a  fresh, 
green  appearance,  but  as  it  matures  some  of 
the  leaves  turn  a  purplish  hue,  and  those  at 
the  bottom  turn  yellow,  wither  and  fall  off. 
The  illustration  in  the  color  plate  is  of  a  ma- 
ture plant,  such  as  grows  in  the  tropics. 
Further  north  the  sugar  cane  is  a  forced  plant 
and  does  not  blossom. 

Sugar  cane  is  grown  extensively  in  the  trop- 
ical regions  of  Asia,  Cuba  and  other  West 
Indian  Islands,  Hawaii  and  Louisiana  and  to 
a  less  extent  in  several  countries  of  Europe 
and  the  other  Gulf  states.  The  soil  should  be 
verv  fertile  and  carefully  prepared.  In  this 
country  the  soil  is  plowed  and  thrown  up  into 
ridges  from  five  to  seven  feet  apart.  A  deep 
furrow  is  plowed  in  the  top  of  the  ridge,  and 
the  cane  is  laid  on  this  for  covering.  The 
best  results  are  obtained  by  planting  only  the 
upper  joints  of  the  cane.  Two  or  three 
cuttings  may  be  laid  side  by  side  in  the  fur- 
row. The  cane  is  covered  with  a  plow  and 
sometimes  the  ground  is  rolled.  In  Louisi- 
ana it  requires  about  eight  months  for  the 
crop  to  mature.  During  gi-owth  the  land  is 
frequently  cultivated  to  keep  it  free  from 
weeds  and  to  prevent  evaporation. 


SUICIDE 


3466 


SULLIVAN 


At  harvest  time  the  cane  is  cut  about  two 
inches  from  the  gi'ound  and  stripped  of 
leaves.  The  top  is  then  cut  off  and  the  stalks 
are  piled  in  rows  for  hauling  to  the  factory. 
In  Cuba  and  other  tropical  countries  where 
there  is  no  danger  from  frost,  the  crop  is 
allowed  from  ten  to  eighteen  months  in  which 
to  mature.  Small  crops  are  obtained  from 
one  planting,  but  the  first  crop  is  the  most 
valuable  and  for  good  results  the  field  should 
be  replanted  eveiy  third  year.    See  Sugae. 

SUICIDE,  su'i  cide,  the  act  of  intentionally 
taking  one's  own  life.  Statistics  on  suicide  are 
by  no  means  complete ;  for,  owing  to  the  igno- 
miny which  society  attaches  to  the  deed  and, 
in  places,  to  the  law's  manner  of  dealing  with 
it,  many  cases  of  suicide  are  not  reported  as 
such.  The  records  available  present  such  an 
unaccountable  array  of  facts  as  to  jnake  them 
merely  interesting.  It  is  shown  that  four 
males  commit  suicide  to  one  female;  most  of 
them  between  the  ages  of  fifty-five  and  sixty- 
five;  that  single  people  have  a  stronger  ten- 
dency than  married  persons  to  self-destruc- 
tion. It  seems  that  suicides  are  much  more 
frequent  among  civilized  than  among  barba- 
rous peoples ;  and  that  among  the  former  the 
highest  percentage  of  suicides  are  in  the  ranks 
of  those  who  work  with  their  heads  rather 
than  with  their  hands.  The  professions,  the 
arts,  business  administration  and  the  anuy 
claim  a  large  percentage. 

These  facts  go  to  show  that  suicide  is  not  an 
indication  of  mental  weakness,  and  the  con- 
clusion is  further  supported  by  the  lives  of 
some  of  the  world's*  gi'eatest  men  who  com- 
mitted suicide  or  contemplated  it.  That 
country  which  shows  the  highest  percentage 
of  suicides  is  Saxony;  the  lowest,  Ireland. 
Undoubtedly  if  there  were  records  for  com- 
parison it  would  be  found  that  suicides  among 
Asiatics  are  more  frequent  than  among  West- 
ern peoples,  Christianity  being  a  deterrent  in- 
fluence, while  some  Eastern  religions  have 
favored  self-destruction.  Until  very  recent 
times  the  laws  of  China  and  Japan  per- 
mitted a  certain  class  of  criminals  to  perform 
their  own  execution  by  "hara  kiri"  (which 
see). 

The  manner  of  ending  one's  life  seems  to 
depend  largely  on  environment.  In  cities 
death  by  gas  or  jumping  from  high  buildings 
is  not  unusual;  in  warm  countries  drowning 
is  most  frequently  resorted  to.  Poisoning  and 
shooting  are  frequent  means  to  the  end 
sought. 


The  facts  as  stated  point  to  no  external 
cause  of  suicide,  but  indicate,  rather,  indi- 
vidual reaction  to  circumstance.  Despond- 
ency is  a  chief  cause  of  suicide  in  America. 
Jealousy  drives  many  to  suicide;  brooding 
over  religion  is  also  a  cause.  In  general,  it 
may  be  stated  that  lack  of  intellectual  diver- 
sion is  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  sui- 
cide. The  person  who  has  healthy  interests 
and  who  cultivates  an  altruistic  attitude  to- 
wards his  fellows,  is  not  likely  to  die  by  his 
own  hand. 

SULEIMAN  II,  soo'ldh  malm.  See  Soly- 
MAN  II. 

SUL'LA,  Lucius  Cornelius  (138-78  b.  c), 
a  Roman  statesman  and  general.  He  served 
with  distinction  under  Marius  in  the  Jugur- 
thine  and  Cimbrian  wars  and  was  chosen 
praetor.  For  his  services  in  the  Social  War, 
he  was  appointed  consul  in  88  B.  c,  and  the 
Province  of  Asia  with  the  conduct  of  the  war 
against  Mithridates,  fell  to  his  lot.  Marius 
also  wanted  this  command,  and  to  carry  his 
point  he  resorted  to  acts  of  violence,  by  which 
Sulla  was  compelled  to  escape  from  Rome. 
But  Sulla  reentered  the  city  at  the  head  of 
his  army,  drove  Marius  to  Africa  and  then 
sailed  for  the  East  at  the  beginning  of  87 
B.  c.  He  expelled  the  armies  of  Mithridates 
from  Europe,  crossed  into  Asia  and  was 
everywhere  victorious,  gaining  wealth  for 
himself  and  his  soldiers  and  forcing  Mithri- 
dates to  conclude  a  peace.  Sulla  now 
hastened  to  Italy,  where,  although  Marius  was 
dead,  the  Marian  party  was  still  strong,  and 
after  a  number  of  combats,  he  entered  Rome 
in  triumph  in  82.  He  put  to  death  thousands 
of  his  enemies  throughout  Italy,  had  himself 
declared  dictator  and  then  ruled  without  re- 
straint, repealed  and  made  laws,  abolished  the 
tribuneship  and  settled  his  veterans  in  various 
parts  of  Italy.  In  79  he  laid  down  his  dicta- 
torship and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  re- 
tirement.   See  IMarius^  Caius. 

SUL'LIVAN,  Arthur  Seymour,  Sir 
(1842-1900),  an  English  musician,  born  in 
London.  He  completed  his  musical  education 
at  the  Roj'al  Academy  of  Music.  In  1858  he 
went  to  Leipzig,  and  on  his  return,  in  1862, 
he  at  once  attracted  attention  by  his  music  to 
Shakespeare's  Temj^est.  He  wrote  several 
oratorios  and  many  songs  and  anthems,  one 
of  the  most  famous  being  The  Lost  Chord. 
Perhaps  his  most  popular  compositions  were 
the  burlesque  operettas  which  he  produced  in 
collaboration  with  W.  S.  Gilbert,    Among  the 


SULPHATES 


3467 


SULPHUR 


most  popular  are  Pinafore,  Pirates  of  Pen- 
zance and  the  Mikado.  One  of  his  finest 
compositions  was  written  for  an  arrangement 
of  Longfellow's  Golden  Legend.  He  was 
knighted  in  1883. 

SULPHATES,  suV fate's,  salts  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Of  the  sulphates,  some  are  very  soluble, 
some  sparingly  soluble  and  some  insoluble. 
The  most  important  sulphates  are  sulphate  of 
aluminum  and  potassium,  or  alum;  sulphate 
of  ammonium,  employed  for  making  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia;  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue 
vitriol,  much  used  in  surgery  and  in  dyeing, 
and  for  preparing  certain  green  coloring  mat- 
ters; sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  vitriol,  used 
in  making  ink  and  very  extensively  used  in 
dyeing,  in  calico  printing  and  in  medicine; 
sulphate  of  manganese,  used  in  calico  print- 
ing ;  sulphate  of  quinine,  much  used  in  medi- 
cine; sulphate  of  zinc,  or  white  vitriol,  used 
in  surgery,  in  the  preparation  of  drying  oils 
for  varnishes  and  in  calico  printing. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Alum  Epsom  Salt 

Barium  Glauber's  Salt 
Blue  Vitriol  Gypsum 

Calcium  Strontium 

Calomel  Sulphuric  Acid 

SULPHUR,  one  of  the  non-metallic  ele- 
ments, easily  recognized  by  its  light  yellow 
color  and  peculiar  odor,  often  experienced 
in  the  burning  of  a  match.  Because 
of  the  low  temperature  at  which  it 
burns  it  was  formerly  called  brimstone, 
which  means  hurn  stone.  Sulphur  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  ages.  It  occurs  in  a 
pure  state,  in  beds  of  gypsum  or  clay,  usu- 
ally in  volcanic  regions.  It  also  forms  many 
compounds,  some  of  which  are  valuable  ores 
as  pyrite,  sulphide  of  iron,  galena,  sulphide 
of  lead  and  cinnabar,  or  sulphide  of  mercury. 
Pure  sulphur  is  commonly  met  with  in  two 
forms — as  a  compact,  brittle  solid,  and  as  a 
fine  powder.  It  is  nearly  tasteless,  and 
when  rubbed  or  melted  it  emits  a  peculiar 
odor.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  is  not 
very  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  it  is 
taken  up  by  spirits  of  turpentine,  by  many 
oils  and  by  carbon  disulphide.  It  is  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity  and  is  readily  melted 
and  volatilized;  it  melts  at  232°  F.,  and  be- 
tween 232°  and  280°  it  possesses  the  greatest 
degree  of  fluidity.  It  possesses  the  peculiar 
property  of  solidifying  at  a  higher  degree,  or 
when  raised  to  320°.  From  480°  to  its  boil- 
ing point  (792°)  it  again  becomes  fluid, 
and  at  792  °  it  rises  in  vapor,  which  condenses 


in  close  vessels  in  the  form  of  a  fine,  yellow 
powder,  called  flowers  of  sulphur.  The  roll 
sulphur  of  commerce  is  made  by  pouring 
melted  sulphur  into  cylindrical  molds,  where 
it  is  cast. 

Where  Sulphur  is  Found.  Formerly  nearly 
all  the  sulphur  of  commerce  came  from 
Sicily,  where  there  ai-e  large  deposits  in  a 
pure  state;  but  a  few  years  ago  a  valuable 
deposit  of  pure  sulphur  was  discovered  in 
Calcasieu  Parish,  Louisiana,  and  now  Louisi- 
ana leads  in  the  production.  The  deposit 
covers  an  area  of  seventy  acres,  is  110  feet 
thick  and  lies  from  100  to  150  feet  below  the 
surface.  This  bed  lies  in  the  midst  of  an 
extensive  alluvial  region  and  bears  testi- 
mony to  the  tremendous  volcanic  activity  of 
some  remote  geological  era.  In  extraction 
the  sulphur  is.  melted  with  compressed 
steam;  then  the  melted  portion  is  pumped 
to  the  surface,  where  it  is  allowed  to  cool 
in  large  masses,  which  are  broken  up  and 
loaded  on  to  cars.  Sulphur  is  also  found 
in  various  places  in  Italy,  in  the  Caucasus, 
in  upper  Egypt,  Japan,  New  Zealand  and 
several  other  places. 

Compounds  of  Sulphur.  Besides  the  ores 
mentioned  above  sulphur  forms  a  large  num- 
ber of  compounds,  some  of  which  are  exten- 
sively used  in  the  arts.  When  burned  in  the 
air  it  unites  with  oxygen,  forming  sidpliur 
dioxide,  a  colorless  gas  with  a  suffocating 
odor  always  associated  with  burning  sulphur. 
When  moist  this  gas  bleaches  vegetable 
colors,  and  it  is  used  in  bleaching  such  fab- 
rics as  chlorine  and  other  bleaching  agents 
injure. 

Hydrogen  sulphide,  or  as  it  is  more  com- 
monly called,  sulphureted  hydrogen,  is  the 
gas  usually  found  in  the  water  of  sulphur 
springs,  and  is  readily  recognized  by  its 
disagreeable  odor. 

Carbon  disidphide  is  a  volatile  liquid,  with 
a  poisonous  vapor,  produced  by  the  action 
of  sulphur  upon  carbon  at  high  temperatures. 
It  is  used  for  dissolving  rubber  and  gutta- 
percha, for  extracting  essential  oils  from 
plants  and  seeds  and  for  extracting  bitu- 
men from  minerals. 

Ferrous  sidphate,  commonly  known  as 
copperas,  or  green  vitriol,  is  extensively  used 
in  dyeing  and  in  the  manufacture  of  pig- 
ments and  ink.  Copper  sulphate,  or  blue 
vitriol,  is  the  most  useful  compound  of  sul- 
phur and  copper.  It  is  used  extensively  in 
electric  batteries,  in  electroplating,  in  calico 


SULPHURETED  HYDROGEN 


3468 


SULU  ISLANDS 


priuting  and  dyeing,  and  for  ijreserving  tim- 
ber. But  the  most  useful  of  all  comj^ounds 
of  sulphur  is  sulphuric  acid  (which  see). 
.  Uses  of  Sulphur.  The  most  extensive  use 
of  pure  sulphur  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Next  in  importance  is  its 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  g-unpowder  and 
other  explosives,  and  in  fireworks.  It  is  also 
extensively  used  in  vulcanizing  rubber.  In 
medicine  it  is  used  internally  as  a  laxative 
and  as  a  remedy  in  rheumatism.  It  is  used 
externally  as  an  ointment  in  certain  skin 
diseases.  Sulphur  is  an  important  ingredi- 
ent of  the  human  system;  it  is  estimated  that 
the  body  of  a  healthy  adult  contains  about 
one-fourth  pound  of  it  in  combination. 

SULPHURETED  HYDROGEN,  siiVfu 
ret  eel  hi'  dro  jen,  or  HYDROGEN  SUL- 
PHIDE, std'fide,  a  colorless,  inflammable  gas, 
a  compound  of  sulphur  and  hydrogen.  It 
occurs  in  some  mineral  waters  and  as  a  vol- 
canic gas,  and  forms  wherever  albuminous 
substances  containing  sulphur  are  allowed  to 
decompose.  In  the  laboratory  it  is  pro- 
duced by  causing  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  to  act  on  iron  sulphide.  It  gives  to 
water  a  sweetish  taste  and  to  air  the  odor 
of  rotten  eggs.  The  gas  is  veiy  poisonous, 
and  even  a  little  of  it  in  the  air  is  dangerous 
when  breathed.  "When  mixed  with  one  and 
one-half  volumes  of  oxj^gen  and  ignited  it 
explodes.  A  strip  of  filter  paper  soaked  in  a 
solution  of  lead  acetate  on  exposure  to  the 
gas  turns  brown  or  black.  This  is  a  good 
test  to  discover  the  presence  of  the  gas.  Sul- 
phureted  hydrogen  is  extensivel}'  used  in 
analytical  chemistry. 

SULPHURIC,  sidfu'rik,  ACID,  the  acid 
most  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  is  a  com- 
pound of  sulphur  trioxide  and  water.  Pure 
sulphuric  acid  is  a  dense,  oily,  colorless  fluid, 
exceedingly  acid  and  corrosive,  decomposing 
all  animal  and  vegetable  substances  by  the 
aid  of  heat.  It  unites  with  alkaline  sub- 
stances and  separates  most  of  the  other  acids 
from  their  combinations  with  the  alkalies.  It 
has  a  very  great  affinity  for  water  and  unites 
with  it  in  every  proportion,  producing  great 
heat;  it  attracts  moisture  strongly  from  the 
atmosphere,  becoming  rapidly  weaker  if  ex- 
posed. The  sulphuric  acid  of  commerce  is 
never  pure,  but  it  may  be  purified  by  distil- 
lation. "With  bases,  sulphuric  acid  fonns 
salts  called  sulphates,  some  of  which  are  neu- 
tral and  others  acid.  A  very  strong  form  of 
sulphuric  acid,  known  as  Nordhaiisen  acid, 


is  prepared  by  heating  green  vitriol  in  closed 
vessels.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  arts  for  dis- 
solving indigo. 

Uses.  Sulphuric  acid  is  used  extensively 
in  the  arts  and  is,  in  fact,  the  chief  agent  for 
obtaining  most  of  the  other  acids,  by  extrac- 
tion fi'om  salt.  In  the  chemical  laboratory, 
the  uses  to  which  it  is  put  are  innumerable, 
and  in  the  separation  of  copper,  cobalt,  nickel, 
silver  and  platinum  from  their  ores,  it  is  an 
important  agent.  Phosphorus,  bromine, 
iodine,  ether,  starch,  glucose,  sugar,  phos- 
phorescent drinks,  parchment  paper,  cellu- 
loid, nitroglycerine,  guncotton,  coal  tar  colors 
and  many  dyes  are  all  prepared  by  its  aid. 
It  is  used  in  calico  printing  and  in  tanning, 
in  dyeing,  in  refining  tallow  and  many  of  the 
oils  and  in  the  preparation  of  all  the  sul- 
phates. "When  to  all  these  important  uses  we 
add  its  function  as  a  medicinal  agent,  it  is 
evident  that  sulphuric  acid  is  really  the  most 
important  of  all  the  acids. 

Manufacture.  Sulphuric  acid  is  manu- 
factured on  a  large  scale  by  burning  sulphur 
or  iron  pjTites  in  a  furnace  and  conducting 
the  fumes  with  oxide  of  nitrogen  into  cham- 
bers lined  with  lead  and  containing  steam. 
The  sulphur  dioxide  formed  by  the  burning 
sulphur  takes  an  atom  of  oxygen  from  the 
nitric  oxide  and  becomes  sulphur  trioxide. 
This  unites  with  the  steam  and  forms  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  gathers  on  the  floor  of  the 
chamber. 

Formerly  sulphuric  acid  was  made  by  dis- 
tilling green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron.  From 
this  process  of  manufacture  it  is  sometimes 
called  oil  of  vitriol. 

SUL'TAN,  an  Arabic  word  meaning 
mighty  one,  or  lord,  is  the  ordinarj"-  title  of 
Mohammedan  rulers.  The  ruler  of  Turkey 
assumes  the  title  of  sultan-es-selatin,  or  sultan 
khan,  "sultan  of  sultans."  The  title  sultan 
is  also  applied  to  the  sultan's  daughters,  and 
his  mother,  if  bring,  is  styled  Sultan  Valide. 

SULU,  soo'loo,  ISLANDS,  the  southern- 
most group  of  the  PhiliiDpines,  comprising 
nearly  200  small  islands,  the  total  area  of 
which  is  about  1,600  square  miles.  Politically 
they  are  a  part  of  the  Philippine  province 
of  Moro.  The  archipelago  is  divided  into 
sis  groups.  Named  in  their  order  from  the 
northeast,  these  are  Basilan,  Samales,  Sulu, 
or  Jolo,  Siarsi,  Kiuatussan  and  Tawi-Tawi. 
Sulu  is  the  most  important.  Nearly  all  the 
islands  are  covered  with  forests,  which  con- 
tain considerable  teak  and  sandalwood.    The 


SUMAC 


3469 


SUMNER 


chief  cultivated  crops  are  rice,  cacao,  maize 
and  various  sorts  of  roots.  Cocoa,  bananas, 
breadfruits,  mangoes  and  oranges  are  native 
to  the  island.     The  natives  are  chiefly  Moros. 

SUIVIAC,  su'mak,  or  SUMACH,  a  genus  of 
shrubs  and  small  trees,  containing  about  one 
hundred  species,  widely  distributed  through- 
out the  world,  in  temperate  and  tropical 
climates.  The  most  general  North  American 
species  is  the  Virginian,  or  stag-horn,  sumac, 
distinguished  by  crooked,  downy  branches 
and  small  red  beiTies.  It  turns  flaming  red 
in  the  autumn.  The  smooth-leaved  sumach, 
which  is  also  common  in  the  United  States, 
has  acid 
leaves  and 
o  r  namental 
red  berries. 
Both  these 
V  a  r  i  e  t  ies 
produce 
valuable 
dye.  Two 
closely  -  al- 
lied species, 
found  in  al- 
m  o  s  t  all 
parts  of 
the  United 
States,  are 
poison- 
ous.  They 
are  creeping 
or  climbing  vines,  bearing  groups  of  three 
leaflets.  Another  poison  variety,  which 
grows  in  swamps,  is  a  shrub  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet  high,  which  bears  clusters  of 
greenish-white  flowers.  Its  leaves  are  ex- 
tremely poisonous  to  some  persons,  producing 
serious  inflammation  or  eruption  of  the  skin. 
A  Japanese  poisonous  variety  produces  a  sap 
from  which  a  fine  lacquer  is  made. 

SUMATRA,  soo  mah'tra,  a  great  island 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  separated  from  the 
Malay  Peninsula  by  the  Strait  of  Malacca 
and  from  Java  by  the  Strait  of  Sunda.  The 
equator  traverses  it  about  midway.  Its  great- 
est length  is  about  1,050  miles,  its  breadth 
about  240  miles,  and  its  entire  area  about 
180,000  square  miles.  Banca  and  other 
islands  are  adjacent  to  the  coast.  The  west 
side  of  the  island  is  mountainous,  with  peaks 
ranging  in  height  from  2,000  feet  in  the 
south  to  5,000  feet  farther  north,  and  cul- 
minating in  Indrapura,  a  volcano  12,400  feet 
in  height.     Gold,  copper,  tin  and  iron  are 


SMOOTH-LEAVED  SUMACH 


found  in  abundance,  and  deposits  of  coal 
occur  in  places.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ivokan,  the  Musi,  the  Jambi  and  the  Indra- 
giri,  all  of  which  have  extensive  deltas.  The 
climate  is  unhealthful;  rain  falls  almost  in- 
cessantly in  the  south. 

Mangi'oves  are  the  chief  vegetable  prod- 
uct of  the  coast ;  in  the  more  elevated  re- 
gions, are  found  myrtles,  palms,  figs  and  oaks. 
The  camphor  tree  is  indigenous  to  the  nortli. 
while  among  the  curiosities  are  the  upas  tree 
and  the  gigantic  rafflesia.  Pepper,  rice, 
sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton  and  coffee  are 
cultivated  for  export;  also,  in  smaller  quan- 
tities, are  benzoin,  catechu,  gutta-percha, 
caoutchouc,  teak,  ebony  and  sandalwood.  The 
animals  include  the  elephant,  tapir,  two- 
horned  rhinoceros,  tiger,  orang-utan,  some 
species  of  deer  and  antelope  and  numerous 
birds  and  reptUes.  The  domestic  animals 
are  cows,  pigs  and  horses. 

The  island  is  for  the  most  part  under  the 
authority  of  the  Dutch.  There  is  a  mixed 
population  of  Malays,  Chinese,  Arabs  and 
native  tribes,  some  of  whom  resemble  the 
Caucasian  tj'pes.  The  chief  religion  is  Mo- 
hammedanism.   See  map,  Asia. 

SUM'MER,  the  season  of  the  year  between 
spring  and  autumn,  beginning  with  the  sum- 
mer solstice,  about  June  21,  and  ending  with 
the  autumnal  equinox,  about  September  22. 
In  Canada  and  the  United  States  June,  July 
and  August,  the  hottest  months  of  the  north 
temperate  zone,  are  generally  regarded  as  the 
summer  season. 

SUMMONS.    See  Wkit. 

SUM'NER,  Charles  (1811-1874),  an 
American  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
and  educated  at 
Harvard  Univer- 
sity. In  1834  he 
was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  in  1836  he 
published  three  vol- 
umes of  Judge 
Story's  decisions, 
subsequently  known 
as  Sumner's  Re- 
ports, and  he  also 
edited  a  periodical 
called  the  Ameri- 
can Jurist.  The 
years  between  1831 
and  1840  were  spent  in  Europe,  and  the  pe- 
riod following  was  occupied  with  legal  prac- 
tice in  Boston.     Sumner  first  gained  note  as 


,-       CHARLES   SUMXER 


SUMPTUARY  LAWS 


3470 


SUN 


au  orator  in  1845  by  a  famous  address,  The 
True  Grandeur  of  Satiam.  Five  years  later, 
as  a  supporter  of  the  anti-slavery  cause,  he 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
by  a  coalition  of  Free-Soilers  and  Democrats. 
He  remained  there  until  his  death,  an  active 
and  distinguished  champion  of  freedom. 

In  May,  1856,  his  speech  The  Crime 
Against  Kansas,  which  vigorously  attacked 
slaveholders,  brought  a  violent  assault  by 
Preston  S.  Brooks,  a  member  representing  a 
slaveholding  state  (South  Carolina).  The 
injuries  inflicted  compelled  Sumner  to  absent 
himself  from  public  duties  for  nearly  four 
years  and  eventually  caused  his  death. 

Sumner  supported  Lincoln  and  Hamlin 
and  advocated  the  view  of  reconstruction 
known  as  the  theory  of  "state  suicide*'  (see 
Recoxstructiox)  ;  he  opposed  President 
Johnson  and  the  home  and  forergn  policy  of 
President  Grant,  and  he  supported  Greeley 
in  1872. 

SUMP'TUARY  LAWS,  the  general  term 
applied  to  laws  to  repress  extravagance. 
Such  laws  were  common  in  ancient  times,  be- 
ing directed  especially,  in  both  Greece  and 
Rome,  against  extravagance  in  dress  and  in 
entertainments,  the  theory  being  that  by 
regulating  expenditures  poverty  and  crime 
could  be  checked.  Sumptuarj'  laws  were  re- 
^•ived  by  Charlemagne,  and  in  France  various 
laws  and  decrees  of  a  similar  nature  were 
passed,  down  to  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  In 
England  such  laws  were  passed  from  the 
reign  of  Edward  III  to  the  time  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Federal  and  state 
constitutions  forbid,  generally,  the  passage 
of  sumptuary  laws.  However,  some  of  the 
laws  passed  for  the  protection  of  health  and 
safety  are  sumptuary  in  character. 

SUM'TER,  S.  C.,'the  county  seat  of  Sum- 
ter County,  forty-three  miles  southeast  of 
Columbia,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the 
Carolina,  Atlantic  &  Western  and  the  South- 
em  railroads.  The  city  is  in  an  agricultural 
region,  and  is  known,  for  its  extensive  trade 
in  cotton.  It  contains  more  than  fifty  in- 
dustrial establishments,  including  cotton 
mills,  a  cotton  c*ompress,  cottonseed  oil  fac- 
tories, planing  mills  and  manufactures  of 
telephones,  golf  sticks,  coffins  and  caskets. 
The  city  has  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  several  acad- 
emies. The  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment was  adopted  in  1913.  Population,  1910, 
8,109;  in  1917,  9,886  (Federal  estimate). 


[UN,  the  source  of  heat 
light  and  life,  the  con- 
trolling body  in  the  solar 
system  and  the  most  con- 
spicuous object  in  the  sky, 
is  only  one  of  the  thou- 
sands of  stars — 

Which  stand  as  thick  as 
dewdrops  on  the  fields 

Of   heaven. 

Notwithstanding   its    im- 
portance to  us  it  should 
be  remembered  that  not 
only  is  the  sun  a  star,  but 
that  it  is  by  no  means  one 
of  the  largest.    Arcturus, 
for  instance,  is  possibly 
100  times  the  diameter  of  the  sun  and  gives 
out  6,000  times  more  light.   The  North  Star  is 
probably  200  times  as  strong  as  the  sun. 

Size  of  the  Sun.  The  sun  is  more  than 
865,000  miles  in  diameter,  or  110  times  the 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  in  volume  it  is 
1,300,000  times  the  size  of  the  earth.  Its 
density,  however,  is  about  ]  that  of  the  earth, 
and,  accordingh',  its  weight  is  only  334,000 
times  as  much.  Its  gravity  is  27  times  that 
of  the  earth,  so  that  if  it  were  possible  for 
a  man  to  get  to  the  surface  of  the  sun,  he 
would  weigh  more  than  two  tons  and  would 
probably  be  crushed  by  his  own  weight.  The 
sun's  distance  from  the  earth  is  about  93,- 
000,000  miles.  It  turns  on  its  axis  once  in 
about  26  days,  the  equatorial  regions  rotating 
more  rapidly  than  the  regions  farther  away 
from  the  ecjuator.  This  curious  fact  is  thought 
to  prove  that  the  sun  is  a  gaseous  mass,  but 
it  is  not  thoroughly  understood  by  astrono- 
mers. 

Structure  of  the  Sun.  The  vast  unknown 
interior  of  the  sun  is,  of  course,  wholly  in- 
visible to  us,  but  astronomers  can  note  the 
shining  surface,  which  they  call  the  photo- 
sphere; a  cloak,  or  envelope,  of  burning  hy- 
drogen, called  the  chromosphere,  which  shows 
red  through  the  spectroscope;  irregular 
jyrominences,  connected  by  the  chromosphere 
and  extending  up  through  it,  vast  planes  of 
hydrogen,  thousands  of  miles  high,  beside 
which  our  earth  is  but  a  speck,  and  a  still 
more  vast  luminous  envelope,  called  the 
coron-a,  seen  in  total  eclipses,  where  it  shows 
in  hairy,  radiating  lines,  long  near  the  equa- 
tor and  shorter  about  the  poles.  The  surface 
of  the  sun  does  not  appear  clear  and  equally 
brilliant  in  all  parts,   but  is  mottled  with 


SUN 


3471 


SUN  DANCE 


small  patches  of  greater  light  distributed  in 
streaks  and  groups.  The  spots,  which  seem 
to  consist  of  a  dark  center,  surrounded  by 
radiating  lines,  are  irregular  in  shape  and 
vary  greatly  in  size,  from  1,000  to  100,000 
miles  in  diameter.  They  are  not  constant  in 
shape,  but  often  split  into  two  parts.  Though 
there  are  always  some  spots  visible,  yet  there 
are  periods,  recurring  at  regular  intervals, 
'in  which  the  spots  are  much  more  numerous. 
Sometimes  a  spot  is  visible  for  but  a  few 
hours,  while  again  it  may  last  for  months. 
The  spots  probably  are  depressions  in  the 
surface,  in  which  the  cooler  gases  have  col- 
lected. Two  kinds  of  prominences  are  seen — 
the  eruptive,  like  shooting  flames,  and  the 
cloudlike,  which  seem  to  float  above  the  sur- 
face. The  composition  of  these  prominences 
and  of  the  corona  was  discovered  by  the  use 
of  the  spectroscope  during  an  eclipse;  they 
are  thought  to  be  principally  burning  hydro- 
gen, yet  other  gases  are  probably  mingled 
with  it. 

From  the  diagram,  the  comparative  size  of 
the  earth  and  the  moon's  orbit  and  the  relative 
shapes  and  sizes  of  the  visible  parts  of  the 
sun  may  be  seen.  It  should  be  understood 
that  this  diagram  is  a  section  only,  and  the 


corona,  chromosphere  and  protuberances  ex- 
tend in  every  direction  from  the  center  of  the 
sphere.  The  discoveries  made  by  the  use  of 
the  spectroscope  have  been  marvelous  and 
have  enabled  astronomers  to  learn  what  mate- 
rials enter  into  the  composition  of  the  sun. 


It  has  been  shown  that  these  substances  are 
the  same  as  those  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  solid  part  of  the  earth.  The 
sun  is,  then,  probably  composed  of  heated 
gases  held  together  by  gravity.  It  is  not 
thought  that  the  sun  burns  as  we  see  a  piece 
of  wood  burn,  for  there  has  been  time  since 
the  earth  was  first  inhabited  for  the  sun  to 
burn  and  cool  off,  if  that  were  the  case;  but 
there  has  been  no  appreciable  falling  off  in 
temperature.  What  keeps  up  the  heat  we  do 
not  know,  though  many  theories  have  been 
advanced  to  account  for  it.  The  sun  cer- 
tainly gives  off  heat  in  enormous  quantities, 
and  it  may  be  possible  that  millions  of  years 
hence  it  will  begin  to  cool  and  in  time  lose  all 
its  heat.  See  Astronomy;  Solar  System; 
Stars. 

SUN'BURY,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of 
Northumberland  County,  fifty-four  miles 
north  of  HaiTisburg,  on  the  Susquehanna 
River  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Phila- 
delphia &  Reading  railroads.  It  is  in  a  lum- 
bering and  coal-mining  region  and  has  rail- 
road shops,  silk,  woolen,  lumber  and  flour 
mills,  coffin  works,  foundries  and  machine 
shops.  The  important  structures  are  the 
Packer  Hospital,  the  courthouse,  the  jail  and 
parish  houses.  Sunbury  was  settled  in  1772, 
on  the  site  of  Fort  Augusta  and  of  an  old 
Indian  village.  It  was  incorporated  in  1797. 
Population,  1910,  13,770;  in  1917,  16,661 
(Federal  estimate). 

SUN'DA  ISLANDS,  two  groups  of  islands 
south  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  Greater 
Sunda  group  includes  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  Java,  Banca  and  Billiton;  the  Lesser 
Sunda  Islands  are  Bali,  Lombok,  Sumbawa, 
Flores,  Ombai,  the  Timor  group  and  a  num- 
ber of  others.  With  the  exception  of  a  part 
of  Borneo,  the  islands  of  both  groups  belong 
to  the  Netherlands.  Spices,  copra,  fruits, 
coffee,  tobacco,  sugar,  rice  and  cocoa  are  ex- 
ported. 

SUN  DANCE,  a  religious  ceremony  once 
common  among  most  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Plains  Indians  of  North  America.  Because 
of  the  torturous  rites  practiced  in  connection 
with  it,  the  dance  has  been  forbidden  by  the 
United  States  government.  Formerly  an  en- 
tire tribe  gathered  annually  for  .the  cere- 
monj';  it  was  conducted  within  a  circular 
space  enclosed  by  the  tepees  of  the  families 
assembled,  and  lasted  more  than  a  week.  To 
the  sound  of  drum  and  singing  the  stripped 
and    painted    performers    danced    about    a 


SUNDAY 


3472 


SUNDIAL 


sacred  relic  for  several  days  without  food 
and  with  sticks  thrust  like  skewers  through 
their  flesh. 

SUNDAY.    See  Sabbath. 

SUNDAY,  William  Ashley  (1863-  ) , 
an  evangelistic  preacher,  popularly  known  as 
"Billy"  Sunday.  Bom  in  Ames.  Iowa,  and 
made  an  orphan  by  the  Civil  War.  he  spent 
his  early  years  in  an  Iowa  soldiers'  home. 
He  was  gi-aduated  from  high  school  and  at- 
tended Xorthwesteni  University.  From  18S3 
to  1S90  he  was  a  professional  baseball  player, 
playing  on  teams  of  the  National  League. 
After  his  conversion  he  did  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
work  in  Chicago  from  1S91  to  1895.  and  in 
1896  he  began  preaching,  though  he  was  not 
ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister  until  1903. 
His  success  has  been  phenomenal.  He  has 
been  criticized  for  his  spectacular  behavior 
before  his  audiences  and  for  his  slang;  but 
no  one  questions  his  sincerity-.  His  appeal 
is  wide,  for  his  message  is  easy  for  the  aver- 
age man  to  understand — a  word  of  cheer 
for  the  fallen,  and  a  call  to  men  and  women  to 
practice  the  simple  vii-tues  of  honesty  and 
dutv  to  their  fellows. 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS,  or  BIBLE 
SCHOOLS.  In  191S  there  were  in  the 
United  States  145.957  Sunday  Schools,  with 
an  enrollment  of  17,715,224  pupils  and  teach- 
ers, and  in  Canada  there  were  10,335  schools 
with  an  enrollment  of  4.040.017.  The  sta- 
tistics for  the  world  compiled  for  the  world's 
convention  which  met  at  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
in  1913,  showed  310,000  Sunday  Schools,  with 
a  total  enrollment  for  the  world  of  27,000,- 
000  pupils,  not  including  2.850,000  pupils  in 
the  Koman  Catholic  Church. 

To  Robert  Eaikes.  an  Englishman,  is  due 
the  credit  of  originating  the  modem  Sunday 
School,  about  1780.  Before  he  died,  in  1811, 
there  were  400,000  children  in  the  Sunday 
Schools  of  Great  Britain  alone.  The  system 
met  with  opposition,  as  it  seemed,  to  some 
persons,  to  interfere  with  the  duties  of  the 
home  and  the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath,  yet  in 
spite  of  a  council  of  bishops,  called  to  stop 
the  movement,  it  spread  over  the  world.  In 
1824  the  American  Sunday  School  Union 
was  formed,  and  through  its  influence,  within 
ninety  years.  125.000  Sunday  Schools  had 
been  organized  and  over  $15,000,000  had  been 
expended  in  distributing  Bibles  and  other 
religious  works. 

The  first  national  convention  of  the  Sunday 
School  Union  met  in  New  York  City  in  1832. 


In  its  meeting  in  1872  the  uniform  lesson  sys- 
tem was  inaugurated.  Dr.  John  H.  Vincent, 
with  Mr.  Jacobs  of  Chicago,  took  the  initia- 
tory steps  which  led  to  the  publication  of  the 
Intern<ition(A  Series  of  Lessons,  which  were 
used  by  most  Protestant  denominations  in 
the  world  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  een- 
^ary,  when  they  began  to  be  replaced  by  the 
graded  courses  which  are  now  very  gener- 
ally used.  In  1878  an  international  con- 
vention was  organized,  which  meets  once  in 
two  years. 

SUN'DERLAND,  England,  a  seaport  and 
one  of  the  greatest  coal-shipping  stations  in 
the  world.  It  is  situated  in  Durham  County 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  261  miles  north- 
west of  London.  Sunderland  is  one  of  the 
most  important  shipbuilding  centers  in  Great 
Britain.  Its  fine  harbor  is  defended  by  many 
batteries.  Among  rich,  deep  coal  mines  of 
the  ricinity  is  the  deepest  one  in  existence. 
There  are  also  extensive  shipbuilding  works, 
fisheries,  iron  works  and  glass,  factories. 
Other  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
earthenware,  mac■hiner^^  chemicals,  ropes  and 
anchors  and  other  iron  ware.  Population, 
1914.  152.436. 

SUN'DEW,  a  group  of  plants  so  called 
because  the  leaves  are  covered  with  a  sticky 
fluid  which  glistens  like  dew.  When  a  small 
insect  alights  on  this  sticky  substance  it  is 
held  fast  and  when  it  dies  the  soft  parts 
of  its  body  are  absorbed  by  the  plant.  An 
American  species  is  the  round-leaved  sun- 
dfu\  the  leaves  of  which  are  clustered  in  a 
rosette.  The  tall,  slender  flower  stalks  bear 
rows  of  small,  white  blossoms.  See  Yenus's 
Flytrap  ;  Pitcher  Plant. 

SUN  DIAL,  an  ancient  device  for  measur- 
ing time.  The  dial  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
face,  or  plane,  and  the  hack,  or  gnomon.  The 
face,  a  plate,  usually  of  metal,  which  is  in- 
tended to  lie  horizontally  on  a  standard,  is 
divided  into  four  quarters,  each  of  the  four 
dividing  lines  pointing  to  one  of  the  major 
points  of  the  compass.  The  gnomon  is  usual- 
ly a  triangular  plate  of  metal,  placed  ver- 
tically on  the  plane  in  a  position  parallel  to 
the  earth's  axis  and  with  one  of  its  angles  at 
the  center  of  the  plane.  At  noon  the  shadow 
of  the  gnomon  reaches  the  line  on  the  face 
pointing  north ;  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning 
it  reaches  the  line  indicating  west,  and  at  six 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  line  indicating  east 
Thus,  as  the  shadow  tiavels  around  the  plate, 
the  hour  is  shown  by  its  position  with  refer- 


SUNFISH 


3473 


SUPERIOR 


ence  to  the  points  of  the  compass  indicated. 
The  sun  dial  is  the  oldest  known  device  for 
measuring  time. 

SUNTISH,  a  name  applied  to  several 
groups  of  widely  varying  fishes,  both  marine 
and  fresh-water.    The  North  American  fresh- 


SUNFISH 

water  sunfish,  never  more  than  ten  inches 
long,  is  brightly  colored.  The  common  sun- 
fish,  which  is  orange-colored  and  about  seven 
inches  long,  is  abundant  in  streams  and  ponds 
from  Maine  to  Florida.  It  delights  the 
amateur  angler  by  its  energetic  manner  of 
biting.  The  ocean  sunfish,  which  attains  a 
length  of  several  feet,  is  of  grotesque  ap- 
pearance.   This  variety  is  unfit  for  the  table. 

SUNTLOWER,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
helianthus  family,  so  called  because  the  blos- 
soms with  their  large  seed  disks  and  long 
radiating  yellow  petals  bore  an  ideal  resem- 
blance to  the  sun  with  its  golden  rays.  These 
flowers,  sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter,  are 
borne  at  the  top  of  tall  stout  stalks,  from  six 
to  fifteen  feet  high,  which  are  nearly  hidden 
by  large,  heart-shaped  leaves.  The  plants 
are  easily  grown  from  seeds,  though  the  roots 
are  perennial.  The  species  are  numerous,  but 
almost  all  are  found  in  North  America.  The 
gigantic  sunflower  common  in  gardens  is  a 
native  of  Peni.  The  seeds  form  an  excel- 
lent food  for  poultiy  and  for  cage  birds ;  and 
an  edible  oil  has  also  been  expressed  from 
them. 

SUN'STROKE,  a  term  applied  to  two  dif- 
ferent ailments  resulting  from  the  overheat- 
ing of  the  body;  heat  stroke,  or  heat  fever, 
and  heat  exhaustion,  or  heat  prostration. 

Heat  prostration  is  characterized  by  great 
exhaustion,  weakness,  faintness  and  even 
nausea,  followed  or  accompanied  by  a  re- 
markable fall  in  temperature.  In  these  cases 
the  temperature  of  the  body  should  be  raised 
by  external  applications  of  heat  and  by  in- 
ternal stimulants. 

218 


Heat  stroke,  or  sunstroke,  comes  on  more 
suddenly  than  does  heat  exhaustion.  The 
patient  usually  loses  consciousness  and  the 
temperature  rises  rapidly,  often  reaching 
115°  F.  The  body  is  flushed  and  burning 
hot.  In  this  case,  the  temperature  of  the 
body  should  be  lowered  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible, by  sprinkling  ice  water  over  the  chest 
and  body  and  by  nibbing  the  limbs  with  ice 
or  ice  water.  The  patient  should  then  be 
placed  upon  a  bed  and  wi-apped  in  warm 
blanlcets.  If  the  temperature  again  rises,  the 
same  process  should  be  continued,  untU.  the 
body  reaches  its  normal  condition. 

If  during  the  heated  term  more  care  is 
taken  in  eating  and  drinking  many  fatalities 
will  be  prevented.  Excesses  of  all  kinds 
should  be  avoided,  especially  indulgence  in 
alcoholic  liquors. 

SUPERIOR,  soo  pe^  ri  or,  Lake,  the  larg- 
est expanse  of  fresh  water  in  the  world,  and 
the  most  westerly  and  most  elevated  of  the 
Grreat  Lakes  of  North  America.  It  washes 
the  shores  of  the  state  of  Minnesota  on  the 
west,  those  of  Wisconsin  and  the  northern 
peninsula  of  Michigan  on  the  south,  and 
those  of  Canada  on  the  north  and  east.  Its 
greatest  length  is  420  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth,  167  miles,  and  its  area,  31,200  square 
miles.  It  is  602  feet  above  sea  level,  and  has 
a  maximum  depth  of  1,008  feet.  In  shape  it 
forms  an  in-egular  crescent,  dotted  with 
numerous  islands  toward  its  northern  and 
southern  sides.  The  northern  shore  consists  of 
cliffs,  varying  in  height  from  300  to  1,000 
feet,  but  the  southern  shore  is  low  and  sandy, 
although  occasionally  interrapted  by  cliffs, 
among  which  are  the  fantastic  Pictured  Rocks, 
300  feet  high,  one  of  the  greatest  natural 
curiosities  of  the  United  States.  The  waters 
of  the  lake  are  remarkable  for  their  trans- 
parency and  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  prin- 
cipally trout,  whitefish  and  sturgeon.  The 
region  surrounding  the  lake  is  rich  in  miner- 
als, copper  and  iron  being  found  in  abun- 
dance. 

Lake  Superior  discharges  into  Lake  Huron 
by  way  of  Saint  Mary's  River,  an  outlet  at 
the  southeast.  A  drop  of  about  twenty  feet 
from  the  larger  to  the  smaller  lake  and  a 
series  of  rapids  at  the  head  of  the  river  have 
made  necessary  the  construction  of  the  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  Canal,  consisting  of  a  series  of 
locks,  four  on  the  American  side.  Were  it 
not  for  this  canal  system,  navigation  from 
Lake  Superior  into  the  lower  lakes  would  be 


SUPERIOR 


3474 


SUPERVISOR 


impossible.  The  chief  cities  on  the  lake  are 
Duluth,  Minn.;  Superior,  Wis,;  Marquette, 
Mich.;  Ashland,  Wis.;  and  the  Canadian 
cities  of  Port  Arthur  and  Port  William.  See 
Great  Lakes;  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal. 

SUPERIOR,  Wis.,  third  city  in  size  in 
the  state,  the  county  seat  of  Douglas  County, 
on  Lake  Superior  and  the  Saint  Louis  River, 
opposite  Duluth,  Minn.,  and  on  the  Northern 
Pacific,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago  and 
North  Western,  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  & 
Atlantic,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint 
Paul  and  the  Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  &  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  railroads.  Together  with  Duluth, 
Superior  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
world,  with  a  water  frontage  of  more  than 
thirty  miles.  Immense  shipments  of  grain, 
coal,  iron  and  copper  ore  make  it  one  of 
the  foremost  ports  for  tonnage  in  'the  world. 
One  of  its  grain  elevators  has  a  capacity  of 
6,500,000  bushels.  Industrial  establishments 
include  flour  and  lumber  mills,  shipyards, 
packing  houses  and  manufactories  of  wagons, 
furniture  and  various  iron  and  steel  products. 
The  city  is  connected  with  Duluth  by  two 
railroad  bridges  and  a  ferry.  It  has  two 
public  libraries,  a  state  normal  school,  a  busi- 
ness college,  two  high  schools,  a  Federal 
building,  a  Carnegie  Library  and  three  hos- 
pitals. In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  great  explorer,  Du  L'Hut  estab- 
lished a  trading  post  here.  The  town  was 
fii-st  laid  out  in  1853,  by  a  corporation  whose 
leading  members  were  W.  W.  Corcoran, 
Stephen  A.  Douglas,  John  C.  Breckenridge 
and  other  distinguished  Southerners.  It  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1889.  A  commis- 
sion form  of  government  is  now  in  operation. 
Population,  1910,  40,384;  in  1917,  47,167 
(Federal  estimate). 

SUPERNATURALISM,  su  pur  nafu  ral 
liz'm,  a  belief  in  the  supernatural;  that  is, 
in  supernatural,  or,  more  properly,  super- 
normal phenomena,  and  in  divine  revelation 
through  it.  The  doctrine  of  supernaturalism 
has  been  opposed  by  naturalists  and  by  some 
scientists,  who  maintain  that  miracles  are 
contrary  to  natural  law  and  therefore  im- 
possible. Both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  full  of  supernaturalism,  and  the 
Christian  religion  is  one  of  those  which 
supports  belief  in  divine  revelation  through 
supernormal  means. 

SUPERSTITION,  su  per  stisli'un,  literally 
that  which  stands  over  one.  It  is  a  belief 
that  is  based  on  an  irrational  foundation,  with 


a  mental  background  of  fear  or  dread,  in  most 
cases.  Belief  in  the  effect  of  the  moon  on 
the  weather,  ascribing  ill  luck  to  the  number 
thirteen,  considering  Friday  an  unlucky  day, 
and  belief  that  the  horseshoe  and  the  rabbit- 
foot  bring  good  luck,  are  common  supersti- 
tions of  the  harmless  variety.  In  rural  com- 
munities there  are  people  who  believe  that 
seed  must  be  planted  when  the  moon  is  on 
the  increase  because  the  increase  of  the  moon 
will  cause  the  crops  to  increase.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  same  people  believe  that  weeds 
and  other  obnoxious  plants  should  be  de- 
stroyed when  the  moon  is  on  the  wane  be- 
cause its  decrease  will  insure  their  complete 
destruction.  These  beliefs,  which  some  peo- 
ple take  seriously  and  others  deride,  are 
among  the  most  common  superstitions. 

But  there  are  other  supersitions  of  a  more 
serious  nature.  These  are  usually  associated 
with  religion,  and  those  who  hold  them  are 
veiy  tenacious  of  their  beliefs.  Among  super- 
stitions of  this  sort  are  belief  in  dreams,  be- 
lief in  the  influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
over  one's  destiny,  belief  in  the  influence  of 
the  gods,  in  horoscopes,  witches,  and  the  pur- 
suing vengeance  of  the  laws  of  nature.  Such 
beliefs  are  usually  founded  upon  fear.  Their 
influence  over  the  individual  is  such  as  to 
affect  his  mental  attitude  towards  everything 
that  confronts  him,  and  a  person  so  affected 
usually  lives  in  constant  dread. 

What  constitutes  a  superstition  in  the  mind 
of  one  is  a  reality  in  the  mind  of  another; 
therefore  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  clean-cut 
division  between  beliefs  that  are  superstitions 
and  those  that  are  not.  Formation  of  the 
habit  of  logical  scientific  thinking  is  the  best 
means  of  ridding  the  mind  of  superstitions. 
Moreover,  by  frequently  entertaining  certain 
superstitions  as  jests,  some  people  come  to 
look  upon  them'  as  realities.  While  such 
people  usually  become  indignant  if  accused 
of  being  superstitious,  they  look  hopefully 
upon  the  horseshoe  over  the  door  and  care- 
fully treasure  the  left  hind  foot  of  a  rabbit. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    followingr 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Alchemy  Magic  Physiog-nomy 

Astrology  Muscle  Spiritualism 

Clairvoyance         Reading  Telepathy 

Divination  Necromancy        Theosophy 

Faith  Cure  Palmistry  Trance 

Hypnotism  Phrenology         Witchcraft 

SU'PERVISOR,  an  elected  local  officer. 
In  New  York,  Michigan,  and  several  other 
states  the  supervisor  is  the  chief  adminis- 
trative official  of  a  town.     The  chief  county 


SUPPLY  AND  DEMAND 


3475 


SUPREME  COURT  OF  U.  S. 


authority  is  vested  in  the  board  of  supervisors, 
made  up  of  all  the  supervisors  in  the  county. 
This  type  of  government  has  also  been 
adopted,  sometimes  with  modifications,  in 
Wisconsin  and  other  states  of  the  Middle 
West.  In  Michigan  and  Illinois  there  is  a 
single  supervisor  for  each  township ;  in  Min- 
nesota and  Wisconsin  each  township  has  three 
supervisors.  In  Michigan  the  supervisor  is 
also  a  tax  assessor,  and  in  Illinois  he  acts  as 
treasurer.  In  the  Southern  states,  where  the 
county  is  the  unit  of  local  government,  the 
chief  authority  of  the  county  is  wielded  by  a 
board  of  supervisors,  each  member  represent- 
ing a  district. 

SUPPLY  AND  DEMAND.  In  economics, 
value  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  power 
given  by  an  article  to  its  possessor  to  com- 
mand in  exchange  for  it  the  labor  or  the  prod- 
uct of  the  labor  of  others;  one  of  the  chief 
agencies  in  determining  this  value  is  the  law 
of  supply  and  demand.  By  this  is  meant  the 
relation  which  the  quantity  of  a  commodity 
on  hand,  with  the  prospects  for  its  continued 
production,  sustains  to  the  quantity  being 
consumed,  with  the  prospect  of  continuous 
consumption.  For  example,  before  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War,  woolens  and  dye- 
stuffs  were  manufactured  in  Europe  in  large 
quantities  and  were  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  such  quantities  as  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  trade.  The  prices  in  these  arti- 
cles varied  but  little  from  year  to  year.  So 
long  as  these  conditions  remained  uniform 
the  supply  and  demand  were  equal  and  the 
market  was  stable.  However,  with  the  out- 
break of  the  war  the  importation  of  these 
articles  was  greatly  restricted,  and  soon 
ceased  altogether.  Within  a  few  months  the 
demand  for  these  commodities  far  exceeded 
the  supply,  and  their  value  rapidly  increased. 
On  the  other  hand,  let  the  demand  for  a 
commodity  decrease  or  let  some  event  occur 
that  points  clearly  to  discontinuing  the  use 
of  the  commodity  in  the  near  future,  and  its 
value  will  suddenly  decrease.  New  inven- 
tions, for  instance,  render  old  machines  use- 
less, and  new  discoveries  set  aside  old  proc- 
esses, and  in  the  changes  thus  brought  about, 
the  values  of  commodities  connected  with  the 
old  methods  are  changed. 

Evidently  there  can  be  no  absolute  standard 
of  value,  as  there  can  be  no  absolute  measure 
of  desire  or  of  difficulty;  but  to  avoid  rapid 
and  violent  fluctuation,  values  are  measured 
by  reference  to  some  one  article,  that  is,  an 


article  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  valuable  than 
a  given  article,  according  as  its  possessor 
would  be  willing  to  give  more  or  less  of  it  in 
exchange  for  the  given  article.  Usually  this 
article,  or  medium  of  measurement  of  value, 
is  a  precious  metal  and  is  called  money.  The 
expression  of  the  value  of  an  article  in  money 
is  generally  called  its  price.  See  Econom- 
ics; MOXEY. 

SUPREMACY,  suprem'asi,  Royal,  a 
term  which  is  applied  to  the  authority  of  the 
English  sovereign  over  the  Established 
Church  of  England.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
Refoi-mation  the  Pope  had  been  head  of  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  in  England,  but  in  1534, 
after  the  Pope  bad  refused  to  annul  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  VIII  and  Catharine  of  Ara- 
gon,  Heniy  persuaded  Parliament  to  pro- 
claim him  head  of  the  Church.  Although 
during  the  reign  of  Mary  the  Papal  authority 
was  again  acknowledged,  Elizabeth  for  the 
second  time  abolished  it,  and  a  new  act  of 
supremacy  was  passed. 

SUPREME  COURT  OF  CANADA.  The 
Supreme  Court  is  composed  of  a  chief  justice 
and  five  puisne  (or  associate)  judges.  It  is 
the  highest  court  of  appeal  and  has  appellate, 
civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  tkroughout  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  The  judges  reside  at 
Ottawa,  where  the  Supreme  Court  holds  three 
sessions  each  year — the  fii-st  beginning  on  the 
third  Tuesday  in  February,  the  second  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  May,  and  the  third  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  October,  In  unusual  cases, 
where  the  question  at  issue  is  of  exceedingly 
great  importance,  appeal  may  be  allowed 
from  the  decision  of  tlie  Dominion  Supreme 
Court  to  the  Privy  Council  in  England,  but 
the  court  is  intended  to  be,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  court  for  the  final  settlement  of 
controversies  arising  from  the  operation  of 
the  constitutional  system  of  the  country.  By 
an  act  passed  in  1891,  the  Govemor-G-eneral 
has  authority  to  refer  to  the  Supreme  Court 
important  questions  relating  to  provincial 
legislation,  education  or  any  problems  of  gen- 
eral public  interest. 

SUPREME  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  the  highest  judicial  body  in  the 
nation  and  the  head  of  the  judicial  depart- 
ment, one  of  the  three  departments  of  the 
government  pro\-ided  by  the  Constitution  (see 
page  932) ,  the  others  being  the  legislative  and 
the  executive. 

The  legislative  department  enacts  the  laws, 
the  executive  branch  puts  them  into  effect 


SUPREME  COURT  OF  U.  S. 


347G 


SURGERY 


and  enforces  them,  and  the  Supreme  Court 
interprets  them.  This  means  that  if  there  is 
a  possibility  that  a  hnv  lias  been  passed  which 
violates  a  constitutional  provision,  the  Su- 
preme Coiu't  will  determine  the  constitution- 
ality of  that  law ;  if  it  is  deemed  a  violation, 
in  letter  or  in  spirit,  the  few  men  who  com- 
prise this  court  will  undo  the  word  of  over 
500  legislatoi-s  and  declare  the  law  null  and 
void.  Such  vast  responsibility  can  safely  be 
entrusted  only  to  the  wisest  legal  minds; 
therefore  to  this  learned  group  only  the 
most  profound  constitutional  lawyers  are 
supposed  to  be  appointed,  which  fact  has 
given  the  Supreme  Court  the  reputation  of 
being  the  most  exalted  judicial  body  in  the 
world. 

The  Supreme  Court  is  at  the  head  of  the 
entire  Federal  judicial  system  for  the  trial  of 
offenses  committed  against  the  United  States. 
This  single  court  could  not  hope  to  dispose  of 
all  the  work  which  such  an  obligation  would 
impose  on  it  in  a  rapidly-growing  nation; 
the  Constitution  therefore  provided  that  in- 
ferior courts  should  be  organized  to  relieve 
the  higher  court  of  the  greater  part  of  such 
detail.  These  inferior  courts  are  now  ninety- 
three  in  number,  and  are  called  United  States 
District  courts.  They  are  located  in  every 
state  in  the  Union  and  in  all  outlying  pos- 
sessions. Appeals  from  their  decisions  reach, 
first,  courts  of  appeals,  presided  over  by 
District  Court  judges,  and  some  may  reach 
the  Supreme  Court  for  deteiTuination. 

Powers  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
classes  of  cases  falling  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  court,  in  addition  to  detennining 
the  constitutionality  of  laws,  are  named  in 
the  Constitution.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs the  words  in  heav>'-face  ty^pe  are 
quoted  from  the  Constitution;  that  which 
follows  is  explanatory: 

All  eases  affeeting  ambassadors,  public  min- 
isters and  consuls.  These  are  officials  of  the 
general  g-overnment  whose  relations  are  en- 
tirely with  foreign  governments.  Therefore 
the  national  government  instead  of  a  court  of 
the  state  in  which  the  litigant  may  reside 
should  have  original  jurisdiction. 

All  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris- 
diction. The  high  seas  belong  to  all  nations 
and  an  offense  committed  thereon  naturally 
should  be  tried  by  a  court  representative  of 
the  nation  involved. 

AH  controversies  to  ^hich  the  Fnited  States 
shall  be  a  party.  In  cases  of  this  nature  the 
entire  citizenship  of  a  country  is  interested 
and  a  national  tribunal  rather  than  a  state 
court  must  decide  the  issues  involved. 


All  controversies  between  t'wo  or  more 
states.  To  permit  a  court  in  one  of  the  con- 
tending states  to  settle  such  a  controversy 
would  be  prejudicial  to  fair  judgment.  An 
outside  tribunal  is  necessary  to  which  all  par- 
lies may  appeal. 

All  controversies  between  a  state  and  citi- 
zens of  another  state  and  to  controversies  be- 
t«%'cen  the  citizens  of  the  same  state  claiminf? 
lands  under  grants  of  different  states,  the 
same  reasons  apply  as  in  the  case  last  men- 
tioned. 

All  controversies  between  a  state  or  the 
citizens  thereof  and  foreign  states,  citizens 
or  subjects.  If  citizens  of  any  state  offend 
a  foreign  state  or  its  citizens  or  subjects, 
the  peace  and  honor  of  an  entire  nation  are 
involved  rather  than  the  safety  of  a  single 
state. 

Members  of  the  Court.  The  President 
of  the  United  States  appoints  the  members 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  with  the  approval  by 
majority  vote,  of  the  Senate.  The  head  of 
the  Court  is  termed  the  Chief  Justice;  the 
other  members  are  Associate  Justices  (the 
term  judges,  often  emploj^ed,  is  incorrect). 
The  court  has  increased  in  personnel  from  six 
members,  in  1789,  to  nine.  Members  are  ap- 
pointed for  life,  but  they  maj^  be  removed 
by  impeachment  for  improper  behavior.  The 
salary  of  the  Associate  Justice  is  $14,500; 
of  the  Chief  Justice,  $15,000.  Any  member 
upon  reaching  the  age  of  seventy  may  retire 
and  receive  $14,500  yearly  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life,  provided  he  has  served  ten  years. 

There  have  been  nine  Chief  Justices,  as 
follows:  John  Jay,  John  Eutledge,  Oliver 
Ellsworth,  John  Marshall,  Roger  B.  Taney, 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  Morrison  E.  TVaite,  Mel- 
ville W.  Fuller  and  Edward  D.  White. 

SURABAYA,  or  SOERABAYA,  soo  ra 
hali'ya,  a  seaport  of  Java,  situated  on  the 
north  coast,  opposite  the  island  of  Madura 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Surabaya  River.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  government  house, 
the  mint  and  storehouses.  It  has  a  large 
and  safe  harbor,  which  is  defended  by  strong' 
fortifications.  Shipbuilding  docks  and  a 
naval  station  are  located  here.  The  trade  is 
large,  and,  next  to  Batavia,  it  is  the  most 
important  commercial  center  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  Population,  1915,  156,752;  of 
this  number  15,000  were  Europeans,  20.000 
were  Chinese  and  2.660  were  Arabs. 

SUR'GERY,  that  branch  of  the  healing 
art  which  comprises  operative  measures  for 
the  curing  of  disease.  Modern  surgery  has 
been  developed  since  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth  centuiy,   or   since   the   discovery   of 


Copyright,  Clinedinsl,  \V ashington,  D.  C. 


1.  Mahlon  Pitney 

4.  James  C.  McReynolda 

7.  Louia  D.  Brandeis 


SUPREME  COURT 
2.  William  R.  Day 
5.  Edward  D.  White 
8.  Willis  Van  Devanter 


3.  Oliver  W.  Holmes 
6.  Joseph  McKeuna 
9.  John  H.Clarke 


SURGERY 


3477 


SURROGATE 


anesthesia.  Before  the  use  of  ether  and 
chloroform  onlj^  those  operations  were  per- 
formed that  were  absolutely  necessary,  in  case 
of  accident  or  to  save  the  patient's  life,  be- 
cause the  patient  could  not  withstand  the 
pain.  The  discoveries  of  Pasteur  in  bacteriol- 
0^,  the  application  of  these  discoveries  to 
surgery  and  the  fonnulation  of  the  theory  of 
antisepsis  by  Sir  Joseph  Lister  removed  in 
a  great  measure  the  danger  of  blood  poison- 
ing that  was  the  dread  of  the  surgeon  as  well 
as  the  patient.  Before  Lister's  discoveries, 
fever,  abscesses,  blood  poisoning,  gangrene 
and  other  diseases  were  some  of  the  after- 
effects of  all  surgical  operations.  To-day 
these  after-effects  have  been  prevented,  and 
the  field  of  surgery  has  been  broadened  until 
it  extends  to  every  organ  and  tissue  in  the 
human  body,  "from  the  crown  of  the  head 
to  the  tip  of  the  toe." 

What  Surgery  Does.  The  chief  purposes 
of  surgery  are  to  repair  injuries  caused  by 
accident;  to  cure  disease  by  removal  of  af- 
fected minor  organs  or  unnatural  growths, 
such  as  tumor  and  cancer;  to  remedy  physical 
defects  caused  by  disease  or  deformity ;  to  re- 
lieve suffering  in  cases  where  cure  cannot  be 
effected,  and  in  some  cases  to  aid  the  physi- 
cian in  diagnosis. 

Some  of  the  operations  and  their  results 
are  among  the  g^reatest  triumphs  of  modem 
science.  Remarkable  cures  in  cases  of  ab- 
dominal diseases  have  been  effected  by  re- 
moving a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  diseased 
organ — as  a  kidney,  the  gall  bladder  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  intestine.  Brain  specialists  are 
able  to  locate  tumors,  blood  clots  and  other 
disorders  which  prevent  that  organ  from  dis- 
charging some  of  its  functions,  and  these 
obstructions  are  successfully  removed.  Cer- 
tain forms  of  epilepsy  caused  by  disease  of 
the  brain  have  also  been  cured  by  operation. 
The  transfusion  of  blood  from  the  system  of 
a  healthy  person  to  that  of  one  who  has  lost 
a  large  quantity  of  blood  by  accident,  or  who 
is  anemic,  and  skin  grafting  for  the  purpose 
of  removing  scars,  or  for  the  relief  of  one 
who  has  lost  skin  by  a  bum,  are  well-known 
operations.  Crooked  limbs  are  straightened, 
and  healthy  organs  are  transplanted  to  take 
the  place  of  diseased  parts. 

Methods.  In  operations  requiring  the  use 
of  ether  or  chloroform,  preparation  of  the 
patient  begins  about  twenty-four  hours  be- 
fore the  time  set  for  the  operation.  The  ali- 
mentary tract  is  thoroughly  cleansed   and 


the  body  bathed  with  soap  and  water;  then 
the  part  to  be  operated  on  is  washed  with 
a  strong  antiseptic.  Just  before  the  opera- 
tion this  part  is  again  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  followed  by  the  antiseptic.  The  part 
is  then  covered  with  a  sterilized  towel  until 
the  surgeon  is  ready  to  operate.  The  oper- 
ating room  and  eveiything  in  it,  as  well  as 
every  one  who  is  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
patient,  are  disinfected.  In  some  cases  sur- 
geons and  nurses  wear  antiseptic  masks,  and 
most  surgeons  use  rubber  gloves  that  are 
thoroughly  disinfected  after  each  operation. 
Every  precaution  is  taken  to  assure  the  pa- 
tient a  speedy  recoveiy;  yet,  in  major  oper- 
ations, fatalities  occur,  because  the  shock 
to  the  nervous  system  is  so  severe  that  the 
patient  is  unable  to  overcome  it. 

History.  Wliile  modern  surgeiy  is  of  re- 
cent development,  surgerv^  has  been  practiced 
from  the  earliest  times.  Herodotus  says  that 
the  medical  art  in  Egypt  was  di^-ided  into 
numerous  branches,  representing  each  mem- 
ber of  the  body.  The  Greeks  knew  and  prac- 
ticed several  important  operations,  in  a  mode 
little  behind  modem  practice.  The  Romans 
followed  the  Greeks  and  improved  upon  their 
methods,  besides  inventing  new  operations  of 
considerable  difficulty.  On  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  the  medical  art  in  Europe 
fell  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  monks, 
and  when,  in  1163,  the  Council  of  Tours 
prohibited  the  clergy  from  performing  any 
operations,  surgery  became  incorporated  with 
the  trade  of  barber  and  was  reduced  to  the 
simplest  operations,  chiefly  that  of  letting 
blood.  The  earliest  revival  of  the  science 
arose  from  the  contact  of  Europeans  with  the 
Eastern  nations,  particularly  the  Arabs,  and 
before  the  close  of  the  eleventh  centurs^,  Sa- 
lerno, in  Italy,  acquired  celebrity  for  a  school 
of  medicine.  From  that  time  on  there  was 
a  continual  growth  in  surgical  skill  and 
knowledge. 

Related    Articles.  Consult     the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Amputation  Lithotomy- 
Anesthetic  Medicine 
Antiseptic  Tourniquet 
Bacteria  and  Transfusion  of  Blood 

Bacteriology  Trephining- 
Bandage 

SUR'ROGATE,  a  judicial  officer  who  has 
jurisdiction  over  the  probate  of  wills,  the  ad- 
ministration and  settlement  of  decedents'  es- 
tates. In  some  states  he  is  empowered  to  ap- 
point and  supei-vise  guardians  of  infants  and 
other  legally  incompetent  individuals. 


SURVEYING 


3478 


SWALLOW 


In  American  Law.  In  some  states  this 
official  is  called  surrogate,  in  others,  judge 
of  probate,  register,  judge  of  the  orphans' 
court,  etc.  He  is  ordinarily  a  county  officer, 
with  local  jurisdiction  limited  to  his  county. 

In  English  Laiv.  In  Great  Britain  this  of- 
ficial is  a  deputy  or  substitute  of  the  chancel- 
lor, bishop,  ecclesiastical  or  admiralty  judge, 
appointed  by  him  to  act  in  his  place,  as  in 
gi-anting  licenses,  in  probating  wills  and 
granting  administration  of  estates  and  guard- 
ianship.   See  Courts;  Probate  Court. 

SURVEYING,  surva'ing,  the  art  of 
ninning  lines  for  the  purpose  of  locating 
boundaries,  measuring  land  and  for  deter- 
mining the  shape  and  area  of  any  portion  of 
the  earth's  surface. 

Land  surveying,  which  is  confined  to  small 
areas,  such  as  that  used  in  measuring  land 
and  fixing  the  sites  of  buildings  and  other 
structures,  does  not  take  into  consideration 
the  curvature  of  the  earth.  Topographical 
surveying,  which  is  on  a  much  more  extended 
scale,  is  for  the  purpose  of  producing  maps 
that  will  show  elevations  and  depressions  of 
land,  the  location  of  bodies  of  water  and  other 
objects.  Railroad  surveying  is  for  locating 
and  determining  the  course  and  grades  of 
lines  of  railway.  The  purpose  of  marine 
surveying  is  to  locate  shoals  and  other  ob- 
jects dangerous  to  navigation,  the  mapping 
of  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  entrances  to  har- 
bors and  the  determining  of  depths  of  water 
in  the  courses  over  which  vessels  usually  pass. 
Surveying  on  a  large  scale  is  usually  under 
the  direction  of  the  national  government.  It 
requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  mathema- 
tics, and  the  operation  of  delicate  instru- 
ments demands  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 

SURVEY  OF  PUBLIC  LANDS.  See 
Lands,  Public. 

SUSA,  soo'sa,  one  of  the  dead  cities  of 
Persia,  once  the  capital  of  the  Persian  prov- 
ince of  Susiana,  or  Elam.  It  occupied  a 
hilly  site  on  a  plateau  which  is  to-day  known 
as  the  province  of  Khuzistan.  The  whole 
section  is  fruitful  and  well  watered,  and  ex- 
cavations show  that  the  city  was  the  site  of 
human  habitation  even  in  the  Stone  Age. 
After  long  occupation  by'  Babylonia,  Susa 
first  came  under  Persian  rule  in  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  and  under  his  successors  it  became  a 
magnificent  city,  the  chief  metropolis  of  the 
Persian  Empire.  When  Babylon  rose  to  im- 
portance under  Alexander,  Susa  declined. 
It  was  still  inhabited  as  late  as  the  Middle 


Ages,  but  is  now  deserted.  It  is  marked  by 
mounds  and  a  few  ruins  and  a  Mohammedan 
mausoleum  kno^vn  as  the  Tomb  of  Daniel. 

SUSQUEHAN'NA  RIVER,  a  river  of 
Pennsylvania,  formed  by  the  union  of  a 
north  and  an  east  branch,  which  issue  re- 
spectively from  lakes  Schuyler  and  Otsego, 
in  Otsego  County,  New  York.  The  general 
course  of  the  Susquehanna  is  southwest, 
until  it  reaches  the  boundary  line  of  Penn- 
sylvania. From  there  it  crosses  the  state  in 
an  irregular  course  from  north  to  south. 
After  flowing  a  short  distance  through  Mary- 
land it  enters  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 
The  stream  cuts  its  way  through  numerous 
ranges  of  mountains,  forming  gaps  or  passes, 
and  along  its  course  are  many  places  of  scenic 
interest.  The  most  important  tributaries  are 
the  Chemung,  the  Lackawanna,  the  West 
Branch  and  the  Juniata.  There  are  many 
important  towns  along  its  banks,  including 
Binghamton  and  Owego,  in  New  York,  and 
Wilkesbarre  and  Harrisburg,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  entire  length  of  the  stream  and 
its  branches  is  about  500  miles.  Because  of 
the  many  rapids  and  shallows  it  is  not  navi- 
gable. 

SUT'LEJ,  a  river  of  India,  the  most  east- 
erly and  the  largest  of  the  five  rivers  of  the 
Punjab.  Its  source  is  near  the  sources  of  the 
Indus,  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra.  In 
the  upper  part  of  its  course  it  flows  west- 
ward through  the  Himalaya  region;  then  it 
sweeps  along  the  western  foot  of  the  Siwalik 
Hills,  whence  it  has  a  generally  southwest 
course  until  it  unites  with  the  Chenab,  to 
form  the  Panjnad,  or  Five  Rivers.  After  a 
course  of  about  fifty  miles  it  joins  the  Indus. 
The  entire  length  of  the  stream  is  about  1,000 
miles.  In  the  upper  part  of  its  course  it  is 
a  mountain  torrent,  but  at  Felor  it  widens 
into  a  shallow  lake.  Up  to  this  point  it  is 
navigable  for  river  craft.  In  the  lower  part 
of  its  course  the  waters  are  used  for  iiTiga- 
tion. 

SUTTEE',  the  practice  among  the  Hindus 
of  burning  a  widow  on  the  funeral  pyre  of 
her  deceased  husband.  It  was  once  general  in 
India  (at  one  time  compulsory),  but  was 
abolished  by  the  British  in  1829." 

SWALLOW,  swoVlo,  the  general  name  of 
a  family  of  birds  somewhat  resembling  the 
swifts,  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ex- 
cept the  coldest  regions.  They  have  weak 
feet  and  legs,  but  long  and  strong  wings  and 
remarkable  powers  of  flight.     The  tail  is  a 


SWALLOWING 


3479 


SWEATSHOP  SYSTEM 


little  longer  than  the  rest  of  the  body  and 
usually  forked.  The  birds  are  exceedingly 
graceful  on  the  wing,  wheeling,  dipping, 
soaring  rapidly,  skimming  along  near  the 
surface  of  water  and 
even  drinking  in  flight. 
Some  swallows  are  mi- 
gratorj',  going  near  the 
polar  regions  in  sum- 
mer. They  travel  in 
large  numbers,  resting 
at  night  in  woods  and 
marshes.  Some  build 
in  trees;  others  build 
stucco  nests  on  the  un- 
der side  of  bridges,  in 
barn  rafters  and  such 
places.  The  eggs,  four 
or  five  in  number,  are 
white,  sometimes  spot- 
ted with  brown.  The 
North  American  barn 
swallow  is  perhaps  ^^^^  swallow 
the  swiftest  of  all  flyers.  The  plumage  is 
blue-gray  above  and  chestnut-colored  beneath, 
and  the  tail  is  deeply  forked.  The  tree  sival- 
low,  cliff  sicalloio  and  the  purple  martin  are 
familiar  residents  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

SWALLOWING-,  a  muscular  act,  begin- 
ning in  the  mouth.  The  tongue  is  raised 
against  the  front  part  of  the  hard  palate, 
the  uvula  takes  a  horizontal  position  to  close 
the  opening  into  the  nostrils,  the  epiglottis 
is  pressed  down  upon  the  glottis,  or  opening 
into  the  larnyx,  and  when  the  food  reaches 
the  back  of  the  throat  it  is  seized  by  the  in- 
voluntary muscles,  cari-ied  quickly  through 
the  pharj-nx,  slowly  through  the  esophagus 
to  the  cardiac  orifice,  which  opens  to  allow 
the  food  to  enter  the  stomach.  A  juggler 
can  drink  while  standing  on  his  head,  be- 
cause swallowing  is  a  muscular  act, 

SWAMP.    See  Maesh. 

SWAN,  swon,  the  largest  bird  of  the  duck 
family,  famous  for  its  grace  and  beauty  on 
the  water.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
the  swan  was  venerated  as  the  sacred  bird 
of  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  It  was  once 
thought  that  the  swan  sang  beautifully  just 
before  its  death ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  all 
swans  have  harsh  and  rather  unpleasant  notes. 
They  are  strong,  fierce  fighters,  defending 
their  nests  against  preying  animals  and  even 
against  man.  In  North  America  there  are 
two  wild  species,  the  xvliistling  swam,  which 


has  an  orange  spot  between  the  eyes  and  the 
trumpeter  sican,  both  of  them  white,  with 
black  bills  and  legs.     The  latter,  which  was 


SWAN 

at  one  time  quite  common  in  the  Western 
United  States,  furnishes  most  of  the  swan's 
down  for  the  market.  Domestic  swans  are 
kept  only  for  their  beauty.  The  black  swan 
is  a  native  of  Australia. 

SWEAT.    See  Perspiration. 

SWEATSHOP  SYSTEM,  an  industrial 
l^rocedure  whereby  subcontractors  undertake 
work  in  their  own  houses  or  small  workshops, 
employing  others  to  do  it.  and  profiting  by 
the  difference  between  the  contract  prices 
and  the  wages  they  pay  their  assistants.  As 
it  is  the  object  of  the  subcontractor,  or  sweat- 
er, to  secure  as  large  a  margin  of  profit  as 
possible,  the  tendency  of  the  system  is  to  re- 
duce the  wages  of  the  worker  to  the  lowest 
possible  limit,  on  what  is  known  as  the  piece- 
work basis.  The  evils  of  the  sweatshop  are 
long  hours;  an  impossible  wage  scale;  over- 
crowding of  shops  and  tenement  houses; 
unsanitary  and  unfavorable  conditions  of 
work;  child  labor,  often  causing  disease  and 
deformity  due  to  confinement,  filth  and  im- 
proper lighting ;  and  the  irregularity  of  the 
work. 

Much  of  this  sort  of  sweating  has  been 
done  in  industrial  bistor\%  but  its  many  evils 
have  been  mitigated  with  the  advance  of  cor- 
porations, trades  unions,  factory  inspection 
and  legislation.  The  system  appears  in  the 
United  States  among  cigar  makers,  cloak 
makers  and  shop  tailors,  and  it  has  given  rise 
to  strikes,  out  of  which  has  come  temporary 
relief. 

Some  states  have  legislated  against  the  use 
of  dwelling  tenements  for  workshops,  the 
overcrowding  of  workrooms  and  the  employ- 
ment of  children.  Massachusetts,  New  York. 
Ohio  and  Illinois  have  laws  which  provide 


SWEDEN 


3480 


SWEDEN 


s 

\      ih^      -''.  ■ 

^L-^&^s     -^ 

^^l^^x-^ 

i^^^wSB^^^ 

W  ^^^  \  — ! 

-■■■/  d^^^k  u  '-"-^^ 

jy^^^::;5; 

!;i|^^,. 

"I^^^^ft-'' 

i^' 

Peasant    Girl 

that  all.  rooms  for  this  work  be  licensed  and 
regularly  inspected.  Manufacturers,  too, 
are  seeking  to  alleviate  the  evil  and  providing 
more  healthful  working  conditions  and  better 
wages.  See  Factory  and  Factory  Legis- 
lation. 

IWE'DEN,  a  kingdom  of 
northern  Europe,  occupy- 
ing the  eastern  and  great- 
er portion  of  the  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula.  Rus- 
sia, the  Baltic  Sea  and  the 
Cattegat  and  Skagerrak 
border  it  on  the  east, 
"^  south  and  southwest,  and 
Xorway  forms  the  west- 
em  and  northern  boun- 
darv-.  Its  gi-eatest  length 
is  940  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth  is  225  miles,  and 
its  area  is  172,035  square 
miles,  making  it  about  the 
size  of  Montana  and 
Maine  combined.  The 
coast  line  exceeds  1,400 
miles  in  extent. 
The  People.  The  Swedes  are  descendants 
of  the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teutonic 
peoples  who  formerh'  inhabited  the  northern 
part  of  Europe.  They  are  usually  tall  and 
well  proportioned  and  have  a  light  complex- 
ion, blonde  hair  and  blue  eyes.  They  are 
characterized  by  their  industry,  sobrietj'', 
cheerful  disposition  and  general  intelligence. 
They  stand  among  the  foremost  of  the 
world's  progressive  peoples.  Wherever  they 
have  gone  they  have  won  a  reputation  for 
honesty  and  thrift. 

The  language  is  somewhat  different  from 
that  of  Xorway  and  Denmark.  Because  of 
the  union  of  that  branch  of  the  Scandinavians 
forming  the  Swedes  with  the  Svears  of  the 
north  and  the  Gotars  of  the  South,  the  blend- 
ing of  the  native  language  of  these  people 
with  the  old  Scandinavian  tongue  produced 
a  language  somewhat  more  sonorous  than  the 
dialects  found  in  Denmark  and  XoiTvay, 
which  very  closely  resemble  each  other. 

The  Lutheran  Church  is  the  established 
Church,  and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are 
followers  of  this  creed.  Other  religions,  how- 
ever, are  tolerated,  and  there  are  a  few  com- 
municants of  the  various  evangelical  denomi- 
nations, as  well  as  some  Roman  Catholics. 

In  1910  the  population  was  5.522,405;  in 
1916,  estimated  at  5,757,566. 


Surface  and  Drainage.  The  Scandina\nan 
Alps,  or  Kiolen  Mountains,  fonn  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  boundary  between  Sweden 
and  Xorway.  These  are  low  mountains  con- 
sisting in  some  places  of  scarcely  more  than 
a  high  plateau.  The  highest  summits  are 
Sarjektjakko,  6,855  feet,  and  Kaskasatjakko, 
6,809  feet.  From  the  mountain  barrier  the 
land  slopes  by  successive  terraces  toward  the 
east  and  southeast.  The  coast  is  low,  level 
and  in  some  places  marshy.  It  is  estimated 
that  nearly  one-third  of  the  surface  of  the 
countiy  is  below  a  level  of  thirty  feet,  while 
only  a  small  portion  of  it  has  a  level  of  2,000 
feet  and  over.  The  southern  part  of  the 
country  is  generally  low. 

Sweden  has  a  large  number  of  rivers,  and 
with  scarcely  an  exception  these  flow  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  The  Tornoa  and  its 
northern  tributary,  the  Muonio,  form  the 
boundary  with  Russia.  Other  important 
streams  in  their  order,  passing  southward, 
are  the  Lulea,  the  Skelleftea,  the  Unea,  the 
Indals  and  the  Dal,  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia;  the  Klar,  rising  in  Xorway  and 
flowing  southerly  into  Lake  Yenner,  and  the 
Gota,  discharging  the  waters  of  this  lake  into 
the  Cattegat.  The  country  has  a  large  num- 
ber of  lakes.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  lakes  Wenner  and  Wetter.  The  former, 
ha%*ing  an  area  of  over  2,100  square  miles,  is 
the  third  largest  lake  in  Europe.  The  north- 
ern part  of  the  counti-y  is  studded  with  lakes, 
which  in  form  are  generally  long  and  nar- 
row. These,  as  well  as  most  of  the  streams, 
are  too  small  to  be  available  for  navigation, 
except  near  their  mouths. 

Climate.  Considering  its  latitude,  Sweden 
has  a  mild  climate,  though  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  mean  annual  temperature  in 
its  northern  and  southern  extremities,  the 
mean  temperature  at  Stockholm  for  January 
being  241°,  and  for  July.  63°.  In  general 
the  summers  are  hot,  and  the  winters  extreme- 
ly cold;  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country 
the  thermometer  sometimes  falls  as  far  as 
40  °  below  zero.  There  is  scarcely  any  transi- 
tion between  winter  and  summer  or  between 
summer  and  winter.  Spring  and  autumn, 
which  characterize  most  temperate  countries, 
here  are  very  short  or  are  lacking  altogether. 
The  rainfall  averages  about  20  inches  for  the 
entire  country,  but  it  is  much  heavier  in  the 
south,  where  it  is  about  35  inches,  than  in  the 
north,  where  it  seldom  exceeds  13  inches.  The 
greatest  amount  of  rain  falls  during  August. 


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3481 


SWEDEN 


Mineral  Resources.  Sweden  has  rich 
stores  of  minerals,  and  mining  is  one  of  the 
most  important  industries.  Iron  ore  of  ex- 
cellent quality  is  distributed  over  the  country, 
but  the  mines  in  the  north  are  the  most  im- 
portant. The  central  part  of  the  country 
has  been  noted  since  earliest  times  in  Swedish 
history  for  its  production  of  iron  and  steel. 
About  7,500,000  tons  of  iron  ore  are  mined 
annually,  and  about  6,500,000  tons  aro  ex- 
ported. Copper  is  extensively  mined,  and 
gold,  silver,  manganese  and  cobalt  are  found. 

Forests  and  Lumber.  At  least  one-half 
of  the  country  is  timberland.  Dense  growths 
of  pine,  spruce,  birch  and  mountain  ash  are 
found  on  the  uplands.  Groves  of  oak  border 
the  lakes  in  the  lowlands,  and  forests  of  birch 
are  found  in  the  fertile  lowlands  of  the  south. 
Most  of  the  forests  are  on  Crown  lands  and 
are  controlled  by  the  government.  The  larg- 
est lumber  mills  are  located  on  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  and  lumbering  and  other  wood- 
working industries  are  of  great  value.  They 
furnish  employment  for  about  42,000  peo- 
ple. 

Agriculture.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
land  is  suitable  for  cultivation.  A  large  part 
of  the  remainder  is  covered  with  forests,  and 
some  of  the  rest  is  suited  to  grazing.  Agri- 
culture gives  emplojrment  to  about  one-half 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  farms  are  generally 
small,  ranging  from  five  to  forty-five  acres 
in  extent.  The  best  lands  are  in  the  south- 
em  and  central  parts  of  the  country,  and 
here  the  farms,  when  well  tilled,  produce  as 
much  per  acre  as  the  best  farms  in  England. 
The  chief  crops  are  oats,  rye,  potatoes,  bar- 
ley, wheat  and  hay  and  forage  crops. 

In  the  parts  of  the  country  where  pastur- 
age is  good,  the  raising  of  live  stock  is  im- 
portant; here  dairying  receives  the  attention 
of  a  large  number  of  farmers,  and  consider- 
able quantities  of  butter  are  exported  to 
Great  Britain.  Sugar  beets  are  cultivated  in 
the  south,  and  flax,  tobacco  and  hops  are 
raised  successfully  in  various  localities. 
Agriculture  is  aided  by  the  government, 
which  establishes  agricultural  schools  and 
sends  teachers  of  agriculture  throughout  the 
country.  Primitive  methods  are  found  only 
in  remote  localities. 

Other  Industries.  Fishing  has  always 
been  a  profitable  industry.  Hemng  are 
taken  in  large  quantities,  and  salmon  abound 
in  the  mouths  of  the  northern  rivers,  where 
extensive  fisheries  are  established.     Salted 


and  canned  fish  are  among  the  leading  arti- 
cles of  export.  Of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries, those  connected  with  the  cutting  and 
preparation  of  lumber  and  its  products  are 
by  far  the  most  important.  Other  important 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of  flour, 
of  textiles  and  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products.  Sweden  is  noted  for  its  manufac- 
ture of  iron,  which  is  exported  to  nearly  all 
countries  of  the  w^orld.  Cream  separators, 
lighthouse  apparatus,  telephone  supplies, 
motors  and  electrical  machinery  are  manu- 
factured in  various  cities  and  towns.  There 
are  porcelain  factories  at  Roastrand  and 
Gustavsberg,  and  glass  factories  at  Kosta  and 
Rejmyre  whose  wares  have  a  high  rej^utation 
in  foreign  markets.  The  leading  industrial 
centers  are  Stockholm,  Goteborg  and  Nor- 
rkoping,  all  of  which  have  large  textile  es- 
tablishments. The  most  important  iron 
works  are  at  Eskilstuna  and  Motala. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  Trans- 
portation facilities  are  good.  The  roads  are 
in  excellent  condition,  and  the  country  has 
over  9,300  miles  of  railway  lines,  which  con- 
nect all  of  its  leading  commercial  centers  and 
join  them  with  the  important  seaports  of 
Norway.  Canals  connect  many  of  the  lakes 
and  rivers,  so  that  there  are  over  2,500  miles 
of  inland  waterways.  All  of  these  means  of 
transportation  give  the  country  adequate 
facilities  for  moving  its  products.  Tele- 
graph lines  extend  throughout  the  country, 
and  in  1916  there  were  over  373,000  miles  of 
telephone  wires,  two-thirds  of  which  were 
owned  by  the  state. 

The  commerce  is  large,  considering  the  size 
and  population  of  the  countiy.  Most  of  it 
is  maritime,  and  Swedish  ships  carry  not  only 
the  trade  of  the  country,  but  a  considerable 
part  of  that  of  other  nations.  The  leading 
exports  are  minerals,  metal  goods  and  ma- 
chinery, live  stock,  hair,  hides  and  other  ani- 
mal products,  lumber  and  its  products,  which 
far  exceeds  the  others.  The  imports  consist 
of  minerals,  principally  coal,  metal  goods, 
machinery,  textiles,  grain,  flour  and  other 
food  products.  The  foreign  trade  is  carried 
on  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  the 
United  States,  Russia,  France  and  Denmark. 

Education.  An  excellent  sj-stem  of  pub- 
lic schools  is  maintained,  imder  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  government.  Attendance 
is  compulsory,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  person 
of  school  age  who  cannot  read  and  write.  In 
addition  to  the  common  schools,  two  imiver- 


SWEDEN 


3482 


SWEDEN 


sities  are  maintained,  one  at  Upsala  and  the 
other  at  Lund.  There  are  also  fifteen  nor- 
mal schools  and  a  number  of  technical  schools, 
including  schools  of  navigation,  textiles,  min- 
ing, medicine,  veterinaiy  science,  agriculture 
and  forestry'.  The  deaf  and  blind  are  eared 
for  in  special  institutions  maintained  by  the 
state. 

Literature.  The  earliest  writings  in  Swed- 
ish literature  which  have  been  presei-\-ed  are 
ancient  provincial  laws,  some  of  which  date 
from  the  thirteenth  century.  There  are,  too, 
l)allads  which  were  written  at  a  very  early 
date.  Like  the  other  countries  of  Europe, 
Sweden  was  affected  in  the  later  Middle  Ages 
by  the  romantic  movement  in  literature,  and 
tales  of  chivalry  were  the  result.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  little  was  produced  except 
religious  works,  but  in  the  centuiy  that  fol- 
lowed Swedish  writers  began  to  be  influenced 
by  the  writers  of  other  countries,  and  a  more 
varied  literature  resulted.  The  middle  eight- 
eenth century  produced  Swedenborg  and 
Linnaeus,  who  were,  however,  of  more  impor- 
tance to  religion  and  science  than  to  pure 
literature.  Gustavus  III  was  a  patron  of 
letters,  and  many  writers  of  note  were  mem- 
bers of  the  court  he  assembled.  The  ro- 
mantic movement  which  swept  over  Europe 
in  the  early  nineteenth  century  affected 
Sweden  with  the  other  countries,  and  the  first 
half  of  that  century  was  the  most  noteworthy 
period  in  the  history  of  Swedish  literature. 
Tegner  (1782-1846)^,  the  author  of  Frithiof's 
Saga,  is  the  greatest  poet  Sweden  has  pro- 
duced. The  best  known  wi'iters  of  the  mod- 
ern period  are  Strindberg,  the  dramatist,  and 
Selma  Lagerlof,  the  novelist,  who  in  1909 
won  the  Nobel  Prize  for  literature  (see  Nobel 
Prizes). 

Government.  The  government  is  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy.  The  throne  is  hered- 
itary in  the  male  line  of  descent,  but  in  case 
there  is  no  direct  heir,  a  king  is  chosen  by  the 
national  legislature.  The  king  is  required 
to  be  a  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church  and 
is  bound  to  observe  the  laws  and  enforce  the 
same.  The  legislative  department  consists 
of  a  Dadiet,  comprising  two  houses,  the  upper 
chamber  of  150  members  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lators of  the  various  provinces,  for  six  years, 
and  the  lower  chamber  of  230  members, 
chosen  for  three  years  by  universal  suffrage. 
In  choosing  the  members  of  the  lower  cham- 
ber about  one-third  are  chosen  from  the  towns 
and  two-thirds  from  the  countrv.    The  exec- 


utive jjower  is  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  who 
acts  under  the  advice  of  a  council  of  state 
consisting  of  eleven  members. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  are  Stockholm,  the 
capital;  Gothenburg  and  Malmci.  These  are 
described  elsewhere. 

History.  Authentic  historj'  of  Sweden  be- 
gins about  A.  D.  1,000,  but  for  three  centuries 
after  that  time  the  country  was  in  a  turmoil, 
owing  to  the  constant  struggles  between  the 
two  Teutonic  peoples,  the  Swedes  and  the 
Goths,  who  occupied,  respectively,  the  north- 
ern and  the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula. 
In  the  twelfth  century  Christianity  spread 
through  the  countrj^,  and  in  their  attempts 
to  advance  the  new  religion  the  Swedes  made 
themselves  masters  of  Finland.  In  1397,  by 
the  union  of  Kalmar,  Queen  Margaret  united 
Sweden,  Denmark  and  Norway  as  one  king- 
dom. The  Swedes  were  restive  under  the 
union,  but  not  until  1523,  under  Gustavus 
Vasa,  were  they  able  to  make  themselves 
independent  (See  GusTAvrs  I). 

From  this  time  the  nation  made  a  steady 
advance  in  the  face  of.  difficulties,  despite 
the  succession  of  weak  rulers,  the  first  of 
whom  was  Eric  XIV,  who  ruled  from  1560 
to  1568.  Under  John  III  (1568-1592)  oc- 
cuiTed  a  reaction  to  Catholicism,  from  the 
Lutheranism  which  Gustavus  had  established 
as  the  State  religion.  The  people  showed 
their  adherence  to  the  new  religion,  however, 
by  demanding  the  abdication  of  John's  son, 
Sigismund,  who  attempted  to  restore  Cathol- 
icism as  the  State  faith.  Charles  IX  (1604- 
1611)  did  much  to  counteract  the  bad  effects 
which  the  previous  reigns  had  had  on  the 
country,  and  his  son  and  successor,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  (1611-1632),  brought  Sweden  to  a 
point  which  it  had  never  reached  before. 
With  all  of  its  growth  in  patriotism,  com- 
merce and  culture,  Sweden  had  made  no  at- 
tempt at  territorial  expansion,  and  it  was  not 
accorded  by  the  other  states  of  Europe  a  very 
high  position.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  am- 
bitious, and  his  ambition,  with  his  faith  in 
Protestantism,  was  sufficient  to  draw  him  into 
the  war  which  was  raging  in  Germany.  Even 
after  the  death  of  Gusta\Tis  Adolphus,  his 
policy  was  carried  out,  and  for  some  time 
Sweden  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  Europe.  Slight  accessions  of 
territory  were  made  under  several  of  the 
rulers  by  successes  in  war,  but  in  1675  the 
Swedish  armies  were  completely  defeated  by 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg  at  Fehrbellin. 


SWEDENBORGIANS 


3483 


SWEET  ALYSSUM 


The  first  great  sovereigrn  after  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  Charles  XII  (king  from  1697 
to  1718),  whose  extraordinary  military  gen- 
ius drew  the  eyes  of  all  Europe  to  Sweden. 
After  his  death  the  country  became  greatly 
enfeebled  by  the  struggles  of  various  political 
factions,  and  even  Gustavus  III  (1771-1792), 
who  put  down  the  factions  and  increased  the 
royal  power,  was  unable  to  restore  it  fully. 
Finally,  Gustavus  IV  (1792-1809)  proved 
himself  so  weak,  and  yet  so  stubborn,  that 
he  was  deposed  and  Avas  compelled  to  re- 
nounce the  crown  for  his  heirs.  Charles  XIII, 
the  uncle  of  Gustavus,  was  elected  king,  and 
as  he  had  no  heirs,  Bernadotte,  one  of  Na- 
poleon's marshals,  was  chosen  crown  prince, 
in  the  hope  of  conciliating  Napoleon.  The 
effectual  aid  which  Bernadotte  rendered  the 
allies  in  the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon  gave 
Sweden  a  claim  on  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
and  Norway  was  accordingly  taken  from  Den- 
mark and  given  to  Sweden.  Bamadotte  came 
to  the  throne  in  1818,  and  although,  because 
of  his  selfish  desire  for  his  own  advancement, 
he  was  never  personally  popular,  he  greatly 
increased  the  prestige  and  prosperity  of  his 
realm.  He  was  succeeded  in  1844  by  his  son, 
Oscar  I,  under  whom,  as  under  the  two  suc- 
ceeding kings,  Charles  XV  (1859-1872)  and 
Oscar  II,  prosperity  continued.  In  1905 
Norway  broke  away  from  Sweden  and  be- 
came an  independent  country,  but  maintained 
friendly  relations  with  Sweden.  During  the 
World  War  Sweden  endeavored  to  maintain 
strict  neutrality,  in  accordance  with  a  com- 
mon agreement  entered  into  by  the  three 
Scandinavian  countries. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

GEOGRAPHY 

Baltic  Sea  Malmo 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of  Skagerrack 

Cattegat  Stockholm 
Gothenburg 

HISTORY 

Charles,  XII  and  XIV  Norway  (history) 

Denmark  (history)  Oscar,  I  and  II 

Gustave  V  Thirty  Years'  War 

Gustavus,  I,  II,  World  War 
III.  IV 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  swe  den  bo/je  anz, 
the  followers  of  Swedenborg,  particularly  the 
members  of  what  is  called  the  New  Jerusalem 
Church,  or  New  Church.  The  belief  of  the 
Swedenborgians  is  as  follows:  Jesus  Christ 
and  God  are  one,  in  whom  is  a  trinity,  not  of 
persons  but  of  essentials,  answering  to  the 
soul,  the  body  and  the  operation  of  these  in 
a  man;  that  the  Scriptures  contain  an  in- 
ternal or  spiritual  meaning,  which  is  the  Word 


existing  in  heaven ;  that  the  key  to  this  is  the 
correspondence  between  natural  and  spiritual 
things,  as  between  effects  and  their  causes; 
that  man  is  saved  by  shunning  evils  as  sins 
and  by  leading  a  life  according  to  the  ten 
commandments;  that  man  is  a  spirit  clothed 
with  a  natural  body  for  life  on  earth,  and 
that  when  he  puts  off  that  body  at  death  he 
continues  to  live  as  before,  but  in  the  spirit, 
first  in  an  intermediate  state  between  heaven 
and  hell,  but  afterwards,  when  his  character, 
whether  good  or  evil,  becomes  harmonious 
throughout,  among  his  like,  either  in  heaven 
or  hell ;  that  the  Lord's  second  coming  and  the 
last  judgment  are  spiritual  events,  which  are 
continually  taking  place.  There  are  about 
9,000  Swedenborgians  in  the  United  States. 

Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  whose 
real  name  was  Swedberg,  the  founder  of 
the  New  Jerusalem  Church,  or  sect  of  Swed- 
enborgians, was  the  son  of  Jasper  Swedberg, 
bishop  of  West  Gothland,  Sweden.  He  was 
born  at  Stockholm.  His  education  was  scien- 
tific and  his  first  work  was  that  of  assessor 
in  the  Royal  College  of  Mines,  a  position  he 
held  till  1749,  though  he  retained  the  salary 
through  life.  Swedberg  was  master  of  all  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  his  time  and  wrote 
voluminously  on  scientific  subjects.  In  1719 
.Queen  Ulrica  raised  his  family  to  the  rank  of 
nobility,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Swed- 
enborg. 

SWEET  ALYSSUM,  a  lis'um,  a  little  trail- 
ing plant  dear  to  the  heart  of  every  gardener. 
It  grows  from  four  to  ten  inches  high,  and 
blossoms  from 
June  to  Septem- 
ber, in  long  clus- 
ters or  bunches 
of  small,  white 
sweet-  scented 
flowers,  which 
are  much  fre- 
quented by  bees. 
It  is  easy  to 
raise,  growing  in 
any  ordinary 
soil,  either  from 
seeds  or  from 
cuttings.  One 
variety  has 
double  flowers, 
another  is  noted  for  its  variegated  leaves ;  still 
another,  being  dwarfed  and  bushy,  is  used 
perhaps  more  than  any  other  plant  for  the 
borders  of  flower  beds. 


SWEET  ALYSSUM 


SWEET  BRIER 


3484 


SWIFT 


SWEET'BRIER,  a  name  applied  to  several 
species  of  rose,  natives  of  Europe,  but  nat- 
uralized in  the  United  States.  Sweetbrier 
grows  wild,  but  it  is  often  planted  in  hedges 
and  gardens,  on  account  of  the  spicy  frag- 
rance of  its  small  leaves  and  pink  flowers.  It 
is  also  called  the  eglantine. 

SWEET  CLOVER.    See  Melilot. 

SWEET  FLAG,  a  rusblike  plant  of  the 
arum  family,  found  in  marshy  places 
throughout  the  northern  hemisphere.  The 
leaves  are  all  long  and  sword-shaped,  and  the 
slender,  green  stem  bears  a  spike  of  greenish 
flowers.  The  root,  which  is  long,  cylindrical 
and  knotted,  has  a  strong  aromatic  odor  and 
a  pungent,  bitter  taste.  It  has  been  employed 
in  medicine  since  the  time  of  Hippocrates.  It 
is  also  used  by  confectioners  in  making  candy 
and  by  perfumers  in  the  preparation  of  aro- 
matic vinegar  and  other  articles.    See  Arum. 

SWEET  GUM.  See  Liquidambar. 

SWEET  LOCUST.    See  Honey  Locust. 

SWEET  PEA,  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  all  garden  plants,  related  to  the  vegetable 
of  the  same  name.  There  are  about  150 
varieties,  belonging  either  to  the  climbing 
or  the  dwarf  type.  The  flowers,  which  have 
a  delicate  fragrance,  are  white,  pink,  blue, 
red,  purple  and  variegated.  Sweet  peas  re- 
quire a  rich,  well  drained  soil,  plenty  of 
sunlight  and  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The 
seeds  are  planted  in  April  in  a  trench  which 
should  be  gradually  filled  as  the  plant  grows 
in  order  to  give  the  roots  the  necessary  depth. 

SWEET  POTA'TO,  a  plant  of  the  convol- 
vulus famil}^,  a  native  of  the  tropics,  but 
now  cultivated  in  all  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  world.  Columbus  carried  sweet  potatoes 
to  Spain  as  a  gift  to  Queen  Isabella,  and  by 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  were 
in  general  cultivation  in  that  country.  The 
sweet  potato  has  smooth,  creeping  stems, 
heart-shaped  leaves  and  a  flower  that  some- 
what resembles  the  morning-glory.  The  large 
root  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  American 
vegetables.  Sweet  potatoes  are  raised  in  near- 
ly every  part  of  the  United  States,  Georgia, 
North  Carolina,  Mississippi  and  Alabama 
leading  in  the  production.  They  are  gath- 
ered after  the  first  frost. 

SWEET  WIL'LIAM,  a  popular  old-fash- 
ioned flower,  a  member  of  the  pink  family. 
The  leaves  are  small,  and  the  velvety  flowers, 
ranging  in  color  from  white  to  dark  red  and 
purple,  grown  in  thick  clusters.  The  wild 
Sweet  William  belongs  to  the  phlox  family. 


SWIFT,  the  common  name  of  a  bird,  very 
much  resembling  the  swallow  in  outward  ap- 
pearance and  habits,  but  in  structure  much 
different  and  classified  by  some  naturalists 
with  the  humming  birds,  and  goatsuckers. 
Like  the  swallows,  the  swifts  live  principally 
upon  the  wing,  catching  insect  food  and  even 
gathering  material  for  their  nests  while  in 
full  flight.     The  common  North  American 


CHIMNEY   SWIFT 

swifts  are  the  so-called  chinmey  swallows, 
which  build  their  nests  in  fireless  chimneys 
of  houses,  sometimes  almost  filling  the  cavity 
with  the  dried  twigs,  which  are  fastened  to- 
gether with  a  sticky  glue,  the  saliva  of  the 
birds.  The  swifts  hunt  over  a  large  terri- 
tory during  the  day,  and  at  night  they  re- 
turn to  their  home  in  the  chimney,  where  they 
move  restlessly  about,  chattering  throughout 
the  night.  Their  tails  are  spiny-pointed  and 
are  used  in  climbing  and  propping  themselves 
against  walls.  The  famous  edible  birds'  nest 
is  built  by  a  swift,  almost  entirely  from  its 
own  saliva.  The  cliff  swift  of  Guatemala 
builds  a  strange  nest,  about  two  feet  long  and 
two  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  chamber 
about  six  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top,  where 
the  eggs  are  laid.  The  entrance  is  at  the 
lower  end. 

SWIFT,  Jonathan  (1667-1745),  the 
greatest  of  English  satirists,  bom  in  Dublin. 
Of  his  writings,  the  one  most  widely  read  to- 


SWIFT 


3485 


SWIMMING 


JONATHAN   SWIFT 


day  is  Gulliver's  Travels.  His  education  at 
Kilkenny  and  later  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, was  irregular,  and  it  was  only  by  a 
special  dispensation  that  he  was  granted  a 
degi'ee.  In  1689  he 
became  secretary  to 
Sir  William  Temple 
of  Moor  Park,  Sur- 
rey, but  his  pride 
made  this  relation  a 
trying  one,  and  after 
five  years  he  gave 
up  the  position  and 
returned  to  Ireland, 
was  ordained  and 
was  given  a  parish 
in  the  Irish  Church. 
He  shortly  became 
dissatisfied  and  re- 
turned to  Moor  Park,  where  he  remained  until 
Temple's  death.  During  this  time  arose  his 
love  for  the  Stella  of  his  writings,  Hester 
Johnson,  a  relation  of  Sir  William  Temple's 
and  an  inmate  of  his  home.  In  1699  Swift 
accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Earl  of 
Berkeley  to  accompanj'  him  to  Ireland  as 
chaplain  and  secretary,  and  through  that 
nobleman  he  became  vicar  of  Laraeor  and 
Rathbeggan. 

The  famous  Tale  of  a  Tub,  published  in 
1704,  brought  Swift  wide  notice.  But  its 
satire  on  literary  and  religious  pedantry 
injured  his  chances  for  advancement  in  the 
Church.  In  the  years  following  he  was  prom- 
inent in  polities,  first  as  a  Whig,  later  as  a 
Tory  and  editor  of  the  Toiy  Examiner,  ex- 
erting a  powerful  influence  by  his  writings. 
During  a  stay  in  England,  from  1710  to 
1713,  Swift  wrote  the  Journal  to  Stella,  a 
work  which  throws  much  light  on  his  life. 
In  these  years  also  he  became  acquainted 
with  Miss  Hester  Vanhomi'igh,  called  by 
him  Vanessa,  a  young  lady  of  fortune  who 
fell  in  love  with  him  and  proposed  marriage. 
Wlien  he  returned  to  Ireland,  she  followed 
him  and  took  up  her  residence  in  his  neigh- 
borhood. At  length,  through  secret  means, 
she  became  aware  of  his  attachment  for  Stella, 
and  in  desperation  she  visited  Stella  and  de- 
manded the  truth.  Swift's  anger  and  the 
rupture  of  their  friendship  brought  about 
her  death. 

In  1724  the  publication  of  the  Drapier 
Letters,  in  which  he  opposed  the  granting  of 
a  patent  for  copper  coinage  in  Ireland,  made 
Swift  the  hero  of  the  Irish  people ;  two  years 


later  the  appearance  of  Gulliver's  Travels 
greatly  increased  his  fame.  His  exertions  to 
better  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  Ireland 
remained  constant  until  1742,  when  the  afflic- 
tion which  he  had  long  been  dreading  came 
upon  him,  and  his  mind  failed.  His  insanity 
continued  until  his  death,  thi-ee  years  later. 

SWIMMING,  a  healthful  and  a  pleasure- 
giving  athletic  exercise,  a  knowledge  of  the 
art  may  enable  one  to  save  one's  own  life  and 
the  lives  of  others,  but  probably  not  one- 
third  of  the  boys  and  girls  learn  to  swim.  The 
chief  obstacles  to  learning  to  swim  are  lack 
of  confidence  on  part  of  the  learner  and  fear 
of  the  mother,  whose  attitude  is  expressed  by 
the  old  saying,  "I  would  be  perfectly  willing 
that  Johnny  should  learn  to  swim  if  he  could 
learn  without  going  into  the  water." 

Lack  of  confidence  is  easily  overcome  if 
the  beginner  does  not  go  into  water  over  his 
depth,  and  if  he  will  keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  human  body,  as  a  whole,  is  lighter 
than  water,  but  that  some  parts  of  it,  espe- 
cially the  head,  are  heavier  than  water.  The 
deeper  one  wades  into  the  water,  the  greater 
its  buoyant  force,  as  one  realizes  by  wading 
in  until  the  water  is  up  to  the  neck,  when 
the  feet  can  scarcely  be  kept  on  the  bottom. 
However,  when  the  beginner  attempts  to 
lie  on  the  surface  in  water  of  this  depth,  it 
frequently  happens  that  his  feet  rise  and 
his  head  goes  down,  resulting  in  a  "ducking" 
and  sometimes  giving  him  a  fright  from  which 
he  may  not  recover  for  some  time.  It  is 
therefore  wiser  for  the  beginner  to  learn  to 
lie  in  the  water  where  it  is  not  more  than 
waist  deep. 

Wading  out  to  this  depth,  let  the  beginner 
face  the  shore,  then  lie  face  downward  in  the 
water,  extending  the  arms  above  the  head, 
keeping  the  hands  open,  palm  downward. 
Fully  one-half  of  the  head  will  be  in  the 
water  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  hold  the 
breath,  but  this  can  be  done  for  a  few 
seconds  without  any  inconvenience.  If  the 
feet  are  drawn  up  quickly  they  will  place 
themselves  on  the  bottom  and  the  floater  can 
rise  to  an  erect  position  at  will.  After  a  few 
exercises  of  this  sort  let  the  beginner  open 
his  eyes  under  water  and  then  begin  to  paddle 
gently  with  his  hands.  He  wiU  observe  that 
he  is  moving  towards  the  shore. 

Before  attempting  the  swimming  stroke 
one  should  be  able  to  float  as  described  above 
in  perfect  confidence.  When  this  confidence 
has  been  gained,  wade  into  the  water  up  to 


SWIMMING 


3486 


SWISS  FAMILY  ROBINSON 


the  neck,  face  the  shore,  lie  in  the  water  as 
before,  but  keep  the  head  up  so  that  the 
mouth  is  out  of  the  water.  As  you  assume 
this  position  extend  the  arms  above  the  head 
with  the  hands  together,  then,  turning  the 
hands  palm  outward,  swing  the  arms  outward 
and  backward  at  the  same  time,  bringing 
the  legs  together  till  the  heels  touch.  Bring 
the  arms  back  to  their  former  position  and 
spread  the  legs,  and  the  stroke  is  completed. 
In  a  short  time  you  will  be  able  to  take  a 
number  of  strokes,  and  when  you  have 
reached  this  stage  you  have  learned  to  swim. 
Continued  practice  will  increase  facility  of 
movement  and  also  give  confidence.  Until 
one  can  swim  some  distance  with  confidence 
and  without  exhaustion  he  should  keep  out 
of  water  beyond  his  depth. 

Diving.  The  dictionary  says  that  dive 
means  "to  plunge  headforemost  into  the 
water,"  and  that  is  exactly  what  many  do 
when  diving.  Every  good  swimmer  will  de- 
clare that  diving,  when  one  has  learned  the 
art,  is  very  enjoyable.  A  good  diver  makes 
his  plunge  from  a  support  high  enough  to 
enal)le  him  to  enter  the  water  in  a  nearly 
vertical  position.  The  arms  should  be  ex- 
tended above  the  head,  and  the  body  while  in 
the  air  should  be  straight,  with  the  muscles 
as  free  from  tension  as  possible.  One  will 
then  enter  the  water  easily  and  emerge 
quickly. 

The  inexperienced  diver  is  likely  to  take 
his  plunge  from  a  support  so  near  the  water 
that  he  enters  on  an  oblique  line.  When 
this  happens,  the  diver  suffers  more  or  less  in- 
convenience by  having  "the  wind  knocked 
out  of  him,"  when  he  strikes  the  water.  A 
person  should  become  a  good  swimmer  be- 
fore he  attempts  diving,  and  he  may  learn 
much  by  careful  observation  of  experienced 
divers. 

Rescuing  from  Drowning.  If  a  person  is 
in  danger  of  drowning,  and  a  swimmer  goes 
to  his  rescue,  the  latter  should  remember  that 
the  drowning  person  is  not  apt  to  be  con- 
scious of  what  he  is  doing  and  may  seize  his 
rescuer  and  drag  him  down.  If,  however, 
there  is  no  great  excitement,  the  swimmer 
can  support  and  carry  the  other  very  easily, 
if  the  latter  will  rest  his  hands  upon  the  hips 
of  the  swimmer  and,  stretching  at  full  length, 
keep  perfectly  quiet.  This  is  a  convenient 
method  of  bringing  out  any  one  who  is  at- 
tacked with  weakness  or  cramp.  If  the 
drowning  person   is  unconscious,  his  body 


may  be  drawn  along  by  the  hair  or  pushed 
ahead  of  the  swimmer,  if  far  from  shore;  if 
near,  he  can  be  seized  by  the  arm  and  drawn 
out.  For  treatment  of  the  drowned,  see 
Drowning. 

SWINBURNE,  Algernon  Charles 
(1837-1909),  an  English  poet,  bom  in  Lon- 
don and  educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
His  first  important  productions  were  two 
dramas.  The  Queen  Mother  and  Rosamond, 
published  in  1861.  These  were  followed  by 
the  tragedies  Atalanta  in  Calydon  and  Chaste- 
lard  and  a  volume  of  verse.  Poems  and  Bal- 
lads, which  excited  considerable  criticism 
by  reason  of  the  unconventional  ideas  of 
morality  they  contained.  Their  metrical 
beauty,  however,  called  for  high  praise.  A 
series  of  political  poems,  including  A  Song 
of  Italy,  Ode  on  the  Proclamation  of  the 
French  Repiihlic,  Songs  Before  Sunrise  and 
Songs  of  Two  Nations  reveal  an  entirely 
different  phase  of  the  author's  genius. 
Among  the  works  of  his  later  years  are 
Bothwell,  Mary  Stuart,  Erechtheus,  Locrine 
and  Queen  of  the  Lombards. 

SWINE.     See  Hog. 

SWISS  GUARD.  The  Swiss  soldiers  are 
famous  for  bravery,  and  for  this  reason 
they  have  often  been  chosen  to  serve  as 
body  guards  of  royalty.  The  Swiss  Guard 
organized  to  protect  Louis  XIII  was  anni- 
hilated by  the  populace  in  an  attack  on  the 
Tuileries  in  1792.  Its  heroism  is  commem- 
orated in  Thorwaldsen's  Lion  of  Lucerne, 
carved  in  the  face  of  a  rock  at  Lucerne, 
Switzerland.  The  Swiss  Guard  organized  in 
1815  as  a  body  guard  of  Louis  XVIII  was 
overwhelmed  in  the  revolution  of  1830. 
The  body  guard  of  the  Pope  at  Rome  is 
made  up  of  Swiss  soldiers,  but  it  is  called 
the  Papal  Guard. 

SWINTON,  William  (1833-1892),  a  fam- 
ous American  historian,  was  born  in  Scotland, 
lived  as  a  boy  in  Canada,  then  moved  to  the 
United  States.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the 
World,  Tivelve  Decisive  Battles  of  the  War 
(Civil  War),  and  other  histories. 

SWISS  FAMILY  ROBINSON,  a  story  for 
children,  written  by  J.  R.  Wyss  (1781-1830), 
of  Switzerland,  in  the  German  language.  It 
was  afterwards  translated  into  French  and 
then  into  English,  has  been  accepted  as  a 
classic,  and  has  been  wonderfully  popular  for 
many  years.  The  idea  of  the  plot  may  have 
been  derived  from  Robinson  Crusoe,  for  the 
two  tales  are  similar  in  their  development. 


SWITZERLAND 


3487 


SWITZERLAND 


SWITZERLAND,  a  small 
^L  conutry  of  Southwestern 
K^  Europe,  one  of  the  oldest 
republics  in  the  world, 
having  maintained  a  re- 
publican form  of  gov- 
ernment for  600  years. 
Situated  in  the  most 
mountainous  part  of  the 
continent,  it  is  famous 
for  the  grandeur  of  its 
scenery.  This  ^nd  the 
bracing  climate  attract 
many  visitors.  Because 
of  its  attractions  for 
pleasure-seekers  it  lias 
long  been  called  the 
playground  of  Europe. 
Switzerland  has  no 
seacoasts.  North  of  it  lies  Germany;  to  the 
east  is  the  new  Austria;  Italy  and  France 
form  the  southern  and  western  borders, 
respectively. 

General  Features.  Switzerland  is  the  most 
mountainous  country  of  Europe.  Glaciers 
and  perpetual  snow  cover  800  square  miles. 
The  dominating  feature  is  the  majestic  Al- 
pine range,  extending  across  the  central  and 
southern  parts  of  the  country.  Many  of  the 
peaks  are  more  than  15,000  feet  high.  The 
famous  Jungfrau  rises  two  and  a  half  miles 
above  the  sea;  Monte  Rosa,  15,217  feet. 
Towering  to  heights  slightly  less  are  Mount 
Saint  Gotthard  and  the  incomparable  Mat- 
terhorn.  The  curve  formed  by  the  Jura 
Mountains  serves  as  a  great  natural  boundary 
in  the  north  and  west.  Here  are  innumerable 
parallel  ranges  rising  to  heights  approxi- 
mately 5,000  feet.  Long  vallej's  lie  between, 
and  great  gorges  cross  them,  connecting  one 
valley  wdth  another.  Pine  forests  cover  the 
slopes;  many  of  the  valleys  are  clothed  in 
verdure  and  are  rich  pasture  lands.  Here 
and  there,  pocketed  among  the  mountains, 
are  small  lakes  and  tarns  of  profound  depths. 
Between  the  Juras  and  the  Alps  lies  a  great 
plateau  1,300  feet  above  the  sea.  Here  the 
great  mass  of  the  population  is  to  be  found. 
Owing  to  the  melting  snows  the  country 
is  well  supplied  with  water.  Most  of  the 
valleys  are  crossed  by  streams,  many  of  them 
broken  here  and  there  by  picturesque  water- 
falls. The  country  is  drained  by  the  Rhine, 
the  Rhone,  the  Ticino  and  the  Inn  and  their 
tributaries  within  its  boundaries.  The  only 
navigable  stream  is  the  Aar,  a  tributary  of 


the  Rhine.  The  others,  while  too  swift  for 
navigation,  are  useful  in  supplj'ing  power 
for  manufacturing.  The  lakes  are  remark- 
able for  size,  depth  and  beauty.  In  the  south- 
west and  northeast  corners  of  the  country 
respectively  lie  Lake  Geneva  and  Lake  Con- 
stance. Lying  partly  in  Italy  are  Lake 
Maggiore  and  Lake  Lugano,  in  the  south. 
Lakes  Xeuchatel,  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Bienne, 
Brienz  and  Thun  are  of  slightly  less  impor- 
tance. 

Climate,  Plant  and  Animal  Life.  The 
climate  of  Switzerland  is  determined  bj^  alti- 
tude rather  than  latitude.  In  the  low  valleys 
the  mean  annual  temi^erature  is  about  fifty 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  is  the  natural 
habitat  of  olives  and  grapes,  of  oaks  and 
chestnuts.  Higher  up  are  forests  of  pine, 
larch,  fir  and  beech,  and  rich  pastures.  Grain 
matures  below  4,000  feet.  The  chief  wild 
animals  are  the  ibex  and  chamois.  In  the 
high  valleys  the  climate  is  extremely  severe. 
The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  about  9,000 
feet. 

.  People.  The  Swiss  are  a  hardy  race,  noted 
for  their  industry,  honesty  and  skill  in  the 
arts.  They  are  of  Celtic  and  Teutonic  ori- 
gin; the  Teutonic  element  being  more  than 
double  that  of  the  Celtic.  The  latter  are  in 
three  main  groups — the  Gallic,  who  speak 
French;  the  Italian,  who  speak  Italian,  and 
the  Romanish,  whose  language  is  a  Latin  dia- 
lect. German,  spoken  by  about  sixty  per 
cent  of  the  people,  is  the  dominating  tongue 
of  the  northern  provinces  of  Zurich,  Bern 
and  Lucerne;  French,  spoken  by  about  twen- 
ty per  cent,  is  the  language  of  common  inter- 
course in  Geneva,  Xeuehatel,  Fribourg, 
Yalais  and  Vaud. 

Although  made  up  of  these  diverse  ele- 
ments, the  Swiss  as  a  nation  are  one  people. 
The  severe  test  of  national  unity  at  the  time 
of  the  World  War  served  in  the  end  but  to 
intensify  patriotism,  to  quicken  the  national 
consciousness.  The  melting  pot  of  Europe, 
Switzerland  preserves  its  national  unity  un- 
impaired by  the  activity  of  opposing  forces 
within  it.  This  is  because  the  Swiss  have  a 
traditional  passion  for  liberty,  the  common 
possession  of  which  constitutes  one  great 
brotherhood  among  them.  Moreover,  the 
land  is  owned  by  the  people.  From  the  soil 
both  men  and  women,  working  together, 
coax  their  meager  subsistence  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  Trades  pass  from  father 
to  son.     The  limited  resources  have  necessi- 


SWITZERLAND 


3488 


SWITZERLAND 


tated  frugality  and  thrift  and  these  have  en- 
gendered stability. 

Cities.  Since  neither  the  soil  nor  climate 
is  adapted  to  agriculture,  there  is  not  a  large 
rural  population.  Most  of  the  peojile  live 
in  the  towns,  which  are  thoroughly  cosmopol- 
itan. In  them  the  peoples  of  all  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe  come  together.  Zurich,  with 
a  po^Dulation  of  213,900,  is  the  largest  city; 
Basel,  with  137,100,  is  next  in  size.  Bern,  the 
capital,  and  Lausanne  are  also  prominent  cen- 
ters. In  point  of  international  importance 
the  chief  city  of  Switzerland  is  Geneva,  situ- 
ated near  the  French  frontier,  on  the  south- 
ern end  of  Lake  Geneva,  selected  as  the 
seat  of  the  league  of  nations  and  "capital  of 
the  world." 

Government.  Switzerland  is  a  confedera- 
tion of  twenty-two  self-governing  cantons, 
united  under  a  central  Federal  government. 
The  legislative  and  executive  authority  are 
vested  in  a  parliament  of  two  chambers,  the 
Stiinderath,  or  State  Council,  consisting  of 
forty-four  members,  two  from  each  canton; 
and  the  Nationalrath,  or  National  Council^ 
consisting  of  189  representatives  of  the 
people,  chosen  by  direct  manhood  suffrage 
for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  two  houses 
hold  separate  sessions  in  all  legislative  mat- 
ters. In  joint  assembly  thej^  constitute  the 
Federal  Assembly  {Bundes-Versammlung) , 
the  supreme  government  of  the  republic. 
This  body  elects  a  Bundesrath,  or  Federal 
Council,  of  seven  for  three  years,  a  supreme 
executive  body.  The  President  of  the  Coun- 
cil, elected  to  sen'e  one  year,  is  also  President 
of  the  Republic.  The  Council  also  elects  a 
Supreme  Court,  and  the  commander  in  chief 
of  the  army.  The  Federal  government  can 
alone  contract  treaties  and  declare  war.  The 
armj',  finance,  postal  system  and  customs  are 
under  its  direct  control. 

For  purposes  of  local  government  the  can- 
tons are  divided  into  districts  and  communes. 
With  few  exeej^tions  each  has  a  legislative 
and  an  executive  council.  The  chief  executive 
is  called  a  prefect.  In  some  cantons  he  is 
elected  by  the  council  of  the  canton ;  in  others, 
by  popular  vote.  Civil  and  criminal  law, 
justice,  police,  public  works  and  schools  are 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  cantonal  au- 
thorities. The  initiative  and  referendum  have 
an  import-ant  place  in  local  legislation. 

The  neutrality  of  Switzerland  is  guaran- 
teed by  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  (1815)  as 
indispensable  to  the  peace  of  Europe. 


Army.  Switzerland  has  no  standing 
army,  but  there  is  a  national  militia.  With 
few  exceptions,  every  male  citizen  between 
the  ages  of  twenty  and  forty-eight  is  liable 
to  military  service.  Exemptions  are  limited 
to  Federal  employes,  policemen,  clergymen, 
teachers  and  those  physically  unfit,  and  these 
pay  a  certain  tax  in  lieu  of  service.  Men  be- 
tween twenty  and  thii'ty-two  constitute  the 
auszug)  those  between  thirty-two  and  forty 
the  landwelir ;  those  between  forty  and  forty- 
eight,  the  landsturm.  The  soldier,  on  enter- 
ing the  ai-my,  is  placed  in  the  department  of 
the  service  for  which  he  seems  best  fitted — 
artillery,  cavalry,  etc.  He  has  about  a  year's 
training  in  one  of  the  recruit  schools  and 
afterwards  has  eleven  days'  training  annually 
for  seven  years  (eight,  if  he  is  a  cavalry- 
man). Each  man  takes  home  his  arms  and 
equipment  and  is  required  to  keep  them  in 
good  condition.  When  not  on  active  duty  he 
reports  to  the  military  authorities  once  a 
year.  Part  of  Switzerland's  army  was  mobil- 
ized at  the  time  of  the  World  War,  when 
there  seemed  danger  that  the  neutrality  of  the 
country  would  be  violated. 

Religion  and  Education.  Complete  liber- 
ty of  conscience  prevails,  Jesuits  alone  being 
forbidden  to  can-y  on  their  activities.  About 
fifty-nine  per  cent  of  the  people  are  Protes- 
tant; forty  per  cent  are  Roman  Catholics. 
Jews  and  non-orthodox  make  up  the  remain- 
der. In  all  the  cantons  primary  education 
is  free ;  in  the  northeastern  cantons,  where  the 
people  are  mostly  Protestant,  it  is  com- 
pulsory. In  every  district  there  are  both 
primary  and  secondary  schools.  There  are 
numerous  technical  and  trade  schools,  and 
seven  universities,  located  respectively  at 
Zurich,  Bern,  Geneva,  Fribourg,  Basel,  Lau- 
sanne and  Neuchatel.  There  is  an  excellent 
Federal  polytechnic  school  at  Zurich. 

Production  and  Industry.  The  Swiss 
mountains,  lakes  and  rivers  render  one- 
fourth  of  the  surface  unproductive.  The 
lovely  scenery,  however,  offsets  this  economic 
loss  by  attracting  thousands  of  tourists  an- 
ually;  and  the  entertaining  of  visitors  at  the 
numerous  summer  and  winter  resorts  con- 
stitutes the  chief  "industry"  of  the  country. 
Only  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  ground  is 
under  cultivation ;  the  rest  of  the  production 
area  is  covered  with  forests  and  pastures, 
called  "alps."  The  most  important  products 
are  cheese  and  condensed  milk.  Some  rye, 
oats  and  potatoes  are  grown,  but  the  bulk 


SWITZERLAND 


3489 


SWITZERLAND 


of  the  foodstuffs  are  imported.  Good  wine 
is  made  in  several  cantons.  Of  domestic  ani- 
mals, cattle  are  first  in  importance.  Pigs, 
goats  and  sheep  are  raised  in  large  numbers. 
The  lakes  supply  quantities  of  fish. 

Salt  and  asphalt  are  the  leading  mineral 
products.  Coal  is  scarce,  but  the  deficiency 
is  in  a  measure  offset  by  an  abundance  of 
water  power,  and  much  attention  is  given  to 
manufacturing.  Swiss  laces,  embroideries, 
cotton  goods  and  ribbons  find  read}'  accept- 
ance in  the  world's  markets.  Watches,  toys, 
jewelry  and  music  boxes  are  widely  known 
for  their  excellence.  Minor  industries  are 
wood  car\'ing,  straw  plaiting,  tool  and  in- 
strument making  and  the  manufacture  of 
leather  goods.  At  the  time  of  the  World  War, 
Switzerland,  in  order  to  obtain  necessary 
food,  fuel  and  raw  materials  for  its  exist- 
ence, guaranteed  that  (with  few  exceptions) 
no  imports  from  one  gi'oup  of  belligerents 
would  be  exported  to  an  opposing  groujx 

Transportation.  Owing  to  the  tempestu- 
ous nature  of  the  streams  there  is  little 
traffic  by  water.  There  are  about  3,670  miles 
of  railway,  practically  all  of  which  is  owned 
and  operated  by  the  government.  Travel  by 
coach  and  carriage  is  common,  and  the  roads 
are  kept  in  excellent  condition.  The  postal 
and  telegraph  systems  supply  efficient  means 
of  internal  and  foreign  communication. 

History.  The  earliest  inhabitants  men- 
tioned in  written  history  were  the  Helvetians 
and  Rhaetians,  who  were  subdued  by  the 
armies  of  Rome.  As  a  result  of  German  in- 
vasions Switzerland  was  settled  by  the  Ale- 
manni  and  Burgundians.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury part  of  the  country  came  into  jDossession 
of  the  Franks.  Under  Charlemagne's  suc- 
cessors the  country  was  divided  between 
France  and  Germany,  but  in  the  eleventh 
century  it  passed  to  Germany,  becoming  part 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  As  a  result  of 
the  feudal  system  of  the  middle  ages  the 
Austrian  counts  of  Hapsburg  became  power- 
ful in  the  countiy.  Their  rule  was  burden- 
some and  tj'rannical,  and  in  1291  the  men  of 
Uri,  SehTvyz  and  Unterwalden  entered  into  a 
defensive  league.  The  union  of  these  three 
cantons  led  to  a  struggle  which  was  to  end 
in  Swiss  independence. 

Open  hostilities  began  early  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  in  the  conflicts  which  fol- 
lowed the  Swiss  displayed  remarkable 
bravery  and  heroism.  It  is  to  this  period  that 
the  story  of  William  Tell  belongs.    In  1315 

219 


was  fought  the  Battle  of  Morgarten,  which 
resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  Swiss  and  a 
seventy  years'  peace.  By  the  middle  of  the 
century  the  Swiss  League  was  reinforced  by 
the  addition  of  five  other  cantons — Lucerne, 
Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug  and  Bern ;  and  when,  in 
1386,  war  again  broke  out,  the  Swiss  were 
again  able  to  gain  a  victory.  At  the  Battle 
of  Sempach  (1386),  in  which  Arnold  Winkel- 
ried  deliberately  sacrificed  his  life  for  the 
cause  of  liberty,  and  at  Nafels  (1388)  the 
Austrians  were  ovei-whelmingly  defeated. 
After  this  the  cantons  became  the  aggressors 
and  wrested  Aargau  and  Thurgau  from  Aus- 
tria, 

To  maintain  their  independence  in  spite 
of  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  the  Swiss  were  forced  into  an- 
other conflict,  and  from  this  also  they 
emerged  victorious.  The  last  war  with  Aus- 
tria occurred  in  1499.  The  struggles  was 
severe,  but  the  Swiss  again  triumphed,  and 
by  the  Peace  of  Basel  they  were  politically 
separated  from  the  Austrian  Empire.  By 
1513  the  number  of  cantons  in  the  federation 
had  increased  to  thirteen. 

Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Refor- 
mation, under  the  leadership  of  Zwingli  and 
Calvin,  began  to  spread  through  the  countxy, 
especially  in  the  northern  cantons.  The 
religious  differences  became  so  pronounced 
that  war  broke  out  in  1531.  The  difficulties 
between  the  two  factions  were  partially  ad- 
justed by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which 
closed  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Through  the  remainder  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
turies considerable  disorder  existed  in 
Switzerland.  The  religious  and  political  dif- 
ferences of  the  cantons  virtually  prevented 
peaceful  growth.  In  the  last  years  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  ferment  of  the  French 
Revolution  spread  to  Switzerland,  and  in  1798 
the  ancient  confederation  was  replaced  hy  the 
Helvetic  Republic,  which  lasted  four  years. 
In  1803  Xapoleon  organized  a  new  confed- 
eration, with  nineteen  cantons,  and  in  1814, 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  the  powers  ac- 
knowledged the  independence  of  Switzerland 
and  guaranteed  its  neutrality.  Again  in  1830 
and  in  1848,  Switzerland  was  affected  by  the 
revolutionary  movement  in  France,  and  a 
new  Federal  constitution  was  introduced  in 
the  latter  year.  This  constitution  remained 
in  force  until  1874,  when  it  gave  place  to  the 
present  constitution. 


SWORD 


3490 


SYDNEY 


Switzerland's  position  as  a  neutral  during 
the  World  War  was  difficult.  Its  great  prob- 
lem was  how  to  exist;  how  to  obtain  from 
the  outside  world  the  fuel,  food  and  raw  ma- 
terial on  which  the  nation's  life  depended. 
Its  next  problem  was  how  to  remain  uniiied, 
with  its  large  German,  French  and  Italian 
elements.  The  way  in  which  the  country 
overcame  its  difficulties  commanded  the  re- 
spect of  the  world.  In  spite  of  its  problems 
Switzerland  conducted  a  highly-efficient  Red 
Cross  service  for  the  relief  of  the  injured. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Basel  Lucerne 

Bern  Neuchatel 

Geneva  Zurich 

RIVERS    AND    LAKES 

Constance,  Lake  Neuchatel,  Lake  of 

Geneva,  Lake  Rhine 

Lucerne,  Lake  Rhone 
Ma&giore,  Lake 

MOUNTAINS 

Alps  Mont  Blanc 

Jungfrau  Rosa,  Monte 

Matterhorn  Saint  Gotthard 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Calvin  John  Saint  Bernard,  Great 

Chilloii  Simplon 

Mer  de  Glace  Tell,  William 

Reformation  Winkelried,    Arnold 

SWORD,  sohrd,  a  weapon  used  in  hand-to- 
hand  encounters,  consisting  of  a  steel  blade 
and  a  hilt,  or  handle,  for  wielding  it.  The 
blade  may  be  either  straight  or  curved,  one- 
edged  or  two-edged.  The  ancient  Greek 
swords  were  of  bronze  and  later  of  iron.  The 
Romans  had  short,  straight  swords,  of  finely 
tempered  steel,  sharp-pointed  and  with  two 
cutting  edges.  When  gunpowder  was  in- 
vented and  heavy  armor  was  discarded,  the 
rapier  came  into  favor.  In  the  East  the 
weapon  most  used  is  the  scimitar,  having 
a  short,  curved,  blade. 

The  sword  is  of  much  less  importance  in 
warfare  than  formerly,  though  it  is  used  in 
all  the  armies  of  the  world.  The  Japanese 
employ  a  two-edged  sword  from  thirty  to 
thirty-six  inches  long.  The  cavalryman  of 
the  French,  the  German  and  the  British 
army  is  equipped  with  a  long  sword.  In  the 
United  States  army  the  sword  has  been  re- 
placed by  the  saber.  In  the  World  War 
hand-to-hand  engagements  were  fought  al- 
most entirely  with  bayonets. 

SWORDFISH,  sohrd'fisli,  a  large  salt- 
water fish  found  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and,  less  frequently, 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  an  average 
length  of  eight  feet  and  a  weight  of  250 
pounds,    though    specimens    of    more    than 


twice  this  size  and  weight  have  been  caught. 
That  part  of  the  fish  which  gives  it  its  name 
is  the  long  flat  upper  jaw,  which  is  sharp- 
edged  and  strong  and  about  half  the  length 
of  the  body.  With  this  powerful  weapon  the 
fish  overcomes  its  prey — herring,  mackerel 
and  menhaden.  Even  the  timbers  of  ships 
have  been  rammed  by  its  "sword."  To  kill 
this  game  fighter  with  a  harpoon  is  considered 
fine  sport  by  fishermen.  The  flesh  is  coarse, 
but  well  flavored. 

SYCAMORE,  sffc'  a  molir,  a  tree  belong- 
ing to  the  plane  tree  family,  which  grows  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  from  New 
Brunswick  to  Florida,  as  far  west  as  Texas 
and  north  into  the  province  of  Manitoba.  It 
grows  to  a  height  of  from  seventy  to  a  hun- 
dred feet.  On  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  the 
bark  is  brown;  above  and  on  the  branches 
it  is  green  and  is  characterized  by  a  tendency 
to  break  off  in  pieces,  exposing  a  lighter  lay- 
er of  bark  underneath.  The  three-lobed 
leaves  have  scalloped  edges  and  deep  veins. 
The  stamen-bearing  flowers  are  deep  red; 
the  pistil-bearing  blossoms  are  light  green 
touched  with  red.  Sycamore  wood,  reddish- 
brown  in  color,  is  very  durable  and  is  used 
in  furniture-making. 

SYDNEY,  sid'ni,  Nova  Scotia,  the  county 
seat  of  Cape  Breton  County,  situated  on 
Cape  Breton  Island  at  the  head  of  an  excellent 
harbor,  275  miles  northeast  of  Halifax.  It  is 
near  extensive  coal  mines,  to  which  it  owes 
much  of  its  prosperity.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Intercolonial  and  the  Sydney  and 
Glace  Bay  railways.  The  chief  industries 
are  shipbuilding,  meat  packing  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  iron  and  steel.  It  is  the  chief 
town  of  Cape  Breton  Island  and  is  a  naval 
station  of  some  importance.  Population, 
1911, 17,723. 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  state,  the  chief  naval  station  and 
the  oldest  city  of  Australia,  and  next  to  Mel- 
bourne the  most  important  British  city  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  It  is  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  squadron  in  Australian  waters. 

Situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  Port 
Jackson,  five  miles  from  the  entrance  of  the 
harbor,  the  city  has  a  beautiful  site  on  a 
land-locked  harbor  with  rocky  shores,  and 
it  is  defended  by  modem  fortifications.  The 
new  town  is  well  laid  out  and  contains  a 
number  of  beautiful  public  parks  and  prom- 
enades. In  the  center  of  the  city  is  Hyde 
Park,  from  which  the  principal  streets  radi- 


SYDNEY  MINES 


3491 


SYMBOL 


ate.  The  chief  structures  are  the  govern- 
ment building,  the  parliament  house,  the 
mint  and  the  city  library.  The  leading  edu- 
cational institution  is  the  University  of 
Sydney,  in  Victoria  Park.  Among  the 
churches,  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Andrew 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Mary  are  worthy  of  mention.  It  contains  the 
finest  botanical  gardens  in  Australia  and  the 
National  Art  Gallery.  The  manufactures 
include  machinery,  foundry  products,  cars, 
locomotives,  stoves,  boots  and  shoes,  clothing, 
textiles,  tobacco  and  malt  liquors. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1788  as  a  penal 
colony.  In  1842  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
city,  and  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
colony,  in  1851,  it  grew  rapidly.  It  is  con- 
nected by  steamship  with  all  the  important 
ports  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  Popula- 
tion, 1917,  764,600,  including  suburbs 
(estimated). 

SYDNEY  MINES,  Nova  Scotia,  in  Cape 
Breton  County,  on  the  north  shore  of  Sydney 
Harbor.  The  Canadian  government  and  the 
Nova  Scotia  Steel  &  Iron  Company's  rail- 
ways furnish  transportation.  The  last  named 
corporation  employs  nearly  4,000  men  in  the 
mines,  furnaces  and  foundries  located  here. 
The  annual  output  of  coal  is  over  900,000 
tons.  Practically  the  entire  population  is  de- 
pendent on  the  coal  mines,  blast  furnaces, 
steel  plants,  foundries  and  machine  shops. 
Population,  1916,  9,054. 

SYENITE,  sy'en  ite,  an  igneous  rock  com- 
posed of  alkali  feldspar  with  hornblende, 
augite,  or  mica.  It  differs  from  granite 
chiefly  in  the  lack  of  quartz.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Syene,  Egypt,  and  typical 
representatives  of  the  group  are  found  in 
abundance  in  Saxony,  Sutherlandshire 
(Scotland),  the  West  Alps  and  Canada.  The 
Norwegian  augite  syenites  are  employed  as 
ornamental  building  stones  and  for  monu- 
mental purposes. 

SYLLOGISM,  siVlo  jiz'm,  in  logic,  a  form 
of  reasoning  or  argument,  consisting  of  three 
parts,  the  first  two  of  which  are  known  as 
premises  and  the  third  as  the  conclusion, 
which  is  derived  by  joining  in  thought  the 
two  premises.  Each  premise  contains  two 
terms,  of  which  one  is  common  to  both  and 
is  the  means  of  bringing  together  the  other 
terms.  This  common  element  is  called  the 
middle  term.  The  subject  of  the  conclusion  is 
known  as  the  minor  term,  and  the  predicate, 
as  the  major  term.     Correspondingly,  the 


proposition  containing  the  minor  term  is  the 
minor  premise,  and  the  proposition  contain- 
ing the  major  term  is  the  major  premise.  In 
arranging  the  syllogism,  it  is  customary  to 
place  the  major  premise  first.  The  following 
is  a  good  illustration  of  the  arrangement  and 
the  method  of  combining  the  terms  in  a  syllo- 
gism: 

Autumn  comprises  September,  October  and 
November.   (Major  Premise.) 

In  the  north  central  states  the  pleasantest 
season  is  autumn.    (Minor  Premise.) 

Therefore,  in  the  north  central  states  the 
pleasantest  season  comprises  September,  Oc- 
tober and  November.   (Conclusion.) 

Here  the  middle  term,  autumn,  brings  into 
necessary  connection  the  minor  teiTQ,  in  the 
north  central  states  the  pleasantest  season, 
and  the  major  term,  September,  October  and 
November. 

There  are  six  rules  for  the  construction  of 
a  syllogism: 

(1)  Every  syllogism  must  have  three  terms; 
no  more,  no  less.  If  there  were,  for  example, 
four  terms,  there  would  be  no  middle  term, 
and  consequently  no  conclusion  would  be  pos- 
sible. 

(2)  Every  syllogism  must  have  but  three 
propositions.  If  there  were  more  than  three 
propositions,  there  would  be  more  than  three 
terms,  and  Rule  1  would  be  violated. 

(3)  The  middle  term  must  be  distributed; 
that  is,  it  must  be  referred  to  as  a  whole  at 
least  once  in  the  premise. 

(4)  No  term  that  is  not  distributed  in  one 
of  the  premises  must  be  distributed  in  the 
conclusion.  The  error  to  which  disregard  of 
this  rule  leads  is  illustrated  in  the  following: 

All  rabbits  are  rodent  mammals. 

No  hares  are  rabbits. 

Therefore,  no  hares  are  rodent  mammals. 

Here  the  major  term,  rodent  mammals, 
which  is  not  referred  to  universally  in  the 
major  premise,  is  distributed  in  the  conclu- 
sion; that  is,  an  assertion  has  been  made  con- 
cerning the  entire  class  of  rodent  mammals, 
namely,  that  hares  do  not  belong  to  this 
class,  which  is  false. 

(5)  No  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  neg- 
ative premises.  For  example,  if  A  is  not  B, 
and  E  is  not  F,  no  inference  of  the  relation 
between  A  and  F  can  be  made. 

(6)  If  one  premise  is  negative,  the  conclu- 
sion must  be  negative. 

SYM'BOL,  a  sign  by  which  one  knows  or 
infers  a  thing;  an  emblem.  It  is  commonly  a 
definite,  visible  figure  intended  to  represent 
or  stand  for  something  else.  The  common 
astronomical  symbols  are  signs  conveniently 
representing  such  things  as  astronomical 
objects,  phases  of  the  moon  and  astronomi- 
cal terms.  Some  of  these  symbols  are  so  an- 
cient that  we  can  find  no  satisfactory  account 


SYNAGOGUE 


3492 


SYNDICALISM 


of  their  origin.  The  symbols  for  the  chief 
heavenly  bodies  are  as  follows :  Sun,  ©  , 
Mercury  $,  Venus  ^,  Earth  6  andS,  Moon 
>,  Mars  J,  Ceres  ?  ,  Pallas^,  Juno  e ,  Vesta 
f,  JupiterQi,  Saturn  T? ,  Uranus  H,  Neptune 
W,  Star-?:^.  Each  asteroid,  except  those  giv- 
en above,  is  represented  by  a  circle,  with  a 
special  number  within  it.  The  phases  of  the 
moon  are  indicated  in  this  manner :  ©  new 
moon ;  3  moon  in  first  quarter ;  ©  full  moon ; 
<x  moon  in  last  cjuarter. 

The  mathematical  sj-mbols  are  the  sjTnbols 
used  to  make  operations  in  mathematics 
easier.  Some  are  mere  signs  of  value,  like 
the  numerals  and  the  letters  of  the  alphabet; 
others  indicate  processes,  such  as  -\-,  the  sign 
of  addition;  — ,  of  subtraction;  X»  of  multi- 
plication, and  -^,  of  division.  There  are  also 
signs  of  deduction,  such  as  .'.  (therefore), 
and  of  aggregation  '([]) .  Besides  these, 
there  are  the  signs  of  denominate  numbers 
and  the  special  signs  used  in  geometry, 
trigonometry  and  the  other  branches  of 
mathematics,  all  of  which  may  be  easily 
found  in  all  good  test-books  on  the  subjects. 

SYNAGOGUE,  sma  gog,  the  central  place 
of  worship  for  a  Jewish  community.  The 
s^Tiagogue  is  believed  to  have  originated  at 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  in  the 
sixth  century  B.  C.  In  Xew  Testament 
times  the  synagogues  were  so  constructed  that 
the  worshipers,  as  they  entered  and  as  they 
prayed,  looked  toward  Jerusalem.  At  the 
extreme  east  end  was  the  holy  ark,  contain- 
ing copies  of  the  Pentateuch ;  in  front  of  this 
was  the  raised  platform,  for  the  reader  or 
preacher.  The  men  sat  on  one  side  of  the 
SATiagogue,  and  the  women  sat  on  the  other, 
a  partition  five  or  six  feet  high  dividing 
them.  The  chief  seats,  after  which  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  strove,  were  situated 
near  the  east  end.  The  constitution  of  the 
synagogue  was  congregational,  not  priestly, 
and  the  sacred  offices  were  not  hereditary, 
but  were  filled  ac-cording  to  the  choice  of  the 
congregation.  A  college  of  elders  managed 
the  affairs  of  the  synagogue  and  possessed  the 
power  of  excommunication.  The  officiating 
minister  was  the  chief  reader  of  the  prayers, 
the  law  and  the  prophets.  The  servant  of  the 
synagosrue,  who  had  general  charge  of  the 
building,  acted  on  week  days  as  schoolmaster 
to  the  younsr  of  the  congregation.  The  right 
of  instruction  was  not  strictly  confined  to 
the  regularly  appointed  teachers,  but  the 
ruler  of  the  s}Tiagogue  might  call  upon  any 


one  present  to  address  the  people;  even  a 
stranger  might  volunteer  to  speak.  The 
Great  Synagogue  was  an  assembly,  or  coun- 
cil, of  120  members,  said  to  have  been 
founded  and  presided  over  by  Ezra  after  the 
return  from  the  captivity.  Their  duties  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  remodeling  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  people  and  the  collecting 
and  editing  of  the  sacred  books  of  former 
times. 

SYNCOPE,  sin'ko  pe.     See  Fainting. 

SYNECDOCHE,  sin  ek'doh  ke,  a  figure  of 
speech  in  which  a  part  of  a  thing  is  used  for 
the  whole,  or  the  whole  for  a  part.  Thus  in 
the  expressions,  "All  hands  on  deck"  and 
"A  fleet  of  forty  sails,"  the  word  ha7ids  is 
used  for  men,  and  sails  is  used  to  designate 
ships.  Marble  is  often  spoken  of  for  a 
statue,  and  the  word  roof  is  used  when  re- 
ferring to  a  house.    See  Figures  of  Speech. 

SYNDICALISM,  sin'dik  al  iz'm,  a  tenet  of 
radical  labor  organizations  having  for  its  ob- 
ject the  gaining  of  control  of  all  industry  by 
bodies  of  workers,  as  the  control  of  mines  by 
mine  workers,  the  control  of  railroads  by  rail- 
road workers,  ete.  The  name  is  derived  from 
syndicat,  a  term  applied  to  a  labor  union  in 
France  where  syndicalism  is  especially  strong. 

SjTidicalism  seeks  the  overthrow  of  pres- 
ent economic  conditions,  substituting  there- 
for the  industrial  commonwealth,  in  which 
labor  shall  have  control  of  all  the  means  of 
production  and  appropriate  to  itself  all  the 
profits  arising  therefrom.  Syndicalism 
teaches  that  there  are  only  two  classes  in 
modem  society — the  capitalists  and  the  labor- 
ing classes.  There  being  no  bond  of  sym- 
pathy between  them,  labor  can  only  secure 
the  enjoyment  of  its  rights  by  the  overthrow 
of  the  capitalist  class. 

S^Tidicalism  does  not  believe  that  reform 
can  be  secured  through  legislation,  neither 
does  it  have  faith  in  revolutionary  insurrec- 
tions. It  seeks  to  secure  it-s  ends  by  means  of 
strikes,  boycotts  and  sabotage,  and  by  any 
other  means  that  will  curtail  profits  and  dis- 
courage the  capitalist  class ;  and  finally,  when 
conditions  are  ripe  for  the  movement,  to 
overthrow  the  capitalist  system  by  a  general 
strike. 

Standard  labor  unions  have  no  sympathy 
with  syndicalism,  and  their  members  are  not 
admitted  to  sjTidicalist  organizations.  Syndic- 
alism has  developed  considerable  strength 
in  France,  Italy  and  some  other  European 
countries.     The  Industrial  Workers  of  the 


SYNGE 


349c 


SYRACUSE 


World  (which  see),  combining  some  strength 
in  the  United  States,  advocate  it.  Bolshevism 
embodies  many  of  the  same  ideas,  to  which 
it  adds  its  own  plan  of  wrecking  industry 
by  violence.  The  movement  originated  in 
France  in  1892. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Capital  Sabotage 

Bolsheviki  Socialism 

Labor  Organizations 

SYNGE,  sing,  John  Millington  (1871- 
1909),  an  Irish  dramatist  and  poet,  born  near 
Dublin  and  educated  there  at  Trinity  College. 
After  spending  a  number  of  poverty-stricken 
years  on  the  Continent,  he  returned  to  Ire- 
land, where  he  soon  became  associated  with 
W.  B.  Yeats  and  Lady  Gregory  in  the  move- 
ment for  the  revival  of  the  Irish  drama  and 
language.  His  first  plays,  Riders  to  the  Sea 
and  In  the  Shadow  of  the  Glen,  produced  in 
1905,  are  remarkable  for  their  sense  of  the 
overpowering  simplicity  of  tragedy.  The 
Plarjhoy  of  the  Western  World,  though  not 
his  best  work,  is  best-known.  Deirdre,  a  play 
based  on  a  classic  Irish  legend,  is  undoubtedly 
his  greatest  achievement.  The  Well  of  the 
Saints,  the  Tinker's  Wedding,  a  few  short 
poems  and  essays  and  a  volume  on  The  Aran 
Islands  are  among  his  other  writings.  A  man 
of  great  imagination  and  remarkable  delicacy 
of  style,  Synge  is  by  many  considered  the 
greatest  Irish  poet  of  his  time. 

SYNOD,  sin'od.    See  Presbyterians. 

SYNTAX,  sintaks,  that  division  of  gram- 
mar which  considers  the  arrangement  of 
words  to  form  sentences  and  the  grammatical 
relations  of  words  in  the  sentence.  In  the 
sentence,  *'The  earth  is  a  globe,"  the  word 
earth  is  said  to  be  the  subject  of  the  verb  is, 
and  the  word  globe  is  its  predicate  comple- 
ment. The  relation  of  each  of  these  words 
to  the  verb  is  called  its  construction,  or 
syntax.  Since  the  subject  is  a  singular  noun 
and  the  verb  is  also  singular,  the  latter  is  used 
grammatically.  If  the  verb  are,  which  is 
plural,  were  used,  we  would  say  that  the  sen- 
tence contained  an  error  in  syntax,  or  a 
grammatical  error,  for  verbs  must  agree  with 
their  subjects  in  number.  The  study  of  syn- 
tax is  thus  the  foundation  of  correct  usage. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information  : 
Adjective  Language  and   Participle 

Adverb  Grammar         Preposition 

Article  Interjection        Pronoun 

Conjunction        Noun  Verb 

SYN'THESIS,  the  union  of  various  ele- 
ments to  form  a  compound.     In  philosophy, 


the  term  is  applied  to  the  process  by  which  a 
conclusion  is  reached  through  the  building  of 
a  system  of  reasoning  upon  certain  premises. 
It  is,  therefore,  opposite  to  analysis,  which 
consists  in  finding  the  elements  or  facts  or 
characteristics  of  which  a  conclusion  or  no- 
tion is  composed.  In  chemistry  synthesis  con- 
sists in  building  up  a  complicated  compound 
from  certain  elements,  and  in  this  ease,  also, 
it  is  opposite  to  analysis,  which  is  separating 
of  a  compound  into  its  constituents. 

SYRACUSE,  see/a  kuse,  Italy,  the  most 
famous  and  powerful  city  of  the  ancient  west- 
ern Grecian  world.  It  is  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  thirty  miles 
south-southeast  of  Catania.  The  town  is  built 
upon  the  little  island  of  Ortygia,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  mole.  Syra- 
cuse of  the  present  day  is  of  little  importance. 
The  structures  of  greatest  interest  are  the 
cathedral,  built  about  an  ancient  Doric  tem- 
ple, known  as  the  Temple  of  Diana,  a  few 
old  palaces,  and  a  museum  of  antiquities. 

Ancient  Syracuse,  which  at  one  time  had 
over  500,000  inhabitants,  was  constructed  on 
a  high,  triangular  plateau,  with  precipitous 
sides.  The  colony  was  founded  by  the  Corin- 
thians under  Archias,  734  B.  C.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Romans,  after  a  three  years' 
siege,  in  212  B.  C,  and  continued  as  a  Roman 
possession  until  the  downfall  of  the  Empire. 
In  878  the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Sara- 
cens, and  the  main  portion  has  never  been 
rebuilt.    Population,  1915,  44,094. 

SYRACUSE,  N.  Y.,  the  county  seat  of 
Onondaga  County,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Onondaga  Lake,  148  miles  west  by  north  from 
Albany  and  about  the  same  distance  east  of 
Buffalo,  on  branches  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  West- 
ern railways.  It  is  also  at  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  and  Oswego  canals  (see  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal)  .  The  city  is  built  upon 
a  series  of  low  hills  and  has  a  beautiful 
location.  It  has  a  large  number  of  public 
parks,  some  of  which  are  only  small  plots  at 
the  intersection  of  streets ;  but  Burnet  Park, 
on  the  west,  contains  over  120  acres,  and  Lin- 
coln Park,  on  the  east,  has  about  twenty  acres. 
The  state  fair  grounds  are  also  located  here. 
The  most  important  public  buildings  are  the 
city  hall,  the  courthouse,  the  Federal  building, 
the  new  high  school,  a  Carnegie  Library,  the 
state  asylum  for  feeble-minded  children,  the 
county  orphan  asylum  and  the  buildings  of 
Syracuse  University. 


SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY 


3494 


SYRINGA 


SjTacuse  is  the  fifth  city  in  the  state  in 
industrial  importance.  Its  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  clothing,  machinery,  iron 
and  steel,  steel  pipe,  automobiles  and  automo- 
bile accessories,  chemicals,  pottery,  boots  and 
shoes,  agi'icultural  imi^lements  and  type- 
writers. Salt  is  procured  from  springs  on  the 
borders  of  Onondaga  Lake,  and  the  indus- 
try has  been  maintained  from  the  earliest 
times,  though  it  is  now  of  secondary  impor- 
tance. Near  the  city  are  the  works  of  the 
Solvay  Process  Company,  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda,  coke,  tar,  ammonia, 
carbolic  acid,  nitric  acid  and  other  chemicals. 

Syracuse  is  on  land  formerly  occupied  by 
the  Onondaga  Indians.  The  locality  was  vis- 
ited by  a  Jesuit  missionary  in  1642.  The  first 
settlement  at  Syracuse  proper  was  made  in 
1805,  but  the  town  did  not  reach  any  im- 
portance until  after  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  Canal.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  village 
in  1S25,  and  in  1S47  it  was  chartered  as  a  eitv. 
Population,  1910,  137,249;  in  1918,  161,404 
(Federal  estimate). 

SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution 
of  higher  learning,  founded  at  Syracuse,  N. 
Y.,  in  1870,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church.  It  comprises  the  col- 
lege of  liberal  arts,  the  college  of  fine  arts, 
the  college  of  medicine,  the  college  of  law, 
the  college  of  applied  science,  the  teachers' 
college,  the  college  of  agriculture  and  schools 
of  Library  training,  oratory  and  photog- 
raphy. It  has  a  graduate  department,  con- 
ferring the  master's  and  doctor's  degrees,  and 
it  maintains  a  summer  session  of  six  weeks 
and  a  table  at  the  marine  biological  labora- 
torv'-  at  Wood's  Hole,  Mass.  An  observing 
station  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
was  established  here  in  1902.  On  the  campus 
there  has  been  erected  one  of  the  largest 
stadiums  in  the  United  States.  The  New 
York  State  College  of  Forestry,  a  state 
institution,  but  a  part  of  Syracuse  Univer- 
sity, was  established  in  1911.  The  university 
has  a  faculty  of  over  320  and  an  attendance 
of  over  3,500.  The  library  contains  about 
96,000  volumes  and  40,000  pamphlets. 

SYR'IA,  that  portion  of  Asia  Minor  bor- 
dering on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  ex- 
tending eastward  to  the  Euphrates  River  and 


the  Arabian  Desert.  The  Alma  Dagh  Moun- 
tains form  the  northern  boundary,  and  Syria 
extends  to  Eg>-pt  on  the  south.  The  area  is 
estimated  at  114.530  square  miles,  and  be- 
fore the  World  War  the  population  was  esti- 
mated at  3,675,000.  In  the  southwestern  part 
of  Sj-ria  is  the  region  known  as  Palestine,  the 
scene  of  the  birth,  labors  and  death  of  Christ. 
Before  the  end  of  the  World  War  SjTia  was 
a  vilayet,  or  province,  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Its  ultimate  disposal  was  left  to  the  decision 
of  the  victorious  allies,  with  indications  point- 
ing toward  the  erection  of  a  state  under 
French  or  British  protection  (see  World 
War).  The  country  is  populated  chiefly  by 
Mohammedans,  but  Palestine  is  a  great  Jew- 
ish center.  Bedouins  and  Arabs  are  found 
in  numbers  in  the  south.  The  chief  towns 
are  Damascus,  Aleppo,  Beirut  and  Jerusalem. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Aleppo  Damascus  Lebanon 

Arabs  Jaffa  Mountains  of 

Bedouins  Jerusalem  Palestine 

Beirut  Jews  Turkey 

SYR'IAC,  a  dialect  or  branch  of  Aramaic, 
and  thus  one  of  the  Setiaitic  family  of  lan- 
guages. It  was  a  vernacular  dialect  in  Syria 
during  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era,  but  it  ceased  to  be  spoken  as  a  living 
language  about  the  tenth  century.  A  very 
corrupted  form  of  it,  however,  is  still  spoken 
by  a  few  scattered  tribes,  principally  by  the 
Nestorians,  of  Kurdistan  and  Persia.  SjTiac 
literature  had  its  rise  in  the  first  century  a.  d. 
At  first  it  was  emploj'ed  in  ecclesiastical  us- 
age. Biblical  translations  and  commentaries, 
h^^nns  and  liturgies,  but  in  course  of  time  it 
embraced  history,  philosophy,  grammar,  med- 
icine and  the  natural  sciences.  The  oldest  ex- 
tant work  in  the  language  is  an  incomplete 
translation  of  the  Bible.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Syriac  literature  has  been  lost. 

SYRINGA,  si  ring'ga,  a  group  of  hardy 
shrubs  belonging  to  the  olive  family,  and  in- 
cluding the  syringa,  the  lilac  and  the  jasmines, 
which  are  described  under  their  titles.  The 
sjringa,  which  is  a  favorite  garden  shrub, 
bears  an  abundance  of  single  white  flowers, 
noted  for  their  fragrance.  It  is  common 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Southern 
Canada,  except  in  the  arid  regions. 


T,  the  twentieth  letter  in  the  English  al- 
phabet, resembles  in  form  the  Phoenician 
character  from  which,  through  the  Greek  and 
Latin,  it  is  derived,  and  with  which  it  is 
identical  in  sound.  In  its  phonetic  value  t 
corresponds  most  nearly  to  d,  and  the  two 
are  often  interchanged  in  related  languages. 
In  combinations  with  h,  t  is  pronounced  in 
two  ways,  as  in  tliouglit  and  as  in  tins.  When 
followed  by  i,  t  often  has  the  sound  of  sh,  as 
in  motion,  and  in  some  words  it  is  silent,  as 
in  listen. 

TABERNACLE,  tah'emak'l,  in  Jewish 
history,  the  tent  of  worship  in  which  the 
sacred  utensils  were  kept  during  the  wander- 
ings of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert.  It  was 
in  the  shape  of  a  parallelogram,  45  feet 
long  and  15  feet  wide,  and  it  was  15  feet  high. 
Its  smaller  ends  were  placed  east  and  west, 
and  its  entrance  was  in  the  east.  Its  frame- 
work consisted  of  forty-eight  gilded  boards 
of  shittim-wood,  bound  together  by  golden 
rin^rs  and  set  into  silver  sockets.    The  ceiling 


C3C 


mxcg 


O     Df 


niiM.v.Min 


■-.....-^ • 


PLAN  OF  TABERNACLE 

a.  Ark  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

b.  Table  of  show-bread. 

c.  Golden  candlestick. 

d.  Altar  of  incense. 

e.  Laver,  or  basin  for  ■w^ashing'. 

f.  Altar  of  burnt  offering. 

and  walls  were  covered  with  a  curtain  of 
linen,  made  in  ten  pieces.  Outside  this  was 
a  curtain  of  goats'  hair,  made  in  eleven  pieces. 
Over  this  covering  was  thrown  one  made  of 
skins. 


The  interior  of  the  tabernacle  was  divided 
by  a  curtain  into  two  compartments,  the  outer, 
the  "sanctuary"  proper,  and  the  inner,  the 
lioly  of  holies.  In  the  sanctuary  was  placed, 
on  the  north,  the  table  of  show-bread;  on  the 
south,  the  golden  candlestick,  and  in  the 
middle,  near  the  inner  curtain,  the  altar  of 
incense.  In  the  center  of  the  holy  of  holies 
stood  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 

The  tabernacle  was  situated  in  a  court  150 
feet  long  and  75  feet  wide,  surrounded  by 
costly  screens  7i  feet  high,  supported  by  pil- 
lars of  brass  7i  feet  apart,  to  which  the  cur- 
tains were  attached  by  books  and  fillets  of 
silver.  In  the  outer,  or  eastern,  half  of  the 
court  stood  the  altar  of  burnt  offering,  and 
between  it  and  the  tabernacle  itself  was  the 
laver,  at  which  the  priests  washed  their  hands 
and  feet  before  entering  the  sanctuary. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  second  year  after 
the  Israelites  left  Egypt,  the  tabernacle  was 
dedicated.  During  all  their  wanderings  a 
cloud  rested  on  it  by  day,  a  pillar  of  fire  by 
night.  The  Levites  had  charge  of  it,  taking 
it  down  and  putting  it  up  at  the  various 
stopping  places.  The  tabernacle  lost  its 
value  and  glory  after  the  Philistines  captured 
the  ark.  From  Shiloh  it  was  removed  to  Nob 
and  then  to  Gibeon,  whence  it  was  taken  to 
Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  dedication  of 
Solomon's  Temple. 

TABERNACLES,  Feast  of,  an  autumn 
festival  of  the  Jews,  to  commemorate  the 
time  when  their  forefathers  dwelt  in  tents 
during  their  sojourn  in  the  Wilderness;  it 
was  also  a  feast  of  thanksgiving  for  the 
harvest  and  the  vintage.  The  time  of  the 
festival  fell  in  the  autumn,  when  all  the  chief 
fruits  were  gathered  in,  and  hence  it  is  often 
called  the  "  feast  of  the  ingathering."  Its 
duration  was  strictly  only  seven  daj's,  but  it 
was  followed  by  a  day  of  holy  convocation  of 
great  solemnity.    During  the  seven  days  the 


3495 


TABOO 


349G 


TACHE 


people  lived  in  booths  ereotetl  in  the  courts  of 
houses,  on  the  roofs  and  in  the  court  of  the 
Temple.  With  the  final  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  the  services  attending  this,  the  most 
joyous  festival  of  the  year,  have  since  been 
conducted  in  individual  synagogues,  where 
a  booth  decorated  with  the  harvest  offerings 
is  built  upon  the  altar. 

TABOO',  a  word  used  to  indicate  any  ob- 
ject which  by  religious  command  may  not 
be  touched.  The  art  and  the  practice  were 
most  common  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  The 
taboo  is  applied  not  only  to  things  with  which, 
because  of  their  evil  nature,  it  is  unsafe  to 
come  in  contact,  but  also  to  things  which  are 
sacred.  Thus,  the  jierson  of  the  chief  or  king 
is  usually  tabooed,  as  is  any  piece'  of  con- 
secrated ground.  In  former  times,  in  Poly- 
nesia, where  the  taboo  was  most  in  force,  the 
penalty  for  breaking  it  was  often  death;  in 
minor  eases,  the  penalty  was  a  confiscation 
of  the  goods  of  the  guilty  man.  Of  course, 
the  practice  was  much  abused,  for  it  gave  a 
priest  or  chief  almost  unlimited  power  over 
his  people  and  enabled  him  by  pronouncing  a 
certain  object  tabooed,  to  gain  possession  of 
it  for  himself. 

Taboo  may  be  permanent  or  temporary,  in- 
dividual, private  or  public.  When  an  indi- 
vidual is  under  taboo,  whatever  he  may  touch 
likewise  becomes  tabooed.  The  practice  of 
private  or  public  taboo  is  also  noteworthy; 
as,  a  river  is  tabooed  until  the  fishing  season 
is  over,  a  wood  until  the  game  is  caught,  or 
a  field  until  the  harvest  is  gathered. 

TABOR,  tah'bor,  Mount,  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  famous  mountain  in  Galilee, 
situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Palestine, 
on  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  rises 
almost  abruptly  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
to  a  height  of  about  1,000  feet,  and  it  forms 
nearly  a  perfect  cone.  The  altitude  of  the 
summit  above  sea  level  is  about  1,850  feet, 
which  affords  an  inspiring  view  of  Galilee, 
Samaria  and  Perea,  with  their  quaint  vil- 
lages, cultivated  fields  and  water  courses.  Re- 
cent excavations  show  that  the  sides  of  the 
mountain  contain  many  remains  of  ancient 
structures.  As  early  Christians  believed  Ta- 
bor to  have  been  the  scene  of  the  Transfigura- 
tion of  Christ,  it  became  the  site  of  churches 
and  monasteries  as  well  as  the  object  of  many 
pilgrimages.  A  fortified  town  centuries  be- 
fore the  time  of  Christ  occupied  its  summit. 

TABRIZ,  tah  breez',  Persia,  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  center  of  Northwestern 


Persia  and  second  largest  city  of  the  country. 
During  the  World  War  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  in  June,  1918,  and  held  by  them  until 
the  close  of  hostilities. 

Tabriz  is  situated  on  an  elevation  about 
4,500  feet  above  the  sea,  tliirty  miles  east  of 
Lake  Urumiab.  It  is  surrounded  upon  three 
sides  by  hills.  Many  ruins  attest  the  destruc- 
tion caused  by  earthquakes.  The  inner  section 
of  the  city  is  unattractive,  despite  its  numer- 
ous mosques  and  well-stored  bazars,  but  the 
suburbs  are  beautified  by  gardens  and  or- 
chards. Much  of  its  foiTQcr  commerce  -has 
been  diverted  to  ports  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
although  it  still  enjoys  a  good  trade  in  rugs, 
shawls  and  dried  fruits.  The  rugs  of  Tabriz 
are  counted  among  the  finest  of  Persian  rugs 
(see  Rugs).  Its  leading  articles  of  export 
are  grapes,  shawls  and  rugs.  Population  es- 
timated at  200,000. 

TACHE,  tash  a' ,  Alexander  Antonin 
(1823-1894),  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
bom  at  Riviere  du  Loup,  Que.,  educated  at 
St.  Hyacinthe  College,  Montreal  Theological 
Seminary  and  Chambly  College.  He  became 
instructor  of  mathematics  in  St.  Hyacinthe 
College  in  1842,  but 
resigned  in  1844  to 
become  a  novice  in 
the  Order  of  the 
Oblate  Fathers.  He 
volunteered  for  mis- 
sionarj'  service 
among  the  Indians  in 
the  Red  River  Valley, 
and  after  an  arduous 
journey    reached  ARCHBISHOP  tache 

Saint-  Boniface,  in  August,  1845,  two  months 
after  he  had  left  his  home  on  the  Saint  Law- 
rence. A  great-great-grandson  of  Louis 
Joliette,  and  with  the  blood  of  Sieur  Yaren- 
nes  de  la  Verandrye  in  his  veins,  it  was 
natural  that  Tache  should  become  a  path- 
breaker.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  three 
months  after  his  arrival  at  Saint  Boniface, 
and  soon  became  known  throughout  the  great 
west  for  his  zeal,  fortitude  and  real  friend- 
ship for  the  Indians,  over  whom  he  acquired 
remarkable  influence. 

In  1851  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Avath,  after  having  been  summoned  to  France 
by  the  Superior  of  the  Oblate  Fathers.  In 
1852  he  returned  to  the  Northwest  and  a 
year  later  became  Bishop  of  Saint  Boniface. 
He  urged  upon  the  government  the  necessity 
of  adjusting  the  grievances  of  the  Indians 


TACITUS 


3497 


TACOMA 


and  half-breeds  in  1869,  but  during  his  ab- 
sence in  Italy  in  1870  the  Riel  rebellion  broke 
out.  Taclie  hurried  home,  and  was  instinamen- 
tal  in  securing  peace.  Had  his  advice  been 
followed,  trouble  could  probably  have  been 
averted.  In  1871,  Saint  Boniface  was  made 
the  metropolitan  see,  and  Tache  became  arch- 
bishop of  Manitoba.  He  died  at  Winnipeg, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Bonifaoe. 

TACITUS,  tasetiis,  Publius  Cornelius 
(about  55-about  115),  a  Roman  historian, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  all  times.  Of  his 
education  and  early  life  little  is  known 
further  than  the  limited  facts  gleaned  from 
his  occasional  reference  to  himself  and  from 
a  series  of  letters  written  to  him  by  his 
friend  and  contemporary,  the  younger  Pliny. 
Under  Titus,  by  whom  he  was  treated  with 
distinguished  favor,  he  became  quaestor  or 
aedile;  he  was  praetor  under  Domitian,  and 
he  was  consul  under  Nerva.  In  78  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Gnaeus  Julius  Agricola, 
the  celebrated  statesman  and  general,  whose 
life  he  afterward  wrote.  During  several 
years'  absence  from  Rome  on  provincial 
business,  he  probably  gained  his  knowledge 
of  the  German  people,  which  formed  the  basis 
of  his  Germania.  After  his  return  to  Rome 
he  lived  in  the  closest  intimacy  with  the 
younger  Pliny.  He  had  a  very  extensive  law 
practice,  and  acquired  a  great  reputation  as 
an  orator. 

Four  of  his  works  are  still  extant :  his 
Annals,  in  sixteen  books  (of  which  volumes 
seven  to  ten,  inclusive,  are  lost),  presenting 
an  account  of  the  principal  events  in  Roman 
history,  from  the  time  of  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus to  that  of  Nero;  Histories,  of  which 
only  four  books  and  a  part  of  the  fifth  are 
extant,  treating  of  the  year  69  and  a  part  of 
70;  Germania,  an  account  of  the  geography, 
manners  and  institutions  of  the  various  Ger- 
man tribes;  and  Agricola,  a  masterpiece  of 
biography.  His  style  is  characterized  by  con- 
ciseness, variety  and  poetical  coloring. 

TACKING-,  in  na\'igation,  an  operation  by 
which  a  ship  is  enabled  to  beat  up  against  a 
wind,  by  a  series  of  zigzag  courses,  the  sails 
being  turned  obliquely  to  the  wind,  first  on 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  Going  about 
is  another  term  for  tacking;  while  the  change 
is  in  progress  the  vessel  is  said  to  be  in  stays. 
See  Sailboat  and  Sailing. 

TACOMA,  ta  ko'mah,  Wash.,  third  in  size 
among  the  cities  of  the  state,  is  the  county 


seat  of  Pierce  County,  twenty-eight  miles 
south  of  Seattle,  at  the  head  of  Commence- 
ment Bay,  on  Puget  Sound  and  on  the  North- 
ern Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint 
Paul  and  the  Great  Northern  railroads  and 
the  Oregon  &  Washington  Railroad  &  Navi- 
gation Company.  The  city  has  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  in  the  world  and  a  beautiful 
location  along  the  bay.  The  snow-capped 
Olympic  Mountains  stretch  along  the  west, 
and  Mount  Ranier,  locally  known  as  Mount 
Tacoma,  rises  to  a  height  of  over  14,000  feet 
on  the  southeast.  The  Puyallup  River  emp- 
ties into  the  bay  here  and  helps  to  form  the 
spacious  harbor.  Many  steamship  lines  con- 
nect the  city  with  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  city  is  near  one  of  the  richest  farm- 
ing regions  of  the  Northwest,  containing,  also, 
valuable  timber  lands  and  extensive  coal 
mines.  Along  the  harbor  are  many  large 
electrically  operated  coal  bunkers  and  im- 
mense gi-ain  elevators.  In  the  exportation  of 
wheat,  Tacoma  is  one  of  the  largest  ports 
on  the  Pacific  coast;  the  other  leading  articles 
of  trade  are  flour,  lumber,  fish  and  fruit. 
There  are  over  400  factories ;  the  chief  indus- 
tries are  connected  with  lumber  and  lumber 
products;  other  large  industrial  plants  in- 
clude flour  mills,  foundries,  car  and  machine 
shops,  smelters,  refineries,  shipyards,  and 
manufactories  of  furniture,  wagons  and  va- 
rious other  articles.  There  are  large  railroad 
repair  shops. 

The  city  is  an  important  educational  cen- 
ter. Here  are  the  College  of  Puget  Sound, 
Pacific  Lutheran  University,  Whitworth  Col- 
lege, Annie  Wright  Seminarj-  and  several 
important  Roman  Catholic  schools.  The 
public  high  school  has  a  manual  training  de- 
partment ;  a  Carnegie  Librar>^  and  the  Ferry 
IMuseum  of  Art  are  also  important  educa- 
tional features.  There  are  two  large  parks, 
Wright  and  Point  Defiance,  the  latter  con- 
taining about  660  acres;  there  are  nearly 
1,100  acres  in  parks.  The  state  hospital  for 
the  insane  is  located  a  few  miles  southwest, 
and  the  city  also  contains  three  hospitals  and 
an  orphanage.  Other  important  structures 
are  a  city  hall,  a  courthouse,  a  chamber  of 
commerce,  the  Union  Club  House,  a  Federal 
building,  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  build- 
ing, the  Tacoma  Hotel  and  several  metropol- 
itan office  buildings  and  the  high  school.  The 
place  was  settled  about  1869.  It  was  made 
the  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
road in  1873  and  was  organized  as  a  city  ten 


TACONIC  MOUNTAINS 


3498 


TAFT 


years  later,  by  the  consolidation  of  New 
Tacoma  and  Old  Tacoma.  The  city  more 
than  doubled  its  population  between  1900 
and  1910.  Population,  1910,  83,743;  in  1917, 
117,44(3  (Federal  estimate). 

TACONIC,  takon'ik,  MOUNTAINS,  a 
range  of  mountains  forming  a  part  of  the 
boundary  between  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts and  extending  northward  into  Vermont 
•where  they  connect  with  the  Green  Mountains 
(which  see).  The  Taconic  range  is  an  east- 
ern extension  of  the  highlands  of  the  Hudson. 
The  mountains  are  low,  with  rounded  tops, 
and  their  sides  are  generally  covered  with 
forests  or  cultivated  fields. 

TAD'POLE,  the  larval  form  in  the  life  his- 
tory of  the  frog  or  toad.  After  it  hatches 
from  the  egg,  it  first  looks  like  a  mass  of 
dark  jelly  with  a  head  and  a  tall.  Gills,  eyes 
and  mouth  soon  develop.  In  a  short  time  the 
lungs  replace  the  gills;  the  tail  is  absorbed 
and  in  its  stead  legs  appear.  This  last  stage 
marks  the  end  of  the  tadpole  metamorphosis 
and  beginning  of  the  mature  period  of  de- 
velopment.   See  Frog. 

TAFTETA,  a  tei-m  which  has  been  ap- 
plied to  various  kinds  of  plain  silks,  but  de- 
signates to-day  a  specific  variety,  which  is 
thin,  glossy  and  of  a  fine,  plain  weave,  dis- 
tinguished from  grosgrain,  corded  silk,  and 
from  surah,  twilled  silk.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  a  Persian  word  taftah,  meaning 
sjmn  or  icaven.  Taffeta  has  the  same  ap- 
pearance on  both  sides. 

TAFT,  LoRADO  (1860-  ),  an  American 
sculptor,  teacher  and  lecturer,  bom  at  Flm- 
wood.  111.  In  1879  he  was  gi-aduated  from 
the  University  of  Illinois,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied 
for  three  years  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts. 
In  1886  he  settled  in  Chicago,  his  present 
home,  where  he  became  instructor  in  sculp- 
ture in  the  Art  Institute  and  lecturer  in  the 
extension  department  of  the  University  of 
Chicago. 

One  of  the  most  widely  known  of  his  sculp- 
tures is  a  symbolic  group,  "The  spirit  of  the 
Great  Lakes,"  on  the  south  facade  of  the  Chi- 
cago Art  Institute.  He  also  designed  the 
Fountain  of  Time  for  the  iMidway  Plaisance 
of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition. 
Other  notable  works  include  the  Washington 
Monument,  Seattle;  Cohimhus  Memorial 
Fountain,  Washington,  D.  C;  The  Blind, 
.suggested  by  Maeterlinck's  drama  of  that 
name;  and  The  Solitude  of  the  Saul.    He  is 


the  author  of  the  History  of  American  Sculp- 
ture, possibly  the  best  work  yet  written  on 
that  subject. 

'AFT,  William  Howard 
(1857-  ),  an  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  the 
twenty-seventh  President 
of  the  United  States.  His 
career  is  a  good  example 
of  the  manner  in  which 
popular  feeling  regard- 
ing a  public  official  rises 
and  ebbs.  Xo  President 
ever  began  his  service 
higher  in  the  esteem  of  the 
people,  or  with  a  finer 
record  of  constructive 
achievement.  Yet  it  was 
his  misfortune  to  lose 
his  hold  upon  large  numbers  of  his  admirers 
early  in  his  administration,  and  to  be  over- 
whelmingly defeated  in  his  contest  for  re- 
election. On  the  other  hand,  in  the  years  fol- 
lowing his  retirement  from  the  Presidency  he 
regained  the  confidence  he  had  lost,  even  in 
the  cases  of  some  of  his  bitterest  political 
foes  of  a  former  day. 

Taft's  fall  from  popular  favor  may  be  at- 
tributed largely  to  his  consei'%'atism  in  a 
period  when  progressive  and  even  radical 
tendencies  were  the  order  of  the  day.  He  be-  . 
lieved  in  making  progress  slowly,  while  the 
people,  who  had  for  years  been  stirred  and  in- 
spired by  the  dynamic  Roosevelt,  were  dis- 
inclined to  admire  deliberation.  It  was  un- 
fortunate, too,  that  Taft  preferred  to  work  in 
harmony  with  a  faction  of  the  Republican 
party  which  did  not  represent  the  best  ideals 
of  the  mass  of  voters.  Future  historians, 
however,  will  probably  write  down  his  admin- 
istration as  constructive  and  forward-look- 
ing, and  of  the  man  himself  they  will  say  that 
he  ranks  high  among  those  who  have  helped 
to  make  America  a  great  nation. 

Early  Life.  William  Howard  Taft  was 
bom  on  September  15,  1857,  at  Cincinn.iti, 
Ohio,  of  Xew  England  ancestry.  His  father, 
Alphonso  Taft  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished citizens  of  the  city,  who  became  a 
judge  of  the  Cincinnati  superior  court,  and 
was  appointed  successively  Secretary  of  War 
and  Attorney-General  by  President  Grant  in 
1876.  The  son  attended  the  public  schools  of 
his  native  city  and  entered  Yale  University 
in  1874,  from  which,  four  years  later,  he  was 
graduated  second  in  a  class  of  121.    In  1880 


TAFT 


3499 


TAFT 


he  ranked  with  one  other  for  first  honors  in 
the  graduating  class  of  the  Cincinnati  Law 
School,  and  the  same  year  was  admitted  to 
the  Ohio  bar.  The  children  of  the  future 
President  are  of  the  same  intellectual  caliber; 
his  eldest  son,  Robert,  was  graduated  in  1913 
with  highest  honors 
at  the  Harvard 
Law  School,  and 
his  daughter,  Helen 
Herron,  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of 
Bryn  Mawi-  Col- 
lege in  1917. 

Lawyer  and 
Jurist.  Before  he 
began  the  practice 

of    his    profession    william  Howard 
Taft  worked  for  a  taft 

time  as  law  reporter  for  the  Cincinnati  Times, 
owned  by  his  half  brother,  Charles  P.  Taft, 
and  later  for  the  Cincinnati  C ommercial.  In 
1881  he  became  assistant  prosecutor  of  Hamil- 
ton County,  and  from  that  time  his  advance 
was  rapid.  By  1887,  seven  years  after  his 
graduation  from  law  school,  he  had  reached 
the  dignity  of  judge  of  the  Cincinnati  supe- 
rior court,  and  in  1890  was  appointed  Solici- 
tor-General of  the  United  States  by  President 
Harrison.  As  Solicitor-General  he  was  called 
upon  to  represent  the  government  in  several 
cases  of  major  importance,  such  as  the  one 
involving  the  Bering  Sea  fisheries  dispute 
and  the  test  case  regarding  the  constitutional- 
ity of  the  McKinley  Tariff  Act. 

This  act  had  been  passed  under  a  new 
ruling  by  Speaker  Reed,  whereby  members 
present  in  the  House  were  counted  as  present 
whether  they  voted  or  not.  It  had  been  the 
custom  of  the  opposition  to  block  legisla- 
tion by  creating  a  state  of  "no  quorum,"  for 
members  not  voting  had  hitherto  been 
counted  absent.  Taft  argued  that  such  tac- 
tics made  null  and  void  the  clause  giving  the 
House  the  right  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  absent  members.  His  contention  was  sus- 
tained by  the  Sui^reme  Court,  and  the  new 
ruling  of  the  Speaker  was  permanently  es- 
tablished. For  the  period  between  1892  and 
1900  Taft  served  as  judge  of  the  sixth  circuit 
of  the  newly-created  Federal  Court  of  Ap- 
peals, established  to  lessen  the  burdens  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  In  this  interval  he  was 
called  upon  to  hand  down  decisions  of  far- 
reaching  influence,  especially  in  eases  in- 
volving corporations  and  organized  labor. 

168 


Governor  of  the  Philippines.  Judge  Taft 
had  long  been  a  national  figure,  when,  in 

1900,  President  McKinley  appointed  him 
head  of  the  civil  commission  to  jd  reserve  or- 
der in  the  Philippine  Islands,  recently  ceded 
by  Spain.  The  choice  was  widely  approved. 
The  commission,  after  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion,  restored  civil   government  on   July  4, 

1901,  and  its  chairman  became  the  first  civil 
governor.  Governor  Taft's  record  as  co- 
lonial administrator  added  greatly  to  his 
popularity  and  reputation.  Under  his  guid- 
ance a  government  was  organized,  roads  were 
built,  sanitation  was  introduced,  schools, 
banks  and  postoffices  were  established  and  the 
good  will  of  the  natives  was  won.  To  settle 
the  difficulties  arising  from  the  disposal  of  the 
friars'  lands,  Governor  Taft  made  a  personal 
visit  to  Pope  Leo  XIII,  and  successfully  ar- 
ranged for  their  purchase. 

Secretary  of  War.  In  1903,  while  he  was 
still  engaged  in  these  important  tasks,  he  was 
offered  a  place  on  the  Supreme  Court  by 
President  Roosevelt.  To  his  regret  Governor 
Taft  felt  obliged  to  decline  an  office  entire- 
ly to  his  liking — partly  because  he  knew  his 
work  was  unfinished,  and  partly  because  the 
people  of  the  islands  begged  him  to  remain. 
A  year  later,  however,  he  was  in  a  position 
to  accept  a  place  in  Roosevelt's  Cabinet  as 
head  of  the  War  Department,  to  succeed 
Elihu  Root.  The  President  and  his  Secre- 
tary of  War  were  fast  friends  and  worked 
in  admirable  harmony.  In  1906  Taft  helped 
the  Cuban  government  settle  its  internal  dif- 
ficulties by  acting  temporarily  as  governor  of 
the  island  republic,  and  a  year  later  he  es- 
tablished American  government  in  the  Pana- 
ma Canal  Zone  and  \'isited  the  Philippines  to 
be  present  at  the  first  session  of  the  Philippine 
Legislative  Assembly. 

Election  to  the  Presidency.  President 
Roosevelt,  whose  outstanding  influence  as  a 
party  leader  was  undisputed,  was  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  nomination  of  Secretary 
Taft  as  Republican  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency in  1908.  He  checked  the  popular 
movement  for  his  own  reelection  by  declining 
to  be  a  candidate  for  a  third  term,  and  threw 
all  his  influence  to  his  distinguished  Cabinet 
official.  Taft  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
popular  candidate  next  to  the  President  him- 
self, and  he  won  both  nomination  and  election 
easily.  James  S.  Sherman  of  New  York  was 
the  candidate  for  Vice-President.  The  Re- 
publican ticket  won  over  the  Democratic  by 


TATT 


3500 


TATT 


Administration  of  William 

Howard  Taft,   1909-1913 

The  Pre 

ISIDEXT 

(i)   Xew    Mexico    and    Arizona 

(1)   Birth 

admitted  as  states 

(2)   Parentage 

(j)   Children's  Bureau  created 

(3)   Education 

(1)   To  study  conditions 

(4)  As£ 

I  la\rA-er  and  judge 

(2)   To  improve  them 

(5)   Administrative  positions 

(k)   Parcel  Post  established 

(6)   Character 

(1)   Sixteenth     Amendment 

n.    GrONTTRXMEXTAL  AFFAIRS 

adopted;     seventeenth 

(1)   Domestic 

Amendment  proposed 

(a) 

Payne-Aldrich  tariff 

(2) 

Foreign 

(1)   Passed  by  special  ses- 

(a)  Fisheries       dispute       with 

sion  of  Congress 

Great  Britain  arbitrated 

(2)   Xot  satisfactory,  many 

(b)   Reciprocity  with  Canada 

duties  being  high 

(1)   Approved    by    United 

(b) 

The  insurgent  movement  in 
Congress 

States 
(2)  Rejected  by  Canada 

(1)   In  the  House 

f  e)   Treaty  with  Russia  annulled 

i 

(a)   Changes     in     the 

III.  Internal  and  Local  Affairs 

= 

rules 

(1) 

The  President's  tour  of  the  "West 

I 

(b")   Lessened  power  of 

in  defense  of  his  policies 

I 

the  Speaker 

(2) 

The  elections  of  1910 

I 

(2)   In  the  Senate 

(3) 

Hudson-Fulton    Celebration    in 

1 

(a)   Control  by  the  reg- 

commemoration of 

j 

ular  leaders  de- 

(a)  300th  anniversary  of  discov- 

1 

stroyed 

ery  of  the  Hudson  River 

] 

(e) 

Commerce  Court  established 

(b)   Centennial      of      Fulton's 

\ 

(d) 

Establishment  of  the  Postal 

"Clermont" 

i 

Savings  system 

(4) 

Champlain  Ter-centennial  Cele- 

1 

(1)  A  bank  of  deposit 

bration 

i 

(2)  Pays  interest 

(5) 

Dedication  of  the  Roosevelt  Dam 

i 

(3)   Savings  aceount-s  only 

(6) 

Political  changes 

■ 

(e) 

Conservation  a  national  is- 

(a)  Movement   towards   reform 

I 

sue 

and  reorgnization 

(f )  Federal  tax  on  corporations 

(1)  On  profits  above  $5,000 

(2)  One  per  cent 

(3)  Annual      reports      re- 

cjuired 

(g)  Investigation  of  important 

questions 

(1)  Aldrich  Monetary  Com- 

mission 

(2)  Tariff  Commission 

(h)   Prosecutions      under      the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law 

(1)  Dissolution  of  the  "to- 
bacco trust" 

(2)  Dissolution       of      the 

Standard    Oil    Com- 
pany of  Xew  Jersey 


(b)   Formation  of  the  Progres- 
sive partv 
(7)  Election  of  1912 

Questions  on  Taft 

When  was  President  Taft  bom  ? 

From  what  college  did  he  graduate  ? 

What  public  offices  did  he  hold  before 
he  became  governor  of  the  Philippines  ? 

Give  an  account  of  his  work  in  the 
Philippines. 

What  Cabinet  position  has  he  held? 

Describe  the  parcel  post. 

What  was  the  character  of  the  Pa>-ne- 
Aldrich  tariff  ? 

Wliat  states  have  been  admitted  since 
1909? 


D 


D 


DD 


TAFT 


3502 


TAFT 


an  electoral  vote  of  321  to  162.  Taft  had 
about  1,260,000  more  popular  votes  than  hi» 
rival,  William  J.  Bryan. 

Administration.  Domestic  Affairs.  Wlien 
!  President  Taft  commenced  his  term  he  was 
thought  to  be. wholly  in  sympathy  with  the 
policies  of  Roosevelt,  and  to  favor  the  element 
in  the  Republican  party  which  was  generally 
known  as  progressive.  There  was  another 
faction  in  the  party  which  believed  in  more 
conservative  policies,  and  the  opposition  be- 
tween the  two  elements  increased  noticeably 
within  a  few  months.  It  was  not  long  before 
the  public  began  to  feel  that  the  President  was 
working  away  from  the  progressives.  One  of 
his  first  official  acts  was  to  call  a  special  ses- 
sion of  Congress  to  revise  the  tariff.  The 
result  was  the  Pajoie-Aldrich  Law,  which 
greatly  disappointed  the  country  i«  general, 
in  that  it  did  not  "revise  downward"  to  any 
extent.  The  passage  of  this  law  and  the 
President's  subsequent  defense  of  it  in  a 
speech  at  Winona,  Minn.,  reacted  strongly 
against  him,  as  did  his  neutrality  in  the  fight 
against  Cannonism  and  his  refusal  to  take  a 
stand  against  his  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
Richard  Ballinger,  in  the  latter's  controversy 
with  Gifford  Pinchot. 

Ballinger  and  Joseph  G.  Cannon  were 
prominent  conservatives,  or  "stand-patters." 
Pinchot,  who  was  head  of  the  Forestry 
Bureau,  charged  Secretary  Ballinger  with 
irregularities  in  granting  claims  to  Alaskan 
coal  lands  and  with  other  violations  of  the 
Roosevelt  conservation  policies.  In  January, 
1910,  after  Pinchot  had  appealed  to  the  Sen- 
ate over  the  President's  head,  the  President 
removed  him  for  insubordination,  and  though 
Ballinger  was  subsequently  exonerated  by  a 
Senatorial  committee,  the  public  generally 
sided  with  Pinchot. 

In  the  fight  on  Cannon,  who  was  Speaker 
of  the  House,  the  issue  between  the  progres- 
sives and  conservatives  was  so  clearly  drawn 
that  the  progressive  sentiment  of  the  coun- 
try was  disappointed  when  the  President  re- 
fused to  encourage  the  efforts  made  to  change 
the  rules  of  the  House.  The  progressives 
won  their  fight  to  deprive  Cannon  of  some 
of  his  autocratic  power,  but  without  the 
President's  help,  and,  apparently,  without 
his  sjTnpathy.  These  events  had  sufficient  in- 
fluence to  cause  a  Democratic  victory  in  the 
Congressional  elections  of  1910.  In  1911  the 
new  Congress  passed  several  tariff  refoim 
bills,  which  were  promptly  vetoed. 


In  the  meantime  some  very  excellent  meas- 
ures were  passed.  In  1910  the  postal  sav- 
ings bank  system  was  established ;  in  the  same 
year  a  Commerce  Court  was  organized,  and 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  was 
given  enlarged  powers.  In  1912  the  Chil- 
dren's Bureau  was  organized  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor;  this  depart- 
ment was  divided  in  1913  when  the  new  De- 
partment of  Labor  was  created.  One  of  the 
most  popular  measures  of  the  entire  admin- 
istration was  the  act  providing  for  a  parcel 
post  (August,  1912) .  This  was  an  innovation 
which  the  public  had  been  demanding  for 
years. 

Other  notable  measures  and  events  include 
the  adoi^tion  by  Congress  of  the  Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth  amendments  (the  latter  ef- 
fective in  Wilson's  administration),  provid- 
ing for  the  levying  of  income  taxes  and  the 
direct  election^  of  Senators;  the  creation  of 
Glacier  National  Park;  the  admission  of  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico  as  states;  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Roosevelt  Dam;  the  passage 
of  an  act  providing  for  publication  of  cam- 
paign contributions  in  national  elections ;  and 
the  addition  of  five  states  to  the  list  of  full 
suffrage  states.  In  dealing  with  trusts  the 
administration  fully  adhered  to  the  policy 
established  by  Roosevelt.  Suits  were  brought 
against  scores  of  trusts,  and  the  Standard  Oil 
and  tobacco  combines  were  ordered  dissolved 
by  the  Supreme  Court. 

Foreign  Affairs.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in 
the  conduct  of  international  relations  the  Taft 
administration  deserves  high  praise.  The 
President  worked  zealously  for  reciprocity 
and  arbitration  treaties,  though  the  results 
were  somewhat  disappointing.  Arbitration 
treaties  with  France  and  Great  Britain,  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate  in  1912,  were  so  modified 
by  that  body  that  the  President  would  not 
submit  them  to  the  governments  in  question. 
A  reciprocity  treaty  negotiated  with  the  Ca- 
nadian government  was  defeated  in  Canada 
by  vote  of  the  people.  The  principle  of  ar- 
bitration was  upheld,  however,  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Atlantic  fisheries  dispute  with 
Great  Britain.  A  new  diplomatic  policy  was 
also  inaugurated,  that  of  creating  internation- 
al good  will  for  the  United  States  through 
the  agency  of  ti'ade  and  commerce.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  so-called  "dollar  diplomacy" 
was  Secretary  of  State  Knox's  suggestion  to 
American  bankers  to  participate  in  an  inter- 
national loan  to  China.     In  1912  he  made  a 


TAFT 


3503 


TAGORE 


tour  of  the  Latin  American  countries  in  or- 
der to  bring  about  closer  commercial  and  po- 
litical relations  between  those  countries  and 
the  United  States,  and  was  cordially  received 
everywhere.  Toward  the  close  of  the  admin- 
istration disturbances  in  Mexico  in  connec- 
•  tion  with  the  Huerta  revolution  caused  anxie- 
ty for  the  safety  of  Americans  along  the 
border,  and  15,000  troops  were  sent  there  as 
a  precautionary  measure.  The  President  re- 
fused to  recognize  the  Huerta  government, 
and  the  same  jDolicy  was  followed  by  the  next 
administration. 

The  Reimhlican  Split  of  1912.  As  has  been 
intimated,  a  revolt  against  President  Taft  by 
the  progressive  Republicans  had  gained  great 
headway  by  the  close  of  1910.  That  year 
Ex-President  Roosevelt  returned  home  from 
his  African  hunting  trip,  and  a  movement 
to  have  him  resume  his  political  leadership 
soon  began  to  take  form.  Senator  La  Follette 
of  Wisconsin  was  the  avowed  candidate  of 
the  progressives,  but  his  physical  collapse 
and  limited  popularity  checked  the  move- 
ment in  his  behalf.  Early  in  1912  seven 
state  governors  issued  a  joint  letter  to  Roose- 
velt urging  him  to  become  a  candidate.  The 
question  of  the  nomination  was  fought  out  in 
several  states  in  the  primaries,  in  the  major- 
ity of  which  Roosevelt  was  successful.  He 
was,  however,  unable  to  control  the  nominat- 
ing convention,  as  the  committee  on  contests 
and  the  convention  chairman,  Elihu  Root, 
were  a  part  of  the  Taft  organization.  Claim- 
ing "fraud"  and  a  "stolen  nomination,"  the 
Roosevelt  delegates  withdrew  from  the  con- 
vention hall,  the  Chicago  Coliseum,  and  held 
a  protest  meeting  in  another  hall,  nominat- 
ing their  candidate  by  acclamation.  Later  in 
the  summer  Roosevelt  and  Governor  Johnson 
of  California  were  formally  nominated  by  the 
new  Progressive  party  convention  (for  other 
details  see  Roosevelt,  Theodore).  With 
the  Republican  party  thus  divided,  the  Demo- 
crats won  an  easy  victory  in  the  fall  elections. 
Taft  secured  eight  electoral  votes,  those  of 
Utah  and  Vennont.  Roosevelt  secured  eighty- 
eight  and  Woodrow  Wilson,  435.  The  popu- 
lar vote  was  3,483,922  for  Taft,  4,126,020  for 
Roosevelt,  and  6,286,214  for  Wilson. 

As  Ex-President.  Taft  accepted  his  de- 
feat in  a  dignified  manner,  and  when  his 
term  of  ofiSce  was  finished  he  accepted  the 
post  of  Kent  professor  of  law  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity. From  time  to  time  he  expressed  him- 
self forcibly  on  questions  of  national  interest. 


especially  on  President  Wilson's  foreign  poli- 
cies. He  was  very  critical  of  the  adminis- 
tration plan  to  give  the  Philippine  Islands 
their  independence.  Taft  became  chairman 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Red  Cross 
in  191G,  and  was  also  made  president  of  the 
League  to  Enforce  Peace.  When  the  coun- 
try entered  the  World  War  no  other  public 
man  worked  more  sincerely  to  help  carry  the 
struggle  to  a  victorious  conclusion,  and  in 
order  to  give  his  full  energies  to  the  cause  he 
temporarily  abandoned  his  university  lec- 
tures. Meanwhile  he  became  fully  reconciled 
to  his  old  friend  Theodore  Roosevelt;  old 
animosities  were  forgotten  in  the  nation's 
crisis.  During  the  period  following  the  ar- 
mistice Taft  spoke  and  wrote  energetically  in 
favor  of  President  Wilson's  plan  for  a 
League  of  Nations,  and  the  organization  of 
the  League  to  Enforce  Peace  was  used  to  ad- 
vance the  movement. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Conservation 
Nations,  Leag-ue  of 
Philippine  Islands 
Pinchot,  Gifford 


Political  Parties  in 
the  United  States 
Tariff 
Trusts 


TAGORE,  tagoh'/,  Sir  Rabindranath 
(1860-  ),  an  Indian  (Bengalese)  poet, 
philosopher  and  religious  teacher,  winner  of 
the  Nobel  Prize  for  literature  in  1913.  For 
many  years  before  he  became  an  international 
figure  he  was  known  as  the  prophet  of  Ben- 
gal. His  poems,  dramas,  short  stories — in 
fact,  all  his  writings — are  filled  with  deep 
religious  faith.  He  is  inspired  by  things 
spiritual  and  idealistic,  and  his  sympathetic 
understanding  of  the  beauties  of  nature  is 
marvelous.  Tagore  is  primarily  an  interpreter 
of  the  East,  and  although  he  traveled  exten- 
sively, his  works  rarely  reveal  the  influence 
of  Western  civilization. 

Tagore  was  born  in  Calcutta  of  a  distin- 
guished family.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
went  to  Europe  to  complete  his  education. 
Returning  to  India,  he  became  famous  as  an 
educator  and  philosopher,  and  he  founded  a 
university  in  Bengal.  He  has  translated 
many  of  his  own  works  into  the  English 
language.  Although  these  are  inferior  to  the 
originals,  they  interpret  their  spirit,  and 
many  excel  in  their  technique.  Among  the 
most  widely  known  of  these  translations  are 
Gitanjali,  The  Crescent  Moon,  the  Gardener, 
Chitro,  Short  Stories,  The  Post  Office  and  The 
Realization  of  Life. 


TAHITI 


3504 


TALC 


Tagore  has  spent  some  time  in  America, 
and  in  1916  be  made  a  lecture  tour  through 
the  country,  his  subject  being  "International- 
ism." His  patriotism  won  for  him  the  title 
of  "the  Soul  of  Bengal,"  and  his  writings 
have  had  a  powerful  influence  in  developing 
a  national  consciousness  among  his  people. 
He  was  knighted  by  King  George  in  1915. 

TAHITI,  tah'he  te.    See  Society  Islands. 

TAHOE,  taho,  or  tah'ho,  Lake,  the  largest 
lake  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  on  the  boun- 
dary between  California  and  Nevada.  It  is 
a  beautiful  glacial  lake,  twenty-two  miles 
long  and  about  ten  miles  broad,  with  the 
mountains  of  the  two  states  reflected  in  its 
remarkably  clear  waters.  Tahoe  lies  at  an 
elevation  above  sea  level  of  6,225  feet  and  dis- 
charges through  the  Tnickee  River  into 
Pyramid  Lake,  and  it  has  been,  planned  to 
draw  its  water  through  tunnels  for  imgation 
purposes.  Lake  Tahoe  is  a  noted  summer  re- 
sort, and  its  vicinity  is  dotted  with  attractive 
homes  and  fine  hotels. 

TAIL'OR  BIRD,  a  song  bird  native  to  In- 
dia, Malaysia  and  the  Philippines,  so  named 
from  its  curious  habit  of  sewing  leaves  to- 


TAILOR  BIRD 

gether  to  form  a  nest.  It  encloses  its  nest 
within  a  large  leaf,  the  ends  of  which  it  sews 
together  with  threads  picked  up  with  its 
slender  bill.  The  nest  itself  is  made  of  cotton 
and  other  soft  materials.  The  tailor  bird  has 
a  back  of  olive  green  and  white  under  parts, 
and  the  crown  of  its  head  is  chestnut.  It  be- 
longs to  the  family  of  tme  warblers. 

TAINE,  tayn.  Hippolyte  Adolphe  (182S- 
1893),  a  French  historian  and  critic,  born  at 
Vouziers.     In  his  early  youth  he  developed 


scholarly  habits  and  adopted  a  rigid  program 
for  study  which  enabled  him  quickly  to  dis- 
tinguish himself.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Toulon,  but  resigned  the  posi- 
tion to  give  his  time  to  study  and  literary 
production.  Ilis  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture, one  of  the  best  and  most  philosophical 
works  on  the  subject,  appeared  in  1864.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  api:)ointed  a  professor  in 
the  school  of  Fine  Arts,  Paris,  where  he  won 
renown  with  a  series  of  lectures  on  art.  He 
produced  many  critical  studies  on  history,  lit- 
erature and  art,  among  them  The  Origin  of 
Contem})orary  France,  a  monumental  work, 
the  result  of  wide  research.  In  1878  Taine 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
His  works  continue  to  hold  a  high  place  by 
reason  of  their  logical  and  accurate  analyses. 

TAJ  MAHAL,  tahj  mahahl',  the  greatest 
masterpiece  of  Indian  architecture,  and  the 
most  magnificent  edifice  of  the  seventeenth 
centuiy.  It  was  built  outside  of  the  city  of 
Agra  by  Emperor  Shah  Jehan,  about  1650, 
as  a  burial  place  for  his  favorite  wife,  Mum- 
taz-i-Mahal,  "the  pride  of  the  Palace."  The 
name  "Taj  Mahal"  is  the  Persian  for  Crown 
of  Mahal. 

This  famous  mausoleum  is  of  white  marble, 
185  feet  square,  situated  in  the  center  of  a 
court  315  feet  square.  The  four  comers  of 
this  court  are  adorned  with  four  elegant 
minarets,  and  over  the  whole  is  an  exquisite 
white  marble  dome  fifty-eight  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  eighty  feet  high,  rising  over  four 
eoraer  chapels,  each  crowned  with  a  dome. 
The  decorations  consist  of  arabesque,  mo- 
saics and  passages  from  the  Koran  in  inlay 
work  of  precious  stones  of  unsurpassed 
beauty.  Because  of  the  translucent  alabaster 
dome  and  the  windows  equipped  with  per- 
forated alabaster  screens,  no  artificial  light- 
ing is  required  for  the  interior,  as  the  light 
filters  through  these  with  a  marvelously  mel- 
lowed effect.  A  beautiful  walled-iu  garden 
surroimds  the  structure,  the  cost  of  which  is 
estimated  at  over  $10,000,000.  See  Asia, 
full-page  plate,  Some  Types  of  Civilization  in 
Asia. 

TALC,  talk  (short  sound  of  a),  a  soft  mag- 
nesian  mineral,  consisting  of  broad,  flat, 
smooth  layers  or  plates,  soapy  to  the  touch, 
of  a  shining  luster ;  it  is  translucent  and  often 
transparent,  when  in  very  thin  plates.  There 
are  three  principal  varieties  of  talc,  com- 
mon, earthy  and  indurated. 


TALENT 


3505 


TALKING  MACHINE 


Talc  is  a  silicate  of  magnesium,  with  small 
quantities  of  potash,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron 
and  water.  It  is  used  in  many  parts  of  India 
and  China  as  a  substitute  for  window  glass. 
A  variety  of  talc,' called  Freiich  chalk,  or  stea- 
tite, is  used  for  tracing  lines  on  wood  and 
cloth.  Talc  of  the  higher  grade,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  toilet  powders  and  gas  tips, 
is  largely  imported  from  Italy  and  France. 

The  United  States  produces  more  talc  than 
all  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  output  of  mar- 
keted talc  averaging  170,000  tons  a  year.  Tale 
is  found  chiefly  in  the  Blue  Mountain  region 
of  the  Atlantic  states  and  in  the  hills  of  New 
England ;  it  is  generally  mined  in  small  frag- 
ments by  underground  methods.  New  York 
state  leads  the  states  by  producing  over  one- 
half  of  the  total  output. 

TAL'ENT,  a  unit  of  weight  and  money 
used  by  the  Greeks,  Hebrews  and  other  an- 
cient peoples.  As  a  unit  of  both  weight  and 
value  it  varied  widely  among  the  Greek  states, 
but  two  standards  predominated.  In  one  of 
these  the  talent  weighed  37.8  kilograms,  and 
in  the  other  about  26  kilograms.  Upon  the 
latter  unit  the  largest  coin  used  by  the  Greeks 
was  based,  its  value  being  a  little  more  than 
$1,000.  As  a  weight  among  the  Greeks  it 
was  divided  into  60  rnhms  and  6,000 
drachms.  The  Romans  also  had  monetary 
units  called  great  talents  and  little  talents, 
the  former  being  worth  about  $480  and  the 
latter  about  $363.  In  other  countries  at  dif- 
ferent times  the  talent  varied  in  weight  from 
30  to  43  kilograms. 

In  present-day  usage  the  word  talent  ap- 
plies to  a  special  endowment  or  faculty, 
derived  from  the  parable  of  the  talents  as  nar- 
rated in  Matthew  XXV, 

TALISMAN,  taV  iz  man,  a  figure  east  or 
cut  in  metal  or  stone,  and  made,  with  certain 
superstitious  ceremonies,  at  some  particular 
moment  of  time,  as  when  a  certain  star  is  at 
its  culminating  point,  or  when  certain 
planets  are  in  conjunction.  The  talis- 
man thus  prepared  is  supposed  to  ex- 
ercise extraordinary  influences  over  the 
bearer,  particularly  in  averting  disease.  In 
a  more  extensive  sense,  the  word  is  used,  like 
amulet,  to  denote  any  object  of  nature  or  art, 
the  presence  of  which  cheeks  the  power  of 
spirits  or  demons  and  defends  the  wearer 
from  their  malice.  Relics,  rosaries  and  im- 
ages of  saints  were  once  used  as  talismans. 

TALKING  MACHINE.  When  Sarah 
Bernhardt  was  asked  to  present  a  play  for 

220 


the  moving  pictures,  she  said,  "Now  I  shall 
live  a  thousand  years."  Her  countrymen 
and  other  lovers  of  her  art  may  likewise  hear 
her  voice  a  thousand  years  hence,  for  she  has 
spoken  her  "lines"  into  a  talking  machine. 
But  Madame  Bernhardt  is  not  the  only  one 
whose  voice  has  thus  been  preserved.  Caruso, 
Melba,  Tetrazzini  and  many  other  great  sing- 
ei-s,  actors  and  orators  have  spoken  their 
voices  into  the  "records." 

First  given  to  the  world  as  a  curiosity,  the 
talking  machine  has  become  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  modei'n  inventions.  It  enables 
every  home  and  school  to  hear  the  voices  of 
the  greatest  singers  and  orators  and  the  music 
of  the  greatest  composers,  and  it  preserves 
these  records  for  future  generations.  It  also 
has  become  a  valuable  aid  in  the  business 
world,  where  it  is  replacing  shorthand  in 
correspondence. 

The  talking  machine,  or  phonograph,  as  it 
was  first  called,  was  invented  by  Thomas  A. 
Edison,  though  the  origin  of  the  idea  is 
credited  to  another.  The  original  machine 
consisted  of  the  following  essential  parts: 
There  was  first  a  cui'ved  tube,  one  end  of 
which  was  fitted  to  a  mouthpiece,  while  the 
other  end,  which  was  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  was  closed  with  a  disk  of  veiy  thin 
metal.  To  the  center  of  this  disk  was  at- 
tached a  steel  point,  or  stylus,  which,  when 
sounds  were  projected  on  the  disk  from  the 
mouthpiece,  vibrated  so  as  to  give  an  exact 
reproduction  of  the  vibrations  received  by  the 
mouthpiece.  This  part  of  the  apparatus  was 
adjusted  to  a  cylinder  which  rotated  on  a 
horizontal  axis.  On  the  surface  of  the  cylin- 
der a  spiral  groove  was  cut,  and  on  the  axis 
there  was  a  spiral  screw  of  the  same  pitch, 
which  worked  in  a  nut. 

When  the  instrument  was  to  be  used,  a 
piece  of  tin  foil  was  gummed  round  the  cylin- 
der, and  the  steel  point  was  so  adjusted  that 
it  just  touched  the  tin  foil.  If  words  were 
spoken  through  the  mouth  piece  and  the  cylin- 
der was  kept  rotating,  a  series  of  small  in- 
dentations was  made  on  the  foil  by  the  vi- 
bratory movement  of  the  steel  point.  These 
markings  had  an  individual  character,  due 
to  the  various  sounds  addressed  to  the  mouth- 
piece, and  when  the  point  was  made  to  pass 
over  the  cylinder  the  second  time,  the  sounds 
spoken  into  the  mouthpiece  were  reproduced. 

Improvements.  The  first  phonograph 
was  a  crude  instrument,  and  its  performances 
were  not  wholly  pleasing,  but  it  showed  the 


TALLAHASSEE 


3506 


TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD 


possibilities  the  instrument  -would  possess 
when  it  was  perfected.  The  first  marked  im- 
provement of  the  phonograph  introduced  in 
1885,  consisted  in  the  substitution  of  a  wax 
cylinder  for  that  covered  with  tin  foil.  The 
wax  cylinder  was  the  invention  of  Chichester 
A.  Bell  and  Charles  S.  Tainter,  and  the  in- 
ventors called  the  improved  machine,  the 
grapliophone.  Two  years  later  the  gram- 
ophone appeared.  In  this  machine  a  disk 
took  the  place  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  stj-lus 
cut  upon  the  disk  a  zigzag  groove  of  uniform 
depth,  instead  of  varying  depths,  as  on  the 
cylinder.  The  gramophone  was  invented  by 
Emile  Berliner,  and  all  instruments  of  recent 
make  are  based  upon  his  invention.  The  vari- 
ous later  patents  are  for  modifications  or  at- 
tachments which  make  the  machine  more 
nearly  perfect,  and  so  well  hate  the  in- 
ventors succeeded  that  the  best  machines  re- 
turn an  almost  perfect  reproduction  of  the 
sounds  they  receive. 

A  large  trumpet-shaped  horn  was  used  with 
the  graphophone  to  intensify  the  sound.  All 
modern  instruments  have  a  sound  chamber 
containing  a  sounding  board  similar  to  that 
in  a  piano.  The  best  instruments  are  in  hand- 
some cases  which  are  an  ornament  in  the  most 
elaborately  furnished  homes.  Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  perfecting  the  "needle," 
or  reproducing  stylus,  and  some  instruments 
are  fitted  with  diamond-pointed  needles  that 
resist  all  wear.  Machines  are  known  by  their 
trade  names.  The  Victor  Talking  Machine, 
the  Dish  Graphophone,  the  Columbia  Phono- 
groph  and  the  Edison  Diamond  Disk  are  all 
modifications  of  the  Berliner's  gramophone. 

TALLAHASSEE,  tal  a  hass'ee,  Fla.,  the 
capital  of  the  state  and  the  county  seat  of 
Leon  County,  165  miles  west  of  Jacksom'ille 
and  twenty-five  miles  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  on  the  Sea  Board  Air  Line,  and  the 
Georgia,  Florida  &  Alabama  railroads.  It  is 
the  junction  point  of  the  main  line  of  the 
Dixie  Highway  and  the  old  Spanish  Trail,  is 
picturesquely  situated  near  several  beaiatiful 
lakes,  and  has  a  semi-tropical  climate.  The 
place  is  rapidly  becoming  modernized,  and 
has  brick  paved  streets  and  a  golf  course  that 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  South.  The  Florida 
State  College  for  Women,  the  Florida  State 
Noimal  and  Industrial  College  and  the  Flor- 
ida Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for 
colored  students  are  located  here.  There  are 
two  high  schools,  the  "Sein"  for  white  and  the 
"Lincoln"  for  colored  children.     Important 


buildings  are  the  capitol,  the  Governor's 
mansion,  the  Supreme  Court  Library  and  the 
Federal  building. 

Tallahassee  is  situated  in  an  agricultural 
district  which  produces  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar 
cane  and  daiiy  products.  It  is  not  important 
industrially,  but  there  are  cottonseed-oil, 
tobacco  and  canning  factories,  and  ice,  furni- 
ture and  novelties  are  manufactured.  The 
town  was  laid  out  in  1824  on  a  site  previously 
selected  as  the  seat  of  the  territorial  govern- 
ment. It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1827. 
Population,  1910,  5,018 ;  in  1915,  5,193. 

TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD,  tah  la  rahN' 
pa  re  go/,  Charles  Maurice,  Duke  de, 
Prince  of  Benevento  (1754-1838),  a  French 
statesman  ranking  next  to  Napoleon  as  one  of 
the  greatest  historical  figures  of  his  day.  He 
was  born  in  Paris  and  was  educated  for  the 
Church.  In  1788  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Autun,  despite  the  immorality  of  his  life. 
On  the  meeting  of  the  States-General  in  1789, 
he  was  elected  deputy  for  Autun,  where  his 
advocacy  of  the  union  with  the  Third  Estate 
ranked  him  at  once  as  one  of  the  leading  re- 
formers. 

State  Rights  Above  Church.  Talleyrand 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  commission  to 
draft  a  constitution  for  his  nation.  In  1789 
he  assisted  in  framing  the  Declaration  of 
Rights  and  proposed  the  confiscation  of 
Church  property  as  belonging  to  the  right  of 
the  nation.  In  1790  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  National  Assembly.  In  1791  he  was 
sent  to  London  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  and 
during  his  stay  there  was  proscribed  for  al- 
leged royalist  intrigues.  Forced  to  leave 
England  by  the  provisions  of  the  Alien  Act, 
in  1794,  he  sailed  for  the  United  States.  In 
1796  he  returned  to  France,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  appointed  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  In  this  capacity  he  negotiated  with 
the  three  American  envoys  sent  by  President 
Adams  to  adjust  commercial  difficulties  be- 
tween France  and  the  United  States  (see 
X  Y  Z  Correspondence). 

Napoleon  and  Talleyrand.  He  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  Bonaparte,  whom  he  had 
early  recognized  as  the  master  spirit  of  the 
time,  and  after  Bonaparte's  return  from 
Egypt,  Talleyrand  contributed  greatly  to  the 
events  which  led  to  the  fall  of  the  Directory 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Consulate.  He 
was  then  reappointed  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  for  the  next  few  years  was  the 
executor     of     all     Napoleon's     diplomatic 


TALLOW 


3507 


TALMUD 


schemes.  After  the  establishment  of  the  Em- 
pire, in  1804,  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of 
Grand  Chamberlain,  and  in  1806  was  created 
Prince  of  Benevento. 

After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  a  cool- 
ness arose  between  him  and  Napoleon,  which 
became  more  and  more  marked.  In  1809  he 
resigned  his  office,  and  in  1814  helped  to  se- 
cure NaiDoleon's  abdication.  He  took  part  in 
the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  in  1815,  when 
the  allies  again  entered  Paris  he  became  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs.  After  a  short  time  he 
resigned  this  position  and  retired  to  private 
life.  When  the  revolution  of  July,  1830, 
broke  out,  he  advised  Louis  Philippe  to  ac- 
cept the  throne,  and  held  several  diplomatic 
offices  under  the  new  government.  His  last 
important  public  act  was  in  the  capacity  of 
ambassador  to  England,  when  he  succeeded  in 
forming  the  quadruple  alliance  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Spain  and  Portugal.  Before 
his  death  it  is  recorded  that  he  became  recon- 
ciled to  the  Church. 

Estimate.  Talleja-and  stands  out  as  a 
foremost  tj^pe  of  the  unscrupulous  diplomat 
and  politician.  Even  though  a  skeptic  in  re- 
ligion and  loose  in  morals,  he  guided  France 
many  times  through  stormy  i^eriods  when  con- 
ditions made  the  wisest  course  impossible  to 
foresee. 

TALIjOW,  a  solid  fat,  obtained  from  ani- 
mals, especially  cattle  and  sheep,  by 
subjecting  the  carcasses  to  steam  heat  in 
closed  kettles.  Beef  tallow  of  the  best  quality 
comes  from  the  fat  around  the  kidneys;  that 
of  a  cheaper  grade  is  obtained  fi'om  the  caul 
and  other  tissues.  Tallow  is  purified  by 
heating  to  a  high  temperature  and  then 
straining.  When  cold,  it  is  white  and  hard, 
resembling  lard,  except  that  it  is  somewhat 
whiter.  The  most 
extensive  use  of  tal- 
low is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap ;  it  is 
also  employed  in  the 
m  a  n  u  f  a  c  t  u  r  e  of 
candles,  lubricants, 
and  in  dressing 
leather.  A  specially 
prepared  tallow  is 
used  in  making 
oleomargarine.  A 
substance  similar  to 
animal  tallow  is  ob- 
tained from  certain 
trees.     See  Oleomargarine;  Tallow  Tree. 


TALLOW  TREE 


TALLOW  TREE,  the  name  of  several  trees 
which  produce  a  tallowlike  substance,  used 
for  making  candles.  One  of  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful,  and  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed of  the  plants  is  found  in  China, 
where  it  is  called  the  candle  tree  and  the  wax 
tree.  From  a  remote  period  it  has  furnished 
the  Chinese  with  the  material  out  of  which 
they  make  candles.  The  capsules  and  seeds 
are  crushed  together  and  boiled;  the  fatty 
matter  is  skimmed  as  it  rises,  and  it  condenses 
on  cooling. 

The  tallow  tree  has  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  and  is  almost  naturalized 
along  the  coasts  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 
In  addition  to  candles,  a  soap  emitting  a 
balsamic  odor  is  made  from  it.  The  leaves 
furnish  a  black  dye;  the  stem  yields  a  resin- 
ous substance,  called  copal,  an  ingredient  in 
the  making  of  varnishes. 

TALMAGE,  tal'maje,  Thomas  De  Witt 
(1832-1902),  a  great  American  clergyman 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Bound  Brook,  N. 
J.,  and  educated  at  New  York  University. 
After  holding  several  charges  he  sei-ved  a3 
pastor  of  an  important  Presbyterian  church 
in  Brooklyn  (1869-1894),  which  came  to  be 
known  as  "The  Tabernacle."  Talmage 
gained  a  great  reputation  for  his  eloquence, 
remarkable  oratory,  and  fearless  denunciation 
of  existing  evils.  His  influence  was  further 
spread  through  his  lyceum  work  and  the 
syndication  of  his  sennons  throughout  the 
country;  they  were  likewise  translated  into 
many  foreign  languages.  His  sermons  were 
written  in  popular  vein  and  characterized  by 
fantastic  figures  of  speech. 

From  1895  to  1899,  Talmage  was  assistant 
pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church, 
Washington,  D  C.  He  lectured  widely  in 
America  and  England,  was  editor  of  The 
Christian  at  Work  (1873-1876),  The  Ad- 
vance (1877-1878),  The  Christian  Herald 
(1890-1902),  and  was  the  author  of  several 
published  works,  including  The  Pathway  of 
Life,  From  Manger  to  Throne,  and  Every- 
Day  Religion. 

TAL'MUD,  The,  the  book  of  Jewish  civil 
and  canonical  law  not  comprised  in  the  Penta- 
teuch. It  consists  of  two  parts :  the  Mishna, 
or  the  laws  written  in  Hebrew;  and  the 
Gemara  or  eommentaiy  on  the  law,  written 
in  Aramaic,  into  which  crept  many  anecdotes, 
proverbs,  legends  and  some  history,  so  that 
it  might  be  called  a  cyclopedia  of  rabbinical 
knowledge. 


TALUS 


3508 


TAMMANY 


The  Mishna,  meaning'  instruction,  com- 
prising sixty-three  treatises,  is  composed  of 
six  main  divisions:  (1)  on  tithes,  agriculture, 
etc.;  (2)  on  festivals,  feasts  and  the  Sabbath; 
(3)  on  marriage,  vows  and  oaths;  (4)  on 
penal  laws  and  ethics;  (5)  on  sacrifices, 
including  a  description  of  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem;  (G)  on  purifications. 

The  Gemara  included  the  discussions  on 
the  Mishna  by  the  rabbis  of  Babylon  and 
Palestine,  from  the  third  to  the  sixth  century, 
wlien  the  two  were  brought  together  in  a 
final  compilation.  In  the  Gemara  doubts  are 
resolved,  duties  explained  and  the  most 
minute  circumstances  relative  to  the  conduct 
of  life  are  fully  discussed. 

The  Talmud  is  especially  valuable  to  stu- 
dents of  religion,  histoiy  and  language.  It 
had  its  beginnings  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  in  the 
period  of  Exile,  when  new  conditions  of  na- 
tional life  called  for  new  laws.  Translations 
are  found  in  English,  French  and  German. 

TA'LUS,  the  heap  of  broken  rock  that 
forms  at  the  base  of  cliffs  and  steep  mountain 
slopes.  It  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  many 
feet  in  thickness,  depending  upon  the  size  of 
the  cliffs  and  the  length  of  time  which  it  has 
been  under  formation.  The  rocks  are  broken 
off  by  weathering,  usually  by  the  repeated 
freezing  and  thawing  of  water  in  their 
crevices.  Where  the  fragments  are  coarse, 
the  inclination  of  the  talus  is  very  steep; 
where  they  are  fine,  it  is  more  gradual.  An 
old  talus  contains  more  fine  rock  than  a  new 
one,  since  the  fragments  are  continually  un- 
dergoing decomposition  and  forming  soil. 
See  Erosion  ;  Soil. 

TAMARACK,  tam'a  rak,  an  American  tim- 
ber tree  common  in  swamps.  It  grows  from 
thirty  to  ninety  feet  in  height  and  its  resin- 
ous wood  is  valued  for  posts,  ties,  poles,  etc. 
In  Western  and  Southern  United  States  it  is 
called  the  larch ;  in  New  England  and  Canada, 
hackmatack.    See  Larch. 

TAMARIND,  tam'a  rind,  a  large,  beautiful 
tree,  native  of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  Its 
pods  are  filled  with  a  sweet,  delicately- 
flavored  pulp,  which,  together  with  the  seeds 
it  contains,  is  preserved  in  sugar,  packed 
in  layers  in  casts  and  shipped  in  large  quanti- 
ties into  Europe  and  America,  when  it  be- 
comes the  preserved  tamarind  of  commerce. 
The  seeds  are  used  to  make  yellow  and  red 
dyes.  The  wood,  especially  in  the  roots,  is 
beautiful,  but  it  is  so  hard  that  it  is  difficult 
to  work.    It  is  valuable  for  cabinet  work. 


The  tamarind  is  widely  distributed  in  warm 
countries,  and  in  the  United  States  has  been 
successfully  cultivated  only  in  Florida. 

TAMBERLANE.     See  Timur. 

TAMBOURINE,  tarn  boor  een',  a  musical 
instrument  of  the  drum  type,  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  parchment  stretched  over  the  top  of 
a  broad  hoop,  which  is  furnished  with  little 
bells.  It  has  no  musical  pitch  and  is  used 
merely  to  beat  rhythm.  It  is  sounded  by 
sliding  the  fingers  along  the  parchment,  or 
by  striking  it  with  the  knuckles  or  with  the 
fist  or  the  elbow.  It  is  a  favorite  instrument 
among  the  peasants  of  Spain  and  Italy,  and 
was  long  used  in  Egypt.  It  is  similar  to  the 
timbrel  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  tam- 
bourine is  largely  used  in  Salvation  Army 
bands  and  in  some  of  the  modem  dance  music. 

TAMMANY,  tam'a  ni.  Society,  a  power- 
ful political  organization  in  New  York  City. 
The  name  was  adapted  from  that  of  an 
Indian  chief,  Tamanend,  of  the  Delaware 
tribe,  who,  according  to  tradition,  was  wise 
and  virtuous  and  friendly  toward  the  white 
man.  The  society  was  founded  in  New  York 
City,  May  12,  1789,  for  the  pui-pose  of  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  independence.  The 
original  members  were  those  who,  prior  to 
the  Revolutionary  War,  had  been  members 
of  such  patriotic  organizations  as  the  Sons 
of  Liberty;  and  in  its  beginnings  the  society 
was  purely  patriotic  and  fraternal  in  aim. 
The  worthy  causes  it  aided  were  many.    In 


TAMARIND 


promoting  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians, 
in  advancing  the  cause  of  education  and  in 
undertaking  enterprises  of  an  even  more  dis- 


TAMPA 


3509 


TANAGER 


tinetively  patriotic  character  it  demonstrated 
its  usefulness.  Gradually  there  grew  up  with- 
in the  society  a  strong  political  element, 
which  identified  itself  with  the  Democratic- 
Republicans,  as  opposed  to  the  Federalists. 
In  time  this  wing  of  the  society  dominated 
the  whole  body,  converting  it  into  a  powerful 
political  machine. 

The  society  first  took  an  active  part  in  a 
political  campaign  in  1800,  when  it  carried 
New  York  for  Jefferson.  From  that  time  to 
the  present  it  has  been  recognized  as  the  local 
representative  of  the  national  Democratic 
party.  It  has  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  state  politics  and  a  preponderating  influ- 
ence on  the  politics  of  the  city.  From  1834 
to  1913,  it  elected  two-thirds  of  the  mayors. 
The  strength  of  the  society  lies  in  its  hordes 
of  adherents,  largely  of  the  foreign  element, 
living  on  the  East  Side  of  New  York  City 
and  in  other  congested  districts,  whose  loyal- 
ty it  gains  by  manifesting  a  sort  of  paternal 
interest  in  their  material  welfare. 

Such  an  organization  as  Tammany  places 
great  power  in  the  hands  of  a  few  of  its 
leaders.  The  result  has  been  numerous  cases 
of  fraud  and  eoiTuption.  In  1871  William 
M.  Tweed,  head  of  the  "ring,"  was  found 
guilty  of  having  carried  on  a  gigantic  scheme 
of  bribery  whereby  he  had  robbed  the  city  of 
millions  of  dollars,  and  he  was  imprisoned. 
Twenty-five  years  later  another  notorious 
leader  was  Richard  T.  Croker,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Charles  F.  Murphy.  For  about 
twenty  years  Tammany  has  controlled  fully 
half  of  the  time  the  government  of  the  City 
of  New  York. 

TAMTA,  Fla.,  the  second  city  in  size  in 
the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Hillsboro 
County,  212  miles  southwest  of  Jacksonville, 
on  Tampa  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hillsboro 
River,  and  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Sea 
Board  Air  Line,  the  Tampa  &  Gulf  Coast  and 
the  Tampa  Northern  railroads.  The  city  has 
an  attractive  location  and  a  healthful  climate, 
and  has  become  a  popular  winter  resort. 
Special  features  of  interest  are  the  De  Soto 
Park,  where  the  United  States  volunteers 
camped  during  the  Spanish- American  War; 
the  Athletic  Grounds ;  the  Tampa  Bay  Hotel, 
municipally  own^d ;  the  old  government  reser- 
vation, and  the  Convent  of  Holy  Names. 
Large  quantities  of  phosphate,  fruits,  vege- 
tables, turpentine,  rosin,  lumber,  fish  and  cat- 
tle are  exported  from  Tampa,  while  the  port 
is  second  only  to  New  York  in  the  importation 


of  tobacco.  Cigar  making  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, 300,000,000  Havana  cigars  being 
turned  out  annually.  Fertilizer  is  also  manu- 
faetured.  Fishing  is  an  important  industry. 
Tampa  was  occupied  as  a  military  post  dur- 
ing the  wars  with  the  Seminoles  (1835-1842). 
It  was  incorporated  and  made  a  port  of  entry 
in  1886.  About  the  same  time  the  tobacco 
business  began  to  be  developed,  and  the  city 
has  since  grown  steadily.  Population,  1910, 
37,782;  in  1917,  56,251  (Federal  estimate). 

TAMPICO,  tahm  pe'ko,  Mexico,  the  coun- 
try's most  important  center  of  distribution  of 
oil  production  and  one  of  its  leading  seaports. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tampico  River,  206  miles  north- 
east of  Mexico  City. 

Tampico  has  a  good  harbor,  which  is  pro- 
tected by  a  breakwater  and  a  jetty.  The  town 
is  well  laid  out;  it  has  broad  streets  and  a 
number  of  public  monuments,  and  it  contains 
naval  and  military  hospitals.  Most  of  the 
buildings  are  of  the  Spanish  type  of  archi- 
tecture. It  is  an  important  commercial  port 
and  carries  on  a  good  trade  with  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States.  Despite  its  hot, 
unhealthful  climate,  the  city  has  enjoyed  a 
remarkable  boom  because  of  the  development 
of  the  rich  oil  fields  in  its  vicinity.  In  1914 
Tampico  was  the  scene  of  an  insult  to  the 
American  flag  which  almost  led  to  war  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  During  the  World 
War  the  oil  wells  of  Tampico  provided  almost 
all  of  the  oil  used  by  the  British  navy.  Es- 
timated population,  35,000. 

TANAGER,  tan'ajur,  a  family  of  birds, 
closely  related  to  the  finches,  noted  for  the 
brilliance  of  the  male  plumage.  Of  the  350 
known  species,  dwelling  chiefly  in  the  tropical 
regions  of  Central  and  South  America,  its 
representatives  in  America  are  of  five  species, 
only  two  of  which,  however,  reach  into  Can- 
ada. 

The  scarlet  tanager,  except  for  its  black 
wings  and  tail,  is  covered  with  brilliant  scar- 
let plumage,  which  makes  him  the  brightest , 
of  all  the  birds  of  the  northern  United  States. 
Its  nest  is  a  rather  loose  structure,  placed  in 
trees,  and  its  eggs  are  pale  blue,  spotted  with 
brown.  The  summer  tanager  is  rose-red  all 
over,  brighter  in  tint  below,  though  the  fe- 
male is  rather  dull  in  color,  being  a  yellowish- 
green.  It  is  native  to  the  Southern  states 
and  has  the  same  nesting  habits  and  song  as 
the  scarlet  tanager.  The  Louisiana,  or  West- 
ern, tanager  is  found  in  the  summer  from  the 


TANANARIVO 


3510 


TANGIER 


Rockies  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  male  of  this 
species  is  brijxht  yellow,  with  black  back,  tail 
and  winjrs  ami  crimson  head. 

TANANARIVO;    See  Antananarivo. 

TANCRED,  tanglcrcd  (about  1050-1112), 
one  of  the  most  famous  heroes  of  the  First 
Crusade.  He  was  a  Prince  of  Antioch  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Nicaea, 
at  the  Battle  of  Dorj'laeum,  at  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  and  at  Ascalon.  He  was  made 
Prince  of  Galilee  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 
Tancred  is  represented  by  Tasso,  in  the 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  as  the  flower  and  pat- 
tern of  chivalry. 

TANEY,  taw'ny,  Roger  Brooke  (1777- 
18G4),  a  famous  Chief  Justice  of  the, United 
States  Supreme  Court,  who  gave  the  decision 
in  the  Dred  Scott  Case  (see  Dred  Scott  De- 
cision). He  was 
horn  in  Calvert 
County,  Md.,  and 
educated  at  Dickin- 
son College.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1799;  and  w^^- 
elected  to  the  stat 
senate  in  1816  as  ; 
Federalist,  but  li 
later  joined  the 
Democratic  party 
and  supported  An- 
drew Jackson.  The 
latter,  in  1831,  appointed  him  Attorney-Gen- 
eral of  the  United  States,  and  in  1833  Secre- 
taiy  of  the  Treasury-.  In  1836  Taney  suc- 
ceeded John  Marshall  as  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court. 

As  a  jurist  he  displayed  marked  ability 
and  great  learning  as  a  lawj-er,  though  he 
reversed  the  previous  tendency  of  the  court 
toward  centralized  government  and  stood 
firmly  for  state  sovereignty.  Many  of  his 
decisions  were  severely  criticised,  especially 
that  in  the  Dred  Scott  Case,  and  the  one 
denying  the  right  of  the  President  to  suspend 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

TANGANYIKA,  tahngan  ye'ka,  one  of 
the  largest  and  deepest  fresh-water  lakes  in 
the  world,  its  area  being  estimated  at  over 
12,000  square  miles.  It  is  situated  east  of  the 
central  part  of  Africa,  lying  on  the  borders 
of  the  Congo  Free  State  and  what  was  for- 
merly German  East  Africa,  and  its  greatest 
extent  is  from  northwest  to  southeast.  Its 
length  is  about  400  miles,  and  its  width  varies 
from  twenty  to  forty  miles. 


ROGER  BROOKE 

TAXET 


Tanganyika  occupies  a  narrow  basin,  en- 
closed by  an  almost  continuous  series  of 
hills  and  mountains.  It  is  fed  by  a  number  of 
rivers  and  discharges  its  waters  by  the  Lu- 
kuga,  on  the  west,  into  the  Lualaba,  or  Upper 
Congo.  The  surface  is  noted  for  its  changes 
of  level  caused  largely  by  periods  of  rainfall 
and  dry  weather.  The  lake  has  but  few 
shoals  or  reefs,  but  there  are  numerous  float- 
ing islands  of  vegetation,  densely  forested 
with  palms.  Severe  hurricanes  and  tornadoes 
make  navigation  perilous ;  its  waters  abound 
in  fish,  crocodiles  and  hippopotami. 

The  lake  was  discovered  by  Burton  and 
Speke  in  1858,  and  later  was  explored  by 
Li%-ingstone,  Stanley  and  other  travelers. 
The  chief  towns  on  the  shore  are  Ujiji,  Bis- 
marckburg  and  Albertville.  The  lake  is  navi- 
gated by  steamers  and  is  connected  with  Lake 
Nyassa  by  a  carriage  road  210  miles  long. 
In  1914  Belgium  began  construction  of  a 
railroad  to  traverse  the  region  between  the 
Upper  Congo  and  the  west  shore  of  Tangan- 
yika (see  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway). 

TANGERINE,  tan'  jer  een,  a  variety  of 
orange,  so  named  from  Tangier,  Morocco, 
where  the  first  specimens  were  found.  It  is 
flatter  and  deeper  in  color  than  the  orange. 
The  peel  is  easily  removed  from  the  pulp, 
which  is  sweet,  juicy,  and  highly  prized  be- 
cause of  its  flavor.  The  tangerines  are  said 
to  have  been  produced  in  the  United  States 
from  the  mandarin  orange;  they  are  culti- 
vated in  most  of  the  states  bordering  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

TANGIER,  tan  jeer',  or  TANGIERS,  a 
seaport  and  the  diplomatic  capital  of  Moroc- 
co, situated  near  the  western  entrance  of  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  thirty-six  miles  southwest 
of  the  town  of  Gibraltar.  Its  site  is  at  the 
head  of  a  spacious  bay,  and  when  seen  from 
the  sea,  the  town  presents  a  striking  appear- 
ance, rising  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater. 
The  houses  are  nearly  all  of  one  story  and  are 
built  along  lanes  or  narrow  streets,  many  of 
which  are  too  steep  to  admit  of  the  use  of 
carriages.  There  are  a  few  modern  resi- 
dences, occupied  by  Europeans  and  by  the 
most  wealthy  merchants.  The  city  also  con- 
tains a  number  of  mosques,  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  several  Jewish  synagogues.  It 
is  lighted  by  electricity.  The  harbor  is  fairly 
good,  and  the  trade  is  considerable,  though 
in  the  last  half  century  it  has  materially 
fallen  off.  The  city  is  the  center  of  a  cara- 
van trade  of  some  importance,  and  most  of 


TANK 


3511 


TANK 


its  exports  go  to  the  cities  of  southern 
Europe.  In  1662  it  became  a  possession  of 
Great    Britain,    but    was    abandoned    after 


vention.  These  tanks  were  first  used  in  the 
Battle  of  the  Somme,  September  15,  1916, 
where  they  proved  their  value  in  preparing 


GERMAN  TANK 

twenty-two  years.  Population,  estimated, 
46;000. 

TANK,  Armored,  an  armored  automobile 
constinicted  on  the  plan  of  the  caterpillar 
tractor.  The  largest  tanks  are  about  thirty 
feet  long  and  about  the  width  of  an  automo- 
bile truck,  and  they  weigh  from  thirty  to 
forty  tons.  Their  distinctive  feature  is  the 
endless  track  which  is  propelled  by  the  motor 
wheels  in  the  interior.  Their  form  and  con- 
struction are  readily  understood  from  a  study 
of  the  accompanying  illustrations.  The  anna- 
ment  of  the  small  tanks  consists  of  machine 
guns,  but  the  large  ones  carry  in  addition  one 
or  two  small  field  guns.  The  entire  structure 
is  enclosed  in  bullet-proof  armor. 

The  aiTnored  tank  was  devised  in  the  Brit- 
ish War  Department  and  is  based  upon  the 
caterpillar  tractor,  which,  is  an  American  in- 


ENGLISH  TANK 

the  way  for  the  infantry.     Their  speed  is 
relatively  slow — from  three  to  ten  miles  per 
h  o  u  r — b  u  t  their 
progress   is    practic- 
ally irresistible.  They 
can  break   down 
barbed  wire  entangle- 
ments, crush  machine 
gun    emplacements, 
and   climb   into   and 
out  of  trenches  like 
huge     mud     turtles. 
The  slow  but  cease- 
less progress  of  these        FRONT  VIEW   OF 
ungainly  monsters  at  thirty-TON 

the    Battle    of     the  model 

Somme  struck  terror  to  the  hearts  of  the 
Germans,  most  of  whom  fled  or  surrendered 
without  offering  resistance. 


T 

.^^^ftW^ 

[^==0-                     1..  .  J 

-[-■  ■  •  -L 'v — A'-  '■  '■  ■ 

^^H 

Revolving  Turret  *—--, 
Machine  Gun  op  Cannon 


Speed  and  Steerin 
Levers \   ' 


^xit  Door 

,Gasol  ine  Tank 

Vent  i  lator 


Radiator 
Engine 

Tall  for  Trench- 


Disconnecting 
Leven  and  Brake 


Driven      G?unnep    CranK  fop  Starting 
INTERIOR  OF  TANK 


Apparatus  forTrans- 

^itfcing  Power  from 

Enoine  to  Wheels 


TANNHAUSER 


3512 


TAPAJOS 


Following  the  Battle  of  the  Somme,  the 
allied  armies  added  tanks  to  their  equipment 
as  fast  as  they  could  be  manufactured,  and 
they  were  of  the  greatest  assistance  in  forc- 
ing back  the  lines  of  the  enemy  in  the  fierce 
fighting  before  the  signing  of  the  armistice, 
in  November,  1918.     See  World  War. 

TANNHAUSER,  tahnlwizur,  in  old  Ger- 
man legend,  a  knight  who  gained  admission 
into  a  hill  called  the  Venusberg,  a  region  in 
the  Thuringian  Forest,  in  the  interior  of 
which  Venus  held  her  court.  For  a  long 
time  Tannhauser  remained  buried  in  sensual 
pleasures,  but  at  length  heeded  the  voice  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  who  called  upon  him  to  re- 
turn. The  goddess  allowed  him  to  depart, 
and  he  started  upon  his  pilgrimage  to  Rome 
to  seek  the  Pope's  absolution.  The  Pope, 
however,  when  he  learned  the  extent  of  the 
knight's  guilt,  declared  that  it  was  as  im- 
possible for  him  to  obtain  pardon  as  it  was 
for  the  wand  in  the  Pope's  hand  to  bud  and 
bring  forth  green  leaves. 

Despairing,  Tannhauser  retired  from  the 
presence  of  the  pontiff  and  entered  the  Venus- 
berg once  more.  Meanwhile  the  Pope's  wand 
actually  began  to  sprout,  and  the  Pope,  tak- 
ing this  as  a  sign  from  God  that  there  was 
still  opportunity  of  the  knight's  salvation, 
hastily  sent  messengers  into  all  lands  in  quest 
of  him,  but  Tannhauser  was  never  again  seen. 

Richard  Wagner  adopted  this  legend,  with 
modifications,  as  the  subject  of  one  of  his 
operas.  Tannhauser  was  first  produced  in 
Dresden  in  1845,  and  it  since  has  had  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  repertoire  of  all  Euro- 
pean and  American  opera  companies.  Of  its 
many  exquisite  melodies,  the  Pilgrims'  Chorus 
and  Address  to  the  Evening  Star  are  the  most 
familiar.  Swinburne's  poem,  Laus  Veneris, 
is  based  on  the  legend,  and  it  has  been  treated 
by  Heine,  Tieck  and  other  poets. 

"tannin,  tan' in,  or  TANNIC,  tan'ik, 
ACID,  a  siabstance  prepared  by  extraction 
from  powdered  gallnuts,  by  means  of  a  mix- 
ture of  alcohol,  ether  and  water,  from  which 
it  is  obtained  by  evaporation.  It  is  almost 
colorless  and  odorless,  has  a  bitter  taste  and 
is  used  as  an  astringent  in  medicine,  as  a 
mordant  in  dyeing  and,  in  combination  with 
other  substances,  as  coloring  matter  in  ink. 
Similar  substances  are  prepared  from  other 
vegetable  growths  and  are  sometimes  called 
tannic  acid ;  such  as  alder  tannin,  caffetannic 
acid  ■  (prepared  from  coffee  berries)  and 
fraxitannic  acid,  from  leaves  of  the  ash  tree. 


TANNING.    See  Leather. 

TAN'SY,  a  well-known  plant  of  the  Com- 
posite family,  abundant  in  Great  Britain  and 
throughout  Europe,  and  naturalized  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  tall  plant, 
with  divided  leaves  and  button-like  heads  of 
yellow  flowers.  Every  part  of  the  plant  is 
bitter.  Tansy  tea  is  an  old  popular  medicine, 
believed  to  be  a  fine  tonic.  Tansy  is  now 
cultivated  in  gardens,  and  grows  along  road- 
sides. The  young  leaves  were  formerly  used 
for  flavoring  cakes,  puddings,  etc. 

TAN'TALUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son 
of  Jupiter,  and  king  of  Phrygia,  Lydia, 
Argos  or  Corinth,  who  was  admitted  to  the 
table  of  the  gods,  but  forfeited  their  favor, 
either  by  betraying  their  secrets,  stealing 
ambrosia  from  heaven,  or  presenting  to  them 
his  murdered  son  Pelops  as  food.  As  punish- 
ment he  was  plunged  into  a  deep  pool  with 
water  up  to  his  chin,  but,  plagued  by  an  un- 
quenchable thirst,  the  waters  receded  from 
his  lips  when  he  attempted  to  drink.  Crazed 
by  the  never-ceasing  pangs  of  hunger,  he  was 
tempted  by  delicious  fruit  which  hung  above 
him,  and  which  withdrew  when  he  tried  to 
partake  of  it.  According  to  other  accounts, 
a  huge  rock  forever  threatened  to  fall  and 
crush  him.  The  word  tantalize  is  derived 
from  this  legend. 

TAOISM,  tou'iz'm,  a  system  of  philosophy 
originated  in  China  in  the  sixth  century. 
Lao-tse  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  faith,  although  it  is  probable  that  the 
religion  had  existed  before  his  time  and  that 
he  gave  it  more  definite  form.  The  Chinese 
of  to-day  rank  Lao-tse  with  Confucius.  The 
principles  underlying  his  philosophy  are  dif- 
ficult to  explain,  but  he  strove  to  bring  out 
the  best  in  human  action  and  endeavored 
through  right  conduct  to  point  the  way  to 
true  happiness. 

After  the  entrance  into  China  of  Budd- 
hism, Taoism  adopted  many  of  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  new  faith.  It  degenerated  into 
superstitution  and  mysticism;  to-day  the 
ritual  is  a  combination  of  witchcraft  and 
demonology,  void  of  the  slightest  tinge  of 
resemblance  to  the  teachings  of  Lao-tse.  See 
Chin'A,  subhead  Government  and  BeUgion. 

TAPAJOS,  tah  pah  zhosh',  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal tributaries  of  the  Amazon  River,  ris- 
ing in  the  middle  west  of  the  south-central 
part  of  Brazil  and  flowing  northward  into 
the  Amazon.  Its  length  is  about  1,200  miles, 
and  it  is  navigable  for  small  boats  to  with- 


TAPESTRY 


3513 


TAPEWORM 


in  a  few  miles  of  its  source;  the  last  200 
miles  are  navigable  only  for  large  vessels. 

TAP'ESTRY,  an  ornamental  fabric  used 
for  wall  decoration  in  churches  and  palaces 
and  as  covering  for  windows  and  furniture. 
Tapestry  is  made  by  a  special  process  of 
weaving,  whereby  colored  woof  threads  are 
interwoven  with  undyed  warp  threads  after 
the  warp  threads  have  been  stretched  on  the 
loom.  The  varied  colors  of  the  woof  threads 
produce  the  pattern.  The  work  is  done  with 
an  instrument  that  is  a  combination  of 
shuttle  and  bobbin ;  needles  are  never  used  in 
tapesti'y  weaving.  The  so-called  Bayeux 
Tapestry,  in  the  Bayeux  Library,  Normandy, 
is  really  a  piece  of  embroidery.  It  probably 
was  given  its  name  because,  like  many  tapes- 
tries, it  pictures  elaborate  historical  scenes 
(see  Bayeux  Tapestry). 

Flemish  and  French  Tapestries.  Tapestry 
weaving  dates  from  antiquity.  As  mentioned 
by  Homer,  Penelope  and  Andromache  each 
wove  picture  tapestries,  while  Helen  of  Troy 
wove  on  tapestry  the  story  of  her  own  tragic 
life.  However,  the  art  reached  its  supremacy 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  industry 
was  centered  in  An-as,  Flanders.  So  excel- 
lent and  distinctive  were  the  tapestries  there 
made  that  to  identify  them  they  were  given 
the  name  of  the  city  of  their  manufacture. 
Antwerp,  Brussels,  Bi-uges,  Lille  and  Valen- 
ciennes became  such  important  centers  that 
the  art  of  tapestry  making  became  national- 
ized in  France  and  in  Flanders. 

Gobelin  Tapestry.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  factory  under  royal  patronage  was 
established  in  Paris  in  the  dye  woi-ks  of  the 
Gobelin  family,  which,  in  1662,  was  organized 
as  a  state  institution.  Gobelin  tapestries  be- 
came renowned  the  world  over,  and  the 
present  museum  in  connection  with  the  es- 
tablishment and  one  in  Florence  are  the 
only  two  museums  in  the  world  housing 
nothing  but  exhibits  of  tapestries  and  tex- 
tiles. In  addition  to  reproductions  of  many 
masterpieces  of  painting,  famous  Gobelins 
reproduce  historical  scenes  of  French  his- 
tory, notablv  events  during  the  reigns  of 
Louis  XIV  and  XV. 

English  Tapestries.  A  notable  English 
industry  was  established  in  1619,  at  Mort- 
lake,  near  London,  continuing  in  existence 
until  1703  and  following  closely  the  French 
example.  "William  Morris  founded  a  tapestiy 
works  at  Merton,  near  London,  in  1881,  which 
is  still  in  operation.     The  most  famous  ex- 


amples produced  here  are  from  the  designs 
of  Burne-Jones,  with  foliage,  flowers  and 
borders  originated  by  Morris. 

American  Tapestries.  The  first  tapestry 
works  in  the  United  States  was  established 
on  Fifth  Avenue  in  New  York  City  in  1893, 
and  later  was  removed  to  Williamsbridge. 
Its  most  significant  designs  follow  the  style 
of  French  eighteenth-century  examples. 
Three  other  tapestry  plants  have  been  estab- 
lished in  New  York  City  since  the  time  of 
the  initial  experiment. 

Famous  Collections.  The  world's  most 
famous  tapestries  are  the  "Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles" series  at  the  Vatican,  designed  by 
Raphael  for  Pope  Leo  X  for  the  Sistine 
Chapel  (see  Sistixe  Chapel).  These  won- 
derful examples  revolutionized  the  art,  sub- 
stituted Italian  for  Flemish;  even  Flemish 
painters  succumbed  to  the  Italian  style. 
Raphael's  tapestries  were  copied  by  weavers, 
engravers  and  painters.  The  woven  examples 
are  now  the  prized  possessions  of  the  Royal 
Spanish,  the  Austrian  and  the  French  Na- 
tional collections,  and  of  the  Berlin  and 
Dresden  museums.  The  South  Kensington 
Museum  of  England  contains  a  collection  of 
famous  hunting  tapestries.  The  most  impor- 
tant early  fifteenth-centurj'  tapestry  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Burgundiau  Sacraments 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  art. 

TAPEWORM,  tayp'icurm,  an  animal 
parasite  found  in  a  mature  state  La  the  ali- 
mentary canal  of  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 
Tapeworms  are  composed  of  a  number  of 
flattened  joints,  or  segments,  attached  to  a 
head,  which  is  furnished  with  a  circlet  of 
hooks,  or  suckers,  enabling  it  to  maintain  its 
hold  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intes- 
tines. The  other  segments  are  simply  buds, 
given  off  by  the  head,  the  oldest  being 
farthest  removed  from  it;  each  is  capable 
of  reproducing  a  perfect  worm.  The  tape- 
worm has  neither  mouth  nor  digestive  or- 
gans, and  absorbs  its  nutrition  through  the 
skin.  The  length  of  the  animal  varies  from 
a  few  inches  to  several  yards.  A  person 
afflicted  with  tapeworm  has  a  ravenous  ap- 
petite; he  loses  weight,  has  abdominal  pains, 
and  is  generally  restless  and  weak.  Eating 
of  ill-cooked  pork  or  beef  is  responsible  for 
the  entrance  of  the  parasite  into  the  system. 
A  person  showing  the  s^^nptoms  described 
above  should  consult  a  reliable  physician. 
No  cure  is  effected  until  the  head  of  the 
worm  is  destroyed. 


TAPIOCA 


3514 


TARGET 


TAPIR 


TAPIOCA,  tap  i  o'  ka,  a  starch  food  pre- 
pared from  the  roots  of  the  cassava,  a  plant 
found  in  the  tropics.  Tapioca  is  used  chielly 
in  the  preparation  of  a  nutritious  pudding; 
it  is  also  used  in  thickening  soups,  as  when 
l)oiled  it  swells  and  forms  a  jellylike  mass. 
In  preparing  the  substance  for  the  market 
the  roots  are  washed  and  ground  to  a  pulp, 
and  the  mass  is  strained  until  the  fibers  are 
eliminated.  The  tapioca  is  then  dried  on  hot 
iron  plates,  which  causes  the  starch  grains 
to  foi'm  int«  small  lumps. 

TAPIR,  tapur,  a  group  of  forest  animals 
related  to  the  hog.  Of  the  five  species,  four 
are  native  to  the  western  hemisphere.  The 
common  South 
American  tapir  is 
about  the  size  of  a 
small  ass  and  has  a 
brown  skin,  covered 
with  short  hair.  It 
inhabits  forests  and 
lives  much  in  the 
water.  It  conceals 
itself  during  the  day  and  feeds  on  vegeta- 
bles which  it  gathers  Avith  its  flexible  pro- 
boscis. Tapirs  are  hunted  for  their  flesh  and 
hides. 

TAR,  a  thick,  black,  sticky  product,  ob- 
tained b}'  the  destructive  distillation  of  such 
substances  as  wood,  coal,  peat  and  shale. 
(For  the  production  of  coal  tar,  see  the 
article  Coal  Tar).  "Wood  tar  is  made  from 
pine,  fir  and  larch  trees.  The  crude  stacking 
method  is  still  extant  in  the  Carolinas,  Geor- 
gia and  Alabama.  Sticks  of  green  pine  are 
piled  up  in  conical  shape,  and  damp  earth 
and  sand  are  heaped  over  the  wood  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches.  When  everytliing  is 
in  readiness,  the  pile  is  ignited  and  allowed 
to  bum  slowly  for  about  ten  days.  As  the 
tar  is  melted  out  of  the  wood  it  is  run  into 
retorts,  where  it  is  distilled ;  wood  spirit  and 
pitch  oils  are  given  off.  The  black  residuum 
is  poured,  while  hot,  into  barrels,  where  it 
soon  hardens  and  becomes  the  ordinary  tar 
of  commerce.  As  much  as  150  barrels  of  tar 
are  taken  from  a  single  "hole."  The  product 
is  used  for  preserving  timber,  for  calking 
seams  in  ships,  in  the  making  of  roofs,  and 
for  other  industrial  purposes.  It  is  also 
used  in  medicines  and  in  ointments  and  skin 
lotions. 

TARANTULA,  ta  ran'tu  la,  a  large  spider, 
named  for  Taranto,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy, 
where  it  was  first  discovered   and   is   still 


found  in  great  numbers.  The  name  is  now 
commonly  applied  to  any  large,  hairy  species 
in  Southwestern  United  States  and  Central 


TARANTULA 

America.  The  tarantula  captures  its  prey, 
not  in  a  web,  but  by  swiftly  attacking  it.  It 
hides  during  the  day  in  long,  silken  tubes 
in  underground  wells.  The  bite  is  very  pain- 
ful, but  is  no  more  dangerous  than  the  sting 
of  a  wasp. 

TARBELL,  tah/bel,  Ida  Minerva  (1857- 
),  an  American  author  Avho  specializes  in 
sociological  and  historical  subjects,  was  bom 
in  Erie  County,  Pa.  Shortly  after  her  grad- 
uation from  Allegheny  College,  she  became 
associate  editor  of  The  Chautauquan,  and 
later  became  identified  with  McClure's  and 
the  American  magazines.  Her  works  include 
a  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  several  other 
l)iographies,  but  she  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  a  Hif^tory  of  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany. Her  keen  observations  on  women  are 
embodied  in  The  Business  of  Being  a  Woman 
and  The  Ways  of  Women.  Her  onlj'  novel, 
The  Rising  of  the  Tide,  has  as  its  background 
the  World  War. 

TARE,  the  common  name  of  different 
species  of  the  pea  family,  knoAm  also  by  the 
name  of  vetch.  There  are  numerous  species 
and  varieties  of  tares,  but  that  which  is 
found  best  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes 
is  the  common  tare,  which  flourishes  in  poor 
soils,  and  of  which  there  are  two  principal 
varieties,  the  summer  tare  and  the  icinter  tare. 
They  are  extensively  cultivated  throughout 
Europe  for  hay  and  as  a  fertilizer;  one 
species  is  found  in  the  United  States.  The 
tare  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  {Matt.  XIII, 
3G)  is  supposed  to  be  the  darnel. 

TARGET,  tahr'get.  1,  A  shield,  or  buckler, 
of  a  small  kind,  such  as  those  formerly  in 


TARGUM 


3515 


TARIFF 


use  among  the  Highlanders,  -wliieh  were  cir- 
cular in  form,  cut  out  of  ox  hide,  mounted 
on  strong  wood,  and  often  covered  externally 
with  ornamental  work.  2,  The  mark  set  up 
to  be  aimed  at,  in  archery,  musketry  or  artil- 
lery practice.  These  targets  are  generally 
square  or  oblong  metal  plates,  on  which  is 
marked  a  central  circle,  with  two  or  more 
wide  rings  around  it.  The  marksman  aims 
to  put  his  shots  as  near  the  central  point,  or 
hull's  eye,  as  possible;  if  he  hits  the  bull's 
eye  he  is  credited  with  five  points ;  if  he  hits 
within  the  first  circle,  three  points;  within  the 
second,  one  point.    See  Archery. 

TARGUM,  taWgum,  a  term  applied  to  a 
translation  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  the  Chaldee,  or  Aramaic,  language,  orig- 
inating probably  when  the  Jews  began  to 
use  Aramaic  instead  of  Hebrew.  Only  three 
are  extant  on  the  Pentateuch,  one  on  the 
Prophets ;  there  are  targums  on  Psalms,  Job, 
Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Esth-er 
and  Ecclesiaetes.  They  are  valued  as  studies 
of  the  lives  of  the  peoples  of  those  remote 
days. 

TARIFF,  in  the  common  meaning  of  the 
term,  tariff  is  the  customs  duties  assessed  on 
imported  or  exported  goods,  but  in  its  broad- 
est application  it  means  any  rate  or  charge. 
An  example  of  the  latter  meaning  is  the  tariff 
on  railroads,  which  refers  to  the  freight  and 
passenger  rates  charged.  The  practice  of 
levying .  customs  duties  on  imports  and  ex- 
ports was  common  to  the  nations  of  antiq- 
uity. Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  all  had 
systems  of  tariff.  Later  the  same  custom 
was  practiced  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by 
whom  it  was  handed  on  to  the  nations  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  nearly  all  nations  of  mod- 
em times  have  resorted  to  the  tariff  system. 

Purposes  of  a  Tariff.  A  tariff  is  levied 
for  one  or  more  of  the  following  purposes : 

1.  To  obtain  revenue  for  the  government. 

2.  To  protect  home  industries. 

3.  To  retaliate  for  unjust  commercial  treat- 
ment by  some  other  nation.  When  resorted  to 
for  this  purpose,  tariff  becomes  commercial 
warfare. 

A  nation  levying  tariff  for  revenue  only  is 
called  a  free  trade  nation.  England,  for 
example,  had  been  a  free  trade  nation  for 
more  than  half  a  century  before  the  World 
War.  A  tariff  designed  to  protect  home  in- 
dustries is  called  a  protective  tariff.  It  af- 
fords protection  to  the  industry  upon  whose 
products  it  is  laid,  by  placing  a  tariff  in 


addition  to  that  for  revenue  equal  to  the 
difference  in  the  cost  of  manufacture  of  the 
article  in  a  foreign  country  and  the  manu- 
facture of  the  same  article  in  the  country 
where  it  is  protected.  If  steel  rails,  for  in- 
stance, can  be  manufactured  in  England  and 
shipped  to  the  United  States  at  a  price  that 
will  allow  them  to  be  sold  for  $200  per  ton, 
and  it  costs  $210  per  ton  to  make  them  in 
the  latter  country,  the  American  manufac- 
turers of  rails  will  be  unable  to  compete 
with  British  manufacturers.  To  protect  the 
American  manufacturers.  Congress  may  place 
a  special  tariff  of  $10  a  ton  on  the  imported 
rails,  which  cannot  then  be  sold  for  less  than 
the  domestic  product. 

A  tariff  for  retaliation  is  seldom  resorted 
to  at  the  present  time,  but  many  commer- 
cial treaties  contain  reciprocity  agreements, 
whereby  each  nation  agrees  to  admit  certain 
articles  into  its  ports  at  a  lower  tariff  than 
the  regular  schedule  requires,  provided,  the 
other  nation  will  admit  certain  articles  into 
its  ports  on  a  similar  basis.  Fair  reciprocity 
agreements  are  usually  advantageous  to  both 
countries.  In  general,  a  revenue  tariff  is  best 
for  nations  that  have  to  import  most  of  their 
raw  material,  and  a  large  proportion  of  their 
foodstuffs.  It  was  because  of  these  condi- 
tions that  England  became  a  free  trade  na- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  protection  is  usu- 
ally considered  the  best  policy  for  a  new  na- 
tion having  abundant  resources  and  desirous 
of  building  up  extensive  manufa-cturing  in- 
terests. This  policy  also  applies  to  older 
nations,  having  an  abundance  of  raw  material 
and  extensive  manufacturing  interests.  Be- 
fore the  World  War  all  the  leading  Euro- 
pean nations  except  Great  Britain  had  pro- 
tective tariffs. 

In  the  United  States.  Prior  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution  some  of  the  individ- 
ual states  assessed  a  tax  on  imports,  but 
there  was  no  national  tariff  policy.  Ever 
since  the  formation  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment the  United  States  has  adhered  generally 
to  the  policy  of  protection.  The  first  tariff 
bill  passed  Congress  in  1789,  and  from  that 
time  to  the  present  the  tariff  has  been  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  political  controversy. 
This  bill  had  for  its  purposes  the  provision 
of  revenue  to  support  the  government,  pay- 
ing the  debts  of  the  United  States -and  for 
the  "encouragement  and  protection  of  manu- 
factures." The  act  was  frequently  amended, 
the  duties  always  being  raised,  until  1824, 


TARIFF 


3516 


TARKINGTON 


•when  a  bill  -was  passed  providing  an  aver- 
age rate  of  37  per  cent.  Meanwhile  the 
loose  constructionists,  under  Clay,  had  de- 
clared for  a  protective  tariff,  in  opposition 
to  the  strict  constructionists,  the  forei-unners 
of  the  modern  Democrats,  who  claimed  that 
the  Constitution  gave  no  power  to  levy  any- 
thing but  a  revenue  tariff. 

The  Tariff  of  Abominations.  The  result 
of  the  controversy  between  the  strict  and 
loose  constructionists  was  the  tariff  of  1S28, 
known  as  the  ''tariff  of  abominations,"  be- 
cause it  represented  a  decided  advance  to- 
wards protective  duties.  It  "was  protested 
against  by  the  Southern  states,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  lead  foreign  nations  to  dis- 
criminate against  American  raw  materials, 
upon  the  export  of  which  the  South  de- 
pended; also,  because  they  believed  it  to  be 
unconstitutional.  In  1S32  the  South  Carolina 
legislature  declared  the  acts  of  1S2-4  and  1828 
null  and  void,  and  prohibited  the  collection  of 
duties. 

Compromise  of  1833.  In  the  following 
year  Henry  Clay  introduced  a  compromise 
tariff'  bill.  The  object  of  this  bill,  as  ex- 
pressed in  its  preamble,  was  '*to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  political  system,  to  ai-rest 
civil  war  and  to  restore  peace  and  tranquillity 
to  the  nation."  It  provided  for  a  gradual 
reduction  in  duties.  In  response  to  ffrm  ac- 
tion by  Congress  and  by  President  Jackson, 
the  nullification  acts  were  repealed  by  South 
Carolina.  From  1840  to  1845  several  tariff 
bills  were  drafted  and  discussed,  but  only  one, 
which  provided  for  a  rate  of  about  33  per 
cent,  was  passed.  In  1846  the  Walker  tariff 
bill  was  passed,  reducing  the  rate  of  duty 
to  25i  per  cent.  The  tariff  was  further  re- 
duced until  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
duties  averaged  about  20  per  cent. 

Civil  War  Period.  With  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  policy  of  decreasing  duties 
was  abandoned.  The  Morrill  tariff  of  1861 
raised  the  tariff  to  27  per  cent.  During  the 
next  two  years  the  tariff  was  raised  several 
times  on  special  articles;  in  1864  all  duties 
were  raised  by  50  per  cent,  and  another  in.- 
ciease  was  ordered  in  1866. 

Since  the  Civil  War.  A  gradually  growing 
discontent  with  the  maintenance  of  the  Mor- 
rill tariff,  or  so-called  "war  tariff',"  led,  in 
1882,  to'  the  appointment  of  a  tariff*  commis- 
sion to  ascertain  the  effect  of,  and  to  rec- 
ommend changes  in,  the  existing  tariff  laws, 
but  the  resulting  bill  (1883)  was  satisfactory 


to  nobody.  The  Democrats  came  to  power 
in  1884  and  introduced,  in  1888,  the  Mills 
bill,  a  measure  intended  to  reduce  taxation 
and  simplify  the  collection  of  revenue,  but  it 
failed  to  become  a  law.  The  Republicans  re- 
turned to  power  in  1888,  and  two  years  later 
they  passed  the  McKinley  biU,  which  gen- 
erally raised  the  duties. 

In  1S94  the  Democrats  were  in  control  and 
passed  the  Wilson-Gorman  Tariff  Act,  which 
materially  reduced  the  tariff,  and  became  a 
law  without  the  President's  signature.  This 
act  was  superseded  by  the  Dingley  Act  in 
1897,  which  again  inaugurated  a  high  tariff. 
In  1909  the  Payne-Aldrich  Act  was  passed  at 
a  special  session  of  Congress.  This  act  pur- 
ported to  lower  the  tariff,  but  it  was  not 
satisfaetoiy  to  a  great  majority  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  resulted  in  the  returning  of  a  Demo- 
cratic majority  to  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  the  Sixty-second  Congress.  The  bill 
provided  for  the  appointment  of  an  advisory 
tai-iff  commission.  In  1913  President  Wil- 
son called  a  special  session  of  Congress  to 
revise  the  tariff.  The  bUl  passed  by  this 
Congress,  known  as  the  Underwood-Simmons 
Tariff  Act,  pro\"ided  for  many  changes  in  the 
rates.  The  duties  on  cotton  goods  and  on 
woolen  goods  were  greatly  lowered  and  wool 
was  placed  on  the  free  list.  Sugar  was  to  pay 
a  slight  duty  until  May  1,  1916;  after  that 
date  it  was  to  be  free.  Also  on  the  free  list 
were  many  chemicals  and  other  articles.  The 
Sixty-sixth  Congress,  which  was  under  con- 
trol of  the  Republicans,  planned  to  place  a 
protective  duty  on  dyestuffs  and  numerous 
other  articles  whose  manufacture  had  been 
developed  after  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  because  these  articles  could  not  be  ob- 
tained in  Europe. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Customs  Duties  Protection 

Economics  Xullification 

Free  Trade  Reciprocity 

Political  Parties  Tax 

TARKINGTON,  tah/kingtun,  Xewton- 
Booth  (1869-  ),  a  present-day  American 
novelist,  born  in  Indiana  and  educated  at 
Princeton  University.  The  Geyitleman  from 
Indiana,  his  first  book,  won  immediate  recog- 
nition, and  each  succeeding  novel  added  fresh 
laurels.  Some  of  his  stories  have  been  suc- 
cessfully dramatized,  notably  Seventeen,  Pen- 
rod  and  Mon.sieur  Beaiicaire.  A  late  novel, 
The  Magnificent  Amhersans,  records  the 
changes  in  American  life  that  are  taking 
place  in  the  present  generation.    Tarkington's 


TARPEIAN  ROCK 


3517 


TARTAR  EMETIC 


The  Man  from  Some,  a  comedy,  was  long 
popular  on  the  American  stage.  In  1919 
Monsieur  Beaucaire  was  successfully  pro- 
duced in  London  as  an  opera. 

TARPEIAN,  tahrpe'yan,  ROCK,  a  pre- 
cipitous rock,  forming  part  of  the  Capitoline 
Hill  at  Rome,  over  which  persons  convicted 
of  treason  were  hurled.  It  was  so  named,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  from  Tarpeia,  a  vestal 
virgin  of  Rome,  the  daughter  of  the  governor 
of  the  citadel  on  the  Capitoline,  who,  covetous 
of  the  golden  bracelets  worn  by  the  Sabine 
soldiery,  opened  the  gate  to  them,  on  the 
promise  of  receiving  what  they  wore  on  their 
left  arms.  Once  inside  the  gate  they  threw 
their  shields  upon  her,  and  crushed  her  to 
death.  She  was  buried  at  the  base  of  the 
Tarpeian  Rock. 

TARPON,  tali/pon,  a  large  game  fish  of 
giant  strength,  found  on  the  southern  coast 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  tarpon  is  shaped  something  like  the 
salmon.  It  attains  a  length  of  five  or  six 
feet  and  a  weight  of  from  100  to  400  pounds. 
Tarpon  fishing  is  a  favorite  sport,  for  this 
fish  is  a  skilful  fighter.  Its  flesh  is  too  coarse 
for  food;  but  its  large,  tough,  silvery  scales 
are  used  in  ornamental  work. 

TARQUINIUS,  talir  kxoin'i  us,  Lucius, 
sumamed  Prisons  (the  elder),  in  Roman  tra- 
dition, the  fifth  king  of  Rome.  He  became 
the  favorite  and  confidant  of  the  Roman 
king,  Ancus  Martins,  and  at  the  latter's 
death  Tarquinius,  although  not  of  royal 
blood,  was  unanimously  elected  king.  Ac- 
cording to  Livy,  he  made  war  with  success 
on  the  Latins  and  Sabines,  from  whom  he 
captured  numerous  towns.  His  reign  was 
also  distinguished  by  the  construction  of  the 
Cloaca  Maxima,  the  Forum  and  the  wall 
about  the  city,  and  by  the  commencement  of 
the  Circus  Maximus  and  the  Capitoline  tem- 
ple. After  a  reign  of  about  thirty-eight 
years  (from  616  to  578  b.  c.)  he  was  killed 
by  assassins  employed  by  the  sons  of  Ancus 
Martins  (578  b.  c). 

TARQUIN'IUS,  Lucius,  sumamed  Super- 
hus  (the  proud),  the  last  of  the  legendary 
kings  of  Rome,  the  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus, 
He  succeeded  Servius  Tullius,  and  reigned 
from  534  to  510  b.  c.  He  abolished  the  privi- 
leges conferred  on  the  plebeians ;  banished  or 
put  to  death  the  senators  whom  he  suspected ; 
never  filled  up  the  vacancies  in  the  senate,  and 
rarely  consulted  that  body.  However,  he 
continued  the  great  works  of  his  father  and 


advanced  the  power  of  Rome  abroad  by  wars 
and  alliances.  After  a  reign  of  nearly 
twenty-five  years,  by  his  tyranny  and  cruelty 
he  brought  about  an  uprising  by  which  he 
and  his  family  were  exiled  from  Rome  (510 
b.  c).  He  tried  repeatedly,  without  success 
to  regain  his  power,  and  at  length  he  died  at 
Cumae.  In  Horatius  at  the  Bridge  Macaulay 
has  immortalized  the  attempt  of  Tarquinius 
to  return  to  power.    See  Rome,  History  of. 

TARSHISH,  tah/shish,  a  place  frequent- 
ly mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  now 
generally  identified  by  Biblical  critics  with 
the  Tartessus  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  This  was  a  district  in  Southern 
Spain,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
settled  by  the  Phoenicians. 

TARSUS,  tahrsus,  Asia  Minor,  the  birth- 
place of  the  Apostle  Paul  and  the  most  im- 
portant town  in  ancient  Cilieia,  situated  on 
both  banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  about  twelve 
miles  from  the  sea.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  Era  it  was  an  important  city,  es- 
pecially celebrated  for  its  learning  and  edu- 
cational institutions.  Modera  Tarsus  is  an 
unprogressive,  unattractive  city,  with  its 
only  interesting  features  a  few  remains  of 
the  Roman  occupation.  Population,  about 
25,000. 

TARTAN,  tah/  tan,  a  cloth,  checkered,  or 
cross-barred,  with  threads  of  various  colors. 
It  was  originally  made  of  wool  or  silk  and 
constituted  the  distinguishing  badge  of  the 
Scottish  Highland  clans,  each  clan  having  its 
own  peculiar  pattern.  An  endless  variety 
of  fancy  tartans  is  now  manufactured,  in 
wool,  silk,  wool  and  cotton,  and  silk  and  cot- 
ton. The  pattern  had  its  origin  in  Asia,  and 
is  probably  the  oldest  pattern  known. 

TARTAR,  or  ARGOL,  the  hard  crust  ad- 
hering to  the  sides  of  casks  in  which  wine  has 
been  incompletely  fermented  (see  Cream  op 
Tartar).  It  varies  in  shade  according  to  the 
color  of  the  wine. 

Tartar  of  the  teeth,  is  a  hard  substance 
which  occasionally  is  deposited  from  the 
saliva  in  the  form  of  a  coating  upon  the 
teeth,  near  the  gums.  It  consists  of  animal 
matter,  phosphate  of  lime  and  mucus  from 
the  saliva.     See  Teeth. 

TARTAR,  tah/tur,  EMETIC,  a  name 
given  to  the  double  tartrate  of  potassium 
and  antimony,  an  important  compound  which 
is  used  largely  in  medicine.  At  first  it  is 
sweet  to  the  taste,  but  the  after  taste  in  the 
mouth  is  very  disagreeable.     It  is  an  active 


TARTARIC  ACID 


3518 


TASMANIA 


emetic  and  cathartic,  and  it  is  of  great  value 
in  reducing  fever;  but  from  its  depressing 
influence  on  the  heart,  physicians  are  grow- 
ing more  careful  in  prescribing  it. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  a  compound  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxygen,  existing  in  gi-ape 
juice,  in  tamarinds  and  in  several  other 
fruits.  It  is  obtained  in  its  commercial  form 
principally  from  cream  of  tartar  (which  see). 

Tartaric  acid  crv'stallizes  in  large  rhombic 
prisms,  transparent  and  colorless  and  very 
soluble  in  water.  It  is  inodorous  and  very 
sour  to  the  taste.  The  solution  of  tartaric 
acid  acts  with  facility  upon  those  metals 
which  decompose  water,  as  iron  and  zinc. 
Tartaric  acid  is  largely  employed  as  a  dis- 
charge in  calico  printing  and  for  making  soda 
water  powders  and  baking  powders.  It  is 
valuable  in  medicine,  for  its  cooling  proper- 
ties, and  as  an  ingredient  of  Seidlitz  powders. 

TAR'TARS,  or  TA'TARS,  a  term  loosely 
applied  to  certain  roving  tribes  which  former- 
ly inhabited  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  but 
now  referring  to  the  Fishshin  Tatars  of 
Northern  Manchuria,  the  Solons  and  Daur- 
ians  of  Northeastern  Mongolia  and  the  Man- 
chus  of  China.  The  name  has  been  indis- 
criminately applied  from  time  to  time  to  any 
Mongol  invaders  of  Eastern  Europe.  Tatar 
is  the  more  correct  form.  The  true  Tatars 
formed  part  of  the  horde  of  Genghis  Khan 
and  of  the  successive  hordes  of  similar  origin 
who  followed  them.    See  Genghis  Khan. 

TARTARUS,  tah/turus,  in  early  Greek 
mythology,  a  deep  and  sunless  abyss  beneath 
Hades,  where  the  rebel  Titans  were  impris- 
oned by  Jupiter.  Poets  after  Homer  referred 
to  Tartarus  as  the  place  in  which  the  spirits 
of  the  wicked  received  their  due  punishment. 
Sometimes  the  name  was  made  synonymous 
with  Hades. 

TARTARY,  tah/turnj,  a  name  applied 
in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  wide  bard  of  coun- 
try extending  through  Central  Asia,  from  the 
seas  of  Japan  and  Okhotsk,  in  the  east,  to  the 
Caspian  Sea,  on  the  west,  including  Man- 
churia, Mongolia,  Turkestan  and  all  the 
south  part  of  Russian  Asia.  It  was  inhab- 
ited by  a  fierce  and  warlike  people  known  as 
Tartars  (which  see).  In  a  restricted  sense 
Tartary  is  identical  with  Turkestan. 

TASHKENT',  or  TASHKEND,  Asiatic 
Russia,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important 
towns  of  Central  Asia  and  the  capital  of  the 
governor-generalship  of  Russian  Turkestan. 
It  is  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Syr-Dai-ya, 


ninety  miles  northwest  of  Khokan,  and  con- 
sists of  the  native,  or  Asiatic,  quarters  and 
the  Russian  quarters,  the  latter  being  con- 
structed on  modem  plans.  The  city  contains 
numerous  old  mosques  and  temples,  a  bazaar 
and  several  colleges.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude silk,  cotton  and  leather  goods  and  metal 
articles.  The  city  enjoys  a  considerable 
trade,  and  it  transships  merchandise  received 
from  Bokhara,  Persia,  Kashmir  and  India. 
Population,  1913,  271,900. 

TASMA'NIA,  one  of  the  six  states  of  the 
Australian  Commonwealth,  consisting  of  the 
island  of  Tasmania  and  a  few  adjoining  is- 
lands. Tasmania  is  situated  150  miles  south 
of  the  eastern  extremity  of  Australia,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  Bass  Strait. 

Topography.  The  island  measures  200 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  245  miles  from 
east  to  west.  The  interior  consists  of  a  cen- 
tral highland,  or  plateau,  with  an  average 
elevation  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet-  bearing 
along  its  western  and  northwestern  borders  a 
number  of  mountain  ridges  and  peaks,  of 
which  the  highest,  Moutit  Cradle,  is  5,070 
feet  in  altitude.  A  number  of  isolated  sum- 
mits exceeding  4,000  feet  are  also  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  island.  The  plateau  con- 
tains a  number  of  lakes,  the  largest.  Great 
Lake,  being  twelve  miles  long.  All  are  noted 
for  the  beauty  of  their  surroundings.  The 
climate  is  delightful  throughout  most  of  the 
year.  The  rainfall  varies  in  different  parts 
of  the  island,  being  heaviest  on  the  west  and 
lightest  on  the  east  and  southeast. 

Resources.  Tasmania  is  rich  in  copper 
ore,  silver  ore,  tin  and  gold.  The  wealth  of 
the  state,  however,  lies  chiefly  in  its  copper 
mines.  It  also  has  considerable  coal,  which  is 
mined  to  a  limited  extent.  Large  areas  are 
covered  with  forests  of  valuable  timber  trees, 
and  lumbering  in  some  localities  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  The  soil  and  climate  are 
very  favorable  for  agriculture,  and  large 
crops  of  oats,  wheat  and  hay  are  cultivated. 
Hops  is  gi'own  with  success,  and  the  raising 
of  fruit  is  becoming  an  important  industry. 
Large  numbers  of  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep,  too, 
are  raised,  and  the  annual  wool  clip  usually 
exceeds  9,000,000  pounds.  The  island  has 
about  650  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  two- 
thirds  of  which  belongs  to  the  state.  The 
main  line  connects  Hobart,  the  capital,  Avith 
the  next  most  important  port,  Launceston, 
while  numerous  branch  lines  reach  the  in- 
terior. 


TASMANIAN  WOLF 


3519 


TASTE 


Government.  The  government  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  other  Australian  states.  The 
governor  is  appointed  by  the  British  ero-nn 
and  is  assisted  by  a  council.  The  legislative 
authority  rests  with  a  Legislative  Council 
consisting  of  eighteen  members  and  a  House 
of  Assembly  called  the  Parliament  of  Tas- 
mania. 

History.  Tasmania  was  discovered  in  1642 
by  the  navigator  Abel  Janszoon  Tasman,  and 
was  named  Van  Diemen's  Land,  in  honor  of 
Anthony  van  Diemen,  governor  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  In  1803  it  was  colonized  by  a 
company  of  convicts  from  England.  For 
about  twenty  years  the  island  was  under  the 
authority  of  New  South  Wales.  In  1825  it 
was  given  a  separate  governor  and  continued 
as  a  colony  of  the  British  crown  until  the 
formation  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Austra- 
lia, when  it  became  a  member  of  that  feder- 
ation. Population,  1911,  191,211.  See  Aus- 
tralia; HOBART. 

TASMANIAN  WOLF,  a  flesh-eating  ani- 
mal having  the  general  appearance  of  a  wolf, 
inhabiting  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  is- 
land of  Tasmania.  In  size  it  is  generally 
about  four  feet  in  length,  though  some  speci- 
mens attain  a  much  greater  size.  It  has  an 
elongated,  and  somewhat  doglike,  muzzle,  and 
a  long,  tapering  tail ;  the  fur  is  grayish-brown, 
with  a  series  of  bold  transverse  stripes,  nearly 
black  in  color,  beginning  behind  the  shoulders 
and  ending  at  the  tail.  Because  of  this  mark- 
ing it  is  sometimes  called  the  zebra  wolf.  It 
is  nocturaal  in  its  habits,  is  fierce  and  most 
deteiTQined  in  disposition  and  is  very  destme- 
tive  to  sheep  and  other  animals.  The  Tas- 
manian  wolves  carry  their  young  in  a  pouch, 
as  do  the  kangaroos. 

TAS'SO,  Torquato  (1544-1595),  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  son  of  Bernardo  Tasso,  bom  at  Sor- 
rento. He  was  early  sent  to  the  school  of  the 
Jesuits,  at  Naples,  and  he  subsequently  pur- 
sued his  studies  under  his  fathei-'s  superin- 
tendance  at  Rome,  Urbino  and  Venice.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua  to  study  law,  but  at  this  time, 
to  the  surprise  of  his  friends,  he  produced 
the  Einaldo,  an  epic  poem  in  twelve  cantos. 
The  reception  given  tliis  poem  induced  Tasso 
to  determine  to  devote  his  life  to  literature, 
and  he  went  to  Bologna,  where  he  studied 
philosophy  and  worked  on  his  great  poem, 
Jerusalem  Delivered.  After  some  years 
spent  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este, 
he  received  an  appointment  at  the  court  of 


TASSO 


Alfonso,  duke  of  Ferrara.  Here  he  lived 
happily  for  years,  produced  his  pastoral 
drama,  Aminta,  and  completed  ih.e  Jerusalem 
Delivered  (1575). 

About  this  time  he 
became  a  prey  to 
morbid  fancies  and 
believed  that  he  was 
persistently  calum- 
niated at  court  and 
sj'stematically  mis- 
represented to  the 
Inquisition.  To  such 
a  pass,  indeed,  did 
this  mania  come, 
that  the  duke  was 
obliged  to  have  him 
placed  in  confine- 
ment. He  escaped 
and  fled  from 
Ferrara,  but  again  returned.  So  outrageous 
had  his  conduct  now  become,  that  he  was 
seized  by  the  duke's  ordei-s  and  confined  as 
a  madman.  He  remained  in  the  asylum 
from  1579  to  1586.  until  he  was  released  at 
the  solicitation  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga.  Broken 
in  health  and  spirit,  he  retired  to  Mantua 
and  then  to  Naples.  Finally,  in  1595,  he 
proceeded  to  Rome,  at  the  request  of  the 
pope,  who  desired  him  to  be  crowned  with 
laurel  in  the  capitol,  but  the  poet  died  while 
the  preparations  for  the  ceremony  were  be- 
ing made.  Tasso  wrote  numerous  poems,  but 
his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  Bime,  or  lyrical 
poems,  his  Aminta  and  his  Jerusalem  Deliv- 
ered. 

TASTE.  The  sense  of  tast€  is  located  in 
the  tongue  and  in  the  upper  and  back  parts 
of  the  mouth.  The  special  organs  of  taste 
are  minute  branches  or  filaments  of  the  nerve 
of  taste,  or  gustatory  ner^-e.  These  filaments 
exist  in  three  forms,  they  are  threadlike,  a 
form  most  numerous  on  the  first  two-thirds 
of  the  tongue;  mushroomlike,  found  princi- 
pally on  the  tip  and  sides  of  the  tongue ;  and 
V-shaped;  the  latter  are  only  ten  or  twelve 
in  number  and  are  located  near  the  base  of 
the  tongue.  The  sense  of  taste  is  so  closely 
related  to  the  sense  of  smell  that  we  cannot 
distinguish  some  articles  by  taste  alone. 
Close  the  nostrils  and  blindfold  a  person  and 
he  cannot  tell  claret  from  vinegar,  for  in- 
stance; occasionally  one  cannot  tell  cold 
apple  from  cold  potato.  "We  can  taste  only 
those  substances  that  are  soluble.  Glass  has 
no  taste,  because  we  cannot  dissolve  it. 


TATARS 


3520 


TAX 


There  are  four  sensations  of  taste — sweet, 
sour,  bitter  and  salty,  all  other  tastes  or 
flavors  are  combinations  of  these.  The  pleas- 
ing effect  of  lemonade,  for  instance,  is  due 
to  a  combination  of  sugar,  lemon  juice,  the 
odor  of  lemon  and  cold  water.  "We  often 
attribute  other  sensations  to  the  sense  of 
taste,  especially  that  of  temperature.  "We  do 
not  care  for  cold  soup,  and  we  prefer  not  to 
eat  ice  cream  that  has  melted. 

The  larger  the  area  covered  by  the  sub- 
stance, the  keener  the  taste;  therefore,  when 
one  wishes  to  experience  the  pleasure  of  an 
agreeable  taste,  he  spreads  the  substance 
over  as  large  an  area  as  possible.  On  the 
contraiT,  when  one  wishes  to  escape  the 
unpleasantness  of  a  disagreeable  taste,  he 
swallows  the  substance  as  quickly  as  possible. 
The  sense  of  taste  is  injured  by  overstimu- 
ulation.  Highly  seasoned  food  and  such 
articles  as  tobacco,  wine,  beer  and  alcholic 
liquors  tend  to  deaden  the  nei-ve  filaments  so 
that  mild  flavors  produce  little  or  no  effect 
upon  them,  and  a  person  so  affected  con- 
stantly demands  more  highly  seasoned  food 
to  "tickle  his  palate."  The  sense  of  taste 
can  be  highly  educated  as  is  shown  in  the 
development  made  by  buyers  of  butter,  tea, 
wine  and  other  articles  of  food.  See  Smell  ; 
Senses,  Special;  Toxgue. 

TATARS.     See   Tartars. 

TATTOO'INGr,  the  barbaric  practice  of 
pricking  indelible  patterns  in  the  skin.  While 
among  some  primitive  peoples  it  is  done 
merely  for  decorative  purposes,  for  others 
it  has  a  religious  significance.  Among  some 
isolated  peoples  degrees  of  rank  are  indi- 
cated by  tattooing.  The  skin  is  punctured 
with  a  steel,  bone  or  steel  point  and  some 
coloring  matter  is  inserted  in  the  wound. 
Sometimes  several  colors  are  used.  Dark- 
skinned  races  employ  a  method  of  marking 
known  as  scarification;  that  is,  gashing  the 
skin  and  nibbing  into  it  ashes  or  clay.  This 
causes  a  light  raised  scar.  Most  sailoi-s, 
even  those  of  civilized  countries,  are  tattooed 
on  the  back  of  the  hand  or  on  the  forearm. 

TAUNTON,  tahn'ton,  Mass.,  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  Bristol  County,  thirty-sLs 
miles  south  of  Boston,  on  the  Taunton  River 
and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford and  several  electric  railways.  It  is 
essentially  a  city  of  homes,  probably  fifty  per 
cent  of  tiie  people  having  an  equity  in  their 
own  homes.  This  is  brought  about  by 
cooperative   banks   and   building   and   loan 


associations.  It  contains  a  county  law  li- 
hYQ.ry  and  that  of  the  Old  Colony  Historical 
Society.  The  public  institutions  also  include 
Bristol  Academy,  Morton  Hospital,  an  old 
ladies'  home  and  one  of  the  state  insane 
asylums.  The  city  hall,  the  county  house, 
a  Carnegie  Library  and  a  Federal  building 
are  the  main  public  buildings.  The  city  is 
the  business  center  for  a  number  of  towns. 
The  principal  manufacturers  are  cotton 
goods,  silverware,  stoves  and  locomotives. 
The  first  successful  iron  works  in  America 
were  established  in  Taunton,  in  1853.  Miss 
Elizabeth  Pole  found  an  Indian  village  here 
in  1637,  called  Tecticnit,  meaning  Great 
River,  and  she  purchased  the  land  from  the 
Indians  for  the  first  white  man's  settlement. 
It  was  called  Cohannat,  but  was  incorporated 
two  yeare  later  under  its  present  name. 
Robert  Treat  Paine,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  a  native 
of  Taunton.  It  was  made  a  shire  town  in 
1746  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1865. 
Population,  1910,  34,259;  in  1917,  36,610 
(Federal  estimate). 

TAU'RUS  (the  bull),  the  second  sign  of 
the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters  about  April 
20.  The  constellation  Taurus  contains  about 
140  stars.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  it  is 
overhead  in  December  and  January,  and  in 
the  spring  it  gradually  disappears  over  the 
western  horizon.  The  largest  star  of  the 
group  is  Aldebaran,  a  red  star  of  the  first 
magnitude.  Clustered  about  it  in  triangular 
formation  are  six  other  stars,  called  the 
Hyades.  These  are  imagined  as  represent- 
ing the  face  of  the  bull,  and  the  two  bright 
stars  above  them,  the  horns;  the  group 
known  as  the  Pleiades,  six  of  which  are  visi- 
ble to  the  unaided  eye,  mark  the  bull's 
shoulder.     The  sjTabol  of  Taurus  is  "b^.     See 

ASTROXOilY. 

TAURUS,  a  mountain  range  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Asia  Minor.  For  the  gi-eater 
part  of  its  course  it  follows  the  Mediter- 
ranean shore,  and  it  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  gi-eat  central  plateau  of  Asia 
Minor.  A  branch  of  these  mountains  ex- 
tending inland  northeastward  is  known  as 
the  Anti-Taui-us.  Many  of  the  Taurus  peaks 
are  more  than  10,000  feet  high. 

TAUTOG,  taiv'tog.    See  Blackfish. 

TAX,  a  contribution  levied  by  legal  author- 
ity upon  private  property  or  income  to  de- 
fray the  expenses  of  government  or  for 
other  public  purposes. 


TAX 


3521 


TAX 


A  tax  is  said  to  be  direct  when  it  is  de- 
manded from  the  very  persons  who  it  is 
intended  or  desired  should  pay  it,  as,  for 
example,  a  poll  tax,  a  land  or  property  tax, 
an  income  tax.  It  is  said  to  be  mdirect  when 
it  is  demanded  from  one  person,  in  the  ex- 
pectation and  intention  that  he  shall  indem- 
nify himself  at  the  expense  of  another;  as, 
for  example,  the  taxes  called  customs,  which 
are  imposed  on  certain  classes  of  imported 
goods,  and  those  called  excise  duties,  which 
are  imposed  on  home  manufactures  or  in- 
land production.  A  good  illustration  of  a 
customs  tax  in  America  is  a  duty  levied  on 
tea  and  coffee.  The  importer  pays  the  tax, 
but  adds  this  amount  to  the  original  cost  of 
the  commodity  and  raises  the  price  accord- 
ingly, so  that  in  the  end  the  tax  is  paid  by 
the  consumer.  The  tax  on  tobacco  is  an  ex- 
ample of  excise  taxes. 

In  the  United  States  and  elsewhere,  a  tax 
on  general  property,  both  real  and  personal, 
forms  the  largest  part  of  local  revenues, 
municipal  revenues  being  almost  entirely 
raised  from  this  source ;  while  customs  duties 
and  excise  duties  furnish  a  large  share  of 
national  revenue.  Owing  to  the  ease  with 
which  personal  property  may  be  concealed 
and  the  tax  upon  it  avoided,  the  consequent 
inducement  to  perjury  and  the  attendant 
injustice,  many  states  of  the  Union  have 
abolished  it  in  part,  substituting  higher  rates 
upon  real  estate,  income,  inheritances  and 
certain  kinds  of  traceable  intangible  prop- 
erty, such  as  franchises  or  mortgages.  The 
poll  tax  has  been  abolished  in  over  half  of  the 
states. 

Principles  of  Taxation.  Adam  Smith 
laid  down  four  principles  of  taxation,  which 
have  been  generally  accepted  by  political 
economists.  These  are:  (1)  The  subjects  of 
every  state  ought  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of  the  government  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  abilities;  (2) 
the  tax  ought  to  be  certain,  not  arbitrary; 
(3)  every  tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time, 
or  in  the  manner,  most  convenient  for  the 
contributor;  (4)  every  tax  ought  to  be  so 
contrived  as  to  take  out  and  to  keep  out  of  the 
pockets  of  the  people  as  little  as  possible 
over  and  above  what  it  brings  into  the  public 
treasury  of  the  state. 

Tax  Sale  and  Title.  If  the  owner  of 
land  fails  to  pay  the  taxes  assessed  on  it 
within  the  time  specified  by  law,  the  tax  col- 
lector has  authority  to  sell  the  land  at  public 

221 


auction  for  the  taxes.  The  sale  must  be  ad- 
vertised and  held  strictly  in  accordance  with 
the  legal  requirements,  and  it  must  be  to  the 
highest  bidder,  but  in  most  states  this  means 
the  bidder  who  will  pay  the  taxes  and  cost 
of  the  sale.  Time  is  given  the  owner  to  re- 
deem his  property,  and  the  title  granted  the 
purchaser  of  the  land  does  not  become  valid 
until  this  time  has  expired,  when  he  is  given 
a  tax  deed.  The  delinquent  tax  payer,  in 
redeeming  his  land,  must  settle  with  the 
one  who  purchased  it  not  with  the  tax  col- 
lector. 

Local  Taxation.  The  state,  county,  town- 
ship, school  district,  village  and  city  are  not 
allowed  to  raise  money  for  expenses  in  any 
other  way  than  by  direct  assessment  of 
taxes  upon  the  property  of  the  people.  The 
laws  provide  that  all  taxes  levied  shall  be 
equitable — that  is,  that  in  any  tax  district 
each  property  owner  shall  pay  in  exactly  the 
same  proportion  as  any  other  who  has  tax- 
able wealth.  ^ 

There  are  a  number  of  taxing  bodies  draw- 
ing funds  from  each  neighborhood;  so  it  is 
a  little  difficult  to  explain  in  a  brief  article 
exactly  how  taxes  are  levied,  collected  and 
distributed. 

In  outlining  the  general  system  let  us 
begin  with  the  demands  of  the  state.  The 
legislature  appropriates  money  to  a  certain 
fixed  amount  for  the  state's  annual  expenses. 
The  various  counties  of  the  state  are  told 
their  exact  proportion  of  this  sum,  and 
when  the  county  assesses  the  property  within 
its  limits  to  defray  county  expenses  it  must 
add  to  this  sum  the  proportion  demanded  by 
the  state. 

The  county  board  of  supervisors  or  county 
commissioners  decide  how  much  the  county 
may  have  for  expenses  and  each  township 
is  called  upon  to  raise  its  portion.  The 
people  of  the  township  must  make  appro- 
priation for  their  own  expenses;  the  school 
district  at  the  annual  meeting  declares  what 
its  outlay  for  the  ensuing  year  shall  be,  and 
makes  assessments  accordingly. 

Mr.  A.  owns  a  farm  on  which  his  taxes  are 
$100.  He  finds  he  must  pay  something  for 
the  support  of  the  schools,  whether  or  not  he 
has  children,  for  the  government  of  his 
township,  his  county  and  his  state.  This  is 
all  right  and  proper,  for  from  each  he  re- 
ceives benefits  in  return.  The  amount  he 
pays  is  apportioned  somewhat  as  follows,  the 
details  varying  a  little  in  different  states : 


TAXICAB 


3522 


TAXIDERMY 


Mr.  As  Tax 
$100 


i 

TO  TOWNSHIP   TBEA5UREB 

r'ROM  WHOSE   HAN05   IT  15   DISTRIBUTED    PP\ACTICALLY' AS   FOLLOW6  t 

>l< 

4,                 i 

i 

i 

SCHOOL  DISTRICT 

TOWNSHIP                      COUNTY 

STATE 

UNITED  STATES     • 

^ 

^ 

^^ 

F0« 

ro«                                            fo" 

rof^ 

TELACHERS 

OFFICER '5                          AALARIEI^ 

SALARIES 

(NO  TAXES  LEVIED) 

BUILD1NG5 

COIV1FEN5ATI0N    BUILDINGS 

BUiLDINOS 

^.UPPLlEIS 

TOWNSHIf    HIGH             INDIGENT    FUND 

PRISONS 

MISCELLANEOUS 

5CHCIOL                    CURRENT  ED<PEN5ES 

ASYLUMS 

EXPENSED) 

ROADS                               MISCELLANCOUS 

STATE    S0HOOL5 

BRIDGES                                     EXPENSES 

MISCELLANEOUS 

MISCELLANEOUS 

EXPENSES 

1                     " 

■      EXPENSES 

4'                      >  < 

▼ 

.M*lrt 

1               ALSO    PRINCIPAL  AND    INTEREST  ON  BONDED  DEBT,   IF  ANY. 

In   the    above   diagram    the   reader   in    Canada    may    substitute    the    words    Province    and 

Dominion. 


If  the  taxpayer  lives  in  an  incorporated 
village  or  city  bis  city  or  village  tax  is  added 
to  the  other  items,  and  he  would  pay  his 
money  to  the  city  collector  rather  than  to 
the  township  treasurer. 

After  all  collections  are  made  the  various 
allotted  proportions  are  sent  to  the  proper 
authorities,  to  be  spent  according  to  the  ap- 
propriations that  have  been  made. 


Related     Articles.     Consult     the 
titles  for  additional  information: 


following 


Customs  Duties 
Excise  Tax 
Income  Tax 


Inheritance  Tax 
Poll    Tax 
Single  Tax 


TAXICAB,  or,  more  properly,  TAXI- 
METER CAB,  a  motor  vehicle  which  is 
specially  licensed  to  carry  passengers  for 
hire.  It  is  equipped  with  an  automatic  de- 
vice for  registering  milage  or  time  consumed 
for  each  trip  and  indicating  the  amount  of 
the  fare.  Taxicabs  are  in  use  in  all  large 
cities,  and  the  service  is  regulated  by  city 
ordinances.  Legislation  with  reference  to 
rates,  the  number  of  passengers  allowed 
according  to  seating  capacity  of  the  cab. 
breakdowns,  time  consumed  in  waiting  for 
passengers,  etc.,  protects  both  the  company 
and  the  public.  The  "taxi"  rates  in  Chicago 
are  said  to  be  the  lowest  in  the  United  States. 
There  one  company  charges  twenty  cents  for 
the  first  half  mile,  and  one  may  ride  any 
number  of  additional  quarter  miles  for  five 
cents  each.  If  the  passenger  is  accompanied 
by  another  he  pays  only  ten  cents  additional 
to  his  own  fare  for  the  entire  trip. 

TAXIDERMY,  the  difficult  art  of  mount- 
ing the  skins  of  animals  so  that  they  seem  to 


be  lifelike  copies  of  the  live  specimens.  The 
expert  taxidermist  must  understand  natural 
history,  drawing,  sculpture,  tanning,  dyeing 
and  several  other  branches  to  be  able  to  do 
the  work  successfully;,  for  the  form  over 
•which  the  skin  is  placed  after  it  is  removed 
from  the  dead  animal  must  be  an  exact  re- 
production (as  to  contour  of  the  body)  of 
the  animal  as  it  was  in  life.  Therefore,  in 
making  a  cast  one  must  know  as  much  about 
the  animal's  structure — its  bones,  muscles 
and  flesh  distribution — as  the  sculptor  knows 
of  human  anatomy. 

The  first  step  in  preparing  a  specimen  is 
to  remove  the  skin.  This  is  done  very  care- 
fully, to  prevent  any  disfigurement  or  injur\- 
to  the  hide,  hair,  feather  or  scales,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  cutting  is  so  skilfully  done  that 
every  part  of  the  skin  can  be  stripped,  even 
to  the  ends  of  the  toes.  As  soon  as  the  skin 
is  removed  it  is  treated  with  arsenical  soap. 
The  preparation  of  the  form  on  which  the 
skin  is  to  be  mounted  requires  even  more 
elaborate  care.  It  necessitates  in  most  cases 
the  making  of  drawings  of  the  animal  and 
clay  models  before  the  final  plaster  or  papier- 
mache  cast  is  made.  "When  the  skin  is  placed 
over  the  form  it  is  put  together  in  such  a  way 
as  to  conceal  all  the  preceding  steps  in  the 
process.  The  eyes  of  mounted  specimens, 
formerly  of  glass,  are  to-day  made  of  hollow 
globes,  painted  to  give  them  a  naturalistic 
expression. 

Most  of  the  expert  taxidermists  in  Amer- 
ica are  trained  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  at  a 
school  of  taxidermy  founded  by  Professor 


TAY 


3523 


TAYLOR 


Henry  A.  Ward.  The  great  natural  history 
museums  of  Washington,  New  York,  Pitts- 
burgh, Milwaukee  and  Chicago  contain  some 
of  the  finest  collections  in  the  world,  and  the 
specimens  of  mounted  deer,  antelope,  zebra, 
elk,  caribou,  moose  and  innumerable  other 
animals  are  of  unsurpassed  workmanship. 
The  amateur  who  is  interested  in  preparing 
small  specimens  will  find  specific  directions 
in  taxidermists'  guides  and  in  government 
publications  issued  for  free  distribution. 

TAY,  the  longest  river  in  Scotland,  and  the 
largest,  in  volume,  in  the  British  Isles.  It 
rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  mountain 
known  as  Ben  Lui,  flows  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  through  Loch  Tay,  then  flows  east- 
ward, then  southeastward,  and  finally  enters 
the  North  Sea  through  the  broad  estuary 
known  as  the  Firth  of  Tay.  The  entire 
length  of  the  stream  is  about  120  miles.  It 
in  navigable  for  ocean  vessels  as  far  as  Dun- 
dee and  for  smaller  craft  to  Perth.  Large 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Dunkeld,  Aberfeldy 
and  Perth;  its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Almond,  Earn  and  Bran  and  the  Lyon, 
Isla  and  Tummel.  The  river  is  noted  for  its 
salmon  fisheries  and  for  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery. 

TAY'LOR,  Bayard  (1825-1878),  an  Am- 
erican writer  and  traveler,  bom  at  Kennett 
Square,  Pa.  He  had  a  high-school  education, 
then  learned  the  printer's  trade.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  visited  Europe  and  tramped 
from  place  to  place  with  a  knapsack,  sup- 
porting himself  by  contributing  articles  to 
home  periodicals. 
These  letters  were 
later  published  in  a 
book  form  under  the 
title  Views  Afoot. 
Subsequently  he  trav- 
eled in  much  the  same 
manner  in  Asia  Min- 
or, China,  India,  Ja- 
pan and  Egypt  and 
revisited  Europe. 
By-Ways  of  Europe, 
A  Visit  to  India,  A 
Journey  to  Central 
Africa,  The  Lamd  of 
the  Saracens,  Trav- 
els in  Greece  and  Russia,  Egypt  and  Iceland 
and  China  and  Japan  are  descriptions  of 
these  travels. 

Taylor  was  secretary  to  the  United  States 
legation   at   Saint  Petersburg    (now  Petro- 


BAYARD  TAYLOR 


grad),  at  the  time  of  the  American  Civil 
War,  and  in  1878  he  became  United  States 
Minister  to  Germany,  but  died  in  Berlin 
shortly  after  receiving  the  appointment.  In 
addition  to  those  of  his  works  already  men- 
tioned, some  of  the  most  notable  are  El 
Dorado,  a  description  of  California  during 
the  "gold  fever;"  Hannah  Thurston,  a  novel 
and  several  volumes  of  poems,  including 
Lyrics  and  Songs,  Lars,  a  Pastoral  of  Nor- 
way, The  National  Ode,  A  Book  of  Romances 
and  Prince  Deucalion.  By  far  his  best  work 
is  a  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust,  considered 
the  best  translation  in  the  English  language. 
TAYLOR,  Jeremy  (1613-1667),  a  noted 
English  author  and  divine,  bom  at  Cam- 
bridge and  educated  at  Caius  College.  After 
taking  holy  orders  he  became  chaplain  to 
Charles  I.  and  remained  loyal  to  the  king 
until  the  latter's  execution.  Afterwards  he 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  royalist  army.  With 
the  Restoration  came  his  appointment  to  the 
bishopric  of  Down  and  Connor,  in  Ireland, 
which  he  filled  until  his  death.  His  works 
include  The  Liberty  of  Prophesying,  The  Life 
of  Christ,  Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  the 
last  two  considered  the  choicest  classic  of  Eng- 
lish devotion.  Coleridge  said,  "Taylor  is  the 
most  eloquent  of  divines ;  had  I  said,  of  men, 
Cicero  would  forgive  me  and  Demosthenes 
nod  assent. 

^AYLOR,  Zachary  (1784:- 
1850),  a  popular  military 
leader  whose  achievements 
during  forty  years  of 
army  life,  culminating  in 
several  brilliant  victories 
in  the  Mexican  War, 
made  him  President  of 
the  United  States.  He 
was  fondly  called  "Old 
Rough  and  Ready;"  for 
his  thoroughly-good  service  in  the  field 
against  the  Mexicans  he  had  been  awarded  a 
gold  medal  by  Congress,  so  with  popularity 
almost  unbounded,  in  1848  he  became  a  na- 
tional political  figure. 

His  Early  Record.  Taylor  was  bora  on 
September  24,  1784,  in  Orange  County,  Va. 
His  father,  Richard  Taylor,  had  been  a  colo- 
nel in  the  Revolutionary  War;  soon  after 
peace  was  declared  he  moved  to  a  new  set- 
tlement which  is  now  Louisville,  Kentucky. 
Zachary  was  then  an  infant,  and  he  lived  in 
Louisville  until  twenty-four  years  of  age.  In 
1808  his  older  brother,  a  lieutenant  in  the 


TAYLOR 


3524 


TAYLOR 


i 


Administration  of  Zachary  Taylor      p 
1849-1850  ji 

I.  The  President  |;1 

(1)  Birth  11 

(2)  Ancestry  ji 

(3)  Youth  i 

(4)  Military  career  |:!| 

(5)  Views  on  public  questions        i::| 

(6)  Character  HI 

(7)  Death  tl 
11.  The  Compromise  of  1850  j;;j 

(1)  Public  sentiment  j::! 
(a)  In  the  North  and  South  Ji;] 

(2)  Terms  of  the  Compromise       ji 

(a)  California   a   free  state  || 

(b)  Two    territories    organ-  i\ 

ized    without'  Wilmot  |1 
Proviso  ij 

(c)  Slave  trade  prohibited  in  \\ 

District  of  Columbia     |1 

(d)  Fugitive  Slave  Law  1 1 

(3)  Great  speeches  on  the  ques-  ^ 

tions  p 

(4)  Immediate     effects     of     the  j  j 

Compromise  \\ 

(5)  Ultimate  results  p 
III.  Other  events  of  Taylor's  adminis-  |!!| 

tration  f;'t 

(1)  The  Nashville  Convention         1 1 

(2)  President's      opposition      to  \\ 

spoils  system  Tj 

(3)  Death  of  Calhoun,  March  31,  II 

1850  H 

(4)  Death  of  Taylor  and  inaug-  |;;| 

uration  of  Fillmore  m 

Questions  on  Taylor  pj 

When  was  Zachary  Taylor  born  ?         j:| 

Who  was  his  father?  To  what  state  i\ 
did  he  move  shortly  after  his  son's  jj 
birth?  I 

Give  a  brief  sketch  of  Taylor's  mil-  |;;| 
itary  career.  |;;! 

What  nickname  was  given  him  as  a  [iij 
result  of  his  methods  of  campaigning?   p 

In  a  general  way  state  the  feelings  jn 
of  the  country,  North  and  South,  with  j-i 
regard  to  the  questions  involved  in  the  j;!! 
Compromise  of  1850.  !'] 

What  were  the  terms  of  the  Com-  i  i 
promise?  jJ 

What  fugitive  slave  laws  had  been  f;1 
passed  previous  to  the  one  of  1850?       li': 


army,  died;  Zachary  was  given  his  commis- 
sion, and  thus  was  begun  a  long,  honorable 
military  career.  Two  years  later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  a  captaincy.  His  next  promotion 
was  to  the  rank  of  major,  for  clear-headed  de- 
fense of  Fort  Harrison,  in  1812,  against  a 
strong  force  of  Indians,  with  fifty  men,  most 
of  whom  were  ill  of  fever.  Thereafter  during 
the  War  of  1812  his  activity  was  against  the 
Indian  allies  of  England. 

After  that  war  he  did  pioneer  work  in  the 
northwest,  building  forts  and  guarding  set- 
tlers against  unfriendly  Indians.  He  was 
stationed  at  Pi'airie  du  Chien  in  1832,  and 
earned  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  Black  Hawk 
War,  in  the  years  immediately  following. 
When  that  trouble  subsided,  Taylor  was  sent 
to  Florida  (1836)  to  conquer  the  Seminoles, 
which  was  accomplished  by  their  defeat  at 
Okeechobee.  This  campaign  gained  for  him 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  the  com- 
mand of  all  the  troops  in  Florida. 

In  1840  he  was  transfen-ed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Southwestern  division,  and 
Louisiana  became  the  field  of  his  activities. 
When  trouble  with  Mexico  became  a  possi- 
bility, Taylor  was  ordered  to  Corpus  Christi, 
Tex.  (1845),  and  soon  was  engaged  in  the 
most  serious  military  work  of  his  career.  The 
story  of  his  successes  in  the  crises  then  upon 
him  is  told  in  detail  in  the  article  Mexican 
War. 

The  Presidency.  Fresh  from  a  victorious 
campaign,  "Old  Rough  and  Ready,"  though 
never  having  held  a  political  oflfice,  was  named 
by  the  Whigs  for  the  Presidency  in  1848.  He 
was  easily  elected 
over  General  Lewis 
Cass  and  Martin 
Van  Buren,  oppos- 
ing candidates. 

When  Taylor  be- 
came President  in  '^^  ^^^^ 
1849  he  frankly  ad- 
mitted that  he  pos- 
sessed few  of  the 
qualifications  which 
make  a  successful 
executive.  But  he 
had  been  for  forty 
years  a  leader  of  ZACHARY  TAYLOR 
men;  he  was  deeply  conscious  of  his  re- 
sponsibilities, and  he  had  rare  good  judg- 
ment. His  choice  of  advisers  was  highly 
commended,  and  he  became  at  once  a  deep 
student  of  the  theoiy  of  government,  deter- 


TCHAD 


3525 


TEA 


mined  to  transform  himself  from  a  fighter 
into  an  executive,  so  far  as  might  be  possible 
at  the  age  of  sixty-five. 

How  well  he  would  have  succeeded  is 
problematical;  he  made  no  serious  mistakes 
during  his  first  year,  and  his  courage  and 
steadiness  were  supporting  qualities  which 
were  carrying  him  safely  along.  However, 
when  his  second  year  was  fairly  begun,  he 
died,  on  July  9,  1850,  after  an  illness  of 
five  days.  The  only  great  political  movement 
of  his  brief  administration  was  that  con- 
nected with  the  Compromise  of  1850  (which 
see). 

His  Family.    The  wife  of  Taylor  was  the 

daughter  of  a  Maryland  planter.     His  son, 

Richard  became  a  general  in  the  Confederate 

army  in  the   Civil   War,  and   his  daughter 

Sarah  married  Jefferson  Davis,  who  had  been 

an   officer   under   Taylor  in   the   war  with 

Mexico. 

See  illustration  of  the  administrations  of 
Taylor  and  Fillmore,  page  1323. 

TCHAD.    See  Chad,  Lake. 

TCHAIKOVSKY,  cM  koi'ski,  Peter 
Ilyitch  (1840-1893),  the  greatest  musician 
Russia  has  produced,  was  born  at  Votkinsk, 
in  the  Ural  region.  He  studied  law  and  ob- 
tained a  position  in  the  Ministry  of  Justice, 
but  his  love  for  music  turned  him  to  a  musi- 
cian's career.  Accordingly,  he  resigned  his 
position  and  entered  the  conservatory  that 
was  under  the  direction  of  the  great  Rubin- 
stein. In  1866  he  became  teacher  of  harmony 
at  the  Moscow  Conservatory.  He  began  com- 
posing, and  wrote  numerous  compositions  for 
the  piano.  At  first  his  works  were  not  ap- 
preciated, but,  undaunted  by  criticism, 
Tchaikovsky  kept  on  composing.  His  first 
concerto  for  the  piano  was  played  in  Boston 
in  1875  by  Hans  von  Bulow,  on  his  first  visit 
to  America.  Following  this,  his  compositions 
covered  a  wide  range,  including  symphonies, 
operas,  overtures,  songs  and  dances.  Tchai- 
kovsky was  a  mail  of  culture  and  his  works 
are  of  high  order.  Musical  critics  consider 
his  "Overture  Fantasie"  to  be  his  happiest 
work;  the  overture  to  Borneo  and  Juliet, 
Manfred  and  Francesca  da  Rimini  represent 
him  at  his  best.  His  operas  are  Russian,  and 
his  music  is  very  popular  throughout  Rus- 
sia. He  was  the  master  of  orchestration,  and 
his  symphonies  are  favorites  with  great  or- 
chestra leaders. 

TEA,  the  name  applied  to  an  oriental  ever- 
green tree,  to  the  leaves,  a  commercial  article, 


and  to  the  highly-regarded  beverage  pre- 
pared from  them.  In  its  natural  state  the 
tree  is  widely  branching  and  attains  a  height 
of  thirty  feet  or  more ;  under  cultivation  it  is 
constantly  pruned  and  kept  at  heights  be- 
tween two  and  six  feet  to  increase  the  number 
of  leaves.  The  leaves  are  dark  green,  shaped 
somewhat  like  those  of  the  willow,  and  grow 
to  be  four  inches  long.  The  small,  fragrant 
flowers  are  cream-colored  and  are  shaped  like 
a  double  rose. 

It  is  not  known  where  the  plant  originated. 
The  beverage  was  drunk  by  the  Chinese  as 
early  as  the  sixth  century.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
To-day  the  chief  sources  of  supply  are  Brit- 
ish India,  China,  Ceylon,  Japan,  Java  and 
Formosa,  which,  collectively  export  750,000,- 
000  pounds  a  year.  In  India,  Java  and  Cey- 
lon tea  is  grown  on  large  plantations  several 
hundred  acres  in  extent;  in  the  other  tea- 
growing  countries  it  is  cultivated  on  small 
pieces  of  ground  and  in  gardens. 

The  plants  are  grown  from  seeds  under 
cover,  and  when  four  or  five  inches  high  are 
set  out  in  rows,  there  being  about  1,500  plants 
to  an  acre.  The  plants  are  commercially  prof- 
itable when  three  years  old  and  reach  full 
productivity  at  the  age  of  five  years.  The 
crop  is  gathered  three  times  a  year,  the  second 
harvest  jaelding  tea  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
leaves  are  picked  mostly  by  women  and  girls. 
They  are  then  dried  and  withered  and  after- 
wards fired. 

Different  grades  of  tea  are  prepared  from 
leaves  of  the  same  plant.  They  are  all  di- 
vided into  two  classes — gi-een  teas  and  black 
teas. 

To  prepare  what  is  commercially  known  as 
green  tea,  the  leaves  are  roasted  almost  im- 
mediately after  they  are  picked,  rolled  by 
hand  to  crack  the  veins  and  set  the  acids,  and 
are  then  dried  quickly  to  preserve  the  color. 
Black  teas  go  through  a  longer  process  of  dry- 
ing and  roasting,  and  this  causes  them  to  turn 
black.  The  cheaper  grades  of  green  tea  are 
often  colored  with  Prussian  blue,  powdered 
tale  or  some  other  coloring  substance.  In 
India  and  Ceylon  the  leaves  are  machine- 
rolled  (the  more  delicate  leaves  of  the  Chinese 
teas  are  not  successfully  prepared  by  ma- 
chine-rolling, but  are  treated  by  hand).  After 
the  leaves  are  roasted,  cutting  machines  break 
up  the  rolled  leaves  into  small  pieces.  The 
leaves  are  then  sifted  and  packed  for  ship- 
ment. 


TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE 


3526 


TE  DEUM 


The  chief  consumer  of  tea  is  England, 
which  uses  almost  twice  as  much  as  any  other 
country.  In  1918,  over  84,000,000  pounds 
were  produced  for  the  British  army  alone,  not 
including  the  troops  in  India.  Other  tea- 
drinking  countries  are  Japan,  the  United 
States,  Russia  and  Canada.  Practically  all 
the  tea  for  the  British  market  is  supplied  by 
India.  Although  Chinese  tea  is  of  superior 
delicacy  and  flavor,  the  Chinese  tea  trade  has 

Figures  Represent  Millions  of  Pounds 


Dutch 
Ceylon     East 
192     Indies  63 


British  India         China 
E88  196 

EXPORTS  OF  A  TEAR 


steadily  declined,  owing  to  British  enterprise 
and  competition  in  India.  In  1917  China's 
tea  exports  were  only  150,000,000  pounds, 
the  lowest  on  record  since  the  trade  became 
established.  Much  of  its  American  tea  trade 
has  been  diverted  to  the  British  and  Dutch 
East  Indies,  which,  in  1918,  supplied  the 
United  States  with  half  of  its  tea,  the  total 
import  for  the  year  being  151,315,000  pounds 
— the  largest  known  for  that  country.  The 
quantity  of  tea  consumed  is  increasing  rap- 
idly. The  extensive  prohibition  of  the  man- 
ufacture and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  in 
the  United  States  has  resulted  in  an  appre- 
ciable expansion  of  the  tea  trade.  In  fact, 
the  reduced  consumption  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages in  many  countries  is  so  increasing  the 
consumption  of  tea  that  the  world's  demand 
■will  exceed  the  possible  supply  for  some  years 
to  come. 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  a  meeting  of 
teachers  held  for  the  purpose  of  giving  in- 
struction in  devices  and  methods  of  teaching. 
The  institutes  are  usually  held  during  the 
summer  months  and  continue  for  one  or  two 
weeks.  The  county  is  the  unit  for  the  in- 
stitute, which  is  usually  in  charge  of  the 
county  superintendent.  Educators  of  ex- 
perience are  employed  as  instructors.  In  some 
states  attendance  upon  the  institute  adds  to 
the  teacher's  standing  in  her  examination  for 
a  certificate. 

TEAK,  teeJc,  a  tree  of  the  verbena  family, 
found  in  Southeastern  Asia  and  adjacent  is- 
lands. It  grows  to  an  immense  size  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  large  leaves,  which  are 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  long  and 
from  six  to  eighteen  inches  broad.  The  wood, 
though  porous,  is  strong  and  durable;  it  is 


easily  seasoned  and  shrinks  but  little.  It 
contains  a  resinous  oil,  which  enables  it  to 
resist  the  action  of  water  and  to  repel  the 
attacks  of  insects  of  all  kinds.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  shipbuilding,  furniture  making 
and  for  many  other  purposes.  Mahogany  is 
perhaps  the  only  more  valuable  wood. 

TEASEL,  te2'l,  a  thistlelike  plant  with 
long,  stemless  leaves,  prickly  stems  and  sharp 
bracts  surrounding  the  flower  heads.  The 
seed  vessels  are  covered  with  strong,  sharp 
spines  that  are  slightly  curved  at  the  point. 
The  heads,  which  are  used  for  raising  the 
nap  on  cloth,  are  cut  in  two  and  attached  to 
a  cylinder  which  is  made  to  revolve  against 
the  cloth.  The  large  heads  are  used  for  the 
nap  on  blankets,  the  next  in  size  for  cloth  for 
men's  clothing,  and  the  smallest  size  for 
broadcloth  and  fine  woolens.  No  mechanical 
device  has  been  invented  which  takes  the 
place  of  this  plant.  The  teasel  is  native  in 
Southern  Europe  and  is  widely  cultivated. 

TEBRIZ,  ta  hree/.    See  Tabriz. 

TECHNICAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDU- 
CATION. See  Vocational  Education. 

TECK,  tek,  Alexander  Augustus  Fred- 
erick:, Prince  of  (1874-  ),  an  English 
army  officei',  brother  of  Queen  Mary.  In 
1914  he  was  announced  as  the  new  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Canada,  to  succeed  the 
Duke  of  Connaught,  but  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War  he  was  ordered  to  the  front, 
where  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  col- 
onel for  bravery  in  action.  He  married  in 
1904  Princess  Alice  of  Albany,  granddaugh- 
ter of  Queen  Victoria.  His  Highness  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Sandhurst.  He  served 
in  the  Matabeleland  campaign  of  1896  and 
in  the  South  African  War  in  1899  and  1900, 
when  for  valiant  services  he  won  the  Queen's 
medal  and  was  honored  with  the  Distin- 
guished Sen'iee  Order. 

TECUM'SEH,  or  TECUMTHA  (1768- 
1813),  a  celebrated  Shawnee  Indian  chief. 
In  1805  he  began  to  formulate  his  plans  for 
organizing  the  Indians  of  the  West  into  a 
confederation,  and  about  1811  he  had  col- 
lected a  large  force  on  the  Wabash  River. 
The  defeat  of  his  brother  by  General  Harri- 
son, at  Tippecanoe,  disturbed  his  plans,  and 
he  went  to  Canada  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  of  1812  to  aid  the  British.  He  was 
killed  in  the  Battle  of  the  Thames  River. 

TE  DETJM,  a  famous  Latin  hjTnn,  named 
from  its  opening  sentence  Te  Deum  Lau- 
damus  (We  praise  Thee,  0  Lord).    It  is  one 


2  2  m 


•so 
o^ 
3  n 


5-     H 

> 
> 

C3COD3     ^^ 

0303""      T) 

n'n'a      (Tl 
00  to  r*      ^_r 

■O  O 
O  wj 


^s.- 


o  f» 

G.o 

C  S- 

no- 


TEETH 


3527 


TEHERAN 


of  the  most  solemn  and  majestic  hymns  ever 
written.  The  authorship  is  unknown,  but 
the  majesty  of  its  words  has  inspired  many 
of  the  great  composers  to  exercise  their 
genius  upon  it.  The  Te  Deum  is  usually 
sung  in  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  on 
occasions  of  rejoicing  and  thanksgiving. 

TEETH,  the  hard,  bony  appendages  which 
are  fastened  to  the  jaw  in  most  vertebrates, 
and  assist  in  mastication.  In  man  and  the 
higher  mammals  two  sets  of  teeth  are  de- 
veloped, the  temporary,  milk  or  deciduous 
teeth,  and  the  permanent  set.    In  fishes  the 


TEETH 
1,  incisors;  2,  canine;  3,  bicuspids;  4,  molars 
(the  molar  at  left  is  the  "wisdom"  tooth) ;   5, 
a  blood  vessel;  6,  a  nerve. 

teeth  fall  off  and  are  renewed  repeatedly.  In 
man  the  teeth  are  imbedded  in  sockets  in  the 
upper  and  lower  jawbones.  There  are  thirty- 
two  in  all,  sixteen  in  each  jaw.  The  four 
central  teeth,  or  incisors,  have  chisel-shaped 
crowns,  with  sharp  edges;  on  each  side  of 
these  four  is  a  pointed  canine  tooth,  which  in 
the  upper  jaw  is  called  an  eye-tooth ;  on  each 
side  of  these  two  are  bicuspids ;  then  come  the 
molars,  three  on  each  side.  The  last  of  these 
molars,  owing  to  their  arrival  between  the 
seventeenth  and  twenty-fifth  years,  are  called 
wisdom  teeth. 

Each  tooth  has  a  crown,  the  visible  part, 
and  a  root  or  fang,  the  hidden  part.  The 
central  cavity  is  filled  with  a  soft  pulp,  con- 
taining blood-vessels  and  nerves.  Dentine, 
a  hard  substance,  composed  of  phosphate 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  makes  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  tooth.  The  outer  covering  of 
the  fang,  called  eementum,  is  a  substance 
resembling  bone,  while  the  covering  of  the 
crown  is  a  hard  enamel.  In  young  teeth 
the  enamel  is  covered  by  a  delicate  mem- 
brane, called  the  "skin  of  the  teeth,"  which 
is  worn  of£  in  adult  life.  If  the  enamel  which 
covers  the  tooth  becomes  cracked  or  broken, 
the  underlying  dentine  is  exposed  and  soon 


breaks  down;  and  when. the  decay  reaches  the 
pulp  which  contains  the  blood-vessels  and 
nerves,  toothache  results. 

By  constant  and  regular  care  of  the  teeth, 
much  pain  and  suffering  may  be  avoided. 
After  every  meal  the  teeth  should  be  cleaned 
with  a  brush  and  plenty  of  pure  water.  Some 
simple  tooth  wash  or  powder,  which  contains 
no  injurious  substances  should  be  used. 
Children  should  be  taught  to  clean  their 
teeth  every  day,  at  least,  so  as  to  avoid  decay 
and  to  preserve  the  general  health,  which  is 
often  injured  by  unhealthy  conditions  of  the 
teeth  and  gums.  A  dentist  should  examine 
a  person's  teeth  at  least  once  a  year,  that  he 
may  repair  any  decay  before  it  becomes 
serious.    See  Dentistry. 

TEGNER,  tegnai/,  Esaias  (1782-1846), 
a  Swedish  poet.  He  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Lund,  became  professor  of  Greek 
literature  there  and  later  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Wexio,  where  he  died.  Among 
his  works  the  most  important  in  his  Frith jof's 
Saga,  an  epic  poem,  repeatedly  translated 
into  English.  Longfellow  translated  it,  as  he 
did  also  The  Children  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

TEGUCIGALPA,  tay  goo  se  gahV  pah, 
Central  America^,  the  capital  and  largest 
city  of  the  republic  of  Honduras,  on  the 
Choluteca  River,  about  seventy-eight  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  in  an  important 
agricultural  region,  and  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  surrounding  country,  while  not  as 
great  as  formerly,  are  still  considerable. 
Its  most  imposing  buildings  are  its  cathedral, 
a  national  university  and  a  seminary. 
Population,  1914,  28,950. 

TEHERAN,  teh  rahn',  Persia,  the  metrop- 
olis and  capital  of  the  country,  situated 
seventy  miles  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
on  an  elevated  plateau  about  4,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  city  is  near  the  snow-covered 
Elburz  Mountains,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  wall 
which  has  twelve  gates.  The  town  is  poorly 
built,  and  most  of  the  dwellings  are  low  mud 
structures.  There  are  numerous  mosques  and 
bazaars.  The  newer  part  of  the  city  has 
modern  boulevards  lighted  by  gas,  and  it  is 
traversed  by  street  railways.  These  present 
a  marked  contrast  to  the  filthy,  narrow  streets 
of  the  older  portion.  The  region  is  made 
productive  by  water  drawn  from  the  moun- 
tains through  underground  canals.  The  im- 
portant buildings  are  the  royal  palace,  the 
government  buildings  connected  with  it,  and 
the  royal  museum,  bousing  jewels  of  great 


TEHUANTEPEC 


3528 


TELEGRAPH 


value.  The  population  in  winter  is  about 
280,000.  In  summer,  many  of  the  inhabitants 
remove  to  a  more  healthful  location. 

TEHUANTEPEC,  ta  xoahn  ta  pek' ,  Isth- 
mus OF,  the  narrowest  part  of  Mexico  and 
the  narrowest  part  of  North  America,  north 
of  Costa  Rica,  lies  between  the  Gulf  of 
Campeche,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
west  of  Yucatan,  and  the  Gulf  of  Tehuan- 
t€pec,  on  the  Pacific.  It  is  120  miles  wide  at 
its  narrowest  point,  where  a  valley  between 
the  mountains  reduces  the  altitude  to  less 
than  1,000  feet.  In  1907  a  railway  was  com- 
pleted across  the  isthmus  from  Coatzacoal- 
cos,  on  the  Atlantic,  to  Salina  Cruz,  on  the 
Pacific.  The  line  is  150  miles  long  and  is 
operated  jointly  by  the  English  constniction 
company  and  the  Mexican  government. 

The  narrowness  of  the  isthmus  made  it  of 
interest  to  the  world's  mercantile  interests 
at  an  early  day,  and  the  feasibility  of  an 
interoceanie  canal  to  cross  it  was  discussed 
for  a  centuiy.  Later  another  route  farther 
north,  at  a  wider  point,  was  deemed  more 
desirable,  because  Lake  Nicaragua  and  a  river 
system  could  be  utilized.  For  particulars  of 
this  discussion  and  efforts  growing  out  of  it, 
see  Nicaragua  Canal.  All  of  these  projects 
were  finally  rejected  in  favor  of  a  lock-system 
canal  at  Panama. 

TELAUTOGRAPH,  tel  aio'  toh  graf,  an 
instrument  for  transmitting  writing  by 
means  of  electricity,  invented  by  Professor 
Elisha  Gray.  It  consists  of  a  transmitter 
and  a  receiver  connected  by  wires.  The 
transmitting  apparatus  is  contained  in  a 
metal  box  intended  to  rest  on  a  desk  or  table. 
The  writing  is  done  on  a  sheet  on  top  of  this, 
with  a  metal  stylus  which  in  appearance 
resembles  a  lead  pencil.  To  a  groove  near 
the  point  of  this  stylus  are  attached,  one  on 
each  side,  two  silk  threads,  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  transmitting  wires  and 
which  convey  the  movement  of  the  stylus  to 
them.  The  receiver  is  held  in  an  upright 
metal  frame  with  the  sheet  exposed  on  one 
of  its  broad,  flat  sides.  On  this  the  writing 
is  recorded  by  means  of  a  pen  connected  with 
the  receiving  wires,  and  a  facsimile  of  the 
writing  is  instantaneously  repi'oduced.  This 
little  device  is  extensively  employed  in  de- 
partment stores,  government  offices  and 
clubs  to  transmit  instnictions  from  one  de- 
partment to  another.  It  is  invaluable  in 
banks  as  a  means  of  transmitting  signatures 
at  a  distance. 


ELEGRAPH,  tel'e  graf. 
"What  hath  God 
wrought?"  Little  did 
Annie  Ellsworth,  the  au- 
thor of  that  first  tele- 
graph message  given  to 
the  world,  realize  the  full- 
ness of  its  meaning,  in 
connection  with  the  won- 
derful device  used  in  its 
transmission  from  Wash- 
ington to  Baltimore  in 
1844.  To-day  there  are 
in  the  United  States  more 
than  1,814,000  miles  of  telegi-aph  lines.  These 
lines  are  ser\^ed  by  over  31,000  offices  and 
tarry  over  103,000,000  messages  a  year. 
Canada  has  about  54,000  miles  of  wire,  over 
which  over  12,000,000  messages  are  sent 
yearly.  The  combined  telegraph  systems  of 
the  world  include  over  5,875,000  miles  of 
wire,  or  enough  wire  to  extend  231  times 
around  the  earth.  In  addition  to  the  lines 
on  land,  there  are  over  236,300  miles  of  tele- 
graph cables,  binding  together  the  contin- 
ents and  linking  the  islands  of  the  sea  to 
centers  of  civilization. 

So  far  as  communication  is  concerned,  the 
telegraph  has  done  away  with  distance,  for 
a  signal  can  be  sent  around  the  earth  in  less 
than  a  minute  or  across  a  continent  in  the 
winking  of  an  eye.  The  telegi-aph  has  made 
distant  nations  neighbors,  and  has  extended 
the  influences  of  civilization  to  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  earth.  Our  morning  paper  con- 
tains the  news  of  the  world,  and  within  an 
hour  or  less  from  the  time  an  important 
event  occurs  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia or  the  Philippines,  news  of  it  is  in  the 
office  of  every  important  newspaper  of  tlie 
world,  because  there  is  a  telegraph  station 
within  easy  reach  of  the  place  where  the  event 
occurred. 

In  its  broadest  meaning,  the  term  tele- 
gropli,  which  means  to  write  far  off,  includes 
all  devices  for  communicating  by  signals. that 
represent  words;  however,  since  the  electro- 
magnetic telegraph  has  practically  displaced 
all  other  devices,  the  meaning  of  the  term  is 
now  restricted  to  that  device. 

Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph.  The  electro- 
magnetic telegraph  consists  of  the  following 
essential  parts :  (1)  a  battery  or  other  source 
for  generating  an  electric  cui-rent:  (2)  a  line 
wire  or  other  conductor  for  conveying  the 
current  from  one  station  to  another;  (3)  an 


TELEGRAPH 


3529 


TELEGRAPH 


apparatus  for  transmitting  the  message,  and 
(4)  an  apparatus  for  receiving  the  message. 
The  line  wire  usually  consists  of  iron  wire, 
which  has  been  galvanized  to  protect  it  from 
the  weather,  and  it  is  supported  upon  poles 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  being 
attached  to  them  by  glass  or  porcelain  insu- 
lators. Theoretically  there  should  be  two 
wires,  in  order  to  complete  the  circuit,  but 
in  practice  the  earth  is  made  to  take  the  place 
of  one  of  these,  by  attaching  the  wire  leading 
from  one  pole  of  the  battery  to  an  iron  plate 
buried  in  the  ground  or  to  the  rails  of  a 
railway  track. 

The  transmitting  apparatus  consists  of  a 
lever,  placed  on  a  pivot ;  it  has  a  knob  on  the 
upper  side  of  one  end,  and  immediately  under 
this  is  a  wire  containing  a  platinum  point, 
which,  when  the  lever  is  pressed  down,  meets 
another  similar  point  on  the  table,  connected 
with  the  opposite  pole  of  the  battery.  The 
receiving  apparatus  consists  of  a  core  of  soft 
iron,  wound  with  a  coil  of  insulated  wire,  thus 
making  an  electro-magnet;  and  above  this  is 
an  armature,  which  is  attached  to  a  lever 
that  has  an  upward  and  downward  motion. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  telegraph 
operates  is  that  of  the  making  and  unmaking 
of  an  electro-magnet,  by  the  passage  and  in- 
terruption of  the  current.  The  diagram 
shows  the  various  parts  of  a  telegraph,  in 


so  that  the  lever  strikes  upon  a  metallic  point 
with  a  sharp  click.  As  long  as  the  key  at 
Saint  Louis  remains  closed,  the  lever  on  the 
sounder  in  Chicago  will  remain  attached  to 
the  magnet,  but  the  instant  the  transmitting 
key  is  opened,  the  circuit  is  broken,  and  the 
spring  in  the  sounder  B  brings  this  lever  back 
into  its  former  position.  Thus  the  vibrations 
produced  by  the  operator  at  Saint  Louis  are 
exactly  reproduced  in  the  sounder  at  Chicago, 
and  the  .operator  at  that  station  reads  the  mes- 
sage by  the  sounds  produced  in  his 
instrument. 

In  nearly  all  telegraph  stations  there  is  an 
additional  apparatus,  known  as  the  relay. 
This  is  represented  by  D  in  each  station. 
The  relay  is  simply  an  electro-magnet  of 
greater  power  than  that  used  in  an  ordinary 
sounder.  This  magnet  is  connected  with  the 
local  battery  and  is  used  along  the  line  when 
the  distance  is  so  great  that  the  current 
from  the  ordinary  working  battery  is  not 
strong  enough  to  cany  the  message  success- 
fully from  one  station  to  the  other.  The 
relay  is  connected  with  the  local  battery, 
and  in  case  of  transmitting  the  message  from 
Saint  Louis  to  Chicago,  by  means  of  the  re- 
lay, a  weaker  line  battery  can  be  successfully 
used.  The  current  passing  through  the  relay 
at  D  attracts  the  lever  E  in  the  same  manner 
that  the  lever  of  the  sounder  is  attracted. 


CHICAGO 


such  relative  position  as  to  indicate  the 
equipment  of  two  stations.  In  each  station 
A  represents  the  transmitting  lever,  known  as 
the  key;  B,  the  receiving  apparatus,  or 
sounder,  and  C,  the  battery.  When  the  oper- 
ator in  Saint  Louis  wishes  to  transmit  a  mes- 
sage to  Chicago,  he  presses  down  the  key, 
which  is  ordinarily  held  up  by  the  spring. 
As  the  platinum  point  on  this  key  connects 
with  the  metallic  point  beneath  it,  it  closes  the 
circuit  and  sends  a  current  over  the  line  wire 
to  the  station  in  Chicago.  This  magnetizes 
the  electro-magnet  in  B  at  that  station  and 
causes  it  to  bring  down  the  armature  above, 


This  makes  a  connection  between  the  line 
battery  C  and  the  local  battery  F,  which  is 
also  connected  with  the  sounder,  and  when 
the  relay  is  used  the  sounder  has  the  bene- 
fit of  the  current  from  the  local  battery  and 
is  thus  easily  operated,  while  without  this 
aid  it  would  fail  to  respond  to  the  movements 
of  the  transmitting  key  at  a  distant  station. 
Rapid  Telegraphy.  In  large  cities  and 
on  lines  having  a  great  amount  of  business 
messages  cannot  be  transmitted  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity  by  this  apparatus,  hence  de- 
vices for  rapid  telegraphy  have  been  invented. 
The  device  in  most  common  use  consists  of  a 


TELEGRAPH 


3530 


TELEGRAPH 


transmitting  and  receiving  apparatus  con- 
structed on  a  similar  plan  and  moving  with 
the  same  rate  of  speed.  The  message  is  pre- 
pared on  a  paper  tape,  by  a  machine  con- 
taining keys  similar  to  those  on  the  type- 
writer. The  dots  punched  out  on  this  paper 
correspond  to  those  in  the  telegraph  alpha- 
bet. The  transmitting  machine  contains  an 
electric  brush,  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  rim  of  a  steel  wheel.  The  paper  forms  an 
insulator  between  the  brush  and  wheel,  except 
where  the  dots  appear.  As  this  tape  is  run 
over  the  wheel,  the  dots  complete  the  circuit, 
which  is  indicated  in  the  receiving  apparatus 
by  a  steel  point,  which  passes  over  a  similar 
tape,  chemically  prepared,  so  that  whenever 
the  electric  current  passes  through  it  a  bluish- 
black  dot  or  dash  will  be  made.  Thus  the 
message  is  reproduced  in  the  telegraph 
alphabet.  By  means  of  this  apparatus 
many  times  the  number  of  words  can  be 
transmitted  in  a  given  time  that  would  be 
possible  by  the  ordinary  operating  key. 

Multiplex  Telegraph.  In  1872  Thomas 
A.  Edison  invented  a  device  for  sending  two 
messages  in  opposite  directions  over  the 
same  wire  at  the  same  time.  Since  that  time 
this  invention  has  been  perfected  and  ex- 
tended, so  that  four  or  more  messages  are 
readily  sent  at  once  over  the  same  line.  In 
1919  further  improvements  of  the  multiplex 
system  made  it  practicable  to  use  the  same 
wire  for  both  telegraph  and  telephone  pur- 
poses at  the  same  time.  Five  telephone 
conversations  or  five  telegraph  messages  can 
be  transmitted  simultaneously,  or  the  wires 
can  be  used  for  both  telephone  and  tele- 
graph messages  at  the  same  time. 

Printing  Telegraph.  The  "stock  ticker" 
seen  in  brokers  oflSces  and  banks  is  a  printing 
telegraph  which  writes  its  messages  on  a 
tape.  It  is  used  for  sending  quotations  from 
the  stock  exchanges  to  their  patrons.  The 
printing  telegraph  operates  on  very  much 
the  same  principle,  and  delivers  the  mes- 
sage in  printed  or  tj'pewritten  form. 
The  operator  sends  the  message  by  operating 
a  typewriter  keyboard  as  though  he  were 
writing  a  letter.  In  some  forms  a  specially 
devised  typewriter  receives  the  message. 
Each  key  in  the  receiving  typewriter  has  a 
small  electro-magnet  attached  to  it.  Each  of 
these  magnets  responds  to  the  electric  im- 
pulse of  the  corresponding  key  on  the  send- 
ing machine  and  to  no  other,  so  that  the 
letters  struck  by  the  operator  are  reproduced 


on  the  receiving  machine.    The  operator  does 
not  need  to  know  the  Morse  code. 

Boys'  Telegraph.  Crude  telegraph  in- 
struments can  be  made  by  any  boy  who  is 
acquainted  with  the  fundamental  principles 
of  electricity,  but  they  are  seldom  satis- 
factory. Many  firms  have  on  sale  inex- 
pensive sets  of  telegraph  instruments,  with 
full  directions  for  installing  an  amateur 
telegraph  line,  and  boys  interested  in  learn- 
ing telegraphy  by  themselves  are  advised  to 
consult  these  dealers. 

History.  Several  attempts  were  made 
to  invent  a  telegraph  previous  to  1831,  but 
none  was  successful.  In  that  year  Prof. 
Joseph  Henry  discovered  that  a  piece  of  soft 
iron  could  be  instantly  magnetized  by  pass- 
ing an  electric  current  through  a  coil  of  wire 
surrounding  it;  also  that  it  could  be  as 
quickly  demagnetized  by  breaking  the  cir- 
cuit. The  following  year  Prof.  Samuel  F.  B. 
Morse  conceived  the  idea  of  making  use  of 
this  principle  as  a  means  of  communication, 
and  while  on  the  return  voyage  from  Europe 
he  made  the  drawings  and  perfected  the  plan 
for  the  necessary  apparatus.  Professor 
Morse  gave  his  first  exhibition  of  this  ap- 
paratus in  1837.  Three  years  later  a  patent 
was  obtained,  and  the  inventor  applied  to 
Congress  for  an  appropriation  to  construct 
a  telegraph  line  from  Washington  to  Balti- 
more. The  majority  of  Congressmen  did 
not  believe  that  Morse's  idea  was  prac- 
ticable, and  it  was  not  until  some  years 
later  that!  the  desired  appropriation  was 
secured.  The  first  telegraph  line  was  com- 
pleted in  May,  1844,  and  its  success  far 
exceeded  the  expectations  even  of  the  in- 
ventor. In  the  perfection  of  his  apparatus 
Professor  Morse  was  assisted  by  Professor 
Henry  and  Mr.  Alfred  Vail,  a  skilled  me- 
chanic. 

The  system  of  signals  known  as  the  Morse 
Alphabet  then  adopted  has  remained  in 
use.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  dots  and  dashes 
which  represent  the  letters  and  figures  in  or- 
dinary use.  The  first  instrument  used  a 
receiver  which  recorded  the  message  on  a 
paper  tape  that  passed  over  a  cylinder,  down 
upon  which  a  pencil  point  was  brought  when 
the  circuit  was  closed ;  but  operatoi-s  soon  dis- 
covered that  they  could  read  more  rapidly 
and  accurately  by  the  ear  than  by  the  eye, 
and  this  form  of  receiving  apparatus  was  re- 
placed by  the  sounder,  now  in  almost  uni- 
versal use.    The  tape  receiver  is  still  retained 


TELEGRAPH 


3531 


TELEGRAPH 


for  recording  stock  quotations  and  those  from 
other  market  reports  and  for  a  few  other 
special  purposes.  The  additions  to  Morse's 
invention  have  been  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
tending its  usefulness  and  have  not  in  any 
way  modified  the  principle  upon  which  his 
plan  was  based.  The  electric  telegraph  is 
now  in  use  throughout  the  civilized  world, 
and  ocean  cables  have  been  laid  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  possible  to  communicate  with 
almost  any  part  of  the  world  within  the  space 
of  a  few  minutes. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Cable,  Submarine  Morse,  Samuel  P.  B. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.  Telautograph 

Electro-Magnet  Telegraph,  Wireless 

Electro-Magnetism         Telephone 

TELEGRAPH,  Wireless.  The  chief  dif- 
ference between  the  line,  or  wire,  telegraph 
and  the  wireless  telegraph  is  that  in  the  lat- 
ter the  overhead  wire  or  submarine  cable  is 
omitted.  The  apparatus  for  each  is  much 
the  same  in  its  construction  and  operates 
on  the  same  principle.  In  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, the  transmission  is  by  wave  propul- 
sion in  the  air;  in  line  telegraphy,  it  is 
through  the  overhead  wire.  If  a  pebble  is 
thrown  into  a  pool  of  still  water,  ripples 
will  extend  in  ever-widening  circles  from 
the  point  of  contact  to  the  shore  or  until 
the  force  of  the  impulse  is  exhausted.  When 
a  bell  is  struck  the  impulsion  which  con- 
veys the  sound  radiates  from  the  bell  in  all 
directions,  and,  if  there  were  no  obstructing 
bodies  the  bell  would  occupy  the  center  of  an 
ever-enlarging  sphere,  on  the  surface  of 
which  the  sound  would  become  fainter  as  the 
sphere  grew  larger. 

The  electric  impulses  set  up  by  opening  and 
closing  the  circuit  are  transmitted  through  the 
air,  in  the  same  manner  as  those  set  up  by 


FIG.  1. 

ringing  the  bell.  The  instmments  necessary 
in  wireless  telegi'aphy  are  a  transmitter,  an 
aerial  apparatus  and  a  receiver. 

The  Transmitter.  The  transmitter  (Fig.  1) 
consists  of  the  key,  a ;  the  battery,  h ;  the  in- 


duction coil,  c;  and  the  spark  gap,  d,  which 
consists  of  two  sliding  rods  on  which  are 
mounted  the  balls,  ee.  One  of  these  rods  is 
connected  with  the  aerial  by  the  wire  /,  and 
the  other  with  the  ground  by  the  wire  g. 
It  requires  a  stronger  current  to  set  up  im- 
pulses that  will  traverse  the  air  than  is  needed 
in  the  line  telegraph,  so  the  key  is  connected 
with  an  induction  coil  to  which  the  spark- 
breaker  is  attached.  The  impulses  are  pro- 
duced by  the  spark-breaker,  and  the  size  of 
the  spark  is  regulated  by  the  space  between 
the  balls,  ee.  Stronger  sparks  are  required 
for  long  than  for  short  distances. 

The  Receiver.  The  receiving  outfit  (Fig 
2)  is  more  complex  than  that  required  in  line 
telegraphy,   and   consists   of  the   following 


FIG.  2. 
parts:  the  detector,  or  coherer,  a;  the  de- 
coherers,  h;  the  telegraph  sounder,  c;  the 
galvanometer,  d;  the  battery,  e,  and  the  de- 
coherer  switch,  /.  The  coherer  is  connected 
with  the  aerial  by  the  wire,  g,  and  with  the 
ground  by  the  wire,  h. 

The  Aerial.  The  aerial  consists  of  one  or 
more  wires  suspended  in  the  air,  usually  on 
tall  supports  on  the  tops  of  buildings  and 
insulated  by  being  attached  to  their  supports 
with  glass  or  porcelain  fixtures.  The  aerial 
may  consist  of  a  number  of  parallel  horizon- 
tal wires.  A  leading-in  wire  connects  the 
aerial  with  the  receiver.  The  horizontal 
aerial  is  the  most  common  form,  but  aerials 
consisting  of  a  large  number  of  vertical  wires 
are  used  on  high  towers.  The  greater  the 
height  of  the  aerial,  the  greater  the  distance 
over  which  the  message  may  be  sent.  The 
aerial  furnishes  a  large  conducting  surface, 
from  which  the  impulses  go  out  in  sending 
and  by  which  they  are  caught  in  receiving. 

Sending  the  Message.  A  much  stronger 
current  is  necessary  for  sending  impulses 
through  the  air  than  for  sending  them  over  a 


TELEGRAPH 


3532 


TELEGRAPH 


wire,  and  the  induction  coil  is  for  the  purpose 
of  reinforcing  the  current  provided  by  the 
battery.  The  impulses  are  set  up  by  the 
spark-gap,  and  the  strength  of  the  spark  is 
regulated  by  the  current  and  the  distance  be- 
tween the  balls,  ee.  When  the  operator 
presses  down  the  key  the  current  is  sent 
through  the  induction  coil  and  causes  a 
spark;  the  impulse  thus  created  passes  over 
the  aerial  wire  to  the  aerial,  from  which  it 
passes  into  the  air.  The  regular  telegraph 
codes  are  used,  and  at  the  receiving  station 
the  impulses  are  made  to  operate  the  ordi- 
nary telegraph  sounder  or  receiver.  The 
wireless  operator  uses  his  key  as  he  would 
were  he  sending  the  message  over  a  wire. 

Receiving  the  Message.  The  impulses 
caught  by  the  aerial  at  the  receiving  station 
are  too  weak  to  operate  the  niost  delicate 
telegraph  sounder,  and  the  most  ingenious 
device  connected  with  the  receiving  outfit  is 
the  coherer,  or  detector,  of  which  there  are 
several  patterns.  The  coherer  is  a  device 
for  detecting  very  delicate  electric  currents. 
The  pattern  in  general  use  consists  of  a 
small  glass  tube  fitted  with  two  metal  plugs, 
preferably  of  silver.  The  space  between  the 
plugs  is  filled  with  fine  filings  of  nickel  and 
silver.  Wires  lead  from  the  plugs,  one  be- 
ing connected  with  the  aerial  wire  and  the 
other  with  the  ground  wire.  Other  wires  join 
the  coherer  to  a  local  battery  and  to  the 
sounder.  When  an  electric  current  passes 
through  the  coherer,  the  filings  cling  together 
and  a  current  from  the  local  battery  flows 
through  the  coherer  to  the  sounder,  which  it 
operates.  The  decoherer  consists  of  a  vibra- 
tor, which  instantly  jars  the  filings  in  the 
coherer  so  that  the  current  from  the  battery 
is  weakened  between  impulses.  The  operator 
uses  ear  receivers  similar  to  those  used  by 
operators  in  a  telephone  exchange,  for  some 
of  the  signals  are  scarcely  audible. 

Tuning.  The  fact  that  the  same  message 
could  be  received  by  any  number  of  stations 
■within  reach  of  the  transmitter  seemed  at 
first  to  deprive  wireless  telegraphy  of  that 
secrecy  necessary  to  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness, and  to  render  it  valueless  for  com- 
mercial or  government  purposes.  This  ob- 
jection was  overcome  by  a  system  of  tuning, 
which  consists  in  adjusting  the  transmitter 
of  one  station  and  the  receiver  of  another  to 
impulses  of  a  certain  length.  The  length 
of  the  impulses  is  determined  by  the  spark, 
and  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  size  of 


the  spark  coil  (induction  coil)  this  length  is 
easily  varied.  Each  receiving  station  has  its 
apparatus  gauged  to  respond  to  impulses  of 
a  certain  length,  and  it  will  not  respond  to 
any  others.  An  operator  in  Detroit,  for  in- 
stance, wishing  to  send  a  message  to  a  given 
station  in  Cleveland,  adjusts  his  transmitter 
to  the  receiver  of  that  station,  and  the  mes- 
sage is  as  closely  safeguarded  as  though  it 
were  sent  over  a  wire. 

Uses.  Wireless  telegraphy  now  competes 
with  line  telegraphy  in  practically  all  lines 
of  telegraphic  communication,  and  it  is  used 
for  numerous  purposes  where  line  telegraphy 
cannot  be  emploj-ed,  as  in  sending  messages 
from  ships  at  sea  and  on  the  Great  Lakes. 
All  passenger  ships  and  many  freight  ships 
are  equipped  with  wireless  apparatus.  In  the 
World  War  airplanes  equipped  with  wireless 
directed  the  movements  of  the  armies  in  bat- 
tle and  they  were  also  of  great  assistance  in 
directing  artillery  fire.  The  first  airplane  to 
cross  the  Atlantic,  in  charge  of  Lieut.  Com- 
mander C.  A.  Read  of  the  United  States 
navy,  in  May,  1919,  was  in  constant  com- 
munication with  ships  stationed  along  the 
route.  The  system  is  also  in  successful  opera- 
tion on  railway  trains. 

The  first  wireless  stations  could  send  mes- 
sages only  a  few  miles,  but  as  the  apparatus 
was  improved,  the  distance  was  increased  un- 
til now  the  standard  station  has  a  range  of 
1,000  to  1,500  miles.  In  1901  Marconi  sent 
the  first  message  across  the  Atlantic.  Since 
then  the  United  States  government  has  con- 
structed wireless  stations  for  sending  mes- 
sages for  great  distances  and  communicating 
with  warships  at  sea.  That  at  Arlington, 
across  the  Potomac  from  Washin^on,  is  one 
of  the  most  powerful  in  the  world;  it  has 
communicated  with  Hawaii.  Messages  from 
Alaska  have  been  picked  up  at  Key  West, 
Fla.  The  great  German  station  at  Nauen 
sent  powerful  impulses  during  the  World 
War  that  were  picked  up  12,000  miles  away. 

Amateur  Stations.  Wireless  telegraphy  is 
so  simple  that  many  boys  have  installed  ap- 
paratus of  their  own  make,  and  found  it  to 
work  successfully  for  distances  ranging  from 
four  to  fifteen  miles.  When  war  was  declared 
with  Germany,  the  American  government 
ordered  all  private  stations  dismantled,  be- 
cause of  the  possibility  they  afforded  of  giv- 
ing information  to  the  enemj',  and  200  sta- 
tions were  found  in  Chicago  alone.  At  that 
rate  there  must  have  been  more  than  3,000 


TELEMACHUS 


3533 


TELEPHONE 


of  them  in  the  country.  While  most  of  them 
served  no  other  purpose  than  that  of  amusing 
their  owners,  doubtless  some  of  them  were 
used  for  practical  purposes. 

History.  The  first  step  leading  towards 
wireless  telegraphy  was  the  discovery  of  elec- 
tric waves  in  the  ether  by  the  German  physi- 
cist Hertz,  in  1888.  Light  waves  and  electric 
waves  are  alike,  except  that  the  electric  waves 
are  longer.  The  sun  sends  electric  waves  to 
the  earth,  but  we  are  unable  to  perceive  them. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  known  for  more  than  a 
century  that  electric  currents  could  be  trans- 
mitted through  space  by  the  atmosphere  be- 
fore any  attempt  was  made  to  turn  this 
knowledge  to  practical  use.  The  coherer  de- 
scribed above  was  invented  in  1890,  and  in 
1894  Marconi  began  his  experiments  which 
made  wireless  telegraphy  practical. 

Related  Articles:  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

•Electricity  Telephone 

Marconi,  Guglielmo        Telephone,  Wireless 
Telegraph 

TELEMACHUS,  teUm'akus.  See 
Ulysses. 

TELEPATHY,  te  lep'a  thi,  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  influencing  of  one  mind  by  an- 
other, without  the  use  of  ordinary  means  of 
communication.  It  is  closely  related  to 
clairvoyance  (which  see).  Some  persons 
seem  to  have  the  power  of  communicating  to 
others,  at  a  distance,  what  is  happening  to 
them,  "often  without  any  intention  or  con- 
sciousness of  doing  so  on  their  own  part." 
Occasional  incidents  of  this  sort,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  fact  that  the  mind  is  aroused  to 
activity  by  intuition  as  well  as  by  impres- 
sions received  through  the  senses,  and  be- 
lief in  clairvoyance,  have  led  some  people  to 
believe  in  telepathy  as  an  established  fact. 

Most  careful  investigations  by  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research  led  the  investigators 
to  the  conclusion  that  in  most  instances  there 
was  a  means  of  communication  between  the 
parties  which  the  observer  could  not  detect. 
For  instance,  when  A  and  B  are  in  the  same 
room,  the  experiment  succeeds  more  fre- 
quently than  when  they  are  in  separate  rooms. 
If  A  wills  that  B  write  the  number  10,  B  must 
have  this  number  in  his  mind  as  A  wills  him 
to  write  it.  TThen  A  and  B  are  in  the  same 
room  the  number  willed  is  written  correctly 
more  times  than  can  be  accounted  for  by 
chance,  but  when  they  are  in  separate  rooms 
the  experiment  does  not  succeed  more  fre- 
quently than  it  would  by  chance. 


The  evidence  in  favor  of  telepathy  is  not 
yet  sufficient  to  warrant  acceptance  of  the 
theory,  although  it  has  some  ardent  sup- 
porters. See  Superstition,  and  list  of  re- 
lated articles. 

lELEPHONE,  teVefone. 
The  word  telephone 
means  to  talk  far  off, 
and  the  term  is  applied  to 
all  devices  by  which  the 
sound  of  the  human  voice 
is  earned  to  a  distance. 
The  simplest  telephone 
consists  of  two  vibrating 
membranes,  connected  by 
a  cord  passing  through 
small  openings  in  the 
respective  centers.  Such 
a  telephone  is  easily  made  with  two  tin  fruit 
cans.  Punch  a  small  hole  in  the  center  of 
one  end  of  each  can,  the  other  end  being  re- 
moved; join  them  by  a  twine,  held  in  place 
in  each  can  by  a  large  knot,  and  draw  the 
cord  taut.  Conversation  can  be  carried  on 
through  this  instrument  at  a  distance  of  sev- 
eral hundred  feet,  and  disks  of  membrane 
specially  mounted  for  this  purpose  and 
joined  by  copper  wire  will  work  successfully 
for  a  mile  or  more. 

The  Electric  Telephone.  The  electric  tele- 
phone was  invented  by  Alexander  Graham 
Bell  and  was  first  exhibited  to  the  public  in 
1876  at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Expo- 
sition. The  essential  parts  are  the  trans- 
mitter  and   the   receiver.     The   transmitter 


FIG.  1. 
(Fig.  1).  consists  of  a  funnel-shaped  mouth- 
piece, directly  back  of  which  is  a  metal  disk. 
A  button  of  hard  carbon  is  attached  to  the 
center  of  this  disk  on  its  inner  surface;  oppo- 
site to  it  and  fastened  to  the  frame  of  the 
instrument  is  a  second  button.     The  space 


TELEPHONE 


3534 


TELEPHONE 


bet-ween  these  buttons  is  filled  with  granu- 
lated carbon.  These  buttons  are  the  elec- 
trodes of  the  transmitter,  the  current  passing 
from  one  to  the  other  by  means  of  the  granu- 
lated carbon.  By  this  device  the  vibrations 
produced  in  the  metal  disk  by  the  voice  of 
the  speaker  are  exactly  reproduced.  The 
receiver  (Fig.  2)  consists  of  a  straight  or 
bar  electro-magnet  with  a  coil  at  the  end 
next  to  the  metal  disk  and  having  only  one 
pole.  By  completing  the  circuit  through  the 
carbons  in  the  transmitter,  the  disk  in  the  re- 


FIG.   2. 
ceiver  is  caused  to  vibrate  in  unison  so  the 
voice  of  the  speaker,  including  accent  and  in- 
flection, is  heard  by  the  one  holding  the  re- 
ceiver. 

The  telephone  has  been  brought  to  such  a 
degree  of  perfection  that  the  voice  of  a  friend 
more  than  1.000  miles  away  can  be  heard  and 
recognized  as  readily  as  though  he  were 
speaking  in  an  adjoining  room  with  the  con- 
necting door  open,  even  when  he  speaks  in 
an  ordinary'  tone. 

The  Switchboard.  Like  many  other  inven- 
tions, the  telephone  has  far  exceeded  in  use- 
fulness the  greatest  anticipations  of  the  in- 
ventor. It  was  designed  for  use  by  two 
parties  only,  one  at  each  end  of  the  line, 
but  in  1877  Mr.  G.  G.  Hubbard  conceived 
the  idea  of  the  switchboard  hj  means  of 
which  the  lines  of  a  large  number  of  sub- 
scribers could  be  so  connected  that  any  sub- 
scriber could  talk  with  any  other  subscriber 
connected  with  the  system.  It  was  Mr.  Hub- 
bard's idea  that  made  possible  the  great  tele- 
phone systems  with  which  we  are  all  familiar. 
The  telephones  of  all  the  subscribers  in  a 
section  of  a  city  or  in  a  given  area  in  the 
country  are  connected  to  form  an  exchange. 
Trunk  lines  connect  the  exchanges,  and  by 
means  of  this  arrangement  any  subscriber 
can  be  connected  with  any  other  subscriber 
in  large  areas  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Automatic  Telephone.  The  automatic 
telephone  is  provided  with  a  self-operating 


switchboard.  Each  transmitter  has  a  dial 
with  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0  on 
its  disk.  The  person  wishing  to  call  a  num- 
ber inserts  his  finger  into  an  opening  opposite 
the  first  figure  in  the  number  desired  and 
turns  the  dial  as  far  as  the  stop;  he  then 
allows  it  to  return  to  its  former  position,  and 
repeats  the  process  for  each  of  the  other  fig- 
ures. "When  he  dials  the  last  figure  the  num- 
ber called  will  respond.  The  switchboard  is 
somewhat  complicated,  but  the  automatic 
telephone  is  very  successful  for  local  pur- 
poses, and  much  less  expensive  than  the 
manual  system  because  it  dispenses  with 
operators  at  the  switchboard. 

Present  Extent.  As  already  stated,  the 
first  public  exhibition  of  the  telephone  was 
made  in  1876  at  the  Centennial  Exposition. 
The  most  far-sighted  journals  of  the  country 
hailed  this  little  instrument  as  one  of  the 
greatest  inventions  of  the  age;  others  ridi- 
culed the  idea  of  an  invention  by  which  men- 
could  talk  with  one  another  at  a  distance,  and 
called  the  inventor  a  "crank."  Within  a 
j-ear  from  that  time,  however,  the  telephone 
had  begun  to  prove  its  worth,  and  in  August, 
1877,  778  telephones  were  in  use.  By  1898 
fully  1,000,000  telephones  had  been  installed 
in  the  United  States  alone.  The  expansion 
of  the  system  has  been  phenomenal.  In  1918 
the  United  States  had  22,610,487  miles  of 
telephone  wires  and  100,376,000  stations,  and 
the  daily  exchange  connections  exceeded  30,- 
845,000.  About  $1,065,000,000  was  invested 
in  telephone  plants,  and  the  total  revenue  was 
$294,895,000.  There  were  over  8,000.000  tele- 
phones in  use  in  the  world,  and  5,000,000  of 
these  were  owned  by  the  American  Bell  Tele- 
phone Company.  Canada  has  over  890,000 
miles  of  wires  and  371,000  telephones  in 
operation.  The  United  States  has  nearly 
twice  the  number  of  miles  of  telephone  lines 
found  in  all  the  other  countries  of  the  world, 
and  Chicago  has  the  largest  number  of  tele- 
phones in  proportion  to  its  population  of  any 
city  in  the  world. 

Special  Uses  of  the  Telephone.  The  tele- 
phone has  a  number  of  uses  besides  that  of 
ordinary'  communication.  The  telephone  fire 
alarm  has  displaced  the  old  system.  In  war 
it  is  used  to  keep  the  commander  in  chief  in 
touch  with  every  part  of  his  army.  Special 
apparatus  which  can  be  quickly  set  up,  taken 
down  and  easily  carried,  is  made  to  accom- 
pany an  army  in  the  field.  On  warships  the 
commander  is  in  telephone  communication 


TELEPHONE 


3535 


TELESCOPE 


with  every  part  of  his  ship.  The  telephone 
is  in  use  on  many  railways  in  train  dispatch- 
ing. The  helmets  of  divers  are  fitted  with 
transmitters  so  that  the  diver  can  communi- 
cate with  the  boat  above.  Instruments  have 
been  so  perfected  that  both  telephone  and 
telegraph  messages  can  be  sent  over  the  same 
wire  at  the  same  time. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Bell,  Alexander  G. 
Telegraph 


Telegraph,  Wireless 
Telephone,  Wireless 


TELEPHONE,  Wireless.  The  sounds 
uttered  by  the  human  voice  can  be  trans- 
mitted hundreds  of  miles  through  the  air  by 
the  wireless  telephone.  The  chief  difference 
between  the  wireless  and  the  wire  telephone 
consists  in  the  adjustment  of  the  transmitting 
and  receiving  apparatus  to  waves  transmitted 
through  the  air  instead  of  over  a  wire.  It 
requires  a  much  stronger  current  to  send  the 
waves  through  the  air,  because  they  radiate 
in  all  directions  from  the  transmitter;  there- 
fore, as  in  wireless  telegraphy,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  connect  the  transmitter  with  a  con- 
denser which  strengthens  the  current,  be- 
fore it  passes  to  the  aerial.  The  same  form 
of  transmitter  is  used  as  in  the  line  tele- 
phone, and  the  vibrations  of  the  metal  disk 
when  one  speaks  into  the  fecansmitter  are 
transmitted  by  the  atmosphere,  as  in  wire 
telegraphy    (see   Telephone;    Telegraph). 

The  waves  lose  much  of  their  force  in 
transmission  and  the  receiver  is  more  deli- 
cate than  that  used  for  wireless  telegraphy, 
but  it  has  the  same  form  as  that  used  in  the 
line  telephone.  A  detector  which  is  sensi- 
tive is  used  to  strengthen  the  current  so  that 
it  will  operate  the  receiver.  A  system  of 
tuning  similar  to  that  used  in  wireless  teleg- 
raphy is  also  frequently  employed. 

Uses.  The  wireless  telephone  can  be  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  the  line  telephone, 
and  in  addition  to  these  uses  it  is  adapted  to 
others  to  which  the  latter  cannot  be  applied. 
It  is  installed  on  warships  where  it  is  a  con- 
venient means  of  communication  between 
ships,  and  the  development  of  the  airplane 
has  greatly  increased  the  usefulness  of  wire- 
less telephony.  In  the  last  week  of  the 
World  War  American  airplane  squadrons 
were  directed  in  their  maneuvers  by  means 
of  the  wireless  telephone.  Military  instni- 
ments  are  equipped  with  a  device  by  which 
on  signal  between  the  operators  the  wave 
length  can  be  instantly  changed,  thus  assur- 
ing secrecy.     The  line  telephone  has  such 


extensive  systems  that  the  wireless  telephone 
is  yet  but  little  used  for  commercial  and 
social  purposes,  but  its  use  in  these  fields  is 
being  gradually  extended. 

TELESCOPE,  tel'eskohp,  an  optical  in- 
strument for  viewing  distant  objects,  especial- 
ly the  stars.  The  simplest  telescope,  invented 
by  Galileo  in  1609,  by  which,  though  it  mag- 
nified only  thirty  times,  he  was  able  to  dis- 
cover four  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  con- 


sists of  a  straight  tube,  with  a  double  con- 
vex lens,  LM,  at  one  end,  and  a  concave  lens, 
EF,  at  the  other  (see  illustration).  The 
convex  lens  constitutes  the  object  glass,  and 
the  concave  lens  the  eyepiece.  The  eyepiece 
is  placed  between  the  objective  and  the  image 
formed  by  it.  Rays  of  light  from  the  ob- 
ject AB  are  refracted  by  the  objective  LM 
and  would  form  an  inverted  image  beyond 
EF;  but  this  lens  tends  to  disperse  the  rays, 
and  the  eye  sees  the  image  at  ab.  The  tele- 
scope tube  is  usually  jointed,  so  that  the 
ej'epiece  can  be  adjusted  in  order  to  obtain  a 
sharp  focus.  Opera  glasses  and  field  glasses 
are  made  by  joining  together  two  telescopes 
of  this  pattern. 

Modern  astronomical  telescopes  are  of  two 
classes,  the  reflecting  and  the  refracting. 
The  reflecting  telescope  consists  of  a  con- 
cave mirror,  placed  at  one  end  of  a  tube  of 
the  same  diameter.  The  tube  is  pointed  to- 
ward the  object  to  be  viewed,  and  the  image 
formed  by  the  mirror  is  placed  in  the  tube 
at  the  proper  point,  by  a  prism.  This  re- 
flects the  image  so  that  it  is  viewed  through 
an  eyepiece  in  the  side  of  the  tube.  Many 
of  the  early  discoveries  in  astronomy  were 
made  by  reflecting  telescopes,  but  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  their  manipulation  they  have 
been  almost  entirely  replaced  by  the  refract- 
ing telescope. 

The  refracting  astronomical  telescope, 
while  similar  in  construction  to  the  smaller 
instrument,  contains  many  accessories  for  the 
purposes  of  adjustment.  The  tube  is  sup- 
ported on  a  standard  and  is  so  nicely  balanced 
that  it  can  be  easily  directed  to  any  point 
in  the  heavens.    It  is  connected  with  a  sys- 


TELL 


3536 


TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BODY 


tern  of  clockwork,  by  which  it  is  enabled 
automatically  to  follow  the  motions  of  any 
heavenly  body.  The  eyepiece  is  a  convex 
lens,  and  it  magnifies  the  image.  The  ob- 
jective is  very  large,  and  it  collects  a  large 
number  of  rays  of  light. 

The  most  noted  telescopes  are  those  of  the 
Yerkes  Observatory,  at  Lake  Geneva,  Wis.; 
the  Lick  Observatory,  Mount  Hamilton,  Cal. ; 
the  observatory  at  Pultowa,  Russia,  and  the 
National  Observatorj',  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Yerkes  telescope  is  the  largest  refract- 
ing telescope  in  practical  use.  It  belongs  to 
the  University  of  Chicago,  having  been  pre- 
sented to  that  institution  by  Charles  T. 
Yerkes.  The  great  lens  has  forty  inches  of 
clear  aperture,  is  over  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  weighs  760  pounds.  The  tube  is  of 
sheet  steel,  forty-two  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  objective  end,  fifty-two  inches  in  diameter 
in  the  middle.  It  is  sixty-four  feet  long,  and 
weights  twelve  tons.  The  pier  on  which  the 
tube  rests  and  revolves  is  of  cast  iron,  and 
stands  forty-four  feet  in  height.  The  dome 
in  which  the  telescope  is  situated  has  a  dia- 
meter of  eighty  feet  and  a  height  of  100  feet. 
By  pressing  an  electric  button  the  observer 
can  move  the  telescope  in  any  direction.  The 
floor  of  the  observatory  is  also  raised  and 
lowered  by  electric  power,  at  the  convenience 
of  the  observer. 

By  the  use  of  the  mar%^elous  instrument 
from  the  time  of  Galileo  to  the  present,  man 
has  obtained  a  new  idea  of  the  vastness  of 
the  universe  and  the  working  out  of  its  laws. 
The  comprehension  of  his  own  place  as  a 
mere  atom  and  not  the  center  of  all  things 
has  resulted  in  a  profound  and  revolutionary 
change  in  his  thought  and  philosophy.     See 

ASTKOXOMT. 

TELL,  WiLLiAii,  a  famous  peasant  hero 
of  Switzerland,  now  proved  to  have  been  a 
mythical  personage.  He  is  said  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  Canton  of  I'ri,  and  to  have 
united  with  others  belonging  to  this  canton 
and  to  the  cantons  of  Unterwalden  and 
Schwv'z  in  resisting  the  Austrians.  On  his 
refusal  to  do  homage  to  Gessler's  hat,  set 
upon  a  pole,  he  was  seized  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  he  was  granted  his  life  on  condition 
of  shooting,  with  an  arrow,  an  apple  placed 
on  the  head  of  his  own  son.  This  he  did 
successfully,  admitting  at  the  same  time  that 
his  second  arrow  had  been  intended  for 
Gessler  in  case  of  failure.  He  was  therefore 
kept  a  prisoner,  but  while  being  conveyed 


across  a  lake  in  Gessler's  boat,  he  managed 
to  leap  ashore,  and  soon  after  killed  Gassier, 
who  had  landed  in  pursuit  of  him. 

TEMTE,  Vale  of,  a  narrow  valley  in  the 
northern  part  of  Greece,  extending  between 
Olympus,  on  the  north,  and  Ossa,  on  the 
south.  The  river  Salambria  flows  through 
the  valley,  and  its  scenery  is  remarkably 
beautiful.  This  valley  was  much  celebrated 
by  the  ancient  poets. 

TEMPERANCE,  originally  moderation  in 
the  use  of  all  things;  in  popular  language, 
moderation  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  or 
total  abstinence.  Among  primitive  people 
excessive  use  of  intoxicants  has  always  been 
associated  with  religious  rites,  and  indul- 
gence in  an  appetite  for  liquors  has  been 
prohibited.  Among  the  ancient  Chinese, 
Carthaginians,  Persians  and  Hebrews  there 
were  laws  against  excess,  and  the  Buddhists 
taught  total  abstinence.  In  modern  times  the 
temperance  movement  has  often  had  a  deep 
religious  significance,  but  its  appeals  have 
been  based  chiefly  on  grounds  of  health, 
economy  and  morality.  The  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Ger- 
many, France,  Austria  and  many  other  na- 
tions now  have  organizations  whose  object 
is  to  lessen  or  destroy  the  consumption  of 
liquors  and  to  secure  the  passage  and  en- 
forcement of  laws  which  aid  this  result.  For 
the  extent  of  the  movement  against  ttie  liquor 
traflSe  see  the  article  PROHiBiTiOiT. 

TEMPERATURE,  the  state  of  a  body  as 
regards  heat  and  cold,  shown  by  its  ability 
to  communicate  heat  to  other  bodies,  and 
measured  by  an  instrument  having  a  gradu- 
ated scale  between  two  fixed  points,  known 
as  the  thermometer.  Temperature  as  a  feat- 
ure of  weather  or  climate  is  principally  gov- 
erned by  the  angle  at  which  the  sun's  rays 
strike  the  earth;  the  more  nearly  vertical 
the  rays,  the  higher  the  temperature.  Bodily 
temperature  remains  normally  about  98.4° 
(see  Temperature  of  the  Body). 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Climate  Thermometer 

Heat  "U'eather  Bureau 

TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BODY.    The 

temperature  of  the  average  normal  adult  of 
good  health  is  from  98.4°  to  98.6**  F.  A 
temperature  a  fraction  of  a  degree  above  or 
below  these  figures  is  not  uncommon,  how- 
ever. In  old  age  and  at  the  beginning  of  life 
the  temperature  is  a  little  above  the  average,, 
and  in  case  of  adults  there  is  a  sligrht  rise 


TEMPERING 


3537 


TENANT 


during  exercise  and  after  a  meal.  A  decided 
rise  of  temperature  is  a  sign  of  disease  or 
other  bodily  disturbance;  usually  there  is 
doubt  of  recovery  if  the  clinical  thermometer 
shows  more  than  108°.  In  heat  prostration, 
however,  temperatures  of  112''  and  over  are 
not  uncommon.  A  high  temperature  and 
rapid  pulse  usually  coincide,  there  being  an 
increase  of  about  ten  beats  for  each  degree 
of  temperature.     See  Fever. 

TEMTERING,  the  process  of  hardening 
metals,  particularly  iron  and  steel.  Steel  is 
tempered  by  being  heated  to  a  cherry  red 
and  then  suddenly  cooling.  If  cooled  in 
water  it  is  very  hard,  but  also  brittle.  This 
is  corrected  by  gradual  reheating  till  the 
ha"rdness  is  brought  down  and  the  toughness 
increased.  The  presence  of  carbon  in  steel 
increases  its  brittleness.  Steels  of  high  car- 
bon or  of  intricate  shape  are  likely  to  crack 
when  water-quenched,  and  may  be  cooled  in 
oil  or  molten  lead.  The  excellence  of  razors, 
knives  and  all  steel-cutting  instruments  de- 
pends on  the  degree  of  temper.  See  An- 
nealing; Steel. 

TEM'PLARS,  Knights,  a  military  and 
religious  order  of  Knights  established  at 
Jerusalem  in  1118,  for  the  protection  of  pil- 
grims in  Palestine.  Subsequently  its  object 
became  the  defense  of  the  Christian  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  against  the  Sara- 
cens. The  name  Templars  was  adopted  be- 
cause the  quarters  assigned  to  the  order  were 
in  a  palace  in  Jei-usalem,  known  as  Solomon's 
Temple;  nine  French  Knights  constituted 
the  original  body.  The  grand  master,  the 
chief  of  the  order,  had  the  rank  of  a  prince, 
and  the  order  acknowledged  the  pope  alone 
as  its  protector.  Compelled,  in  1291,  to 
leave  the  Holy  Land,  the  Templars  trans- 
ferred their  chief  seat  to  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus. The  order  was  abolished  in  1312  on  the 
charge  that  the  members  had  ambitious  de- 
signs on  European  thrones  and  held  heretical 
views. 

Modern  Knights  Templars.  This  is  one  of 
the  higher  degrees' in  the  order  of  Free  Mas- 
onry.   See  Masonry. 

TEM'PLE,  in  architecture,  an  edifice  de- 
signed for  the  performance  of  public  wor- 
ship. Magnificent  and  wonderful  temples 
were  erected  in  ancient  Greece,  Kome  and 
Egypt.  The  most  remarkable  temple  in  the 
world,  was  that  built  by  Solomon,  on  Mount 
Moriah,  in  Jerusalem.  It  was  an  oblong 
stone  building,  60   cubits  in   length,  20   in 

222 


width  and  30  in  height.  The  interior  was 
divided  into  the  most  holy  place,  or  Holy  of 
Holies,  and  the  sanctuary,  or  Holy  Place. 
The  fonner  contained  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
and  was  separated  by  a  curtain  from  the 
sanctuary,  in  which  were  the  golden  candle- 
sticks, the  table  of  the  showbread  and  the 
altar  of  incense. 

This  Temple  was  destroyed  by  Xebuchad- 
nezzar  in  586  b.  c.  ;  and  after  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  a 
second  Temple,  much  inferior  in  splendor, 
was  erected.  Herod  the  Great  rebuilt  it  on  a 
larger  scale,  surrounding  it  with  four  courts, 
rising  above  each  other  like  terraces,  the 
lowest  of  which  was  550  cubits  square.  In 
the  middle  of  this  enclosure  stood  the  Tem- 
ple, of  white  marble  richly  gilt,  100  cubits 
long  and  wide  and  60  cubits  high,  with  a 
porch  100  cubits  wide.  This  magnificent  edi- 
fice was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in 
A.  D.  70  and  on  its  site  the  Turks  built  a 
mosque,  which  is  known  as  the  Dome  of  the 
Rock,  or  Mosque  of  Omar. 

TEMPLE,  Tex.,  a  city  in  Bell  County, 
thirty-five  miles  southwest  of  "Waco,  on  the 
Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  &  Texas  railroads.  It  is  surrounded  by 
some  of  the  richest  farming  land  in  the  state 
and  has  a  very  large  trade  in  cotton.  There 
are  cottonseed  oil  mills,  cotton  compresses,  a 
large  candy  factory,  flour  mills,  bottling 
works  and  manufactories  of  agricultural  im- 
plements. The  city  has  a  Federal  building, 
a  Carnegie  Library,  a  business  college,  an 
academv  and  two  hospitals.  The  place  was 
settled  "in  1881.  Population,  1910,  10,993; 
in  1917,  13.904  (Federal  estimate). 

TENACITY,  te  nas'i  ti,  the  measure  of  the 
resistance  of  bodies  to  tearing  or  crushing. 
Tenacity  results  from  cohesion,  or  the  at- 
traction which  exists  between  the  particles  of 
bodies;  and  the  stronger  this  attraction  is  in 
any  body,  the  greater  is  the  tenacity  of  the 
body.  Tenacity  is  consequently  different  in 
different  materials.  Wood  is  more  tenacious 
than  lead,  and"  cast  steel  is  still  more  so. 
The  tenacity  of  wood  is  much  greater  in  the 
direction  of  the  length  of  its  fibers  than  in 
the  transverse  direction.  With  regard  to 
metals,  the  processes  of  forging  and  wire- 
drawing increase  their  tenacity  in  the  longi- 
tudinal direction  (see  Wire)  ;  and  mixed 
metals  have,  in  general,  greater  tenacity  than 
those  which  are  simple.    See  Cohesion. 

TENANT.    See  Lease. 


TENDER 


3538 


TENNESSEE 


TENDER,  in  law,  an  offer  of  compensa- 
tion or  damages  made  in  a  money  action.  To 
make  a  tender  valid,  the  money  must  be  actu- 
ally produced.  A  tender  of  money  for  any 
payment  is  called  a  legal  tender,  if  made  in 
current  coin  of  the  country.  In  the  United 
States,  if  the  tender  is  in  pennies,  it  is  not 
legal  to  offer  more  than  twenty-five;  if  the 
tender  is  made  in  silver  coins  less  than  one 
dollar,  ihe  amomit  tendered  cannot  exceed  ten 
dollars;  if  made  in  gold  and  silver  coins, 
above  one  dollar,  it  may  be  for  any  amount ; 
if  made  in  United  States  bank  notes,  it  is 
legal  tender  for  any  amount  and  for  any  debt, 
except  for  duties  on  imports  and  interest  on 
the  public  debt. 

TEN'DONS,  the  name  given  to  the  sinews, 
or  cords,  by  means  of  which  the  muscles  are 
attached  to  the  bones.  They  consist  of 
bundles  of  white,  fibrous,  inelastic  and  very 
strong  tissue,  arranged  in  bands,  separated 
by  areolar  or  connective  tissue.  Tendons  are 
often  quite  long,  especially  where  the  parts 
are  slender,  those  in  the  fingers  extending 
from  the  muscle  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
forearm. 

TEN'EMENT,  according  to  statute,  any 
building  in  which  three  or  more  families  live. 
In  popular  thought,  however,  the  term,  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  tenementum,  meaning 
holding,  is  restricted  to  houses  occupied  by 
several  different  families  of  the  poorer  classes 
of  city  populations. 

The  governments  of  almost  all  large  mu- 
nicipalities have  passed  tenement  house  laws 
aiming  to  better  housing  conditions  and  to 
prevent  unhealthful  congestion.  Sociologists 
and  legislators  are  attacking  the  problem  in 
all  its  phases,  and  have  succeeded  in  elim- 
inating many  evils,  but  there  is  still  much  to 
be  accomplished  to  safeguard  the  health  and 
safety  of  the  people  living  in  the  congested 
districts  of  all  large  cities.  To  enforce  the 
laws  so  far  as  possible,  health  boards,  public 
health  nurses,  sanitary  inspectors,  building 
commissions  and  other  agencies  are  ap- 
pointed. Light  and  ventilation  are  now  in- 
sisted on  everywhere.  A  part  of  the  build- 
ing lot  must  be  left  vacant  so  as  to  provide 
inner  courts  open  to  the  air  and  weather.  All 
rooms  must  have  windows  opening  on  such 
courts  or  on  public  streets.  Sanitary  closets 
must  be  provided  and  arrangements  made  for 
a  suitable  degree  of  family  privacy.  Fire 
protection  is  looked  after,  and  the  height  of 
the  buildings  is  limited. 


TENERIFFE,  ten  er  if,  the  largest  of  the 
Canary  Islands  (which  see). 

TENIERS,  ten'yerz,  the  family  name  of 
two  famous  Flemish  painters,  father  and  son. 

David  Teniers,  The  Elder  (1582-1649), 
was  born  at  Antwerp  and  was  taught  his  art 
by  Rubens.  He  chose  for  treatment  almost 
exclusively  scenes  from  everyday  life.  His 
pictures  are  distinguished  for  their  charm  of 
detail,  naturalism  and  color  effect.  The  most 
noteworthy  are  A  Dutch  Kitchen,  now  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  Playing  at 
Bowls  and  Peasants  Carousing  in  Front  of  a 
Tavern. 

David  Teniers,  The  Younger  (1610- 
1690),  chose  the  same  kinds  of  subjects  as 
those  painted  by  his  father,  and  he  •  is 
recognized  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  Flem- 
ish genre  painters.  He,  too,  was  born  at 
Antwerp,  and  was  trained  by  his  father.  In 
1650  he  became  court  painter  at  Brussels,  and 
remained  there  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  ex- 
ecuted several  hundred  pictures,  most  of 
them  depicting  the  cheerful  scenes  he  wit- 
nessed in  the  homes  and  on  the  streets  about 
him.  His  works  are  distributed  among  all 
the  great  galleries  of  Europe  and  America. 
They  include  The  Barber  Shop,  Peasant^ 
Dance,  Marriage  Festival  and  A  Merry 
Repast. 


ENNESSEE,  ten  eh  se' ,  thirty-fourth 
among  the  states  of  the  American  Union  in 
area  and  seventeenth  in  population,  lies 
south  of  Kentucky  and  north  of  Georgia, 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  North  Carolina  is 
east,  and  Missouri  and  Arkansas  are  west. 
Tennessee  is  popularly  called  the  Big  Bend 
State,  the  name  referring  to  the  majestic 
sweep  of  the  Tennessee  River,  which  lacks 
but  little  of  flowing  twice  across  the  state. 
The  area  is  42,022  square  miles,  of  which 
335  square  miles  are  water.  The  popula- 
tion in  1910  was  2,184,789;  by  Federal  es- 


TENNESSEE 


3539 


TENNESSEE 


timate  this  had  increased  to  2,321,253  on 
July  1,  1918. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  What  is  known 
as  East  Tennessee  extends  from  the  Smoky 
Mountains  to  the  crest  of  the  Cumberland 
Plateau,  and  contains  some  of  the  largest 
ridges  of  the  Appalachians.  Between  the 
eastern  ridges  and  the  plateau  stretches  a 
valley  region  about  one  hundred  miles  in 
width,  broken  by  minor  elevations  and  de- 
pressions. West  Tennessee  lies  between  the 
Tennessee  and  Mississippi  rivers.  The  nar- 
row valley  of  the  Tennessee  River  is  skirted 
on  the  west  by  a  gravelly  ridge  running  north 
and  south.  From  this  divide  a  rolling  plain 
slopes  toward  the  west,  terminating  in  steep 
bluffs,  beyond  which  are  the  alluvial  bottom 
lands  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Middle  Ten- 
nessee is  the  portion  of  the  state  between  the 
crest  of  the  Cumberland  Plateau  and  the  Ten- 
nessee River.  Its  chief  structural  features 
are  a  fertile  central  basin  and  a  sandy, 
gravelly  highland  rim  surrounding  it. 

The  state  is  well  drained  by  three  great 
river  systems.  The  Tennessee,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  French  Broad  and  the  Hol- 
ston,  receives  the  Clinch,  the  Little  Tennessee, 
the  Elk  and  the  Duck.  The  Cumberland 
flows  into  Tennessee  from  Kentucky,  bends 
southward  around  Nashville,  passes  back  into 
Kentucky  and  flows  into  the  Ohio.  The  Mis- 
sissippi River,  which  forms  the  western 
boundary  of  the  state,  has  several  important 
tributaries  in  Tennessee. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  mild  and  usually 
delightful,  warm  in  the  lowlands  of  the  west 
and  cooler  in  the  highlands  of  the  east.  The 
average  temperature  for  the  year  at  Memphis 
is  61.3°;  at  Nashville,  59.3°;  at  Knoxville, 
57.4°.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  fifty- 
four  inches,  and  it  is  well  distributed 
throughout  the  state. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  mineral  resources 
are  varied  and  rich.  The  coal  field  coincides 
in  extent  with  the  Cumberland  Plateau.  The 
annual  output  of  coal  is  now  about  6,500,000 
tons,  a  considerable  increase  resulting  from 
war  demands  in  1917.  Iron  ore  is  next  in 
importance,  Tennessee  being  the  seventh 
state  in  the  Union  in  the  production  of  iron ; 
the  quantity  mined  increased  to  nearly  half 
a  million  tons  a  year  under  heavy  war  de- 
mands. Phosphate  rock  of  value  abounds  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  central  basin  and 
in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the 
highland  rim.    The  marbles  of  East  Tennes- 


see are  noted  for  their  purity  and  variety. 
The  copper  mines  produce  about  14,500,000 
pounds  a  year,  and  large  quantities  of  sul- 
phuric acid  are  i^roduced  as  a  by-product. 
There  is  some  gold,  silver,  lead  and  zinc, 
with  a  combined  value  of  nearly  $11,000,000 
per  year.  Other  minerals  are  slate,  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  lithographic  stone,  zinc  and 
brick  and  pottery  clays. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  is  the  most  im- 
portant industrj';  four-fifths  of  the  land  be- 
ing in  farms,  and  nearly  half  of  all  the  area 
being  improved  land.  The  Mississippi  bot- 
toms are  unsurpassed  in  fertility.  They 
produce  cotton,  Indian  com,  alfalfa  and  other 
crops  in  abundance.  The  most  important 
crops  of  the  state  are  com,  wheat  and  cot- 
ton. By  far  the  largest  acreage  is  in  corn, 
four  times  as  many  acres  being  devoted  to  it 
as  are  given  to  hay,  the  next  largest  crop. 
The  corn  is  worth,  at  normal  prices,  about 
$60,000,000  a  year;  hay,  over  $20,000,000. 
Cotton  is  worth  over  $17,000,000  a  year; 
wheat,  about  $10,000,000  normally.  Other 
products  are  tobacco,  oats,  potatoes,  sorghum, 
peanuts  and  garden  vegetables.  Pears, 
peaches,  apples  and  strawberries  are  exten- 
sively cultivated.  Trucking  for  the  Northern 
markets  is  an  important  industry  in  some 
portions  of  West  Tennessee.  Livestock  rais- 
ing and  dairying  are  important. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  are  ex- 
tensive and  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  Ten- 
nessee is  twenty-sixth  among  the  states  in  the 
value  of  its  manufactured  products.  Nash- 
ville is  th^^rincipal  center  of  flour  milling. 
Lumbering  is  an  important  industry  in  all 
parts  of  the  state,  and  furniture,  agricultural 
implements  and  other  articles  of  wood  are 
manufactured.  Some  of  the  largest  hard- 
wood cabinet  factories  in  the  United  States 
are  located  at  Knox\dlle.  There  are  many 
large  factories  for  iron  and  steel  products. 
Other  manufactures  are  tobacco,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  cottonseed  oil  and  cake,  leather 
and  leather  goods,  clothing,  wagons,  carriages 
and  plows. 

Transportation.  Tennessee  has  a  railway 
mileage  exceeding  4,300.  The  principal 
roads  are  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  Saint 
Louis,  the  Louisville  &  Nashville,  the  South- 
ern, the  Tennessee  Central  and  the  Illinois 
Central.  The  Cumberland,  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi  are  navigable  rivers,  the  last 
furnishing  communication  with  the  entire 
Mississippi  valley. 


TENNESSEE 


3540 


TENNESSEE 


TEKNESSEE 

THE  BIG  BE>©  STATE 


Key  to  Population 

•  Between  115,000  and  150,000 
ABetween  60,000  and    65,000 

♦  Between  35,000  and  40,000 
-Between  16,000  and  20,000 
■  Between    6,000  and_  1 2,000 


Tobacco, 

$5,000,000  a  Year 


Cotton, 
8,000,000 
a  Year 


The   Leap, 

Lookout  Mountain 


Corn, 

^55,000,000 
a  Year 


Cities.  There  were  six  cities  in  the  state 
with  populations  exceeding  10,000  in  1917. 
These  were  Memphis  (151,877)  ;  Nashville, 
the  capital  (118,136) ;  Chattanooga  (61.575) ; 
Knoxville  (59,112);  Jackson  (17.946); 
Johnson  City  (11,885).  Memphis  is  fortieth 
among  United  States  cities  in  population. 

Education.  The  public  schools  are  main- 
tained by   the   interest   on   the   pennanent 


school  fund,  appropriations  from  the  state 
treasury  and  taxes  levied  in  the  counties. 
Many  cities  and  towns  supplement  these 
funds  by  local  taxation.  The  state  appro- 
priates to  public  education  about  one-fourth 
of  its  armual  revenues.  This  is  apportioned 
to  the  elementary  schools,  county  high 
schools,  the  four  state  normal  schools,  the 
state    university,    and    to    school    libraries. 


TENNESSEE 


3541 


TENNESSEE 


White  and  colored  children  attend  separate 
schools.  The  state  normal  schools  are  at 
Johnson  City,  Murfreesboro,  Memphis  and 
Nashville;  the  latter  is  an  agricultural  and 
industrial  normal.  Tennessee  is  favored  with 
numerous  universities  and  colleges  of  high 
rank.  At  the  head  of  the  system  of  schools  is 
the  University  of  Tennessee  at  Kjioxville. 
Other  schools  of  importance  are  the  follow- 
ing; they  are  coeducational,  except  as  other- 
wise noted : 

Bristol  College,  Spencer. 

Carson  and  Newman  College,  Jefferson  City. 

Christian    Brothers    College    (Catholic,    for 
men),  Memphis. 

Cumberland  University,  Lebanon. 

Howard  College  for  Young  Ladies,  Gallatin. 

King  College  (for  men),  Bristol. 

Lincoln    Memorial    University,    Cumberland 
Gap. 

Maryville  College,  Maryville. 

Memphis  Conference  Female  Institute,  Jack- 
son. 

Milligan  College,  Milligan. 

Southwestern  Presbyterian  University  (for 
men),  Clarksville. 

Sullins  College  (for  women),  Bristol. 

Synodical  College  for  Females,  Rogersville. 

Tennessee  College   (for  women),  Murfrees- 
boro. 

University  of  Chattanooga,  Chattanooga. 

University  of  the  South  (for  men),  at  Sewa- 
nee. 

Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville. 

"Ward-Belmont  College  for  Young  Women", 
Nashville. 

There  are  three  schools  of  college  grade  for 
negroes.  These  are  Fisk  University  at  Nash- 
ville, Knoxville  College  at  Knoxville,  and 
Walden  University  at  Nashville. 

Institutions.  The  school  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  is  at  Knoxville;  the  school  for  the 
blind  and  the  state  reformatory  are  at  Nash- 
ville. The  hospitals  for  the  insane  are  at 
Bolivar,  Nash"ville  and  Knoxville.  The  peni- 
tentiary, at  Nashville,  has  a  branch  at  Petros. 
A  school  for  the  blind  is  at  Nashville,  and  the 
state  supports  a  Confederate  Soldiers'  Home, 
on  "The  Hermitage,"  formerly  the  home  of 
Andrew  Jackson,  near  Nashville. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The 
number  of  representatives  cannot  exceed 
ninety-nine  and  the  number  of  senators  is 
limited  to  one-third  the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives. Clergymen  are  not  eligible  to 
membership.  The  members  of  both  houses 
are  elected  for  two  years.  The  legislature 
meets  biennially ;  regular  sessions  are  limited 
to  seventy-five  days  and  special  sessions  to 
twenty  days.    The  executive  department  con- 


sists of  a  governor,  elected  by  the  people 
for  two  years;  a  secretary  of  state,  elected 
by  the  legislature  for  four  years,  a  treasurer 
and  a  comptroller  of  the  treasury,  elected  by 
the  legislature  for  two  years,  and  an  attorney- 
general  appointed  by  the  judges  of  the  su- 
preme court  for  eight  years.  The  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  and  the  com- 
missioner of  agriculture  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  and  confirmed  by  the  senate 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  courts  consist 
of  a  supreme  court,  with  five  judges,  one  of 
whom  is  chief  justice;  a  court  of  civil  ap- 
peals, with  five  judges,  all  elected  by  the 
people  for  eight  years,  and  circuit,  chancery 
and  other  inferior  courts,  the  judges  of  which 
are  elected  by  the  people  of  their  districts  for 
eight  years. 

History.  Probably  the  first  white  man  to 
visit  Tennessee  was  DeSoto.  Later  LaSalle 
built  a  fort  at  the  site  of  Memphis.  During 
the  eighteenth  century  English  explorers 
from  the  eastern  colonies  ventured  into  the  re- 
gion, among  them  Daniel  Boone,  James  Eob- 
ertson  and  others,  and  established  posts  for 
trade  with  the  Indians.  In  1772  the  Wau- 
tauga  Association  was  formed,  under  which 
the  territory  was  governed  almost  independ- 
ently for  several  years.  It  was,  however,  an- 
nexed to  the  State  of  North  Carolina  in 
1776.  Indian  troubles  were  frequent,  and 
the  fact  that  the  government  of  North  Caro- 
lina did  not  take  active  measures  to  end  these 
outbreaks,  together  with  the  indignation 
aroused  at  the  presumption  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  ceding  the  territory  of  Tennessee  to 
the  Federal  government,  without  consulting 
the  inhabitants,  led  to  the  formation  of  a 
state  known  as  "Frankland"  or  "Franklin," 
with  John  Sevier  as  governor.  However, 
North  Carolina  soon  regained  possession. 
After  1790  the  territory  was  known  as  the 
"Territory  South  of  the  Ohio,"  until  June 
1, 1796,  when  it  was  admitted  as  the  sixteenth 
state. 

The  progress  of  the  new  state  was  rapid, 
thousands  of  immigrants  entering  from  all 
the  Eastern  states.  The  sentiment  of  the 
people  of  Tennessee  was  divided  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War,  but  after  a  period 
of  hesitation  the  state  seceded  in  June,  1861. 
It  furnished  more  than  100,000  soldiers  to 
the  Confederate  army  and  about  30,000  to  the 
Federal  army,  and  it  was  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  severest  fighting  of  the  war.  Andrew 
Johnson,  a  War  Democrat,  was  appointed 


TENNESSEE 


3542 


TENNESSEE  RIVER 


Items  of  Interest  on  Tennessee        |  j 

The  Valley  of  East  Tennessee,  which  j:| 
is  a  part  of  the  great  Appalachian  |i| 
Valley,  consists  of  parallel  ridges  and  |''j 
valleys  developed  by  erosion  on  shale,  ji 
sandstone,  and  limestone;  in  the  north-  j-j 
east  the  ridges  are  more  numerous  and  p 
higher  than  in  the  southwest.  f;1 

Reelfoot  Lake,  eighteen  miles  long  1 1 
and  three  miles  wide,  in  the  northwest-  |.,| 
em  part  of  the  state,  is  its  only  large  f  1 
lake;  it  occupies  a  depression  formed  |  j 
during  an  earthquake  in  1811.  l\ 

The  average  number  of  clear,  fair,  or  ij 
only  partly  cloudy  days  during  the  year  jj 
is  260.  |i 

The  warm,  moisture-bearing  winds  11 
blow  low  from  the  south  or  southwest  n 
with  a  free  sweep  across  the  state ;  the  |:j 
average  velocity  is  low,  and  violent  |"| 
storms  are  rare.  |i 

The  character  of  the  soil  varies  great-  I J 
ly;  in  general  the  valleys  and  lowlands  \\ 
are  exceedingly  fertile.  |i 

The  average  size  of  farms  in  the  I  j 
state  is  81.5  acres.  P 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  coin  and  l] 
paper  money  in  the  state  before  Ten-  \-\ 
nessee  was  admitted  to  the  Union,  more  M 
than  twenty  articles  were  valued  and  j.} 
declared  legal  tender ;  among  them  were  jj 
fox  skins,  beaver  skins,  bacon,  and  rye  |;;| 
whisky.  H 

Questions  on  Tennessee  ll 

"What  is  the  average  elevation  of  the  l-j 
state?    Name  some  of  the  highest  peaks,   p 

What  is  the  average  size  of  the  ji 
farms  ?  H 

"What  percentage  of  the  farm  area  is  |!!| 
worked  by  owners?  p 

How  many  miles  of  railroad  has  the  ji 
state?  ji 

To  what  extent  is  the  employment  of  p 
women  and  children  in  factories  regu-  |  j 
lated?  (l 

Name  five  important  educational  in-  p 
stitutions.  jj 

"What  is  the  purpose  of  Lincoln  Me-  |  j 
morial  University?  11! 

"What  is  the  state  capital?  What  fj 
President  lived  near  that  city?  Why  j-i 
is  it  important  in  industry  and  com-  p 
merce?  i"! 


military  governor  and  attempted  to  reor- 
ganize the  state  as  a  part  of  the  Union,  but 
met  with  rebuffs  from  Congress.  For  a  time 
after  the  war  there  was  much  disorder,  but 
soon  Tennessee  entered  upon  another  period 
of  progress,  which  has  not  been  interrupted. 
Before  the  advent  of  national  prohibition  a 
drastic  prohibition  law  became  effective.  The 
state's  finances  are  controlled  on  the  budget 
system  (see  Budget),  and  there  is  a  compul- 
sory system  of  primary  elections.  Women 
were  granted  Presidential  suffrage  in  1919. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Bristol  Johnson  City      Memphis 

Chattanooga      Knoxville  Nashville 

Jackson 

HISTORY 

Chattanooga,  Battle  of  Prankland 
Fort  Henry  and  Fort    Murfreesboro,  Battleof 
Donelson  Shiloh,  Battle  of 

RIVERS   AND    MOUNTAINS 

Cumberland  Mountains  Mississippi  River 
Cumberland  River  Tennessee  River 

*  TENNESSEE,  University  of,  a  state  uni- 
versity located  at  Knoxville.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1794  as  Blount  College.  In  1807 
the  name  was  changed  to  East  Tennessee 
College,  and  two  years  later  to  East  Ten- 
nessee University.  The  present  name  was 
adopted  in  1879.  In  1909  the  institution 
was  recognized  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
public  school  system  of  the  state.  It  contains 
the  state  college  of  agriculture  and  me- 
chanic arts,  and  receives  for  the  support  of 
this  college  all  the  Federal  funds  allotted  to 
the  state  for  this  purpose.  It  also  has  the 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station,  supported  by 
Federal  and  State  funds.  It  maintains  a 
branch  station  at  Jackson,  carries  on  co-op- 
erative agricultural  experiments  in  Middle 
Tennessee,  and  conducts  short  courses  in 
agriculture  at  a  number  of  places  in  all  sec- 
tions of  the  state.  There  are  colleges  of  liberal 
arts,  commerce,  law,  medicine  and  dentistry, 
the  summer  school  and  the  graduate  school. 
The  colleges  of  medicine  and  dentisti'y  are  at 
Memphis.  The  student  enrollment  is  over 
2,000  and  the  faculty  numbers  more  than  200. 
There  is  a  library  of  42,600  volumes. 

TENNESSEE' RIVER,  the  largest  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ohio  River,  formed  by  the  Clinch 
and  the  Holston,  which  rise  in  Virginia  and 
unite  in  the  eastern  part  of  Tennessee.  It 
flows  southwestward  to  Chattanooga,  cross- 
ing the  Alleghany  Mountains,  thence  flows 
westward  through  the  northern  part  of  Ala- 
bama, then  northward  and  northeastward 
and    again    northwestward,    crossing    Ken- 


TENNIEL 


3543 


TENNYSON 


tueky  and  joining  the  Ohio  near  Padueah. 
It  is  about  800  miles  long — 1,200  miles,  with 
the  Holston.  It  is  navigable  for  large  steam- 
boats to  Florence,  Ala.,  where  it  is  obstnacted 
by  shoals.  A  canal  around  these  has  ex- 
tended the  navigation  for  steamers  as  far  as 
Kingston. 

TENNIEL,  ten  neeV,  John,  Sir  (1820- 
1914),  one  of  the  most  famous  illustrators, 
born  in  London.  He  painted  one  of  the  fres- 
coes in  the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1845, 
but  he  painted  only  a  few  pictures.  From 
1851  to  1901  he  was  connected,  as  an  illus- 
trator, with  Punch,  and  produced  over  two 
thousand  cartoons  for  that  paper,  in  par- 
ticular the  weekly  political  cartoon.  He 
also  illustrated  many  Christmas  and  other 
books,  including  Aesop's  Fables,  Ingoldshy 
Legends  and  Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonder- 
land. 

TEN'NIS,  a  game  played  on  an  oblong 
walled  court  (not  to  be  confused  with  lawn 
tennis) .  Two  players,  using  balls  and  rackets 
similar  to  those  of  lawn  tennis,  keep  the  ball 
bounding  against  a  wall,  striking  it  alter- 
nately, the  object  being  to  keep  it  going  as 
long  as  possible.  The  game  was  introduced 
into  England  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
it  continued  to  be  veiy  popular  with  the  no- 
bility to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  See  Lawx 
Tennis. 

TEN'NYSON,  Alfred,  first  Baron  Tenny- 
son (1809-1892),  the  greatest  representative 
poet  of  the  Victorian  Age,  born  at  Somersby, 
Lincolnshire,  Aug.  6,  1809.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  four  years  spent  at  the  Louth  Gram- 
mar School,  his  ear- 
ly education  and 
preparation  for  col- 
lege were  directed 
by  his  father,  rector 
of  the  parish.  In 
1828  he  entered 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where 
he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  stu- 
dent, and  where,  in 
1830,  he  won  a 
medal,  with  his 
prize  poem,  Tim- 
buctoo.  He  had 
published,  in  1827,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Charles,  Poems  by  Two  Brothers,  but 
this  work  gave  little  indication  of  his  pe- 
culiar genius;  and  his  first  really  important 


ALFRED  TENNYSON 


work  was  a  volume  of  Poems,  Chiefly  Lyrical, 
which  appeared  in  1830,  and  which  revealed 
undoubted  genius.  In  this  very  productive 
period,  two  years  later,  a  second  volume  ap- 
peared, which  won  for  its  author  recognition 
as  a  true  poet.  It  contained  many  of  his  most 
beautiful  shorter  poems,  The  Lady  of  Sha- 
lott,  Oenone,  The  Lotus-Eaters  and  A  Dream 
of  Fair  Women. 

Partly  because  of  adverse  criticism,  but 
chiefly  because  of  his  deep  affliction  in  the 
death  of  his  friend,  Arthur  Hallam,  the  next 
nine  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  retirement 
and  in  complete  devotion  to  his  art.  As  a 
result  of  these  years  of  study,  brooding  and 
reflection,  came  the  two  volumes  of  1842, 
which  showed,  in  such  notable  poems  as 
Morte  d'  Arthur,  Dora,  Locksley  Hall,  Ulys- 
ses, The  Tivo  Voices  and  Break,  Break, 
Break,  that  the  poet's  power  was  reaching  its 
maturity.  From  this  year  dates  Tennyson's 
supremacy.  The  Princess,  with  its  exquisite 
lyi'ics,  was  published  in  1847,  and  following 
this  in  1850  came  In  Memoriam,  in  some 
respects  the  finest  elegiac  poem  in  the  lan- 
guage. The  suffering  and  doubt  and  final 
triumph  of  faith,  which  had  been  Tennyson's 
personal  experience  after  the  death  of 
Arthur  Hallam,  and  the  general  tendency  of 
the  age  to  skepticism  and  materialism,  which 
must  finally  emerge  in  a  deeper  and  nobler 
faith  and  understanding,  find  expression  in 
this  series  of  lyrics.  In  this  same  year  Tenny- 
son succeeded  Wordsworth  as  poet -laureate ; 
and  he  married  Miss  Emily  Sellwood,  to 
whom  he  had  been  for  years  betrothed. 

Maud,  and  Other  Poems  was  published  in 
1855,  but  was  not  received  with  marked  en- 
thusiasm. This  coldness,  however,  was  more 
than  compensated  by  the  revival  of  popular- 
ity in  1859,  when  the  Idylls  of  the  King  ap- 
peared. In  1864  came  Enoch  Arden,  perhaps 
the  most  popular  of  Tennyson's  poems.  Dur- 
ing his  later  years  he  made  several  attempts 
at  dramatic  composition,  but,  though  his 
productions  are  excellent,  they  cannot  rank 
with  the  best.  In  1889  appeared  the  volume 
called  Demeter  and  Other  Poems,  which 
contained  Crossing  the  Bar. 

In  1884  he  was  made  a  baron.  During  his 
remaining  years  he  lived  in  the  retirement  he 
had  always  chosen,  and  his  life  was  ended  fit- 
tingly by  a  quiet  death  in  his  summer  home  at 
Alderworth,  Sussex,  Oct.  6.  1892.  He  was 
placed  in  Westminster  Abbey,  next  to 
Chaucer  and  Robert  Browning. 


TENT 


3544 


TENURE  OF  OFFICE  ACT 


Tennyson's  marvelous  mastery  of  the  form 
of  verse,  his  keen  sensibility  to  both  material 
and  spiritual  beauty  and  his  sympathy  with 
the  dominant  longing  of  his  age  for  truth, 
make  him  at  once  its  truest  and  greatest  ex- 
ponent and  one  of  the  rarest  of  the  world's 
poets.  Consult  Stopford  Brooke's  Tennyson, 
His  Art  and  Relation  to  Modern  Life. 

See  the  article  Reading,  for  additional  ma- 
terial relating  to  Tennyson. 

TENT.    See  Camps  and  Camping. 

TENT  CATERPILLAR,  kat'er pilar,  the 
caterpillars  or  larvae  of  four  species  of  silk- 
spinning  moths.  The  apple-tree  tent  cater- 
pillar is  the  most  destructive  and  the  best 
known.  The  female  is  a  dull  reddish-brown 
moth,  with  two  oblique  pale  stripes  on  the 
fore  wings.  In  July  the  eggs,  about  300  in 
number,  are  laid  in  rings  or  belts  €iround  the 
small  twigs  on  apple  and  wild  cherry  trees. 
The  eggs  are  firmly  cemented  together  and  re- 
main on  the  twig  until  the  following  spring, 
when  the  young  appear  and  spin  a  tentlike 
web  in  the  crotch  of  a  branch  for  their  home. 
From  this  characteristic  the  name,  tent  cater- 
pillar, arises.  The  caterpillars  have  raven- 
ous appetites,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  oc- 
cupants of  a  single  tent  will  eat  12,000  young 
leaves,  a  destruction  of  foliage  which  no 
tree  can  withstand. 

The  caterpillars  leave  the  tent  to  feed  at 
about  the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  and  again 
in  the  afternoon.     They  are  "at  home"  in  the 


ent  silk,  in  which  they  change.  Within 
twenty  or  twenty-five  days  the  moths  issue 
from  the  cocoons  and  soon  after  lay  their 
eggs  for  next  year's  brood. 

The  forest  tent  caterpillar,  or  forest  army 
worm,  is  common  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  there  are  two  varieties  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  the  California  tent  cater- 
pillar, which  is  found  on  oak  trees  in  the 
spring,  and  another  variety  that  attacks  fruit 
trees. 

TENURE  OF  OFFICE  ACT,  an  act  passed 
by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  in  1867 
limiting  the  President's  power  to  remove  of- 
ficers appointed  by  him.  According  to  the 
Constitution,  the  consent  of  the  Senate  is 
not  required.  Until  the  date  named  it 
had  been  the  prerogative  of  every  President 
to  dismiss  any  oflBcial  who  had  come  into 
office  by  Presidential  appointment.  Soon 
after  Andrew  Johnson  was  inaugurated  he 
came  into  conflict  with  Congress  on  the  ques- 
tion   of   reconstruction.      Fearing   that    the 


(a)   Full    grown    caterpillar. 


TENT  CATERPILLAR 
(b)   Female    moth.       (c)    Male    moth. 


(d)    Tent    caterpillar. 


early  morning  and  in  the  evening,  and  by 
burning  the  tents  or  spraying  them  with 
kerosene  at  these  times  most  of  the  cater- 
pillars can  be  destroyed.  The  eggs  are  easily 
seen,  and  may  be  removed  from  the  trees  and 
destroyed  during  the  winter.  Many  eggs  are 
eaten  by  birds  that  remain  in  the  locality 
during  the  winter.  The  caterpillars  reach 
their  full  growth  in  about  forty  days,  after 
which  they  leave  their  nest  to  find  sheltered 
places  under  leaves,  fence  rails,  ete.,  and  spin 
a  spindle-shaped  cocoon  of  almost  transpar- 


President  might  exercise  the  unlimited  power 
of  removal  allowed  him  by  the  Constitution 
and  thus  interfere  with  the  Congressional  pol- 
icy of  reconstruction.  Congress  passed  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act,  which  made  all  removals 
imjiossible  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 
Johnson,  taking  the  stand  that  the  act  was 
unconstitutional,  ignored  it,  and  in  his  at- 
tempt to  remove  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Secre- 
tary of  War,  brought  about  his  own  impeach- 
ment. In  1887  the  act  was  repealed.  See 
Civil  Service. 


TERCEIRA 


3545 


TERN 


TERCEIRA,  ter see ra.    See  Azores. 

TERENCE,  terpens,  (about  185-159  b.  c), 
in  full,  Publius  Terentius  Afer,  a  celebrated 
Roman  writer  of  comedies.  He  was  born  in 
Africa,  and  while  a  child  was  bought  by 
Publius  Terentius  Lucanus,  a  Roman  senator, 
who  took  him  to  Rome,  gave  him  a  good  edu- 
cation and  finally  freed  him.  The  first  play 
which  he  produced,  Andria,  won  him  recog- 
nition and  popularity.  About  the  year  161 
he  went  to  Greece,  where  he  translated  many 
of  Menander's  comedies.  According  to  some 
accounts  he  died  in  Greece;  according  to 
others  he  was  drowned  in  his  passage  back  to 
Italy.  Six  comedies  of  Terence's  are  ex- 
tant, and  these  are  all  he  is  known  to  have 
produced:  Andria,  The  Eunuch,  The  Self 
Tormentor,  Phormio,  The  Stepmother,  and 
the  Adelphi,  his  last  piece,  brought  out  in 
Rome  the  year  before  his  death. 

TERHUNE,  terhune',  Mary  Virginia 
Hawes  (1831-  ),  an  American  writer, 
best  known  by  her  pen  name  of  Marion  Har- 
LAND.  From  the  time  she  was  fourteen  years 
old  she  wrote  for  the  press.  In  1888  she  be- 
came editor  of  The  Homemaker.  She  has 
conducted  departments  in  Wide  Awake,  Saint 
Nicholas  and  many  other  periodicals  and  in 
daily  newspapers.  Among  the  novels  which 
she  has  published  are  The  Hidden  Path,  Mir- 
iam, Judith,  True  as  Steel  and  Moss-Side. 

TERMITES,  tu/mites,  a  family  of  insects, 
commonly  known  as  white  ants.     They  live 


TERMITE'S  NEST 
In  the  above  diagrammatic  section  of  a  ter- 
mite's nest,  D,  represents  a  well-aired  empty- 
attic,  C,  the  next  story,  the  nursery,  where  the 
young  termites  are  hatched;  B,  a  hall,  sup- 
ported by  pillars;  A,  the  ground  story;  a, 
winding  passages  in  the  walls;  b,  the  shelves 
on  which  the  young  termites  are  hatched;  c, 
the  royal  chamber,  in  which  the  king  and 
queen  are  imprisoned;  d,  the  chambers  of  the 
worker  termites;  e,  store  chambers;  f,  holes 
in  the  ground  out  of  which  the  material 
used   in  making  the   nest   is   dug. 


much  like  the  ants,  though  really  they  have 
little  relationship  to  them.  Termites  are  con- 
fined to  the  tropics  and  are  especially  plenti- 
ful in  western  Africa.  They  live  in  colonies, 
raising  large  dwellings,  in  the  form  of  irreg- 
ular pyramids  or  cones,  to  the  height  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet.  These  structures  are  firmly 
cemented  and  are  strong  enough  to  bear  the 
weight  of  several  men.  Each  is  divided  into 
various  apartments,  chaml3ers  and  galleries, 
which  have  their  specific  uses,  like  the  rooms 


termites 
a,    perfect    male;    b,    female    distended    with 
eggs;  c,  soldier;  d,  worker. 

of  a  house.  In  every  colony  there  are  a  king 
and  a  queen,  both  of  which  are  much  larger 
than  the  rest  of  the  insects;  they  are  con- 
stantly kept  together  in  a  large  chamber  in  the 
heart  of  the  hive,  where  they  are  attended  by 
a  detachment  of  workers.  The  queen  lays  the 
eggs  at  intervals,  and  workers  carry  them 
off  to  the  small  cells  in  which  the  larvae  are 
reared.  As  in  the  case  of  the  bees,  the  king 
and  queen  make  a  nuptial  flight,  after  which 
the  wings  break  off.  The  other  members  of 
the  colony  are  wingless  except  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  when  a  brood  with  wings  is 
reared  and  sent  away  to  found  a  new  colony. 
There  seem  to  be  two  classes  of  neuters,  the 
workers  and  the  soldiers.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  former  to  build  the  habitations,  make  cov- 
ered roads,  nurse  the  young,  attend  the  king 
and  queen  and  manage  the  domestic  affairs 
of  the  colony.  The  soldiers  have  powerfully 
developed  mandibles,  and  they  defend  the 
community  with  desperate  courage  from  any 
attacks.  In  the  tropics,  some  species  are  ter- 
ribly destinaetive,  as  they  sometimes  riddle 
all  the  timbers,  of  a  house  before  their  pres- 
ence is  even  known.  One  species  of  termites 
is  native  of  the  United  States. 

TERN,  turn,  a  group  of  birds  related  to  the 
gulls,  found  along  lakes  and  rivers  and  on  the 
seacoast  in  every  part  of  the  world.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  power  of  flight.    The 


TERPSICHORE 


3546 


TERRIER 


wings  are  very  long  and  pointed,  the  tails 
forked.  The  largest  of  about  fifty  species,  the 
Caspian  tern,  has  a  wing  expanse  of  about 
four  feet.  The  smallest  is  the  least  tern, 
which  is  a  little  more  than  eight  inches  long. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  is  the  common  tern, 
seen  occasionally  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It 
has  pearl-gray  plumage,  a  white  throat  and 
tail,  and  is  about  fourteen  inches  long.  The 
terns  nest  in  colonies,  usually  on  uninhabited 
rocky  islands.  They  lay  the  eggs  upon  a  rough 
nest  of  sticks  or  upon  the  bare  rocks.  There 
are  about  ten  species  in  North  America, 
among  which  are  the  gull-hilled,  sooty,  black 
and  royal. 

TERPSICHORE,  turp  ^i1/o  re,  in  Greek 
mythology,  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  the  origi- 
nator and  patroness  of  the  dance.  She  is  rep- 
resented as  a  laurel-crowned  virgin  holding 
in  her  hand  a  lyre.    See  Muses. 

TER'RA  COT'TA,  from  an  Italian  word 
meaning  baked  earth,  is  baked  clay  or  burned 
earth,  a  similar  material  to  that  from  which 
pottery  is  made,  much  used,  both  in  ancient 
and  modem  times,  for  architectural  decora- 
tions, statues,  figures  and  vases.  As  now 
made,  it  usually  consists  of  potter's  clay  and 
fine  powered  silica.  It  is  produced  in  many 
different  colors,  the  most  pleasing  being  a  rich 
red  and  a  warm  cream  color.  Large  numbers 
of  ancient  statues,  especially  statuettes,  of 
terra  eotta  have  been  found  in  recent  times. 
Terra  eotta  is  extensively  used  by  architects 
for  ornamenting  buildings. 

A  large  part  of  terra  eotta  work  is  made  in 
plaster  of  Paris  molds.  Cornices  and  other 
architectural  decorations,  in  which  many 
pieces  are  just  alike,  can  best  be  divided  into 
numerous  sections  and  cast.  In  the  process 
of  firing,  terra  eotta  shrinks  about  one  inch  to 
the  foot,  and  allowance  must  be  made  for  this 
in  the  molding.  Terra  eotta  may  be  glazed  or 
enameled  beautifully  in  white  and  colors,  the 
work  being  done  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  tile 
glazing.    See  Pottery. 

TER'RAPIN,  the  popular  name  of  several 
species  of  turtles.  They  are  covered  with  a 
slightly-curved,  circular  shell,  and  are  able 
to  draw  legs,  head  and  tail  under  this  homy 
plate.  They  inhabit  ponds,  swamps  and 
rivers,  in  tropical  and  temperate  regions,  and 
feed  on  vegetable  food,  fish,  small  reptiles 
and  other  animals.  Terrapins  are  more  agile 
on  land  than  many  other  turtles,  and  they  are 
good  swimmers.  In  the  United  States  the 
name  is  applied  most  frequently  to  the  dia- 


mond-back terrapin,  a  salt-marsh  denizen 
whose  flesh  is  considered  a  great  table  del- 
icacy. It  is  common  in  the  marshes  along  the 
South  Atlantic  coast.  In  some  sections  terra- 
pins are  reared  in  enclosures  for  the  market, 

TERRE  HAUTE,  ter  e  hote',  Ind.,  county 
seat  of  Vigo  County,  seventy-two  miles  south- 
west of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Wabash  River 
and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Chicago  &  Eastern  Illinois,  the 
Evansville  &  Indianapolis,  the  Evansville  & 
Terre  Haute,  and  the  Chicago,  Terre  Haute 
&  Southeastern  railroads  and  several  electric 
lines.  The  city  is  located  on  the  high  terraces 
of  the  Wabash  River,  is  regularly  laid  out, 
with  broad  streets,  and  has  several  parks.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Rose  Poh'technic  Institute, 
the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  and  Saint 
Mary's  Institute,  and  it  has  several  orphan- 
ages, hospitals  and  the  Rose  Dispensary.  The 
public  library,  the  Federal  building,  the 
courthouse,  the  city  hall,  the  opera  house  and 
the  union  station  are  some  of  the  most  prom- 
inent structures.  The  surrounding  country 
is  agiicultural  and  contains  valuable  coal 
mines.  Industrial  establishments  include 
glass  plants,  foundries,  machine  shops,  flour 
and  hominy  mills,  clothing  factories,  rolling 
mills,  packing  houses,  car  works,  planing  mills 
and  manufactories  of  carriages,  electric  mo- 
tors, enameled  ware,  paving  brick,  stoves  and 
tools.  The  place  was  founded  in  1816,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1833.  Population,  1910, 
58,157;  in  1917,  67,361  (Federal  estimates). 

TER'RIER,  a  small  dog,  remarkable  for  the 
eagerness  and  courage  with  which  it  goes 
into  holes  in  the  earth  to  attack  foxes,  badg- 
ers, cats,  rats  and  the  like.  The  name  is 
taken  from  the  Latin  terra,  meaning  earth, 
and  refers  to  the  terrier's  method  of  hunting. 
There  are  about  fifteen  varieties.  In  Great 
Britain  two  kinds  are  common ;  these  are  the 
Scotch  terrier,  rough  and  wire-haired,  and 
the  English  terrier,  smooth-haired  and  gen- 
erally more  delicate  in  appearance.  The  Skye 
terrier,  a  sub-variety  of  the  Scotch  terrier, 
is  much  prized.  The  pepper  and  mustard 
breeds,  rendered  famous  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
are  also  highly  valued.  The  black  and  tan 
terrier  has  a  sleek  and  soft  coat.  All  terriers 
are  vigorous  and  intelligent  and  have  very 
keen  senses.  Few  other  breeds  of  dogs  are 
gi'eater  favorites. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


"Dog 

Fox  Terrier 


Scotch  Terrier        Skye  Terrier 


TERRITORY 


3547 


TEST  ACTS 


TER'RITORY,  a  term  applied  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  to  an  area  similar  to  a  state  of  the 
Union,  but  without  the  independent  position 
of  a  state,  governed  directly  by  Congress, 
through  a  governor  and  other  chief  officials, 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  a  legislature 
of  certain  limited  powers.  Territories  are  us- 
ually admitted  as  states  on  attaining  a  suffi- 
cient population  and  adopting  a  constitution 
approved  by  congress.  There  are  no  terri- 
tories remaining  in  the  continental  United 
States,  but  Alaska,  Hawaii,  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  Porto  Rico  are  yet  governed  as 
territories. 

TER'ROR,  Reign  op,  the  term  usually 
applied  to  the  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion from  the  appointment  of  the  Revolution- 
ary Tribunal  and  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  in  April,  1793,  to  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre in  July,  1794.  See  French  Revolu- 
tion. 

TERRY,  Ellen  Alicia  (1848-  ),  a  fa- 
mous English  actress,  bom  at  Coventry.  She 
made  her  first  appearance  on  the  stage  when 
only  eight  years  old,  playing  Manilius  in 
Shakespeare's  Winter's  Tale  at  the  Princess's 
Theater,  under  the  management  of  Charles 
Kean.  In  1858  she 
acted  the  part  of  Ar- 
thur in  King  John, 
and  in  1863  she  made 
her  debut  as  a  regu- 
lar performer,  play- 
ing Gertrude  in  The 
Little  Treasure  at 
the  Haymarket.  She  J 
married  Watts,  the ' 
painter,  in  1864  and  "'  ^'  '£/ 

left  the  stage.  She 
was  the  model  for  his  ^^^^"^  '^^^^^ 
great  painting.  Sir  Galahad.  In  1867  she  was 
divorced,  and  again  entered  upon  a  stage  ca- 
reer, reappearing  at  the  Xew  Queen's  Thea- 
ter, London.  In  1879  she  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance at  the  Lyceum,  and  for  almost  a 
quarter  of  a  century  she  assisted  Henry  Irv- 
ing in  his  presentation  of  many  of  the  great- 
est of  classic  and  modem  plays.  In  Tenny- 
son's The  Cup,  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Faust, 
Eugene  Aram  and  Becket,  she  proved  her 
right  to  rank  with  the  greatest  of  English 
actresses,  but  it  was  as  Portia,  in  the  Mer- 
chant of  Venice,  that  her  strongest  work  was 
done.  In  company  with  Irving  she  made 
many  visits  to  America  and  always  met  with 
great  success. 


TERTIARY,  tu/she  a  ri,  PERIOD,  a  term 
formerly  employed  in  geology  to  designate 
the  first  division  of  the  Cenozoic  Era.  The 
rocks  formed  in  this  period  constitute  the 
tertiary  system.  At  one  time  it  was  thought 
that  each  stratum  of  rock  contained  three  dis- 
tinct formations,  primary,  secondary  and  ter- 
tiary. The  English  geologist  Lyell  divided 
the  tertiary  system  into  four  epochs — Eocene, 
Oligocene,  ^Miocene  and  Pliocene.  The  United 
States  Geological  Survey  has  grouped  these 
epochs  into  two.  Eocene  and  Neocene,  and 
this  classification  is  generally  adopted  in  the 
United  States.  The  tenn  tertiary  is  now  little 
used.    See  Cenozoic  Era;  Geology. 

TERTUL'LIAN,  one  of  the  foremost  of 
the  early  Christian  fathers,  the  first  of  the 
great  Latin  writers  of  the  Church.  He  was 
bom  at  Carthage,  North  Africa,  of  heathen 
parentage,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century,  and  was  educated  for  the  law.  In 
his  early  manhood  he  went  to  Rome  and  was 
converted  to  Christianity.  He  returned  to 
Carthage,  where  he  became  a  presbyter;  but 
moral  laxity  in  the  Church  caused  him  to 
withdraw,  and  he  thenceforth  lived  a  life 
of  extreme  severity.  His  writings  reveal  in- 
tensity of  character,  moral  strength,  keen  sat- 
ire and  earnestness.  Chief  of  these  is  the 
Apology,  a  vindication  of  the  Church  against 
its  heathen  detractors. 

TES'LA,  Nikola  (1857-  ),  a  famous 
electrician,  born  at  Smiljan,  Croatia.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Gratz 
and  at  the  University  of  Prague,  and  worked 
for  the  Austrian  government  until  1881.  In 
1884  he  emigrated  to  America,  was  natural- 
ized and  became  associated  with  Thomas  A. 
Edison.  Subsequently,  for  purposes  of  re- 
search, he  opened  laboratories  of  his  own 
in  New  York  City  and  made  numerous  prac- 
tical inventions.  To  him  is  due  credit  for  the 
discovery  of  the  rotary  magnetic  field  and  its 
practical  application  to  the  induction  motor; 
for  substituting  the  alternating  current  for 
the  direct  current;  for  many  improvements 
in  dynamos,  arc  lamps,  incandescent  lights, 
induction  coils  and  condensers. 

TEST  ACTS,  the  general  term  applied  to 
various  acts  of  the  English  Parliament,  which 
made  the  holding  of  public  offices  conditional 
on  certain  religious  tests.  The  name  espe- 
cially belongs  to  the  Corporation  Act  of  1661, 
which  decreed  that  all  magistrates  must  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  and 
must  receive  the  communion  according:  to  the 


TETANUS 


3548 


TEXARKANA 


Church  of  England;  and  to  the  Test  Act  of 
1673,  which  imposed  the  same  tests  on  the 
holders  of  all  public  offices.  These  statutes, 
after  various  modifications,  were  finally  re- 
pealed in  1829. 

TET'ANUS,  the  disease  commonly  known 
as  lockjcnv.  In  warm  climates  this  is  a  fre- 
quent result  of  wounds,  and  it  consists  in 
spasmodic  contraction  of  the  muscles.  This 
is  often  strong  enough  to  draw  the  body  en- 
tirely out  of  shape  and  to  hold  the  lower  jaw 
so  closely  against  the  upper  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  separate  them.  The  disease  is  a  ter- 
rible one  and  is  usually  fatal,  as  not  more 
than  ten  per  cent  of  well-developed  cases  re- 
cover. The  disease  is  infectious  and  is  caused 
by  the  presence  in  the  wound  of  a  bacterium 
common  in  dirt  or  the  soil  of  gardens. 
Treatment  by  serum  is  the  only  cure.  See 
Sehum  Therapy. 

.  TETRAZZINI,  tetratse'ne,  LuiSA  (1874- 
),  a  famous  Italian  soprano,  bom  at  Flor- 
ence, She  learned  many  operas  before  the 
age  of  twelve,  by  listening  to  the  singing  of 
her  sister,  and  so  wonderful  was  her  early 
ability  that  she  was  given  an  excellent  musi- 
cal education.  Her  first  public  appearance 
was  in  her  native  city  in  1895.  Afterwards, 
she  sang  in  grand  opera  and  concert  in  the 
principal  cities  of  the  world,  and  gained 
wonderful  popularity,  ranking  with  the  great- 
est singers  of  her  time.  Her  favorite  operas 
were  Lucia  di  Lammermoor  and  La  Som- 
namhula. 

TET'ZEL,  Johann  (1460-1519),  the  chief 
opponent  of  Martin  Luther  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Reformation  (which  see),  was  a 
German  monk  of  the  Dominican  Order.  He 
was  born  in  Saxony  and  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig.  He  joined  the  Do- 
minicans soon  after  his  graduation.  He  was 
an  eloquent  and  forceful  preacher  and  was 
entrusted  with  the  proclamation  of  an  in- 
dulgence on  behalf  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
from  1503  to  1510.  Again  in  1516  he  was 
given  a  similar  mission  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  money  to  complete  Saint  Peter's 
Church  in  Rome.  It  was  in  connection  with 
this  mission  that  Tetzel  aroused  the  opposi- 
tion of  Luther,  whose  famous  ninety-five 
theses  were  directed  against  Tetzel  and  his 
methods.  Tetzel's  published  reply  contained 
language  which  the  Church  considered  ex- 
travagant and  intemperate,  and  he  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  the  Papal  legate,  by 
whom  he  was  severely  reprimanded. 


.  TEUTONIC  KNIGHTS,  tu  ton'ik  nites,  a 
religious  and  military  order,  founded  in  1190 
by  a  group  of  German  merchants  for  the  pur- 
pose of  relieving  the  sufferings  of  the  Cru- 
saders at  Acre,  in  Palestine.  Like  the  Knights 
Templars  and  Knights  Hospitalers,  which 
sprang  up  at  about  the  same  time,  it  origi- 
nally was  an  organization  of  noblemen  and 
knights,  but  later  its  membership  included 
priests  and  lay  brothers.  After  their  con- 
quests in  Palestine  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in 
1225,  began  a  crusade  of  Prussia,  which  was 
largely  pagan,  and  from  1283  to  1466  they 
held  sway  there.  After  this  the  order  de- 
clined rapidly,  though  a  few  loyal  knights 
continued  its  existence  until  1809,  when  it 
was  dissolved  by  Napoleon  and  its  properties 
in  all  countries  were  confiscated.  The  em- 
peror of  Austria  reorganized  the  Teutonic 
Knights  in  1840  as  an  Austrian  imperial  or- 
der, for  service  such  as  that  performed  by 
the  Red  Cross  Society. 

TEUTONIC  RACES,  a  term  now  applied 
to  the  High  Germans,  including  the  German 
inhabitants  of  Upper  and  Middle  Germany 
and  those  of  Switzerland  and  Austria;  the 
Low  German,  including  the  Frisians,  the 
Plattdeutsch,  the  Dutch,  the  Flemings,  and 
the  English  descended  from  the  Saxons,  An- 
gles and  other  tribes  who  settled  in  Britain; 
the  Scandinavians,  including  the  Norwegians, 
the  Swedes,  the  Danes  and  the  Icelanders. 

TEXARKAN'A,  Ark.  and  Tex.,  adjoining 
cities  on  the  boundary  line,  one  the  county 
seat  of  Miller  County,  Ark.,  and  the  other 
in  Bowie  County,  Tex.  They  are  145  miles 
southwest  of  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  on  the  Texas 
&  Pacific,  the  Kansas  City  Southern,  the 
Saint  Louis  Southwestern  and  the  Saint 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railroads. 
The  towns  have  separate  city  governments, 
but  form  a  single  industrial  community.  A 
postoffice,  situated  on  the  state  line,  is  used  by 
both  cities.  There  are  many  fine  residences 
and  good  business  blocks,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  build- 
ing, a  railroad  hospital  and  more  than  thirty 
churches.  The  educational  institutions  are 
the  Saint  Agnes  Academy,  the  Saint  Rose  of 
Lima  Academy  and  the  Texarkana  Industrial 
College.  The  place  has  a  large  trade  in  lum- 
ber, cotton  and  hides.  The  leading  indus- 
trial establishments  are  cotton  works,  rail- 
road shops,  lumber  mills,  machine  shops  and 
furniture  and  pottery  factories.  Both  towns 
were  settled  in  1873  and  became  incorporated 
cities   in   1887.     Population,   in    Arkansas, 


■»*^« 


TEXAS    , 

THE  LONE  STAR  STATE 


ro 


vt 


•T> 


,6\ 


\         1 


1,  Rice. 

5,  Grapes. 

9,  Rice  Field. 

13.  Oil  Well. 

2,  Cattle  and  Swine. 

6,  Pears. 

10,  Sugar  Cane. 

U,  Corn. 

3.  Sheep. 

7,  Strawberries. 

11,  Cotton  Field. 

15,  Draft  Horses 

4,  Apples. 

8,  Peaches. 

12,  \'egetables. 

16,  Oats. 

TEXAS 


3549 


TEXAS 


1910,  5,559;  in  1917,  6,195  (Federal  esti- 
mate) ;  in  Texas,  1910,  9,886;  in  1917, 13,099 
(Federal  estimate).  Combined  population, 
1910,  15,445;  in  1917,  19,294  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 


Capitol  Building 


EX'AS,  the  largest  state  of  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  in  area  and  natural  resources 
worthy  of  being  compared  with  many  of  the 
world's  independent  nations.  It  was,  in  fact, 
admitted  into  the  Union  when  an  independent 
republic,  something  that  can  be  said  of  no 
other  state.  Its  popular  name,  the  Lone 
Star  State,  refers  to  its  flag,  which  bears  a 
single  star.  This  was  also  the  emblem  of  the 
republic  of  Texas.  Its  special  flower  is  the 
bluebonnet. 

Location  and  Area.  Texas  is  one  of  the 
south-central  states.  Only  Florida  extends 
farther  south,  and  a  line  through  the  exact 
center  of  the  state  would  fall  but  slightly 
west  of  a  line  running  midway  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  Mexico  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  form  the  southern  bound- 
ary; Louisiana  and  Arkansas  touch  the  state 
on  the  east,  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma  are  on 
the  north,  and  New  Mexico  is  on  the  west. 
Texas  is  more  than  one-twelfth  the  size  of 
the  entire  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska 
and  the  Philippines,  and  is  larger  than  either 
France  or  Germany.  Among  the  Canadian 
provinces,  however,  it  is  exceeded  in  size  by 
Quebec,  Ontario  and  British  Columbia.  Its 
length  from  north  to  south  is  760  miles;  its 
breadth  from  east  to  west  is  740  miles,  and  its 
gross  area  is  265,896  square  miles,  of  which 
3,498  square  miles  are  water. 

People.  In  1910,  with  a  population  of 
3,896.542,  Texas  ranked  fifth  among  the 
states  in  number  of  inhabitants.  Its  density 
per  square  mile,  however,  was  only  14.8; 
thirty-five  states  were  more  thickly  populated. 
In  1918,  according  to  Federal  estimates,  the 
population  was  4,601,279.     Texas  has  about 


700,000  negroes  and  over  125,000  Mexicans, 
the  latter  constituting  the  largest  element  in 
the  foreign-born  population.  Germans,  Aus- 
trians  and  English  are  next  in  order. 

The  largest  religious  bodies  are  the  Bap- 
tists and  Methodists,  followed  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  Disciples  of  Christ,  Presbyterians 
and  Episcopalians. 

Cities.  Dallas  and  San  Antonio,  each  with 
over  128,000  inhabitants  (1917)  are  the 
largest  cities;  the  next  five,  in  order,  are 
Houston,  Fort  Worth,  El  Paso,  Galveston 
and  Austin,  the  capital. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  In  general,  the 
surface  of  Texas  consists  of  a  series  of  ex- 
tended plains  and  plateaus  more  or  less  di- 
versified by  mountains  and  hills,  and  sloping 
gradually  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast. 

The  state  is  divided  into  four  physio- 
graphic regions.  The  first  region,  belonging 
to  the  coastal  plain,  extends  inland  from  100 
to  200  miles  and  is  prolonged  northward  to 
the  northeastern  corner.  This  region  rises 
gradually  from  sea  level  to  an  altitude  of  600 
to  700  feet.  The  northern  part  of  it  is  heavily 
timbered  with  long-leaved  pine,  short-leaved 
pine  and  hard  woods.  Second  is  the  Great 
Black  and  Grand  Prairie  region,  which  lies 
to  the  west  and  northwest  of  the  coastal  plain. 
This  region  has  an  area  of  about  31,000 
square  miles  and  consists  of  a  gently-undulat- 
ing plain  sloping  toward  the  east  and  south- 
east, with  an  altitude  of  from  400  to  700  feet. 
The  eastern  part  of  this  plain  is  nearly 
level,  but  in  the  west  it  is  more  broken,  and 
that  portion  south  of  the  Brazos  River  be- 
comes rugged.  It  contains  little  timber,  but 
is  covered  with  a  soil  of  remarkable  fertility. 

The  third  region  is  the  great  Staked  Plain, 
or  Llano  Estacado,  occupying  the  northwest- 
em  part  of  the  state  and  bounded  by  high 
bluffs  and  buttes.  This  is  a  vast  treeless 
plateau  with  an  elevation  of  from  3,000  to 
4,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  in  an  arid 
region,  but  a  large  part  of  its  supports  a  good 
growth  of  grass,  and  the  region  is  well 
adapted  to  grazing.  The  fourth,  the  mount- 
ainous region,  occupies  the  western  part  of 
the  state  between  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande. 
This  contains  a  continuation  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  extend  southward  into 
Mexico.  The  elevations  vary  from  3,000 
to  6,000  feet  and  some  of  the  highest  peaks 
have  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet. 

The  rivers  of  Texas  flow  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  the  Rio  Grande, 


TEXAS 


3550 


TEXAS 


the  latter  forming  the  boundary  between  the 
state  and  Mexico.  The  principal  tributary  of 
the  Mississippi  from  Texas  is  the  Red,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  northern  boundary  and 
drains  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  state. 
The  Sabine,  forming  a  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Texas  and  Louisiana,  drains  a  small 
portion  of  the  eastern  section  and  flows 
directly  into  the  Gulf.  The  other  streams  of 
importance  flowing  into  the  Gulf,  in  their 
order  southward  from  the  Sabine,  are  the 
Neches,  the  Trinity,  the  Brazos,  the  Colorado 
and  the  Nueces.  The  principal  tributary  of 
the  Rio  Grande  is  the  Pecos,  which  flows 
across  the  western  part  of  the  state.  Along 
the  coast  there. are  numerous  lagoons  enclosed 
by  low  sand  bars,  and  in  a  number  of  places 
there  are  deep  indentations,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  being  Sabine  Lake,'  Galveston 
Bay,  Matagorda  Bay  and  Corpus  Christi 
Bay. 

Climate.  On  account  of  its  size  and  its 
relief,  Texas  has  a  variety  of  climate.  The 
southern  extremity  is  only  2  °  from  the  torrid 
zone,  but  the  state  stretches  northward 
through  11  °  of  latitude.  It  is  mostly  exempt 
from  the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat.  The 
Gulf  breeze  blows  from  the  southeast  during 
the  summer.  The  east  part  of  the  state  is 
humid,  with  an  annual  rainfall  of  flfty  to 
sixty  inches.  Toward  the  west  it  gradually 
diminishes,  and  at  El  Paso  it  is  about  ten 
inches.  The  Gulf  coast  and  prairie  region 
have  abundant  rainfall.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  70°.  One  of  the  climatic 
features  of  the  state  is  what  is  known  as  the 
"northers,"  which  are  stormy,  northwest 
winter  winds. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  value  of  the 
minerals  produced  in  a  year  is  approximately 
$30,000,000,  but  the  output  of  the  mines  by 
no  means  represents  maximum  production. 
Petroleum  is  the  most  valuable  source  of 
income,  though  the  first  field  was  not  opened 
until  1894.  Texas  is  now  surpassed  in  oil 
production  only  by  Oklahoma  and  California, 
and  the  yearly  output  is  over  25,000,000 
baiTels.  This  is  about  one-fourth  the  output 
for  Oklahoma;  Illinois  is  a  close  competitor 
of  Texas,  and  before  1915  was  ahead  of  the 
Southern  state.  Texas  petroleum  is  used  both 
for  lighting  and  for  fuel,  and  the  state  has 
two  other  important  sources  of  fuel,  namely, 
coal  and  natural  gas. 

In  the  north  and  east-central  parts  there 
are  extensive  deposits  of  lignite  and  bitum- 


inous coal;  another  area  occurs  along  the 
Rio  Grande  between  Laredo  and  Eagle  Pass. 
The  coal  fields  are  about  63,000  square  miles 
in  extent,  and  are  producing  at  the  rate  of 
about  2,000,000  tons  a  year.  Texas  is  esti- 
mated to  have  a  natural  gas  area  covering 
130  square  miles.  Its  average  annual  yield  is 
13  billion  cubic  feet,  and  in  this  product  it 
ranks  eighth  among  the  states. 

There  are  valuable  deposits  of  clay  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  brick,  sewer  pipe, 
vitrified  brick  and  pottery ;  the  production  of 
cement  is  another  profitable  source  of  income. 
Texas  is  a  leading  state  in  the  production  of 
quicksilver  and  of  asphalt;  the  latter  is 
derived  chiefly  from  the  heavy  asphaltic  oils 
found  in  abundance.  Natural  asphalt  occurs 
in  smaller  quantities.  Other  minerals  of 
commercial  value  include  salt,  gypsum,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  iron  ore  and  cinna- 
bar. Among  the  metals  silver  is  of  chief 
importance.  The  state  possesses  the  largest 
artesian-well  belt  in  the  world,  and  there  are 
numerous  hot  springs  of  medicinal  value. 

Agriculture.  Texas  has  a  more  extensive 
area  of  cultivated  land  than  any  other  state, 
and  in  value  of  crops  it  sometimes  ranks  first, 
though  usually  third — after  Iowa  and  Illinois. 
Practically  every  crop  adapted  to  a  warm 
temperate  climate  can  be  grown  in  its  fertile 
soil.  The  production  of  cotton  is  of  chief  im- 
portance, and  in  this  line  of  agriculture 
Texas  holds  first  rank  among  the  states,  its 
annual  crop  of  more  than  3,000,000  bales  sur- 
passing that  of  all  British  India.  It  raises 
about  one-third  the  entire  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States.  Over  11,000,000  acres  are 
planted  to  cotton,  and  about  7,000,000  to  corn, 
the  most  important  cereal.  The  corn  crop 
varies  considerably,  but  in  favorable  years 
the  harvest  has  reached  175,000,000  bushels. 
In  the  production  of  kafir  corn  Texas  is 
equaled  by  no  other  state ;  it  follows  Louisiana 
in  the  output  of  rice,  and  Louisiana  and 
Georgia  in  yield  of  sugar  cane.  Large  crops 
of  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  hay, 
alfalfa,  tobacco,  barley  and  rye  are  also 
raised,  and  berries,  nuts  and  fruits  of  excel- 
lent quality  are  produced.  Texas  raises  es- 
pecially fine  peaches,  figs  and  pecans.  Truck 
gardening  and  the  sale  of  nursery  products 
are  among  the  special  branches  of  agricul- 
ture to  which  much  attention  is  given. 

It  is  a  leading  livestock  state,  for  it  has 
extensive  plains  adapted  to  grazing.  The 
cattle  ranches  are  an  important  source  of 


TEXAS 


3551 


TEXAS 


supply  for  the  great  packing  centers  of  the 
Middle  West.  Horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep 
and  hogs  are  raised  in  great  numbers,  and 
their  total  value  is  over  $400,000,000. 

In  sections  of  limited  rainfall  irrigation  is 
an  important  factor  in  agricultural  develop- 
ment. A  Federal  reclamation  project  serves 
the  arid  region  along  the  upper  course  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  in  the  artesian-well  belt  there 
are  several  private  systems  using  water  ob- 
tained from  the  wells.  The  water  of  the 
Lower  Rio  Grande  is  also  utilized.  A  state 
board  of  engineers  manages  the  water  re- 
sources. 

Manufactures.  Texas  possesses  great 
natural  advantages  for  manufacturing  in  its 
wealth  of  raw  material  and  supply  of  cheap 
fuel.  The  large  area  of  the  state  and  the 
heavy  freight  charge  tend  also  to  encourage 
the  manufacture  of  articles  for  local  use. 
The  milling  of  flour,  slaughtering  and  meat 
l^acking  and  the  manufacture  of  lumber  and 
of  timber  products  are  the  leading  industries. 
Next  in  importance  is  the  making  of  cotton- 
seed oil  and  cake,  in  the  value  of  which  Texas 
ranks  first  in  the  Union.  Other  industries 
are  rice  polishing,  sugar  refining,  the  making 
of  molasses,  the  manufacture  of  clay  pro- 
ducts, cotton  goods,  saddles  and  harness,  the 
making  and  repairing  of  railway  cars  and  the 
canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  Galves- 
ton, the  chief  seaport,  is  the  leading  cotton- 
shipping  port  in  the  world,  and  ranks  next 
to  New  York  and  New  Orleans  as  an  export 
and  import  center.  The  northeastern  and 
central  parts  of  the  state  are  well  supplied 
with  railways.  Two  trunk  lines  extend  across 
the  state  from  northeast  to  southwest  into 
Mexico,  and  two  lines  cross  it  from  east  to 
west,  reaching  the  Pacific  coast.  These 
are  connected  by  numerous  cross-lines  and 
also  have  spurs  reaching  the  lumber  regions 
and  the  most  important  agricultural  sections, 
but  several  of  the  coast  counties  and  those 
in  the  northwestern  and  western  parts  of  the 
state  are  yet  without  adequate  railway  com- 
munication. The  entire  mileage  of  the  state 
is  about  15,700,  which  places  Texas  the  first 
state  in  the  Union  in  railway  mileage.  There 
are  nearly  10,000  miles  of  surfaced  roads, 
and  about  1,000  miles  of  interurban  lines. 

The  commerce  of  Texas  is  extensive.  The 
exports  consist  of  cotton,  lumber,  oil,  rice, 
hardware,  livestock,  wool,  vegetables  and 
fruits,  and  far  exceed  in  value  the  imports, 


which  consist  of  manufactured  goods  and 
food  products. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  senate  limited  to  thirty-one  members,  and 
a  house  of  representatives  limited  to  not 
more  than  one  member  to  each  15,000  inhabi- 
tants and  not  more  than  150  members  in  the 
aggregate.  The  senators  are  elected  for  four 
years ;  the  representatives,  for  two  years.  The 
legislature  meets  biennially  and  the  session  is 
practically  limited  to  sixty  days  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  pay  of  the  members  after  that  time. 
The  executive  department  consists  of  a  gov- 
ernor, lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  state, 
adjutant-general,  comptroller,  treasurer, 
commissioner  of  agriculture,  commissioner  of 
insurance,  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction and  attorney-general. 

The  courts  consist  of  a  supreme  court  of 
three  judges,  elected  for  six  years  each,  five 
courts  of  civil  appeal,  of  three  judges  each, 
one  court  of  criminal  appeals  of  three  judges, 
and  sixty-three  district  courts  of  one  judge 
each;  also  county  courts  of  each  county, 
and  justice  courts  for  precincts,  towns  and 
villages.  The  judges  of  the  district  courts 
are  elected  for  four  years ;  those  of  the  county 
courts  for  two  years. 

Education,  The  state  maintains  an  ex- 
cellent system  of  public  schools  and  has  the 
largest  permanent  school  fund  in  the  Union. 
The  perpetual  state  funds  amount  to  about 
$83,000,000,  the  exact  value  and  the  exact  dis- 
tribution varying  from  time  to  time.  Sepa- 
rate schools  are  maintained  for  white  and 
colored  children.  The  school  system  is  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  a  board  of  educa- 
tion and  a  state  superintendent.  In  each 
county  of  3,000  school  population  and  over 
there  is  a  county  superintendent  of  schools. 
In  smaller  counties  the  people  may,  by  vote, 
establish  this  office.  When  there  is  no  such 
officer,  the  county  judge  is  ex-officio  the 
county  superintendent  of  schools.  Besides 
the  rural  schools,  cities  and  large  towns  are 
independent  school  districts  and  have,  in 
many  instances,  excellent  systems  of  graded 
schools. 

State  normal  schools  are  located  at  Hunts- 
ville,  Denton,  San  Marcos  and  Canyon  City. 
There  is  also  a  state  normal  school  for  col- 
ored teachers  at  Prairie  View,  near  Hemp- 
stead. The  state  university  is  at  Austin, 
but  its  medical  department  is  at  Galveston. 
The  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  is  at 
College  Station,  near  Bryan,  and  the  college 


TEXAS 


3552 


TEXAS 


Items  of  Interest 

The  great  Galveston  flood  was  directly 
responsible  for  the  establishment  of  the 
commission  form  of  government  in  Amer- 
ican cities.  Immediately  following  the 
flood,  great  disorder  prevailed  and  a  com- 
mittee of  citizens  was  named  to  exercise, 
temporarily,  absolute  control  of  the  city's 
interests.  This  centralization  of  authority 
was  so  satisfactory  that  the  commission 
form  was  made  a  permanent  feature  of 
Galveston's  government,  and  rapidly 
spread  to  other  cities. 

The  Panhandle  is  the  projection -north- 
ward between  New  Mexico  and  Oklahoma. 

Guadalupe  Peak,  9,000  feet  high,  in  the 
central  western  part,  is  the  highest  eleva- 
tion in  the  state. 

Originally  great  herds  of  bison  roamed 
over  the  Texas  plains,  and  deer,  bear  and 
wolves  were  numerous;  to-day  most  of  the 
large  animals  have  been  exterminated,  but 
there  still  remain  many  smaller  ones,  es- 
pecially Louisiana,  black  and  cinnamon 
bears,  coyotes  or  prairie  wolves,  prairie 
dogs,  jack  rabbits,  raccoons,  squirrels, 
opossums,  skunks,  jaguars,  cougars  and 
lynxes. 

Snakes  of  many  different  species,  espe- 
cially rattlesnakes,  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  state. 

San  Antonio  has  as  its  most  interesting 
building  the  historic  Alamo,  originally  a 
chapel,  made  famous  in  the  Texan  War  of 
Independence.  San  Antonio  is  now  a 
great  commercial  and  manufacturing 
center. 

Houston  is  the  most  important  railway 
and  shipping  point  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  state  and  has  a  large  trade  in  cotton- 
seed oil,  sugar,' rice  and  lumber;  its  factory 
products  are  almost  exclusively  made  from 
raw  materials  of  the  surrounding  region. 

Dallas,  the  principal  manufacturing 
center  of  the  state,  is  also  a  shipping  cen- 
ter for  a  wheat,  fruit  and  cotton-raising 
district,  and  is  the  most  important  dis- 
tributing point  for  agi'icultural  machinery 
in  the  southwest ;  it  is  a  live-stock  market 
and  one  of  the  chief  centers  in  the  United 
States  for  the  manufacture  of  saddlery 
and  leather  goods. 


on  Texas 

Galveston  is  important  chiefly  as  a  com- 
mercial port:  it  is  second  only  to  New 
York  in  the  value  of  its  exports;  it  is  the 
greatest  cotton-exporting  city  in  the 
Union,  the  annual  exports  being  over 
$100,000,000.  It  is  also  famous  for  the 
introduction  of  the  commission  form  of 
municijoal  government. 

Fort  Worth,  like  Galveston,  Dallas  and 
Houston,  has  the  commission  form  of 
government.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  a 
stock-raising  and  farming  region;  among 
the  manufactured  products  are  packed 
meats,  flour,  beer,  trunks,  mattresses, 
woven  wirebeds,  furniture;  there  are  also 
foundries,  rolling  mills  and  tanneries. 

Austin,  the  state  capital,  is  the  principal 
trade  center  for  central  and  western  Texas, 
is  an  important  market  for  live  stock,  cot- 
ton, grain  and  wool,  and  has  extensive 
manufactures,  including  flour,  cottonseed 
oil,  leather  goods,  lumber  and  woodenware. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Texas 
and  of  many  other  educational  and  char- 
itable institutions.  It  adopted  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  in  1909. 

Waco  is  the  commercial  center  for  an 
agricultural  region  and  also  has  manufac- 
tures valued  at  $3,000,000  a  year. 

Texas  is  six  times  as  large  as  the  state  of 
New  York. 


Questions  on  Texas 

"What  is  the  area  of  Texas?  How  does 
it  compare  with  other  states? 

What  are  its  physical  divisions  ? 

What  is  the  Panhandle? 

Name  the  principal  rivers.  What  sec- 
tions do  they  drain? 

What  wild  animals  are  still  common  ? 

In  the  production  of  what  crop  does 
Texas  lead  the  Union  ? 

What  are  some  other  important  crops? 

How  does  it  rank  in  production  of  cot- 
tonseed oil? 

What  is  the  railway  mileage  of  the 
state? 

What  is  the  Alamo  and  why  is  it  fa- 
mous? 

Describe  briefly  the  Galveston  or  com- 
mission form  of  municipal  government. 


M 


„        J 


TEXAS 


3553 


TEXAS 


of  industrial  arts  (for  girls)  is  at  Denton. 
There  are  besides  these  institutions  a  number 
of  important  colleges  and  secondarv  schools 
under  private  or  church  control.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  following: 

As^ard  College  (for  women)  at  South  Hous- 
ton. 

Austin  College  (for  men)  at  Sherman. 

Baylor  University  at  Waco. 

Howard  Payne  College  at  Brownwood. 

North  Texas  Female  College  at  Sherman. 

Polytechnic  College  at  Fort  Worth. 

Saint  Louis  College  (for  men)  at  San  Aji- 
tonio. 

Simmons  College  at  Abilene. 

Southwestern  University  at  Georgetown. 

Texas  Christian  University  at  Fort  Worth. 

Trinity  College  at  Waxahachle. 

Westminster  College  at  Tehuacan. 

Institutions.  The  charitable  and  correc- 
tional institutions  include  the  state  peniten- 
tiaries at  Huntsville  and  Rusk,  insane  hospi- 
tals at  Austin,  Terrell  and  San  Antonio,  a 
state  orphans'  home  at  Corsicana,  a  state 
epileptic  colony  at  Abilene,  a  deaf  and  dumb 
institute  at  Austin,  a  Confederate  soldieiV 
home,  Confederate  women's  home,  and  a  deaf, 
dumb,  and  blind  institute  for  colored  youths 
at  Austin,  a  state  juvenile  training  school  at 
Gatesville,  a  state  tuberculosis  sanatorium  at 
Carlsbad,  and  a  girls'  training  school  at 
Gainesville. 

History.  Cobeza  de  Vaca,  a  Spanish  com- 
panion of  Narvaez,  visited  Texas  in  1528,  but 
it  was  more  than  one  hundred  fifty  years  later 
that  the  first  European  settlement  was  made 
by  La  Salle.  Many  years  later  missions  were 
founded  by  Spaniards  at  San  Antonio.  In 
1730  the  Indians  began  war  on  both  French 
and  Spaniards,  but  did  not  weaken  the  hold 
of  either.  After  1820  there  was  a  vast  im- 
migration of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
Texas,  the  most  important  settlement  being 
made  at  Austin.  At  about  the  same  time  the 
revolt  of  Mexico  from  Spain  occurred,  in 
which  the  Texans  eagerly  joined,  but  op- 
pressive laws  by  the  Mexican  congress  led  to 
a  revolt  of  Texas  from  Mexico,  under  the 
leadership  chiefly  of  Americans,  among  them 
Sam  Houston.  Texas  was  successful  in  gain- 
ing its  independence,  though  the  fact  was 
never  recognized  by  Mexico.  A  republic  was 
formed  which  was  disorganized  in  1845,  when 
Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States  and 
admitted  as  a  state.  This  led  to  the  Mexican 
War,  which  was  terminated  by  the  Treaty  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  by  which  Mexico  con- 
ceded the  United  States'  demands. 

223 


In  1861  the  state  seceded  from  the  United 
States  and  joined  the  Confederacy,  to  whose 
armies  it  furnished  90,000  soldiers  during  the 
Civil  War.  Under  orders  from  President 
Johnson  in  June,  1865,  a  reorganized  gov- 
ernment was  established,  with  a  constitution 
abolishing  slavery,  renouncing  the  right  of 
secession,  conferring  civil  rights  on  freed- 
men  and  repudiating  the  Confederate  state 
debt.  However,  Congress  did  not  recognize 
the  new  government,  and  by  the  reconstruc- 
tion acts  of  1867  placed  the  state  under  mil- 
itary authority,  with  General  Philip  H.  Sher- 
idan in  command.  Until  1870  the  carpetbag 
regime  ensued,  with  disastrous  results,  but  on 
March  30th  of  that  year  Texas  was  readmit- 
ted to  the  Union.  Since  then  the  state  has  en- 
joyed a  prosperous  development.  A  disas- 
trous tidal  wave  nearly  destroyed  Galveston 
in  1900,  but  the  damage  was  speedily  re- 
paired, and  a  sea  wall  and  causeway  were 
constructed  to  prevent  another  similar  dis- 
aster. Of  late  years  many  progressive  laws 
have  been  passed,  including  workingmen's 
compensation  and  mothers'  pension  acts.  In 
1919  the  people  voted  in  favor  of  state  pro- 
hibition and  rejected  a  woman  suffrage  meas- 
ure. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Abilene 

Amarillo 

Austin 

Beaumont 

Brownsville 

Cleburne 

Corpus   Chri 

Corsicana 

Dallas 


CITIES 

Denison 
Fl  Paso 
Fort  Worth 
Galveston 
Greenville 
Houston 
sti  Laredo 
Marshall 
Palestine 


Paris 

San  Angelo 

San  Antonio 

Sherman 

Temple 

Texarkana 

Tyler 

Waco 

Wichita  Falls 


HISTORY 

Alamo  Houston,  Sam 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,        Louisiana  Purchase 
Treaty  of  Mexican  War 

RIVERS 

Brazos  Pecos  Rio  Grande 

Canadian  Red  Sabine 

Colorado 

TEXAS,  UxivERSiTT  OF^  a  state  institution 
of  higher  learning,  established  at  Austin, 
Tex.,  in  1876,  but  not  opened  until  1883.  As 
organized  it  comprises  a  college  of  liberal  arts 
and  departments  of  engineering,  education, 
law  and  medicine,  the  last  being  located  at 
Galveston.  A  system  of  university  extension 
courses  is  a  successful  and  popular  part  of 
the  organization.  The  income  of  the  univer- 
sity is  derived  from  a  million  and  a  half  acres 
of  land,  set  apart  by  the  state.  The  faculty 
numbers  nearly  200,  and  there  are  about  2,500 
students.  The  library  contains  130,000 
volumes. 


TEXTILE 


3554 


THALES 


TEXTILE,  tex'til,  a  woven  fabric  and  the 

articles  of  clothing  made  from  it,  also  the 
material  suitable  for  weaving  into  the  fabric. 
In  a  commercial  sense,  the  term  includes  knit 
goods,  felt,  carpets  and  rugs.  In  the  United 
States  the  textile  industry,  including  the 
manufacture  of  clothing,  is  second  only  in 
importance  and  value  to  the  steel  industry.  It 
gives  employment  to  over  1,000,000  people, 
and  the  total  value  of  its  annual  output  is 
about  $1,750,000,000.  The  value  of  the  out- 
put in  Canada  is  about  $150,000,000.  In 
England  and  Ireland  the  manufacture  of  tex- 
tiles is  the  leading  industry. 

The  manufacture  of  textiles  did  not  become 
a  separate  industry  until  about  1800.  Be- 
fore that  time  each  housewife  spim  the  yarn, 
wove  the  cloth  and  made  the  clothing  for  the 
family.  Later  certain  families  in  the  neigh- 
borhood devoted  their  time  to  making  cloth. 
Then  came  the  invention  of  the  spinning 
jenny  by  Hargreaves  and  the  power  loom  by 
Cartwright,  which  completely  revolutionized 
the  textile  industry,  by  making  possible  the 
factory  system  of  the  present  time. 

THACk'ERAY,  William  Makepeace 
(1811-1863),  one  of  the  greatest  of  English 
novelists,  bom  July  18,  1811,  in  Calcutta, 
where  his  father  was  a  collector  of  revenues. 
At  the  age  of  seven  he  was  sent  to  England 
for  his  education, 
was  placed  at  the 
Charterhouse  School, 
London,  and  after- 
ward continued  his 
studies  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  left  the 
university  without 
taking  a  degree  and 
chose  the  career  of 
an  artist;  but  after 
spending  some  time 
in  study  at  Paris,  he 
became  convinced 
that  art  was  not  his 
vocation,  and  having 
lost  his  fortune,  he  resolved  to  turn  his  at- 
tention to  literature. 

His  first  appearance  in  this  sphere  was  as 
a  journalist.  Under  the  names  of  George 
Fitz-Boodle,  Esq.,  or  of  Michael  Angelo  Tit- 
marsh,  he  contributed  to  Frazer's  Magazine 
tales,  criticisms,  verses  and  character  sketches 
which  were  marked  by  extraordinary  knowl- 
edge of  the  world,  keen  irony  and  playful 
humor.     It  was  in  this  magazine  that  The 


\ 


WILLIAM  M. 
THACKERAY 


Yellowplush  Papers,  Barry  Lyndon,  The 
Paris  Sketchbook  and  The  Irish  Sketchbook 
first  appeared.  In  1841  Punch  was  started, 
and  Thackeray's  contributions  to  that  peri- 
odical, among  others  Jeames's  Diary  and  the 
Snob  Papers,  brought  him  a  measure  of  fame. 
In  1836  Thackeray  married  Miss  Isabella 
Shawe.  Of  his  three  daughters,  one  died  in 
infancy,  and  in  1840  Mrs.  Thackeray  became 
hopelessly  insane.  Thackeray  set  himself  to 
work  much  harder,  and  in  1846-1848  ap- 
peared, serially,  his  first  great  novel  Vanity 
Fair,  an  incomparable  picture  of  the  snob- 
bishness and  vulgar  social  climbing  in  the 
English  upper  class  life  of  the  time.  Long 
before  it  was  completed  the  author  was  unani- 
mously placed  in  the  front  rank  of  British 
novelists.  After  Vanity  Fair  appeared  Pen- 
dennis,  a  novel  partly  autobiographical; 
Henry  Esmond,  an  accurate  representation  of 
eighteenth-century  life  in  England,  by  some 
critics  considered  the  greatest  of  English 
novels;  and  The  Newcomes. 

Thackeray  made  two  lecture  tours  in  the 
United  States,  the  first  in  1852,  on  The  Eng- 
lish Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
and  the  second,  three  years  later,  on  The 
Four  Georges.  Subsequently  he  became  edi- 
tor of  the  Cornhill  Magazine,  in  which  was 
first  published  his  Lovel  the  Widower,  The 
Adventures  of  Philip  and  The  Roundabout 
Papers.  The  Virginians,  a  short  sequel  to 
Henry  Esmond,  was  published  in  1857,  and 
Denis  Duval,  his  last  novel,  was  left  unfin- 
ished. 

Thackeray's  writings  are  remarkable  al- 
ways for  their  unfailing  purity  and  simplic- 
ity of  style.  They  are  characterized  through- 
out by  keen  satire,  though  they  are  never 
bitterly  cynical.  He  ridicules  sham  and  pre- 
tense in  whatever  guise,  and  is  always  quick 
to  see  what  is  good  and  genuine.  Thackeray 
undoubtedly  ranks  as  the  foremost  English 
satirist  of  the  Victorian  period  and  as  one 
of  the  greatest  novelists,  essayists  and  critics 
in  the  literature  of  his  country.  His  verse, 
half  humorous,  half  pathetic,  and  often 
wholly  extravagant,  is  always  characterized 
by  grace  and  spontaneity. 

There  is  no  important  biography  of  Thack- 
eray, but  Trollope's  Thackeray,  in  the  Eng- 
lish ]\Ien  of  Letters  Series,  gives  interesting 
light  on  his  life  and  ideas. 

THALES,  thay'leez,  the  earliest  philoso- 
pher of  Greece,  and  founder  of  the  Ionian 
School  of  Philosophy,  was  probably  bom  at 


THALIA 


3555 


THEATER 


Miletus,  about  624  b.  c.  He  traveled  and 
studied  in  Crete,  Phoenicia  and  Egypt,  and 
on  his  return  became  known  as  one  of  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece.  He  left  no  writ- 
ings, but  his  sayings — among  them  the  fa- 
mous "know  thyself" — became  axiomatic  and 
were  handed  down  orally  from  generation  to 
generation  until  Aristotle  committed  them  to 
writing  several  hundred  years  after  Thales' 
death.  Thales'  two  famous  pupils  were 
Anaximander  and  Anaximenes. 

THALI'A,  one  of  the  nine  Muses.  She  was 
the  patron  of  comedy  and  pastoral  poetry 
and  was  usually  represented  with  the  comic 
mask  and  the  shepherd's  crook  in  her  hand. 
One  of  the  Graces  was  also  called  Thalia. 

THAL'LIUM,  a  metallic  element  discovered 
in  1861  by  Sir  William  Crookes.  In  its  physi- 
cal properties  thallium  resembles  lead,  but 
it  is  slightly  heavier,  somewhat  softer  and 
may  be  scratched  by  the  finger  nail.  It  melts 
under  a  red  heat  and  is  soluble  in  the  ordinary 
mineral  acids.  In  color  it  resembles  silver, 
but  is  less  brilliantly  white.  The  tenacity  of 
the  metal  is  less  than  that  of  lead,  but  it  is 
possessed  of  very  considerable  malleability. 
The  compounds  of  thallium  are  exceedingly 
poisonous.  Small  quantities  of  thallium  ap- 
pear to  be  widely  distributed  in  nature,  the 
metal  frequently  occuiring  in  natural  sul- 
phides. 

THALLOPHYTES,  tlial'o  pes,  one  of  the 
four  divisions  of  plant  life,  including  the 
algae  and  fungi.  Most  thallophytes  have 
thallus  bodies,  that  is,  their  structui-e  is  not 
differentiated  into  such  organs  as  stem,  leaves, 
etc.,     See  Algae;  Fuxgi. 

THAMES,  temz,  the  most  important, 
though  not  the  largest,  river  of  Great  Britain. 
It  rises  in  Gloucestershire  and,  flowing  in  a 
general  eastward  direction,  separates  the 
counties  of  "Wilts,  Berks,  Surrey  and  Kent  on 
the  south,  from  Gloucester,  Oxford,  Bucking- 
ham, Middlesex  and  Essex  on  the  north. 
About  sixty  miles  below  London,  through 
which  it  passes,  it  enters  the  North  Sea, 
through  an  estuaiy  twenty-seven  miles  wide. 
Other  cities  on  its  banks  are  Oxford,  Reading, 
Maidenhead,  Windsor,  Chertsey  and  Kings- 
ton. The  entire  length  of  the  river  is  217 
miles.  It  is  na^ngable  about  180  miles  for 
light  craft,  and  for  sea-going  vessels  to  Lon- 
don, where  there  are  very  extensive  docks, 
extending  for  miles.  It  is  connected  by  canal 
with  the  Severn.  The  Medway  is  the  longest 
tributary. 


THAMES  RIVER,  Battle  op  the,  a  bat- 
tle fought  on  the  Thames  River,  in  the  town- 
ship of  Oxford,  Ontario,  Canada,  October  5, 
1813,  between  a  force  of  about  3,000  Ken- 
tucky volunteers,  under  General  William 
Henry  Harrison,  and  a  British  force  of  about 
650  under  General  Proctor,  aided  by  about 
2,000  Indians  under  Tecumseh.  The  battle 
was  opened  by  a  famous  cavalry  charge  led  by 
Colonel  Richard  M.  Johnson,  who,  it  is 
said,  personally  killed  Tecumseh.  After  re- 
treating before  General  Harrison  for  several 
days.  Proctor  made  a  stand.  The  battle 
practically  put  an  end  to  Indian  cooperation 
with  the  British  in  the  northwest. 

THANE,  a  title  of  honor  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  In  early  England  a  freeman  who 
was  not  a  noble  might  become  a  thane  by 
acquiring  a  certain  acreage  of  land,  by  mak- 
ing three  sea  voj^ages,  or  by  taking  holy 
ordei*s.  The  title  passed  to  his  sons.  The 
thane  had  the  right  to  vote  on  important 
questions  in  the  local  and  national  assemblies. 
The  title  disappeared  in  England  after  the 
reign  of  Henry  II. 

THANET,  Octave.    See  French,  Alice. 

THANKS'GIVING  DAY,  in  the  United 
States,  an  annual  festival  of  thanksgiving  for 
the  blessings  of  the  closing  year.  It  is  fixed 
by  proclamation  of  the  President  and  the 
governors  of  states,  and  ranks  as  a  legal 
holiday. 

The  earliest  harvest  thanksgiving  in  Amer- 
ica was  kept  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1621,  after  the  gathering  of  the 
first  harvest,  when  Governor  Bradley  made 
provision  for  a  day  of  thanksgiving  and 
prayer.  This  custom  was  repeated  often 
during  that  and  the  ensuing  century.  Con- 
gress recommended  days  of  thanksgiving  an- 
nually during  the  Revolution,  and  in  1784  for 
the  return  of  peace.  President  Madison 
issued  a  proclamation  of  the  same  import 
in  1815.  Washington  appointed  a  similar  day 
in  1789,  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  in  1795  he  appointed  another  day  as 
Thanksgiving  Day  for  the  general  benefits 
and  welfare  of  the  nation.  Since  1863  every 
President  has  issued  each  year  a  proclamation 
appointing  the  last  Thursday  of  November 
as  Thanksgi^nng  Day. 

THEATER,  a  building  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  presenting  dramatic  or  other  spec- 
tacles. 

Ancient  Theaters.  The  first  theaters  of 
the  Greeks,  who  were  the  founders  of  the 


THEATER 


3556 


THEATER 


drama  in  its  modem  sense,  were  very  rude 
structures.  They  were  usually  temporary 
wooden  scaffolds,  but  in  500  b.  c,  an  accident 
occurred,  and  in  that  same  year  the  Athen- 
ians set  to  work  to  build  the  great  theater  of 
Dionysus,  the  first  stone  structure  of  the  kind. 
Ruins  of  theaters  exist  in  almost  every 
city  of  Greece,  and  they  all  show  similarity 
to  this  first  theater  in  Athens.  Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  theaters  were  the  chief 
public  edifices  next  to  the  temples,  and  in 
point  of  magnitude  they  surpassed  the  most 
spacious  of  the  temples,  having  in  some  in- 
stances accommodation  for  as  many  as  10,000 
to  40,000  spectators. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  theaters  very  closely 
resembled  each  other  in  their  general  form 
and  principal  parts.  The  building  was  of  a 
semi-circular  form,  resembling  thfe  half  of  an 
amphitheater,  and  it  was  not  covered  by  a 
roof.  In  Greece  the  semicircular  area  was 
often  scooped  out  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  but 
Roman  theaters  were  built  on  the  level.  The 
seats  of  the  spectators  were  arranged  in  tiers 
up  the  semicircular  slope.  The  part  of  the 
theater  in  which  the  spectators  sat  was  usu- 
ally called  the  cavea,  or  pit,  because  it  was 
excavated,  and  this  name  is  still  applied  to  the 
lowest  part  of  the  audience  room  in  a  mod- 
ern theater. 

The  stage,  or  place  for  the  players,  a  nar- 
row platform  along  the  straight  side  of  the 
theater,  was  in  front  of  the  seats.  Behind 
this  rose  a  high  wall,  resembling  the  facade 
of  a  building,  this  being  intended  to  represent 
any  building  in  front  of  which  the  action  was 
supposed  to  lake  place.  This  was  called  in 
Greek  skene,  the  stage  being  called  prosken- 
ion.  The  semicircular  space  between  the  stage 
and  the  lowest  seats  of  the  spectators  was 
called  orchestra  and  was  appropriated  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  chorus  and  musicians,  and  by 
the  Romans  to  the  senators.  Scenery,  in  the 
modem  sense  of  the  word,  was  not  employed, 
except  in  a  very  rude  form,  but  the  stage  ma- 
chinery seems  in  many  cases  to  have  been 
elaborate;  and  in  particular  there  was  a  well- 
known  machine  or  ccJntrivanee  of  some  sort, 
from  which  deities  made  their  entrance,  as  if 
from  the  sky. 

The  immense  size  of  the  ancient  theaters 
made  it  impossible  for  the  unaided  voice  to 
be  heard  by  the  whole  audience.  To  remedy 
this,  the  actors  wore  metallic  mouthpieces 
very  similar  to  megaphones.  In  comedy  the 
actors  wore  a  light  shoe,  called  the  sock,  a 


term  often  used  to  designate  comedy,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  tragedy,  in  which  a  buskin 
or  high-heeled  shoe  was  worn  by  the  actor, 
to  make  him  appear  taller.  The  actors  were 
males,  the  characters  of  women  being  repre- 
sented by  young  men.  The  performances, 
which  always  included  a  series  of  plays,  often 
lasted  from  sunrise  until  sunset.  A  price 
Avas  charged  for  admission  until  the  time  of 
Pericles,  when  the  poorer  classes,  and  later  all 
the  citizens,  were  admitted  at  the  cost  of  the 
State.  In  earlier  times  women  were  allowed 
to  witness  the  tragedies  only,  but  later  they 
attended  all  representations. 

Medieval  and  Early  Modem  Periods.  Be- 
tween the  decline  of  the  ancient,  and  the  rise 
of  the  modern,  drama  there  is  a  long  in- 
terval, in  which  the  nearest  approach  to  theat- 
rical entertainments  is  found  in  miracle 
plays,  mysteries  and  interludes.  These  per- 
formances took  place  in  churches,  convents 
or  halls  or  in  the  open  air.  Sometimes  the 
stage  was  roofed,  in  which  case  the  ends  of  it 
were  used  by  the  fashionable  patrons,  an  ar- 
rangement which  later  gave  rise  to  the  use 
of  boxes. 

In  1548  the  Confraternity  of  the  Trinity 
opened  a  theater  in  Paris,  in  which  secular 
pieces  were  performed.  The  first  theater 
erected  in  Italy  seems  to  have  been  that  of 
Florence,  built  in  1581,  but  the  first  building 
that  approaches  the  modem  style  was  one 
constructed  at  Parma  in  1618.  In  England 
there  were  organized  companies  of  actors  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  Edward  IV;  but  as 
there  were  no  regular  playhouses,  the  per- 
formances took  place  in  tennis  courts,  inn 
yards  and  private  houses.  The  London  Thea- 
ter was  built  by  James  Burbage  before  1576, 
and  the  Curtain  in  Shoreditch  and  the  play- 
houses in  Blackfriars  and  Whitefriars  date 
from  about  the  same  time.  Shakespeare's 
plaj's  were  brought  out  at  the  house  in  Black- 
friars and  at  the  Globe  on  the  Bankside,  both 
of  which  belonged  to  the  same  company,  to 
whom  James  I  granted  a  patent  in  1603.  The 
Globe  was  a  six-sided  wooden  structure, 
partly  open  at  the  top  and  partly  thatched 
Movable  scenery  was  first  used  on  the  public 
stage  by  Davenant  in  1662,  and  about  the 
same  time  this  manager  introduced  women 
to  play  female  characters,  hitherto  taken  by 
boys  and  men. 

Theaters  of  To-day.  Present-day  theaters 
are  elaborate  structures.  The  auditorium, 
usually  in  horseshoe  shape,  is  highly  deco- 


THEBES 


3557 


THEMES 


rated  and  has  sloping  floors,  from  one  to  four 
balconies,  boxes  and  orchestra.  The  stage  is 
extensive  in  size,  with  adjuncts  of  curtain, 
"flies,"  lighting  arrangements  and  dressing 
rooms.  The  shifting  of  the  scenes  requires  a 
large  number  of  men. 

Since  the  disastrous  Iroquois  Theatre  fire 
in  Chicago,  in  1903,  in  which  572  persons 
perished,  strict  regulations  have  been  en- 
forced in  most  countries  as  to  the  number  and 
accessibility  of  exits  and  the  separation  of 
the  auditorium  from  the  stage  by  an  as- 
bestos or  sheet-iron  curtain. 

Mechanical  devices  and  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity for  power  and  lighting  make  possible 
almost  any  scenic  effect  on  the  modem  stage. 
These,  together  with  the  literary  genius  that 
has  been  thrown  into  dramatic  writing  in  the 
past  fifty  years,  have  raised  the  theatre  when 
at  its  best  to  one  of  the  most  cultural  and 
educational  influences  of  our  time.  All  the 
other  arts  are  enlisted  in  the  production  of 
the  drama. 

Moving  Picture  Theatre,  an  auditorium 
for  the  display  of  moving  pictures,  commonly 
a  rectangular  room  with  a  curtain  at  one  end, 
upon  which  the  pictures  are  thrown.  Some 
moving  picture  theatres,  however,  are  very 
elaborately  decorated  and  are  furnished  with 
permanent  facilities  for  music.  In  some 
cases,  also,  theatres  built  for  the  legitimate 
play  are  adapted  to  the  use  of  moving  pic- 
ture performances  during  the  summer  months. 

Related     Articles:     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Colosseum  Drama  Moving-  Picture 

THEBES,  tJieehz,  Egypt,  ancient  capital 
of  the  country  and  for  centuries  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  Pharaohs.  It  is  situated  in 
Upper  Egypt,  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  about 
300  miles  southeast  of  Cairo,  and  is  now 
represented  by  the  four  straggling  villages  of 
Luxor,  Karnak,  Medinet  Habu  and  Kurach, 
as  well  as  by  the  most  impressive  ruins  of 
antiquity,  extending  about  seven  miles  along 
the  river. 

The  city  reached  its  period  of  greatest 
prosperity  from  1500  to  1000  B.C.  The  ruins 
comprise  magnificient  temples,  rock-cut 
tombs,  obelisks  decorated  with  beautiful 
sculptures,  long  avenues  of  sphinxes  and 
colossal  statues.  The  largest  of  the  temples 
is  that  at  Karnak.  Above  Karnak  are  the 
village  and  temple  of  Luxor.  The  Mem- 
nonium,  or  temple  of  Rameses  II,  the  temple 
and  palace  of  Rameses  III,  and  the  colossal 
statues  of  Amenoph  III,  one  of  them  known 


as  the  vocal  statue  of  Memnon,  are  of  great 
historical  interest.  In  the  interior  of  the 
mountains  which  rise  behind,  are  found 
tombs  of  the  kings  of  Thebes,  excavated  in 
the  rock,  the  most  remarkable  being  that  of 
Seti  I,  discovered  by  Belzoni,  and  containing 
fine  sculptures  and  paintings. 

THEBES,  Greece,  a  celebrated  ancient 
city,  at  one  time  the  supreme  power  in  Greece, 
is  situated  about  forty  miles  north  of  Athens 
and  about  midway  between  Mount  Helicon 
and  the  channel  separating  Euboea  from  the 
mainland.  The  cycle  of  legends  associated 
with  Thebes  is  almost  as  famed  as  that  identi- 
fied with  Troy.  It  was  the  chief  city  of 
Boeotia,  and  the  birthplace  of  Pindar, 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Cadmus,  1500  b.  c. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Epaminondas  it 
became  the  most  important  city  and  state  of 
Greece ;  this  supremacy  came  to  an  end  with 
his  death  in  362  B.C.  Under  Roman  rule  it 
again  became  prosperous,  but  declined  under 
the  Turks.  The  present  village  is  of  little 
importance;  it  has  a  population  of  approxi- 
mately 3,500. 

THEINE,  th/in.    See  Caffeine. 

THEMES,  OUTLINES  FOR.  The  selec- 
tion of  material  is  the  first  step  in  writing  an 
essay.  The  second  step  is  an-anging  that 
material  so  that  the  composition,  when  com- 
plejjM,  will  read  smoothly  and  have  an  orderly 
development.  There  is  no  better  way  of 
securing  smoothness  and  order  in  an  essay 
than  by  making  an  outline  before  beginning  to 
write.  The  outlines  which  follow  will  suggest 
to  teachers  and  pupils  how  the  different  types 
of  essays  may  be  planned.  Attention  is  also 
called  to  the  numerous  outlines  scattered 
throughout  these  volumes. 

Descriptive  Themes 

THE    RAINBOW 

"What  it  looks  like 

An  arch  across  the  sky 

Its  different   colors 

"Where  its  ends  seem  to  rest 
Made  up  of  two  bows 

A  brighter  and  a  fainter  bow 

How  they  differ  in  color  arrangement 
"Where  the  rainbow  is  always  seen 

In  that  part  of  the  sky  opposite  the  sun 

The    higher    the    sun,    the    lower    the    bow 
Why? 

No  bow  visible  when  the  sun  is  above  40° 

Is  there  another  side  to  the  bow? 
The  reason  for  the  rainbow 

Reflection  and  refraction  of  the  sun's  rays 
falling  on  raindrops 

"V/hy  there  are  seven  colors 


THEMES 


3558 


THEMES 


Who  first  correctly  explained  the  rainbow? 
"Where  small  rainbows  may  be  seen 
In  the  spray  of  waterfalls 
In  the  soapbubble 
The  Bible  story  of  the  bow 

Told  in  Genesis,  Chapter  IX 
What  sailors  say  about  it 

Rainbow  at   night,   sailors   delight; 
Rainbow    in    the    morning,    sailors    take 
■warning. 

THE    OAK 

The  monarch  among  forest  trees 

Symbol  of  strength  and  sturdiness 

Its  defiance  of  time   and   tempest 
What  it  looks  like 

Wide-spreading  branches 

Bears   two   kinds   of  fiowers 

Beauty  of  its  leaves 
How  it  grows 

From   small   seeds  called  acorns 

Acorns   used   as   food   in    some   countries 
Meaning  of  the  proverb,  "Tall  oaks  from 
little   acorns    grow" 
Uses  of  the  oak 

Wood  valuable  in  carpentry  because  of  its 
beauty,  durability  and  strength 

Bark  used  in  tanning  and  dyeing 

Shade  and  ornamental  tree 
The   oak   in   history 

Chaplet  of  oak  leaves  a  token  of  honor  w^orn 
by  Roman  soldiers 

Sacred  oaks  of  the  Druids  in  Britain 

Charter  Oak  of  Connecticut 
The  oak  in  literature 
The    Forest   Hymn,    by   Bryant;    The    Oak,    by 

Lowell;  A  Song  of  the  Oak,  by  Chorley. 

A    SNOWSTORM    IN    THE    COUXTRT,    BASED    OX 
"WHITTIER'S    "SXOWBOUXD" 

First  signs  of  the  coming  storm  LJ 

Dark   circles  about   the   noonday  sun 
Afternoon  sun  hidden  by  threatening  clouds 
Rising  of  a  bitterly  cold  wind 

The  storm  in   its  fury 

The  snowflakes  in  a  wild  dance 
Drifts  pile  against  the  window  frame 
Storm  rages  all  night  and  the  next  day 

The  day  after  the  storm 

The  blue  sky  above  a  universe  of  snow 
What     the    snow-covered    farm    structures 
look  like 

Farmer  summons   the   boys   to    dig  paths 
Tunneling  through  the  drifts 
Rescuing  the  barn  animals  from  a  hunger 
siege 

The  farm  that  evening 

Beauty    of    the    snow-covered    hills    in    the 

moonlight 
Contrast  between  snow  and  dark  hemlock 
trees 

The   snow-bound   farm   folk 

Around  the  evening  hearth  fire 
The  feast  of  cider,  apples  and  nuts 
Stories  of  days  gone  by 

ABOUT    LEAVES 

Parts  of  a  typical  leaf 

Blade,  or  flattened  part  of  the  leaf 

Petiole,  or  stem  of  the  leaf 

Stipules,  or  expansions  at  base  of  petiole 


What  the  leaf  is  made  of 

Upper    and    lower    surfaces    of    membrane, 
called  epidermis 

Breathing   pores    in   epidermis,    called   sto- 
mata 

Layers  of  cells  between  the  surfaces 

Leaf  green,  or  chlorophyll,  found  in  certain 
cells 

Threads  of  fiber,  forming  ribs  and  veins 
What  the  leaves  do 

Manufacture  sugar  and  starch  to  feed  the 
plant 

Act  as  lungs  for  the  plant 

Send  into  the  air  surplus  water  taken  from 
the  sap 

Fallen  leaves  make  a  deep  carpet  that  pro- 
tects the  roots  of  trees  from  frost 
Why  the  leaves  fall 

Their  food  materials   are   absorbed   by   the 
branches  and  roots,  to  be  stored  through 
the  winter,  and  so  they  wither  and  fall  off 
Why  the  leaves   turn   red  and   yellow  in  au- 
tumn 

Because  of  chemical  changes  in  the  cells 

Jack  Frost  is  not  the  painter  of  the  leaves 
Narrative   Themes 

A  DISCARDED  DOLL  SPEAKS  OX  A  CHRISTMAS  DAT 

My   appearance 

I   have  lost  one   eye   and   an   arm 

The  sawdust  has  oozed  out  of  one  leg 

My  nose  is  broken  off 

I  have  no  htiir 

I  am  ■wrapped  in  an  old  piece  of  cloth 
My  home  and  companions 

I  live  in  a  dark  corner  in  an  attic 

My  companions  are  a  broken  tin  soldier,  a 
woolly    lamb    with    one    leg    gone,    and    a 
head-less  doll 
How  I  came  to  this  sad  condition 

My  little  mistress  grew  tried  of  me 

She  gave  me  to  her  little  brother 

He   "banged"  me  around 

At  housecleaning  time  I  was  cast  aside 
My  former  state 

I  ■was  a  loved  and  ■welcomed  gift  last  Christ- 
mas morning 

My  hair  "was  curly   and  I   was  beautifully 
dressed 

My  little  mistress  showered  me  with  kisses 
My  decline 

A  rival  doll  appeared 

I  was  no  longer  treated  with  respect  after  I 
lost  my  eye 

Little  brother's  treatment  broke  my  heart 
Moral 

Dolls  should  form  a  union   to   protect  their 
rights 

STORT   OF   THE  AMERICAX   FLAG 

Colonial  flags  of  1775  and  1776 

"Conquer  or  die,"  standard  of  Concord 

Pine-tree  flag  of  Bunker  Hill 

Grand  Union  flag  of  1776,  unfurled  at  Cam- 
bridge 
First  national  flag 

Adopted   by  Congress  on  June   14.    1777 

Thirteen  stripes  and  thirteen  stars 

First  flag  made  by  Betsy  Ross 

Stars  and  Stripes  float  above  Fort  Stanwix 
in  August,  1777 


THEMES 


3559 


THEMES 


Flag  of  fifteen  stripes  and  fifteen  stars 

Adopted  on  admission  of  Vermont  and  Ken- 
tucky, 1795 
Floats  over  Fort  McHenry  in  1814,  inspira- 
tion    of     national     anthem,     The     Star- 
Spangled  Banner 
Congressional  act  of  1818 

I'rovided  for  a  flag  of  thirteen  stripes 
Each  state  is  to  be  represented  by  a  star 
Starry   field   has   now   forty-eight   stars 
What  the  flag  stands  for 

THE    PIED    PIPER    OF    HAMELIN 

(Based    on    Browning's    Poem) 
Hamelin  town  in  Brunswick 

A  pleasant  town   on   the   river  Weser 

•The  pest  of  rats 
Petition  of  the  people 

Mayor  and  Corporation  threatened 

The  entrance  of  the  Pied  Piper 
Proposition  made   by  the  Piper 

To  free  the  town  of  rats 

To  be  paid  1,000  guilders 
The  Piper  blows  his  pipe 

The   rats  by  thousands  come   tumbling  out 
of  the  houses 

They  follow  him  to  the  river 

The  rejoicing  of  the  people 
The  Piper  demands  his  pay 

Refusal  of  the  Mayor 
The  Piper's  revenge 

The  tow^n  children  are  enticed  to  the  moun- 
tain 

The   mountain   swallows   them   all 

Lamentations   of   the    lame   boy   left  behind 

STORY    OF    THREE    BUTTERFLIES 

Who   the  butterflies   were 

A  white,  a  red  and  a  yelloAV  one 
What  they  were  doing 

Playing  in  the  sunshine 

Dancing  from  flower  to  flower 
It  begins  to  rain 

Their   wings    get   wet 

The  door  of  their  house  is  locked 
Their  appeal  to  the  red  and  yellow  tulip 

The   tulip   refuses   to  shelter  the  white 
butterfly 

The  red  and  yellow  ones  will  not  desert  her 
They  fly   to   the   lily 

The    lily    will    shelter    only    the    white    one 

The   white   one   will   not   desert   her   sisters 
The    sun   is   pleased 

He  drives  away  the  rain 

The    wings    of   the   butterflies    dry 
They    dance    again    in    the    garden 

Expository    Themes 

ON    THRIFT 

What  is  thrift? 

Being  saving  of 

Money,    time,    health,    energy 

Being  careful  in  little  things 

Overcoming    negligence    and    forgetfulness 
The  moral  value  of  thrift 

It  disciplines  the  character 

It   develops   self-control 

It  trains  the  will  " 

It  helps  one  form  good  habits 
The  practical  value  of  thrift 

It  enables  one   to  save  money 


It    is    preparation    for    a    rainy    day 
The  thrifty  are  always  well  provided  for 
They  need  not  fear  sickness  or  old  age 
They  can  help  good  causes 
Who  should  practice  thrift  : 
The   individual 
The   family 
The  nation 

ON    PATRIOTISM 

What   is  patriotism? 
Love   for  country 
A  universal   feeling 
How  true  patriotism  is  expressed 
In  time  of  peace 

By  obeying  the  law 
By  working  for  better  laws 
By  voting  intelligently 
By  making  sacrifices  for  the  public  good 
By  observing  national  holidays 
In  time  of  war 

By  consecrating  to  one's  country 
Time,    money,    service,    life    itself 
By    bearing    burdens    cheerfully 
By   honoring  the   flag 

By   being    loyal    in    word,    thought    and 
act 
Examples  of  true  patriots 
Joan  of  Arc 
Horatio  Nelson 
Garibaldi 
Nathan  Hale 
Abraham  Lincoln 

GOOD    HEALTH 

The  blessings   of  health 

Adds  to  the   enjoyment  of  life 
Increases  efficiency 
Insures  long  life 
Adds  to  happiness  of  others 
How  health  is  maintained 
Food  and  drink 

Choice   of  nourishing,   simple  foods 

Avoidance   of  tobacco,   liquor   and   highly 
seasoned  foods 

Moderation  in  use  of  sweets,  tea  and  cof- 
fee 
Exercise  and  breathing 

Daily  exercise  in  fresh  air 

Cultivation  of  outdoor  games  and  cports 

Deep  breathing  exercises 
Rest  and  recreation 

Regular  sleep  in  ventilated  room 

Avoidance  of  over  fatigue 

Mental    relaxation — music,    reading,    etc. 

Avoidance   of   dissipation   and   late   hours 
Cleanliness 

The  daily  bath 

Care  of  teeth,   nails  and  hair 

Sanitary   surroundings 

Clean  clothing 

BASKET    BALL 

The  field 

Average  dimensions 

How  marked  off 

Suspended    ]3asket  nets   for   goals 
The  ball 

Inflated  bladder  in  round  leather  case 

Dimensions  and  ■weight 
Two  teams  consisting  each  of 

One  center 


THEMES 


3560 


THEMISTOCLES 


Two  forwards 
Two  guards 
The  game 

Played  in  two  halves 
Intermission  of  ten  minutes 
Winning  side  makes  the  most  baskets 
Scoring 

A  basket  counts  two  points 
Free  throws 
Rules 

Position  of  players 
Their  duties 
Fouls 
Why  basket  ball  is  beneficial 
It  develops 
Alertness 
Self-control 
The  muscles 
Good  sportsmanship 
It  can  be  played 

Indoors   and   outdoors 
By  either  sex 

Argumentative  Themfts 

WOMEN    SHOULD    HAVE    THE   VOTE 

To  restrict  the  vote  to  men  is  unjust 

It  is  not  fair  to  class  women  with  criminals, 
idiots  and  the  insane 

Tax-paying  women  should  have  a  voice  in 
legislation 

Women  as  a  whole  are  as  deserving  of  suf- 
frage as  men 

To  deprive  them  of  the  vote  is  contrary  to 
the  principles  of  democracy 
Woman  suffrage  would  benefit  the  state 

Women  have  keener  convictions  than  men 
on  moral   issues 

As  a  rule  they  will  vote  for  reforms 
Example — they  favor  prohibition 

Women   would  favor  honest  officials 
Woman  suffrage  would  benefit  women  them- 
selves 

Voting  w^omen  would  be  aroused  to  greater 
interest  in  political  and  civil  questions 

They  would  work  for  better  laws  pertaining 
to  the  home,  the  school  and  social  condi- 
tions 
Woman  suffrage  has  proved  successful 

It  has  been  tried  and  been  found  a  success 
in  Denmark,  Norway,  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, Iceland,  Canada  and  several  states 
of  the  United  States 

THE    SUMMER    VACATION    FOR    SCHOOLS    SHOULD    BE 
ABOLISHED 

The  present  sytem  is  wasteful 

It  is  poor  economy  to  have  the  schools  idle 
for  so  many  weeks 

The  time  lost  can  never  be  regained 
The    long   vacation    has   a  bad   effect   on    the 
pupils 

They   form   idle   habits 

They  lose  in  efliiciency 

They  forget  how  to  concentrate 

It  takes  a  long  time  to  overcome  this  slack- 
ness 
Proposed  remedy 

Division  of  year  in  four  terms,  and  each 
term  into  halves 

School  the  year  round 

Six-weeks  vacation  as  needed 


Advantages  of  new  plan 

Pupils  can  complete  school  course  in  shorter 

time 
Those  who  leave  school  early  to  go  to  work 

are   better  prepared   than   under  old  plan 
Gain  in  economy  and  efficiency 

CAPITAL    PUNISHMENT    SHOULD    BE    ABOLISHED 

Capital  punishment  is  contrary  to  the  moral 
code 

The  taking  of  a  life  should  be  left  to  Provi- 
dence 

No  government  should  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  sending  a  soul  to  eternity 
Capital  punishment  is   unnecessary 

Imprisonment    for   life    serves   the    purpose 
of: 

Punishing  the  criminal 
Protecting  society 
Capital    punishment    has    evil   effects 

It  lowers  the  public  sense  of  the  sacredness 
of  life 

The  publication  of  the  details  of  an  execu- 
tion are  revolting 

Capital  punishment  tends  to  thwart  the  ends 
of   justice 

Many  jurors  would  prefer  to  acquit  a  man 
than  to  sentence  him  to  death 

Capital  punishment  is  unsound  in  theory 
It   does    not   aim   to    reform    the   criminal 
It  exalts  the  idea  of  revenge 
The  revenge  idea  tends  to  arouse  antag- 
onism and   to   encourage   crime 
Prison  reform  should  be  substituted 

It  is  more  humane 

It  may  make  a  good  man  out  of  a  criminal 

It  is  the  only  enlightened  method  of  punish- 
ment 
Capital    punishment    has    been    outlawed    in 

many  countries 
Many  great  thinkers  have  been  opposed  to  it. 

MILITARY  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IS  DESIRABLE 

Military  drill  is  healthful 
It  developes    the   muscles 
It  straightens  the  shoulders 
It  expands  the  chest  and  lungs 
Such  training  is  morally  beneficial  to  the  in- 
dividual 
It  increases  mental  alertness 
It  is  a  splendid  form  of  discipline 
It   encourages  self-respect   and   obedience 
Jlilitary  training  of  youth  is  a  benefit  to  the 
nation 
It  provides  the  foundation  for  national  de- 
fense 
High   school    drill   is   preferable    to    universal 
military    service 
It  does  not  interfere  with   industry 
It   gives   training  to   growing  youths 

THE'MIS,  goddess  of  law  and  justice 
among  the  Greeks,  the  daughter  of  Uranus 
and  Gcea  (Heaven  and  Earth)  and  one  of  the 
wives  of  Zeus  and  the  mother  of  the  Horae 
(Hours)  and  Moerae  (Fates). 

THEMISTOCLES,  the  mis'toh  kleez 
(about  514-449  B.  c),  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  Athenian  generals  and  statesmen, 
who  won  his  greatest  victory  at  the  age  of 


THEOCRACY 


3561 


THEOLOGY 


thirty  and  by  his  naval  policy  at  that  time 
laid  the  foundation  for  future  Athenian 
supremacy.  After  the  Battle  of  Marathon, 
490  B.  c,  he  convinced  the  Athenians,  most  of 
whom  believed  that  the  struggle  with  Persia 
was  over,  that  there  was  still  need  for  prep- 
aration, and  he  induced  them  to  build  a 
fleet.  On  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes, 
Themistocles  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet,  and  in  the  Battle  of  Sala- 
mis  (480  B.  C.)  he  conquered  the  Persians  and 
saved  Greece.  Subsequently  he  was  accused 
of  having  enriched  himself  by  unjust  means 
and  of  being  pri\'y  to  designs  for  the  betraj^  al 
of  Greece  to  the  Persians.  Fearing  the  ven- 
geance of  his  countrjTnen,  after  many  vicis- 
situdes he  took  refuge  at  the  Persian  court 
in  4G5  B.  C.  Some  authorities  assert  that  he 
committed  suicide  by  taking  poison,  but  there 
is  no  positive  knowledge  of  it. 

THEOCRACY,  the  ok'  ra  si/,  literally, 
"government  by  God,"  the  name  given  to  a 
state  in  which  God  is  regarded  as  the  sole 
sovereign,  and  the  laws  of  the  realm  are  con- 
sidered to  be  divine  commands  rather  than 
human  ordinances.  The  priesthood,  there- 
fore, become  the  interpreters  of  the  "divine 
commands,"  act  as  the  ofiieers  of  the  Invisible 
Ruler,  and  have  authority  as  well  in  civil  mat- 
ters. The  typical  example  of  a  theocracy  is 
that  established  by  Moses  among  the  Hebrews. 
The  governments  of  colonial  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  were  at  times  theocratic  in 
nature. 

THEODORIC,  the  ocXo  rik  (about  454- 
526),  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  generally 
known  as  Theodoric  the  Great,  founder  of 
the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  in  Italy.  He  was 
born  in  Pannonia,  and  from  his  eighth  to 
his  eighteenth  year  he  lived  as  a  hostage  with 
Emperor  Leo  at  Constantinople.  Upon  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  474,  Theodoric  be- 
came chief  ruler.  In  488  he  invaded  Italy, 
defeated  Odoacer  and  compelled  the  latter 
to  grant  him  equal  authority.  The  murder 
of  Odoacer  opened  the  way  for  Theodoric  to 
have  himself  proclaimed  sole  ruler.  He 
ruled  with  vigor  and  ability,  abandoning 
war  almost  entirely.  He  introduced  an  im- 
proved administration  of  justice,  and 
encouraged  industry  and  the  arts  of  peace. 
During  his  reign  his  country  enjoyed  a 
period  of  great  prosperity.  Although,  like 
his  ancestors,  he  was  an  Arian,  he  never  vio- 
lated the  peace  or  privileges  of  the  Catholic 
Church.     See  GtOTHS,  subhead  Ostrogoths. 


THEODOSIUS,  the  a  doh'  she  us,  the 
name  of  three  Roman  emperors,  namely, 
Theodosius  I,  surnamed  the  Great  (379- 
395) ;  Theodosius  II,  emperor  of  the  East 
from  408  to  450;  Theodosius  III,  Byzantine 
emperor  (716-717). 

Theodosius  I.  was  born  in  Spain.  He  was 
selected  by  the  Emperor  Gratian,  in  379,  as  his 
partner  in  the  empire.  To  his  care  were  given 
Thrace  and  the  Eastern  provinces,  which  he 
delivered  from  an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  con- 
cluding- a  peace  with  them  in  382.  On  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Maximus,  he  became  the  sole 
head  of  the  Empire,  Gratian  having  been 
killed  in  the  war  against  Maximus.  In  390  a 
sedition  took  place  in  Thessalonica,  and  to 
satisfy  his  vengeance  Theodosius  caused  the 
people  of  the  city  to  be  invited  to  an  exhibi- 
tion at  the  circus  and  then  had  them  barbar- 
ously murdered,  to  the  number,  it  is  com- 
puted, of  seven  thousand.  Saint  Ambrose  re- 
fused him  communion  for  eight  months  on  ac- 
count of  this  crime,  and  Theodosius  submit- 
ted humbly  to  the  punishment.  At  his  death 
he  left  the -eastern  portion  of  the  Empire  to 
his  son  Arcadius,  the  western  to  his  son 
Honorius. 

Theodosius  II.  was  the  only  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Arcadius.  During  his  reign  the  Empire 
was  invaded  by  the  Huns  under  Attila  and  a 
war  was  waged  with  Persia. 

Theodosius  III.  was  an  unimportant  Byzan- 
tine emperor  who  abdicated  after  a  few 
months'   reign. 

THEOLOGY,  the  oVo  jy,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  existence  of  God,  his  attributes 
and  the  divine  will  regarding  human  actions, 
present  condition  and  ultimate  destiny. 

A  sharp  distinction  was  formerly  drawn 
between  natural  and  revealed  theologj'.  The 
former,  or  philosophical  theology,  relates  to 
the  knowledge  of  God  from  His  works,  by 
the  light  of  nature  and  reason ;  the  latter,  or 
the  supernatural,  positive,  or  revealed,  theol- 
ogy,  sets  forth  and  systematizes  the  doctrines 
of  the  Scriptures.  "With  regard  to  the  con- 
tents, theology  is  classified  into  theoretical 
theology,  or  dogmatics,  and  practical  theol- 
ogy, or  ethics. 

As  comprehending  the  whole  extent  of  re- 
ligious science,  theology  is  divided  into  four 
principal  classes:  these  are  historical, 
treating  of  the  history  of  Christian  doctrines ; 
exegetical,  embracing  the  interpretation  of 
the  Scriptures  and  of  Biblical  criticism; 
systematic,  arranging  methodically  the  gri'eat 
truths  of  religion;  practical,  consisting,  firet 
of  precepts  and  directions,  as  well  as  motives 
by  which  we  should  comply  with  them. 
Apologetic  and  polemic  theology  belong  to 
several  of  these  four  classes  at  once.     The 


THEOSOPHY 


3562 


THERMOELECTRICITY 


scholastic  theology  attempted  to  clarify  and 
discuss  all  questions  with  the  aid  of  human 
reason  alone,  putting  aside  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  adopting,  instead,  the  arts  of 
the  dialectician. 

THEOSOPHY,  the  o/o  fy,  according  to  its 
etjTnology,  the  science  of  divine  things. 
However,  the  name  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  philosophy  of  those  who,  in  their  inquiries 
respecting  God,  have  run  into  mysticism,  as 
Jacoh  Bohme,  Swedenborg,  Saint  Martin 
and  others. 

At  the  present  day  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Theosophical  Society, 
founded  in  New  York  in  1S75  by  Colonel 
Henry  S.  Olcott,  the  objects  of  which  are 
(1)  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  universal 
brotherhood  of  humanity;  (2)  to  promote 
the  study  of  Eastern  literature 'and  science; 

(3)  to  investigate  unexplained  laws  of  na- 
ture and  the  psychical  powers  of  man,  and 

(4)  to  search  after  divine  knowledge — the 
word  divine  meaning  the  true  nature  of  the 
abstract  principle,  not  the  quality  of  a  per- 
sonal God.  The  theosophists  assert  ihv.t 
humanity  is  possessed  of  certain  powers 
over  nature  which  the  narrower  study  of 
nature,  from  the  merely  materialistic  stand- 
point, has  failed  to  develop.  Their  so-called 
occult  manifestations  are  akin  to  those  at- 
tributed to  spiritualism  or  telepathy,  that  is, 
conimunication  between  minds  at  a  distance 
from  each  other. 

Theosophical  Society.  ]\Iadame  P.  Blavat- 
sky,  a  Russian,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Theosophical  Society,  and  her  book,  The 
Secret  Doctrine,  is  the  authoritative  book 
on  the  modern  philosophy.  In  1878  she 
and  Colonel  Olcott  left  New  York  for  India, 
where  a  system  of  propaganda  was  developed 
and  numerous  branches  formed.  Upon  her 
death,  she  was  succeeded  by  "William  0. 
Judge  and  Annie  Besant,  jointly.  In  1895 
the  American  section  unanimously  declared 
its  autonomy  as  the  "Theosophical  Society 
in  America,"  with  Judge  as  its  president; 
Annie  Besant  became  head  of  the  Esoteric 
Section,  an  inner  body.  In  1898  Katherino 
A.  Tingley  organized  "The  Universal  Broth- 
erhood Organization,"  and  became  absolute 
ruler.  In  1916  Mrs.  Besant  was  elected 
president  of  the  parent  society,  with  head- 
quarters at  Adyar,  Madras,  India. 

THERAPEUTICS,  thera  pu'tihs,  that 
branch  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the  dis- 
covery   and    application    of    remedies    for 


curing  disease.  In  its  broadest  sense  the 
term  includes  every  form  of  treatment  and, 
with  a  qualifying  term,  may  be  applied  to 
any  system  of  treatment.  Medical  therapeu- 
tics includes  treatment  by  drugs;  electrical 
therapeutics,  by  X-ray  and  other  forms  of 
the  electric  current;  general  therapeutics, 
treatment  by  dieting,  massage,  sunlight,  etc; 
mental  therapeutics,  by  suggestion  and  di- 
rection of  the  mental  attitudes;  bacterial 
therapeutics,  treatment  by  serums,  vaccina- 
tion and  antitoxins. 

Related     Articles:     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Hydrotherapy  Pharmacopoeia 

^Massage  Roentgen  Rays 

Materia  Modica  Surgery 

Medicine 

THERE'SA,  Saint  (1515-1582),  a  famous 
Carmelite  nun  and  mj-stical  writer,  bom  at 
Avila,  in  Spain.  She  entered  a  convent  of 
the  Carmelites  in  1534,"  where  she  remained 
for  nearly  thirty  years. 

She  undertook  to  restore  the  original  se- 
verity of  the  institute,  and  the  first  convent 
of  reformed  Carmelite  nuns  was  founded  at 
Avila  in  1562.  During  the  life  of  the  found- 
er, who  took  the  name  Teresa  de  Jesus  in 
1562,  seventeen  convents  for  women  and  six- 
teen for  men  accepted  her  reforms.  She  was 
canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  XV  in  1622. 
Teresa  was  the  author  of  several  works,  all 
of  a  devotional  nature,  among  them  a  very 
curious  autobiography,  which  has  been 
translated  into  English. 

THERMAL,  thu/mal,  SPRINGS,  or  HOT 
SPRINGS,  springs  the  temperature  of  which 
is  higher  than  that  of  the  land  where  they 
occur.  In  high  altitudes  this  temperature 
may  be  only  a  few  degrees  above  freezing 
point ;  in  volcanic  regions  it  reaches  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water.  In  some  localities  ther- 
mal springs  are  subject  to  eruption  (see 
Getser),  but  most  of  them  are  quiet  boiling 
pools.  The  crater  of  the  spring  extends 
to  a  great  depth,  and  the  water  is  heated  by 
contact  with  the  hot  rocks  below.  Most  ther- 
mal springs  hold  siliceous  and  calcareous 
matter  in  solution  and  deposit  it  around 
their  sides  and  along  their  edges,  often  mak- 
ing beautiful  formations.  The  waters  of 
some  thermal  springs  are  valuable  for  their 
medicinal  properties,  as  the  Hot  Springs, 
Ark.,  and  Hot  Springs,  S.  D.  See  Mineral 
Waters. 

THERTVEOELECTRICITY.  If  an  iron 
wire  and  one  of  nickel  silver  are  joined  and 
the  loose  ends  attached  to  a  galvanometer, 


THERMOGRAPH 


3563 


THERMOMETER 


when  the  joined  ends  are  heated  the  gal- 
vanometer will  show  that  an  electric  current 
is  passing  over  the  wires.  If  the  iron  and 
nickel  silver  are  replaced  by  antimony  and 
bismuth  a  stronger  current  will  be  manifest. 
Thermoelectricity  is  the  name  applied  to  an 
electric  current  generated  by  joining  two  or 
more  unlike  metals  and  subjecting  them  to  a 
change  of  temperature.  To  insure  the  best 
success  in  practice,  the  metals  should  differ  in 
their  power  to  conduct  heat.  Bismuth  and 
antimony  possess  this  difference  in  the  great- 
est degree  of  any  metals  readily  obtainable; 
therefore  they  are  generally  used.  The  ther- 
moelectric battery,  or  pile,  an  apparatus  much 
used  in  delicate  experiments  with  radiant 
heat,  consists  of  a  series  of  little  bars  of  anti- 
mony and  bismuth,  or  any  other  two  metals 
of  different  heat-conducting  power,  with  their 
ends  soldered  together  and  arranged  in  a 
compact  foim,  the  opposite  ends  of  the  pile 
being  connected  with  a  very  sensitive  gal- 
vanometer. To  the  combined  arrangement  of 
pile  and  galvanometer  the  name  of  thermo- 
multiplier  is  given.  The  slightest  change  in 
temperature  generates  a  current  which  is 
manifest  in  the  galvanometer.  The  instru- 
ment is  used  for  detecting  minute  changes  in 
temperature. 

THERMOGRAPH,  ther'  mo  graf,  a  self- 
recording  thermometer.  The  American  in- 
strument, which  is  the  one  in  most  common 
use,  consists  of  a  circular  paper  disk,  gi-ad- 
uated  on  its  circumference  into  hour  apd 
minute  spaces  and  divided  by  concentric 
circles  into  spaces  indicating  degrees  of  tem- 
perature. The  disk  is  moved  by  clockwork, 
which  causes  it  to  make  a  revolution  once  in 
twenty-four  hours.  A  needle  carrying  a  pen 
or  pencil  is  so  attached  to  the  thermometer 
that  it  marks  the  temperature  on  the  disk, 
making  a  complete  circuit  in  a  day.  See 
Thermometkr. 

THERMOMETER.  If  you  take  hold  of 
an  iron  rod  that  has  just  been  removed  from 
the  fire,  it  feels  hot;  on  the  other  hand,  if 
you  touch  a  piece  of  ice,  it  feels  cold.  The 
cause  of  these  sensations  is  said  to  be  heat. 
The  warmer  body  always  gives  off  heat  to  a 
colder.  For  many  years  it  was  believed  that 
heat  was  a  fluid,  called  "caloric;"  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  experi- 
ments of  Joule  proved  that  a  definite  amount 
of  mechanical  work  is  equivalent  to  a  definite 
form  of  heat.  In  other  words,  heat  is  a  form 
of  energy.     Heating  or  cooling  is  merely  a 


As  the  bulb  cools 


FAHR.       CENT 


90, 


80 


transformation  of  temperature  or  "heat 
level,"  as  before  we  i^ight  have  spoken  of  a 
higher  water  level. 

To  measure  temperature  the  simplest  in- 
stmment  in  use  is  the  thermometer,  a  long 
glass  tube  on  one  end  of  which  is  a  bulb 
partly  filled  with  mercury.  The  tube  is  open 
at  the  upper  end  after  the  mercury  is  poured 
in.  The  bulb  is  then  heated  till  the  mercury 
rises  to  the  top,  when  the  tube  is  sealed 
by  means  of  a  blow-pipe, 
the  mercury  recedes, 
leaving  a  vacuum  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  tube. 
It  is  clear  that  there 
must  be  some  point  at 
which  all  thermometers 
agi'ee.  Careful  investi- 
gations have  made  it 
certain  that  under  uni- 
form conditions  the  tem- 
perature of  melting  ice 
and  that  of  steam  are 
invariable.  These  pomts 
are  generally  known  as 
freezing  point  and  boil- 
ing point.  On  the  centi- 
grade scales  (centigrade 
from  centum,  meaning 
hundred,  and  gradus, 
meaning  steps)  the 
freezing  point  is  marked 
0°  Centigrade  and  the 
boiling  point  100°.  On 
the  Fahrenheit  scale 
•  (named  after  the  Ger- 
man scientist  Fahren- 
heit) the  freezing  point 
is  32°  and  the  boiling 
point  212°.  Most  house- 
hold thermometers  are 
marked  in  the  Fahren- 
heit scale,  but  for  scien- 
tific purposes  the  Centi- 
grade scale  is  much  bet- 
ter, because  it  is  readily 
reduced  to  decimals. 

It  frequently  happens 
that  we  are  called  on  to 
change  temperature 
readings  from  the  Cen- 
tigrade scale  to  the 
Fahrenheit,  or  from  Fahrenheit  to  Centi- 
grade. We  know  that  100°  C.  equal  212°- 
32°  or  180°  F.  (the  abbreviations  C.  and  F. 
are  commonly  used  instead  of  writing  out  the 


?° 


THE  THERMOM- 
ETER 
Showing         both 
Fahrenheit       and 
Centigrade   scales. 


THERMOPYLAE 


3564 


THESEUM 


words).  We  are  asked  to  find  the  equivalent 
in  Fahrenheit  degrees  of  a  reading  of  60°  C. 
We  know  that 

100°  C.=180°  F. 
Then  1°  C.=l°.8  F. 

Therefore,  60°  C.=;108°  F. 

In  other  words,  60°  C.  above  zero  will  ecjual 
108°  F.  above  the  freezing  point,  because 
that  is  the  Centigrade  zero.  But  the  Centi- 
grade zero  is  32  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  So 
we  must  add  32  degrees  to  give  the  true  read- 
ing above  the  Fahrenheit  zero. 

Therefore,  60  °C.  =  108  °F.  +  32  °F.  = 
140°  F. 

To  change  a  reading  from  the  Fahrenheit 
scale  to  the  Centigrade  scale  is  just  as  sim- 
ple; we  reverse  the  process.  To  change  40° 
F.  to  Centigrade  degrees,  we  first  subtract 
32°  F.  in  order  to  find  how  many  Fahrenheit 
degrees  above  the  freezing  point  remain  to  bq 
changed  to  Centigrade  units.  In  this  case  we 
find  there  are  8°  F.  above  the  freezing  point. 
We  already  know  that 

180°  F.=100°C. 

Then  1°F.  =  I  or0.555°C. 

Therefore,   8°F.=  4.44°  C. 

It  is  possible  that  a  reading  above  zero 
on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  will  be  below  zero 
on  the  Centigrade.  In  this  case  our  answer 
would  be  in  minus  degrees  Centigrade,  in 
other  words,  below  zero. 

For  the  purpose  of  measuring  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  gained  or  lost  by  a  body  when 
its  temperature  changes,  it  was  necessary  to 
adopt  a  unit  of  heat.  The  one  commonly 
used  in  connection  with  the  metric  system  is 
the  quantity  of  heat  that  will  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  one  gramme  of  water  one  degree 
Centigrade.  It  is  called  a  calorie.  The  num- 
ber of  degrees  required  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  body  through  one  degree  Centi- 
grade is  the  thermal  capacity  (from  the  Greek 
word  thermos,  which  means  heat)  of  the  body. 
The  thermal  capacity  of  a  unit  mass  of  a  sub- 
stance is  its  specific  heat.  Specific  heat  bears 
the  same  relation  to  a  calorie  as  specific  grav- 
ity does  to  g  or  gravity,  which  we  have  al- 
ready studied.  For  example,  the  specific  heat 
of  mercury  is  0.033 ;  this  means  that  the  heat 
which  will  raise  1  gramme  of  mercury 
through  1  Centigrade  will  raise  1  gramme  of 
water  through  only  0.033  Centigrade.  See 
Heat;  Physics. 

THERMOPYLAE,  thur  mop'  il  lee,  a 
mountain  pass  in  Greece,  famous  as  the  scene 
of  one  of  the  most  stirring  military  events  in 


history.  It  lies  south  of  the  river  Sperche- 
ius,  between  Mount  Oeta  and  the  Maliac  Gulf, 
and  is  a  gateway  from  Thessaly  into  Loeris. 
In  ancient  times  it  was  only  fifty  feet  wide, 
and  was  the  only  pass  by  which  an  army 
could  enter  Southern  Greece  from  the  north. 
When  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  with  his  vast 
army  invaded  Greece  in  480  b.  c,  he  found 
the  pass  defended  by  Leonidas,  king  of 
Sparta,  in  command  of  300  Spartans  and 
5,000  allies.  For  two  days  he  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  force  a  passage.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  day's  fighting  the  Greeks  were 
betrayed  by  Ephialtes,  a  Thessalian,  who 
showed  the  invaders  a  path  over  the  moun- 
tains. The  Persians  crossed  and  attacked 
the  Spartans  in  the  rear.  Although  over- 
whelmed by  the  vast  hordes  of  the  enemy, 
Leonidas  and  his  followers  fought  to  the 
last,  not  a  Spartan  escaping. 

In  279  B.  c.  Brennus  of  Gaul  attempted  to 
invade  Greece  by  way  of  the  famous  pass, 
but  was  held  in  check  there;  and  he,  too, 
succeeded  in  entering  onh'  after  a  path  over 
the  mountains  was  discovered. 

The  traveler  who  to-day  visits  this  scene 
of  ancient  heroism  finds  not  a  narrow  pass, 
but  a  swampy  plain  from  one  to  three  miles 
wide  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the 
Spercheius.  An  interesting  feature  is  a 
group  of  hot  springs,  which  gave  the  pass  its 
name,  which  means,  literally,  hot  gates. 

THER'MOS  BOTTLE,  in  its  commonest 
form,  a  double  glass  container  enclosed  in  a 
metal  case,  so  constructed  as  to  keep  liquids 
poured  into  it  either  hot  or  cold.  The  inner 
glass  vessel  is  fused  to  the  outer  after  the 
air  between  them  has  been  thoroughly  ex- 
hausted, and  the  vacuum  thus  created  acts  as 
a  nonconductor  of  heat  either  from  without 
or  within.  Within  recent  years  the  container 
has  been  made  of  metal;  this  is  a  valuable 
improvement,  as  glass  containers  break  quite 
easily.  Thermos  bottles  are  of  great  conven- 
ience to  travelers  who  have  not  access  to  hot 
food,  and  are  widely  used  by  automobile 
tourists  and  picnickers. 

THESE'UM,  any  temple  dedicated  to  The- 
seus. The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  one 
built  at  Athens,  northwest  of  the  Acropolis, 
in  473  B.  c.  The  whole  was  decorated  with 
beautiful  paintings,  representing  events  in 
the  legendary  life  of  Theseus.  No  trace  of  it 
remains.  The  name  now  commonly  refers  to 
a  temple  at  Athens,  probably  that  of  Heph- 
aestus, which  is  the  best  preserved  of  Greek 


THESEUS 


3565 


THIERS 


temples.    It  is  of  Doric  style  and  is  made  of 
Pentelie  marble.    There  are  thirteen  columns 


THESEUM  AT  ATHENS 


on  the  side,  nineteen  feet  high.  The  frieze 
represents  myths  of  Hercules  and  Theseus. 
The  interior  was  entirely  changed  in  the  early 
Christian  Era  to  adapt  it  to  church  purposes. 

THESEUS,  these  us,  or  thesuse,  a  legen- 
dary king  of  Athens,  son  of  Aegeus  and 
Aethra.  He  was  reared  in  seclusion  by  his 
mother,  and  when  he  became  a  man  he  jour- 
neyed to  Athens,  where  he  was  recognized 
as  heir  to  the  throne.  Medea,  a  sorceress, 
tried  to  kill  him,  but  failing  fled  to  Media, 

When  Theseus  learned  that  Athens,  as  the 
result  of  a  defeat  in  war,  was  compelled  to 
pay  to  Crete  a  yearly  tribute  of  seven  youths 
and  seven  maidens,  to  be  devoured  by  the 
Minotaur,  he  volunteered  to  go  himself  with 
the  next  victims  and,  if  possible,  to  kill  the 
monster,  which  was  kept  in  a  vast  labjTinth. 
Theseus  promised  his  grief-stricken  father 
that,  if  successful,  he  would  on  his  return 
change  the  sails  of  the  ship  from  black  to 
white.  "With  the  aid  of  Ariadne,  daughter 
of  the  king  of  Crete,  he  escaped  from  the 
labyrinth  after  having  killed  the  Minotaur, 
and  taking  the  princess  with  him,  set  out  for 
home  with  his  joyous  companion.  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  ungrateful  and  incon- 
stant lover,  for  he  abandoned  Ariadne  on  an 
island.  Forgetful,  too,  of  his  promise  to  his 
father,  he  did  not  hoist  the  white  sail,  and 
Aegeus,  when  he  saw  from  far  off  the  black 
sail  approaching,  threw  himself  into  the  sea, 
which  has  been  named  for  him  (Aegean). 

Theseus  became  king  of  Athens,  and  many 
were  the  wonderful  deeds  which  he  did.  For 
a  time  he  was  greatly  beloved  by  his  people, 
but  in  his  later  years  he  grew  tyrannical  and 
was  at  length  banished  from  his  kingdom. 
See  Mixotaur;  Ariadk-e. 

THESSALO'NIANS,  Epistles  to  the, 
two  New  Testament  epistles,  written  by  Saint 


Paul  to  the  church  at  Thessalonica,  in  all 
probability  during  his  long  stay  at  Corinth, 
therefore  not  very  long  after  the  foundation 
of  the  Thessalonian  church  on  Saint  Paul's 
second  missionary'  journey. 

THES'SALY,  the  northeastern  division  of 
Greece,  consisting,  mainly,  of  a  rich  plain, 
enclosed  between  mountains.  Mounts  Pelion 
and  Ossa,  on  the  east,  and  on  the  northeast, 
Mount  Olympus,  fabled  abode  of  the  gods, 
are  the  most  celebrated  peaks. 

In  the  earliest  times  Thessaly  proper  is 
said  to  have  been  inhabited  by  Aeolic  and 
other  tribes.  Subsequently  it  was  broken  up 
into  separate  confederacies,  and  it  seldom 
exerted  any  important  influence  on  the  af- 
fairs of  Greece.  Thessaly  was  conquered  by 
Philip  of  Macedon  in  the  fourth  century 
B.  c,  became  dependent  on  Macedonia,  and 
was  finally  incorporated  with  the  Roman 
Empire.  After  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
who  held  it  until  1881,  when  it  was  formally 
ceded  to  Greece  by  the  terms  of  the  Congress 
of  Berlin.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Greeks. 

The  present  political  divisions  of  Thessaly 
are  the  departments  of  Phthiotis,  Larissa, 
Karditsa,  Trikkala  and  Magnesia.  The  total 
population  is  575,000.  Volo  is  the  most  im- 
portant port. 

THETFORD  MINES,  Que.,  in  Megantic 
County,  on  the  Quebec  Central  Railroad, 
seventy-six  miles  from  Quebec.  The  name 
indicates  sufficiently  the  character  of  the  in- 
dustries; the  city  is  in  the  richest  asbestos 
district  in  the  world.  There  are  sash  and 
door  factories,  sawmills,  foundries  and  manu- 
factures of  cement  blocks.  Population,  1916, 
7,550. 

THE'TIS,  in  Greek  mythology  a  sea 
nymph,  daughter  of  Xereus  and  Doris.  By 
Peleus  she  became  the  mother  of  Achilles. 

THIERS,  teai/,  Loos  Adolph  (1797- 
1877),  a  French  historian  and  statesman  and 
former  President  of  the  republic.  He  was 
bom  at  Marseilles  and  was  educated  for  the 
law,  which  he  forsook  for  literature  and 
politics.  In  1818  he  went  to  Paris  and  be- 
gan to  write  for  the  Constitntionnel  and 
other  journals.  In  1830  he  helped  to  found 
the  National,  an  organ  in  opposition  to  the 
established  government,  which  did  much  to 
bring  about  the  revolution  of  the  same  year. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  held 
various  oflBces,  and  after  the  Revolution  of 


THIRST 


3566 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 


1848  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Assembly. 
He  voted  for  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon, but  became,  later,  one  of  his  fiercest  op- 
ponents, and  in  1851  he  was  arrested  and 
banished.  Returning  to  France  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  he  went  into  retirement,  but  in 
18G3  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  During  the  crisis  of  the  Franco- 
German  War  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Em- 
pire, Thiers  came  to  the  front  as  the  strong- 
est man  in  France.  After  the  fall  of  Paris 
he  was  declared  chief  of  the  executive  power, 
and  in  August,  1871,  the  Assembly  pro- 
longed his  tenure  of  office  and  changed  his 
title  to  that  of  President.  His  decided  views 
very  naturally  called  forth  opposition,  and 
so  strong  did  this  become  that  in  1873  he 
resigned.  From  1876  until  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  a  member  of  the' Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Thiers's  chief  works  are  A  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  and  a  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire. 

THIRST,  thurst,  the  sensation  ex^Derienced 
from  a  lack  of  water  in  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  The  sensation  is  chiefly  referred  to 
the  throat  and  mouth,  but  the  condition  is 
really  one  affecting  the  entire  body.  Thirst  is 
a  common  symptom  of  fever  and  of  those 
diseases  in  which  there  is  a  loss  of  water  from 
the  body,  as  in  cholera  and  diabetes,  or  when 
there  is  a  loss  of  blood.  It  is  also  produced 
by -highly  seasoned  food  and  by  exercise  that 
causes  free  perspiration.  The  feeling  of 
thirst  may  be  quenched  not  only  by  drinking, 
but  by  absorption  through  the  skin  by  inject- 
ing fluids  into  the  veins.  Water  forms  nearly 
thi-ee-fourths  the  weight  of  the  body  and  it 
is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life.  To 
maintain  the  best  physical  condition  one 
should  drink  from  six  to  eight  glasses  of 
water  dailv. 

THIRTY  TY'RANTS,  the  committee  of 
rulers  appointed  from  the  aristocratic  class 
at  Athens,  at  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War.  This  war  was  a  conflict  between  de- 
mocracy, as  represented  by  Athens,  and  an 
oligarchical  government,  as  represented  by 
Sparta;  and  the  success  of  Sparta  gave  her 
the  power  to  force  upon  Athens  an  oligar- 
chical government.  The  rule  of  the  Thirty 
T^Tants  was  most  oppressive,  but  it  lasted  for 
only  a  year,  the  old  democracy  being  restored 
in  403  B.  c. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  a  desolating  war 
in  Germany,  which  lasted  from  1C18  to  1648. 
It  started  as  a  struggle  between  the  Protestant 


and  the  Catholic  party,  but  gradually  in- 
volved almost  all  the  states  of  the  continent, 
degenerating  at  last  into  a  struggle  for  po- 
litical power  and  territory. 

The  religious  question  had  been  by  no 
means  settled  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  of 
1555,  and  a  clash  was  inevitable.  Foreseeing 
this,  the  Protestants  formed  a  league  for 
their  mutual  protection,  called  the  Evangeli- 
cal Union,  and  in  the  following  year  the 
Catholics,  to  offset  this,  formed  the  confed- 
eration known  as  the  Holy  League. 

First  Phase.  The  war  broke  out  in  Bo- 
hemia. A  dispute  arose  between  the  Prot- 
estants and  Catholics  as  to  the  right  of  the 
Protestants  to  build  a  certain  church,  and  as 
the  king  decided  against  the  Protestants,  a 
body  of  Protestants,  led  by  Count  Thum, 
entered  the  royal  palace  at  Prague  on  the 
night  of  May  23,  1618,  and  hurled  two  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Crown  from  the  windows. 
They  gained  control  of  the  government  and, 
declaring  Ferdinand  II's  title  to  the  crown 
void,  made  Frederick,  the  Palatine  elector, 
king  of  Bohemia.  Because  Frederick  was  a 
Calvinist,  many  of  the  Lutherans  withheld 
their  support;  and  when,  soon  afterwards, 
Ferdinand  II  became  Holy  Roman  emperor 
with  greatly  increased  power,  he  retaliated 
by  bringing  an  overwhelming  force  against 
the  Protestants,  and  the  rebellion  was  crushed 
in  that  quarter.  But  Ferdinand's  harsh  treat- 
ment of  the  conquered  people  and  his  attitude 
toward  all  Protestants  stirred  the  Protestant 
princes  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  the 
trouble  spread  to  Holland  and  other  north- 
ern countries  and  even  to  England. 

Danish  Period.  In  1625  Christian  IV, 
king  of  Denmark,  supported  by  England  and 
Holland,  came  out  openly  as  a  champion  of 
German  Protestantism.  On  the  side  of  the 
Catholics  there  were  at  this  time  two  noted 
commanders,  Tilly,  the  leader  of  the  forces 
of  the  Holy  League,  and  Wallenstein,  the 
commander  of  the  Imperial  Army.  This 
period  of  the  war  proved  disastrous  to  the 
Protestant  allies,  and  Christian  IV  in  1629 
concluded,  with  the  emperor,  the  Peace  of  Lii- 
beck  and  retired  from  the  struggle.  Before 
this,  however,  Ferdinand  had  issued  the  Edict 
of  Restitution,  in  accordance  with  which  all 
property  acquired  by  the  Protestant  Church 
since  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  was  returned  to 
the  Catholics.  This  decree  was  of  course  ob- 
noxious to  the  Protestants,  and  it  was  clear 
that  it  could  be  enforced  only  by  war. 


THISTLE 


3567 


THOMAS 


Swedish  Period.  The  third  period  of  the 
war,  known  as  the  Swedish  period,  began 
in  1630,  when  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of 
Sweden,  entered  the  struggle.  He  was  im- 
pelled to  take  up  arms  not  only  because  of  his 
devotion  to  Protestantism,  but  because  Ferdi- 
nand's ambitious  schemes  endangered  Swe- 
den. In  1630,  with  16,000  men,  he  started  to 
the  relief  of  Magdeburg,  then  under  siege  by 
Tilly,  but  it  fell  before  he  could  reach  it, 
and  all  the  inhabitants  were  massacred. 

To  meet  the  Swedish  army  which  was  ad- 
vancing toward  him,  Ferdinand  recalled  "Wal- 
lenstein,  whom,  owing  to  unpopularity  in 
many  quarters,  the  emperor  had  dismissed. 
Joined  by  numerous  volunteers  and  aided  by 
French  money,  Gustavus  Adolphus  advanced 
and  routed  Tilly  in  several  engagements  and 
finally  won  a  complete  victory  in  the  Battle 
of  Liitzen,  in  which  he  was  killed. 

The  war  was  then  carried  on  by  the  Swed- 
ish forces  under  the  chancellor  Oxenstiema, 
till  the  rout  of  the  Swedish  forces  at  Nord- 
lingen  (September,  1634)  again  gave  to  the 
emperor  the  preponderating  power  in  Ger- 
many. The  elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  been 
an  ally  of  Gustavus,  now  made  peace  at 
Prague,  and  within  a  few  months  the  treaty 
was  accepted  by  many  of  the  German  princes. 
The  Swedes,  however,  thought  it  to  their  in- 
terest to  continue  the  war,  while  France, 
which  desired  to  see  its  old  enemy,  Austria, 
crushed,  resolved  to  take  a  more  active  part 
in  the  conflict.  Thus  the  last  stage  of  the  war 
was  a  political  contest  of  France  and  Sweden 
against  Austria. 

French- Swedish  Period.  The  struggle  con- 
tinued, and  the  united  armies  of  the  French, 
under  the  great  generals  Turenne  and  Conde, 
and  of  the  Swedes,  under  Torstensson  and 
"Wrangel,  won  a  series  of  victories.  But  all 
Europe  was  sick  of  war,  and  in  1645  repre- 
sentatives of  the  European  powers  met  in 
two  cities  in  Westphalia  and  in  1648  the 
Peace  of  "Westphalia  was  concluded.  The 
Thirty  Years'  War  left  Germany  in  a  state  of 
complete  exhaustion.  Whole  provinces  were 
devastated,  and  the  population  was  decreased 
by  half. 

pplf>+ed     Ar*>oles;     rrinsnU     the     folloTving 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Ferrlinand   II  P-^forTnation 

Germany  (history)  Richelieu,  Cardinal 

Gustavus  II  Adolphus    Tillv,  Johann 
Liitzen,  Battles  of  ■Wallpns+pin 

Magdeburg  Westphalia,  Peace  of 

THISTLE,  this'l,  the  common  name  of  a 
"widely-distributed  group  of  prickly  plants  of 


the  composite  family.  There  are  numerorus 
species,  most  of  which  are  natives  of  Europe. 
The  leaves  are  usually  coarse  and  armed  with 
spines,  or  priclcles.  Thistles  spread  by  means 
of  seeds  and  creeping  roots.  The  common 
cotton  thistle  attains  a  height  of  from  four  to 
six  feet,  and  is  so  called  because  of  its  cover- 
ing of  white  down.  It  is  often  regarded  as 
the  Scotch  thistle,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  thistle  which  constitutes  the  Scottish  na- 
tional badge  has  any  existing  type,  though  the 
stemless  thistle  is  in  man}'  districts  of  Scot- 
land looked  upon  as  the  true  Scotch  thistle. 

About  a  dozen  species  of  thistle  are  common 
in  the  United  States,  spreading  from  New 
England  to  Florida.  The  Canada  thistle 
(which  see)  is  one  of  the  gravest  pests  of  the 
farmer. 

THISTLE,  Order  of  the,  a  Scottish  order 
of  knighthood,  sometimes  called  the  Order  of 
Saint  Andrew.  It  was  instituted  by  James  V 
in  1540  and  reorganized  by  James  II  of  Eng- 
land in  1687.  It  fell  into  abeyance  during  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mar}',  but  was  revived 
by  Queen  Anne  in  1703.  The  star  of  the  order 
is  of  silver,  with  eight  rays,  and  with  a  thistle 
in  the  center,  surrounded  by  the  Latin  motto, 
Nemo  me  impune  lacessit  (No  one  injures  me 
with  impunity).  The  ribbon  is  green.  The 
statute  of  1827  limited  the  number  of  knights 
to  sixteen  members  of  the  Scottish  nobility, 
in  addition  to  the  sovereign  and  princes. 

THISTLEBIRD.  See  American  Gold- 
finch. 

THOMAS,  fom'as,  Augustus  (1859-  ), 
a  leading  American  playwright,  bom  in  Saint 
Louis,  Mo.  Before  gaining  recognition  as 
a  dramatist,  he  served  as  special  writer  on 
numerous  papers  and  later  was  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  Kansas  City  Mirror.  Since 
the  production  of  his  initial  success,  Alabama, 
in  1891,  he  has  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
dramatic  work.  In  Mizzoura,  Arizona,  The 
Man  Upstairs,  Mrs.  Leffingivell's  Boots,  The 
Witching  Hour,  As  a  Man  Thinks  and  The 
Copperhead  are  among  his  most  popular 
plays.  Since  the  death  of  Charles  Frohman, 
1915,  he  has  been  art  director  of  the  Frohman 
theatrical  enterprises. 

THOMAS,  George  Henry  (1816-1870),  a 
distinguished  American  soldier  who  won  the 
title  "The  Rock  of  Chickamauga"  because  his 
unflinching  courage  saved  the  Union  army 
from  total  defeat  at  Chickamauga.  He  was 
born  in  Southampton  County,  Va.,  and  was 
educated  at  West  Point.    He  engaged  in  the 


THOMAS 


3568 


THOMSON 


Mexican  War,  was  appointed  professor  at 
West  Point  in  1850,  but  was  recalled  to 
active  service  in  1855,  serving  as  major  in 
Texas  against  the  Indians.  When  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  Thomas  was  appointed  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  in  the  Federal 
army.  He  took  part  in  the  Battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro,  and  at  the  bloody  Battle  of  Chick- 
amauga,  in  September,  18G3,  saved  the  Fed- 
eral army  from  destruction.  He  also  com- 
manded the  Anny  of  the  Cumberland  at 
Missionary  Ridge,  and  in  1864  cooperated 
with  Sherman  in  his  march  on  Atlanta. 
Returning  from  Atlanta  to  Tennessee,  he 
defeated  Hood  and  compelled  the  Confeder- 
ates to  raise  the  siege  of  Nashville,  for  which 
he  was  breveted  major-general  in  the  regular 
army. 

THOMAS,  Theodore  (1835-1905),  a  dis- 
tinguished American  orchestra  conductor, 
born  at  Hanover,  Germany.  He  removed  to 
the  United  States  in  1845  and  played  in  New 
York  for  two  years,  later  accompanying 
Jenny  Lind  upon  her  first  American  tour.  He 
founded  an  orchestra  in  1861,  which  became 
famous  throughout  the  world.  In  1878  he 
went  to  Cincinnati,  as  director  of  the  College 
of  Music  at  that  city,  and  for  ten  years 
conducted  the  Brooklyn  Philhannonie  So- 
ciety. In  1891  he  established  in  Chicago  one 
of  the  world's  greatest  orchestras,  supported 
by  popular  subscription.  In  1904  a  mag- 
nificent recital  hall  was  built  for  the  orchestra 
at  a  cost  of  $750,000,  but  Thomas  died  soon 
after,  from  ovenvork  in  connection  with  its 
dedication.  He  presented  only  the  best  in 
music  and  lived  to  see  his  audiences  enthusi- 
astically won  over  to  his  own  high  ideals. 
Frederick  Stock  (born  1872)  succeeded  him 
as  director  of  the  Thomas  Orchestra,  which 
was  later  renamed  the  Chicago  Sjrmphony 
Orchestra. 

THOIlIAS  a  KEM'PIS  (1380-1471),  that 
is,  Thomas  of  Kempe,  was  born  at  Kempen, 
in  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne,  about  1380. 
His  family  name  was  Hamerken.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  retired  to  an  Augustine  convent, 
near  Zwolle,  in  Holland,  where  he  took  the 
vows.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer.  His 
works  (the  printed  ones  all  in  Latin)  consist 
of  sermons,  exhortations,  ascetic  treatises, 
hymns  and  prayers.  His  name,  however, 
would  hardly  be  remembered,  were  it  not  for 
its  connection  with  the  celebrated  devotional 
work  called  The  Imitation  of  Christ  {Be  Imi- 
tatione  Christi),  a  work  which  has  passed 


through  thousands  of  editions  in  the  original 
Latin  and  in  translations.  The  authorship 
of  this  book  is  generally  ascribed  to  a  Kempis. 

THOMPSON,  tomp'son,  David  (1770- 
1857),  a  Canadian  explorer,  born  at  West- 
minster, England,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
In  1789  he  emigrated  to  America,  where  he 
engaged  in  exploration  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  Hudson  Bay  region,  in  the  service  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company.  He  crossed  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  1807  and  followed  the 
course  of  the  Columbia  River  to  its  mouth  in 
the  Pacific.  From  1816  to  1826  he  assisted 
in  the  survey  of  the  Canadian  and  United 
States  boundary,  and  he  subsequently  ex- 
plored the  Northwest  Temtory  of  Canada. 

THOMPSON,  Denman  (1833-1911),  an 
American  actor,  known  chiefly  for  his  pres- 
entation of  Joshua  Whitcomb,  the  central 
figure  in  The  Old  Homestead.  He  was  born 
at  Beechwood,  Pa.,  but  went  with  his  parents 
to  New  Hampshire  when  a  child,  and  there 
gained  the  intimate  acquaintance  with  New 
England  character  which  made  his  "Josh 
Whitcomb"  famous.  He  first  sketched  this 
character  in  1875  and  the  following  year  wove 
a  play  around  it — a  play  which  with  minor 
changes  he  produced  almost  until  the  time  of 
his  death. 

THOMPSON,  James  Maurice  (1844- 
1901) ,  an  American  writer  best  known  for  his 
admirable  romantic  novel  of  the  Revolution- 
ary period,  Alice  of  Old  Vincennes.  He  was 
born  in  Fairfield,  Ind.,  and  spent  much  of  his 
boyhood  in  Georgia,  and  Kentucky.  He  fought 
in  the  Confederate  army  and  after  the  war 
settled  in  Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  engaging  in 
law  practice  and  civil  engineering.  Mean- 
while, he  had  begun  to  write,  and  subsequent- 
ly he  became  editor  of  The  Independent  (New 
York).  His  writings  include  poems,  literary 
reviews,  nature  books  and  a  treatise  on 
archery,  on  which  he  was  an  enthusiast.  Some 
of  the  titles  of  his  books  are  Hoosier  Mosaics, 
Songs  of  Fair  Weather,  The  Boy's  Book  of 
Sport  and  The  Ethics  of  Literary  Art. 

THOMSON,  tom'son,  James  (1700-1748), 
a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Ebnam,  in  Scotland, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  went  in  1725  to  London,  and  there  wrote 
his  first  important  group  of  poems,  The 
Seasons.  This  work  was  of  importance  in 
the  history  of  English  literature  because  it 
was  the  first  attempt  to  abandon  the  old 
formula  and  artificial  treatment  of  nature  and 
to  express  a  feeling  for  its  beauties.     The 


THOMSON 


3569 


THORWALDSEN 


poem  marked  the  beginning  of  the  Romantic 

movement. 

In  1740  Thomson  composed,  in  conjunction 
with  Mallet,  The  Masque  of  Alfred,  which 
contains  the  famous  song.  Rule  Britannia. 
In  1748  his  Castle  of  Indolence  appeared,  a 
work  which  reproduces  not  only  the  meter, 
but  to  a  certain  extent  the  spirit,  of  Spenser's 
Fairie  Quecne,  and  this  is,  in  many  respects, 
Thomson's  best  work.  Thomson  was  greatly 
beloved  for  his  amiability  and  kindness  of 
heart. 

THOMSON,  Willie  M.    See  Kelvin,  Lord. 

THOR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  son  of 
Odin,  and  the  god  of  thunder.  He  was  the 
most  powerful  among  the  gods.  As  the  special 
patron  god  of  peasants,  Thor  entertained 
them  after  their  death,  as  Odin,  his  fathei', 
entertained  their  masters  in  Valhalla.  Thor 
possessed  a  magic  red-hot  hammer,  made  for 
him  by  the  dwarf  Loki.  He  would  sometimes 
ride  across  the  sky  in  his  brazen  chariot  and 
then  the  lightning  would  flash  from  his 
hammer;  and  when  he  would  throw  it  the 
thunder  would  roll.  Thursday  was  named 
in  honor  of  Thor. 

THORACIC,  thoras'ik,  DUCT,  the  prin- 
cipal tube  of  the  system  of  lacteals  and 
lymphatics,  extending  upward  along  the 
spinal  column  to  the  seventh  cervical  verte- 
bra, where  it  pours  the  contents  which  it  has 
gathered  from  the  intestines,  the  trunk,  the 
left  arm,  the  lower  extremities  and  the  left 
side  of  the  head,  into  the  left  subclavian 
vein.  This  tube  is  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  long  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  is  made  up 
of  thi-ee  coats  and  is 
well  supplied  with 
valves. 

THORAX.  See 
Abdomen  ;  Skele- 
ton. 

THOREAU,  tho'ro 
or  tho  ro' ,  Henry 
David  (1817-1862), 
an  American  natur- 
alist and  writer,  bom 
at  Boston  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard 
University.  For 
about  five  years 
after  his  graduation  he  taught  school,  and 
then  for  several  years  he  occupied  himself  in 
various  ways,  in  land  surveying,  carpenter- 
ing  and  other  handicrafts.     He   spent  no 

224 


HENRY   DAVID 
THOREAU 


more  time  on  work  than  was  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  provide  food  and  clothing  for  him- 
self, and  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his 
time  to  study  and  the  contemplation  of 
nature.  In  1845  he  built  for  himself  a  hut  in 
a  wood  near  Walden  Pond,  Concord,  Mass., 
and  there  he  lived  for  two  years,  gaining  a 
remarkable  knowledge  of  the  woodland  life 
about  him.  Besides  contributing  to  the  Dial 
and  other  periodicals,  he  published  A  Week 
on  the  Concord  and  Merrimac  Rivers  and 
Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods  (1854).  After 
his  death  appeared  Excursions  in  Field  and 
Forest,  The  Maine  Woods,  Cape  Cod  and 
Ear^y  Spring  in  Massachusetts. 

THO'RIUM,  a  metallic  element  discovered 
in  1828  by  Berzelius.  a  Swedish  chemist.  It 
is  a  heavy  gray  powder,  which  burns  with  a 
bright  flame  when  heated  in  air.  It  is  widely 
distributed,  occurring  in  orangite,  thorite, 
monazite  and  such  minerals.  The  dioxide, 
called  thoria,  is  used  in  making  gas  mantles 
for  Welsh  ach  burners. 

THORN  APPLE.    See  STRAMONiuar. 

THOROUGHWORT,     thu/o  wurt.       See 

BONESET. 

THORWALDSEN,  tore'vald  zen,  Bertel 
(1770-1844),  the  greatest  sculptor  Denmark 
has  produced,  and  one  of  the  foremost  mod- 
ern representatives  of  classicism  in  sculpture. 
He  began  his  art  studies  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
at  Copenhagen,  his  birthplace.  Before  he 
was  thirty  he  won  a  scholarship  that  enabled 
him  to  study  in  Rome,  where  he  was  much 
influenced  by  Canova.  His  first  important 
work,  Jason  loith  the  Golden  Fleece,  made  in 
1803,  brought  him  an  important  commission, 
and  from  this  time  his  reputation  grew.  To 
this  early  period  belong  Entry  of  Alexander 
the  Great  into  Babylon  and  the  model  for  the 
Lion  of  Lucerne. 

When  the  sculptor  returned  to  Copenhagen 
he  was  honored  with  an  ovation.  While  there 
he  was  commissioned  to  design  several  pieces 
of  sculpture  for  the  Church  of  Our  Lady, 
and  among  these  is  the  well-known  figure  of 
Christ,  one  of  his  masterpieces.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  he  received  many  important 
commissions,  and  in  1825  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Aecademia  di  San  Luca.  He  died 
in  Copenhagen,  and  was  buried  with  princely 
honors.  A  Thorwaldsen  museum  there  con- 
tains a  large  collection  of  his  work.  Among 
his  more  important  pieces  are  Memorial  to 
Baroness  Schuhart,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  Morn- 
ing,  Night  and  The  Four  Seasons.    The  artist 


THOTHMES,   III 


3570 


THOUSAND  ISLAin)S 


was  particularly  successful  with  ideal  and 
mythological  subjects,  but  was  not  so  strong 
in  characterization  or  in  dramatic  action. 

THOTHMES,  thoth'meez,  III,  a  king  of 
Egypt,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Egyptian 
i-ulers.  He  came  to  the  throne  about  1538 
B.  C,  but  during  the  early  years  of  his  reign 
his  half  sister  Hatasu  ruled,  much  against  his 
wish.  On  her  death  Thothmes  gained  control 
of  the  government,  and  he  gi-atified  his  spite 
by  erasing  her  name  from  every  monument 
and  temple  she  had  built. 

He  soon  began  a  series  of  conquests  with- 
out equal  in  Egyptian  history.  Palestine, 
Syria,  a  part  of  Mesopotamia  and  the  region 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean were  subdued  by  him,  and  an  account  of 
his  deeds  was  inscribed  on  the  walls  of  the 
Temple  of  Kamak,  which  he  enlarged.  One 
of  the  great  obelisks  which  he  erected  is  now 
in  Central  Park,  Xew  York;  another  stands 
on  the  Thames  Embankment,  in  London. 

THOUGHT,  tliawt,  the  mental  power  hy 
which  we  compare  ideas  and  classify  them 
according  to  their  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences. The  power  of  thought  is  the  dis- 
tinguishing feature  between  the  human 
mind  and  the  minds  of  lower  animals.  The 
first  step  in  thinking  ia  the  formation  of 
concepts;  the  second  is  the  formation  of 
judgments,  and  the  thi^-d  is  reasoning. 
There  is  but  one  thought  process,  and  the 
difference  in  these  steps  is  one  of  degree 
only.  In  the  formation  of  concepts  we  com- 
pare qualities  in  sense  perceptions  and 
classify  these  perceptions  according  to  their 
agreement  or  disagreement.  In  the  fonna- 
tion  of  judgments  we  compare  and  classify 
concepts,  in  reasoning  we  compare  judg- 
ments, and  from  this  comparison  we  fonn 
a  third  judgment. 

The  Laws  of  Thought.  The  fundamental 
laws  of  thought  are  the  law  of  identity,  the 
law  of  contradiction  and  the  law  of  the 
excluded  middle.  The  law  of  identity  means 
that  the  same  thing  or  quality  is  always  the 
same  thing  or  quality,  whatever  the  condi- 
tions or  circumstances  under  which  it  exists. 
However  simple  this  law  may  seem,  inability 
to  apply  it  leads  to  many  failures.  It  is 
because  the  boy  cannot  see  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  multiplication  and  division  are 
the  same,  wherever  they  occur,  that  he  has 
so  much  diflficulty  with  his  operations  in 
common  fractions  and  decimals,  and  it  is 
because  the  lawyer  cannot  discover  the  un- 


derlying principles  of  law  that  he  loses  his 
case.  This  law  of  identity  deals  with  funda- 
mental principles  and  rules,  and  in  order 
that  it  may  be  applied  in  all  the  varying 
conditions  of  life,  the  principles  and  laws 
pertaining  to  the  various  branches  in  a 
course  of  study  should  be  thoroughh'  under- 
stood. 

The  law  of  contradiction  means  that  a 
thing  cannot  exist  in  opposite  conditions  at 
the  same  time.  A  man  cannot  be  dead  and  . 
alive  at  the  same  time.  The  laio  of  excluded 
middle  means  that  a  thing  must  be  or  must 
not  be.  A  coat  is  either  black  or  not  black; 
an  apple  is  sour  or  not  sour.  Gradations 
in  quality  form  many  apparent  exceptions 
to  this  law,  but  they  should  not  be  so  re- 
garded. In  forming  judgments  one  should 
keep  tlie  quality  under  consideration  con- 
stantly in  mind  and  then  determine  whether 
the  object  compared  does  or  does  not  agree 
with  this  quality.  Failure  to  observe  this 
simple  law  often  leads  to.  indistinct  ideas 
and  loose  C[ualifieations. 

Children's  Thinking.  While  the  child 
begins  to  think  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  form 
concepts,  the  thought  power  develops  slowly 
during  the  first  few  years,  and  he  relies 
almost  entirely  upon  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion and  memory.  To  tax  a  child's  reason- 
ing power  before  he  is  twelve  j'ears  of  age  is 
unwise,  because  this  can  be  done  only  at  the 
expense  of  the  training  of  the  powers  of 
observation  and  memory,  which  up  to  this 
time  are  particularly  active,  and  also  because 
the  overtaxing  of  a  mental  power  in  its  im- 
mature state  cripples  its  development  in 
after  yeai's.  Children  whose  reasoning 
powers  are  overtaxed  at  an  early  age  seldom 
make  good  thinkers  or  coiTect  reasoners. 
However,  the  thought  power  should  not  be 
neglected,  but  within  his  capacity  the  child 
should  be  encouraged  to  compare,  judge  and 
classify  his  ideas. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Annerception  Log-ic 

Attention  Memory 

Association  of  Ideas  Psychology 

Child  Study  Reason 

Concept  Svllogism 

Judgment  Will 

THOUSAND  AND  ONE  NIGHTS.     See 

Arabian  Xights. 

THOUSAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
about  1,750  islands  in  the  Saint  Lawrence 
Eiver,  just  below  its  emergence  from  Lake 
Ontario;   many   are  m6re   points    of   rock, 


THRACE 


3571 


THREAD 


while  others  have  an  area  of  several  acres 
and  are  covered  with  vegetation.  The  sec- 
tion of  the  river  containing  the  islands  is 
known  as  Thousand  Island  Park.  The  pre- 
cipitous rocks  and  shady  gi'oves  add  much  to 
the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  and  the  climate 
during  summer  is  delightful.  Beautiful 
summer  homes,  many  in  the  form  of  medie- 
val castles,  have  been  built  upon  privately- 
owned  islands.  Alexandria  Bay,  the  most 
important  town  in  the  park,  has  all  the 
attractions  that  make  an  ideal  summer  re- 
sort. 

THRACE,  a  name  applied  at  an  early 
period  among  the  Greeks  to  a  region  lying 
north  of  Macedonia.  Besides  possessing  rich 
meadows  and  corn  lands,  the  country 
abounded  in  mines,  while  the  Thracian  horses 
and  riders  rivaled  those  of  Thessaly.  Of  the 
rivers  of  Thrace,  the  largest  and  most  cele- 
brated was  the  Hebrus  (now  Maritza). 
Abdera,  the  birthplace  of  Demoeritus  and 
Protagoras;  Sestos,  on  the  Hellespont,  cele- 
brated in  the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander, 
and  Byzantium,  on  the  peninsula  on  which 
Constantinople  now  stands,  were  the  places 
of  interest. 

THRASH'ER.      See   Brown   Thrasher. 

THRASHING  MACHINE,  a  machine 
used  for  separating  grain  from  the  straw  and 
chaff.  It  is,  next  to  the  harvester,  the  most 
important  agricultural  machine.  Without  it, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  prepare  the  im- 
mense crops  of  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rice 
for  use;  indeed,  it  made  great  crops  possible. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  thrashing  machine 
are  the  beater,  or  drum,  containing  iron  teeth 
projecting  from  its  surface;  the  concave, 
which  is  a  cast-iron  plate,  having  the  shape 
of  a  section  of  the  inside  of  the  beater,  and 
fitted  with  similar  teeth,  so  arranged  that  the 
teeth  of  the  revolving  beater  mesh  into  them ; 
the  straw  carrier  and  the  shaker;  the  blowing 
drums,  sometimes  called  rakes,  which  assist 
in  separating  the  loosened  grain  from  the 
straw,  the  winnowing  apparatus,  which  con- 
sists of  a  blower  and  a  set  of  screens,  that 
have  a  vibratory  motion  and  are  so  graduated 
that  they  separate  small  seeds  from  the 
grain,  and  the  stacker  which  carries  away  the 
straw.  The  machine  is  operated  by  horse 
power  or  steam  power.  Machines  for  thrash- 
ing on  small  farms  of  the  Eastern  and  Cen- 
tral states  are  usually  operated  by  hoi*se 
power,  while  those  used  on  the  large  wheat 
farms  of  the  West  and  Northwest  are  oper- 


ated by  steam  power,  usually  with  an  engine 
of  12  or  15  horse-power  capacity.  One  of 
these  machines  will  thrash  from  1,200  to  1,500 
bushels  of  wheat  in  a  day. 

History.  The  earliest  method  of  thrashing 
was  by  beating  out  the  grain  with  a  stick. 
Later  the  grain  was  trodden  out  by  animals  or 
men.  Still  later  a  so-called  sledge  was  rolled 
over  the  sheaves.  This  was  followed  by  the 
flail,  consisting  of  two  sticks  fastened  to- 
gether at  one  end  by  thongs.  Using  one  as 
a  handle,  the  thrasher  brought  down  the  other 
horizontally  upon  the  grain.  The  first  suc- 
cessful thrashing  machine,  was  invented  by 
Michael  Sterling,  a  Scotch  farmer,  in  1758, 
but  since  that  time  Sterling's  pattern  has  un- 
dergone many  changes  and  improvements. 

THREAD,  thred,  a  slender  cord,  made  of 
two  or  more  strands,  twisted  together.  Thread 
is  made  of  cotton,  linen  and  silk,  but  the  man- 
ufacture of  cotton  thread  so  far  exceeds  that 
of  the  others  in  quantity  and  value  that  this 
is  the  sort  of  thread  meant  when  the  term  is 
used  without  qualification.  Cotton  thread  is 
made  from  the  long  fiber,  or  Sea  Island,  cot- 
ton (see  Cotton).  The  process  is  long  and 
somewhat  complicated.  The  fiber  is  carefully 
picked  and  carded.  As  the  cotton  passes 
from  the  carding  machine,  it  is  packed  into 
a  thick,  soft  card,  which  is  coiled  into  a  can. 
These  coils  of  ropes  pass  to  the  drawing 
frame,  which  is  an  arrangement  for  passing 
the  ropes  between  a  series  of  rollerS;  each  suc- 
ceeding set  moving  faster  than  the  one  be- 
fore, so  that  the  cotton  is  drawn  out  fine  and 
thin,  like  a  ribbon.  From  the  drawing  frame 
the  cotton  passes  to  the  doubling  frame, 
which  compresses  it  into  a  very  fine,  delicate 
strip.  These  strips  are  then  lapped  and 
again  drawn  out ;  then  recarded,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  any  imperfections  that  may 
remain.  From  the  second  set  of  cards  the 
threadlike  roll  or  cord  is  wound  upon  a  bob- 
bin. Six  of  these  are  then  twisted  together, 
into  a  large-sized  yarn,  which  is  reduced  by 
successive  spinnings  until  it  reaches  the  size 
of  a  coarse  cotton  yam.  From  this  the 
thread  is  spun.  Several  spinnings  are  nec- 
essary to  complete  the  operation,  since 
thread  of  the  best  quality  must  contain  a 
number  of  strands,  each  of  which  is  hard 
twisted,  and  all  of  which  are  thoroughly 
twisted  together.  After  spinning,  the  thread 
is  inspected,  then  bleached,  if  white  thread  is 
desired,  or  colored,  and  wound  upon  spools 
for  the  market. 


THREAD  WORM 


3572 


THRIFT 


THREAD  WORM,  a  threadlike  intes- 
tinal worm  annoyinj?  to  all  higher  animals, 
including  human  beings.  Children  are  the 
most  frequent  sufferers. 

THREE  RIVERS,  Que.,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River,  at  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Saint  Maurice,  and  on  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  and  the  Grand  Trunk  railways, 
nearly  one  hundred  miles  northeast  of  Mon- 
treal. It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Can- 
ada. The  chief  industry  is  manufacturing, 
the  principal  products  being  lumber,  machin- 
ei-j',  iron  pipe,  tools,  boots  and  shoes,  paper 
and  foundry  supplies.  Population,  1911, 
13.691. 

THRIFT.  "Society,"  wrote  Samuel  Smiles, 
"mainly  consists  of  two  classes — the  savers 
and  the  wasters,  the  pro\ndent  and  improvi- 
dent, the  thrifty  and  thriftless,  the  haves  and 
have-nots."  In  Christ's  parable  of  the  tal- 
ents there  is  a  graphic  picture  of  the  "haves" 
and  the  "have-nots."  The  former  were  the 
industrious  servants  who  doubled  the  talents 
given  them  by  their  master.  The  "have-not" 
in  the  story  hid  his  talent  in  the  ground  and 
■was  empty-handed  when  his  master  returned 
and  asked  for  a  reckoning.  Our  parable  con- 
cludes with  the  often-quot«d  saying,  "For 
unto  every  one  that  hath  shall  be  given, 
and  he  shall  have  abundance;  but  from  him 
that  hath  not  shall  be  taken  away  even  that 
•which  he  hath."  These  words  sum  up 
well  the  thrift  idea. 

The  Length  and  Breadth  of  Thrift.  The 
average  person  thinks  of  thrift  chiefly  in 
t.erms  of  money  saving.  While  that  is  impor- 
tant, it  is  only  one  phase  of  thrift.  The 
really  thrifty  person  is  one  who  saves  not 
only  money,  but  time  and  strength  and  ef- 
fort. Thrift,  moreover,  means  mental  and 
moral  discipline.  It  means  exercising  will 
power,  sacrificing  personal  desires,  overcom- 
ing temptation.  Some  of  the  various  phases 
of  thrift  are  discussed  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

Saving  and  Spending.  "Make  all  you  can, 
save  all  you  can,  give  all  you  can"  is  advice 
attributed  to  John  Wesley.  This  is  good 
advice  because  one  who  follows  it  must  of 
necessity  be  industrious,  saving  and  gener- 
ous. A  thrifty  person  is  a  happy  medium 
between  a  spendthrift  and  a  miser,  either  one 
of  whom  is  an  undesirable  citizen.  There  is 
no  one  who  is  not  benefited  by  acquiring  the 
saving  habit.  The  family  of  small  income, 
the  working  girl,  the  boy  starting  at  the  bot- 


tom of  the  ladder  of  industry,  the  business 
man  and  the  capitalists  alike  need  a  surplus, 
whether  it  be  money  laid  aside  for  the  pro- 
verbial rainy  day,  money  for  investment  or 
working  capital. 

Two  brothers  earning  moderate  salaries  be- 
gan married  life  at  the  same  time.  A  married 
a  girl  who  had  earned  her  own  living  for  sev-  * 
eral  years,  and  who  knew  the  value  of  money. 
The  young  couple  decided  that  they  would  de- 
vote the  portion  of  A's  salary  allotted  for  rent 
to  buying  a  home.  They  found  a  modest 
house  in  the  suburbs,  made  an  initial  pay- 
ment, and  arranged  to  pay  for  the  home  at 
the  rate  of  thirty-five  dollars  a  month.  They 
figured  that  this  monthly  installment  (which 
included  principal  and  interest)  plus  insur- 
ance, taxes  and  repairs,  would  make  their  to- 
tal rent  about  fifty  dollars  a  month.  B  pre- 
ferred to  rent  a  heated  flat.  "When  you 
count  up  your  expenses  and  the  worry  and 
work  a  house  brings  you  you  aren't  ahead 
at  all,"  he  said  to  his  brother.  But  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  A  were  satisfied  with  their  plan.  Ten 
years  passed  by.  Each  brother  had  spent 
about  $600  a  year  for  shelter,  and  A  had 
endured  his  share  of  work  and  worry,  as  his 
brother  had  prophesied.  B  had  had  shelter, 
plus  janitor  service,  plus  heat,  and  was  saved 
insurance  bills  and  taxes.  Yet  at  the  end 
of  ten  years  one  brother  had  his  home  paid 
for,  and  its  value  had  increased  one-third, 
which  offset  the  money  he  had  spent  in  re- 
pairs and  improvements.  B  had — exactly 
nothing.  He  had  spent  $6,000  for  rent,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  period  he  was  just  where  he 
started. 

Saving  is  most  successful  when  it  is  done 
methodically  and  regularly.  A  working  girl 
who  was  considered  a  good  manager  by  her 
friends  told  one  who  inquired  that  she  syste- 
matically divided  her  monthly  salary  each  pay 
day.  So  much  was  allotted  for  regular  ex- 
penses (which  do  not  greatly  vary  from 
month  to  month),  so  much  for  pleasure,  and 
so  much  for  her  savings  account.  The  amount 
saved  each  month  always  had  to  reach  a  cer- 
tain figure.  When  she  had  to  buy  clothes 
this  figure  was  lower  than  at  other  times,  but 
it  never  went  below  a  certain  minimum.  This 
girl  kept  a  record  of  all  her  expenditures,  so 
that  she  knew  exactly  where  her  money  went. 
After  several  years  of  business  life  she  had 
saved  enough  to  take  a  coveted  trip  to  Eu- 
rope, and  she  had  still  a  respectable  surplus 
in  the  bank. 


THRIFT 


3573 


THRIFT 


The  school  savings  bank  movement  is 
teaching  children  to  save  regularly  and  help- 
ing them  to  form  thrifty  habits.  It  is  the 
testimony  of  the  majority  of  young  people 
starting  out  in  business  life  that  the  average 
employer  prefers  to  advance  those  who  have 
the  savings-bank  habit.  A  business  man  ar- 
gues that  a  young  man  who  will  save  for  him- 
self will  save  for  the  firm,  and  thrifty  per- 
sonal habits  make  a  good  foundation  for 
effective  service. 

Thrift  of  Time.  "Dost  thou  love  life?" 
asks  Benjamin  Franklin  in  his  Almanac. 
"Then  do  not  squander  time,  for  that  is  the 
stuff  that  life  is  made  of."  Another  noted 
man  has  observed,  "If  I  know  what  a  boy 
does  in  his  spare  time,  I  can  tell  you  what 
kind  of  man  he  will  be."  Arnold  Bennett, 
in  his  interesting  essay  on  "How  to  Live  on 
Twenty-four  Hours  a  Day,"  replies  to  the 
familiar  plea  of  "I  haven't  the  time,"  with  the 
pertinent  retort  "You  have  all  the  time  there 
is."  Furthermore,  every  individual  has  ex- 
actly the  same  allotment  of  this  precious 
fabric  of  life.  The  wise  are  those  who  know 
how  to  use  it  to  good  advantage. 

Consider  what  can  be  accomplished  by  the 
wise  use  of  spare  moments.  In  one  year 
46,225  school  boys  in  the  Southern  states 
planted  and  cultivated  an  acre  of  com  each, 
and  the  work  was  all  done  in  their  spare  time. 
In  another  year  something  like  24,000  boys 
and  girls  in  various  parts  of  the  Union  pro- 
duced through  spare-time  labor  over  $509,000 
worth  of  food  products.  There  are  thousands 
of  young  people  to-day  who  are  earning  good 
salaries  because  they  previously  devoted  their 
spare  time  to  learning  something  that  would 
help  them  to  advance.  There  are  many  others 
who  have  made  no  progress  because  they  have 
dawdled  away  their  spare  moments. 

Boys  and  girls  should  learn  to  make  good 
use  of  every  hour  of  the  day.  When  they 
study  they  should  concentrate,  and  when  they 
play  they  should  play  with  zest.  Theodore 
Roosevelt  said,  "When  you  play,  play  hard, 
but  when  you  work  do  not  play  at  all."  A 
disagreeable  task  seems  twice  as  distasteful 
when  one  lingei'S  over  it,  and  putting  off 
necessary  but  unpleasant  duties  is  as  useless 
as  it  is  wasteful.  Start  the  day  right  by  get- 
ting up  at  the  first  call,  and  keep  the  day 
right  by  wasting  none  of  its  precious  minutes. 

A  Stitch  in  Time.  A  French  writer  tells 
a  story  of  a  country  family  who  neglected  to 
mend  the  gate  to  the  stock  and  poultry  yard. 


One  day  a  fine  pig  escaped  through  the  broken 
gate,  and  the  family,  including  the  gardener, 
cook  and  milkmaid,  started  in  pursuit  of  the 
fugitive.  The  gardener  was  the  first  to  over- 
take him,  and  in  leaping  out  of  a  ditch  to  cut 
off  the  pig's  escape,  sprained  his  ankle.  When 
the  cook  returned  to  the  house  she  found  that 
the  linen  which  had  been  hanging  before  the 
fire  was  so  badly  scorched  that  it  was  ruined. 
The  milkmaid,  on  her  return  to  the  cowshed, 
found  that  in  the  excitement  she  had  forgotten 
to  tie  up  the  cattle,  and  one  of  the  cows  had 
escaped  and  had  broken  the  leg  of  a  colt  that 
happened  to  be  kept  in  the  same  shed.  The 
sprained  ankle  of  the  gardener  kept  him  in 
bed  for  two  weeks,  and  the  loss  of  his  work, 
plus  the  cost  of  the  linen,  plus  the  damage  to 
the  colt,  made  a  rather  large  total  of  expense. 
All  of  this  resulted  from  the  want  of  a  latch 
which  would  have  cost  a  few  cents. 

Carelessness,  neglect  and  forgetfulness  are 
arch  foes  of  thrift  and  stumbling  blocks 
in  the  path  of  progi-ess.  Two  girls,  whom  we 
will  call  Amy  Barker  and  Fanny  Leslie,  were 
graduated  in  the  same  high  school  class. 
Both  were  poor  girls,  and  both  had  to  go  to 
work  on  leaving  school.  Their  principal 
found  them  positions  in  a  department  store 
and  a  year  later  he  visited  the  store  manager 
to  see  how  his  former  pupils  were  prospering. 
He  found  that  Amy  Barker  was  head  assistant 
in  the  department  of  children's  dresses,  but 
that  Fanny  Leslie  was  merely  a  salesgirl  at 
an  unimportant  notion  counter.  When  ques- 
tioned, the  store  manager  made  the  following 
explanation : 

"Miss  Leslie  is  fully  as  bright  as  Miss  Bar- 
ker, and  she  makes  a  more  striking  appear- 
ance, but  we  have  not  been  able  to  advance 
her  because  she  is  too  careless  about  details. 
Miss  Barker  from  the  beginning  has  been  very 
conscientious  about  small  things.  She  learned 
all  she  could  about  the  stock  and  remembered 
what  she  learned,  so  that  she  could  always 
answer  our  customers'  questions  and  make 
intelligent  suggestions.  Her  sales  slips  were 
always  made  out  neatly  and  correctly,  and  we 
never  had  to  trace  goods  sent  astray  because 
of  her  illegible  writing.  We  never  had  to 
fill  orders  over  again  that  she  attended  to. 
Accordingly,  she  has  been  advanced  steadily 
and  is  now  first  assistant  to  the  manager  of 
an  important  department.  In  a  few  years 
from  now  you  will  see  her  one  of  our  buyers 
at  a  very  good  salary.  I  am  sorry  that  Miss 
Leslie  has  not  done  so  well.     She  cannot 


THRIFT 


3574 


THRIFT 


be  trusted  to  remember  prices,  or  what  we 
have  in  stock.  She  made  so  many  mistakes 
in  writing  names  and  addresses  that  we  had  to 
put  her  in  the  notion  department,  whei-e 
deliveries  are  the  exception.  "We  cannot  trust 
her  to  measure  goods  correctly,  and  unless  she 
takes  herself  in  hand  and  improves  she  may 
not  even  keep  the  position  she  has.  It  is  a 
great  pity,  for  she  has  a  very  pleasing  per- 
sonality and  could  make  an  excellent  sales 
person  if  she  would  put  her  mind  on  details." 

This  girl's  case  is  typical  of  so  many  in  the 
business  world  that  it  is  too  bad  some  one 
doesn't  start  a  thrift  school  for  the  negligent. 
This  form  of  thriftlessness  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  business  girls.  Negligence  is  a 
widespread  failing.  Thousands  of  lives  are 
lost  every  year  and  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  property  destroyed  in  fires,  wrecks  and  ac- 
cidents, because  somebody  has  been  careless, 
or  forgetful,  or  has  made  a  mistake.  Over 
3,000,000  pieces  of  mail  have  to  be  destroyed 
in  a  single  year  by  the  United  States  Post- 
office  Department  because  they  have  been  mis- 
directed. Street-car  companies,  stores  and 
other  public  institutions  have  to  maintain 
special  departments  to  take  care  of  the  things 
that  people  lose. 

If  every  careless  person  would  set  down  in 
a  notebook  at  the  end  of  each  day  the  amount 
of  time,  money  and  patience  that  had  been 
wasted  that  day,  because  of  avoidable  negli- 
gence or  forgetfulness,  he  would  have  an  il- 
luminating record  at  the  end  of  a  week.  A 
certain  teacher,  distressed  by  the  careless 
habits  of  many  of  her  pupils,  asked  them  to 
each  make  out  a  "careless  list"  during  one 
week.  A  week  later  the  papers  were  handed 
in  and  the  confessions  were  compiled  by  the 
teacher.  This  is  what  she  reported  to  her 
shamed-faced  pupils: 

"I  find,"  she  said,  "that  fifteen  slate  pencils, 
nine  lead  pencils,  two  knives,  five  handker- 
chiefs, two  hair  ribbons,  one  book  and  a  pair 
of  rubbers  have  been  lost  this  week.  This 
alone  represents  an  expenditure  of  three  or 
four  dollars.  Ten  of  you  report  that  you 
forgot  en-ands,  messages  and  commissions  of 
one  sort  or  another  and  thereby  put  your 
mothers  to  much  inconvenience.  Because  one 
boy  forgot  to  leave  an  order  at  the  grocery 
for  sugar  his  mother  had  to  buy  two  cakes 
at  the  bakery,  for  she  had  promised  them  for 
the  church  supper.  A  girl  reports  that  she 
forgot  to  tell  her  father  that  Dr.  Smith  wished 
to  see  him  and  that  her  father  lost  a  day's 


work  by  her  carelessness.  Several  of  you  say 
that  you  forgot  to  take  necessary  books  home 
from  school  and  had  zero  marks  in  recitations 
the  next  day.  One  boy  forfeited  his  week's 
allowance  because  he  had  too  many  zeros. 
Several  of  the  cases  of  tardiness  are  the  result 
of  starting  out  from  home  without  something 
and  having  to  go  back.  Now,  my  pupils,  do 
you  think  that  a  class  with  such  a  record 
will  do  anything  worth  while  in  life,  or  attain 
success  in  anj^thing?  How  many  of  you 
will  join  a  'Think  first  club'  and  clean  up 
this  dreadful  record?"  Every  hand  in  the 
room  was  raised,  and  from  that  time  on  the 
pupils  began  to  improve.  That  teacher  helped 
her  pupils  to  remember  their  new  resolutions 
by  writing  on  the  blackboard  an  old-fash- 
ioned proverb  she  had  learned  as  a  school 
girl. 

For  the  want  of  a  nail  the  shoe  was  lost; 
For  the  want  of  a  shoe  the  horse  was  lost; 
For  the  want  of  a  horse  the  rider  was  lost; 
For  the  want  of  a  rider  the  battle  was  lost; 
Because  of  the  battle  the  kingdom  was  lost; 
And  all  for  the  want  of  a  horseshoe  nail. 

Health  Thrift.  Taking  care  of  the  health 
is  on  a  par  with  storing  up  material  wealth. 
Progressive  industrial  institutions  now  make 
it  their  business  to  see  that  their  employes 
work  under  healthful  conditions,  for  it  is 
obvious  that  a  larger  and  better  output  is  pro- 
duced by  workers  who  feel  well  than  by  those 
who  are  physically  unfit.  Many  city  depart- 
ment stores  endeavor  to  reduce  absence  from 
work  to  a  minimum  by  providing  gymnasium 
and  recreation  rooms  for  their  employes.  Ill 
health  is  an  expense  wherever  it  is  found, 
and  no  one  can  afford  to  ignore  the  needs 
of  the  body. 

Very  often  what  people  like  to  do  is  the 
opposite  of  what  they  ought  to  do,  and  the 
sacrifice  of  preference  is  frequently  necessary 
for  the  preservation  of  health.  A  teacher 
who  noticed  that  one  of  her  bright  pupils  was 
becoming  lazy,  irritable  and  stupid,  made  an 
investigation.  She  discovered  that  his  too 
indulgent  parents  gave  him  a  generous 
amount  of  spending  money,  and  that  he  had 
formed  the  habit  of  going  to  a  picture  show 
every  night  in  the  week  with  an  older  brothei'. 
They  always  bought  candy  or  peanuts,  and 
never  came  home  before  ten  o'clock.  One 
day,  after  school  was  dismissed,  this  teacher 
and  the  boy  had  a  serious  conversation. 

"John,"  she  said,  "What  would  you  think 
of  a  man  who  had  worked  hard  to  accumulate 


THRIFT 


3575 


THRIFT 


money  to  buy  him  a  house,  and  who  put  that 
money  in  a  hag  with  a  hole  in  it,  tied  the  bag 
over  the  edge  of  a  boat,  and  went  rowing 
down  the  river!"  "Why,"  said  the  boy, 
"anj^one  who  would  do  that  would  be  in- 
sane." "Exactly,"  replied  his  teacher.  *^ow 
tell  me  what  you  think  of  a  boy  who  is  throw- 
ing away  his  health  in  the  same  way.  John, 
why  do  you  come  to  school  every  day  tired 
and  sleepy?"  "Why,"  stammered  the  boy, 
"I  guess  I  don't  go  to  bed  early  enough." 
"And  why,"  continued  his  teacher,  "did  you 
have  such  a  headache  yesterday  that  you  had 
to  be  dismissed  early  f 

The  boy  hung  his  head.    "I  ate  too  many 
peanuts  the  night  before,  and  they  weren't 
roasted  well.    Mother  said  I  had  indigestion." 
"I  think  you  see  what  I  am  getting  at,"  said 
the  teacher.  "You  can't  sit  in  a  stuffy  theater 
every  night,  lose  needed  sleep   and  eat  in- 
digestible   food  without   sacrificing   one   of 
the    most    precious    possessions    you    have. 
"Wouldn't  you  like  to  regain  the  good  spirits 
and  enthusiasm  you  used  to  have  when  you 
were  at  the  head  of  the  class  and  never  knew 
■what     a     headache     meant?"      John     con- 
sidered    this     a     minute     before     he     an- 
swered:     "I     don't   honestly   feel    as   well 
as  I  used  to,  but  I  like  to  go  to  the  shows 
and  I  like  candy."    "The  trouble  with  you, 
John,"  said  his  teacher,  "is  that  you  are  being 
a  spendthrift.     You  are  spending  all  your 
health  for  something  not  worth  while.     Once 
a  week  is  often  enough  for  any  boy  of  your 
age  to  go  to  a  picture  show,  and  you  ought  to 
select  that  one  with  great  care.    You  used  to 
find  pleasure  in  baseball  and  swimming,  and  I 
am  sure  a  healthy  appetite  for  good  home 
cooking  is  more  enjoyable  than  the  pleasure 
you  get  from  eating  cheap  candy  and  under- 
done peanuts.     Promise  me  to  buy  no  candy 
for  a  week,  to  go  to  bed  early  eveiy  night,  and 
to  stay  away  from  the  theater  until  the  end 
of  the  week.    I  want  you  to  make  this  a  test." 
John  was  a  boy  who  could  listen  to  reason, 
and  he  followed  his   teacher's  advice  con- 
scientiously.    A   week   later   he  made  this 
report  to  her :  "I  know  now  I  was  foolish  to 
waste  all  that  time  and  money,  and  I  am  going 
to  keep  on  as  you  told  me  to  last  week.    I 
feel  ever  so  much  better  and  can  get  my 
lessons  much  quicker."    This  boy  had  learned 
the  difference  between  being  a  health  spend- 
thrift and  a  health  saver. 

America's  Thrift  Campaign.     The  Ameri- 
can people  have  frequently  been  criticized  for 


their  lack  of  thrift.  In  1913  Mr.  Simon  W. 
Straus  organized  the  American  Society  for 
Thrift,  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the 
people  along  the  line  of  economy,  and  later 
the  National  Education  Association  took  up 
the  movement.  The  ground  had  therefore 
been  somewhat  prepared  when  America  en- 
tered the  World  War  in  1917,  and  national 
thrift  became  an  immediate  and  vital  factor 
of  the  struggle.  The  government  soon  began 
an  intensive  thrift  campaign  that  reached 
every  home  in  the  land.  "Save  and  waste 
nothing"  was  circulated  through  the  country 
by  lectures,  pamphlets,  billboard  advertising 
and  moving  pictures.  Through  the  Liberty 
Loan  flotations  people  learned  to  save  money 
as  never  before.  Day  laborers,  tj-pists,  boot- 
blacks, sci-ubwomen,  teachers,  lawyers,  doc- 
tors, the  small  salaried  man  and  the  million- 
aire— all  joined  the  ranks  of  the  bond  buyers. 
No  one  knows  how  many  people  saved  their 
first  dollar  when  they  made  the  initial  pay- 
ment on  their  fii-st  liberty  bond.  By  offering 
thrift  stamps  at  twenty-five  cents  each  the 
government  made  it  possible  for  even  the 
small  children  to  become  savers.  The  re- 
sponse of  the  school  children  to  the  suggestion 
that  they  use  their  candy  money  to  buy  thrift 
stamps  was  surprising  even  to  the  most  opti- 
mistic. Children  and  adults  acquired  the  sav- 
ing habit  by  investing  in  government  secur- 
ities, and  this  in  itself  was  as  important  as  the 
actual  money  gain,  a  point  which  is  quite 
frequently  overlooked. 

The  thrift  campaign,  however,  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  urging  of  people  to  save  in  order 
to  invest  in  government  loans.  A  food  admin- 
istration department  was  organized,  some- 
thing unknown  in  American  history,  and 
people  began  to  learn  new  methods  in  food 
economy.  They  were  told  that  enough  food 
was  wasted  in  the  average  American  kitchen 
to  feed  a  small  family,  and  were  shown  the 
need  of  conserving  because  of  the  pressing 
needs  of  the  allies.  Housewives  became 
interested  in  butter,  sugar  and  wheat  sub- 
stitutes, economy  recipes  came  into  being  by 
the  dozen,  and  new  ways  of  utilizing  scraps 
and  left-overs  were  discovered.  Some  people 
found  out  that  they  were  eating  more  than 
was  either  necessaiy  or  healthful,  and  others 
learned  the  merits  of  foods  to  which  they  were 
not  accustomed.  Extravagant  America  also 
learned  that  fuel  could  and  must  be  saved, 
that  pleasures  could  be  cui'tailed  and  that 
clothes  could  be  made  over. 


THRUSH 


3576 


THULE 


Teachers  in  the  public  schools  have  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  correlate  the  thrift 
idea  with  the  regular  school  subjects.  The 
teaching  of  thrift  is  something  that  should  be 
made  permanent.  In  the  lower  gi-ades  the 
children  may  be  given  problems  which  bring 
out  the  idea  of  saving,  and  such  phases  of 
thrift  as  insurance  and  investment  can  be 
emphasized  in  connection  with  the  arithmetic 
of  the  upper  gi-ades.  In  the  language  and 
English  classes,  thrift  can  be  emphasized 
through  story  telling,  essay  work,  etc.  In 
connection  with  the  geography  lessons  the 
importance  of  consei-ving  natural  resources 
may  be  brought  out.  Closely  related  to  this 
branch  is  nature  study  work,  in  which  garden- 
ing and  elementary  agriculture  have  a  place. 
In  the  physiology  lessons  emphasis  should 
be  placed  on  the  importance .  of  keeping 
healthy,  and  instruction  be  given  in  the  care 
of  the  body.  Schools  that  give  domestic 
science  courses  have  a  wide  field  for  emphasiz- 
ing thrift,  and  the  idea  may  also  be  brought 
out  forcibly  through  history  and  biography. 

THRUSH,  a  group  of  about  240  species 
of  singing  birds,  native  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  They  represent  the  highest  order  of 
songsters.  None  is  very  large  and  most  of 
them  have  dark  plumage,  frequently  spotted 
or  striped,  and  with  light  or  spotted  under 
parts.  They  live  in  the  wooded  countries, 
chiefly  on  the  ground,  and  in  their  habits 
they  are  generally  solitary,  though  in  the 
winter  and  in  the  season  of  migration  they 
so  in  loose  flocks. 


WILSON'S  THRUSH 

Thrushes  are  celebrated  for  their  powers  of 
song.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada  the 
brown  thrush,  pr  hrown  thrasher,  is  best 
known.     It  is  rather  slender  and  is  brown 


above,  with  lighter  under  parts,  streaked 
with  brown.  Its  song  is  loud,  prolonged  and 
clear.  There  are  eight  other  sjjeeies  east  of 
the  Mississippi  and  the  prairie  provinces. 
Among  them  the  wood  thrush,  or  veery,  the 
hermit  thrush  and  Wilson's  thrush  are  charm- 
ing, but  shy,  inhabitants  of  the  forests  and 
shrubberJ^  In  some  localities  the  wood  thrush 
is  called  the  wood  robin.     See  Robin. 

THUCYDIDES,  thu  sid'  i  deez  (about  470- 
about  400  B.  c),  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
historians,  born  in  Attica,  a  member  of  an 
aristocratic  family  and  the  possessor  of  rich 
Thracian  gold  mines.  For  a  time  he  was  a 
prominent  commander  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  but  because  of  his  failure  to 
relieve  the  siege  of  Amphipolis,  he  suffered 
exile  for  about  twenty  years.  However,  he 
appears  to  have  returned  to  Athens  in  403 
B.  c.^  the  year  following  the  termination  of  the 
war. 

His  masterpiece,  A  History  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  consists  of  eight  books,  the  last 
of  which  is  believed  not  to  have  had  his  final 
revision  because  of  its  inferiority  of  style  and 
abnipt  ending.  This  monumental  work  covers 
the  period  from  431  to  411  b.  c,  twenty-one 
of  the  twenty-eight  years  of  the  war. 

As  a  historian  Thucydides  was  painstaking 
and  indefatigable  in  collecting  and  sifting 
facts,  and  terse  in  naiTating  them.  His  style 
is  dignified  but  at  times  obscure  through  its 
condensations.  Thucydides  is  unsurpassed  in 
the  power  of  analyzing  character  and  action, 
of  tracing  events  to  their  causes,  of  appreci- 
ating the  motives  of  individual  agents  and  of 
combining  in  their  just  relations  all  the 
threads  of  the  tangled  web  of  history. 

THUGS,  the  name  applied  to  a  secret  and 
once  widely  spread  society  among  the  Hindus, 
whose  occupation  was  to  waylay,  assassinate 
and  rob  all  who  did  not  belong  to  their  own 
caste.  This  they  did,  not  so  much  from  their 
cupidity,  as  from  religious  motives,  such 
actions  being  deemed  acceptable  to  their  god- 
dess Kali.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  in 
America  to  "holdup"  men,  or  highwa\Tnen. 

THULE,  thu'le,  or  ULTIMA  THULE,  the 
name  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  most  north- 
erly country  with  which  they  were  familiar. 
According  to  some  accounts,  it  was  an  island, 
six  days'  voyage  to  the  north  of  Britannia, 
and,  therefore  it  has  often  been  identified 
with  Iceland;  other  writers  claim  the  name 
to  have  been  given  to  one  of  the  Scotch 
islands,  or  to  the  coast  of  Norway. 


THURSDAY 


3577 


TIBET 


THURSDAY,  fhurz'day,  Thor's  day,  the 
fifth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  the  old 
Teutonic  god  of  thunder,  Thor.  The  Ameri- 
can Thanksgiving  Day  is  always  designated 
the  last  Thursday  of  November,  by  prece- 
dent. The  day  before  Good  Friday  is  called 
Maundy  Thursday  and  Holy  Thursday. 

THWAITES,  thwayts,  Reuben  Gold 
(1853-1913),  an  American  historian,  born  in 
Dorchester,  Mass.  He  moved  in  1866  to  Wis- 
consin, where  he  later  became  editor  of  the 
Wisconsin  State  Journal,  at  Madison.  Among 
his  published  volumes  are  Down  Historic 
Waterways,  The  Colonies,  1492-1750,  and 
several  biographies.  He  has  also  edited  a 
number  of  historical  works,  the  best-known 
being  The  Jesuit  Relations. 

THYME,  time,  a  small  plant  of  the  mint 
family,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  fre- 
quently cultivated  in  gardens.  It  has  a 
strong  aromatic  odor  and  yields  an  essential 
oil,  used  for  flavoring  purposes. 

TIAN-SHAN,  or  THIAN-SHAN,  te  ahn'- 
shahn',  a  range  of  mountains  in  Central  Asia, 
1,500  miles  long,  extending  in  a  northeastward 
direction  from  the  plateau  of  Pamir  to  the 
Desert  of  Gobi,  and  constituting  the  water- 
shed between  the  basins  of  the  Dzungaria  and 
the  Balkash.  It  is  also  closely  linked  with  the 
Altai  Mountains,  and  forms  a  part  of  the 
great  transcontinental  barrier,  bordering  on 
the  northern  edge  of  the  central  plateau  of 
Asia.  The  central  portion  of  the  range,  with 
its  slopes  always  covered  with  snow,  has  an 
elevation  of  from  15,000  to  20,000  feet. 
Glaciers  many  square  miles  in  extent  are  also 
found  here  in  great  numbers.  The  lower  parts 
of  the  slopes,  to  an  altitude  of  from  9,000  to 
9,500  feet,  are  dense  with  forests.  Numerous 
roads  and  passes  over  the  mountains  con- 
nect China,  West  Turkestan  and  Persia. 

TIA'RA,  the  name  given  originally  to  the 
cap  of  the  Persian  kings,  but  now  to  the 
triple  crown  of  the  Pope.  The  tiara  of  the 
Pope  is  a  high  cap  of  gold  cloth,  encircled 
by  three  coronets,  with  an  orb  and  cross  of 
gold  at  the  top.  From  either  side  hangs, a 
fringed  and  embroidered  pendant.  The  cap 
was  first  adopted  by  Nicholas  I,  in  the 
ninth  century,  and  later  Popes  added  the 
coronet. 

TI'BER,  the  second  largest  river  of  Italy, 
245  miles  in  length,  rising  in  Tuscany,  in 
the  Apennines,  and  flowing  southward  into 
the  Mediterranean  by  two  mouths.  The 
Tiber  is  noted  for  the  large  delta  at  its 


mouth  and  for  its  historic  associations.  It 
traverses  the  city  of  Rome,  forming  the 
island  anciently  called  Insula  Tiberina. 

To  check  the  disastrous  floods  of  past 
years  costly  embankments  have  been  con- 
structed at  Rome.  Because  it  deposits  large 
quantities  of  yellow  mud  and  sand,  it  is 
often  known  as  the  "Yellow  Tiber;"  the 
Romans  also  affectionately  called  it  "Father 
Tiber."  Through  Rome  it  has  been  canal- 
ized, and  it  is  also  spanned  there  by  a  num- 
ber of  fine  bridges.  During  high  water  it 
is  navigable  for  about  thirty  miles  north  of 
Rome. 

TIBE'RIUS  (42  b.  c.-a.  d.  37),  the  sec- 
ond emperor  of  Rome,  the  son  of  Tiberius 
Claudius  Nero.  Tiberius  became  consul  in 
his  twenty-eighth  year  and  was  subsequently 
adopted  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  as  his 
heir.  In  A.  d.  14  he  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
without  opposition.  Dangerous  mutinies 
broke  out  shortly  afterward  in  the  armies 
posted  in  Pannonia  and  on  the  Rhine,  but 
they  were  suppressed  by  the  exertions  of  the 
two  princes,  Germanicus  and  Drusus. 

Tiberius  was  a  man  of  genius  and  his 
reign  was  characterized  by  an  extraordinary 
mixture  of  tyranny  with  occasional  wisdom 
and  good  sense.  Tacitus  records  the  events 
of  the  reign,  including  the  suspicious  death 
of  Germanicus,  the  detestable  administra- 
tion of  Sejanus,  the  praetorian  prefect, 
and  the  retirement  of  Tiberius  to  the  Isle  of 
Capri,  where  he  lived  an  infamous  and  dis- 
solute life.  Sejanus,  aspiring  to  the  throne, 
fell  a  victim  to  his  ambition  in  the  year  31 ; 
and  many  innocent  persons  were  sacrificed 
to  his  suspicion  and  cruelty,  for  spies  re- 
ported all  that  occurred  in  Rome. 

TIB'ET,  or  THIBET',  called  a  depend- 
ency of  China,  but  declaring  its  independ- 
ence, is  located  in  the  center  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia.  It  is  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  high  mountains,  including  the  lofty 
Himalayas  to  the  south,  and  has  an  altitude 
of  from  14,000  to  17,000  feet,  comprising 
the  most  extended  area  of  elevated  plateaus 
on  the  globe.  For  this  reason,  Tibet  is 
sometimes  called  "the  roof  of  the  world." 

On  account  of  its  high  altitude  and  rari- 
fied  atmosphere,  Tibet  has  an  inhospitable 
climate,  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  Violent  winds  sweep  over  the 
plateaus  at  all  seasons.  The  western  part 
is  largely  desert,  rainfall  being  shut  off  by 
the  mountains.     The  southern  and  eastern 


TIBET 


3578 


TICONDEROGA 


parts  are  fertile,  being  watered  by  the  upper 
courses  of  tlie  Indus,  Sutlej,  Ganges  and 
Brr.limai:)utra  rivers.  The  country  contains 
numerous  lakes,  many  of  which,  having  no 
outlet,  are  salt. 

The  population  of  Tibet  is  sparse,  num- 
bering somewhat  more  than  3,000,000,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  live  in  the  southeastern 
part,  in  the  Brahmaputra  valley.  The  main 
crops  of  the  fertile  regions  are  barley, 
wheat,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  turnips,  cab- 
bages and  pulse,  with  a  few  hardy  fruits. 
Sheep  and  yaks  are  extensively  raised,  their 
owners  taking  them  up  the  mountain  sides 
during  the  short  summer  season  for  pas- 
turage, and  driving  them  down  into  the  val- 
leys as  the  cold  becomes  unendurable. 

Tibet  has  no  large  industries,  but  the 
people  are  skilful  Aveavers,  embroiderers, 
and  metal  workers.  They  make  a  durable 
woolen  serge  which,  with  sheep  skin,  forms 
the  chief  material  of  their  clothing.  They 
export  wool  to  China  and  India  by  trains  of 
pack  animals,  bringing  back  in  exchange, 
tea,  cotton,  silk,  sugar,  leather  goods,  etc. 
Mineral  wealth  is  considerable,  but  has  been 
little  developed.  Gold,  silver,  iron  and  coal 
are  abundant;  also  turquoise,  lapis  lazuli 
and  other  stones.  Salt,  nitre  and  borax  are 
valuable  products. 

The  Tibetans,  as  indicated  by  their  lan- 
guage, are  of  ]\Iongolian  extraction,  though 
they  have  varied  greatly  from  the  original 
type,  being  largely  mixed  with  the  Chinese 
and  the  Indians  of  the  bordering  countries. 
Their  religion,  known  as  Lamaism,  is  an  off- 
shoot of  Buddhism,  modified  by  numerous 
primitive  customs  and  superstitions.  Poly- 
andry is  common,  and  polygamy  is  also 
practiced  by  the  wealthier  classes.  The 
country  supports  large  numbers  of  lamas, 
or  celibate  priests. 

Because  of  its  inaccessibility  and  its  pol- 
icy of  isolation,  Tibet,  up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  was  taken  little  ac- 
count of  by  the  outside  world.  China  made 
little  attempt  at  authority,  and  the  Grand 
Lama,  head  of  both  Church  and  state,  ruled 
unmolested  from  the  capital  at  Lhasa.  In 
1904  the  British  government  in  India  sent 
an  armed  expedition  to  Tibet,  which  com- 
pelled important  trade  concessions  to  Great 
Britain.  This  brought  a  protest  from  the 
Chinese  government,  which  demanded 
China's  recognition  as  the  suzerain  of  Tibet. 
Lengthy   negotiations   followed,   and  by   a 


trade  agreement  made  in  1908  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Russia  agreed  not  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  Tibet  except  through  the 
Chinese  government.  In  1911  Tibet  re- 
volted from  China,  and  Great  Britain  denied 
China  the  right  to  send  an  expedition  to  re- 
conquer the  territory.  In  1914  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Tibet  signed  a  treaty  adjusting 
relations  between  the  three  nations  which 
China  refused  to  sign,  being  thereupon  noti- 
fied by  Great  Britain  that  until  it  signed  it 
would  be  deprived  of  all  rights  it  had  hither- 
to enjoyed. 

TIC  "  DOULOUREUX,  tikdoolooroo',  a 
form  of  neuralgia,  which  affects  the  facial 
nei'A'e  and  is  characterized  by  acute  pain, 
attended  with  convulsive  twitchings  of  the 
muscles.  It  occurs  on  one  side  of  the  face 
and  may  be  caused  by  a  diseased  tooth,  by 
inflammation  in  the  air  passage,  by  ex- 
posure, to  cold,  by  dissipation  and  by  other 
diseases.  The  natural  remedy  is  removal  of 
the  cause,  though  sometimes  warm  applica- 
tions will  bring  temporary  relief.  A  local 
operation  on  the  affected  nerve  is  sometimes 
resorted  to. 

TICKS,  a  family  of  tiny  eight-legged 
pai'asitic  insects,  with  oval  or  rounded 
bodies,  and  with  mouths  in  the  form  of  suek- 


TICKS,  MUCH  ENLARGED 
Wood  tick;   a,   mature    dog   tick;   b,   gorged 
with    blood,    viewed    from    above;    c,    viewed 
from  below. 

ers,  by  means  of  which  they  attach  them- 
selves to  mammals  and  birds.  They  subsist 
on  the  blood  of  their  victims.  The  common 
wood  tick  is  widely  distributed  through- 
out the  damp  woods  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  and  is  often  very  annoying  to 
persons.  It  burrows  into  the  flesh  and  gen- 
erally' is  not  noticed  until  gorged  with  blood, 
when  it  is  difficult  to  remove.  See 
Arachkida. 

TICONDEROGA,  tihonder  o'ga,  Battle 
OF,  Ticonderoga  is  a  village  in  Essex  Coun- 
ty, N.  Y.,  noted  as  a  battle  ground  in  three 
wars.  The  first  battle  was  waged  in  1609, 
when   Champlain   won   a  victory   over  the 


TIDES 


3579 


TIDES 


Mohawk  Indians.  In  1775  a  powerful 
fortress  was  built  near  the  site  of  the  vil- 
lage by  the  French.  It  was  held  by  Mont- 
calm in  1757  and  successfully  resisted  a 
vigorous  attack  by  the  British  under  Gen- 
eral Abercrombie.  It  was  captured  by  Gen- 
eral Amherst  for  the  English,  after  a  long 
siege,  in  July,  1759.  One  of  the  firet  move- 
ments in  the  Revolutionary  War  was  an 
American  expedition  against  Ticonderoga, 
undertaken  by  a  body  of  Green  Mountain 
Boys,  under  Ethan  Allen,  and  a  force  of 
continental  troops,  under  Benedict  Arnold. 
It  was  captured  May  10,  1775,  by  Ethan 
Allen,  without  the  loss  of  a  man.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  Allen  made  his  famous 
reply  to  the  British  general  who  inquired 
by  what  authority  he  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  the  fort — "In  the  name  of  the 
Great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Con- 
gress." Ticonderoga  was  retaken  by  Bur- 
goyne  in  1777,  was  later  abandoned  and  was 
reoccupied  in  1780.  Ruins  of  the  barracks 
and  fortifications  are  still  to  be  seen. 

The  village  of  Ticonderoga  is  about  100 
miles  north  of  Albany,  on  an  elevated 
promontory,  between  Lake  Champlain  and 
Lake  George.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich 
graphite  region,  and  for  years  has  fur- 
nished almost  all  of  this  material  produced 
in  the  United  States.  Population,  1910, 
2,475;  1915  (state  census),  2,918. 

TIDES,  the  periodical  rise  and  fall  of 
the  water  of  the  ocean,  caused  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  sun  and  moon.  The  tide  rises  for 
about  six  hours,  remains  stationary  for  a 
short  time,  then  begins  to  recede  and  con- 
tinues to  fall  for  the  next  six  hours.  The 
rise  is  called  flood  tide,  and  the  fall,  ebb 
tide.  When  the  water  has  reached  its 
height,  it  is  called  high  water,  and  when  it 
has  reached  its  lowest  point,  it  is  at  low 
water.  Every  place  on  the  coast  has  two 
high  and  two  low  tides  during  the  twenty- 
four  hours;  but  the  mean  interval  between 
successive  high  tides  is  about  twelve  hours 
and  twenty-six  minutes,  and  the  hour  of  the 
day  at  which  high  or  low  water  is  greatest  is 
later  each  day  by  about  fifty-two  minutes. 

Tides  are  caused  by  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  but  the  moon,  being  so  much 
nearer  the  earth,  exerts  by  far  the  greater 
influence,  notwithstanding  it  is  much  smaller 
than  the  sun  (see  Gravitation).  This  at- 
traction causes  a  rise  of  water,  or  tidal  wave, 
nearest  the  moon;  and  as  the  earth  rotates 


on  its  axis,  the  tendency  of  this  wave  is 
to  keep  directly  under  the  moon.  Hence, 
it  travels  from  east  to  west,  but  it  lags 
somewhat  behind  the  moon,  on  account  of 
the  time  required  to  draw  the  water  into  its 
position.  Since  the  attraction  of  bodies  de- 
creases as  the  square  of  the  distance  be- 
tween them  increases,  it  follows  that  the 
points  of  the  moon's  greatest  and  least  at- 
traction are  at  those  points  on  the  earth's 
surface  which  are  respectively  the  nearest 


FIG.  1 


and  the  farthest  from  the  moon.  At  the 
former  point  the  attraction  is  greater  than 
the  a^verage,  and  the  water  is  pulled  up 
toward  the  moon;  the  solid  portions  of  the 
earth  are  attracted  the  same  as  the  water,  so 
the  earth  as  a  whole  is  di-awn  toward  the 
moon,  away  from  the  point  on  the  opposite 
side  where  the  attraction  is  less  than  the 
average.  The  pressure  of  the  water  upon 
either  side  of  this  pushes  the  water  up  on 
the  side  near  the  moon  and  forais  a  tidal 
wave,  which  balances  that  on  the  opposite 
side.  Therefore  we  have  high  tide  at  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  long  diameter  of  the 
ellipse,  and  low  tide  at  the  points  midway 
between. 

Twice  a  month,  at  new  and  at  full  moon, 
the  attraction  of  the.  moon  and  sun  is  com- 
bined to  act  upon  the  tides  at  the  same 
points,  and  the  highest  tides  of  the  month 
occur.  This  is  known  as  spring  tide  and  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  Near  the  first  and 
fourth  quarters  of  the  moon,  the  earth,  sun 
and  moon  are  in  such  relative  positions  that 


PIG.  2 


the  attractions  of  the  sun  and  moon  act 
nearly  at  right  angles  upon  the  earth  and  we 
have  the  lowest  tide,  called  the  neap  tide. 
This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3. 


TIEN-TSIN 


3580 


TIFLIS 


In  the  open  ocean  the  tidal  -wave  is  merely 
a  broad  swell  that  is  scarcely  perceptible, 
but  on  the  coast  its  height  varies  according  to 


j 

(moon] 


FIG.  3 


the  coast  line  and  the  character  of  the  local- 
ity. If  the  coast  contains  inlets,  which 
narrow  towards  their  head,  like  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  the  tidal  wave  grows  higher  as  it 
is  shortened  by  the  converging  shores,  and 
the  tide  rises  very  high.  If  the  coast  con- 
tains a  promontorj'  or  other  projection, 
which  divides  the  tidal  wave,  as  the  Florida 
peninsula,  the  tendency  is  to  lower  the  tide. 
Because  of  the  irregularity  of  the  coast  and 
of  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  tides  do  not  occur  at 
all  places  on  the  same  meridian  at  exactly  the 
same  time.  Mariners'  charts  contain  the 
variations  in  tide  for  all  harbors  and  are 
frequently  accompanied  by  tables,  which 
give  the  time  of  the  tides  for  each  harbor 
and  each  month  in  the  year. 

TIEN-TSIN,  iyen'tsin,  China,  is  situated 
on  the  Pei-ho,  where  the  river  forms  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Grand  Canal,  seventy  miles 
southeast  of  Peking,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railway.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  high  walls,  which  are  surmounted  by 
towers.  The  houses  in  the  Chinese  quarter 
are  low,  and  the  streets  are  unattractive. 
The  foreign  quarter,  which  is  outside  of  the 
Chinese  city,  is  well  built  and  resembles  a 
modern  Eurojiean  or  American  town  in 
nearly  all  respects.  Tien-tsin  is  an  impor- 
tant trade  center  and  one  of  the  chief  sea- 
ports of  China.  It  has  railway  connections 
with  the  coal  district  of  Kaiping,  Manchuria 
and  Hankow,  and  is  open  to  vessels  of  the 
leading  European  nations  and  the  United 
States  on  equal  teiTas.  During  the  Boxer 
outbreak  in  1900,  Tien-tsin  was  the  point 
from  which  the  relief  expedition  of  the  al- 
lied powers  started  for  Peking.  Population, 
estimated,  800,000. 


TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  tye/ah  del 
fu-a'gn,  a  group  of  islands  situated  off  the 
soutliern  extremity  of  South  America,  from 
which  the  archipelago  is  separated  by  the 
Strait  of  Magellan.  It  consists  of  a  large 
island,  called  King  Charles  South  Land, 
and  several  smaller  islands  west  and  south 
of  it,  the  total  area  being  about  27,000  square 
miles.  All  the  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  the  climate,  modified  by  warm  currents, 
is  habitable,  the  population  numbering 
about  2,500.  There  are  forests  and  pasture 
lands,  and  agriculture  and  cattle-raising  are 
the  chief  occupations.  Politically  the  archi- 
pelago is  divided  into  two  groups.  The 
eastern  part,  including  the  largest  island 
of  the  group  and  Staten  Island,  belongs  to 
Argentina;  the  western,  to  Chile.  On  one 
of  the  small  islands  of  the  Chilean  group 
is  situated  Punta  Arenas,  the  most  south- 
ern city  in  the  world;  and  on  another,  the 
southernmost  of  the  group,  is  Cape  Horn. 

TIF'FIN,  Ohio,  the  county  seat  of 
Seneca  County,  forty  miles  southeast  of  To- 
ledo, on  the  Sandusky  Eiver,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  Saint  Louis 
railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelberg  Uni- 
versity, the  College  of  the  Ursuline  Sisters 
and  a  school  of  music.  The  city  has  a  Fed- 
eral building,  a  Carnegie  Librarj',  a  fi.ne 
soldiers'  monument  and  the  national  orphan's 
home  of  the  Junior  Order  of  United  Amer- 
ican Mechanics,  housing  about  400  children. 
There  are  deposits  of  clay  and  glass  sand 
in  the  vicinity,  and  the  industrial  establish- 
ments include  machine  shops,  glass  works, 
potteries,  woolen  mills  and  mitten  factories. 
The  place  was  settled  in  1817  by  Erastus 
Bowe,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1836. 
Population,  1910,  11,894;  in  19i7,  12,962 
(Federal  estimate). 

TIFLIS'  (Russian  pronunciation  tyee 
flyees'),  the  capital  of  Russian  Transcau- 
casia, situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Kur, 
275  miles  northwest  of  Baku,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  The  city  occu- 
pies a  beautiful  valley,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Caucasus  Mountains  and  is  interspersed 
with  numerous  %4neyards  and  orchards. 
The  Russian  part  of  the  city  is  built  on 
modern  plans  and  contains  good  hotels, 
stores,  theaters  and  other  buildings,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  cities  of  Western  Europe. 
The  native  quarter  is  tj^Dically  Oriental. 
The   public   gardens    and  botanical   garden 


TIGER 


3581 


TIGRIS 


are  objects  of  interest,  and  the  educational 
institutions  include  a  conservatory  of  music, 
a  railroad  institute,  a  physical  observatory 
and  the  Caucasian  Museum.  Manufactures 
include  tobacco,  leather  and  cotton  yam. 

TI'GER,  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
animal  of  the  cat  family.  It  is  about  the 
height  of  the  lion,  although  the  body  is 
longer  and  more  slender,  vphile  the  head  is 
more  rounded  and  has  no  trace  of  a  mane. 
The  males  are  considerably  larger  than  the 


TIGER  LILY,  a  tall  garden  plant  brought 
to  America  from  Eastern  Asia,  its  early 
home.  Its  markings  are  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  the  tiger,  and  it  is  so  named  for  this 
reason ;  the  blossoms  are  orange-red,  splashed 
with  black.  The  plant  grows  from  bulbs  which 
in  Japan  and  China  are  used  as  food.  It 
often  attains  the  height  of  five  feet  and  bears 
alternate,  lance-shaped,  deeply-veined  leaves. 
At  the  point  where  the  leaves  join  the  stalk, 
small  black  bulblets  grow,  which,  after  cling- 


TIGER 


females,  and  leave  a  more  nearly  square 
and  less  oval  footprint.  The  average  length 
of  the  male  is  about  9^^  to  10  feet  from  the 
nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail;  the  average 
weight  is  500  pounds.  It  is  of  a  bright 
fawn  color  above  and  a  pure  white  below, 
crossed  irregularly  with  black  stripes.  Its 
colors  prevent  it  from  being  easily  seen  in 
the  shades  of  the  jungles. 

The  tiger  attains  its  full  development  in 
India,  the  name  of  Bengal  Tiger  being  gen- 
erally used  as  synonymous  with  those  speci- 
mens which  represent  the  typical  and  most 
powerful  of  the  species.  It  generally  selects 
the  neighborhood  of  water  courses  as  its 
home  and  springs  upon  the  animals  that 
approach  to  drink.  Man-eaters  are  tigers 
that  have  acquired  a  special  liking  for 
human  prey. 

The  tiger  combines  with  the  strength  of  a 
lion,  a  fierceness,  stealth  and  activity  peculiar 
to  itself,  so  that  natives  fear  it  more  than  any 
other  animal.  The  natives  destroy  tigers  by 
means  of  poisoned  arrows  or  capture  them 
in  grass-covered  pits  and  other  traps. 


ing  to  the  stem  for  a  while  become  detached 
and  take  root  to  produce  other  plants,  which 
bloom  in  two  to  three  years.  See  Lily. 
»  TI'GRIS,  a  river  which,  with  the  Eu- 
Ijhrates,  encloses  the  historic  region  of  Meso- 
potamia. In  its  valley  fiourished  two  great 
civilizations — the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian — 
long  before  the  glorious  days  of  Greece.  Its 
principal  sources  start  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Anti-Taurus  Mountains  in  Central  Armenia. 
After  the  junction  of  the  headwaters  the  river 
flows  in  a  winding  southeast  course  of  about 
950  miles,  uniting  with  the  Euphrates  at 
Garmat  Ali.  The  two  streams  form  the 
Shat-el-Arab,  which  enters  the  Persian  Gulf 
after  a  ninety-mile  course.  Although  it  is 
shorter  than  its  sister  stream,  its  volume  is 
gfreater,  its  flow  swifter.  Its  chief  branches 
are  on  the  eastern  side;  the  largest  of  these 
are  the  Diyala  and  the  Greater  Zab.  In  its 
course  the  Tigris  passes  the  ruins  of  Nineveh, 
on  the  east  bank,  opposite  the  modern  town  of 
Mosul.  Lower  down  it  flows  through  Bagdad 
and  farther  on  passes  the  ruins  of  Ctesiphon, 
then  those  of  Seleucia,  in  splendor  once  the 


TILDEN 


3582 


TIMBUKTU 


rival  of  Babylon.  Ocean  craft  ascend  to  Bag- 
dad; smaller  vessels  may  go  to  Mosul.  The 
valley  of  the  Tigris  was  the  scene  of  desper- 
ate fighting  in  the  course  of  the  World  War. 
See  INIesopotamia. 

TIL'DEN,  Samuel  Jones  (1814-1886), 
an  American  statesman  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale  College  and  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1841.  He  was  elected  to  the  state 
assembly  in  1845,  where  he  advocated  the 
cOjistruction  of  canals  by  the  state,  and  in 
1846  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Constitu- 
tional Convention.  By  1868  he  had  become 
the  leader  of  the  Democratic  party  in  New 
York  State.  His  determined  opposition  and 
practical  measures  broke  up  the  "Tweed 
Ring"  (see  Tvteed,  William  'Mabcy),  the 
prosecution  of  which  he  successfully  con- 
ducted. 

Tilden  was  elected  governor  in  1874,  served 
the  state  with  sagacity  and  honesty  and  in 
1876  was  the  Democratic  nominee  for  Presi- 
dent against  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  He  re- 
ceived a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  and 
was  defeated  in  the  Electoral  College  by  one 
vote,  after  a  long  dispute  over  returns,  which 
■was  decided  by  an  electoral  commission  (see 
Electoral  Commission).  The  gi-eater  por- 
tion of  his  fortune,  estimated  at  $5,000,000, 
he  bequeathed  for  the  endowment  of  a  public 
libraiy  in  New  York  City,  but  after  a  long 
contest  over  the  will,  only  about  $2,000,000 
was  so  applied.  * 

TILETISH,  a  deep-sea  fish  accidentally 
discovered  in  1879  by  fishermen  trawling  for 
cod  in  warm  currents  near  Nantucket.  In 
1882  these  fish  were  nearly  exterminated  by 
the  cold  waters  which  the  gales  of  that  year 
forced  into  the  warmer  currents  inhabited  by 
them.  Their  dead  bodies  were  seen  floating 
in  countless  thousands  on  the  ocean  surface. 
Since  then  their  numbers  have  been  gi'adually 
increasing.  The  flesh  is  finely  flavored,  and 
is  excellent  food.  The  fish  has  a  large  head, 
is  brilliantly-colored  and  has  an  aveirage 
weight  of  fifteen  pounds.  A  peculiarity  is  a 
fleshy  protuberance  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
The  name  is  adapted  from  the  long  scien- 
tific name  of  the  fish,  which  means  crested 
tihfs  \cith  a  chameleonlilce  head. 

TILES,  tile^z,  a  term  applied  to  a  variety 
of  articles,  made  either  for  ornament,  such 
as  inlaid  paving  tiles,  or  for  use,  as  drain- 
ing and  roofing  tiles.     The  latter  are  made 


similarly  to  bricks  and  of  similar  clay  (see 
Brick).  Floor  tiles  in  which  the  body  of 
the  tile  is  in  one  color  and  a  special  pattern 
is  produced  by  the  use  of  other  colors,  are 
known  as  encaustic  tiles.  When  designs  in. 
floors  or  walls  are  made  by  the  arrangement 
of  tiles  of  different  colors,  the  result  is  said 
to  be  a  mosaic. 

TILL'MAN,  Benjamin  Ryan  (1847- 
1918),  an  American  Senator,  famous  in  the 
past  generation,  was  born  in  Edgefield  Coun- 
ty, S.  C.  He  received  an  elementary  educa- 
tion, but  left  school  in  July,  1864,  to  join 
the  Confederate  army,  in  which  he  did  not 
serve  long,  because  of  loss  of  sight  in  one  eye. 
After  the  war  he  became  a  planter  in  his 
native  state;  in  1886  he  entered  politics  as 
the  champion  of  industrial  and  technical  edu- 
cation, and  succeeded  in  securing  the  estab- 
lishment of  several  schools,  the  largest  of 
their  kind  in  the  South.  He  gained  a  large 
following  as  an  advocate  of  other  reforms 
and  was  dected  governor  in  1890.  He  was 
reelected  in  1892,  his  administration  being 
important  by  reason  of  the  passage  of  the 
state  liquor  dispensary  law.  In  1895  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator,  and  was  sub- 
sequently reelected  for  four  terms.  His  fiery 
and  enthusiastic  speeches,  especially  his  at- 
tacks upon  President  Cleveland  in  1895- 
1896,  won  him  the  title,  "Pitchfork  Ben." 

TIL'LY,     JOHANN     TSERKLAES,     Count     of 

(1559-1632),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gen- 
erals of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
born  at  the  castle  of  Tilly  in  Belgium  and 
received  his  military'  training  in  the  Span- 
ish armies.  In  1610  he  was  selected  by  Duke 
IMaximilian  of  Bavaria  to  reorganize  his  army, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
he  was  made  commander  of  the  forces  of  the 
Holy  League.  In  1620  he  gained  the  victory' 
of  White  Mountain,  near  Prague,  and  in  1621 
he  subdued  Bohemia.  In  the  years  that  fol- 
lowed he  overpowered  Christian  IV  of  Den- 
mark, who  had  entered  the  war  on  the  side 
of  the  Protestants  and  forced  him  to  with- 
draw. Tilly  became  commander  of  the  im- 
perial army  in  1630,  and  in  1631  he  stormed 
Magdeburg.  This,  his  thirty-sixth  victorj', 
closed  his  list  of  triumphs.  On  Sept.  17, 
1631,  he  was  defeated  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipzig,  and  in  the  next 
year,  in  a  contest  with  the  Swedish  king,  near 
the  Lech,  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

TIMBUK'TU,  or  TIMBUC'TOO,  a  town  of 
French  West.  Africa,  situated  on  the  south- 


TIME 


3583 


TIN 


ern  edge  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  nine  miles 
north  of  Kabara,  its  port  on  the  Niger  river. 
It  is  notable  as  being  the  center  of  caravan 
trade  between  North  Africa  and  the  regions 
south  and  west  of  the  Niger.  Gums  and  rub- 
ber, gold,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  wax,  salt, 
hardware  and  cheap  cloth,  to  the  value  of 
millions  of  dollars  annually,  are  exchanged 
here,  mainly  by  barter.  The  buildings  of 
Timbuktu  are  chiefly  one-story  mud  hovels, 
though  the  city  contains  a  number  of  beauti- 
ful mosques,  one  of  which  dates  from  1325, 
and  a  number  of  European  churches  and 
schools.  The  town  was  founded  in  1077  by 
the  Tuareg  tribe,  and  has  long  been  a  center 
of  Mohammedan  learning.  It  passed  into 
possession  of  the  French  in  1894. 

TIME,  Standard.  See  Standard  Time. 
TIM'OTHY,  a  coworker  with  the  Apostle 
Paul,  probably  born  in  Lystra,  in  Asia  Minor. 
His  father  was  a  Greek,  and  his  mother  was 
a  Jewess.  He  went  with  Paul  to  Philippi 
and  Beroea  and  remained  alone  in  the  latter 
city,  afterward  rejoining  the  apostle  at 
Athens,  from  which  he  was  sent  to  Thessa- 
lonica.  After  remaining  there  some  time,  he 
joined  Paul  at  Corinth.  Five  years  later,  he 
was  at  Ephesus,  whence  he  was  sent  with 
Erastus  into  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  to  pre- 
pare the  churches  for  Paul's  meditated  visit. 
Timothy  met  the  apostle  in  Macedonia  and 
preceded  him  on  his  journey  to  Jerusalem. 
He  was  at  Rome  with  Paul  at  the  time  when 
the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians  and 
Philemon  were  written.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  martyred  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  or 
Nerva. 

TIMOTHY,  or  CAT'S  TAIL,  once  called 
herd's  grass,  is  a  grain  of  high  economic 
value,  widely  cultivated  for  fodder.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  from  one  to  three  feet  and 
bears,  on  the  tips  of  slender  stems,  cylindrical 
spikes  composed  of  tiny  florets.  The  plant  is 
perennial,  but  springs  from  seed  and  ma- 
tures rapidly  in  the  same  season  in  which  it 
is  sown,  if  conditions  are  favorable.  The 
yearly  prodiaction  of  timothy,  alfalfa  and 
clover  in  the  United  States  at  normal  prices 
is  valued  at  over  $1,000,000,000;  in  Canada, 
$150,000,000  to  $170,000,000. 

TIMROD,  Henry  (1829-1867),  a  lyric  poet 
of  the  Southern  states,  native  to  Charleston, 
S.  C.  He  conti'ibuted  i")oems  to  Bussell's 
Magazine  and  the  Southern  Literary  Mes- 
senger  during  the  years  preceding  the  Civil 
War,  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1860, 


was  war  correspondent  for  the  Charleston 
Mercury,  and  during  the  war  was  assistant 
editor  of  the  South  Carolinian,  published  in 
Columbia.  His  property  and  health  were 
swept  away  in  the  Federal  attack  upon  Co- 
lumbia, and  he  died  in  great  physical  suffering 
and  poverty.  An  edition  of  his  poems  was 
published  in  1873,  and  a  revised  memorial 
edition  was  issued  in  1899. 

TIMUR,  temoo/,  generally  known  as 
Tamerlane  (1336-1405),  was  a  celebrated 
Asiatic  conqueror  born  near  Samarkand.  His 
ancestors  were  chiefs  of  his  native  district, 
and  Timur,  by  his  energy  and  ambition,  made 
himself  ruler  of  all  Turkestan  (1370).  By 
degrees  he  conquered  Persia  and  the  whole  of 
Central  Asia,  and  extended  his  power  from 
the  Great  Wall  of  China  to  Moscow.  He 
invaded  India  in  1398,  and  overran  it  fpm 
the  Indus  to  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  mas- 
sacring, it  is  said,  on  one  occasion,  100,000 
prisoners.  After  this  he  marched  on  Asia 
Minor  and  successfully  made  war  on  the 
Turks,  subjugating  Bagdad,  plundering 
Aleppo,  and  burning  Damascus.  He  then 
undertook  to  conquer  China,  but  died  in 
camp  of  fever.  He  was  fanatical  in  his  de- 
votion to  Mohammedanism,  well  versed  in  the 
Koran,  but  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  of  war- 
riors. In  times  of  peace  he  was  a  patron  of 
science,  art  and  letters. 

TIN,  a  hard,  white,  ductile  metal.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known  in  the  time  of 
Moses ;  and  the  Phoenicians  traded  largely  in 
IJie  tin  ores  of  Cornwall.  The  mountains  be- 
tween Galicia  and  Poi'tugal,  and  those  sep- 
arating Saxony  and  Bohemia,  have  also  been 
productive  of  tin  for  centuries  and  still  con- 
tinue unexhausted.  Tin  is  found  in  great 
quantities  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  island 
of  Banea,  India,  Mexico,  Chile,  Peru,  Bolivia, 
the  United  States,  Australia  and  other  coun- 
tries, but  the  most  important  mines  are  at 
Cornwall,  England,  and  on  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. From  the  latter,  nearly  half  of  the 
world's  supply  has  been  obtained  for  many 
years  past,  but  the  output  is  now  declining. 
The  annual  output  for  the  world  is  about 
135,000  tons. 

Metallurgy  of  Tin.  There  are  only  two 
ores  of  tin,  the  native  dioxide,  called  tin  stone 
and  eassiterite,  and  the  double  sulphide  of  tin 
and  copper,  called  tin  pyrites.  The  former 
is  the  onl)'^  ore  used  for  obtaining:  metallic 
tin.  It  occurs  in  various  crystallized  forms— 
in    deep   lodes   blended   with   several    other 


TIN 


3584 


TIPPECANOE 


metals,  as  arsenic/  copper,  zinc  and  tungsten, 
when  it  is  known  as  mine  tin,  or  in  dissemi- 
nated masses  in  alluvial  soil,  in  which  state  it 
is  called  stream  tiu.  Mine  tin,  when  reduced 
to  the  metallic  state,  yields  block  tin,  while 
stream  tin  yields  a  purer  sort,  called  grain  tin. 
Its  Preparation  for  Commerce.  The  ore 
is  first  ground  and  washed  and  is  then  roasted 
in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  to  expel  the  sul- 
phur and  arsenic.  Mixed  with  limestone  and 
fuel,  it  is  again  melted  in  a  furnace  for  about 
eight  hours,  the  earthy  matters  flowing  off 
with  the  lime,  while  the  oxide  of  tin,  reduced 
to  a  metallic  state,  falls  by  its  own  weight  to 
the  bottom  and  is  drawn  off.  The  tin,  still 
impure,  is  then  moderately  heated,  when  it 
melts  and  flows  off  into  the  refining  basins, 
leaving  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign  metals 
in  a  solid  state.  The  molten  tin  is  stirred,  to 
disperse  the  gases,  and  when  partially  cool,  it 
separates  into  layers,  the  upper  consisting  of 
nearly  pure  tin,  while  the  under  is  so  impure 
that  it  again  must  be  melted.  The  upper 
layer  is  removed,  cast  into  blocks  and  sold 
as  block  tin,  the  purest  specimens  being  called 
refined  tin. 

Pure  tin  has  a  fine  white  color  like  silver 
and  is  a  little  more  than  seven  and  one-fourth 
times  heavier  than  water.  It  has  a  slightly 
disagreeable  taste.  Its  hardness  is  between 
that  of  gold  and  lead,  and  it  is  very  malleable. 
Tin  is  flexible,  and  when  bent  emits  a  crack- 
ling sound,  sometimes  called  the  art/  of  tin. 
It  loses  its  lustre  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but 
undergoes  no  further  alteration. 

Its  Properties.  Tin  will  unite  with  arsenic 
and  with  antimony,  but  does  not  readily  com- 
bine with  iron.  Combined  with  copper  it 
forms  bronze,  bell  metal  and  several  other 
useful  alloys.  TVith  lead  it  forms  pewter 
and  solder  of  various  kinds.  Tin  plate  is 
formed  by  dipping  thin  plates  of  iron  into 
melted  tin.  These  are  afterward  cleaned  with 
sand  and  steeped  for  twenty-four  hours  in 
water,  acidulated  by  bran  or  sulphuric  acid. 
Tin  is  principally  employed  in  the  formation 
of  alloys.  Its  oxides  are  used  in  enaifteling 
and  for  polishing  metals,  and  its  solution  in 
nitro-muriatic  acid  is  an  important  mordant 
in  the  art  or  dj'eing  rendering  several  colors 
more  brilliant  and  permanent. 

Tinfoil.  Tin  hammered  into  thin  sheets  is 
called  tinfoil,  although  much  of  the  tinfoil 
now  contains  lead.  It  is  used  to  wrap  small 
articles,  such  as  fine  soaps,  tobacco,  yeast,  etc., 
to  protect  them  from  air  and  moisture. 


TINTORETTO  (1518-1594).  whose  real 
name  was  Jacopo  Kobusti,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  painters  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
His  father  was  a  Venetian  dyer,  and  the  nick- 
name Tintoretto  means  little  dijer.  He  studied 
under  the  greatest  painters  of  his  day,  but  was 
largely  self-taught,  subjecting  himself  to  the 
most  severe  course  of  training.  He  dissected 
bodies  to  learn  anatomy  and  worked  by  day- 
light and  by  lamplight  to  study  light  effects. 
His  output  was  prodigious,  and  his  works  are 
numbered  by  hundreds.  They  are  to  be 
seen  in  all  the  great  galleries  and  include 
mythological,  religious  and  historic  subjects, 
many  of  them  unusually  large  pieces.  His 
Paradise,  occupying  an  entire  wall  in  the 
old  Ducal  Palace,  Venice,  is  the  largest  oil 
painting  in  the  world. 

Tintoretto  established  his  reputation  with 
a  series  of  pictures  on  the  subject  of  Saint 
Mark,  the  patron  saint  of  Venice.  One  of 
these.  The  Miracle  of  Saint  Mark,  in  the 
Acadeni}',  Venice,  was  pronounced,  by  the  art 
critic  Taine,  the  greatest  painting  in  Italy. 
It  is  remarkable  for  intense  dramatic  action, 
exquisite  color,  fine  modeling  of  the  figures 
and  masterly  treatment  of  light.  For  the 
guild  house  of  San  Rocco  he  did  some  of  his 
finest  work,  including  a  magnificent  Cruci- 
fixion, Paschal  Feast  and  Moses  Striking  the 
Bock.  Among  his  last  religious  pictures  was 
a  series  depicting  scenes  in  the  life  of  Christ. 
Some  of  these  are  The  Visitation,  The  Annun- 
ciation, Christ  Before  Pilate,  Ecce  Homo  and 
Besurrection.  A  number  of  his  most  charm- 
ing pieces  illustrate  pagan  and  Christian 
mj-ths.  Only  a  few  of  his  works  may  be  seen  in 
America.  The  Doge  in  Prayer  Before  th  e  Be- 
deemer  and  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes 
are  in  the  ^Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York, 
and  a  canvas  entitled  Senator,  is  in  the  Gard- 
ner Collection,  Boston. 

TIPPECANOE,  tip  pe  ka  noo',  Battle  of, 
a  battle  fought  November  7,  1811,  near  the 
site  of  the  present  village  of  Battleground, 
in  Tippecanoe  County,  Ind.,  between  a  force 
of  800  Americans,  chiefly  Indiana  and  Ken- 
tucky militiamen,  under  General  "William 
Henry  Hamson,  and  a  force  of  Indians, 
estimated  at  about  6,000,  under  the  command 
of  chiefs  White  Loon,  Stone  Eater,  "Winne- 
mac  and  the  Prophet,  the  last  a  brother  of 
Tecumseh.  Tecumseh  and  the  Prophet  bad 
created  much  discontent  among  the  Indians 
of  the  Northwest,  and  General  Harrison  had 
finally  found  it  necessary  either  to  secure  a 


TISSOT 


3585 


TITIAN 


treaty  with  them  or  to  subdue  them  by  force. 
He  finally  proceeded  to  their  headquarters 
at  a  village  on  the  Tii^pecanoe  and  arranged 
for  a  meeting  with  the  Prophet,  but  before 
the  conference  could  be  held  the  Indians  had 
■  attacked  the  American  camp.  After  a  fierce 
contest,  lasting  more  than  two  hours,  the 
Indians  were  driven  from  the  field,  and  their 
village  was  completely  destroyed  by  the 
Americans.  The  battle  led  to  a  general  ujo- 
rising  of  the  Indians  in  the  Northwest,  in 
connection  with  tlie  War  of  1812.  General 
Harrison  gained  such  prestige  in  this  cam- 
paign that  he  was  made  commander  of  the 
American  troops  in  the  West. 

TISSOT,  tis  so',  James  Joseph  Jacques 
(183G-1902),  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Nantes,,  famous  chiefly  for  a  series  of  water 
colors,  more  than  three  hundred  in  number, 
illustrating  the  life  of  Christ.  These,  the 
result  of  ten  years'  study  in  the  Holy  Land, 
depart  widely  from  the  conventional  treat- 
ment of  religious  subjects  in  the  attempt  to 
show  Christ's  actual  surroundings,  the  sup- 
position being  that  Palestine  has  changed 
little  since  his  time.  The  collection  is  owned 
by  the  Brooklyn  Institute.  Tissot  did  not 
begin  to  paint  religious  subjects  until  after  he 
was  fifty,  and  then  chose  them  as  the  result  of 
a  spiritual  conversion.  Prior  to  this  event 
he  had  devoted  his  talents  to  representing 
scenes  of  Parisian  life.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  engaged  upon  a  series  illustrat- 
ing scenes  and  incidents  in  the  Old  Testament. 

TISSUES,  tish'uze,  the  organized  collection 
of  cells  of  the  same  sort,  or  fibers,  of  which 
the  systems  of  organs  are  composed.  Thus, 
we  speak  of  muscular  tissue,  or  flesh ;  osseous 
tissue,  or  bone;  adipose  tissue,  or  fat;  cart- 
ilaginous tissue,  or  gristle ;  pigmentary  tissue, 
or  coloring  matter  seen  in  the  skin ;  areolar, 
cellular,  or  connective  tissue,  which  is  widely 
distributed  in  every  part  of  the  body  and 
serves  to  bind  together  and  consolidate  other 
parts  and  tissues.  See  Bone;  Cartilage; 
Connective  Tissue. 

TITANIC,  a  steamship  of  the  White  Star 
Line  which  sank  after  colliding  with  an  ice- 
berg, causing  one  of  the  greatest  marine 
disasters  of  all  time.  At  the  time  of  its 
launching  the  Titanic  was  the  largest  ship 
afloat  (see  Ships).  It  was  making  its  first 
voyage,  and  on  April  14,  1912,  had  reached  a 
point  about  1,000  miles  southeast  of  Halifax. 
Here  it  collided  with  an  iceberg  and  sank 
four  hours  later,  early  in  the  morning  <jt 

22.5 


April  15.  The  Carpathia,  hearing  the  Ti- 
tanic's  wireless  calls  for  help,  rushed  to  the 
scene  in  time  to  pick  up  the  lifeboats  with 
745  passengers,  but  1,595  persons  went  to 
their  death. 

TITA'NIUM,  a  metallic  element  discov- 
ered in  1789.  It  is  not  found  native,  but  as 
an  oxide  in  other  minerals.  Combined  with 
silver  it  gives  luster  to  that  metal ;  combined 
with  steel  it  adds  hardness  and  toughness. 
When  heated  in  air  it  burns  with  an  intensely 
brilliant  light,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  filaments  for  incandescent  lamps,  and  with 
carbon  in  arc  lights,  to  increase  the  brilliancy 
of  the  illumination.  Titanium  salts  are  used 
in  dyeing,  while  certain  compounds  of 
titanium  are  used  as  ingredients  of  paint  for 
protecting  iron  from  the  air.  This  element 
is  widely  distributed,  though  nowhere  abun- 
dant. It  is  found  in  many  iron  ores,  and  in 
the  United  States  is  extracted  from  rutile. 

TI'TANS,  in  Greek  mjd-hology,  the  giant 
sons  and  daughters  of  Uranus  (Heaven)  and 
Gaea  (Earth).  Six  were  men  and  six  were 
women,  the  latter  called  Titanides.  Uranus 
feared  them  and  chained  them  in  a  dark  cav- 
ern of  the  earth  called  Tartanis.  Saturn,  the 
youngest,  escaped,  overthrew  Uranus  and  re- 
leased his  brothers  and  sisters.  Saturn  was 
in  turn  overthrown  by  his  son  Jupiter. 

TITHES,  a  tenth  part  of  the  profit  derived 
from  the  use  of  land,  which  from  the  earliest 
times  has  been  the  common  tax  rate  for  civil 
and  religious  purposes.  Moses  levied  upon 
the  Jews  a  tax  of  one-tenth  of  their  posses- 
sions for  the  support  of  the  priests.  In 
Christian  churches  tithes  have  been  one  of  the 
methods  employed  for  the  support  of  the 
clergy.  In  England  tithes  are  paid  in  sup- 
port of  the  parish  in  which  the  land  is  held. 
In  the  United  States  the  only  tax  levied  for 
religious  purposes  is  that  which  the  Mormon 
Church  exacts  of  its  members. 

TITIAN,  tish'an,  or  VECELLIO,  Tiziano 
(1477-1576),  one  of  the  world's  greatest  mas- 
ters of  color  and  head  of  the  Venetian  school 
of  painting.  He  was  bom  at  Pieve  de  Ca- 
dore,  in  the  Carnie  Alps.  He  studied  under 
Giovanni  Bellini  of  Venice,  and  later,  in  1507, 
became  associated  with  the  painter  Giorgione 
in  the  execution  of  certain  frescoes.  So 
closely  did  he  imitate  the  latter's  manner 
that  his  works  were  sometimes  taken  for 
those  of  this  master. 

About  1511  Titian  began  to  work  along 
independent  lines.     In  that  year  he  went  to 


TITICACA 


358G 


TITUS 


TITIAN 

As  a  colorist  he  is 


Padau,  where  he  executed  three  remarkable 
frescoes,  still  to  be  seen,  and  i^ainted  the  pic- 
tures Tribute  Money  and  Sacred  and  Profane 
Love.  In  1530  Emperor  Charles  V  invited 
him  to  Bologna  to  paint  his  portrait;  there- 
after his  life  was 
a  succession  o  f 
triumphs,  and 
most  of  the  fore- 
most personages 
of  his  day  were 
eager  to  sit  for 
him. 

Titian  excelled 
as  much  in  land- 
scape as  in  figure 
painting,  and  was 
equally  great  in 
ideal  heads  and 
in  portraits,  in 
frescoes  and  in  oils 
almost  unrivaled,  and  his  pictures  often 
reach  the  perfection  of  sensuous  beauty.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  100  years  and  was  buried 
in  the  Church  of  the  Frari,  in  Venice. 
Among  his  principal  productions  are  The 
Entomhment,  The  Assumption  of  the  Vir- 
gin, The  Crucifixion,  Descent  from  the  Cross, 
Mater  Dolorosa,  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns 
and  Bape  of  Europa. 

TITICACA,  tit  e  kdh'kah.  Lake,  the  larg- 
est' lake  of  South  America,  picturesquely 
situated,  partly  in  Peru  and  partly  in  Bolivia. 
It  occupies  the  center  of  a  lofty  valley  and  is 
surrounded  by  the  mountains  forming  the 
main  chain  of  the  Andes.  It  is  130  miles  long 
and  thirty  miles  wide  at  its  widest  point; 
its  area  is  about  5,000  square  miles,  and  its 
height  above  sea  level,  12,500  feet.  Titicaea 
contains  several  islands,  is  fed  by  a  number 
of  mountain  streams  and  discharges  through 
the  Desaguadero  River,  which  flows  from  its 
southern  extremity.  The  region  around  the 
lake  contains  many  interesting  architectural 
ruins  of  the  old  empire  of  the  Incas.  Small 
steamers  ply  between  the  ports  of  Puna,  in 
Peru,  and  Guaqui,  in  Bolivia,  and  supplement 
the  railway  connections. 

TITLE,  ti't'l,  that  which  constitutes  the  le- 
gal ownership  of  property.  It  has  two  essen- 
tial elements,  possession  and  right  of  posses- 
sion, and  may  be  obtained  by  original  ac- 
quisition, as  in  the  case  of  patent  or  copy- 
right; by  gift,  contract  or  sale,  or  by  act 
of  law,  as  in  bankruptcy,  judgment,  intes- 
tacy or  marriage. 


In  most  countries  a  system  of  examination 
and  registration  of  titles  by  a  recognized 
ofl&cer  exists,  which  assures  the  purchaser  of 
real  estate  a  perfect  title  without  personal 
investigation.    See  Tohrens  System;  Deed. 

TITLES  OF  HONOR,  words  or  phrases  at- 
tached to  the  names  of  certain  persons,  in 
virtue  of  particular  offices  or  dignities  pos- 
sessed by  them,  or  as  marks  of  distinction  and 
special  rank.  They  have  existed  probably 
among  all  peoples.  Such  were,  in  Rome, 
the  titles  Magnus  (Great)  and  Africanus 
(African),  and  the  epithets  Caesar,  the  name 
of  a  family,  and  Augustus,  which  were  grad- 
ually applied  to  all  who  filled  the  imperial 
throne.  In  modem  times  such  designations 
as  prince,  duke,  king,  lord,  Royal  Highness, 
His  Excellency,  are  common. 

TIT'MOUSE,  TIT,  or  TOMTIT,  a  group  of 
small  hardy  birds,  characterized  by  long,  soft 
plumage,  of  which  a  number  of  different 
species  inhabit  most  parts  of  the  world.  They 
flit  continually  from  branch  to  branch,  de- 
vouring insects'  eggs  and  larvae,  thus  render- 
ing incalculable  ser\'ice.  The  tits  live  in  trees 
or  bushes,  and  hop,  climb  or  cling,  often  with 
head  downward,  prying  into  crevices  in  the 
most  curious  manner.  Their  shrill  and  wild 
notes  are  sometimes  varied  by  pleasing  musi- 
cal sounds. 

In  the  United  States  the  birds  are  known  as 
chickadees,  a  name  given  in  imitation  of  their 
calls.  The  hlack-capped  chickadee  is  one  of 
the  most  familiar  and  characteristic  of  north- 
ern birds,  everywhere  a  great  favorite,  partic- 
ularly as  it  often  stays  in  rather  cold  latitudes 
throughout  the  winter,  when  its  cheery  ex- 
clamations are  especially  welcome.  This 
chickadee  is  a  very  sociable,  friendly  bird; 
with  little  care  it  may  be  kept  about  quiet 
homes,  and  if  coaxed  will  feed  from  the  hand. 

TI'TUS  (40-81),  a  Roman  emperor,  the 
eldest  son  of  Vespasian.  He  served  with 
credit  as  a  military  tribune  in  Germany  and 
Britain,  and  as  commander  of  a  legion  accom- 
panied his  father  in  the  war  against  the  Jews. 
When  Vespasian  became  emperor  (69),  Titus 
was  left  to  conduct  the  war  in  Judea.  He 
took  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  70),  and  after  visiting 
Eg3'pt  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph  and  was 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  government 
of  the  Empire.  He  became  sole  emperor  in 
79  and  won  distinction  as  an  enlightened  and 
generous  ruler.  He  was  hailed  by  the  popu- 
lace as  "the  Friend  and  the  Delight  of  Man- 
kind." 


TITUS 


3587 


TOBACCO 


Arch  of  Titus,  a  Roman  triumphal  arch 
built  by  Domitian  in  A.  d.  81,  to  commemorate 
the  taking  of  Jenisalem  by  Titus.  It  is 
adorned  with  reliefs  representing  various 
scenes  in  the  campaign,  and  is  located  on  the 
Sacred  Way,  facing  the  Forum. 

TITUS,  a  disciple  and  assistant  of  the 
apostle  Paul;  the  person  to  whom  one  of  the 
canonical  epistles  of  the  New  Testament  is 
addressed.  He  was  a  Gentile  by  origin  and 
was  probably  a  native  of  Antioch. 

Epistle  to  Titus,  one  of  the  three  pastoral 
epistles  of  the  New  Testament,  believed  to 
have  been  written  by  Saint  Paul  after  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome. 

T.  N.  T.    See  Trinitrotoluol. 

TOAD,  tode,  the  name  applied  to  various 
genera  of  tailless  amphibians,  which  dwell  in 
damp,  shady  parts  of  gardens  or  fields.  Toads 
have  thick,  bulky  bodies  and  short  legs  and 
are  covered  with  warty  excrescences.  They 
have  neither  teeth  nor  ribs,  and  their  skin 
absorbs  the  water  they  drink.  Toads  leap 
clumsily  and  generally  avoid  the  water  except 
in  the  breeding  season.  Their  food  consists 
of  insects  and  wonns,  which  makes  them  of 
great  service  to  the  faiTuer  and  gardener. 
They  capture  their  prey  mainly  during 
twilight  and  at  night.  Insects  are  caught  by  a 
sudden  shooting  out  of  the  tongue,  which  is 
provided  with  a  sticky  fluid.  Like  frogs, 
their  young  pass  through  the  tadpole  stage. 

The  North  American  toad  is  usually  brown 
or  green,  and  is  found  both  on  dry  land  and 
in  swampy  regions.     The  bite  and  saliva  of 


vated.  It  has  an  erect  stem,  that  grows  from 
four  to  six  feet  high  and  produces  at  the 
top  a  cluster  of  small,  rose-colored  flowers. 
The  leaves  are  the  important  part  of  the  plant. 
They  are  oblong  and  pointed  and  grow  di- 


TOAD 
the  common  toad  of  Europe  were  formerly 
considered  poisonous,  but  no  venom  or  poison 
apparatus  of  any  kind  exists  in  these  crea- 
tures. The  toad  is  easily  tamed  and  exhibits 
a  considerable  amount  of  intelligence  as  a  pet. 

TOADSTOOL.     See  Mushrooms. 

TOBACCO,  toll  hak'o,  a  plant  of  the  night- 
shade family,  extensively  cultivated  for  its 
leaves,  which  are  used  for  smoking  and  chew- 
ing and  for  snuff.  There  are  several  species, 
but  that  known  botanically  as  Nicotiana 
tobacum  is  the  one  most  extensively  culti- 


TOBACCO 

reetly  from  the  stalk,  often  attaining  a  length 
of  eighteen  to  twenty-five  inches  and  a 
breadth  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  The  plant  is 
slightly  poisonous,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
nicotine. 

Cultivation.  Early  in  January  the  beds 
are  covered  with  fertilizers,  and  then  the 
seed,  which  is  like  a  quantity  of  ground  black 
pepper,  is  carefully  and  evenly  sown  over  the 
ground  and  whipped  in  with  a  brush.  A 
little  while  after  the  seed  is  sown,  the  bed  is 
covered  over  with  a  flimsy  cotton  fabric,  of 
lighter  weight  than  cheese  cloth,  to  guard 
against  and  equalize  the  frequent  changes  of 
weather  at  this  season  of  the  year,  and  as  a 
protection  against  the  flea  bug,  which  would 
entirely  destroy  the  young  plants  as  soon  as 
they  show  above  gi'ound.  Forty  days'  time  is 
required  for  the  tobacco  to  sprout.  The 
plants  are  large  enough  for  transplanting 
early  in  May.  The  ground  is  thoroughly  pul- 
verized and  is  laid  off  into  furrows  four  feet 
apart,  into  which  the  fertilizer  is  drilled. 
Then  every  three  feet  in  the  row  a  hill,  or 
pot,  is  made. 


TOBACCO 


3588 


TOBACCO 


The  plants  are  distributed  into  the  pots, 
and  the  dirt  is  settled  tightly  around  the 
young  plant.  One  good  workman  ■will  set 
two  acres  a  day.  When  the  plant  is  about 
six  weeks  old,  it  is  topped  to  ten  or  twelve 
leaves,  and  almost  immediately  false  leaves, 
or  suckers,  start  at  every  joint,  beginning  at 
the  bottom.  As  many  as  three  successive  sets 
of  suckers  will  start  at  the  base  of  every 
leaf,  and  as  these  detract  from  the  proper 
growth  of  the  leaf,  it  is  necessary  to  go  over 
the  crop  each  week  until  cutting  time  and 
pull  off  every  new  sucker. 

Harvesting  and  Curing.  In  about  three 
months  after  planting,  the  tobacco  is  ready  to 
cut.  When  ripe,  the  green  is  dappled  over 
with  slightly  yellow  spots.  A  strong  knife, 
similar  to  a  butcher  knife,  is  used  for  cutting. 
As  the  plants  are  cut,  half  a  d(5zen  of  them 
are  hung  over  a  stick  and  laid  on  the  ^'ound. 
These  sticks  are  taken  up  into  a  wagon  and 
hauled  to  the  barn.  Inside  the  bam  are  two 
furnaces,  which  are  arranged  to  be  fired 
from  the  outside  of  the  building.  The  flues 
to  these  furnaces  are  nearly  horizontal  and 
extend  back  and  forth  across  the  inside,  to 
economize  the  heat  better.  Sets  of  horizontal 
poles,  one  above  another,  run  across  the 
interior,  from  which  the  sticks  of  green  to- 
bacco are  suspended.  When  the  barn  is  full, 
the  doors  are  closed  and  the  fires  are  started 
and  are  kept  burning  for  four  days.  Begin- 
ning with  a  very  low  temperature,  the  heat 
is  increased  to  about  100°  by  the  end  of  the 
first  twenty-four  hours.  Too  sudden  heat 
blackens  the  stems  and  otherwise  affects  the 
color.  Beginning  with  the  second  day  the 
temperature  is  increased  about  a  degree  an 
hour  until  125°  is  reached,  and  it  is  held  at 
this  temperature  from  eight  to  twelve  hours, 
after  which  the  thermometer  is  started  up- 
ward again,  until  180°  is  reached,  and  the 
heat  is  held  at  that  until  it  is  noted  by  fre- 
quent examination  that  the  stem  of  the  tobac- 
co is  thoroughly  killed.  Then  the  fires  are 
drawn,  and  a  quantity  of  water  is  thrown  in 
upon  the  ground,  the  vapor  from  which  puts 
the  brittle  leaves  in  condition  to  be  handled 
without  injurv'.  The  tobacco  is  then  taken 
out  and  stored.  The  lighter  and  evener  the 
color,  the  higher  price  it  brings  in  the  market. 
Some  of  the  best  varieties  raised  in  Connecti- 
cut and  Florida  are  grown  under  raised  cov- 
ers of  cheesecloth,  supported  on  frames. 

Manufacture.  The  most  important  manu- 
factured   products    of    tobacco    are    cigars, 


cigarettes,  smoking  tobacco,  chewing  tobacco 
and  snuff.  Tobacco  manufacture  is  an  im- 
portant industry  in  the  United  States,  Cuba 
and  a  few  countries  of  the  East.  The  United 
States  government  derives  over  $100,000,000 
revenue  yearly  from  the  tobacco  manufac- 
tured in  the  country.  The  manufacture  of 
cigars  is  the  most  important  branch  of  the 
industry. 

The  first  step  in  the  manufacturing  process 
consists  in  cleaning  and  stripping  the  leaves. 
Chewing  tobacco  is  flavored  with  licorice, 
sugar,  vanilla,  etc.  Pipe  tobacco  is  finely  cut 
and  put  up  in  small  sacks  or  cans. 

Cigars  are  made  from  leaves  carefuUy  se- 
lected for  the  purpose.  The  cigar  consists 
of  the  core  or  "filler,"  the  inner  cover  and  the 
outer  cover,  or  wrapper.  The  leaves  must  be 
of  uniform  quality,  and  those  for  the  wrapper 
must  be  so  shaped  that  they  can  be  wound 
spirally. 

Cigarettes  are  small  rolls  of  tobacco  en- 
cased in  paper.  They  are  fully  described  in 
these  volumes  under  their  titles. 

Effects  of  Tobacco.  As  stated  above,  to- 
bacco is  a  slightlj'  poisonous  plant,  and  its 
use  in  excess  is  injurious  to  the  system,  al- 
though it  is  generally  conceded  that  a  moder- 
ate use  of  tobacco  is  not  injurious  to  adults. 
Excessive  use  long  continued  is  likely  to  lead 
to  irregular  heart  action,  or  cause  "tobacco 
heart;"  to  benumb  the  nerves  and  cause  loss 
of  appetite,  and  to  dull  the  sense  of  taste. 
Tobacco  is  a  mild  narcotic,  and  to  this  prop- 
erty is  due  the  soothing  effect  of  the  cigar  or 
pipe,  but  the  reaction  that  follows  is  not 
always  so  soothing.  Those  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  tobacco  are  likely  to  become  irri- 
table when  deprived  of  it  for  any  length  of 
time.  The  use  of  tobacco  by  growing  boys 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  This  sub- 
ject is  fully  treated  under  Cigarette. 

Production.  The  United  States  is  the 
largest  producer,  manufacturer  and  consumer 
of  tobacco.  The  tobacco  crop  of  the  countrj' 
in  1918  amounted  to  1.196,451,000  pounds, 
valued  at  over  $297,440,000.  The  leading 
states,  in  the  order  of  production,  are  Ken- 
tucky, Xorth  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio  and 
Tennessee.  Canada  produces  about  6,000.000 
pounds  a  year;  Japan  over  100,000.000 
pounds;  the  Philippines,  a  little  less.  Then 
follow  Brazil  and  Cuba. 

History.  There  is  a  tradition  that  credits 
the  Chinese  with  using  tobacco  long  before 
the  discovery  of  America.    Be  this  as  it  may. 


TOBOGGANING 


3589 


TOGO 


tobacco  was  introduced  into  Europe  from 
America,  where  Columbus  learned  of  its  use 
from  the  Indians.  It  was  used  in  Spain  and 
Portugal  as  early  as  15G0,  and  smoking  be- 
came popular  in  England  about  twenty-five 
years  later.  From  these  countries  its  use 
spread  over  Europe.  It  is  extensively  used 
throughout  Egypt,  the  Turkish  domains,  In- 
dia, China  and  Japan.  The  origin  of  the  name 
is  unkno-mi,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  Tobago,  the  name  of  an  island  near 
Trinidad. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Anti-Cigarette  League        Nicotine 
Narcotic  Snuff 

*TOBOG'GANING,  coasting  on  a  toboggan, 
that  is,  a  sled  without  runners.  Originally 
the  Indians  of  Lower  Canada  used  these  to- 
boggans to  carry  loads  over  soft  snow.  Slabs 
of  birch  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick 
are  fastened  together  side  by  side  to  make  a 
single  board,  four  to  eight  feet  in  length. 
This  is  curved  upward  at  the  forward  end, 
and  hand  rails  are  placed  along  the  side,  for 
the  coasters  to  cling  to.  The  toboggan  is 
steered  with  the  foot  or  with  short  sticks  held 
in  the  hand.  In  hilly  countries,  natural  slides 
may  be  used,  but  artifieal  ones  are  constructed 
in  level  countries.  The  latter  are  great  frame- 
works of  timber,  40  or  50  feet  high,  from 
■which  a  slideway,  of  one  or  more  chutes, 
packed  with  ice  or  snow,  runs  down  to  a  long 
level  snow-  or  ice-packed  track.  The  speed 
attained  on  these  is  very  high,  and  the  sport 
an  exciting  one.  In  many  cities  of  the  north- 
ern states,  public  toboggan  slides  are  erected 
in  the  parks;  but  these  are  now  used  more 
by  children  and  youths  with  sleds  and  bobs, 
than  by  tobogganists.    See  Coasting. 

TOBOLSK',  Siberia,  chief  city  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Irtish  and  Tobol  rivers  and  at  the 
terminus  of  the  North  Siberian  Railway.  The 
main  industries  are  fishing  and  fur  dressing. 
Since  the  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  the  city  has  declined  as  a  commercial 
center,  but  it  still  retains  much  of  its  river 
trade.  It  was  founded  in  1857,  and  it  is  in- 
separably connected  with  history  of  Russian 
exile  in  Siberia.  Population,  ioiS,  24,800. 
See  Siberia. 

TOCANTINS,  to  kmi  teens',  a  river  of  Bra- 
zil, which  rises  in  the  south  central  part 
of  the  country,  flows  northward  and  enters 
the  southern  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  generally 
known  at  this  point  as  the  Rio  Para,  a  few 


miles  above  Para.  Its  chief  tributary  is  the 
Araguaya,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
main  stream.  The  length  of  the  Tocantins  is 
about  1,500  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  in 
different  parts  of  its  course,  but  continuous 
navigation  is  prevented  by  falls  and  rapids. 
The  tide  ascends  the  stream  for  about  300 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  for  some  distance 
above  where  it  unites  -with  the  lower  branch 
of  the  Amazon  it  is  eight  miles  wide. 

TO'GA,  the  outer  garment  of  the  male  citi- 
zen of  ancient  Rome.  It  was  probably  of 
Etrusca^  origin,  and  yet  it  came  to  be  consid- 
ered the  distinctive  badge  of  the  Roman  citi- 
zen. Authorities  differ  as  to  what  were  its 
shape  and  size,  some  of  them  holding  that  it 
was  elliptical,  while  others  say  it  was  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle.  The  toga  of  ordinary  life 
was  wliite  in  color.  The  toga  praetexta  had 
a  broad  purple  border  and  was  worn  by  chil- 
dren and  by  the  cunile  magistrate  and  censors. 
When  the  young  Roman  was  declared  to  be 
legally  of  age,  he  assumed  the  ordinary  toga, 
on  this  account  called  the  toga  virilis.  Persons 
in  mouraing  and  persons  under  impeachment 
wore  the  toga  2niUa,  a  garment  of  a  dark 
color;  Avhile  those  who  were  seeking  office 
were  wont  to  dress  themselves  out  in  garments 
which  had  been  made  artificially  bright 
by  the  help  of  chalk— hence  their  name  of 
candtdati.  Under  the  emperors  the  toga  as  an 
article  of  common  wear  fell  into  disuse ;  but  it 
continued  to  be  worn  by  magistrates  and  in 
later  figurative  speech  it  was  associated  with 
law-making,  so  that  even  to-day  one  hears  it 
said  of  a  newly- 
elected  Senator  that 
he  has  "donned  the 
toga." 

TO'GO,  Heiha- 
CHiRO  (1847-1917),  li^l^ 
a  Japanese  naval  i^-:}>^^ 
commander,  born  in  v 
Satsuma.  Most  of 
his  education  was 
received  on  board 
the  Worcester,  a 
British  training  ves- 
sel, and  at  the  Royal 
NaA'y  College,  Green- 
wich, England.  On 
his  return  to  Japan,  he  at  once  came  to  the 
front  and  was  sent  at  first  to  Hawaii,  to 
gniard  Japanese  interests  there.  Togo  was 
prominent  in  the  Chinese-Japanese  War  and 
won  the  rank  of  Ance-admiral.     In  1900  he 


ADMIRAL  TOGO 


TOGOLAND 


3590 


TOKYO 


was  placed  in  command  of  the  naval  dock- 
yards at  Maizuru  and  did  much  to  develop 
the  Japanese  navy.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  Togo  commanded  the 
main  fleet  and  covered  himself  with  laurels, 
gaining  brilliant  victories  over  the  Russians 
in  the  harbor  of  Port  Arthur  and  in  the 
Battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan.  In  1912  Comit 
Togo  was  made  admiral  of  the  Japanese  fleet. 
TOGOLAND,  to'goland,  a  territory  in 
West  Africa,  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
in  area  about  34,000  square  miles.  Though 
moist  and  unhealthful  in  climate,  fOoO^^^'^ 
is  very  productive,  and  yams,  corn,  bananas, 
gingei',  tobacco  and  cocoa  are  extensively 
cultivated.  The  principal  exports  are  palm 
oil,  rubber,  ivory  and  copra.  The  population 
is  almost  entirely  black,  with  a  few  white 
residents.  The  colony  was  made  a  German 
protectorate  in  1884,  but  was  taken  by  British 
and  French  forces  after  a  three-weeks'  cam- 
paign in  1914.  It  was  agreed  at  the  peace 
conference  of  1919  that  Great  Britain  and 
France  should  make  a  joint  recommendation 
to  the  League  of  Nations  as  to  its  future 
government. 

TOKYO,  or  TOKIO,  toke'o,  Japan,  the 
capital  and  largest  city  of  the  empire,  is  sit- 
uated in  the  east-central  part  of  the  island  of 
Hondo,  on  the  Bay  of  Tokyo  and  on  both 
sides  of  the  Sumida  River,  which  divides  it 
into  two  parts.  The  city  has  an  area  of 
thirty  square  miles  and  a  population  (1916) 
of  2,245,000,  and  is  the  sixth  city  of  the  world. 
In  its  newer  streets,  public  utilities  and  build- 
ings, Tokyo  resembles  a  Western  city.  An 
excellent  electric  railway  traverses  the  prin- 
cipal streets  and  an  up-to-date  water  system 
furnishes  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water 
taken  from  Lake  Inokami,  fifteen  miles  dis- 
tant. 

The  imperial  castle  occupies  the  center  of 
the  city.  The  palace  is  a  beautiful  structure, 
in  which  are  blended  Japanese  and  European 
styles  of  architecture.  The  surrounding 
grounds  form  one  of  the  most  beautiful  parks 
in  Japan.  Bordering  the  park  are  a  number 
of  government  buildings  of  modern  style  of 
architecture.  East  of  the  palace  is  the  busi- 
ness section,  occupied  by  stores,  warehouses, 
banks,  newspaper  offices  and  other  commer- 
cial buildings.  The  principal  business  street 
extends  through  this  section.  Along  the  bay 
and  both  sides  of  the  river  are  lowlands, 
through  which  extend  many  canals  spanned 
by  numerous  bridges.     The   arsenal   is  sit- 


uated in  the  northern  part  of  the  city  and  ad- 
joins a  garden  noted  for  its  rare  beauty,  and 
north  of  this  is  the  imperial  university,  which 
is  at  the  head  of  the  Japanese  system  of  edu- 
cation.    Another  structure  of  interest  is  the 


TOKYO  AXD  VICINITY 

imperial  museum,  which  contains  many  ob- 
jects illustrating  oriental  art  and  history.  The 
shrines  which  in  the  past  were  erected  to 
former  rulers  are  also  among  the  most  im- 
pressive and  beautiful  structures  found 
within  the  city.  These  are  usually  adjoining 
one  of  the  parks. 

Tokj'o  has  a  well-organized  fire  depart- 
ment, a  good  police  sj^stem,  daily  papers  and 
such  commercial  arrangements  as  are  found 
in  the  cities  of  Europe  and  America.  Unfor- 
tunately the  harbor  is  not  deep  enough  to 
admit  the  largest  ocean  vessels,  and  this  cur- 
tails its  commerce  to  a  considerable  extent, 
but  the  manufactures  are  of  importance  and 
are  increasing  from  year  to  year.  The  city 
is  connected  with  Yokohama  and  other  im- 
portant towns  of  Hondo  by  railway. 

The  old  name  Yedo  was  given  to  a  small 
village  which  was  built  at  the  head  of  the 
bay  early  in  the  fifteenth  centurv'.  This  be- 
came the  site  of  a  castle,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  eentui'y  the  town  was  occupied 
by  Teyasu,  who  decided  to  make  it  the  capit-al 
of  the  Empire.  From  that  time  its  growth 
in  size  and  influence  was  rapid,  and  it  soon 
became  the  most  important  city  in  Japan.    In 


TOLEDO 


3591 


TOLSTOI 


1868  the  present  name  was  adopted.  The 
city  has  suffered  from  frequent  fires,  oc- 
casionally from  earthquakes  and  fromstorms; 
nevertheless  it  has  continued  to  increase  in 
population  and  wealth.  For  other  details, 
see  Travels  in  Distant  Lands. 

TOLE'DO,  Ohio,  fourth  in  size  among  the 
cities  of  the  state,  is  the  county  seat  of  Lucas 
County,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maumee  River, 
130  miles  north  of  Columbus  and  244  miles 
east  of  Chicago,  on  the  New  York 
Central,  the  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  Saint 
Louis,  the  Wabash,  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral, the  Ohio  Central,  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, the  Grand  Trunk  and  a  number  of 
other  railways,  in  all  seventeen  lines,  em- 
bracing over  twenty  divisions,  either  entering 
or  passing  through  the  city.  The  town  is 
built  on  low  land  which  slopes  gradually 
from  the  river.  The  park  system  includes 
twelve  large,  and  over  forty  small,  parks,  all 
having  an  area  of  1,025  acres.  The  large 
parks  are  joined  by  a  boulevard  system 
twenty-five  miles  long.  On  the  east  side  are 
Collins  Park  and  Navarre  Park. 

Among  the  important  buildings  are  the 
courthouse,  located  in  an  ample  square,  which 
contains  a  statue  of  President  McKinley;  a 
Masonic  Temple;  the  public  library,  with  a 
collection  of  over  70,000  volumes;  the  News- 
boys' Building,  a  large  number  of  fine  busi- 
ness blocks,  Saint  Paul's  and  Saint  Patrick's 
churches  and  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  School 
and  Chapel.  Among  the  educational  institu- 
tions are  Toledo  Medical  College,  Snead 
School  for  Girls,  Saint  John's  College  and  a 
number  of  denominational  and  private 
schools.  The  public  school  system  includes 
a  manual  training  school  and  a  state  normal 
school.  An  organization  known  as  the  Mu- 
seum of  Art  maintains  a  gallery  of  paintings. 
Toledo  is  an  important  industrial  center, 
ranking  next  to  Cleveland  in  importance  in 
the  state,  with  over  4,000  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments. Its  leading  industrial  plants 
include  blast  furnaces,  large  plate  glass 
works,  the  largest  wagon  factory  in  the  world, 
the  second  largest  automobile  works  in  the 
United  States,  malleable  iron  works,  flour 
mills,  scale  factories  and  establishments  for 
the  manufacture  of  cut  glass,  brushes,  staves 
and  the  preparation  of  spices.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  trade,  especially  in  coal,  in  the 
shipment  of  which  it  takes  rank  among  Great 
Lake  ports.  Its  harbor  contains  twenty-five 
miles  of  docks. 


The  city  is  built  upon  ground  formerly 
occupied  by  the  Miami  Indians.  It  was  first 
settled  in  1832,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city 
five  years  later.  With  the  settlement  of  the 
states  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  the  town  be- 
gan a  steady  and  prosperous  growth.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  168,497;  in  1917,  202,010  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

TOLL,  tole,  a  tax  paid,  or  duty  imposed, 
for  some  privilege.  Formerly  it  was  the  cus- 
tom in  the  United  States  and  Canada  for 
travelers  over  country  roads  to  pay  tolls. 
Gates  were  placed  across  the  road  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  and  each  person  was  required 
to  pay  a  toll  before  the  gate  was  opened  and 
he  was  permitted  to  pass.  The  charge  va- 
ried, a  man  driving  a  team  paying  more  than 
the  horseba^'k  rider.  The  revenue  from  the 
tolls  was  used  to  pay  for  road  repairs.  Tolls 
were  also  charged  on  bridges.  Toll  gates  ai'e 
still  found  in  certain  rural  districts  of  Eu- 
rope. On  some  of  the  canals  of  international 
importance,  such  as  the  Suez  and  the  Pan- 
ama, ships  are  required  to  pay  moderate 
tolls.  The  tax  is  used  to  defray  the  cost  of 
maintenance  and  pay  interest  on  the  money 
boiTOwed  for  the  l)uilding. 

TOLSTOI,  taJil'stoi,LYOFF  Nikolatevitch, 
Count  (1828-1910),  the  foremost  of  Russian 
novelists  and  one  of  the  most  profound 
thinkers  of  his  age,  who  felt  as  have  few  other 
men  the  burden  of  human  woe.  He  was  born 
at  Yasnaya  Polyana,  of  a  wealthy  and  noble 
family.  After  his 
graduation  from 
the  University  of 
Kazan,  where  he 
pursued  one  branch 
of  study  after  an- 
other in  a  vain  ef- 
fort to  find  his  call- 
ing, he  joined  the 
army  and  saw  fight- 
ing on  the  western 
border.  In  the 
course  of  this  pe- 
riod he  wrote  Childhood,  his  first  published 
story,  and  Boyhood,  both  of  which  show  the 
author's  developing  doctrine  of  nature  as  the 
guide  of  life.  Reminiscences  of  his  part 
in  the  Crimean  campaign  were  published  as 
Tales  of  Sehastopol — stories  in  which  are 
pictured  with  dreary  realism  the  horrors  of 
war,  the  mockery  of  military  gloi-y. 

Of  the  many  social  evils  in  the  Russia  of  his 
day  which  cried  loudly  for  reform,  there  was 


LYOFF  TOLSTOI 


TOMAHAWK 


3592 


TOMB 


none  to  which  Tolstoi  gave  more  sympathetic 
heed  than  the  oppression  of  the  serfs.  He 
visited  England,  France  and  Germany  to  ob- 
serve the  condition  of  the  laborers  in  those 
countries,  and  on  his  return  to  Russia  in  1861 
freed  all  his  slaves  and  opened  a  school  for  the 
peasant  children  on  his  estate,  teaching  them 
himself  until  the  institution  was  closed  by  the 
government.  His  sorrow  over  the  tyranny 
and  injustice  he  saw  eveiywhere  about 
him  found  vent  at  this  time  in  two  of  his 
bitterest  stories,  Three  Deaths  and  The  Cos- 
sacks. A  still  more  powerful  arraignment 
of  society  was  War  and  Peace,  published  in 
1869.  This  extraordinary  prose  epic,  showing 
the  contrast  between  the  artificial  life  of  the 
upper  classes  and  the  wretched  lot  of  the 
common  people,  stands  as  one  of  the  supreme 
achievements  of  nineteenth-century  literature. 
Ann^i  Karenina,  a  novel  dealirfg  with  the 
problem  of  personal  liberty  and  interde- 
pendence, is  scarcely  less  remarkable. 

From  this  time  philosophical  and  social 
problems  occupied  Tolstoi  almost  exclusively. 
The  Death  of  Ivan  Ilyitch  and  The  Power  of 
Darkness  express  forcibly  his  growing  con- 
cern for  the  welfare  of  his  fellow  men  and  his 
sympathy  with  their  sufferings.  Gradually 
he  dispensed  with  the  comforts  to  which  his 
inheritance  entitled  him  and  began  living 
the  simple  life  of  the  peasants,  working  all 
day  in  the  fields  or  at  the  cobbling  bench. 
No  man  ever  exemplified  more  nobly  the 
dignity  of  manual  labor,  the  emptiness  of 
worldly  ideals,  the  worthlessness  of  property 
as  a  personal  asset.  But  for  his  family  he 
would  have  given  everything  he  had  to  the 
poor.  In  the  few  leisure  hours  of  his  later 
years  he  wrote  The  Kreutzer  Sonata,  The 
Resurrection  and  Master  and  Man.  Unsatis- 
fied from  the  first  with  the  doctrines  in  which 
he  had  been  brought  up,  and  seeking  always 
for  religious  truth,  Tolstoi  arrived  at  a  form 
of  faith  of  which  he  made  open  declaration  in 
My  Confession  and  My  Religion.  Because  of 
his  radical  views  he  was  excommunicated  by 
the  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  1901.  Towards 
close  of  his  life  Tolstoi  addressed  to  the  czar 
letters  advocating  representative  assemblies 
of  the  people,  universal  suffrage  and  other 
reforms.  Among  his  writings  is  a  remark- 
able prophecy  which  foretold  with  startling 
accuracy  the  outbreak  and  extent  of  the 
World  War. 

TOM'AHAWK,  a  war  club  or  hatchet  used 
by  the  North  American  Indians.     The  first 


tomahawks  were  made  by  fastening  a  rock  or 
deer  horn  to  a  wooden  handle  by  means  of  hide 
thongs.  _  From  the  early  white  settlers  the  red 
man  learned  to  make  hatchets  on  the  Eu- 
ropean model,  with  metal  heads.  Tomahawks 
were  used  either  in  close  combat  or  were 
thrown  so  as  to  strike  with  the  edge.  The 
earl}'  colonial  writers  made  it  a  symbol  of 
war,  and  from  this  fact  arose  the  expression 
bury  the  hatchet. 

TOMA'TO,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  night- 
shade family,  same  family  as  the  potato  and 
the  e^g  plant.  It  is  a  native  to  the  Andes 
region  of  South  America  and  has  been  in- 
troduced into  most  warm  or  temperate  coun- 
tries. It  is  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  which  is 
fleshy,  usually  scarlet  or  orange  in  color  and 
irregular  in  shape.  Tomatoes  are  eaten  raw, 
are  used  as  ingredients  in  salads,  or  are 
stewed  and  cooked  in  various  other  ways. 

For  a  long  time  after  it  was  brought  from 
Peru,  the  tomato  was  known  as  the  love 
apple,  and  was  considered  poisonous;  in  fact, 
it  was  not  until  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  its  value  as  an  article 
of  food  was  realized.  The  yearly  crop  in  the 
United  States  is  very  large,  and  the  annual 
output  of  the  canned  stock  is  larger  than  that 
of  any  other  fruit.  New  Jersey  ranks  first 
in  the  production  of  this  crop,  with  Mary- 
land, Florida,  New  York  and  Texas  as  close 
rivals. 

TOMB,  a  burial  vault,  either  below  or 
above  ground.  Among  the  most  civilized  of 
ancient  peoples  the  tomb  had  an  important 
place.  The  royal  tombs  known  as  the  Pyra- 
mids (which  see)  and  the  many-chambered 
rock-hewn  tombs  that  sprinkle  the  Nile  val- 
ley are  among  the  most  important  monuments 
that  have  come  down  from  the  early  Egj'p- 
tians.  The  Jews  buried  their  dead  in  sepul- 
chei^s  hewn  out  of  solid  rock,  and  it  was  in 
one  of  these,  belonging  to  Joseph  of  Arima- 
thea,  that  Christ  was  laid.  The  Greeks,  too, 
used  this  kind  of  tomb  and  also  built  burial 
vaults  above  ground,  the  colonists  of  Asia 
Minor  erecting"  the  most  elaborate,  notably 
the  tomb  of  Mausoleus,  in  Caria,  from  which 
the  word  ^nausoleum  is  derived.  In  general, 
the  Romans  paid  more  attention  to  places  for 
the  repose  of  their  dead  than  did  the  Greeks. 
The  chief  road  entering  Rome,  the  Appian 
Way,  was  lined  with  tombs;  the  most  notable 
of  these  was  the  Emperor  Hadrian's.  Else- 
where in  Italy  tombs  were  built  in  the  city 
streets.    At  one  time  there  it  was  customary 


TOMBIGBEE 


3593 


TONIC 


to  build  underground  chambers  with  wall 
niches  to '  receive  the  bodies  of  families  or 
communities.  The  catacombs,  the  under- 
ground crypts  in  which  the  early  Christians 
interred  their  dead,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
form  of  tomb. 

In  medieval  times  it  became  customary 
among  Christians  to  bury  their  dead  in 
churches,  the  stone  coffin  or  sarcophagus  be- 
ing used  for  this  purpose.  Beautiful  tombs 
are  not  numerous  in  the  Orient,  and  yet  the 
most  exquisite  building  in  Asia,  perhaps  in 
the  world,  is  the  Taj  Mahal,  the  sepulchre 
of  the  Shah  Jehan  and  his  favorite  wife,  at 
Agra,  India.  At  the  present  time  it  is  not 
customary  to  erect  elaborate  tombs,  either  to 
members  of  one's  family  or  to  great  men.  A 
conspicuous  exception  in  the  United  States 
was  the  building,  in  New  York  City,  of  a  mag- 
nificent tomb  to  the  memory  of  Ulysses  S. 
Grant. 

TOMBIG'BEE,  a  river  which  rises  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Mississippi,  flows  south, 
then  southeast  into  Alabama  and  continues  in 
this  direction  until  it  unites  with  the  Alabama 
to  form  the  Mobile  River.  The  length  is  450 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  steamboats  to 
Aberdeen,  Miss.  The  chief  tributary  is  the 
Black  Warrior. 

TOMP'KINS,  Daniel  D.  (1774-1825),  an 
American  statesman,  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  born  at  Searsdale,  N.  Y.  He 
was  educated  at  Columbia  College,  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1797,  and  in 
1804  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  state 
supreme  court.  Three  years  later  he  was 
elected  governor  and  served  ten  years.  He 
was  bitterly  opposed  to  the  chartering  of  the 
Bank  of  America  in  New  York,  in  a  long 
contest  in  which  corruption  played  an  im- 
portant part  against  him,  and  he  took  the  un- 
paralleled step  of  proroguing  the  legislature 
to  prevent  it,  but  without  success.  He  persist- 
ently advocated  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
which  was  accomplished  in  New  York,  largely 
through  his  efforts,  in  1827.  From  1817  to 
1825  he  was  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States. 
TOM'TIT.  See  Titmouse. 
TON,  tun,  a  measure  of  weight  in  the  Eng- 
lish system,  equivalent  to  twenty  hundred- 
weight. A  standard  hundredweight  in  both 
England  and  America  is  equal  to  112  pounds; 
hence  the  standard  ton  in  large  commercial 
transactions  is  equal  to  2,240  pounds.  In 
America,  however,  the  so-called  short  ton,  of 


2,000  pounds,  is  commonly  used,  the  hun- 
dredweight being  reckoned  at  100  pounds,  al- 
though Congress  has  legislated  that  unless 
otherwise  specified  a  ton  weight  is  to  be  2,240 
pounds  avoirdupois.  Coal  is  bought  by  deal- 
ers by  the  long  ton  of  2,240  pounds  and  is 
sold  to  the  consumer  by  the  short  ton. 

TONE,  in  music,  the  sound  produced  by 
the  vibration  of  a  musical  instrument  or  by 
the  human  voice  (see  Sound;  Music).  Nearly 
every  musical  sound  is  composite;  that  is, 
consists  of  several  simultaneous  tones,  with 
different  rates  of  vibration,  according  to  fixed 
laws,  which  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
vibrating  body  and  the  mode  of  producing 
its  vibrations.  These  several  tones  are  called 
partial  tones.  The  one  having  the  lowest  rate 
of  vibration  and  the  loudest  sound  is  termed 
the  prime,  principal,  or  fundamental,  tone; 
the  other  partial  tones  are  called  harmonics, 
or  overtones.    See  Harmonics. 

TON'GA  ISLANDS,  or  FRIEND'LY  IS- 
LANDS, a  cluster  of  Polynesian  islands  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean.  The  archipelago,  com- 
prising 150  islands,  consists  of  three  groups, 
which  are  divided  from  one  another  by  two 
narrow  channels.  Of  the  islands,  only  Tong- 
atabu,  the  largest,  Vavau,  and  Eua  are  of  any 
importance.  The  main  islands  are  covered 
with  rich  vegetation,  and  the  soil  is  very  fer- 
tile. Copra  and  fungus  are  exported,  and 
the  making  of  tapa  and  mats  constitutes  the 
chief  industry. 

The  main  group  of  islands  was  discovered 
in  1643,  by  Tasman,  and  since  1900  a  pro- 
tectorate has  been  proclaimed  over  them  by 
Great  Britain,  although  they  are  ruled  by  a 
native  king  who  resides  at  Nukualofa,  in 
Tongatabu,  which  is  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom. Population  1911,  23,900,  of  whom 
308  were  Europeans. 

TON'IC,  in  medicine,  any  remedy  which 
improves  the  tone  or  vigor  of  the  fibres  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels  or  of  the  muscular 
fibers  generally.  Tonics  may  be  said  to  be 
of  two  kinds,  medical  and  non-medical.  Medi- 
cal tonics  act  chiefly  in  two  ways:  (1)  indi- 
rectly, by  first  influencing  the  stomach  and 
increasing  its  digestive  powers,  this  being 
the  effect  of  such  vegetable  bitters  as  cham- 
omile, cinchona  bark,  gentian  and  taraxacum ; 
(2)  directly,  by  passing  into  and  exerting 
their  influence  through  the  blood,  as  is  the 
ease  with  various  preparations  of  iron,  certain 
mineral  acids  and  salts.  The  non-medical 
tonics  are  open  air,  exercise,  friction,  cold,  in 


TONGKING 


3594 


TONSURE 


such   forms  as   the   shower  bath   and    cold 
sponge  bath. 

TONGKING',  or  TONQUIN',  a  French 
protectorate  in  French  Indo-China,  bordering 
on  the  Gulf  of  Tongking,  an  arm  of  the 
China  Sea.  The  territory  is  drained  by  the 
Eed  River  and  has  an  area  of  46.000  square 
miles.  Its  population  exceeds  6,000,000,  of 
whom  6,000  are  Europeans.  Its  chief  cities 
are  Hannoi,  the  capital  of  French  Indo-China, 
and  Haiphong,  the  principal  port.  The 
leading  product  is  rice,  though  com,  sugar 
cane,  cotton,  coffee,  fruits  and  tobacco  are  also 
raised,  and  there  is  an  important  silk  in- 
dustiy.  Exports  are  rice,  maize,  animal  prod- 
ucts and  raw  silk.  Roman  Catholicism  has 
an  extensive  hold  on  the  people,  who  are 
mainly  Annamese  in  race.  Tongking  was  an 
independent  state  until  1882,  when  it  came 
under  the  control  of  Annam.  The  French 
began  military'  operations  on  the  coast  in 
1873,  facing  opposition  from  both  Annam 
and  China  until  the  territory  was  finally  an- 
nexed to  France  in  1884. 

TONGUE,  tung,  the  muscular  organ  of  the 
mouth;  also,  the  principal  organ  of  taste. 
The  tongue  is  attached  at  its  back  extermity  to 
the  hyoid  bone  and  its  opposite  end  is  free  to 
move  in  all  directions.  The  interior  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  muscles,  whose  fibers  extend 
in  nearly  all  directions  and  are  so  arranged 
as  to  be  mutually  helpful.  By  them  the 
tongue  can  be  flattened,  made  to  assume 
nearly  a  cylindrical  form,  protruded  from  the 
mouth  or  directed  to  any  part  of  the  mouth  in 
which  food  may  lodge.  Another  set  of 
muscles,  the  extrinsic,  joins  the  tongue  to  op- 
posite supports  and  causes  it  to  move.  The  ex- 
terior is  covered  with  a  mucous  membrane,  or 
epithelium,  in  which  are  the  papillae  contain- 
ing the  end  organs  of  the  nerve  of  taste.  The 
back  part  of  the  tongue  contains  a  number  of 
glands  which  secrete  mucus,  to  keep  it  moist. 
Besides  being  the  principal  organ  of  tast€  and 
articulate  speech,  the  tongue  performs  an 
important  function  in  mastication  and  in 
swallowing.    See  Taste. 

TONNAGE,  tun'naje,  the  number  of  tons' 
weight  which  constitutes  a  ship's  can^'ing 
capacity  with  safety.  This  is  known  as 
dead  weight  tonnage.  Ordinary,  or  gross, 
tonnage  is  not  strictly  the  measure  of  a  ship's 
carr>-ing  weight,  but  a  gauge  of  the  vessel's 
dimensions,  more  or  less  accurate.  The  in- 
terior capacity  of  the  hull  of  a  ship  and  its 
deck  houses  are  divided  by  100,  on  the  sup- 


position that  100  cubic  feet  space  will  hold 
a  ton.  In  freight  ships,  forty  cubic  feet  of 
merchandise  is  considered  a  ton;  however, 
when  the  weight  exceeds  2,000  pounds,  or 
2,240  pounds,  as  the  custom  may  be,  pajTnent 
is  made  by  weight.  Each  of  the  great  ship 
canals  of  the  world  has  an  indi\'idual  tonnage 
measurement  upon  which  the  exaction  of 
tolls  is  based.     See  Ship. 

TON'SILS,  The,  two  oblong,  soft  bodies, 
situated  on  the  sides  of  the  throat,  and  made 
up  of  minute  glands,  which  give  out  a  secre- 
tion that  helps  the  food  to  pass  them.  During 
a  cold  or  a  sore  throat,  they  are  often  en- 
larged, and  when  pennanently  enlarged  they 
may  be  removed  without  danger.  Physicians 
recommend  tliis  slight  operation. 

TONSILLITIS,  talin  si  li'tis,  inflammation 
of  the  tonsils.  Tonsillitis  is  rare  in  infancy 
or  in  old  age,  persons  between  the  ages  of  ten 
and  forty  being  most  susceptible  to  it.  The 
inflammation,  though  seldom  fatal,  is  very 
painful.  The  tonsils  sometimes  become  ulcer- 
ated, and  large  accumulations  of  pus  are  com- 
mon. When  this  last  condition  occurs  the 
disease  is  known  as  C|uinsy.  The  causes  of  the 
various  forms  of  tonsillitis  are  not  definitely 
known.  The  commonest  causes  are  severe 
colds,  which  cause  a  slight  inflammation  of 
the  tonsils  and  render  them  susceptible  to 
other  germs.  Enlarged  or  inflamed  tonsils 
should  never  be  exposed  to  the  contagious 
diseases.  An  attack  of  tonsillitis  ordinarily 
lasts  five  or  six  days.  The  fii-st  s\Tnptom  may 
be  a  slight  chill;  then  comes  a  swelling  and 
pain  in  the  throat,  with  difficulty  in  swallow- 
ing and  in  breathing.  Rest  in  bed,  hot  com- 
presses on  the  neck,  purgatives  and  an  abun- 
dance of  soft  or  licjuid  food  are  important 
points  in  the  treatment.  The  most  trust- 
worthy medicines  are  iron  and  quinine.  See 
Quinsy. 

TONSURE,  talui'slnire,  a  religious  cere- 
mony in  the  Roman  Catholic  or  Oriental 
churches  whereby  an  individual  cuts  or  shaves 
his  hair  to  denote  his  dedication  to  a  clerical 
or  monastic  life.  Clerical  tonsure  was  men- 
tioned in  the  fifth  centurA',  but  the  practice 
was  not  universally  adopted  until  the  Middle 
Ages,  when  various  modes  became  prevalent. 
The  tonsure  of  Peter,  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  consisted  in  shaving  the  crown  as 
well  as  the  back  of  the  head,  leaving  a  cir- 
cular ring  of  hair  around  the  head ;  the  ton- 
sure of  James  consisted  in  shaving  the  front 
part  of  the  head  from  ear  to  ear. 


TONTY 


3595 


TOPEKA 


TONTY,  or  TONTI,  toJiN'tee,  Henri  de 
(about  1650-about  1704),  the  trusted  com- 
panion of  the  explorer  La  Salle.  He  was 
born  in  Italy,  but  early  entered  the  army  of 
France,  and  in  July,  1678,  accompanied  La 
Salle  to  Quebec.  He  assisted  in  preparing 
for  several  of  La  Salle's  great  exploring  ex- 
peditions, and  was  left  by  La  Salle  in  March, 
1680,  in  charge  of  Fort  Crevecoeur,  near 
Peoria,  111,  Tonty  was  forced  to  abandon 
the  position  because  of  mutiny  and  the  hos- 
tility of  Indians,  and  returned  to  Green  Bay. 
Later  he  joined  La  Salle  at  Michilimackinae 
(Mackinac  Island),  accompanied  him  in  his 
voyage  down  the  Mississippi,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  Fort  Saint  Louis,  at  Stai-ved 
Rock,  near  the  present  village  of  Utica,  111. 
He  continued  to  live  among  the  Illinois  In- 
dians until  1702,  exerting  a  beneficial  and 
strong  influence  over  them. 

TOOMBS,  tooim,  Robert  (1810-1885),  an 
American  statesman,  lawyer  and  soldier, 
bom  at  Washington,  Ga.  He  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  1830.  In  1827  he  was  elected 
to  the  state  legis- 
lature, where,  ex- 
cept during  1841, 
he  served  until 
1845.  He  then  be- 
came a  member  of 
the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives for 
four  terms.  In 
1853  he  was  elected 
to  the  Senate.  He 
opposed  the  ]Mexi- 
can  War  and  the 
consequent  acquisi- 
tion of  ten'itory  by 
conquest;  but  largely  through  his  influence, 
in  1861,  Georgia  passed  its  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion, and  he  then  withdrew  from  the  Senate. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Confederate  con- 
gress at  ]\Iontgomery  and  subsequently  was 
Secretary  of  State  in  the  Confederacy.  He 
resigned  this  office  soon  after,  to  take  a  com- 
mission, and  as  brigadier-general  distin- 
guished himself  at  Antietam  and  in  the  second 
Battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  resumed  law  practice  in  his  native  town. 

TOP,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  children's 
toys,  interesting  because  it  can  be  made  to 
spin  upright  on  its  axis  with  a  velocity  and  in 
a  manner  depending  on  the  skill  with  which  it 
is  handled.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is  a  solid 
cone-shaped  piece  of  wood  with  a  metal  peg 


ROBERT  TOOMBS 


at  the  pointed  end  and  a  knob  or  handle  at  the 
opposite  end.  The  spinning  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  cord,  which  is  wound  from  the 
peg  and  upward.  A  wooden  button  on  the 
free  end  of  the  cord  is  held  between  the  fin- 
gers ;  the  top  is  tossed  to  the  ground  and  the 
string  jerked  back,  starting  the  top  to  spin- 
ning as  it  rapidly  unwinds. 

The  toy  factories  have  produced  many 
beautiful  and  interesting  plajihings  which 
are  modifications  of  this  form.  One  of  these 
is  a  large,  hollow  tin  top,  with  projecting 
axis  at  the  top,  around  which  the  cord  is  to 
be  wound.  Another  similar  to  this  has  holes 
in  the  side,  through  which  the  air  passes  and 
causes  a  singing  note  as  the  top  spins.  Still 
another  is  decorated  with  colored  designs, 
which  in  motion  result  in  strange  optical  il- 
lusions. Some  of  the  mechanical  tops  can 
be  wound  up  to  run  an  hour;  others  are 
music  boxes  which  play  tunes. 

TO'PAZ,  a  mineral,  ranked  among  the 
gems.  It  varies  from  transparent  to  trans- 
lucent, has  a  clear  luster  and  may  be  yellow, 
white,  green  or  blue  in  color.  It  is  harder 
than  quartz  and  is  nearly  four  times  as  heavy 
as  water.  Chemically,  it  is  a  silicate  of  alum- 
inum, in  which  the  oxygen  is  partly  replaced 
by  fluorine.  It  occurs  in  masses  and  is 
crj^stallized  in  prisms.  Crystalline  topazes  are 
found  generally  in  igneous  and  metamorphie 
rocks  and  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Va- 
rious localities  in  Maine,  Colorado  and  ftah 
supply  them,  and  they  are  common  in  parts 
of  India  and  in  Brazil.  The  Brazilian  to- 
pazes have  deep  yellow  tints;  the  Siberian 
topazes  and  those  found  in  the  Scotch  High- 
lands are  bluish.  In  ancient  times  the  topaz 
was  a  sjTnbol  of  friendship  and  was  thought 
to  drive  away  sadness  and  bestow  courage. 
It  is  the  birthstone  for  November. 

TOPEKA,  toll  pe'kah,  Kan.,  the  capital  of 
the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Shawnee 
County,  sixty-six  miles  west  of  Kansas  City 
on  the  Kansas  River  and  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe.  the  Chicago,  Rock  Is- 
land and  Pacific,  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  the 
Union  Pacific  railroads.  The  city  is  situated 
on  rolling  prairie  land,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  900  feet,  and  covers  an  area  of  seven 
square  miles.  It  is  laid  out  with  broad,  well- 
shaded  streets,  and  has  several  attractive 
parks. 

The  most  notable  buildings  near  the  cen- 
ter of  the  city  are  the  state  capitol.  the  Kan- 
sas Memorial  building,  and  the  Federal  build- 


TORNADO 


3596 


TORONTO 


ing.  Other  important  structures  are  the  court 
house,  the  city  hall,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Y. 
W.  C.  A.,  the  Mills  building.  The  state  hos- 
pital for  the  insane  occupies  five  large  build- 
ings on  extensive  grounds  west  of  the  city, 
and  the  state  industrial  school  for  boys  has 
accommodations  for  two  hundred  boys  on  a 
farm  of  210  acres  north  of  the  city. 
Topeka  is  the  seat  of  "Washburn  College 
(Congregational),  of  the  College  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Bethany  (Episcopal),  of  the  Kansas 
Medical  College,  and  of  several  business  col- 
leges. The  libraries  of  the  city  are  the  free 
public  library  in  a  beautiful  building  on  the 
state  grounds,  a  large  state  library  and  that 
of  the  state  historical  society,  the  latter  two 
in  the  state  capitol. 

Industrial  establishments  include  the  rail- 
road shops  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe  Railroad,  extensive  exporting  flour  mills, 
foundries,  brickyards,  machine  shops,  pack- 
ing houses,  creameries,  starch  works  and 
manufactories  of  furniture  and  clothing. 
Three  fine  hospitals,  besides  that  of  the  Santa 
Fe  railway,  are  located  here.  The  place  was 
settled  as  one  of  the  free  state  towns  in  1854, 
and  became  notable  for  its  feuds  between  the 
anti-slavery  and  pro-slavery  elements.  It 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1S57.  and  was  se- 
lected as  the  state  capital  in  1861.  It 
adopted  the  commission  fonn  of  government 
in  1909.  Population,  1910,  43,684;  in  1917, 
49.538  (Federal  estimate). 

TORNA'DO,  a  revolving  stonn  that  has 
great  force.  The  tenn  was  originally  applied 
to  the  hurricanes  prevalent  in  the  West  Indies 
and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  but  more  recently  it  has  been 
extended  to  apply  to  other  storms.  In  the 
United  States  the  tornado  is  frequently, 
though  incorrectly,  termed   a  cyclone. 

Characteristics.  Tornadoes,  usually  form 
within  thunder  storms  and  are  caused  by 
conditions  similar  to  those  which  produce 
whirlwinds  (see  Whirl v^I^~D).  They  occur 
on  warm  days,  when  there  is  great  humidity. 
The  tornado  cloud  has  a  funnel-shaped 
vortex,  in  which  the  velocity  of  the  whirling 
motion  increases  as  it  approaches  the  center, 
where  it  becomes  so  great  as  to  destroy  all 
objects  within  the  path  of  the  tornado.  The 
direction  of  the  whirl  is  contrary  to  that  of 
the  hands  of  a  watch,  and  the  tornado  moves 
from  southwest  to  northeast,  with  a  velocity 
varying  from  twenty-five  to  foriy  miles  an 
hour.     The  danger  lies  in  the  path  of  the 


funnel-shaped  cloud  which  is  usually  but  a 
few  rods  in  diameter.  Near  the  vortex  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  is  such  as  to  overthrow 
and  often  destroy  small  structures  and  to 
di-aw  light  objects  within  the  vortex. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  ac- 
count for  these  destructive  storms,  but  none 
seems  perfectly  satisfactory.  The  conditions 
favorable  to  the  development  of  a  tornado  are 
a  warm  layer  of  excessively  humid  air  next  to 
the  earth,  and  a  layer  of  cool  air  above. 
When  an  upward  current  is  once  started  in 
the  warm  air,  a  rotary  motion  is  immediately 
produced  by  the  inrush  of  cold  air  from 
above.  This  rapid  rotation  causes  a  small 
area  of  ver\'  low  pressure,  and  the  force  of 
the  upward  current  soon  increases  to  a  degree 
that  enables  it  to  bear  aloft  all  objects  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  In  the  center  of 
the  vortex  the  pressure  is  so  light  that  build- 
ings within  the  path  of  the  tornado  are  often 
wrecked  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  within. 

The  condensation  begins  in  the  upper  air, 
where  the  temperature  is  lowest,  and  as  the 
whirling  column  continues  to  cool  by  expan- 
sion of  the  rising  air,  the  point  at  which 
the  condensation  takes  place  gradually  ap- 
proaches the  earth,  and  the  cloud  continues 
to  fonn  lower  and  lower,  until  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  The  extension  of 
the  column  downward  is  not  due  to  the  lower- 
ing of  the  cloud,  as  frequently  supposed,  but 
to  the  descent  towards  the  ground  of  the 
point  of  condensation. 

While  no  portion  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Great  Plains  seems  free  from 
these  storms,  they  are  most  frequent  in  the 
Mississippi  Basin,  occurring  in  the  south  in 
the  early  spring  and  gradually  traveling 
northward,  until  in  midsummer  they  occur  as 
far  north  as  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota. 
See  Cyclone;  Hltjricaxe;  Typhoon. 

TORONTO,  toh  roJin'toh,  Ont.,  the  capital 
and  largest  city  of  the  pro\'ince,  and  the  sec- 
ond largest  in  Canada,  ranking  next  to 
Montreal.  It  is  situated  on  the  northwest 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  334  miles  southwest 
of  Montreal  and  forty-one  miles  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Niagara  River.  Three  main 
railways  enter  the  city — the  Grand  Trunk, 
the  Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Canadian  North- 
em — and  it  is  visited  by  many  of  the  steamers 
plying  the  Great  Lakes. 

General  Description.  The  city  has  a 
charming  location  on  ground  rising  grad- 
ually until  it  reaches  an  altitude  of  200  feet  in 


TORONTO 


3597 


TORONTO 


the  highest  part.  On  the  hills  are  beautiful 
homes,  fronting  broad  streets  lined  with  fine 
shade  trees.  The  spacious  harbor  is  protected 
by  a  low,  sandy  island  that  extends  for  about 
three  miles.  In  the  summer  time  the  harbor 
is  dotted  with  canoes,  launches  and  sailboats. 
The  whole  harbor  front  is  being  improved 
in  accordance  with  plans  involving  the  ex- 
penditure of  millions  of  dollars.  A  thousand 
acres  of  waste  land  is  being  reclaimed,  and 
the  site  is  to  be  used  for  eommei'cial  and 
industrial  purposes.  A  five-million-dollar 
Union  Station  was  in  process  of  construction 
in  1919;  other  improvements  include  the 
building  of  sea  walls  and  docks  and  the  mak- 
ing of  a  boulevard  and  park  system  along  the 
lake  front. 

Parks  and  Buildings.  Among  the  many 
beautiful  parked  areas  of  Toronto  the  largest 
are  High  Park  (335  acres),  Exhibition  Park 
(235),  Humboldt  Boulevard  (129)  and  River- 
dale  Park  (108),  the  latter  possessing  a  fine 
zoological  garden.  In  Exhibition  Park  are 
held  annual  exhibits  showing  progress  along 
agricultural,  industrial  and  art  lines.  The 
buildings  bousing  these  exhibits  are  per- 
manent, fireproof  structures.  Toronto  resi- 
dents patronize  two  pleasure  parks — 
Hanlon's  Point,  on  the  harbor  island,  and 
Scarborough  Beach. 

The  city  hall,  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  is  the  most  pretentious  of  the 
public  buildings.  In  its  tower  is  the  larg- 
est winding  clock  on  the  continent.  The 
edifice  was  eight  years  in  building,  and  cost 
about  $2,500,000.  The  cornerstone  was  laid 
in  1891.  In  Queen's  Park,  which  is  situated 
about  a  mile  from  the  water  front,  is  the 
imposing  building  of  the  provincial  parlia- 
ment. Other  notable  structures  include  the 
Royal  Bank,  the  Bank  of  Toronto,  the  Gen- 
eral Hospital,  the  Arena  Auditorium,  the 
buildings  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
and  the  public  library.  Toronto  has  a  large 
number  of  fine  churches,  among  which  are 
Saint  James  Cathedral,  with  a  spire  316  feet 
high,  the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Church, 
the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Michael,  Saint 
Andrew's,  the  Jarvis  Street  Baptist  and  the 
Bond  Street  Congregational  churches. 

Education.  The  city  is  the  foremost  edu- 
cational center  of  Canada.  The  University 
of  Toronto,  housed  in  a  group  of  artistic 
buildings  in  Queen's  Park,  is  the  largest 
institution  of  higher  learning  in  the  Domin- 
ion.    Other  notable  schools  are  McMaster 


University  (Baptist),  Trinity  College  (Angli- 
can), Upper  Canada  College,  Saint  Andrew's 
College,  and  the  technical  school,  one  of  the 
best  equipped  schools  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 


TORONTO  CITY  HALL 

Art  and  musical  schools  of  high  standard  are 
also  maintained,  and  the  city  supports  two 
musical  enterprises  of  considerable  fame,  the 
Mendelssohn  Choir  and  the  symphony  Or- 
chestra. The  splendid  public  school  system 
is  managed  by  a  board  of  education  elected 
by  popular  vote. 

Industry  and  Commerce.  About  one- 
eighth  of  all  the  articles  manufactured  in  the 
Dominion  are  produced  in  Toronto,  whose 
industrial  establishments  have  an  output 
whose  combined  value  is  about  $250,000,000 
a  year.  The  city  is  the  leading  Canadian 
center  for  slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  and 
it  produces  large  quantities  of  lumber,  musi- 
cal instruments,  clothing,  wall  paper,  ma- 
chinery and  iron  and  steel  goods.  Among 
Canadian  cities  Montreal  alone  has  a  larger 
volume  of  banking  business ;  Toronto  is  first 
in  the  exchange  of  livestock,  grain  and  fruits, 
and  as  a  wholesale  jobbing  center.  In  the 
city  is  the  largest  department  store  in  the 
British  Empire. 

History.  The  city  was  founded  in  1794, 
under  the  name  of  York,  but  was  destroyed 
by  the  Americans  in  1813.  In  1834  it  was  in- 
corporated under  the  present  name.    It  suf- 


TORONTO 


3598 


TORPEDO 


f ered  from  the  rebellion  led  by  William  Lyon 
[Mackenzie  in  1837  and  from  a  fire  in  1849. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been  remarkably  pros- 
perous. Population,  1911,  376,538;  in  1918, 
489,681  (local  estimate). 

TORONTO,  rxn"ERSiTY  of,  an  institution 
at  the  head  of  the  school  system  of  Ontario, 
chartered  in  1807,  under  the  name  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  King's  College.  The  further  or- 
ganization, however,  was  delayed,  and  the 
university  was  not  opened  until  1843.  Sis 
years  later,  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto.  The  institution  has 
undergone  several  reorganizations.  It  now 
includes  faculties  of  arts,  law,  medicine  and 
r.pplied  science  and  engineering,  and  it  has 
instituted  courses  and  examinations  for  de- 
grees in  agriculture,  dentistry,  music,  peda- 
gogy,  phannacy  and  household  science.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  colleges  and  schools 
throughout  the  province  afiiliated  with  the 
university,  and  extension  work  is  maintained 
by  a  special  committee.  "Women  are  admitted. 
The  management  of  the  univei'sity  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  English  universities.  There  is 
a  student  body  of  about  4.000,  and  a  facultj'^ 
of  400.  The  library  contains  150,000  bound 
volumes  and  there  are  also  about  50,000 
pamphlets. 

TORPE'DO,  a  death-dealing  device  which 
is  propelled  through  water  with  a  great  ship 
as  its  target  and  intended  \-ictim.  During 
the  great  war  of  1914^1918,  the  torpedo  be- 
came one  of  the  most  terrif3"ing  weapons 
used  upon  the  seas.  The  modern  or  White- 
head torpedo  is  one  of  the  most  ingeniously 
Revised  instruments  ever  invented  for  the 
purpose  of  destroj'ing  ships  and  human  life. 
It  consists  of  a  cigar-shaped  steel  shell  from 
eisrhteen  to  twentv  inches  in  diameter  and 


of  2,500  pounds  to  the  square  inch;  and  the 
after  body,  c,  which  contains  the  machinery 
for  propelling  the  torpedo.  The  propellers, 
e,  e,  resemble  those  used  on  small  motor  boats. 
They  are  operated  by  the  compressed  air.  The 
engine  may  be  of  the  crank  and  piston  tjrpe, 
or  it  may  be  on  the  plan  of  the  steam  turbine. 
A  gjTOScope  (which  see)  holds  the  torpedo 
to  its  course,  but  there  is  now  an  invention 
of  John  Hayes  Hammond,  Jr.,  which  makes 
it  possible  to  direct  the  course  of  a  torpedo 
by  electricity,  from  the  shore  or  from  a  vessel. 
Successful  experiments  have  been  made. 

Projecting  from  the  head  is  the  war  nose, 
which  discharges  the  explosive  when  it  strikes 
the  ship.  The  charge  usually  consists  of  about 
250  pounds  of  moist  guncotton  or  an  equiva- 
lent quantity  of  T.  X.  T.  This  charge  has  so. 
explosive  force  of  sufficient  strength  to  shat- 
ter the  bottom  or  the  side  of  the  strongest 
warship.  A  complete  torpedo  of  the  largest 
size  costs  fully  $8,000.  Torpedoes  used  in 
target  practice  contain  no  explosive,  and  are 
recovered  and  used  over  and  over  again.  A 
torpedo  of  the  most  powerful  type  can  travel 
about  six  miles  at  a  speed  of  about  thirty 
miles  an  hour  before  its  power  is  exhausted. 
If  it  is  adjusted  for  a  shorter  distance  its 
speed  may  be  increased  to  forty  miles  an 
hour.  Submarines  seldom  fire  at  a  ship 
more  than  a  mile  distant,  and  then  the  chances 
are  that  the  torpedo  will  miss  its  mark.  When 
the  ship  is  within  700  to  1,000  yards  there 
is  a  fair  chance  of  scoring  a  hit.  The  torpedo 
may  be  fired  from  above  or  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  but,  since  the  perfectioit 
of  the  submarine  firing  from  above  the  water 
has  practically  been  abandoned. 

History.    The  first  torpedo  that  can  be  con- 
sidered a  forerunner  of  the  present  tj'pe  was 


(a)   Head;        (b)   air  cylinder; 


TORPEDO 
(c)    after  body; 


(e)   propellers;         (f)   war  nose. 


from  seventeen  to  twenty-two  feet  long.  It 
has  a  conical-shaped  head,  and  towards  the 
rear  it  tapei'S  to  a  narrow  cylindidcal  tail  to 
which  the  propellers  are  attached. 

The  entire  shell  is  divided  into  three  cham- 
bers— the  head,  a,  which  contains  the  charge 
of  explosive;  the  air  cylinder,  h,  which  con- 
tains compressed  air,  often  under  pressure 


invented  by  David  Bushnell,  an  American. 
To  become  effective,  Bushnell's  torpedo  had 
to  be  attached  to  the  ship,  and  this  called  for 
a  sort  of  submarine  boat,  just  large  enough 
for  one  man,  who  descended  and  attached  the 
torpedo  to  the  bottom  of  the  ship  and  then 
got  as  far  away  as  possible  before  it  exploded. 
Bushnell's  torpedo  was  not  found  practieaL 


TORPEDO 


3599 


TORRENS  SYSTEM 


In  1585  an  Italian  destroyed  a  bridge  on  the 
Scheldt,  by  sending  a  boat  charged  with  gun- 
powder down  the  river.  The  charge  was  fired 
by  means  of  clockwork.  A  century  and  a  half 
later,  a  Frenchman  exploded  some  rockets 
under  water  and  destroyed  some  small  boats. 
While  numerous  experiments  were  made  in 
the  next  hundred  years,  the  torpedo  was  not 
brought  to  practical  use  until  the  American 
Civil  War,  when  it  became  a  very  powerful 
and  dangerous  weapon. 

The  first  torpedoes  intended  to  be  projected 
through  the  water  were  shot  from  a  gun 
like  a  shell.  If  the  target  was  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  distant  it  could  not  be 
reached.  This  torpedo  required  a  light,  swift 
boat  that  could  approach  close  to  its  target, 
fire  its  shot,  and  get  away  quickly.  It  was 
this  requirement  that  brought  the  torpedo 
boat  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  into  existence.  From  this  torpedo 
that  of  the  Whitehead  type  was  developed 
and  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection 
during  the  World  War. 


Related     Articles.     Consult     the 
titles   for   additional   information: 


following 


Guncotton 
Gyroscope 


Submarine 
Torpedo  Boat 


TORPEDO,  or  ELECTRIC  RAY,  a  large, 
flat  fish  of  the  ray  family,  which  inhabits  tlie 
warm  waters  of  all  seas.  It  is  remarkable 
chiefly  for  a 
set  of  organs 
in  the  head  in 
which  elec- 
tricity is  gen- 
erated. The 
broad,  flat 
body  ends  in 
a  compara- 
tively slender 
tail.  The 
power  of  the 
electrical  dis- 
charge varies 
with  the 
health  and 
size  of  the 
fish.  The 
shock  of  a 
full-  grown 
torpedo 
(which  may  weigh  from  50  to  250  pounds)  is 
sufficient  to  disable  a  man;  that  of  the 
smaller  specimens  is  used  effectively  in  cap- 
turing prey.     After  a  shock  the  electricity 


TORPEDO 


is  exhausted,  and  time  and  food  are  needed 
to  supply  a  fresh  storage. 

TORPEDO  BOAT,  a  comparatively  small 
boat  equipped  for  shooting  torpedoes.  The 
object  of  the  torpedo  boat  is  to  approach 
other  ships  stealthily,  and  to  project  the  tor- 
pedoes in  the  direction  of  the  enemy,  then 
steal  swiftly  away.  The  development  of  the 
submarine  (which  see),  and  the  consequent 
change  of  methods  in  shooting  torpedoes,  has 
rendered  the  torpedo  boat  of  less  value  than 
it  formerly  possessed. 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyer.  The  havoc 
wrought  by  torpedoes  fired  from  torpedo 
boats  led  to  the  construction  of  a  boat  es- 
pecially adapted  for  warfare  against  the  lat- 
ter. Torpedo  boat  desti'oyers  were  merely 
torpedo  boats  of  large  size  and  high  speed, 
fitted  to  withstand  any  weather  and  to  meet 
torpedo  boats  at  an  advantage.  The  armor 
was  heavy  and  the  offensive  armament  was 
strong.  The  destroyers  were  equipped  like 
torpedo  boats,  and  so  at  times  they  took  the 
place  of  the  latter;  in  fact,  a  combination  of 
the  two  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  in  navies. 
In  the  World  War  submarines  supplanted  the 
old-type  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers,  and 
allied  fleets  of  swift  vessels  armed  with  guns 
and  depth  charges  were  employed  success- 
fully in  clearing  the  seas  of  the  deadly  un- 
derseas  craft. 

TORQUEMADA,  torkamah'da,  Thomas 
DE  (1420-1498),  a  Spanish  inquisitor-gen- 
eral, born  at  Valladolid.  He  was  head  of  the 
Inquisition  for  fifteen  years,  and  in  the 
course  of  that  time  sentenced  to  death  more 
than  10,000  anti-Catholics  and  expelled  the 
Jews  and  Moors  from  Spain.  He  believed 
that  the  stability  of  Spain  depended  on  reli- 
gious unity,  and  he  supressed  heresy  as  a 
patriotic  and  religious  duty.  His  cruelties 
made  him  intensely  unpopular  with  the  peo- 
ple and  were  so  severe  the  Pope  found  it 
necessary  to  interfere. 

TORRENS  SYSTEM,  a  system  of  regis- 
tering titles  to  real  estate,  introduced  into 
Australia  by  Sir  Robert  R.  Torrens  in  1857. 
The  purpose  of  the  system  is,  first,  to  make 
the  transfer  of  real  estate  as  simple  and  safe 
as  the  transfer  of  personal  property ;  second, 
to  do  away  with  the  old  cumbersome  system 
which  requires  an  examination  of  the  title 
every  time  a  transfer  of  the  property  is 
made. 

How  to  Get  the  First  Torrens  Title.  The 
owner  of  land  desiring:  a  Torrens  title  should 


TORRICELLI 


3600 


TORTOISE 


file  with  the  registrar  a  petition  for  regis- 
tration. With  the  petition  he  must  file  all 
records  in  his  possession  pertaining  to  the 
title,  and  also  give  in  writing,  under  oath,  a 
statement  of  all  incumbrances  (debts)  on  the 
property.  If  other  persons  are  interested 
in  the  property  by  marriage  or  otherwise  the ' 
registrar  notifies  them  of  the  petition  and 
gives  them  opportunity  to  be  heard.  The 
petition,  all  records  pertaining  to  the  title 
and  any  objections  raised  are  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  examiner  of  titles.  If  he  finds 
the  facts  to  be  as  stated  by  the  petitioner,  he 
files  the  old  papers  and  issues  a  certificate  of 
ownership.  The  certificate  is  issued  in  dupli- 
cate, the  original  being  kept  in  the  office  of 
the  registrar,  and  the  duplicate  given  to  the 
owner. 

How  to  Transfer  a  Title.  'When  real 
property  is  sold  under  the  Ton-ens  system, 
the  first  certificate  is  cancelled  and  a  new 
one  issued,  and  this  completes  the  transaction. 
No  examination  of  title  is  necessary,  for  the 
first  certificate  is  indefeasible,  that  is,  it 
cannot  be  set  aside.  Should  any  claims  arise 
against  the  property  they  cannot  affect  the 
title,  nor  will  the  original  owner  have  to 
pay  them.  They  are  paid  by  the  state  from 
a  fund  created  for  that  purpose,  by  charging 
a  slight  tax  on  the  property  registered.  This 
tax  seldom  exceeds  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent, 
and  it  has  been  found  ample  for  meeting  all 
claims. 

Extent  of  Use.  The  ToiTens  system  was 
introduced  into  South  Australia  in  1857,  and 
was  soon  adopted  by  the  other  AiTstralian 
states  and  by  New  Zealand.  It  has  been 
adopted  in  England  and  a  number  of  coun- 
tries on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  in 
general  use  in  the  northwest  provinces  of 
Canada,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  mari- 
time provinces.  Illinois  was  the  first  state 
of  the  United  States  to  adopt  the  system.  In 
1919  it  was  in  use  in  ten  other  states,  and  in 
Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 

TORRICELLI,  tor  re  cJieV  le,  Evangelista 
(1608-1647),  an  Italian  mathematician  and 
physicist.  Torricelli's  name  is  important  in 
the  history  of  science  as  the  discoverer  of  the 
law  on  which  the  barometer  depends.  The 
principle  of  this  law  is  that  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  sustains  a  column  of  mer- 
cury of  equal  area  and  of  the  same  weight  as 
the  column  of  atmosphere.    See  Barometer. 

TOR'RINGTON,  Conn.,  in  Litchfield 
County,  twenty-six  miles  west  of  Hartford, 


on  the  Naugatuck  River  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad.  It 
is  an  industrial  center,  producing  bicycles, 
ice  skates  and  roller  skates,  woolens,  brass 
articles,  novelties,  needles,  hardware  and  to- 
bacco goods.  The  municipality  has  a  public 
library,  a  fine  city  hall  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
The  place  was  settled  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century  and  was  chartered  as  a  borough  in 
1887.  John  Brown  was  born  here  in  1800. 
Population,  1910,  15,483;  in  1917,  20,041 
(Federal  estimate).  Torrington  has  had  the 
largest  percentage  of  increase  in  population 
of  any  city  in  Connecticut  since  1910. 

TORSION,  tor' shun,  BAL'ANCE,  an  in- 
strument emploj-ed  to  measure  the  intensities 
of  very  small  forces.  Its  essential  parts  are  a 
fine  horizontal  bar  suspended  by  a  thread  of 
silk  or  other  substance  and  a  graduated  scale 
to  which  the  thread  is  attached.  The  rota- 
tion of  the  bar  determines  and  registers  (with 
the  aid  of  a  miiTor  beneath)  the  intensity 
of  the  force  acting  on  it.  The  name  of  the 
instrument  has  reference  to  the  torsion 
(twisting)  of  the  thread  with  the  movement 
of  the  horizontal  bar  acted  on  by  the  force 
to  be  measured.     See  Galvanometer. 

TORT,  a  civil  wrong  for  which  the  law 
requires  compensation  in  damages.  The 
right  to  damages  for  a  tort  arises  not  neces- 
sarily from  breach  of  contract,  as  a  tort  may 
be  committed  where  no  contract  has  existed. 
Thus  nuisance,  libel  and  slander,  trespass  and 
injuries  to  property  are  torts.  The  same 
act  may  be  both  a  tort  and  a  crime.  Thus 
a  man  may  be  prosecuted  by  the  state  for 
assault  and  battery  and  at  the  same  time 
may  have  brought  against  him  by  the  injured 
man  an  action  for  damages. 

TORTOISE,  to/tis,  or  to/tus,  a  member 
of  a  group  of  reptiles  belonging  to  the  same 
family  as  the  turtles,  but  living  on  land 
either  partially  or  exclusively.  Unlike  the 
tui'tles  tortoises  have  highly-arched  shells,  or 
carapaces,  and  the  hind  feet  are  club-shaped. 
Of  the  three  well-defined  species  in  the 
United  States  the  most  important  is  the 
gopher  tortoise,  found  in  the  Southern 
states.  It  averages  about  nine  pounds  in 
weight,  and  the  carapace  is  about  eleven  by 
eight  inches.  In  the  islands  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  giant  tortoises  were  once  numerous, 
but  they  are  now  nearly  extinct.  A  few  speci- 
mens are  preserved  in  zoological  gardens. 
Some  have  been  known  to  live  more  than 
150  years.    See  Turtle. 


TORTOISE  SHELL 


3601 


TOUCAN 


TORTOISE  SHELL,  a  name  popularly 
applied  to  the  horny  plates  of  certain  tur- 
tles. The  designation  is  not  accurate,  as  the 
tortoise  is  a  land  turtle,  whereas  tortoise 
shell  is  a  product  of  the  hawksbill  turtle, 
which  inhabits  tropical  seas.  The  carapace 
of  this  animal  is  composed  of  layer  upon 
layer  of  horny  plates.  To  detach  these  it  is 
necessary  to  immerse  the  shell  in  boiling 
water.  The  layers  are  very  thin  when  re- 
moved, and  for  commercial  purposes  must 
be  welded  together.  The  welding  is  done  by 
boiling  the  scales  in  water  and  then  subject- 
ing them  to  heavy  pressure.  After  this  the 
slabs  of  shell  can  be  shaped  into  combs,  eye- 
glass rims,  card  eases  and  the  numerous 
toilet  articles  for  which  tortoise  shell  is  in 
demand.  The  material  has  been  used  at  va- 
rious times  for  inlay  work. 

TOR'TURE,  the  infliction  of  severe  bodily 
pain,  for  punishment,  for  revenge  or  to 
force  a  confession  from  the  individual  so 
mistreated.  It  was  customary  for  primitive 
peoi^le,  including  the  American  Indians,  to 
inflict  cruelties  upon  their  captives.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  throughout  Europe  torture  was 
commonly  resorted  to,  especially  by  the 
Church  to  enforce  religious  conformity  and 
to  extort  evidence  in  heresy  trials ;  John  Huss 
and  Savonarola  were  victims  of  such  pro- 
ceedings. 

Although  the  cruelties  of  the  custom  were 
recognized  and  its  application  deplored,  the 
practice  continued  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century;, 
even  up  to  1917,  the  year  of  the  revolution 
in  Russia,  exiles  to  Siberia  were  flogged  un- 
mercifully. The  devices  and  methods  of  tor- 
ture were  as  varied  as  they  were  unspeakably 
cruel.    See  Ordeal. 

TORY,  toli'ri,  a  political  party  name,  used 
in  England  and  other  Anglo-Saxon  coun- 
tries, is  of  Irish  origin,  having  first  been  ap- 
plied to  the  Irish  loyalists  who  fought  for 
King  Charles  I.  At  one  time  any  sort  of 
an  Irish  outlaw  was  called  a  Tory.  The 
term  was  first  used  in  English  politics  in 
1679,  being  applied  in  derision  to  the  Roman 
Catholic-  opponents  of  the  bill  excluding  the 
Duke  of  York  (James  II)  from  the  throne. 
Thus  it  came  to  be  identified  with  the  court 
party,  their  opponents  being  classified  as 
Whigs.  Although  Tory  was  in  the  beginning 
almost  synonymous  with  Catholicism,  it  lost 
all  sectarian  implication  when  the  British 
Crown  became  Protestant,  but  continued  to 

226 


be  identified  with  the  royal  party.  In  Ameri- 
ca in  Revolutionary  times  the  term  was  ap- 
plied to  all  adherents  of  England.  With  the 
decline  of  Toryism  in  England  the  adherents 
of  the  doctrines  gradually  merged  with  the 
Conservatives,  but  the  name  is  still  in  use. 

TO'TEM,  among  some  primitive  peoples 
an  object  regained  as  a  symbol  of  a  tribe, 
family,  or  individual.  It  is  usually  a  repre- 
sentation of  an  animal.     Those  who  have  the 


TOTEM    POLES 

same  totem  are  regarded  as  bound  by  closer 
ties  than  any  other  persons.  The  North 
American  Indians  commonly  carve  their  to- 
tems on  poles.  The  Indians  of  Western 
Canada  often  carve  theirs  on  the  trunks  of 
cedar  trees. 

TOUCAN,  too'kan,  a  bird  found  only  in 


TOUCA'N 

tropical  or  semi-tropical  America,  remarkable 
for  the  size  of  its  bill,  which  at  the  base  isi 


TRADE-MARK 


3GUG 


TRAGEDY 


iiate  the  date  and  place  of  payment  and  re- 
turn the  draft  to  A.  B.  Smith  &  Co.,  who 
may  hold  it  until  it  becomes  due  or  discount 
it  at  the  bank. 

Trade  acceptance  is  a  comparatively  new 
method  of  merchandising  in  America,  having 
originated  in  1917,  but  it  has  been  in  use  in 
other  countries  for  a  long  time.  It  is  in- 
dorsed by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the 
United  States,  the  American  Bankers  As- 
sociation and  the  National  Association  of 
Credit  Men,  It  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  makes 
for  better  business,  creates  a  better  class  of 
accounts,  insures  more  prompt  attention  to 
jiayments  when  they  become  due,  and  extends 
the  use  of  negotiable  paper. 

TRADE'-MARK,  an  emblem  or.  device, 
used  by  manufacturers  to  distinguish  their 
productions.  Such  marks  have  been  in  ex- 
istence for  centuries,  but  it  is  only  in  recent 
years  that  they  have  been  legalized.  They 
may  now  be  registered  and  protected  in  all 
the  more  important  countries  and  even  by 
citizens  of  one  country  in  another.  Accord- 
ing to  the  trade-mark  statutes  of  the  United 
States  a  mere  descriptive  title  or  a  geograph- 
ical name  does  not  constitute  a  proper 
trade-mark;  it  should  be  some  invented  word 
or  Avords,  distinctive  device,  figure,  emblem 
or  design,  or  a  written  signature.  Any  mark 
or  name  calculated  to  mislead  as  to  the  real 
name  or  origin  of  the  goods  is  invalid. 
Trade-marks  are  registered  at  the  Patent 
Office,  at  a  fee  of  $25,  the  right  running  for 
thirty  years. 

TRADE  UNIONS.  See  Labor  Organ- 
izations. 

TRADE  WINDS,  perpetual  or  constant 
winds  which  occur  in  all  open  seas  on  both 
sides  of  the  equator,  for  a  distance  of  about 
30°  north  and  south  of  it.  North  of  the 
equator  their  direction  is  from  the  northeast, 
with  occasional  slight  variations;  south  of 
tlie  equator  they  proceed  from  the  southeast. 
Their  importance  to  ocean  commerce  before 
the  days  of  steam  navigation  gave  them  the 
name  of  trade  winds. 

These  winds  result  from  the  differences  in 
temperature  between  the  equatorial  and 
polar  regions.  The  heat  of  the  torrid  zone 
causes  the  air  there  to  become  lighter 
and  consequently  to  rise.  As  it  rises  the 
cooler  surface  air  north  and  south  of  it 
rushes  in  to  take  its  place.  This  move- 
ment of  air  is  constantly  going  on.  The 
oblique  direction  of  these  winds  is  accounted 


for  by  the  fact  of  the  earth's  rotation.  The 
belt  between  the  two  systems  of  trade  winds 
is  a  region  of  calm,  which,  in  the  days  of 
sailing  vessels,  was  dreaded  by  mariners. 
This  belt  shifts  somewhat  with  the  seasons. 

Over  the  land  areas  these  winds  are  dis- 
placed by  air  currents  caused  by  various  local 
conditions,  and  they  are  not  often  to  be 
identified  except  in  certain  localities  or  at 
certain  seasons.  In  some  regions,  however, 
they  have  marked  effect  upon  climate.  Laden 
with  moisture,  they  cross  South  America  and 
on  reaching  the  Andes  are  forced  upward  to 
levels  where  their  moisture  is  condensed  into 
rain.  In  crossing  Africa  they  precipitate 
their  moisture  in  the  eastern  highlands,  and 
by  the  time  they  reach  the  region  of  the 
Sahara  Desert  they  are  dry.    See  Wind. 

TRAFALGAR,  trahfalgah/,  a  low  and 
sandy  cape  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Spain, 
at  the  northwest  entrance  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  which  gave  its  name  to  one  of 
England's  most  brilliant  naval  victories. 
Off  this  cape  the  British  fleet  under 
Nelson  practically  destroyed  the  larger 
French  and  Spanish  fleet  under  the  command 
of  Villeneuve  and  Gravina,  on  October  21, 
1805. 

TRAGACANTH,  trag"  a  kanth,  a  gum 
produced  by  several  species  of  the  pulse  fam- 
ily, which  are  natives  of  certain  mountainous 
regions  of  Western  Asia.  The  gum  oozes 
through  cracks  in  the  bark  in  twisted  threads, 
which  are  yellowish  in  color,  and  tasteless. 
It  is  shaped  in  thin  cakes  for  the  market. 
In  phannacy  tragacanth  is  used,  because  of 
its  harmless,  gummy  quality,  to  shape  pills, 
and  it  is  also  made  into  lozenges  and  used  to 
relieve  sore  throat. 

TRAGEDY,  trofe  di,  in  a  broad  sense,  that 
form  of  the  drama  which  deals  with  a  serious 
theme  in  dignified  language  and  which  ends 
with  disaster  to  some  of  the  characters.  The 
word  tragedy,  from  the  Greek  for  goat  songs, 
was  first  applied  to  the  chants  at  the  festival 
of  Bacchus  sung  by  men  in  goatskins.  These 
chants  were  the  beginning  of  tragedy.  Among 
the  Greeks  tragedy  was  highly  developed, 
Aeschylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides  each  con- 
tributing to  its  growth.  The  Greeks  believed 
the  function  of  tragedy  to  be  the  "purifica- 
tion of  the  passions  through  the  arousing  of 
fear  and  pity."  Wherever  the  drama  has 
flourished,  tragedy  has  had  a  conspicuous 
place.  In  English  literature  Shakespeare's 
HamUt,  Macbeth,  Othello,  Julius  Caesar  and 


TRAGOPAN 


3607 


TRANSEPT 


Ki7ig  Lear  are  the  finest  examples  of  tragedy ; 
while  Racine's  Athalie  and  Goethe's  Faust 
stand  as  representative  masterpieces  of  the 
French  and  German  drama. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  to  re- 
place tragedy  with  lighter,  less  serious  plays, 
known  as  comoily  (which  see). 

TRAG'OPAN,  a  large  beautiful  bird  of  the 
pheasant  family,  native  to  the  Himalayan 
forests.  These  birds  have  variegated  plumage, 
and  the  males  are  characterized  by  blue,  horn- 
like protuberances  over  each  eye,  and  they 
have  large  throat  wattles.  The  birds  nest  in 
trees  and  feed  on  leaves,  fruit,  seeds  and  in- 
sects. The  eggs  are  white,  speckled  with 
lilac. 

TRAILING  AR'BUTUS.    See  Arbutus. 

TRAILL,  Catherine  Parr  (1802-1899), 
a  Canadian  author,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land. In  1832  she  married  Lieutenant  Thomas 
Traill  and  emigrated  to  Canada,  settling  at 
Rice  Lake,  Ontario.  Mrs.  Traill  won  distinc- 
tion by  her  contributions  to  English  maga- 
zines and  her  other  literary  works.  She  is 
author  of  the  Backivoods  of  Canada,  Cana- 
dian Crusoes,  The  Female  Emigrants'  Guide, 
Lady  Mary  and  Her  Nurse,  and  Rambles  in 
the  Canadian  Forest.  Among  her  later  works 
of  distinction  are  Pearls  and  Pebbles;  or 
Notes  of  an  Old  Naturalist,  Cot  and  Cradle 
Stories,  and  Studies  in  Plant  Life  in  Canada. 

TRA'JAN  (]\lAi?cus  Ulpius  Traianus) 
(51-117),  a  Roman  emperor,  famous  also  as 
a  military  leader.  He  was  bom  in  Spain, 
the  son  of  a  distinguished  Roman  commander 
under  Vespasian,  and  early  in  life  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  army  in  Spain,  in 
Syria  and  in  Gennany.  In  97  he  was  adopted 
by  the  Emperor  Nerva,  and  the  following 
year  succeeded  him.  Much  of  his  reign  of 
nearly  twenty  years  was  spent  in  frontier 
campaigns.  Trajan  conquered  Dacia  and 
Armenia  and  made  them  Roman  provinces, 
and  reduced  Mesopotamia,  Arabia,  Syria  and 
Armenia  to  submission.  The  celebration  at 
Rome  of  one  of  his  triumphs  lasted  four 
months,  in  the  course  of  which  time  10,000 
gladiators  and  11,000  wild  beasts  met  death 
in  the  arena.  In  103  he  wrote  a  famous  letter 
to  Pliny,  governor  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia, 
directing  him  not  to  search  for  Christians, 
but  to  punish  those  brought  before  him,  and 
on  no  account  to  listen  to  anonymous  charges. 
Trajan's  rule  was  marked  by  a  number 
of  progressive  measures.  He  reduced  taxes 
and    improved    the    administration    of    the 


provinces,  stopped   abuses  of  the  law  and 
beautified  Rome. 

Arch  of  Trajan,  an  arch  at  Benevento 
erected  under  the  direction  of  Trajan  to 
celebrate  the  opening  of  a  new  road  to 
Brundisium.  The  structure  is  fifty  feet  high ; 
the  arch,  twenty-seven  feet.  It  is  of  white 
marble  and  is  decorated  with  relief  sculpture 
illustrating  Trajan's  victory  over  the  Da- 
cians.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
Roman  arch. 

Trajan's  Column,  a  beautiful  column 
erected  at  Rome  in  a.  d.  114  by  the  Roman 
Senate,  in  honor  of  Trajan,  who  had  achieved 
a  series  of  militarj'  triumphs  for  the  empire. 
It  is  100  feet  high  and  is  covered  with  figures 
in  relief  illustrating  the  emperor's  victories. 
Inside  the  column  is  a  spiral  staircase  lead- 
ing to  the  top,  which  when  erected  held  a 
statue  of  Trajan.  This  figure  was  replaced- 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  a  statue  of  Saint 
Peter. 

TRANCE,  trans,  a  peculiar  condition  in 
which  the  person  affected  is  able  to  move 
about  and  speak,  but  is  not  under  conscious 
control  of  his  faculties.  When  the  trance 
stage  is  past  he  has  no  recollection  of  his 
acts  or  utterances  while  in  that  condition. 
Certain  drugs  have  the  power  of  putting  peo- 
ple in  the  trance  state,  and  the  condition  is 
also  induced  by  hypnotism  (which  see). 

TRANSCENDENTALISM,  tran  se)h  den' 
tal  iz'm,  a  system  of  philosophy  taught  bj'  a 
school  established  in  New  England  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  some  of 
the  foremost  American  thinkers  and  writers. 
The  beliefs  of  the  Transcendentalists  are 
hard  to  define,  since  they  had  no  fixed  creed. 
Their  leading  idea  was  the  supremacy  of  mind 
over  matter,  and  they  maintained  that  the 
truth  of  religion  did  not  depend  on  tradition 
or  historical  facts,  but  that  it  has  always  an 
unerring  witness  in  the  soul.  They  believed 
that  every  person  bom  into  the  world  was 
possessed  of  a  faculty  which  enabled  him  to 
perceive  spiritual  truth  when  this  truth  was 
clearly  presented.  A  Transcendental  club 
was  founded  by  George  Riplej'  in  1836,  and 
the  school  was  the  outgrowth  of  this  move- 
ment. Among  the  most  eminent  Transcen- 
dentalists were  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  James 
Freeman  Clarke,  A.  Bronson  Alcott,  Theo- 
dore Parker  and  Margaret  Fuller. 

TRAN'SEPT.  In  many  Christian  churches 
the  central  floor  space  is  in  the  form  of  a 
Latin  cross,  with  the  central  aisle  leading  to 


TOWEE  OF  LONDON 


3604 


TOXICOLOGY 


TOWER  OF  LONDON,  an  ancient  for- 
tress and  prison  in  Loudon,  consisting  of  a 
collection  of  buildings  of  various  ages,  now 
used  as  an  armory.  It  is  situated  on  a  some- 
•nhat  elevated  position  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Thames,  outside  the  old  city  walls.  It 
covers  about  thirteen  acres  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  battlement^d  wall,  flanked  with  massive 
towers  and  encircled  by  a  moat.  There  is 
also  an  inner  wall,  broken  by  towers  and 
interspersed  with  buildings.  In  the  center 
is  the  White  Tower,  the  keep  of  the  old  for- 
tress; around  it  are  the  chapel,  the  jewel 
house,    the    barracks    and.    other    buildings. 

The  Tower  was  a  medieval  fortress  and 
served  at  once  as  a  palace,  a  prison  and  a 
place  of  defense.  The  White  Tower  was 
built  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1078  and 
was  successively  strengthened'  by  various 
English  sovereigns.  The  regalia,  consisting 
of  the  royal  crowns  and  scepters,  are  now 
kept  and  exhibited  in  the  jewel  house.  The 
armory  contains  a  fine  collection  of  armor 
and  weapons.  In  the  part  called  the  Bloody 
Tower,  the  two  young  princes,  sons  of  Ed- 
ward IV,  were  murdered  by  order  of  their 
uncle,  Richard  III.  The  Tower  is  now  chiefly 
used  as  an  arsenal,  and  has  a  smaU  military 
garrison  of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard. 

In  the  World  War  the  British  government 
imprisoned  captured  spies  in  the  Tower,  and 
there  many  of  them  were  executed. 

TOWERS  OF  SILENCE,  massive  circular 
stone,  brick,  or  cement  stnietures  erected  by 
the  fire  worshipers  of  Persia  and  the  Pai^ees 
of  India.  These  towers,  about  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  in  height  and  much  greater  in 
diameter,  were  the  structures  upon  which  the 
Parsees  exposed  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  ac- 
cording to  the  religious  teachings  of  their 
leader,  Zoroaster,  to  be  devoured  by  vul- 
tures or  other  animals.  The  best  modem 
specimens  are  found  in  and  near  Bombay, 
India.  The  British  government  has  nearly 
stopped  the  practice. 

TOWN  MEETING,  an  annual  assen- 
blage  of  the  voters  of  a  Xew  England  town- 
ship, at  which  selectmen,  school  officials  and 
other  officers  are  elected,  laws  are  enacted 
and  taxes  are  voted  for  the  coming  year.  It 
is  a  typical  Xew  England  institution,  a  sur- 
vival of  colonial  days,  and  is  often  cited  as 
the  most  purely  democratic  system  of  gov- 
ernment known,  being  that  of  action  by  all 
the  people  for  themselves  and  not  govern- 
ment through  elected  representatives. 


TOWNSHIP,  the  smallest  political  ad- 
ministrative  unit  in  a  state,  except  the  school 
district  (which  see).  A  township  is  one  of 
the  several  divisions  of  a  county;  if  the 
county  is  regularly-formed  a  township  is  us- 
ually six  miles  square,  and  contains  thirty- 
six  square  miles  (see  Lands,  Public). 

In  most  states  the  executive  officer  of  the 
township  is  a  supervisor,  in  which  case  he 
represents  the  township  on  the  county  board 
of  supervisors,  the  law-making  body  of  the 
county.  In  other  states  there  are  township 
commissioners :  sometimes  these  officers  act  in- 
dependently of  a  county  body,  but  often 
with  and  as  a  part  of  it. 

Study  of  a  Township.  School  children 
may  systematically  study  a  township  from 
the  following  outline  and  suggestions : 

The  Tovmship 

(a)  Political  features 

(1)  Map 

(2)  Location  in  county 

(3)  Xames  of  surrounding  townships 

(4)  Number  of  school  districts 

(5)  Area    (miles  in  each  direction) 

(6)  Location  of  villages  or  cities 

(7)  Public  buildings 

(8)  Population 

(9)  Government 

(b)  Physical  features 

(1)  Rivers 

(2)  Creeks 

(3)  Deep  valleys 

(4)  Plains 

(5)  Heavy  forest  areas 

(6)  Mountains  or  great  hills 

(7)  Lakes 

(8)  Swamps 

It  may  be  difficult  to  leam  the  physical 
geography  of  the  entire  township,  for  neither 
pupils  nor  teacher  may  have  personal  knowl- 
edge of  the  facts,  and  the  subject  is  one  on 
which  it  is  impossible  to  read  in  books. 

Months  will  pass  in  learning  the  facts  re- 
lating to  local  geography  as  above  explained 
and  outlined,  and  this  is  well.  Relatively 
small  children  must  not  be  required  to  push 
their  investigations  far  beyond  their  im- 
mediate surroundings.  To  attempt  excur- 
sions too  far  distant  invites  confusion.  In- 
troduce larger  political  units  for  study  only 
when  the  boys  and  girls  are  prepared  by 
knowledge  of  the  township  to  understand  the 
step. 

TOXICOLOGY,  tohs  i  JcoVo  jy.  the  science 
that  treats  of  the  nature  of  poisons,  their 
effects  and  antidotes,  and  also  of  the  lesral 
questions  arising  from  poisoning.  See 
Porsox :  Axttdote. 


TOXINS 


3G05 


TRADE  ACCEPTANCE 


TOXINS,  tok'sinz,  poisonous  substances 
which  are  created  in  the  body  through  the 
agency  of  germs.  Under  certain  conditions 
they  act  upon  the  tissues  and  produce  symp- 
toms of  various  infectious  diseases,  such  as 
diptheria,  meningitis  and  lockjaw.  Anti- 
toxins (see  Antitoxin)  are  substances  which 
neutralize  the  effects  of  toxins.  See  Serum 
Therapy. 

TRACERY,  tra'sury,  in  architecture,  a 
term  which  denotes  the  ornamental  decora- 
tion used  most  frequently  in  a  window  or 
gallery.  Tracery  as  an  art  was  first  prac- 
ticed in  Gothic  architecture  during  the  first 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  France.  It 
was  developed  in  the  windows,  but  gradual- 
ly extended  to  almost  every  part  of  the 
•  church  buildings.  St3'les  varied  in  different 
ages  and  countnes  and  are  known  as  geo- 
metrical, flowing  and  flamboyant. 

TRACHEA,  traifkea,  the  windpipe  or 
princii^al  air  passage  of  the  hbdiy.  It  begins 
with  the  larynx,  through  Avhich  it  communi- 
cates with  the  mouth  and  nose,  and  it  ends 
with  the  bronchial  tubes,  through  which  it 
communicates  with  the  lungs.  In  man  this 
tube  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter and  four  and  one-half  inches  long,  and 
it  consists  of  an  external  fibrous  membrane 
and  an  internal  mucous  membrane.  En- 
closed between  these  membranes  there  are 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  rings  of  hard  carti- 
lage extending  only  around  the  front  and 
sides  of  the  trachea.  Between  the  ends  of 
these  rings  and  attached  to  them,  extending 
transversely,  is  a  layer  of  unstriped  muscle, 
whose  function  is  to  decrease  the  size  of  the 
tube,  by  drawing  the  ends  of  the  rings  nearer 
together. 

The  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane  is 
covered  by  a  layer  of  cells,  each  bearing  a 
tuft  of  tiny  hairs  or  cilia.  The  cilia  move 
in  such  a  direction  that  anything  resting  on 
them  is  drawn  toward  the  mouth.  In  this 
way  phlegm  is  removed.  Many  mucous 
glands  pour  their  secretion  upon  the  surface 
of  the  interior. 

TRACHEOTOMY,  tra  he  of  o  my.  See 
Croup. 

TRACHYTE,  tra'kite,  or  trak'it,  a  vol- 
canic rock  containing  potash,  feldspar,  lime, 
soda  and  hornblende,  together  with  an  oxide 
of  iron  and  manganese  and  a  few  other  min- 
erals in  small  proportion.  In  composition 
it  is  similar  to  syenite,  but  in  appearance 
resembles  porphyrj',  on  account  of  the  large 


crystals  of  feldspar  scattered  through  it. 
Trachyte  is  usually  light-colored,  but  it  may 
be  of'  any  shade  of  gray,  or  black.  The 
rocks  of  this  class  are  found  in  South  Dakota, 
Colorado,  Montana  and  Wyoming,  but  more 
generally  distributed  in  Europe,  where  they 
are  found  in  Italy,  France  and  Germany. 

TRACTARIANISM.  See  Oxford  Move- 
ment. 

TRACTION  ENGINE,  or  TRACTOR,  a 
self-propelling  steam  engine,  designed  to  haul 
and  operate  farm  machinery,  and  sometimes 
used  for  hauling  wagons  and  vans  over  com- 
mon roads.  The  tj^pical  traction  engine  was 
once  a  high  pressure  engine  with  a  horizontal 
boiler,  the  whole  device  mounted  upon  four 
wheels,  and  many  of  this  class  are  yet  found. 
The  rear  wheels  are  large  and  broad  and 
have  the  tires  constructed  to  prevent  slipping. 
The  forward  wheels  are  connected  with  a 
steering  apparatus.  The  engine  is  horizon- 
tal and  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  boiler. 
It  has  an  adjustable  gear,  by  which  it  can  be 
attached  to  the  rear  wheels  when  it  is  desired 
to  propel  the  engine  over  the  road.  When  the 
engine  is  used  for  operating  machinery,  this 
gear  is  detached. 

Since  the  perfection  of  the  internal  com- 
bustion engine,  many  types  of  tractor 
have  been  invented,  and  these  are  finding 
gi-eat  popularity  on  farms.  They  are  made 
on  the  automobile  principle,  with  bodies  de- 
signed for  various  kinds  of  farm  work. 
Those  most  generally  purchased  bj^  farmers 
use  a  less  expensive  fuel  than  gasoline — such 
as  kerosene  or  distillate  for  power.  The 
caterpillar  pattern  is  popular  with  many 
farmers  because  of  its  great  hauling  power, 
and  because,  like  the  tanks  used  in  the  World 
War,  it  can  pass  over  ground  where  tractors 
of  the  ordinary  tj'pe  cannot  be  used.  See 
Tank,  Armored. 

TRADE  ACCEPTANCE,  a  commercial 
term  used  to  designate  a  particular  form  of 
credit,  and  defined  as  "a  time  draft  or  bill 
of  exchange  drawn  by  the  seller  of  a  bill  of 
merchandise  on  the  buyer  for  the  purchase 
price  of  the  goods,  and  bearing  on  its  face 
the  signed  acceptance  of  the  buyer  with  the 
date  and  place  of  payment." 

To  illustrate:  A.  B.  Smith  &  Company  of 
Boston,  sell  to  J.  M.  Hardy  &  Company,  of 
Chicago,  a  bill  of  merchandise  amounting  to 
$2,500.  The  time  draft  for  this  amount  ac- 
companies the  bill  of  lading.  J.  M.  Hardy 
&  Co.  stamp  Accepted  across  its  face,  desig- 


TRADE-MARK 


3606 


TRAGEDY 


nate  the  date  and  place  of  payment  and  re- 
turn the  draft  to  A.  B.  Smith  &  Co.,  who 
may  hold  it  until  it  becomes  due  or  discount 
it  at  the  bank. 

Trade  acceptance  is  a  comparatively  new 
method  of  merchandising  in  America,  having 
originated  in  1917,  but  it  has  been  in  use  in 
other  countries  for  a  long  time.  It  is  in- 
dorsed by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the 
United  States,  the  American  Bankers  As- 
sociation and  the  National  Association  of 
Credit  Men.  It  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  makes 
for  better  business,  creates  a  better  class  of 
accounts,  insures  more  prompt  attention  to 
pa.yments  when  they  become  due,  and  extends 
the  use  of  negotiable  paper. 

TRADE'-MARK,  an  emblem  or  device, 
used  by  manufacturers  to  distinguish,  their 
productions.  Such  marks  have  been  in  ex- 
istence for  centuries,  but  it  is  only  in  recent 
years  that  they  have  been  legalized.  They 
may  now  be  registered  and  protected  in  all 
the  more  important  countries  and  even  by 
citizens  of  one  country  in  another.  Accord- 
ing to  the  trade-mark  statutes  of  the  United 
States  a  mere  descriptive  title  or  a  geograph- 
ical name  does  not  constitute  a  proper 
trade-mark ;  it  should  be  some  invented  Avord 
or  words,  distinctive  device,  figure,  emblem 
or  design,  or  a  written  signature.  Any  mark 
or  name  calculated  to  mislead  as  to  the  real 
name  or  origin  of  the  goods  is  invalid. 
Trade-marks  are  registered  at  the  Patent 
Office,  at  a  fee  of  $25,  the  right  running  for 
thirty  years. 

TRADE  UNIONS.  See  Labor  Organ- 
izations. 

TRADE  WINDS,  perpetual  or  constant 
winds  which  occur  in  all  open  seas  on  both 
sides  of  the  equator,  for  a  distance  of  about 
30°  north  and  south  of  it.  North  of  the 
equator  their  direction  is  from  the  northeast, 
with  occasional  slight  variations;  south  of 
the  equator  they  proceed  from  the  southeast. 
Their  importance  to  ocean  commerce  before 
the  days  of  steam  navigation  gave  them  the 
name  of  trade  winds. 

These  winds  result  from  the  differences  in 
temperature  between  the  equatorial  and 
polar  regions.  The  heat  of  the  ton-id  zone 
causes  the  air  there  to  become  lighter 
and  consequently  to  rise.  As  it  rises  the 
cooler  surface  air  north  and  south  of  it 
rushes  in  to  take  its  place.  This  move- 
ment of  air  is  constantly  going  on.  The 
oblique  direction  of  these  winds  is  accounted 


for  by  the  fact  of  the  earth's  rotation.  The 
belt  between  the  two  systems  of  trade  winds 
is  a  region  of  calm,  which,  in  the  days  of 
sailing  vessels,  was  dreaded  by  mariners. 
This  belt  shifts  somewhat  with  the  seasons. 

Over  the  land  areas  these  winds  are  dis- 
placed by  air  currents  caused  by  various  local 
conditions,  and  they  are  not  often  to  be 
identified  except  in  certain  localities  or  at 
certain  seasons.  In  some  regions,  however, 
they  have  marked  effect  upon  climate.  Laden 
with  moisture,  they  cross  South  America  and 
on  reaching  the  Andes  are  forced  upward  to 
levels  where  their  moisture  is  condensed  into 
rain.  In  crossing  Africa  they  precipitate 
their  moisture  in  the  eastern  highlands,  and 
by  the  time  they  reach  the  region  of  the 
Sahara  Desert  they  are  dry.    See  Wind. 

TRAFALGAR,  trahfalgali/,  a  low  and 
sandy  cape  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Spain, 
at  the  northwest  entrance  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  which  gave  its  name  to  one  of 
England's  most  brilliant  naval  victories. 
Off  this  cape  the  British  fleet  under 
Nelson  practically  destroyed  the  larger 
French  and  Sj^anish  fleet  under  the  command 
of  Villeneuve  and  Gravina,  on  October  21, 
1805. 

TRAGACANTH,  trag'  a  kanth,  a  gum 
produced  by  several  species  of  the  pulse  fam- 
ily, which  are  natives  of  certain  mountainous 
regions  of  Western  Asia.  The  gum  oozes 
through  cracks  in  the  bark  in  twisted  threads, 
which  are  yellowish  in  color,  and  tasteless. 
It  is  shaped  in  thin  cakes  for  the  market. 
In  phannacy  tragacanth  is  used,  because  of 
its  harmless,  gummy  quality,  to  shape  pills, 
and  it  is  also  made  into  lozenges  and  used  to 
relieve  sore  throat. 

TRAGEDY,  trafe  di,  in  a  broad  sense,  that 
form  of  the  drama  which  deals  with  a  serious 
theme  in  dignified  language  and  which  ends 
with  disaster  to  some  of  the  characters.  The 
word  tragedy,  from  the  Greek  for  goat  songs, 
was  first  applied  to  the  chants  at  the  festival 
of  Bacchus  sung  by  men  in  goatskins.  These 
chants  were  the  beginning  of  tragedy.  Among 
the  Greeks  tragedy  was  highly  developed, 
Aeschylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides  each  con- 
tributing to  its  growth.  The  Greeks  believed 
the  function  of  tragedy  to  be  the  "purifica- 
tion of  the  passions  through  the  arousing  of 
fear  and  pity."  Wherever  the  drama  has 
flourished,  tragedy  has  had  a  conspicuous 
place.  In  English  literature  Shakespeare's 
Hamlet,  Macbeth,  Othello,  Julius  Caesar  and 


TRAGOPAN 


3607 


TRANSEPT 


King  Lear  are  the  finest  examples  of  tragedy ; 
while  Racine's  Athalie  and  Goethe's  Faust 
stand  as  representative  masterpieces  of  the 
French  and  German  drama. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  to  re- 
place tragedy  with  lighter,  less  serious  plays, 
known  as  comedy  (which  see). 

TRAG'OPAN,  a  large  beautiful  bird  of  the 
pheasant  family,  native  to  the  Himalayan 
forests.  These  birds  have  variegated  plumage, 
and  the  males  are  characterized  by  blue,  horn- 
like protuberances  over  each  eye,  and  they 
have  large  throat  wattles.  The  birds  nest  in 
trees  and  feed  on  leaves,  fruit,  seeds  and  in- 
sects. The  eggs  are  white,  speckled  with 
lilac. 

TRAILING  AR'BUTUS.     See  Arbutus. 

TRAILL,  Catherine  Parr  (1802-1899), 
a  Canadian  author,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land. In  1832  she  maiTied  Lieutenant  Thomas 
Traill  and  emigrated  to  Canada,  settling  at 
Rice  Lake,  Ontario.  Mrs.  Traill  won  distinc- 
tion by  her  contributions  to  English  maga- 
zines and  her  other  literary  works.  She  is 
author  of  the  Backtooods  of  Canada,  Cana- 
dian Crusoes,  The  Female  Emigrants'  Guide, 
Lady  Mary  and  Her  Nurse,  and  Rambles  in 
the  Canadian  Forest.  Among  her  later  works 
of  distinction  are  Pearls  and  Pebbles;  or 
Notes  of  an  Old  Naturalist,  Cot  and  Cradle 
Stories,  and  Studies  in  Plant  Life  in  Canada. 

TRA'JAN  (IMarcus  Ulpius  Traianus) 
(51-117),  a  Roman  emperor,  famous  also  as 
a  military  leader.  He  was  bom  in  Spain, 
the  son  of  a  distinguished  Roman  commander 
under  Vespasian,  and  early  in  life  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  army  in  Spain,  in 
Syria  and  in  Germany.  In  97  he  was  adopted 
by  the  Emperor  Nerva,  and  the  following 
year  succeeded  him.  Much  of  his  reign  of 
nearly  twenty  years  was  spent  in  frontier 
campaigns.  Trajan  conquered  Dacia  and 
Armenia  and  made  them  Roman  provinces, 
and  reduced  Mesopotamia,  Arabia,  Syria  and 
Armenia  to  submission.  The  celebration  at 
Rome  of  one  of  his  triumphs  lasted  four 
months,  in  the  course  of  which  time  10,000 
gladiators  and  11,000  wild  beasts  met  death 
in  the  arena.  In  103  he  wrote  a  famous  letter 
to  Pliny,  governor  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia, 
directing  him  not  to  search  for  Christians, 
but  to  punish  those  brought  before  him,  and 
on  no  account  to  listen  to  anonymous  charges. 
Trajan's  rule  was  marked  by  a  number 
of  progressive  measures.  He  reduced  taxes 
and    improved    the    administration    of    the 


provinces,  stopped   abuses  of  the  law  and 
beautified  Rome. 

Arch  of  Trajan,  an  arch  at  Benevento 
erected  under  the  direction  of  Trajan  to 
celebrate  the  opening  of  a  new  road  to 
Brundisium.  The  structure  is  fifty  feet  high ; 
the  arch,  twenty-seven  feet.  It  is  of  white 
marble  and  is  decorated  with  relief  sculpture 
illustrating  Trajan's  victory  over  the  Da- 
cians.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
Roman  arch. 

Trajan's  Column,  a  beautiful  column 
erected  at  Rome  in  a.  d.  114  by  the  Roman 
Senate,  in  honor  of  Trajan,  who  had  achieved 
a  series  of  military  triumphs  for  the  empire. 
It  is  100  feet  high  and  is  covered  with  figures 
in  relief  illustrating  the  emperor's  victories. 
Inside  the  column  is  a  spiral  staircase  lead- 
ing to  the  top,  which  when  erected  held  a 
statue  of  Trajan.  This  figure  was  replaced- 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  a  statue  of  Saint 
Peter. 

TRANCE,  trails,  a  peculiar  condition  in 
which  the  person  affected  is  able  to  move 
about  and  speak,  but  is  not  under  conscious 
control  of  his  faculties.  When  the  trance 
stage  is  past  he  has  no  recollection  of  his 
acts  or  utterances  while  in  that  condition. 
Certain  drugs  have  the  power  of  putting  peo- 
l^le  in  the  trance  state,  and  the  condition  is 
also  induced  by  hypnotism  (which  see). 

TRANSCENDENTALISM,  tran  sen,  den' 
tal  iz'm,  a  system  of  philosophy  taught  by  a 
school  established  in  New  England  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  some  of 
the  foremost  American  thinkers  and  writers. 
The  beliefs  of  the  Transcendentalists  are 
hard  to  define,  since  they  had  no  fixed  creed. 
Their  leading  idea  was  the  supremacy  of  mind 
over  matter,  and  they  maintained  that  the 
truth  of  religion  did  not  depend  on  tradition 
or  historical  facts,  but  that  it  has  always  an 
unerring  witness  in  the  soul.  They  believed 
that  every  person  bom  into  the  world  was 
possessed  of  a  faculty  which  enabled  him  to 
perceive  spiritual  truth  when  this  truth  was 
clearly  presented.  A  Transcendental  club 
was  founded  by  George  Ripley  in  1836,  and 
the  school  was  the  outgrowth  of  this  move- 
ment. Among  the  most  eminent  Transcen- 
dentalists were  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  James 
Freeman  Clarke,  A.  Bronson  Alcott,  Theo- 
dore Parker  and  Margaret  Fuller. 

TRAN'SEPT.  In  many  Christian  churches 
the  central  floor  space  is  in  the  form  of  a 
Latin  cross,  with  the  central  aisle  leading  to 


TRANSFORMER 


3608 


TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY 


the  altar  and  a  broad  aisle  crossing  it  there. 
This  cross  aisle,  corresponding  to  the  arms  of 
the  cross,  is  called  the  transept. 

TRANSFORMER,  a  device  used  for 
changing  the  potential  of  electric  currents. 
The  transformer  in  most  common  use  changes 
the  current  from  a  high  to  a  low  potential  and 
is  a  form  of  induction  coil  (see  Induction 
Coil),  in  which  tlie  inner,  or  primarj',  coil 
consists  of  many  turns  of  fine  wire,  with  an 
outer,  or  secondarj',  coil  of  a  few  turns  of 
coarse  wire.  This  transformer  is  used  in 
electric  lighting,  for  reducing  the  potential 
of  the  current  as  it  is  taken  from  the  main 
wires  for  supplying  incandescent  lights  in 
buildings.    See  Electric  Light. 

TRANSFU'SION  OF  BLOOD,  an  opera- 
tion consisting  of  the  injection  into  one  per- 
son of  blood  taken  from  another.  The 
transference  may  be  direct,  that  is,  from  vein 
to  vein;  or  indirect,  with  the  blood  freed 
from  fibrin  and  injected  from  a  receptacle. 
The  operation  is  useful  in  restoring  the 
strength  of  a  person  who  has  suffered  loss 
of  blood  from  hemorrhage  or  surgical  opera- 
tions, and  in  cases  of  gas  poisoning,  bums, 
cancers  and  other  disorders  involving  irregu- 
lar blood  conditions. 

TRAN'SIT,  in  astronomy,  1,  the  passage 
of  a  heavenly  body  across  the  meridian  of 
any  place,  a  phenomenon  which  is  usually 
noted  by  a  transit  insti-ument.  The  deter- 
mination of  the  exact  times  of  the  transits  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  across  the  meridian  of  the 
place  of  observation  enables  the  astronomer 
to  ascertain  the  differences  of  right  ascen- 
sions, the  relative  situations  of  the  fixed  stars 
and  the  motions  of  the  sun,  the  planets  and 
the  comets,  in  respect  to  the  celestial  merid- 
ians. 2,  The  passage  of  one  heavenly  body 
over  the  disk  of  a  larger  one,  this  term  being 
usually  restricted  to  the  passage  of  the  in- 
ferior planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  over  the 
sun's  disk.  The  transits  of  Venus  are  of 
great  importance  in  astronomy,  as  they  af- 
ford the  best  means  of  determining  the  sun's 
parallax  and  consequently  the  dimensions  of 
the  planetai-y  system.  The  transits  of  Mer- 
cury are  of  far  less  astronomical  interest, 
the  planet  being  too  distant  from  the  earth 
to  be  used  for  purpose  of  measurement. 

Transit  Instrument,  an  astronomical  in- 

.  strument,   adapted  for  observing  the  exact 

time  of  the  passage  of  heavenly  bodies  across 

the  meridian.     It  consists  essentially  of  a 

telescope,  fixed  at  right  angles  to  a  horizontal 


axis,  which  latter  has  its  ends  directed  exactly 
to  the  east  and  west  points  of  the  horizon,  so 
that  the  optical  axis  of  the  telescope  may 
move  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  A  thread 
passing  across  the  center  of  the  object  glass 
parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  en- 
ables the  observer  to  note,  to  the  fraction  of 
a  second,  the  time  of  the  passage  of  a  star. 

TRANSIT  OF  VENUS.  See  Venus,  sub- 
head Transit  of  Venus. 

TRANSMIGRATION,  trans  mi  gra'  shun, 
OF  THE  SOUL,  or  METEMPSYCHOSIS. 
Many  persons  believe  that  after  the  body  dies 
the  soul  passes  into  some  other  material 
form — into  other  human  bodies,  or  even  into 
the  bodies  of  lower  animals.  In  the  teaching 
of  the  Brahmanic  Hindus,  the  doctrine  of 
transmigration  has  its  foundation  in  the 
belief  of  the  connection  of  all  living  beings 
and  of  the  gradual  purification  of  the  spirit- 
ual part  of  man  and  its  retura  to  the  common 
source  and  origin  of  all  things — God.  The 
Buddhists  accept  a  similar  doctrine,  but  with 
them,  the  ultimate  goal  of  the  soul  is  not 
absorption  by  the  Deity,  but  annihilation, 
Nir\^ana. 

Transmigration  also  formed  part  of  the 
teaching  of  the  early  Egyptian  priests.  The 
doctrine  probably  passed  from  Egypt  into 
Greece,  where  it  was  never  generally  current, 
but  was  confined  to  the  mysteries  and  some 
philosophic  systems.  It  occupied  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  system  of  Pythagoras  and  is 
supported  by  Plato  and  Plotinus.  Among 
the  Romans,  Cicero  alludes  to  this  doctrine, 
and  Caesar  informs  us  that  it  was  believed 
in  by  the  Gauls,  who,  he  says,  in  this  faith 
were  able  to  despise  death.  The  doctrine  is 
also  found  in  the  Talmud,  but  only  a  mi- 
nority of  the  Jewish  rabbis  appear  to  have 
adopted  it.  Various  heretical  Christian  sects 
have  held  this  doctrine,  and  it  was  also  pro- 
fessed by  the  Arabs  before  Mohammed. 

Many  men  of  profound  metaphysical 
genius,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  have 
supported  this  doctrine  and  attempted  to  give 
it  a  logical  or  scientific  basis,  and  for  a  large 
class  of  persons  it  has  a  strong  attraction. 

TRANS-SIBE'RIAN  RAILWAY,  a  line 
of  railway  connnecting  the  transportation 
systems  of  Russia  with  the  port  of  Vladi- 
vostok, on  the  Sea  of  Japan,  until  1918 
the  most  eastern  outpost  of  the  great  Russian 
empire.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway  was  the 
outgrowth  of  a  number  of  projected  plans 
for   establishing   means    of    communication 


TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY 


3609 


TRANSVAAL,  THE 


between  the  Russian  possessions  in  Europe 
and  Asia.  Its  construction  was  approved  by 
an  imperial  rescript  given  by  the  Czarovitch, 
later  Nicholas  II,  March  17,  1891.  Work 
was  commenced  immediately,  and  the  main 
line  was  completed  in  1905.     The  line  as 


of  normal  width  and  is  everj-where  sub- 
stantial. Drainage  is  secured  by  means  of 
iron  and  clay  pipes;  bridges  over  culverts 
and  small  streams  are  solidly  built  of  stone  or 
wood,  but  those  over  the  large  rivers  are  of 
the  best  patterns  of  steel  truss.    The  bridge 


originally  planned  was  divided  into  six  sec- 
tions, as  follows:  Western  Siberian,  from 
Chelyabinsk  to  Omsk,  878  miles;  Central 
Siberian,  from  Omsk  to  Irkutsk,  1,134  miles ; 
Trans-Baikal,  from  Myosava  to  Stretensk, 
685.  miles;  Amur,  from  Stretensk  to  Kha- 
barovsk, 1,373  miles ;  Usuri,  from  Khabarovsk 
to  Vladivostok,  474  miles.  The  Amur  sec- 
tion was  later  replaced  by  a  line  running 
farther  south  through  Manchuria,  known  as 
the  Manchurian  Section.  This  section  extends 
952  miles  from  Nagaden,  where  it  leaves  the 
main  line;  it  also  has  a  southern  branch 
extending  to  Port  Arthur,  thus  giving  the 
railway  access  to  a  port  which  is  free  from 
ice  the  entire  year.  The  distance  from 
Chelyabinsk  to  Vladivostok  is  3,961  miles, 
and  to  Port  Arthur,  4,238  miles.  The  entire 
system  has  6,800  miles  of  road. 

The  Western  Siberian  division  passes 
through  a  level  country  and  proved  easy  of 
construction,  but  the  Trans-Baikal  division 
presented  great  engineering  difficulties,  in 
the  way  of  apparently  bottomless  marshes 
and  mountainous  regions  requiring  steep 
gradients.  Owing  to  the  time  required  for 
constructing  the  road  around  Lake  Baikal, 
the  line  was  opened  to  traffic  before  this 
section  was  completed,  and  for  nearly  three 
years  cars  were  transferred  across  the  lake 
by  ferry.     The  roadbed  is  planned  for  rails 


over  the  Irtysh  River  is  nearly  four  miles 
long  and  is  considered  one  of  the  finest 
railway  bridges  in  the  world.  The  stations 
along  the  line  are  commodious  in  plan  and 
artistic  in  design;  they  are  placed  thirty- 
three  miles  apart. 

The  Trans-Siberian  railway  is  the  greatest 
project  of  the  kind  that  has  yet  been  carried 
to  successful  completion.  By  the  old  routes 
of  travel  it  required  forty-five  days  to  go  from 
Saint  Petersburg  to  Peking,  by  the  Suez 
Canal  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  or  thirty-five 
days  via  New  York,  San  Francisco  and  the 
the  Pacific.  By  the  Siberian  railway,  one 
can  go  from  Moscow  to  Vladivostok  in  nine 
days. 

During  the  World  War,  especially  follow- 
ing the  downfall  of  the  autocracy,  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  was  of  great  strategic 
importance.  After  the  Bolsheviks  seized  the 
power  in  Russia  the  Siberian  portion  of  the 
road  came  under  control  of  the  allies  and  the 
anti-Bolshevik  Siberians.  In  the  spring  of 
1919  an  allied  commission  was  formed  to 
rehabilitate  the  road.  A  prominent  member 
of  this  commission  was  the  American  railway 
expert,  John  F.  Stevens.     See  Siberia. 

TRANSVAAL,  trans' rahl,  THE,  a  prov- 
ince of  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  extending 
from  the  Limpopo  River,  on  the  north,  to  the 
Vaal  River,  on  the  south.     The  name  means 


TRANSVAAL,  THE 


3G10 


TRANSVAAL,  THE 


across  the  Vaal.  The  province  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Portuguese  East  Africa,  on 
the  west  by  Bechuanaland,  on  the  south  by 
Orange  Free  State  and  on  the  north  by 
Rhodesia.  With  an  area  of  110,426  square 
miles,  it  is  about  as  large  as  Nevada,  and 
about  four  times  the  size  of  the  Canadian 
province  of  New  Brunswick. 

The  People.  According  to  the  census  of 
1911,  the  Transvaal  had  in  that  year  1,686,212 
inhabitants,  of  whom  420,562  were  whites. 
The  majority  of  the  whites  are  Boers,  or 
South  African  descendants  of  the  early 
Dutch  settlers.  The  native  peoples  are 
tribes  of  the  Bantu  family,  and  are  of  the 
negroid  type.  Most  of  these  tribes  still 
maintain  their  customs  and  tribal  govern- 
ment, but  many  of  the  men  are  in  the  service 
of  the  colony  as  laborers  in  the  'mines  and  on 
fai-ms.  Pretoria,  the  capital,  and  Johannes- 
burg, the  mining  center  of  "Witwatei-srand, 
are  the  largest  cities. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Most  of  the  coun- 
try is  a  high,  undulating  plateau,  with  hills 
and  mountain  ranges  extending  through  the 
interior.  The  tableland  varies  in  height  from 
4,000  to  6,000  feet,  in  the  south  and  east,  to 
between  1,500  and  4,000  feet,  in  the  north. 
The  Drakensberg  Mountains  extend  north 
and  south  across  the  eastern  portion  and 
reach  an  altitude  of  8,700  feet  in  Mauchberg 
Mountain,  the  highest  peak.  The  boundary 
between  Transvaal  and  Portuguese  East 
Africa  is  f oiTued  by  the  Limpopo  Mountains. 
The  Witwatersrand  is  a  height  of  land, 
gradually  rising  to  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet, 
extending  across  the  country  approximately 
in  an  east  and  west  direction,  and  forming  the 
watershed  between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Vaal 
rivers.  The  southwestern  part  of  the  colony 
is  a  broad,  flat  plain.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Vaal  and  Limpopo,  with  their  tributaries. 

The  climate  is  temperate  and,  in  the  main, 
healthful.  It  is  characterized  by  intense 
heat  during  the  summer  and  by  heavy  rain- 
fall. These  conditions  produce  malaria  in 
the  lower  levels,  but  the  winter  months  are 
cool  and  invigorating.  The  annual  rainfall 
is  about  26  inches. 

Industries.  The  settlers  are  largely  en- 
gaged in  stock  raising  and  agriculture.  All 
of  the  cereals  and  most  vegetables  are  pro- 
duced in  pajing  quantities.  Com  and 
tobacco  are  the  chief  crops.  Extensive  graz- 
ing regions  adapt  this  country  to  stock  grow- 
ing,  and   large  numbers   of   cattle,   horses. 


sheep  and  goats  are  found  in  the  colony. 
The  mineral  wealth,  however,  is  the  chief 
source  of  income.  This  consists  of  gold, 
which  is  extensively  mined  on  the  Witwaters- 
rand, in  the  vicinity  of  Johannesburg  and 
Barborton,  and  of  diamonds,  which  are  ob- 
tained in  the  vicinity  of  Pretoria.  The  gold 
taken  from  the  mines  in  1918  was  valued  at 
over  $189,000,000 ;  and  the  annual  output  of 
diamonds  is  about  $20,000,000.  The  prov- 
ince has  over  2,300  miles  of  railways,  which 
connect  Pretoria,  Johannesburg,  Pietersburg 
and  Lej'denburg  with  the  chief  towns  in 
Orange  Free  State,  and  these  are  connected 
with  the  tmnk  line  of  the  Cape-to-Cairo 
Railway. 

Government.  The  executive  head  of  the 
government  is  the  administrator,  appointed 
by  the  governor-general  for  a  term  of  five 
years.  The  administrator  presides  over  the 
meetings  of  the  provincial  council,  composed 
of  thirtj'-six  members  elected  for  three-year 
terms.  An  executive  committee  of  four,  not 
necessarily  members  of  the  council,  acts  as 
cabinet  or  ministry.  The  provincial  council 
may  legislate  on  all  local  matters,  including 
finance,  elementary  education,  agriculture, 
roads  and  bridges,  and  municipal  institutions. 
All  legislation  is  subject  to  the  veto  of  the 
govemor-general-in-council.  The  pro\'ince 
sends  eight  senators  and  forty-five  represent- 
atives to  the  Union  Parliament. 

History.  The  Transvaal  was  settled  by 
Dutch  emigrants  from  Cape  Colony  in  1835 
and  1836.  These  people  emigrated  northward 
because  they  were  dissatisfied  with  the  British 
nile  in  Cape  Colony.  Because  of  wars  with 
the  native  tribes,  the  colonists  were  compelled 
to  apply  to  British  authorities  for  protection. 
This  was  granted,  and  it  became  necessary 
for  the  British  government  to  assume  control 
of  the  colonies,  in  order  to  preserve  peace 
with  the  native  tribes.  To  this  arrangement 
the  colonists  agreed  in  1877.  Afterwards 
they  protested  against  annexation  to  the 
British  dominions,  and  in  1880,  under  the 
Gladstone  ministry,  it  was  recommended  that 
the  political  independence  of  the  country  be 
restored.  The  South  African  Republic  was 
proclaimed  by  the  people,  in  December,  1880. 
In  1881  a  convention  was  signed  by  Great 
Britain,  granting  independence,  except  in 
external  affairs.  This  was  superseded  by 
another  convention  in  1884.  Meantime,  the 
Boers  were  preparing  for  war,  and  in  a  short 
campaign  they  administered  a  serious  defeat 


TRANSYLVANIA 


3611 


TRAPPING 


to  the  British  troops.  "With  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  Witwatersrand,  in.  1884,  there 
came  a  large  influx  of  foreigners,  who  settled 
about  the  mines.  The  discovery  of  diamonds 
also  caused  an  increase  of  foreign  population, 
and  the  Boers  became  alarmed  lest  these 
foreigners,  uitlanders,  outnumber  the  original 
citizens  and  assume  control  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  order  to  prevent  this,  the  South 
African  Republic  refused  to  grant  foreigners 
franchise  and  certain  other  rights,  except 
under  great  restrictions  and  difficulties. 

The  excess  led  to  another,  until  war  was 
declared  in  October,  1899.  The  Boers  were 
defeated,  and  the  South  African  Republic, 
under  the  name  of  Transvaal  Colony,  was 
annexed  to  the  British  dominions,  on  Septem- 
ber 1,  1900.  Until  1905  the  government  was 
under  the  control  of  an  administrator;  but 
local  government  was  being  reestablished,  and 
complete  self-government  was  restored  in 
1907,  when  the  first  responsible  ministry  took 
oSice.  On  May  31,  1910,  when  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  was  established,  the  Trans- 
vaal became  a  province. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     followingr 
titles   for   additional   information: 
Bantu  Pretoria 

Boer  South  African  War 

Cape-to-Cairo  RailwayUnion  of  South  Africa 
Johannesburg 

TRANSYLVANIA,  tran  sil  va'  nia,  from 
1867  to  1918  a  territory  belonging  to  the 
Hungarian  Crown,  occupying  the  southeast- 
ern corner  of  the  kingdom.  It  has  an  area  of 
21,518  square  miles.  On  the  east  and  south 
it  is  bordered  by  the  Carpathian  Mountains, 
which  separate  it  from  Rumania.  Rumania 
laid  claim  to  Transylvania  at  the  close  of  the 
World  War,  as  over  half  its  people  are 
Rumanians.  There  is  a  small  German  mi- 
nority. The  nobility  and  gentry,  however,  are 
Hungarian,  or  Magyar,  and  among  those 
classes  opposition  to  annexation  developed. 
The  disposal  of  the  region  was  to  be  decided 
by  the  peace  conference.  Transylvania  is 
generally  mountainous,  but  it  has  a  fertile 
soil  and  produces  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats, 
flax,  tobacco  and  fruits.  Stock  raising  is  a 
profitable  source  of  income,  and  horses  of 
superior  breed  are  exported.  The  region 
is  famous  for  its  scenery,  and  is  of  great 
interest  to  tourists  because  of  the  variety 
and  charm  of  the  peasant  life  and  costumes. 
See  Hungary;  Rumania;  World  War. 

TRAPDOOR  SPIDER,  a  name  given  to 
certain  spiders  that  have  the  habit  of  con- 
structing tubular  dwellings  in  the  ground. 


sometimes  a  foot  or  more  in  depth  and  an 
inch  or  so  in  diameter,  and  closed  by  a  kind 
of  hinged  door.  They  belong  to  warm  cli- 
mates and  are  found  in  Southern  Europe, 


TRAPDOOR  SPIDER  AND  HIS  HOME 
Western  North  America  and  North  Africa. 
The  dwelling;  is  lined  with  the  silky  substance 
spun  by  the  spider  and  the  hing^  of  the  door 
is  formed  of  the  same,  the  door  itself  being 
constructed  sometimes  of  earthy  particles 
connected  by  threads,  sometimes  of  leaves  and 
twigs.  When  the  spider  is  alarmed  it  runs 
into  its  tunnel  and  hangs  to  the  closed  door 
by  its  jaws.  These  spiders  are  large  and 
belong  to  the  tarantulas.  They  feed  upon 
wingless  insects,  and  sometimes  upon  earth- 
worms and  caterpillars. 

TRAPE'ZIUM,  according  to  Euclid,  a 
quadrilateral  having  two  of  its  sides  parallel. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  a  four-sided  figure 
having  none  of  its  sides  parallel.  The  area 
of  the  latter  figure  is  computed  by  multiply- 
ing the  length  of  the  diagonal  by  one-half  the 
sum  of  its  altitudes. 

TRAP'EZOID,  a  quadrilateral  of  which 
no  two  sides  are  parallel.  The  term  is 
usually  reversed  in  the  United  States  and 
made  to  mean  four-sided  figures  with  two 
parallel  sides.  With  the  latter  definition,  the 
area  is  equal  to  one-half  the  sum  of  the 
parallel  sides,  multiplied  by  the  altitude. 

TRAPPING,  a  sport  for  residents  of  rural 
districts  and  still  a  resource  of  the  hunter  in 
the  far  north,  is  the  taking  of  birds  and 
animals  by  traps,  or  snares,  instead  of  killing 
them  with  weapons.  Traps  are  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  the  nets  that  are  used  for  fish ; 
the  snares  and  box  traps,  to  imprison  birds 
and  quadrupeds;  the  dead-fall,  which  kills 
by  weight,  and  the  steel  spring  traps,  which 
in  various  sizes  are  used  for  all  animals,  from 
the  mouse  to  the  bear.  The  steel  trap  is  the 
most  cruel  of  all,  because  it  does  not  usually 
kill,  as  does  the  dead-fall,  nor  imprison  an 
animal,  as  the  box  traps  do.  but  catching  only 
by  the  leg,  holds  its  captives  in  suffering 


TRAPPISTS 


3612       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


till  they  are  killed  and  released  by  the 
trapper.  Some  animals  when  caught  by  a 
foot  in  a  steel  trap  will  release  themselves 
by  gnawing  off  the  imprisoned  member;  this 
is  most  common  among  muskrats,  and  ac- 
cordingly, hunters  set  their  traps  so  that  the 
animal  will  drown  soon  after  being  caught. 

TRAPTISTS,  a  branch  of  the  Cistercian 
Order  of  monks,  one  of  the  most  rigorous  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Order  had 
its  origin  in  France  in  1664,  but  was  expelled 
from  that  country  at  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  again  in  1903.  Their  monasteries 
are  found  in  different  localities  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa  and  North  America,  in  all  num- 
bering about  seventy-five,  with  a  membership 
of  4,000.  The  Trappist  is  under  a  vow  of 
perpetual  silence,  except  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  speak  to  guests.  He  sleeps  in  his 
habit,  removing  only  his  shoes;  much  time 
is  spent  in  meditation  and  prayer,  and  sev- 
eral hours  a  dav  at  hard  labor. 

TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS.  In 
the  following  pages  the  reader  is  invited  to 
go  in  imagination  to  four  of  the  most  interest- 
ing places  on  the  globe — Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  the  Lesser 
"West  Indies. 

Japan,  "Land  of  the  Rising  Sun."  As 
your  steamer  is  finishing  the  last  lap  of 
that  long  journey  across  the  Pacific,  you 
might  profitably  look  into  the  guide  book  for 
a  few  statistics  regarding  the  empire  j'ou  are 
approaching.  On  the  map  Japan  seems  to 
be  a  long  string  of  islands  standing  guard 
before  China  and  Manchuria.  No  wonder 
some  of  the  islands  are  mere  dots,  for  all 
told  they  number  over  three  thousand.  From 
the  most  northerly  of  the  Kuriles  to  the  ex- 
treme southern  point  of  Formosa  they  extend 
over  a  distance  of  something  like  two  thou- 
sand miles.  If  you  plucked  them  out  of  the 
Pacific  and  swung  them  across  the  United 
States,  with  the  Formosa  extremity  anchored 
at  San  Francisco,  the  Kuriles  would  land 
somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  Chicago.  We 
are  especially  interested,  however,  in  the  four 
large  islands  south  of  the  Kuriles,  for  they 
constitute  the  vital  part  of  the  empire.  Here 
live  the  Japanese  proper,  with  their  love  of 
art  and  beauty,  and  their  quaint  and  curious 
customs. 

The  traveler  bound  for  Japan's  largest  city 
and  seat  of  government — Tokyo,  on  Hondo 
Island — finds  himself  landed  at  Yokohama, 
eighteen  miles  to  the  south  of  the  great  city. 


Though  it  has  the  distinction  of  being  both 
the  capital  and  the  metropolis  of  an  empire, 
Tokyo  has  no  suitable  harbor  for  large  ships, 
and  Yokohama  serves  as  a  port.  It  is  no 
matter,  since  railroads  have  long  since  found 
their  way  into  the  Orient. 

As  you  step  off  the  steamer  dock  you  hear 
a  dozen  voices  clamoring  for  your  baggage, 
just  as  in  the  world  you  left  behind  you, 
.  but  what  you  imagine  to  be  the  equivalent  of 
"Cab  here,"  is,  no  doubt,  "Jinrikisha."  At 
least  you  soon  find  yourself  and  your  luggage 
safely  bestowed  in  one  of  these  interesting 
vehicles,  and  are  rapidly  borne  away  at  a 
dizzy  rate  of  speed  to  the  station  of  the 
"Tokyo  tram." 

The  trip  to  Tokyo  is  short.  The  train 
passes  quickly  through  a  level  country  de- 
voted chiefly  to  rice  fields  and  track  gardens, 
varied  now  and  then  with  a  quiet  village  of 
low  houses.  Arrived  in  the  capital  city,  you 
again  entrust  your  life  and  property  to  the 
tender  mercies  of  a  coolie,  and  are  "rik- 
ishawed"  through  a  labyrinth  of  streets  and 
allej^s  to  your  inn.  While  you  are  enjoying 
this  novel  ride  in  a  two-wheeled  peram- 
bulator, take  a  look  about  you. 

Tokyo  seems  a  hit  and  miss  city,  and  well 
it  may,  for  it  has  had  a  tempestuous  history. 
Born  a  fisherman's  hut  on  the  marshy  shore 
of  a  shallow  bay,  it  grew  into  a  fishing  village, 
expanded  from  that  into  the  residence  of  the 
shoguns,  and  finally  became  the  capital  of  the 
empire.  But  this  growth — from  a  hut  to 
a  city  of  over  2,000,000  inhabitants — was  not 
an  uninterrupted  affair,  for  earthquakes, 
fires,  floods  and  pestilence  have  repeatedly 
destroyed  thousands  of  homes  and  their  in- 
mates. Each  great  disaster  has  been  followed 
by  a  widening  of  some  of  the  ancient 
thoroughfares,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  defy  the  earthquakes  by  means  of  steel  and 
concrete  buildings  of  moderate  height.  How- 
ever, the  low,  broad  structures  are  still  bj^  far 
the  most  numerous,  and  there  are  no  sky- 
scrapers, or  tall  towers  or  lofty  spires.  The 
streets  are  a  bewildering  maze  of  the  old  and 
the  new,  for  the  widening  process  has  not 
progressed  far  enough  to  have  achieved  uni- 
formity. Except  in  the  newest  quarters, 
sidewalks  are  dispensed  with  as  a  useless 
luxury;  in  fact,  some  of  the  streets  are  so 
narrow  a  sidewalk  would  be  an  impossibility. 

The  area  of  ToIca'o,  according  to  a  recent 
city  handbook,  is  about  thirty  square  miles. 
It  must  have  been  difficult  to  estimate  this 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS       3613        TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


area,  because  of  the  persistence  of  the  suburbs 
in  nosing  their  way  into  the  heart  of  the  city. 
A  suburb,  as  every  "Westerner  knows,  is  sup- 
posed to  grow  up  and  settle  down  on  tne 
outside  of  a  city,  but  Tokyo  suburbs  have 


A    JAPANESE    LITTLE    MOTHER 

a  way  of  maintaining  themselves  on  the  inside. 
However,  suburb  or  city,  it  is  all  very 
fascinating  to  the  traveler  perched  on  the 
high  seat  of  the  'rikisha,  watching  the  swift- 
footed  coolie  thread  his  way  through  the 
crowded  streets. 

The  'rikisha  men  are  by  no  means  the  only 
biped  burden  bearers.  Two-wheeled  carts 
containing  merchandise  of  every  description, 
and  drawn  by  the  head  of  the  family,  are 
everywhere  seen.  A  willing  w'fe — helpmate 
in  a  literal  sense — trudges  behii^d  and  pushes, 
while  the  young  sou  and  heir  placidly  sleeps 
on  his  mother's  back.  Porters  with  incred- 
ibly heavy  loads  on  their  shoulders,  street 
peddlers,  bicyclers,  now  and  then  a  motor- 
cycler,  laborers,  school  children,  tourists  and 
their  guides,  shoppers,  beggars — in  fact,  a 
throng  as  hit  and  miss  as  the  city  itself 
presents  a  perpetual  moving  picture  to  the 
onlooker.  In  addition,  there  are  a  few  street 
cars,  but,  as  one  experienced  traveler  has  said, 
"It  gives  us  a  shock  every  time  we  meet  a 
street  car  in  Tokyo;  they  are  abominably 
out  of  place,  exasperatingly  deliberate,  us- 
ually overcrowded,  and  astonishingly  cheap. 
The  picturesque,  speedy  and  exclusive  'rik- 
isha is  comparatively  expensive,  but  let  us 


liope  it  will  successfully  resist  its  rival,  for 
a  Japanese  city  without  it  would  be  indeed 
a  sorry  place." 

Having  had  an  interesting  journey  through 
Tokyo  streets,  you  will  next  seek  the  hospi- 
tality of  a  Tokj'o  hotel.  One  may  put  up  at 
any  of  several  hotels  conducted  on  the  West- 
ern plan,  but  who  wishes  to  travel  across  the 
Pacific  for  the  privilege  of  doing  what  may  be 
done  at  home?  Life  in  a  Japanese  hotel 
is  brimful  of  interest,  and  its  discomforts 
depend  entirely  on  one's  mental  attitude. 
When  you  enter  j-ou  take  off  your  shoes,  for 
the  Japanese  are  extreme!}''  particular  about 
having  dirt  tramped  into  their  spotless  houses. 
Provided  with  house  slippers  on  the  sandal 
order,  you  are  conducted  to  a  room  containing 
no  chairs,  no  bed,  no  dresser,  no  carpet,  no 
writing  desk — not  anything  a  hotel  room  is 
supposed  to  contain.  A  mat  or  two,  a  screen, 
a  picture — that  is  about  all  the  furniture. 

You  aiTange  yourself  on  a  mat,  tailor- 
fashion,  and  make  a  desperate  effort  to  train 
your  legs  to  assume  the  folded  attitude,  for  so 
long  as  you  are  a  guest  in  a  Japanese  hotel 
you  cannot  sit  on  a  chair.  There  is  none  to 
sit  on.  A  dainty  maid  enters  the  room  and 
proceeds  to  make  j'ou  comfortable  with  fire 
and  food.  Furnaces  are  unknown  in  true 
Japanese  houses,  but  heat  is  carried  about 
from  place  to  place  in  a  charming  firepot. 
This  receptacle  is  partly  filled  with  ashes,  in 
the  center  of  which  there  is  heaped  up  a 
miniature  volcano  of  hot  charcoal.  A  dining 
table,  consisting  of  a  small  tray  elevated  on 
legs  a  few  inches  high,  is  brought  in  and 
spread  with  food.  You  eat,  perhaps,  fish, 
soup,  boiled  bamboo  shoots,  sweet  bean  cakes 
and  rice,  and  everything  must  be  conveyed 
to  the  mouth  with  chop  sticks.  Knives,  forks 
and  spoons  are  nowhere  in  evidence.  The 
meal  is  finished  off  with  a  few  bowls  of  tea, 
brewed  through  the  agency  of  a  gridiron 
placed  over  the  charcoal  volcano,  and  a  tiny 
teapot. 

Going  to  bed  also  has  its  novelties.  The 
dining  tray  is  removed  after  the  meal  is 
concluded,  and  the  room  is  converted  into  a 
sleeping  chamber  by  the  simple  process  of 
having  the  bed  brought  in.  A  Japanese 
"boy,"  who  may  be  anywhere  from  twenty-one 
to  seventy-five  years  old,  takes  it  out  of  a 
compartment  in  the  wall,  and  the  dainty  maid 
makes  it  up.  It,  by  the  way,  consists  of  three 
thick  pads  and  a  sheet  on  which  you  lie,  and 
two  hea%'y  quilts  which  lie  upon  you,  the 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3(il4       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


quilt  next  above  you  being  lined  with  a  sheet. 
The  pillow  is  a  sort  oi'  liard  roll  ui)on  which 
the  tourist's  head  somewhat  uneasily  rests. 

It  is  a  part  of  the  maid's  duty  to  disrobe  the 
guest  at  bedtime,  and  array  the  drowsy  one  in 
a  picturesque  kimono.  At  any  rate,  she  will 
remove  as  many  of  your  garments  as  your 
Western  ideas  of  propriety  will  permit. 

Throughout  all  of  your  sojourn  in  the 
hotel  you  will  be  impressed  by  the  extreme 
courtesy  of  the  servants.  One  and  all,  they 
bow  down  before  the  guests  with  untiring 
grace  and  agility.  If  you  are  fortunate 
enough  to  be  entertained  in  a  private  home 
you  will  learn  as  never  before  what  true 
hospitality  means.  The  Japanese  will  accept 
utter  strangers  into  their  homes  and  urge 
them  to  remain  indefinitely.  Politeness  seems 
to  be  an  inborn  trait,  and  it  is  reflected  in  the 
serene  and  peaceful  countenances  of  these 
interesting  little  people.  It  is  said  that  in 
some  of  the  remoter  villages  children  on  first 
viewing  American  or  European  travelers  cry 
out  in  terror  at  the  cross  looks  of  the 
strangers.  Even  a  funeral  is  carried  on  with 
cheerful  decorum,  for  it  is  a  breach  of  eti- 
quette to  depress  the  world  with  signs  of 
grief. 

Westerners  marvel  especially  at  the  polite- 
ness of  the  train  officials.  A  traveler  relates 
that  while  he  was  journeying  from  Tokyo  to 
Xagoya  he  noticed  the  conductor  bowing  to 
the  passengers  in  the  coach,  and  making  a 
sort  of  sucking  sound  by  di'awing  in  his  lips. 
(This  practice  of  hissing,  by  the  way,  is  a 
common  sign  of  etiquette  in  Japan.)  The 
passengers  in  turn  bent  their  heads  and  began 
to  make  the  same  noise,  "as  if  evers'body 
had  begun  to  eat  soup."  After  a  few  minutes 
everyone  sat  at  attention,  while  the  conductor 
made  some  kind  of  an  announcement  in  a 
dignified  voice,  and  bowed  himself  out.  On 
being  asked  the  meaning  of  this  strange  per- 
formance, a  native  seated  next  to  the  West- 
erner told  him  that  the  conductor  had  merely 
announced  the  next  station. 

Traveling  on  the  train  in  the  mikado's 
realm  has  its  joys,  but  the  ideal  way  to  see 
the  country  is  to  journey  in  'rikishas.  Run- 
ners may  be  procured  for  a  reasonable  sum, 
and  they  will  literally  run  for  days  in  rain  or 
shine,  over  the  worst  roads,  and  iicver  seem 
to  tire  or  grow  irritable.  The  countrs'  roads 
in  Japan  are  unspeakably  bad,  but  the 
'rikisha  men  are  a  cheerful  and  a  "husky"  lot. 
The   country    scenery   possesses    wonderful 


charm.  Japan  is  a  land  of  mountains,  green 
vales,  lakes,  cascades,  rushing  streams,  ravines 
and  lovely  woodlands.  You  may  wander 
through  endless  villages,  always  quaint  and 
clean,  always  filled  with  the  same  happy, 
contented  people.  Sometimes  you  come  upon 
acres  of  mulberry  bushes,  and  again  there 
seems  to  be  no  end  of  rice  fields.  The  way- 
side teahouses,  whose  daintiness  and  beauty 
must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated,  are  numerous 
and  inviting,  and  there  are  unknown  numbers 
of  shrines  and  temples,  of  artistic  interast 
even  to  the  skeptical  foreigner.  Probably 
the  average  traveler  leaves  the  island  empire 
with  a  very  definite  impression  of  beauty. 
As  his  steamer  sails  away  and  he  looks  regret- 
fully back  there  meets  his  eye  the  cloud-kissed 
summit  of  the  ethereal  "Peerless  ^Mountain" — 
Fujiyama;  so  to  the  last  Japan  weaves  its 
spell  of  enchantment. 

In  and  About  Manila.  Not  long  ago  an 
enterprising  hemp  buyer  was  conversing  with 
a  group  of  travelei'S  on  board  a  steamer  ap- 
proaching the  Philippines.  "When  I  first 
went  to  Manila,"  he  said,  "back  in  the  eighties, 
the  place  was  nothing  but  a  death  trap.  Now 
it  is  a  health  resort.'.'  The  journals  of  those 
courageous  Americans  who  took  up  the  task 
of  remaking  the  islands  after  the  Spanish- 
American  War  bear  out  the  hemp  buyer's 
testimony :  they  are  full  of  references  to  heat, 
disease,  insects,  poverty  and  squalor.  True, 
the  climate  of  these  Oriental  lands  cannot  be 
changed,  but  after  viewing  the  results  of 
twenty  years  of  colonization  one  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  prevalence  of  disease  in 
the  Far  East  is  more  a  matter  of  unsanitary 
conditions  than  of  climate. 

It  is  a  beautiful  and  healthful  city  that 
lies  in  dim  outline  against  the  distant  horizon, 
as  our  steamer  crosses  the  entrance  of  Ma- 
nila Bay.  The  bay  is  almost  large  enough 
to  be  called  a  sea,  though  it  is  land-locked, 
and  in  stormy  weather  its  waves  are  like  those 
of  the  ocean.  As  we  draw  nearer  we  can 
mjike  out  the  picturesque  walls  of  Old  Ma- 
nila— Intramuros  it  is  called — the  suburbs 
scattered  along  the  shore,  and  in  the  back- 
ground a  semi-circle  of  lovely  mountains. 
A  river — the  Pasig — winds  down  to  the  bay, 
separating  Intramuros  from  the  suburban 
sections,  and  when  our  steamer  comes  to  the 
dock  we  notice  at  the  mouth  of  the  stream  a 
low  fortress.  This  is  Fort  Santiago,  where  in 
the  days  before  the  war,  the  Spanish  were 
accustomed  to  imprison  Filipino  rebels. 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3G15       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


The  aspect  of  the  old  walled  city  is  charm- 
ing, for  the  work  of  cleaning  up  to  which  the 
Americans  applied  themselves  so  vigorously 
has  not  dejDrived  the  city  of  its  Spanish 
character.  The  picturesque  walls  and  stately 
gates  are  there  intact,'  except  for  a  short 
section  along  the  Pasig,  and  the  foul-smell- 
ing, stagnant  moats,  once  the  breeding  places 
of  hordes  of  mosquitoes,  have  been  drained 
and  filled  up.  In  their  stead  are  charming 
parked  areas  and  driveways.  Within  the 
walls  we  find  the  churches,  monasteries, 
convents,  public  buildings  and  homes  of 
the  Spanish  regime — attractive  examples  of 
Spanish  architecture  modified  by  a  tropical 
climate.  As  a  protection  against  the  heavy 
downpours  of  the  wet  season  the  windows 
are  often  shaded  by  overhanging  eaves  and 
canopies,  and  channing  galleries  are  built 
around  the  buildings  to  keep  out  the  intense 
heat.  Ventilation  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
the  tropics,  and  this  is  assured  by  wide  win- 
dows, high  ceilings  and  sliding  screens  for 
walls.  Another  interesting  feature  of  the 
typical  Filipino  building  is  the  eonch-shell 


with  the  finest  in  Europe  or  America.  A 
traveler  who  visited  Manila  shortly  after  the 
close  of  the  war  of  1898  tells  of  his  experi- 
ences in  the  "best  hotel"  of  that  period. 
Hopefully  viewing  the  bills  of  fare  for 
breakfast,  he  "passed  up"  the  first  two  items 
— watery  gruel  and  Oriental  beefsteak — and 
called  for  an  omelette.  There  were,  by  the 
way,  six  e^^^:^  dishes  listed,  and  he  felt  safe 
in  making  this  choice.  One  can  imagine  his 
feelings  when  the  grinning  Chinese  waiter  re- 
marked, "No  have  got  eggs."  In  those  daj's 
ice  was  a  commodity,  rare  and  precious,  and 
about  the  only  safe  beverage  for  a  white  man 
to  drink  was  American  beer.  Through  the 
modernization  of  Manila  the  Westerner  now 
has  practically  all  the  comforts  of  home. 

Not  the  least  of  the  wonders  of  the  bay 
shore  is  the  wide,  handsome  boulevard  which 
skirts  the  sea  for  fifteen  miles,  from  the 
Luneta  to  the  naval  station  of  Cavite.  The 
Luneta,  just  outside  the  walls  of  Old  Manila, 
is  an  oval-shaped  pleasure  ground,  the  chief 
promenade  of  the  residents  during  the  Span- 
ish regime.    It  has  been  enlarged  and  beauti- 


CLEAN.   SANITARY  LIVING  TAUGHT  BY  AMERICANS 


wiudoAv  pane.  The  soft  translucency  of 
this  material  shuts  out  the  fierce  glare  of  the 
sun  and  provides  a  soothing,  mellow  light. 

The  Americans  have  performed  wonders 
with  the  bay  shore.  Large  sections  have  been 
reclaimed  from  the  sea,  and  a  group  of  stately 
government  buildings  and  a  mammoth  hotel 
have  risen  on  the  new  sites.  The  new  Manila 
Hotel,  fronting  the  bay,  is  worthy  to  rank 


fied,  and  is  still  a  favorite  resort,  especially 
in  the  evening,  when  the  bands  play.  The 
new  hotel  is  on  a  site  adjoining  the  Luneta. 
About  seven  miles  to  the  south,  along  the  now 
boulevard,  a  polo  club  house  has  been  erected, 
and  the  polo  grounds  are  among  the  finest 
to  be  seen  anywhere. 

The  commercial  and  industrial  center  of 
the  Filipino  capital  is  called  Binondo.     It 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3616        TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


lies  directly  across  the  Pasig  from  Intra- 
muros,  and  is  a  busy  place,  with  its  tobacco 
factories,  business  bouses  of  the  trading  com- 
panies, and  shojis.  The  Escolta,  a  narrow 
street  that  nevertheless  seems  to  be  Manila's 
Broadway,  is  a  most  interesting  place.  Elec- 
tric cars  are  whizzing  by,  and  everything 
suggests  American  hustling  energy,  but  one  is 
occasionally  brought  sharply  back  to  the  lazy 
past.  There  goes  a  slow-moving  carabao 
hitched  to  a  two-wheeled  cart.  The  driver,  a 
Filipino  lad  in  picturesque  red  trousers  and 
big  straw  hat,  acts  as  if  time  and  tide  would 
wait  for  man  indefinitely.  At  the  time  of  the 
American  occupation  these  carabaos — water 
buffalos — were  prominent  features  of  Fili- 
pino street  life.  Though  they  had  the  habit 
of  knocking  off  from  work  whenever  a  near- 
by pond  or  moat  proved  inviting,  their  de- 
liberate waj's  were  not  objectionable  to  their 
equally  lazy  masters. 

Tondo,  adjoining  Binondo  on  the  north,  is 
the  suburb  of  the  poorer  classes.  When  the 
Americans  occupied  the  islands  they  found 
unspeakably  bad  conditions  in  the  sections 
occupied  by  the  laborers.  Houses  were 
crowded  together  without  any  regard  for  air 
and  light,  garbage  and  waste  accumulated  in 
the  streets  and  under  the  houses,  there  was  no 
drainage  or  sewerage  system,  and  drinking 
water  was  obtained  from  infected  sj^rings  or 
filthy  canals.  The  accompanying  picture 
gives  one  an  idea  of  results  of  the  sanitary 
campaign.  The  native  houses,  made  of  bam- 
boos and  grass,  are  placed  far  enough  apart 
to  give  good  air  and  light,  and  a  modern 
sewage  and  dumping  system  takes  care  of  ref- 
use. The  people  live  in  clean,  wholesome 
quarters,  and  have  been  taught  the  basic 
principles  of  sanitation.  The  government 
filled  in  the  disease-breeding  sources  of  water 
and  sunk  hundreds  of  artesian  wells,  so  that 
there  is  an  abundance  of  pure  water  for 
everyone. 

In  San  Miguel,  built  on  an  island  formed 
by  an  arm  of  the  Pasig,  one  may  see  numer- 
ous attractive  homes  of  the  wealthy  class. 
Their  houses  would  be  considered  sparsely 
furnished  by  the  average  Westerner,  but  this 
sparseness  is  a  concession  to  the  heat.  The 
floors  are  made  of  huge  strips  of  rosewood, 
mahogany  and  other  tropical  woods,  and  are 
kept  in  a  high  state  of  polish  by  Filipino 
"boys."  Rugs,  draperies,  upholstered  furni- 
ture and  bric-a-brac  have  no  place  in  a 
Filipino  home.     Visitors  from  the  Western 


world  sometimes  find  that  it  takes  time  to 
appreciate  the  virtues  of  a  Filipino  bed.  It 
has  been  called  various  names,  including 
rack,  implement  of  torture  and  inspirer  of 
insomnia,  but  it  differs  from  an  ordinary 
bed  only  in  such  trifling  details  as  the  lack  of 
blankets,  springs,  mattress  and  slats.  In  a 
climate  where  man  fights  a  drawn  battle  with 
insects,  heat  and  dampness,  an  American  bed 
would  be  an  absurdity.  A  Filipino  bed,  there- 
fore, is  a  four-poster  frame  on  which  is 
stretched  a  piece  of  rattan.  The  latter  is 
covered  with  two  sheets  and  the  whole  is 
draped  with  mosquito  netting,  to  protect  the 
occupants  from  gnats,  cockroaches  and  other 
undesirable  visitors.  As  the  beds  are  often 
elaborately  carved  they  have  artistic  as  well 
as  practical  value. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  places  in  the 
vicinity  of  Manila  is  the  so-called  summer 
capital — Baguio.  Of  this  wonderful  highland 
region,  a  mile  above  the  sea,  one  Manila  resi- 
dent has  written  :  "The  heavenly  coolness,  the 
sweet  pine  air  and  the  exquisite  scenery  give 
you  new  life  after  the  years  spent  in  the  heat, 
glare,  dust  and  smells  of  the  lowlands."  Dur- 
ing the  hot  season — March,  April  and  May — 
rich  and  poor  alike  hasten  to  this  "Paradise 
among  the  pines,"  where  the  mean  tempera- 
ture for  the  warmest  month  is  only  64°,  and 
the  thermometer  never  climbs  above  80°.  One 
of  the  finest  highways  in  the  world,  the  fa- 
mous Benguet  Road,  winds  in  and  out  among 
the  mountain  gorges  and  permits  you  to  en- 
joy an  unsurpassed  motor  trip  from  the  low- 
lands into  cloudland.  This  highway  was  con- 
structed by  the  American  government  at  a 
cost  of  several  million  dollars.  On  the  cool 
plateau  a  small  town  has  arisen.  Besides  the 
buildings  which  house  the  government  offices, 
there  have  been  constructed  an  army  post,  a 
government  hospital,  a  great  observatory, 
schools,  churches,  rest  houses,  golf  links  and 
polo  grounds,  baseball  fields,  tennis  courts, 
and  many  private  residences.  It  takes  about 
eight  hours  to  make  the  trip  from  Manila  to 
Baguio,  when  one  travels  by  train  and  auto- 
mobile. 

About  a  day's  sail  from  Manila  is  another 
interesting  spot,  the  leper  colony  on  the 
beautiful  island  of  Culion.  Here  have  been 
constructed  hundreds  of  concrete  houses  for 
the  patients,  besides  a  town  hall,  a  school, 
dining  halls,  hospitals,  stores  and  warehouses. 
There  are  modern  lighting,  water  and  sewer- 
age systems,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS       3617       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


have  their  own  police  force.  Formerly  victims 
of  leprosy  were  permitted  to  mingle  freely 
with  the  non-leprous  inhabitants  of  all  the  is- 
lands, but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  scourge 
has  been  conquered  even  in  the  provinces 
where  it  once  raged  unchecked.  In  all,  be- 
tween 8,000  and  10,000  victims  of  the  disease 
have  been  sent  to  Culion,  and  a  few  have  been 
completely  cured. 

Before  we  say  farewell  to  the  delights  of 
the  Philipijines,  it  might  be  profitable  to 
get  a  bird's-eje  view  of  the  archipelago  as 
a  whole.  There  are  more  than  3,000  islands 
in  the  group,  but  Luzon,  on  which  Manila  is 
situated,  and  Mindanao  have  together  more 
area  than  all  the  others  combined.  In  fact, 
the  greater  part  of  the  total  area  of  the 
archipelago  is  condensed  into  eleven  islands. 
Much  has  been  said  about  the  heat  of  the  re- 
gion, but  this  is  offset  by  the  sea  breezes  that 
blow  in  between  and  on  the  land  divisions; 
another  advantage  is  the  fact  that  the  sea- 
sons of  greatest  heat  and  greatest  rainfall 
are  not  identical.  Beautiful  mountains  are 
found  on  all  of  the  larger  islands,  some  reach- 
ing heights  of  10,000  feet.  Tropical  vegeta- 
tion abounds,  and  adds  to  the  chai-m  of  the 
scenery.  Now  that  American  colonization 
of  the  islands  has  expelled  disease,  discom- 
fort and  barbarism  from  the  greater  part  of 
the  archipelago,  the  Philippines  ought  to  be- 
come a  popular  winter  resort  for  Western 
tourists. 

Hawaii,  "Paradise  of  the  Pacific." 
Probably  nobody  ever  undertakes  to  write 
of  the  glories  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  with- 
out quoting  Mark  Twain's  famous  descrip- 
tive phrase:  "The  loveliest  fleet  of  islands 
that  lie  anchored  in  any  ocean."  Another 
enthusiastic  traveler  says,  "Conjure  up  a 
memory  of  a  perfect  May  day,  when  sunshine, 
soft  air  and  smiling  Nature  combine  to  make 
the  heart  glad,  then  multiply  that  day  by 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five,  and  the  result 
is  a  round  year  of  Hawaii.  The  Hawaiian 
Islands  are  semitropical,  radiant  and  beau- 
tiful." 

Into  this  land  of  blue  skies  and  sunshine 
let  us  journey  in  imagination.  Five  days 
out  of  San  Francisco  the  cry  is  heard,  "Dia- 
mond Head  in  sight."  This  is  a  point  of 
land  sharply  projecting  into  the  sea  from  the 
island  of  Oahu,  on  which  the  capital  city  of 
Honolulu  is  situated.  Diamond  Head  is  four 
miles  southeast  of  Honolulu,  and  is  over  700 
feet  in  height.     At  its  foot  is  the  world's 

227 


most  famous  beach,  Waikiki,  where  surf 
riding,  boating  and  bathing  are  offered  with 
the  acme  of  enjoyment.  We  eagerly  lean 
over  the  deck  rail  as  ovir  ship  speeds  by,  and 
try  to  make  out  the  lovely  villas  hidden  in 
the  verdure  along  the  shore. 

Then,  almost  before  we  know  it,  we  are  in 
the  little  harbor  of  Honolulu.     Surely  there 
has  been   some  mistake!     Over  a  hundred 
automobiles  are  parked  on  the  water  front 
awaiting  the  incoming  vessels,  and  we  can  see 
paved  streets,   electric  cars,  fine  buildings, 
telegraph  poles — in  fact,  all  the  unmistak- 
able "earmarks"  of  a  modem  city.    No,  there 
is  no  mistake.     Honolulu,  with  over  68,000 
inhabitants,  is  as  ujD-to-date  as  any  other  city 
under  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  and  it  is  far 
more  beautiful  than  most  American  towns  of 
its  size.    Where  else  does  one  find  such  luxury 
of    vegetation?      Walls    and    verandas    are 
clothed  in  flowers  of  every  hue,  superb  palm 
trees  grow  everywhere,  and  one  lives  con- 
stantly in  a  riot  of  color  and  perfume.    The 
private  dwellings  of  Honolulu  are  not  un- 
worthy of  their  exquisite  background.     Al- 
though the  sugar  kings  are  beginning  to  build 
mansions  as  stately  as  those  of  Pasadena  or 
Newport,  even  the  less  pretentious  Hawaiian 
homes  are  picturesque  and  charming.     The 
Hawaiian  lanm  of  the  better-class  residence 
is  well  worth  special  mention.     It  is  a  com- 
bination   of    veranda    and    drawing    room, 
roofed  with  a  trellis,  carpeted  with  mats,  and 
furnished    with    hammocks,    wicker    chairs, 
Chinese  lanterns  and  similar  accessories  to 
supreme  comfort  and  enjoyment.    To  recline 
and  dream  in  one  of  these  chairs  on  a  balmy 
day  (every  day  is  balmy,  for  that  matter)  is 
the  acme  of  earthly  joy  to  a  worn  and  hag- 
gard tourist. 

We  must  not,  however,  spend  too  much 
time  day  dreaming  in  a  lanai.  Let  us  jour- 
ney to  some  of  the  points  of  interest  in  this 
fascinating  country.  Strangely  enough,  there 
is  only  one  good  harbor  in  the  Hawaiian 
archipelago,  aside  from  that  in  which  our 
steamer  docked.  That  one  is  Pearl  Harbor, 
about  six  miles  west  of  Honolulu,  and  it  is 
well  worth  inspecting.  Imagine  a  beautiful 
inland  lake,  measuring  six  miles  by  three, 
and  divided  into  four  landlocked  basins  by 
peninsulas  and  a  pretty  little  island.  Before 
the  entrance  Nature  placed  a  coral  reef,  as  if 
to  show  what  she  could  do  in  the  way  of 
creating  a  safe  and  attractive  harbor.  The 
United  States  government,  gratefully  accept- 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3618        TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


ing  this  ideal  site  for  a  naval  station,  has 
opened  a  channel  through  the  reef,  and  has 
constructed  a  huge  drydock,  barracks,  repair 
shops,  hospitals  and  other  structures  neces- 
sary to  a  first-class  naval  base.  In  the  quiet 
water  of  Pearl  Harbor  the  entire  United 
States  fleet  could  find  safe  anchorage. 

Another  kind  of  scene  greets  us  at  Waikiki 
Beach.  Here,  as  Mark  Twain  says,  "smoke- 
dried  children  clad  in  nothing  but  sunshine" 
sport  in  the  waves,  and  the  air  is  filled  with 
the  meiTy  cries  of  the  surf  riders.  The  natives, 
who  learn  to  swim  before  they  can  talk,  ride 
the  breakers  on  boards,  but  we  who  are  more 
timid  will  try  one  of  those  long,  narrow 
canoes.  We  will  not  capsize,  for  our  slender 
craft  is  protected  by  heavy  outriggers,  fixed 
to  the  ends  of  the  beams.  The  boatmen  pad- 
dle out  to  a  smooth  spot  in  the, sea,  and  there 
wait  for  a  roller  big  enough  to  try  the  mettle 
of  the  crew.  At  last  a  mountainlike  breaker 
comes  toward  us,  and  soon  we  are  rushing 
shorewards  on  its  crest,  enjoying  the  swiftest 
and  most  exciting  "chute  the  chutes"  known 
to  mankind. 

Waikiki  possesses  an  aquarium  that  con- 
tains specimens  of  all  the  fishes  found  in 
Hawaiian  waters.  They  show  all  the  colors 
of  the  rainbow  and  represent  an  infinite  va- 
riety of  size  and  shape. 

Another  interesting  excursion  is  the  motor 
trip  to  the  Pali,  a  high  precipice  six  miles 
from  Honolulu,  at  the  head  of  Xuuanu  Val- 
ley. The  panoramic  view  from  the  foot  of 
this  steep  cliff  is  one  never  to  be  forgotten, 
for  there  is  spread  before  one's  eyes  a  glory 
of  blue  sea,  verdant  meadows,  mountain  and 
valley  that  cannot  be  described.  The  expe- 
rience is  literally  a  breathless  one,  for  into 
the  gap  where  the  road  from  Pali  begins  its 
descent  toward  the  valley,  the  trade  winds 
blow  with  maelstromlike  fury.  "If  you  open 
your  mouth  too  wide,  you  can't  shut  it  again 
without  getting  under  the  lee  of  something," 
is  Charles  W.  Stoddard's  comment. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  possess  one  of  the 
newest  and  grandest  of  the  great  national 
parks  created  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment. This  one  includes  in  its  confines  the 
largest  active  volcano  on  the  globe — Mauna 
Loa;  the  highest  peak  in  the  Pacific  islands 
— Mauna  Kea,  and  the  world's  largest  extinct 
crater — Haleakala.  It  is  impossible  to  de- 
scribe the  Hawaiian  National  Park  without 
using  superlatives.  This  is  purely  a  matter 
of  justice.    Mauna  Loa  and  Mauna  Kea  are 


both  on  Hawaii  Island,  the  largest  one 
of  the  Hawaiian  group.  It  lies  about  125 
miles  south  of  Honolulu,  a  comfortable  steam- 
ship journey  away.  Passengers  bound  for 
Mauna  Loa  are  landed  at  the  port  of  Hilo, 
which  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the 
wettest  town  in  the  entire  archipelago.  Sit- 
uated on  the  windward  side  of  the  island,  it 
is  continually  being  showered  by  the  mois- 
ture-laden trade  winds,  but  the  showers 
frequently  parade  up  and  down  the  streets 
in  orderly  procession,  so  that  the  dry-loving 
tourist  may  get  out  of  the  rain  simply  by 
crossing  the  street.  Mark  Twain  inquires, 
"What  if  the  rain  sifts  down  ? — the  umbrella 
tree  is  at  hand." 

Kilauea,  an  active  crater  on  the  slope  of 
Mauna  Loa,  is  the  gre^t  show  place  of  the 
island.  It  is  reached  by  railroad  and  automo- 
bile, the  railroad  bringing  one  within  nine 
miles  of  Volcano  House,  where  room  and 
board  may  be  had.  Kilauea  is  only  4,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  as  compared  with  13,675 
for  Mauna  Loa's  summit,  but  when  it  is  show- 
ing off,  to  use  a  tourist  phrase,  it  is  supremely 
magnificent.  The  crater  is  about  eight  miles 
in  circumference  and  is  several  hundred  feet 
deep.  In  the  center  is  a  pit  about  400  feet 
in  diameter,  which  is  reached  by  a  winding 
trail  leading  from  Volcano  House.  How  near 
one  may  approach  the  pit  depends  on  its 
degree  of  activity.  A  traveler  who  visited  it 
recently  says,  "The  mass  of  writhing  fluid 
looks  like  hell  as  pictured  by  old-time  fire  and 
brimstone  preachers.  As  floating  pieces  of 
lava  cool  and  crack,  a  series  of  red  hot  foun- 
tains burst  through  them,  rising  to  a  height 
of  twenty  or  thirty  feet.  Out  of  the  awful 
chasm  there  arise  clouds  of  sulphur  smoke, 
ever  shifting  with  the  constantly  changing 
wind."  To  enjoy  one  of  the  sublimest  spec- 
tacles afforded  man  on  this  planet,  one  should 
view  Kilauea  at  night,  when  its  splendor 
illuminates  the  whole  sky. 

The  extinct  crater  of  Haleakala  is  on  the 
island  of  Maui,  twenty-six  miles  northwest 
of  Hawaii.  The  mountain  rises  over  10,000 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  the  trail  up  its 
slopes  has  an  average  inclination  of  500  feet 
to  the  mile.  Sturdy  mountain  climbers  find  it 
no  easy  task  to  make  the  ascent,  but  all  hard- 
ships are  forgotten  when,  at  the  end  of  the 
trail,  the  magnificent  crater  meets  their  view. 
It  is  a  gigantic  hole  in  the  mountain  summit 
— twenty-seven  miles  in  circumference  and 
with  sides  steeply  sloping  downward  to  a 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3619       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


depth  of  half  a  mile.  Twenty  extinct  cones 
are  scattered  over  the  floor  of  the  great  crater, 
ranging  from  forty  to  one  thousand  feet  in 
height.  A  traveler  who  spent  the  night  in  a 
small  rest  house  on  the  brink,  describes  in 
these  words  the  scene  that  greeted  him  at 
sunrise. 

The  great  crater  had  filled  with  clouds  dur- 
ing the  nig-ht.  In  the  gray  morning  light  one 
could  imagine  that  he  was  looking  over  an 
immense  body  of  water.  Clouds  had  settled 
around  the  mountain  so  that  the  view  of  the 
ocean  was  shut  off.  We  seemed  to  be  stand- 
ing on  an  island  with  clouds  all  about  us.  The 
first  rays  of  the  sun  were  caught  up  by  the 
mass  of  mist  in  the  crater.  In  an  instant  the 
great  pit  was  turned  into  a  sea  of  fire.  Back 
and  forth  flashed  the  light  as  it  was  reflected 
through  the  abyss  of  fog.  Then  as  the  sun 
rose  the  clouds  began  to  take  flight,  like  giant 
birds,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  crater  was 
empty. 

The  three  islands  we  have  visited — Oahu, 
Hawaii  and  Maui — contain  large  and  profit- 
able plantations  devoted  to  the  raising  of 
sugar  and  pineapples.  The  plantation  la- 
borers, made  up  largely  of  Japanese,  Chinese, 
Portuguese,  Filipinos,  loure  Hawaiians  and 


A  HULA  GIRL 

mixed  Hawaiians,  enjoy  steady  wages,  good 
housing  and  sanitary  conditions.  The  filth, 
misery  and  poverty  of  the  Far  East  are  un- 
known in  Hawaiian  country  districts.  Schools 
have  been  established  for  the  children  of  the 


laborers,  and  one  teacher  reported  that  in 
his  school  there  were  fifteen  different  nation- 
alities. It  is  interesting,  yet  a  matter  of  re- 
gret, to  know  that  the  pure-blood  Hawaiians 
are  slowly  but  surely  dying  out,  and  the 
time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  native  race 
will  be  only  a  memory.  The  pure-blood  na- 
tives are  a  well  built  people,  fond  of  athletic 
sports  and  of  music.  Their  famous  Hula 
dance,  sometimes  seen  in  a  degraded  form, 
is  also  dying  out,  but  occasionally  a  tourist 
is  fortunate  enough  to  see  it  in  its  primitive 
grace,  given  by  girls  clad  in  dresses  of  grass 
and  flowers. 

The  Hawaiian  archipelago  is  a  land  of 
many  blessings.  Its  people  are  whole-hearted 
in  their  loyalty  to  the  American  government, 
and  even  the  old  Queen  Liliuokalani,  though 
unreconciled  to  the  loss  of  her  throne,  flew 
the  Stars  and  Stripes  from  her  palace  when 
she  heard  that  the  United  States  had  entered 
the  great  war.  It  is  hard  to  leave  these  is- 
lands of  peace  and  beauty,  but  we  know  that 
they  will  remain  on  guard  in  the  Pacific, 
and  welcome  us  again  sometime  in  the  days 
to  come. 

Among  the  Lesser  Antilles.  A  week's 
steamer  journey  southeast  from  New  York 
brings  you  into  the  heart  of  a  chain  of  small 
islands  that  dot  the  Atlantic  from  Porto  Rico 
to  the  South  American  coast.  They  are  not 
nearly  so  well  known  as  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
Haiti  or  Jamaica,  their  greater  sisters  of  the 
West  Indies,  but  they  have  a  charm  and  pic- 
turesque beauty  that  lift  them  far  above  the 
commonplace.  At  the  northern  tip  of  this 
necklace  of  summer  isles  lies  the  group  that 
appeared  on  all  maps  made  before  1917  as 
the  Danish  West  Indies.  On  March  31, 1917, 
the  Danish  flag  floating  on  the  flagstaff  at 
Charlotte  Amalie,  island  of  Saint  Thomas, 
was  hauled  down,  and  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
were  run  up  in  its  place.  On  that  date  the 
Danish  West  Indies  became  officially  the 
Virgin  Islands  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
visiting  them  we  are  viewing  the  newest 
possessions  of  the  great  American  republic. 
To  acquire  them  the  United  States  paid  Den- 
mark the  sum  of  $25,000,000. 

Although  there  are  fifty  islands,  all  told, 
in  the  group,  only  three  are  large  enough  to 
be  known  by  name  to  the  outside  world.  These 
are  Saint  Thomas,  Saint  John  and  Saint 
Croix.  Saint  Thomas,  our  first  landing  place, 
is  an  island  of  green  hills.  As  we  sail  into 
the  magnificent  harbor  of  Charlotte  Amalie, 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3620       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


the  only  port  on  the  island,  we  are  treated 
to  a  charming'  picture.  The  town  climbs  up- 
ward from  the  shore  on  three  hills,  and  its 
white  houses  with  their  red  roofs  make  a 
pretty  patch  of  color  under  the  blue  sky. 
A  huge  drj'dock  and  coaling  docks  remind  us 
that  Saint  Thomas  will  be  of  great  value 
to  the  United  States  as  a  coaling  station,  es- 
pecially for  ships  bound  for  the  Panama 
Canal. 

All  of  the  people,  white  and  black,  are  hos- 
pitable and  courteous,  and  it  is  pleasant  to 
find  everyone  able  to  speak  English.  The  lit- 
tle town  is  delightfully  clean,  and  it  has  a 
restful  atmosphere  that  is  very  soothing.  The 
one  straight  street  runs  east  and  west  along 
the  waterfront,  and  here  one  may  buy  the 
typical  products  of  the  island,  such  as  cigars, 
bay  rum,  Panama  hats  and  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. A  tiny  park  with  trees  and  flowers 
lies  near  the  dock,  and  not  far  away  is  an 
old-fashioned  fort.     Side  streets  branch  off 


A  BELLE  OF  GUADELOUPE 

from  the  main  street  and  make  their  way  up 
the  steep  hills.  Occasional  flights  of  stairs 
aid  the  traveler  in  his  journey  up  the  hills, 
and  we  forget  the  hardships  of  climbing 
when  we  look  out  over  the  harbor,  town,  and 


island-dotted  sea.  Forty  miles  to  the  west 
the  hills  of  Porto  Rico  rise  hazily  in  the 
air,  and  four  miles  to  the  east  lies  the  forest- 
covered  neighboring  island  of  Saint  John, 

It  does  not  take  long  to  explore  Saint 
John.  It  is  only  eight  miles  long  by  four 
miles  wide,  and  its  largest  settlement,  at  Cruz 
Bay,  contains  fewer  than  200  inhabitants. 
Nearly  all  of  the  people  on  the  island  are  of 
the  black  race.  This  modest  islet,  however, 
is  the  source  of  over  half  the  bay  rum  pro- 
duced in  the  world;  its  forests  of  bay  trees 
are  the  most  extensive  of  any  in  the  West 
Indies.  Sailing  southward  from  Saint  John, 
we  pass  a  chain  of  tiny  islands,  lonely  places 
that  are  seldom  visited,  but  which  are  very 
pretty  to  look  at  from  a  steamer  deck. 

Then  after  a  voyage  of  about  forty  miles, 
we  reach  the  largest  of  the  Virgin  Islands — 
Saint  Croix.  It  is  one  of  the  loveliest  gems 
of  thfe  summer  seas,  and  is  so  green  that  many 
call  it  the  "Garden  of  the  West  Indies." 
Before  our  steamer  anchors  we  can  see  its 
great  fields  of  sugar  cane,  filling  up  the  low- 
lands and  traveling  up  the  liills,  while  the 
shining  beaches,  and  the  coves  with  their 
fringes  of  palms,  give  an  added  touch  of 
beautj'. 

There  are  two  good-sized  towns  on  Saint 
Croix — Frederiksted,  at  the  west  end  of  the 
island,  and  Christiansted,  fifteen  miles  away 
at  the  east  end.  Frederiksted  has  a  popula- 
tion of  3,000  and  Christiansted  of  about 
4,500,  but  the  former  town  does  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  export  and  import  business  of 
the  island,  because  it  has  the  better  harbor. 
Both  towns  have  a  clean,  well-kept  appear- 
ance, and  the  private  dwellings,  in  Spanish- 
American  style,  are  cool  and  pretty.  To  ap- 
preciate the  beauty  of  Saint  Croix  one  should 
journey  by  motor  over  its  fine  roads.  An  ex- 
cellent highway  leads  from  Frederiksted  to 
Christiansted,  and  there  are  others  which  fol- 
low the  coast  or  wind  in  and  out  among  the 
hUls. 

Saint  Kitts,  our  next  stopping  place,  lying 
about  ninety  miles  east  of  Saint  Croix,  is  one 
of  the  British  Leeward  Islands.  Across  the 
center  of  this  palm-fringed  isle  a  volcanic 
range  stretches,  the  highest  peak  of  which. 
Mount  I\Iisery,  is  nearly  4,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  aspect  of  the  island  seems  far  out 
of  keeping  with  the  gloomy  name  of  this 
slumbering  volcano,  for  wherever  one  looks 
the  eye  meets  groves  of  palm  and  fields  of 
sugar  cane. 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3621       TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS 


The  capital  and  port  of  Saint  Kitts  is  a 
charming  town  called  Basseterre,  which  lies 
at  the  foot  of  a  high,  rounded  hill.  The 
streets  and  buildings  of  the  business  section 
are  grouped  about  an  open  space  called  the 
Circus,  which  is  encircled  by  regal-looking 
palms.  Beyond  are  the  dwelling  houses,  in 
a  setting  of  tropical  vegetation  that  is  bril- 
liant beyond  description.  Flowers  of  count- 
less colors  and  enchanting  fragrance  grow  in 
riotous  profusion,  and  the  royal  palms  sway 
everywhere  in  the  sunny  air. 

There  are  excellent  roads  throughout  the 
island,  and  carriages  and  motors  in  number 
invite  you  to  explore  this  beautiful  land  at 
your  ease.  One  of  the  most  interesting  trips 
is  the  ascent  of  Mount  Miseiy.  From  Sandy 
Point,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  island, 
the  land  gradually  slopes  upward  to  the 
mountain,  and  the  Point  is  a  good  starting 
place.  After  riding  for  about  eight  miles 
we  begin  to  climb  the  slopes  on  foot.  Forests 
of  great  trees  are  all  about  us,  and  their  dense 
foliage  offers  welcome  shade.  We  see  here 
specimens  of  the  famous  orchids  of  the 
tropics,  which  fasten  themselves  on  the  forest 
trees  and  obtain  nourishment  from  the  aii*. 
As  we  go  higher  we  reach  a  zone  of  moun- 
tain palms  and  giant  tree  ferns,  and  finally 
reach  the  great  crater  itself. 

The  cavity  is  nearly  a  thousand  feet  deep, 
and  as  the  trail  goes  down  its  steep  sides,  we 
may  explore  it  if  we  desire.  Through  the 
cracks  in  the  crater  steam  issues,  which  shows 
that  the  volcano  is  alive,  though  sleeping, 
but  there  has  never  been  an  eruption  within 
the  memory  of  man.  Before  we  make  the  de- 
scent from  the  crater  we  must  refresh  our- 
selves with  a  look  at  the  entrancing  view 
spread  out  before  us.  The  distant  islands 
seem  like  tiny  gems  set  in  a  sea  of  rippling 
sapphire,  and  the  country  below  is  magnifi- 
cent in  its  garments  of  soft  green. 

Five  miles  to  the  south  lies  Nevis,  called  the 
"Gorgeous  Isle"  in  the  days  when  wealthy 
Europeans  journeyed  there  to  enjoy  its  su- 
perb climate  and  beautiful  scenery.  Alexan- 
der Hamilton  was  bom  on  Nevis,  and  the 
ruins  of  his  home  may  still  be  seen.  On  the 
same  island  Lord  Nelson  and  the  widow 
Nisbet  were  united  in  marriage,  in  the  year 
1787.  The  days  of  its  glory  are  all  in  the 
past,  however,  for  since  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery the  island  has  suffered  a  great  industrial 
decline.  Much  of  the  same  condition  prevails 
in  the  attractive  isle  of  MontseiTat,  about 


forty-five  miles  to  the  southeast,  but  we  find 
a  different  atmosphere  when  we  reach  Guade- 
loupe, one  of  the  French  West  Indies. 

This  island  is  much  larger  than  all  of  the 
American  Virgin  Islands  combined,  and  is, 
in  reality,  two  islands  separated  by  a  nar- 
row creek.  The  northern  and  western  por- 
tion, called  Basseten-e,  is  volcanic  and  moun- 
tainous, while  the  other  part,  Grandeterre,  is 
low  and  fertile.  Point-a-Pitre,  in  Grande- 
terre, is  the  port  and  chief  commercial  center 
of  the  island.  Here  one  sees  French  West  In- 
dian life  in  all  its  gayety  and  animation ;  the 
gaudy  dress  of  the  natives  and  their  brightly 
colored  houses  form  a  picture  that  seems 
quite  in  keeping  with  Nature's  display  of 
color  in  *  this  tropical  land.  The  city  of 
Basseterre,  on  the  other  side  of  the  island, 
is  the  seat  of  government,  and  may  be 
reached  from  Point-a-Pitre  by  automobile. 

Dominica,  the  largest  of  the  British  Lee- 
ward Islands,  is  next  in  our  path.  It  is  a  land 
of  superb  mountain  scenery,  and  its  high- 
est peak — Monte  Diablotin — is  the  loftiest 
summit  in  the  Lesser  Antilles.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Dominica  are  an  unusual  people ;  all 
but  about  one  hundred  of  the  30,000  living 
there  are  of  the  black  race,  but  they  are 
thrifty,  intelligent  and  courteous,  and  many 
blacks  of  the  wealthy  class  are  university 
bred.  Their  loyalty  to  the  mother  country 
was  demonstrated  during  the  great  war,  when 
they  contributed  money  for  the  construction 
of  two  military  aeroplanes.  Among  the  Do- 
minicans there  are  a  few  pure-blood  Caribs, 
the  original  natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

A  score  of  miles  from  Dominica  is  the 
French  island  of  Martinique,  forever  memor- 
able as  the  birthplace  of  Josephine,  wife  of 
Napoleon,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  eruption 
of  Mont  Pelee  (1902).  Since  the  destnietion 
of  Saint  PieiTe,  until  1902  the  most  impor- 
tant town  on  the  island,  Fort  de  France  has 
been  the  leading  city.  Fort  de  France  is 
French  in  architecture  and  in  atmosphere, 
and  one  sees  here  the  same  attractive  cos- 
tumes noticed  in  Guadeloupe.  Martinique, 
like  its  sister  islands,  is  notable  for  its  ver- 
dure, and  lovely  scenery,  and  its  beauties 
may  be  enjoyed  by  means  of  motor  trips  over 
the  splendid  roads. 

Sailing  southward  from  Martinique  for 
about  twenty  miles  we  reach  British  Saint 
Lucia,  called  the  "Gibraltar  of  the  West 
Indies."  Castries,  the  port  of  the  island, 
lies  back  of  a  harbor  whose  narrow  entrance 


TRAVELS  IN  DISTANT  LANDS        3622 


TREADMILL 


is  well  fortified.  This  place  is  one  of  Eng- 
land's great  coaling  stations,  and  it  is  an  in- 
teresting sight  to  see  the  negro  girls  and 
women  carrj'ing  baskets  of  coal  on  their 
heads  to  the  ships.  Even  with  this  primitive 
method,  ships  can  be  supplied  at  the  rate 
of  150  tons  an  hour. 

We  are  now  well  on  our  way  to  the  South 
American  coast.  Beyond  Saint  Lucia  lie 
Barbados,  called  "Little  England"  by  its  peo- 
ple; Saint  Vincent,  the  "cradle  of  tropical 
agriculture;"  the  little  islets  known  as  the 
Grenadines;  Grenada,  last  of  the  Caribbean 
islands;  and  Trinidad,  England's  largest 
West  Indian  possession  with  the  exception 
of  Jamaica. 

Trinidad  is  only  six  miles  east  of  tte  coast 
of  Venezuela,  whose  rugged  headlands,  as 
we  view  them  from  a  distance,  seem  to  blend 
with  the  hills  and  mountains  of  the  island, 
and  form  an  unbroken  line.  We  slip  through 
a  narrow  channel  and  enter  the  great  land- 
locked Gulf  of  Paria,  anchoring  at  last  off 
the  city  of  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad's  capital. 
This  city  represents  modern  progress  and 
prosperity,  for  it  is  as  well  built  and  up-to- 
date  as  any  town  of  its  size  on  the  American 
continent.  Here  we  find  handsome  office 
and  bank  buildings,  modem,  well-stocked 
stores,  wide,  clean  streets,  beautiful  parks 
and  attractive  dwelling  houses,  while  the 
waterfront  is  lined  with  great  docks,  railway 
yards  and  warehouses.  All  of  the  streets  are 
paved  with  asphalt,  as  are  the  splendid  roads 
and  highways  that  thread  their  way  through 
the  island,  for  Trinidad  possesses  in  Pitch 
Lake  the  greatest  source  of  asphalt  in  the 
world. 

There  are  any  number  of  interesting  trips 
out  of  Port  of  Spain.  The  journey  by  rail 
and  steamer  to  Pitch  Lake  affords  one  op^ 
portunity  to  see  the  industrial  development  of 
the  island,  and  all  of  the  famous  beauty  spots 
can  be  reached  by  railway,  automobile  or 
steamer.  One  of  the  loveliest  bits  of  scenery 
is  the  Maraccas  Waterfall,  fourteen  miles 
from  the  city.  The  water,  which  has  a  fall  of 
350  feet,  plunges  over  a  steep  wall  of  rock 
set  in  an  exquisite  background  of  ferns  and 
flowers.  South  America,  whose  shores  lie  so 
invitingly  near,  is  easily  reached  from  the 
island.  All  of  the  main  poris  on  the  north- 
em  coast  of  the  continent  have  steamship 
connection  with  Port  of  Spain  and  com- 
fortable traveling  is  always  assurred  in  nor- 
mal times. 


A  trip  through  the  Lesser  Antilles  is  one 
of  unceasing  interest  and  pleasure.  The  is- 
lands lie  in  a  region  of  perpetual  summer. 
They  have  tropical  vegetation  unsurpassed 
in  beauty  and  variety,  and  scenery  as  en- 
trancing as  any  on  the  globe.  In  these 
islands  one  may  see  strange  customs,  meet  in- 
teresting people,  and  learn  what  no  book  can 
ever  teach. 

TRAVERSE  CITY,  Micii.,  the  county 
seat  of  Grand  Traverse  County,  145  miles 
north  of  Grand  Rapids,  on  the  west  arm 
of  Grand  Traverse  Bay  and  on  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, the  Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana,  the 
Manistee  &  Northeastern,  and  the  Traverse 
City,  Leelanau  &  Northern  railroads.  It  has 
an  attractive  situation;  there  is  good  fishing 
in  the  vicinity,  and  the  city  is  a  summer  re- 
sort. It  is  in  an  agi'icultural  and  fruit-grow- 
ing region,  noted  for  its  cherry  production. 
The  chief  industrial  establishment  is  an  oval 
wooden  dish  factory.  Baskets,  farm  imple- 
ments, leather  and  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products  are  also  made.  A  county  normal 
and  the  Northern  Michigan  Insane  Asylum 
are  located  here,  and  the  city  has  a  Carnegie 
Library  and  a  Federal  building.  The  place 
was  settled  about  1850,  and  was  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1895.  It  adopted  the  commission 
form  of  government  in  1913.  Population, 
1910,  12,172;  in  1917,  14,090  (Federal  es- 
timate). 

TRAVERTINE,  trav'ur  tin,  a  white  lime- 
stone, usually  hard  and  partially  crystallized, 
deposited  from  the  water  of  springs  holding 
cai'bonate  of  lime  in  solution.  Travertine  is 
abundant  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  and 
many  of  the  finest  buildings  of  ancient  and 
modern  Rome  are  built  of  this  stone. 

TRAWL'ING,  a  mode  of  deep-sea  fishing. 
The  trawl  is  a  triangular  purse-shaped  net 
about  seventy  feet  long,  which  is  dragged 
along  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  mouth  of 
the  net,  about  foi-ty  feet  wide,  is  kept  open  by 
a  wooden  beam.  Trawling  is  possible  only 
on  a  smooth,  sandy  ocean  floor,  as  a  rough 
sea  bed  would  destroy  the  nets.  Vessels  spe- 
cially built  for  this  kind  of  fishing  are  called 
trawlers.  Trawling  is  not  allowed  near  the 
shore.  Cod,  whiting  and  other  whitefish  are 
taken  in  large  numbers  by  trawling,  and  some 
kinds  of  flatfish,  as  soles,  can  scarcely  be 
caught  in  any  other  way.    See  Fisheries. 

TREADMILL,  t red' mill,  a  device  formerly 
used  in  European  prisons  by  convicts  sen- 
tenced to  hard  labor.    It  consisted  of  a  cylin- 


TEE AS ON 


3623 


TREBIZOND 


der  with  steps  around  its  circumference  on 
which  the  operator  was  placed.  The  weight 
of  the  body  set  the  apparatus  in  revolution, 
and  to  maintain  a  footing  the  operator  was 
forced  to  keep  up  a  running  gait,  while  his 
body  remained  stationarj',  keeping  in  balance 
by  means  of  a  handrail.  An  endless  band  at- 
tached to  machinery  conveyed  the  power  it 
produced.  The  exercise  was  severe  and  with 
the  development  of  the  more  humane  penol- 
ogy, the  last  of  the  treadmills  was  abolished 
early  in  the  tw^  entieth  century.  Another  form 
of  treadmill  has  been  used  to  operate  farm 
machinery,  the  power  being  supplied  by 
horses,  dogs  or  other  animals. 

TREASON,  tre'^'n,  that  crime  which  is  di- 
rectly committed  against  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  state,  everywhere  considered 
the  most  heinous  of  crimes.  In  a  monarchy 
it  is  the  betraying  or  the  forfeiting  of  alle- 
giance to  the  monarch.  In  a  republic,  such 
as  the  United  States,  where  the  people  as  a 
community,  and  not  any  one  individual  are 
sovereign,  treason  is  necessarily  confined  to 
levying  war  against  the  state,  or  adhering  to 
and  giving  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemy. 
The  classic  example  of  treason  in  United 
States  history  is  the  case  of  Benedict  Arnold 
(which  see). 

TREASURY  DEPARTMENT,  the  depart- 
ment of  the  United  States  government  which 
has  control  of  all  the  national  revenues  and 
expenditures,  was  established  in  1846  under 
the  name  of  the  Independent  Treasury.  It  is 
the  most  complex  and  extensive  of  all  the  de- 
partments of  government,  and  ranks  next 
to  the  Department  of  State.  As  first  estab- 
lished the  department  consisted  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  a  comptroller,  an  aud- 
itor, a  treasurer,  a  register,  an  assistant  sec- 
retary and  a  clerical  force.  From  this  small 
beginning  the  department  has  expanded  until 
it  now  includes  branches  in  all  the  principal 
cities,  and  has  over  5,000  employes  in  its  serv- 
ice at  "Washington  and  many  others  in  the 
various  branches. 

The  Treasury  Department  collects  all  taxes 
levied  by  Congress,  including  income  taxes, 
duties  on  imports  and  internal  revenue  taxes. 
It  has  charge  of  the  minting  of  all  coins 
and  the  printing  of  all  paj^er  money,  postage 
stamps  and  other  stamps  issued  by  the  gov- 
ernment, and  of  all  bonds  and  other  certi- 
ficates of  indebtedness.  It  disburses  all 
moneys  collected,  according  to  appropria- 
tions made  by  Congress.     It  has  oversight 


over  all  National  and  Federal  reserve  banks, 
and  protects  the  people  against  counterfeiters 
and  smugglers.  It  also  has  charge  of  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  all  United 
States  government  buildings  in  the  country, 
and  the  general  control  and  auditing  of  the 
accounts  of  the  other  executive  departments. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  The  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  is  the  chief  officer  of  the  de- 
partment. He  is  a  member  of  the  President's 
Cabinet  and  is  next  to  the  Secretary  of  State 
in  line  of  succession  to  the  Presidency.  His 
salary  is  $12,000  a  year.  Many'  of  the  most 
noted  men  in  American  history  have  filled  the 
position  of  Secretaiy  of  the  Treasuiy,  among 
them  Alexander  Hamilton,  Albert  Gallatin, 
Alexander  J.  Dallas,  William  H.  Crawford, 
Roger  B.  Taney,  Salmon  P.  Chase  and  John 
Sherman. 

The  Secretary  is  aided  by  three  as- 
sistant secretaries,  but  the  chief  officer  next 
to  the  Secretary  is  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency,  who  has  general  supervision  over 
the  auditors  and  countersigns  all  orders  for 
the  payment  of  money.  No  money  can  be 
paid  out  of  the  Treasurj'  without  his  ajiprov- 
al.  The  Comptroller  is  assisted  by  six  aud- 
itors, who  are  assigned  respectively  to  the 
other  executive  departments.  The  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States  is  responsible  for  the 
care  and  disbursement  of  all  the  money  be- 
longing to  the  United  States,  and  he  signs 
all  paper  money  issued  hy  the  government. 
The  Director  of  the  Mint  has  charge  of  the 
coining  of  money  in  the  various  mints,  and 
the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Eevenue  has 
charge  of  the  collection  of  all  revenue  fees, 
including  income  taxes. 

TREATY,  tree'ty,  an  agreement,  league 
or  contract  between  two  or  more  nations  or 
sovereigns,  formally  signed  by  commission- 
ers properly  authorized,  and  ratified  by  the 
several  sovereigns,  or  the  supreme  power  of 
each  State.  Treaties  are  of  various  kinds, 
as  commercial  treaties,  treaties  of  alliance,  of- 
fensive and  defensive,  and  treaties  of  peace. 
In  most  monarchies  the  power  of  making  and 
ratifying  treaties  is  vested  in  the  sovereign ; 
in  the  United  States  it  is  vested  in  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Senate,  the  former  conducting 
the  negotiations,  the  latter  ratifjnng  the  com- 
pleted treatv. 

TREATY  OF  VERSAILLES.  See  Ver- 
sailles, Treaty  of. 

TREB'IZOND,  Turkey,  situated  on  the 
Black  Sea,  575  miles  east  of  Constantinople. 


TREBLE 


3624  ■ 


TREE 


The  city  occupies  a  plateau  and  is  enclosed 
by  walls  erected  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
contains  a  number  of  ruins  of  ancient  struc- 
tures, among  them  those  of  an  old  castle  and 
several  old  Greek  churches,  which  have  been 
transformed  into  mosques.  In  general,  the 
dwellings  are  low,  one-story  buildings. 
The  city  contains  numerous  bazaars  and  is  the 
seat  of  an  extensive  commerce,  though  the 
harbor  is  poor.    Population,  about  55,000. 

TREB'LE,  in  music,  the  highest  vocal  or 
instrumental  part  in  a  harmonized  musical 
composition,  sung  by  women  or  boys  or 
played  by  instruments  of  acute  tone,  as  the 
violin,  the  flute,  the  oboe  or  the  clarinet, 
or  on  the  higher  keys  of  the  piano  or  organ. 
The  treble  clef  ^fc  is  a  sign  used  at  the 
beginning     of  ^5   written    music   to   indi- 

eate  the  treble  staff.     See  Music. 

TREE,  the  common  name  of  one  of  the 
most  important  groups  of  plants.  "Nest  to 
the  earth  itself,"  writes  Gifford  Pinehot,  "the 
forest  is  the  most  useful  servant  of  man.  Not 
only  does  it  sustain  and  beautify  the  land, 
but  it  also  supplies  wood,  the  most  widely 
used  of  all  materials.  Its  uses  are  number- 
less and  the  demands  which  are  made  upon 
it  by  mankind  are  numberless  also  "  Trees 
have  certain  characteristics  that  separate  them 
from  other  kinds  of  plants.  Unlike  herbs, 
they  develop  a  hard,  woody  tissue,  and  in- 
stead of  dying  at  the  end  of  the  growing 
season,  as  is  true  of  many  herbs,  they  live 
on  indefinitely  from  year  to  year.  Trees  dif- 
fer from  shrubs,  which  grow  as  vines  or 
bushes,  in  that  the  tree  stem  emerges  from  the 
soil  a  single  stnicture.  Branches  never  are 
borne  close  to  the  ground,  as  in  case  of  shrubs. 
Trees  are  also  distinguished  from  shrubs  and 
herbs  in  size.  In  general,  trees  vary  in  height 
from  twenty-five  to  300  or  400  feet.  There 
are,  however,  certain  trees  under  twenty-five 
feet,  especially  among  the  fruits.  These  are 
called  dwarfs,  and  their  undersize  is  usually 
the  result  of  pruning. 

Parts  of  a  Tree.  Trees  grow  from  extended 
root  systems.  The  roots  are  found  deep  in 
the  earth,  and  they  spread  out  over  a  large 
area,  in  case  of  large  trees,  for  they  not  only 
must  gather  food  from  the  soil,  but  must  be 
strong  enough  to  serve  as  a  sure  foundation. 
The  woody  stem,  or  part  that  grows  above  the 
soil,  is  called  the  trutili,  or  hole.  There  are 
two  classes  of  boles,  represented  by  those  of 
the  pine  and  the  elm.    The  former  tree  sends 


THE  TREE 

By  Joyce  Kilmer 

Who  Gave  His  Life  in 

the  World  War 

<         > 

I  think  that  1  shall  never  see 

A  poem  lovely  as  a  Iree. 

A  tree  whose  hungry  mouth 

IS  pressed 
Against   the    earlh's   sweet 

flowing  breast. 

A  tree  that  looks  at  God  all 

day 
And  lifts  her  leafy  arms  to 

pray, 

A  tree  that  may  in  summer 
wear 

A  nest  of  robins  in  her  hair; 

Upon  whose  bosom  snow  has 

lain; 
Who    intimately     lives    with 

ram 

Poems  are    made  by    fools 

like  me, 
But  only   God  can  make  a 

tree. 


up  a  tall,  undivided  trunk;  the  latter  has  a 
bole  which  divides  into  branches.  These 
tj^es  are  illustrated  in  the  section  Winter 
Study  of  Trees,  below  (see  Fig.  1  and  Fig. 
2).  The  upper  part  of  the  tree,  that  includ- 
ing branches  and  foliage,  is  called  the  crovm. 
Lessons  on  Trees. 

Notwithstanding  the  value  and  usefulness 
of  the  forests,  people  have  been  exceedingly 
prodigal  of  them,  and  millions  of  acres  of 
forests  which, should  have  been  preserved  for 
future  generations  have  been  ruthlessly  de- 
stroyed. All  too  late  they  are  beginning 
to  realize  the  damage  done,  and^both  state  and 
national  governments  are  taking  strenuous 
measures  to  protect  the  forests  that  remain, 
and  to  secure  reforestation  of  some  of  the 
regions  from  which  the  forests  have  been  re- 
moved. The  school  can  and  should  do  much  to- 
ward assisting  this  movement  in  each  locality. 

General  Suggestions.  1.  Thousands  of 
young  trees  are  destroyed  every  year  through 


TREE 


3625 


TREE 


thoughtlessness.  Children  as  well  as  adults 
engage  in  this  destruction.  Attention,  there- 
fore, should  frequently  be  called  to  the  im- 
portance of  preserving  and  caring  for  these 
trees. 

2.  Success  in  securing  the  children's  inter- 
est in  caring  for  trees  will  depend  upon  the 
teacher's  ability  to  secure  the  interest  of  each 
child  in  some  particular  tree.  A  good  way  to 
do  this  is  to  ask  each  pupil  old  enough  to 
engage  in  the  work  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fall  term  to  select  a  tree  which  he  may  call 
his  tree  for  the  year.  The  tree  chosen  may 
be  in  the  schoolyard,  by  the  roadside,  near 
the  child's  home  or  in  any  other  place  where 
it  can  be  frequently  seen. 

3.  From  the  study  of  this  particular  tree 
lead  each  child  to  study  trees  in  general.  The 
first  lessons  in  the  fall  should  have  this  end 
in  view. 

4.  Observations  upon  which  the  study  of 
trees  may  be  based  require  time.  It  is  not 
wise  to  give  lessons  upon  this  subject  daily. 
Usually  one  lesson  a  week  is  all  that  should 


Fall  Study  of  Trees.  Preparations  for 
Winter.  In  the  study  of  natural  objects  it  is 
wise  to  begin  with  the  study  of  conditions 
that  prevail  at  the  time  that  the  lessons  are 
given.  This  is  particularly  necessary  in  the 
study  of  trees. 

Call  attention  to  the  autumn  tints  as  they 
gradually  appear. 

Ask  the  children  to  collect  and  bring  to 
school  leaves  of  different  colors.  How  many 
different  kinds  of  trees  are  represented  in 
the  collection? 

Do  aU  leaves  from  the  same  sort  of  trees 
have  the  same  color  or  varying  shades  of 
that  color? 

What  is  the  prevailing  color  of  the  leaves 
of  the  oak?  Of  the  maple?  Of  the  beech? 
Of  the  sumac? 

Can  you  tell  the  sorts  of  trees  in  a  forest 
by  the  color  of  the  leaves  in  the  autumn? 

If  the  trees  to  which  attention  is  called 
in  the  above  paragraph  are  not  common  to 
the  locality,  those  that  are  common  should 
be  selected  and  they  will  answer  equally  well. 


FIGURE  1 

be  attempted.  More  may  be  given  if  the 
time  at  the  teacher's  disposal  and  the  ability 
of  the  class  wai-rant,  but  in  all  cases  the 
pupils  should  be  given  opportunity  to  prove 
by  their  own  observations  the  facts  discussed 
in  the  lesson. 


FIGURE  2 

The  answers  to  the  last  question  cannot  be 
given  offhand,  but  by  frequent  observation 
the  children  wiU  be  able  in  time  to  judge 
quite  accurately  the  prevailing  species  of 
trees  in  any  woods  from  the  general  ap- 
jjearance  of  the  leaves  in  autumn. 


TREE 


3626 


TREE 


Some  Causes  and  Effects.  Another  ques- 
tion -which  will  require  thought  is:  Why  do 
tiie  leaves  change  color,  wither  and  fall?  Of 
lourse,  only  the  older  pupils  can  pursue  this 
line  of  thought  very  far,  and  it  may  be  well 
to  let  it  stand  before  the  class  through  the 
entire  season,  as  they  follow  the  putting  forth 
of  the  leaves  and  blossoms  and  the  develop- 
ing and  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

Do  all  trees  shed  their  leaves  in  winter? 

What  trees  in  your  locality'  do  not  ? 

Discussion  of  these  facts  will  enable  you  to 
divide  the  trees  into  those  which  shed  their 
leaves,  or  deciduous  trees,  and  those  which  do 
not  shed  their  leaves,  or  non-deciduous  or 
evergreen  trees.  It  wiU  be  interesting  to  have 
the  class  comjiare  the  kinds  of  leaves  from 
the  two  classes  of  trees. 

Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  deciduous 
trees  not  to  have  leaves  in  wint^-? 

Winter  Study  of  Trees.  Several  lessons 
can  be  devoted  to  plans  of  branching.  When 
the  trees  are  free  from  leaves  these  plans  can 
be  easily  seen.  Two  general  plans  of  branch- 
ing are  found;  one,  in  which  the  trunk  ex- 
tends thi'ough  the  crown  to  the  highest  point 
in  the  tree,  as  in  Figure  1.  The  pine  and  the 
beech  are  familiar  examples  of  trees  having 
this  plan  of  branching. 

The  second  plan  is  seen  when  the  ti-unk 
divides  into  a  number  of  large  branches,  from 
each  of  which  other  branches  extend,  as 
shown  in  Figure  2.  The  elm  and  the  apple 
are  good  illustrations.  Spend  one  or  two 
lessons  in  discussing  the  relation  of  these 
plans  of  branching  to  the  shape  of  the  tree. 

What  shaped  crowns  do  the  evergreens 
have? 

What  shaped  crown  does  the  elm  have? 

The  Arrangement  of  Buds  and  Branches. 
Ask  the  children  to  study  the  arrangement  of 
branches  on  the  evergreens.  A  pine,  spruce 
or  balsam  will  answer  the  puipose.  They  wiU 
discover  that  the  branches  are  arranged 
around  the  tiimk  in  whorls. 

What  does  this  arrangement  have  to  do 
with  the  shape  of  the  tree  ? 

Have  the  pupils  bring  to  school  small 
branches  from  the  elm,  the  maple,  the  apple 
tree  and  cottonwood.  Other  trees  common 
in  the  locality  will  answer  as  well.  Perform 
the  following  experiment  with  the  branch 
from  each  tree.  Stick  a  pin  in  the  bud  near 
the  lowest  end  of  the  branch.  Fasten  a  white 
thread  to  this  pin,  extend  this  thread  to  the 
next  bud,  then  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  winding 


it  around  the  branch  as  may  be  necessary  to 
reach  each  successive  bud.  Continue  until  a 
bud  practically  over  the  first  is  reached. 

How  many  buds  were  passed? 

How  many  times  did  you  wind  the  string 
around  the  branch? 

The  answers  to  these  questions  will  vary 
with  the  different  branches,  and  the  experi- 
ments will  reveal  the  following  facts:  first, 
that  on  some  trees  the  branches  appear  oppo- 
site each  other;  secondly,  that  on  most  trees 
the  branches  appear  on  alternate  sides  of  the 
stem ;  thirdly,  that  this  alternate  arrangement 
varies  in  different  species  of  trees. 

Study  of  Structure  of  Buds.  The  same 
branches  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  If 
placed  in  water  for  a  few  days,  in  a  warm 
room,  the  buds  will  swell  and  their  parts 
can  be  easily  seen. 

What  is  the  pm-pose  of  the  scales  and  of 
the  gumlike  substance  found  on  some  buds? 

If  possible,  procure  some  buds  from  the 
horse  chestnut.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the 
cottonlike  substance  in  these  buds  1 

Study  of  the  Bark  and  Wood:  Have  some 
pupil  procure  a  section  of  the  branch  at  least 
one  inch  in  diameter.  A  large  branch  is  bet- 
ter. The  section  should  be  at  least  six  inches 
long.     First  study  its  external  appearance. 

What  is  the  color  of  the  bark? 

Examine  the  end  of  the  branch.  From  this, 
how  many  layers  of  bark  can  you  discover  ? 

How  are  the  layers  of  wood  arranged? 

WTiat  is  the  dark  portion  in  the  center? 

Split  the  branch  through  the  center. 
Smooth  the  surfaces  with  a  plane  or  sharp 
knife.  From  the  study  of  these  surfaces, 
how  many  layers  of  bark  do  you  discover  7 

If  you  have  an  op- 
portunity to  secure  a 
section  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  six  inches  or  more 
in  diameter,  you  can 
teach  the  pupils  to  pur- 
sue their  studies  still 
further.  Saw  one  end 
of  the  section  off  with  a 
fine  saw,  then  smooth 
the  surface  with  a  draw 
knife  or  plane.  When 
this  is  done,  ask  the 
pupils  to  note  and  count 
the  rings  or  layers  of 
wood,  showing  that  each  layer  represents  a 
year's  growth.  How  old  is  the  tree?  Split 
the  section  through   the  center  and  smooth 


FIG.  3 
SECTION  OP 
BRANCH 


TREE 


3627 


TREE 


and  examine  the  surface  of  one  piece.  Can 
the  annual  growth  be  traced  on  this  surface  ? 
These  sections  make  veiy  line  cabinet  speci- 
mens, and  where  they  can  be  obtained  with- 
out destroj-ing  the  tree  for  the  pui'pose  may 


FIGURE  4 
be    preferred    to    the    specimens    which    are 
described  a  little  later  in  this  article. 

How  many  kinds  of  wood  are  there  in  the 
branch  ? 

How  do  these  kinds  of  wood  compare  with 
each  other  in  color? 

Following  these  exercises,  ask  the  children 
how  many  trees  they  know  by  the  appear- 


diameter  and  may  be  cut  in  the  form  shown 
in  Figure  3,  or  one  end  may  be  slanting. 
The  si:)ecimens  should  be  sound  and  thor- 
oughly dried,  and  then  the  exposed  surfaces 
should  be  smoothed  and  oiled  or  varnished, 
so  as  to  bring  out  the  coloring  and  graining 
of  the  wood.  In  the  spring  and  summer 
leaves  of  these  trees  may  be  pressed  and  the 
flowers  and  fruit  gathered  and  mounted.  If 
these  are  placed  on  stiff  cardboard  the  card 
can  be  put  in  the  cabinet  back  of  the  specimen 
showing  the  kind  of  wood.  Thus  there  is  a 
complete  exhibit  of  each  tree  in  the  locality. 
Spring  and  Summer  Studies.  Early  BIos- 
soyns  and  Fruit.  Ask  the  class  to  watch  the 
trees  in  the  spring  and  notice  which  ones  put 
forth  their  blossoms  before  the  leaves  appear. 
Samples  of  these  different  blossoms  should  be 
gathered  and  brought  to  class  for  study.  Blos- 
soms are  small  and  it  is  not  wise  to  attemjit  to 
study  their  different  part-s  at  this  time.  The 
chief  thing  is  to  notice  the  different  forms. 
Good  trees  and  shnibs  to  compare  are  the 
soft,  or  red,  maple  and  the  willow,  as  the  two 
typical  forms  of  blossoms  are  produced  by 
these  trees.     Ask  the  pupils  to  follow  the 


FIGURE  5 


anee  of  the  bark.  It  is  well  for  each  to  make 
a  list  of  the  trees  he  can  recognize  in  this 
way. 

A  very  pleasant  and  valuable  exercise  con- 
nected with  the  study  of  trees  is  the  beginning 
of  a  school  cabinet  of  native  woods.  The 
specimens  should  be  at  least  four  inches  in 


development  of  the  seeds  on  these  trees  and 
to  notice  also  the  way  in  which  the  seeds  are 
scattered. 

How  soon  do  the  maple  seeds  germinate? 

Study  of  Leaves.  Ask  the  class  to  observe 
what  trees  put  forth  their  leaves  first. 

Which  ones  put  forth  their  leaves  next? 


TREE 


3628 


TREE 


Which  are  the  last? 

When  the  leaves  are  fiilly  developed,  ask 
the  children  to  bring  leaves  from  the  elm, 
maple  and  oak.  Compare  these  in  size,  form 
and  structure.  This  comparison  will  show 
that  leaves  of  deciduous  trees  are  constructed 
on  two  general  plans:  first,  the  plan  having 
one  large  rib  known  as  the  midrib  and  seem- 
ingly the  extension  of  the  leaf  stalk,  extend- 
ing through  the  leaf  from  the  base  to  the 
apex,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  4,  which  shows 
the  leaf  and  blossom  of  the  elm.  The  second 
plan  shows  several  large  veins  or  ribs  radiat- 
ing from  the  end  of  the  leaf  stalk,  as  shown 
in  Figure  5,  which  is  an  illustration  of  the 
maple  leaf.  After  these  plans  have  been 
studied,  pupils  should  be  asked  to  find  as 
many  different  trees  and  shruh3  as  they  can, 
having  tliese  different  sorts  of  leaves.  They 
will  discover  in  their  search  that  the  shape 
of  the  leaf  in  all  eases  depends  upon  its 
plan  of  veining,  or  the  arrangement  of  the 
large  veins  or  ribs. 

Some  trees  do  not  produce  their  fruit  early 
in  the  season.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
those  that  bear  nuts,  such  as  the  oak,  beech 
and  hickory.  Children  should  be  encouraged 
to  watch  these  develop  through  the  summer 
and  to  gather  specimens  of  fruit  as  soon  as 
they  are  ripe.  These  specimens  will  furnish 
material  for  lessons  next  fall. 

Planting  Trees.  The  great  purpose  of  les- 
sons on  trees  should  be  to  secure  such  an  in- 
terest in  them  on  the  part  of  the  children  that 
they  will  want  to  care  for  those  about  the 
school  and  their  homes,  and  that  they  will  also 
want  to  increase  the  number  by  planting 
others.  This  may  be  done  in  one  of  two  ways : 
first,  by  planting  the  seeds  of  the  trees; 
second,  by  transplanting  the  trees  taken  from 
localities  where  they  are  not  needed. 

The  children  will  be  greatly  interested  in 
planting  seeds  of  trees,  such  as  the  seed  of 
the  maple.  If  there  is  a  school  garden  a  small 
section  may  be  set  apart  for  this  purpose. 
The  soil  should  be  made  mellow  to  the  depth 
of  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  and  the  seeds 
placed  in  it  with  only  a  slight  covering  of 
earth,  the  general  rule  being  to  make  the  cov- 
ering equal  in  depth  to  the  diameter  of  the 
seed.  If  these  seeds  cannot  be  planted  in  the 
school  grounds  they  can  be  planted  in  flower 
pots  or  boxes.  After  planting,  the  soil  should 
be  thoroughly  wet  and  be  kept  reasonably 
moist  until  the  seeds  genninate.  It  is  in- 
teresting  to   care  for  these  young   plants 


through  the  season  and  notice  how  fast  they 
grow.  If  carefully  protected  from  injury, 
the  second  year  they  will  grow  still  more 
rapidly  and  in  a  short  time  become  large 
enough  to  transplant.  Children  who  watch 
the  growth  of  trees  from  the  seed  in  this  way 
become  acquainted  with  their  appearance 
and  from  this  knowledge  are  able  to  pro- 
tect thousands  of  young  trees  which  are  de- 
stroyed through  ignorance. 

Teachers  should  thoroughly  understand 
transplanting  of  trees  and  be  able  to  give 
practical  lessons  on  it.  This  can  usually  be 
done  most  successfully  by  directing  the  pupils 
in  planting  one  or  more  trees  in  the  school- 
yard. Most  arbor  day  manuals  contain  spe- 
cific directions  for  this  work.  However,  the 
following  points,  taken  from  "Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.'  134,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,"  are  so  plain  and  practical  that 
they  are  here  reproduced  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  wish  more  extended  directions 
than  are  usually  found  in  the  manuals.  This 
bulletin  is  excellent  authority  and  those  who 
carefully  follow  directions  here  given  may 
feel  sure  of  success. 

How  to  Plant  Trees 
Preparation  of  the  Soil.  Thorough  prepa- 
ration of  the  soil  should  precede  the  plant- 
ing. Where  blocks  or  belts  are  to  be  formed, 
the  ground  should  be  .j^lowed  and  prepared 
as  for  a  garden  crop.  Clay  soils  are  best 
plowed  the  previous  fall,  in  order  that  the 
ground  may  weather  over  winter.  On  such 
soil  subsoiling  is  beneficial,  and  should  pre- 
cede the  planting  by  at  least  one  season.  Just 
before  planting  time  the  ground  should  be 
pulverized  with  a  roller  or  harrow.  If  the 
planting  is  to  be  done  in  rows,  the  ground 
should  be  marked  off  lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise and  the  trees  set  at  the  intersections. 
It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  mark  off  the 
ground  only  one  way  and  run  furrows  the 
other.  In  arid  regions  the  fuiTOws  may  be 
deepened  into  trenches,  so  that  rain  water 
which  falls  on  the  surroiuiding  ground  may 
be  drained  to  the  tree.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  regions  having  a  copious  rainfall  it  will 
frequently  be  necessary  to  plant  the  trees  on 
a  raised  portion  or  mound  of  earth  in  order  to 
keep  the  soil  diy  enough  for  them  to  thrive. 
The  holes  should  be  dug  large  enough  to  con- 
tain all  the  roots  fully  spread  out,  and  deep 
enough  to  allow  the  tree  to  stand  about 
three  inches  lower  than  it  grew  as  a  seedling. 
It  then  should  flourish. 


TREE 


3629 


TREE 


Time  and  Manner  of  Planting.  South  of 
the  thirty-seventh  parallel,  fall  planting  is 
safe  and  often  advantageous.  North  of  this, 
spring  planting  should  be  the  rule,  as  fall- 
planted  trees  can  scarcely  develop  suflScient 
roots  to  sustain  themselves  during  the  winter. 
The  most  successful  nurseiymen  practice 
early  planting  for  deciduous  trees,  beginning 
operations  as  soon  as  the  ground  ceases  freez- 
ing. Evergreens  are  not  planted  until  later; 
some  even  wait  until  the  young  growth  is 
starting.  If  possible,  planting  should  be 
done  on  a  cool,  cloudy  day.  Unless  the  day 
is  very  moist,  the  trees  should  be  carried  to 
the  planting  site  in  a  barrel  half  filled  with 
water,  or  a  thin  mixture  of  earth  and  water, 
and  lifted  out  only  as  they  are  wanted.  Even 
a  minute's  exposure  to  diy  air  will  injure 
the  delicate  roots — the  feeders  of  the  tree. 

The  roots  should  be  extended  in  their  nat- 
ural positions  and  carefully  packed  in  fine 
loam  soil.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  work  the 
soil  about  each  root  separately  and  pack  it 
solid  with  the  foot.  As  the  hole  is  filled,  the 
earth  should  be  compacted  above  the  roots 
and  around  the  stem,  in  order  to  hold  the 
tree  fii-mly  in  place.  The  last  two  inches  of 
soil  should  be  very  fine,  and  should  lie  per- 
fectly loose.  It  will  sei-ve  as  a  mulch  to  re- 
tain the  moisture. 

Trees  should  be  planted  neither  in  vei*y 
wet  nor  in  veiy  dry  soil.  If  the  soil  is  wet, 
it  is  better  to  wait  until  it  is  drier.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  good  cultivation  has  been 
maintained  the  year  previous  to  planting, 
the  soil  is  not  likely  to  be  so  dry  that  trees  will 
not  start.  Besides  insuring  a  supply  of  mois- 
ture, such  cultivation  puts  the  ground  in 
good  physical  condition  for  planting. 

With  this  treatment,  watering  will  scarcely 
ever  be  necessary.  If  it  is,  the  holes  may  be 
dug  a  few  days  beforehand  and  filled  with 
water.  They  should  be  refilled  as  the  water 
soaks  away  until  the  soil  is  fully  moistened. 
A  thorough  in-igation,  when  that  is  possible, 
is  still  better.  As  soon  as  the  soil  becomes 
somewhat  diy  the  trees  should  be  planted. 
While  it  is  a  common  custom  to  wdter  at  the 
time  of  planting,  those  who  do  no  watering 
are  usually  the  most  successful.  Even  in  the 
semi-arid  regions  some  successful  growers  ap- 
ply no  water,  but  keep  up  an  excellent  system 
of  cultivation,  thereby  retaining  the  soil 
moisture. 

The  spacing  of  the  trees  is  not  so  impor- 
tant in  school-ground  planting  as  in  forest 


plantations,  yet  it  is  worth  consideration. 
The  trees  should  not  stand  so  near  together 
as  to  produce  long,  slender  poles;  on  the  con- 
trary, short,  thick  trunks  are  desirable,  to 
support  large  tops  and  withstand  heavy 
winds.  From  8  to  12  feet  apart  will  be  sui<-- 
able  spacing  distance.  Where  large  blocks 
are  to  be  planted  the  trees  may  be  closer,  but 
it  is  scarcely  ever  desirable  to  plant  them 
closer  than  6  by  6  feet. 

Why  Trees  Die  in  Transplanting.  To 
many  persons  it  is  a  mystery  why  trees  die 
after  being  transplanted.  They  do  not  die 
without  cause,  however,  and  when  one  begins 
to  wither  something  is  wrong.  Oftentimes 
the  result  is  not  to  be  noticed  until  weeks 
after  the  injury;  in  other  cases  it  is  apparent 
in  a  few  days.  After  the  injury  has  been 
done  it  can  be  overcome  only  by  the  subse- 
quent growth  of  the  tree.  All  the  assistance 
that  can  be  given  is  to  make  the  surroundings 
of  the  tree  favorable  for  growth.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  causes  of  death  among 
transplanted  trees : 

Loss  of  Boots.  The  loss  of  the  principal 
part  of  its  root  system  when  the  tree  is  being 
taken  up  is  a  great  shock  to  its  vitality,  and 
frequently  causes  its  death.  A  very  large 
part  of  the  roots  must  be  cut  off,  for  usually 
the  space  suiTounding  the  tree  is  filled  with 
fibrous  rootlets,  mjTiads  of  which  can  scarce- 
ly be  detected  with  the  naked  eye.  Almost 
all  of  these  are  lost,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
larger  roots.  Mr.  D.  C.  Burson,  of  Topeka, 
Kan.,  last  year  dug  up  and  measured  as  much 
as  he  could  of  the  root  system  of  a  vigorous 
Hardy  Catalpa  seedling  that  had  grown  from 
May  till  November.  This  six-months-old 
seedling  showed  over  250  feet  of  root  growth. 
By  the  methods  in  common  use  only  a  fifth, 
or  perhaps  as  little  as  a  tenth,  of  the  root 
is  taken  up  with  the  tree  in  transplanting. 
Such  loss  throws  the  root  out  of  balance  with 
the  top.  If  the  top  is  not  shortened,  or  in 
some  way  protected,  the  leaves  may  evaporate 
more  moisture  than  the  roots  can  provide, 
resulting  in  the  death  of  the  tree. 

Exposure  Before  Planting.  With  proper 
subsequent  treatment  a  tree  can  endure  the 
loss  of  many  roots,  but  instead  of  the  needed 
protection  it  often  gets  much  unnecessary  ex- 
posure to  sun  and  dry  air.  This  may  be  in 
digging,  packing,  shipping,  unpacking,  or 
any  other  of  the  various  handlings  which  it 
undergoes  between  its  removal  from  the 
ground  and  subsequent  planting.    On  a  warm 


TREE 


3630 


TREE 


day  in  March  the  writer  saw  a  bundle  of  trees 
in  shipment  across  the  plains  of  Texas  with- 
out the  slightest  covering.  Before  the 
destination  was  reached  the  roots  became 
withered  and  almost  dry,  having  suffered  a 
hi^ndred  times  more  exposure  than  the  or- 
dinary tree  can  stand  without  injury.  Not 
many  persons  would  be  giiilty  of  such  gross 
neglect,  but  the  fact  remains  that  exposure 
causes  the  death  of  more  trees  in  trans- 
planting than  any  other  single  cause.  Ex- 
posure can  usually  be  easily  prevented,  and 
no  one  who  persists  in  neglectful  practices 
can  hope  to  be  successful. 

Failure  to  Plant  Well.  The  failure  to 
pack  the  soil  tightly  about  the  roots  is  a  com- 
mon error  in  planting.  It  causes  injury  in 
two  ways :  It  leaves  the  tree  unstable,  to  be 
rocked  to  and  fro  or  even  blown  down  by  the 
wind ;  it  also  prevents  the  first  growth  of  root- 
lets from  absorbing  food.  This  they  cannot 
do  unless  good,  fine  soil  is  firmly  packed 
around  them.  Clods  will  not  pack  snugly. 
Likewise  manure  or  litter  of  any  kind  mixed 
with  the  soil  may  prevent  firm  packing.  Any- 
thing that  prevents  the  soil  particles  from 
coming  into  close  contact  with  the  roots  is 
sure  to  be  injurious.  Another  error  is  in 
shallow  planting.  This  allows  wind  and 
water  to  lay  bare  the  roots,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  tree  dies.  Crowding  the  roots  into 
too  small  a  hole  is  a  similar  difficulty.  Such 
errors  are  more  often  due  to  lack  of  expe- 
rience and  skill  than  to  haste.  The  unskilful 
planter  will  hardly  plant  well,  however  slowly 
he  may  go. 

Wet  Soil.  Trees  are  often  injured  by  be- 
ing planted  in  wet  soil.  Whether  the  exces- 
sive moisture  is  a  permanent  or  a  temporary 
condition  is  likely  to  make  little  difference 
in  the  results.  If  it  is  permanent  the  water 
prevents  the  air  from  reaching  the  roots, 
while  if  it  is  only  temporary  the  trampling 
of  the  soil  over  them  causes  it  to  stick  to- 
gether so  that  on  drying  it  becomes  baked, 
leaving  them  impacted  in  a  hard  lump  of 
earth  which  excludes  the  air.  Excessive  air 
currents  in  the  soil  cause  injury  by  drying 
the  roots,  but  a  constant  permeation  of  the 
soil  by  the  air  is  necessary  to  supply  oxygen. 
This  process  is  precluded  by  either  the  satura- 
tion or  the  baking  of  the  soil.  Undrained 
pockets  occur  here  and  there  even  in  well- 
drained  fields,  and  are  always  difficult  to  deal 
with  in  tree  growing.  Careful  investigation 
before  planting  is  very  desirable. 


IJ  When  We  Plant  a  Tree               || 

\\  HENRY  ABBEY                                 11 

\\  What  do  we  plant  when  we  plant  the  j:! 

[j  tree?                                                       y 

11  We  plant  the  ship  which  will  cross  the   i\ 

p  sea;                                                       {,1 

r  I  We  plant  the  mast  to  carry  the  sails ;       jj 

H  We  plant  the  plank  to  withstand  the  rj 

ri  gales,                                                     jj 

\\  The  keel,  the  keelson,  the  beam,  the  \\ 

\\  knee :                                                       rf 

|i  AVe  plant  the  ship  when  we  plant  the  jlf 

Li  tree.                                                       \\ 

ll  What  do  we  plant  when  we  plant  the  fi 

\\  tree?                                                        l 

\\  We  plant  the  houses  for  you  and  me ;       jiil 

ri  We  plant  the  rafters,  the  shingles,  the  |i 

II  floors ;                                                     i\ 

\\  We  plant  the  studding,  the  lath,  the  \\ 

H  doors,                                                      jj 

1 1  The  beams,  the  siding,  all  parts  that  be :   |  j 

\\  We  plant  the  house  when  we  plant  the  jJ 

11  tree.                                                    \\ 

If  What  do  we  plant  when  we  plant  the  |:| 

l"l  tree?                                                     Q 

i!!i  A  thousand  things  that  we  daily  see ;       |"i 

!i  We  plant  the  spire  that  out-towers  the   |!'| 

jj  crag;                                                       p 

\\  We  plant  the  staff  for  our  country's  W 

1:1  flag;                                  H 

|"i  We  plant  the  shade  from  the  hot  sun   11 

\\  free —                                                   jJ 

\\  We  plant  all  these  when  we  plan  the  |!!l 

IJ  tree.                                                       f'1 


Drying  Out  of  the  Soil.  Another  cause  of 
death  is  the  drying  out  of  the  soil.  Summer 
droughts  are  not  unknown  in  any  part  of 
the  country,  and  are  very  frequent  in  parts  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  on  the  Plains. 
Occasionally  they  are  so  intense  and  long 
continued  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  recent 
transplanted  trees  survive,  even  when  care- 
fully planted  and  cultivated.  In  such  a  time, 
those  which  are  poorly  planted  and  culti- 
vated are  almost  sure  to  die.  Frequentlj',  too, 
weeds  and  grass  grow  up  in  the  plantation 
and  draw  off  the  moisture,  thereby  greatly 
diminishing  the  supply  for  the  yoimg  trees. 

On  a  school  ground  there  is  likelihood  of 
the  trees  being  injured  by  the  trampling 
of  the  soil.     The  pupils  will  naturally  wish 


TREE 


3G31 


TRENT  AFFAIR 


to  play  among  tbem,  and  unless  they  are  re- 
strained the  soil  will  soon  become  compacted. 
It  then  di'ies  out  very  quickly,  and  in  time  of 
drought  the  trees  are  sure  to  suffer  and 
may  be  killed.  By  proper  care  and  kindly 
suggestion,  the  children  can  be  persuaded  to 
help  the  tree  in  its  struggle  for  life  by  keep- 
ing away  from  it  until  it  is  well  rooted. 

Related    Articles:     Consult     the     following 
titles   for   additional    information: 

Acacia  Juniper 

Alder  Laburnum 

Arbor  Vitae  Larch 

Ash  Laurel 

Aspen  Leaves 

Banyan  Locust 

Basswood  Lumber 

Bay  Magnolia 

Beech  Mango 

Birch  Mangrove 

Bitternut  Maple 

Black  Gum  Mountain   Ash 

Bottle-Tree  Nettle  Tree 

Box  Tree  Nut    (with    list) 

Buckthorn  Oak 

Cabbage    Palm  Olive 

Cacao  Osage  Orange 

Catalpa  Palm 

Cedar  Palmetto 

Chestnut  Palmyra   Palm 

Coniferae  Pine 

Cottonwood  Poplar 

Cypress  Roots 

Date  Sago 

Deciduous  Trees  Seeds 

Doum  Palm  Sequoia 

Elder  Sorrel  Tree 

Elm  Spruce 

Eucalyptus  Stems 

Evergreen  Sycamore 

Fruit    (with  list)  Tallow  Tree 

Hemlock  Tamarind 

Hickory  Teak 

Horse-Chestnut  Tulip  Tree 

Ironwood  Upas 

Ivory  Palm  Willow 

Judas  Tree  Yew 

TREE,  Herbert  Beerbohm,  Sir  (1853- 
1917),  an  English  actor  and  manager,  born 
in  London  and  educated  in  England  and 
Germany.  He  made  his  first  appearance  on 
the  stage  as  Grimaldi,  at  the  Globe  Theatre, 
in  1878,  and  six  years  later  achieved  a  great 
success  as  the  Curate  in  The  Private  Secre- 
tary, given  at  the  Prince's.  In  1887  he  un- 
dertook the  management  of  the  Comedy 
Theatre  and  of  the  Haymarket.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1894.  His  repertoire 
included  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The 
Pompadour,  The  Dancing  Girl,  Hamlet,  Tril- 
by and  John-a-Dreams.  He  published  Fal- 
lacies of  the  Modern  Stage  and  The  Imagina- 
tive Faculty. 

TREE  FROG,  or  TREE  TOAD,  which,  as 
the  name  indicates,  lives  among  the  branches 
of  trees,  is  a  link  between  toads  and  typical 
frogs.  It  has  claw-shaped  toes,  and  a  further 
aid  to  climbing  is  provided  by  nature  in  the 
flat,  sticky  cushions  on  the  feet  which  adhere 
to  smooth  surfaces.  They  are  small,  shapely, 
active  and  of  changeable  color,  and  their 


notes  are  loud  and  i^iping.  They  should 
never  be  harmed,  as  they  are  destroyers  of 
insects. 

TRET  OIL,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  bean  family.  There  are  numerous  species, 
all  having  compound  leaves  in  three  divi- 
sions, like  clover.  Bird's-foot  trefoil,  so 
called  because  the  pod  clusters  somewhat 
resemble  a  bird's  foot,  is  a  plant  similar  to 
the  Irish  shamrock.  It  grows  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent  and  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States.  The  name  trefoil  is  also 
applied  to  a  small  three-part  architectural 
ornament. 

TRENT,  a  river  of  England,  which  rises 
on  the  northwest  border  of  Staffordshire, 
flows  southeast  to  Derbyshire,  then  northeast 
through  Derby,  Nottingham  and  Lincoln, 
joining  the  Ouse  about  fifteen  miles  west  of 
Hull.  The  two  streams  unite  to  foi-m  the 
Humber.  The  Derwent,  Idle,  and  Tarn  and 
Soar  are  its  tributaries.  The  Trent  is  170 
miles  long  and  is  navigable  for  barges  120 
miles.  It  is  connected  by  canal  with  the 
Mersey.  Next  to  the  Severn  and  the  Thames, 
the  Trent  is  the  most  important  river  in  Eng- 
land. 

TRENT,  Council  of,  a  celebrated  ecumen- 
ical council  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
convened  to  settle  various  controversies  that 
were  agitating  the  Church  during  the  Ref-  ' 
ormation  period  and  to  correct  abuses.  The 
Council  was  called  by  Pope  Paul  III,  in 
December,  1545,  at  Trent,  a  town  in  the 
Austrian  Tyrol.  The  sittings  were  inter- 
rupted by  political  and  religious  disturb- 
ances, and  the  work  undertaken  was  not 
finished  until  1563.  So  thorough  were  the 
labors  of  the  Council  that  the  standard  of 
Roman  Catholic  faith  and  practice  which  it 
set  has  not  been  altered  to  the  present  day. 
The  only  additions  have  been  the  statements 
regarding  the  Papal  Infallibility  and  the  Im- 
maculate Conception. 

TRENT  AFFAIR,  an"  incident  of  the 
American  Civil  War,  important  historically 
as  it  involved  the  question  of  the  right  of 
search.  In  October,  1861,  Captain  Charles 
Wilkes,  in  command  of  the  United  States  ship 
San  Jacinto,  intercepted'  at  sea  the  British 
mail  ship  Trent  and  took  from  it  two  Con- 
federate commissioners,  John  Slidell  and 
James  M.  Mason,  who  had  embarked  from 
Havana  and  were  on  their  way  to  France 
and  England  to  solicit  aid  for  the  Con- 
federate   cause.      The    commissioners    were 


TRENT  CANAL 


3632 


TREPANG 


taken  to  Fort  Warren,  Boston.  The  act, 
though  applauded  by  the  North,  was  in  viola- 
tion of  international  usage.  The  San  Jacinto 
should  have  taken  the  Trent  as  a  prize  to 
a  port,  to  be  adjudged.  President  Lincoln 
and  Secretary  Seward  recognized  the  im- 
propriety of  the  act  and  released  the  pris- 
oners, with  apology  to  the  British  govern- 
ment.   See  Masox^  James  Murrat;  Slidell^ 

JOHX. 

TRENT  CANAL.  See  Caxals  of  Canada. 

T  R  E  N  T  E-ET-QUARANTE,  trahXt  ay 
JcahrahXf,  or  TRENTE-UN.  See  Rouge-et- 
NoiR. 

TRENTON,  X.  J.,  the  capital  city  of  the 
state  and  the  shire-town  of  Mercer  County, 
situated  on  the  Delaware  River,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  on  the  Delaware, and  Raritan 
Canal  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Balti- 
more &  Ohio,  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  & 
Western  and  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading 
railroads.  It  is  also  connected  by  electric 
lines  with  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  the 
principal  cities  of  New  Jersey.  It  is  noted 
for  its  immense  pottery  works,  for  it  manu- 
factures more  than  one-half  of  all  the  pottery 
and  china  produced  in  the  United  States,  and 
for  extensive  iron  works  and  wire  mUls. 
There  are  also  rubber  works,  furniture  fac- 
tories, watch  factories,  carriage  and  wagon 
works  and  brick  and  tile  yards. 

The  city  possesses  exceptional  educational 
advantag>es,  having  the  state  nonnal  and 
model  school,  a  school  of  industrial  arts 
and  numerous  private  and  religious  acad- 
emies and  business  colleges.  It  has  a  beau- 
tiful public  library  building  containing  about 
75,000  volumes,  and  the  state  Library.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  state  asylum  for  the  in- 
sane, the  state  reformatory',  a  reformatory 
home  for  girls  and  the  state  penitentiary. 
Other  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  state 
eapitol,  the  county  courthouse,  the  state  ar- 
mor\',  the  Federal  building,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building,  the  Masonic  Temple  and  the  high 
school  building.  Cadwallader  Park  and 
Spring  Lake  Park  contain  many  beautiful 
monuments  and  drives.  Trenton  was  the 
scene  of  a  notable  engagement  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary' War  (see  Trexton,  Battle  of). 
It  was  first  settled  in  1676,  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1746,  and  was  made  the 
state  capital  in  1792.  It  adopted  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  in  1911.  Popu- 
lation, 1910,  96,815;  in  1917,  113,974  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 


TREN'TON,  Battle  of,  an  important 
battle  of  the  Revolutionary'  War,  fought  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  the  night  of  December  25, 
1776,  about  a  month  after  Washington  had 
begun  his  retreat  across  New  Jersey.  Pur- 
sued by  the  British,  he  crossed  the  swollen 
Delaware  River,  on  which  were  floating  blocks 
of  ice,  on  December  8th.  Cornwallis  then  took 
up  his  position  at  Princeton.  On  the  night  of 
the  twenty-fifth  Washington  reerossed  the 
Delaware,  marched  on  Trenton,  which  was 
defended  by  a  force  of  Hessians,  surprised 
them  in  the  midst  of  their  Christmas  night 
carousal,  and  captured  about  a  thousand. 
The  Americans  lost  five  men — two  killed, 
three  wounded.  Washington  immediately  re- 
crossed  the  river,  and  soon  afterwards  fought 
the  famous  Battle  of  Princeton.  These  suc- 
cesses revived  the  spirits  of  Washington's 
army  and  praeticalh'  turned  the  tide  of  vic- 
toi-y  toward  the  Americans.  See  Princeton, 
Battle  of. 

TRENTON,  Ont.,  in  Hastings  County,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Trent  River  near  the  west 
end  of  the  Bay  of  the  Quinte,  100  miles  east 
of  Toronto,  with  which  it  has  boat  connec- 
tion. It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Cana- 
dian Northern  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
ways. Its  industries  include  a  foundry,  can- 
nery, a  silvei'ware  factory,  grist  mill,  clothing 
and  button  factories,  paper  mills  and  can- 
neries. The  town  is  near  iron  mines  and 
limestone  quarries.  Population,  1916,  about 
9,000. 

TRENTON  SERIES,  an  extensive  rock 
formation,  forming  part  of  the  Ordovieian 
System.  The  rocks,  mainly  limestones  and 
carbonaceous  shales,  are  named  for  Trenton 
Falls,  Central  New  York,  where  the  largest 
typical  deposits  occur.  Other  localities  where 
they  are  conspicuous  are  along  the  eastern, 
southern  and  western  borders  of  the  Adi- 
rondacks,  on  the  northern  shores  of  Lake 
Ontario,  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Yalley 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  Wisconsin 
and  Illinois  Trenton  rocks  contain  zinc  and 
lead  ores;  in  Indiana  and  Ohio  they  are  a 
source  of  oil  and  natural  gas.  The  limestones 
of  this  formation  are  much  used  for  build- 
ing material  and  for  making  lime  and  Port- 
land cement. 

TREPANG',  the  commercial  name  for  sev- 
eral sea  slugs  which  are  an  important  article 
of  food  among  the  Chinese.  The  slugs  are 
found  chiefly  about  coral  reefs  in  the  East- 
ern seas,  particularly  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 


TREPHINING 


3633 


TRICHINA 


in  the  Eastern  Archipelago  and  on  the  shores 
of  Australia.  The  trepang  is  a  repulsive 
looking  animal,  with  a  soft,  wonnlike  body, 
varying  in  length  from  six  to  twenty-four 
inches.  It  is  smoked  and  dried  for  the  mar- 
ket, and  is  used  chiefly  to  make  soups.  There 
is  a  small  trepang  industry  in  California. 

TREPHINING-,  tre  fine'  ing,  the  operation 
'  of  cutting  a  circular  opening  into  the  skull, 
by  means  of  a  trephine.  The  ojoeration  is 
made  necessary  by  skull  fracture  or  other 
injury  requiring  removal  of  a  particle  of 
bone.  It  is  done  with  an  instrument  con- 
sisting of  a  small  hollow  steel  cylinder  from 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  with 
teeth  on  its  lower  edge  forming  a  circular 
saw.     See  Surgery. 

TRES'PASS,  an  offense  against  the  per- 
son or  property  of  another,  especially  an  un- 
lawful entry  upon  property.  Injuries  com- 
mitted against  land  or  buildings,  as  posting 
advertisements  without  permission,  entering 
another's  house  or  allowing  cattle  to  stray  into 
his  fields,  are  common  forms  of  trespass.  The 
entry  of  an  officer  of  the  law  without  the 
authority  of  a  warrant  is  a  trespass.  Re- 
dress for  trespass  is  obtained  through  a  suit 
for  damages.  A  trespass  committed  by  mis- 
take is  as  actionable  as  wilful  trespass.  Con- 
tinued or  threatened  trespass  may  be  re- 
strained by  injunction. 

TRIAL  BY  BATTLE.  See  Battle, 
Trial  by. 

TRIANGLE,  a  plane  figure  bounded  by 
three  straight  lines.  Triangles  are  classified 
as  equilateral,  isosceles  and  scalene,  accord- 
ing as  they  have  three  sides,  two  sides  or 
no  sides  equal.  They  may  be  obtuse,  acute 
or  right-angled.  The  side  upon  which  a 
triangle  rests  is  its  base',  the  point  of  the 
angle  opposite  the  base  is  the  vertex',  the 
distance  between  the  base  and  the  vertex  is 
the  altitude.  In  a  right  triangle  the  side 
opposite  the  right  angle  is  the  hypotenuse. 

It  has  been  known  since  500  B.  c.  that  the 
square  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right  triangle 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the 
other  two  sides.  From  this  fact  any  side 
of  a  right-angled  triangle  may  be  found, 
if  the  other  two  sides  are  known.  The  area 
of  a  triangle  is  calculated  by  multiplying  the 
base  by  the  altitude  and  dividing  by  two. 

TRIAS'SIC  SYSTEM,  a  group  of  rocks, 
extending  from  the  Carboniferous  System, 
below,  to  the  Jurassic,  above.  It  is  there- 
fore the  oldest  formation  of  the  Mesozoic 

228 


Era.  The  rocks  are  sedimentary,  but  in  many 
places  they  are  disarranged  by  the  break- 
ing through  of  volcanic  matter,  which  has 
formed  dikes  and  cliffs  of  trap.  The  Pali- 
sades of  the  Hudson  afford  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  such  formations.  Triassic  rocks  are 
generally  distributed  throughout  all  conti- 
nents. In  North  America  they  are  found  on 
both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  The 
sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and  of 
New  Jersey,  so  highly  prized  for  building, 
is  of  this  period;  most  of  the  other  sand- 
stones of  the  formation  are  red  and  form 
the  group  sometimes  classified  as  New  Red 
Sandstone.  The  plant  life  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  Carboniferous  Period.  The  large 
quantities  of  fossils  found  in  the  rocks  show 
plainly  that  vast  numbers  of  gigantic  lizard- 
like animals  overran  the  land  and  that  the 
seas  teemed  with  other  monsters  of  huge 
size.  The  period  is  often  referred  to  as  the 
Age  of  Reptiles. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles   for  additional   information: 
Carboniferous  System  Mesozoic  Era 
Jurassic  System  New  Red  Sandstone 

TRIB'UNE,  from  the  Latin  tribunus,  in 
ancient  Rome  was  the  name  applied  to  either 
of  two  government  oflfieials,  whose  duties  were 
totally  different.  Originally  the  tribunes 
were  the  commanders  of  the  soldiers  fur- 
nished to  the  Roman  army  by  the  tribes, 
and  from  this  the  title  is  doubtless  derived. 
In  the  time  of  the  Republic  the  military 
tribunes  ranked  next  to  the  commander  in 
chief.  Under  the  Empire  the  office  was  of 
less  importance. 

Far  more  important  than  the  military 
tribunes  were  the  tribunes  of  the  people. 
These  were  magistrates  elected  to  protect 
the  people's  rights.  The  office  was  instituted 
in  494  B.  C.  The  tribunes  had  almost  dic- 
tatorial powers  and  in  the  later  years  of 
the  Republic  they  were  the  leading  officers 
of  the  state. 

TRICHINA,  tre  ki'  na,  a  minute  worm, 
which,  when  it  obtains  lodgment  in  the 
muscles  of  man,  gives  rise  to  the  disease 
trichiniasis.  The  worm  is  found  in  several 
of  the  mammals,  especially  the  pig,  and  it 
is  generally  from  the  latter  that  man  receives 
the  disease.  When  flesh  containing  the  larvae, 
or  worms  in  their  resting  stage,  is  taken  into 
the  stomach,  these  soon  become  developed 
into  adult  worms,  which  pass  into  the  in- 
testines. In  the  mature  state  the  male  is 
about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  and  the 


TRICHINA 


3634 


TRIGONOMETRY 


female  is  from  one-eighth  to  one-twelfth  of 
an  inch  in  length.  The  female  produces  an 
extraordinary  number  of  embiyos,  which,  by 
penetrating  the  mucous  coat  of  the  intestine, 
enter  the  capillaries  and  are  carried  thence 
into  the  general  circulation;  thence  they  make 
their  way  into  the  muscles,  where  they  rest 
encased  in  a  limy  cyst  and  give  no  further 
trouble.  While  in  their  active  state,  they  set 
up  diseased  conditions  in  their  host,  which 
often  prove  fatal.  In  the  illustration,  the 
figure  to  the  right  shows  larval  worms  in 
the  encysted  state,  embedded  in  the  human 
muscle,  and  the  figure  to  the  left  shows 
trichinae  free  in  the  human  muscle. 


TRICHINAE 
Encased  and  free. 

Trichiniasis.  This  is  the  disease  caused 
by  the  passage  of  the  trichina  from  the  in- 
testines to  the  muscles.  The  first  symptoms 
of  the  disease  are  loss  of  appetite,  nausea, 
weakness  and  diarrhoea.  These  are  followed 
by  pains  in  the  muscles,  fever  and  swelling  of 
the  limbs,  and  sometimes  by  stiffening  of 
the  joints.  The  disease  runs  its  course  in 
about  four  weeks.  From  ten  to  thirty  per 
cent  of  the  cases  are  fatal. 

No  means  is  known  of  destroying  the  para- 
sites after  they  have  reached  the  muscles,  but 
if,  as  soon  as  infection  is  suspected,  castor 
oil  or  calomel  is  given  in  quantities,  the  em- 
bryos will  be  expelled  from  the  intestines,  and 
health  will  return.  As  a  general  preventive 
measure,  no  pork  should  be  eaten  by  any  one, 
unless  it  has  been  thoroughly  cooked.  Smok- 
ing, as  in  the  treatment  of  hams,  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  kill  trichinae.  The  real  cause  of  the 
disease  was, first  made  known  about  1860, 
though  cases  of  it  had  been  known  in  Europe 


since  the  beginning  of  the  century.  It  has 
appeared  in  the  United  States  and  in  most 
parts  of  Europe,  occasionally  as  an  epidemic. 

TRrCOLOR,  the  French  national  flag,  or 
one  formed  after  the  model  of  it.  The  French 
tricolor  is  blue,  whife  and  red,  in  equal  ver- 
tical sections,  the  blue  being  next  the  flagstaff. 

TRICYCLE,  tri'sik'l,  a  three-wheeled  ve- 
hicle propelled  by  the  hands  or  feet.  It  is 
adapted  to  several  uses,  being  made  to  serve 
as  a  child's  plaything  or  as  a  means  of 
locomotion  for  those  who  cannot  walk.  Most 
tricycles  are  made  with  two  large  wheels, 
between  which  is  the  seat,  and  a  small  wheel 
extending  forward,  used  as  a  balance  and 
guide.    They  have  been  in  use  since  1878. 

TRIEST,  tre  est',  Italy,  until  1918  the 
chief  seaport  of  Austria-Hungary,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Gulf  of  Triest,  an  arm  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  seventy-three  miles  northeast 
of  Venice  and  214  miles  southwest  of  Vienna. 
The  city  consists  of  an  old  town,  with  narrow 
streets,  which  rise  rapidly  from  the  harbor  to 
the  heights  beyond,  and  a  ^ew  quarter,  which 
is  built  on  modem  plans.  The  two  parts  of 
the  city  are  separated  by  a  street  known  as 
the  Corso.  Some  of  the  important  buildings 
are  the  townhall,  the  Cathedral  of  San  Giusto 
which  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  Ro- 
man temple,  and  the  Greek  church.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  ruins  of  ancient  Roman 
structures,  including  those  of  a  theatre  and  an 
aqueduct.  The  city  has  a  number  of  public 
squares  and  a  public  garden.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  important  trade  and  manufacturing 
centers  on  the  Adriatic,  and  has  an  extensive 
commerce.  Its  manufactures  include  naval 
stores,  machinery,  soap,  candles,  leather  and 
refined  petroleum.  In  the  World  War  Triest 
was  the  objective  of  the  Italian  drive  under 
General  Cadorna,  and  the  Italian  army  ap- 
proached within  twelve  miles  of  the  city.  In 
the  adjustment  of  boundaries  after  the  war 
the  city  fell  within  Italian  territory.  Popula- 
tion, 1914,  250,500. 

TRIGONOM'ETRY,  that  branch  of  mathe- 
matics which  treats  of  the  measui'ement  of 
triangles.  It  follows  geometry  in  a  course  of 
study  and  depends  upon  certain  truths  there 
demonstrated,  such  as  the  sum  of  the  angles 
of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles;  if 
three  parts  of  a  triangle,  one  of  which  is  a 
side,  are  known,  the  other  parts  can  be  found 
by  computation.  Trigonometry  is  divided 
into  two  branches,  plane  trigonometry  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  the  first  named  treat- 


TRILLIUM 


3635 


TRINITY 


ing  of  plane  triangles,  the  second  of  spherical 
triangles. 

The  value  of  trigonometry  in  many  prac- 
tical pursuits,  such  as  engineering,  surveying 
and  astronomy,  is  almost  inestimable,  since  it 
makes  possible  the  measurement  of  distances 
and  magnitudes  which  could  be  measured  in 
no  other  way,  on  account  of  physical  obstruc- 
tions or  other  conditions.  Examples  of  this 
use  may  be  found  in  measuring  the  distance 
between  two  objects  on  the  opposite  banks  of 
a  stream,  without  crossing,  and  measuring  the 
height  of  a  mountain  above  its  base.  See 
Mathematics. 

TRILLIUM,  or  WAKE  ROBIN,  an  early 
spring  wild  flower,  belonging  to  the  lily  fam- 
ily, to  the  other  members  of  which  it  bears 
little  resemblance.  There  are  various  species, 
but  they  all  are  governed,  as  their  name 
indicates,  by  the  rule  of  three;  the  three- 
sepaled,  three-petaled  flower  rises  out  of  a 
whorl  of  three  leaves.  The  painted  trillium, 
with  its  white  petals  veined  with  pink,  and 
the  white  trillium,  or  wood  lily,  are  the  most 
beautiful.  The  purplish  red  trillium,  popu- 
larly known  as  "devil  in  the  bandbox,"  has 
a  very  unpleasant  odor. 

TRIN'IDAD,  next  to  Jamaica,  the  largest 
and  most  valuable  of  the  British  West  In- 
dies, situated  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  op- 
posite the  northern  mouths  of  the  Orinoco. 
It  is  about  fifty-five  miles  long  and  forty 
miles  wide,  and  its  area  is  1,754  square  miles, 
a  little  more  than  that  of  the  state  of  Rhode 
Island.  Most  of  the  island  is  traversed  by 
ranges  of  hills,  covered  with  forests.  The 
most  remarkable  natural  feature  of  the  island 
is  Pitch  Lake,  the  world's  chief  source  of 
asphalt.  This  lake  covers  ninety  acres  and 
yields  190,000  tons  of  asphalt  annually  (see 
Asphalt).  From  the  lake  to  Labrae,  the 
nearest  port,  a  road  has  been  built  over  a  bed 
of  asphalt  which  is  moving  slowly,  glacierlike, 
toward  the  sea. 

Trinidad  is  an  English  crown  colony,  ad- 
ministered by  a  governor  and  a  legislative 
council.  Port  of  Spain,  on  the  northwest 
coast,  is  the  capital.  The  population  is 
about  330,000,  including  Europeans,  emi- 
grants from  India  and  negroes. 

The  island  is  well  watered  and  has  plenty 
of  rainfall.  Palms,  silk  cotton  trees,  bread- 
fruit, bamboo,  coffee,  cacao,  bananas  and 
sugar  cane  are  grown.  Coffee,  cacao,  bananas 
and  sugar  cane  are  exported  to  a  considerable 
extent. 


TRINIDAD,  Colo.,  the  county  seat  of  Las 
Animas  County,  ninety  miles  south  of  Pueblo, 
on  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande,  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  and  the  Colorado  South- 
em  railroads.  The  city  is  in  a  valley,  among 
the  eastern  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
southeast  of  the  Spanish  Peaks  and  north  of 
Fisher's  Peak.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  farming 
and  sheejD  and  cattle-raising  section,  and  is 
near  extensive  coal  mines.  Railroad  shops, 
coke  ovens  and  wool-scouring  plants  are  lo-. 
cated  here.  Notable  buildings  are  a  county 
courthouse,  a  Caniegie  Library,  Saint  Jos- 
eph's Academy  and  Saint  Raphael's  Hospital. 
Population,  ioiO,  10,204;  in  1917,  14,413 
(Federal  estimate). 

TRINITROTOLUOL,  tri  ni  tro  toV  uol, 
popularly  known  as  T.  N.  T.,  and  one  of  the 
most  powerful  explosives  known,  is  a  com- 
pound of  toluene  and  nitrogen  jDeroxide.  It 
is  a  white  to  pale-yellow  solid  that  melts  at 
148°  F.,  and  is  used  extensively  for  the  ex- 
plosive charge  of  armor-piercing  shells,  and 
for  torpedoes  and  mines.  Under  the  influence 
of  mercury  fulminate  it  explodes  with  incred- 
ible violence.  It  is  loaded  into  shells  in  a 
molten  state  and  cooled  under  pressure.  T. 
N.  T.  not  only  explodes  with  great  violence, 
but  in  exploding  it  increases  the  effect  of  other 
explosives  present,  such  as  dynamite;  for 
this  reason  it  is  used  in  detonating  caps  and 
fuses.  A  form  of  fuse  made  b}^  filling  a  small 
lead  pipe  with  molten  trinitrotoluol  is  used 
when  it  is  desired  to  explode  several  charges 
simultaneously,  because  the  detonating  effect 
will  travel  through  this  tube  at  the  rate  of 
4,000  meters  per  second.  Vast  quantities  of 
T.  ¥.  T.  were  used  in  the  World  War. 

TRIN'ITY,  a  theological  name  given  to  the 
doctrine  which  declares  the  union  of  the 
Father,  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as  Three 
Persons  and  One  God.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  a  development  of  Christian  the- 
ology. It  Is  nowhere  expressly  taught  in  the 
Old  Testament;  however,  it  is  implied  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  doctrine  was  first  au- 
thoritatively stated  at  the  Council  of  Nice  in 
325.  The  definition  of  the  Trinity  generally 
accepted  by  orthodox  Christians  is  that  there 
are  in  the  Godhead  three  persons,  who  are 
one  in  substance,  eoeternal  and  equal  in 
power.  The  tenn  persons  is  not  strictly 
applicable  to  the  Trinity,  but  something 
analogous  to  the  conception  of  personality 
seems  to  be  implied  in  the  apostolical  argu- 
ments of  the  epistles. 


TRINITY  SUNDAY 


3636 


TRIPOLI 


TRINITY  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday  after 
Whitsunday.  It  was  definitely  established  as 
a  Church  festival  by  Pope  John  XXII  in 
1334.  All  the  principal  festivals  occur  in  the 
half  year  between  Advent  Sunday  and  Trin- 
ity, and  all  the  Sundays  from  Trinity  to  Ad- 
vent are  called  Sundays  after  Trinity. 

TRIP'LE  ALLI'ANCE,  an  alliance  of  three 
powers,  a  system  of  diplomacy  in  vogue  in 
Europe  after  the  close  of  the  Franco-German 
War,  primarily  instituted  by  the  German 
Btatesmaii,  Bismarck,  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  balance  of  power.  An  alliance 
was  negotiated  in  1872  between  Gennany, 
Austria  and  Russia.  Conflicting  interests  in 
the  Balkans  prevented  this  alliance  from  be- 
ing a  strong  one,  and  when  Bismarck  retired 
from  office  in  1890  William  II  abandoned  the 
policy  of  an  understanding  with  Russia,  de- 
voting his  efforts  to  the  strengthening  of  a 
Dual  Alliance  between  Germany  and  Austria. 

The  last  triple  alliance  was  that  effected 
between  Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and 
Italy  in  1882.  This  continued,  with  signs  of 
weakening  on  the  part  of  Italy,  till  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War,  when  Italy  de- 
clared neutrality.  This  neutrality  was  broken 
in  1915  by  Italy's  declaration  of  war  upon 
Austria.    See  World  War. 

TRIPLE  ENTENTE,  aim  tahnif,  the  name 
popularly  applied  to  the  alliance  of  Great 
Britain,  France  and  Russia,  formed  chiefly 
through  the  efforts  of  King  Edward  VII. 
The  year  1907  saw  a  series  of  treaties  ratified 
between  these  countries,  all  the  treaties  having 
mutual  protection  of  interests  as  an  object. 
France  and  Great  Britain  came  to  an  agree- 
ment as  to  their  Mediterranean  policy,  and 
largely  to  Great  Britain's  influence  the 
French  naval  power  was  later  concentrated 
in  the  Mediterranean,  Great  Britain  practi- 
cally guaranteeing  to  protect  the  northern 
coast  of  France  against  any  invaders.  Russia 
and  Great  Britain  also  came  to  the  agreement 
about  their  policies  in  Persia,  Afghanistan 
and  Tibet,  where  conflict  had  sometimes  been 
very  near.  In  a  general  way  the  Triple  En- 
tente was  planned  to  offset  the  Triple  Alliance 
(which  see),  and  to  maintain  the  balance  of 
power  between  the  European  nations.  It  was 
in  fulfilment  of  its  agreement  with  France  in 
this  alliance  that  Great  Britain  entered  the 
World  War  against  the  Central  Powers.  The 
Triple  Entente  and  Triple  Alliance  were  set 
aside  by  the  treaty  which  ended  the  World 
War. 


TRIP'OLI,  an  Italian  dependency  in  North 
Africa,  between  the  Libyan  Desert  on  the 
east,  and  Tunis  and  the  Sahara  Desert  on  the 
west.  It  has  an  estimated  area  of  406,000 
square  miles.  In  ancient  times  Tripoli  be- 
longed to  the  Carthaginians,  passing  from 
them  to  Rome.  Later  it  was  captured  by  the 
Vandals  and  Greeks,  and  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury by  the  Arabs  (see  Barbary  States). 
From  1551  till  1911,  at  which  date  it  was 
ceded  to  Italy,  Tripoli  was  a  part  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire,  though  the  sultan  rarely  exerted 
much  authority  over  the  territory.  For  much 
of  this  period  it  was  the  stronghold  of  pirati- 
cal bands,  whose  depredations  on  the  seas 
caused  successive  expeditions  against  Tripoli 
to  be  made  by  England  and  France.  In 
1801-05  the  United  States  was  at  war  with 
Tripoli,  and  in  1815  an  American  expedition 
exacted  reparation  for  injuries  done  to 
American  commerce.  When  it  passed  to 
Italy  in  1911  the  Italian  government  an- 
nounced that  the  dependency  would  be  known 
officially  as  Libya  Italiana. 

Tripoli  has  a  strip  of  lowland  along  the 
coast,  but  its  altitude  rises  toward  the  interior, 
a  large  portion  of  which  is  a  barren  plateau. 
In  the  southwest  is  an  elevation  3,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  which  forms  parts  of  the 
mountain  range  known  as  Jebel-Nefusa. 
Beyond  this  is  a  low  plain,  irrigated  by  wells 
and  cultivated.  A  fertile  portion  of  the 
country  lies  along  the  Mediterranean,  in  a 
strip  extending  on  each  side  of  the  city  of 
Tripoli,  to  a  width  of  about  five  miles. 
Wheat,  barley,  Indian  com  and  millet  are  the 
principal  grains  grown.  The  fruits  include 
dates,  olives,  grapes,  pomegranates,  lemons, 
figs,  apricots  and  plums.  Melons  and  garden 
vegetables  are  raised.  In  some  sections  along 
the  coast,  cotton,  tobacco,  silk,  saffron  and 
madder  are  produced.  The  summers  are 
hot,  though  tempered  by  sea  breezes  along 
the  coast.  The  winters  are  cool,  and  on  the 
highest  mountains  snow  is  sometimes  seen. 
Population,  1911,  523,176  natives  (chiefly 
Berbers),  6,000  Europeans,  and  numerous 
Jews. 

Tripoli,  the  capital  and  principal  seaport, 
is  situated  on  a  promontory  on  the  Medi- 
terranean coast.  It  is  a  typically  Oriental 
city,  with  narrow  streets  and  squalid  living 
quarters  surrounded  by  the  domes  and  min- 
arets of  Mohammedanism.  It  is  the  northern 
terminus  of  three  important  caravan  routes 
across  the  Sahara,  and  manufactures  carpets, 


TRIREME 


3637 


TROPIC  BIRD 


scarfs  and  Spanish  leather.  Trade  is  mainly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  Population,  about 
75,000. 

TRI'REME,  a  word  meaning  three-oared, 
was  a  Greek  war  vessel  of  the  fifth  and  fourth 
centuries  B.  c,  long  and  light,  propelled  by 
three  banks  of  oars  and  steered  by  paddles 
on  either  side  of  the  stern.  A  trireme  was 
provided  with  sails,  but  these  were  discarded 
on  going  into  battle.  At  Salamis,  the  great 
naval  battle  between  the  Persians  and  the 
Greeks  in  480  B.  c,  the  Grecian  fleet  num- 
bered 380  ships,  most  of  which  were  triremes. 

TRFUMPH,  in  ancient  Roman  history,  a 
magnificent  procession,  the  highest  military 
honor  awarded  a  victorious  general.  It  was 
granted  by  the  Senate  only  to  one  who  had 
held  the  office  of  dictator,  consul  or  praetor, 
and  then  only  after  a  decisive  victory  or  the 
complete  subjugation  of  a  province.  The  gen- 
eral to  whom  this  honor  was  awarded  entered 
Rome  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses.  He 
was  clad  in  a  flowered  tunic  and  embroidered 
robe,  was  crowned  with  laurel  and  had  a 
scepter  in  one  hand  and  a  branch  of  laurel 
in  the  other.  The  Senate  and  the  magistrates, 
the  musicians,  the  spoils  and  the  captives  in 
fetters  formed  part  of  the  procession  which 
went  before  him,  and  he  was  followed  by  his 
army  on  foot,  in  marching  order.  The 
procession  advanced  along  the  Via  Sacra  to 
the  Capitol,  where  a  bull  was  sacrificed  to 
Jupiter.  Banquets  and  other  entertainments 
concluded  the  solemnity.  The  day  was  made 
one  of  jesting,  carnival  and  license  on  the 
part  of  the  soldiery  and  populace. 

A  naval  triumph  was  celebrated  in  much 
the  same  manner,  but  upon  a  smaller  scale 
and  with  the  use  of  beaks  of  ships  and  other 
nautical  trophies. 

TRIUM'VIRATE,  a  political  coalition  of 
three  men.  There  were  two  famous  coalitions 
in  Roman  history,  the  first  formed  in  59  b.  c., 
by  Caesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus;  the  second 
in  43  b.  c,  by  Anthony,  Octavius  and  Lepi- 
dus.  The  first  was  illegal,  being  merely  an 
alliance  of  powerful  individuals.  The  second 
was  a  real  triumvirate  existing  by  recogni- 
tion of  the  Roman  Senate. 

TRO'GON,  a  genus  of  tropical  birds,  of 
which  there  are  about  fifty  species  in  both 
hemispheres,  principally  in  America.  Their 
plumage  is  soft,  full  and  brilliantly  colored, 
and  most  species  have  long,  graceful-appear- 
ing tails.  Their  foot  structure  is  peculiar, 
the  first  and  second  toes  pointing  backward 


and  the  third  and  fourth  forward.  Trogons 
nest  in  the  tops  of  rotting  stumps.  Their 
voices  are  loud  and  harsh.  The  gorgeous 
Central  American  trogon  known  as  the 
quetzal  was  anciently  regarded  as  sacred  by 
the  Mayas,  and  is  still  the  national  symbol  of 
Guatemala.    See  Quetzal. 

TRO'JAN  WAR.    See  Troy;  Mythology. 

TROLLING',  trole'ing,  a  method  of  fishing, 
in  which  a  spoon  hook  is  dragged  at  the  end  of 
a  long  line  behind  a  boat.  This  is  a  favorite 
method  for  bass,  pickerel  and  some  sea  fish. 
See  Akgling. 

TROLLOPE,  trol'lup,  Anthony  (1815- 
1882),  an  English  novelist,  author  of  The 
Warden,  The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset,  The 
Way  We  Live  Now,  The  Claverings,  Bar- 
chester  Towers  and  other  delightful  studies 
of  English  society  of  his  time.  His  works 
are  characterized  by  keenness  of  insight,  real- 
ism of  detail  and  an  equal  command  of  humor 
and  pathos.  He  particularly  excels  in  por- 
traits of  the  clergy  and  delineation  of  life  in 
cathedral  towns. 

TROM'BONE,  a  powerful  wind-instrument 
of  the  trumpet  kind,  possessing  a  complete 
chromatic  scale,  like  a  violin  or  the  human 
voice.  It  consists  of  a  tube  twice  bent, 
ending  in  a  trumpet-shaped  bell,  and  is 
sounded  by  means  of  a  cup-shaped  mouth- 
piece and  the  manipulation  of  a  slide. 
Trombones  in  general  use  are  of  three  kinds — 
alto,  tenor  and  bass.  Their  full  rich  tones 
make  them  favorite  instruments  in  bands  and 
orchestras. 

TROMP,  Martin  Harpertzoon  (1597- 
1653),  a  Dutch  admiral,  victor  over  a  Spanish 
fleet  off  Gravelines  in  the  Straits  of  Dover 
in  1639,  and  over  the  English  fleet  under 
Blake  off  Goodwin  Sands  in  1652.  The  latter 
victory  made  the  Dutch  for  a  few  months 
supreme  in  the  Channel,  but  the  following 
spring  a  new  and  larger  English  fleet  under 
Blake,  Penn  and  Monk  attacked  the  Dutch 
vessels,  which  were  old,  poorly-equipped  and 
no  match  for  their  adversaries.  Tromp,  how- 
ever, retreated  with  coolness  and  heroism, 
bringing  125  merchantmen  to  safe  harbor  in 
Holland.  In  June  of  the  same  year  he  was 
killed  in  another  battle  with  the  English. 

TROPIC  BIRD,  or  BOAT'SWAIN,  a  sea 
bird  helpless  on  land  but  powerful  on  the 
wing,  often  flying  hundreds  of  miles  to  hover 
over  ships,  spending  whole  days  in  the  air  and 
capturing  fish  by  diving  into  the  water  from 
a  great  height.     Its  plvmiage  is  white  and 


TROPICS 


3638 


TROUVERE 


satiny,  often  tinged  with  pink  and  variegated 
by  blackish  patches.  It  is  distinguished  by 
unusually  long  wings  and  two  long,  willowy, 
middle  tailfeathers.  It  makes  no  nest,  but 
deposits  its  single  egg  in  a  hole  or  crevice  in 
a  cliff.  Tropic  Birds  breed  in  colonies,  and 
male  and  female  incubate  in  turn. 

TROPICS,  trop'iks,  in  astronomy,  two 
circles  on  the  celestial  sphere,  each  23i° 
distant  from  the  equator.  The  northern 
tropic  touches  the  ecliptic  at  the  sign  Cancer, 
and  is  known  as  the  tropic  of  Cancer;  the 
southern,  for  a  similar  reason,  is  called  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  annual  path  of 
the  sun  in  the  heavens  is  bounded  by  these  two 
circles,  and  when  in  its  journey  northward 
or  southward  it  reaches  either  of  them,  it 
appears  to  turn  back  and  travel  in  the  op- 
posite direction. 

Geogi'aphically,  the  tropics  are  two  par- 
allels of  latitude,  each  23*°  distant  from  the 
terrestrial  equator.  Over  these  circles  the 
sun  is  vertical  when  farthest  north,  or  farthest 
south,  that  is,  at  the  solstices.  The  tropics 
include  between  them  that  portion  of  the 
globe  called  the  torrid  zone.     See  Solstice. 

TROTZKY,  trots' ki,  Leo^  (boni  1877), 
a  Russian  radical,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
the  Bolshevik  party  that  overthrew  the  Ker- 
ensky  government  in  November,  1917.  He  was 
a  close  associate  of  Nikolai  Lenine  throughout 
the  period  of  Bolshevik  rule  in  Russia. 
Trotzky's  real  name  is  Leber  Brokstein.  For 
many  years  previous  to  the  revolution  he  had 
been  agitating  radical  ideas,  and  from  1905 
to  1912  he  lived  in  Siberia  as  an  exile.  Sub- 
sequently in  Berlin,  Paris  and  Spain  he  at- 
tempted to  spread  his  revolutionary  ideas, 
but  was  suppressed,  and  finally  he  went  to 
America,  where  he  would  be  free  to  continue 
his  propaganda. 

He  edited  a  radical  paper  entitled  the  New 
World  in  New  York  City,  and  mingled  with 
Russian  agitators  on  the  East  Side.  "Wlaen 
the  czar  was  overthrown  Trotzky  returned 
to  Russia  and  joined  with  Lenine  in  the  move- 
ment which  established  a  soviet  republic.  He 
was  made  ^Minister  of  Foreign  Affaii-s  in  the 
first  Bolshevik  Cabinetf  but  later  he  became 
Minister  of  War.  To  him  was  entrusted  the 
training  of  a  great  revolutionary  army  to 
check  the  factions  opposed  to  Bolshe\'ism 
and  to  coerce  the  ring  of  small  states  about 
Central  Russia.  This  army,  numbering  more 
than  a  million  men,  was  still  fighting  success- 
fully in  the  summer  of  1919.    Trotzky  is  a 


man  of  ability,  an  effective  writer  and  a 
powerful  orator.  See  Russia;  Lenine, 
Nikolai. 

TROUBADOUR,  troo'  ba  dohr,  a  class  of 
medieval  poets  first  appearing  in  Provence 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  flourishing  for 
three  centuries  in  Southern  France,  North 
Italy  and  Spain.  They  were  the  composers 
and  singers  of  a  species  of  lyrical  poetry, 
devoted  to  romantic  gallantry  and  generally 
very  complicated  in  regard  to  meter  and 
rhyme.  Troubadours  wandered  from  estate 
to  estate  and  court  to  court,  depending  upon 
the  nobles  and  ladies  whom  they  flattered  and 
entertained  to  reward  their  musical  and  poetic 
skill.  With  the  fall  of  the  feudal  sj'stem, 
of  which  they  were  the  expression,  the  trouba- 
dours disappeared. 

TROUT,  troict,  the  common  name  of  a 
group  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  salmon  fam- 
ily and  living  in  streams  and  fresh-water 
lakes.     The  common  trout  may  be  found  in 


LAKE    TROUT 

Northern  Europe  and  North  America,  in 
rivers  and  lakes  and  even  in  small  streams. 
The  speckled  brook  trout,  most  highly  prized 
of  food  fishes,  was  formerly  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  streams  of  the  New  England 
states.  Northern  New  York.  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin and  westward,  but  it  was  nearly  exter- 
minated, except  in  wild  regions  or  in  care- 
fully-guarded streams.  Fish  commissions 
have  restocked  waters  of  those  states,  and  the 
angling  season  for  brook  trout  is  now  strictly 
limited  by  law.  There  are  several  species  of 
lake  trout  in  America,  among  the  finest  and 
largest  of  which  is  the  Mackinaio  trout.  The 
North  American  lake  trout  attains  a  weight  of 
more  than  sixty  pounds,  but  specimens  of 
this  size  are  rare.  All  species  of  trout  are 
valuable  food  fish,  and  laws  in  many  states 
protect  them. 

TROUVERE,  troo  vai/,  a  class  of  medieval 
poets  of  Northern  France,  corresponding 
broadly  to  the  troubadours  of  Provence. 
Though  their  writings  were  mainly  concerned 


TROVATORE,  IL 


3639 


TROY  WEIGHT 


with  an  artificial  treatment  of  the  subject  of 
love,  they  were  sometimes  of  a  narrative 
character  and  as  such  made  valuable  contri- 
bution to  the  development  of  French  litera- 
ture.   See  Troubadour. 

TROVATORE,  IL,  eel  tro  va  tohf  rah.  See 
Tl  Teovatore. 

TROWBRIDGE,  tro'brij,  John  Townsend 
(1827-1916),  an  American  novelist,  poet  and 
^vriter  of  stories  for  boys,  author  of  Neighbor 
Jaekwood,  a  strong  protest  against  slavery, 
published  in  1857,  Cudjo's  Cave,  The  Jack 
Hazard  Series,  My  Own  Story,  an  autobi- 
ography full  of  interesting  refei'ences  to  the 
literature  of  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  Vagabonds  and  Other  Poems. 
He  is  also  known  for  his  verse,  "Darius  Green 
and  his  Flying  Machine,"  an  amusing  satire 
on  early  attempts  to  fly. 

TROY,  or  ILIUM,  an  ancient  city  in  the 
Troad,  a  territory  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor,  south  of  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Hellespont,  rendered  famous  by  Homer's  epic 
of  the  Iliad.  There  have  been  various  opin- 
ions regarding  the  site  of  the  Homeric  city, 
the  most  probable  of  which  places  ancient 
Troy  at  the  head  of  the  plain  bounded  by  the 
modem  river  Mendereh,  supposed  to  be  the 
Scamander  of  Homer,  and  the  Dombrek, 
probably  the  Homeric  Simois.  The  Ilium  of 
history  was  founded  about  700  B.  c.  by  Aeolie 
Greeks,  and  it  was  regarded  as  occupying 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  Modern  excava- 
tions tend  to  prove  the  existence  of  prehis- 
toric Troy,  but  no  one  knows  whether  or  not 
there  was  a  Trojan  War.  The  fascinating 
story  of  this  legend  is  told  in  these  volumes  in 
the  article  Mythology. 

TROY,  N.  Y.,  the  county  seat  of  Rens- 
selaer County,  150  miles  north  of  New  York 
City  and  six  miles  above  Albany,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  and  opposite  the  outlets  of  the 
Erie  and  Champlain  canals,  and  on  the  Boston 
&  Maine,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  the  Rut- 
land and  the  New  York  Central  railroads. 
It  is  the  center  of  several  interurban  trolley 
systems.  The  city  stretches  along  the  river  on 
a  level  allurial  plain  for  more  than  six  miles, 
rising  to  the  east  on  a  range  of  hills  about  500 
feet,  affording  a  fine  residence  section.  The 
water  front  is  seven  miles  long  and  is  occupied 
by  large  factories  and  business  houses.  Troy 
is  the  fourth  city  industrially  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  and  is  fifth  in  its  commerce. 
Transportation  facilities  are  exceptional,  and 


the  state  dam  across  the  Hudson  and  the  falls 
of  two  creeks  supply  water  power. 

Troy  leads  in  the  manufacture  of  collars, 
cuffs  and  shirts,  producing  between  eighty 
and  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  collars  made  in 
America.  There  is  an  extensive  system  of 
laundries,  and  the  various  iron  and  steel 
works  produce  laundry  machinery,  collar- 
making  machinery,  stoves,  bells,  valves, 
horseshoes  and  engineering  instruments. 
There  are  knitting,  paper  and  flour  mills, 
brickyards  and  other  establishments. 

The  principal  educational  institutions  are 
the  Emma  Willard  Seminary  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  and  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute.  The  Hart  Memorial  Li- 
brary is  a  fine  structure  built  in  Renaissance 
style  of  white  marble.  There  are  various 
charitable  institutions,  including  the  Troy 
and  Samaritan  hospitals,  Marshall  Sani- 
tarium, Troy  Orphan  Asylum,  House  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  a  reformatory,  the  Day  Home 
and  several  other  homes  and  orphanages. 
Other  important  structures  are  the  Federal 
building;  the  city  hall;  the  savings  bank 
building,  with  its  music  hall;  Rensselaer 
Hotel;  Union  Passenger  Station;  Rowe  Me- 
morial Building;  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  the 
state  armoiy. 

The  town  was  laid  out  in  1787,  and  the 
present  name  was  adopted  two  years  later. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1794  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1816.  During  the 
Revolution  the  American  army  encamped  on 
the  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk  River 
opposite  Troy  and  built  earthworks  on  the 
north  side.  During  the  War  of  1812  a  certain 
Samuel  Willson,  familiarily  known  as  "Uncle 
Sam,"  was  engaged  in  packing  meat  in 
barrels  for  the  army.  The  story  is  told  that 
in  reply  to  an  inquiry  as  to  what  was  meant 
by  the  letters  U.  S.,  on  one  of  these  barrels 
of  meat,  the  answer  was  jokingly  given, 
"Uncle  Sam."  This  is  one  version  of  the 
origin  of  the  national  nickname.  Population, 
1910,  76,813;  in  1917,  78,094  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 

TROY  WEIGHT,  a  weight  chiefly  used  in 
weighing  gold,  silver  and  articles  of  jewelry. 
The  troy  pound  contains  12  ounces;  each 
ounce  is  divided  into  20  pennjrweights,  and 
each  pennyweight  is  equal  to  24  grains. 
Hence,  the  pound  contains  5,760  grains,  and 
the  ounce,  480  grains.  As  the  avoirdupois 
pound  (the  weight  in  general  commercial 
use)    contains  7,000  grains,  and  the  ounce 


TRUFFLE 


3640 


TRUST  COMPANY 


437^  grains,  the  troy  pound  is  to  the  avoir- 
dupois as  144  to  175,  and  the  troy  ounce  to 
the  avoirdupois,  as  192  to  175. 

TRUFFLE,  truf'l,  a  fungus  -which  grows 
underground,  without  visible  root.  Several 
species  are  highly  flavored  and  are  used  in 
cookery.  The  common  truffle,  found  in  Cen- 
tral and  Southern  Europe,  grows  in  loose 
soils,  in  woods  and  in  pastures.  The  si^e 
ranges  from  one  inch  to  several  inches.  It 
is  black  or  brown  and  has  a  rough,  warty 
surface.  Truffles  have  a  strong  and  pleasing 
odor,  and  dogs  and  pigs  are  trained  to  locate 
them  by  the  scent.  These  fungi  are  not  found 
in  North  America.  Li  normal  times  about 
20,000  pounds  are  imported  from  France 
bv  the  United  States. 

TRUM'BULL,  Jonathan  (1710-1785),  an 
American  patriot  and  statesman,  born  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  and  educated  at  Harvard. 
He  was  successively  judge,  deputy  governor 
and  governor  (1769-1783]  of  Connecticut  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  forwarding  the  War 
of  Independence.  Washington  placed  great 
reliance  on  him  and  frequently  consulted  him. 
According  to  tradition  Washington  called  him 
"Brother  Jonathan,"  and  this  appellation 
came  to  be  used  as  a  sort  of  nickname  for  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 

TRUMBULL,  Lyman  (1813-1896),  an 
American  jurist  and  political  leader,  bom  at 
Colchester,  Conn.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  taught  school  for  a  time,  and  in 
]  837  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  removed  to 
Belleville,  111.,  and  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature. In  1841  he  became  secretary  of  state, 
and  from  1848  to  1853  was  a  justice  of  the 
state  supreme  court  Two  years  after  the 
latter  date  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  served  until  1873,  when  he  moved 
to  Chicago  and  returned  to  the  practice  of 
law.  He  began  his  political  career  as  a  Demo- 
crat, but  joined  the  Republican  party,  upheld 
the  administration  throughout  the  Civil  War 
and  drafted  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution.  He  returned  to  the  Demo- 
cratic party  after  the  war  and  voted  in  the 
Senate  against  the  impeachment  of  President 
Johnson,  In  1894  he  joined  the  Populists, 
and  defended  the  railroad  strike  leaders  in 
Chicago  in  1894. 

TRUM'PET,  one  of  the  oldest  wind-in- 
struments of  music.  In  its  modem  form 
it  consists  of  a  metal  tube  (usually  brass, 
sometimes  silver),  about  eight  feet  long, 
doubled  up  in  the  form  of  a  parabola,  and 


expanding  into  a  bell-shaped  end.  The  in- 
strument is  sounded  through  a  cup-shaped 
mouthpiece.  The  trumpet  tuned  on  C  pro- 
duces with  great  power  and  brilliancy  the 
following  series  of  tones  in  an  ascending 
scale :  C  in  the  second  space  of  the  bass  clef, 
G,  C,  E,  G,  B,  C,  D,  E  and  G. 

TRUMPET  FLOWER,  a  climbing  plant 
belonging  to  the  bignonia  family,  having 
bright  red,  trumpet-shaped  flowers.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  found  from  Illinois  to 
New  York,  and  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
Gulf.  In  the  shadowy  woods,  where  it  climbs 
upon  the  tree  tninks,  or  along  the  sunny 
roadside,  trailing  over  bushes  and  fences, 
it  is  a  gorgeous  spectacle,  one  of  the  showiest 
of  the  native  wild  flowers. 

TRU'RO,  Nova  Scotia,  the  county  town 
of  Colchester  County,  on  the  Canadian  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Dominion  Atlantic  railways, 
and  on  the  Salmon  River,  about  two  miles 
from  the  head  of  Cobequid  Bay,  the  eastern- 
most arm  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  manu- 
factures include  lasts,  pegs,  hats  and  caps, 
knitted  goods,  leather,  foundry  products  and 
condensed  milk.  The  town  is  noted  for  its 
fine  public  buildings,  among  which  are  the 
county  buildings,  the  provincial,  normal  and 
model  schools  and  Tniro  Academy.  Popula- 
tion. 1916.  about  7.000. 

TRUST  COMPANY,  a  financial  organiza- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  acting  as  tinistee  in 
settling  estates  and  earing  for  funds  of 
minors,  and  in  many  instances  carrj-ing  on 
a  sa\'ings-bank  or  even  a  general  banking 
business.  The  great  advantage  possessed  by 
these  companies  is  the  fact  that  they  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  required  by  law  to  keep  a  large 
fixed  reserve  on  hand,  whereas  the  national 
banks  are  recpired  to  keep  at  least  15% 
in  smaller  cities,  and  25%  in  the  larger 
"reserve  cities"  such  as  New  York  and  Chi- 
cago. A  cousen-ative  trust  company,  of 
course,  will  keep  a  reasonable  balance  on 
hand,  for  the  sake  of  its  own  safety ;  but  the 
opportunity  to  use  all  its  resources  when 
necessary  has  been  of  great  advantage  at 
times.  On  the  other  hand,  there  has  been 
the  temptation  to  make  dishonest  use  of  this 
privilege,  and  some  of  the  great  companies 
have  suffered  from  the  dishonesty  of  indi- 
\4duals.  A  great  inducement  to  depositors, 
has  been  the  fact  that  the  tmst  companies, 
with  their  greater  privileges,  have  been  able 
to  offer  interest  as  well  as  the  use  of  a  check- 
ing account.     The  deposits  of  the  trust  com- 


TRUSTEE 


3641 


TRUSTS 


panies  of  the  countiy  to-day  have  a  total  of 
more  than  two  billion  dollars. 

TRUSTEE',  in  law,  a  person  to  whom  the 
management  of  property  has  been  legally 
committed.  A  trust  may  be  created  by  will, 
by  deed  or  by  oral  statement,  but  trusts 
affecting  real  estate  must  be  recorded  in 
writing.  A  person  may  decline  a  trusteeship, 
but  having  once  accepted  it  may  not  relin- 
quish it  excejDt  in  cases  where  it  is  so  pro- 
vided in  the  deed  or  by  discharge  by  a  com- 
petent court.  A  trustee  must  report  at 
stated  times  to  the  beneficiaries  of  the  trust 
as  to  his  care  of  the  funds  or  property.  He 
is  liable  for  wrongful  use  or  misappropria- 
tion of  trust  funds. 

TRUSTS,  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
world,  combinations  of  capitalists  engaged 
in  the  same  or  closely-related  lines  of  produc- 
tion or  transportation.  At  first  the  term  was 
applied  to  associations  formed  when  the 
stockholders  of  the  corporations  interested 
transferred  their  stock  to  a  few  men  who 
■were  chosen  trustees.  The  stockholders  re- 
ceived from  these  trustees  certificates  of  the 
trust  for  the  stock  they  .deposited,  and  the 
management  of  the  business  was  placed  un- 
der the  control  of  a  few  men.  The  term 
has  now  a  much  broader  application. 

Why  Trusts  are  Formed.  Trusts  are  the 
outgrowth  of  industrial  conditions  that  have 
arisen  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. One  of  the  strongest  influences  lead- 
ing to  their  formation  is  the  factory  system, 
which  has  developed  to  enormous  propor- 
tions: In  addition  to  the  factory  system  the 
following  reasons  are  usually  given  for  the 
formation  of  trusts : 

1.  Commodities  can  be  produced  more 
cheaply  on  a  large  scale  than  in  small  quanti- 
ties. 

2.  Competition  leads  to  such  reductions  in 
the  selling  price  that  many  small  factories 
make  no  profits,  and  some  run  at  a  loss. 

3.  Combination  reduces  expense  of  distri- 
bution. When  each  factory  was  working-  in- 
dependently several  salesmen  traversed  the 
same  territory.  When  under  the  combina- 
tion one  would  cover  the  ground  successfully. 
Moreover,  goods  can  be  sold  at  less  expense 
in  large  than  in  small  quantities. 

4.  Combination  does  away  with  the  duplica- 
tion of  plants  and  of  advertising.  A  corpora- 
tion like  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation, 
for  instance,  manufactures  a  large  number 
of  products,  such  as  steel  rails,  wire,  nails, 
etc.  Under  one  management  one  plant  makes 
nails;  another  wire,  and  a  third  rails.  Were 
these  plants  operating  independently  it  is 
probable  that  each  might  find  it  necessary  to 


install  an  equipment  for  the  manufacture  of 
each  of  these  products  in  order  to  compete 
with  other  mills. 

5.  The  promoter  is  another  important 
cause.  Large  commissions  are  paid  the  or- 
ganizer of  great  corporations,  and  men  who 
become  experts  in  this  line  of  work  often 
persuade  boards  of  directors  to  enter  into 
combination  with  other  corporations,  when  if 
left  to  themselves  they  might  not  give  the 
proposition  favorable  consideration.  Bank- 
ers also  obtain  large  bonuses  for  underwrit- 
ing these  corporations,  and  their  influence  is 
not  slight. 

Holding  Corporations.  It  was  soon  found 
that  the  sort  of  trust  described  above  did  not 
prevent  waste  to  the  extent  expected.  Fur- 
theiTnore,  legislation  against  organizations  of 
this  sort  as  "combinations  in  restraint  of 
trade"  led  the  stockholders  to  realize  that  this 
kind  of  trust  was  not  altogether  safe.  To 
meet  these  objections  another  form  of  cor- 
poration was  devised.  Under  this  plan  a  new 
company  was  organized  with  sufficient  capital 
to  buy  the  conti'olling  interest  of  the  inde- 
pendent companies.  The  officers  of  this  new 
company  could  then  control  the  affairs  of 
each  of  these  subsidiary  companies,  because 
they  represented  a  majority  of  the  stock. 
The  Standard  Oil  Company  (which  see)  and 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  (which 
see)  were  the  largest  representatives  of  hold- 
ing corporations.  Under  this  plan  many 
of  the  small  corporations  dissolve  after  dis- 
posing of  a  majority  of  their  stock  to  the 
holding  company. 

Objections  to  Trusts.  However  advanta- 
geous the  trust  may  be  to  capitalists,  it  has 
never  found  favor  with  a  majority  of  the 
people  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
chief  objections  brought  against  it  are  the 
following : 

1.  Instead  of  lowering  prices,  as  would  be 
supposed  because  of  the  decreased  cost  of 
production,  prices  have  frequently  been 
maintained  at  their  former  levels,  and  some- 
times they  have  been  raised. 

2.  Trusts  in  former  years  endeavored  to 
keep  wages  down. 

3.  The  manipulation  of  stocks  by  those  in 
power  often  causes  serious  loss  to  investors. 

4.  The  concentration  of  wealth  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  creates  an  unequal  distri- 
bution of  wealth  and  corresponding  suffering 
on  the  part  of  the  poor. 

5.  "The  centralization  of  the  power  of 
industry  in  a  few  hands,  with  its  enormous 
resulting  wealth,  is  undemocratic,  and  makes 
the  many  dependent  upon   the  few." 

6.  The  ideals  of  democracy  and  trusts  are 
antagonistic,  and  the  two  cannot  exist  with 
harmony  in  a  free  country. 


TSCHAIKOWSKY 


3642 


TUCSON 


Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law.  This  law, 
passed  by  Congress  in  1890,  is  applied  to  all 
interstate  trade.  It  declares  any  combina- 
tion or  conspiracy  in  restraint  of  interstate 
or  international  trade  illegal,  and  that  all 
such  combinations  must  be  dissolved  by  the 
United  States  Courts,  upon  proof  furnished 
by  the  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 
that  they  have  violated  the  law. 

This  law  has  exerted  a  restraming  influ- 
ence over  trusts,  and  under  it  some  of  the 
most  noted  combinations  have  been  dissolved. 
Among  these  were  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany, the  Northei-n  Securities  Company,  the 
American  Tobacco  Company  and  the  Inter- 
national Harvester  Compan3^ 

TSCHAIKOWSKY,  cUkov'she,  Peter 
Ilytcii.     See  Tchaikovsky,  Peter  Ilytch. 

TSET'SE  FLY,  a  biting  insert  related  to 
the  horse  fl}^,  found  in  certain  tropical  parts 
of  Africa.  It  bites  all  warm-blooded  animals, 
often  with  fatal  result.  The  fly  itself  is  not 
venomous,  but,  like  the 
mosquito,  carries  disease 
germs  which  cause  sleep- 
ing sickness  in  man,  and 
in  cattle,  horses,  and 
other  animals  a  disease 
called  nagana,  which  is 
often  fatal.  Animals  not 
killed  by  nagana  are  rendered  henceforth 
immune.  The  tsetse  fly  does  not  lay  eggs,  but 
produces  full-grown  larvae  which  immediate- 
ly change  into  pupae.  In  limited  areas  the 
breeding  places  of  the  flies  have  been  de- 
stroyed, but  no  sweeping  and  systematic  plan 
has  yet  been  undertaken  to  exterminate  the 
pests. 

TUBERCULOSIS,  tu  bur  ku  lo'  sis,  the 
most  prevalent  of  all  diseases,  is  chronic, 
communicable,  infectious,  preventable  and 
curable.  It  has  caused,  from  the  most  ancient 
times,  directly  or  indirectly,  about  one- 
seventh  of  all  the  deaths  in  the  world,  but  a 
ray  of  hope  exists  in  the  fact  that  the  disease 
is  now  being  fought  more  persistently  and 
more  intelligently  than  ever  before. 

As  the  bacillus  which  causes  it  is  almost 
always  present  in  the  air,  it  is  probable  that 
few  people,  especially  in  cities,  escape  in- 
fection. Fortunately,  however,  unless  there 
is  some  weakness  or  predisposition  toward 
the  disease  the  human  organism  is  able  to 
throw  otf  the  infection  or  so  to  restrict  its 
action  that  little  harm  results.  Nevertheless, 
there  is  no  disease  whose  ravages   are  so 


TSETSE  FLY 


severe  or  on  which  so  much  study  is  now  be- 
ing placed  by  scientists,  physicians  and  all 
interested  in  public  welfai-e.  In  1882  Koch 
discovered  the  cause  of  tuberculosis,  and  since 
that  time  much  has  been  done  to  better  the 
condition  of  consumjitives  and  to  restrict 
the  spread  of  the  disease  (see  Germ  Theory 
OF  Disease). 

The  infectious  germ  is  thrown  out  of  the 
lungs  of  a  consumptive  in  the  sputum,  or 
spit,  and  it  is  not  killed  by  drying.  Accord- 
ingly, it  is  taken  up  by  the  air  in  the  form 
of  dust,  and  is  carried  anywhere  and  every- 
where. It  follows  that  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  destroy  the  sputa  of  con- 
sumptives and  the  discharges  from  tubercu- 
lous sores;  for  while  consumption  is  in  the 
popular  mind  a  disease  of  the  lungs,  yet  it 
may  and  does  affect  any  part  of  the  body 
where  the  bacilli  find  lodgment.  Tuberculosis 
of  the  bones,  of  the  stomach  and  of  the  in- 
testines is  not  uncommon.  The  disease  is 
not  confined  to  human  beings,  but  may  affect 
cattle,  chickens,  other  domestic  animals  and, 
especially,  wild  animals  kept  in  captivity. 
Any  one  of  these  may  serve  as  a  means  for 
distributing  the  infectious  germ.  No  specif- 
ic has  been  found  for  consumption,  though 
many  have  fraudulently  been  offered  to  the 
public.  Doctor  Koch's  studies  led  him  to  ad- 
vocate the  use  of  a  senim,  or  antitoxin,  but 
it  has  not  proved  altogether  successful.  An 
open  air  life,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  in  a 
dry  region  not  subjected  to  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  will  do  much  to  mitigate  the 
severitj'  of  the  disease,  and  if  this  precaution 
is  taken  early  enough  frequently  it  will  effect 
a  cure.    See  Serum  Therapy. 

TUBERROSE,  tuhe'roze,  a  plant  native  to 
Asia  and  tropical  America,  inconspicuous 
inself,  but  bearing  remarkable  flowers.  From 
a  tuberous  rootstock  spring  six  or  eight 
sword-shaped  leaves  and  a  stalk  on  the  end  of 
which  is  borne  a  thick  cluster  of  waxen- 
white,  funnel-shaped  blossoms,  sickeningly 
sweet.  The  hea^^,'  odor  of  these  blossoms  is 
objectionable  to  most  persons,  but  the  plant 
is  extensively  cultivated  as  a  source  of  per- 
fume. 

TUCSON,  toosahn',  Ariz.,  the  metropolis 
of  the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Pima 
County,  121  miles  southeast  of  Phoenix,  on 
the  Santa  Cruz  river  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific,  the  Southern  Pacific  of  Mexico,  and 
the  El  Paso  &  Southwestern  railroads.  The 
city  is  located  on  a  wide  plateau  at  an  al- 


TUCUMAN 


3643 


TUILERIES 


titude  of  2,369  feet  and  has  a  very  dry  cli- 
mate, considered  excellent  for  people  with 
lung  and  throat  troubles.  It  is  the  center  of 
one  of  the  richest  copper-producing  regions 
in  the  world,  ships  two  million  dollars  worth 
of  cattle  annually,  and  is  rapidly  developing 
as  an  agricultural  center.  Its  industries  in- 
clude railroad  shops,  iron  mills,  tanneries, 
and  flour,  ice,  brick  and  carriage  works.  The 
modern  part  of  the  city  is  well  built,  with  at- 
tractive residences,  good  hotels  and  public 
buildings,  while  the  old  section  remains  typ- 
ically Mexican  in  construction.  Tucson  is 
the  seat  of  the  University  of  Arizona  and  has 
good  public  schools,  a  high  school,  several 
sectarian  schools,  a  Presbyterian  boarding 
school  for  Indians,  a  Carnegie  Library,  a 
Roman  Catholic  hospital  and  sanitarium  and 
the  Desert  Botanical  Laboratoiy,  erected  by 
the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington.  His- 
toric Spanish  missions  and  ruins,  including 
the  famous  San  Xavier  Mission,  make  the 
place  of  especial  interest  to  tourists.  Tucson 
was  first  settled  about  1776,  by  the  Spaniards, 
by  whom  it  was  known  as  the  Presidio  de  San 
Agustin  del  Tuguison.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  of  1853,  and  from  1867  to 
1877  was  the  capital  of  Arizona  territory. 
The  city  has  grown  rapidly  since  1900.  It 
has  been  governed  on  the  city  manager  plan 
since  1915.  Population,  1910,  13,193;  in 
1917,  17,324  (Federal  estimate). 

TUCUMAN,  too  koo  malm',  or  SAN 
MIGUEL  DE  TUCUMAN,  Argentina,  sit- 
uated ninety-four  miles  northwest  of  San- 
tiago, near  the  foot  of  a  mountain  range,  on 
the  Upper  Dulee  River.  It  is  connected  by 
railway  with  Buenos  Aires,  and  has  a  cathe- 
dral, a  normal  school,  a  national  college  and' 
other  educational  institutions.  The  indus- 
tries include  trade  in  live  stock  and  the 
manufacture  of  spirituous  liquors.  Popula- 
tion, 91,216. 

TU'DOR,  the  family  name  of  an  English 
royal  line,  which  reigned  from  1485  to  1603. 
It  was  founded  by  Owen  Tudor  of  Wales, 
who  married  the  widowed  queen  of  Henry  V. 
The  first  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  was  Henry 
VII;  the  last  was  Elizabeth.  The  reigns  of 
this  family  were  noteworthy  for  the  almost 
absolute  authority  exercised.  See  Henry 
VII;  Henry  VIII;  Edward  VI;  Mary  I; 
Elizabeth. 

TUDOR  STYLE,  a  style  of  architecture 
which  prevailed  in  England  during  the  Tudor 
period,  from  1485  to  1603.    It  was  the  last 


phase  of  the  so-called  Perpendicular  style, 
which  was  a  modification  of  Gothic  and  was 
characterized  by  straight,  perpendicular 
lines.  During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  which 
closed  the  Tudor  period,  the  residences  of  the 
gentry  were  built  with  large,  square  windows, 
carved  staircases,  paneled  ceilings,  numerous 
fireplaces  and  chimneys,  gables  and  much 
ornamental  detail. 

TUESDAY,  tuze^day,  the  name  of  the 
third  day  of  the  week,  d'erived  from  Tyr,  or 
Tiu,  the  name  of  the  Norse  war  god.  The 
French  name  for  Tuesday  is  Mardi,  derived 
from  Mars,  the  name  of  the  Roman  god  of 
war.  Shrove  Tuesday,  the  Tuesday  before 
Lent,  is  so  called  because  it  is  a  day  of  con- 
fession, when  shrift  is  received. 

TUT  A,  a  name  applied  to  a  light,  porous 
substance  resembling  rocks,  found  about  the 
craters  of  volcanoes,  and  to  the  porous,  rock- 
like formations  around  mineral  springs. 
While  the  formation  of  both  is  similar,  the 
composition  is  unlike.  Volcanic  tufa  is 
cemented  ashes;  the  other  is  caused  by  the 
slow  deposition  of  carbonate  of  lime  and 
silica.  Waters  containing  carbonate  of  lime 
on  evaporating  leave  a  deposit  known  as 
calcareous  tufa;  those  containing  a  high  per- 
centage of  silica  build  up  a  formation  called 
siliceo^is  tufa. 

TUFTS  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  high- 
er learning  at  Medford,  Mass.,  founded  in 
1852  under  the  auspices  of  the  Universalists. 
It  comprises  a  college  of  liberal  arts,  medical, 
dental  and  theological  departments,  the  Jack- 
son College  for  Women,  the  Bromfield-Pear- 
son  School  (i^reparatory  for  the  engineering 
department)  and  the  graduate  school.  The 
medical  and  dental  colleges  are  at  Boston. 
It  maintains  a  biological  laboratory  at  South 
Harpswell,  Me.,  and  the  Bamum  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  the  gift  of  the  late  P.  T. 
Bamum,  is  especially  rich  in  skeletons  and 
mounted  skins  of  animals.  There  are  300 
instructors  and  over  1,700  students.  The 
library  contains  over  73,000  volumes. 

TUILERIES,  tweelre',  or  twe'leriz,  a 
royal  palace  which  stood  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine,  in  Paris.  Catharine  de'  Medici 
began  the  building;  Henry  IV  extended  it, 
and  Louis  XIV  enlarged  and  completed  it. 
During  the  Revolution  of  1830,  the  palace 
was  sacked.  It  was  restored  to  its  former 
splendor  by  Louis  Philippe,  but  in  1848  it 
was  again  pillaged.  In  1871  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely  destroyed  by   the   communists.     The 


TULANE  UNIVERSITY 


3644 


TULSA 


garden  of  the  Tuileries,  adjoining  the  Louvre, 
is  maintained  as  a  public  park. 

TULANE,  tu  lane',  UNIVERSITY,  an  in- 
stitution of  higher  learning,  located  at  New 
Orleans,  La.  It  has  an  interesting  and 
unique  history.  It  was  established  in  1847 
by  the  legislature  of  the  state,  and  continued 
to  receive  state  support  and  to  be  known  as 
the  University  of  Louisiana  until  1884.  At 
this  time  Mr.  Paul  Tulane  gave  to  adminis- 
trators appointed  by  him  $1,000,000,  which 
was  to  be  used  for  the  higher  education  of  the 
people  of  Louisiana.  Mr.  Tulane's  admin- 
istratoi-s  decided  not  to  found  an  independent 
college  or  university,  but  to  use  the  entire 
income  from  his  bequest  for  the  development 
and  maintenance  of  the  already  established 
University  of  Louisiana.  They  did  so  on 
condition  that  the  state  would  forever  ex- 
empt the  property  of  the  Tulane  Education 
Fund  from  taxation.  The  state  agreed  to  do 
this,  and  in  recognition  of  the  munificent  gift 
of  Mr.  Tulane  the  institution  was  given  its 
present  name. 

Tulane  now  has  productive  funds  amount- 
ing to  more  than  $4,000,000.  The  institution 
has  invested,  in  grounds,  buildings  and  equip- 
ment, nearly  $2,500,000.  Its  medical  depart- 
ment is  one  of  the  most  famous  schools  of 
medicine  in  America.  It  is  affiliated  with  the 
state  Charity  Hospital,  one  of  the  gi-eat  hos- 
pitals of  the  world,  which  is  supported  at  a 
cost  of  $150,000  annually.  Other  depart- 
ments include  the  colleges  of  arts  and 
sciences,  commerce  and  business  administra- 
tion, technology,  law,  dentistry  and  phar- 
macy. The  institution  in  all  departments  has 
over  300  professors  and  instructors,  and 
about  2,700  students.  The  H.  Sophie  New- 
comb  Memorial  College,  the  woman's  depart- 
ment of  the  university,  has  an  endowment 
of  $3,000,000,  being  the  best  endowed  college 
for  women  in  the  world.  The  library  contains 
about  71,000  volumes. 

TUXIP,  a  genus  of  plants  embracing 
about  forty  species  belonging  to  the  lily  fam- 
ily, extensively  cultivated  in  gardens.  Most 
of  the  cultivated  varieties  are  derived  from 
a  species  introduced  into  Europe  from  Asia 
Minor  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Tulips  may 
be  grown  from  seeds,  but  are  usually  culti- 
vated from  bulbs.  The  crisp  leaves  and 
flower  stems  spring  directly  from  the  bulb. 
The  terminal  bell-shaped  blossoms  are  with- 
out calyx,  and  may  be  single  or  double. 
They  have  a  wide  range  of  color  and  some 


are  fragrant.  The  coloration  is  exquisite. 
Some  of  the  flowers  are  of  uniform  tint; 
others  are  tints  and  shades  of  one  color;  still 
others  are  variegated.  The  tulip  is  usually 
identified  with  Holland,  where  it  has  been 
most  successfully  cultivated.  There  the 
plants  are  set  out  in  great  fields,  and  many 
of  the  loveliest  siiecimens  are  produced.  The 
wonderful  black  and  brown  tulips  originated 
there. 

TULIP  TREE,  a  handsome  North  Amer- 
ican tree  of  the  magnolia  family  which 
bears  on  the  ends  of  the  branches  j'ellow 
tulip-shaped  flowers.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  of  the  forest  ti'ees  of  the  United 
States,  and  next  to  the  jolane  tree  it  is  the 
largest  of  the  deciduous  trees,  gi'owing  to  a 
height  of  140  feet.  It  is  found  from  New 
England  to  Florida  and  as  far  west  as  Ar- 
kansas, and  nowhere  else;  and  is  known 
variously  as  the  poplar,  whitewood  or  canoe- 
wood.  The  wood  is  light,  compact  and  fine- 
grained, and  it  is  employed  for  various  use- 
ful purposes. 

TUL'SA,  Okla.,  the  county  seat  of  Tulsa 
County,  118  miles  northeast  of  Oklahoma 
City,  on  the  Arkansas  River  and  the  Frisco, 
the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas,  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  and  Arkansas  Val- 
ley &  Western  railroads.  Tulsa  lies  in  a 
rich  agi'icultural  country,  but  its  rapid 
growth  has  been  due  largely  to  its  proximity 
to  oil  and  gas  fields  and  coal  mines.  Its  oil 
district  is  probably  one  of  the  richest  in 
the  world.  Tulsa  has  many  modern  homes, 
fine  business 
blocks,  commo- 
dious churches, 
artistic  school 
buildings  and 
thriving  fac- 
tories. It  has 
refineries,  smel- 
ters, glass  and 
stove  factories 
and  it  manufac- 
tures car  oil 
tanks.  The  gen- 
eral offices  of 
some  of  the 
large  oil  com- 
panies are  lo- 
cated   in    Tulsa.  COMMON  TULIPS 

Kendall  College,  a  Presbyterian  institution, 
is  here.  In  1917  Tulsa  voted  an  issue  of 
$1,750,000  in  bonds  for  highway  improve- 


TUMBLEWEED 


3645 


TUNIS 


ment  in  its  county.  The  commission  form  of 
government  was  adopted  in  1909.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  18,182;  in  1917,  32,507  (Federal 
estimate). 

TUM'BLEWEED,  the  popular  name  of 
several  North  American  plants.  They  are  of 
low,  bunchy  growth,  and  in  the  fall  when 
dry  and  crisp,  they  become  more  or  less 
ball-like,  break  from  the  stem  and  are  rolled 
about  over  the  ground  by  the  wind.  This 
is  nature's  way  of  distributing  the  seeds; 
the  plant  is  a  nuisance  to  farmers. 

TUMOR,  tu'mur,  a  surgical  term,  which  in 
its  widest  sense  means  a  swelling  of  any  part 
of  the  body;  more  strictly,  however,  it  im- 
plies a  permanent  enlargement,  occasioned 
by  a  new  gi-owth,  and  not  a  mere  increase  in 
size  of  a  natural  part.  Tumors  may  be  con- 
sidered in  two  well-defined  classes,  simple, 
benign,  or  innocent,  tumors,  and  malignant 
tumors.  The  substance  of  tumors  of  the  first 
class  resembles  some  of  the  tissues  of  the 
bodj^;  they  increase  gradually  in  size,  pro- 
duce little  inconvenience,  except  that  which 
is  occasioned  by  their  size,  and  may  be  com- 
pletely cured  by  a  simple  surgical  operation. 
Malignant  tumors  usually  terminate  fatally. 

TU'NA,  or  TUNNY,  tu'ni,  the  name  of  the 
largest  fish  of  the  mackerel  family.  It  is 
also  called  the  horse  mackerel  and  the  great 
albacore.  The  body  is  thicker  than  that  of 
the  mackerel,  and  the  tail  is  deeply  forked. 
The  largest  specimens  attain  a  length  of  ten 
feet  and  weigh  1,500  pounds,  but  fish  of  this 
size  are  seldom  found.  Tuna  inhabit  all 
warm  seas.  The  flesh,  even  of  the  largest 
fish,  is  good,  and  tuna  fisheries  constitute  an 
important  industry  in  Southern  Europe,  and 
in  Southern  California  around  Catalina  Is- 
land, where  the  fish  are  found  in  large  num- 
bers. Most  of  the  Califoraia  catch  is  canned. 
The  flesh  has  a  slight  chicken  flavor,  and  from 
this  characteristic  the  tuna  is  sometimes 
called  the  chicken  of  the  sea.  The  tuna  is  a 
gamey  fish,  and  taking  it  with  hook  and  line 
is  rare  sport  for  anglers. 

TUNDRA,  toon'dra,  the  name  applied  to 
the  vast  swampy  plains  bordering  on  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
America.  In  summer  the  ground  thaws  to  a 
depth  of  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet,  and 
then  the  tundra  becomes  covered  with  a  dense 
growth  of  flat  moss  and  is  sprinkled  with 
wild  flowers.  In  this  season  it  is  visited  by 
birds  and  fur-coated  animals.  These  vast 
tracts  can  be  crossed  only  in  winter. 


TUNG'STEN,  a  heavy  metal,  discovered 
in  1781.  '  It  has  a  grayish-white  color  and 
considerable  luster.  It  is  brittle,  nearly  as 
hard  as  steel,  and  less  fusible  than  manga- 
nese. The  ores  of  this  metal  are  the  native 
tungstate  of  lime  and  the  tungstate  of  iron 
and  manganese,  which  latter  is  also  known  as 
wolfram.  It  is  now  very  popular  as  a  fila- 
ment for  incandescent  electric  light  globes. 
See  Electric  Light. 

TU'NIC,  an  ancient  form  of  garment,  in 
constant  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
It  was  worn  by  both  sexes,  under  the  toga 
or  the  stola,  and  was  fastened  by  a  girdle  or 
belt  about  the  waist.  The  word  is  popularly 
applied  to  any  long,  loose  garment  hung 
from  the  shoulder  and  caught  at  the  waist 
by  a  belt. 

'  TUNING  FORK,  a  steel  instrument,  with 
two  prongs,  which,  when  set  in  vibration, 
give  forth  a  musical  sound  of  a  certain  fixed 
pitch.  The  ordinary  tuning  fork  sounds  only 
one  note,  usually  the  middle,  or  tenor,  C,  or 
the  A  below  it.  Some  tuning  forks  are 
made  with  a  slider  on  each  prong,  by  means 
of  which  a  number  of  notes  may  be  produced. 

TU'NIS,  a  French  protectorate  in  North- 
ern Africa,  lying  between  Tripoli  and  Al- 
geria and  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  has  an  area  of 
45,000  square  miles,  divided  into  a  fertile 
plateau  in  the  northern  part  and  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Sahara  Desert  in  the  south.  The 
plateau  region  is  well  watered  and  produces 
profitable  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  olives, 
citrus  fruits  and  grapes.  The  climate  is 
healthful,  and  there  are  many  European 
colonists  who  have  gi'eatly  improved  the 
methods  of  agriculture  and  means  of  transit. 
The  oases  of  the  desert  regions  yield  a  large 
output  of  dates.  Stock  raising  and  mining 
are  important  industries,  the  principal  min- 
eral products  being  zinc,  lead,  iron,  salt  and 
phosphates.  There  are  few  industries  except 
the  household  industries  of  the  natives,  who 
make  carpets,  saddles  and  other  leather  arti- 
cles and  woolen  goods.  The  fisheries  yield 
sardines,  tunny  and  sponges. 

Tunis  in  ancient  times  was  successively  a 
part  of  Carthaginian,  Roman  and  Vandal 
dominions.  The  Arabs  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury and  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  the  sixteenth 
gained  domination  over  the  territory.  In 
1881  France,  to  punish  raids  upon  Algeria, 
sent  an  expedition  into  Tunis,  at  the  same 
time  stationing  a  squadron  in  the  hai'bor. 


TUNNEL 


3646 


TURBAN 


After  subduing  an  outbreak  on  the  part  of 
the  natives,  it  established  a  protectorate  over 
the  little  country, 

TUN'NEL,  an  underground  passage  cut 
through  a  hill,  a  rock  or  any  eminence,  or  cut 
under  a  river  or  a  toAvn,  to  can-y  a  canal, 
a  road  or  a  railway.  In  the  construction  of 
canals  and  railways,  tunnels  are  frequently 
excavated,  in  order  to  preserve  the  desired 
level  and  for  various  other  local  causes. 
Tunnels,  when  not  pierced  through  solid  rock, 
have  usually  an  arched  roof  and  are  lined 
with  brickwork  or  masonry.  The  sectional 
form  of  the  passage  is  various.  Among  the 
greatest  works  of  this  kind  are  the  tunnels 
of  Saint  Gotthard,  Mount  Cenis,  the  Arlberg 
and  the  Simplon.  In  America  the  Hoosac 
Tunnel,  the  Cascade  Tunnel  in  Washington 
and  those  constnicted  under  the  'Hudson  and 
East  rivers  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  to 
provide  a  means  of  entrance  for  its  trains 
into  New  York  City,  are  the  most  important. 
The  two  Pennsylvania  tunnels  under  the 
Hudson  River  from  Weehawken  to  New 
York  have  an  inside  diameter  of  21  feet  2 
inches,  and  a  length  under  water  of  6,118 
feet.  These  tunnels  were  completed  in  1910. 
All  are  really  tubes  made  of  iron  or  steel 
rings,  with  an  average  thickness  of  sixteen 
to  twenty  inches. 

TUN'NY,  the  largest  species  of  mackerel. 
These  fish  live  in  shoals  in  almost  all  the 
seas  of  the  warmer  and  temperate  parts  of 
the  earth.  They  are  taken  in  immense  quan- 
tities on  the  Mediten-anean  coasts,  where  the 
fishing  is  chiefly  can-ied  on.  The  flesh,  which 
is  delicate  and  somewhat  resembles  veal,  has 
Ijeen  highly  valued  since  ancient  times.  The 
common  tunny  attains  a  length  of  ten  feet 
and  sometimes  exceeds  half  a  ton  in  weight. 
Its  color  is  a  dark  blue  on  the  upper  parts 
and  silvery  white  below.  The  American 
tunny  is  found  on  the  coast  from  New  York 
to  Nova  Scotia,  and  also  in  the  Pacific  Ocean 
off  Santa  Catalina,  where  it  is  known  as  the 
tuna.    See  Mackerel. 

TUPPER,  Charles,  Sir  (1821-1915),  a 
Canadian  statesman,  was  bora  at  Amherst, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  educated  at  Horton  Acad- 
emy and  Edinburgh  University,  where  he 
studied  medicine.  Returning  to  Nova  Scotia 
to  practice  his  profession.  He  entered  pub- 
lic life  as  a  Consei-vative  member  for  Cum- 
berland County  in  the  provincial  assembly. 
From  1857  to  1860  he  was  prox-ineial  secre- 
tary and  from  1863  to  1867  he  was  premier. 


'S^^M' 


SIR  CHARLES 
TUPPER 


In  discussions  preceding  Confederation  Sir 
Charles  took  a  leading  part.  He  declined 
office  in  the  first  Dominion  Cabinet,  but  in 
1870  ac<:'epted  the  presidency  of  the  Privy 
council,  later  becom- 
ing Minister  of  In- 
land Revenue  and 
then  Minister  of  Cus- 
toms. From  1873  to 
1878  he  continued  to 
serve  in  the  House  of 
Cormnons  and  in  ^ 
1878,  in  Sir  John 
Macdonald's  second 
ministry,  became  in 
turn  ^linister  of 
Public  "Works  and 
Minister  of  Railways 
and  Canals.  Sir 
Charles  was  prominent  in  support  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  in  1887,  as 
finance  Minister,  he  floated  a  large  loan  on 
its  behalf.  From  1884  to  1887,  and  again 
from  1888  to  1896,  he  was  Canada's  high 
commissioner  in  London;  In  April,  1896,  he 
succeeded  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  as  Premier 
of  Canada,  but  at  the  general  elections  in 
June  the  Conservatives  were  defeated.  Sir 
Charles  continued  to  lead  his  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons  until  1900,  when  he  was 
defeated  for  reelection  and  retired  to  private 
life.     (For  portrait,  see  Premier). 

TURA'NIAN,  a  term  formerly  applied 
to  all  Asiatic  languages  which  were  neither 
Aiyan  nor  Semitic,  but  which  to-day  has 
little  scientific  usage.  The  group  of  related 
languages  of  Europe,  Asia  (except  China) 
and  Oceania,  which  are  neither  Aryan  nor 
Semitic,  are  now  designated  respectively  as 
L"'"ral- Altaic  or  Finno-Ugric,  Dra vidian,  Kol- 
arian,  Tibeto-Burman,  Khasi,  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian,  Mon-Anam  and  Tai. 

TUR'BAN,  a  form  of  headdress  worn  by 


TURBANS 
Orientals,     It  varies  in  form  and  color  in 
different  nations  and  among  different  classes 
of  the  same  nation,  but  usually  it  is  a  scarf 


TURBINE 


3647 


TURBOT 


folded  around  the  top  of  the  head  or  over  a 
cap.  In  India  priests  customarily  wear 
white  turbans;  those  of  high  rank  wear 
brightly  colored  ones.  Until  comparatively 
recent  times  turbans  made  of  bandana  hand- 
kerchiefs were  generally  worp  by  negro  wom- 
en in  the  Southern  states. 

TURBINE,  tu/bin,  a  waterwheel  which 
the  water  enters  and  leaves  at  all  points  on 
its  circumference.  The  turbine  wheel  is  en- 
closed in  a  close-fitting  iron  box  and  is  usu- 
ally attached  to  a  vertical  shaft.  It  operates 
on  the  principle  of  the  Barker's  mill  (which 
see).  The  circumference  of  the  wheel  is 
provided  with  floats,  all  of  which  point  in 
the  same  direction.  The  sides  of  the  box 
in  which  the  wheel  is  enclosed  are  called  par- 


TURBINE  WHE 
titions  and  in  number  are  equal  to  the  floats 
of  the  wheel ;  they  point  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. The  water  is  admitted  to  the  box 
through  a  vertical  or  oblique  iron  pipe,  called 
the  penstock.  The  wheel  is  placed  at  the 
lowest  possible  point,  since  the  power  ex- 
erted depends  upon  the  pressure  of  the  water. 
When  the  water  flows  through  the  box,  the 
floats  on  the  edges  give  it  a  direction  oppo- 
site to  that  in  which  the  floats  on  the  wheel 
point.  As  the  cuiTent  of  water  strikes  these 
floats  they  tend  to  turn  it  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  reaction  upon  the  floats 
causes  the  wheel  to  revolve.  The  size  of 
turbines  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter.  The  turbine  is  the  most 
powerful  waterwheel  in  use,  as  it  utilizes 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  power  employed.  The 
largest  are  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Keokuk. 


Steam  Turbine.  The  steam  turbine  is  a 
form  of  motor  which  uses  the  expansive  force 
of  steam  to  produce  motion,  by  bringing  the 
steam  in  contact  with  floats  on  an  axis,  sim- 
ilar to  the  floats  of  an  ordinarj'  water  tur- 
bine. The  steam  turbine  is  enclosed  in  a  steel 
case,  which  has  veins  between  the  floats  ex- 
tending inward  almost  to  the  axis.  The 
veins  and  floats  are  cui-ved  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, so  that  the  current  of  steam  is  re- 
versed as  it  comes  in  contact  with  them,  and 
the  reaction  caused  by  this  reversal  of  the 
current  forces  the  floats  along  and  causes 
the  axis  to  rotate.  The  steam  turbine  is 
really  several  turbines  attached  to  the  same 
axis,  each  succeeding  one  having  a  slightly 
larger  diameter,  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the 
pressure  of  the  expanding  steam.  Steam  tur- 
bines are  used  for  power  upon  steamships, 
where  they  have  taken  the  place  of  the  com- 
mon steam  engine  very  satisfactorily.  The 
first  steamer  equipped  with  this  form  of 
motor  crossed  the  Atlantic  early  in  the  spring 
of  1905.  The  use  of  the  turbine  relieves  the 
ship  from  the  strain  arising  from  the  action 
of  an  ordinary'  engine  and  also  enables  the 
vessel  to  maintain  a  more  uniform  rate  of 
speed.  Steam  turbines  are  also  employed  in 
operating  large  dynamos  where  water  power 
is  not  available. 

TUR'BOT,  the  most  valuable  of  all  flat- 
fish. It  is  shorter  and  broader  than  most 
flatfish  and  sometimes  weighs  nearly  a  hun- 
dred pounds,  though  the  average  weight  is 
twenty  pounds.  The  upper  surface  is  brown 
and  studded  with  tubercles.  These  fish  live 
in  the  ocean  depths  along  the  banks.     The 


TURBOT 


eggs — from  five  million  to  ten  million  to  a 
fish — float  upon  the  surface.  The  American 
spotted  turbot  is  common  on  the  North  At- 
lantic coast,  and  is  one  of  the  most  highly 
valued  of  food  fishes. 


TURGENIEFF 


3648 


TURKESTAN 


TURGENIEFF,  toor gane'ycf,  Ivan 
Sergey  KViTcii  (1818-1883),  one  of  the  fore- 
most of  Russian  novelists.  He  was  born  at 
Orel,  the  son  of  a  wealthy  nobleman,  and  was 
educated  at  Moscow,  Saint  Petersburg  (Pet- 
rograd)  and  Berlin.  He  came  to  an  open 
rupture  with  his  mother  because  of  her  treat- 
ment of  the  serfs,  and  had  to  secure  a  gov- 
ernment clerkship  for  support.  When  his 
inotiier  died  he  immediately  freed  all  the  serfs 
belonging  to  the  family  estate.  His  An- 
nals of  a  Sportsman,  describing  the  ill-treat- 
ment of  the  peasants,  was  eagerly  read  by 
the  heir  apparent  to  the  throne,  Alexander 
II,  and  it  had  much  to  do  with  the  freeing 
of  the  nation's  serfs.  Almost  all  of  his  sub- 
sequent writing  dealt  with  social  cotiditions 
in  Russia.  Nobles'  Nest  shows  the  pitiable 
contrast  between  the  life  of  the  aristocratic 
class  and  that  of  the  laborei-s.  Fathers  and 
Sons,  Virgin  Soil  and  Smoke  are  in  the 
same  realistic  vein  and  place  Turgenieff  in 
the  rank  of  the  greatest  masters  of  fiction. 
All  of  them,  together  with  On  the  Eve,  one 
of  his  earlier  novels,  have  been  translated  in 
English. 

TU'RIN,  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Turin,  is  situated  on  the  River  Po,  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Dora  Riparia,  seventy-six 
miles  southwest  of  Milan.  It  occupies  a  beau- 
tiful site  in  the  midst  of  a  plain  surrounded 
by  mountains,  and  is  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive towns  in  the  north  of  Italy.  The 
streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
the  city's  activities  center  at  the  Piazza  Cas- 
tello,  on  which  are  the  Madama  Palace,  an 
old  castle  built  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  a 
royal  palace,  which  dates  from  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Other  build- 
ings of  interest  are  the  cathedral,  dating 
from  the  fifteenth  centurs-;  the  Church  of 
San  Dominico,  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  the  Royal  Burial  Church,  lo- 
cated on  a  hill  east  of  the  city.  A  building 
known  as  the  !Mole  Antonelliana,  resembling 
a  tower  and  surmounted  by  a  gilded  statue 
538  feet  above  the  ground,  was  erected  to 
the  memory  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II  and  is 
used  as  a  museum. 

The  University  of  Turin,  founded  in  1405, 
is  located  here;  also  a  royal  polytechnic 
school,  military  schools  and  a  national  li- 
brary with  350,000  volumes.  Turin  is  an  im- 
portant city,  industrially  and  commercially. 
Its  manufactures  include  silks,  lace,  velvet, 
ribbons,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machinery-. 


iron  and  steel  products,  porcelain  ware, 
musical  instruments,  jewelry  and  chocolate. 
It  was  the  capital  of  Italy  from  1861  to  1865. 
Population,  1911,  427,106;  in  1915,  estimated 
at  451.994. 

TURKESTAN,  toor  ke  stan',  a  large  area 
in  the  interior  of  Asia,  extending  to  Siberia 
and  Mongolia  on  the  north,  to  the  Gobi 
Desert  on  the  east,  to  Tibet,  India  and  Bok- 
hara on  the  south,  and  to  the  Caspian  Sea 
on  the  west,  with  somewhat  indefinite  boun- 
daries. The  region  is  divided  politically  into 
Eastern,  or  Chinese,  Turkestan,  and  Western^ 
or  Russian,  Turkestan. 

Chinese  Turkestan.  This  region,  which  is 
a  dependency  of  China,  covers  an  area  of 
550,350  square  miles  and  has  a  population 
of  mixed  Turkish  and  Aryan  descent,  esti- 
mated at  1,200,000.  The  climate  is  severe 
and  extremelj'  dry,  the  oases  and  strips  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain  ranges  being  the 
only  parts  permanently  habitable.  The  chief 
products  are  wheat,  millet,  oil-seeds  and  cot- 
ton. Hemp,  flax  and  dye  plants  are  raised, 
and  grapes,  melons,  pomegranates  and  some 
other  fruits  ripen.  The  mulberry  tree 
thrives,  and  considerable  silk  is  produced. 
Stock  raising  is  the  chief  industry,  and  large 
herds  of  horses,  camels,  sheep  and  cattle  are 
raised,  many  of  which  are  exported. 

The  great  caravan  route  from  Peking  to 
Siberia  passes  through  this  country,  follow- 
ing a  line  of  oases. 

Russian  Turkestan.  This  region  includes 
the  territories  of  Samarkand,  Ferghana,  Syr- 
Darya  and  Semiryetchensk,  extending  west 
from  Eastern  Turkestan  to  the  Aral  Sea  and 
the  Caspian.  The  population  of  over  5,000,- 
000,  is  made  up  of  Tui'komans,  Kirghizes  and 
Russians.  The  eastern  portion  is  high,  and 
the  surrounding  mountains  are  crowned  with 
perpetual  snow;  but  toward  the  west  the 
surface  descends  rapidly,  until  at  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  it  is  eighty  feet  below  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  climate  is  subject  to  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  During  the  rainy  season 
the  surface  is  covered  with  a  growth  of  vege- 
tation, wliicli  reaches  maturity  rapidly. 

Wheat,  barley,  rice,  sugar  cane,  melons 
and  garden  vegetables,  as  well  as  fruits  of 
various  sorts,  are  raised  in  paying  quantities 
wherever  water  can  be  obtained.  The  coun- 
try is  traversed  by  a  number  of  caravan 
routes,  and  the  Trans-Caspian  railway  con- 
nects the  important  towns  with  one  another 
and  with  centers  of  trade  in  Russia.